ABC Dictionary of Ancient Japanese Phonograms 0824856104, 9780824856106

Table of contents :
Introduction-JRB revised
Dictionary-JRB-final - Source Han - FINal
CHART OF PHONOGRAMS-JRB
Bibliography-JRB revised
Pinyin Index-JRB

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ABC Dictionary of Ancient Japanese Phonograms

ABC CHINESE DICTIONARY SERIES Victor H. Mair, General Editor The ABC Chinese Dictionary Series aims to provide a complete set of convenient and reliable reference tools for all those who need to deal with Chinese words and characters. A unique feature of the series is the adoption of a strict alphabetical order, the fastest and most user-friendly way to look up words in a Chinese dictionary. Most volumes contain graphically oriented indices to assist in finding characters whose pronunciation is not known. The ABC dictionaries and compilations rely on the best expertise available in China and North America and are based on the application of radically new strategies for the study of Sinitic languages and the Chinese writing system, including the first clear distinction between the etymology of the words, on the one hand, and the evolution of shapes, sounds, and meanings of characters, on the other. While aiming for conciseness and accuracy, series volumes also strive to apply the highest standards of lexicography in all respects, including compatibility with computer technology for information processing.

Other titles in the series ABC Chinese-English Dictionary (desk reference and pocket editions) Edited by John DeFrancis ABC Dictionary of Chinese Proverbs Edited by John S. Rohsenow ABC Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary Edited by John DeFrancis A Handbook of 'Phags-pa Chinese W. South Coblin ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese Axel Schuessler

ABC Dictionary of Ancient Japanese Phonograms

John R. Bentley

University of Hawai‘i Press Honolulu

© 2016 University of Hawai‘i Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 21 20 19 18 17 16 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data Bentley, John R., author. ABC dictionary of ancient Japanese phonograms / John R. Bentley. pages cm―(ABC Chinese dictionary series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8248-5610-6 hardcover : alk. paper 1. Japanese language―Phonology, Historical―Dictionaries. 2. Chinese characters―Japan―Dictionaries. 3. Japanese language―Writing―Dictionaries. I. Title. II. Series: ABC Chinese dictionary series. PL540.B46 2016 495.61'5―dc23 2015021660

University of Hawai‘i Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Council on Library Resources.

Camera-ready copy prepared by the author.

Printed by IBT Global

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments................................................................................................ vii Conventions ........................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Chinese Data.............................................................................................. 1 1.1 Old Chinese ............................................................................................... 1 1.2 Later Han Chinese ..................................................................................... 2 1.3 Early Middle Chinese ................................................................................ 2 1.4 Late Middle Chinese ................................................................................. 2 2.0 Sino-Xenic ................................................................................................. 2 2.1 Sino-Vietnamese and Chữ Nôm ................................................................ 3 2.2 Sino-Korean............................................................................................... 4 2.3 Sino-Japanese ............................................................................................ 4 2.4 Strata of ongana ........................................................................................ 5 2.4.1 Wei zhi Stratum ...................................................................................... 5 2.4.2 Paekche-based Stratum........................................................................... 5 2.4.3 Early and Late Japanese Strata ............................................................... 5 2.4.4 Chang’an-based Strata ............................................................................ 5 2.5 Go-on Readings ......................................................................................... 6 3.0 Ongana versus Kungana ........................................................................... 7 4.0 Romanization............................................................................................. 7 Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... 9 List of texts cited.................................................................................................. 10 Dictionary A – Z .................................................................................................. 13 Chart of all Phonograms .................................................................................... 559 Bibliography ...................................................................................................... 593 Pinyin Index ....................................................................................................... 596

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The idea for a dictionary of man’yōgana came to me in the summer of 1995, coinciding with the time when my son, Stephen, was hospitalized with peritonitis. The original idea was to compile a dictionary of phonograms with citations. Originally I had envisioned a dictionary with the entry character, and information regarding Early Middle Chinese, Goon, and Sino-Korean. Professor Alexander ‘Sasha’ Vovin took an interest in this project and encouraged me to come to University of Hawai‘i and finish my graduate work. He also encouraged me to include data from Old Chinese with Early Middle Chinese. At the University of Hawai‘i I also had the great opportunity to discuss the dictionary project with a linguistic student, Marc Miyake. During numerous discussions over the course of several years Marc encouraged me to expand my database to include Sino-Vietnamese and Chữ Nôm. Because of the advice and patient instruction of these two men, I have been able to expand the information in the dictionary, and I believe its usefulness has been greatly enhanced. It is important for me to single out a number of people to express my appreciation for their help. I am grateful to Marc Miyake and his willingness to spend many hours talking about Japanese language history, philology, Sino-Xenic in East Asia, and culture in general. Sasha Vovin has also been a great supporter of my work. He took me under his wing as a non-traditional graduate student and shepherded me through a Masters and Doctorate program. I am also grateful to my PhD committee, Professors Vovin, Gerald B. Mathias, Leon Serafim, David Ashworth, Robert Huey, and Paul Varley, for steering me away from making the draft of the dictionary my doctoral dissertation, rightly worried that it would brand me ‘a lexicographer.’ I am also grateful to Victor Mair for his willingness to share his expertise and knowledge with me. Also, I wish to thank the readers for University of Hawai‘i Press for their helpful and patient comments. Any errors that remain are my responsibility. Stephanie Chun and Wanda China, and the staff at University of Hawai‘i Press provided helpful guidance above and beyond the call of duty, both editorially and technologically. A very special, heartfelt thanks goes to Patricia Crosby, formerly the editor at University of Hawai‘i Press, who was patient with me for over a decade. I am indebted to my family: my children Jennifer, Michelle, and Stephen, as well as my beloved wife, Chiemi, for their support and encouragement. As a graduate student a professor once told me that because I had a family with small children they would necessarily consume much of my time, and so my future scholarly output would suffer. I am happy to have proven him wrong. My family has actually been the catalyst for much of my output. An important portion of this research was funded by a National Endowment of the Humanities Summer Stipend, for which the author expresses his sincerest thanks to the Endowment.

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CONVENTIONS This dictionary arranges extant examples of Japanese man’yōgana phonograms in alphabetic order. Ongana are listed first followed by examples of kungana. Each entry contains the following information: the Chinese character, the representative Old Japanese value in Romanization, and then representative Chinese or Sino-Xenic information: Old Chinese, Later Han Chinese, Early Middle Chinese, Go-on, Kan-on, Chữ Nôm, Sino-Vietnamese, and Sino-Korean. Each entry is alphabetized according to the Old Japanese sound value. There are multiple entries of a variety of kanji because many have more than one possible reading. A character finding index at the end of the dictionary will alert the reader to a kanji with multiple readings. After the Chinese and Sino-Xenic information, a select number of attested examples are listed, with the oldest datable examples listed first. In order to demonstrate that Japan was at least partly indebted to the kingdoms on the Korean Peninsula for their literacy, I have included examples from the kingdoms of Koguryŏ, Paekche, and Silla. As a plethora of bamboo or wooden slips or tablets (mokkan) have been excavated in the last several decades, I have included information from these, also. Each mokkan example is cited by its number as cataloged by Mokkan Gakkai, or when a number has yet to be assigned, from the relevant page in Mokkan kenkyū. Some of the earliest mokkan have yet to be numbered, and are listed as ‘unnumbered tablet.’ One way it is hoped that this dictionary will make a significant contribution is by providing a substantial amount of state-of-the-art information regarding reconstructed languages of East Asia as well as putting important Sino-Xenic information in one easy to find place. Explanations about each of these languages or reconstructions appear below. 1.0 Chinese data 1.1 Old Chinese Reconstructing Old Chinese (OC), dated to the years between 1200 to 200 BCE, is a daunting task. Karlgren’s reconstruction of Old Chinese is known as ‘Archaic Chinese,’ but its critical weakness is that he has based his reconstruction of Archaic Chinese on his earlier reconstruction of Ancient Chinese, or what we now call Middle Chinese. Thus, it is essentially a reconstruction based upon a reconstruction. There is much that is not understood about Old Chinese, a language preserved in the Shang oracle bone inscriptions (ca. 1250–1050 BCE), bronze inscriptions from the Western Zhou (1050–770 BCE), and a variety of fragments of the oldest written works in China. Schuessler has compiled a dictionary of Old Chinese etymology (2007) with a set of reconstructed forms (2009). Admitting that there is still much work to do, Schuessler calls his reconstruction of OC ‘Minimal Old Chinese’. I have opted to include OC in this dictionary, as there are extremely old relics of OC that persist in man’yōgana. The best-known example is 支 (Sino-Japanese si, Sino-Korean ci) representing ki. Baxter and Sagart have come out with a new reconstruction of Old Chinese (2014), and I have only had reference it when it was able to shed light that Schuessler’s reconstruction did not. The majority of cases deal with their OC reconstruction demonstrating the existence of a Chinese sound value with final –r that also exists in our data. When I have had reference to Baxter and Sagart, their reconstruction is followed by a section sign (§).

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1.2 Later Han Chinese Later Han Chinese (LH), as Schuessler (2009:29) explains, “…represents an older strain of the language of the Eastern Han period from perhaps the 1st century AD.” In actuality, based on earlier work, Schuessler’s Later Han as currently presented represents the language of the second or third centuries. It is provided in the dictionary to help elucidate data from Wei zhi, as well as fossilized readings imported into Japan (from Paekche?) that pre-date Early Middle Chinese. 1.3 Early Middle Chinese Early Middle Chinese (EMC) is generally thought to represent the language codified in the dictionary Qieyun (601 CE). Pulleyblank (1984:129–130) has argued that there was more than just an evolutionary change in relation to the language; there was also a geographical change, which meant a change in the dialect. In addition to the data in Qieyun, Pulleyblank has also had reference to Min dialect data, Sino-Vietnamese, and Japanese data (Sino-Japanese and man’yōgana). I have relied on Schuessler’s Middle Chinese reconstruction for these data, which is a modification of Li Fan-kuei’s work (Schuessler 2009:6), rather than Pulleyblank, which is now almost 30 years old. Regarding the use of Qieyun Schuessler (2009:6) notes, “The nature and linguistic value of the Qieyun and the language it represents has long been a matter of debate which colors one’s attitude towards MC as well as OC.” Schuessler’s latest work is an attempt to strike a balance with what we know from actual data and what is based on theory, and is thus only one piece of information in this dictionary. 1.4 Late Middle Chinese Late Middle Chinese (LMC), according to Pulleyblank (1970:204), reflects the language of mid to late Tang Chinese (618–960 CE), or the language of the capital of Chang’an. This language was brought back to Japan by students sent by the Japanese court to study in Chang’an. Pulleyblank’s original thrust in reconstructing LMC was to view the preserved rhymes as originating from northwestern Chinese, instead of southern Chinese, from which Early Middle Chinese had originated (Pulleyblank 1984:61–62). I have altered some LMC reconstructions according to Miyake (2003a). 2.0 Sino-Xenic Coined by Samuel E. Martin (1924–2009), Sino-Xenic is an umbrella term for Chinese readings borrowed into the various languages within the cultural realm of China, specifically Sino-Japanese, Sino-Korean, and Sino-Vietnamese. Miyake (2003a:99) explains why these Sino-Xenic (his SX) data are critical to our work, This class of borrowings is characterized by two traits: (1) Scale: SX consists not of sporadic borrowings of a few words, but the importation of the entire Chinese lexicon. (2) Accuracy and consistency: SX borrowings are not random attempts to imitate Chinese pronunciations. They represent conscious attempts to imitate Chinese pronunciation as much as possible. As a result of this, they may not be exact copies of Chinese, but they have regular correspondences with Chinese.

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2.1 Sino-Vietnamese and Chữ Nôm The existence of Sino-Vietnamese, and its hybrid, Chữ Nôm (represented variously as 𡨸 喃 or 字喃, hereafter Nôm), is important for the study of earlier phonological stages of Chinese, as well as contributing to a better understanding about Sino-Xenic. Nôm was developed by the literati in Vietnam after it gained independence from China in 939 CE. It later became the national script. Much of the literary culture of Vietnam was written in Nôm, until the arrival of the French, when the Roman alphabet (called ‘quốc ngữ’ national script) was introduced. For our purposes, it is important to point out that Early Vietnamese made more phonological distinctions than Chinese. Thus, some Nôm characters have a wider range of readings than the original Chinese graph that provided the basis. 1 Nôm is important for an understanding of earlier states of Chinese because it had more vocalic values than either Japanese or Korean. Downer (1987:140) has outlined the vowels of Nôm in a helpful classification, reproduced below, with a few simplifications, as well as converting his IPA back to quốc ngữ.

i, e, ê, ay, ai P

u, o, ô, au, âu L ư, ơ, a, â, ă N

I have labeled each group as P: palatal, N: neutral, and L: labial. This three-way distinction is important for framing a discussion about Japanese phonology, because linguists of Old Japanese agree that the overall vocalic distinction found in man’yōgana is a palatal versus labial versus neutral distinction (cf. Martin 1987:57–58). Tangentially related to Nôm is Sino-Vietnamese (SV). As China exerted political and cultural influence over the country for nearly a millennium, it being a province of China from 111 BCE till its successful independence movement in 939 CE, Chinese-speaking immigrants resided in northern Vietnam, and Chinese culture and language went with them. However, most of what we call Sino-Vietnamese today is based on LMC, which is of only marginal value for research into man’yōgana. There are traces of Old Sino-Vietnamese, but these are generally relics that have become internalized as native words. Consider that in SV the morpheme for ‘wife’ is phụ, based on Middle Chinese 婦 bjǝu (or Pulleyblank’s EMC buw). Compare that with a doublet for ‘wife’, which is Old Sino-Vietnamese vợ, 1

The discussion that follows was greatly enhanced by a discussion I had with Marc Miyake in late May 2010. I am grateful for his generosity with his time and vast knowledge. 3

based on Old Chinese *bǝʔ. Because of the scattered nature of information from the language of Vietnam, this dictionary contains data from both Nôm and SV. For my data I have relied on two dictionaries for Nôm readings: the large twovolume edition of Trương (2007), and Nguyễn (1971). In general I have relied on Nguyễn for the reading of characters, and have had reference to Trương only if an obscure graph does not appear in Nguyễn. In cases where many Nôm readings for one character exist, I have only given a representative selection of these data, usually deleting one example where the only difference is in tone. 2.2 Sino-Korean Sino-Korean (SK), like Sino-Vietnamese, is based on LMC. Analogous to the geographical location of Vietnam, being adjacent to China meant that the language of Korea contains an enormous variety of Chinese loan words, some from OC, some from EMC, but the majority from LMC. The dating of SK is problematic, but I follow Miyake (2003a:112) who dates SK to around the eighth century. For my data I have relied on a handwritten manuscript of the late 18th Century dictionary, Cenun okphyen ‘The Jeweled Manuscript of Complete Rhymes,’ a copy of which is in the possession of the author. 2.3 Sino-Japanese Sino-Japanese has been traditionally organized into five groups (Numoto 1997:9–20): Go-on (pre-589 CE), Kan-on (Chang’an Chinese, ca. 650+), Shin-Kan-on (New Kan-on, ca. 900), Sou’on (Song Chinese, ca. 1100), and Tou’on (Tang Chinese, ca. 1600). It is critical that we make clear that the term ‘Go-on’ is problematic here, because as the other four labels refer to a specific stage of Chinese readings imported into the country at rather precise periods, ‘Go-on’ is actually not a specific brand of Sino-Japanese, but rather a nebulous amalgamation of different strata, and likely different filtered layers of SinoJapanese. Miyake (2003a:104–105) has argued, based on a comparison of Sino-Japanese and Chinese, that Go-on is not the earliest layer of Chinese borrowings, but is actually the earliest surviving borrowings, likely brought to Japan by Paekche tutors. Based on the work of Miller (1967) and Tōdō (1980), Miyake (2003a:104) makes a crucial observation, “Many Go-on readings were lost after the importation of Kan-on….Yet we find Go-on readings for every character in Chinese character dictionaries (kanwa jiten). Lexicographers have invented what I call ‘pseudo-Go-on’ on the basis of fanqie….” As this dictionary contains Go-on as data, I explain below where my Go-on data originated. Here it is important to make a distinction between Sino-Japanese and ongana. Ongana are kanji used to represent a syllable, or in some cases two-syllables, based on one of several strata of Sino-Japanese readings of the character. As an example, the kanji 加 (OC *krâi, LH ka, EMC ka) was used to represent OJ ka because the Chinese phonetic value was appropriately close enough to the Japanese. The kanji 支 has the Go-on and Kan-on reading of si, but is used as an ongana for ki, showing that it preserves a SinoJapanese reading from the Old Chinese stratum (or it may be a loan from Sino-Paekche which preserved the OC reading). Because it is clear from a variety of data that there are several layers of borrowings of Chinese into the Japanese islands, I have followed Miyake (2003a:5–42) in trying to classify the importation of various kanji according to their earliest attestation. Thus, I have set up five different chronological groups within which to categorize the usage of all attested ongana in Japan. 4

2.4 Strata of ongana 2.4.1 Wei zhi stratum I have labeled the oldest group the Wei zhi stratum (WS). This group represents the earliest known set of graphs used in transcriptions of toponyms, titles, or names for people in Wa or the various kingdoms on the Korean peninsula. A number of assumptions are at work here that need to be spelled out. It is unclear what the linguistic map looked like during the Wei era (roughly from 185 to 280 CE) relative to the southern half of the peninsula and the Japanese archipelago. Surviving Chinese records give the reader the impression that the Wa lived in a region from the southern edge of the peninsula into the archipelago. I have erred on the side of caution, and have been rather broad in looking for attestations of transcriptions in this region. It seems certain that Chinese immigrants connected with the Han commanderies had a pervasive influence on the culture of the native Kara and Wa peoples. It also seems somewhat certain that Wa speakers lived in polities on the southern edge of the peninsula as well as the archipelago. Therefore, my working assumption is that the speakers of the language of Wa included territory in the southern part of the Korean peninsula as well as into the Japanese archipelago. This ‘bridge’ between the continent and the islands facilitated the flow of culture and language into the Japanese archipelago. 2.4.2 Paekche-based stratum The next and perhaps most important stratum is called the Paekche based-stratum (PBS). Using peninsular attestations from surviving stelae or quotes in Nihon shoki, I note kanji that were used by the three kingdoms of Paekche, Koguryŏ, and Silla, and postulate that the early Japanese were taught and coached in the use of classical Chinese by Paekche teachers (cf. Bentley 2001). If true, this has important ramifications for the study of the historical reception of Chinese through the peninsula into Japan, as well as the study of Sino-Paekche, which only survives in a number of fragments on the peninsula and in Japanese texts (cf. Eom 1991). It is difficult to date this stratum, but as the importation of Buddhism and its Sinified scripture into Japan is dated around 538–552 CE, I have concluded that it is reasonable to date the PBS around the middle of the sixth century (cf. Bentley 2001). Ogura (1995:14) makes much the same claim, saying that he believes that Go-on was imported into Japan with the introduction of Buddhism; needless to say, this view is overly simplistic as it cannot account for the large variety of readings in Go-on. 2.4.3 Early and Late Japanese strata The third stratum is one of the largest, called the Early Japanese stratum (EJS), and includes the earliest attestations of kanji-usage in Japan that may represent newer borrowings from the peninsula. Many of these kanji are found in Kojiki, and found on many excavated mokkan. The next stratum is called the Late Japanese stratum (LJS), which includes much of the poetry in Man’yōshū. 2.4.4 Chang’an-based stratum The newest group is the Chang’an-based stratum (CBS), found primarily in Nihon shoki, with some examples also in Man’yōshū. A word needs to be said about the CBS strata, which parallels what Pulleyblank calls Late Middle Chinese (1970–1971). By simply examining the differences between Go-on and Kan-on a rather rough and ready chart can

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be constructed to show major phonological changes between EMC and LMC. The following chart is based primarily on Numoto (2006:74–75). Early Middle Chinese > Voiced initial b, d, g > Nasal initials m, n > Labials p, ph, m, b > Vocalic shift o, e, u > Medial glide –y– (生 siyau) >

Late Middle Chinese Voiceless initial p, t, k Denasalization mb, nd Fricativization f, fh, mv, fɦ New vowels i, a, iu Loss of glide (生 sei)

One of the striking differences between EMC and LMC is the development of prenasalized stops in Kan-on relative to Go-on. Pulleyblank’s Lexicon does not overtly demonstrate this, as a simple example shows: 馬 ‘horse’ EMC maɨ > LMC ma: (1991:206). Yet Go-on for horse is me, while Kan-on is ba. A check of Tibetan transcriptions, representing Northwest Chinese from which Kan-on is believed to have originated, illustrates that ‘horse’ is ’ba, phonetically [mba] (cf. Coblin 1994:135). Based on this clear evidence, I have modified Pulleyblank’s LMC to account for this change. 2.5 Go-on readings Miyake and other scholars have argued that many of the Go-on readings listed in a variety of Chinese character dictionaries are actually inventions of the lexicographers, based on fanqie, which are themselves artificial devices to aid in pronunciation. Take as an example the kanji 良 ‘good’. Many dictionaries list the Go-on reading as ryou (リョ ウ), which is a modernized form. Some dictionaries include kyū-kanazukai ‘older kana spellings’, where this kanji would have been spelled as riyau (リヤウ). However, how does one know if these represent actual Sino-Japanese pronunciations? Miyake’s solution was to rely on Tōdō (1978), which tried to use actual data, or inferences from homophones and data from Chinese sources, such as Guangyun or Yunjing, ancient rhyming dictionaries in China (2003a:105). My approach is somewhat similar, but I have elected to rely on the extensive research of Ogura (1995), who has combed through the 42 surviving manuscripts of Hokekyō ongi. As this manuscript was created to aid in the proper recitation and understanding of the Lotus Sutra, many of the readings in the manuscript reflect Go-on of the eighth century. I say ‘many’ because over the years, scribes have contaminated the text by altering some readings based on their imperfect knowledge of how certain words should sound, in most cases erasing Go-on and putting in Kan-on readings. As a simple example, the kanji 馬 ‘horse’ is glossed me 25 times, but ba twice (other manuscripts lack a gloss). Clearly ba is based on Kan-on, where the change m- > mb- has taken place. Thus, the majority of these interpolations are easy to spot and ignore. A more difficult problem is a change that has taken place in the vernacular and colored the original Go-on reading. Consider the kanji 雄 ‘male.’ We find, in order of actual attested glosses wou 26 times, u or un twice, and ou once. Looking at the Chinese phonology, we know this kanji should have been glide initial, thus wou is the archetype, but as wo and o merged in most environments in Middle Japanese, a scribe who relied on his vernacular, may have been tempted to write this as ou. The two examples with u reflect contamination from Kan-on. Thus, Ogura’s work is important, as he lists the readings from all extant manuscripts. 6

I have included Go-on to provide data that a reader can use to triangulate with other Sino-Xenic data. For example, 支 is Go-on si, and other than Nôm, none of the SinoXenic data preserve a velar in initial position, but both 岐伎, related graphs, are Go-on gi, suggesting that the velar initial for 支 has been lost in the latest surviving stratum of Goon. Another example is where the graph 匝 has the earlier Go-on reading of さふ, while the modern reading is そう. The earlier reading is known as kyū-kanazukai or ‘older kana usages.’ These earlier readings are important, because when compared with SV tap SK cap, it becomes clear that what is ふ in hiragana must have been a –p– plus a vowel in the Nara era. 3.0 Ongana versus kungana Ongana are kanji used to represent OJ syllables based on their Chinese phonetic representation. This may have been based on Sino-Japanese, Sino-Paekche, or some other source. Kungana are kanji used to represent OJ syllables based on a translation of the semantics of the character. As Miyake (2003a:25) notes, “…kungana involves a two-step process. First, one must read a kungana as if it were a semantogram (or logogram, JRB)….Second, one must reinterpret this reading in terms of an OJ (near-)homophone appropriate for the context in which the sinograph is found.” A popular example from Man’yōshū is 鴨 kamo ‘wild duck,’ which was often used at the end of a poetic stanza to represent the OJ emphatic particle kamo ‘how it is!’ 4.0 Romanization A number of Romanization systems have been proposed over the years to transcribe earlier forms of Japanese. One of the most effective is Yale Romanization, a system devised by Samuel E. Martin of Yale University, primarily to make it easier to type on a typewriter without using diacritics. Syllabic distinctions are marked with on-glides or offglides, except in the case of otsu-rui o, which is underlined (hence, kye versus key, but kwo versus ko). Gerald B. Mathias, formerly of University of Hawai‘i, proposed the most comprehensive solution, where he used a three-way system, to designate kō and otsu-rui types, and yet keep a separate vowel to show ‘unmarked, unknown, or merged’ syllables: kĕ, kë, and ke (cf. Martin 1987:50). Another type of Romanization simply uses subscript numbers to refer to kō-rui (type one), otsu-rui (type two), and the unmarked vowel. To make this dictionary as accessible to as many specialists and non-specialists as possible, it was felt that a Romanization system that was highly accurate and yet not idiosyncratic in spellings would be the best to use. Recently Bjarke Frellesvig and John Whitman have proposed a modified system that I have adopted. Lined up with Yale Romanization, the major differences are as follows (C represents a consonant): Yale Cyi Ciy Cye Cey Co Cwo

FW Ci Cwi Cye Ce Co Cwo

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I have relied on the following Romanization scheme for quoted examples: lower case italics for ongana (phonetic script), CAPITALS for kungana, and SMALL CAPITALS for logograms. I have used bold to highlight each entry specimen. Below is an example from Man’yōshū, which contains examples of all three types of writing: MYS 11 吾勢子波 借廬作良須 草無者 小松下乃 草乎苅核

WA GA seKWO pa KARIPO TUKUrasu KAYA NAKU PA KWOMATU GA MOTO no KUSA wo KARASANE

If my beloved does not have thatch for the roof of the hut he is building, then please cut some grass growing below the small pine.

The first stanza contains several logograms (吾 WA ‘I’ and 子 KWO ‘child’) with ongana for se (勢) and the topic marker pa (波). Notice that in the third stanza the topic marker is now represented by a logogram (者). The final kanji in the fifth stanza, 核 ‘seed,’ is Old Japanese sane ‘seed,’ but here it is used as a kungana, calling to mind the honorific suffix, SANE ‘please (verb).’ When it is not apparent if a usage is a kungana or just a logogram, I have erred on the side of caution and have left the word marked as a logogram (in SMALL CAPITALS). This problem occurs with personal names, toponyms, and epithets (makura kotoba) when the meaning is unclear. I have also placed in square brackets words (usually case particles) where the value is assumed, but is not overtly represented in the text: 宇摩志阿斯訶備比 古遲神 Umasi Asikabwi Pikwozi [NO] KAMWI. As far as the transliteration of Korean and Chinese, Korean has been rendered according to Yale Romanization, unless a reconstructed form is quoted. When modern Chinese has been quoted, it is written in the pinyin system. I have been forced to make one modification to the various Romanization systems I have used: any letter /a/ with diacritics in italics has become /a/ due to the limitations of the fonts. Thus: ảâạậấä have become ảâạậấä. However, Later Han preserves a distinction between /a/ and /ɑ/ (cf. Schuessler 2009:xix), and I have preserved that.

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ABBREVIATIONS BSS: Bussokuseki Kahi CBS: Chang’an-based Stratum EH: Eastern Han EJS: Early Japanese Stratum EMC: Early Middle Chinese FK: Fudoki GO: Go-on KG: Kojiki glosses KJK: Kojiki KK: Kojiki kayo KN: Kan-on LH: Later Han LJS: Late Japanese Stratum LMC: Late Middle Chinese LOC: Late Old Chinese MGK: Man’yōgana no kenkyū MK: Mokkan MKK: Mokkan kenkyū MNZ: Motoori Norinaga zenshū

MYS: Man’yōshū NA: Not Applicable NKBT: Nihon koten bungaku taikei NOM: Chữ Nôm NS: Nihon shoki NSG: Nihon shoki glosses NSK: Nihon shoki kayo NT: Norito OC: Old Chinese OJ: Old Japanese ONWC: Old Northwest Chinese PBS: Paekche-based Stratum SK: Sino-Korean SM: Senmyō SNG: Shoku Nihongi SSI: Shōsōin documents SV: Sino-Vietnamese WS: Wei zhi Stratum

9

LIST OF TEXTS CITED Atsuta daijingū engi 熱 田 大 神 宮 縁 起 (890 CE). This is a record of the establishment of the Atsuta Shrine in Owari Province (modern Nagoya). It contains six poems, two chōka and four tanka, all written in ongana, while the body of the text is in classical Chinese. The accuracy of the spellings shows that the orthography dates from the early Nara era, regardless that the record was compiled in the early Heian era. Bussokuseki kahi 仏足石歌碑 (ca. 755 CE). A long, thin stone slate in possession of Yakushiji Temple in Nara. Twenty-one poems are inscribed in the stone in man’yōgana. Miller (1975:1–7) provides an outline of the history of this monument. Other than a few sentences in Chinese, the majority of the inscription is ongana. Fudoki 風 土 記 (716 CE+). The court issued an edict in 713 that the various provinces were to compile gazetteers outlining geography, topography, legends, and other information about the locale. Five exist in something close to their original state: Hitachi fudoki 常陸風土記 (ca. 718), Harima fudoki 播磨風土記 (ca. 716), Izumo fudoki 出雲風土記 (ca. 733), Bungo fudoki 豊後風土記 (ca. 740), and Hizen fudoki 肥前風土 記 (dates unclear). Shaku Nihongi and Man’yōshū shō include many quotes from other Fudoki that have been lost. The text of these is mainly composed in Chinese, but many entries and notes contain ongana. Gangōji engi 元興寺縁起 (1165 CE). This is a record of the history of the Gangōji Temple in Yamato Prefecture, though the text is now housed at Daigoji Temple. The text mentions that a priest named Jishun compiled this record from an original record that has been lost. The colophon states that the original was compiled in 747. The text is mainly composed in Chinese. Jōgūki 上宮記 (dates unclear). A historical text like Kojiki or Nihon shoki. The text has been lost, and is known only through several fragments that survive, quoted in Shaku Nihongi, a commentary of Nihon shoki from the Kamakura era (ca. 1286), and Shōtoku Taishi heishiden zōkanmon (ca. 1314). Quotes from these fragments are composed in Chinese, but many personal and place names are preserved in ongana. Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu 上宮聖徳法王帝説 (ca. 1000 CE). This is a laconic, haphazard biographical work dealing with Prince Shōtoku. It is an important record, however, with information that supplements the text in Nihon shoki. The text in its current form dates from the Heian era, but much of the information is clearly older, some dating back to the Asuka era. Text is composed in Chinese, but it contains three poems and many names in ongana. Kakyō hyōshiki 歌経標式 (772 CE). This is a poetic treatise compiled by Fujiwara Hamanari (724–790), apparently by command of Emperor Kōnin (r. 770–781). It contains 34 poems, written in man’yōgana. The text outlines seven ‘poetic illnesses,’ or errors poets should avoid when writing poetry. The explanation is in Chinese, but the poetry is composed in ongana. Koryŏgi. (ca. 652 CE). A lost work with 13 fragments quoted in the surviving volume of Hanyuan (翰苑). The dating of the text is based on Yoshida (1977:12–17). The quotes are written in Chinese, but many Koguryŏ titles are written phonetically. Kojiki 古事記 (712 CE). Japan’s oldest existing history, compiled by Ō no Yasumaro (d. 723), by command of Emperor Genmei (r. 707–715). It contains a record of the mythology, and a mytho-historical outline of Japan’s first 33 rulers of Japan, from Jinmu 10

till Suiko. Man’yōgana is used in a consistent way to preserve the poetry, and many important words in the text. It contains 112 songs. See Bentley (2012:58–63) for an outline. The text is mainly in a kundoku orthography. Man’yōshū 万葉集 (ca. 771 CE). Japan’s oldest poetic anthology, containing roughly 4,500 poems in 20 volumes. Because of its use of phonograms, scholars named the system man’yōgana after its title. However, more than half of the poetry is written in Chinese, or kungana that is deciphered through a kundoku process. Because some information has been lost over time, a number of poems are difficult to decipher in the present. The text is quite heterogeneous, with some poetry in pure ongana, some in a mixture, and some in kundoku orthography. There are even a few written completely in Chinese. Mokkan 木簡. These are wooden slips used for documentation at the Asuka and Nara courts, and continued to be used into the Edo era. Many are tags attached to tribute shipped to the court, but others contain correspondence, and some contain calligraphy practice and poetry. Presently almost 400,000 have been excavated from a variety of places throughout Japan. The earliest datable slip is from 648, excavated from Ōtemae in Ōsaka. Currently over 50,000 slips have been cataloged in an on-line Mokkan database that has greatly facilitated my research: (http://www.nabunken.go.jp/Open/mokkan/ mokkan.html). Nihongi shiki 日本紀私記 (721–965 CE). Seven lectures on the text of Nihon shoki were held at court over the course of more than two centuries, and at each a scribe kept minutes (私記), leaving us an account of the lecture. While many of these have been lost, fragments have survived in four different manuscripts. Many of these contain man’yōgana readings of difficult graphs or compounds. The body of the text is mainly written in Chinese. Nihon shoki 日本書紀 (720 CE). This is Japan’s first official history, and lacks a preface. Shoku Nihongi notes that it was compiled by a committee headed by Prince Toneri. This work is important because it was compiled from a rich cache of documents, some with connections to the various kingdoms on the peninsula. It also contains 128 songs. The phonograms used in the text are more complex than Kojiki, perhaps because the text was compiled in imitation of Wen xuan, which also uses obscure characters. The record covers the mytho-history from the beginning to the eleventh year of Jitō (697). See Bentley (2012:58–63) for an outline. Aside from the poetry and annotational notes, the text is written in Chinese. Norito 祝詞 (927 CE). The record Engi shiki (927 CE) contains 27 of these liturgies, while Taiki bekki (台記別記 ca. 1155 CE) contains one, for a total of 28 liturgies. For this dictionary, I have only used 16 that exhibit a high degree of accurate, etymological spellings according to the Asuka-Nara tradition. See Bentley (2001) for a list of these. The text is written in kundoku orthography. Paekche materials. Three Paekche histories, Paekchegi, Paekche pongi, and Paekche sinch’an are quoted in Nihon shoki fairly extensively. The dating of these texts is difficult to ascertain, but which appear to be older than the Tenmu era (r. 673–686). These three histories contain many names and toponyms written in an orthography clearly related to that used by the Japanese, but which is also independent and older. The text is written in Chinese. Ryō no shūge 令集解 (ca. 875 CE). This is a commentary on the legal document of the Yōrō Codes, with reference to the earlier Taihō Codes. This work was compiled in 50 11

volumes, but only 36 survive in the present. It quotes from Koki ‘an old record’ that contains man’yōgana that scholars have tentatively dated to the early Nara era. The text is written in Chinese. Sendai kuji hongi 先代旧事紀 (dates uncertain). A much maligned work that travels the same mythological path as Kojiki and Nihon shoki. It is compiled in 10 volumes, and includes a detailed genealogy of Susanoo, the Owari and Mononobe families, and a list of the provinces and governors. See Bentley (2006) for an explanation of the disputed authenticity of this work. The text is written in a mixture of Chinese and kundoku orthography. The poetry is written in ongana. Shinsen jikyō 新撰字鏡 (ca. 900 CE). A Chinese character dictionary that also gives Japanese readings for many characters in man’yōgana. The compiler of this dictionary demonstrates that he still knew the distinction in spelling between kwo and ko. Shinsen shōjiroku 新撰姓氏緑 (815 CE). Compiled by imperial decree, this record lists the genealogies and family histories of 335 families who claimed descent from the imperial deities, 404 families who claimed descent from non-imperial deities, and 326 families who migrated from the continent (Paekche, Koguryŏ, Silla, and China). Some of the family histories contain names written in man’yōgana. Shoku Nihongi 続日本紀 (797 CE). The second imperially decreed history. It picks up the story where Nihon shoki left off, covering the years from 698 till 791, which is the 10th year of Emperor Kanmu. It contains eight poems, but more importantly, contains 62 imperial edicts written in senmyō-tai, preserving important clues to the usage and grammar or Nara era Japanese. See Bentley (2012:64–67) for an outline. ‘Shōsōin Documents’ 正倉院文書 (702–1836 CE). These are documents housed in the Shōsōin, a repository located within the precincts of the Tōdaiji Temple in Nara. It contains some 11,000 artifacts and documents. Many of these are written in Chinese, but a number of documents are written out in man’yōgana. The various early censuses belong to this group of documents. Wamyō ruijushō 倭名類聚鈔 (ca. 938 CE). This is an encyclopedia, compiled by Minamoto Shigau (911–983). Part of this is a character dictionary, listing Chinese words, and giving a reading in Japanese, in man’yōgana. Another section contains a geographical list of provinces, districts, and villages, often with man’yōgana readings for names.

12

A 阿

OJ: a OC: *ʔâ LH: *ʔa EMC: ʔa GO: a KN: a NOM: a SV: a SK: a Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in the Han section of Wei zhi in 名樂浪人爲阿殘。東方人名我爲阿、謂樂浪人本其殘餘人 “They call people from Lelang *ʔa-dzan. This is because the people in the east call themselves *ʔa, because people from Lelang believe they were originally left behind.” This phonogram also appears on an inscription on a Paekche Buddhist rock monument, in the word 阿耨多羅, which is a transcription for Anavatapta, a sacred place in Buddhism. Other examples of 阿 appear on the Kwangkaytho stele: 阿旦城 *A-tan Fortress and 阿利水 *A-ri River. Also an example of this phonogram appears in the place name Aswo (阿蘇), a famous active volcano located in what is now modern Kumamoto Prefecture (modern Mt. Aso). The name of this volcano also appears in the Chinese record, Suishu, dated about 656. The earliest attestation is in Nihon shoki, but likely this record has relied on an earlier source. The phonogram 阿 is also used in the record Paekche record, Paekchegi, quoted in the record of Jingū, 阿首至 Asuti, a personal name and in the name of a prince of Paekche who later became king: 阿花 Akuwe (later known as King Chinsa). Traditional names like Ape (阿倍) and ADUMI (阿曇) may owe their orthography to Paekche and its scribes. This phonogram also appears in the earliest extant materials. In the Jōgūki fragment are the names 阿加波智君 Akapati kimi and 阿那爾比彌 Anani Pimye. This also appears in a poem preserved in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu, supposedly written not long after the death of Shōtoku Taishi. 美加弥乎須 mikami wosu Mount Tabasami 多婆佐美夜麻乃 tabasami yama no that rules from above; 阿遅加気尓 adikake ni alas, I stood there 比止乃麻乎之志 pito no mawosisi in the shade of the aji, 和何於保支美波母 wa ga opokimi pamo begging our master’s return. This phonogram appears in the liturgies: 生井栄井津長井阿須波婆比伎登 御名者 IKUWI SAKUWI TUNGAWI asupa papiki to MINA PA ‘We declare the names of the deities Ikui, Sakui, Tsunagai, Asuwa, and Hahiki…” (NT 1). Other examples include: 宇摩志阿斯訶備比古遲神 the deity Umasi Asikabwi Pikwodi (KG), and 阿那迩夜志愛上袁登古袁 ana ni ya si e wotokwo wo ‘oh my, what a wonderful young man’ (KG). KK 53 淤志弖流夜 ositeru ya When I came out and stood 那爾波能佐岐用 nanipa no saki ywo looking at my land from 伊傳多知弖 idetatite the cape of Naniwa 13

和賀久迩美禮婆 wa ga kuni mireba shining brilliantly 阿波志麻 apa sima I can see even 淤能碁呂志摩 onogoro sima Awa Island 阿遲麻佐能 adimasa no and Onogoro Island 志麻母美由 sima mo miyu and the island with betel palms. 佐氣都志麻美由 saketusima miyu I see Sake Island. This phonogram is also the primary graph in Nihon shoki, used 21 times in annotational notes and found in 72 of the 128 poems: 荒魂、此云阿邏瀰多摩 “ ‘violent spirit’ is read aramitama” (NSG) NSK 30 阿布彌能彌 apumi no mi I have lost sight 齋多能和多利珥 seta no watari ni of the birds that dove here 伽豆區苔利 kaduku tori at the Seta Ferry 梅珥志彌曳泥麼 me nisi miyeneba on the sea of Afumi. 異枳廼倍呂之茂 ikidoporosi mo How irritating that is! This phonogram also appears 221 times in Man’yōshū, making it the second most popular phonogram after 安, which is used 897 times. MYS 808 多都乃麻乎 tatu no ma wo I will go in search 阿礼波毛等米牟 are pa motomemu for the dragon horse— 阿遠尓与志 awo ni yosi for the people who are 奈良乃美夜古邇 nara no miyakwo ni returning to the capital of Nara 許牟比等乃多仁 komu pito no tani where the green earth is good. The simplified form of this graph 阿 later becomes katakana ア.

安

OJ: a, ana OC: *ʔân LH: *ʔɑn EMC: ʔân GO: amu, a KN: an NOM: an SV: an SK: an Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, though Ōno (1962:141) claims it is a rather new development in the orthography of Japan. The phonogram is never used as a phonogram for a in Kojiki, and does not appear in the so-called Suikoera inscriptions (our EJS). The genealogy in Kujiki, which I date from around 684, transcribes the name Adumi as 阿曇 (Kamata 1980:22), while Nihon shoki continues to write the name in this fashion. The earliest preserved example of Adumi written 安曇 is found in the Awaji Tax Register from 738. Shoku Nihongi records the name with 阿 until 761 (Aoki et. al. 1989.3:369). A mokkan excavated from the ancient Fujiwara Palace (694–710) contains this fragment: 安芸国安芸□ agi [NO] KUNI agi X ‘Agi (District?) of Agi Province…’ (MK 1188). Regardless of this information, the Paekche orthographic pool casts serious doubt on Ōno’s dating. The phonogram 安 appears in names based on Paekche records a total of 22 times. Consider these two examples: i) 安羅 the place name Ara (sometimes transcribed as Alla). ii) 安多村 the village of Ata. The Kwangkaytho stele of the ancient Koguryŏ kingdom also records Ara as 安羅, meaning that perhaps the name was originally pronounced Anla, or close to 14

that. Regardless, looking at the interlinear readings, neither name is read an; all cases of 安 in the Paekche records appear to be transcribing a. It is just as plausible, however, that some kind of prenasalization was being preserved, because there is a final nasal in all cases (OC to the present—perhaps the toponym is actually closer to anda). A cautious approach is to interpret these names as an-. For the time being I date this phonogram from the PBS. Of the 128 poems in Shoki, syllable-initial a appears 125 times, with 阿 used 117 times. The other eight examples use 婀. The only evidence that is difficult to explain is the stone or metal inscriptions. The name 張安 appears on the Eta Funayama tumulus sword inscription (fifth century), but this is likely the name of a person of continental birth. There are a few examples where this phonogram is read ana, such as in Harima fudoki in the toponym 安師 Anasi. This phonogram gained wide popularity into the Nara era and the cursive form is the basis for what is now kana あ.

婀

鞅

OJ: a OC: NA LOC: *ʔa EMC: ʔa GO: a KN: a NOM: a SV: ả SK: a Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and is only used in Nihon shoki, and then only in the poetry eight times, with two other instances in the commentary, both in the “Age of the Gods” sections. There are several other examples in scattered fragments from various Fudoki, but these are difficult to date and I have elected to ignore these for the time being. This phonogram also does not appear in Izumo fudoki, the most reliable of all the geographical gazetteers. Examples include: 大己貴命此云於褒婀娜武智, “The name ‘大己貴命’ is read opo anamuti” (NSG). NSK 92 擧騰我瀰儞 kotogami ni The shadow above the zither 枳謂屢箇皚必謎 kiwiru kage pimye of my beloved-to-be— 頴摩儺羅磨 tama naraba if she were a jewel, 婀我裒屢柁摩能 a ga poru tama no she would be my favorite kind: 婀波寐之羅陀魔 apabi siradama a white pearl from an abalone. OJ: a OC: *ʔaŋ LOC: *ʔɨɑŋ EMC: ʔɨaŋ GO: au KN: yau NOM: anh SV: ảnh SK: ang Usage / History: This rare phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing only in the record of Shoki. To be precise, the phonogram appears but three times, in commentary dealing with readings of terms associated with the story of Jinmu. Those three examples are: 1) 一柱騰宮、阿斯毘苔徒鞅餓離能宮 “ ‘A palace with one pillar,’ read asi pitotu agari no MIYA” (NSG); 2) 大醜此云、鞅奈瀰爾句 “ ‘How ugly’ is read ana miniku” (NSG); 3) 妍哉此云、鞅奈珥夜 “ ‘How beautiful’ is read ana ni ya (NSG).

15

吾

足

OJ: a OC: *ŋâ LH: ŋɑ > ŋɔ EMC: ŋɔ GO: go KN: go NOM: ngo SV: ngô SK: wo Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ a ‘I, me.’ What is more difficult to explain is when this development took place. This usage appears in both Kojiki and Shoki, but does not appear in the Suiko era corpus, or the Paekche orthographical pool. This usage may actually be a Japanese invention, rather than a change influenced by a peninsular system. Ōno only says that this phonogram is grouped with 足 asi・我 are, because these two kungana also function as suggesting just the initial syllable (1962:197). This is merely a superficial statement, and tells us very little. It is probably true that the three phonograms were used semantically in the same era, but the era in question is left to the imagination of the reader. My theory is that this is an invention from around the time of the era of Tenji (r. 662–671), when Chinese scholars came to court and a new set of phonological standards for phonograms was instituted (cf. Mori 1991). OJ: a OC: *tsok LH: tsiok EMC: tsuawk GO: soku, su KN: syoku, syu NOM: túc SV: túc SK: sywok, swu Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ a ‘leg,’ which is a truncated form of asi. In the Mino Census of 702 we find two names, 足結 AYUPI and 足結賣 AYUPImye. This usage appears only once in Kojiki: 足取王 Prince ATORI. Interestingly this same name appears in Nihon shoki as 臘嘴鳥皇子 Prince ATORI (臘嘴鳥 refers to the brambling). Likewise, there is only one example of this kungana in Nihon shoki: 足往 AYUKI (NSG). This kungana appears a number of times in Man’yōshū. MYS 1718 The ships whose sailors called 足利思代 ADWOMOPITE KWOGI INISI PUNE pa back and forth as they rowed 榜行舟薄 TAKASIMA NO probably have now 高嶋之 足速之水門尓 ADWO NO MINATWO ni reached the port PATEnikyemu KAMO of Ado at Takashima. 極尓監鴨 OJ: a OC: NA LH: NA EMC: NA GO: NA KN: NA NOM: NA SV: NA SK: NA Usage / History: These two kunganas are actually a Chinese phrase, as 嗚呼 means ‘to sigh.’ This phrase thus represents the sound of a sigh in Old Japanese: a. This usage appears only once in Man’yōshū. MYS 40 Is the tide rising to meet 嗚呼見乃浦尓 AMI no URA ni PUNANORISUramu the jewel-like skirts 船乗為良武 WOTOMYERA GA of the young maidens 𡢳嬬等之

嗚呼

16

珠裳乃須十二 四寳三都良武香

英

惡

菴 奄

TAMAMO no suSWO ni who try to board the boat sipo MIturamu KA at Ami Bay?

OJ: aga, a OC: *ʔraŋ LH: ʔɨaŋ EMC: ʔiajŋ GO: au KN: ei NOM: anh, yêng SV: anh SK: yeng Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. Several toponyms using this phonogram appear on excavated mokkan: 英比郷 Agapi Village (MK 2188), 美作国英多 郡大野里 Misaka Province, Agata District, OPONWO Village (MK 439). It transcribes a in Man’yōshū. It appears in the headnote to MYS 4093: 英遠浦 Awo URA ‘Bay of Ao.’ It also transcribes a in Harima fudoki, in place names like 英保 Apo and 英賀 Aga. It also transcribes aga in the place name 英馬 Agama. This phonogram also appears in Shoku Nihongi to transcribe 英多 Agata (713.4.3). These latter two examples show that the scribes used the velarnasal final plus an echo vowel to represent ga. OJ: aku OC: *ʔâk LH: ʔak EMC: ʔak GO: a, aku KN: aku NOM: anh, yêng SV: anh SK: yeng Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It is an extremely rare phonogram, as the semantics of the character made it unpopular: 惡 means ‘evil’ or ‘hate.’ There are four manuscripts of Hokekyō ongi where 惡 is glossed a (Ogura 1995, 2:222, 1208–1209). However, in classical Chinese this character could also be used as an emphatic. The earliest usage of aku appears in the Buzen Census of 702: 秦部惡 閉 PADABYE Akupe. In the Izumo tax payment register of 739 we find the name 惡多賣 Akutamye. On a wooden tablet excavated from the old Nara capital area we find the name 坂田真人惡麻呂 SAKATA MABITO Akumaro (MK 4901), and on a different tablet 坂田惡万呂 SAKATA Akumaro (MK 4902). From the ruins of the Akita Castle an excavated wooden document contains the name 大伴部惡 男 OPOTOMOBYE AkuWO (MK 126). OJ: ama OC: *ʔam LH: ʔəm or ʔɨam EMC: ʔəm > ʔam GO: amu KN: amu NOM: NA SV: am SK: am Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Shoku Nihongi, in the third year of Monmu in the place name 菴美 Amami (699.7.19). Here the initial vowel has an echo vowel in the second syllable. OJ: ama, amu LH: ʔɨəmʔ NOM: im

EMC: ʔiam SV: yểm

17

OC: *ʔramʔ GO: emu KN: emu SK: em

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in Shoku Nihongi, used to transcribe two different disyllables, ama and amu: 奄美 Amami (714.12.5), 奄 智王 Prince Amuti (757.8.18).

闇 鴨 姶 愛

OJ: amu OC: *ʔəmʔ or *ʔəms LH: ʔəmh or ʔəmh EMC: ʔəm > ʔam GO: amu KN: amu NOM: NA SV: am, ám SK: am Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in the name 闇知 Amuti, preserved in the Shōsōin documents. OJ: apa OC: NA LH: NA EMC: ʔaɨp LMC: ʔja:p GO: efu KN: afu NOM: NA SV: áp SK: ap Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This usage appears in Harima fudoki in the toponym 鴨波里 Apapa Village. OJ: api OC: NA LH: NA EMC: NA GO: afu KN: afu NOM: NA SV: ạp SK: ap Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Shoku Nihongi in 姶袷郡 ApiRA District (713.4.3), and 姶𡤢郡 Apira District (729.7.22). OJ: ayu OC: *ʔə̂ts LH: *ʔəs > ʔəh EMC: ʔəj LMC: ʔaj GO: ai KN: ai NOM: ái SV: ái SK: oy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Shoku Nihongi in the toponym 尾張國愛知郡 WOPARI Province, Ayuti District (709.5.5). Documents in Shōsōin also contain the usage 愛智郡 Ayuti District.

18

B 婆

OJ: ba OC: *bâ LH: bɑi EMC: bwâ GO: ba KN: fa NOM: bà SV: ba, bà SK: pha Usage / History: When used to transcribe ba, this phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears in one of the songs preserved in Jōgū shōtoku hōō teisetsu: 伊加留我乃 ikaruga no Our Great Ruler’s name 止美能乎何波乃 tomi no wogapa no will never be forgotten, 多叡婆許曾 tayeba koso even if the brook 和何於保支美乃 wa ga opokimi no Tomi in Ikaruga 弥奈和須良叡米 mina wasurayeme should cease to flow in its bed. This phonogram appears on a variety of mokkan: □□部佐婆万呂 XXBYE Sabamaro (MKK 11:27), 阿波蘇部止婆 apaswoBYEtoba, which may be a name (unnumbered tablet), and a strange fragment: □把伊麻婆礼婆 …X pa i mabareba ‘when gazing at…?’ (MKK 12:138). This phonogram is the primarily graph used to transcribe ba in Kojiki: KK 9 古那美賀 kwonami ga If your first wife 那許波佐婆 na kopasaba asks for a side dish, 多知曾婆能 tatisoba no cut her slices of meat 微能那祁久袁 mwi no nakyeku wo with almost no flesh— 許紀志斐惠泥 kokwisipwiwene barren like the hawthorn. 宇波那理賀 upanari ga If your favorite wife 那許波佐婆 na kopasaba asks for a side dish, 伊知佐加紀 itisakakwi cut her many slices of meat 微能意富祁久袁 mwi no opokyeku wo like the hisakaki fruit 許紀陀斐惠泥 kokwidapwiwene blessed in abundance. This phonogram is rarely used in Nihon shoki to transcribe ba, because it is primarily used to transcribe pa. Two examples of this graph appear in Shoki for ba (NSK 2, 116), of which I quote one: NSK 116 伊磨紀那屢 imakwi naru Above the knoll 乎武例我禹杯爾 womure ga upe ni that is Imaki— 倶謨娜尼母 kumo dani mo if even a cloud 旨屢倶之多々婆 sirukusi tataba would clearly rise up 那爾柯那皚柯武 nani ka nagekamu then I would not lament. This graph also appears on the Bussoku stele: BSS 16 己乃美阿止乎 kono miato wo Respectfully gazing 麻婆利麻都礼婆 mabarimatureba at these footprints, 阿止奴志乃 ato nusi no how we think of

19

多麻乃与曾保比 tama no yosopopi the jeweled figure of the owner 於母保由留可母 omopoyuru kamo of these footprints. 美留期止毛阿留可 miru goto mo aru ka As if we see him! Miller (1975:147) treats 婆 as pa (his Fa) in this poem, and then chides the editors of Jidai betsu kokugo daijiten for flip-flopping, listing the word with Fa, but giving the possibility that it may actually be ba. In reality, Miller has misrepresented the editors, because the word in question is listed as mabaru, interpreted as a form of mimamoru ‘gaze, look at’; later the editors say, “Some believe this to be mafaru, but the chance that 婆 is a voiced syllable is high” (1967:688). A cursory look at the phonology, however, shows that the Jidai betsu editors are right, and Miller is mistaken. If 婆 represents pa, then this necessitates a LMC (CBS) reading, which is odd in a poem composed of EMC (EJS) graphs. Consider that 太 in poems 2, 4, 6 is read da, not ta, and 奴 in poem 16 is read nu and not dwo, each of these readings which Miller agrees with. Consider this poem: BSS 19 与都乃閇美 yotu no pemi What a despicable body, 伊都々乃毛乃乃 itutu no mono no an accumulation of 阿都麻礼流 atumareru the four serpents and 伎多奈伎微乎婆 kitanaki mwi woba the five demons— 伊止比須都閇志 itopisutu besi We must resist and discard them, 波奈礼須都倍志 panaresutu besi depart and discarding them. Here again Miller (1975:160) treats 乎婆 as woFa, which is difficult to fathom. The graph 婆 is used three times in the Bussoku Stele sequence, each time for ba, and when the poet(s) wishes to represent pa, he uses 波 instead. In conclusion, 婆 in these poems represents ba. This phonogram is also the primary graph used to transcribe ba in Man’yōshū: MYS 3617 伊波婆之流 ipabasiru When I hear the sound 多伎毛登杼呂尓 taki mo todoro ni of the cicada, a voice NAKU SEMI no like a waterfall rushing 鳴蝉乃 許恵乎之伎氣婆 kowe wosi kikeba over the boulders— MIYAKWOsi omopoyu I think of the metropolis. 京師之於毛保由.

伐

OJ: ba OC: *bat LH: buɑt EMC: bjwɐt GO: bati KN: fatu NOM: phạt SV: phạt SK: pel Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and is only found in Man’yōshū. I have only found six examples. Below is a representative example: MYS 3583 MASAKIKUTE If my beloved performs 真幸而 伊毛我伊波伴伐 imwo ga ipapaba purification rituals for my safety, 於伎都奈美 okitunami even if the waves in the offing 知敝尓多都等母 tipye ni tatu tomo pile up a thousand times, 佐波里安良米也母 sapari arame yamo would there be any obstacles? 20

麼

魔

磨

OJ: ba OC: *maiʔ LH: mɨɑiʔ EMC: ma LMC: mba GO: ma KN: ba NOM: NA SV: mả SK: ma Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This graph is primarily used to transcribe ba in Nihon shoki, used 36 times in poetry, and once in an annotational note: 訕哤、此云佐麼賣玖 ‘make a racket’ is read sabameku’ (NSG). NSK 97 莒母唎矩能 kumoriku no In the hidden land, 簸覩細能哿波庚 patuse no kapa yu the bamboo flowing down 那峨礼倶屢 nagarekuru the Hatsuse River— 駄開能 take no wonderful, flourishing bamboo 以矩美娜開余嚢開 ikumidake yodake with long joints and leaves. 謨等陛嗚麼 motopye woba We will make a koto 莒等儞都倶唎 koto ni tukuri out of the base of it, 須衞陛嗚麼 suwepye woba and make a flute 府曳儞都倶唎 puye ni tukuri out of the top of it, 符企儺須 pukinasu and our music 美母慮我紆陪儞 mimoro ga upe ni will reach to the top 能朋梨陀致 nobori tati of Mount Mimoro. 倭我彌細麼 wa ga miseba When I gaze down 都奴娑播符 tunwo sapapu on Iware Pond 以簸例能伊開能 ipare no ike no with rocks covered in vines 美那矢駄府 minasitapu even the fish 紆鳴謨 uwo mo come to the surface 紆陪儞堤堤那皚矩 upe ni dete nageku and lament your parting. OJ: ba OC: NA LH: NA EMC: ma LMC: mba GO: ma KN: ba NOM: ma SV: ma SK: ma Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in two songs in Nihon shoki. Below is one example: NSK 91 於彌能姑能 omi no kwo no The son of the Omi has 耶賦能之魔柯枳 yapu no sibakaki made a fine brushwood fence. 始陀騰余瀰 sitatoyomi But if the earth quakes 那爲我與釐據魔 nawi ga yori koba that brushwood fence 耶黎夢之魔柯枳 yaremu sibakaki will likely fall to pieces. OJ: ba OC: *mâ LH: mɑi > ma EMC: ma LMC: mba GO: ma KN: ba NOM: mài SV: ma, mạ SK: ma Usage / History: I have included this phonogram here, though textual analysis tends to show that this graph may have been consistently corrupted to 縻. Following the careful textual analysis of the NKBT editors, it appears that the eight possible examples 21

of 磨 as ba are all corruptions of 麼. In other words, the phonogram 磨 is only used in Nihon shoki to transcribe ma. Thus the phonogram 麼 appears to have been corrupted into rare examples of 磨 and 縻 to represent ba.

薄

倍

OJ: ba OC: *bâk LH: bak EMC: bâk GO: baku KN: faku NOM: bạc SV: bác SK: pak Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. Here the final -ku is ignored. This usage only appears in Man’yōshū, and then only three times (in MYS 3329 and 3330). MYS 3330 KINU KOSO ba And like a robe 衣社薄 SORE YARENUREBA if one were to rip it 其破者 TUGITUTU mo they say you can sew it together 継乍物 MATA mo APU to IPYE and the torn pieces meet again. 又母相登言 TAMA KOSO BA And like a string of jewels 玉社者 WO NO TAYENUREba if the string breaks 緒之絶薄 八十一里喚鶏 KUKUriTUTU the say that you can restring it MATA mo APU to IPYE and the jewels meet again. 又物逢登曰 MATA mo APANU MONO PA However it is my spouse 又毛不相物者 TUMA ni si ARIKERI who I will never meet again. 孋尓志有来 OJ: be OC: *bə̂ʔ LH: bəʔ EMC: bwậiʔ GO: bai KN: fai NOM: bội, vội SV: bội SK: poy, phay Usage / History: The phonogram belongs to the EJS. This phonogram appears in the Mino Census of 702 in names such as 古安倍 Kwoabe, and 小倍志賣 KWObe Simye. This phonogram also appears on a variety of excavated mokkan: 阿倍枚 万呂 Abe MUTImaro (MK 3508), 安倍 Abe (MKK 17:163). It also appears twice in the liturgies: 上津国乎所知食倍志 UPATU KUNI wo SIROSIMESU besi ‘(You) should rule over the upper land’ (NT 12). This phonogram is prevalent in Kojiki: 阿倍臣 Abe OMI (KG). KK 26 迦賀那倍弖 kaganabete Lining up the days 用迩波許許能用 ywo nipa kokono ywo for nights nine nights; 比迩波登袁加袁 pi nipa towoka wo for days ten days (have passed). Theoretically there should be no examples of 倍 for be in Nihon shoki poetry, as the Late Middle Chinese reading of this graph had devoiced to *pɦuaj, and therefore was available to transcribe pe (which see). Thus Mori’s three examples of be in the poetry requires comment (cf. 1991:236), but I will limit data to the stanza in question. In the story of Yamato Takeru going to subdue the rebels in the east, we have the same song (NSK 26) as found above in KK 26: 伽 餓奈倍氐 kaganabete ‘lining up the days.’ The second example occurs in a song from Ingyō (NSK 65): 勾倍枳豫臂奈利 ku beki yopi nari “it is the early evening when (my husband) will come....” The final example is in Suiko’s reply poem to Soga Umako (NSK 103): 宇倍之訶茂 ubesi kamo “How true it is.” As 22

all three examples appear in the beta section of poetry (which is the older stratum of poetry), two possibilities come to mind. First, the compilers of these books in Nihon shoki have failed to convert this phonogram which might have been found in the source documents to another graph, such as 陪; second, the more likely scenario is that because LMC had no voiced *b or prenasalized *mb, the compilers had no other choice but to adhere to the earlier usage. This phonogram is the principal graph for be in Man’yōshū: MYS 798 伊毛何美斯 imwo ga misi The blossoms of the bead tree 阿布知乃波那波 aputi no pana pa that my beloved saw 知利奴倍斯 tirinu besi must have scattered— 和何那久那美多 wa ga naku namida though my tears 伊摩陀飛那久尓 imada pwi naku ni have not yet dried.

陪

毎 鼻

OJ: be OC: *bə̂ LH: bə EMC: bwậi GO: bai KN: fai NOM: bồi SV: bồi SK: poy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage is quite rare, most likely being simply a variant usage of 倍. There is an example from the Shōsōin documents where the name Abe is represented as 阿陪. This phonogram also appears six times in Nihon shoki: NSK 63 夜輸瀰始之 yasumisisi Our great sovereign 和我於朋枳瀰波 wa ga opokimi pa who rules the eight quarters 于陪儺于陪儺 ube na ube na has spoken reasonably 和例烏斗波輸儺 ware wo twopasu na by asking this question of me. 阿企菟辭摩 akitusima But I have not heard 揶莽等能倶珥々 yamato no kuni ni anything about a goose 箇利古武等 kari kwomu to having laid an egg 和例破枳箇儒 ware pa kikazu in the land of Yamato. OJ: be OC: *mǝ̂ʔ LH: məʔ EMC: mwậi LMC: bmuaj GO: mai KN: bai NOM: mỗi, mọi SV: mỗi SK: moy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing but once in Nihon shoki, in an annotational note: 諾、此云宇毎那利 “ ‘approval’ is read ube nari” (NSG). OJ: bi OC: *bit or *bits LH: bit or bis EMC: bjiet or bih GO: bi KN: fi NOM: NA SV: tị, tĩ SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. In the second year of Kimmei, seventh month, a Paekche delegation is sent to Mimana to chastise their disloyalty to Japan. One member of the delegation is named Birimakkwo, 鼻利莫古. Then in the fourth year, 12th month, this same person is seen again. This usage was 23

inherited by the Wa. This phonogram appears once in the annotational notes in Nihon shoki: 汝此云那鼻苔 “ ‘You’ is to be read nabito.” This phonogram is also used once in Man’yōshū. MYS 57 PIKUmaNWO ni With vibrant beauty the plain 引馬野尓 of black alders in Hikumano— 仁保布榛原 nipopu PARIPARA IRIMIDARE venture within and stain 入乱 KOROMO nipopase your robes with their beauty 衣尓保波勢 多鼻能知師尓 tabi no SIRUsi ni as a mark of your journey. This phonogram appears in the first poem of the Bussoku sequence: BSS 1 美阿止都久留 miato tukuru The resounding sound of 伊志乃比鼻伎波 isi no pibiki pa the rock where the footprints 阿米尓伊多利 ame ni itari are carved reaches to heaven; 都知佐閇由須礼 tuti sape yusure the earth even reverberates. 知々波々賀多米尓 titi papa ga tame ni For father and mother— 毛呂比止乃多米尓 moropito no tame ni for all people.

毘

OJ: bi OC: *bi LH: bi EMC: bji GO: bi KN: fi NOM: NA SV: tì, bì SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, though its use appears to have been somewhat limited. It is often written as 毗. This phonogram appears on a variety of wooden tablets excavated from the Fujiwara (694–710) and Heijō (710–784) palaces: 志毗年 Sibi TOSI (MK 855), and 海毗登 UMIbito ‘sea folk’ (MK 7526). This graph is perhaps well known because of its use in Kojiki to almost exclusively transcribe bi, as the following illustrate: 波迩夜須毘古 Paniyasu bikwo ‘Prince Paniyasu’ (KG), 曾毘良迩 sobira ni ‘on his back’ (KG), 須世理 毘賣 Suseri bimye ‘Princess Suseri’ (KG), and 若倭根子日子大毘毘命 WAKA YAMATO NEKWO PIKWO OPObibi [NO] MIKOTO (KG). KK 81 美夜比登能 miyabito no They say that the small bell 阿由比能古須受 ayupi no kwosuzu on the leg strap of 淤知爾岐登 otiniki to the courtier have fallen off 美夜比登登余牟 miyabito toyomu and he is making a fuss. 佐斗毘登母由米 satwobito mo yume You villagers also beware. This phonogram is found once in the Buzen census of 702, in the name 阿蘇 毘 Aswobi. This graph appears 11 times in Man’yōshū. MYS 1028 MASURAWO NO As a valiant man 大夫之 TAKAMATO YAMA ni had chased it into a corner 高圓山尓 SEMETAREBA on Mount Takamato, 迫有者 SATWO ni ORIKYEru it fled down to the village, 里尓下来流 a flying squirrel, this one! 牟射佐毘曽此 musasabi so KORE

24

婢

彌

寐

OJ: bi OC: *beʔ LH: bieʔ EMC: bjieʔ GO: bi KN: fi NOM: tì SV: tì SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Shoku Nihongi, in the edicts: 惡久穢心乎以天逆尓在謀乎起、臣等方己我比伎婢企是尓託彼尓依都都頑 尓無礼伎心乎念弖 ASIku KITANAKI KOKORO wo MOTIte SAKASIMA ni ARU PAKARI KOTO wo TATE, OMITATI pa ONO ga pikibiki KORE ni YORItutu KATAKUNA ni WIYANAki KOKORO wo OMOPIte ‘(You) made plans that go against reason with evil and wicked hearts, and the Omi and others, each in their own way, followed (him), and with thoughts that are obstinate and disrespectful…’ (SM 45). This phonogram was generally avoided in Shoku Nihongi, because of its semantics, as it was used for a female slave. This phonogram also appears roughly 44 times in Man’yōshū. MYS 3763 多婢等伊倍婆 tabi to ipeba It is easy to speak 許登尓曽夜須伎 koto ni so yasuki about a ‘journey.’ 須敝毛奈久 subye mo naku There is no better word 久流思伎多婢毛 kurusiki tabi mo when it is a painful journey 許等尓麻左米也母 koto ni masame yamo that is beyond one’s control. OJ: bi OC: *me LH: mie EMC: mjie LMC mbji GO: mi KN: bi NOM: NA SV: di,ri, nhĩ SK: mi Usage / History: This usage belongs to the CBS. The chart near the end of Jidai betsu kokogu daijiten (1967:899) claims that 彌 is used to represent bi (ビ甲), but I have not been able to find any obvious examples of this. It is possible, however, that an example of 彌 mi is being interpreted as bi. This is the difficulty with the orthography in Nihon shoki, as graphs like 弭寐 can represent both mi and bi. A correct interpretation is further complicated by a variety of words in Japanese that demonstrate mi~bi alternation, such as pebi versus pemi ‘snake.’ The single possible example that I can find is in a Shoki poem, third line from the end: NSK 97 野須美矢々 yasumisisi And like the sash 倭我於朋枳美能 wa ga opokimi worn by my great lord 於魔細屢 obaseru who rules over all 娑佐羅能美於寐能 sasara no miobi no with its dainty design, 武須彌陀例 musubitare who is there that 駄例夜矢比等母 dare yasi pito mo will not come out 紆陪儞泥堤那皚矩 upe ni dete nageku and lament your parting? OJ: bi LH: mis NOM: mị

OC: *mis EMC: mih LMC mbji GO: mi KN: bi SV: mị SK: pi

25

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and its use is found in Nihon shoki, once in an annotational note, and 11 times in the poetry: 鮪、此云茲寐 “ ‘Tuna’ is read sibi” (NSG). NSK 18: 瀰磨紀異利寐胡播揶 mimakwi iribikwo paya Oh, Mimaki Iribiko! 飫廼餓烏塢 ono ga wo wo You play with a princess, 志齊務苔 sisemu to not even knowing that 農殊末句志羅珥 nusumaku sirazi someone is secretly 比売那素寐殊望 pimye naswobisu mo planning to take your life.

弭

妣

煩

OJ: bi OC: *meʔ LH: mieʔ EMC: mjieʔ LMC: mbji GO: mi KN: bi NOM: nhẹ SV: mễ SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and is found in Nihon shoki, in two annotational notes: 掌酒、此云佐介弭苔 “ ‘Official in charge of ceremonial sake’ is read sakabito” (NSG). Also 睩、此云麻用弭枳 ” ‘Eyebrows’ is read maywobiki” (NSG). It also appears in the name of 山部阿弭古 YAMABYE Abikwo (NSG). This phonogram also appears eight times in the poetry: NSK 40 阿波旎辭摩 apadisima The isle of Awaji 異椰敷多那羅弭 iya puta narabi truly lies next to Azuki Island. 阿豆枳辭摩 adukisima The isle of Azuki 異椰敷多那羅弭 iya puta narabi truly lies next to Awaji— 豫呂辭枳辭摩之魔 yoroskiki sima sima such wonderful islands. 儾伽多佐例阿羅智之 taka tasare aratisi Who is taking my consort? 吉備那流伊慕塢 kibwi naru imo wo I had just become intimate 阿比瀰菟流慕能 apimituru mono with that maiden from Kibi. OJ: bi OC: *piʔ or *pih LH: piʔ, pih EMC: pih LMC: mbji GO: fi KN: bi NOM: NA SV: tỉ SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram also belongs to the CBS. This phonogram appears 105 times in Man’yōshū, primarily in Books 14, 15, 17, and 20. MYS 3636 伊敝妣等波 ipyebito pa The people of the house pray, 可敝里波也許等 kapyeri paya ko to ‘Hurry and come back,’ 伊波比之麻 ipapisima waiting for an auspicious return 伊波比麻都良牟 ipapimaturamu from Prayer Island— 多妣由久和礼乎 tabi yuku ware wo for me on my journey. OJ: bo LH: buan NOM: phiền

EMC: bjwɐn SV: phiền

26

OC: *ban GO: bomu KN: fan SK: pen

Usage / History: This is the only known phonogram in Kojiki used specifically to represent bo. In most cases the polyphonic principal was used in other works where a voiceless syllable could represent both a voiceless and prenasalized syllable. Note that in Shoki 朋 po functioned in both capacities. The compiler of Kojiki went to great lengths to make a distinction, and 煩 is used only as a prenasalized syllable. It appears in Kojiki in toponyms like 能煩野 NoboNWO ‘Plain of Nobo’ (KG), and in the words of a curse on a hook: 淤煩鉤、須須鉤、貧鉤 oboTI, susuTI, MADUTI ‘hook of dullness, hook of recklessness, hook of poverty’ (KG). This phonogram also appears seven times in song. KK 58 都藝泥布夜 tuginepu ya How the peaks continue— 夜麻斯呂賀波袁 yamasirogawa wo sailing up the Yamashiro River 美夜能煩理 miya nobori to the palace, 和賀能煩禮婆 wa ga noboreba as I sailed upstream 阿袁迩余志 awo ni yosi I passed Nara 那良袁須疑 nara wo sugwi good that it is green. 袁陀弖 wodate I passed Yamato 夜麻登袁須疑 yamato wo sugwi like a small shield. 和賀美賀本斯久迩波 wa ga migapwosi kuni pa The land I desire to see 迦豆良紀多迦美夜 kadurakwi takamiya is Takamiya in Kazuraki; 和藝幣能阿多理 wagipye no atari the area around my house. This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, but only once. It is tempting to view 煩 as used in Shoki to reflect a voiceless po, based on LMC, but with the lenition of an earlier *p to f by the Chang’an period, there had also been a simplification of the nucleus: EMC buan > LMC fɦan. I thus see the compiler using 煩 for bo, as the following illustrates. NSK 19 飫朋佐介珥 iposaka ni If people were to 菟藝廼煩例屢 tugi noboreru pass down hand to hand 伊辭務邏塢 isimura wo all the boulders that 多誤辭珥固佐縻 tagwosi ni kwosaba make up Mount Ofosaka 固辭介氐務介茂 kwosikatemu kamo perhaps it could be moved. This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū twice to represent bo: MYS 3643 於吉敝欲里 okipye ywori From the vicinity of the offing 布奈妣等能煩流 punabito noboru the seamen sail capital bound. 与妣与勢弖 yobiyosete Let us call them over and have 伊射都氣也良牟 iza tugyeyaramu them relay our message— 多婢能也登里乎 tabi no yadori wo we are staying here. MYS 3724 KIMI ga yuku The long route of the road 君我由久 MITI no nagate wo that my lord goes down— 道乃奈我弖乎 久里多々祢 kuritatane I wish that it could be hauled in, 也伎保呂煩散牟 yaki porobosamu folded up, and destroyed by fire, 安米能火毛我母 ame no PWI mogamo the fire of heaven!

27

Ōno presents both poems as evidence of bo (3643) and po (3724), but I see no reason to interpret either of these as anything but bo.

夫

OJ: bu OC: *ba or *pa LH: buɑ, puɑ EMC: bju, pju GO: bu KN: fu NOM: phu SV: phù SK: pwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. As I theorize under 夫 OJ pu, it is possible that the peninsular kingdoms used this graph in word initial position as pu, but as bu in word medial position. On the Chang-yang hunting stele we find examples such as □接夫智 X-tsiap-buɑ-te, or 匝干喙小里夫智 Hyɑs-siauliə of the third rank. There are also a number of examples found in the Paekche records quoted in Nihon shoki: in the record of Keitai there is a man of Silla royalty called 上臣伊叱夫禮智干岐 Minister Isibureti Kanki. This name is represented slightly differently in a variant source quoted in Shoki: 伊叱夫禮知 奈末 Isibureti Nama. At the end of the Keitai record there is an account of the armies of Silla and Paekche overthrowing five Kara fortresss, one of which is called 阿夫羅 Abura. This phonogram also appears in the earliest records in Japan. In Jōgū Shōtoku Taishi hōō teisetsu, we find the name of the prince’s wife’s father written as 加多夫古 Katabukwo. This phonogram is prevalent on mokkan: 知 夫利郡由良里 Tiburi District Yura Village (MKK 5:85), 和尓部色夫智 WaniBYE Sikibuti, or possibly Sikobuti (MK 320). It also appears once in the liturgies: 疎夫留物 UTWOburu MONO ‘things that are unfriendly’ (NT 1). This is the only phonogram used to transcribe bu in Kojiki: KK 50 知波夜夫流 tipayaburu Endowed with power 宇遲能和多理迩 udi no watari ni you potent people 佐袁斗理迩 sawo twori ni who hold the staff 波夜祁牟比登斯 payakyemu pito si at the ferry of Uji— 和賀毛古迩許牟 wa ga mwokwo ni komu come to my rescue! Perhaps because of its archaic usage, this phonogram only appears somewhat rarely in Nihon shoki, appearing twice in the annotational notes, and twice in song: 圓此云豆夫羅 “ ‘Circle’ is read tubura” (NSG). NSK 29 伊装阿藝 iza agi My dear friend, 伊佐智須區禰 isati sikune Isachi Sukune, 多摩枳波屢 tamakiparu let us not bear deep wounds 于知能阿曾餓 uti no aso ga from the pommel head sword 勾夫菟智能 kubututi no of Minister Uchi 伊多氐於破孺破 itate opazu pa who possesses the strong spirit. 珥倍廼利能 nipodori no Let us submerge 介豆岐齋奈 kadukise na like the grebe. This graph also appears once in the Bussoku poems: BSS 17 於保美阿止乎 opoki ato wo Even the sins of 美尓久留比止乃 minikuru pito no a 1000 generations of the past 28

伊尓志加多 inisikata of the person who comes to see 知与乃都美佐閇 tiyo no tumi sape the great footprints vanish, 保呂夫止曾伊布 porobu to so ipu so they say. 乃曾久止叙伎久 nozoku to zo kiku They are removed, we hear! The phonogram 夫 is the main graph used to transcribe bu in Man’yōshū: MYS 3660 可牟佐夫流 kamusaburu Like the waves crashing 安良都能左伎尓 aratu no saki ni at the cape of Aratsu 与須流奈美 yosuru nami with its archaic, divine aura, 麻奈久也伊毛尓 manaku ya imwo ni will my yearning for 故非和多里奈牟. kwopwiwatarinamu my beloved go on unrelenting?

扶

部

OJ: bu OC: *ba or *pa LH: buɑ, puɑ EMC: bju, pju GO: bu KN: fu NOM: phù, phò, vùa SV: phù SK: pwu Usage / History: This usage belongs to the PBS. The only extant example in Japan is in the 23rd year of Keitai, where Paekche is labeled 扶余 Puyo. This usage also appears in Samkwuk saki, in the 16th year of King Syeng, the record notes that the capital was removed to Sopi (泗沘) and the state was called Southern Puyo (南扶余). As noted under 夫 OJ pu, I believe that in initial positon this represented pu, but in medial position it represented bu. This usage also appears three times in Man’yōshū. MYS 128 WA GA KIKIsi The things my ears have heard 吾聞之 MIMI ni YOKU NIRU well resemble the truth; 耳尓好似 ASI NO URE no rhyming with the tip of reeds 葦若末乃 ASI YAMU WA GE se my brother, with feet distressed, 足痛吾勢 TUTOMEtabu besi please take care of yourself. 勤多扶倍思 OJ: bu OC: *bôʔ LH: boʔ EMC: bəuʔ GO: bu KN: fo NOM: bộ, bõ SV: bộ SK: pwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It is difficult to tease out the distinction between the usage as a phonogram and a kungana, as 部 also meant ‘to divide’ or ‘a department.’ The following appears on the Silla River stone in Wicwu (ca. 525 CE): 沙喙部 *sahyɑs-boʔ ‘the second district of the capital’ and 喙部 *hyɑs-boʔ ‘the first district of the capital.’ What is unclear is how the graph 部 was pronounced: whether it was a kungana and had a native peninsular reading, or if the Old Chinese reading of bo was used. Scholars can glean a hint from Nihon shoki, where Silla ranks and titles are quoted: 沙喙部奈末竹世士 ‘Tiku Seisi of the 11th rank, from the Sataku District (glossed satakuhou)...’ and 喙部 大舍首智買 ‘Su Tibai of the twelfth rank from the Taku District (glossed takuhou).’ Here both graphs are glossed as hou (ホウ). It is possible that vowelraising in one branch of a donor language while another language kept the vowel

29

at the original height explains the discrepancy between bu and bo. These examples suggest that the graph was used as a phonogram. Other evidence can also be found from Paekche records quoted in Nihon shoki. There is a Paekche name 百濟人己知部 ‘Kotibu, a man from Paekche.’ Perhaps because of its semantics this graph was avoided in most of the early Japanese texts. In Nihon shoki it appears but once in an annotational note: 傾子、 此云柯陁部古 ‘The name Katabuko is read katabukwo’ (NSG). Ōno (1977:601–602) fails to mention that 部 appears in the orthography of Man’yōshū, but Jidai betsu notes there is at least one example (1967:899). It is true that the graph 部 appears an almost innumerable times in the anthology, but in most cases these transcribe pye. It is possible that Jidai betsu has reference to the stanza in the following poem: MYS 264 MONOnopu no It is unclear where the 物乃部能 YASWOUDI KAPA no water that hesitates at the weirs 八十氏河乃 of the Uji River— 阿白木尓 aZIRWOKWI ni of the eighty warrior uji— 不知代經浪乃 ISAYWOPU NAMI no YUKUpye SIRAZU mo intends to go. 去邊白不母 It is doubtful, however, that 部 in this song could be considered as bu, since mononopu is a set epithet. Another tenuous possibility is in the following somewhat cryptic song: MYS 3791: On to the brightly dyed robe 丹穂々為衣丹 NIPOPOSI KINU NI KWOMA NISIKI I sew a cord of Koryo brocade, 狛錦 PIMWO NI NUPITUKE tied repeatedly around me, 紐丹縫著 filled with feelings of longing; 刺部重部 sibu KASANEpu NAMI KASANE KWITE I wear this robe over my other robes.... 波累服 The stanza 刺部重部 has been tentatively interpreted as represneting sibu kasanepu. I have interpreted 刺 ‘stick through’ as a phonogram si with 部 as bu. This produces a noun sibu ‘astringent, sour,’ interpreted as a feeling of longing, and kasanepu is the interative, continuing to layer. This produces a visual feeling of the string being wound around several times and tied, while the underlying reading is one of complex feelings of longing. Again, however, this is nothing more than conjecture.

父

OJ: bu OC: *baʔ or *paʔ LH: buɑʔ, puɑʔ EMC: bjuʔ, pjuʔ LMC: fɦu GO: bu KN: fu NOM: phụ SV: phụ SK: pwo, pwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in Nihon shoki, in one annotational note and one song, both from Book 24: 乳部此云美父 ‘Wet nurses are called mibu” (NSG). NSK 109 波魯々々儞 parwo parwo ni Far off in the distance 渠騰曾枳擧喩屢 koto so kikoyuru you can hear someone speaking 之麻能野父播羅 sima no yabupara in the thicket on the island plain.

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This phonogram also appears once in Man’yōshū, in the place name 秩父郡 ‘District of Titibu’ (MYS 4414).

府

歩 矛 符

OJ: bu OC: *poʔ LH: puoʔ EMC: pjuʔ GO: fu KN: fu NOM: phủ SV: phủ SK: pwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and while there is only one case that I can find of this phonogram representing OJ bu (which makes it tempting to argue that this is actually OJ pu), I place it here. This graph appears often in Man’yōshū, but the majority of cases are related to the Dazaifu (大宰府). The following example is the only case of 府 used as a phonogram in Man’yōshū: MYS 1798 INISIPYE NI Looking at Black Oxen Bay 古家丹 IMWO to WA GA MISI dark as jewels 妹等吾見 NUBATAMA NO which my beloved and I had 黒玉之 gazed at long ago 久漏牛方乎 kurwo USIGATA wo MIREBA sabuSI MO I feel forsaken. 見佐府下 OJ: bu OC: *bâh LH: bɑh EMC: buoh LMC: pɦuə GO: bu KN: fo NOM: bộ SV: bộ, bò SK: pwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and its usage only appears in Nihon shoki. It appears once in the following annotational note: 頭槌、此云箇歩豆智 “Pommel head (sword) is read kabututi” (NSG). It also appears in two poems (NSK 59, 60) to write the name of Prince Hayabusa Wake: 破夜歩佐（和気）payabusa wake. This is an example of an earlier usage. OJ: bu OC: *mu LH: mu EMC: məu LMC: mbuw GO: mu KN: bu NOM: mâu SV: mâu SK: mwu, mwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and is only found in Nihon shoki, and then only once: 頗傾也、此云歌矛志 “ ‘Let one’s head hang down’ is read kabusi” (NSG). OJ: bu OC: *bo LH: buo EMC: bju LMC: fɦuə GO: bu KN: fu NOM: phù, bùa SV: phù SK: pwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, but there is only one known example of this to transcribe bu, appearing in the following song: NSK 75 倭我伊麻西麼 wa ga imaseba As I sit here 佐謂麻都登 sawi matu to waiting for the boar, 31

倭我陀々西麼 wa ga tataseba as I rise to my feet 陀倶符羅爾 takubura ni a horsefly lands 阿武柯枳都枳 amu kakituki on my arm and bites me. Some have argued that 陀倶符羅 should be read takupura, but considering that the related song in Kojiki has 多古牟羅 takwomura, and we know that there are a variety of words in OJ that exhibit b ~ m alternation, it seems more persuasive to argue that 符 here transcribes bu. As the CBS reading would force pu, it appears that the scribe has simply relied on the EMC reading.

鶩

OJ: bu OC: *moh LH: muoh EMC: mjuh LMC mbuw GO: mu KN: bu NOM: NA SV: vụ, vu SK: mwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing in one song in Nihon shoki: NSK 9 於佐箇廼 osaka no Though there are many 於朋務露夜珥 opomurwoya ni who have come and entered 比苔瑳破而 pito sapa ni the great cavern of Osaka, 異離烏利苔毛 iriwori tomo and though many men 比苔瑳破而 pito sapa ni have entered here 枳伊離烏利苔毛 ki iriwori tomo and are seated before us, 瀰都瀰都志 mitumitusi you, the intrepid 倶梅能固邏餓 kume no kwora ga sons of the Kume, 勾鶩都々伊 kubututui with pommel-head hilts, 異志都々伊毛智 isitutui moti holding your stone-head swords, 于智弖之夜莽務 utitesi yamamu will now smite the enemy. OJ: bu OC: NA LH: NA EMC: NA GO: NA KN: NA NOM: NA SV: NA SK: NA Usage / History: This is a kungana, ‘bee-sound,’ suggesting to the reader the sound made by a bee, akin to English buzz, but OJ bu. This usage appears only once in Man’yōshū. MYS 2991 hiding in their cocoons, 眉隠 MAYWOGOMORI 馬聲蜂音石花蜘蟵荒鹿 IBUSEKU MO ARU KA I am surrounded by gloom, because I cannot see you. 異母二不相而 imo ni APAZUSITE

蜂音

備

OJ: bwi OC: *brəkh LH: bɨəh > bɨh EMC: bjɨh GO: bi KN: fi NOM: bị, vựa SV: bị SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The earliest datable instance of this phonogrammatic usage is in the Chikuzen census of 702 CE, in the name 吉備 Kibwi, though it is clear this toponym can be dated much earlier. All examples of the transcription of this toponym are either 吉備 or 岐備, but the final graph does not change. This is also true of many usages on mokkan. This phonogram 32

appears in the liturgies six times: 四角与利疎備荒備来武天能麻我都比登云神 YOSUMI yori UTWObwi ARAbwi KITARAmu AME no magatubi to IPU KAMWI ‘the deity known as Ame no Magatsubi who is unfriendly and violent who comes from the four corners…’ (NT 9). This phonogram is also used to transcribe bwi in non-toponymic usages in Kojiki: 宇摩志阿斯訶備比古遲神 Umasi Asikabwi Pikwozi [NO] KAMWI ‘The deity Umashi Ashikabi Hikoji’ (KG); 和備弖 wabwite ‘be puzzled’ (KG). It also appears in the following song in Kojiki: KK 78 阿志比紀能 asipikwi no Weary from climbing 夜麻陀袁豆久理 yamada wo tukuri I cultivated mountain land. 夜麻陀加美 yamadakami The mountain being high 斯多備袁和志勢 sitabwi wo wasise I buried irrigation pipes. 志多杼比爾 sitadopi ni Secretly I visited my wife. 和賀登布伊毛袁 wa ga topu imwo wo My beloved who I visited— 斯多那岐爾 sitanaki ni thus I cry to myself. 和賀那久都麻袁 wa ga naku tuma wo I weep for my spouse. 許存許曾波 kozo koso pa It was last night 夜須久波陀布禮 yasuku pada pure that our flesh calmly touched. This phonogram also is used in Nihon shoki: NSK 105 于泥備椰摩 unebwi yama Though the trees 虚多智于須家苔 kotati usukyedo are sparse on Mount Unebi, 多能彌介茂 tanomi kamo is it the young Ketsu 氣菟能和區呉能 ketu no wakugwo no who has hidden himself there 虚茂羅勢利祁牟 komoraserikyemu hoping for support? This phonogram is the primary graph in Man’yōshū to represent bwi. MYS 33 SASANAMI no The august deity of 樂浪乃 KUNItu miKAMWI no the land of Sasanami 國都美神乃 has become unimportant. 浦佐備而 URAsabwiTE ARETARU MIYAKWO Looking upon the desolate 荒有京 MIREBA KANASI mo metropolis breaks my heart. 見者悲毛

肥

OJ: bwi OC: *bəi LH: bui EMC: bjwei GO: bi KN: fi NOM: phì, phề, phè SV: phì SK: pi Usage / History: See the explanation under pwi for this character.

媚

OJ: bwi OC: *muih LH: mɨh EMC: mji LMC: mbi GO: mi KN: bi NOM: mị SV: mị SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears in a Nihon shoki song.

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NSK 69 阿資臂紀能 椰摩娜烏菟勾利 椰摩娜箇彌 斯哆媚烏和之勢

眉 縻

asipikwi no yamada wo tukuri yamadakami sitabwi wo wasise

Weary from climbing I cultivated mountain land. The mountain being high, I buried irrigation pipes.

OJ: bwi OC: *mui or *məiʔ LH: mɨ, muiʔ EMC: mji, mjweiʔ LMC: mbi GO: mi KN: bi NOM: mì, mày SV: mi SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and is found only once in Nihon shoki, in an annotational note: 雄誥、此云嗚多稽眉 “ ‘Ferocity’ is read wotakyebwi” (NSG). OJ: bwi OC: *mai LH: mɨe EMC: mje LMC: mbiə GO: mi KN: bi NOM: NA SV: mi SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram also belongs to the CBS. This phonogram appears twice in the annotational notes in Nihon shoki: 雄誥、此云烏多鷄縻 “ ‘shout bravely’ is read takyebwi” (NSG), 畝傍山、此云宇禰縻夜摩 “ ‘Mount Unebi’ is read unebwi yama” (NSG).

婢

OJ: bye OC: *beʔ LH: bieʔ EMC: bjieʔ GO: bi KN: fi NOM: tì SV: tì SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram is the oldest known graph used specifically to transcribe OJ bye, but it only appears in an early Nara era document, so I place this graph in the LJS. It appears in the Buzen Census of 702, in the name 伊婢賣 Ibyemye. It also appears in Kujiki, in 淡海國谷上刀婢 TAGAMI Twobye of APUMI.

謎

OJ: bye OC: *mîh LH: meih EMC: mieih LMC: mbɛj GO: mei KN: bei NOM: mê SV: mê SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears only in Nihon shoki, once in an annotational note, and once in a song: 小甂、此云鳥儺謎 “ ‘(The name) Onabe’ is read wonabye” (NSG). NSK 79 耶麼能謎能 yamanobye no I have no regrets 故思麼古喩衞爾 kwosimakwo yuwe ni parting with my prized 比登涅羅賦 pito derapu eight horses we show off— 宇麼能耶都擬播 uma no yatugwi pa all because of the woman, 嗚思稽矩謀那斯 wosikyeku mo nasi Yamanobe Koshimako. There seems to be some confusion, where Ōno (1977:792) lists 謎 as both bye and be. The editors of Jidai betsu kokugo daijiten (1967:900) appear to have 34

made the same decision, but based on what criteria is unclear to me. In order to unravel this mystery I list all examples of this phonogram found in the first half of Nihon shoki: i) 天探女、此云阿麻能左愚謎 Ama no Sagumye (name) ii) 避奈菟謎廼 pinatumye ‘provincial maidens’ iii) 欝色謎 UTU Sikomye (name) iv) 伊香色謎命 IKAsikomye [NO] MIKOTO (name) v) 小甂、此云鳥儺謎 ‘Onabe’ is read wonabye vi) 以破能臂謎餓 ipa no pimye ga ‘Prince Iwa…’ vii) 揶摩之呂謎能 yamasiromye no ‘the maiden of Yamashiro…’ viii) 夜莽之呂謎能 yamasiromye no ‘the maiden of Yamashiro…’ ix) 謎廼利餓 myetori ga ‘the female bird’ x) 阿布夜烏等謎烏 apu ya wotomye wo ‘the maiden I met…’ xi) 耶麼能謎能 yamanobye no ‘of Yamanobe’ xii) 偉儺謎能 winabye no ‘of Inabe’ xiii) 鯽魚女、此云浮儺謎 punamye Funame (name) xiv) 哭女、此云儺倶謎 nakumye Nakume (name) Thus, there are no examples of this phonogram used to represent be. This phonogram was mainly used to represent mye, as 11 of the 14 examples attest. The only clue we have that 謎 is to be read bye in (xi) is that the preface to this poem has the name 山邊小島子 YAMAbye KWOSIMAKWO. Likewise, (xii) is prefaced with the name 韋那部眞根 WinaBYE MANE.

部

OJ: bye OC: *bôʔ LH: boʔ EMC: bəuʔ GO: bu KN: fo NOM: bộ, bõ SV: bộ SK: pwu Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind what appears to be a peninsular distinction made according a military standard, which may have been later introduced to Japan and became a designation for industrial groups employed by powerful scions. Thus, the reader thinks of OJ pye. Ōno (1977:25) proclaims that there is little evidence that this was bye, so he sees it as transcribing pye. The received tradition reads it bye, so I have followed that tradition. While examples in the early texts use 部 almost exclusively for names of groups, Man’yōshū contains a few examples that are more interesting. MYS 258 KADUKI SURU Those diving birds, 潜為 WOSI TO TAKABYE TO the mandarin duck and teal, 鴦与高部共 PUNE NO UPE NI SUMU are living on the boats. 船上住

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D 大 太

OJ: da OC: *dâs LH: dɑh, das EMC: dâih GO: dai KN: tai NOM: đại SV: đại, thái SK: ta, tay, thay Usage / History: See the same character under the heading of ta. OJ: da OC: *thâs LH: thɑs EMC: thâih GO: tai KN: tai NOM: thái SV: thái SK: thay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. For an explanation of the problems with distinguishing between 大 and 太 see the explanation under 大 OJ: ta. This phonogram is prevalent in writings on mokkan, but often it is a logogram to represent PUTO or OPO. Examples where it is a phonogram include: 間人宿祢斐 太万呂 PASIPITO Sukune Pwidamaro (unnumbered tablet). This phonogram appears four times in the liturgies: 許許太久乃罪乎 kokodaku no TUMI wo ‘(We establish as heavenly sins) these many sins…’ (NT 10). The graph 太 is seen twice in Kojiki: 阿太之別 ada [NO] WAKE (KG), and 品太天皇 pomuda [NO] SUMYERA [NO] MIKOTO (KG). This graph is also used twice in the poetry of Nihon shoki. NSK 46 于磨臂苔能 umapito no I tell you plainly, 多菟屢虚等太氐 taturu kotodate with a nobleman’s promise— 于磋由豆流 usayuduru she is only 多曳麼菟餓務珥 tayema tugamu ni a spare bowstring for the time 奈羅陪氐毛餓望 narabete mo ga mo when the one I have breaks. This phonogram also appears in the Bussoku stele poems four times. BSS 2 弥蘇知阿麻利 miswoti amari The person who is complete 布多都乃加多知 putatu no katati with the thirty-two marks 夜蘇久佐等 yaswokusa to and the eighty types of merits 曾太礼留比止乃 sodareru pito no at the place where the footprints 布美志阿止々己呂 pumisi ato tokoro have been trod— 麻礼尓母阿留可毛 mare nimo aru kamo how rare these are! In Man’yōshū 太 is the main graph used to transcribe da: 伊久太母 ikuda mo (MYS 804) “no matter how much...”; 多 太 爾 tada ni (MYS 809) “directly”; 己太知 kodati (MYS 867) “clump of trees.” MYS 2732 At the bay of Sada where 奥波 OKITUNAMI the waves of the offing 邊浪之来縁 pyeNAMI NO KIYORU and waves of the shore crash— 左太能浦之 sada no URA NO

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此左太過而 KONO sada SUGWITE if this opportunity passes NOTI KWOPWIkamo will I long for you afterward? 後将戀可聞 The cursive form of 太 became hiragana た.

陁

騨 娜

OJ: da OC: draiʔ LH: ḍiaiʔ EMC: ḍjeʔ GO: da KN: ta NOM: đà SV: đà SK: tha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. There appears to be some textual confusion between 陁 and 陀, but I have grouped all examples here under 陁. This usage appears once in the Jōgūki fragment, in a rather rare annotational note: 養育 比陁斯奉之云 where the graphs 養育 ‘to raise’ are read pidasi. This phonogram appears on a variety of excavated wooden tablets, many times to represent the chant 南無阿弥陀仏 namu amida butu (MKK 3:54, MKK 15:14). This phonogram also appears in Kojiki, and is the main graph used to represent da: 淤母陁流神 the deity Omodaru (KG), and 葦那陀迦神 the deity ASInadaka (KG). KK 111 阿佐遲波良 asadipara Over the fields of sparse reeds 袁陁爾袁須疑弖 wodani wo sugwite and over the knolls 毛毛豆多布 mwomwodutapu how the ring of the bell 奴弖由良久母 nute yurakumo sounds far off— 於岐米久良斯母 okime kurasi mo it seems that Okime has come. As noted under ta this phonogram is primarily used to represent ta, but there are several examples of this phonogram used for da in Nihon shoki, attesting to the various ages of information included in the work: 徳陁 Tokuda (NG), 徳陁 古 Tokudakwo (NG), and 阿彌陁 amida (NG). This is one of the primary graphs used in Man’yōshū to transcribe da. MYS 191 KEkoroMO wo When it is time for hunting 毛許呂裳遠 and we wear our down robes, 春冬片設而 TOKI KATAMAKETE IDEMASIsi on the great plain of Uda 幸之 where we have gone out 宇陁乃大野者 uda no OPONWO PA OMOPOYEmu KAMO I will likely be reminded of you. 所念武鴨 OJ: da OC: *dâi or dân LH: dɑi or dan EMC: dâ or dân GO: da, dan KN: ta, tan NOM: NA SV: NA SK: tha, than Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This graph appears in the various Taihō and Yōrō censuses to write the place name Hida 飛騨 pida. This same usage for Hida also appears in Nihon shoki and Shoku Nihongi. OJ: da LH: NA NOM: na, nạ

OC: NA EMC: na LMC: nda GO: na KN: da SV: nã SK: na

37

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This graph is used three times in the annotational notes, and 13 times in the poetry in Nihon shoki: 裸伴、此云阿箇 播娜我等母 ‘sword with no sheath’ is read akapadaga tomo” (NG), 葉田此云 簸娜 “ ‘(The place name) leaf-field’ is read pada” (NG). NSK 120 瀰儺度能 minatwo no Sailing down the river 于之裒能矩娜利 usipo no kudari to the harbor, 于那倶娜梨 una kudari riding out to sea my mind 于之廬母倶例尼 usiro mo kure ni darkens even with the past— 飫岐底舸庾舸武 okite ka yukamu must I leave you and sail on?

嚢

儾

OJ: da OC: *nâŋ LH: nɑŋ EMC: nâŋ LMC: ndaŋ GO: nau KN: dau NOM: nang SV: nang SK: nang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It is only used once in Nihon shoki, in the following poem: NSK 97 莒母唎矩能 kumoriku no In the hidden land, 簸覩細能哿波庚 patuse no kapa yu the bamboo flowing down 那峨礼倶屢 nagarekuru the Hatsuse River— 駄開能 take no wonderful, flourishing bamboo 以矩美娜開余嚢開 ikumidake yodake with long joints and leaves. OJ: da OC: *nâŋ LH: nɑŋ EMC: nâŋh LMC: ndâŋh GO: nau KN: dau NOM: NA SV: náng SK: nang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears 14 times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 7 于儾能 uda no In the high 多伽機珥 takakwi ni fort of Uda 辭藝和奈破蘆 sigi wana paru a trap for snipe I set, 和餓末菟夜 wa ga matu ya and as I waited— 辭藝破佐夜羅孺 sigi pa sayarazu it did not catch a snipe. 伊殊區波辭 isukupasi What it did capture 區旎羅佐夜離 kudira sayari were two intrepid hawks. 固奈瀰餓 kwonami ga If your first wife 那居波佐麼 na kopasaba asks for a side dish, 多智曾麼能 tatisoba no cut her slices of meat 未廼那鷄句塢 mwi no nakyeku wo with almost no flesh— 居氣辭被惠禰 kokwisipwiwene barren, like the hawthorn. 宇破奈利餓 upanari ga If your favorite wife 那居波佐麼 na kopasaba asks for a side dish, 伊智佐介幾 iti sakakwi cut her many slices of meat 38

未廼於朋鷄句塢 居氣儾被惠禰

談 弾

傳

殿 代

mwi no opokyeku wo kokwidapwiwene

like the hisakaki fruit— blessed in abundance.

OJ: dami OC: *lâm LH: dam EMC: dâm GO: dan KN: tan NOM: đàm SV: đàm SK: tam Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears once in Izumo fudoki in the name 美談 Midami. OJ: dani OC: *dân LH: dan EMC: dân GO: damu KN: tan NOM: đàn, đạn, rờn SV: đàn SK: than Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 3119 ASU YORI PA I will go on my journey 従明日者 KWOPWI TUTU YUKAMU tomorrow while I yearn for you. 戀乍将去 KOYOPI dani Even if only tonight 今夕弾 PAYAKU YOPI YORI hurry and untie your cord 速初夜従 PIMWO TOKE WAGIMWO before dawn, my beloved. 綏解我妹 OJ: de OC: *dron LH: ḍyan EMC: ḍjwän GO: demu KN: ten NOM: truyền, chuyện SV: truyền, truyện SK: cyen Usage / History: This graph belongs to the EJS, and appears only in Kojiki: 比羅傳 pirade ‘flat plate’ (KG), and 訶那傳 kanade ‘dancing with hand movements’ (KG). KK 105 意富美夜能 opomiya no The edge over there 袁登都波多傳 wototu patade of the great palace 須美加多夫祁理 sumi katabukyeri is tilting to one side. OJ: de OC: *təns LH: denh EMC: dienh GO: demu KN: ten NOM: điện, đền,Çiếng SV: điện, điên, điến, SK: tyen Usage / History: This graph belongs to the EJS. It appears once in Kojiki, in a note: 訓垂云志 殿 “The reading for ‘hang down’ is side” (KG). OJ: de OC: *lə̂kh LH: dəh EMC: dậih GO: dai KN: tai NOM: đại, đời SV: đại SK: toy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. One of the oldest datable examples appears in the Chikuzen Census of 702: 宇代賣 Udemye, 蘇代賣 Swodemye, and 刀良代賣 Tworademye. As the graph 代 was also popular as a kungana 39

for siro, the interpretation of these names is of some debate, however, 蘇代賣 likely means ‘woman of the sleeves’ (cf. Ōno 1962:590). There is one example of this in Shoku Nihongi: 財部宇代 TAKARABYE Ude (770.7.18). This phonogram also appears a number of times in Man’yōshū. MYS 228 IMWO GA NA PA The name of the maiden 妹之名者 TIYO ni NAGAREMU will extend for a 1000 reigns; 千代尓将流 PIMYESIMA NO until treemoss grows down 姫嶋之 KWOMATU GA URE ni from the tops of the young 子松之末尓 KOKE MUSU made ni pine trees on Hime Island. 蘿生萬代尓

堤

OJ: de OC: *dê LH: de EMC: diei LMC: tiaj GO: tai KN: tei NOM: đê SV: đê, đề SK: tyey Usage / History: See the same phonogram under te.

提

OJ: de LH: teh, de EMC: tieih, diei NOM: đê, đề, chề SV: đề, thì Usage / History: See the same phonogram under te.

低

田

OC: *têʔ or dê GO: dai KN: tei SK: tyey

OJ: de OC: *tî LH: tei EMC: tiei GO: tai KN: tei NOM: đê SV: đê SK: tye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. There is also the phonogram 凰, but I adhere to the view that this is a variant of 低. This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū roughly 24 times. MYS 3704 毛美知婆能 mwomitiba no I came outside, drawn by the beautiful red hue 知良布山邊由 tirapu YAMAbye yu 許具布祢能 kogu pune no of the boat rowing from around 尓保比尓米低低 nipopi ni medete the edge of the mountain where 伊低低伎尓家里 idete kinikyeri the autumn leaves are scattering. OJ: de OC: *lîn LH: den EMC: dien GO: demu KN: ten NOM: điền, ruộng SV: điền SK: tyen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only in Man’yōshū. I have found five examples. MYS 4330 奈尓波都尓 nanipatu ni At the port of Naniwa 余曽比余曽比弖 yosopi yosopite I readied the ship for days— 氣布能比夜 kepu no pi ya is today the day I depart 40

伊田弖麻可良武 idete makaramu for my mission without 美流波々奈之尓 miru papa nasi ni Mother coming to see me off? There is also a poem in Man’yōshū where the final nasal of the Chinese reading of the character 田 appears to be used to introduce the nasal-initial of the next word: MYS 2400 Why do I long for you 伊田何 ide NANIKA so incredibly intensely 極太甚 kokoda PANAPADA that I almost lose my mind? 利心 TWOGOKORO NO USURU MADE OMOPU Surely it is 及失念 KWOPWI YUWE NI KOSO due to love. 戀故

弟

泥

OJ: de OC: *dîʔ LH: deiʔ EMC: dieiʔ LMC: tɦiaj GO: dai KN: tei NOM: đệ SV: đệ, đễ SK: tyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, though it only appears in Nihon shoki. It appears once in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 16 宇磨佐開 umasake What sweet sake! 瀰和能等能々 miwa no tono no How we wish to return 阿佐妬珥毛 asatwo nimo to our homes this morning, 伊弟氐由介那 idete yukana going through the gate 瀰和能等能渡塢 miwa no tono two wo of this, the Miwa Shrine. OJ: de OC: *nî LH: nei EMC: niei LMC: ndiaj GO: nai KN: dei NOM: nệ, nè, nể, nề SV: nê, nệ SK: ni Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears seven times in the poetry in Nihon shoki. NSK 108 武舸都烏爾 mukatuwo ni On the peak over there 陀底屢制囉我 tateru sera ga that person standing 儞古泥擧曾 nikwode koso with soft hands— 倭我底烏騰羅毎 wa ga te wo torame he should take my hand. 拕我佐基泥 ta ga sakwide These dry, cracked hands, 作基泥曾母野 sakwide so moya who would take my hand 倭我底騰羅須謀野 wa ga te torasu mo ya in his own hands? This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, appearing roughly 53 times, with all examples in the last four books of the work, aside from two usages in one poem in Book 6. MYS 1031 OKUREnisi Thoughts yearning for 後尓之 人乎思久 PITO wo SINWOPAku the people left behind— at the Cape of Shide I hang 四泥能埼 side no SAKI

41

木綿取之泥而 YUPU TORI sideTE a mulberry paper offering 好住跡其念 SAKIKU TO SO OMOPU praying for their safety. Interestingly, the poet makes a visual connection with side, the name of a cape, and side, the infinitive of the verb sidu ‘to hang an offering.’

埿

涅

OJ: de OC: *nî LH: nei EMC: niei LMC: ndiaj GO: nai KN: dei NOM: nệ, nè, nể, nề SV: nê, nệ SK: ni Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This is a very rare usage, appearing in Nihon shoki only once in the annotational notes. It is also used once to represent ne (which see). 隈、此云矩磨埿 “ ‘corner’ is read kumade” (NSG). The editors of the NKBT text have this as 矩磨泥 kumade (Ienaga et al. 1986.1:141), but the editors of the Shōgakkan edition (Kojima et al. 2002, 1:118) have 矩磨埿, which I have followed. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, appearing 21 times, but all confined to Book 20. MYS 4302 夜麻夫伎波 yamabuki pa Let us nurture 奈埿都々於保佐牟 nadetutu oposamu the yellow rose with care. 安里都々母 aritutu mo You have decorated 伎美伎麻之都々 kimi kimasitutu your hair with a flower 可射之多里家利 kazasitarikyeri as you continue unabated. OJ: de OC: *nît LH: net EMC: niet LMC ndiat GO: neti KN: detu NOM: nát, nít, nét SV: nát, niết SK: nal, nyel Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears eight times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 43 智破揶臂等 tipayabito Very powerful, 于旎能和多利珥 udi no watari ni those catalpa trees 和多利涅珥 wataride ni standing by the bank 多氐屢 tateru of the ferry. 阿豆瑳由瀰摩由瀰 adusa yumi mayumi To make a true catalpa bow, 伊枳羅牟苔 ikiramu to I thought in my heart 虚々呂破望閉耐 kokoro pa mopedo to cut down a catalpa tree. 伊斗羅牟苔 itworamu to I thought in my heart 虚々呂破望閉耐 kokoro pa mopedo to hold one of those trees. 望苔弊破 motopye pa I thought of you 枳瀰烏於望臂涅 kimi wo omopide at the trunk of the tree. 須慧弊破 suwepye pa I remembered you 伊暮烏於望比涅 imwo wo omopide when I looked up at the crown. 伊羅那鷄區 iranakyeku I felt such sorrow 曾虚珥於望比 soko ni omopi thinking about you there.

42

伽那志鷄區 虚々珥於望臂 伊枳羅儒層區屢 阿豆瑳由瀰摩由瀰

耐 遲

kanasikyeku koko ni omopi ikirazu so kuru adusa yumi mayumi

I felt such sadness thinking about you here. I left with out cutting down the tree for the true catalpa bow.

OJ: de OC: *nə̂h LH: nəh EMC: nậih LMC: ndəj GO: nai, nou KN: tai, tou NOM: nài, nại SV: nại SK: nay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears only twice in annotational notes in Nihon shoki: 葉盤此云毘羅耐 “ ‘Flat plate’ this is read pirade” (NSG), 可美真手此云于魔詩莽耐 “ ‘Umasimade’ this is read umasimade” (NSG). The phonogram 耐 is also used to represent do (which see). OJ: di OC: *drih LH: ḍih EMC: ḍi GO: di KN: ti NOM: chầy, trì SV: chì, trì SK: ci Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. Several peninsular names are written with this graph in Nihon shoki: 佐利遲 Saridi, and 久遲布礼 Kudipure. The first name is the name of the King of Silla, known as 原宗 (EMC ŋjwɐn-tsuoŋ, Korean wen-cwong). There is speculation that sari is simply a Silla reading of 原 ‘field,’ but I would rather view this as related to MK cal ‘properly, correctly.’ Scholars also speculate that Kudipure is a variant form of the name 居柒夫 kɨətshit-buə, who was a high-ranking official at court. It is quite possible that these two representations refer to the same person. The key here is that the Shoki editors relied on Paekche records for the transcription, meaning that the usages are Paekche versions of the Silla names. This phonogram appears once in the liturgies: 屋船久久遅命 (是木霊也 “YAPUNE Kukudi [NO] MIKOTO (this is the spirit of the trees)…” (NT 8). This phonogram appears on several mokkan: 宇遅部 UdiBYE (MK 1308), 阿遅一斗二升 “one PAKWO and two MASU (about eight bushels) of adi ‘saurel fish’…” (MK 1650), 久遅良 kudira (MK 3015), which is either a name or the word for whale. This phonogram also appears in the Suiko era corpus: 布遲波良己等布斯郎 女 Pudipara Kotopusi IRATUMYE. This phonogram appears in a very old poem preserved in Jōgū shōtoku hōō tesisetsu: 美加弥乎須 mikami wosu Mount Tabasami 多婆佐美夜麻乃 tabasami yama no that rules from above; 阿遲加気尓 adikake ni alas, I stood there 比止乃麻乎之志 pito no mawosisi in the shade of the aji, 和何於保支美波母 wa ga opokimi pamo begging our master’s return. This phonogram 遲 is the standard graph in Kojiki to represent di: 宇麻志 阿斯訶備比古遲神 ‘the deity Umasi Asikabwi Pikwodi’ (KG), 大穴牟遲神 OPOANAmudi KAMWI ‘the deity Ōanamuji’ (KG), 宇摩志麻遲命 Umasimadi (KG), and 品遲部 PomudiBYE (KG).

43

KK 50 知波夜夫流 tipayaburu Endowed with power 宇遲能和多理迩 udi no watari ni you potent people 佐袁斗理迩 sawo twori ni who hold the staff 波夜祁牟比登斯 payakyemu pito si at the ferry of Uji— 和賀毛古迩許牟 wa ga mwokwo ni komu come to my rescue! There are only a few examples of 遲 in Nihon shoki: 品遲 Pomudi (NSG), 多遲 Tadi (NGS), 多遲比 Tadipi (NGS). This phonogram is used sparingly in Man’yōshū, appearing 12 times: MYS 801 比佐迦多能 pisakata no Far off and distant 阿麻遲波等保斯 amadi pa toposi the road to heaven is remote. 奈保々々尓 napo napo ni So obediently 伊弊尓可弊利提 ipye ni kapyerite return home 奈利乎斯麻佐尓 nari wo simasa ni and do your work. This phonogram also appears once in a poem from the Footprints of the Buddha sequence. BSS 13 乎遲奈伎夜 wodinaki ya There are so many people 和礼尓於止礼留 ware ni otoreru who are weaker than I! 比止乎於保美 pito wo opomi To ferry them across the gulf, 和多佐牟多米止 watasamu tame to I have respectfully 宇都志麻都礼利 utusimatureri copied down these things. 都加閇麻都礼利 tukapematureri I have respectfully served.

治

OJ: di OC: *drə(h) LH: ḍiə(h) EMC: ḍɨ(h) GO: di KN: ti NOM: chệ, trị SV: trì, trị SK: chi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The earliest datable example of this usage appears in the Taihō census (702): 多治麻賣 Tadimamye, and 宇治部 UdiBYE. This graph is used in Kojiki and Nihon shoki: 阿治志貴高日子根神 the deity Adisikwi TAKAPIKWONE (KG), 丹 波 能 阿 治 佐 波 毘 賣 Tanipa no Adisapabimye (KG), 多治比之柴垣宮 The Tadipi SIBAGAKI Palace (KG), and 多治比君 Tadipi KIMI (KG), 品治 Pomudi (NSG), 邑治 MURAdi (NSG). Names like 宇 治 Udi (700.3.10) and 品 治 部 公 嶋 麻 呂 PumudiBYE KIMISIMA Maro (767.1.8) appear in Shoku Nihongi. The phonogram 治 is the main graph used to transcribe di in Man’yōshū: MYS 3611 於保夫祢尓 opobune ni In the great ship 麻可治之自奴伎 makadi sizinuki the man in the moon 宇奈波良乎 unapara wo rows across the plain of the sea, 許藝弖天和多流 kogidete wataru his true rudder TUKWI PITO wotokwo plunging into the water. 月人乎登祜

44

地

尼

泥

旎

OJ: di OC: *draih LH: dih EMC: dih GO: di KN: ti NOM: địa SV: địa SK: ti Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. A few examples appear in Kojiki: 宇比 地邇神 ‘the deity Upidini’ (KG), 意富斗能地神 ‘the deity Opotwonodi’ (KG). This phonogram also appears in some Nara era documents: 加地 Kadi. Man’yōshū uses this phonogram once: MYS 4220 古之地乎左之氐 kwosidi wo sasite …from the day we parted, 波布都多能 papu tuta no like vines down different paths, 和可礼尓之欲理 wakarenisi ywori I headed for the Koshi Road. OJ: di OC: *nri LH: ṇi EMC: ṇi LMC: ndri GO: ni KN: di NOM: nầy, ni, nơi, SV: ni, nậc SK: ni, nil Usage / History: This graph belongs to the CBS. Miyake (1999:791) reconstructs 泥 as LMC ndre, suggesting that 尼 should also have been ndri. I have modified Pulleyblank’s LMC to reflect this. This graph appears in Nihon shoki in three annotational notes: 彦舅此云比 古尼 “ ‘Prince-uncle’ is read pikwodi” (NSG), 埿土此云于毘尼 “ ‘Mud’ is read upidi” (NSG), 沙土此云須毘尼 “ ‘Muddy sand’ is read supidi” (NSG). Interestingly, when this phonogram is used in poetry it is used with its EMC reading of ni (which see). OJ: di OC: *nî or *nîh LH: nei or neih EMC: niei LMC: ndiaj GO: nai KN: dei NOM: nê, nệ, nè, nể SV: nê, nệ SK: ni Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. I have followed Miyake (1999:791) and reconstruct LMC as ndiaj. This graph appears in three poems in the beta section of Nihon shoki’s poetry. Below is one example: NSK 31 阿布瀰能瀰 apumi no mi We captured at Uji 齋多能和多利珥 seta no watari ni the birds diving for food 介豆區苔利 kaduku tori at the Seta Ferry 多那伽瀰須疑氐 tanakami sugwite on the Sea of Afumi 于泥珥等邏倍莵 udi ni torapetu when we passed over Tanakami. OJ: di LH: ṇe NOM: NA

EMC: ṇjeh LMC: ndeyh SV: nỷ

45

OC: *nrê GO: ni KN: di SK: ni

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears in three beta section poems in Nihon shoki. NSK 42 知破椰臂苔 tipaya pito Endowed with power 于旎能和多利珥 udi no watari ni you potent people 佐烏刀利珥 sawo twori ni who hold the staff. 破揶鷄務臂苔辭 payakyemu pito si at the ferry of Uji— 和餓毛胡珥虚務 wa ga mwokwo ni komu come rescue me, companions!

膩

道 路 縢

OJ: di OC: *nris LH: ṇis EMC: ṇih LMC: ndrih GO: ni KN: di NOM: NA SV: nhị SK: ni Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. I have followed Miyake (1999:791) who reconstructs this as LMC ndrih. This phonogram appears six times in annotational notes, and twice in the alpha section of Nihon shoki poetry: 鞍橋此 云矩羅膩 “ ‘The name Kurazi’ is called kuradi” (NSG), and 味經此云阿膩賦 “ ‘The name Ajifu’ is called adipu” (NSG). NSK 107 伊波能杯儞 ipa no pe ni On top of a rock 古佐屢渠梅野倶 kwosaru kome yaku a cute monkey cooks rice. 渠梅多儞母 kome danimo Come and eat the rice 多礙底騰裒囉栖 tagete toporase then go on through, 歌麻之々能烏膩 kamasisi no wodi you old goat. OJ: di LH: douʔ EMC: dâuʔ NOM: đạo, dạo SV: đáo, đạo Usage / History: See the same phonogram under OJ ti.

OC: *lûʔ GO: dau KN: tau SK: two

OJ: di OC: *râkh LH: lah EMC: luoh GO: ro KN: ro NOM: lộ, trò SV: lộ SK: rwo Usage / History: This is a kungana, where 路 ‘road’ suggests to the mind OJ ti ‘road.’ The reading of di is the prenasalized version. There is one main toponym in which this usage consistently appears: 淡路 APADI, the island of Awaji. Examples are also found in Nihon shoki: 淡路 APADI island of Awaji (NSG), and 磯齒 津路 SIPATUDI the road to Sumiyoshi Shrine (NSG). OJ: do LH: dəŋ NOM: NA

OC: *lə̂ŋ GO: dou KN: tou SK: tung

EMC: dəŋ SV: đằng

46

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in the name of a Paekche official 恩率彌縢利 Medori of the third rank, preserved in the record of Keitai in Nihon shoki. This phonogram appears in Kojiki twice in the name 淤 縢 山 津 見 神 OdoYAMATUMI [NO] KAMWI ‘the deity Odoyamatsumi’ (KG), and the word 曾 富縢 sopodo ‘scarecrow’ (KG). This phonogram appears fairly frequently in Man’yōshū. MYS 135 ARISWO niso Out on the desolate rocky shore 荒礒尓曽 TAMAMO PA OPOru gemweed is growing. 玉藻者生流 TAMAMO NASU And like that gemweed 玉藻成 NABIKENEsi KWO wo she nestles next to me sleeping, 靡寐之兒乎 PUKA MIRU no and like deep young seeweed 深海松乃 PUKAMEDE OMOPEdo I think deeply about her, 深目手思騰 SANESI YWO PA but there are not many nights 左宿夜者 IKUDA mo ARAZU left that we will spend together. 幾毛不有 PAPU tuta no And like creeping vine 延都多乃 WAKAREsi KUREBA as I have come to part ways 別之来者 KIMO MUKAPU which pains my breast, 肝向 KOKORO wo ITAMI like the liver facing the heart, 心乎痛 OMOPITUTU and as I yearn for her 念乍 KAPYERIMI SUREdo I turn back and look, 顧為騰 OPOBUNE NO but I can barely even see 大舟之 WATARI no YAMA NO my wife waving 渡乃山之 MWOMIDIBA no her sleeves good-bye amidst 黄葉乃 TIRI NO MAGAPI ni the scattering autumn leaves 散之乱尓 IMWO GA SWODE from Mount Ferry, 妹袖 SAYA nimo MIYEZU which is like a great ship. 清尓毛不見

杼

OJ: do OC: *draʔ LH: ḍiɑʔ EMC: ḍjwoʔ GO: dyo KN: tyo NOM: trữ SV: chữ SK: cye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, appearing as early as the Mino Census of 702, where the name 阿杼彌刀御賣 Adomitwo MImye appears. This graph, while quite prominent in Kojiki, a work that strives to keep to and do separate orthographically, was not very popular in general society. The graph 杼 never appears in any of the over 50,000 mokkan that have been cataloged. This phonogram appears in Kojiki in examples like: 袁 登 賣 杼 母 wotomyedomo ‘the maidens’ (KG), 知杼理 tidori ‘plovers’ (KG), and 伊呂杼 irodo ‘siblings of the same mother’ (KG). KK 17 阿米都都 ametutu Like a candy-colored wagtail, 知杼理麻斯登登 tidori masitoto or a plover, or a bunting 那杼佐祁流斗米 nado sakyeru twome why the tattooed, sharp eyes?

47

I have found only three examples of this phonogram in Nihon shoki, all in the same name: 土師連富杼 PAzi MURAZI Podo (NSG). This graph is used fairly frequently in Man’yōshū: MYS 846 可須美多都 kasumi tatu Mist rises on this 那我岐波流卑乎 nagaki parupi wo long spring day— 可謝勢例杼 kazaseredo I have stuck a sprig of 伊野那都可子岐 iya natukasiki plum blossom in my hair, but 烏梅能波那可毛 ume no pana kamo how I long for those plums.

騰 藤

特

耐

OJ: do OC: *lə̂ŋ LH: dəŋ EMC: dəŋ GO: dou KN: tou NOM: NA SV: đằng SK: tung Usage / History: See the explanation of this phonogram under 縢 do. OJ: do OC: *lə̂ŋ LH: dəŋ EMC: dəŋ GO: dou KN: tou NOM: đằng SV: đằng SK: tung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears twice in Man’yōshū. MYS 325 ASUKAGAPA Like the rising mist 明日香河 KAPA yodo SARAZU that does not leave the shallows 川余藤不去 TATIKWIRI no of the Asuka River— 立霧乃 OMOPISUGU BEKI this longing is not something 念應過 孤悲尓不有國 kwopwi ni ARANAKUNI that will fade from my memory. OJ: do OC: * də̂k LH: dək EMC: dək LMC: tɦəək GO: doku KN: toku NOM: đực, đựợc SV: đặc SK: thuk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 4398 OPOKIMI no In awe at the august decree of 大王乃 美己等可之古美 mikoto kasikwomi the great lord (dispatching me), 都麻和可礼 tuma wakare I am saddened by having to 可奈之久波安礼特 kanasiku pa aredo part with my spouse, MASURAWO NO but I arouse my feelings 大夫 KOKORO puri okosi as a brave man…. 情布里於許之 OJ: do LH: nəh NOM: NA

OC: *nə̂h EMC: nậih LMC: ndəj GO: nai, nou KN: tai, tou SV: nại SK: nay

48

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. I have followed Miyake (1999) in providing the LMC with a dental to account for the change in Shoki. This graph is used six times in the poetry. NSK 4 憶企都茂播 okitu mo pa It comes to the shore 陛爾播譽戻耐母 pye ni pa yoredomo the seaweed in the offing; 佐禰耐據茂 sanedoko mo but my wife comes not— 阿黨播怒介茂譽 atapanu kamo yo refusing to give me a bed. 播磨都智耐理譽 pamatu tidori yo Ah, the plovers on the beach!

迺

頭

OJ: do OC: *nə̂ʔ LH: nəʔ EMC: nậiʔ LMC: ndəj GO: nai KN: dai NOM: NA SV: nãi SK: nay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. I have followed Miyake (1999) in providing the LMC with a dental to account for the change in Shoki. This graph appears six times in Nihon shoki. NSK 47 虚呂望虚曾 koromo koso It may be pleasing 赴多幣茂豫耆 putapye mo yoki to wear two layers of robes, 瑳用迺虚烏 saywodoko wo but how appalling that you 那羅陪務耆瀰破 narabemu kimi pa would put two women’s 介辭古耆呂介茂 kasikwokiro kamo sleeping places side by side. OJ: du OC: *dô LH: do EMC: dəu GO: du KN: tu NOM: đầu SV: đầu SK: twu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. Relics from the Koguryŏ kingdom preserve the following name on the Moturu Epitaph: 牟頭婁 Mudurwo, the name of a person who apparently lived in the era of King Kwangkaytho in fourth century Koguryŏ. The Kwangkaytho stele also contains the name 勾牟客頭 KumukakVdu. Nihon shoki also includes two names of people from the peninsula written with 頭: 大市頭 Tasidu (NSG), and 頭霧唎耶陛 Dumuriyapye (in initial position this may actually be Tumuriyapye, NSG). This phonogram appears three times in the liturgies: 皇御孫之命乃美頭乃御舎仕奉弖 SUME MIMA [NO] MIKOTO no midu no MIARAKA TUKAPEMATURIte “serving at the vibrant august palace of the imperial grandson…” (NT 10). This phonogram is also used twice in the same poem. NSK 20 椰句毛多菟 yakumwo tatu Endowed with power 伊頭毛多鷄流餓 idumwo takyeru ga the hilt of the Izumo 波鷄流多知 pakyeru tati warrior’s sword 菟頭邏佐波磨枳 tudura sapa maki is indeed magnificient— 佐微那辭珥阿波禮 samwi nasi ni apare sadly it has no blade. 49

This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, where it is one of a number of phonograms used to represent du. MYS 3626 多都我奈伎 tadu ga naki Headed for the reeds, 安之敝乎左之弖 asipye wo sasite the cranes cry out 等妣和多類 tobiwataru as they fly overhead. 安奈多頭多頭志 ana tadutadusi How lonely it is, 比等里佐奴礼婆 pitori sanureba to sleep alone.

豆

OJ: du OC: *dôh LH: doh EMC: dəuh GO: du KN: tu NOM: đậu SV: đậu SK: twu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. This graph also was used for the voiceless counterpart tu (which see), but the earliest known example of this graph in the Suiko era corpus appears to transcribe du. The following is from a poem preserved in Jōgū shōtoku hōō teisetsu: 伊我留我乃 ikaruga no In Ikaruga springs water from the fountain of Tomi. 止美能井乃美豆 tomi no WI no midu 伊加奈久尓 ikanakuni If I had known she could not 多義弖麻之母乃 tagete masimono live without that water, I would have let her drink some. 止美乃井能美豆 tomi no WI no midu This phonogram appears a number of times in the liturgies: 皇御孫命能宇 豆乃幣帛乎 SUME MIMA [NO] MIKOTO no udu no MITEGURA wo “The exalted offerings of the Imperial Grandson…” (NT 1). This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan: 伊 豆 国 Idu Province (MK 2247), 出 雲 評 支 豆 支 里 IDUMWO Village, Kiduki Hamlet (MK 157), and 弖豆支女 TedukiMYE (MK 204). This is the prinicipal phonogram to transcribe du in Kojiki: 美豆良 midura ‘male hair style’ (KG), 意富加牟豆美命 Opokamudumi [NO] MIKOTO (KG), and 和豆良比能宇斯能神 Wadurapi no Usi no KAMWI (KG). KK 23 夜都米佐須 yatume sasu The eight buds come out— 伊豆毛多祁流賀 idumwo takyeru ga the hilt of the Izumo 波祁流多知 pakyeru tati warrior’s sword 都豆良佐波麻岐 tudura sapa maki is indeed magnificient: 佐味那志爾阿波禮 samwi nasi ni apare sadly it has no blade. This phonogram is used three times in the annotational notes, and 28 times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 希見此云梅豆邏志 “ ‘a rare sight’ is read medurasi” (NSG), 禹豆麻佐 (the family name of) Udumasa (NSG). NSK 75 曾能阿武嗚 sono amu wo A dragonfly appears 婀枳豆波野倶譬 akidu paya kupi and devours the horsefly. 波賦武志謀 papu musi mo Even the crawling insects 飫裒枳瀰儞麼都羅符 opokimi ni maturapu continue to serve their lord.

50

儺我柯陀播 na ga kata pa I shall leave a tribute 於柯武 okamu for you, 婀岐豆斯麻野麻登 akidusima yamato Akizushima Yamato. This is the principal phonogram to represent du in Man’yōshū. It appears in toponyms in Man’yōshū like 伊豆嶋 Idu Island, and in phrases such as 東俗語 云可豆思賀能麻末能弖胡 “In the eastern language she is called kadusika no mama no tegwo,” a legendary name for the daughter of Kadusika Mama. Here the apparent reference is that in the eastern language ‘daughter’ is called tegwo ‘hand-child.’ MYS 575 KUSAKAYE NO Like the cranes of the reeds 草香江之 IRIYE ni ASARU searching for food at the inlet 入江二求食 ASITADU no of Kusakae wetlands, 蘆鶴乃 痛多豆多頭思 ANA tadutadusi how forlorn I am, TOMO NASI ni site having no friends. 友無二指天 This graph also appears five times in the Bussoku stele poems: BBS 8 己乃美阿止乎 kono miato wo Seeking and searching 多豆祢毛止米弖 tatunemotomete this august footprint 与伎比止乃 yoki pito no to the land where 伊麻須久尓々波 imasu kuni nipa the righteous person resides; 和礼毛麻胃弖牟 ware mo mawitemu I would also venture there, 毛呂毛呂乎爲弖 moromoro wo wite leading the masses.

逗

圖

OJ: du OC: NA LH: doh EMC: dəuh LMC: tɦəw GO: du KN: tou NOM: đậu SV: đậu SK: twu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, though it appears only in Nihon shoki, six times in the poetry: NSK 95 婀嗚儞與志 awo ni yosi In the valley of 乃樂能婆娑摩儞 nara no pasama ni the blue hills of Nara, 斯々貳暮能 sisizi mono like beasts of prey, he lies 瀰豆矩陛御暮梨 miduku pyegomori hidden by the banks— 瀰儺曾々矩 mina sosoku a large catch of tuna, 思寐能和倶吾嗚 sibi no wakugwo wo the young man, Shibi. 阿娑理逗那偉能古 asaridunawi no kwo Boars, do not try to find him! OJ: du OC: *dâ LH: dɑ EMC: duo LMC: tɦuə GO: du KN: to NOM: đồ SV: đồ SK: two Usage / History: See the same character under the heading of tu.

51

弩

砮 曇

土 度

OJ: du OC: *nâʔ LH: nɑʔ EMC: nuoʔ LMC: ndoʔ GO: no, nu KN: do NOM: nỗ, nỏ SV: nỗ SK: nwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. Miyake (1999:792) reconstructs LMC as ndoq (where -q represents a glottal stop). This graph appears only in one poem in Shoki’s poetry: NSK 1 夜句茂多兔 yakumo tatu Endowed with power, 伊弩毛夜覇餓岐 idumwo yapyegaki this two-fold Izumo fence— 兔磨語味爾 tuma gome ni to conceal ourselves, 夜覇餓枳都倶盧 yapyegaki tukuru I have built this two-fold fence. 贈廼夜覇餓岐廻 sono yapyegaki we Yes, within this two-fold fence! OJ: du OC: *nâ or nâʔ LH: nɑ, naʔ EMC: nuo, nuoʔ LMC: ndo GO: no, nu KN: do NOM: NA SV: nỗ SK: nwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and I follow Miyake (1999:792) in reconstructing the LMC with a prenasalized initial. This graph appears once in Nihon shoki, in the annotational notes of the record of Great King Jinmu: 珍彦 此云于砮毘故 “ ‘Rare prince’ this is read udu pikwo” (NSG). OJ: dumi, domo OC: NA LH: dəm EMC: dəm GO: domu KN: ton NOM: NA SV: đàm SK: tam Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears mainly in the family name 阿 曇 Adumi (KG, NSG). Nihon shoki also preserves the variant usage of 安曇 Adumi, where 安 may have been selected to indirectly show the prenasalization of nd-. A variety of excavated mokkan contain this name, written both as 阿曇 (MK 3559) and 安曇 (MK 96). Man’yōshū also contains the name 安曇 Adumi. This phonogram is also used to represent domo. One example appears in Izumo fudoki: 恵曇 Edomo. This same toponym is also written as 恵杼毛 Edomo. OJ: dwo OC: *thâʔ LH: thɑʔ EMC: thuoʔ GO: to KN: to NOM: thổ SV: thổ SK: thwo, twu Usage / History: See the explanation of this phonogram under two. OJ: dwo LH: dɑh NOM: độ, đo, đụ

EMC: duoh LMC: tɦuə SV: độ

52

OC: *dakh GO: do KN: to SK: two

Usage / History: See an explanation of this graph under two.

渡 奴

怒

OJ: dwo LH: dɑh EMC: duoh LMC: tɦuə NOM: đò SV: độ Usage / History: See an explanation of this graph under two.

OC: *dakh GO: do KN: to SK: two

OJ: dwo OC: *nâ LH: nɑ EMC: nuo LMC: ndɔ GO: nu KN: do NOM: nô, no, nó SV: nô SK: now Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and its usage to transcribe dwo is found only in Nihon shoki. Two examples appear in in one poem: NSK 28 烏智箇多能 wotikata no In the direction of the thinly 阿邏々麻菟麼邏 arara matubara wooded pine grove, 摩菟麼邏珥 matubara ni we will venture across 和多利喩祇氐 watari yukite that pine grove. 菟區喩彌珥 tukuyumi ni Using zelkova bows with 末利椰塢多具陪 mariya wo tagupe sounding arrowhead arrows, 宇摩比等破 umapito pa those of noble birth 于摩譬苔奴知野 umapito dwoti ya will fight with their own kind. 伊徒姑播茂 itwokwo pa mo Men with relatives 伊徒姑奴池 itwokwo dwoti will fight together. 伊裝阿波那 iza apana Commence the battle, 和例波 ware pa shall we? 多摩岐波屢 tamaki paru Minister Uti, 于池能阿層餓 uti no aso ga possessing a strong spirit, 波邏濃知波 paranuti pa does not have a stomach 異佐誤阿例椰 isagwo are ya made of pebbles. 伊裝阿波那 iza apana Commence the battle, 和例波 ware pa shall we? OJ: dwo OC: *nah or *naʔ LH: nɑh, naʔ EMC: nuoh LMC: ndɔ GO: nu KN: do NOM: nộ, nủa, nọ, nua SV: nộ SK: nwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears only in Nihon shoki: NSK 96 倭例以梨魔志 ware irimasi I went inside 阿都圖唎 atwo twori and held her leg, 都麼怒唎絁底 tumadworisite holding the edge of her hem, 魔倶囉圖唎 makura twori holding her pillow—

53

E 衣

愛

OJ: e OC: *ʔəi LH: *ʔɨi EMC: ʔɨj GO: e KN: i NOM: y, e, ì SV: y, ý SK: uy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram does not appear in Kojiki or Nihon shoki. The earliest datable example of this graph appears in the Lower Fusa Provincial Census of the Yōrō Census (721) in the name 衣比須 Ebisu. This phonogram appears in the name Emaro on a number of mokkan: 衣 万呂 (MK 415) and 衣末呂 (unnumbered tablet). It also appears in a rather long correspondence tablet: 衣知評平留五十戸旦波博士家 “…at the house of the Tanipa Professor (who resides in) the fifty household area of Pyeru of Eti District…” (MK 2). This phonogram also appears in the poetic sequence from the Bussoku sekika: BSS 3 与伎比止乃 yoki pito no I cannot see 麻佐米尓美祁牟 masame ni mikyemu even the footprints that 美阿止須良乎 miato sura wo the righteous men must 和礼波衣美須弖 ware pa emisute have seen before their eyes— 伊波尓惠利都久 ipa ni werituku engrave them on the rock. 多麻尓惠利都久 tama ni werituku Engrave them on the jewel. The graph 衣 also appears in Man’yōshū. MYS 95 WARE PA mo ya I have now obtained 吾者毛也 YASUMIKWO ETARI the hand of Yasumiko. 安見兒得有 MINABITO no I have now obtained 皆人乃 EGATE ni SU TO IPU the hand of Yasumiko 得難尓為云 YASUMIKWO etari that everyone said could not be had. 安見兒衣多利 The cursive form of this phonogram yields the kana form え. OJ: e OC: *ʔə̂ts LH: *ʔəs > ʔəh EMC: ʔəj LMC: ʔaj GO: ai KN: ai NOM: ái SV: ái SK: oy Usage / History: I place this graph in the LJS. Looking at the phonological background of this Chinese phonogram, it seems difficult to imagine that the reading of e came from the Chinese phonology, but it is more persuasive when one remembers that many /e/ in OJ originate from a diphthong (ai > e). As Mathias (1993) has already pointed out, among the ancient corpus, the sound e actually accounts for only 3% of all usages of OJ vowels. The existence of this phonogram is often found in old place names (愛比賣 Epimye・愛智郡 Eti District), but it is interesting to note that this phonogram never appears in the Suiko era corpus. This is likely due to 54

the low statistical frequency than anything else. The earliest datable example of this graph is found in a register from Yamashiro Province in 733: 愛賣 Emye. In Shōsōin documents the toponym Eti District appears: 愛知郡 and 愛智郡. There are only two examples of the phonogram 愛 in Shoki’s poetry: NSK 126 美曳之弩能 miyesinwo no The trout of Eshino, 曳之弩能阿喩 yesinwo no ayu beautiful Mieshino— 阿喩擧曾播 ayu koso pa It is good for 施麻倍母曳岐 simape mo yeki you trout to be near the island. 愛倶流之衞 e kurusiwe Ah, how painful 奈疑能母騰 nagwi no moto to be under the water-greens 制利能母騰 seri no moto to be under the water cress. 阿例播倶流之衞 are pa kurusiwe I am in pain.

亞

OJ: e OC: *ʔah or *ʔrâh LH: ʔah EMC: ʔaɨ > ʔɛ: GO: a KN: a NOM: á, a SV: á SK: a Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears on a mokkan that appears to contain a Buddhist chant: 南 無 阿 □ □ □ □ □ 亜 □ □ □ □ □ 阿 覚 namu aXXXXX eXXXXXakaku (MKK 31:93). It also appears twice in Kojiki: 亞亞【音 引】志夜胡志夜 ee (read these by their sounds) siyagwo siya ‘heh heh, crazy fools’ (KK 9). Hokekyō ongi glosses both 啞 and 瘂 as a (Ogura 1995.2:779– 788), so the reading of e may be a variant that did not survive, as the EMC data seem to suggest.

依

OJ: e OC: *ʔəi LH: *ʔɨi EMC: ʔɨj GO: e KN: i NOM: y SV: y SK: uy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. On a wooden tablet excavated from the Fujiwara Palace ruins (fl. 694–710) we find the toponym 依智郡 Eti District (MKK 5:81). Another example of this phonogram comes from 709, from the Kōfukuji Temple record, writing the same toponym as above, 依智郡. This graph also appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 4293 安之比奇能 asipikwi no This is a gift from YAMA YUKIsikaba the people in the mountains 山行之可婆 YAMABITO no who gave it to me when I was 山人乃 和礼尓依志米之 ware ni esimesi passing by the mountains, 夜麻都刀曽許礼 yamaduto so kore which tire the legs.

哀

OJ: e LH: *ʔəi NOM: ai

EMC: ʔəj LMC: ʔaj SV: ai

55

OC: *ʔə̂i GO: ai KN: ai SK: oy

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears only in Nihon shoki, and then only twice: 1) 可愛此云哀 ‘lovable’ is read e (NSG), and 2) 蘆雚此云哀 都利 ‘the underlay of a thatched roof’ is read eturi (NSG).

埃

OJ: e OC: *ə̂ LH: iə EMC: ʔəj LMC: ʔaj GO: ai KN: ai NOM: ai SV: ai SK: ay Usage / History: This graph belongs to the CBS. This phonogram only appears once in Nihon shoki, and because of the semantics (埃 ‘dust or filth’) its usage was generally avoided: 可愛此云埃, used to give the proper pronunciation for the burial place of Ninigi, the deity who descended from heaven to rule Yamato. He is said to have been buried on Mount E.

榎

OJ: e OC: *krâh LH: kah EMC: kaɨ > kɛ: GO: ke KN: ka NOM: giá, giả, hạ SV: giá SK: ka Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ enokwi ‘hackberry tree,’ or more precisely the Celtis sinensis, in Japanese literally the ‘e tree.’ The Japanese of the late Asuka era took the phonogram to represent the first syllable e. Likely the word may have been written 榎之木 (ENOKWI). As yet there are no surviving examples of this phonogram before the Nara era. The earliest datable example is from the Chikuzen Census of 702: 榎本勝 EMOTO KATU. It is interesting to note that a wooden tablet excavated from the Fujiwara Palace ruins (fl. 694–710) contains the name 榎本連安比止 EMOTO MURAZI Apito (MK 1488). This usage appears in Man’yōshū in one name: 榎井王 Prince ENOWI. It also is used twice in the poetry. MYS 983 YAMA NO PA NO How delightful to see 山葉 the light of the tiny fine 左佐良榎壮子 sasara E WOTOKWO AMA NO PARA young man hanging on 天原 TWO WATARU PIKARI the ridge of the mountain, 門度光 MIrakusi YOSI MO about to cross the plain of heaven. 見良久之好藻

荏

OJ: e OC: *nəmʔ LH: ńimʔ EMC: nyim GO: nimu KN: zimu NOM: nhẫm SV: nhẫm SK: im Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ e, a type of bean, known as Perilla ocimoides, from which perilla oil is extracted. There is one example in Kojiki, in a name in the record of Kaika: 山代之荏名津比賣, YAMASIRO NO ENATUpimye (KG). It is also seen in the Izumo register of 739 in the toponym: 荏原里 EBARA Village. This phonogram also appears twice in Man’yōshū, both to write the same toponym: 荏原郡 District of EBARA (headnotes to MYS 4415, 4418). 56

得 朴

OJ: e OC: *tə̂k LH: tək EMC: tək GO: toku KN: toku NOM: đắc, đác SV: đắc SK: tuk Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ e, the infinitive of the verb u ‘to get, obtain.’ This usage only appears in Man’yōshū in the toponym 得名津 ENATU (MYS 283). OJ: e OC: *phok GO: foku KN: faku LH: pok EMC: phaɨwk NOM: phác, phắc, vóc SV: phác SK: pak Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ e ‘Chinese hackberry tree.’ This usage is found only in Nihon shoki, and then only used in a family name. It is possible that the word /e/ is from the peninsula, and originally meant ‘Chinese hackberry,’ and the immigrants to the Japanese archipelago carried the word, and named the closest tree, the catalpa 榎 for it. This usage appears in the toponym 朴井 ENOWI, found in the Suiko record (NSG), and in the names 物部朴井連椎子 MONONOBYE ENOWI MURAZI SIPI [NO] OMI (NSG), and 朴市秦造田來津 ETI [NO] PADA [NO] MIYATUKWO KUTU (NSG). OJ: e OC: NA LH: NA EMC: NA GO: NA KN: NA NOM: NA SV: NA SK: NA Usage / History: This usage is based on Chinese semantics where 可愛 means ‘lovable.’ In OJ the closest approximation to this was e. This usage only appears in Nihon shoki: 可愛此云埃, “(The burial mound of Ninigi is written) 可愛 and this is read e” (NSG).

可愛

F For phonograms traditionally listed under ha-gyō (はひふへほ) see the respective readings under OJ: p-, i. e. pa, pi, pu, etc.

57

G 我

OJ: ga OC: *ŋâiʔ LH: ŋɑiʔ EMC: ŋa GO: ga KN: ga NOM: ngã, ngả SV: ngã SK: a Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It is one of the most common phonograms used for the prenasalized velar ga. One example from Paekche sources quoted in Nihon shoki is in the record of Buretsu: the king of Paekche dispatches an envoy to Wa named 斯我君 Siga KIMI. The phonogram 我 lost its popularity by the middle of the Asuka era. One reason is perhaps related to semantics: 我 is the first person pronoun, and like many European countries shying away from capitalizing ‘I,’ the ancient Japanese appear to have shied away from the overuse of the first person. The other graph for ga, 賀, on the other hand, meant ‘congratulate,’ and this graph became quite popular. Kojiki uses 賀 180 times, compared to only once for 我 (that single example being a note in the record of Kōgen, where Swoga [NO] ISIKAPA [NO] Sukune 蘇賀石河宿禰 is noted as being the founder of the Swoga [NO] OMI 蘇 我臣). It is also important to note that of the 29 examples in Kojiki poetry of wa ga ‘I-POSS’ (or ‘I-SUB’) three examples are transcribed 和何, and 26 are 和賀. The graph 我 is never used. This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan: 宗我部 SwogaBYE (MK 2598), 伊我部 IgaBYE (MK 1305), 矢田部志我麻呂 YATABYE Sigamaro (unnumbered tablet). Reflecting the antiquity of its source material, the opposite is true of Shoki. The graph 賀 appears 35 times in Shoki, but 我 is used over 150 times. There are eight examples in annotational notes, and 40 in poetry. 吾夫君、此云阿我 儺勢 “ ‘My beloved husband’ is read a ga nase” (NSG). NSK 5 飫企都鄧利 okitu tori Birds in the offing— 軻茂豆勾志磨爾 kamoduku simi ni ducks gather on the island. 和我謂禰志 wa ga onesi As long as I live 伊茂播和素邏珥 imwo pa wasurazi I will always remember 譽能據鄧馭鄧母 yo no kotogoto mo the maiden with whom I slept. This is the primary phonogram to transcribe ga in Man’yōshū. MYS 3580 KIMI GA yuku If fog rises from 君之由久 UMIpye no yado ni your lodging on the beach 海邊乃夜杼尓 奇里多々婆 kiri tataba where you will go 安我多知奈氣久 a ga tati nageku then realize that it is coming 伊伎等之理麻勢 iki to sirimase from the breath of my laments. This phonogram appears twice in the Bussoku poetic sequence.

58

BSS 14 舍加乃美阿止 伊波尓宇都志於伎 由伎米具利 宇夜麻比麻都利 和我与波乎閇牟 己乃与波乎閇牟

奇

宜

賀

saka no miato ipa ni utusioki yukimeguri uyamapimaturi wa ga yo pa wopemu kono yo pa wopemu

I copy the footprints of Saka onto the stone, and walk around it showing my reverence; my generation will be complete. This time it will be complete.

OJ: ga OC: *kai LH: kɨɑi EMC: ɡiə̆ GO: ki KN: ki NOM: cả, cơ, ký SV: cơ, ký SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, as noted under 奇 OJ: ka. While it does appear that this phonogram transcribes ka, there are alternations that show it also transcribed ga. Two examples from Shoki illustrate the use of this phonogram within peninsular names: 印奇臣 Iga OMI, but this might actually be a transcription of Inka This is doubtless an older, Paekche-style form of the Japanese name 伊賀臣 (Ienaga et al. 1986.2:82, n1). The other example is 用奇多 Ywogata, a person who has the surname of Mononobe (NSG). The phonogram 奇 later resurfaces some 50 years later in Japanese records, but then it represents kwi, which likely originated from ko+i (cf. 奇 OJ: kwi). Finally, this graph is also used to transcribe the name of the Swoga family in the early Suiko records (the Gangōji temple record and the Tenjukokushuchō at Chūgūji [ca. 622]), where the surname is written 巷奇 SWOga. OJ: ga OC: *ŋai LH: ŋɨɑi EMC: ŋiă GO: gi KN: gi NOM: NA SV: nghi SK: uy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. Scholars vacillate on the reading of this graph, some saying it represents gwi, others ge. While no Nom data exist for this graph, there are two related graphs in Nom: 𦖑 nghe or 𣦍 ngay, which would suggest that either reading may be viable. The last example is relevant here, since it is closest to what the Japanese would have used for ga. This graph 宜 is also of some antiquity, appearing in the Suiko corpus, though some may consider the reading to be controversial. This graph appears in the name 巷宜, traditionally read Swoga (the Soga family). Consider also that another Suiko era source writes the same name as 巷奇. This strongly suggests that these two usages are transcribing the name swoga, later written as 蘇我. There is also a single example of 嗽加 swoga in the ancient records. OJ: ga LH: ɡɑih EMC: ɣa LMC: xɦa NOM: hạ SV: hạ Usage / History: See the same phonogram under OJ: ka. 59

OC: *ɡâih GO: ga KN: ka SK: ha

何

河

蛾

OJ: ga OC: *ɡâi LH: ɡai EMC: ɣa GO: ga KN: ka NOM: hà SV: hà SK: ha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The oldest known example of this phonogram appears in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu, all examples coming from the threnody. 伊加留我乃 ikaruga no Our Great Ruler’s name 止美能乎何波乃 tomi no wogapa no will never be forgotten, 多叡婆許曾 tayeba koso even if the brook 和何於保支美乃 wa ga opokimi no Tomi in Ikaruga 弥奈和須良叡米 mina wasurayeme should cease to flow in its bed. This graph is used in Kojiki, four times in the poetry in Book 1. KK 3 夜知富許能 yatipoko no The august deity 迦微能美許等 kamwi no mikoto Yachi Hoko— 奴延久佐能 nuyekusa no as I am a woman 賣迩志阿礼婆 mye ni si areba tender as grass 和何許許呂 wa ga kokoro and my heart 宇良須能登理叙 urasu no tori zo is a bird on the sandbank. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, mainly in Book 5, though there are ten examples scattered in other books of the anthology: MYS 822 和何則能尓 wa ga sono ni The plum blossoms 宇米能波奈知流 ume no pana tiru in my gardent are scattering. 比佐可多能 pisakata no Or is it that snow 阿米欲里由吉能 ame ywori yuki no is falling from the sky, 那何列久流加母 nagarekuru kamo the far-off sky? OJ: ga OC: *ɡâi LH: ɡɑi EMC: ɣa GO: ga, gaa KN: ka NOM: hà SV: hà SK: ha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the the LBS. This graph also appears in Nihon shoki in the place name 駿河國 Suruga Province (NSG). This graph appears a number of times in Man’yōshū. Some examples transcribe Suruga. The majority of the other cases appear as 河波 gapa ‘river’ (MYS 855, 856, 861, 863), where the graph 河 ‘river’ is used as both as a phonogram and logogram to write the prenasalized form of kapa. OJ: ga OC: *ŋâi LH: ŋɑi EMC: ŋa GO: ga KN: ga NOM: NA SV: nga SK: a Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LBS. It appears only in Man’yōshū, and then a mere three times. In the following poem it appears twice.

60

MYS 2642 TOMOSIBWI NO Flittering in the light 燈之 KAGE ni KAgaywopu of the torches 陰尓蚊蛾欲布 I can see 虚蝉之 UTUSEMI NO IMWO ga WEMAPIsi the image of the smile of 妹蛾咲状思 OMOKAGE ni MIYU my beloved of this world. 面影尓所見 The first instance in line two is an artistic game, where 蚊蛾 ‘mosquito and moth’ together form kaga ‘light.’ That is fitting as there are four examples of graphs in this poem that represent insects (蚊 ‘mosquito,’ 蛾 ‘moth’ twice, and 蝉 ‘cicada’), the inferred meaning being that insects are attracted to the light of a torch, flittering in the light like the image of his beloved.

餓

峨

俄

OJ: ga OC: *ŋâih LH: ŋɑih EMC: ŋa GO: ga KN: ga NOM: NA SV: nga, ngã SK: a Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LBS, but it only appears in Shoki, found in the early strata, or older level of orthography. It appears 62 times in the early poetry, and four times in the annotative commentary. An example from the record of Jinmu is 一柱騰宮此云阿斯毘苔徒鞅餓離能宮, “ ‘A palace with one pillar’ in the vernacular is asi pitotu agari no MIYA” (NSG). NSK 1 夜句茂多兔 yakumo tatu Endowed with power, 伊弩毛夜覇餓岐 idumwo yapyegaki this two-fold Izumo fence— 兔磨語味爾 tuma gome ni to conceal ourselves, 夜覇餓枳都倶盧 yapyegaki tukuru I have built this two-fold fence. 贈廼夜覇餓岐廻 sono yapyegaki we Yes, within this two-fold fence! OJ: ga OC: *ŋâi LH: ŋai EMC: ŋa LMC: ŋa GO: ga KN: ga NOM: NA SV: nga SK: a Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing once in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 97 莒母唎矩能 kumoriku no In the hidden land, 簸覩細能哿波庚 patuse no kapa yu the bamboo flowing down 那峨礼倶屢 nagarekuru the Hatsuse River— 駄開能 take no wonderful, flourishing bamboo 以矩美娜開余嚢開 ikumidake yodake with long joints and leaves. OJ: ga LH: ŋɑi NOM: nga

EMC: ŋa LMC: ŋa SV: nga

61

OC: *ŋâi GO: ga KN: ga SK: a

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It only appears in Shoki, restricted to a single example in a note found in the second book of Shoki: 倭文神此云斯図梨 俄未, “ ‘The deity Shito’ is read sitwogamwi” (NSG).

鵝

義

OJ: ga OC: *ŋâi LH: ŋɑi EMC: ŋa LMC: ŋa GO: ga KN: ga NOM: NA SV: nga SK: a Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears only in Shoki, five times in the annotational notes and three times in the poetry. One example from the commentary is: 顯神明之憑談、此云歌牟鵝可梨 “ ‘Being possessed by the visible deity’ is read kamugakari” (NSG). NSK 113 耶麻鵝播爾 yamagapa ni There are two mandarin ducks 烏志賦頴都威底 wosi putatu wite at the mountain stream, 陁虞毘預倶 tagupi yoku paired off so nicely. 陁虞陛屢伊慕乎 tagupyeru imo wo Who has taken my beloved 多例柯威爾雞武 tare ka winikyemu who paired off so well with me? OJ: ge OC: *ŋaih LH: ŋɨɑih EMC: ŋia GO: gi KN: gi NOM: nghĩa, nghì SV: nghĩa SK: uy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, appearing once in the Suiko corpus, in the toponym 牟義都国 Mugetu Province. Various scholars, depending on what era of Chinese they are using, have read this place name Mugetu or Mugitu. It is clear in Sino-Korean that the morpheme-initial velar nasal has lenited to zero: *nguy > uy. As the LH evidence shows, this graph has a mid vowel with an offglide. This graph appears somewhat frequently in Man’yōshū, but is read gwi by most scholars. The only firm example I can find in Man’yōshū where 義 clearly represents ge is MYS 3885, in the stanza 吾美義波 A GA mige pa ‘as for my stomach.’ This is a hapax in Old Japanese, but Shinsen jikyō, an early Heian character dictionary that preserves vestiges of Old Japanese, contains the entry: 胘肚也、牛百葉、三介 ‘Stomach: it is the belly. An oxen abomasum is mige.’ This phonogram represents ge in a poem from a fragment of the Tango fudoki: 夜麻等弊爾 yamatopye ni From the direction of Yamato 加是布企阿義天 kaze pukiagete the wind blows upward 久母婆奈礼 kumobanare and scatters the clouds— 所企遠理等母与 sokiwori tomo yo though you and I shall be apart 和遠和須良須奈 wa wo wasurasu na please do not forget me. This graph also appears once in a poem carved into the Footprints of the Buddha stone:

62

BSS 9 舍加乃美阿止 伊波尓宇都志於伎 宇夜麻比弖 乃知乃保止氣尓 由豆利麻都良牟 佐々義麻宇佐牟

宜

saka no miato ipa ni utusioki uyamapite noti no potoke ni yudurimaturamu sasagemausamu

The august footprints of Shaka we transfer to the stone and we revere them. To the Buddha of the future we intend to humbly offer these. We intend to present these.

OJ: ge OC: *ŋai LH: ŋɨɑi EMC: ŋia GO: gi KN: gi NOM: nghi, nghí, ngơi SV: nghi SK: uy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The Nom data for this graph is somewhat mixed, but considering the reading ngơi with data from two related graphs in Nom, 𦖑 nghe or 𣦍 ngay, I believe this is sufficient evidence to demonstrate that this graph transcribed OJ ge. As noted under 宜 OJ gwi, this graph transcribes both OJ gwi and ge. While true, it is telling that this graph is only used in Kojiki to transcribe ge and not gwi. Examples include 於大御酒宇 良宜而 OPOMIKWI NI urageTE ‘(he) became excited from the august wine...’ (KG). 此者志良宜歌也 KO PA sirage UTA NARI ‘This is a sirage song’ (KG). KK 65 夜多能 yata no The one stalk of 比登母登須宜波 pito moto suge pa sedge on the Yata Plain, 比登理袁理登母 pitori wori tomo even if I am all alone 意富岐彌斯 opokimi si and my great lord 與斯登岐許佐婆 yosi to kikosaba should declare that it is good 比登理袁理登母 pitori wori tomo then I will remain alone. The confusion regarding the reading of this phonogram originates from the text of Man’yōshū, where 宜 is used 11 times to represent gwi, and 12 times for ge. However, the distribution within the anthology illustrates that there is very little overlap, so either different eras of poets used the phonogram for one of the two LJS readings, or different traditions existed when the various volumes (books) of the anthology were being compiled. MYS (Book) 5 6 14 15 18 19

# of poems with 宜 gwi 2 2 6 1 Ø Ø

# of poems with 宜 ge 7 Ø Ø Ø 3 2

Thus, other than a two-poem overlap in Book 5, these two usages do not overlap. Is it possible that the two poems in Book 5 have been misread as gwi instead of ge? This is highly unlikely, as both poems contain the same word: yanagwi ‘willow,’ etymologically yana + no + kwi ‘a yana tree.’ Interestingly, of 63

the seven examples in Book 5, six are parts of verbs or stative verbs. An example appears below. MYS 799 OPONWO YAMA Mist spreads out over 大野山 紀利多知和多流 kwiri tatiwataru the entire face of Mount Ōno. 和何那宜久 wa ga nageku Mist spreads out, 於伎蘇乃可是尓 okiswo no kaze carried by the wind from 紀利多知和多流 kwiri tatiwataru the breath of my lament.

礙

碍

OJ: ge OC: *ŋə̂kh LH: ŋəh EMC: ŋəj GO: gai KN: gai NOM: ngại SV: ngại SK: ay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The graph 礙 is the original, sometimes found in texts abbreviated to 碍 or further simplified to 㝵. This usage (as well as that of 碍・皚・㝵) is found only in Nihon shoki or Man’yōshū. There are two examples in annotational notes, and seven in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 荳角、此云娑佐礙 “ ‘the name Sasage’ is read sasage” (NSG). NSK 76 野須瀰斯志 yasumisisi Ruler of all— 倭我飫裒枳瀰能 wa ga opokimi no my great lord journeyed 阿蘇麼斯志 aswobasisi here to hunt boar. 斯々能 sisi no The cry of the boar 宇頴枳舸斯固瀰 utaki kasikwomi terrified me and I fled. 倭我尼㝵能裒利志 wa ga nige noborisi To the black alder 阿理嗚能宇倍能 ari wo no upe no on top of the hill 婆利我曳陀 pari ga yeda I climbed into the branches— 阿西嗚 ase wo Protect me! An altered form of this phonogram, 㝵, appears in Book 15 of Man’yōshū three times, but all three poems contain the same verb tuge ‘informing, telling,’ represented the same way: 都㝵. One example appears below. MYS 3612 安乎尓与之 awoni yosi How nice if there were people 奈良能美也故尓 nara no miyakwo ni traveling to the Nara Capital 由久比等毛我母 yuku pito mogamo where the green earth is good. 久左麻久良 kusamakura I would like to tell the boats 多妣由久布祢能 tabi yuku pune no with the wayfarers and their 登麻利都㝵武仁 tomari tugemu ni straw pillows where to dock. OJ: ge OC: *ŋə̂kh LH: ŋəh EMC: ŋəj GO: gai KN: gai NOM: ngại SV: ngại SK: ay Usage / History: This phonogram is a vulgar form of 礙 (see above).

64

㝵 皚

祇

藝

OJ: ge OC: *ŋə̂kh LH: ŋəh EMC: ŋəj GO: gai KN: gai NOM: ngại SV: ngại SK: ay Usage / History: This phonogram is related to 碍, which is itself a vulgar form of 礙. Thus, these graphs are interrelated, and have the same Sino-Xenic readings. See 礙 above. OJ: ge OC: NA LH: NA EMC: ŋəj LMC: ŋaj GO: gai KN: gai NOM: ngai SV: ngai SK: ay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears four times in the poetry in Nihon shoki. NSK 97 倭我彌細麼 wa ga miseba When I gaze down 都奴娑播符 tunwo sapapu on Iware Pond 以簸例能伊開能 ipare no ike no with rocks covered in vines 美那矢駄府 minasitapu even the fish 紆鳴謨 uwo mo come to the surface 紆陪儞堤堤那皚矩 upe ni dete nageku and lament your parting. OJ: gi OC: *ke LH: kie, ɡɨi EMC: ɡjiə GO: gi KN: ki NOM: chỉ SV: ký, khì, kì SK: ki Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, appearing in a Paekche inscription (Sathaikcicek Stele 砂宅智積碑, ca. 654 CE), in the name of a fortress: 奈祇城 *nagi fortress. This graph later appears in the Bungo Census of 702 in the name 爾祇賣 Nigimye. This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū in one poem. MYS 3243 WOTOMYERA NO At the bay of Nagato, 處女等之 WOKE NI TARETARU long like the hemp thread 麻笥垂有 UMIWO NASU spun by the maidens 續麻成 NAGATWO NO URA NI who lower it into the bucket, 長門之浦丹 ASA nagi ni as I come to long for 朝奈祇尓 MITIKURU SIPO NO my beloved, 満来塩之 YUPU nagi ni my longing is like 夕奈祇尓 依来波乃 YOSEKURU NAMI no the morning waves SONO SIPO no that come at high tide, 彼塩乃 or the evening waves 伊夜益舛二 iya MASU MASU ni SONO NAMI no of that come rolling in, 彼浪乃 it continues to increase. 伊夜敷布二 iya SIKU SIKU ni OJ: gi LH: ŋias NOM: nghệ, nghề

EMC: ŋjiaj SV: nghệ 65

OC: *ŋets GO: gei KN: gei SK: yey

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. There is only one example from a supposed Paekche name (actually a person from Cheju Island, but the island was long under Paekche influence) in Shoki: in the second year of Tenmu we find the name 王子久麻藝, Prince Kumagi. Earlier, however, in the eighth year of Tenji his name is written 久麻伎, showing the polyphony of 伎, where it can represent both ki and gi. This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan: 安芸 国 安 芸 郡 Agi Province Agi District (MK 1188), 椋 橋 部 造 伊 芸 美 KURAPASIBYE MIYATUKWO Igimi (unnumbered tablet). Kojiki also uses 藝 for /gi/, but 岐 is still used occasionally for /gi/. All told, Kojiki uses 藝 54 times in the poetry and annotational notes, but 岐 (as gi) only appears six times：伊多玖佐夜藝帝阿理祁理 itaku sayagite arikeri ‘it seems that (the land of Ashihara) is very noisy’ (KG). KK 9 宇陀能 uda no In the high 多加紀爾 takakwi ni fort of Uda 志藝和那波留 sigi wana paru a trap for snipe I set, 和賀麻都夜 wa ga matu ya and as I waited— 志藝波佐夜良受 sigi pa sayarazu it did not catch a snipe. This phonogram appears once in the annotational notes, and 13 times in the poetry of Shoki: 饒速日、此云儞藝波椰卑 ‘The deity Nigi Hayahi is read nigi payapi’ (NSG). Regarding the poetry, an interesting example is found in the Uda poem, which is the same as KK 9 above. I only quote the relevant stanzas. NSK 7 辭藝和奈破蘆 sigi pana paru A trap for snipe I set, 和餓末菟夜 wa ga matu ya and as I waited— 辭藝破佐夜羅孺 sigi pa sayarazu it did not catch a snipe. This is the primary phonogram in Man’yōshū to represent gi. MYS 8 When I was about to board 熟田津尓 NIKITATU ni PUNANORAsemu to a ship at Nikita Port, waiting 船乗世武登 TUKWI MATEBA for the moon, the tide came in 月待者 SIPO mo kanapiNU allowing us to depart. 潮毛可奈比沼 IMA PA kogiIDE NA Shall we not row out presently? 今者許藝乞菜

儀 蟻

OJ: gi OC: *ŋai LH: ŋɨɑi EMC: ŋia LMC: ŋi GO: gi KN: gi NOM: nghi, nghì SV: nghi SK: uy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It only appears in Nihon shoki, used once in the annotational notes. That single example appears in Book 2: 覓国此 云矩貳磨儀 “ ‘search for good land’ is read kuni magi” (NSG). OJ: gi LH: ŋɨɑiʔ NOM: NA

EMC: ŋia LMC: ŋi SV: nghĩ, nghị

66

OC: *ŋaiʔ GO: gi KN: gi SK: uy

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It is used only in Shoki, and then only three times in the poetry. NSK 118 阿須箇我播 asukagapa There is no end 瀰儺蟻羅毘都都 minagirapitutu to the robust flow of 喩矩瀰都能 yuku midu no the Asuka River— 阿比娜謨儺倶母 apida mo naku mo How I will continue 於母保喩屢母 omopoyuru kamo to think of him endlessly.

𡺸

其

OJ: gi OC: *ɡri LH: ɡɨ EMC: ɡji GO: gi KN: ki NOM: NA SV: kỳ SK: ki Usage / History: The ancient phonology of this obscure phonogram is not clear. Morohashi (1976:4.297) notes that the meaning is unclear, but the Chinese pronunciation is ɡie (義未詳。。。巨支切). I have reconstructed the phonology according to 耆. This obscure phonogram appears once in Shoki, in poem NSK 64: 哆𡺸摩知 烏能流 tagimadi wo noru … “[She] informed me to take the road to Tagima.” This may be an old relic for representing the place name Tagima. OJ: go OC: *ɡə LH: ɡɨə EMC: ɡɨ GO: gi KN: ki NOM: cà SV: kỳ, kì SK: ki, kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The reconstructions of earlier states of Chinese postulate a mid, unrounded vowel, while most of the Sino-Xenic data argue for a high, front, rounded vowel. The Sino-Korean kuy is the only evidence that this might have been a mid, unrounded vowel. Add to this data from Nôm, where we have a mid, unrounded vowel. Also, Nom preserves a related graph, 箕 kia, which matches nicely with the Later Han data. On this evidence, it seems clear that what is currently preserved as GO gi goes back to an earlier gwi, which, based on the SK data, originated from *go-i. Analogous to using the bound form of 木 ‘tree’ for ko < kwi < *ko-i, it thus seems clear that 其 was used to represent go. The earliest datable usage appears in the Chikuzen census of 702, in the name 許其志 Kogosi. This phonogram appears in Kojiki and Man’yōshū. A simple example from Kojiki is found in the second poem: KK 2 伊斯多布夜 isitapu ya Those messengers of the divers 阿麻波勢豆加比 amapasedukapi who dive under the rocks 許登能 koto no have told these things, 加多理其登母 katarigoto mo even have related 許遠婆 ko woba these things. This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū rather frequently. The following chōka contains this phonogram three times.

67

MYS 3625 由久美都能 可敝良奴其等久 布久可是能 美延奴我其登久 安刀毛奈吉 与能比登尓之弖 和可礼尓之 伊毛我伎世弖思 奈礼其呂母 蘇弖加多思吉弖 比登里可母祢牟

期

yuku midu no kapyeranu gotoku puku kaze no miyenu ga gotoku atwo mo naki yo no pito ni site wakarenisi imwo ga kisete si naregoromo swode kata sikite pitori kamo nemu

I am a person of the world that leaves not even a trace, like the water that flows on and never returns, or like the wind that blows but cannot be seen; I will sleep alone on the sleeves of the well-worn robe that my beloved put on me before she departed spread out on the floor.

OJ: go OC: *ɡə or *kə LH: ɡɨə, kɨə EMC: ɡɨ, kɨ GO: go, gi KN: ki NOM: kỳ, cờ SV: kỳ, kì SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram is used twice in the imperial edicts preserved in Shoku Nihongi: 是以汝等母今日詔大命乃期等君 臣祖子乃理遠忘事無久 KOKO WO MOTITE IMASITATI mo KEPU NORITAMAPU OPOMIKOTO no goto, KIMI YATUKWO OYAKWO no KOTOWARI wo WASURURU KOTO NAku ‘Hereupon, like the great august words that have been declared today, you too will not forget the logic between lord and servant, and parent and child...’ (SM 11). This phonogram appears rather frequently in Man’yōshū: MYS 828 比等期等尓 pitogoto ni Though each one of us 乎理加射之都々 worikazasitutu enjoys breaking a branch 阿蘇倍等母 aswobedomo and putting it in our hair, 伊夜米豆良之岐 iya medurasiki the sight of the plum blossoms 烏梅能波奈加母 ume no pana kamo never grows tiring. This phonogram appears twice in the Bussoku poetic sequence. BSS 16 己乃美阿止乎 kono miato wo Respectfully gazing 麻婆利麻都礼婆 mabarimatureba at these footprints, 阿止奴志乃 ato nusi no how we think of 多麻乃与曾保比 tama no yosopopi the jeweled figure of the owner 於母保由留可母 omopoyuru kamo of these footprints. 美留期止毛阿留可 miru goto mo aru ka As if we see him! This phonogram also appears in a poem preserved in Atsuta daijingū engi (poem 4): 夜須美志志 yasumisisi Our great lord who rules 和期意富岐美 wago opokimi in peace, like the sun 多伽比加流 takapikaru shining high in the sky 比乃美古 pi no mikwo as an august, rough jewel— 阿良多麻乃 aratama no and like a rough jewel

68

岐閇由久止志乎 止志比佐爾 美古麻知何多爾 都紀加佐禰 妓美麻知何多爾 宇倍那宇倍那志母夜 和何祁勢流 意須比乃宇閇爾 阿佐都紀乃其止久 都紀多知爾祁流

碁

凝

kipe yuku tosi wo tosi pisa ni mikwo matigata ni tukwi kasane kimi matigata ni ubena ubena simo ya wa ga kyeseru osupi no upe ni asa tukwi no gotoku tukwi tatinikyeru

the year comes and it goes, that year that is so long. We cannot wait for our prince as the months pile up. We cannot wait for our lord: how reasonable it is. Like the waning moon that shines through the outer robe that I wear, the moon has come up.

OJ: go OC: *ɡə LH: ɡɨə EMC: ɡɨ GO: go, gi KN: ki NOM: cời SV: kỳ, kì SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS The Sino-Japanese reading of the graph 碁 (actually a variant of 棋) clearly derives from Old Chinese, suggesting the reading entered Japan rather early, probably because the game of Go was introduced to Japan from the continent at an early period. The earliest example of this phonogram is found in Kojiki, where it is used some 20 times: 淤能碁呂嶋 Onogoro Island (KG), and 丸迩之許碁登臣 Wani NO Kogoto [NO] OMI (KG). KK 75 多遲比怒迩 tadipinwo ni If I had known I would 泥牟登斯理勢婆 nemu to siriseba sleep at Tajihi Moor 多都碁母母 tatugomo mo I would have brought 母知弖許麻志母能 motite komasi mono a standing sedge mat— 泥牟登斯理勢婆 nemu to siriseba had I known I were to sleep here. This phonogram appears in two poems in Man’yōshū, and in several names (or perhaps titles): 碁檀越 Go [NO] Danwoti (MYS 500) and 碁師 Gosi (MYS 1732). MYS 112 INISIPYE ni The bird that seems 古尓 KWOPUramu TORI PA to long for bygone days 戀良武鳥者 POTOTOGISU is the cuckoo. 霍公鳥 KEDASI YA NAKIsi Perhaps it has sung for 盖哉鳴之 A GA OMOPEru goto those days, like I long for them. 吾念流碁騰 OJ: go OC: *ŋəŋ LH: ŋɨəŋ EMC: ŋiŋ GO: gou KN: gyou NOM: ngâng, ngững SV: ngưng SK: ung Usage / History: This graph belongs to the LJS, and appears only in Man’yōshū. There are four examples of this usage found in the anthology. MYS 1130 KAMUsaBURU How very sad I am 神左振 IPANE kogoSIKI looking at Mount Mikumari 磐根己凝敷 69

三芳野之 水分山乎 見者悲毛

語

馭

御

MIYOSINWO NO MIKUMARI YAMA wo MIREBA KANASI mo

in Miyoshino with its steep and rugged boulders that seem god-like.

OJ: go OC: *ŋaʔ or *ŋah LH: ŋɨɑʔ or ŋɨɑh EMC: ŋɨa LMC: ŋya GO: go KN: gyo NOM: ngỡ, ngữ, ngữa SV: ngữ, ngự SK: e Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, but is limited to Nihon shoki, once in the annotational notes and three times in the poetry: 興臺産霊此云許語等武須 毘 “ ‘The creation spirit of Kogoto,’ this is read kogoto musupi” (NSG). An interesting issue here is that the original name appears to be have been phonetic, so the necessity of a further gloss as a hint to the pronunciation requires explanation. If the two graphs 興臺 are used semantically, then perhaps these mean ‘the upraised platform,’ but this is obscure. It is more plausible that the two graphs were originally selected for double effect, semantic and phonetic. The earlier phonetics of these two phonograms 興臺 in LH are hɨŋ-thə, and this represents kongVto. The annotational note was perhaps added to help the reader who did not know the earlier reading. NSK 37 彌知能之利 miti no siri I had heard about 古破儾塢等綿塢 kwopada wotomye wo the maiden from Kohada 伽未能語等 kamwi no goto in the land behind the road, 枳虚曳之介廼 kikoyesikado her reputation like thunder, 阿比摩區羅摩區 apimakura maku but here we lie together. OJ: go OC: *ŋah LH: ŋîɑ EMC: ŋɨa LMC: ŋya GO: go KN: gyo NOM: ngựa SV: ngự SK: e Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, found only once in Nihon shoki: NSK 5 飫企都鄧利 okitu tori Birds of the offing— 軻茂豆勾志磨爾 kamoduku sima ni ducks gather on the island. 和我謂禰志 wa ga winesi As long as I live 伊茂播和素邏珥 imo pa wasurazi I will always remember 譽能據鄧馭鄧母 yo no kotogoto mo the maiden with whom I slept. OJ: go LH: ŋɨɑh EMC: ŋɨa LMC: ŋya NOM: ngự, ngợ SV: ngự Usage / History: This graph belongs to the CBS. It is only three times in the poetry: NSK 95 婀嗚儞與志 awo ni yosi 乃樂能婆娑摩儞 nara no pasama ni 70

OC: *ŋah GO: go KN: gyo SK: e, a used in Nihon shoki, appearing In the valley of the blue hills of Nara,

斯々貳暮能 瀰豆矩陛御暮梨 瀰儺曾々矩 思寐能和倶吾嗚 阿娑理逗那偉能古

具

sisizi mono miduku pyegomori mina sosoku sibi no wakugwo wo asaridunawi no kwo

like beasts of prey, he lies hidden by the banks— a large catch of tuna, the young man, Shibi. Boars, do not try to find him!

OJ: gu OC: *ɡoh LH: ɡuoh EMC: ɡju GO: gu KN: ku NOM: cự SV: cự SK: kwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The earliest example appears on a mokkan excavated from the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710), dated 694: 甲午年九 月十二日知田評・阿具比里 “A kinoe year [694] ninth month, twelfth day. TiDA Village, Agupi Hamlet…” (MK 162). It also appears twice times in the liturgies: 伊賀志夜具波江能如久 ikasiyagupaye no GOTOku ‘as if vibrant and thickly flourishing…’ (NT 6). This phonogram also appears in Kojiki, where 具 appears 33 times, mostly in poetry. Princess Kaguya Hime’s name is written 迦具夜比賣命 (KG). Woguna, the childhood name of Yamato Takeru, is 倭男具那命 YAMATO WOguna (KG). One representative poem from Kojiki is: KK 27 比佐迦多能 pisakata no Heavenly Mount Kagu 阿米能迦具夜麻 ame no kaguyama which is unchangeable— 斗迦麻迩 twokama ni a swan crossing the sky 佐和多流久毘 sawataru kubi like a sharp sickle; 比波煩曾 pipaboso soft and delicate 多和夜賀比那袁 tawayagapina wo like the neck of the swan; This phonogram also appears once in the annotational notes, and twice in the poetry in Shoki. The annotational note is: 童男此云烏具奈 “ ‘Boy’ is known as woguna” (NSG). NSK 67: 波那具波辭 panagupasi What beauty and detail 佐區羅能梅涅 sakura no mede these cherry blossoms have. 許等梅涅麼 kotomedeba If beauty is the same 波椰區波梅涅孺 payaku pa medezu then I should have loved sooner: 和我梅豆留古羅 wa ga meduru kwora my beloved little maidens. This phonogram is fairly popular in Man’yōshū, being the main graph used to transcribe Mount Kagu: 香具山 KAgu YAMA. An example of it used to transcribe gu in other words appears in the following: MYS 82 浦佐夫流 URAsaburu My melancholy heart KOKORO samanesi is filled with countless thoughts. 情佐麻祢之 久堅乃 PISAKATA no I can see the autumn rain AME NO sigure no from the distant heavens 天之四具礼能 NAGAREAPU MIREBA weaving together as it falls. 流相見者

71

吾

遇

娯

OJ: gu OC: *ŋâ LH: ŋɑ MC: ŋɔ GO: gu KN: go NOM: ngo SV: ngô SK: wo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The earliest example appears in the Chikuzen census of 702. It appears in names such as 奈吾佐賣 Nagusamye, 乎 哿 吾 良 賣 Wokaguramye, 哿 吾 漏 賣 Kagurwomye, and 久 吾 志 Kugusi. Some argue that this phonogram actually transcribes gwo (see below), but it is difficult to deny that several of these female names are merely a noun plus the female suffix mye: nagusa ‘comfort’ + mye ‘female,’ wo ‘small’ + kagura ‘sacred music’ + mye ‘female,’ or kagurwo ‘jet black’ + mye ‘female.’ OJ: gu OC: *ŋoh LH: ŋɨoh EMC: ŋua GO: gu KN: guu NOM: ngộ SV: ngộ SK: wu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The phonogram 遇 appears twice in the annotational notes, and eight times in Shoki poetry. One example is 香山此云介 遇夜摩 ‘Mount Kagu is read kaguyama.’ NSK 50 阿佐豆磨能 asaduma no It is good, however, 避介能烏瑳介烏 pika no wosaka wo to have a companion 介多那耆珥 katanaki ni when one is sobbing deeply 瀰致喩區茂能茂 miti yuku mono mo as she walks along Hika Knoll 多遇譬氐序豫枳 tagupite zo yoki in Asazuma. Ōno (1977:381) notes that this phonogram appears mainly in Book 5 of Man’yōshū, used as a skillful phonogram in opposition to 具, which is a common phonogram, but this is difficult to prove as this phonogram 遇 only appears in Man’yōshū once: MYS 841 于遇比須能 ugupisu no Precisely when I hear 於登企久奈倍尓 oto kiku nape ni the sound of the bush warbler 烏梅能波奈 ume no pana I can see the plum blossoms 和企弊能曽能尓 wagipye no sono ni in the garden 佐伎弖知流美由 sakite tiru miyu of my home scattering. OJ: gu OC: *ŋwa LH: ŋyɑ >ŋuɔ EMC: ŋua LMC: ŋya GO: gu KN: go NOM: ngu SV: ngụ, ngu SK: wu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It only is found between the pages of Shoki, twice in the same poem, NSK 75. NSK 75 飫裒枳瀰簸 opokimi pa The great lord 賊據嗚枳舸斯題 soko wo kikasite overhears these words, 柁磨々枳能 tamamaki no takes his jeweled 阿娯羅儞陀々伺 agura ni tatasi dais and sits upon it. 72

施都魔枳能 situmaki no He takes the dais 阿娯羅儞陀々伺 agura ni tatasi of cloth and sits upon it. The one word repeated twice here is 阿娯羅儞陁陁伺 agura ni tatasi “sitting upon a dais.” Some read ‘dais’ as agwora, based on the Kan-on reading, but the problem is that the only known example of agwora is in this poem, meaning it is either a hapax, or 娯 is meant to transcribe gu. Following Occam’s Razor, I leave it as /gu/.

求

隅

愚

OJ: gu OC: *ɡu LH: ɡu EMC: ɡuw GO: gu KN: kyuu NOM: càu, cầu SV: cầu SK: kwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It only appears in Man’yōshū, and then only twice in MYS 3430. The single example is MYS 3430: 斯太能宇良乎 sida no ura wo The boats that ply the bay 阿佐許求布禰波 asa kogu pune pa of Shida in the morning— 与志奈之爾 yosi nasi ni are they rowing 許求良米可母与 kogurame kamo yo there without a reason? 余志許佐流良米 yosi kosarurame Surely they have a reason. OJ: gu OC: *ŋo LH: ŋɨo EMC: ŋua GO: gu KN: guu NOM: ngu SV: ngu, ngung SK: wu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram appears only in Man’yōshū, and then only once in the following poem: MYS 837 波流能努尓 paru no nwo ni In the springtime fields 奈久夜汙隅比須 naku ya ugupisu the bush warbler is singing. 奈都氣牟得 natukemu to The plum tree 和何弊能曽能尓 wa ga pye no sono ni in my garden is in full bloom, 汙米何波奈佐久 ume ga pana saku trying to tame the bird. OJ: gu OC: *ŋo LH: ŋɨo EMC: ŋua GO: gu KN: guu NOM: ngu SV: ngu SK: wu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears twice in annotational notes and twice in poetry in Shoki: 蠛此云摩愚那岐 “ ‘Gnat’ is called magunaki” (NSG). NSK 56 菟怒瑳破赴 tunwosapapu Covered in vines 以破能臂謎餓 ipa no pimye ga Iwa Hime carelessly 飫朋呂伽珥 oporoka ni does not consider 枳許瑳怒 kikosanu it to be important— 于羅遇破能紀 uragupa no kwi the beautiful mulberry branch. 豫屢麻志士枳 yorumasiziki It cannot approach, 73

箇破能區莽愚莽 豫呂朋譬喩玖伽茂 于羅愚破能紀

虞

群

疑

kapa no kumaguma yoropopi yuku kamo uragupa no kwi

driven here and there by the bends in the river. The beautiful mulberry branch.

OJ: gu OC: *ŋwa LH: ŋyɑ EMC: ŋua LMC: ŋya GO: gu KN: gu NOM: NA SV: ngu SK: wu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. Like 娯 noted below, this phonogram only appears in Shoki, and the reading is a matter of some debate. Compared with the phonogram 娯 above, which has the Kan-on reading of /go/, one would expect that this would also be the same. For the time being, I place it in the LJS, with its reading of GO gu. This phonogram appears four times in the poetry. NSK 113 耶麻鵝播爾 yamagapa ni There are two mandarin ducks 烏志賦頴都威底 wosi putatu wite at the mountain stream, 陀虞毘預倶 tagupi yoku paired off so nicely. 陀虞陛屢伊慕乎 tagupyeru imo wo Who has taken my beloved 多例柯威爾雞武 tare ka winikyemu who paired off so well with me? OJ: guri OC: *ɡun < *ɡur§ LH: ɡun EMC: ɡun GO: gumu KN: kun NOM: quần, quằn SV: quần SK: kun Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and as described under ku for the same graph, the only way to explain examples like 平群 pyeguri is to rely on data from Old Chinese. Baxter and Sagart (2014:261–262) demonstrate that the graph 鮮 is OC *sar-, and reconstruct 群 also with a final liquid, which the early Japanese (taught by their Paekche teachers?) used to transcribe ri. That the ancient scribes knew this is also found in a fragment from Yamashiro fudoki: 雙 栗 社 、 風 土記 南 群社 “Namiguri Shrine. Fudoki makes this Namiguri Shrine.” The current texts have 郡, but this is a mistake for 群. OJ: gwi OC: *ŋə LH: ŋɨə EMC: ŋjɨ GO: gi KN: gi NOM: ngờ, nghi SV: nghi SK: uy, ung, ul, ek Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It is interesting to note that there are no known examples of gwi or even gi in the Paekche orthographic pool or the Suiko era corpus. But this goes along with what has been said earlier, that a voiceless phonogram also often doubled as a prenasalized one. This is the only phonogram used for gwi in Kojiki, and it appears nine times. Ōno (1962:617) notes that some people claim 疑 in Kojiki represents a voiceless kwi, but he refutes this. The Chinese phonology (with initial ŋ-) supports this interpretation for a prenasalized initial. The problem is how to interpret the stanza in KK 4 阿佐阿米能・疑理迩多多牟叙 asa ame no kwiri ni tatamu zo 74

“I will be standing here when the mists, like morning rain, come.” Again the polyphonic principal is the simplest answer. Examples in Kojiki include 泥疑 negwi ‘be kind to,’ and one in a poem: KK 25 迩比婆理 nipibari How many nights have we slept 都久波袁須疑弖 tukuba wo sugwite since we passed through 伊久用加泥都流爾 ikuywo ka neturu ni Niibari and Tsukuba? The phonogram 疑 appears in Nihon Shoki four times in the poetry: NSK 31 阿布瀰能瀰 apumi no mi We captured at Uji 齋多能和多利珥 seta no watari ni the birds diving for food 介豆區苔利 kaduku tori at Seta Ferry 多那伽瀰須疑氐 tanakami sugwite on the Sea of Afumi 于泥珥等邏倍菟 uzi ni torabetu when we passed over Tanakami. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū roughly 50 times. MYS 817 烏梅能波奈 ume no pana The green willow 佐吉多流儈能々 sakitaru sono no in the garden where 阿遠也疑波 awoyagwi pa the plum is in bloom 可豆良尓須倍久 kadura ni subeku has filled out so well 奈利尓家良受夜 narinikyerazu ya that you could adorn you hair.

宜

義

OJ: gwi OC: *ŋai LH: ŋɨɑi EMC: ŋia GO: gi KN: gi NOM: NA SV: nghi SK: uy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. One of the earliest datings is around 685, since it appears in the 10th chapter of Kujiki, and the era of Tenmu is the latest recorded entry: 加宜国造, the governor of Kagwi Province. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū a total of 11 times: MYS 826 有知奈毘久 utinabiku Bending supplely 波流能也奈宜等 paru no yanagwi to the spring willow and 和我夜度能 wa ga yadwo no and the blossoms of 烏梅能波奈等遠 ume no pana to wo the plum in my garden— 伊可尓可和可武 ika ni ka wakamu how can I single out the better? See this phonogram under OJ ge for a fuller treatment. OJ: gwi OC: *ŋaih LH: ŋɨɑih EMC: ŋia GO: gi KN: gi NOM: nghĩa, nghì SV: nghĩa SK: uy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in the Suiko corpus once, but scholars are divided on the true reading of the graph. Some believe it should be read ge instead of gwi. Based on the Later Han reading, it should be read ge (which see). This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū:

75

MYS 4477 由布義理尓 知杼里乃奈吉志 佐保治乎婆 安良之也之弖牟 美流与之乎奈美

擬

吾

yupugwiri ni tidori no nakisi sapodi woba arasi ya sitemu miru yosi wo nami

Has the road to Saho where the plover called out in the evening fog been left to fall into decay, without my even seeing it (you)?

OJ: gwi OC: *ŋəʔ LH: ŋɨəʔ EMC: nɨʔ LMC: ŋi GO: gi KN: gi NOM: nghĩ SV: nghĩ SK: uy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears only in Nihon shoki, appearing twice in the annotational notes, and nine times in poetry: 榲、此云須 擬 “ ‘cedar’ is read sugwi” (NSG). NSK 94 伊須能箇瀰 isu no kami We passed through 賦屢嗚須擬底 puru wo sugwite Furu of Isunokami. 擧慕摩矩羅 komo makura We passed by the valley 柁箇播志須擬 takapasi sugwi of Takahashi of straw pillows. 慕能娑播儞 monosapa ni We walked through 於裒野該須擬 opoyake sugwi Ōyake where many things are. 播屢比 parupi We went by Kasuga, 箇須我嗚須擬 kasuga wo sugwi written ‘spring-day.’ 逗摩御慕屢 tumagomoru We traveled through 嗚佐裒嗚須擬 wosapo wo sugwi Osaho, the hidden wife. 拕摩該儞播 tamake nipa On the jeweled ritual plate 伊比佐倍母理 ipi sape mori we piled rice high. 拕摩慕比儞 tamamopi ni The jeweled ritual cup 瀰逗佐倍母理 midu sape mori we filled with water. 儺岐曾裒遲喩倶謀 nakisopoti yuku mo On goes the procession, 柯㝵比謎阿婆例 kage pimye apare weeping and wet; poor Kagehime. OJ: gwo OC: *ŋâ LH: ŋɑ > ŋɔ EMC: ŋɔ GO: gu KN: go NOM: ngo SV: ngô SK: wo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. There is one example in the Wei zhi toponyms: 為吾 *we-gɔ. Likely because of the semantics, 吾 is the first person pronoun, this graph was generally avoided. This phonogram is used once in the annotational notes, and twice in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 齊 、 此 云 牟 吾 閉 “ ‘[the name] Mugohe’ is read mugwope” (NSG). NSK 98 比攞哿駄喩 pirakata yu Heading up through 輔曳輔枳能朋樓 puye puki noboru the port of Hirakata 阿符美能野 apumi no ya someone plays a flute. 76

愷那能倭倶吾伊 kena no wakugwo i It is young Kena of Afumi, 輔曳符枳能朋樓 puye puki noboru playing as he rows upstream. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, but there is some disagreement about whether it transcribes gwo or gu: MYS 3564 古須氣呂乃 kwosugero no Like the wind that blows over 宇良布久可是能 ura puku kaze no the tips of the tiny sedge leaves, 安騰須酒香 ado susu KA why would I ponder 可奈之家兒呂乎 kanasikye KWOro wo over and over about 於毛比須吾左牟 omopisugwosamu my beloved girl? My translation follows several interpretations from Vovin (2012:249–250).

胡

OJ: gwo, kwo OC: * ɡâ LH: ɡɑ > ɡɔ EMC: ɣɔ LMC: xɦuə GO: go KN: ko NOM: hò, hồ SV: hồ SK: hwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This phonogram appears in Shoki roughly ten times. Three examples, one from the Paekche records, one from Nintoku, and the other from the record of Jitō, illustrate the usage of this graph: 百済本記云、遣召烏胡跛臣。蓋是的臣也。“Paekche pongi says, ‘Ugwopa Omi was summoned.’ Perhaps this is Ikupa Omi” (NSG). The resemblance of these two names is indeed striking, and the second syllable, gwo > ku, is highly likely. The second example is: 播磨佐伯直阿俄能胡 Parima sapeki ATAPI aganokwo (NSG). This same name is also found in Parima fudoki as 阿我乃古 Aganokwo, providing proof that the reading was a voiceless velar: /kwo/. The last example is a place name, 阿胡行宮 akwo [NO] KARIMIYA “the temporary palace of Akwo.” Ienaga et al. (1986:2.514) wish to read this ago, but one line later is the name of a person from this area, with the surname (title) 阿 古志 akwosi, which the NKBT editors note is 未詳 “of unclear meaning.” It seems highly likely that this name is related to the place name Akwo. It thus seems fairly clear that when found in the Paekche quotes, the prenasalized version gwo is earlier, and the use by the Shoki scribes is generally based on LMC. The prenasalized version continued into the early Nara era. The earliest datable example of this phonogram is from the 731 tax register of the province of Izumo, in names such as 賣 胡 賣 Myegwomye and 加 胡 賣 Kagwomye. Kojiki uses this phonogram exclusively for gwo, but it is only used three times in the record: 亞亞志夜胡志夜 / 阿阿志夜胡志夜 ee siyagwo siya / aa siyagwo siya ‘Ah ha! You sucker!’ (KG). KK 110 意布袁余志 opuwo yosi Harpooning tuna, 斯毘都久阿麻余 sibi tuku ama yo the great fish that are good— 斯賀阿禮婆 si ga areba when she gets away 宇良胡本斯祁牟 uragwopwosikyemu you will hunger for her, 志毘都久志毘 sibi tuku sibi Master Shibi who harpoons tuna. This phonogram is also used three times in the poetry of Shoki, read /kwo/. Below are two examples. 77

NSK 18 瀰磨紀 mimakwi Woe is Mimaki 異利寐胡播揶 iribikwo paya Iribiko! 飫廼餓烏塢 ono ga wo wo Occupying himself 志齊務苔 sisemu to with a princess, 農殊末句志羅珥 nusumaku sirani unaware that someone is 比賣那素寐殊望 pimye na swobi su mo waiting to take his life. NSK 42 知破椰臂苔 tipaya pito Endowed with power 于旎能和多利珥 udi no watari ni you potent people 佐烏刀利珥 sawo twori ni who hold the staff. 破揶鷄務臂苔辭 payakyemu pito si at the ferry of Uji— 和餓毛胡珥虚務 wa ga mwokwo ni komu come rescue me, companions! As both clearly show, this must be read kwo. There is no reason to read the name Mimaki Iribigwo, especially as Kojiki, which is very particular about its character usage, transcribes his name as 御真木入日子 MIMAKWI IRIBIKWO. Also, the word in NSK 42 mwokwo ‘companion’ is mentioned in Shinsen jikyō with the attending reading of 毛古 mokwo. There are only two examples of this phonogram representing gwo in Nihon shoki, which must be an earlier usage, attesting to the eclectic nature of Shoki: 陽胡史 Yagwo PUBITO (NSG) and 阿胡行宮 Agwo Temporary Palace (NSG). This is one of the primary phonograms in Man’yōshū to represent gwo, used 24 times. MYS 12 WA GA PORIsi You have shown me 吾欲之 NWOSIMA pa MIsetu the Island of No I desired to see. 野嶋波見世追 SOKO PUKAki But you have not found 底深伎 the pearl on the deep sea bottom 阿胡根能浦乃 agwoNE no URA no TAMA so PIRIPANU of the bay of Agone. 珠曽不拾

候

OJ: gwo OC: *ɡô LH: ɡo EMC: ɣəw GO: go KN: kou NOM: hầu SV: hầu, hậu SK: wo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The earliest datable appearance of this usage appears on a wooden document (mokkan) excavated from the ruins in Nara: 陽候黒須 Yagwo KURWOsu (MK 12594). Another example appears on a wooden document dated 天平八年八月二日付 ‘second day of the eighth month of the eighth year of Tenpyō (736).’ That name is 陽侯吉足 Yagwo KITITARI (MK 4513). Shōsōin also contains a number of Nara era documents which contain this phonogram, all examples transcribing the surname yagwo 楊候・陽 候・揚候. Aside from this surname, this phonogram is mainly used to transcribe toponyms. For example, Shoku Nihongi records the place name Kimigwo variously as 吉彌候 or 吉美候.

78

後

虞

誤

呉

OJ: gwo OC: * ɡôʔ or *ɦôʔ LH: ɡoʔ or ɣoʔ EMC: ɣəw GO: go KN: kou NOM: hậu SV: hậu SK: wo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The earliest datable example appears in the Atago District, Yamashiro Province tax record of 733, in the name 宇麻後賣 Umagwomye. This phonogram also appears in Shoku Nihongi in the name 波多 牟後閇 Pata Mugwope (700.10.15). This phonogram is used once in Man’yōshū in the toponym 阿後尼原 agwone [NO] PARA ‘the plain of Agwone’ (MYS 3236). OJ: gwo OC: *ŋwa LH: ŋyɑ EMC: ŋua GO: go KN: gu NOM: NA SV: ngu SK: wu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only once in Man’yōshū: MYS 24 UTUSEMI NO An empty shell, 空蝉之 INOTI wo WOSImi grudingly holding on to life 命乎惜美 NAMI ni NURE wet from the waves 浪尓所濕 I cut gemweed from 伊良虞能嶋之 iragwo no SIMA NO TAMAMO KARIPAMU Irago Island and eat it. 玉藻苅食 OJ: gwo OC: *ŋwâh LH: ŋuɑh > ŋuoh EMC: ŋɔ LMC: ŋuə GO: go KN: go NOM: ngộ SV: ngộ SK: wo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing once in the annotational notes and six times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 魁師此云比登誤廼伽瀰 “ ‘The chief bandit’ is called pitogwo no kami” (NSG). NSK 8 伽牟伽筮能 kamukaze no On the large boulder 伊齊能于瀰能 ise no umi no by the sea of Ise, 於費異之珥夜 opoisi niya swept by violent winds— 異波臂茂等倍屢 ipapimotoporu the sea snails crawl about: 之多儾瀰能 sitadami no the perwinkle. 之多儾瀰能 sitadami no And like those sea snails, 阿誤豫 agwo yo you, my troops! 阿誤豫 agwo yo You, my sons! 之多太瀰能 sitadami no Like the periwinkle, 異波比茂等倍離 ipapimotopori we will encircle them, 于智弖之夜莽務 utitesiyamamu utterly destroying them! 于智弖之夜莽務 utitesiyamamu Destroying the enemy! OJ: gwo LH: ŋuɑ > ŋuɔ NOM: ngo

OC: *ŋwâ GO: gu KN: go SK: wo

EMC: ŋɔ SV: ngô 79

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. A few examples appear in Nihon shoki and Man’yōshū. The single example in Nihon shoki appears in the poetry. NSK 105 于泥備椰摩 unebwi yama Though the trees 虚多智于須家苔 kotati usukyedo are sparse on Mount Unebi, 多能彌介茂 tanomi kamo is it the young Ketsu 氣菟能和區呉能 ketu no wakugwo no who has hidden himself there 虚茂羅勢利祁牟 komoraserikyemu hoping for support? This phonogram is used often in Man’yōshū to transcribe the toponym nagwo no URA ‘the bay of Nago’ (奈呉乃浦) or nagwo no UMI ‘the sea of Nago’ (奈呉 能海).

悟

娯 下

OJ: gwo OC: *ŋâh LH: ŋɑh > ŋɔ EMC: ŋɔ LMC: ŋuə GO: go KN: go NOM: ngộ SV: ngộ SK: wo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in Shoki only once, in the final poem in the work. NSK 128 阿箇悟馬能 akagwoma no The red horse hesitates 以喩企波々箇屢 wiuki pabakaru to move toward 麻矩儒播羅 makuzupara the true vine field. 奈爾能都底擧騰 nani no tutekoto Why send a message when you 多頴尼之曳鶏武 tada nisi yekyemu can just say it directly? OJ: gwo OC: *ŋwa LH: ŋyɑ >ŋuɔ EMC: ŋua LMC: ŋya GO: go KN: go NOM: ngu SV: ngụ, ngu SK: wu Usage / History: See this under OJ gu. OJ: gye OC: *ɡrâʔ LH: ɡaʔ EMC: ɣɛ: GO: ge KN: ka NOM: hạ SV: há, hạ SK: ha Usage / History: This graph belongs to the LJS. One of the oldest extant examples of representing gye with 下 is in Kojiki, where it appears once. People since the days of Arisaka Hideyo have denied that this phonogram was used to write /gye/. That single example appears near the beginning of the book: 久羅下那州多陀用 幣流之時 kuragye nasu tadaywopyeru “drifting like a jellyfish” (KG). Here ‘jellyfish’ is correctly written kuragye. The first datable document containing 下 is the Mino Census of 702, where the toponym mugyetu is represented either as 牟下津 or 牟下都.

80

牙

介

雅

OJ: gye OC: *ŋrâ LH: ŋa EMC: ŋɛ: GO: ge KN: ga NOM: nha, ngà SV: nha SK: a Usage / History: This graph also belongs to the LJS. The phonogram 牙 is found in Kojiki, used in the poetry for /gye/, but only once: KK 21 宇泥備夜麻 unebwi yama Mount Unebi— 比流波久毛登韋 piru pa kumwo towi daytime clouds float along. 由布佐禮婆 yupu sareba When evening comes 加是布加牟登曾 kaze pukamu to so the winds are about to blow; 許能波佐夜牙流 ko no pa sayagyeru the leaves of the trees are rustling. This phonogram appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 3489 安豆左由美 adusayumi I left my beloved standing 欲良能夜麻邊能 ywora no yamapye no among the overgrown brush 之牙可久尓 sigyekaku ni near Mount Yora 伊毛呂乎多弖天 imoro wo tatete of the catalpa bow. 左祢度波良布母 sanedwo parapu mo I am clearing our sleeping place. OJ: gye OC: *krê(t)s LH: kɛs EMC: kɛ:j GO: ke KN: kai NOM: giới SV: giới SK: kay, kal Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It clearly transcribes kye, but there are two poems in Man’yōshū (MYS 4106 and 4116), where the reader, using the polyphonic principal, infers that the graph in question represents gye, not kye. Both poems contain the word nagyeku ‘to lament.’ The first example is represented as 奈介可須 nagyekasu ‘lamenting’ (MYS 4106), and the other is 奈介伎都々 nagyeki tutu ‘while lamenting’ (MYS 4116). It should be said that both examples show a lack of knowledge of the proper usage, as the verb should be nageku. OJ: gye OC: *ŋrâʔ LH: ŋaʔ EMC: ŋɛ: GO: ga KN: ge NOM: nhá, nhã SV: nhã, nha SK: a Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It only appears in Man’yōshū three times. The following poem has this graph twice. MYS 3875: 琴酒乎 KOTOSAKE wo Notably pulled apart OSITARE WONWO YU the water gushing 押垂小野従 IDURU MIDU from the moor of Oshitare 出流水 does not come out warm. 奴流久波不出 nuruku pa IDEZU SAMU MIDU NO The person I think of 寒水之 KOKORO mo keya ni with this heart strong 心毛計夜尓 OMOPOYURU like cold water, 所念 81

音之少寸 道尓相奴鴨 少寸四 道尓相佐婆 伊呂雅世流 菅笠小笠 吾宇奈雅流 珠乃七條 取替毛 将申物乎 少寸 道尓相奴鴨

夏

霓

OTO NO SUKUNAKI MITI ni APANU KAMO SUKUNAKI YO MITI ni APAsaba

irogyeseru

SUGAKASA WOGASA WA GA unagyeru TAMA no NANATUWO TORIKAPE mo MAWOSAMU MONO wo SUKUNAKI MITI ni APAnu KAMO

will I not meet him on the road with few signs of people? If I meet him on the road with few signs of people then I would suggest that we trade my small hat of sedge that is so colorful and the seven strands of jewels hung around my neck— if we were to meet on the road with few signs of people.

OJ: gye OC: *ɡrâʔ LH: ɡaʔ EMC: ɣɛ: GO: ge KN: ka NOM: hạ SV: hạ SK: ha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Man’yōshū three times. MYS 872 夜麻能奈等 yama no na to Wanting to hand down 伊賓都夏等可母 ipitugye to kamo the name of this mountain— 佐用比賣何 saywopimye ga could it be that Princess Sayo 許能野麻能閇仁 kono yama no pe ni is on the mountain top 必例遠布利家牟 pire wo purikyemu waving her scarf? OJ: gye OC: *ŋê or *ŋêt LH: ŋe or ŋet EMC: ŋɛj LMC: ŋjiaj GO: gei KN: gei NOM: nghi, mống SV: nghê SK: yey, yek Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This phonogram appears once in Shoki: 聞喧擾之響焉此云左揶霓利奈離 “ ‘We hear that [the land] is reverberating with commotion’ is read sayagyeri nari” (NSG).

H For phonograms traditionally listed under ha-gyō (はひふへほ) see the respective readings under p-, i.e. pa, pi, pu, etc.

82

I 伊

OJ: i OC: *ʔi LH: *ʔi EMC: ʔji GO: i KN: i NOM: y SV: y SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. The oldest known examples occur in Wei zhi in the Wa toponyms 伊都 *i-tɔ and 伊邪 *i-ya, the official title 伊支 馬 *i-ke-ma, and the personal name 伊聲耆 *i-se-gə. This graph also appears on the Silla inscription of 536 (second year of bing chen) where the name of an envoy, 只珍巴伊即刀 *ki-təl-pa-i-tsik-tɔ, is recorded. Also the quotes from Paekche records in Shoki use 伊 a total of 164 times, with examples such as: personal names 伊羅麻酒 Iramasu and 伊企儺 Ikina. The oldest extant example within Japan appears on the Eta Funayama tumulus sword, where the name 伊太加 *i-da-ka is recorded as the name of the swordsmith. This phonogram also appears in the earliest extant corpus of Japanese texts. In the Jōgūki fragment we find 伊自牟良君 Izimura KIMI and 伊久牟尼利比 古大王 Great King Ikumuneri Pikwo. Also in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu we find a poem supposedly written after Shōtoku Taishi’s wife, Kashiwade Otōji passed away. 伊我留我乃 ikaruga no In Ikaruga springs water from 止美能井乃美豆 tomi no WI no midu the fountain of Tomi. 伊加奈久尓 ikanakuni If I had known she could not 多義弖麻之母乃 tagete masimono live without that water, I would have let her drink some. 止美乃井能美豆 tomi no WI no midu This phonogram appears in the liturgies: 香取坐伊波比主命 KATORI NI IMASU ipapi NUSI [NO] MIKOTO ‘and the deity Iwahi Nushi no Mikoto who resides in Katori…’ (NT 2). This is the primary graph to transcribe i in Kojiki: 伊都久 ituku ‘sacredly,’ 伊自牟國造 izimu KUNI [NO] MIYATUKWO ‘governors of Ijimu Province’ (KG), and 伊呂勢 irose ‘uterine brothers’ (KG). KK 31 伊能知能 inoti no You people who return 麻多祁牟比登波 matakyemu pito pa without losing your lives, 多多美許母 tatami komo take a leaf from the bear-like 幣具理能夜麻能 pyeguri no yama no oak tree on Mount Heguri 久麻加志賀波袁 kumakasi ga pa wo of many folds 宇受爾佐勢曾能古 uzu ni sase sono kwo and adorn your hair with it. This is also the principal phonogram in Nihon shoki to transcribe i, used in annotational notes like 言屋、此云伊浮瑘 “ ‘the name say-roof’ is read ipuya” (NSG).

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NSK 19 飫朋佐介珥 oposaka ni If people were to 菟藝廼煩例屢 tuginoboreru pass down hand to hand 伊辭務邏塢 isimura wo all the boulders that 多誤辭珥固佐縻 tagwosi ni kwosaba make up Mount Ōsaka 固辭介氐務介茂 kwosikatemu kamo perhaps it could be moved. This is the standard graph used to transcribe i in Man’yōshū, where it is used 909 times. MYS 14 From the plains of Inamikuni 高山与 KAGUYAMA TO MIMINASHI YAMA TO a great deity arose and came 耳梨山与 APISI TOKI to watch when Mount Kagu 相之時 TATITE MIniKOsi and Mount Miminashi 立見尓来之 squared off to fight. 伊奈美國波良 inamiKUNI para The abbreviated form of this phonogram became katakana イ.

夷

移

OJ: i OC: *l(ə)i LH: ji EMC: ji GO: i KN: i NOM: dì, di, dai SV: di SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It means ‘barbarian,’ and was originally applied by the Zhou Chinese to non-Han tribes. It was later used by the Chinese for the barbarians located to the east of their court, including the ancient Wa. The phonogram appears in the quotes found in Nihon shoki of material from Paekche: 安羅次旱岐夷呑奚 I-ton-Kei, a prince of Alla; 多羅下旱岐夷他 I-ta, a prince of Lower Tala. The phonogram also appears in several other works, but mainly in place names. Phonologically, this phonogram appears to have come into Japan after the Paekche tutors first introduced Chinese to the Wa. Ōno (1962:52) makes a fitting statement, “It is interesting that after the Suiko era this phonogram is almost completely limited to the representation of toponyms.” The two examples from the Suiko era corpus are both place names: 夷与村 iyo MURA ‘Iyo Village,’ and 夷波礼 ipare ‘Iware.’ This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū in the toponym 記夷城 Kwi-i Fortress (MYS 1472). OJ: i OC: *lai LH: *jɑi EMC: jiă LMC: ji GO: i KN: i NOM: dời, dây, dê SV: di, dị SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, as originally pointed out by Kinoshita (1964). It is important to note, however, that this phonogram was used to transcribe two different sounds, i and ya. Coblin (1994:212) notes that transcriptions in the Dharmakṣema (Chinese name 曇無讖) use 移 to transcribe -ya-, -ye-, and -yi-. It seems clear that the reading of ya is the older (see 移 under ya). The syllable i derives from Early Middle Chinese or perhaps Late Middle Chinese (ji). That explains why the use of this graph to transcribe i mainly appears in Man’yōshū, but not frequently enough to have been considered 84

worthy of consideration by Lange 1973. The phonogram 移 appears in the following Man’yōshū poem: MYS 3353 阿良多麻能 aratama no I left you standing there 伎倍乃波也之尓 kibe no payasi ni in the grove of Kibe 奈乎多弖天 na wo tatete in Aratama, 由伎可都麻思自 yukikatumasizi but I cannot leave yet. 移乎佐伎太多尼 i wo sakidatane Let’s go to sleep first.

已

異

OJ: i OC: *ləʔ LH: jəʔ EMC: jɨ > ji GO: i KN: i NOM: dĩ SV: dĩ SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Man’yōshū and then only in Book 20, where it is used seven times. MYS 4337 美豆等利乃 midutori no Water birds take to flight— 多知能已蘇岐尓 tati no iswogi ni in a rush to get ready to leave TITI PAPA ni I departed without saying 父母尓 毛能波須價尓弖 mono pazukyenite a word to father and mother. 已麻叙久夜志伎 ima zo kuyasiki I now regret that. OJ: i OC: *ləkh LH: jəh EMC: jɨ > ji LMC: ji GO: i KN: i NOM: dị SV: dị SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS and appears in a newer strata of orthographic usage in Japanese, confined mainly to Nihon shoki, and parts of Man’yōshū. To be specific, Shoki uses this phonogram twice in annotational notes and 18 times in the poetry: 郎姫此云、異羅菟咩 “ ‘paternal daughter’ is read iratumye” (NSG), and 壓乞此云、異提 “ ‘Come on!’ is read ide” (NSG). NSK 40 阿波旎辭摩 apadisima The isle of Awaji 異椰敷多那羅弭 iya puta narabi truly lies next to Azuki Island. 阿豆枳辭摩 adukisima The isle of Azuki 異椰敷多那羅弭 iya puta narabi truly lies next to Awaji— 豫呂辭枳辭摩之魔 yoroskiki sima sima such wonderful islands. 儾伽多佐例阿羅智之 taka tasare aratisi Who is taking my consort? 吉備那流伊慕塢 kibwi naru imo wo I had just become intimate 阿比瀰菟流慕能 apimituru mono with that maiden from Kibi. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, but it is quite rare, appearing only twice. MYS 2991 hiding in their cocoons, 眉隠 MAYWOGOMORI 馬聲蜂音石花蜘蟵荒鹿 IBUSEKU MO ARU KA I am surrounded by gloom, because I cannot see you. 異母二不相而 imo ni APAZUSITE

85

以

OJ: i OC: *ləʔ LOC: diw EMC: jɨ LMC: ji GO: i KN: i NOM: dĩ SV: dĩ SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to CBS. This phonogram is mainly found in Shoki, three times in annotational notes, and 14 times in the poetry: 灼然此云、以耶知 擧 “ ‘manifest’ is read iyatiko” (NSG). NSK 128 阿箇悟馬能 akagwoma no The red horse hestitates 以喩企波々箇屢 iyuki pabakaru to move toward 麻矩儒播羅 makuzupara the true vine field. 奈爾能都底擧騰 nani no tute koto Why send a message when you 多頴尼之曳鶏武 tadanisiyekyemu can just say it directly? This graph also appears in Man’yōshū, but it is limited to eight occurrences in Book 20. MYS 4386 和加々都乃 wa ga kadu no Like the forever five willows 以都母等夜奈枳 itu moto yanagwi that stand by our gate, 以都母以都母 itumo itumo my mother will always, forever, 於母加古比須須 omo ga kwopisusu long for me even as 奈理麻之都之母 narimasi tusi mo she goes about her work. The cursive form of this phonogram is the basis for kana い.

怡

OJ: i OC: *lə LH: jə EMC: jɨ LMC: ji GO: i KN: i NOM: di SV: di SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs, I believe, to the CBS, judging by the Late Middle Chinese reading. It appears four times in Nihon shoki, all in the record of Jinmu: 厳瓮此云、怡途背 “ ‘sacred jar’ is read itupe” (NSG), 顕斎此云、于図詩怡 破毘, “ ‘celebrate the divine immanence’ is read utusi ipapi” (NSG).

易

OJ: i OC: *lekh or *lek LH: jeh or jek EMC, LMC: jia, jiajk GO: i, yaku KN: i, eki NOM: dịch, diệc, dễ SV: dị, dịch SK: i, yek Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears in Nihon shoki. This phonogram appears only twice in song. NSK 12 哆々奈梅弖 tatanamete With our shields arrayed 伊那瑳能椰摩能 inasa no yama no we have fought many battles 虚能莽由毛 ko no mayu mo on Mount Inasa, 易喩耆摩毛羅毘 iyuki mamworapi going through the trees 多々介陪麼 tatakapeba and watching the enemy. 和例破椰隈怒 ware pa ya wenu Thus are we famished. 之摩途等利 simatutori Birds of the island—

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宇介譬餓等茂 伊莽輸開珥虚禰

ukapi ga tomo ima suke ni kone

come now to our rescue, you friends of the cormorants.

射

OJ: i OC: *m-lak or *m-lakh LH: źak, źah EMC: jiajk, jia GO: yaku, ya, zia KN: eki, ya, sia NOM: xạ SV: xạ SK: sya, syek, ya Usage / History: This is a kungana, calling to mind the infinitive of the OJ verb iru ‘shoot.’ This graph appears mainly in Man’yōshū and Harima fudoki. The single example from Harima fudoki is in the place name 射和 iwa. Man’yōshū contains many examples. MYS 939 As the waves of the offing 奥浪 OKITUNAMI and the waves by the shore 邊波安美 pyeNAMI SIDUKYEmi have quieted down, 射去為登 IZARI SU to PUDIYE no URA ni boats are making waves as they 藤江乃浦尓 PUNE so SAWAKYEru head out to Fujie Bay to fish. 船曽動流

五

OJ: i OC: *ŋâʔ LH: ŋɑʔ EMC: ŋɔ GO: go KN: go NOM: ngũ SV: ngô,ngũ SK: wo Usage / History: This is a very popular kungana, suggesting to the reader the OJ word i ‘five’ in a compound like ipo ‘five hundred’ or just i ‘fifty.’ The earliest datable examples are from the Taihō Census: 五百智 IPOti, 五百麻呂 IPO Maro, or 五百江賣 IPOYEmye. This graph (or compound) is also found in Kojiki, in names like 五百木之入日子命 IPOKWI NO IRIBIKWO [NO] MIKOTO, and 五 十日帯日子 IKA TARASIBIKWO. There are also many examples of this usage in Nihon shoki: 五百城入彦皇子 Prince IPOKWI IRIBIKWO (NSG), 五十猛神 the deity ITAKYERU (NSG), and 五十鈴姫 Princess ISUZU (NSG).

膽

OJ: i OC: *tâmʔ LH: tɑmʔ EMC: tam GO: tamu KN: tamu NOM: đảm SV: đảm SK: tam Usage / History: This is a kungana, suggesting to the reader OJ i ‘gallbladder.’ This usage appears in Nihon shoki a number of times, in names such as: 婀娜國膽殖屯倉 ana [NO] KUNI INIWE [NO] MIYAKE ‘the granary of Iniwe in Ana’ (NSG), 膽年 部屯倉 ITOSIBYE [NO] MIYAKE ‘the granary of Itoshibe’ (NSG), and 膽津 Itu (NSG). OJ: i OC: NA LH: NA EMC: NA GO: NA KN: NA NOM: NA SV: NA SK: NA Usage / History: This is a graphic game, where the Chinese semantics are the hint to the reading. Here the Chinese 馬聲 ‘horse-voice’ suggests to the reader OJ i ‘neigh,’

馬聲

87

which is the sound a horse makes according to ancient Japanese. This usage is peculiar to Man’yōshū, appearing once: MYS 2991 hiding in their cocoons, 眉隠 MAYWOGOMORI 馬聲蜂音石花蜘蟵荒鹿 IBUSEKU MO ARU KA I am surrounded by gloom, because I cannot see you. 異母二不相而 imo ni APAZUSITE

因 印

揖

OJ: ina OC: *ʔin LH: ʔin EMC: ʔjin GO: imu KN: imu NOM: nhân SV: nhân SK: in Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears on the Ibukibe epitaph (710): 因幡國 Inaba Province. Shōsōin documents also preserve the usage 因佐 Inasa. While Hokekyō ongi has several cases of this phonogram glossed as imu, it is also plausible that the reading was inu. OJ: ini, i OC: *ʔins LH: ʔinh EMC: ʔjin GO: i, imu KN: in NOM: ấn, in SV: ấn SK: in Usage / History: This phonogram also belongs to the PBS. It appears as ini in certain words. This phonogram appears in Shoki, appearing in the Kinmei record six times, mainly used to transcribe two names: 印奇臣 iga-OMI, 印支彌 ikimi. This phonogram also appears on several mokkan: 播磨国印南郡 Parima Province Inami District (unnumbered tablet). This phonogram was later used in Kojiki as well as Man’yōshū. Kojiki uses this phonogram to write ini, such as the name 印色之入日子 inisiki [NO] IRIBIKWO (KG). This phonogram is used in Hitachi fudoki to transcribe the toponym 印波 Inipa. In Harima fudoki this graph is used to transcribe 印南 Inami. By the time of Man’yōshū this phonogram was primarily used to transcribe i. MYS 1178 It seems that we have 印南野者 inamiNWO PA YUKISUGWInurasi gone through Inami Field. 徃過奴良之 AMADUTAPU At Hikasa Bay 天傳 PIKASA NO URA the sun crossing the sky 日笠浦 NAMI TATERI MIYU we can see the waves rising. 波立見 OJ: ipi, ipu OC: *tsəp or *tsrəp LH: tsip EMC: ʔjip GO: ifu KN: ifu NOM: ấp, ập, ắp SV: ấp, tập SK: up, cup Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This graph appears in Harima fudoki in the toponym 揖保郡 Ipipo District. In the Shōsōin documents there is also the toponym 美濃國武義郡揖可郷 Minwo Province Muge District Ipuka Village.

88

壹

OJ: iti, i OC: *ʔit LH: * ʔit EMC: ʔjit GO: iti KN: itu NOM: nhất SV: nhất SK: il Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It has been used ever since the third century to represent the name 壹岐嶋 Iki Island. An example also appears on the Silla Musulo stele (578): 壹兮氻村 *it-gey-lək Village. In Kojiki this graph appears in the following names: 壹比韋臣 Itipiwi OMI (KG) and 壹師君 Itisi KIMI (KG). All examples of this usage in Nihon shoki are either for 壹岐 Iki Island or 壹伎 Iki, the name of an individual. In Man’yōshū this graph is used in the toponym Iki. In poetry this graph appears once. MYS 2480 MITI NO pye NO Like the Ichishi flower blooming 路邊 along the side of the road 壹師花 itisi NO PANA NO 灼然 ITISIRWOKU in all its splendor. PITO MINA SIRINU Everyone now knows 人皆知 A GA KWOPWIDUMA PA about the woman I long for. 我戀孋

89

K 加

OJ: ka OC: *krâi LH: kai EMC: kaɨ GO: ka KN: ka NOM: gia SV: gia SK: ka Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in the title of a governmental rank at the court of Koguryŏ: 古雛加 *kɔ-dzo-ka. This graph also appears on the Kwangkaytho stele: 掃加城 *səw-ka Fortress, 加太羅谷 *ka-ta-ra Valley, 加羅 *ka-ra ‘land of Kara’ This graph also appears on the Eta Funayama tumulus sword inscription (伊 太加 *Idaka), though the third phonogram is damaged. If the dating still seems insecure, the phonogram 加 also appears on the Inariyama tumulus sword five times, all used in personal names. The most intriguing of the five is the name of the king, 獲加多支鹵大王. This appears to represent Great King Waka Takero. This phonogram appears in a number of names preserved in Paekche materials quoted by the Nihon shoki editors: 都加 Tuka and 百濟加須利君 Kasuri KIMI of Paekche. This phonogram appears in the Suiko-era inscriptions: 須 加 弖 古 女 王 Princess Sukatekwo, and 止余美気加志支夜比売天皇 Great King Toyo Mike Kasikiya Pimye (later known as Suiko). The graph also appears in a song supposedly written by Shōtoku Taishi for his wife Ōtoji who had passed away: 伊我留我乃 ikaruga no In Ikaruga springs water from the fountain of Tomi. 止美能井乃美豆 tomi no WI no midu 伊加奈久尓 ikanakuni If I had known she could not 多義弖麻之母乃 tagete masimono live without that water, I would have let her drink some. 止美乃井能美豆 tomi no WI no midu This phonogram appears in the liturgies: 牖乃錯比(古語云伎加比)動鳴事 無久 MADO no KIKApi (KOGO NI kikapi TO IPU) UGOKI NARU KOTO NAku “Let there be no movement and creaking from the windows meshing together (which in the old vernacular is called kikapi)…” (NT 8). This phonogram appears on numerous mokkan: 道守奈加麻呂 TIMORI Nakamaro (MK 446), 玉尓有皮手 尓麻伎母知而伊□・□□皮伊加尓加 TAMA ni ARU pa TE ni makimotiTE iX…XX pa ikani ka… “As for what is on the jewels, wrap them around your wrist…why…?” (MKK 10:90). This phonogram is also popular in Kojiki: 加邪 kaya ‘thatch (but also a general designation for a variety of plants)’ (KG), and 宇士多加禮許呂呂岐弖 udi takare kororokite ‘‘maggots had gathered and were squirming about” (KG). KK 59 夜麻斯呂迩 yamasiro ni Mount Bird in Yamshiro, 伊斯祁登理夜麻 isike tori yama go after her! 伊斯祁伊斯祁 isike isike After her! After her! 阿賀波斯豆麻迩 a ga pasiduma ni Follow my beloved spouse; 伊斯岐阿波牟加母 isiki apamu kamo catch up and meet her, will you! 90

This phonogram appears sparingly in Nihon shoki, five times in annotational notes and once in the poetry: 岐神、此云布那斗能加微 “ ‘the deity of the fork in the road’ is read punatwo no kamwi” (NSG). NSK 72 於朋摩幣 opomapye Everyone! 烏摩幣輸區泥餓 womapye sukune ga Gather together under 訶那杜加礙 kanatwokage the eaves of the iron gate 訶區多智豫羅泥 kaku tatiyorane of Ōmae and Womae. 阿梅多知夜梅牟 ame tatiyamemu The rain will soon abate. This is not the primary phonogram in Man’yōshū to transcribe ka, but it is still used fairly frequently, appearing 384 times (compared with 可 1528 times). MYS 39 YAMA KAPA mo Even the mountains and rivers 山川毛 YORITE TUKAPUru come and offer obeisance 因而奉流 KAMUNAGARA to the divine will. 神長柄 How the boat of the divine ruler 多藝津河内尓 tagiTU KAPUTI ni PUNADE SESU kamo sets out into the violent waters. 船出為加母 The kana form か is a cursive derivative of 加. Naturally, scholars see the left half as the origin of the katakana form カ.

居

OJ: ka OC: *kaʔ or *kah LH: kɨɑ(h) EMC: kɨə GO: ko KN: kio NOM: cư SV: cư SK: ke, kuy Usage / History: This phonogram, used to transcribe ka, belongs to the WS. There is a helpful hint in the work of Zheng Xuan (127–200 CE), where he often gives phonological clues to how some phonograms are pronounced in provincial places. Regarding this graph, he writes 居讀爲姫姓之姫、齊魯之間語助也 “居 is read like 姫, the one that is a surname. It is a helping word used in the area between Qi and Lu.” Sino-Xenic helps us unravel this description. The GO for 姫 is ki, and SK is kuy. What is of greater value is SV which has cơ, phonetically [kəə] which is quite close to [kɑ]. Thus it is reasonably certain that by the time of Wei zhi that 居 still reflected ka. This usage appears in the Koguryŏ section of Wei zhi where it notes that one of the names of the Koguryŏ royalty is 優居 *ʔu-kɨɑ. Using this same information, a look at the name 多沙鬼獲居 carved on the blade of the Inariyama tumulus sword, a name often interpreted as tasakwi wake, is quite interesting. Considering the dating of the inscription (fifth or sixth century CE), this usage is closer to Later Han than EMC. As Miyake has theorized, this is a name, tasakwi waka, or Waka of the Tasa Fortress (p.c.). This inscription also has two other important names: 乎獲居 wowaka ‘small waka,’ and 弖巳加利獲居 teyokariwaka Teyokari Waka. It is possible that this waka means ‘young one.’ This phonogram also appears on the Kwangkaytho stele: 男居城 *nam-ka fortress. This graph probably was reintroduced into the Japanese orthographic pool in the late sixth century or early seventh with its newer reading of ke. The reading of ko is even later (see 居 under ke and ko). 91

迦

OJ: ka OC: NA LH: ka EMC: kɨa, kaɨ GO: kia KN: ka, kia NOM: ca, già, dà SV: ca, dà SK: ka Usage / History: This phonogram also belongs to the PBS. It appears in the Paekche inscription from a bronze inscription on a Paekche statue of Buddha. The graph in question appears in the famous representation of Sakamuni 釈迦, *śakka. The inscription dates from a Kinoe Saru year, which is most likely 624. The same transcription appears on several mokkan (MKK 5:72, MKK 14:68, MKK 30:89). The oldest datable example of 迦 in Japan is found on the burial inscription of Prince Funa Obito, dated 668, writing ‘Asuka Palace’ as 阿須迦宮 and calls the great king who ruled from that palace 阿須迦天皇 Great King Asuka. This phonogram is quite prevalent in Kojiki: 火 之 迦 具 土 神 PO NO KaguTUTI [NO] KAMWI ‘the deity of fire’ (KG), 訓金云迦那 “ ‘metal’ is read kana” (KG), and 玉緒母由良迩取由良迦志而 TAMA [NO] WO mo yura ni TORIyurakasiTE ‘...took the string of jewels and gave it to her making the jewels sound’ (KG). KK 54 夜麻賀多迩 yamagata ni How delightful it is 麻祁流阿袁那母 makeru awona mo to pick together even 岐備比登登 kibwi pito to the greens that were planted 等母迩斯都米婆 tomo ni si tumeba in the mountain fields, 多怒斯久母阿流迦 tanwosiku mo aru ka with that person from Kibi. This phonogram is used but once in Shoki, in an annotational note: 御刀此 云彌波迦志, “ ‘august sword’ is read mipakasi” (NSG). This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū, but only in Books 5 and 20. It is used once to transcribe Sakamuni 釈迦, *śakka. It is used in the poetry 25 times. The following poem uses this phonogram six times. MYS 800 TITI PAPA wo You feel admiration 父母乎 美礼婆多布斗斯 mireba taputwosi seeing your father and mother. MYEKWO MIreba You feel love and affection 妻子見礼婆 米具斯宇都久志 megusi utukusi seeing your wife and children. 余能奈迦波 yo no naka pa As for society 加久叙許等和理 kaku zo kotowari this is only natural. 母智騰利乃 motidori no Like a bird caught in birdlime 可可良波志母与 kakarapasi mo yo it is difficult to get out, as we 由久弊斯良祢婆 yukupye siraneba do not know where to go. 宇既具都遠 ukegutu wo And like one who takes off 奴伎都流其等久 nukituru gotoku shoes with holes in them 布美奴伎提 puminukite people who step on 由久智布比等波 yuku tipu pito pa and walk away from family 伊波紀欲利 ipakwi ywori are perhaps ones who 奈利提志比等迦 nari desi pito ka are born of boulders or trees. 奈何名能良佐祢 na ga NA norasane Tell me your name! 阿米弊由迦婆 ame pye yukaba If you go toward heaven 奈何麻尓麻尓 na ga mani mani you can do as you please. 92

都智奈良婆 大王伊摩周 許能提羅周 日月能斯多波 阿麻久毛能 牟迦夫周伎波美 多尓具久能 佐和多流伎波美 企許斯遠周 久尓能麻保良叙 可尓迦久尓 保志伎麻尓麻尓 斯可尓波阿羅慈迦

奇

可

tuti naraba OPOKIMI imasu kono terasu PITUKWI no sita pa amakumwo no mukabusu kipami taniguku no sawataru kipami kikosi wosu kuni no mapora zo kanikaku ni posiki mani mani sika ni arazi ka

If you are on the earth then there is a great ruler. Below the sun and moon which sheds light here to the ends of where the clouds of the sky are, to the ends of the place where the toad dwells, this is the superior land that our sovereign rules over. Certainly it is not a place where one can do this or that as his heart desires.

OJ: ka OC: *kai LH: kɨɑi EMC: kiə GO: ki KN: ki NOM: cả, cơ, kÿ SV: cơ, kÿ SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram, used to transcribe ka, appears in quotes from peninsular records found in Nihon shoki, and in the earliest fragments of the Suiko era corpus. On this evidence, I place this graph in the PBS. In the third year of Kenzō appears the following name of a man from Mimana 那奇他甲背, glossed as nakata kapupai. It appears that the same name is also found in the record of Kinmei, this time written as 那干陀甲背, illustrating that the second phonogram was indeed read ka. In the record of Kinmei we see the name of a Paekche official of Japanese descent: 物部施徳麻 奇牟 MONONOBYE Makamu of the eighth rank. Later this same official appears, but his name is written as 物部莫奇武 MONONOBYE Makkamu. There is also the following example from the Suiko corpus: 止与彌挙奇斯 岐移比彌, which writes the name of Empress Suiko: toyo mike kasikiya pimye. This graph is later used to represent OJ kwi (which see). OJ: ka OC: *khaiʔ GO: ka KN: ka LH: khɑiʔ EMC: kha NOM: khả, khá SV: khả SK: ka Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This graph was generally avoided, because of its grammatical function in classical Chinese: ‘can, permissible,’ but this is still important evidence for its use as a phonogram preserved in Paekche materials quoted by Nihon shoki: 為 歌 可 君 Wikaka [NO] KIMI. If this orthography is based on Later Han, then these graphs would be read *wɨoi-kɑkhɑ, so this theoretically could represent waka-ka KIMI ‘Lord young-buck.’ Two examples of this phonogram also appear in Jōgū shōtoku hōō teisetsu. One of these examples is a name, while the other comes from the poetry: 甲可王 Prince Kapuka and 佐可留木 sakaruKWI an unknown variety of tree. Dating the name, Prince Kapuka, is difficult. Jōgūki writes the name as 加布加王 Prince Kapuka, and while the graphs do not match, the phonology does. If this was 93

written 甲可皇子, then we could date the name from around the era of Tenmu or Jitō, when the Chinese appellations of 皇子 ‘Prince’ began to be used. This is not the case, and so I believe this name and its usage can be dated from the Suiko era. This phonogram appears six times in the liturgies: 御殿。古語云阿良可 “Palace, which in the ancient vernacular was araka…” (NT 8). This phonogram also appears on a number of excavated wooden tablets: 紀伊国海部郡可太郷 Kii Province Ama District Kada Village (MK 428), 卜部可麻手 URABYE KamaDE (MK 1309). This phonogram is used sparingly in Kojiki and Nihon shoki. This graph appears once in Kojiki, in a song: KK 42 伊知比韋能 itipiwi no The earth of 和迩佐能迩袁 wani sa no ni wo Wani Hill in Ichii 波都迩波 patu ni pa is of a reddish tint 波陀阿可良氣美 pada akarakemi on the upper layer, 志波迩波 sipa ni pa while the lower layer 迩具漏岐由惠 nigurwoki yuwe is a reddish black. The phonogram 可 also appears in Nihon shoki in four annotational notes and one poem: 泉津平坂、此云余母都比羅佐可 “ ‘the level hill of Yomi’ is read yomotu pirasaka” (NSG). NSK 110 烏智可頴能 wotikata no The pheasants in the sparse field 阿娑努能枳々始 asanwo no kigisi off in the distance 騰余謀佐儒 toyomosazu are making noise— 倭例播禰始柯騰 ware pa nesikado we have slept without a sound, 比騰曾騰余謀須 pito so toyomosu how people are making a fuss? This phonogram is the primary graph to transcribe ka in Man’yōshū, used 1528 times in the anthology. MYS 793 余能奈可波 yo no naka pa When one comes to 牟奈之伎母乃等 munasiki mono to the actual realization that 志流等伎子 siru toki si the world is a vain thing 伊与余麻須万須 iyoyo masu masu then one’s sadness 加奈之可利家理 kanasikarikyeri deepens all the more. This phonogram appears nine times in the Bussoku stele poetic sequence. BSS 5 伊可奈留夜 ika naru ya What kind of person 比止尓伊麻世可 pito ni imase ka was this, who steps on rock 伊波乃宇閇乎 ipa no upe wo as if it were dirt 都知止布美奈志 tuti to puminasi and formed a print 阿止乃祁留良牟 ato nokyeruramu that has remained? 多布刀久毛阿留可 taputwoku mo aru ka How awe-inspiring that is!

訶

OJ: ka LH: hɑi NOM: kha, ha

EMC: xa SV: kha, ha, 94

OC: *haj GO: ka KN: ka SK: ka, ha

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, appearing in the Buddhist inscription preserved on the Iksan Palace Steel Sutra, 菩 薩 摩 訶 薩 : Bosat Makasat ‘bodhisattva, the great salvation.’ This comes from Sanskrit ‘bodhisatt(va) maha sat.’ The graph appears also in Kojiki and Nihon shoki. It appears 31 times in Kojiki, 26 times in personal and place names, and five times in regular words, but it never appears in the poetry. The cape of Kabura is written 訶夫羅前 kabura [NO] MISAKI (KG) There is also the name of a princess, 賦登麻和訶比賣命 puto mawaka pimye (KG). Shoki, on the other hand, uses this phonogram 13 times in the poetry, and twice in the annotative notes: 盟神探湯此云区訶陁智, “ ‘trial of allegiance by boiling water’ is read kukatati” (NSG). NSK 102 夜酒瀰志斯 yasumi sisi In the heavenly 和餓於朋耆瀰能 wa ga opokimi no eighty [rays of] sunshine where 訶勾理摩須 kakurimasu my great lord hides, 阿摩能椰蘇河礙 ama no yaswokage who rules in peace— 異泥多々須 idetatasu if you go out and 瀰蘇羅烏瀰禮麼 miswora wo mireba look at the august sky, 豫呂豆余珥 yorodu yo ni for ten thousand reigns 訶勾志茂餓茂 kaku simo gamo may it remain as is, splendid. 知余珥茂 tiyo ni mo For a thousand reigns 訶勾志茂餓茂 kaku simo gamo may it remain as is, wonderful. 訶之胡瀰弖 kasikwomite In reverence 菟伽倍摩都羅武 tukapematuramu we will serve the throne. 烏呂餓瀰弖 worogamite Prostrate on the ground 菟伽倍摩都羅武 tukapematuramu we will serve the throne. 宇多豆紀摩都流 utadukwimaturu I present this song.

哥

OJ: ka OC: *kâi LH: kɑi EMC: ka GO: ka KN: ka NOM: ca, kha SV: ca SK: ka Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This is based on evidence from Nihon shoki, where the compilers have quoted from Paekche materials. The examples of 哥 from the Paekche corpus preserve this usage in personal and place names. An example from the reign of Great King Kinmei is: 百済本記云、為哥岐彌、名 有非岐, “Paekche pongi says, ‘Wika Kimi’s name is Upwiki.’ ” Shoki records his name as 為哥可君, but the Paekche pongi account leaves the name and title phonetic. It thus is difficult to date the difference between 哥 and 歌, though it is clear that 哥 is the older character. Consider another example from Shoki: 高胸 此云多歌武娜娑歌, “ ‘high breast’ in the vernacular is takamunasaka” (NSG). This phonogram also appears in Shoku Nihongi, but primarily to transcribe Kai Province: 歌斐 Kapwi.

95

介

OJ: ka OC: *krê(t)s LH: kɛs EMC: kəɨj > kɛ:j GO: kai, ke KN: kai NOM: giới SV: giơi, giới SK: kay, kal Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. This graph appears in the Jōgūki 上宮 記 fragment, which preserves the name 児麻和加介 “his son was Mawakaka.” Notice, however, that the NKBT editors (Ienaga et al. 1986:2.543) have altered the order of the phonograms to read 麻加和介, maka wakye. Ōno (1962:110) notes, “(This name) as found in the Jōgūki fragments appears to use 介 as ke, but this phonogram only appears in Shoki’s poetry and commentary, read as ka, and nothing else....It is believed that this phonogram was never used to represent ke in the Nara era.” Ōno thus views this use of 介 in Jōgūki as scribal error from a later era, but Onoda Mitsuo’s Shintō Taikei text (1986:312) of Shaku Nihongi (which contains the aforementioned fragment) shows complete textual unity. From the evidence we have, there is little chance this is a later addition or error. My major reservation with the reading of wakye is that it appears to be motivated by an attempt to relate that with the title wake, but the vowels do not match. Scholars must address the text as it is. My contention is that even if the work is found to be from an era later than the Suiko era, the source material is clearly old enough to be placed in that era. A brief look at the text of Jōgūki quoted in Shaku Nihongi will illustrate the importance of this often doubted text (cf. Lurie 2001:421). Jōgūki contains 138 syllables written phonetically, using a total of 43 different phonograms. Of these 43, 26 also appear in Mabuchi’s Peninsular orthographic pool (1999:701–750), meaning that 60% of the orthography is grounded in the ancient Paekche orthography. Interestingly, if we include phonograms from peninsular stone inscriptions, then we can add two more (汙 is a variant of 于 on the Kwangkaytho stele, and 思 found on the Tanyang stele). If we expand this to cover the Suiko era (not including graphs only found in Jōgūki), then a total of 37 graphs (86%) are clearly from an older orthographic system. The six phonograms not found in the Suiko era orthographical pool are: 希・介・義・遅・凡・母. Of these six four (介・義・遅・母) are found in Nihon shoki. Thus the two problematic graphs are 希・凡. This means that the orthography of Jōgūki holds up under scrutiny. I therefore have no qualms viewing 介 as a legitimate old phonogram, read, of course, as ka. I do hesitate to place this graph in the PBS, so I have hedged and place it in the EJS. Regarding the Go-on reading, Hokekyō ongi has one gloss as kai (Ogura 1995.2:1288). The phonogram 疥 is glossed many times as ke (1995.2:75–752), though one manuscript does gloss this as kai. The same is true for the phonogram 芥 (1995.2:1016–1020). This phonogram appears in Nihon shoki, used seven times in annotational notes, and in 18 poems: 香山此云介遇夜摩, “ ‘Mount Kagu’ is read kaguyama” (NSG). Clearly 介 is transcribing ka here. NSK 19 飫朋佐介珥 oposaka ni If people were to 菟藝廼煩例屢 tugi noboreru pass down hand to hand 伊辭務邏塢 isimura wo all the boulders that

96

多誤辭珥固佐縻 固辭介氐務介茂

歌 哿

珂

箇

tagwosi ni kwosaba kwosikatemu kamo

make up Mount Ōsaka perhaps it could be moved.

OJ: ka OC: *kâi LH: kɑi EMC: ka GO: ka KN: ka NOM: ca, cà SV: ca SK: ka Usage / History: This is a variant form of 哥. See the explanation previous for details. OJ: ka OC: *kâiʔ LH: kɑiʔ EMC: ka GO: ka KN: ka NOM: cả SV: cả SK: ka Usage / History: This graph belongs to the LJS. The earliest datable example of this phonogram comes from the Chikuzen Census Register of 702, where it appears in names like 和哿志 Wakasi, 哿麻賣 Kamamye, and 武哿利賣 Mukarimye. This phonogram appears in Shoki, in 11 poems. NSK 90 飫裒枳瀰能 opokimi no Though the great lord 耶陛能矩瀰哿枳 yapye no kumikaki desires to weave together 哿々梅騰謀 kakamedomo a multi-layer fence of branches, 儺鳴阿摩之耳彌 na wo amasizimi you will not weave the branches 哿々農倶彌柯枳 kakanu kumikaki and there will be no fence. This phonogram also appears once in the imperial edicts of Shoku Nihongi, that example coming from an edict of Emperor Shōmu, issued in the fourth month of 749. The pertinent passage is: 公衆波不成哿登疑 MOROPITO pa NARAZI ka to UTAGAPI “and the masses doubt whether the project of construction will be completed” (SM 13). OJ: ka OC: NA GO: ka KN: ka LH: khɑi EMC: kha NOM: kha SV: kha SK: ka Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. Influenced by use of the phonogram 可, the graph 珂 was mainly used from the late Asuka period into the Nara. This phonogram is sometimes found on wooden tablets (mokkan). On one the toponym 伊豆国奈賀郡奈珂郷 Idu Province Naga District Naka Village appears (unnumbered tablet). There are also examples of 珂 in place names in Shoku Nihongi. For example, 多珂郡 Taka District (718.5.2), 玖珂郡 Kuka District (721.4.20), 遠 珂 郡 Woka District (740.9.24), and 赤 坂 郡 珂 磨 AKASAKA District Kama (766.5.23). Hitachi fudoki also records the ancient place name of 多珂 Taka. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, but only in one toponym: 那珂郡 Naka District (MYS 813). OJ: ka LH: kaih NOM: cá, có

OC: kâih GO: ka KN: ka SK: ka, ki

EMC: ka SV: cá 97

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in Nihon shoki, 15 examples in the annotational notes, and 28 times in the poetry: 龗、此云於箇美 “ ‘spirit of the mountains’ is read okami” (NSG). NSK 3 阿磨佐箇屢 amasakaru Having crossed over 避奈菟謎廼 pinatumye no the narrow, earthly straits, 以和多邏素西渡 iwatarasu setwo the provincial maidens 以嗣箇播箇柁輔智 isikapa kataputi stand on the banks of the river 箇多輔智爾 kataputi ni on the banks of the Ishikawa, 阿彌播利和柁嗣 ami pariwatasi spreading out their nets. 妹慮豫嗣爾 mero yosi ni Pull in those nets 豫嗣豫利據禰 yosi yorikone by pulling on the meshes! 以嗣箇播箇柁輔智 isikapa kataputi On the banks of the Ishikawa. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, but there are only two examples, appearing in MYS 701 and MYS 1716. The example in 701 (何日二箇 IDURE [NO] PI ni ka “and on what day?”) appears to be orthographic play, using the semantic value of this graph, which on the surface means ‘two days.’ MYS 1716 SIRAnami no How many years will pass, 白那弥乃 PAMAMATU NO KWI no how many reigns will it see, 濱松之木乃 TAMUKEKUSA the pine tree of sacred offerings 手酬草 IKUYO MADE ni ka on the beach where 幾世左右二箇 TOSI pa PENUramu white-capped waves crash? 年薄經濫

嘉

架

OJ: ka OC: *krâi LH: kai EMC: kaɨ GO: ke KN: ka NOM: gia SV: gia SK: ka Usage / History: I place this graph in the LJS. This phonogram also appears five times in the Hizen fudoki, three times for Saka (modern day Saga) 佐嘉, and twice for Tika 値嘉. This phonogram also appears sparingly in Shoku Nihongi: 嘉嶋 KaSIMA (740.11.3) and 嘉麻郡 Kama Diustrict (770.7.18). Ōno (1977:346) states that this graph appears once in Man’yōshū, in MYS 1141: 水尾急嘉, MIWO WO PAYAMI ka ‘as the water flows quickly.’ However, recent textual research on Man’yōshū notes, “The original text of this second stanza in manuscripts other than the Sengaku line have 水尾急. Various manuscripts in the possession of Nishihonganji, like the Sengaku-bon, have 嘉 at the end of this stanza, but this graph was likely interpolated later according to the reading” (Satake et al. 1999.2:128–129). OJ: ka LH: kah EMC: kaɨ NOM: giá, gá, dứa SV: dá, giá Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. Its development, appearing once in Man’yōshū. 98

OC: *kak (?) GO: ka KN: ka SK: ka use appears to be a rather late

MYS 1118 INISIPYE ni Did the people anciently 古尓 ARIkyemu PITO mo come here also 有險人母 WA GA GOto ka and like me adorn their hair 如吾等架 with sprigs from 弥和乃桧原尓 miwa no PIBARA ni KAZASIWORIkyemu Hibara in Miwa? 挿頭折兼 This phonogram also appears in Shoku Nihongi in the name 尾張架古刀自 WOPARI Kakwotwozi (791.7.1).

伽

賀

OJ: ka OC: NA LH: ɡa EMC: ɡɨa LMC: kɦia GO: ga, gaa KN: kia NOM: già, nhà SV: già SK: ka Usage / History: I place this phonogram in the CBS. The Chinese originally used this phonogram to transcribe certain Sanskrit sounds into Chinese, those being /ɡa/, /ɡā/, /ɡha/, /ɡhā/ (Pulleyblank 1991:253). This phonogram mainly appears in Nihon shoki, in eight annotational notes (all in the record of Jinmu) and in 29 poems: 撫劒、此云都盧耆能多伽彌屠利辭魔屢 “ ‘holding the sword’ is read turugi no takami twori sibaru” (NSG). NSK 45 瀰箇始報 mikasipo Filled with reverence 破利摩波揶摩智 parima payamati Hayamachi of Harima 以播區娜輸 ipa kudasu will brave danger 伽之古倶等望 kasikwoku tomo and take care of the maiden 阿例揶始儺破務 are yasinapamu of the turbulent waters. This phonogram also appears in Izumo fudoki: 伽佐伽社 Kasaka Shrine. It should be noted that some manuscripts of Izumo fudoki have 加佐加社, but I would argue that the more complicated graph is the older. OJ: ka OC: * ɡâih LH: ɡɑih EMC: ɣa LMC: xɦa GO: ga KN: ka NOM: hạ SV: hạ SK: ha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This phonogram and its usage in Old Japanese are somewhat problematic, but much of the confusion rests on two, possibly three, fundamental issues: i) there are some examples in Kojiki where 賀 is scribal error for 迦; ii) there is the possibility of mixing of Go-on and Kanon; iii) the polyphonic principal. Miller (1975:104–105) believes that the phonogram 賀 has but a single reading, ga, and he thus invents anomalous words like, Figari 比賀利 ‘light’ (his rendering of pikari). Miller cites an analogous example in MYS 3926, where the reader will find 比賀流 ‘shine,’ his Figaru. It would be interesting to know how two examples of the same orthography prove the reading for ga. It could just as easily be ka, based on Kanon or the polyphonic principal. It should be noted that it is not impossible that the author of the poem noted above actually intended the reading of -ga-, but to expand the issue and give it greater weight, a few other examples are called for. Unfortunately, Miller’s 99

attitude toward previous scholarship is arrogant: “Wenck studies the employment of the Chinese phonogram ho in this passage; but since he takes as a point of departure for his argumentation the a priori assumption that the form being written was -ka- and not -ga-..., his remarks are of little value. The same is also true of Ōno T...” (1975:104–105). We must start with Kojiki, as its orthography is highly consistent in making a strict distinction between voiceless and prenasalized initials. There are 180 examples of 賀 transcribing OJ ga, and seven other examples that are problematic (but highly likely -ka-), found in Kojiki (cf. Ōno 1962:616). The seven problematic examples are all found in poetry, and the releveant information is found below: 1) KK 11 賀美良比登母登 kamira pitomoto “one stem of pungent leeks” 2) KK 35 蘇良波由賀受 swora pa yukazu “we do not take to the sky” 3) KK 74 賀岐比久夜 kaki piku ya “Plucking the zither” 4) KK 74 斗那賀能伊久理爾 twonaka no ikuri ni “on the rocks in the channel” 5) KK 90 波都瀬能賀波能 patuse no kapa no “the river Hatsuse” 6) KK 91 夜麻能賀比爾 yama no kapi ni “in the valleys of the mountains” 7) KK 92 賀志賀母登 kasi ga moto “at the base of the oak tree” Of these seven problematic examples, Onoda (1977:514, 566) has corrected the graphs in 3, 4, and 7 to 加, based on his thorough textual criticism; his corrections are based on evidence that these three likely arose from scribal contamination. The other four examples (1, 2, 5, and 6) have no variants in the various manuscripts. Onoda’s work illustrates that other examples of 加 exhibit variations in the manuscripts with 賀, while 賀 exhibits variation with 加 and 迦 (cf. Onoda 1977:71–73). It is therefore difficult to completely rule out scribal contamination here. As a good example, consider a stanza in KK 43 where five of the eight manuscripts of Kojiki have the line 阿賀良袁登賣袁 agara wotomye wo, and only three manuscripts have 阿加良袁登賣袁 akara wotomye wo ‘the maiden with the flush face.’ As noted above, while not all examples can be swept away as scribal error, a polyphonic explanation also seems in order. It is also highly possible that when Hieda no Are went through the manuscripts and revised the texts, likely in order to bring some regulation to what surely was orthographic chaos, that he missed a few cases. What follows is an illustrative example: KK 10 意佐賀能 osaka no Though there are many 意富牟盧夜爾 opomurwoya ni who have come and entered 比登佐波爾 pito sapa ni the great cavern of Osaka, 岐伊理袁理 kiiriwori and though many men 比登佐波爾 pito sapa ni have entered here 伊理袁理登母 iriwori tomo and are seated before us, 美都美都斯 mitumitusi you, the intrepid 久米能古賀 kume no kwo ga sons of the Kume, 久夫都都伊 kubututui with pommel-head hilts, 伊斯都都伊母知 isitutui moti holding your stone-hilt swords, 宇知弖斯夜麻牟 utitesi yamamu will now smite the enemy. 美都美都斯 mitumitusi You, the intrepid 100

久米能古良賀 kume no kwora ga sons of the Kume, 久夫都都伊 kubututui with pommel-head hilts, 伊斯都都伊母知 isitutui moti holding your stone-hilt swords, 伊麻宇多婆余良斯 ima utaba yorosi it is well if you strike now. By the time of Nihon shoki, the LMC reading was the foundation for the phonogrammatic system, where g > k, but there are still examples in Nihon shoki where 賀 is used to represent both ka and ga, again showing both the polyphonic principal, as well as the mixture of material included in Nihon shoki without editorial standardization of these usages: 伊賀臣 Iga OMI (NSG), 覺賀鳥 kakuka [NO] TORI ‘the bird with the auspicious cry (another name for the osprey, NSG),’ 志賀 toponym Siga (NSG), 玖賀媛 Kuga PIMYE ‘Princess Kuga’ (NSG), 蘇 賀 滿 智 宿 禰 Swoga Mati [NO] Sukune (NSG), 膳 臣 賀 拕 夫 KASIPADE [NO] OMI Katabu (NSG), and 都賀山 Mount Tuga (NSG). The trend seen in Nihon shoki, with a mixing of ka and ga readings continues in Man’yōshū. Below are two poems, the first with 賀 transcribing ka and the other ga. MYS 4402 知波夜布留 tipayapuru Facing the hill of the deity— 賀美乃美佐賀尓 kami no misaka ni endowed with power— 奴佐麻都里 nusa maturi I lift paper offerings 伊波布伊能知波 ipapu inoti pa and pray for the safety of 意毛知々我多米 omo titi ga tame the lives of mother and father. MYS 4404 奈尓波治乎 nanipadi wo The cord that my beloved 由伎弖久麻弖等 yukite ku made to attached to my robes 和藝毛古賀 wagimokwo ga which was to last until I 都氣之非毛我乎 tukesi pwimwo ga wo returned home from the road 多延尓氣流可母 tayenikeru kamo to Naniwa has broken in two.

河

OJ: ka OC: * ɡâi LH: ɡɑi EMC: ɣa LMC: xɦa GO: ga KN: ka NOM: hà SV: hà SK: ha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. The sole example in Shoki appears in a poem. NSK 102 夜酒瀰志斯 yasumi sisi In the heavenly 和餓於朋耆瀰能 wa ga opokimi no eighty [rays of] sunshine where 訶勾理摩須 kakurimasu my great lord hides, 阿摩能椰蘇河礙 ama no yaswokage who rules in peace— 異泥多々須 idetatasu if you go out and 瀰蘇羅烏瀰禮麼 miswora wo mireba look at the august sky, 豫呂豆余珥 yorodu yo ni for ten thousand reigns 訶勾志茂餓茂 kaku simo gamo may it remain as is, splendid. Ōno (1977:320, 346) twice claims there are two poems in Man’yōshū were 河 transcribes ka, but my search into the text of the anthology shows that every instance of 河 transcribes ga (which see). 101

舸

柯

軻

OJ: ka OC: *khâi LH: khɑi EMC: ka LMC: ka GO: ka KN: ka NOM: NA SV: cả, ca, khả SK: ka, ki Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. There are three examples from annotational notes and eight poems with this graph in Shoki: 香賜、此云舸拕夫 “ ‘the name 香賜’ is read katabu” (NSG). NSK 75 飫裒枳瀰簸 opokimi pa The great lord 賊據嗚枳舸斯題 soko wo kikasite overhears these words, 柁磨々枳能 tamamaki no takes his jeweled 阿娯羅儞陀々伺 agura ni tatasi dais and sits upon it. OJ: ka OC: *kâi LH: kɑi EMC: ka LMC: ka GO: ka KN: ka NOM: NA SV: kha SK: ka Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in Shoki 15 times in annotational notes, and in 21 poems: 俗呼父為柯曾, “ ‘Father’ in the vernacular is kaso” (NSG). NSK 96 倭例以梨魔志 ware irimasi I went inside 阿都圖唎 atwo twori and held her leg, 都麼怒唎絁底 tumadworisite holding the edge of her hem, 魔倶囉圖唎 makura twori holding her pillow— 伊慕我堤嗚 imo ga te wo holding my spouse. 倭例儞魔柯斯毎 ware ni makasime I wrapped her hand 倭我堤嗚麼 wa ga te woba around my waist 伊慕儞魔柯絁毎 imo ni makasime and she my arm— 麼左棄逗囉 masakwidura wrapped it around her. 多々企阿藏播梨 tataki azapari And like a vine, 矢洎矩矢慮 sisikusiro we caressed, intertwined. OJ: ka OC: *khâi LH: khɑi(h/ʔ) EMC: kha LMC: kha GO: ka KN: ka NOM: NA SV: kha SK: ka Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in two poems in Nihon shoki. NSK 6 阿軻娜磨廼 akadama no The radiant globe 比訶利播阿利登 pikari pa ari to is wonderfully brilliant, 比鄧播伊珮耐 pito pa ipyedo so people may say, 企弭我譽贈比志 kimi ga yosopisi but I have now realized 多輔妬勾阿利計利 taputwoku arikyeri your brilliance is the finest.

102

香

髪

蚊

OJ: ka OC: *haŋ LH: hɨɑŋ EMC: xɨaŋ GO: kau KN: kiyau NOM: hương SV: hương SK: hyang Usage / History: It is difficult to determine whether this is a phonogram or a kungana. If this is a phonogram, then the velar nasal final has been ignored. If this a kungana then it calls to mind OJ ka ‘scent.’ A poem in Kojiki bears this out: KK 43, 迦具 波斯・波那多知婆那波 kagupasi pana tatibana pa “the orange with its lovely fragrance.” Here, ka plus gupasi, means ‘wonderful fragrance.’ This was a very popular usage, and for convenience sake, I will treat this as a kungana. This usage appears in Nihon shoki in a variety of names: 豐香節野尊 TOYOKABUNWO [NO] MIKOTO (NSG), 草香邑 KUSAKA Village (NSG), and 觀松彦香殖稻天皇 Great King MIMATU PIKWO KAWESINE (NSG). This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, primarily to transcribe particles like ka. MYS 3903 PARUSAME ni Is it the willow that has 春雨尓 毛延之楊奈疑可 moyesi yanagwi ka budded in the spring rain? Is it the same willow 烏梅乃花 ume no PANA 登母尓於久礼奴 tomo ni okurenu that always blossoms TUNE no mono KAmo later with the plum blossoms? 常乃物能香聞 OJ: ka OC: *pat LH: puɑt EMC: puat GO: foti KN: fatu NOM: NA SV: phát SK: pal Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ ka ‘hair.’ A relatively early example of this usage appears in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu: 白 髪 部 王 Prince SIRAKABYE. The earliest actually datable example appears in the Mino Census of 702: 白髪賣 SIRAKAmye. This graph also appears on the epitaph stone of Ishikawa Ason (762): 白髪郷 SIRAKA Village. Almost all examples of this graph, in Kojiki, Nihon shoki, and Man’yōshū are variations of siraka ‘white hair,’ but it likely calls to mind a variation of siru ‘to rule.’ OJ: ka OC: *mən LH: mun EMC: mun GO: mon KN: bun NOM: NA SV: văn SK: mwun Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ ka ‘mosquito.’ According to Ōno (1977:802) 蚊 appears 11 times in Nihon shoki. All examples appear in personal or place names. There are only three examples in Kojiki: 蚊野之別 KANWO NO WAKE (KG), and 蚊屋野 KAYANWO (KG). Examples from Shoki include toponyms and names like 蚊田 KADA (NSG), 蚊屋采女 KAYA UNEMYE (NSG), and 日香蚊父子 PIKAKA KASOKWO (NSG). Interestingly, later in Shoki this surname is written 日香香 PIKAKA (NSG). This graph also appears in Man’yōshū, some examples apparently selected because of its meaning ‘mosquito’ with its sound. 103

MYS 2642 燈之 陰尓蚊蛾欲布 虚蝉之 妹蛾咲状思 面影尓所見

鹿

芳

TOMOSIBWI NO KAGE ni KAgaywopu UTUSEMI NO IMWO ga WEMAPIsi OMOKAGE ni MIYU

Flittering in the light of the torches I can see the image of the smile of my beloved of this world.

OJ: ka OC: *rok LH: lok EMC: ləwk GO: roku KN: roku NOM: NA SV: lộc SK: lwok Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ ka ‘deer.’ This word appears to be a bound form, as the free form is sika. Consider, however, an example in Shoki, in the reign of Ankō, where ‘my deer’ is written 我鹿此云阿柯, aka. I thus believe that ka is the original word, and si- was added later. Martin’s (1987:523) etymology is much the same: *si[si no] ka. There is a theory that sika means male deer, a change from seka, but there are no ancient examples of this word. The most encouraging data for this theory comes from Ryūkyūan. In most languages in the Ryūkyūs *si and *se have merged, and it is difficult to reconstruct proto-forms. Miyako is one of the few islands that preserves reflexes of *si (> sï) and *se (> si). In Hirara ‘deer’ is ʃika; however, it is likely that this is a loan from the mainland. This usage was used early on, appearing once in Teisetsu, in the name 入鹿 IRUKA. This kungana also appears in Kojiki: 鹿 屋 野 比 賣 神 the deity KAYANWO Pimye (KG), 正鹿山上津見神 the deity MASAKA YAMATUMI (KG), and 名謂井氷鹿 NA PA WIPIKA TO IPU ‘My name is Wipika’ (KG). The kungana also appears in Nihon shoki. 天鹿兒弓 AMA NO KAGWO YUMI ‘a heavenly deer-child bow’ (NSG), 鹿葦津姫 KASITU PIMYE (NSG), and 鹿子 水門 KAGWO Port (NSG). There are 46 examples of this kungana in Man’yōshū, many which appear in love poems. MYS 733 UTUSEMI no Will we pass through 空蝉乃 YO ya mo PUTAYUKI this empty world twice? 代也毛二行 NANI SU TO KA What is to be done? 何為跡鹿 IMWO ni APAZUTE Am I to sleep alone 妹尓不相而 A GA PITORI NEMU without meeting my beloved? 吾獨将宿 OJ: ka, kagu OC: *phaŋ EMC: phuaŋ GO: fau KN: fau LH: phuɑŋ NOM: NA SV: phương SK: pang Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ ka ‘fragrant’ (see 香 OJ ka). This usage appears solely in Man’yōshū, once as ka (MYS 257), and apparently by extension, once as kagu (MYS 1812).

104

MYS 257 天降付 天之芳来山 MYS 1812 久方之 天芳山 此夕 霞霏霺 春立下

歟

香

各

AMORI TUKU AME NO KAGU YAMA

Descending from heaven heavenly Mount Kagu—

PISAKATA NO AME NO KAGU YAMA

Far off and distant on heavenly Mount Kagu this evening mists are spreading out. It seems that spring is coming.

KONO YUPUPYE KASUMI TANABIKU PARU TATURASI MO

OJ: ka OC: *la LH: jɑ EMC: jɨa GO: yo KN: yo NOM: NA SV: dư, rư SK: ye Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ ka ‘question particle.’ This usage only appears in Man’yōshū, and while there are a large number of examples, they all seem to be transcribing the question particle ka. MYS 70 YAMATO ni PA Are they coming 倭尓者 NAKITE KA KUramu to Yamato as they call out? 鳴而歟来良武 YWOBU KWODORI I can hear the calling bird chicks 呼兒鳥 KISA no NAKAYAMA as they call out and fly over 象乃中山 YWOBI so KWOYU naru the mountains of Kisa. 呼曽越奈流 OJ: kago, kagu OC: *haŋ LH: hɨɑŋ EMC: xɨaŋ GO: kau KN: kiyau NOM: hương SV: hương SK: hyang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The velar nasal final of the graph is used to transcribe -gu. This graph is primarily used to transcribe 香山 kagu YAMA Mount Kagu, which is prominent in Japan’s mythology. This usage appears in Kojiki, Nihon shoki, and Man’yōshū. Kojiki also contains examples of this graph used to transcribe kago: 香余理比賣命 Princess Kagoyori Pimye (though some manuscripts read this as Kayori), 香坂王 Prince KagoSAKA. In Man’yōshū there is some variation with the representation, however. Sometimes kagu YAMA is transcribed as 香具山 (MYS 2, 334). Also, kago is transcribed as 香胡 (MYS 3420). OJ: kaku OC: *kâk LH: kɑk EMC: kak GO: kaku KN: kaku NOM: các, cắc, gác SV: các SK: kak Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The earliest usage of this graph appears in the Mino Census of 702, where the following name appears: 各 牟 郡 Kakumu District. There are also two cases of this graph appearing in Man’yōshū.

105

MYS 3298 縦恵八師 YOSIWE YAsi Oh, alas I am going to die, my beloved. 二々火四吾妹 SINAMU YO WAGIMWO IKERITOMO Even if I live 生友 各鑿社吾 kaku NOMWI KOSO A GA shall I continue to love KWOPWI WATARINAME as I do now? 戀度七目 This poem is quite complex, using numbers to suggest ideas to the reader. The first stanza includes the number ‘eight’ (八). The second stanza has ‘two’ twice 二二, a mathematical symbol of 2×2=4, where ‘four’ is si. Notice that the three numbers in stanza two (二二四) equal ‘eight,’ reflecting back to ‘eight’ in the first stanza. The final stanza has ‘seven’ (七), which seems to suggest that if he dies, the number eight, symbolic of fortune, will decrease by one, and thus be unfortunate.

覺

甘

OJ: kaku OC: *krûk LH: kɔk EMC: kaɨwk > kœ:wk GO: kaku, keu KN: kaku NOM: giác SV: giác, rác SK: kak, kwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears once in Nihon shoki, in the record of Keikō: 覺賀鳥 kakuka [NO] TORI ‘the bird with the auspicious cry (another name for the osprey, NSG).’ The graph is also found in Man’yōshū, in the name in a head note 元興寺之僧獨覺多智 ‘A bonze at Gangōji, named Doku Kakutati’ (MYS 1018). Hokekyō ongi preserves both readings of kaku and keu (Ogura 1995.2:238–248). OJ: kamu OC: *kam LH: kɑm EMC: kam GO: kamu KN: kamu NOM: cam SV: cam SK: kam Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. There is one example of this usage in Nihon shoki, 甘羅村 Kamura Village, in the first part of Tenmu’s record. This graph also appears in Shoku Nihongi in toponyms and names like 甘良郡 Kamura District (711.3.6), 甘 南 備 Kamunabwi (740.9.5), and 甘 樂 郡 Kamura District (765.11.1). There are eight examples of this graph in Man’yōshū, most of which write kamunabwi (甘南備 [MYS 1125, 1435], or 甘 嘗備 [3227]). An example of this for just kamu is below. MYS 3846 You must not 法師等之 papusiRA GA 鬚乃剃杭 PIGE no SORI KUPI violently pull on the horse UMA TUNAGI that is tied up to the stubble 馬繋 ITAKU NA PIKI so on the chin of the bonze. 痛勿引曽 POPUSI pa nAkamu The bonze will likely cry. 僧半甘 Here 半 (pan) transcribes the topic marker pa, and the graph’s nasal final leads into the verb nak-. The graph 甘 then finishes the verb and provides the tentative suffix -mu.

106

含 敢

干

OJ: kamu OC: * ɡə̂m LH: ɡəm EMC: ɣəm > ɣam GO: gamu, gomu KN: kamu NOM: hàm SV: ham, hàm SK: ham Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Harima fudoki in 含藝里 Kamugi Village. OJ: kamu OC: *kâmʔ LH: kɑmʔ EMC: kam GO: kamu KN: kamu NOM: cám, cảm, dám SV: cảm SK: kam Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 901 I cannot even put 麁妙能 ARATAPE no NUNO KINU wo dani clothes of coarse cloth 布衣遠陀尓 on my children. 伎世難尓 kiseGATE ni Do I lament this much as 可久夜歎敢 kaku ya NAGEkamu 世牟周弊遠奈美 semu subye wo nami there is nothing I can do? OJ: kan, kani OC: *kân LH: kɑn EMC: kan GO: kamu KN: kan NOM: can, càn, cơn SV: can SK: kan Usage / History: This phonograms belongs to the PBS. An example of this graph appears in the inscription from the Silla Tanyang Silla Cekseng stele (dated before 551 CE). In that inscription the ancient royal rank of Kanki is written 干支. According to the record in Shoki, Paekche royalty also carried the title of Kanki, though most examples are written as 旱岐 kanki. Likely Paekche used the phonogram 干 also. It would appear that the peninsular scribes used 干 to transcribe a velarinitial syllable that ended in a nasal. A good example is found in the record of Kinmei where a quote from Paekche pongi says, 汝先那干陀甲背 “Your forefather, Nakanda Kapubai....” A related name appears later in the record, 那 奇陀甲背 Nakada Kapubai. If these are one and the same person, then the second graph 奇 corresponds to 干. It is possible that the transcription with 干 was used to represent prenasalization: *nakanota > *nakanta > nakanda. This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū twice, and transcribes kani. MYS 1298 干各 kanikaku NI Though people may PITO PA IPU TOMO say this and that 人雖云 ORITUGAMU I continue to weave 織次 WA GA PATAMONO NO my white hempen robes 我廿物 SIRWOKI ASAGOROMO that are on my loom. 白麻衣 Numerous Man’yōshū manuscripts have 千 instead of 干, and 名 instead of 各. There is a tradition that Hitomaro may have originally written 云々 SIKA ZIKA NI ‘such and such (this and that)’ for the first stanza, which would invalidate this example. If such is the case, then consider the following poem: 107

MYS 3174 射去為 海部之檝音 湯按干 妹心 乗来鴨

閑

漢

甲

IZARI SURU AMA NO KADI NO OTO

YUKURAkani

IMWO PA KOKORO NI NORINIKYERU KAMO

Like the sound of the oars of the fisherman who fish my beloved has quietly taken over my heart.

OJ: kana OC: *ɡrên LH: ɡɛn EMC: ɣəɨn > ɣɛ:n GO: gemu KN: kan NOM: nhàn SV: nhàn SK: han Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. Ōno (1962:490) mentions that there is only one example of this graph in the corpus, and it appears in the very first poem of Man’yōshū. He presents a robust argument for the stanza 家吉閑・名 告沙根 IPYE KIkana / NA NORAsane ‘I want to hear about your home / Tell me your name.’ Recent textual work has suggested, however, that 吉 is a mistake for 告, and 閑 is actually a mistake from a misreading of the calligraphic writing of 奈 (奈), so the actual text should be 家告奈・名告沙根 IPYE NORAna / NA NORAsane ‘Tell me of your home / Tell me your name’ (cf. Satake 1999.1:13–14). Because a definitive conclusion has not been reached, I leave this phonogram in the dictionary. OJ: kani OC: *hâns LH: hɑnh EMC: xan GO: kamu KN: kan NOM: hán SV: hán SK: han Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. There is one example of this phonogram in Man’yōshū. MYS 2762 ASIKAKI NO Like the tender grass 蘆垣之 NAKA NO NIKWOGUSA inside the reed fence 中之似兒草 尓故余漢 nikwoyoka ni if you smile at me WARE TO WEMASITE so tenderly 我共咲為而 PITO ni SIRAYU NA people are sure to find out. 人尓所知名 OJ: kapa, kapu OC: *krâp LH: kap EMC: kaɨp > kɛ:p GO: kafu KN: kafu NOM: giáp, nháp, ráp SV: giáp SK: kap Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The earliest datable example of this graph appears in the Chikuzen Census of 702 in the somewhat cyptic name 甲由 Kapuyu (?). In Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu there is the name 甲可王 Prince Kapuka. This name may derive from Mount Kapuka (鹿深山). In the Yōrō Census of 721 the name 甲和里 Kapawa Village appears. There are several examples of this usage on mokkan, though the actual reading may be debatable: 甲 可 石 前 Kapuka ISIMAPYE (MKK 3:12), 犬 上 郡 甲 良 里 INUGAMI District Kapura Village (unnumbered tablet). 108

This phonogram also appears in Shoku Nihongi, which preserves examples of two different readings for this graph: 甲努村 Kapanu Village (709.10.8), 甲賀 郡 Kapuga District (742.2.5).

合 韓

葛 考 居

OJ: kapi OC: *ɡə̂p LH: ɡəp EMC: ɣap LMC: xɦap GO: gafu KN: kafu NOM: hợp, hạp, hấp SV: hợp, hiệp SK: hap Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This usage appears in the Fujiwara name 宇合 UMAkapi, a transcription found in a variety of Nara era documents. OJ: kara OC: *ɡân < *gˤar§ LH: ɡan EMC: ɣan LMC: xɦan GO: gamu KN: kan NOM: hàn SV: hàn SK: han Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WZ. It appears in Wei zhi in the toponym 狗 邪韓 *koʡ-ja-kara. Kojiki contains 韓国 glossed kara kuni ‘land of Kara.’ This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki glossed as kara: 乃以蛇韓鋤之劒 ‘(He) took his Kara knife….’ This usage appears a number of times on mokkan: 韓櫃 kara PITU ‘Kara lidded box’ (unnumbered slat); 韓奈須比 kara nasupi ‘Kara eggplant’ (MK 2215), and 壬辰年韓鉄 ‘In the Mizunoe Tatsu year (692), Kara iron…’ (MK 385). OJ: katu OC: *kât LH: kɑt EMC: kat GO: kati KN: katu NOM: cát SV: cát SK: kal Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. The earliest datable example of this graph appears in the Yōrō Census of 721: 葛餝郡 Katusika (or perhaps Katosika) District. This graph also appears numerous times in Man’yōshū, in forms such as 葛城 or 葛木 and read as katurakwi, so it is better to view this usage as a logogram, as 葛 is often read as katura. OJ: kawa OC: *khûʔ LH: khouʔ EMC: khâuʔ GO: kau KN: kau NOM: kha SV: kha SK: ka Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This graph appears once in Nihon shoki in 考羅濟 Kawara [NO] WATARI ‘the ferry at Kawara’ (NSG). OJ: ke OC: *ka LH: kɨɑ(h) EMC: kɨə GO: ko KN: kio NOM: cư SV: cư SK: ke, kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This phonogram appears on the Kwangkaytho stele, in the toponym 男居城 *nəm-kɨɑ fortress. There is also what appears to be a Paekche toponym preserved on the same stele, in the phrase: 109

南居韓国烟一看烟五 ‘The (people) of *Nəm-kɨɑ in the land Kara (will provide) one Guard Captain and five guards.’ It also appears on the Inariyama Tumulus sword inscription, in a title following several names: 獲居 wakka. Miller and Murayama (1979:424) mention both wake (their wakë) and waka, but later backtrack and attempt to relate this to an Altaic word, beg or begi. I would rather leave open the possibility that this word is actually waka ‘young’ and the title wake < *waka-i may be a later development. There are precious few Paekche examples, but one does appear in quotes of Paekche material preserved in Nihon shoki. The well known example is from the record of Kinmei (Ienaga et al. 1986.2:110–111): 彌 移 居 miyake ‘royal demesne.’ This demesne, according to the record, was in Mimana (任那), a small nation-state sandwiched between Silla and Paekche. This phonogram also is used in the Suiko era corpus. All three examples of ke in the Suiko era corpus are used to write the name of the ruler, Suiko: 等已彌 居加斯支移比彌乃彌己等 Toyo Mike Kasikiya Pimye no Mikoto. In order to explain the difference here between 居 /ke/ and /ko/, consider what Miyake (1999:537) notes that /ey/ (my /e/) actually was /əy/, while /o/ is phonologically [ə]. Thus, the two vocalic nuclei were close, but one had an off-glide. The graph 居 appears more commonly in the Japanese corpus to transcribe ko, which fits SV and Chữ Nôm cư very well. This is addressed under OJ: ko.

既

希

OJ: ke OC: *kəts LH: kɨs > kɨj EMC: kɨj GO: ke KN: ki NOM: NA SV: ký, kí SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram has one of the most complicated usage histories in the entire early writing system used by the Japanese, and ultimately influenced by the Paekche system. The graph 既 is used to transcribe Old Japanese [ke], [kwi], and [ko]. A full explanation of this phonological evolution will be found under 既 OJ: kwi. This phonogram 既, to transcribe /ke/, belongs to the LJS, and is clearly based on EMC. Two examples suffice: 既母 kemo, apparently the name of a Korean, and 既多寺 keta DERA Keta Temple (Ōno 1977:104). This phonogram is also used six times in Man’yōshū. MYS 885 ASA TUYU no Like the morning dew 朝露乃 my body which vanishes easily 既夜須伎我身 keyasuki A GA MWI how can I perish 比等國尓 pito KUNI ni 須疑加弖奴可母 sugwikatenu kamo in a foreign land— I want to see my parents. 意夜能目遠保利 oya no ME wo pori OJ: ke OC: *həi LH: hɨi EMC: xɨj GO: ke KN: ki NOM: hơi SV: hi, hy SK: huy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, and it appears three times in the Suiko era corpus. These three examples all come from the somewhat controversial 110

Jōgūki fragment, and Ōno says (1962:52–53), “For the time being we recognize this as the principal phonogram to transcribe type B ke in the Suiko era fragments, but since there is only one other example of this phonogram in the extant corpus of the Nara era, it is difficult to accept this phonogram as the common or quasicommon usage in the Suiko era.” Jōgūki no longer survives, known to us through a large fragment quoted in Shaku Nihongi, from the 14th century. This fragment contains mainly clearly archaic phonetic usages, and most scholars concede that at least the source material for the work is from the Suiko era. The graph 希 appears three times in this quote, all used in personal names. Those three examples from Jōgūki are: (a) 凡牟都和希 Pomutu Wake; (b) 児伊波都久和希 “His son, Ipatuku Wake”; (c) 児伊波智和希 “His son, Ipati Wake.” From the Sino-Xenic evidence, one may be tempted to view the graph 希 as actually transcribing /kwi/. First, consider all the evidence, lined up below: Graph 希

OC *həi

LH *hɨi

EH EMC xjei xɨj

SV hi, hy

NOM hơi

SK huy

This chart strongly suggests that this graph had a mid vowel, perhaps very close to what the early Japanese may have heard as /ə/. This suggests that OJ /ke/ was actually [kəi] or something close to this. Miyake (1999:511) reconstructs /iy/ (my /wi/) as [*ɨ], and he (1999:537) reconstructs /ey/ (my /e/) as [*əy]. His results were conducted independently of the evidence I have provided above. Furthermore, the graph 希 is not in Miyake’s data base. This phonogram also appears in the name 多希麻呂 Takemaro, a name preserved in a document from Shōsōin of the Nara era.

擧

氣

OJ: ke OC: *kaʔ LH: kɨɑʔ EMC: kɨə GO: ko KN: kio NOM: cử, cỡ SV: cử SK: ke Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. This graph is usually read ko, so its usage here may seem a bit mystifying. Ōno (1962:53) bafflingly notes, “It is beyond belief that this graph’s use has any relation to the phonology of Chinese or Korean.” It seems more plausible to believe that this graph was transmitted to the Japan through Sino-Paekche with an off-glide. Miyake (2003a:228) has argued that ke in OJ may have been [kəy]. One example appears on the inscription from Gangōji Temple, where the name of Suiko is transcribed as 止与彌擧奇斯岐移比彌, Toyo Mike Kasikiya Pimye. OJ: ke OC: *kə(t)s LH: kɨs > kɨj EMC: khɨj GO: ke KN: ki NOM: khí SV: khí SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The graph 氣 was one of the most popular graphs used to transcribe OJ /ke/, and it appears in almost every kind of 111

record or inscription in Japan from the Suiko era on. The oldest extant example from the Suiko era corpus is found in a name recorded in Jōgūki: 伊波己里和氣 Ipakori Wake. This phonogram also appears in the liturgies: 大海爾舟満都都気 弖。自陸往道者荷緒縛堅弖磐根木根履佐久彌弖。馬爪至留限。長道無間 久立都都気弖 OPOUMI ni PUNE MITEtudukete, KUGA YWORIYUKU MITI PA NI [NO] WO YUPIKATAMEte, IPANE KINE PUMIsakumite, UMA [NO] TUME [NO] ITARITODOMARU KAGIRI, NAGAMITI MA NAKU TATEtudukete “And continue to fill the great ocean with ships, while on the paths on land the ropes that hold tribute will be tightened in all areas, and the couriers will stamp through the rocks and the roots of trees, with horses continuing to stand without gap along the long road, their hooves reaching every spot…” (NT 1). This phonogram appears a number of times on excavated tablets: 春部気万呂 PARUBYE Kemaro (MK 11424), 伊与国和気郡 Iyo Province Wake District (MKK 12:13). This graph also appears in Kojiki: 訓別云和氣 ‘The graph 別 is to be read wake’ (KG). 宇氣布時 ukepu TOKI “when the pledge is made…” (KG). This phonogram also appears in names like 豐宇氣毘賣 TOYO Ukebimye, 大氣都 比 賣 OPOketu Pimye (KG), and 氣 多 Keta (KG). According to Ōno (1977:174) 氣 appears 26 times in Kojiki’s poetry. KK 67 多迦由久夜 taka yuku ya It is for the outer garment of 波夜夫佐和氣能 payabusa wake no Prince Hayabusa Wake 美淤須比賀泥 miosupigane who flies so high. There are eight examples of this phonogram in Nihon shoki, with four in the annotational notes, and four in the poetry. An example from the notes is: 屯倉此 云彌夜氣 “ ‘royal demesnes’ is read miyake” (NSG). NSK 59 比佐箇多能 pisakata no On the heavenly metal loom 阿梅箇儺麼多 ame kanabata used by Princess Metori, 謎廼利餓 myetori ga a bird in the sky, 於瑠筒儺麼多 oru kanabata she is weaving fabric 波揶歩佐和氣能 payabusa wake no to make an outer garment 瀰於須譬鵝泥 miosupigane for Hayabusa Wake. Ōno (1977:389) also notes that 氣 is the main graph used to transcribe ke in Man’yōshū. MYS 60 YOPI NI APITE Was it at Nabari 暮相而 ASITA OMO NAmi where I met you at night 朝面無美 隠尓加 NABARI ni ka but in the morning you hid, KENAGAKI IMWO GA my beloved staying in a hut 氣長妹之 IPOri SErikyemu after your long journey? 廬利為里計武 The simplified form of this graph (気) became katakana ケ.

戒

OJ: ke LH: kɛh NOM: giới, giái

OC: *krə̂h EMC: kəɨj LMC: kja:j GO: kai KN: kai SV: giới, giái SK: kyey

112

Usage / History: This graph belongs to the CBS, appearing only once the poetry of Nihon shoki. NSK 36 瀰豆多摩蘆 midu tamaru Water dammed up at 豫佐瀰能伊戒珥 yosami no ike ni the reservoir of Yosami— 奴那波區利 nunapa kuri I did not realize 破陪鷄區辭羅珥 papekyeku sirani how far the water shield 委遇比菟區 wigupi tuku had grown.

開

該

慨

OJ: ke OC: *khə̂i EMC: khəj LMC: khaj GO: kai KN: kai LH: khəi NOM: khai, khơi SV: khai SK: koy Usage / History: This graph belongs to the CBS, and is only found in Nihon shoki, once in the annotational notes, and ten times in the poetry: 木此云開 “ ‘Tree’ is read ke” (NSG). NSK 16 宇磨佐開 umasake What sweet sake! 瀰和能等能々 miwa no tono no How we wish to return 阿佐妬珥毛 asatwo nimo to our homes this morning, 伊弟氐由介那 idete yukana going through the gate 瀰和能等能渡塢 miwa no tonotwo wo of this, the shrine of Miwa. OJ: ke OC: *kə̂ LH: kə EMC: kəj LMC: kaj GO: kai KN: kai NOM: cai, cơi SV: cai SK: koy, hoy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears twice in the annotational notes and seven times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 覆槽、此云于該 “ ‘an overturned tub’ is read uke” (NSG). NSK 80 婀拕羅斯枳 atarsiki Such a pitiful waste, 偉儺謎能陀倶彌 winabye no tagumi that inking string used by 柯該志須彌儺皤 kakesi suminapa the Inabe carpenter. 旨我那稽麼 si ga nakyeba If he is no longer here, 拕例柯々該武預 tare ka kakemu yo what skilled person will remain 婀拕羅須彌儺皤 atara suminapa to use the inking string? OJ: ke OC: *khə̂s LH: khəh EMC: khəj LMC: khaj GO: kai KN: kai NOM: khới, khái SV: khái SK: kay Usage / History: This graph belongs to the CBS, and it is used once in Nihon shoki, in one poem:

113

NSK 60 破夜歩佐波 阿梅珥能朋利 等弭箇慨梨 伊菟岐餓宇倍能 裟奘岐等羅佐泥

概

凱

愷

payabusa pa ame ni nobori tobikakeri ituki ga upe no kazaki torasane

The quick falcon climbs into the sky and soars overhead. Dive down and capture the wren that is upon the sacred place.

OJ: ke OC: *kə̂s LH: kəh EMC: kəj LMC: kaj GO: kai KN: kai NOM: khái SV: cái SK: kay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears in the annotational notes once and once in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 不負於族此云宇我邏磨概茸 “ ‘won’t lose to a relative’ is read ugara makezi” (NSG). It should be mentioned that all manuscripts agree the phonogram here should be 穊, but the phonology of that graph does not match well: EMC kij and LMC kij, with both GO and KN being ki. It is true that SK has kuy, but there is no other proof for a diphthongal original in either SV or NOM. Consider also that the poem below has 概, which fits the phonological pattern better. If it were not for the graphic similarity (木 > 禾), and the suspicion that 概 was corrupted to 穊, I would create two separate entries. As is, I believe the original graph for both the annotational note and the poem was 概. NSK 24 阿佐志毛能 asasimwo no The morning frost melts— 瀰概能佐烏麼志 mike no sawobasi courtiers cross over 魔弊菟耆瀰 mapyetu kimi the little tree bridge 伊和哆羅秀暮 iwatarasu mo to and fro from work; 瀰開能佐烏麼志 mike no sawobasi over the little tree bridge. OJ: ke LH: khəi EMC: khəj LMC: khaj NOM: ngai SV: khải Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It is only once in the poetry. NSK 83 伊儺武斯盧 inamusiro 呵簸泝比野儺擬 kapaswopi yanagwi 寐逗愈凱麼 midu yukeba 儺弭企於己陀智 nabiki okwitati 曾能泥播宇世儒 sono ne pa usezu OJ: ke LH: khəi NOM: NA

OC: *khə̂i GO: kai KN: kai SK: kay particular to Nihon shoki, found The willow growing along the banks of the river bends with the flow of the water. Fluttering or standing tall the roots remain unchanged.

OC: *khəjʔ EMC: khəj LMC: khaj GO: kai KN: kai SV: khải SK: kay

114

Usage / History: This phonogram also belongs to the CBS, it being a graphic variation of 凱. This phonogram (愷) is found once in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 98 比攞哿駄喩 pirakata yu Heading up through 輔曳輔枳能朋樓 puye puki noboru the port of Hirakata 阿符美能野 apumi no ya someone plays a flute. 愷那能倭倶吾伊 kena no wakugwo i It is young Kena of Afumi, 輔曳符枳能朋樓 puye puki noboru playing as he rows upstream.

階

毛

OJ: ke OC: *krî or *krə̂i LH: kɛi EMC: kəɨj LMC: kja:j GO: ke KN: kai NOM: NA SV: giai SK: koy, kyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears once in the poetry of Nihon shoki. NSK 17 宇磨佐階 umasake What sweet sake! 瀰和能等能々 miwa no tono no Now that it is morning 阿佐妬珥毛 asa two nimo be on your way home— 於辭寐羅箇禰 osibirakane push open the gate 瀰和能等能渡烏 miwa no tono two wo of this, the shrine of Miwa. OJ: ke OC: *mhaw LH: mau EMC: maw GO: mou KN: bou NOM: mao, mau SV: mao SK: mwo Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ ke ‘hair.’ There is an old usage of this in the Suiko era corpus, in the Jōgūki genealogy: 若野毛二俣王 “Prince WAKANUKE PUTAMATA,” which actually may be a later interpolation in the text. The earliest datable example appears in the Mino Census of 702: 毛无 KEmu and 毛里賣 KErimye. This graph appears eight times in Kojiki, used in names like 御毛沼命 MIKENU [NO] MIKOTO (KG), 豊御毛沼命 TOYO MIKENU [NO] MIKOTO (KG), and 若野毛二俣王 Prince WAKANUKE PUTAMATA (KG). This same kungana appears 70 times in Nihon shoki, in toponyms like 上毛 野國 KAMITU KENWO [NO] KUNI (NSG), 下毛野國 SIMOTU KENWO [NO] KUNI (NSG), and personal names such as 三毛入野命 MIKE IRINWO [NO] MIKOTO (NSG), 毛野臣 KENA [NO] OMI (NSG), and 毛媛 KE [NO] PIMYE (NSG). Interestingly, Man’yōshū only uses this kungana four times in the entire anthology. This is likely because the phonogram 毛 was primarily used to transcribe OJ mwo or mo (which see). One example is below, though there is disagreement about whether it represents ke or ge. MYS 3878 PASITATE NO In the bog of Kumaki 堦楯 KUMAKI no yara ni of the standing ladder— 熊來乃夜良爾 115

新羅斧 堕入和之 阿毛低阿毛低 勿鳴為曽祢 浮出流夜登将見 将見和之

食

飼

消

SIRAKWI WONO OTOSI IRE wasi

aGEte aGEte NA NAKASI so ne UKI IDUru ya to MIMU wasi

his Silla axe he has dropped. Yo ho. Lifting! Lifting up your voice do not weep so. Let us watch to see if it comes up. Yo ho.

OJ: ke OC: *m-lək LH: źɨk EMC: ʑik GO: ziki KN: sioku NOM: thực SV: tự, thực SK: sik Usage / History: This is a kungana, suggesting to the mind the OJ word ke ‘food,’ but generally food to be presented to the deities. This usage appears on several mokkan: 大矢食女 OPOYAKEmye (unnumbered tablet). This usage appears in Kojiki in names like 御食津大神 The great deity MIKETU (KG), or 豐御食炊屋比賣命 TOYO MIKE KASIKIYA Pimye [NO] MIKOTO (KG). This same usage appears in Nihon shoki six times, all in the name of Suiko, 豐御食炊屋姫 TOYO MIKE KASIKIYA [NO] PIMYE. Man’yōshū contains only four examples of this kungana. MYS 377 AWOYAMA NO The white clouds 青山之 MINE no SIRAKUMO of the peak of blue mountains— 嶺乃白雲 ASA ni KE ni though I gaze at them 朝尓食尓 TUNE NI MIREdomo every morning, every day: 恒見杼毛 目頬四吾君 MEDURAsi A GA KIMI marvelous is the beauty of my lord. OJ: ke OC: *s-ləkh LH: ziəh EMC: ʑɨ GO: zi KN: si NOM: NA SV: tư SK: so Usage / History: This kunganas represents OJ ke ‘food for animals.’ This usage is confined to Man’yōshū, where it appears only three times. MYS 256 It seems that the fishing place 飼飯海乃 KEPI NO UMI no 庭好有之 NIPA YOKU ARAsi on the Kehi Sea is peaceful. KARIKOMO no I can see the confusion, 苅薦乃 MIDARETE IDU MIYU like slashed rushes 乱出所見 AMA NO TURIBUNE of the fishing boats rowing out. 海人釣船 OJ: ke OC: *siau LH: siau EMC: siaw GO: seu KN: seu NOM: tiêu, teo SV: tiêu SK: sywo Usage / History: This is a kungana, and calls to mind OJ ke the infinitive of ku ‘to vanish, disappear.’ This usage appears once in Man’yōshū.

116

MYS 2347 海小船 泊瀬乃山尓 落雪之 消長戀師 君之音曽為流

笥 支

AMA WOBUNE PATUSE no YAMA ni PURU YUKI NO KENAGAKU KWOPWIsi KIMI GA OTO so SUru

Like the snow that falls on Mount Hatsuse, a mount like small fishing boats, I hear the sound of my lord who I have yearned for many days.

OJ: ke OC: *səh LH: siəh EMC: sɨ GO: si KN: si NOM: NA SV: tư, tứ SK: so Usage / History: This is a kungana, suggesting to the reader OJ ke ‘container.’ This usage only appears in Nihon shoki, used six times. This usage appears in the place name 笥 飯 KEPI, as well as the name 笥飯大神 the great deity KEPI, and a personal name, 吾笥 AKE. OJ: ki < *ke OC: *ke LH: *kie > tśe EMC: tɕia GO: si KN: si NOM: chi, giê, xài, xê SV: chi SK: ci Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. The antiquity of this usage can also be garnered from Sino-Xenic data, because none of our SX data preserve the initial velar, all examples having undergone palatalization. Therefore, the Nom data is crucial, because it preserves one reading with a velar, giê. What is of further importance is the height of the vowel: *ke. The earliest Wa usage appears in Wei zhi, in the titles 爾支 *ne-ke, 伊支馬 *i-ke-ma, 彌馬獲支 *mi-ma-wek-ke, and the toponyms 一支 *i-ke, 己百支 *kə-pak-ke, 都支 *tɔ-ke, and 支惟 *ke-wi. This graph also appears on the Kwangkaytho stele. The following example appears on the stele: 析支利城 *sek-ke-ri ‘Sekkeri Fortress.’ More evidence for this graph appears on the Inariyama sword inscription (early fifth century). The relevant passage contains the name of the king: 獲加多 支鹵大王. Japanese scholars have insisted on reading this as Waka Takeru. Miller and Murayama suggest the reading of Waka Takiru (1979:422), but their notes revise this to something like Wakka Takiru (1979:424). Based on Later Han, the most appropriate reading is LH: ɣuɑk-kai-tɑi-kie-lɔʔ > Waka Takyerwo. As Miyake (2003b:122–123) has pointed out, the correctness of this inscription is further supported by the history of Japanese. We know from Ryūkyūan data that historically the adnominal form of verbs was *-o. Hence this name appears to mean ‘(the individual who is) young and fierce.’ This phonogram 支 is not in the extant Paekche inscriptions, but it does appear in the Paekche quotes in Nihon shoki. 直支 *tɨk-kie，the name of the crown prince of Paekche. Notice that Shoki glosses this name as トキ (perhaps reflecting original [təkki] < 直 OC *d(h)rək). There is also 印支彌 *ikime, a word of unclear meaning. From context in Shoki it appears to be a personal name. The phonogram 支 also survived into the Suiko-era EJS. A good example is the Suiko-era genealogy contained in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu, which contains 117

many examples, but I list only five: 伊 志 支那郎 女 Irasikina IRATUMYE (daughter of Swoga Umakwo); 阿米久尓於志波留支 Ame Kuni Osiparuki (Kinmei); 怒那久良布刀多麻斯支 Nunakura Putwotamasiki (Bidatsu); 支多 斯比売 Kitasi Pimye (wife of Crown Prince Shōtoku); 止余美氣加志支夜比売 Toyo Mike Kasikiya Pimye (Suiko). This phonogram appears 14 times in the liturgies: 毛能和支物、毛能荒支物 KE no NIKOki KE no ARAki “fur that is soft and fur that is rough…” (NT 3). This phonogram also appears on a number of mokkan: 出雲評支豆支里 IDUMWO District Kiduki Village (MK 157), 伊都支 宮奴婢 “the male and female slaves of the Holy (ituki) Palace…” (MK 1013). This graph does not appear in the poetry of Kojiki or Nihon shoki. It does appear in other records such as Fudoki, and Man’yōshū, and these are vestiges of the EJS orthography. For example, in Izumo fudoki there are examples of shrine names such as 支麻知社 Kimati Shrine, 支布佐社 Kipusa Shrine, and 支豆 支社 Kiduki Shrine. In Man’yōshū this phonogram appears 15 times, but all examples are confined to Book 18. MYS 4045 於伎敝欲里 okipye ywori Like the tide which 美知久流之保能 mitikuru sipo no rises from the offing 伊也麻之尓 iya masi ni is it your august boat for which 安我毛布支見我 a ga mopu kimi ga my longing increases— 弥不根可母加礼 mipune kamo kare that one out there?

耆

岐

OJ: ki OC: *ɡri LH: ɡɨ EMC: ɡji GO: gi KN: ki NOM: NA SV: kỳ, kì, kỉ SK: ki, ci Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, where it transcribes the personal name 伊声耆 *ise-gə. This usage also appears in Koryŏgi in the noble title 乙耆 Jetɡji (Takeuchi 1977:34). By the Early Middle Chinese era, this graph phonetically represented a high, front vowel (*yi [i]). Perhaps the most well known example of this graph is preserved in the toponym 伯耆 papaki, the old province of Hahaki. Interestingly, Hahaki is written 波伯国 in the Record of the Provincial Governors in Kujiki. The oldest datable example of this usage appears in the Tenmu record (683) of Shoki. This phonogram appears 15 times in the poetry of Shoki. NSK 24 阿佐志毛能 asasimwo no The morning frost melts— 瀰穊能佐烏麼志 mike no sawobasi courtiers cross over 魔弊菟耆瀰 mapyetu kimi the little tree bridge 伊和哆羅秀暮 iwatarasu mo to and fro from work; 瀰開能佐烏麼志 mike no sawobasi over the little tree bridge. OJ: ki LH: ɡie NOM: NA

EMC: ɡjie SV: kỳ, kì

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OC: *ɡe GO: gi KN: ki SK: ki

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, and along with 支, is one of the oldest known examples of this kind. This character appears in many Paekche personal names mentioned in Shoki: 波珍干岐 Patori Kanki (a Paekche royal rank); 阿 直岐 Atiki (Envoy sent to Japan by king of Paekche); 意斯移麻岐彌 Osiyama Kimi (Japanese name recorded in Paekche pongi). This graph also appears in the EJS, from Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu: 菩岐々 美郎 Pwoki Kimi IRATU(MYE) [wife to Kashiwade Katabu]. Also in the Gangōji Temple record we find the name of Suiko written: 等与 彌氣賀斯岐夜比売 Toyo Mike Kasikiya Pimye. This phonogram also appears in the liturgies: 取葺計留草乃噪岐(古語云蘇蘇伎)無久 TORIPUkyeru KAYA SWOSWOki (KOGO NI swoswoki IPU)NAku “There will be no rustling of the grass thatched on the roof (‘rustle’ is swoswoki in the ancient vernacular)” (NT 8). This phonogram appears on a variety of mokkan: 讃岐国 Sanuki Province (MK 2185), 須々岐 susuki ‘pampas grass’ or ‘perch’ (unnumbered tablet). The phonogram 岐 remained popular, and is used widely in Kojiki: 岐美 kimi ‘lord’ (KG), 岐久 kiku hear’ (KG), 登岐 toki ‘time, when’ (KG). KK 60 美母呂能 mimoro no The moor of Ōiko 曾能多迦紀那流 sono takakwi naru in the highlands of 意富韋古賀波良 opowikwo ga para Mount Mimoro— 意富韋古賀 opowikwo ga like its name 波良迩阿流 para ni aru there are large boars 岐毛牟加布 kimwo mukapu with hearts opposite the liver. 許許呂袁陀迩賀 kokoro wo dani ka Could you not at least 阿比淤母波受阿良牟 apiomopazu aramu think of me in that heart? It also appears quite frequently in Nihon shoki, 18 times in the annotational notes, and 24 times in poetry: 檍、此云阿波岐 “ ‘holm oak’ is read apaki” (NSG). NSK 1 夜句茂多兔 yakumo tatu Endowed with power, 伊弩毛夜覇餓岐 idumwo yapegaki this two-fold Izumo fence— 兔磨語味爾 tuma gome ni to conceal ourselves, 夜覇餓枳都倶盧 yapegaki tukuru I have built this two-fold fence. 贈廼夜覇餓岐廻 sono yapegaki we Yes, within this two-fold fence! This phonogram also appears quite frequently in Books 5, 17, and 20 of Man’yōshū. MYS 815 武都紀多知 mutukwi tati When the moon of the new year 波流能吉多良婆 paru no kitaraba rises and spring has arrived, 可久斯許曽 kakusi koso we will enjoy oursleves, 烏梅乎乎岐都々 ume wo wokitutu inviting the plum to bloom 多努之岐乎倍米 tanwosiki wopeme as we do right now.

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吉

OJ: ki, kiti OC: *kit LH: kit EMC: kjit GO: kiti KN: kitu NOM: kiết, cát SV: cát SK: kil Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It does not appear in Paekche inscriptions, but does appear in Silla inscriptions. I have earlier stated (Bentley 2000) that Silla’s orthography likely was influenced by the Koguryŏ system. Consider this name from the Wisu Silla Chencen stone inscription (ca. 539 CE), 智壱吉干支 *Teh-it-kit Kan-ki. This phonogram is found in the Suiko era corpus, again attesting to its antiquity. It would appear that originally this phonogram was important because it preserved a dental-final. This may have been important if geminate consonants were used to signal a following short vowel. For example, the oldest extant example comes from Tenjukoku shuchō, where Suiko’s name is written 吉多斯 比彌乃彌己等, kitasi pimye mikoto. Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu represents Suiko’s name with the same characters, suggesting that this usage was likely the contemporary representation of the name of the empress. The ancient place name, Kibi 吉備 kibwi, is preserved in Kujiki, Kojiki, and Nihon shoki, all using the same usage. The Paekche physician, 吉宜, appears in the fourth year of Emperor Mommu (700 CE), “And to the priest Hye Chun, the emperor bestowed the surname kitu (吉) and the name yorosi (宜).” A final example comes from the Paekche-based title, kisi 吉士, which means a ruler or overseer, analogous to the Egyptian tradition. It later became the 14 rank in the 17 rank system of Silla. All examples in Japan and Korea use 吉 for the first syllable, except for a few places in Samguk sagi, where the graphs 稽知, EMC khɛj tri are used. Here it would seem that in the Korean system, the dental stop -t found in the original has replaced the sibilant -s-. It thus seems clear that the use of 吉 came from Paekche, with its attending final stop. Aside from the usage of Kibi, all other examples of this graph in Kojiki transcribe 吉師 kisi, a rank attached to a name. This phonogram appears in Nihon shoki in one poem: NSK 40 儾伽多佐例阿羅智之 taka tasare aratisi Who is taking my consort? 吉備那流伊慕塢 kibwi naru imo wo I had just become intimate 阿比瀰菟流慕能 apimituru mono with that maiden from Kibi. This phonogram was the second most popular graph to represent OJ ki in Man’yōshū. MYS 917 KAMWIYO YWORI This has been revered 神代従 SIKA so TAPUTWOki ever since the age of the gods— 然曽尊吉 玉津嶋夜麻 TAMATU SIMA yama Mount Tamatsushima. In relation to the reading of kiti, this phonogram belongs to the LJS. The earliest examples all appear in Shoku Nihongi: 吉田 Kitita (724.5.13). It also likely was used because of the final -t in cases such as 吉智 Kiti (719.1.13), and 吉提 Kite (711.4.7).

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枳

棄

OJ: ki OC: *keʔ LH: kieʔ EMC: tɕia GO: ki KN: ki NOM: NA SV: chỉ SK: ki, ci Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. The record of Keitai mentions the names of three walled cities on the peninsula: 騰利枳牟羅 Toriki Mura・牟雌 枳牟羅 Musiki Mura・久知波多枳 Kutipataki (Ienaga et al. 1986.2:45). This phonogram also appears extensively in Shoki, 15 times in annotational notes, and 91 times in poetry. Ōno Tōru (1962:150–151) offers this striking comment regarding the use of this phonogram in Nihon shoki, “The graph 枳 is not used as often as 吉, but it appears in Shoki very frequently. Likely it was originally a popular phonogram, appearing often in the peninsular proper names recorded in Shoki, but this does not necessarily mean we should admit any peninsular phonological influence on the use of the phonogram 枳.” On the contrary, I believe that the abundant use of this phonogram in the text of Shoki shows a marked preference for phonograms introduced by peninsular scribes, especially the historians and scribes from Paekche. The phonology of 枳 is similar to 支 (LH kie > tśe, EMC tɕia), and this correspondence, while not definite, at least leaves the possibility open. Below is one example each of 枳 in Nihon shoki from the annotational notes and poetry: 不 須 也 凶 目 汚 穢 、 此 云 伊 儺 之 居 梅 枳 枳 多 儺 枳 “ ‘Refuse, hideous, and polluted,’ this is read ina sikomeki kitanaki” (NSG). NSK 32 虚能彌企破 kono miki pa This divine wine is not 和餓彌企那羅儒 wa ga miki narazu divine wine of my brewing. 區之能伽彌 kusi no kami The wondrous director 等虚豫珥伊麻輸 tokoyo ni imasu who dwells in the Eternal Land, 伊破多々須 ipatatasu strong like the eternal rocks, 周玖那彌伽未能 sukuna mikamwi no the deity Sukuna— 等豫保枳 toyo poki It is he who brewed this wine 保枳茂苔陪之 pokimotoposi with an eternal blessing, 訶武保枳 kamupoki dancing he blessed this wine 保枳玖流保之 pokikuruposi with divine, auspicious words. 摩菟利虚辭彌企層 maturi kosi miki so This wine was presented by him. 阿佐孺塢齋 asazu wose Drink every drop. 佐佐 sa sa Drink! Drink! OJ: ki OC: *khis or *khits LH: khis EMC: khij GO: ki KN: ki NOM: NA SV: khí SK: ki Usage / History: I tentatively place this phonogram in the PBS, based on evidence from a fragment of an inscription on the Tanyang Silla Red Fortress stele (ca. 550): 異 棄耶国 *i-khi-ya domain. This phonogram does not appear in the Taihō and Yōrō census fragments, but it does appear in the imperial decrees of 749 and 758, both transcribing 神魯 棄 KAMUrwoki ‘divine ancestor.’ Motoori Norinaga changed 棄 to 伎 in his 121

collated text of edicts, believing the former to have been a mistake (MNZ 1976, 7:300). Interestingly, this phonogram does not appear anywhere else in Shoku Nihongi. This phonogram 棄 appears only once in Kojiki, KK 4 曾邇奴棄宇弖, so ni nuki ute, “take [this] off and cast it behind me” (KG). Ōno persuasively argues that there is an orthographic and semantic interplay here (1962:616), since 棄 transcribes the ki for the infinitive of the verb nuk- ‘take off,’ with the meaning of the phonogram ‘cast aside, discard.’ The same type of usage appears in Book 5 of Man’yōshū: MYS 849 能許利多流 nokoritaru The plum blossoms 由棄仁末自例留 yuki ni mazireru are interspersed with 宇梅能半奈 ume no pana the remaining snow. 半也久奈知利曽 payaku na tiri so Do not scatter so quickly, 由吉波氣奴等勿 yuki pa kenu tomo even if the snow should vanish. This also is a graphic play on the Chinese 遺棄, “be forgotten, left aside” (cf. Ōno 1977:370). This phonogram only appears three times in Shoki, twice in annotational notes, and once in the poetry: 慨哉此云宇黎多棄伽夜 “ ‘How painful it is’ in the vernacular is uretaki kaya” (NSG). NSK 96 麼左棄逗囉 masakidura …wrapped it around her. 多々企阿藏播梨 tataki azapari And like a vine, 矢洎矩矢慮 sisikusiro we caressed, intertwined. 于魔伊禰矢度儞 umai nesi two ni We slept deeply, 儞播都等唎 nipatu tori sweet like meat on a skewer. 柯稽播儺倶儺梨 kakye pa nakunari The fowl I keep have begun to cackle.

伎

OJ: ki OC: *ke LH: kie EMC: ɡiə̆ GO: gi KN: ki NOM: NA SV: kĩ, kỹ SK: ki Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The first datable examples of this graph appear in the Mino Census of 702: 佐佐伎賣 Sasakimye. This phonogram also appears in the liturgies: 取葺計留草乃噪岐(古語云蘇蘇伎)無久 TORIPUkyeru KAYA SWOSWOki (KOGO NI swoswoki IPU) NAku “There will be no rustling of the grass thatched on the roof (‘rustle’ is swoswoki in the ancient vernacular)” (NT 8). This phonogram is also found on a number of mokkan: 伎万呂 Kimaro (MK 1996), 百済部伎弥麻呂 KUDARABYE Kimimaro (MK 16). This graph also appears in Kojiki, in place names such as 隠伎 Oki and 伯 伎 Papaki, and names like 伊邪那伎 Izanaki. This usage is probably an adjustment (or eveolution) of 支 > 伎. This graph is also used in some poetry in Kojiki: KK 69 波斯多弖能 pasitate no Because Mount Kurahashi 久良波斯夜麻袁 kurapasi yama wo which is like a standing ladder 佐賀志美登 sagasimi to is so steep that you 122

伊波迦伎加泥弖 ipa kakikanete cannot grab on to boulders, 和賀弖登良須母 wa ga te torasu mo so she even takes my hand. This is the primary phonogram in Man’yōshū to represent ki. MYS 12 WA GA PORIsi You have shown me 吾欲之 NWOSIMA pa MIsetu the Island of No I desired to see. 野嶋波見世追 SOKO PUKAki But you have not found 底深伎 the pearl on the deep sea bottom 阿胡根能浦乃 agwoNE no URA no TAMA so PIRIPANU of the bay of Agone. 珠曽不拾 This phonogram appears fairly frequently in the Bussoku poetic sequence: BSS 12 佐伎波比乃 sakipapi no The band of brothers 阿都伎止毛加羅 atuki tomogara who are greatly blessed 麻爲多利弖 mawitarite journeyed and saw these 麻佐米尓弥祁牟 masame ni mikyemu with their actual eyes— 比止乃止毛志佐 pito no tomosi sa Praise be to them. 宇礼志久毛阿留可 uresiku mo aru ka How delighted are we, too.

企

OJ: ki OC: *kheʔ or *kheh EMC: khjiə GO: ki KN: ki LH: khieʔ, khieh NOM: xí SV: khí, xí SK: ki Usage / History: I place this phonogram in the LJS. This graph is found in the beta section of Nihon shoki, appearing three times in the annotational notes, and 22 times in the poetry: 開此云波羅企 “ ‘open’ is read paraki” (NSG). NSK 33 許能彌企塢 kono miki wo Did the person who 伽彌鷄武比等破 kamikyemu pito pa brewed this auspicious wine 曾能菟豆彌 sono tudumi rest his resounding drum 于輸珥多氐々 usu ni tatete like a grinding mortar, 于多比菟々 utapitutu and brew this wine 伽彌鷄梅伽墓 kamikyeme kamo while he sang a song? 許能彌企能 kono miki no It is strange 阿椰珥 aya ni how very 于多娜濃芝 utadanwosi delightful this wine is. 作沙 sa sa Drink! Drink! This phonogram is used sparingly in Man’yōshū, appearing only in Book 5. MYS 823 烏梅能波奈 ume no pana Where is it that 知良久波伊豆久 tiraku pa iduku plum blossoms are scattering? 志可須我尓 sikasu ga ni Even if it is true— 許能紀能夜麻尓 kono kwi no yama ni it continues to snow 由企波布理都々 yuki pa puritutu here on Mount Ki. This phonogram 企 is used once in the imperial edicts of Shoku Nihongi (769), 逆 爾 在 謀 乎 起 臣 等 方 己 我 比 伎 婢 企 是 爾 託 SAKASIMA ni ARU PAKARIGOTO wo TATE OMITATI pa ONO ga piki piki KORE ni TUKI “revolts against

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reason have occurred, and the commoner has done as he pleases (piki piki) following this [or that ruler]” (SM 45).

祇

祁

來

OJ: ki OC: *ke LH: kie, gɨi EMC: ɡjiə LMC: kɦji GO: gi KN: ki NOM: NA SV: kỳ, khì, kì SK: ki Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, while OJ gi belongs to the PBS (see 祇 OJ: gi). This phonogram only appears in Shoki, used three times in poetry. NSK 104 佐須陀氣能 sasu take no Do you have no lord, 枳彌波夜那祇 kimi paya naki strong like bamboo? 伊比爾惠弖 ipi ni wete Starving for want of food 許夜勢留 koyaseru how pitiful is that farmer 諸能多比等阿波禮 sono tapito apare who has fallen. OJ: ki OC: *ɡij LH: ɡɨ EMC: ɡji LMC: kɦji GO: gi KN: ki NOM: NA SV: kỳ, kì SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears once in Nihon shoki, in the following poem. NSK 96 野絁磨倶儞 yasima kuni I searched the eight islands 都磨々祁哿泥底 tuma makikanete but could not find a spouse. 播屢比能 parupi no Under the spring sun 哿須我能倶儞々 kasuga no kuni ni in the land of Kasuga 倶波絁謎嗚 kupasi mye wo I had heard that 阿利等枳々底 ari to kikite there was a beautiful maiden. OJ: ki OC: *rə < *rə̂k LH: lə EMC: ləj GO: rai KN: rai NOM: lai, lơi, lay SV: lai SK: lai Usage / History: This is a kungana, suggesting to the reader the infinitive of the verb kuru ‘come’ > ki. This kungana appears in Shoki, used in proper names: 倭國今來郡 YAMATO Province IMAKI district. This usage also appears in Man’yōshū. MYS 3878 PASITATE NO In the bog of Kumaki 堦楯 KUMAKI no yara ni of the standing ladder— 熊來乃夜良爾 SIRAKWI WONO his Silla axe 新羅斧 OTOSI IRE wasi he has dropped. Yo ho. 堕入和之 阿毛低阿毛低 aGEte aGEte Lifting! Lifting up your voice NA NAKASI so ne do not weep so. 勿鳴為曽祢 UKI IDUru ya to Let us watch 浮出流夜登将見 MIMU wasi to see if it comes up. Yo ho. 将見和之

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This usage also appears in Izumo fudoki, which originated around 733. All examples are toponyms: 安 來 YASUKI, 來 待 KIMATI, and 久 來 門 kuKIDWO.

寸

杵

OJ: ki OC: *tshûns EMC: tshwən GO: sumu KN: son LH: tshuənh NOM: thốn, són, xốn SV: thốn SK: chwon Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ ki ‘inch.’ One of the earliest known usages with this graph is the kabane known as Imiki 忌寸, which was established in the reign of Tenmu in 684 as the fourth rank. Interestingly, the first three ranks (Mabito, Asomi, Sukune) were bestowed upon loyal and valiant families whom the court could trust. Lower ranking families retained their old designations. The fourth rank was bestowed mainly on families of foreign birth, as if this rank was used to divide the important families from the low, with the foreigners squeezed in between. That appears to be the reason for the orthography, imi ‘avoid’ and ki a word of unclear origins, but if the orthography is any hint, it is a measurement. Shoku Nihongi records, “And those designated imiki (伊美吉) will have their title changed to 忌寸” (759.10.8). It has also been discovered in various documents and fragments that most people recorded the title as 伊美伎, so the designation in Shoki takes on greater meaning, that being the stigma of having 忌 ‘avoid’ attached. The oldest datable example of 寸 is a tombstone from 707, with the inscription 文忌寸禰麻呂, where the title imiki appears. This phonogram also appears 119 times in Man’yōshū showing how popular it had become. As Ōno explains, of these 119 examples, 56 are attached to adjectives as a perfective, and 19 are attached to verbs to show past tense (1977:361). MYS 32 is a simple example. MYS 32 INISIPYE NO Am I a person 古 PITO ni ware ARE YA from the ancient past? 人尓和礼有哉 SASANAMI no It saddens me 樂浪乃 PURUKI MIYAKWO wo to look at the remains 故京乎 見者悲寸 MIREBA KANASIKI of the old capital at Sasanami. OJ: ki OC: *thaʔ GO: siyo KN: siyo LH: tśhɑʔ EMC: tɕhuə NOM: ngó, ngõ, ngỏ SV: chử SK: cye Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ ki, ‘pestle,’ a truncated form of OJ kine. The phonogram 杵 appears in Kojiki five times, all in notes dealing with proper names or other words. An example of this graph in Kojiki appears in the name 大入杵命 OPOIRIKI. Likewise, in Shoki this phonogram is used in proper names. Two examples from Nihon shoki are: 市杵嶋姫 ITIKI SIMA PIMYE (NSG), and 天之杵火火置 瀬尊 AMA NO KIPOPO KISE (NSG). Both examples lead me to believe that the 125

kungana was consciously used to represent names with a magico-religious value, but because of a belief in kotodama, the power of words, individuals avoided the graph in regular writing. The most famous example of this phonogram used in a proper name in Nihon shoki is the founder of the Japanese imperial line, Ninigi no mikoto, 瓊々杵尊, who according to recorded tradition was the great-greatgrandfather of Jinmu. This phonogram appears only a few times in Man’yōshū, two of which appear in poems. MYS 1022 TITIGIMI ni To my father 父公尓 WARE PA MANAGWO zo I am a true-named child. 吾者真名子叙 PAPA twozi ni To my mother 妣刀自尓 WARE PA MANAGWO zo I am a dear child. 吾者愛兒叙 MAWINOBORU At the awe-inspiring hill 参昇 YASWO UDIPITO no where large groups of people 八十氏人乃 TAMUKE SURU climb to come up to the capital 手向為 KASIKWO no SAKA ni and present offerings 恐乃坂尓 NUSA MATURI I have made my offering, 幣奉 WARE PA zo OPYERU and continue on my way— 吾者叙追 TOPOKI tosaDI WO down the distant road to Tosa. 遠杵土左道矣

己

OJ: ko OC: *kəʔ LH: kɨəʔ EMC: kɨ GO: ko KN: ki NOM: kỷ SV: kỷ, kỉ SK: ki Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, appearing in the toponym 己百支 *kəpak-ke. This phonogram also appears in the Paekche orthographic pool in Nihon shoki numerous times: 己富利知伽 Kopori Tika, a toponym, and a personal name, 己州己婁 Kotukorwo. The fourth graph is often read as ru, but I follow the OC > LOC development of this graph (OC *r(h)o > l(h)wo). There is a possibility that this graph (己) is also preserved on the Inariyama tumulus sword inscription. The name in question is commonly interpreted as 弖 巳加利 *te-X-ka-ri. Consider, however, that the engraving of the inscription on this sword was done by a native smith who was illiterate. This means that he likely could not make a distinction between 己・已・巳, all three being distinct graphs. To those who may say that it is difficult to believe that a smith would carve too far on the final stroke, consider that another graph, 居 is cut so it the intial three strokes looks like 𡰣, with the left side of the upper ‘box’ open, even though it should be closed. The logical conclusion is that the smith could not read Chinese, and simply imitated what may have been a beautifully written script. Of these three graphs noted above, the most commonly used is undoubtedly 己. This makes the reading of the name somewhat easier. Miller and Murayama (1979:421) postulated the name as Teyö kari wakë. If the first two graphs actually are 弖己, then the reading may have been teko. Perhaps the true reading of this name is teko-kari waka. This phonogram is used in the earliest Japanese texts. In Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu, the honorific suffix mikoto is represented as 弥己等 mikoto. Also in 126

Jōgūki we find the name 伊波己里和氣 Ipakori Wake. This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan: 止己侶 tokoro ‘place?’ (MKK 22:291), 己乃 己米 kono kome ‘this rice’ (MKK 16:15), 麻己止 makoto ‘truth’ (MK 29). Interestingly this graph was avoided by the compiler of Kojiki, who preferred 許 to represent ko. Similarily Nihon shoki does not use this graph, aside from quotes from Paekche material. Instead Shoki prefers 虚 or 許 for ko. Because of its ecelctic nature, Man’yōshū uses both 許 and 己 for ko. A typical example is MYS 3757: MYS 3757 安我未許曽 a ga mwi koso Though my body 世伎夜麻故要弖 seki yama kwoyete is here, having 許己尓安良米 koko ni arame crossed barriers and mountains, 許己呂波伊毛尓 kokoro pa imwo ni my heart has remained 与里尓之母能乎 yorinisi mono wo with my beloved. The distinction between kwo and ko lasted longer than any other distinction in OJ. The distinction is still preserved in Shinsen jikyō (ca. 899). See 古 OJ kwo for more information. The phopnograph 己 written in a cursive style results in modern hiragana こ, while the first half of this phonogram became katakana コ.

許

OJ: ko OC: *sŋaʔ LH: hɨɑ EMC: xɨə̆ GO: ko KN: ki NOM: hưá, hớ, hử, hữ SV: hưá SK: he, hwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. While it does not appear on any Paekche stele, it is preserved in several names recorded from Paekche sources in Nihon shoki. For example, in the record of Jingū the name of a Silla envoy appears: 微叱許智伐旱 Mwisi Koti Potkan. This name appeared earlier in the same record, written as 微叱己知波珍干岐 Mwisi Koti Patori Kanki. The editors of Nihon shoki believe this name points to the Silla Prince Misahun 未斯 欣 (LH mui-sie-hɨn) (Ienaga et al. 1986.1:339, n. 24). This is highly probable, because the phonology of the names is too close to be coincidental. This graph also appears on the Tanyang ‘Red Fortress’ stele in Silla (ca. 550): □□許利之四年 .’..in the fourth year of XX-kori....’ Another Paekche scholar attached to the court of Tenji is 許率母 Kosotmo (Ienaga et al. 1986, 2:376). This phonogram (許) is also found in the extant Suiko era corpus, in poems preserved in Jōgū shōtoku taishi hōō teisetsu, a biography of Shōtoku Taishi. Below is one example of this phonogram in the poetry. 伊加留我乃 ikaruga no Our Great Ruler’s name 止美能乎何波乃 tomi no wogapa no will never be forgotten, 多叡婆許曾 tayeba koso even if the brook 和何於保支美乃 wa ga opokimi no Tomi in Ikaruga 弥奈和須良叡米 mina wasurayeme should cease to flow in its bed. This phonogram also appears in the Mino Census register of 702: 許勢朝臣 Kose Asomi. In the Chikuzen Census register of the same year we find names like 乎許自 Wokozi, 許牟麻呂 Komumaro, and 志許甫智 Sikopoti. This 127

phonogram appears a few times on excavated tablets: 許智祖父 Grandfather Koti (MK 2808), 許曽倍大魚 Kosobe OPOWO (MK 11677). This phonogram is used 154 times in Kojiki: 訓常云登許 ‘The reading for the graph 常 is toko’ (KG). 鹽許袁呂許袁呂迩畫鳴而 SIPO koworo koworo ni KAKINASITE ‘and stirred up the sea water with a swish swish...’ (KG). 亦名天 之忍許呂別 ‘Another name is AME [NO] OSIkoro WAKE’ (KG). KK 60 美母呂能 mimoro no The moor of Ōiko 曾能多迦紀那流 sono takakwi naru in the highlands of 意富韋古賀波良 opowikwo ga para Mount Mimoro— 意富韋古賀 opowikwo ga like its name 波良迩阿流 para ni aru there are large boars 岐毛牟加布 kimwo mukapu with hearts opposite their livers. 許許呂袁陀迩賀 kokoro wo dani ka Could you not at least 阿比淤母波受阿良牟 apiomopazu aramu think of me in that heart? This phonogram is used in four annotational notes and in 13 poems in Nihon shoki: 訛、此云興許奈磨盧 “ ‘corruption (in speech)’ is read yokonamaru” (NSG). NSK 70 於裒企彌烏 opokimi wo They exiled the great ruler 志摩珥波夫利 sima ni paburi to a distant island. 布儺阿摩利 punaamari The boat will be full, 異餓幣利去牟鋤 igapyeri komu zo and she will return to me. 和餓哆々瀰由梅 wa ga tatami yume So purify all the mats. 去等烏許曾 koto wo koso ‘The mats’ are my words, 哆多瀰等異泮梅 tatami to ipame but that is not what I meant. 和餓菟摩烏由梅 wa ga tuma wo yume Stay clean and pure, my spouse. This phonogram was also popular in Man’yōshū, appearing 598 times in the anthology. MYS 8 When I was about to board 熟田津尓 NIKITATU ni PUNANORAsemu to a ship at Nikita Port, waiting 船乗世武登 TUKWI MATEBA for the moon, the tide came in 月待者 SIPO mo kanapiNU allowing us to depart. 潮毛可奈比沼 IMA PA kogiIDE NA Shall we not row out presently? 今者許藝乞菜

既

OJ: ko OC: *kəts LH: kɨs > kɨj EMC: kɨj GO: ke KN: ki NOM: NA SV: ký, kí SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram also belongs to the PBS, and mainly transcribes ke. There are exceptions to this reading, and I have felt obliged to place that here, under ko. There is some strong internal evidence in Shoki that supports this reading. In the fifth year of Kinmei, the name 許勢臣 Kose OMI appears. Right after this there is a quote from Paekche ponki, a Paekche record that does not survive. In that quote the same name appears as 既酒臣 Kose OMI. On this evidence I place 既 here. 128

Another example appears in the record of Keitai. There the name 既殿奚 Ko Dinkye appears, and this name is surprisingly close to the name in the second year of Kinmei: 古殿奚 Ka Dinkye. This appears to present a problem, as 古 is used to transcribe OJ kwo, but as this is a Paekche usage and presumably from an older stratum of Old Chinese, it is possible that this usage is based on the Later Han reading kɑ, with a mid, low, unrounded vowel, close to [ə].

去

巨

OJ: ko OC: *khah LH: khɨɑh EMC: khɨə GO: ko KN: kio NOM: khứ, khử SV: khứ, khử SK: ke Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. Concerning this graph, Ōno (1962:159) notes, “This graph is somewhat noteworthy....去 has few strokes and would seem to have been a good candidate to transcribe ko, but it was not a popular graph, and since it lacked substance, it is believed that (the usage of) this graph was overwhelmed by the use of 許.” It is unclear what “lack(ing) substance (重 厚さを欠ける)” means, and how such a feature figures into the use of a phonogram. This phonogram appears in documents preserved in Shōsōin, transcribing the name 出雲部志去賣 IDUMWOBYE Sikomye. Interestingly this phonogram also appears in Izumo fudoki, transcribing 去豆乃意宇郡 Kodu no Ou District, and a personal name 伊去美 Ikomi. This phonogram appears four times in the poetry in Nihon shoki. NSK 69 阿資臂紀能 asipikwi no Weary from climbing 椰摩娜烏菟勾利 yamada wo tukuri I cultivated mountain land. 椰摩娜箇彌 yamadakami The mountain being high, 斯哆媚烏和之勢 sitabwi wo wasise I buried irrigation pipes. 志哆那企貳 sita naki ni Thus I cry to myself. 和餓儺勾菟摩 wa ga naku tuma I weep for my spouse— 箇哆儺企貳 kata naki ni and I whimper. 和餓儺勾菟摩 wa ga naku tuma I cry for my spouse. 去鐏去會 kozo koso It was last night 椰主區泮娜布例 yasuku pada pure that our flesh calmly touched. This phonogram appears four times in Man’yōshū. In the following poem it appears twice. MYS 4390 牟浪他麻乃 muratama no Having made a firm promise, 久留尓久枳作之 kuru ni kugi sasi as a door pivoting on a nail— 加多米等之 katametosi like a cluster of jewels, 以母加去々里波 imo ga kokoro pa my beloved’s heart will 阿用久奈米加母 aywokuname kamo probably not be moved. OJ: ko LH: ɡɨɑʔ or ɡyaʔ NOM: cự, cựa

OC: *ɡwaʔ GO: go KN: kio SK: ke

EMC: ɡɨə SV: cự

129

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The use of this graph is fairly rare, mainly appearing in personal names. The two most popular names with this phonogram are the family names of Kose (巨勢) and Koma (巨麻). The earliest datable example appears on a wooden document with the following inscription: 巨勢郷…養老□年十月 ‘Kose Village...10th month of X year of Yōrō (717– 724)’ [MK 12654]. All 38 examples of this phonogram in Nihon shoki are used exclusively to represent the surname Kose. The same is true for Man’yōshū, where the phonogram 巨 appears 15 times, 10 of which represent the name Kose. Below is an example where 巨 is used to represent ko in other words. MYS 3638 巨礼也己能 kore ya kono This is it! NA ni opu NARUTWO no The fishing maidens 名尓於布奈流門能 宇頭之保尓 udusipo ni who cut the gem weed 多麻毛可流登布 tamamo karu topu in the swirling tide at the renowned place of Naruto. 安麻乎等女杼毛 ama wotoMYEdomo

居

OJ: ko OC: *ka LH: kɨɑ(h) EMC: kɨə GO: ko KN: kio NOM: cư SV: cư SK: ke, kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. As noted under ke, 居 is used to transcribe ke in the oldest stratum of documents dealing with Japanese. The earliest that we can date the use of this phonogram to transcribe ko is perhaps the early Asuka era. This phonogram appears a few times on mokkan: 尾治部加之 居 OPARIBYE Kasiko (MK 2752). This phonogram is found in three annotational notes, and seven times in the poetry of Shoki: 事瑕、此云居騰作柯 “ ‘break a contract’ is read kotosaka” (NSG). It also appears four times in the following poem. NSK 7 于儾能 uda no In the high 多伽機珥 takakwi ni fort of Uda 辭藝和奈破蘆 sigi wana paru a trap for snipe I set 和餓末菟夜 wa ga matu ya and as I waited— 辭藝破佐夜羅孺 sigi pa sayarazu it did not catch a snipe. 伊殊區波辭 isukupasi What it did capture 區旎羅佐夜離 kudira sayari were two intrepid hawks. 固奈瀰餓 kwonami ga If your first wife 那居波佐麼 na kopasaba asks for a side dish, 多智曾麼能 tatisoba no cut her slices of meat 未廼那鷄句塢 mwi no nakyeku wo with almost no meat— 居氣辭被惠禰 kokwisipwiwene barren, like the hawthorn. 宇破奈利餓 upanari ga If your favorite wife 那居波佐麼 na kopasaba asks for a side dish, 伊智佐介幾 itisakakwi cut her many slices of meat

130

未廼於朋鷄句塢 mwi no opokyeku wo like the hisakaki fruit— 居氣儾被惠禰 kokwidapwiwene blessed in abundance. This phonogram is used only once in Man’yōshū: MYS 1723 KAPADU NAKU Like those roots of the willows 河蝦鳴 MUTUTA no KAPA NO at the river of Mutsuta 六田乃河之 KAPA YAGWI no where the toads croak, 川楊乃 NEmokoro MIREDO though I look at them longingly, 根毛居侶雖見 AKANU KAPA KAMO I do not tire of staring at them. 不飽河鴨

虚

忌

OJ: ko OC: *ha LH: hɨɑ EMC: xjwo GO: ko KN: kio NOM: hư, hơ SV: hư SK: he Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram appears once in the annotational notes, and 34 times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 厳矛此云伊箇之 倍虚 “ ‘Ritual broad-axe’ is ikasi poko” (NSG). NSK 44 瀰儺曾虚赴 mina sokopu Who will look after 於瀰能烏苔咩烏 omi no wotomye wo this maiden, my subject 多例揶始儺播務 tare yasinapamu catching fish? This phonogram also appears twice in Man’yōshū. MYS 194 Therefore, unable to soothe 所虚故 soko YUWE NI 名具鮫兼天 NAguSAMEKANEte your feelings you wondered 氣田敷藻 keDASIKU MO if you would meet him APU YA TO OMOPITE on the great plains of Ochi 相屋常念而 TAMADARE no where the jewels hang down, 玉垂乃 your jeweled skirts drenched 越能大野之 woti no OPONWO NO ASA TUYU ni with the morning dew, 旦露尓 TAMAMO PA PIDUTI and your robes soaked 玉裳者埿打 YUPUGWIRI ni with the evening mists…. 夕霧尓 OJ: ko OC: *ɡəh LH: ɡɨəh EMC: ɡɨ GO: gi KN: ki NOM: kỵ, cữ, kiêng SV: kỵ, kị SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS and appears only in Man’yōshū, and then only twice in the same powerful poem of jealousy. MYS 3270 I spread out a ripped straw mat 刺将焼 SASI YAKAMU WOYA NO sikoYA ni I would rather just discard 小屋之四忌屋尓 in the digusting little hut 掻将棄 KAKI UTEMU YAREGOMO wo SIKITE I would rather burn, 破薦乎敷而 and because you, my lord, are 所挌将折 UTIWORAMU using that filthy arm of hers, 鬼之四忌手乎 SIKO NO sikoTE wo bent to form a pillow, 指易而 SASI KAPETE 131

将宿君故 NURAMU KIMI YUWE and sleeping together— 赤根刺 AKANE SASU how I have mourned you PIRU PA SIMIRA ni all the day long 晝者終尓 as the sun has pierced the sky, 野干玉之 NUBATAMA NO YWO PA suGARA ni and all the night long, 夜者須柄尓 KONO TOKO no black as pitch, 此床乃 比師跡鳴左右 pisi TO NARU MADE until this bed of ours NAGEKITURU KAMO has cried out in pain. 嘆鶴鴨 The power in this poem written by a vexed wife hinges on the parallelism with the word siko ‘ugly, filthy,’ represented twice with 四忌 ‘four (times)resent.’

擧

莒

OJ: ko OC: *kaʔ LH: kɨɑʔ EMC: kɨə GO: ko KN: kio NOM: cử, cỡ, cở SV: cử SK: ke Usage / History: I place this phonogram in the LJS. This graph only appears in Nihon shoki and Harima fudoki. In Harima fudoki it is used to transcribe a name 志擧乎命 Sikowo [NO] MIKOTO and an abbreviated form of the name, 志擧 Siko. This phonogram appears five times in the annotational notes and 14 times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 灼然、此云以椰知擧 “ ‘Brilliant’ is read iyatiko” (NSG). NSK 108 武舸都烏爾 mukatuwo ni On the peak over there 陀底屢制囉我 tateru sera ga that person standing 儞古泥擧曾 nikwode koso with soft hands— 倭我底烏騰羅毎 wa ga te wo torame he should take my hand. 拕我佐基泥 ta ga sakwide These dry, cracked hands, 作基泥曾母野 sakwide so moya who would take my hand 倭我底騰羅須謀野 wa ga te torasu mo ya in his own hands? OJ: ko OC: *kaʔ LH: kɨɑʔ EMC: kɨə LMC: kyə GO: ko KN: kio NOM: NA SV: cứ, cữ, cử SK: ke Usage / History: This graph belongs to the CBS. This is a somewhat rare usage, appearing only in Nihon shoki, found twice in the annotational notes, and three times in the poetry: 衫子此云莒呂母能古 “ ‘Child of robe’ is koromo no kwo” (NSG). NSK 84 野麻登陸儞 yamatopye ni What I long to see 瀰我保指母能婆 migaposi mono pa is the palace of Tsunosashi, 於尸農瀰能 osinumi no this fortress built so high 莒能陀哿紀儺屢 kono takakwi naru in Oshinumi, in the vicinity 都奴娑之能瀰野 tunwosasi no miya of the province of Yamato.

132

據

渠

木

OJ: ko OC: *kah LH: kɨɑh EMC: kɨə LMC: kyə GO: ko KN: kio NOM: cớ, cứ SV: cứ SK: ke Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears six times in the poetry in Nihon shoki. NSK 3 阿磨佐箇屢 amasakaru Having crossed over 避奈菟謎廼 pinatu mye no the narrow, earthly straits, 以和多邏素西渡 iwatarasu setwo the provincial maidens 以嗣箇播箇柁輔智 isikapa kataputi stand on the banks of the river 箇多輔智爾 kataputi ni on the banks of Ishikawa, 阿彌播利和柁嗣 ami pariwatasi spreading out their nets. 妹慮豫嗣爾 mero yosi ni Pull in those nets 豫嗣豫利據禰 yosi yorikone by pulling on the meshes! 以嗣箇播箇柁輔智 isikapa kataputi On the banks of the Ishikawa. OJ: ko OC: * ɡa LH: ɡɨɑ EMC: ɡɨə LMC: kɦiə GO: go KN: kio NOM: cừ, gừa, khờ SV: cừ SK: ke Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears only in Nihon shoki, appearing once in the annotational notes, and four times in the poetry: 醜此云之 渠 “ ‘Ugly’ is siko” (NSG). NSK 109 波魯波魯儞 parwo parwo ni Far off in the distance 渠騰曾枳擧喩屢 koto so kikoyuru you can hear someone speaking 之麻能野父播羅 sima no yabupara in the thicket on the island plain. OJ: ko OC: *môk LH: mok EMC: məwk GO: moku KN: moku NOM: mộc, mọc, mốc SV: mộc SK: mok Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind ko ‘tree,’ the bound form of kwi ‘tree.’ This usage appears in Kojiki in the name 木幡村 KOPATA Village (KG). There are several examples of this usage in Nihon shoki, the name of a deity, 葉 木 國 野 尊 PAKO KUNINWO [NO] MIKOTO, which must have been somewhat confusing, as this note follows: 葉木國、此云播擧矩爾 “ ‘leaf-tree land’ is to be read pako kuni” (NSG). There are only eight examples of this in Man’yōshū. MYS 3792 SINABA KOSO You will surely avoid it 死者木苑 APIMIZU ARAME if you were to die, 相不見在目 IKITE ARABA but if you live on 生而在者 SIRWOKAMI KWORA NI then you young ones 白髪子等丹 OPWIZARAME YAMO will grow grey hair. 不生在目八方

133

興

極

今

OJ: ko, kogo OC: *həŋ LH: hɨŋ EMC: xiŋ GO: gou KN: kiou NOM: hăng, hứng SV: hưng, hứng SK: hung Usage / History: I place this phonogram in the LJS. A personal name preserved in the documents in Shōsōin is 興志 Kogosi. On a wooden document excavated from the Nara capital, a fragment of what may be a personal name contains the same part of this name: 句興志 kugosi (not numbered). In Nihon shoki the name 興 志 Kogosi appears (NSG), as well as 興台産靈 Kogoto MUSUPI (NSG), the name of a deity supposedly fathering the Nakatomi family. This phonogram appears once in Man’yōshū used for ko. MYS 3274 SEMU suBYE no As I do not know 為須部乃 what I should do, 田付𠮧不知 TADUKI WO SIRANI IPAGANE no in the morning I go out through 石根乃 the gate where the rock floor 興凝敷道乎 kogoSIKI MITI wo IPATOKO NO spreads out like roots 石床笶 NEBAYERU KADO WO and stand along the road 根延門𠮧 ASITA NIPA that is jagged with rocks, 朝庭 IDE WITE NAGEKI mourning…. 出居而嘆 OJ: koko, kogo OC: *ɡək LH: ɡɨk EMC: ɡik GO: goku KN: kioku NOM: cực SV: cực SK: kuk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only twice in Man’yōshū. MYS 2400 Why do I long for you 伊田何 ide NANI KA so incredibly intensely 極太甚 kokoda PANAPADA TWOGOKORO NO that I almost lose my mind? 利心 USURU MADE OMOPU Surely it is 及失念 KWOPWI YUWE NI KOSO due to love. 戀故 The second example assumes the reader will treat the second syllable as voiced: MYS 322 極此疑 kogosi KAMO And you stood on Izaniwa Hill, 伊豫能高嶺乃 iyo no TAKANE no 射狭庭乃 IzaNIPA no a high peak in Iyo WOKA ni TATASITE that is rugged and steep.... 崗尓立而 OJ: komu OC: *kəm LH: kɨm EMC: kim GO: komu KN: kimu NOM: kim SV: kim SK: kum Usage / History: I place this phonogram in the PBS. This dating is based on the usage found in the inscription on the Suda Hachiman mirror (perhaps the sixth century), where

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we find the phrase 穢人今州利 *kɨm-tśu-lih “Komturi, a person of Wai.” This usage also appears once in Man’yōshū: MYS 2927 If I could sleep again, 浦觸而 URABURETE 可例西袖𠮧 kareNISI SWODE WO sleeves interwined with him MATA MAKABA who departed, listless, 又巻者 SUGWINISI KWOPWI i will the yearning that has passed 過西戀以 MIDAREkomu kamo come back to me muddied? 乱今可聞

金

感 紺 近

OJ: komu OC: *kəm LH: kɨm EMC: kim GO: komu, gomu KN: kimu NOM: kim, ghim, găm SV: kim SK: kum Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage appears only in Man’yōshū, and then only once. MYS 3322 KADWO NI WISI The handsome male 門座 IRATUKWO UTI ni who stood at the gate, 郎子内尓 ITARU TOMO if he should have come inside 雖至 ITAKUsi KWOPWI PA and yearned for me anxiously— 痛之戀者 IMA KAPYERIkomu maybe he would have returned. 今還金 OJ: komu OC: *kə̂mʔ LH: kəmʔ EMC: kəm GO: komu KN: kamu NOM: cảm SV: cảm SK: kam Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage appears in a toponym 感玖 Komuku found in the Nintoku record in Nihon shoki. This usage also appears in Shoku Nihongi, in the toponym 度 感 Twokomu (699.7.19), an island supposedly in the same general area as Amami. OJ: komu OC: *kə̂ms < *kləms LH: kəmh EMC: kəm GO: komu KN: kamu NOM: NA SV: cám SK: kam Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in a document from Shōsōin where the toponym 紺口郷 Komuku Village is found. As Ōno (1977:105) points out, this phonogram also was used in several early Buddhist temple names: 紺園 Komu-EN and 紺殿 Komu-DEN. OJ: kono OC: *ɡənʔ LH: ɡɨnʔ EMC: ɡɨn GO: kon, gon KN: kin NOM: cận,gần SV: cận SK: kun Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The earliest datable example of this usage appears in the Atago District register of 726. It appears in the name 近江

135

侶 KonoYEro. The same usage appears in Izumo fudoki, in the word 近志呂 konosiro ‘gizzard shad.’

乞

久

OJ: koti OC: *khət LH: khɨt EMC: khɨt GO: koti KN: kotu NOM: khất, khắt, gất SV: khất SK: kel, kul, kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage appears four times in Man’yōshū. MYS 2768 ASItadu no Like the white sedge 葦多頭乃 SAWAKU IRIYE no at the inlet where the cranes 颯入江乃 SIRASUGE no from the reeds clamor in flight, 白菅乃 SIRASEMU TAME to oh the clamor of the rumors 知為等 that are trying to reach you. 乞痛鴨 koti TAKARU KAMO OJ: ku < kə OC: *kwəʔ *[k] wəʔ§ LH: kuʔ > kɨu EMC: kuw GO: ku KN: kiu NOM: cửu SV: cửu SK: kwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. Though I place the graph here under the reading of ku, there is evidence that on the peninsula it originally transcribed ko, and with vowel raising that occurred later in Early Middle Chinese, this graph was used to transcribe ku. Consider the following rare information from Nihon shoki: in Book 19 the name 久嗟旱岐 is glossed kosa no kanki. This name is also mentioned in Shaku Nihongi, written and glossed as 久嵯旱岐 ク(コ)サノ (Onoda 1986:457). Other than the mis-transcription of 嗟 as 嵯, I believe there is sufficient evidence to see 久 transcribing /kə/ instead of /ku/ in an earlier era. This fact is supported by the OC reconstruction of this graph: *kwəʔ. I have transcribed the earlier peninsular usage thus. The phonogram 久 does not appear in Koguryŏ or Paekche inscriptions, but several examples appear on the Namsan stele of Silla: 貴干久利城 *kɨu(s)-kɑnkɨ-li Fortress; 小舎文尺久 *mun-tshiak-kɨ of the 13th rank. One of the earliest known examples of this phonogram suggesting a connection with Paekche appears in the record of Ōjin in Shoki. The 37th year mentions two people from Koguryŏ: 久礼波 Ku-re-pa, and 久礼志 Ku-re-si. This phonogram 久 is also part of the Suiko era corpus. In Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu the name of Great King Kinmei is recorded as: 阿米久爾於志波留 支広庭 Amekuni Osiparuki PIRONIPA. This phonogram is prominent in the liturgies: 平 久 安 久 聞 看 登 皇 大 御 神 等 乎 称 辞 竟 奉 久 登 白 TAPIRAKEku YASURAKEku KIKOSIMESE to SUME OPOMIKAMWITATI wo TATEPEGOTO WOPEMATURAku to MAWOSU “Please accept (these offerings) peacefully and tranquilly, which words I have now offered in prayer before the great imperial deities” (NT 2). This phonogram is popular on inscriptions found on mokkan: 久 己利魚 ‘the kukori fish’ (MK 451), 久比万呂 Kupimaro (unnumbered tablet), 久利久者牟 kuri kuPAmu ‘We will eat chestnuts’ (MKK 2:11). This is the primary phonogram used in Kojiki: 136

KK 91 久佐加辨能 kusakabye no The great broad-leafed 許知能夜麻登 koti no yama to oak trees that grow so thickly 多多美許母 tatamikomo in the glen 幣具理能夜麻能 pyeguri no yama no between this mountain 許知碁知能 kotigoti no here from Kusakabe 夜麻能賀比爾 yama no kapi ni and that mountain 多知邪加由流 tatizakayuru there from Heguri 波毘呂久麻加斯 pabirokumakasi of woven-mats in layers— 母登爾波 moto nipa at the base bamboo grows 伊久美陀氣淤斐 ikumidake opwi with its branches intertwining. 須惠幣爾波 suwepye nipa At the crown bamboo grows 多斯美陀氣淤斐 tasimidake opwi thickly among the leaves. 伊久美陀氣 ikumidake Like intertwining bamboo 伊久美波泥受 ikumi pa nezu we did not sleep together. 多斯美陀氣 tasimidake Like thickly growing bamboo 多斯爾波韋泥受 tasi nipa nezu we certainly did not sleep. 能知母久美泥牟 noti mo kuminemu We will sleep together later, 曾能淤母比豆麻 sono omopi duma my beloved whom I think of. 阿波禮 apare Alas. This phonogram is used very sparingly in Nihon shoki, only three times in annotational notes, and twice in poetry: 洞、此云久岐 “ ‘cave’ this is read kuki” (NSG). NSK 22 夜摩苔波 yamato pa Yamato is 區珥能摩倍邏摩 kuni no maporama the most prosperous— 多々儺豆久 tatanaduku a land ringed by 阿烏伽枳 awokaki mountains arrayed 夜摩許莽例屢 yama komoreru as a green, rolling fence. 夜摩苔之于屢破試 yamato si urupasi Yes, Yamato is beautiful. This is also the primary phonogram in Man’yōshū to transcribe ku, appearing 1229 times in the anthology. MYS 3578 I parted with you, my lord, 武庫能浦乃 mukwo no URA no whom I have brooded over 伊里江能渚鳥 iriYE no SUDORI 羽具久毛流 pagukumoru like the birds of the shoals 伎美乎波奈礼弖 kimi wo panarete at the inlet to Muko Bay, 古非尓之奴倍之 kwopwi ni sinu besi and will likely die of longing. The cursive form of this phonogram later became the basis for hiragana く, while the abbreviated version became katakana ク.

跪

OJ: ku LH: ɡyaiʔ or khyaiʔ NOM: quì

EMC: ɡwiə SV: quị

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OC: *ɡoiʔ or *khoiʔ GO: guwi KN: kuwi SK: kwey

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, and phonologically is closely related to 垝 (see below). The graph 跪 likely fell out of use, because of the semantics, as it means ‘to kneel down.’ The phonogram 跪 appears several times in Shoki: a personal name 沙沙奴 跪 Sa-sa-nwo-ku. The NKBT editors wish to read this Sasanako, but this is somewhat anachronistic. My reading above is based on third-century LH. There is also another name, 己麻奴跪 read komanaku (but should probably be ko-manwo-ku). Again, the NKBT editors wish the last half to be read -nako. Interestingly, Shaku Nihongi preserves the reading for these names as follows: 沙々奴跪 ササトク, and 己麻奴跪 コマトク.

垝

苦

OJ: ku OC: *kwaiʔ LH: kyaiʔ EMC: kjwieʔ GO: kuwi KN: kuwi NOM: NA SV: cù SK: kwey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Inariyama tumulus sword inscription. This graph appears in the following name: 意冨比垝, which scholars tend to interpret as Opo pikwo (cf. Murayama and Miller 1979:421). Notice that if we interpret the last half of this name based on LH we get pi-kwa-i, which looks odd. The final -i is surely the suffix vowel found so often in early Japanese. It is possible that this is a pre-Old Japanese form: *pi-kura-i > *pi-kurai (> *pi-kwo), which sounded to the ear as -w- (cf. Bentley 2008:19–20). The nuclear vowel in this graph seems to be mid. Compare this graph with 跪. For the time being, I have grouped both graphs under /ku/. Again, semantics appears to have been the problem that kept this phonogram from being used by the native Japanese. The graph 垝 means to break down, to crumble to pieces. Perhaps the Paekche scholars later altered this usage to 跪, to avoid inauspicious results. This second choice, however, means to bow down, to kneel, conjuring up thoughts of obeisance, a servile attitude the Japanese would have wanted to avoid. OJ: ku OC: *khâʔ or *khâh h GO: ku KN: ko LH: khɑʔ or khah EMC: k ɔ NOM: khổ, khó, cỏ SV: khổ SK: kwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. The Chinese reconstructions with the Sino-Xenic data make one wonder if this is not actually kwo, though the Later Han reconstruction yields khɑʔ, which is closer to the Old Chinese. A good example of this graph appears in the record of Kinmei (Ienaga et al. 1986.2:112), transcribing the name 苦都 Ku-tu. A variant record has his name as 谷智, which in EMC would be kəwktri, possibly Kokti. It is possible that a peninsular ko [kɔ] underwent vowel raising to ku in Japan. This phenomenon requires further elucidation. This phonogram appears twice in the annotational notes of Shoki: 頭邊此云 摩苦羅陛, “ ‘By the head’ is read makurapye” (NSG). The phonogram 苦 also appears 39 times in Man’yōshū, but many of these are dual usages. The ancient poets knew that the Chinese phonology matched 138

closely with the Japanese meaning (苦 ku means ‘painful’), and used this phonogram in a dual role. It is thus important to notice also that this phonogram is never used in Books 5 or 15, both written primarily in phonograms. MYS 4075 安必意毛波受 apiomopazu How strange it is 安流良牟伎美乎 aruramu kimi wo that I should continue 安夜思苦毛 ayasiku mo to lament for you, one who 奈氣伎和多流香 nagekiwataru KA does not return my affection. 比登能等布麻泥 pito no topu made People even ask me. It surely is not a coincidence that this example uses 苦 where someone is hurt or pained over love.

句

OJ: ku OC: *kô LH: ko EMC: kəw GO: ku KN: kou NOM: cú, câu SV: cú, câu SK: kwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. Regarding the phonology of this graph, both the LH and EMC readings make it appear that the vowel should be mid or back, and not high back [o ~ ə vs. u]. However, both the SK and Vietnamese data argue for a high, back vowel. Consider that in Nom the graph 𤵆 is khú. There is also a philological problem that must be addressed. Were there two phonograms used in Nihon shoki, 句 and 勾, both read ku as some may be tempted to believe? It seems to me that there was only one phonogram, 句, and the other phonogram, 勾, was nothing but a vulgarized version of the first (cf. Shirakawa 1982:61). Looking at the Kwangkaytho stele, consider that 句 never appears, but the graph 勾 appears seven times: 勾牟城 *ko-mu fortress, 勾拏 太王 Great King *ko-niɑ, heir to the throne, and 勾満城 *ko-man fortress. Mori (1991:216–217) notes that 句 appears 11 times in Shoki’s poetry (NSK 1, 5, 7, 15, 18, 41), while 勾 appears in the poetry 14 times (NSK 6, 9, 14, 20, 29, 65, 69, 71, 102, 103). Notice further that the two phonograms never appear in the same poem together. I do not doubt that both phonograms appear in the texts, even in the original manuscripts. What I am skeptical about is that there were two distinct phonograms. Therefore, I view 句 as the orthodox graph, and 勾 the vulgar. The earliest datable example of this phonogram in Japan appears on a wooden tablet from the ruins of the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710): 川勾里 KAPAku Village (MK 1382), though the reading is uncertain. The use of the older graph 里 demonstrates this writing predated the introduction of the newer 郷 ‘village’ of the Taihō code of 701. As noted above, this phonogram appears frequently in Nihon shoki, three times in the annotational notes, and 25 times in poetry: 排別、此云飫時和句 “ ‘split the rocks apart’ is read osiwaku” (NSG). NSK 41 訶羅怒烏 karanwo wo The ship Karano 之褒珥椰枳 sipo ni yaki was burned to make salt. 之餓阿摩離 si ga amari The leftover wood 虚等珥菟句離 koto ni tukuri was used to make a lute. 139

訶枳譬句梛 由羅能斗能 斗那訶能異句離珥 敷例多菟 那豆能紀能 佐椰佐椰

玖

kaku piku ya yura no two no twonaka no ikuri ni puretatu nadu no kwi no saya saya

When I strum on it the sound is wonderful, as the swaying of seaweed on a rock jutting out in the Yura Straits— saya saya.

OJ: ku OC: *kwəʔ LH: ku > kɨu EMC: kuw GO: ku KN: kiu NOM: NA SV: cửu SK: kwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The usage of this phonogram was influenced by the popularity of 久. This phonogram appears quite often in Kojiki, sometimes making people believe there may have been a difference in pronunciation with 久 and 玖. As Ōno (1977:185) points out, 久 is the favored phonogram, used 195 times through out the text of Kojiki, while 玖 is used 36 times. Ōno’s own conclusions are that 久 was a standard usage, while 玖 was reserved for literary tension, the so-called skillful use of phonograms (1977:185– 186). Needless to say, it is very difficult to reach such complex conclusions based only on this vague ratio (195:36). What most have failed to notice is that the majority of the usages of this graph are confined to the second book of Kojiki. This usage may be nothing more than personal preference of an earlier historiographer. Examples of this usage in Kojiki include 伊多玖佐夜藝帝阿理祁理 itaku sayagite ari nari ‘We hear (the land of Yamato) is terribly unruly’ (KG). 阿佐米 余玖 asame yoku ‘seeing an auspicious sign in the morning’ (KG), and 意富夜 麻登玖迩阿禮比賣命 Opo Yamato Kuniare Pimye (KG). KK 52 淤岐幣迩波 okipye ni pa There are boats 袁夫泥都羅羅玖 wobune turaraku lined up out in the offing. 久漏邪夜能 kurwozaya no Black like a sheath 摩佐豆古和藝毛 masadukwo wagimwo my beautiful beloved, 玖迩幣玖陀良須 kunipye kudarasu she heads for her home. This phonogram also appears four times in the annotational notes, and six times in the poetry of Shoki: 泳宮、此云區玖利能彌揶 “ ‘the Kukuri Palace’ is read kukuri no miya” (NSG). NSK 56 于羅遇破能紀 uragupa no kwi The beautiful mulberry branch 豫屢志士枳 yorumasiziki cannot approach, 箇破能區莽愚莽 kapa no kumaguma driven here and there 豫呂朋譬喩玖伽茂 yoropopi yuku kamo by the bends in the river. 于羅愚破能紀 uragupa no kwi The beautiful mulberry branch. This phonogram appears twice in Man’yōshū, once in the place name 玖河 郡 Kuga District, and then once in a poem. MYS 3876 TOYO KUNI NO I wonder if my beloved 豊國 has gotten her sleeves wet 企玖乃池奈流 kiku no IKE naru 140

菱之宇礼乎 採跡也妹之 御袖所沾計武

口

群

丘

PISI NO ure wo TUMU TO ya IMWO NO MISWODE NUREkyemu

trying to pick the water chestnuts of Kiku Pond in Toyo Province.

OJ: ku OC: *khôʔ GO: ku KN: kou LH: khoʔ EMC: khəw NOM: khẩu SV: khẩu SK: kwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The oldest datable usage comes from the first book of Man’yōshū, poem 45: 隠口乃, KOMORI ku no “the hidden place.” This poem was written by Hitomaro when Prince Karu (軽皇子) lodged on the plain of Aki. Thus, we can date this poem before 697, before Prince Karu became Crown Prince (697.2), and before he became Emperor Monmu (697.8). Many of the examples of 口 in Man’yōshū appear in this epithet (隠口), which is a semantic play: hidden mouth = that which is hidden away, a hidden place. Not only does 口 have the phonogrammatic value of ku, but the graph calls to mind the ku of kuti ‘mouth.’ OJ: ku, kuru OC: *ɡun < *C.qur§ LH: ɡun EMC: ɡun GO: gumu KN: kun NOM: quần, quằn SV: quần SK: kun Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The oldest datable example comes from 726, found on a stone monument to the Mike Family in Takada Village in Ueno. The monument inscription starts: 上野国群馬郡下賛郷高田里三家, “UPENWO Province, Kuruma District....’ The traditional explanation is that 群 馬 transcribes kunma, and it was written with a liquid -ru- to show the slurred pronunciation (cf. Ōno 1962:411–412). It should not be overlooked, however, that at an earlier stage, the Chinese pronunciation of 群 was liquid-final. This is also seen in Paekche transcriptions, where a Paekche place name with the element ‘moon’ (Middle Korean tol) in the name is transcribed as 珍 (OC *trər > LOC ʈin). Furthermore, notice that the Paekche name 波珍 in Nihon shoki is glossed as 波止利 patori in Shiki, showing that the graph 珍 retained the final liquid in this Korean transcription (cf. Bentley 2000). The single example in Man’yōshū appears in Book 10, where the graph 群 is read ku: MYS 2130 WA GA YADWO ni The wild geese 吾屋戸尓 NAKIsi KARI GANE that had honked at my house 鳴之鴈哭 KUMWO NO UPE ni are now honking above 雲上尓 KOYOPI NAKUNARU the clouds tonight. 今夜喧成 国方可聞遊群 KUNI PYE kamo yuku Perhaps they are headed home. OJ: ku LH: khu NOM: kheo

EMC: khuw SV: khưu, khíu, vưu

141

OC: *khwə GO: ku KN: kiu SK: kwu

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram appears only in Man’yōshū, and in only one poem. MYS 185 MINATUTAPU The azaleas among the boulders 水傳 ISWO no URAMWI no where the water snakes 礒乃浦廻乃 IPA TUTUzi around the rocks of the lake 石上乍自 are in full bloom by the path— 木丘開道乎 moku SAKU MITI wo MATA MO MIMU KAMO will I ever see these again? 又将見鴨

九

鳩

孔

OJ: ku OC: *kuʔ LH: kuʔ EMC: kuw GO: ku KN: kiu NOM: cûu SV: cûu SK: kwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Man’yōshū, then only three times. In the following poem numerals figure prominently. MYS 2581 KOTO NI IPYEBA To say this verbally 言云者 三々二田八酢四 MIMI ni TAYASUsi it sounds simple to the ears. SUKUNAku mo At least I am thinking 小九毛 KOKORO NO NAKA ni that in my heart 心中二 WA GA OMOPOnaku ni it is not so simple. 我念羽奈九二 It should be pointed out that there is also a visual aspect of this poem, where the numbers tell a rather amusing story: to say this verbally / 3+3+2=8 fields, four (things of) vinegar / nine little hairs / in my heart there are two / I thought ‘why the feather?’ Notice that the number 9 appears twice. OJ: ku OC: *ku LH: ku EMC: kuw GO: ku KN: kiu NOM: cưu SV: cưu SK: kwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Man’yōshū, and then only once. MYS 1655 TAKAYAMA NO I would like to say 高山之 SUGA NO PA sinwogi the weight of love has vanished, 菅葉之努藝 PURU SIMWO NO like melting frost that descended, 零雪之 KENU TO ka IPAmo weighing down the leaves on 消跡可曰毛 KWOPWI no SIGEkyeku the sedge of the high mountain. 戀乃繁鶏鳩 OJ: ku, kugu OC: *khôŋʔ LH: khoŋʔ EMC: khəwŋ GO: kuu KN: kou NOM: khổng SV: khổng SK: kwong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The earliest datable example of this appears in the Mino Census of 702: 孔西 Kuguse. There is also an example in

142

the Jinmu record of Shoki where this graph transcribes ku: 孔舍衞坂 Kusawe Hill (NSG).

倶

區

OJ: ku OC: *ko LH: kɨo EMC: kuə LMC: kyə GO: gu KN: ku NOM: gù SV: câu, cu SK: kwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears 13 times in the annotational notes, and 52 times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 背揮、此云志理 幣 提 爾 布 倶 “ ‘Brandish a sword backhandedly (as one retreats)’ is read siripyede ni puku” (NSG). NSK 95 婀嗚儞與志 awo ni yosi In the valley of 乃樂能婆娑摩儞 nara no pasama ni the blue hills of Nara, 斯々貳暮能 sisizi mono like beasts of prey, he lies 瀰豆矩陛御暮梨 miduku pyegomori hidden by the banks— 瀰儺曾々矩 mina sosoku a large catch of tuna, 思寐能和倶吾嗚 sibi no wakugwo wo the young man, Shibi. 阿娑理逗那偉能古 asaridunawi no kwo Boars, do not try to find him! This phonogram also appears in the imperial edicts of Shoku Nihongi. Edict number five (dated 724) has the following word twice: 牟倶佐加爾 mukusaka ni apparently meaning something close to ‘abundant, plentiful, wondrous.’ OJ: ku OC: *kho LH: khuo EMC: khuə LMC: khyə GO: ku KN: ku NOM: khu, khù SV: khu SK: kwu Usage / History: I place this phonogram in the CBS. This graph appears 42 times in the poetry of Nihon shoki. NSK 62 多莽耆破屢 tamakiparu Minister Uchi 宇知能阿曾 uti no aso with the strong spirit— 儺虚曾破 na koso pa it is you 豫能等保臂等 yo no topo pito who have lived so long. 儺虚曾波 na koso pa It is you 區珥能那餓臂等 kuni no nagapito who is the elder of the land. 阿耆豆辭莽 akitusima So I ask if you have heard 揶莽等能區珥々 yamato no kuni ni of a goose having laid an egg 箇利古武等 kari kwomu to in the dragonfly 儺波企箇輸揶 na pa kikasu ya islands of Yamato? This graph also appears in a Man’yōshū chūshaku quote from the lost Hizen fudoki, which has the following poem: 婀邏禮符縷 arare puru On the peak of Kishima 耆資麼加多塏塢 kisima ga take wo where the hail pounds 嵯峨紫彌台 sakasimi to the climb was so steep— 區縒刀理我泥底 kusa tworikanete she could not grasp the grass 伊母我提塢刀縷 imo ga te wo tworu so I held my beloved’s hand. 143

While it is difficult to know if this poem is from the original Nara era Hizen fudoki, the orthography does remind one of the complicated phonograms selected for inclusion in Nihon shoki poetry. And while this poem is a variant of MYS 385, the orthography is so different that these two must be seen as different versions of the same poem.

矩

絇

OJ: ku OC: *kwaʔ LH: kyɑʔ EMC: kuə LMC: kyə GO: ku KN: ku NOM: củ SV: củ SK: kwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. There are six examples in the annotational notes, and 28 examples in the poetry in Nihon shoki: 鞍橋、此云矩 羅膩 “ ‘saddle-ridge’ is read kurazi”(NSG). NSK 122 摩比邏矩都能 mapira kutu no The repeated attacks from Kure, 倶例豆例於能 kure tureo no the truly flat capital on the river— 幣陀乎邏賦 pyeta worapu she remains on the banks, 倶能理歌理鵝 kunorikari ga that damn queen who is there. 美和陀騰能理 miwata to nori He declared, “To the august sea!”— 歌美烏能 kami wono with the captain’s axe. 陛陀烏邏賦 pyeta worapu Yet she remains on the banks, 倶能理歌理鵝 kunorikari ga that damn queen that is there. KWINOYE NE to It was said in the Kinoe ne year, 甲子騰 和與騰美烏能 wa toyomi wono “Wa with its drooping axe....” 陛陀烏邏賦 pyeta worapu And she remains on the banks, 倶能理歌理鵝 kunorikari ga that damn queen who is there. OJ: ku OC: *ɡo LH: ɡɨo EMC: ɡuə LMC: kɦyə GO: gu KN: ku NOM: NA SV: cù SK: kwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears only in Shoki, and according to Mori (1991:216) only once. It appears in NSK 69, an Ingyō poem: 阿資臂紀能・椰摩娜烏莵絇利asipikwi no / yamada wo tukuri “Making a mountain rice paddy, where our legs become cramped....” Ienaga et al. (1986.1:649) note that all manuscripts, other than the Kunaichō and Shaku Nihongi manuscripts, have 句. These two manuscripts have 絇. Ōno (1977:759), however, mentions that 絇 appears in NSK 69. The text of the NKBZ has 勾. The greatest problem I have faced is not with the variation of 句 > 勾, which is simply graphic variation, but in deciding where the radical 糸 came from. If this radical appeared somewhere else in the poetic stanza, an ‘eye-skip’ would likely be the problem. It is possible that 紀 in the first stanza influenced 絇, but there are seven graphs in between. The phonogram, 菟, appears in two different manuscripts (Kunaichō and Kitano) as 兎, but this a simple alteration of a similar phonogram. It is quite plausible that this graph 絇 originally was not in Nihon shoki; however, because of the textual uncertainty, I have elected to include this phonogram (絇) in the dictionary with the above reservations. 144

窶 衢 屨

來

OJ: ku OC: *ɡroʔ LH: ɡuo EMC: ɡuə LMC: kɦyə GO: gu KN: ku NOM: cũ SV: cũ SK: kwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears only once in Shoki, but it is preserved in all manuscripts in its variant form: 寠. That single appearance is in the Shoki annotational notes: 磐裂此云以簸娑寠 “ ‘rock splitting’ is read ipasaku” (NSG). OJ: ku OC: *ɡwa LH: ɡyɑ EMC: ɡuə LMC: kɦyə GO: gu KN: ku NOM: cù SV: cù SK: kwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This graph only appears in Shoki, in the annotational notes twice: 倉下此云衢羅餌 “ ‘Lower storehouse’ is read kurazi” (NSG), 手抉此云多衢餌離 “ ‘A finger bowl’ is takuziri” (NSG). OJ: ku OC: *kroh LH: kuo EMC: kuə LMC: kyə GO: ku KN: ku NOM: NA SV: lủ, củ SK: kwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing only twice in the same poem in Shoki. NSK 99 柯羅屨儞嗚 kara kuni wo No matter what people 以柯儞輔居等所 ika ni pu koto so may say about our land of Kara, 梅豆羅古枳駄樓 medurakwo kitaru Mezurako has arrived. 武哿左屨樓 mukasakuru Passing through the distant 以祇能和駄唎嗚 iki no watari wo channel of Iki 梅豆羅古枳駄樓 medurakwo kitaru Mezurako has at last arrived. OJ: ku OC: *rə LH: lə EMC: ləj GO: rai KN: rai NOM: lai, lơi SV: lai SK: lai Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader the OJ word for ‘come,’ which could be either ku or ki, based on the conclusive or infinitive forms of the verb k-. The oldest datable usage of ku represented with 來 is in the record of Jinmu, where the Kumebye (ancient archers) are recorded as 來目部. Because it is difficult to date the proper names in Shoki, we must date the usages via other documents. Kojiki, which is believed to represent the court after the Suiko era, records the name as 久米直. Japan’s oldest genealogical register, Shinsen shōjiroku (814), records the name as 久目朝臣, reflecting the orthography of pre-Nara eras. Shoku Nihongi also records the name with the same spelling as Shōjiroku. This would seem to suggest that when Tenmu gave out new ranks in the 13th year of this reign (684), the family may have altered the phonograms of the name: 久米 >來目. If this supposition is correct, then this usage comes from 684. 145

The phonogram 來 also appears in Man’yōshū, used a total of 11 times in the poetry. MYS 27 YOKI PITO no Good people of old took a good 淑人乃 YOSI TO YOKU MITE look at this good place, 良跡吉見而 YOSI TO IPIsi saying it was good, Yoshino. 好常言師 YOSINWO YOKU MIyo You good people here, 芳野吉見与 YOSI PITO YOKU MI take a good look at Yoshino. 良人四来三

功 菊 鞠 君

OJ: kugu OC: *kôŋ LH: koŋ EMC: kəwŋ GO: kuu KN: kou NOM: công SV: công SK: kwong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The earliest datable example appears in the Mino Census of 702: 功志 Kugusi and 功子賣 KuguKWOmye. OJ: kuku OC: *kuk LH: kuk EMC: kuwk LMC: kiwk GO: kuku KN: kiku NOM: cúc SV: cúc SK: kwuk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. With the importation of LMC the word became kiku ‘chrysanthemum,’ which reading survives to this day. Examples with this phonogram are quite rare. One example appears in the first book of Nihon shoki: 菊 理 媛 Kukuri PIMYE. Another example appears in Shoku Nihongi: 菊多郡 Kukuta District (718.5.2). OJ: kuku OC: *kuk LH: kuk EMC: kuwk GO: kuku KN: kiku NOM: cúc SV: cúc SK: kwuk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It is extremely rare, and appears only in Shoku Nihongi: 鞠智城 Kukuti Fortress (698.5.25). OJ: kuni, ku OC: *kun LH: kun EMC: kun GO: kumu KN: kun NOM: quân SV: quân SK: kwun Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. There are examples of this graph in names in documents preserved in the Shōsōin, such as 難万君 Namakuni or 難 麻君 Namakuni. This usage also appears in Man’yōshū, where there are 23 examples, and it is possible to divide these examples into three groups: (i) those where 君 represents a nominalized form -kuni (10 examples), (ii) 君 represents ku, but this is followed by a nasal-initial syllable, m- or n-, (10 examples), and (iii) where 君 simply represents ku (three examples). Thus it can be said with some confidence that 君 was originally selected to represent kuni, then later ku + nasal. Finally it could represent just ku. Below is an example of a poem from each of the three groups. 146

(i) MYS 2523 散頬相 色者不出 小文 心中 吾念名君 (ii) MYS 3510 美蘇良由久 君母尓毛我母奈 家布由伎弖 伊母尓許等杼比 安須可敝里許武 (iii) MYS 1600 妻戀尓 鹿鳴山邊之 秋芽子者 露霜寒 盛須疑由君

訓

忽

IRO NIPA IDEZU SUKUNAKU mo KOKORO NO UTI NI WA GA OMOPANAkuni

Red with color— it does not show on my face but at least within my heart I am thinking of you.

miswora yuku kumo ni mogamo kyepu yukite imo ni kotodopi asuka kapyerikomu

How I wish that I were a cloud in the sky. Today I would go and talk to my beloved: I intend to return tomorrow.

TUMAGWOPWI ni KA NAKU YAMApye NO AKIPAGWI PA TUYU SIMWO SAMUMI SAKARI sugwi yuku

The autumn bushclover by the mountain where deer call out to their mates— the dew and frost being cold the zenith passes away.

saniTURAPU

OJ: kuni, ku OC: *huns LH: hunh EMC: xun GO: kumu KN: kun NOM: huấn SV: huấn SK: kwun Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage appears in documents in possession of Shōsōin, with names like 乙訓 Otokuni and 弟訓部市麻呂 OTOkuniBYE ITImaro. There is an example in Nihon shoki related to the name of a Silla envoy: 金高訓. The NKBT text glosses the name as komu kau kun, which would suggest that the older reading was komu kafu kunu, but it could just as well have been kuni. Shoku Nihongi contains a number of examples of this usage. There is one single example of kuni: 乙訓郡 Otokuni District (702.7.8). A number of examples of ku include: 訓儒麻呂 Kuzumaro < *kunsumaro (762.8.11) and 訓志必登 Kusipito (768.8.20). It is possible that the second example is kuzi, which if true, would show that the final nasal of 訓 was used to represent prenasalization: kunsi > kuzi. OJ: kuta OC: *hmə̂t LH: huət EMC: xwət GO: koti KN: kotu NOM: hôt SV: hốt SK: hwol Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This graph appears in Samkwuk saki, in both the Paekche and Koguryŏ sections dealing with the change in place names. It is clear that 忽 is a phonogram to transcribe 城 ‘walled city.’ It is thus tempting to say that the word in Paekche is *huət. But as I have noted earlier 147

(2000:433–434), evidence from Koguryŏ related to the alternation of 忽 with 曲 suggests that neither Paekche nor Koguryŏ had *h-; these two languages represented this laryngeal with k-. Beckwith (2004:170) provides evidence that another phonogram was also used to represent this word: 骨. I line up the Chinese and Sino-Xenic data below: Phonogram 忽 曲 骨

LH huət khɨok kuət

EMC xwət khuawk kwət

SV hốt khúc cốt

Nom hốt khúc cốt

SK hwol kwok kwol

These data imply that there was h ~ k alternation, suggesting that the underlying consonant here was *k. As there is no other overt information, I simply suggest that the reading kuta is a carry over from Sino-Paekche. The earliest known example of this in Japan appears in Izumo fudoki: 忽美 Kutami. From wooden documents dug up from the Nara capital we find a toponym 忽嶋 Kuta SIMA ‘Kuta Island’ (unnumbered tablet). A related usage also appears on a wooden fragment from Nara: 笏賀郷 Kutaga Village (another possible reading is Kutuga, MK 2748).

骨 鬼

OJ: kutu OC: *kût LH: kuət EMC: kwət GO: koti KN: kotu NOM: cốt SV: cốt SK: kwol Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS (see the discussion under 忽 above). The name 骨奈嶋 Kutuna SIMA ‘Kutuna Island’ is preserved in Shōsōin documents. Ōno (1962:462) notes that the name of this island later became 忽奈 嶋 Kut?na Island (likely Kutuna). OJ: kwi OC: *kuiʔ LH: kuiʔ EMC: kjweiʔ GO: kuwi KN: kuwi NOM: quỷ SV: quỷ SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. Several examples appear in Wei zhi, in toponyms 鬼 *kui and 鬼奴 *kui-nɔ. Two important examples also appear on the Inariyama Tumulus sword, writing the name 多沙鬼獲居 *tɑsɑkui wɑkɑ (which many scholars interpret as Tasakwi Wake; see 居 OJ: ke for more details), and the place name 斯鬼 *sekui. Miller and Murayama (1979:429, 433) believe 鬼 in the toponym *sekui (their *sikï) to be transcribing kwi (likely 城 kwi ‘fortress’). Because this Paekche word for walled city appears to have been homophonous with the Old Japanese word ‘tree,’ it is difficult to tell which etymology is correct. There are a few examples of 鬼 in the Paekche orthographic pool. One appears in the record of Kinmei, 鬼室 Kwi-situ. Another example appears in the record of Suiko, transcribing the toponym 弗知鬼 Put-te-kwi (Ienaga et al. 1986.2:176). This same fortress is recorded in the record of Keitai as 費智 *putte, strongly suggesting that the attending -kwi in the first example is the suffix 148

noun ‘fortress.’ It is also represented as 發鬼 Poti-kwi in the fourth year of Bidatsu. This graph also appears on wooden tablets (mokkan). One from the Fujiwara Palace ruins (fl. 694–710) contains the fragment: 河鬼加布 kakwi kapu ‘buy persimmons’ (MK 1250).

貴

OJ: kwi OC: *kus LH: kuis EMC: kuj GO: kuwi KN: kuwi NOM: quí SV: quý, quí SK: kwuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs in the PBS. According to Ōno, the oldest example of this phonogram comes from 685, found on the inscription of the 僧宝林敬造 金剛場陀羅尼 Sohōrin keizō kongōjo darani (1962:151), transcribing 志貴評 sikwi KOPORI ‘Sikwi District.’ Consider, however, that this graph also appears on the Silla Namsan stele: 貴干久利城 *kui(s)-kɑn-ku-li Fortress. This graph also appears in writings of Paekche names. In the 49th year of Jingū the name 王子貴須 Crown Prince Kwisu appears. In the second year of Kinmei his name is transcribed as 貴首王 Prince Kwisiu. In the seventh year of Yūryaku the name of an immigrant from the peninsula appears: 新漢陶部高 貴 ・ 鞍 部 堅 貴 SUWETUKURI Kaukwi and KURATUKURI Kenkwi, new immigrants from AYA. In the 11th year of Yūryaku is a story of a man who fled Paekche and immigrated to Japan. His name is 貴信 Kwisin. He claimed he was from Kure. In the seventh year of Keitai is found mention of a Paekche general named 姐彌文貴 Sami Monkwi. This phonogram also appears in Teisetsu, in the section outlining the genealogy of Shōtoku Taishi, where the record has 斯貴嶋宮 “the Sikwi SIMA Palace [of Kinmei].” This is an important example, because Shoki records the palace name as 磯城嶋金刺宮, where the name is somewhat variant. Likely Shoki added sub-names to this name because there were so many similar place names. Even Kojiki only has 師木嶋大宮 “the great palace at Sikwi SIMA” (KG). This phonogram appears several times on mokkan: 旦波国多貴評 Tanipa Province Takwi District (MKK 13:155), 佐々貴山君 Sasakwi YAMA [NO] KIMI (unnumbered tablet). The phonogram 貴 appears in Kojiki four times, three in annotational notes, and once in the poetry. That poem is KK 6, but it is simply the name Adisikwi Takahikone, and all four examples of 貴 are exclusively reserved for the rendering of the name of this deity 阿治志貴多迦比古泥能迦微 Adisikwi Takapikwone no Kamwi (KG). The graph also appears in Hitachi fudoki to transcribe the name of the legendary king known as Sujin: 美麻貴天皇 Great King Mimakwi. The earliest datable example of this phonogram in Japan is a name in the Chikuzen Census of 702: 都貴麻呂 Tukwi Maro. This graph also appears in Man’yōshū, but it is used only once, and then in the name 志貴嶋 Sikwi SIMA (MYS 3254).

149

歸

紀

OJ: kwi OC: *kwəi LH: kui EMC: kuj GO: kuwe KN: kuwi NOM: qui SV: quy, qui SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to EJS. The oldest extant example of this phonogram comes from the Suiko corpus, where the toponym 斯 歸 斯 麻 Sikwisima, the palace of Kinmei, and also a later epithet for Japan, is found. The only example of this phonogram found in Teisetsu is the same name: 志歸嶋天 皇, Great King Sikwi SIMA. This phonogram also appears in Hitachi fudoki in a poem: 許智多雞波 kotitakyeba As the rumors are painful 乎婆頭勢夜麻能 wobatuse yama no Let us hide ourselves 伊波歸爾母 ipakwi nimo in the stone enclosure 爲弖許母郎奈牟 wite komoranamu on Mount Obatsuse. 奈古非敍和支母 na kwopwi so wagimo Do not yearn for me, my love. OJ: kwi OC: *kəʔ LH: kɨəʔ EMC: kɨ GO: ko KN: ki NOM: kỹ SV: kỷ, kỉ SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The earliest datable example of this graph appears in the Mino Census of 702 in the name 紀朝臣宮麻呂 Kwi ASOMI MIYAmaro. It also appears in early Nara era documents in the place name as 紀 or 紀伊. There is some debate about whether the digraph example is still just kwi or perhaps it represents compensatory lengthening of monosyllables, which rule still exists in the languages of the Ryūkyūs. This phonogram appears in Kojiki as the primary graph: 多紀理毘賣 Takwiribimye (KG), 紀國 Kwi Province (KG), and 多紀臣 Takwi OMI (KG). KK 22 古波夜 kwo paya Alas, my son, 美麻紀伊理毘古波夜 mimakwi iribikwo paya Woe is Mimaki Iribiko! 美麻紀伊理毘古波夜 mimakwi iribikwo paya You, Mimaki Iribiko! 意能賀袁袁 ono ga wo wo You do not realize that someone 奴須美斯勢牟登 nusumi sisemu to is waiting to take your life; 斯理都斗用 siritutwo ywo from the rear gate, but if 伊由岐多賀比 iyuki tagapi someone appears, they slip 麻幣都斗用 mapyetutwo ywo around and come from 伊由岐多賀比 iyuki tagapi the front gate, but if someone 宇迦迦波久 ukakapaku appears, then they slip around 斯良爾登 sirani to from the back, waiting for 美麻紀伊理毘古波夜 mimakwi iribikwo paya a chance, Mimaki Iribiko! This phonogram also appears in three annotational notes and 14 times in poetry in Nihon shoki: 柀此云磨紀 “ ‘A tree of the Japanese beech variety’ is read makwi”(NSG). NSK 18 瀰磨紀 mimakwi Woe is Mimaki 異利寐胡播揶 iripikwo paya Irihiko! 150

飫廼餓烏塢 ono ga wo wo Occupying himself 志齊務苔 sisemu to with a princess, 農殊末句志羅珥 nusumaku sirani unaware that someone 比賣那素寐殊望 pimye naswobisu mo is waiting to take his life. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū 17 times. MYS 323 MOMOsikwi no I do not recall the year when 百式紀乃 OPOMIYAPITO NO the courtiers of the great palace, 大宮人之 NIGITATU ni a fortress of 100 stones piled up 飽田津尓 PUNANORISIKYEMU boarded their ship 船乗将為 TOSI NO SIRANAku and left the port of Nigita. 年之不知久

幾

奇

OJ: kwi OC: *kəiʔ LH: kɨiʔ EMC: kɨj GO: ke KN: ki NOM: NA SV: cơ, ky, kỷ SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears in both Kojiki and Nihon shoki. This phonogram also appears in Kojiki twice, both in place names: 河内 国之志幾 ‘Sikwi in the province of KAPUTI’ (NSG) and 志幾之大県 ‘Great District of Sikwi’ (NSG). This graph appears only once in Shoki, in the poetry: NSK 7 宇破奈利餓 upanari ga If your favorite wife 那居波佐麼 na kopasaba asks for a side dish, 伊智佐介幾 iti sakakwi cut her many slices of meat 未廼於朋鷄句塢 mwi no opokyeku wo like the hisakaki fruit— 居氣儾被惠禰 kokwidapwiwene blessed in abundance. OJ: kwi OC: *kai or *ɡai LH: kɨai or ɡɨai EMC: kiə or ɡiə GO: gi KN: ki NOM: cả, kỳ SV: cơ, kỳ SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram appears but once in Nihon shoki, in an interesting geographical note found in the record of Jinmu: the place name Omonoki 母木 was supposedly corrupted to 飫悶廼奇, Omonokwi. As can be seen, there appears to be no corruption, unless the corruption is in the meaning: an original ‘fortress of mother’ has changed to ‘mother tree.’ In the orthography of Man’yōshū, 奇 is the most popular graph used for kwi, appearing 75 times in the anthology. MYS 1425 ASIpikwi no If the wild cherry blossoms 足比奇乃 YAMA SAKURABANA in the mountains 山櫻花 PI NARABETE that cramps the legs 日並而 KAKU SAKITARABA bloom like this day by day 如是開有者 PADA KWOPWIME YAMO would there be such intense 甚戀目夜裳 anguish for longing? For an earlier usage, see the same graph under OJ ka.

151

記

寄

綺

騎

OJ: kwi OC: *kəh LH: kɨəh EMC: kɨ GO: ko KN: ki NOM: ký, ghi SV: ký SK: kuy Usage / History: This is a phonogram belongs to the LJS. Jidai betsu kokugo daijiten (1967:892) claims this graph appears only in Man’yōshū, but I have not been able to locate any examples. It is possible that an original graph 紀 was mistakenly copied as 記 in one instance, but I cannot find a single example of 記 used as a phonogram. There is an example of it on a wooden document (mokkan): 肥後国 天草郡志記郷 PIGO Province AMAKUSA District Sikwi Village (MKK 13:142). OJ: kwi OC: *kaih LH: kɨaih EMC: kiə GO: ki KN: ki NOM: NA SV: kí, ký SK: kuy Usage / History: This is a phonogram belongs to the LJS. This graph appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 3687 安思必寄能 asipikwi no Oh, wild duck YAMA tobi kwoyuru who flies over the mountain 山等妣古由留 可里我祢波 kari gane pa that cramps the legs 美也故尓由加波 miyakwo ni yukaba if you fly to the capital 伊毛尓安比弖許祢 imwo ni apite kone please go see my beloved. OJ: kwi OC: *khaiʔ LH: khʔaiʔ EMC: khiə GO: ki KN: ki NOM: NA SV: khỉ, ỹ SK: kuy Usage / History: This is a phonogram belongs to the LJS. This graph appears twice in Man’yōshū. MYS 4040 布勢能宇良乎 puse no ura wo If I am able to go to Fuse Bay 由吉底之見弖婆 yukitesi MIteba 毛母之綺能 momosikwi no then I will tell 於保美夜比等尓 opomiyabito ni the courtiers of the great palace 可多利都藝底牟 katari tugitemu a fortress built of 100 stones. OJ: kwi OC: *ɡaih LH: ɡɨɑih EMC: ɡiə LMC: kɦi GO: gi KN: ki NOM: kỵ SV: kì, kỳ, kỵ SK: kuy Usage / History: This is a phonogram belongs to the CBS. This graph appears only in Man’yōshū, twice, in Book 1, both times transcribing the place name akwi no (OPO)NWO ‘(great) plain of Aki’: 阿騎乃大野 (MYS 45) and 阿騎乃野 (MYS 46).

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機

基

己

既

OJ: kwi OC: *kəi LH: kɨi EMC: kɨj LMC: ki GO: ke KN: ki NOM: cơ SV: cơ SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It is used only once in the poetry of Nihon shoki. NSK 7 于儾能 uda no In the high 多伽機珥 takakwi ni fort of Uda 辭藝和奈破蘆 sigi wana paru a trap for snipe I set, 和餓末菟夜 wa ga matu ya and as I waited— 辭藝破佐夜羅孺 sigi pa sayarazu it did not catch a snipe. OJ: kwi LH: kɨə NOM: cơ Usage / History: This graph belongs shoki: NSK 100 柯羅倶爾能 基能陪儞陁致底 於譜磨故幡 比例甫囉須母 耶魔等陸武岐底

EMC: kɨ LMC: ki SV: cơ

OC: *kə GO: ko KN: ki SK: kuy

to the CBS. It appears four times in the poetry of Nihon kara kuni no kwi no pe ni tatite opobakwo pa pire purasu mo yamatopye mukite

Standing upon the walls of the Kara fortress Ōbako is waving her white scarf— waving it toward Yamato.

OJ: kwi OC: *kəʔ LH: kɨə EMC: kɨ LMC: ki GO: ko KN: ki NOM: kỷ SV: kỷ, kỉ SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and is found only once in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 83 伊儺武斯盧 inamusiro The willow growing along 呵簸泝比野儺擬 kapaswopi yanagwi the banks of the river bends 寐逗愈凱麼 midu yukeba with the flow of the water. 儺弭企於己陀智 nabiki okwitati Fluttering or standing tall 曾能泥播宇世儒 sono ne pa usezu the roots remain unchanged. OJ: kwi OC: *kəts LH: kɨs > kɨj EMC: kɨj LMC: ki GO: ke KN: ki NOM: NA SV: ký, kí SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram, used to transcribe kwi, belongs to the CBS, but the history of this graph is quite long and somewhat complex. This phonogram originally appeared in the PBS, and appears in a number of Paekche names, representing ko (which see). In the LJS it represents ke, and then in the CBS kwi. 153

To the information provided above, also consider the following additional information gleaned from Chữ Nôm: 穊 cấy, 摡 khơi, coupled with the evidence from Sino-Korean, and these suggests that the underlying phonology was *kəi. It would appear that at an earlier period the final vowel was ignored, resulting in [kə] for ko. The graph 既 used for kwi only appears once in Nihon shoki, in the annotational notes in the record of Tenmu: 齊忌此云踰既 “ ‘The first fruits’ are called yukwi” (NSG). See the same phonogram 既 under OJ ke and ko.

氣

木

OJ: kwi LH: kɨs > kɨj EMC: khɨj LMC: khi NOM: khí SV: khí Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This the poetry of Shoki. NSK 7 于儾能 uda no 多伽機珥 takakwi ni 辭藝和奈破蘆 sigi wana paru 和餓末菟夜 wa ga matu ya 辭藝破佐夜羅孺 sigi pa sayarazu 伊殊區波辭 isukupasi 區旎羅佐夜離 kudira sayari 固奈瀰餓 kwonami ga 那居波佐麼 na kopasaba 多智曾麼能 tatisoba no 未廼那鷄句塢 mwi no nakyeku wo 居氣辭被惠禰 kokwisipwiwene 宇破奈利餓 upanari ga 那居波佐麼 na kopasaba 伊智佐介幾 iti sakakwi 未廼於朋鷄句塢 mwi no opokyeku wo 居氣儾被惠禰 kokwidapwiwene See the same graph under OJ ke.

OC: *khə(t)s GO: ke KN: ki SK: kuy phonogram only appears twice in In the high fort of Uda a trap for snipe I set, and as I waited— it did not catch a snipe. What it did capture were two intrepid hawks. If your first wife asks for a side dish, cut her many slices of meat with almost no flesh— barren, like the hawthorn. If your favorite wife asks for a side dish, cut her many slices of meat like the hisakaki fruit— blessed in abundance.

OJ: kwi OC: *môk LH: mok EMC: məwk GO: moku KN: moku NOM: mộc, mọc, mốc SV: mộc SK: mwok Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the read OJ kwi ‘tree.’ The oldest known example of this phonogram comes from the Suiko corpus, found in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu, writing the ancient place name KATURAKWI 葛木. A datable example of this toponym comes from 702, when the census was taken in Mino. The place name of KATURAKWI also appears on the Wina Mabito Omura tombstone from 707. The kungana 木 is also used in Kojiki, which preserves the older orthographical stratum inherited from the Suiko era. This graph appear 69 times 154

in annotational notes. Two examples suffice: 高木神 TAKAKWI [NO] KAMWI ‘high tree deity’ (KG), and 船木 PUNAKWI ‘ship-tree’ (KG), though the semantics are based on the characters, and there is no guarantee that these are the original meanings. This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, used only for proper names: 武 諸木 TAKE MOROKWI (NSG), and 木梨輕皇子 Prince KWINASI KARU (NSG). While there are 180 examples of 城, there are only nine examples of 木. This usage is also very productive in Man’yōshū. Many of these examples transcribe the epithet for ‘mountain’ asipikwi: 足比木・足日木・足氷木, provisionally translated as ‘which cramps the legs.’ MYS 1110 Searching for new land 湯種蒔 YUDANE MAKE ARAKWI NO WODA WO to open and plant 荒木之小田矣 MOTOMEMU TO sacred rice seeds 求跡 AYUPI PA NURENU my leggings are wet— 足結出所沾 KONO KAPA NO SE ni at the shoal of this river. 此水之湍尓 See the same graph under ko.

城

OJ: kwi OC: *ɡeŋ LH: dźeŋ < ɡieŋ EMC: dʑiajŋ GO: ziyau KN: sei NOM: thành SV: thành SK: syeng Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind the OJ word kwi ‘walled city, fortress.’ Miller (1976:400, 408) argues that the Japanese word kwi ‘walled city’ comes from the Old Korean word kuj. He slightly modifies his spelling in a later paper to kŭy (1979:16). On the other hand, Martin (1987:449) cautions, “But the Japanese etymon may be a noun *ka[k]u-Ci made from the root of the verb stem kakum[a]- ‘enclose, surround.’ ” While Martin’s point is valid, the essential question remains: how did the ancients take the graph for ‘walled city’ and attach a reading of kwi to it? This is clearly a case, similar to the example with 木, where the ancients are taking a native word, almost always a noun, and mapping a certain graph on to it, because of a perfect two-way match. If the Paekche scribes already had a word for this kanji, it may be the case that the Paekche scribes attached the kanji to the loan kwi which had already entered the Japanese language. My own research (Bentley 2000) shows that the word for walled city in Paekche was transcribed with 己 (LH kɨə, EMC kɨ), so the phonological match is good. The earliest example of this usage appears the place name KATURAKWI 葛 城 found in a Shōtoku Taishi genealogy. This usage appears in Kojiki in names like 石城國 IPAKWI Province (KG) and 葛城 KATURAKWI (KG). As noted before, 城 appears 180 times in Shoki, mostly used in proper names or toponyms that end with kwi. A few examples other than 葛城 KATURAKWI are 泊 瀬 列 城 PATUSE [NO] NAMIKWI (NSG), 筒 城 TUTUKWI (NSG), 水間城之王 the king MIMAKWI (NSG), and 磯城嶋 SIKWI SIMA (NSG).

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This usage was also quite popular in Man’yōshū, though many of the examples are in the epithet MOMOSIKWI NO 百磯城之・百石城之, translated as ‘a fortress built with 100 stones.’

黄

樹

古

OJ: kwi OC: *wâŋ LH: ɣuaŋ EMC: ɣwaŋ GO: wau NOM: hoàng SV: hoàng, huỳnh SK: hwang Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ kwi ‘yellow.’ The oldest datable use of this phonogram comes from 753, on the Yakushiji Buddhist Footprints stone inscription: 黄文本実, writing KWIPUMI PONZITI, pointing to Kifumi Honjichi seen in the 10th year of Tenji. There are as yet no datable examples of this phonogram from an era early than Nara. The only example that likely dates from the Asuka era appears in Nihon shoki. There are six examples of 黄 in proper names in Shoki. An illustrative example is 黄書造本実, glossed as KWIPUMI [NO] MIYATUKWO PONZITI (NSG). This surname is written as 黄文 in 12th year of Tenmu. Shinsen shōjiroku records that this family came from Koguryŏ. OJ: kwi OC: *doʔ LH: dźoʔ EMC: dʑuə GO: ziu KN: siu NOM: NA SV: thụ SK: syu Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ kwi ‘tree.’ This graph appears mainly in proper names in Shoki and Man’yōshū. In place names or personal names where the element kwi appeared, if the writer believed the etymology to have something to do with ‘trees,’ this phonogram was often selected. An example in Shoki appears in the record of Keitai: 河 内 母 樹 馬 飼 首 OMONOKWI UMAKAPI [NO] OBITO of KAPUTI (NSG). This kungana appears only once in Man’yōshū: MYS 55 ASA mo YOSI How envious the man from Ki 朝毛吉 木人乏母 KWI PITO TOMOSI mo where mornings are delightful. Is he gazing at Mount Matsuchi 亦打山 MATUTI YAMA YUKIKU TO MIramu as he travels on his way? Yes! 行来跡見良武 樹人友師母 KWI PITO TOMOsi mo How envious the man from Ki. OJ: kwo OC: *kâʔ LH: kɑʔ > kɔ EMC: kɔ GO: ko KN: ko NOM: cổ SV: cổ SK: kwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. This graph appears in Wei zhi, in the following title 狗古智卑狗 *kɔ-kɔ-te-pe-kɔ and the toponym 好古都 *hɔ-kɔtɔ. On the peninsula this phonogram does not appear in the Paekche inscriptions, but it does in the Koguryŏ corpus. Consider the following place names recorded on the Kwangkaytho stele: 古 舎蔦 城 *ko-tsa-tio fortress, 古 利 城 *ko-ri

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fortress, 古 模 耶 羅 城 *ko-mo-ra-ra fortress, 家 古 龍 羅 城 *ka-ko-ruŋ-ra fortress, 古牟婁城 *ko-mu-ro fortress, and 炅古城 *kiəŋ-ko fortress. This phonogram is also found in Paekche quotes in Nihon shoki. Two examples appear in the record of Jingū: 莫古 Makkwo and 過古 Kakwo, both personal names. The record of Jingū also preserves place names from the Karak Federation and neighboring areas which use this graph: 古奚津 landing of Kwokye, 半古邑 Pankwo Village, and 古沙山 Mount Kwosa. This phonogram appears in several liturgies: 奉宇豆乃幣帛者。比古神爾 御服明妙照妙和妙荒妙五色物 TATEMATURU udu no MITEGURA PA pikwoGAMWI ni MISO [PA] AKARUTAPE TERUTAPE NIKITAPE ITUIRO [NO] MONO “As for the exalted offerings that are presented, these will become fabric for the PIKO deities, fabric that is brilliant, glowing, soft, coarse, consisting of the five colors…” (NT 4). This phonogram appears many times in inscriptions found on mokkan: 伊刀古麻呂 Itwokwo Maro (MK 1926), 阿古女 AkwoMYE (MKK 4:13), 古奈都女 KwonatuMYE (MK 415). This phonogram is the main graph to transcribe kwo in Kojiki, used a total of 136 times (Ōno 1977:171–175). Examples from names include 神倭伊波禮毘古 KAMU YAMATO Ipare Bikwo (KG), 宇摩志阿斯訶備比古遲 Umasi Asikabwi Pikwodi (KG), and one phrase 阿那迩夜志愛袁登古袁 anani yasi e wotokwo wo “How wonderful, a good man” (KG). KK 11 美都美都斯 mitumitusi You, the intrepid 久米能古良賀 kume no kwora ga sons of the Kume— 阿波布爾波 apa pu ni pa In the millet field 賀美良比登母登 kamira pito moto there is one fetid leek. 曾泥賀母登 so ne ga moto At the base of that root, 曾泥米都那藝弖 so ne me tunagite with both root and sprout, 宇知弖志夜麻牟 utitesi yamamu we will utterly smite them. There are three examples of this phonogram in the annotational notes of Shoki, and 37 in the poetry: 衫子此云莒呂母能古, “ ‘robe child’ is read koromo no kwo” (NSG). NSK 61 破始多氐能 pasi tate no Like a standing ladder, 佐餓始枳揶摩茂 sagasiki yama mo if my love and I can climb 和藝毛古等 wagimwokwo to these mountains together 赴駄利古喩例麼 putari kwoyureba then things will be tranquil, 揶須武志呂箇茂 yasumusiro kamo like resting on a straw mat. This phonogram is used more than any other of the many graphs used to represent kwo in Man’yōshū, appearing 214 times (compared with 故 143 times, 胡 27 times, 祜 five times, and 姑 once). MYS 3602 安乎尓余志 awo ni yosi How I never tire 奈良能美夜古尓 nara no miyakwo ni of gazing at the heavenly 多奈妣家流 tanabikyeru clouds that spread out 安麻能之良久毛 ama no sirakumo over the capital of Nara 見礼杼安可奴加毛 MIredo akanu kamo where the green earth is good. There is excellent evidence that the distinction of kwo versus ko survived 157

until the end of the ninth century or early into the 10th century. That evidence is preserved in a Chinese dictionary produced in Japan, called Shinsen jikyō (ca. 899). Consider the evidence listed in the following chart: OJ word kasikwom- ‘be in awe’ kwo ‘child’ kwonami ‘first wife’ kwoy- ‘cross over’ mwokwo ‘the other one’ kokoro ‘heart, mind’ kome ‘rice’ koto ‘words’ poko ‘halberd’ toko ‘eternal’

Kojiki 加斯古美 古 古那美 NA 毛古 許許呂 NA 許登 富許 登許

Nihon shoki 訶志胡瀰 古 固奈瀰 古喩例麼 毛胡 虚々呂 渠梅 渠騰 NA 騰擧

Shinsen jikyō 加志古万留 古 古奈美 古由 毛古 己己呂 己女 己止 保己 止己

As this chart makes clear, Shinsen jikyō has preserved the distinction between kwo and ko with perfect accuracy.

觚

高

OJ: kwo OC: *kwâ LH: kua > kuɔ EMC: kɔ GO: ko KN: ko NOM: NA SV: cô SK: kwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in several titles: 泄謨觚 *satu-mɔ-kɔ, 柄渠觚 *pa-gɔ-kɔ, and 兕馬觚 *si-ma-kɔ. It is unclear why this graph, which means ‘ritual wine vessel’ was abandoned by the Japanese. Nihon shoki uses a related graph, 孤 ‘orphan’ once: 少男、此云烏等孤 “ ‘Young boy,’ this is read wotokwo” (NSG). It should be noted that while there is no Nom reading for 觚, the Nom reading for 孤 is cô, the same SV reading as 觚. OJ: kwo OC: *kaw LH: kau EMC: kaw GO: kau KN: kau NOM: cao SV: cao SK: kwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. There are a few examples in inscriptions on the Korean peninsula, but none appear in Paekche inscriptions. The obvious example from the peninsula is the usage of the name of the powerful kingdom, Koguryŏ, 高句麗, kwo-ku-rəi. This name appears as early as the Wei zhi. The graph 高 was also used by Silla, as seen in the Silla Musuo (新羅戊戌 塢, ca. 578) inscription: 高□塢 kwo X wo, which appears to be a personal name. This phonogram was well suited to transcribe OJ kwo, but in the Old Japanese corpus it is used mainly to write personal names and toponyms. This graph does not appear in the Suiko era corpus, but does appear in the Paekche orthographic pool preserved in Nihon shoki. One is a name of a Paekche official, 施徳高分 “Kwobun of the eighth rank.” This same official appears one year 158

later, in the fifth year of Kinmei, his name now written 施 徳 高 分 屋 “Kwobunwoku of the eighth rank.” Other usages found in the OJ corpora are: 大阿斯高 OPO Asikwo, personal name (Sairinji Temple Buddhist inscription, ca. 659), and 支彌高 Kimikwo, personal name (Sairinji inscription). In Kojiki this phonogram is used 15 times, in names and toponyms like 高志 國 Kwosi Province (KG), 高目郎女 Kwomuku IRATUMYE (KG), and 丸高王 Prince MARUkwo (KG).

固

故

OJ: kwo OC: *kâh LH: kɑh > kɔ EMC: kɔ GO: ko KN: ko NOM: có SV: cố, cổ SK: kwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It is used to transcribe the name 固徳 馬次文 Kwotok Masimon in quotes of Paekche material in Nihon shoki. Here kwotok represents the ninth rank of the Paekche government system. This phonogram appears in Nihon shoki, six times in the poetry. NSK 19 飫朋佐介珥 oposaka ni If people were to 菟藝廼煩例屢 tuginoboreru pass down hand to hand 伊辭務邏塢 isimura wo all the boulders that 多誤辭珥固佐縻 tagwosi ni kwosaba make up Mount Ōsaka 固辭介氐務介茂 kwosikatemu kamo perhaps it could be moved. OJ: kwo OC: *kâh LH: kɑh > kɔ EMC: kɔ GO: ko KN: ko NOM: cố SV: cố SK: kwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The phonogram 故 appears once in Kojiki, in a poem (KK 2), representing a toponym: 故志能久邇 kwosi no kuni ‘the land of Kwosi.’ This graph appears once in the annotational notes and six times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 珍彦此云于砮毘故, “ ‘Rare prince’ is read udupikwo” (NSG). NSK 65 和餓勢故餓 wa ga sekwo ga Surely this is the evening 勾倍枳豫臂奈利 ku beki yopi nari when my beloved will come. 佐瑳餓泥能 sasagane no Tonight’s token 區茂能於虚奈比 kumo no okonapi is the spider’s handiwork. 虚豫比辭流辭毛 ko yopi sirusi mo being spun in the bamboo grass. This phonogram appears quite frequently in Man’yōshū, used 143 times, mainly in Books 15 and 20. MYS 3585 和伎母故我 wagimokwo ga Will I undo the cord 之多尓毛伎余等 sita nimo kiyo to of the robe that you, 於久理多流 okuritaru my beloved, gave to me, 許呂母能比毛乎 koromo no pimo wo saying, ‘Wear it 安礼等可米也母 are tokame ya mo under your clothes’? 159

庫 祜

枯

姑

OJ: kwo OC: *khâh EMC: khɔ GO: ko KN: ko LH: khɑh NOM: khố, kho SV: khố SK: kwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage appears in a Nara era document as 武庫郡 to transcribe Mukwo District. This same usage also appears in Nihon shoki. Interestingly, notice that while the Ōjin account in Shoki writes Mukwo as 武庫, the Jingū account represents it as 務古. Man’yōshū also uses this phonogram three times, but all represent Mukwo. OJ: kwo OC: *ɡâʔ LH: ɡɑʔ > ɡɔʔ EMC: ɣɔ GO: go KN: ko NOM: NA SV: hộ SK: hwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only in Man’yōshū. Depending on which manuscripts one examines, there are roughly five examples of this graph. Clearly this phonogram was easily confused with 枯. MYS 105 WA GA sekwo wo When I sent you, 吾勢祜乎 YAMATOpye YARU to my brother, off toward 倭邊遺登 Yamato in the dead of night 佐夜深而 saYWO PUKETE I stood there 鷄鳴露尓 AKATOKI TUYU ni WA GA TATENUREsi drenched in the dew of dawn. 吾立所霑之 OJ: kwo OC: *khâ LH: khɑ > kɔ EMC: khɔ GO: ko KN: ko NOM: khô, gỗ SV: khô SK: kwo, kwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram only appears in Man’yōshū, and the various manuscripts seem to agree that there is at least one definite example. As noted above, this is easily confused with 祜. MYS 43 WA GA sekwo pa I wonder where my brother 吾勢枯波 IDUKU YUKUramu is journeying now. 何所行良武 己津物 OKITU MO NO Will he cross Mount Nabari, 隠乃山乎 NABARI no YAMA wo seaweed in the offing, KEPU KA KWOYURAMU some time today? 今日香越等六 OJ: kwo OC: *kâ LH: kɑ > kɔ EMC: kɔ LMC: kuə GO: ko KN: ko NOM: cô SV: cô SK: kwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears twice in the annotational notes and five times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 肉入籠此云之之梨姑 “ ‘(the toponym) Sisiriko’ is read sisirikwo” (NSG).

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NSK 123 枳瀰我梅能 kimi ga me no I dock and stand here 姑裒之枳舸羅儞 kwoposiki kara ni because I long for a glance 婆底々威底 patete wite of my highness’ eyes. 舸矩野姑悲武謀 kaku ya kwopwimu mo How I long for a look— 枳瀰我梅弘報梨 kimi ga me wo pori a look into my highness’ eyes. This phonogram appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 1602 YAMAbikwo no Near the mountains 山妣姑乃 APITOYOMU MADE where the stag calls out 相響左右 TUMAGWOPWI ni for its mate that it longs for, 妻戀尓 KA NAKU YAMApye ni such that it echoes, 鹿鳴山邊尓 PITORI NOMWI SITE I only want to be alone. 獨耳為手

孤

顧

OJ: kwo OC: *kwâ LH: kuɑ > kuɔ EMC: kɔ LMC: kuə GO: ko KN: ko NOM: cô, co SV: cô SK: kwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It occurs only once in Nihon shoki, in the following annotative note: 少男此云烏等孤 “ ‘Young boy,’ this is read wotokwo” (NSG). This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, but the great majority of the many examples of this phonogram are used to transcribe OJ kwop- ‘to yearn for, long for,’ which usage is influenced by the semantics of the phonogram 孤 ‘be alone.’ An excellent example of this visual aspect of Man’yōshū appears below in a somewhat difficult poem. MYS 67 TABI ni siTE While on a journey 旅尓之而 MONO KWOPWIsiki ni if I had not heard 物戀之伎尓 TADU GA NE mo the forlorn cry of the crane 鶴之鳴毛 KIKOYEZARIseBA then perhaps I would 不所聞有世者 have died from yearning. 孤悲而死萬思 kwopwiTE SINAmasi Here kwopwi ‘yearning’ is represented by 孤悲 ‘lonely-sad,’ and the subjunctive masi is represented with 萬思 ‘ten thousand thoughts.’ OJ: kwo OC: *kâʔ LH: kɑh > kɔ EMC: kɔ LMC: kuə GO: ku KN: ko NOM: cố SV: cố SK: kwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and only appears once in the poetry in Nihon shoki. NSK 2 阿妹奈屢夜 ame naru ya In the heavens 乙登多奈婆多廼 woto tanabata no the jewels strung upon 汙奈餓勢屢 unagaseru the string hung around 多磨廼彌素磨屢廼 tama no misumaru no the neck of the Weaver Maiden 阿奈陀磨波夜 anatama pa ya are very beautiful— 161

彌多爾 mitani like the beauty of him who 輔柁和柁羅須 puta watarasu shines over two hills, 阿泥素企多伽避顧禰 adisukitakapikwone Ajisuki Taka Hikone. I have not been able to confirm the Go-on reading of ku, but the reading in dictionaries is counterintuitive, given that the Later Han reading is a back, lower vowel, while ku is a high back vowel.

胡 子

兒

OJ: kwo OC: *ɡâ LH: ɡɑ > ɡɔ EMC: ɣɔ LMC: xɦuə GO: go KN: ko NOM: hò, hồ SV: hồ SK: hwo Usage / History: See this under /gwo/. OJ: kwo OC: *tsəʔ LH: tsiəʔ EMC: tsɨ GO: si KN: si NOM: tí, tử, gã SV: tí, tử SK: co Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ kwo ‘child.’ There are five examples preserved in the Suiko era corpus, showing that this usage caught on rather early. Interestingly, all of these examples belong to personal names, suggesting that writing personal names became standardized rather quickly, likely because of the importance and prestige attached to a person’s name. An interesting example of this principal is the name of Swoga Umakwo, the premier head of the Swoga family. In two different records of the Gangōji temple, Umakwo’s name is written 有明子 u-ma-KWO. Another example, found in the Jōgū Taishi Keifu, represents a prince’s name as 麻里子王, Prince MaroKWO (or perhaps MariKWO). There is the possibility that this is a logogram, if kwo was interpreted as ‘son’ or ‘heir.’ For the time being I leave it here. The earliest secure date for this usage appears in the Mino Census of 702, in the name 和子賣 WaKWOmye. This kungana appears in Nihon shoki: 凡水手 曰 鹿 子 、 蓋 始 起 于 是 時 也 ‘Perhaps people calling ‘oarsmen’ KAKWO originated at this time’ (NSG). Surprisingly there are few of these kunganas in Man’yōshū, as Ōno only counts 11 in the anthology (1977:392). MYS 7 I recall that temporary hut 金野乃 AKI NO NWO no where we spent one night 美草苅葺 miKUSA KARIPUKI YAdorerisi in the capital at Uji 屋杼礼里之 which was thatched with grass 兎道乃宮子能 uDI no MIYAKWO no KARI IPO SI OMOPOYU from the golden fields. 借五百礒所念 OJ: kwo OC: *ŋe LH: ńe EMC: ɲiə GO: ni KN: zi NOM: nhi, SV: nhi SK: o, yey Usage / History: Like the usage above (with 子), this kungana calls to mind OJ kwo ‘child.’ The earliest datable example appears in the Bungo Provincial census of 702: 兒 162

嶋賣 KWOSIMAmye. There are 11 examples of this usage in Kojiki: 吉備兒嶋 Kibwi [NO] KWOSIMA (KG), 天兒屋命 AME [NO] KWOYANE [NO] MIKOTO (KG), and 建貝兒王 Prince TAKE KAPIKWO (KG). Compared to 232 examples of 子 in Nihon shoki, there are only 14 usages of 兒 (Ōno 1977:824): 天兒屋命 AME [NO] KWOYANE [NO] MIKOTO (NSG). There are nine examples of this usage in Man’yōshū. MYS 3442 安豆麻治乃 adumadi no I cannot pass over 手兒乃欲妣左賀 TEKWO no ywobi saka the hill that calls out tekwo 古要我祢弖 kwoyeganete on the road to the east— 夜麻尓可祢牟毛 yama ni ka nemu mo Will I sleep on the mountain, 夜杼里波奈之尓 yadoripanasi ni with nowhere to lodge?

小

OJ: kwo OC: *sewʔ LH: siauʔ EMC: siaw GO: seu KN: seu NOM: tĩu, tiểu SV: tiểu SK: sywo Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ kwo ‘small’ Like the previous two usages above, this one is generally used with personal names and toponyms. The earliest datable usage appears in a wooden document (mokkan) excavated from the ruins of the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 697–710), where the name 大伴小山 OPOTOMO KWOYAMA appears (MK 1807). In Nihon shoki the majority of usages with 小 transcribe wo ‘small.’ One example where 小 transcribes kwo is in the name 小手子 KWOTEKWO. Her name is written as 古弖古 kwotekwo in Jōgū shōtoku hōō teisetsu. There are a small number of usages of 小 to represent OJ kwo in Man’yōshū. MYS 475 挂巻母 KAKEMAKU mo What trepidation to put into words; 綾尓恐之 AYA ni KASIKWOsi IPAMAKU mo What reverence 言巻毛 齊忌志伎可物 YUYUsiki kamo to dare even utter; WA GA OPOKIMI Our great ruler, 吾王 MIKWO no MIKOTO the august prince, 御子乃命 YORODU YO ni who should have 萬代尓 MESITAMAPAmasi ruled for ten thousand reigns— 食賜麻思 大日本 OPOYAMATO when spring with soft herbs comes to the capital 久邇乃京者 kuni no MIYAKWO PA UTINABIKU of Great Yamato, with flowers 打靡 PARU SARInureba in bloom and nodding 春去奴礼婆 YAMApye nipa near the base of the mountains, 山邊尓波 PANA SAKIwowiri and young trout jump 花咲乎為里 KAPASE nipa in the shoals of the river, 河湍尓波 at a time when 年魚小狭走 AYUKWO SABASIRI IYA PIKE NI he prospered more, 弥日異 SAKAYURU TOKI ni day be day, 榮時尓 逆言之 OYODURE NO should one say thoughtless, TAPAKOTO to kamo hurtful things? 狂言登加聞 163

籠

粉

奚

OJ: kwo OC: *rôŋ(ʔ) LH: loŋ(h) EMC: ləwŋ(h) GO: ru KN: rou NOM: lung, lồng, trông SV: lung SK: rong Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ kwo ‘basket.’ This usage appears in the Atago District, Yamashiro Province (733) tax register in the name 塩籠賣 SIPOKWOmye. This usage also appears in Nihon shoki: 河内馬飼首荒籠 KAPUTI UMAKAPI OBITO ARAKWO ‘Umakai Obito Arako of Kawachi’ (NSG), 阿閉臣大籠 APE OMI OPOKWO (NSG), and 鳥篭山 TOKWO [NO] YAMA ‘Mount Toko’ (NSG). There are three examples of this usage in Man’yōshū. Two simply write TOKWO [NO] YAMA ‘Mount Toko’ 鳥 籠 山 (MYS 487, 2710). The final example appears below. MYS 193 八多籠良我 pataKWOra ga The path that 夜晝登不云 YWORU PIRU to IPAZU the conscripted laborers YUKU MITI wo travel day and night 行路乎 WARE PA KOTOGOTO is the path we all use 吾者皆悉 MIYADI NI zo SURU to go to the place of mourning. 宮道叙為 OJ: kwo OC: *pənʔ LH: punʔ EMC: punʔ GO: fumu KN: fun NOM: phấn SV: phấn SK: pun Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ kwo ‘flour.’ This usage appears three times in Man’yōshū. MYS 2649 ASIPIKWI NO Like the smoldering mosquito 足日木之 YAMADA MORU WODI smudge lit by the old man who 山田守翁 OKU KAPWI NO guards the mountain paddies, 置蚊火之 SITA KWOGARE NOMWI those hills that tire the legs, 下粉枯耳 A GA KWOPWI WORAku my yearning burns inside me. 余戀居久 OJ: kye OC: *ɡê LH: ɡe EMC: ɣɛj GO: gei KN: kei NOM: hề SV: hề SK: hoi, hyey Usage / History: I place this phonogram in the PBS. As most work on man’yōgana goes, scholars tend to group this phonogram in Nara era works, like Man’yōshū, without noticing that this phonogram appears in Shoki, mainly in Korean proper nouns. Analogous to writings with 解, this phonogram (奚) would have been available to the ancient Japanese for use in their new orthographic system. For example, one of the seven nation-states that supposedly made up the Karak Federation is written 古奚津 Kwo-kye NARI. Also in the record of Keitai, the following personal names and toponyms appear (Ienaga et al. 1986.2:30–33): a personal name 辛已奚 Sin Zɨ-kye from Ara (安羅), a person 既殿奚 Kɨj

164

Twɨn-kye from Hanpye (伴跛, written 本彼 in the Korean histories), a toponym 満奚 Man-kye in Hanpye, and a toponym 麻且奚 Ma Chja-kye in Hanpye. The evidence for 奚 used in the Japanese orthography is strengthened by the fact that the phonogram at least survived in some parts of Man’yōshū. Ōno (1977:384) notes four examples in the anthology. A fairly old example comes from a poem dated before 707: MYS 277 PAYA KITE mo I should have come 速来而母 MITE MASIMONO wo sooner to view them— 見手益物乎 YAMASIRO NO the autumn leaves of 山背 TAKA NO TUKWI MURA the zelkova grove of Taka 高槻村 TIRINIkyeru KAMO in Yamashiro have all scattered. 散去奚留鴨 This phonogram also appears in Harima fudoki in 意奚袁奚二皇子 ‘The two princes Okye and Wokye.’ Also a variant of the first name also appears in the same record as 於奚 Okye.

祁

OJ: kye OC: *ɡri LH: ɡɨ EMC: ɡji GO: gi KN: ki NOM: kì SV: kỳ, kì SK: kuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The phonological information for this graph points to OJ gi (Old Northwest Chinese has tśi or dźi which suggests *gi). Miyake (2003a:221) suggests, “[T]he fact that 祁 EMC *gyi ‘grand’ was chosen to be the sole phonogram for OJ kye in Kojiki tells us that the pronunciation of OJ kye must have resembled the pronunciation of OJ kyi (our ki)....” It is possible that this graph had a slightly lower nuclear vowel, perhaps influenced by SinoPaekche, when it entered the Japanese orthography. This phonogram appears on several mokkan: 都祁仕丁 tukye, perhaps a name? (MK 1797), 祁由利足床 Kyeyuri ASITOKO (unnumbered tablet). Consider the following from Kojiki: 在祁理 ARIkyeri ‘(how) is it (that)...,’ 訓建云多祁夫 ‘the reading of 建 ‘roar, act violently’ is takyebu,’ and 汝之宇 志波祁流葦原中國 IMASI NO usipakyeru ASIPARA [NO] NAKATU KUNI ‘the middle land of Ashihara that you possess...” (KG). KK 60 夜麻斯呂迩 yamasiro ni Mount Bird in Yamashiro, 伊斯祁登理夜麻 isikye tori yama go after her! 伊斯祁伊斯祁 isikye isikye After her! After her! 阿賀波斯豆麻迩 a ga pasiduma ni Follow after my beloved spouse, 伊斯岐阿波牟加母 isikiapamu kamo and catch up and meet her. This phonogram appears in Shoki poetry twice: NSK 23 異能知能 inoti no You young men who 摩曾祁務比苔破 masokyemu pito pa are so full of life— 多々瀰許莽 tatami komo take a branch of white oak of 弊愚利能夜摩能 pyeguri no yama no multi-layered Mount Heguri.

165

志邏伽之餓延塢 sirakasi ga ye wo Stick in your hair, 于受珥左勢 uzu ni sase and adorn your head. 許能固 kono kwo Even you, my child. This phonogram is used four times in the songs of the Footprints of the Buddha: BSS 5 伊可奈留夜 ika naru ya What kind of person 比止尓伊麻世可 pito ni imase ka was this, who steps on rock 伊波乃宇閇乎 ipa no upe wo as if it were dirt 都知止布美奈志 tuti to puminasi and formed a print 阿止乃祁留良牟 ato nokyeruramu that has remained? 多布刀久毛阿留可 taputwoku mo aru ka How awe-inspiring that is! The graph 祁 also appears in the imperial edicts of Shoku Nihongi. One example appears in edict dated 749: 教祁牟事不過不失家門不荒自弖天皇 WOSIPEkyemu KOTO AYAMATAZU USINAPAZU IPYEKADWO ARASAZU SITE SUMYERA GA… “And as [the emperor] instructs the people, without fault, without loss, without leaving houses devastated, [you, the people, should...]” (SM 13).

家

OJ: kye OC: *krâ LH: ka EMC: kaɨ GO: ke KN: ka NOM: gia, nhà SV: gia SK: ka Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, but may ultimately originate from the PBS. Based on the Chinese and Sino-Xenic evidence, one would expect 家 to be used to transcribe /ka/ not /kye/. While 家 does not survive in the Paekche orthographic corpus, the following does appear in the Koguryŏ orthographic corpus: 家古龍羅城 *kakoloŋra fortress (in the land of *risan [利残國]). I thus theorize that the OJ reading of kye preserved a glide, as seen in the SV and Chữ Nôm form gia (*kia > kye), which form may have been preserved in SinoPaekche. The earliest datable usage of this phonogram appears on the epitaph of Ō no Yasumaro (729) in the toponym 都家郷 ‘Tukye Village.’ This phonogram also appears in the liturgies: 官 官 爾 仕 奉 留 人 等 乃 過 犯 家 牟 雑 雑 罪 乎 TUKASADUKASA ni TUKAPEMATUru PITODOMO no AYAMATI WOKASIkyemu KUSAGUSA [NO] TURMI wo “…the various transgressions that we believe have been committed by the people who serve in the various governmental offices… (NT 10). This phonogram appears only once in the poetry of Shoki: NSK 105 于泥備椰摩 unebwi yama Though the trees 虚多智于須家苔 kotati usukyedo are sparse on Mount Unebi, 多能彌介茂 tanomi kamo is it the young Ketsu 氣菟能和區呉能 ketu no wakugwo no who has hidden himself there 虚茂羅勢利祁牟 komoraserikyemu hoping for support? Man’yōshū uses several phonograms for /kye/, but 家 is the most popular. Ōno’s count claims that there are 161 examples of 家 in the poetry (1977:381– 383). One example, supposedly composed by Tenmu in 679, is given below in 166

MYS 25, where Tenmu poetically recalls events from the year 671 when he fled to Yoshino to prepare for the uprising later known as the Jinshin Disturbance. MYS 25 MIYOSINWO NO The snow was falling 三吉野之 continuously on 耳我嶺尓 MIMIGA GA MINE ni TOKI NAKU so Mimiga Peak 時無曽 YUKI PA PURIkyeru in Miyoshino. 雪者落家留

計

鷄

OJ: kye OC: *kîh LH: keih EMC: kɛj GO: ke KN: kei NOM: kễ, kẽ, kê SV: kế SK: kyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The earliest example is in the Ōtono-sai liturgy: 引結幣留葛目能緩比取葺計留草乃…蘇蘇伎無久 PIKIMUSUbyeru TUNAME no YUTUpi, TORI PUkyeru KUSA no...swoswoki NAku ‘So that the knots pulled tight do not come loose, and the thatch with which the roof is thatched does not get disturbed...’ (NT 8). This phonogram appears once in the poetry of Shoki: NSK 6 阿軻娜磨廼 akadama no The radiant globe 比訶利播阿利登 pikari pa ari to is wonderfully brilliant, 比鄧播伊珮耐 pito pa ipyedo so people may say, 企弭我譽贈比志 kimi ga yosopisi but I have now realized 多輔妬勾阿利計利 taputwoku arikyeri your brilliance is the finest. This phonogram was somewhat popular in the days of the Man’yōshū poets. Ōno (1977:383–384) counts 25 examples of 計 in the anthology. The oldest example appears in poem MYS 25. MYS 25 MA NAKU so The rain was falling 間無曽 AME PA PURIkyeru without ceasing there. 雨者零計類 SONO YUKI no And like the continously 其雪乃 TOKI NAKI GA GOTO falling snow, 時無如 SONO AME no like the unceasingly 其雨乃 MA NAKI GA GOTOKU falling rain, 間無如 KUMA mo OTIZU I came filled with thoughts 隈毛不落 OMOPITUTU zo KOSI without fail at every turn 念乍叙来 SONO YAMA MITI wo on that mountain path. 其山道乎 This phonogram is also used once in Shoku Nihongi, in the name 志計志麻 呂 Sikyesi Maro (769.5.25). OJ: kye OC: kê LH: ke EMC: kɛj GO: ke KN: kei NOM: ke SV: kê SK: kyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This graph appears in Shoki in the annotational notes once, and 19 times in the poetry. The note is: 雄誥此云烏多 鷄縻 “ ‘Male ferocity’ is known as wotakyebwi” (NSG). 167

NSK 20 椰句毛多菟 yakumwo tatu Endowed with power 伊頭毛多鷄流餓 idumwo takyeru ga the hilt of the Izumo 波鷄流多知 pakyeru tati warrior’s sword 菟頭邏佐波磨枳 tudura sapa maki is indeed magnificient— 佐微那辭珥阿波禮 samwi nasi ni apare sadly it has no blade. This phonogram is also used in Man’yōshū 19 times: MYS 312 MUKASI KOSO Surely anciently 昔者社 it was called the rural area 難波居中跡 nanipa WINAKA TO IPAREkyeme of Naniwa, but now 所言奚米 IMA MIYAKWOBIKI the metropolis has moved 今者京引 MIYAKWObwinikyeri and it is more like a capital city. 都備仁鷄里 This phonogram appears once in the Bussoku stele poetic sequence. BSS 15 久須理師波 kusurisi pa As for physicians 都祢乃母阿礼等 tune no mo aredo there are the commons ones, 麻良比止乃 marapito no but the present physican 伊麻乃久須理師 ima no kusurisi who is a stranger, 多布止可理家利 taputokarikyeri he is worthy of honor. 米太志加利鷄利 medasikarikyeri He is worthy of respect.

介

OJ: kye OC: *krê(t)s LH: kɛs EMC: kăih GO: kai, ke KN: ka NOM: giới SV: giới SK: kay, kal Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The first problem to address is Ōno’s claim (1962:110) that 介 was never used as ke (I believe he has reference to kye). He claims that 介 never appears in Man’yōshū, but this is simply not true. For example, MYS 4047 has the stanza 介敷乃日波 kyepu no PI pa “this one day today.” It is true that 介 is rarely used, but used it is, and should be recognized. The change from ka to kye is due to a change in Chinese phonology. EMC has kăih, while LMC has kja:j (Pulleyblank 1991:155). This usage of kye appears a few times in Man’yōshū as well as in Hitachi fudoki. This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, but there it is read /ka/ (which see). This graph is used twice in Book 18 of Man’yōshū to represent kye and twice to represent gye. MYS 4047 多流比賣野 tarupimye NO While we row along 宇良乎許藝都追 ura wo kogitutu the bay of Princess Taru please merrily enjoy yourselves 介敷乃日波 kyepu no PI pa 多努之久安曽敝 tanwosiku asobye on this one day today. 移比都支尓勢牟 ipituginisemu I will continue to say that. In Hitachi fudoki we find one example of this graph: 俗語謂鮭祖須介 ‘In the vernacular the parent of “salmon” is called sukye.’ It is thus curious that Ōno (1977:848–852) makes no mention of this graph in the same fudoki. 168

谿

價

賈

結

OJ: kye OC: *khê LH: khe EMC: khiei GO: ke KN: kei NOM: khê, khe SV: khê SK: kyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram appears only in Man’yōshū, in two poems (MYS 476 and MYS 3851). MYS 476 WA GA OPOKIMI As it did not occur to me 吾王 AME SIRASAmu to what it meant that our lord 天所知牟登 OMOPANEBA rules the heavens 不思者 I had stared at it without thinking, 於保尓曽見谿流 opo ni so MIkyeru 和豆香蘇麻山 waduKA swoma YAMA Mount Wazuka with its timber. OJ: kye OC: *krâh LH: kah MC: kɛ: GO: ke KN: ka NOM: giá SV: giá SK: ka Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Man’yōshū, found in one poem: MYS 217 ADUSAYUMI I also hear the rumors 梓弓 OTO KIKU WARE mo ringing like the catalpa bow 音聞吾母 and regretting that I have 髣髴見之 OPONI MIsi KOTO KUYASIKI wo only seen it faintly, 事悔敷乎 wrapped with arms as pillows, 布栲乃 SIKITAPE no TAMAKURA MAKITE soft like bedding, and we 手枕纒而 TURUGI TATI would have slept, our bodies 劔刀 MWI ni SOPE NEkyemu together like swords. 身二副寐價牟 OJ: kye OC: *krâh LH: kah MC: kɛ: GO: kai KN: ka NOM: giá SV: giả SK: ka, kwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage is quite rare, appearing three times in the second imperial edict in Shoku Nihongi: 汝父藤原大臣乃仕奉賈流 状 乎婆 建内宿禰 乃 仕奉賈 流 事 止 同事 叙止 勅而治賜慈賜賈 利 MIMASI [NO] TITI PUDIPARA OPO-OMI no TUKAPEMATURIkyeru SAMA woba TAKESI UTI [NO] sukune no TUKAPEMATURIkyeru KOTO to OYAZI KOTO zo to NORITAMAPITE WOSAMYE TAMAPI MEGUMITAMAPIkyeri ‘We proclaim that the circumstances of the service rendered by your father, the Minister Fujiwara, are the same as the service rendered by Takeshi Uchi, and he (your father) was cherished [by the former sovereign] (SM 2).’ OJ: kye LH: ket NOM: kết, kiết, cứt

OC: *kît GO: keti KN: ketu SK: kyel

EMC: kɛt SV: kết

169

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This Man’yōshū. MYS 644 IMA PA A PA 今者吾羽 和備曽四二結類 wabwiso sinikyeru IKI no WO ni 氣乃緒尓 OMOPIsi KIMI wo 念師君乎 YURUsaku OMOPYEBA 縦左久思者

係 稽

啓

phonogram appears but once in Now I am so lonely I cannot stand it. My lord who was my lifeline— When I think that I let you go....

OJ: kye OC: *kêh or *ɡêh LH: keh or ɡeh EMC: kɛj or ɣɛj GO: ke KN: kei NOM: hễ, hệ SV: hệ SK: kyey, hyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram only appears as a phonogram in Man’yōshū, and then only in one name: 石川賀係女郎 Princess ISIKAPA Kakye. OJ: kye OC: *kî or *khîʔ LH: kei or kheiʔ EMC: kiei LMC: kjiaj GO: ke KN: kei NOM: ghe SV: kể SK: kyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in Shoki twice in the annotational notes, and four times in the poetry. 梟師此云多稽屢 “A strong, evil ruler is known as takyeru” (NSG). The Chinese word 梟師 means a chieftain leading a group of bandits, but the Japanese word simply means a courageous man. NSK 79 耶麼能謎能 yamanobye no I have no regrets 故思麼古喩衞爾 kwosimakwo yuwe ni parting with my prized 比登涅羅賦 pito derapu eight horses we show off— 宇麼能耶都擬播 uma no yatugwi pa all because of the woman, 嗚思稽矩謀那斯 wosikyeku mo nasi Yamanobe Koshimako. OJ: kye OC: *khîʔ LH: kheiʔ EMC: khieiʔ LMC: khjiaj GO: kei KN: kei NOM: khải SV: khải SK: kyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears only once in Shoki in the poetry. NSK 96 伊麻娜以播孺底 imada ipazute The dawn has already come 阿開儞啓梨 akenikyeri before I have been able 倭蟻慕 wagimwo to confess my feelings, my love.

170

溪 異

兼

監

OJ: kye LH: khe EMC: khiei NOM: khê, khe SV: khê Usage / History: See 谿 OJ: kye above.

OC: *khê GO: ke KN: kei SK: kyey

OJ: kye OC: *ləkh LH: jəh EMC: jiɨh GO: i KN: i NOM: dị SV: dị, rị SK: i Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ kye ‘strange.’ This usage appears in Man’yōshū 15 times. MYS 491 KAPA NO PE no Please come to me 河上乃 my beloved, like the flower 伊都藻之花乃 ituMO NO PANA no ITUMO ITUMO of the ever-weed by the river, 何時々々 KIMASE WA GA SEKWO evermore, evermore; 来益我背子 TOKIziKYEME YAMO there is never a bad time. 時自異目八方 OJ: kyemu OC: *kêm(s) LH: kem(h) EMC: kiem(h) GO: kemu KN: kemu NOM: kiêm, kem, kèm SV: kiêm SK: kyem Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only in Man’yōshū. There are 29 examples of this usage, according to Ōno (1962:518). Of these, 24 examples represent the tentative retrospective kyemu. The other five examples are stative verbs with a tentative suffix. Below is an example of each. MYS 9 莫囂圓隣 nacuh-oi tolal-in When I look up at 之大相七兄爪謁氣 thyeta-po-ni-ke-ca-mud-ke the evening moon, I asked— WA GA SEKWO GA at the base of 吾瀬子之 ITATASERIkyemu the sacred oak tree that 射立為兼 ITUkasi ga MOTO my beloved had planted. 五可新何本 Thus this is actually the remnant of a Paekche or Silla poem, the first two stanzas preserving the Old Korean usage, while the last three stanzas have been converted into Old Japanese (cf. Vovin 2002). The fourth stanza ends with kyemu. MYS 1784 WATATUMI NO Which deity of the sea 海若之 IDURE NO KAMWI wo should we pray to 何神乎 齊祈者歟 INORABA KA so that our ship YUKU SA mo KI SA mo will depart and return 徃方毛来方毛 PUNE NO PAYAkyemu more quickly? 船之早兼 OJ: kyemu LH: kam NOM: giám

EMC: kam SV: giam, giám

171

OC: *krâm GO: kemu KN: kamu SK: kam

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only in Man’yōshū seven times. MYS 134 IPAMI nARU Will my beloved 石見尓有 TAKATU NO YAMA no see that I am waving 高角山乃 KO NO MA YU mo my sleeve through the trees 木間従文 WA GA SWODE PURU wo on Mount Takatsu 吾袂振乎 IMWO MIkyemu KAMO in the land of Iwami? 妹見監鴨

險

OJ: kyemu OC: *hŋramʔ LH: hɨamʔ or hɨamʔ EMC: xjämʔ, xjɐmʔ GO: kemu KN: kemu NOM: hiểm, hiếm, hẻm SV: hiểm SK: hem Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears twice in Man’yōshū. MYS 1118 INISIPYE ni Did the people anciently 古尓 ARIkyemu PITO mo come here also 有險人母 WA GA GOto ka and like me adorn their hair 如吾等架 with sprigs from 弥和乃桧原尓 miwa no PIBARA ni KAZASIWORIkyemu Hibara in Miwa? 挿頭折兼 This poem, attributed to Hitomaro, contains two examples of graphs used to represent kyemu: 險 and 兼.

172

M 馬

麻

OJ: ma OC: *mrâʔ LH: maʔ EMC: maʔ GO: me KN: ba NOM: mã SV: mã SK: ma Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in many titles in Wei zhi: 兕 馬觚 *si-ma-kɔ, 伊支馬 *i-ke-ma, 彌馬升 *me-ma-səgu, and 彌馬獲支 *me-ma-we-ke. There are several instances of toponyms on the ancient peninsula that also include 馬 as found in the Chinese chronicles: 馬韓國 *ma-gar domain, 乾馬國 *kɑn-ma domain, 彌烏邪馬國 *me-ɔ-ya-ma domain, and 走 漕馬國 *tso-dzou-ma domain. It also appears in a fragment of the no longer extant Koryŏgi ‘Record of Koguryŏ’: 馬 多 山 ‘Mount Mata’ (Takeuchi 1977:37). This phonogram also appears in early transcriptions for toponyms recorded in Nihon shoki, such as 對馬嶋 Island of Tusima, a usage apparently inherited from the Wei zhi scribes, and 但馬國 Tadima Province. Perhaps because of the semantics ‘horse,’ and the common usage of this graph, it was generally avoided as a phonogram by the Japanese. The very conservative Kojiki never uses this graph, and Nihon shoki only for a few select toponyms and surnames, as noted above. Man’yōshū employs this phonogram 11 times in the anthology. MYS 57 Go into the Hikuma Moor 引馬野尓 PIKUmaNWO ni with the field of black alder’s 仁保布榛原 nipopu PARIPARA IRIMIDARE ablaze in autumn color 入乱 KOROMO nipopase and color your robes 衣尓保波勢 多鼻能知師尓 tabi no SIRUsi ni as a token of your journey. OJ: ma OC: *mrâi LH: mai > ma EMC: ma GO: ma KN: ba NOM: ma SV: ma SK: ma Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, and appears in Wei zhi in the toponym 邪麻 *ya-ma. Wei zhi also mentions a king of Puyo known as 麻余 *Ma-yɑ. This phonogram also appears on the Suda Hachiman mirror inscription (ca. 503), in the name of the palace, 斯麻 *sie-ma, the same representation found on the Inariyama tumulus sword inscription. This phonogram also appears in several texts on the peninsula. On the Kwangkaytho stele we find the toponym 卑斯麻鴨廬 *pie-sie-ma-ep-lɑ. On the epitaph of the Paekche King, King Myeng, his name while he was alive is preserved as 斯麻 *sie-ma. This phonogram also appears in early texts in Japan. It appears in a poem supposedly written by Prince Shōtoku recorded in Jōgū shōtoku hōō teisetsu: 173

美加彌乎須 mikami wosu Mount Tabasami 多婆佐美夜麻乃 tabasami yama no that rules from above— 阿遅加気尓 adikake ni alas, I stood there 比止乃麻乎之志 pito no mawosisi in the shade of the aji tree, 和何於保支美波母 wa ga opokimi pamo begging our master’s return. This phonogram is used 17 times in the liturgies: 持由麻波利仕奉禮留幣帛 乎 、 神 主 祝 部 等 受 賜 弖 MOTIyumapari TUKAPEMATUreru MITEGURA wo KAMUNUSI PAPURIBYERA UKETAMAPARIte “…the offerings presented that have been purified are received and presented by the shrine officiators and the ritual officiators…” (NT 1). It also appears on a number of mokkan: 麻呂 …maro (MK 2062), 賀麻流魚一隻 ‘one kamaru fish’ (unnumbered tablet), 和岐弖麻 宇 須 多 加 牟 奈 波 阿 都 止 毛 々 … 多 无 比 止 奈 志 止 麻 宇 須 wakite mausu takamuna pa atu to mwomwo…tamupi to nasi to mausu ‘In a separate tag we declare that the bamboo shoots…and peaches and pears…’ (unnumbered tablet). This is the main graph used in Kojiki and Man’yōshū to transcribe ma. From Kojiki we find 美斗能麻具波比 mitwo no magupapi ‘sexual intercourse’ (KG), 布斗麻迩 putwo mani ‘divination with a stag shoulder blade’ (KG), and 美須麻 流 misumaru ‘circle of jewels on a string’ (as a necklace or bracelet, KG). KK 14 多多那米弖 tatanamete With our shields arrayed 伊那佐能夜麻能 inasa no yama no I have fought many battles 許能麻用母 ko no ma ywo mo on Mount Inasa; 伊由岐麻毛良比 iyuki mamworapi I have kept the watch 多多加閇婆 tatakapeba from between the trees. 和禮波夜惠奴 ware pa ya wenu Thus I am famished. 志麻都登理 simatutori Birds of the islands— úkapi ga tomo come now to my rescue, 宇上加比賀登母 伊麻須氣爾許泥 ima sukenikone you friends of the cormorants. This is also one of the main graphs used in Nihon shoki for ma, where it is used 13 times in annotational notes, and 39 times in the poetry: 睩、此云麻用 弭枳 “ ‘eyebrows’ are to be read maywobiki” (NSG), 典馬、此云于麻柯毘 “ ‘equerry’ is to be read umakapi” (NSG). NSK 124 于知波志能 utipasi no Come out, child 都梅能阿素弭爾 tume no aswobi ni to play at the edge of 伊提麻栖古 idemase kwo the plank bridge. 多麻提能伊鞞能 tamade no ipye no Mistress Yaheko of 野鞞古能度珥 yapyekwo no twozi the Tamade House. 伊提麻志能 idemasi no There will be no regrets 倶伊播阿羅珥茹 kui pa arazi zo if you come out. 伊提麻西古 idemase kwo Come out, child— 多麻提能鞞能 tamade no ipye no Mistress Yaheko of 野鞞古能度珥 yapyekwo no twozi the Tamade House. This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū 1006 times. MYS 4 TAMAKIPARU On the great moor of Uchi, 玉尅春 UTI no OPONWO ni the place of gemstone cutting, 内乃大野尓 174

馬數而 UMA NAMETE the horses are likely lined up, ASA pumasuRAMU trampling the morning grass, 朝布麻須等六 SONO KUSABUKANWO that field of deep grass. 其草深野 This phonogram appears 34 times in the Bussoku stele poems. BBS 6 麻須良乎乃 masurawo no As we gaze at the trodden 須々美佐岐多知 susumi sakitati footprints of the captain 布賣留阿止乎 pumyeru ato wo who had gone on ahead 美都々志乃波牟 mitutu sinopamu we will yearn for him; 多太尓阿布麻弖尓 tada ni apu made ni until we meet him directly; 麻佐尓阿布麻弖尓 masa ni apu made ni until we truly meet him.

末

昧

OJ: ma, matu OC: *mât LH: mat EMC: mwât GO: mati, matu KN: batu NOM: mạt, mượt SV: mạt SK: mal Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in a Wa toponym, 末盧 *mɑt-lɔ. As this transcription is preserved by the Chinese chroniclers, we must not ignore the final -t. This phonogram also appears on Silla stelae. On the Silla King Sinhung stele commemorating a hunt at Hamcwu we find what appears to be part of a name 末買 *mat-mɛ, and then a fuller name 沙喙尹知奈末 *sahyɑs Juin-te of the 11th rank (奈末). Also, on the Silla Namsan first stele we find a fragment of what appears to be a toponym 阿良村末□ *a-la Village Mat-X. The earliest example of this phonogram in Japanese appears in wooden tablets excavated from the old Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710) ruins, with the name 久米末呂 Kume Maro (MK 3396). This phonogram appears in Kojiki only once, in the record of Chūai: 末羅県 Matura AGATA ‘District of Matsura’ (KG). This phonogram appears three times in the songs of Nihon shoki. NSK 18 瀰磨紀 mimakwi Woe is Mimaki 異利寐胡播揶 iribikwo paya Iribiko! 飫廼餓烏塢 ono ga wo wo Occupying himself 志齊務苔 sisemu to with a princess, 農殊末句志羅珥 nusumaku sirani unaware that someone is 比賣那素寐殊望 pimye na swobi su mo waiting to take his life. This phonogram appears in the poetry of Man’yōshū a total of 68 times. MYS 904 KUNITU KAMWI I bow my head to the ground 地祇 布之弖額拜 pusite NUKADUKI before the deities of earth; 可加良受毛 kakarazu mo whether he be spared 可賀利毛 kakari mo or whether he be taken ill, KAMWI no mani mani to it is up to the will of the deities. 神乃末尓麻尓等 OJ: ma LH: məs NOM: mụi

EMC: mwậih SV: muội

175

OC: *mə̂s GO: mai KN: bai SK: moy

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This usage is preserved in quotes from Paekche sources as recorded in Nihon shoki, in the record of Kinmei: 甲背昧奴 Kapupai Mana. This reading as preserved in Shoki seems somewhat suspicious, but consider that there is a variation on this person’s name in the record of Keitai: 麻那甲背 Mana Kapupai. The inversion of 甲背 Kapupai is difficult to explain, but as the compilers of Shoki may have not completely understood the orthography in their sources, it is not difficult to see this kind of metathesis occurring. What is beyond doubt is that these two spellings transcribe the same name. Other examples with this graph in Nihon shoki include names like 將徳白昧 淳 Paku Maziun of the seventh rank. This same name is preserved in the Gangōji engi as 自昧淳, but surely Nihon shoki has the correct spelling (with 白 instead of 自). Later this same graph is used for OJ me (see OJ me).

滿

OJ: ma OC: *mânʔ LH: manʔ EMC: mwânʔ GO: mamu KN: ban NOM: mãn, mởn SV: mãn SK: man Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It is preserved in one name from Paekche source documents that became reference material for Nihon shoki: 木滿 致 Moku Manti. It also appears in some Nara era documents to transcribe the popular name Maro 滿侶. This phonogram also appears once in Nihon shoki: 蘇賀滿智宿禰 Swoga Mati Sukune. It is used only once in Man’yōshū, because it was more popular as a semantogram for the verb mitiru ‘to be full’ or ‘to fill up.’ MYS 867 枳美可由伎 kimi ga yuki Long are the days since 氣那我久奈理奴 ke nagaku narinu you took your journey. 奈良遅那留 naradi naru The trees in the courtyard 志滿乃己太知母 sima no kodati mo along the Nara road 可牟佐飛仁家里 kamusapwinikyeri have taken on an antique air.

莫

OJ: ma, maku OC: *mâk LH: mak EMC: mâk GO: maku KN: baku NOM: mạc SV: mạc SK: mak, mwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It is preserved in Koryŏgi in a noble rank: 莫何々羅支 Makgagaraki (Takeuchi 1977:34), though Yoshida argues this is a miscopied version of 莫 何 羅 繍 支 Makgasiuki (1977:10). This phonogram appears in several names of people preserved in Paekche source material that was subsequently quoted by the compilers of Nihon shoki: 灼莫古 將軍 General Yak-Makwo, 前部奈率鼻利莫古 Piri Makwo of the sixth rank of the Forward Section, 徳率東城子莫古 Tong-ziau Simakwo of the fourth rank, 物部莫奇武連 MONONOBYE Magamu MURAZI, and 竹斯物部莫奇委沙 奇 MONONOBYE Maga Wasaka of Tukusi. Notice that in the case of Paekche individuals the graph 莫 always precedes a velar-initial graph, which as is true 176

of other inscriptions, appears to alert the reader that the following vowel is short. In the case of what appear to be Japanese individuals, the graph 莫 is simply read ma. This phonogram is used sparingly in mokkan transcriptions: 比莫嶋 Pima Island, or perhaps Pimaku Island (MKK 9:13). Perhaps because of the attending final velar, this graph fell out of use in general, but it is still found in three poems in Man’yōshū, with each one representing maku: 散莫惜毛 TIRAmaku WOSI mo ‘how regrettable that (the autumn leaves) must scatter’ (MYS 1517); 仁寶布黄葉之 散莫惜裳 nipopu MWOMIDI NO / TIRAmaku WOSI MO ‘how regrettable that the brilliant autumn leaves must scatter’ (MYS 2187); 此九月之 過莫呼 伊多母為便無見 KONO NAGATUKWI NO / SUGWImaku wo / ita mo SUbye NAMI ‘and there is nothing that I can do about the passing of the ninth month’ (MYS 3329).

明 磨

萬

OJ: ma OC: *mraŋ LH: mɨaŋ EMC: mjɐŋ GO: miyau KN: mei NOM: minh, miêng SV: minh SK: myeng Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears in a very early representation of the name of Soga no Umako as preserved in the Gangōji temple record: 巷宜 有明子 Swoga Umakwo. Much could be said about this somewhat cryptic usage, but suffice it to say that 有明子 transcribes Umakwo. This might be a vestige of OC, where, if the final velar nasal is ignored, 明 gives us ma. OJ: ma OC: *mâi LH: mɑi > ma EMC: mwâ GO: ma KN: ba NOM: mài SV: ma, mạ SK: ma Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The earliest usage is for the toponym 播 磨 Parima, found in Nihon shoki and Jōgū shōtoku hōō teisetsu. Kujiki preserves an earlier usage, 針間, which is also preserved in Kojiki. Thes phonogram 磨 is used in Hizen fudoki to write 球磨 Kuma. This phonogram is used 15 times in annotational notes and eight times in song in Nihon shoki: 傴僂、此云倶豆磨 “ ‘(The name) 傴僂 is read kutuma” (NSG). NSK 2 阿妹奈屢夜 ame naru ya In the heavens 乙登多奈婆多廼 oto tanabata no the jewels strung upon 汗奈餓勢屢 unagaseru the string hung around 多磨廼彌素磨屢廼 tama no misumaru no the neck of the Weaver Maiden 阿奈陀磨波夜 anatama pa ya are very beautiful— 彌多爾 mitani like the beauty of him who 輔柁和柁羅須 puta watarasu shines over two hills 阿泥素企多伽避顧禰 adisuki takapikwone Ajisuki Takahikone. OJ: ma, mani LH: muɑnh NOM: vạn, vàn

EMC: mjwɐnh SV: vạn 177

OC: *mâns GO: mamu KN: ban SK: man

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in the Mino Census of 702 in names like 萬 呂 Maro, 萬 賣 Mamye, 阿 萬 賣 Amamye, and 古 萬 Kwoma. The phonogram 萬 does not appear in Kojiki, other than in the name of Yasumaro, the finisher of the work: 安 萬 侶 YASUmaro. This phonogram appears in Nihon shoki as a phonogram only four times to write the name Maro (萬侶 or 萬里). This phonogram is found often on mokkan inscriptions, many times to write the name Maro (万呂 or 万侶). Other examples include 万由 mayu ? (MK 1174), 古万 kwoma ‘horse’ (MK 2896), □部連(儈)万里 XBYE MURAZI Somari (unnumbered tablet). While this phonogram was not used in poetry in Kojiki or Nihon shoki, it does appear in Man’yōshū 22 times. MYS 883 於登爾吉岐 oto ni kiki I have heard the rumors ME nipa imada MIzu but have not seen it yet— 目爾波伊麻太見受 佐容比賣我 saywo pimye ga Mount ‘I-will-wait-for-you,’ 必禮布理伎等敷 pire puriki topu Mount Matsura where 吉民萬通良楊満 kimi matura yama Princess Sayo waved her scarf. This phonogram is also used twice in Man’yōshū to represent mani. MYS 3291 MIYOSINWO NO On the mountains of Yoshino 三芳野之 MAKWI TATU YAMA ni where stand Podocarpus trees, 真木立山尓 AWOKU OPURU the roots of mountain sedge 青生 YAMASUGE NO NE no cover in a grassy way, 山菅之根乃 NEMOKORO NI likewise I am dispatched 慇懃 A GA OMOPU KIMI PA according to the will 吾念君者 OPOKIMI NO of my lord, the great ruler, 天皇之 MAKE NO mani mani on whom I think fondly of, 遣之萬々 PINAZAKARU who said to rule over 夷離 KUNI WOSAME ni to the domain which is distant. 國治尓登 MURA TORI NO If I depart in the morning, 群鳥之 ASADATI INABA like a flock of birds, 朝立行者 OKURETARU will I yearn 後有 ARE KA KWIPWIMU na for the one left behind? 我可将戀奈

摩

OJ: ma OC: *mâi LH: mɑi > ma EMC: mwâ GO: ma KN: ba NOM: NA SV: ma SK: ma Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and it appears quite frequently on mokkan: 志摩国志摩郡 Sima Province, Sima District (MK 2248), 石見国迩 摩郡 IPAMI Province Nima District (unnumbered tablet). It appears 24 times in Kojiki, but only three times in the poetry: 久米能摩伊 刀比賣 Kume no Maitwo Pimye (KG), 多遲摩國 tadima [NO] KUNI ‘Tajima Province’ (KG), and 布斗摩迩迩占相而 putwo mani ni URANAPITE ‘divine according to the fat (bones)’ (KG).

178

KK 52 淤岐幣迩波 okipye ni pa There are boats 袁夫泥都羅羅玖 wobune turaraku lined up out in the offing. 久漏邪夜能 kurwozaya no Black like a sheath 摩佐豆古和藝毛 masadukwo wagimwo my beautiful beloved, 玖迩幣玖陀良須 kunipye kudarasu she heads for her home. This phonogram appears prominently in Nihon shoki, ten times in annotational notes, and 72 times in the poetry: 荒魂此云阿邏瀰多摩 “ ‘The violent spirit’ is called aramitama” (NSG). NSK 22 夜摩苔波 yamato pa Yamato is 區珥能摩倍邏摩 kuni no maporama the most prosperous— 多々儺豆久 tatanaduku a land ringed by 阿烏伽枳 awokaki mountains arrayed 夜摩許莽例屢 yama komoreru as a green, rolling fence. 夜摩苔之于屢破試 yamato no urupasi Yes, Yamato is beautiful. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, 17 times, but the majority are located in Book 5. MYS 876 阿麻等夫夜 amatobu ya How I wish I were a bird 等利尓母賀母夜 tori ni mogamo ya that flies in the sky, 美夜故麻提 miyakwo made I would see you off 意久利摩遠志弖 okuri mawosite all the way to the capital; 等比可弊流母能 tobikapyeru mono as one who had flown home.

麼

OJ: ma OC: *mai LH: mɨɑi > mɨe EMC: mje LMC: mba GO: ma KN: ba NOM: ma, mô SV: mả SK: ma Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Nihon shoki, suggesting that it should belong to the CBS, but this phonogram also transcribes ba, which is clearly based on LMC mba, so it appears to me that this is a LJS hold over the compilers of Shoki included. This phonogram appears 12 times in the poetry to represent ma, but never in the annotational notes, while 麼 ba appears in both poetry and the annotational notes. NSK 75 野麼等能 yamato no On the peaks 嗚武羅能陀該儞 womura no take ni of the mountains of Yamato, 之々符須登 sisi pusu to who shall venture forth 拕例柯 tare ka to stand before 擧能居登 kono koto the great one and tell him 飫裒磨陛儞麻嗚須 opomapye ni mawosu where the beast lays waiting? This phonogram is rarely used in other works aside from Nihon shoki, but it is found in Buddhist texts, sometimes to transcribe Kaumārī 嬌麼哩, one of the seven divine mothers, or 達麼, a variant transcription for dharma. A Buddhist connection helps explain the usage 曩娑麼提 nasamade, which is possibly a 179

truncation of a longer text, found on a wooden tablet from Jōrinji Temple in Nagahama City in Shiga Prefecture.

魔

莽

間

OJ: ma OC: NA LH: NA EMC: ma GO: ma KN: ba NOM: ma SV: ma SK: ma Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, though it is seldom used as a phonogram because of its semantics, 魔 meaning ghost or demon. Interestingly it is used as a phonogram in Nihon shoki in the poetry: NSK 24 阿佐志毛能 asasimwo no The morning frost melts— 瀰概能佐烏麼志 mike no sawobasi courtiers cross over 魔弊菟耆瀰 mapyetu kimi the little tree bridge 伊和哆羅秀暮 iwatarasu mo to and fro from work; 瀰開能佐烏麼志 mike no sawobasi over the little tree bridge. OJ: ma OC: *mâŋʔ LH: mɑŋʔ EMC: mwâŋʔ GO: mau KN: bau NOM: mãng, mảng SV: mãng SK: mang, mwo, mwu Usage / History: There is Sino-Xenic evidence that this phonogram actually has two readings. SK preserves one reading with /a/ and another with /o/. Miyake (1999:800, 801) argues for two different EMC readings for this graph. OJ ma came from EMC maŋ, while OJ mo came from EMC məŋ. This phonogram appears in Shoki for both OJ ma and mo. I have examined the text of Nihon shoki, and the phonogram 莽 for ma is found only in Books 3, 11, and 17, while 莽 for mo appears in Books 5 and 7. Thus, there is no overlap. I conclude that different scribes relied on different orthographic traditions for this phonogram. See 莽 OJ: mo below. I place this usage in the LJS, as the Kan-on is bau. This phonogram is used in two annotational notes and 28 times in poetry in Nihon shoki: 秀眞國、此云袍 圖莽句儞 “ ‘Luxuriant-true land’ is read potuma kuni’ (NSG). NSK 10 伊莽波豫 ima pa yo We have now won! 伊莽波豫 ima pa yo For now we have won! 阿々時夜塢 aa si ya wo Fools! Serves you right! 伊莽儾而毛 imada ni mo Have they had enough, 阿誤豫 ago yo you, my troops? 伊莽儾而毛 imada ni mo Have they had enough, 阿誤豫 agwo yo you, my lads? OJ: ma OC: *krên LH: kɛn EMC: kăn GO: kemu KN: kan NOM: gian, gián, dán SV: gian, gián, dan SK: kan, ken, han Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ ma ‘interval.’ This usage appears rather early, appearing in the Mino Census of 702 in names like 針間 PARIMA, 180

and 在間 ARIMA. In Kojiki there is 針間 PARIMA (KG), 手間山 Mount TEMA (KG), and 男浅津間若子宿禰王 Prince WOASATUMA WAKUGWO Sukune (KG). There are a number of examples in Nihon shoki: 嗛間丘 the hill POPOMA (NSG), 大間宿禰 OPOMA [NO] Sukune (NSG), and 御間城入彦五十瓊殖天 皇 Great King MIMAKWI IRIBIKWO INIWE (NSG). This kungana is also used fairly widely in Man’yōshū: 八間跡能國者 YAMATO no KUNI PA ‘the land of Yamato (is...) (MYS 2); 射等篭荷四間乃 珠藻苅麻須 IRAGO [NO] siMA no / TAMAMO KARImasu ‘cutting the gem weed of Irago Island’(MYS 23); 宇治間 山 udiMA YAMA ‘Mount Ujima’ (MYS 75).

目

信 鬼

OJ: ma OC: *muk LH: muk EMC: mjuk GO: moku KN: boku NOM: mục SV: mục SK: mwok Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader the bound form of the OJ word ma ‘eye.’ This usage appears in the Mino Census of 702 in names like 目 玉 賣 MATAMAmye, and 目見 MAMI. This usage also appears in Kojiki in the name 目弱王 Prince MAYWO. This usage also appears on a number of mokkan, but it is difficult to know if these represent ma or me: 長目女 NAGAMAMYE or NAGAMEmye (unnumbered tablet), 与利目尓伎 YoriMAniki or YoriMEniki (unnumbered tablet). There are a number of examples in Man’yōshū. MYS 3234 OPOMIYA tukape Serving the great palace 大宮都可倍 ASAPI nasu it is beautiful 朝日奈須 目細毛 MAGUPASI mo like the morning sun; YUPUPI nasu it is stunning 暮日奈須 浦細毛 URAGUPASI mo like the evening sun. OJ: ma OC: *sins LH: sinh EMC: sjenh GO: simu KN: sin NOM: tin, tín SV: tín SK: sin Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ ma ‘true.’ This usage appears only in Man’yōshū, and then only twice, and in the same phrase: 信土之 山川爾 MATUTI NO / YAMAKAPA ni ‘the river of Mount Matsuchi’ (MYS 1192, 1680). OJ: ma OC: *kuiʔ LH: kuiʔ EMC: kjweiʔ GO: kuwi KN: kuwi NOM: quỷ SV: quỷ SK: kuy Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ ma ‘ghost, demon.’ This usage appears only once in Man’yōshū in 吾戀八鬼目 A GA KWOPWI YAMAME ‘my yearning will then cease’ (MYS 3250).

181

眞

OJ: ma OC: *tin LH: tśin EMC: tśjen GO: simu KN: sin NOM: chân SV: chân SK: cin Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ ma ‘true.’ This usage is quite popular in mythological stories, suggesting to the reader that the individual in the story was true or trustworthy. Examples in Kojiki include 天之眞名井 AME NO MANAWI ‘the name of a well in heaven’ (KG), 御眞木天皇 Great King MIMAKWI (literally the true-tree, KG), 水 穂 眞 若 王 Prince MIDUPO MAWAKA (literally the true-young prince, KG). This same usage appears in Nihon shoki, also: 眞神原 MAKAMWI Plain (NSG), 眞經津鏡 the MAPUTU mirror (NSG), and 眞名鹿 MANAKA ‘a true-named stag’ (NSG). This usage also appears on many mokkan, most for MABITO (真人), but a few are in other words: 石部真佐支 ISIBYE MAsaki (MKK 5:85), 真蘇女 MAswoMYE (MK 31). This usage also appears in Man’yōshū: 泊瀬山者 眞木立 PATUSE YAMA PA / MAKWI TATU ‘On Mount Hatsuse good trees for lumber stand’ (MYS 45). OJ: ma OC: NA LH: NA EMC: NA GO: NA KN: NA NOM: NA SV: NA SK: NA Usage / History: These two graphs are a logographic ‘clue’ where the reader processes the Chinese predicate ‘call your dog,’ which conjures up what you say when you call a dog: ma. This is used twice in Man’yōshū, as in the following example: MYS 2645 MIYAGWI PIKU Like the workers 宮材引 IDUMI NO SWOMA ni at Izumi Soma 泉之追馬喚犬二 TATUTAMI no cutting lumber for the palace, 立民乃 YASUMU TOKI NAKU I have no time to do anything 息時無 KWOPWIWATARU kamo but continue to long for you. 戀渡可聞

喚犬

望

OJ: maga, magu OC: *maŋ LH: muaŋ EMC: mjwaŋ GO: mau KN: bau NOM: vọng SV: vọng SK: mang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The writers who used this script interpreted the velar nasal as -g- with either a repeat vowel /a/, or a filler vowel /u/. One example appears in Harima fudoki in the toponym 望理里 Village of Magari. On a wooden tablet is the toponym 参河国寶飫郡望理郷 MIKAPA Province Poo District Magari Village (MKK 18:103). A document preserved in the Shōsōin contains the toponym 望陁 Maguta. This same toponym appears in a headnote to MYS 4351: 望陀郡 Maguta District. Nihon shoki also contains this report: 六月丁巳朔己未、大伴連望多 ‘On the first day of the sixth month (of the twelfth year of Tenmu), Ōtomo Murazi Maguta passed away.’ On an excavated wooden tablet is 天平四年望多 … Fourth year of Tenpyō (732) Maguta....

182

There are readings are (unnumbered Magamaro… tablet).

幕 米

several names preserved on excavated wooden tablets, but the not completely secure: 佐 伯 望 万 呂 Sapeki Magamaro tablet), and □ 県 望 末 呂 … 天 平 九 年 二 月 X-AGATA second month of the ninth year of Tenpyō [737] (unnumbered

OJ: maku OC: *mâk LH: mak EMC: mâk GO: maku KN: baku NOM: NA SV: mạc, mộ SK: mak Usage / History: This siniograph belongs to the LJS, and appears three times in Man’yōshū in 京徃而 戀幕思者 MIYAKWO NI YUKITE / KWOPWImaku OMOPEBA ‘since I will think longingly when I return to the capital’ (MYS 1217); 山之将黄變 見幕 下吉 YAMA NO MWOMITAMU / MImaku SIMO YOSI ‘how nice watching the mountains turn with color’ (MYS 2200); 生日社 見幕欲為礼 IKYERU PI KOSO / MImaku PORI SUre ‘How I want to see you while I am yet alive’ (MYS 2592). OJ: me OC: *mîʔ LH: meiʔ EMC: mieiʔ GO: mai KN: bei NOM: mễ, mẽ SV: mễ SK: myey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, and appears in one personal name, 難升 米 *na-nə-səgu-mei. This phonogram is also the oldest graph used in the earliest Japanese material. For example, in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu we find names such as 久米王 Prince Kume, 蘇我伊奈米宿祢 Swoga Iname [NO] Sukune, and 多 米王 Prince Tame. A song written by Kose Omi upon the death of Prince Shōtoku appears below: 伊加留我乃 ikaruga no Our Great Ruler’s name 止美能乎何波乃 tomi no wogapa no will never be forgotten, 多叡婆許曾 tayeba koso even if the brook 和何於保支美乃 wa ga opokimi no Tomi in Ikaruga 弥奈和須良叡米 mina wasurayeme should cease to flow in its bed. This phonogram appears seven times in the liturgies: 己乖乖不令在邪意穢 心無久宮進進米宮勤勤之米弖 ONO GA MUKI MUKI ARASIMEZU ASIKI KOKORO KITANAKI KOKORO NAku MIYA SUSUME SUSUme, MIYA TUTUME TUTOME simete “…without doing anything self-centered, without a wicked or polluted heart, serving in the palace diligently and faithfully…” (NT 8). This phonogram appears on a number of wooden tablets: 己乃己米 kono kome ‘this rice’ (MKK 16:15), 長稲由米由米 NAGAINE yume yume ‘beware of long stalks of rice’ (MKK 19:199). This is the primary phonogram used in Kojiki, appearing in 吾者到於伊那 志許米上志許米岐穢國而 ARE PA ina sikome sikomeki KITANAKI KUNI NI ITARITE ‘I have reached a very hideous, hideous and polluted land…’ (KG). KK 54 夜麻賀多迩 yamagata ni How delightful it is 麻祁流阿袁那母 makyeru awona mo to pick together even 岐備比登登 kibwi pito to the greens that were planted 183

等母迩斯都米婆 tomo ni si tumeba in the mountain fields, 多怒斯久母阿流迦 tanwosiku mo aru ka with that person from Kibi. Interestingly while this graph appears in Nihon shoki, it is only in a quote from Wei zhi: 大夫難斗米 Minister Nan-two-me. Current texts of Wei zhi have this name as 難升米. This is the principal phonogram used to transcribe me in Man’yōshū, appearing about 270 times in the anthology. MYS 243 OPOKIMI PA Our great lord 王者 TITOSE NI masamu will exist for a thousand years. 千歳二麻佐武 SIRAKUMWO mo Will there ever come a day 白雲毛 三船乃山尓 MIPUNE no YAMA ni when the white clouds on TAYURU PI arame ya Mount Mifune disappear? 絶日安良米也 This phonogram also appears in the Bussoku stone poems: BSS 1 美阿止都久留 miato tukuru The resounding sound of 伊志乃比鼻伎波 isi no pibiki pa the rock where the footprints 阿米尓伊多利 ame ni itari are carved reaches to heaven; 都知佐閇由須礼 tuti sape yusure the earth even reverberates. 知々波々賀多米尓 titi papa ga tame ni for father and mother— 毛呂比止乃多米尓 moropito no tame ni for all people.

梅

迷

OJ: me OC: *mê or *mêʔ LH: mə EMC: mwậi GO: mai KN: bai NOM: mai SV: mai SK: moy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in one annotational note, and 19 times in song in Nihon shoki: 希見、此云梅豆邏志 “ ‘rarely seen’ is read medurasi” (NSG). After this note the text goes on to say, 故時人號其處、曰梅 豆羅國 “Thus people in that time called that place the land of Medura” (NSG). NSK 67 波那具波辭 panagupasi What beauty and detail 佐區羅能梅涅 sakura no mede these cherry blossoms have. 許等梅涅麼 kotomedeba If beauty is the same 波椰區波梅涅孺 payaku pa medezu then I should have loved sooner: 和我梅豆留古羅 wa ga meduru kwora my beloved little maidens. Interesting that in a song where words like pana ‘blossom’ and sakura ‘cherry’ appear the graph 梅 ‘plum’ appears four times, surely for literary effect. This phonogram is used frequently in Man’yōshū, but it is only used to represent ume ‘plum’ 烏梅 (MYS 815, 916, 817, 818, 819, 820, 821, 823, 3901, 3902, 3903, 4496), 宇梅 (MYS 843, 849, 851, 3904, 3906, 4041, 4497), and 于 梅 (MYS 864). OJ: me LH: mei NOM: mê

EMC: miei SV: mê

184

OC: *mî GO: mai, mei KN: bei SK: mi

Usage / History: This phonogram is also included as representing OJ mye, so it is confusing to place it here, but it should be remembered that it appears in Man’yōshū for visual effect, and the poet has ignored the strict phonology. Perhaps we could label this an ‘eye-rhyme,’ where a connection is made visually with the graph and the intended meaning. That single poem is noted below: MYS 813 多良志比咩 tarasi pimye The divine existince, 可尾能彌許等 kamwi no mikoto Princess Tarashi, 可良久尓遠 karakuni wo when she went 武氣多比良宜弖 muketapirakyete to subdue the land of Kara 彌許々呂遠 mikokoro wo (took two stones) 斯豆迷多麻布等 sidumetamapu to to soothe her august mind. As Ōno notes (1977:657) the intended meaning seems to be that she had doubts, and thus soothed her mind when she returned. That is embedded in the graph 迷 ‘be perplexed, confused.’ There is also one example of this graph in Nihon shoki, in the famous song attributed to Shōtoku Taishi: NSK 104 斯那提流 sinateru Starving for want of food 箇多烏箇夜摩爾 katawokayama ni on Mount Kataoka, 伊比爾惠弖 ipi ni wete the shining hill, 許夜勢屢 koyaseru how pitiful is that farmer 諸能多比等阿波禮 sono tapito apare who has fallen. 於夜那斯爾 oya nasi ni Surely you were not 那禮奈理雞迷夜 narenarikyeme ya raised without parents. There is no logical reason for OJ me to be transcribed with 迷 here, though perhaps we could view it as a graphic mistake (scribal error?) with 米 me.

昧

毎

OJ: me OC: *mə̂s LH: məs EMC: mwậih GO: mai KN: bai NOM: mụi SV: muội SK: moy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Nihon shoki in a single poem: NSK 1 夜句茂多兔 yakumo tatu Endowed with power 伊弩毛夜覇餓岐 idumwo yapyegaki this two-fold Izumo fence— 兔磨語昧爾 tuma gume ni to conceal ourselves 夜覇餓枳都倶盧 yapyegaki tukuru I have built this two-fold fence. 贈廼夜覇餓岐廻 sono yapyegaki we Yes, within this two-fold fence! OJ: me LH: məʔ NOM: mỗi

EMC: mwậiʔ SV: mỗi

185

OC: *mə̂ʔ GO: mai KN: bai SK: moy

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS and appears seven times in song in Nihon shoki: NSK 86 於岐毎慕與 okime mo yo Alas Okime, 阿甫瀰能於岐毎 apumi no okime Okime from Afumi— 阿須用利簸 asu ywori pa tomorrow you return to hide 瀰野磨我倶利底 miyamagakurite in the mountains and I will 彌曳孺哿謨阿羅牟 miyezu kamo aramu will be able to see you no more. The Go-on reading is somewhat interesting, because while most manuscripts of Hokekyō ongi have mai as the gloss for 毎, one manuscript has mui. If this is not a simple error, it might point to an earlier time when there may have been two competing Sino-Japanese readings, as the reconstructed Chinese data suggest a mid vowel with different heights, depending on when the phonogram was first introduced into Japan.

妹

OJ: me OC: *mə̂s LH: məs EMC: mwậi GO: mai KN: bai NOM: NA SV: muội SK: moy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS and appears in two poems in Nihon shoki: NSK 2 阿妹奈屢夜 ame naru ya In the heavens, 乙登多奈婆多廼 oto tanabata no the jewels strung upon 汗奈餓勢屢 unagaseru the string hung around 多磨廼彌素磨屢廼 tama no miswomaru no the neck of the Weaver Maiden 阿奈陀磨波夜 anadama pa ya are very beautiful— 彌多爾 mita ni like the beauty of him who 輔柁和柁羅須 puta watarasu shines over two hills, 阿泥素企多伽避顧禰 adisuki takapikwone Ajisuki Takahikone.

目

OJ: me OC: *muk LH: muk EMC: mjuk GO: moku KN: boku NOM: mục SV: mục SK: mwok Usage / History: This is a kungana, suggesting to the reader OJ me ‘eye.’ This usage is old, appearing in some of the oldest known fragments in Japan. In Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu we find Soga Iname’s name written as 稲目足尼 INAME Sukune. Also in the Mino Census of 702 we find names such as 目知賣 MEtimye, 波佐目賣 PasaMEmye, and 目都良賣 MEturamye. There are a few examples of 目 me in Kojiki: 置目 OKIME (KG), 稲目宿 禰 INAME Sukune (KG), and 長 目 比 賣 NAGAME Pimye (KG). This kungana is used extensively in Nihon shoki in names such as 活目津彦根命 IKUMETUPIKWONE [NO] MIKOTO (NSG), 來目部 KUMEBYE (NSG), 天槵 津大來目 AMA [NO] KUSITU OPOKUME (NSG), and 磯城縣主大目 OPOME, the ruler of SIKWI District (NSG). 186

This kungana appears frequently in Man’yōshū poetry, used roughly 120 times. As Ōno (1977:655) points out, the majority of these usages are employed to represent some form of verbal morphology. MYS 31 左散難弥乃 sasanami no Though the water languishes 志我能 siga no at the great bay OPOwada of Shiga 大和太 與杼六友 yodoMU TOMO where the waves ripple MUKASI PITO ni will we encounter again 昔人二 MATA mo APAME YAmo those people from long ago? 亦母相目八毛

眼

OJ: me OC: *ŋrə̂nʔ LH: ŋɛnʔ EMC: ŋănʔ GO: gemu KN: gan NOM: nhan, nhãn, nhởn SV: nhãn, nhỡn SK: an Usage / History: This is a kungana, like 目 above, suggesting OJ me ‘eye.’ This usage appears in Nihon shoki twice, once in the name 田眼皇女 Princess TAME (NSG), a name that also appears in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu as 多米 tame. There is also the name 丹比大眼 Tazipi OPOME (NSG). This kungana also appears three times in Man’yōshū: MYS 678 TADA APITE When we have finally 直相而 MITE BA NOMWI KOSO met face to face, then the love 見而者耳社 霊剋 TAMAKIPARU I have risked my life for— INOTI NI MUKAPU the end of the spirit— 命向 A GA KWOPWI YAMAME will have an end. 吾戀止眼 OJ: me OC: NA LH: NA EMC: NA GO: NA KN: NA NOM: NA SV: NA SK: NA Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ me ‘seaweed’ or ‘lather,’ as 海藻 is quite literally ‘sea-algae.’ This usage appears only four times in Man’yōshū. The example below uses this twice, once as a logoram ‘seaweed,’ and the second time to represent a verbal suffix. MYS 3871 TUNWO SIMA NO The seaweed of 角嶋之 迫門乃稚海藻者 SETWO no WAKAME PA the straits of Tsuno Island PITO NO MUTA is too tough 人之共 ARAKARIsikado for other people, 荒有之可杼 WARE TO PA NIKIME but to me it is soft. 吾共者和海藻

海藻

彌

OJ: mi < mye LH: mieʔ NOM: NA

EMC: mjieʔ SV: di, ri, nhĩ

187

OC: *meʔ GO: mi KN: bi SK: mi

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, and appears in Wei zhi in many titles: 彌彌 *me-me, 彌馬獲支 *me-ma-we-ke, 卑彌弓呼 *pe-me-kuŋ-hɔ, and 卑 彌呼 *pe-me-hɔ. This phonogram also appears in the other ‘barbaric’ sections of Wei zhi: 彌加 *me-kɑ, 卑彌 *pe-me, 彌離彌凍国 *me-rɑi-me-toŋ domain. This phonogram is also prevalent on the inscriptions of the peninsula. On the Kwangkaytho stele we find: 閣 彌 城 *kak-me fortress, 彌 沙 城 *me-sai fortress, and 彌鄒城 *me-tsuw fortress. This graph is also found in Paekche source materials quoted in Nihon shoki: 彌騰利 Midori, 彌麻沙 Mimasa, and 彌氐 Mite. It is clear that the vocalic nucleus of this graph was [e] in the pre-EMC period. This reading was imported into early Japan, likely taught by Yamato’s Paekche teachers. This is clear from the vestiges of old Japanese orthography preserved in old names. In Jōgū Shōtoku teisetsu the following appears: 吉多斯 比彌乃彌己等 Kitasi Pimye no mikoto, 等已彌居加斯支移比彌乃彌己等 Toyo Mikekasikiya Pimye no mikoto, where pimye is written with 彌. Near the end of this list of names the compiler has left the following note: 彌字〈或当賣 音也〉‘The graph 彌 has the same reading as 賣 (*mɛh).’ This phonogram appears nine times in the liturgies: 磐根木根履佐久彌弖 IPANE KINE PUMIsakumite “(the couriers) will stamp through the rocks and the roots of trees…” (NT 1). This phonogram appears repeatedly in mokkan inscriptions: 由弥五□ ‘five sets(?) of bows (yumi)?’ (unnumbered tablet), 宇 治部阿弥 UdiBYE Ami (MK 11323), 弥努王 Prince Minu (unnumbered tablet), 南無阿弥陀仏 namu amida butu ‘words in a Buddhist chant’ (MKK 3:54). This phonogram is used rarely in Kojiki, though it does appear in names like 彌都波能賣神 the deity Mitupanomye (KG), 彌豆麻岐神 the deity Mitumaki (KG), and a transcription such as 意富岐彌 opokimi ‘great lord’ (KK 65). This is the second most popular graph for mi in Nihon shoki (the most popular being 瀰). It appears in eight annotational notes, and 42 times in song: 御甂、此云彌那陪 “ ‘a pan’ is read minape” (NSG). NSK 33 許能彌企塢 kono miki wo Did the person who 伽彌鷄武比等破 kamikyemu pito pa brewed this auspicious wine 曾能菟豆彌 sono tudumi rest his resounding drum 于輸珥多氐々 usu ni tatete like a grinding mortar, 于多比菟々 utapitutu and brew this wine 伽彌鷄梅伽墓 kamikyeme kamo while he sang a song? 許能彌企能 kono miki no It is strange 阿椰珥 aya ni how very 于多娜濃芝 utadanwosi delightful this wine is. 作沙 sa sa Drink! Drink! This phonogram appears 63 times in Man’yōshū. MYS 31 左散難彌乃 sasanami no The broad inlet of Shiga at Sasanami, though it is 志我能大和太 siga no OPOwada

188

與杼六友 yodoMU TOMO stagnant and hesitant now, MUKASI NO PITO ni will it ever meet 昔人二 MATA mo APAME YAmo those people from long ago? 亦母相目八毛 The cursive form of the abbreviated version of this graph results in hiragana み (弥 < 弥 < 彌).

美

OJ: mi OC: *muiʔ LH: mɨʔ EMC: mjiʔ GO: mi KN: bi NOM: mỹ, mỉ, mẻ SV: mĩ SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears in a poem supposedly written by Prince Shōtoku and is recorded in Jōgū shōtoku hōō teisetsu: 美加彌乎須 mikami wosu Mount Tabasami 多婆佐美夜麻乃 tabasami yama no that rules from above— 阿遅加気尓 adikake ni alas, I stood there 比止乃麻乎之志 pito no mawosisi in the shade of the aji tree, 和何於保支美波母 wa ga opokimi pamo begging our master’s return. This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan: 美作国 Misaka Province (MK 2262), 佐美万呂 Samimaro (MK 2094), 山口伊美吉 YAMAGUTI Imiki (MK 57). This is the main phonogram to transcribe mi in Kojiki: 伊邪那美神 the deity Izanami (KG), 美斗能麻具波比 mitwo no magupapi ‘sexual intercourse’ (KG), 美須麻流 misumaru ‘circle of jewels on a string’ (as a necklace or bracelet, KG), and 御美豆良 MImidura ‘male hair style’ (KG). It is used 185 times in the poetry in Kojiki. KK 95 阿具良韋能 agurawi no Young maidens dancing 加微能美弖母知 kamwi no mite moti to the zither played as if 比久許登爾 piku koto ni by the hand of a deity 麻比須流袁美那 mapi suru womina sitting on the high seat. 登許余爾母加母 tokoyo ni mogamo Ah, to be like this forever. In Nihon shoki this graph was popular in annotational notes (20 times), but is only used nine times in poetry: 至貴曰尊。自餘曰命。並訓美擧等也 “Deities of very high stature are called 尊. All others are labeled 命. Both characters are read mikoto” (NSG). 皇産靈、此云美武須毘 “ ‘imperial-productive-spirit’ is read mimusupi” (NSG). NSK 97 駄開能 take no Wonderful, flourishing bamboo 以矩美娜開余嚢開 ikumidake yodake with long joints and leaves— 謨等陛嗚麼 motopye woba We will make a koto 莒等儞都倶唎 koto ni tukuri out of the base of it, 須衞陛嗚麼 suwepye woba and make a flute 府曳儞都倶唎 puye ni tukuri out of the top of it. This is the most popular phonogram to transcribe mi in Man’yōshū, appearing 902 times.

189

MYS 33 樂浪乃 國都美神乃 浦佐備而 荒有京 見者悲毛

瀰

民

弭

SASANAMI no KUNI tu miKAMWI no URAsabwiTE ARETARU MIYAKWO MIREBA KANASI mo

The august deity of the land of Sasanami has become unimportant. Looking upon the desolate metropolis breaks my heart.

OJ: mi OC: *meʔ LH: mieʔ EMC: mjieʔ LMC: mbji GO: mi KN: bi NOM: NA SV: mễ, ri SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and although it only appears in Nihon shoki, it should transcribe bi, so I place it in the LJS. This is the most popular graph used to transcribe mi in Shoki, used 109 times in poetry, and 10 times in annotational notes: 蹢跙、此云布瀰那羅須 “ ‘trample’ is read puminarasu” (NSG). NSK 15 許能瀰枳破 kono miki pa This divine sake 和餓瀰枳那羅孺 wa ga miki narazu is not for myself. 椰磨等那殊 yamato nasu It was prepared by 於朋望能農之能 opomononusi no the builder of Yamato, 介瀰之瀰枳 kamisi miki Ōmononushi. 伊句臂佐 ikupisa Prosper forever, 伊句臂佐 ikupisa forever. OJ: mi OC: *min LH: min EMC: mjien GO: min KN: bin NOM: dân SV: dân SK: min Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only in Man’yōshū. MYS 883 於登爾吉岐 oto ni kiki I have heard the rumors ME nipa imada MIzu but have not seen it yet— 目爾波伊麻太見受 佐容比賣我 saywo pimye ga Mount ‘I-will-wait-for-you,’ 必禮布理伎等敷 pire puriki topu Mount Matsura where 吉民萬通良楊満 kimi matura yama Princess Sayo waved her scarf. OJ: mi OC: *meʔ LH: mieʔ EMC: mjieʔ LMC mbji GO: mi KN: bi NOM: nhẹ SV: mễ, nhị SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It only appears in Nihon shoki, and then only once in a song from the Age of the Gods record. This graph is used a number of times to transcribe bi. Consider the song: NSK 6 阿軻娜磨廼 akadama no The radiant globe 比訶利播阿利登 pikari pa ari to is wonderfully brilliant, 190

比鄧播伊珮耐 pito pa ipyedo so people may say, 企弭我譽贈比志 kimi ga yosopisi but I have now realized 多輔妬勾阿利計利 taputwoku arikyeri your brilliance is the finest. It is not improbable that 企弭 represents kibi, and one could say this is a variant of kimi ‘lord,’ showing the m ~ b alternation that is well known in Japanese, but there is no other evidence that a word kibi ever existed. Following Occam’s Razor I posit that this graph is used for its EMC reading here. This again provides evidence that the text of Nihon shoki is somewhat heterogeneous.

寐

湄

三

OJ: mi OC: *mis LH: mis EMC: mih LMC mbji GO: mi KN: bi NOM: mị SV: mị SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only in Nihon shoki once. It is used more frequently in Nihon shoki to transcribe bi. NSK 83 伊儺武斯盧 inamusiro The willow growing along 呵簸泝比野儺擬 kapaswopi yanagwi the banks of the river bends 寐逗喩凱麼 midu yukeba with the flow of the water. 儺弭企於己陀智 nabiki okotati Fluttering or standing tall 曾能泥播宇世儒 sono ne pa usezu the roots remain unchanged. OJ: mi OC: *mui LH: mɨ EMC: mji KN: mbi GO: mi KN: bi NOM: mưa SV: mi SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS and appears only once in Nihon shoki in the following song: NSK 35 伊奘阿藝 iza agi Behold, my son. 怒珥比蘆菟湄珥 nwo ni piru tumi ni To the moor, garlic to pick, 比蘆菟瀰珥 piru tumi ni gathering we will go. 和餓喩區瀰智珥 wa ga yuku miti ni On the way there, we will find 伽遇破志 kagupasi the most splendid scent 波那多智麼那 pana tatibana of the orange in bloom. OJ: mi OC: *sə̂m LH: sam, səm EMC: sâm GO: samu KN: san NOM: tam SV: tam SK: sam Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ mi ‘three.’ This kungana is very old appearing in the Jōgūki fragment, to transcribe 三国 MIKUNI. It is possible that this is a later interpolated usage, but for the time being I postulate that it dates back to the EJS. Kojiki contains examples of 三野国 Province of MINWO (KG). Book 10 of Kujiki, ‘Kokuzō Hongi’ records 三野前国 ‘Upper MINWO’ and 三 野後国 ‘Lower MINWO’ Provinces. There are many usages of this kungana to transcribe mi in the Taihō censuses 191

of 702: 三嶋 MISIMA, 三山 MIYAMA, 三野賣 MINWOmye, 三委賣 MIwimye, and 三川 MIKAPA. There are also a number of examples of this usage in Nihon shoki: 三諸山 MIMORO YAMA (NSG), 三宅吉士 MIYAKE Kisi (NSG), and 三輪 MIWA (NSG). This usage is also very popular in Man’yōshū: 三輪乃山 MIWA no YAMA ‘Mount Miwa’ (MYS 17), 高三香裳 TAKAMI KAMO ‘because of its height’…(MYS 44), and 三雪落 MIYUKI PURU ‘the august snow falls’… (MYS 45).

御

OJ: mi OC: *ŋah LH: ŋɨah EMC: ŋjwoʔ GO: go KN: gyo NOM: ngự, ngợ SV: ngự SK: a, e Usage / History: This kungana causes ther reader to make the association with OJ mi ‘honorific prefix,’ which must have been well known to readers of Japanese hybrid texts, as the graph 御 originally meant ‘preside over,’ govern’ or even ‘drive a chariot,’ but has no connotation in Chinese similar to an honorific prefix. The earliest datable examples appear in the Mino Census of 702: 御野国 MINWO Province, 御 川 MIKAPA, 御 由 支 賣 MIyukimye, 乎 御 佐 加 WoMIsaka, and 御蘇手賣 MIswoDEmye. While there are a variety of examples in Kojiki and Nihon shoki, all examples I have found are better analyzed as logograms. There are 17 examples of this kungana in Man’yōshū: 大伴乃御津乃濱松 OPOTOMO no MITU no PAMAMATU ‘the pines on the beach of Mitsu in Ōtomo (are waiting)… (MYS 63); 三吉野之御金高爾 MIYOSINWO NO / MIKANE NO TAKE ni ‘on the peak of Mikane in Miyoshino…’ (MYS 3293).

見

OJ: mi OC: *kêns LH: kenh EMC: kienh GO: kemu KN: ken NOM: kiến SV: kiến SK: kyen Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ mi, the infinitive of the verb miru ‘see’ as 見 ‘see.’ This usage appears in the Mino Census of 702: 方見 KATAMI, 奈見賣 NaMImye, and 伎波見 KipaMI. This usage also appears in Kojiki, in examples like 大綿津見神 the deity OPOWATATUMI (all deities with the suffix tumi are written 津見, KG), 日子穂穂手見命 PIKWO POPODEMI [NO] MIKOTO (KG), and 菅原之伏見岡 the hill SUGAPARA NO PUSIMI (KG). Nihon shoki has a few of the same kind of usages as Kojiki: 彦火火出見 PIKWO POPODEMI (NSG). There are other interesting examples like 見 野 尊 MINWO [NO] MIKOTO (NSG), 月夜見尊 TUKWI YWOMI [NO] MIKOTO (NSG), and 見川 MIKAPA (NSG). This kungana appears often in Man’yōshū, but as Ōno (1977:632) points out, the majority of the usages are found in toponyms: 見吉野 MIYOSINWO (MYS 74, 313, 315, 353), and 稲見 INAMI (MYS 303, 938, 1772).

192

水

參

視

OJ: mi OC: *lhuiʔ LH: tśuiʔ or śuiʔ EMC: świʔ GO: suwi KN: sui NOM: thủy SV: thuỷ SK: swu Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ mi of midu ‘water.’ It is a point of some debate about whether midu is actually bimoraic, or is mi plus something. This supposition is strengthened by the word mina found in various forms in poetry: minasigapa ‘river without water,’ minasoko ‘bottom of the river (water).’ Therefore, it would appear that mi may have been an old word for ‘water,’ which would explain why 水 alone is associated with mi. Kojiki has only a few examples of this usage, but 水戸 MITWO (KG) and 水分 MIKUMARI ‘distribution of water’ are perhaps the best known (KG). This graph appears in Nihon shoki in names like 水間城王 King MIMAKWI (NSG), 水沼県 MINUMA [NO] AGATA ‘District of Minuma’ (NSG), and 水派 宮 the palace of MIMATA (NSG). There are 12 examples of this kungana in Man’yōshū. MYS 1130 KAMUsaBURU How very sad I am 神左振 IPANE kogoSIKI looking at Mount Mikumari 磐根己凝敷 in Miyoshino with its 三芳野之 MIYOSINWO NO 水分山乎 MIKUMARI YAMA wo steep and rugged boulders MIREBA KANASI mo that seem god-like. 見者悲毛 OJ: mi OC: *tshə̂m < *k-sə̂m LH: tshəm EMC: tshậm GO: samu KN: san NOM: tham, sâm SV: tham SK: sam, cham, som, chom Usage / History: This kungana is related to the association of 三 mi ‘three.’ In legal documents the easily altered graph 三 was written with the more difficult graph 參 ‘three.’ This usage is almost solely confined to representing the toponym: 參 河国 province of MIKAPA. A few other examples found in the census records of Nara include 參歳賣 MITOSImye. The writing 參河 MIKAPA appears in Nihon shoki, Man’yōshū, and Shoku Nihongi. Shoku Nihongi transcribes this as 參河, but there is one instance of 參川 (726.8.30). OJ: mi OC: *ɡiʔ LH: ɡiʔ, ɡih EMC: źiʔ, źih GO: zi KN: si NOM: thị SV: thị SK: si Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ mi, the infinitive of miru ‘see,’ as means 視 ‘look at.’ This usage only appears in Man’yōshū, and then only once. MYS 1761 AKIPAGWI NO Trying to spend the night with 秋芽子之 TUMA WO MAKAMU TO the autumn bush clover spouse, 妻巻六跡 ASADUKUYWO regretting the coming dawn 朝月夜 AKEMAKU WOSIMI with the moonlit morning— 明巻鴦視 足日木乃 ASIPIKWI no I am calling out 193

山響令動 喚立鳴毛

YAMABIKWO TOYOME YWOBITATE NAKU mo

causing an echo in the mountains of cramped legs.

敏

OJ: minu OC: *mə̂ʔ LH: mɨənʔ EMC: mj(w)en GO: min KN: bin NOM: mẫn, mẩn SV: mẫn SK: min Usage / History: This interesting phonogrammatic usage belongs to the LJS, and is based on the Sino-Japanese reading of minu, which later became min in Japanese. This usage is only found in Man’yōshū, and then only to write the place name Minume: 敏馬乎過 minumye wo SUGWITE ‘passing by Minume…’ (MYS 250).

母

OJ: mo OC: *məʔ LH: məʔ EMC: məu GO: mo, mu KN: bou NOM: mẫu SV: mẫu SK: mwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, and appears in Wei zhi once in the following title: 卑奴母離 *pe-nɔ-mə-rai. There is much debate about whether this phonogram had a rounded or unrounded nucleus, but as the SV and Nom data show, the nucleus was unrounded from the Later Han period until perhaps after the Sui period. This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki in materials likely quoted from Paekche sources: in the Jingū record we find the name of an individual, 富羅母 智 Poramoti; in the record of Keitai we have a Paekche individual called 久禮 斯己母 Kure Sikomo; in the record of Tenji we see a Paekche man called 許率 母 Kosotumo. This phonogram is also found in the earliest extant material in Japan. In the Jōgūki fragment we find the name 母 母 思 己 麻 和 加 中 比 彌 Momosiko Mawaka NAKA Pimye. This phonogram appears 25 times in the liturgies: 汁爾母 穎爾母称辞竟奉牟 SIRU nimo KABI nimo TATAPEGOTO WOPEMATURAmu “We will present the wine too, and the rice also, after exhausting the words of praise…” (NT 1). This phonogram appears on a variety of mokkan: 玉尓有皮手 尓麻伎母知而伊□・□□皮伊加尓加 TAMA ni ARU pa TE ni makimotiTE iX…XX pa ikani ka… “As for what is on the jewels, wrap them around your wrist…why…?” (MKK 10:90). Kojiki is an important source, as the record consistently used 母 to transcribe mo: 玉 緒 母 由 良 迩 取 由 良 迦 志 而 TAMA [NO] WO moyura ni TORIyurakasiTE ‘He took the string of jewels in his hand, making a jingling sound...’ (KG). In a scene in Nihon shoki where Susanoo takes off a string of jewels he has wrapped in the left bun of his tied up hair the text says 瓊響瑲瑲 ‘the sound of the jewels jingling.’ The compiler then adds this annotational note: 瑲瑲乎、此云奴儺等母母由羅爾 “ ‘jewels jingling’ is read nu na tomo moyura ni” (NSG), attesting to this reading. KK 83 阿麻陀牟 amadamu Flying in the heavens 加流乃袁登賣 karu no wotomye the maiden of Karu— 志多多爾母 sitata nimo come close to me, 194

余理泥弖登富禮 yorinete topore and spend the night tightly, 加流袁登賣杼母 karu no wotomyedomo you maidens of Karu. This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, eight times in the annotational notes, and 37 times in the poetry, transcribing mo without error: 湌泉之竃、此 云譽母都俳遇比 “ ‘hearth of the underworld’ is read yomotupegupi” (NSG), 泉 津平坂、此云余母都比羅佐可 “ ‘the flat hill of Yomi’ is read yomotu pirasaka” (NSG). These two usages are important, because Kojiki does not have a phonetic rendering for this. Rather, it has 黄泉軍 ‘the army of Yomi’ glossed as yomotu ikusa. However, it is believed that Yomi is actually yomwi or phonetically /yəməi/, thus the boundform would naturally be yomo-, which is supported by these two representations as found in Nihon shoki. NSK 34 知麼能 tiba no Looking out over 伽豆怒塢彌例麼 kadunwo wo mireba the verdant plain of Kazu, 茂々智儾蘆 momotidaru I behold before me 夜珥波母彌喩 yanipa mo miyu an abundance of villages— 區珥能朋母彌喩 kuni no po mo miyu I also see a land of excellence. Book 5 of Man’yōshū also makes a concerted effort to distinguish between mwo and mo. My own data (2002:360) show that of 45 occurrences with verbs or nouns that should contain mwo, 43 are written etymologically, for 95% accuracy. Mo on the other hand is slightly less, with 86% accuracy (110:128). Examples include words like 母乃 mono ‘thing’ (MYS 793), 意母保由 omopoyu ‘come to mind’ (MYS 802), 母等 moto ‘base, origin’ (MYS 802), 銀母金母玉母 SIROGANE mo KUGANE mo TAMA mo ‘Even silver, gold, or jewels...’ (MYS 803).

文

OJ: mo OC: *mən LH: mun EMC: mjwən GO: momu KN: bun NOM: văn SV: văn SK: mwun Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Wi-cwu Silla stele (525) in an apparent fragment of a name 文王 King Mon. Also on the Silla Namsan stele (591) there are names such as 文知阿尺城 *mon-ti-a-tśhiak fortress, 文尺竹生 *mon-tśhiak-tuk-sɛŋ, and 文尺美吹利 *mon-tśhiak-mɨʔtśhuai-li. It also appears in the 10th month of Kinmei where an individual from Paekche is called 馬次文, glossed ma-si-mon. In an entry in the following year, the same individual is called 馬進文, glossed ma-sin-mon. This phonogram is rarely used in extant Japanese texts. In general the graph 文 transcribed aya, apparently a place name on the continent from which a group of skilled artisians originated. This phonogram does appear in Izumo fudoki: 母理 郷、本字文理 “The village of Mori (母理) was originally written Mori (文理).” The phonogram 文 appears in Man’yōshū a total of 60 times. MYS 1824 PUYUGOMORI Hidden within winter— 冬隠 PARU SARI KUREBA as spring has come 春去来之 ASIbiKWI no the bush warbler calls out in 足比木乃 YAMA nimo NWO nimo the mountains of cramped legs, 山二文野二文 UGUPISU NAKU MO and also in the fields. 鴬鳴裳 195

梅

茂

OJ: mo OC: *mê or *mêʔ LH: mə EMC: mwậi GO: mai KN: bai NOM: mai SV: mai SK: moy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. Though this usage only appears in Nihon shoki, because it is used to transcribe mo, it hints at the fact that the compiler knew this graph had an earlier reading of mə. This is quite striking, because the sole example of this to transcribe mo appears in the Jinmu record of Shoki, where 梅 is used five times to transcribe mey. The sole example appears in the annotational notes: 坂下、此云瑳伽梅苔 “ ‘bottom of the hill’ is read sakamoto” (NSG). OJ: mo OC: *muh LH: muh EMC: məuh GO: mu KN: bou NOM: mậu SV: mậu SK: mwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. Coblin posits məu in the Qieyun System, and then reconstructs ONWC *mou. The SV and Nom data show that an unrounded nucleus persisted longer in some areas. As noted in Bentley (2002), I believe that Nihon shoki used this graph to transcribe mo. In the Taihō Census we find names with this graph, such as 志 茂 Simo, 加 茂 Kamo, but the etymology of these names is unclear. This phonogram appears a number of times on mokkan: 伊豆国賀茂郡 Idu Province Kamo District (MK 342). This phonogram appears in Nihon shoki in a variety of words, and the following chart aligns these with the phonogram 母 and 望, also representing mo. Word moto ‘base’ tomo ‘companion’ moti ‘holding’ mo ‘particle’ koromo ‘robe’ mono ‘thing’ (o)mop- ‘think’

With 母 With 茂 With 望 — 茂等 望苔 等母 等茂 — 母知 茂知 — 母 茂 望 莒呂母 — 虚呂望 母能 茂能 望能 — 茂布 望閉耐 — 茂赴 於望比 The accuracy here is striking. This phonogram also appears in Izumo fudoki, but is always limited to kamo. There are only two instances of 茂 as a phonogram in Man’yōshū, both representing the particle mo: 阿可思通良久茂 akasituraku mo ‘ah, the night having ended’ (MYS 485), 紀爾茂安理等毛 kwi nimo aritomo ‘even though it is wood (and cannot speak)’ (MYS 812).

望

OJ: mo OC: *maŋ LH: muaŋ EMC: mjwaŋ GO: mau KN: bau NOM: vọng SV: vọng SK: mang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Nihon shoki, once in the annotational notes, and 15 times in the poetry: 物實、此云望能志呂 “ ‘replica,’ 196

this is read monosiro” (NSG). In the following poem this graph appears seven times. NSK 43 智破揶臂等 tipaya pito Very powerful 于旎能和多利珥 udi no watari ni those catalpa trees 和多利涅珥 wataride ni standing by the bank 多氐屢 tateru of the ferry. 阿豆瑳由瀰摩由瀰 adusayumi mayumi To make a true catalpa bow, 伊枳羅牟苔 ikiramu to I thought in my heart, 虚々呂破望閉耐 kokoro pa mopedo to cut down a catalpa tree. 伊斗羅牟苔 itworamu to I thought in my heart 虚々呂破望閉耐 kokoro pa mopedo to hold one of those trees. 望苔幣破 motopye pa I thought of you 枳瀰烏於望臂涅 kimi wo omopide at the trunk of the tree. 須慧幣破 suwepye pa I remembered you 伊暮烏於望比涅 imo wo omopide when I looked up at the crown. 伊羅那鷄區 iranakyeku I felt such sorrow 曾虚珥於望比 soko ni omopi thinking of you there. 伽那志鷄區 kanasikyeku I felt such sadness 虚々珥於望臂 koko ni omopi thinking about you here. 伊枳羅儒層區屢 ikirazu so kuru I left without cutting down 阿豆瑳由瀰摩由瀰 adusayumi mayumi the tree for the catalpa bow. The phonogram 望 ‘expect, hope’ is used here in a dual role, once for its phonetic value, and also for it semantic. The graph also imparts a sense of expectation with its underlying semantic value.

暮

慕

OJ: mo OC: *mâkh LH: mah EMC: muoh GO: mo KN: bo NOM: mộ, mô SV: mộ SK: mwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, but only appears in Nihon shoki, nine times in poems. NSK 24 阿佐志毛能 asasimwo no The morning frost melts— 瀰概能佐烏麼志 mike no sawobasi courtiers cross over 魔弊菟耆瀰 mapyetu kimi the little tree bridge 伊和哆羅秀暮 iwatarasu mo to and fro from work; 瀰開能佐烏麼志 mike no sawobasi over the little tree bridge. OJ: mo OC: *mâkh LH: mah EMC: muoh GO: mo KN: bo NOM: NA SV: mộ SK: mwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in Nihon shoki in three annotational notes, and 13 times in poetry: 言於母亦兄、於吾亦兄、此云於慕 尼慕是、阿例尼慕是 “ ‘He was a son to my mother and a husband to me’ is omo nimo se, are nimo se” (NSG).

197

NSK 94 伊須能箇瀰 賦屢嗚須擬底 擧慕摩矩羅 柁箇播志須擬 慕能娑播儞 於裒野該須擬 播屢比 箇須我嗚須擬 逗摩御慕屢 嗚佐裒嗚須擬 拕摩該儞播 伊比佐倍母理 拕摩慕比儞 瀰逗佐倍母理 儺岐曾裒遲喩倶謀 柯㝵比謎阿婆例

莽

謀

isu no kami puru wo sugwite komo makura takapasi sugwi monosapa ni opoyake sugwi parupi kasuga wo sugwi tumagomoru wosapo wo sugwi tamake nipa ipi sape mori tamamopi ni midu sape mori nakisopoti yuku mo kage pimye apare

We passed through Furu of Isunokami. We passed by the valley of Takahashi of straw pillows. We walked through Ōyake where many things are. We went by Kasuga, written ‘spring-day.’ We traveled through Osaho, the hidden wife. On the jeweled ritual plate we piled rice high. The jeweled ritual cup we filled with water. On goes the procession, weeping and wet; poor Kagehime.

OJ: mo OC: *mâʔ LH: mɑʔ EMC: muoh GO: mau KN: bau NOM: mãng, mảng SV: mãng SK: mang, mwo, mwu Usage / History: There is Sino-Xenic evidence that this phonogram actually has two readings. SK preserves one reading with /a/ and another with /o/. Miyake (1999:800, 801) argues for two different EMC readings for this graph. Schuessler (2009:89) reconstructs two different forms, with different nuclei. OJ ma came from EMC maŋ, while OJ mo came from EMC muoh. This phonogram appears in Shoki for both OJ ma and mo. I have examined the text of Nihon shoki, and the phonogram 莽 for ma is only found in Books 3, 11, and 17, while 莽 for mo appears in Books 5 and 7. Thus, there is no overlap. I conclude that different scribes have relied on different orthographic traditions for this phonogram. I place this phonogram in the LJS. This phonogram is only used once in the annotational notes, and twice in the poetry of Shoki: 神籬、此云比莽呂岐 “a sacred grove on a mountain for divine protection’ is read pimorogi” (NSG). NSK 22 夜摩苔波 yamato pa Yamato is 區珥能摩倍邏摩 kuni no maporama the most prosperous— 多々儺豆久 tatanaduku a land ringed by 阿烏伽枳 awokaki mountains arrayed 夜摩許莽例屢 yama komoreru as a green, rolling fence. 夜摩苔之于屢破試 yamato no urupasi Yes, Yamato is beautiful. OJ: mo LH: muə >mu NOM: mưu

EMC: mjəu SV: mưu

198

OC: *mə GO: mu KN: bou SK: mwo, mwu

Usage / History: It is difficult to know where to place this phonogram, as a LJS placement would assume it transcribes mu, while CBS assumes bo, but this graph actually transcribes mo, which appears to be a vestige of OC. For the time being I believe this belongs to the LJS. It appears in Nihon shoki, twice in annotational notes, and 16 times in poetry: 手掌摎亮、此云陀那則擧謀耶羅々儞 “ ‘clapping of hands’ is to be read tabasoko mo yarara ni” (NSG). NSK 85 阿佐膩簸囉 asadipara Through the rocky path of 嗚贈禰嗚須擬 wosone wo sugwi the mountains and over 謨謀逗頴甫 momodutapu Asaji Plain comes a distant, 奴底喩羅倶慕與 nute yuraku mo yo continuous jingle of a bell. 於岐毎倶羅之慕 okime kurasi mo It seems Okime has arrived.

墓

悶 聞

OJ: mo OC: *mâkh LH: mah EMC: muoh GO: mo KN: bo NOM: mộ, mồ SV: mộ SK: mwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS and appears once in Nihon shoki: NSK 33 許能彌企塢 kono miki wo Did the person who 伽彌鷄武比等破 kamikyemu pito pa brewed this auspicious wine 曾能菟豆彌 sono tudumi rest his resounding drum 于輸珥多氐々 usu ni tatete like a grinding mortar, 于多比菟々 utapitutu and brew this wine 伽彌鷄梅伽墓 kamikyeme kamo while he sang a song? 許能彌企能 kono miki no It is strange 阿椰珥 aya ni how very 于多娜濃芝 utadanwosi delightful this wine is. 作沙 sa sa Drink! Drink! OJ: mo OC: *mə̂n LH: mən EMC: mwən GO: momu KN: bon NOM: muốn, mụn SV: muộn SK: mwun Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears once in Nihon shoki, in the record of Jinmu, in a place name: 母木邑。今云飫悶廼奇訛也 “Omoki ‘mother-tree village’; what we currently say as omonokwi is a corruption of this” (NSG). OJ: mo OC: *mən LH: mun EMC: mjwən GO: momu KN: bun NOM: văn SV: vắn SK: mwun Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. Like the graph 文, the final nasal was ignored. This graph appears in Izumo fudoki: 恎聞埼 Simo SAKI ‘Simo Cape.’ 199

This phonogram is also used 177 times in Man’yōshū. MYS 44 WAGIMWOKWO wo Mount Izami which I invited 吾妹子乎 my beloved to go see— 去来見乃山乎 IZAMI no YAMA wo TAKAMI KAMO is it because it is so high 高三香裳 YAMATO no MIYENU that I cannot see Yamato? 日本能不所見 KUNI TOPOMI kamo Or is is because it is so far? 國遠見可聞

忘

蒙

門

OJ: mo LH: muaŋ EMC: mjwaŋ NOM: vong SV: vong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and only appears three times. MYS 865 伎弥乎麻都 kimi wo matu 麻都良乃于良能 matura no ura no 越等賣良波 wotomyera pa 等己与能久尓能 tokoyo no kuni no 阿麻越等賣可忘 ama wotomye kamo

OC: *maŋ GO: mau KN: bau SK: mang appears only in Man’yōshū, and Are the young maidens who pine for their lord at Pine Bay, Matsura, young women divers of the eternal land?

OJ: mo OC: *môŋ LH: moŋ EMC: muŋ GO: mou KN: bou NOM: mong, mỏng SV: mông SK: mwong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in Man’yōshū five times. MYS 977 TADA KWOYE no Surely it was here that 直超乃 KONO MITI nitesi they named this ‘the sea of 此徑尓弖師 Naniwa where the sun shines 押照哉 OSITERU YA broadly’ because this road 難波乃海跡 nanipa no UMI TO NADUkyerasi mo passes straight through. 名附家良思蒙 OJ: mo OC: *mên LH: mən EMC: mwən GO: momu KN:bon NOM: mon, môn SV: môn SK: mwun Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only in Man’yōshū. This graph is very prevalent in the anthology, but primarily to transcribe kadwo ‘gate’ or two ‘door.’ There is actually only one example in Man’yōshū where 門 is used as a phonogram, noted below: MYS 1421 PARU YAMA NO How delightful 春山之 開乃乎為里尓 SAKI no wo wori ni to see the white cord of PARUNA TUMU my beloved as she picks 春菜採 IMWO GA SIRAPIMO spring herbs on the spring hills 妹之白紐 MIRAku si yosi mo that are colored with blossoms. 見九四与四門 200

問

勿

畝

物

OJ: mo OC: *məns LH: munh EMC: mjwənh GO: momu KN: bun NOM: vắn, vặn, vấn SV: vấn SK: mwun Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in Man’yōshū twice: MYS 36 KONO YAMA no How I never tire of 此山乃 IYA TAKAsirasu gazing at the capital of 弥高思良珠 MINA SOSOKU waterfalls of crashing waters; 水激 TAKI NO MIYAKWO pa like this mountain’s great height 瀧之宮子波 MIreDO AKANU kamo it governs far and wide. 見礼跡不飽可問 OJ: mo OC: *mət LH: mut EMC: mjwət GO: moti KN: butu NOM: vất SV: vật SK: mwul Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears five times in Man’yōshū. This phonogram is most often used in its Chinese function as a strong negative imperative, thus becoming na or naku ni ‘do not do’ in the anthology. MYS 807 宇豆都仁波 ututu nipa There is no way 安布余志勿奈子 apu yosi mo nasi for us to meet in reality. 奴婆多麻能 nubatama no See me in your 用流能伊昧仁越 yworu no ime ni wo dreams at night, 都伎提美延許曽 tugite miye koso black as ink. OJ: mo OC: *mə̂ʔ~*môʔ LH: məʔ~moʔ EMC: məuʔ GO: mo KN: bou NOM: mẫu, mẩu SV: mẫu SK: mwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears but once in the ancient Japanese corpus, found in Man’yōshū. MYS 18 Will you hide Mount Miwa 三輪山乎 MIWA YAMA wo 然毛隠賀 SIKA mo KAKUSU ka in such a manner? KUMWO DANI MO How I wish the clouds 雲谷裳 KOKORO ARAnamo would show some pity. 情有南畝 可苦佐布倍思哉 kakusapu besi ya Should it really be hidden? OJ: mo, moti, moto OC: *mət LH: mut EMC: mjwət GO: moti KN: butu NOM: vắt, vật SV: vật SK: mwul Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It was used to transcribe both mo and moti. In the Yamashiro Census of 726 the name 佐比物 Sapimoti appears. Another name preserved in Nara era documents is 福物 Pukumoti.

201

In the second year of Tenpyō Jingo there is a place name 物理 Motorowi recorded in Shoku Nihongi (766.5.23). In Man’yōshū this phonogram is used 42 times to transcribe mo, but notice that of these over half (23) use the graph as both a phonogram and a logogram to represent the word mono ‘thing’: 物能 mono or 物乃 mono. MYS 499 MWOMWOPYE nimo Is it because I think 百重二物 KISIKANU KAMO TO I want you to come to me 来及毳常 OMOPE KAMO one hundred times over? 念鴨 KIMI GA TUKAPI no I never do weary of 公之使乃 MIREDO AKAZARAmu seeing your messenger. 雖見不飽有武

裳

藻

OJ: mo OC: *djaŋ LH: dźaŋ EMC: źjaŋ GO: ziyau KN: siyau NOM: NA SV: thường SK: syang Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ mo ‘skirt.’ This usage appears once in Kojiki: 裳伏岡 MOPUSI Hill (KG). This usage appears twice in Nihon shoki: 丹裳 NIMO ‘plain of Nimo’ (NSG), and 田裳見宿禰 TAMOMI Sukune (NSG). Interestingly this graph also appears in the imperial edicts: 裳咋足嶋 MOKUPI TARUSIMA (SM 53), a person who led a rebellion against the court. This usage is very popular in Man’yōshū, used 158 times. MYS 18 MIWA YAMA wo Will you hide Mount Miwa 三輪山乎 SIKA mo KAKUSU ka in such a manner? 然毛隠賀 KUMWO DANI MO How I wish the clouds 雲谷裳 KOKORO ARAnamo would show some pity. 情有南畝 可苦佐布倍思哉 kakusapu besi ya Should it really be hidden? OJ: mo OC: *tsâuʔ LH: tsauʔ EMC: tsâuʔ GO: sau KN: sau NOM: tảo SV: tảo SK: cwo Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ mo ‘seaweed, algae.’ This usage appears once in the Hitachi Fudoki: 藻島 MO SIMA ‘Mo Island,’ but it should be noted that this might actually be ME SIMA ‘Me Island,’ as 藻 has two readings, mo and me. This usage is quite popular in Man’yōshū, appearing 23 times, but most examples are 玉藻 TAMAMO ‘gem weed.’ A simple example is below. MYS 1036 SEKI NAKU PA If there were no barriers 關無者 KAPYERI ni DANI MO then I would return home 還尓谷藻 UTI YUKITE for just a while— 打行而 IMWO GA TAMAKURA wanting to sleep wrapped 妹之手枕 MAKITE NEMASI wo in the arms of my beloved. 巻手宿益乎

202

喪

哭

OJ: mo OC: *sâŋ LH: saŋ EMC: sâŋ GO: sau KN: sau NOM: tang, táng SV: tang, táng SK: sang Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ mo ‘mourning.’ This usage appears once in Kojiki: 喪山 MO YAMA ‘Mount Mo’ (KG). This usage also appears four times in Man’yōshū. MYS 450 YUKU sa nipa When we went 去左尓波 PUTA WA GA MIsi and the two of us saw 二吾見之 KONO SAKI wo this cape (of Minume)— 此埼乎 PITORI SUGUREBA how depressing 獨過者 KOKOROGANASI MO to pass by here alone. 情悲喪 The use of 喪 at the end of this poem deepens the visual feelings of grief the poet is expressing. OJ: mo OC: *khôk LH: khok EMC: khuk GO: koku KN: koku NOM: khóc SV: khốc SK: kwok Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ mo ‘mourning,’ based on 哭 ‘lament.’ This usage only appears three times in Man’yōshū. MYS 1603 KONO KORO NO Lately when you listen 頃者之 ASAKE ni KIKEBA at the break of dawn 朝開尓聞者 足日木箆 ASIPIKWI NO great bucks call for their mates YAMA YWOBI TOYOMYE making the mountains, 山呼令響 狭尾壮鹿鳴哭 SAWOSIKA NAKU MO which tire the legs, resound.

裙

OJ: mo OC: *ɡwən LH: ɡun EMC: ɡjwən GO: gun KN: kun NOM: quần SV: quần SK: kwun Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ mo ‘skirt.’ This usage only appears once in Nihon shoki, in the record of Kinmei: 越人江渟臣裙代 ‘Enu [NO] OMI MOSIRO, a man from KWOSI….’

木

OJ: moko, mo OC: *môk LH: mok EMC: muk GO: moku KN: boku NOM: mộc, mọc, mốc SV: mộc SK: mwok Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Silla Mwu-swyul-wo stele (578) in what appears to be a name: 伊叱木利 ʔI-tsit Mok-li. This graph is also used in Nihon shoki in the record of Jingū with a Paekche man named 木羅 斤資 Mok-la Konsi. In the 25th year of Ōjin we see a Paekche minister named 木滿致 Mok Manti, but it is clear that this is likely Mok-la Manti (木劦滿致)

203

according to Samguk sagi. In the reign of Keitai we see another Paekche man named 木刕不麻甲背 Mok-la Puma Kapu. This usage seems to live on in tiny vestiges in Man’yōshū. Consider the following poem where the final velar of 木 seems to echo in the next velarinitial graph. MYS 185 MINATUTAPU The azaleas among the boulders 水傳 ISWO no URAMWI no where the water snakes 礒乃浦廻乃 IPA TUTUzi around the rocks of the lake 石上乍自 are in full bloom by the path— 木丘開道乎 moku SAKU MITI wo MATA MO MIMU KAMO will I ever see these again? 又将見鴨

没

牟

OJ: moto OC: *mə̂t LH: muət EMC: mwət GO: moti KN: botu NOM: một SV: một SK: mwol Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Silla Namsan stele (ca. 591) in the following name: 阿良没奈 *a-ra-muət-na. It also appears in the fragment of a name on the Hamcwu Silla hunting stele (568): 喙部没兮次 *hyas-bu muət-gɛj-tshi. It is also interesting as this graph also appears in Nihon shoki, the native section of the record of Gread King (eighth year, first month), recording the name of several unknown islands. The one that concerns us is written as 没利嶋. The interlinear reading is motori. Shaku Nihongi says nothing, but the Heibon manuscript (ca. 1000) of Shiki preserves the reading of motorisima (Kuroita 1932:161). OJ: mu OC: *mu LH: mu EMC: mjəu GO: mu KN: bou NOM: mầu, màu,mào SV: mâu, mầu SK: mwo, mwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. This appears in the section of Ma-Han in Wei zhi, where polities named 牟水國 *Mu-tśuiʔ domain, 優休牟涿國 *U-xumu-tɔk domain, 咨離牟廬國 *Tsi-liɑi-mu-liɑ domain, and 牟廬卑離國 *Muliɑi -pie-liɑi domain appear. This phonogram was also used in the orthographies of all three kingdoms (Koguryŏ, Paekche, Silla). The Kwangkaytho stele preserves the names of fortress cities such as 牟水城 *Mu-tśuiʔ fortress, 牟盧城 *Mu-liɑ fortress, and 古牟婁城 *Kɔ-mu-lio fortress. Also, King Kwangkaytho’s ancestor, the founding king of Koguryŏ, was known by the name 鄒牟王 King *Tu-mu. This phonogram also appears in Paekche sources quoted in Nihon shoki: 牟 婁 Murwo, a territory in Mimana, 布那牟羅 (the fortress of) Punamura, 任那 久斯牟羅 Kusimura of Mimana, 伊斯枳牟羅城 Isikimura Fortress, 久禮牟羅 城 Kuremura Fortress, and 牟雌枳牟羅 (the fortress of) Musikimura. This phonogram appears 23 times in the liturgies: 北方佐渡与里乎知能所 乎奈牟多知疫鬼之住加登定賜比 KITA [NO] MO[ PA] sadwo yori woti no TOKORO wo namutati EKI [NO] ONI NO SUMIka to SADAMETAMApi “From the direction of the north, (the deities) have determined that the dwellings of you, the 204

demons of pestilence, will be the distant places from Sado Island northward…” (NT 16). This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan: 紀伊国牟婁郡牟婁 Ki Province Murwo District Murwo (village?)… (MK 435), 文伊美吉牟良自 PUMI Imiki Murazi (MKK 12:10). This phonogram is the primary graph used to transcribe mu in Kojiki: 訓生 云宇牟 “The native reading of the graph 生 ‘give birth’ is umu” (KG); 賜名号 意富加牟豆美命 ‘He was given the name Opokamutumi [NO] MIKOTO, 伊自牟 國 Izimu Province (KG). KK 87 岐美賀由岐 kimi ga yuki Many days have passed 氣那賀久那理奴 kenagaku narinu since you have left. 夜麻多豆能 yamatadu no And like the elderberry 牟加閇袁由加牟 mukape wo yukamu I will come to meet you, 麻都爾波麻多士 matu nipa matazi as I cannot wait anymore. This phonogram appears in Nihon shoki, twice in the annotational notes and ten times in the poetry: 齊、此云牟吾閉 “ ‘(the name) 齊’ is read mugwope” (NSG); 是犬咋山獸名牟士那而殺之 “This dog bit and killed a mountain beast called muzina” (NSG). NSK 43 智破揶臂等 tipaya pito Very powerful 于旎能和多利珥 udi no watari ni those catalpa trees 和多利涅珥 wataride ni standing by the bank 多氐屢 tateru of the ferry. 阿豆瑳由瀰摩由瀰 adusayumi mayumi To make a true catalpa bow, 伊枳羅牟苔 ikiramu to I thought in my heart, 虚々呂破望閉耐 kokoro pa mopedo to cut down a catalpa tree. 伊斗羅牟苔 itworamu to I thought in my heart 虚々呂破望閉耐 kokoro pa mopedo to hold one of those trees. 望苔幣破 motopye pa I thought of you 枳瀰烏於望臂涅 kimi wo omopide at the trunk of the tree. 須慧幣破 suwepye pa I remembered you 伊暮烏於望比涅 imo wo omopide when I looked up at the crown. 伊羅那鷄區 iranakyeku I felt such sorrow 曾虚珥於望比 soko ni omopi thinking of you there. 伽那志鷄區 kanasikyeku I felt such sadness 虚々珥於望臂 koko ni omopi thinking about you here. 伊枳羅儒層區屢 ikirazu so kuru I left without cutting down 阿豆瑳由瀰摩由瀰 adusayumi mayumi the tree for the catalpa bow. This phonogram is also one of the main graphs to transcribe mu in Man’yōshū, appearing 546 times: MYS 806 How I want to obtain 多都能馬母 tatu no MA mo 伊麻勿愛弖之可 ima mo ete sika even a dragon steed right now, 阿遠尓与志 awo ni yosi in order to return 奈良乃美夜古尓 nara no miyakwo ni to the Nara capital, 由吉帝己牟丹米. yukite komu tame which is good in its greenery. This phonogram appears in the Bussoku stele poetic sequence. 205

BSS 8 己乃美阿止乎 多豆祢毛止米弖 与伎比止乃 伊麻須久尓々波 和礼毛麻胃弖牟 毛呂毛呂乎爲弖

武

kono miato wo tatunemotomete yoki pito no imasu kuni nipa ware mo mawitemu moromoro wo wite

Seeking and searching this august footprint to the land where the righteous person resides; I would also venture there, leading the masses.

OJ: mu OC: *maʔ LH: muaʔ EMC: mjuʔ GO: mu KN: bu NOM: vũ, võ SV: vũ SK: mwu Usage / History: Dating this phonogram is somewhat problematic. The phonogram 武 ‘military prowess’ is quite popular as a semantogram, and thus may have been generally avoided as a phonogram. I tentatively place this phonogram in the PBS. It appears in an inscription found on the north wall of the Koryo Cin tomb: 武王 King Mu, but it is also possible this is simply an epithet: ‘military king.’ Also this phonogram appears in Paekche names quoted from Paekche sources by the compilers of Nihon shoki: 武寧王 King Munei of Paekche, 施徳馬武 Myemu of the eighth rank, and 物部莫奇武連 MONONOBYE Magamu MURAZI. This phonogram appears on a number of wooden tablets: □宿祢武恵麻呂 X Sukune Muwemaro (unnumbered tablet), 阿波国那賀郡武芸駅 Mugi Relay Station in Apa Province, Naga District (MKK 9:13). This phonogram is used in Kojiki, but only in two specific cases: 相武國 Sagamu Province (KG), and what appears to be a peninsular name, 金波鎭漢紀 武 Komu Patol Kankwi Mu (KG). This phonogram is also used by the compilers of Nihon shoki nine times in annotational notes and 34 times in song: 皇 産靈 、此 云美 武須 毘 “ ‘the imperial-producing-spirit’ is read mimusupi” (NSG). NSK 75 野麼等能 yamato no On the peaks 嗚武羅能陀該儞 womura no take ni of the mountains of Yamato, 之々符須登 sisi pusu to who shall venture forth 拕例柯 tare ka to stand before 擧能居登 kono koto the great one and tell him 飫裒磨陛儞麻嗚須 opomapye ni mawosu where the beast lays waiting? 飫裒枳瀰簸 opokimi pa The great lord 賊據嗚枳舸斯題 soko wo kikasite overhears these words, 柁磨々枳能 tamamaki no takes his jeweled 阿娯羅儞陀々伺 agura ni tatasi dais and sits upon it. 施都魔枳能 situmaki no He takes the dais 阿娯羅儞陀々伺 agura ni tatasi of cloth and sits upon it. 斯々磨都登 sisi matu to Waiting for the beast. 倭我伊麻西麼 wa ga imaseba As I sit here 佐謂麻都登 sawi matu to waiting for the boar, 倭我陀々西麼 wa ga tataseba as I rise to my feet,

206

陀倶符羅爾 takubura ni a horsefly lands 阿武柯枳都枳 amu kakituki on my arm and bites me. 曾能阿武嗚 sono amu wo a dragonfly appears 婀枳豆波野倶譬 akidu paya kupi and devours the horsefly. 波賦武志謀 papu musi mo Even the crawling insects 飫裒枳瀰儞麼都羅符 opokimi ni maturapu continue to serve their lord. 儺我柯陀播 na ga kata pa I shall leave a tribute 於柯武 okamu for you, 婀岐豆斯麻野麻登 akitusima yamato Akizushima Yamato. This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū roughly 289 times. MYS 810 伊可尓安良武 ika ni aramu When was it, PI no toki ni kamo what day was it? 日能等伎尓可母 許恵之良武 kowe siramu When I made my pillow 比等能比射乃倍 pito no piza no pe the lap of a person who 和我麻久良可武 wa ga makurakamu knew the sound of the zither.

模

無

OJ: mu OC: *mâ LH: ma EMC: muo GO: mo KN: bo NOM: mo, mu, mua SV: mô SK: mwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This graph is more commonly used to transcribe mo (which see), but in a number of cases it transcribes mu. Almost all of the Sino-Xenic data show that 模 should be mo, but Nom preserves a reading of mu, showing the presence of a back vowel. The only extant example of this graph for mu is in the toponym 相模 sagamu. This usage is found in Nara era documents, as well as Nihon shoki, Hitachi fudoki, and Man’yōshū. It is possible that the Nihon shoki example is the oldest, which appears but once, in the fortieth year of Keikō. By the late ninth century this area is called sagami < *sagamui. As I proposed in an earlier work (2008:367, n. 36), if this is actually an Ainu word, something like *san-kamui, there may have been two competing pronunciations for this place name: sagamu and sagamui. The choice of graphs here may be influenced by vowel raising: o > u, perhaps if the ui was represented rather sloppily with a graph ending in -o. OJ: mu OC: *ma LH: mua EMC: mju GO: mu KN: bu NOM: vô SV: vô SK: mwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram appears once in Kojiki in the place name 无 邪 志 Muzasi (KG). This phonogram is used quite extensively in Man’yōshū. MYS 4424 伊呂夫可久 irobukaku How I wish I had dyed 世奈我許呂母波 senaga koromo pa my beloved’s robes 曾米麻之乎 somemasi wo a darker color!

207

美佐可多婆良婆 麻佐夜可爾美無

无 務

霧

misaka tabaraba masa ya ka ni mimu

Then I would clearly see him as he is allowed through Misaka.

OJ: mu OC: *ma LH: mua EMC: mju GO: mu KN: bu NOM: vô SV: vô SK: mwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS; it is an abbreviated version of 無 (see above). It is this abbreviated version that later results in hiragana ん. OJ: mu OC: *moh LH: muoh EMC: muə GO: mu KN: bu NOM: vụ, mùa SV: vụ SK: mwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It is mainly used to transcribe the place name Mukwo: 務古. This usage appears once in Nihon shoki. This phonogram is also used in Shoki three times in annotational notes and 21 times in poetry: 田 身山名此云大務 ‘Mount TAMU, this name is read tamu’ (NSG). NSK 19 飫朋佐介珥 oposaka ni If people were to 菟藝廼煩例屢 tuginoboreru pass down hand to hand 伊辭務邏塢 isimura wo all the boulders that 多誤辭珥固佐縻 tagwosi ni kwosaba make up Mount Ōsaka, 固辭介氐務介茂 kwosikatemu kamo perhaps it could be moved. There is only one poem in Man’yōshū which uses this phonogram: MYS 3851 KOKORO wo si If I at least 心乎之 left my heart in 無何有乃郷爾 mugau no SATWO ni OKITE ARABA Mugau Village, 置而有者 藐姑射能山乎 MAkwoYA no YAMA wo then I would be closer MImaku tiKAkyemu for looking at Mount Makoya. 見末久知香谿務 OJ: mu OC: *moh LH: muoh EMC: mjuh GO: mu KN: bu NOM: vụ SV: vụ SK: mwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears twice in the poetry in Nihon shoki. NSK 27 烏波利珥 wopari ni Here stands a pine 多陀珥霧伽弊流 tada mukapyeru facing straight in 比苔菟麻菟阿波例 pitotu matu apare the direction of Owari; 比等菟麻菟 pitotu matu yes, a single pine. 比苔珥阿利勢麼 pito ni ariseba If this tree were a man, 岐農岐勢摩之塢 kinu kisemasi wo I would dress you in your garments. 多知波開摩之塢 tati pakemasi wo I would gird you with your sword. 208

夢

謀

鵡

OJ: mu OC: *məŋ LH: muŋ EMC: mjuŋ GO: mu, mumu KN: bou NOM: mòng, mồng SV: mông, mộng SK: mwong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only in Nihon shoki in three different poems. NSK 91 於彌能姑能 omi no kwo no The son of the Omi has 耶賦能之魔柯枳 yapu no sibagaki made a fine brushwood fence. 始陀騰余瀰 sitatoyomi But if the earth quakes 那爲我與釐據魔 nawi ga yorikiba that brushwood fence 耶黎夢之魔柯枳 yaremu sibagaki will likely fall to pieces. There are several manuscripts of Hokekyō ongi that gloss 夢 as mumu or mun, perhaps a holdover from when some speakers tried to process the velarnasal -ŋ as a nasal plus a vowel. OJ: mu OC: *mə LH: muə > mu EMC: mjəu GO: mu KN: bu NOM: mưu SV: mưu SK: mwo, mwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and while it is used specifically for OJ mo in Nihon shoki (which see), there is only one known case of it transcribing mu, found in Man’yōshū: MYS 509 NA NORI SO GA ‘Tell not your name’ seaweed— 莫告我 how could I come here without 奈騰可聞妹尓 nado kamo IMWO ni NORAZU KInikyemu telling my wife I was leaving? 不告来二計謀 OJ: mu OC: *maʔ LH: muaʔ EMC: mjuʔ GO: mu KN: bu NOM: vũ, vọ SV: vũ SK: mwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears once in Man’yōshū: MYS 1431 KUDARANWO no Has he called out yet, 百済野乃 PAGWI NO PURUYE ni the bush warbler perched 芽古枝爾 待春跡 PARU MATU TO on the barren branch of bush WORIsi UGUPISU clover on the moor of Kudara 居之鶯 NAKInikyemu KAMO who waits for spring? 鳴爾鶏鵡鴨 It is likely that this rare graph 鵡 has been selected to fill the trigraph coda of this poem (鶏 ‘chiken’ 鵡 ‘parrot’ 鴨 ‘wild duck’), which have specific calls, perhaps providing an acoutisc background for the beauty of the call of the 鶯 ‘bush warbler.’

209

儛

茂 六

身

OJ: mu OC: *maʔ LH: muɑʔ EMC: muə GO: mu KN: bu NOM: NA SV: vũ SK: mwu Usage / History: This extremely rare phonogram belongs to the LJS. I am not sure why this does not appear in Ōno, unless the manuscript of Man’yōshū he relied on has a corrupted variation, where some manuscripts show the following corruption: 儛 > 舞 > 無. As far as I can determine this phonogram was used as a phonogram only once in Man’yōshū. MYS 813 可武奈何良 kamunagara Oh how we should revere 可武佐備伊麻須 kamusabwi imasu these wonderous jewels 久志美多麻 kusi mitama that are divine, endowed 伊麻能遠都豆尓 ima no wotutu ni with a heavenly quality, 多布刀伎呂可儛 taputwokiro kamu and are even now before us. OJ: mu LH: muh EMC: məuh NOM: mậu SV: mậu Usage / History: See this phonogram under OJ mo.

OC: *muh GO: mu KN: bou SK: mwu

OJ: mu OC: *ruk LH: liuk EMC: ljuk GO: roku KN: riku NOM: lục SV: lục SK: lwuk Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ mu ‘six.’ There is one name in Nihon shoki, the reign of Keikō 六雁臣, but this is glossed as MUTU KARI OMI (NSG), though it may have been MUKARI. This usage also appears fairly frequently in Man’yōshū: MYS 4 TAMAKIPARU On the great moor of Uchi, 玉尅春 UTI no OPONWO ni the place of gemstone cutting, 内乃大野尓 UMA NAMETE the horses are likely lined up, 馬數而 ASA pumasuRAMU trampling the morning grass, 朝布麻須等六 SONO KUSABUKANWO that field of deep grass. 其草深野 OJ: mu OC: *lhin LH: śin EMC: śjen GO: simu KN: sin NOM: thân SV: thân SK: sin Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ word mu, the bound form of mwi (from *mui) ‘body.’ There is some debate about how this graph should be read in Nihon shoki. Ōno (1977:827) notes that there are five examples of 身 representing mwi, but I have only found one, which is listed above under mwi. There are many examples of this graph transcribing mu: 身狭 Musa (NSG), 身 毛津君 MUGETU KIMI (NSG), 田身輪邑 TAMUWA Village (NSG), 身刺 210

MUZASI (NSG), 土師連身 PAZI [NO] MURAZI MU (NSG), 於田身嶺…田身 山名、此云大務 ‘at TAMU Peak...TAMU is the name of a mountain. The name is read tamu’ (NSG), 能登臣馬身龍 Noto OMI MaMU TATU (NSG), 小竹田 史身 SINWODA [NO] PUBITO MU (NSG), 身毛君廣 MUGETU KIMI PIRO (NSG), 伊賀國伊賀郡身野 Iga Province Iga District MUNWO (NSG). OJ: mu OC: NA LH: NA EMC: NA GO: NA KN: NA NOM: NA SV: NA SK: NA Usage / History: This kungana is based on the Chinese phrase: 牛鳴 ‘ox cries,’ which calls to mind the sound an ox makes: moo. This appears once in Man’yōshū: MYS 2839 KAKUSITE YA Will it continue to protect us 如是爲哉 NAPO YA MAMORAMU as it has thus far? 猶八戍牛鳴 OPOARAKWI NO Though it is not 大荒木之 UKITA NO MORI NO the sacred rope of 浮田之社之 SIME ni ARANAKU ni the Ukita Shrine. 標爾不有爾

牛鳴

目

未

OJ: muku OC: *muk LH: muk EMC: mjuk GO: moku KN: boku NOM: mục SV: mục SK: mwok Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and this usage is very rare. It appears once in Man’yōshū: MYS 1087 Waves have formed 痛足河 ANASIGAPA KAPA NAMI TATInu on the river Anasigawa. 河浪立奴 It seems that clouds 巻目之 MAKIMUKU NO are rising above Yutsuki Peak 由槻我高仁 yuTUKWI ga TAKE ni KUMWOWI TATUrasi in Makimuku. 雲居立良志 OJ: mwi OC: *məs LH: mus EMC: mjweih GO: mi KN: bi NOM: mùi SV: mùi, vị SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This phonogram appears on numerous stele, mirror and other inscriptions, but in all these cases it is either used as one of the Earthly Branches in the Chinese calendar, sheep, or it is used grammatically as ‘not yet.’ This phonogram is preserved in Nihon shoki in the record of Sushun, recording the name of a Paekche individual: 寺工太良未太 temple architect Dara Mwida. This same name is preserved in Gankōji engi as 丈羅未大 Dara Mwida. This usage is interesting, because 丈 is Later Han ɖiaŋʔ, thus showing that d- here is appropriate. This phonogram also appears in Gankōji engi, transcribing the name 未沙乃 Mwisano. This phonogram also appears in the Chikuzen Census of 702 in the name 未 豆 賣 Mwitumye. This phonogram also appears on a number of 211

mokkan: 謹申木未呂阿何波知・木未呂和礼波知 ‘I humbly declare, MOKU Mwiro, my begging bowl, MOKU Mwiro, I am…’ (unnumbered tablet). Perhaps because of its grammatical nature, this graph is not used in Kojiki. It is used in two annotational notes and six times in poetry in Nihon shoki: 香菓此 云箇倶能未 “ ‘fruit with the everlasting fragrance’ is read kakunomwi” (NSG). NSK 37 彌知能之利 miti no siri I had heard about 古破儾塢等綿塢 kwopada wotomye wo the maiden from Kohada 伽未能語等 kamwi no goto in the land behind the road, 枳虚曳之介廼 kikoyesikado her reputation like thunder, 阿比摩區羅摩區 apimakura maku but here we lie together. This phonogram is the principal graph used in Man’yōshū, appearing 86 times in the work, the highest concentration found in Book 15. MYS 3669 多妣尓安礼杼 tabi ni aredo Though on a journey 欲流波火等毛之 yworu pa PWI tomosi here am I 乎流和礼乎 woru ware wo lighting a torch at night— 也未尓也伊毛我 yamwi ni ya imwo ga perhaps my beloved 古非都追安流良牟 kwopwitutu aruramu is yearning for me in the dark.

味

OJ: mwi OC: *məs LH: mus EMC: mjweih GO: mi KN: bi NOM: mùi, vị SV: vị SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in Paekche names like 那率 福富味身 Pukpu Mwisin of the sixth rank, 味摩之 Mwimasi, 内佐平岐味 Internal Administrator Kimwi. This phonogram appears several times on mokkan: 佐味 Samwi (MK 4722), 百斉体万呂 佐味梶取 KUDARA ?Maro and Navigator Samwi (MK 4567). This phonogram also appears in Kojiki, but only once in a song sung by Yamato Takeru. KK 23 夜都米佐須 yatume sasu The eight buds come out— 伊豆毛多祁流賀 idumwo takyeru ga the hilt of the Izumo 波祁流多知 pakyeru tati warrior’s sword 都豆良佐波麻岐 tudura sapa maki is indeed magnificient: 佐味那志爾阿波禮 samwi nasi ni apare sadly it has no blade. This phonogram is not used in the annotational notes or poetry in Nihon shoki, but it does appear in two surnames, 佐味君 Samwi KIMI and 佐味朝臣 Samwi ASOMI. This phonogram only appears five times in Man’yōshū. MYS 58 IDUKU ni ka Where have they moored 何所爾可 PUNAPATE SUramu by this time? 船泊爲良武 Have they rowed 安禮乃埼 are no SAKI KOGItamwi YUKIsi around the cape of Are, 榜多味行之 TANA NASI WOBUNE that little boat with no shelf? 棚無小舟 212

微

OJ: mwi OC: *məi LH: mui EMC: mjwei GO: mi KN: bi NOM: vi SV: vi SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in the Kojiki, and this is the main graph used to transcribe mwi in the poetry: KK 94 久佐加延能 kusakaye no The inlet of Kusaka, 伊理延能波知須 iriye no patisu the lotus of the inlet— 波那婆知須 panabatisu the blossoms of the lotus 微能佐加理毘登 mwi no sakaribito how envious I am 登母志岐呂加母 tomosikiro kamo of the youth who are in bloom. In Nihon shoki this phonogram appears twice in the annotational notes and four times in song: 岐神、此云布那斗能加微 “ ‘deity of the fork in the road’ is read punatwo no kamwi” (NSG). NSK 112 禹都麻佐波 utumasa pa Utsumasa Kahakatsu 柯微騰母柯微騰 kamwi tomo kamwi to will punish and chastise 枳擧曳倶屢 kikoyekuru the deity of the eternal land 騰與預能柯微乎 tokoyo no kamwi wo who we have heard is 宇智岐多麻須母 utikitanasu mo the supreme deity among all deities. This is also the only phonogram used in the Bussokuseki poetic sequence for mwi: BSS 18 比止乃微波 pito no mwi pa As for the body of man, 衣賀多久阿礼婆 egataku areba since it is difficult to re-obtain 乃利乃多能 nori no ta no for the dharma 与須加止奈礼利 yosuka to nareri it has become a refuge— 都止米毛呂毛呂 tutome moromoro be diligent all of you! 須々賣毛呂母呂 susumye moromoro Press forward all of you!

尾

OJ: mwi OC: *məiʔ LH: muiʔ EMC: mjweiʔ GO: mi KN: bi NOM: vĩ, vã, vải SV: vĩ SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in a name on a Buddhist inscription at Sairinji Temple, which is dated 658: 汙麻尾古 Umamwikwo. It also appears in Man’yōshū: MYS 804 等伎能佐迦利乎 toki no sakari wo Unable to hang on to 等々尾迦禰 todomwikane the best of those times 周具斯野利都礼 sugusiyariture time has marched on. 美奈乃和多 mina no wata Upon this black hair, 迦具漏伎可美尓 kagurwoki kami ni black as the guts of the snail, 伊都乃麻可 itu no ma ka frost has lighted 斯毛乃布利家武 simwo no purikyemu without my knowing it. 213

身

實 箕 密

OJ: mwi OC: *lhin LH: śin EMC: śjen GO: simu KN: sin NOM: thân SV: thân SK: sin Usage / History: This kungana conjures up OJ mwi ‘body.’ This usage is quite old, and appears in the earliest extant census. The oldest datable example appears in the Mino Census of 702 in names such as 身麻呂 MWImaro, 身賣 MWImye, and 石身賣 IPAMWImye or ISIMWImye. It also appears the Takada stone monument, dated 726, where the name 身麿 MWImaro appears. This usage appears in Nihon shoki, in the name of 根連金身 NE MURAZI KANEMWI (NSG), but this is the only example I can find where 身 transcribes mwi. There are many examples where it transcribes mu, which see. This kungana appears in Man’yōshū three times: MYS 2207 WA GA YADWO NO The miscanthus at the gate of 吾屋戸之 ASADI IRODUKU my house is in full color. 浅芧色付 On the field of Natsumi in 吉魚張之 YONABARI NO 夏身之上爾 NATUMWI NO UPE ni Yonabari it seems that an early autumn drizzle is falling. 四具禮零疑 sigure PURURASI OJ: mwi OC: *m-lit LH: źit EMC: dźjet GO: ziti KN: situ NOM: thật, thiệt SV: thực SK: sil Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ my ‘fruit.’ This usage appears in the Chikuzen Census of 702: 歳實 TOSIMWI, 木實 KWIMWI. This graph is also used in Man’yōshū for the place name Natsumi, 夏實 NATUMWI (MYS 375). OJ: mwi OC: *kə LH: kɨə > kɨ EMC: kjɨ GO: ki KN: ki NOM: kia, kìa SV: ki SK: kuy Usage / History: This kungana is based on the association of OJ mwi ‘winnowing basket.’ This usage appears in Man’yōshū to transcribe Natsumi 夏箕 NATUMWI (MYS 1737) or 浦箕 URAMWI ‘(sailing) around the bay’ (MYS 509, 1671, 2735). OJ: mwi(tu) OC: *mrit LH: mɨt EMC: mjet GO: miti KN: bitu NOM: mật SV: mật SK: mil Usage / History: This extremely rare usage appears in Hitachi fudoki in the toponym 密筑里 Mwituki Village. This phonogram was likely selected for its dental final: mwit + tuki. There are examples of this preserved on wooden tablets that have been excavated, where parts of Buddhist sutras were written down, containing the word 波羅密陀 (MKK 2:49) or 波羅密多 (MKK 22:163) paramwita, a 214

transcription of pārāmita, or the six virtues one strives to attain on one’s way to enlightenment.

模

謨

毛

OJ: mwo OC: *mâ LH: ma > mɔ EMC: muo GO: mo KN: bo NOM: mo, mô, mu SV: mô SK: mwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears once in Wei zhi, transcribing the title 多模 *ta-mɔ; it also appears in a personal name of a king of Koguryŏ as recorded in Wei zhi: 伊夷模 *i-i-mɔ. This graph also appears in several inscriptions from the peninsula. On the Kwangkaytho stele: 臼模盧城 *ɡu-mɔlɔ fortress, 若模盧城 *niak-mɔ-lɔ fortress, 古模耶羅城 *kɔ-mɔ-ya-ra fortress. This phonogram appears later in Nihon shoki, but appears only twice, in the same poem: NSK 114 模騰渠等爾 motogoto ni Though blossoms are blooming 婆那播左該騰模 pana pa sakyedomo at the trunk of every tree, 那爾騰柯母 nani to kamo why is it that my lovely 于都倶之伊母我 utukusi imo ga beloved has not come 磨陀左枳涅渠農 mata sakidekonu and bloomed again? OJ: mwo OC: *mâʔ LH: ma > mɔ EMC: muo GO: mo KN: bo NOM: mo, mô SV: mô SK: mwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, appearing in one title in Wei zhi: 泄謨 觚 *satu-mɔ-kɔ. This phonogram makes another appearance in Nihon shoki, once in annotational note, and eight times in song in the latter end of Nihon shoki: 伐本截末、此云謨登岐利須衞於茲波羅比 “ ‘cut the base and clear away the upper branches’ is read moto kiri suwe osiparapi”(NSG). NSK 116 伊磨紀那屢 imakwi naru Above the knoll 乎武例我禹杯爾 womure ga upe ni that is Imaki— 倶謨娜尼母 kumo dani mo if even a cloud 旨屢倶之多々婆 sirukusi tataba would clearly rise up 那爾柯那皚柯武 nani ka nagekamu then I would not lament. OJ: mwo OC: *mâu LH: mau EMC: mâu GO: mou KN: bou NOM: mao, mau SV: mao SK: mwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in Paekche material quoted in Nihon shoki, in names such as 毛麻利叱智 Mwomari Siti, 眞毛津 Sin-mwosin, and 高麗侍醫毛治 a personal doctor from Kwoma called Moudi. This phonogram appears seven times in the liturgies, three times for the particle mo, and four times for mwopa ‘seaweed’: 山野能物波甘菜辛菜、青海原能物波波 多能広物波多能狭物奥都毛波邊津毛波爾至麻弖 YAMANWO no MONO pa 215

AMANA KARANA, AWOMI [NO] PARA no MONO pa pata no PIROMONO SAMONO, OKItu mwopa pyeTU mwopa ni ITARU made “Including things

pata no down to sweet herbs and bitter herbs from the mountain moors, things with wide fins and narrow fins from the ocean plains, and seaweed from the offing and close to the shore” (NT 5). This phonogram appears a few times on various mokkan: 毛豆久 mwoduku ‘a type of seaweed’ (MK 1261), 毛美良女 MwomiraMYE (MK 2340), 伊毛売 Imwomye (MK 798), 召志良木人毛利今急 ‘Summon Mwori, a man from SiraKWI. Hurry now…’ (MK 3586). This is the principal phonogram used in Kojiki to transcribe mwo: KK 41 知婆能 tiba no Filled with leaves, 加豆怒袁美禮婆 kadunwo wo mireba when I look at Kazuno 毛毛知陀流 mwomwo tidaru I can also see countless 夜迩波母美由 yanipa mo miyu houses and yards. 久爾能富母美由 kuni no po mo miyu I also see the heights of the land. This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, four times in annotational notes and 28 times in the poetry: 亦煮蝦蟆爲上味。名曰毛瀰 “They also boiled frogs for their delicacy. These are called mwomi” (NSG); 汝妹、此云儺迩毛 “ ‘my beloved’ is read nanimwo”(NSG). NSK 11 愛瀰詩烏 emisi wo The barbarian 毘儾利 pidari having been insulted— 毛々那比苔 mwomwo napi to though people say 比苔破易陪廼毛 pito pa ipedomo they have seen a 100 battles 多牟伽毘毛勢儒 tamukapi mo sezu these do not even resist. This phonogram is also very prevalent in Man’yōshū, but by the period of this anthology, the orthographic rules which kept 毛 mwo separate from 母 mo had been confused, aside from that found in Books 5 and 15. If we count the overall usage in the anthology, 毛 appears 1751 times, while 母 appears 1061 times. If the focus is limited to Book 5, we find 母 115 times, with 毛 only 49 (cf. Bentley 2002). A good example of the confusion of mo versus mwo appears in the very first poem in the anthology. MYS 1 KWO mo yo Ah, a basket, 籠毛與 carrying a fine basket— 美籠母乳 mi KWO moTI 布久思毛與 pukusi mo yo ah, a scoop, carrying a fine scoop— 美夫君志持 mibukusi MOTI KONO WOKA ni maiden picking herbs 此岳尓 NA TUMAsu KWO on this hillock, 菜採須兒 IPYE NORAna tell me of your home. 家吉奈 名告紗根 NA NORAsaNE Tell me your name. SWORA MITU The land of Yamato 虚見津 YAMATO no KUNI PA which fills the firmament, 山跡乃國者 OSInaBETE every nook and cranny 押奈戸手 WARE koso WORE I alone rule over! 吾許曾居

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師吉名倍手 sikiNAbeTE The entire realm WARE koso IMASE I alone govern! 吾己曾座 WA koSO BA Then it shall be I 我許背齒 NORAME who will tell you 告目 IPYE wo mo NA WO mo of my home and also my name. 家呼毛名雄母 This phonogram is used in the Bussoku stele sequence, along with 母. BSS 8 己乃美阿止乎 kono miato wo Seeking and searching 多豆祢毛止米弖 tatunemotomete this august footprint 与伎比止乃 yoki pito no to the land where 伊麻須久尓々波 imasu kuni nipa the righteous person resides; 和礼毛麻胃弖牟 ware mo mawitemu I would also venture there, 毛呂毛呂乎爲弖 moromoro wo wite leading the masses. The cursive form of this phonogram becomes hiragana も , while a simplified writing of 毛 results in katakana モ.

賣

OJ: mye OC: *mrêh LH: mɛh EMC: maɨh GO: mai KN: bai NOM: mại SV: mại SK: may Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Kwangkaytho stele, in the place name 農賣城 *noŋ-mɛh Fortress and in the ethnonym 賣勾余民国 the people of *mɛh-ko-yo. This graph also appears in a vestige of Prince Shōtoku’s genealogy, with the name 伊斯賣支彌 Isimye Kimi. The earliest datable example appears on the Yamana Village stele (dated 681), where the name 黒賣刀自 KURWOmye Twozi appears. This phonogram appears in the liturgies seven times: 御 膳 持 須 留 若 宇 加 能 賣 能 命 登 御 名 者 白 弖 OPOMIKEMOTI suru WAKAukanomye no MIKOTO to MINA PA MAWAOSIte “We announce the name of Waka Ukame no Mikoto who has charge over the imperial food…” (NT 3). This phonogram appears a number of times on mokkan: 乎波売 Wopamye (MK 3291), 久 努 売 斐 Kunumyepwi (MK 3345), □ 尓 久 売 Xnikumye (MK 2134). This is the principal phonogram used to transcribe mye in Kojiki, in words such as 袁登賣 wotomye ‘maiden,’ 愛上比賣 Epimye ‘land of Ehime,’ and 比 賣 pimye ‘princess.’ It is also used exclusively in the poetry. KK 33 袁登賣能 wotomye no The great blade 登許能辨爾 toko no bye ni of the sword 和賀淤岐斯 wa ga okisi I left by the bed 都流岐能多知 turugi no tati of the maiden— 曾能多知波夜 sono tati pa ya Ah! That sword. This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki in names such as 比賣語曾社 神 ‘Pimyegoso Shrine’ (NSG), 彌賣嶋 ‘Mimye Island’ (NSG), and 越道君伊 羅都賣 ‘Iratumye, the daughter of KWOSI [NO] KIMI’ (NSG). It also appears in two annotation notes, and in three times in song: 醜女、此云志許賣 “ ‘ugly women’ is read sikomye” (NSG).

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NSK 18 瀰磨紀 mimakwi Woe is Mimaki 異利寐胡播揶 iribikwo paya Iribiko! 飫廼餓烏塢 ono ga wo wo Occupying himself 志齊務苔 sisemu to with a princess, 農殊末句志羅珥 nusumaku sirani unaware that someone is 比賣那素寐殊望 pimye na swobi su mo waiting to take his life. This is also one of the principal phonograms used to transcribe mye in Man’yōshū, appearing roughly 68 times. MYS 77 WA GA OPOKIMI My great lord, 吾大王 MONO NA OMOPOSI do not worry about things. 物莫御念 The imperial deities are near, 須賣神乃 sumye KAMWI no SWOPETE TAMAPYEru and it is not true that 嗣而賜流 WA GA NAKE NAku ni I have disappeared. 吾莫勿久尓 This is also the main graph used in the Bussoku stele sequence poems: BSS 6 麻須良乎乃 masurawo no As we gaze at the trodden 須々美佐岐多知 susumi sakitati footprints of the captain 布賣留阿止乎 pumyeru ato wo who had gone on ahead 美都々志乃波牟 mitutu sinopamu we will yearn for him; 多太尓阿布麻弖尓 tada ni apu made ni until we meet him directly; 麻佐尓阿布麻弖尓 masa ni apu made ni until we truly meet him.

咩

OJ: mye OC: NA LH: NA EMC: miə GO: miya, mii, mei KN: NA NOM: me SV: NA SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This is a rare graph, and semantically represents the sound of sheep bleating. The glosses of this phonogram in the various manuscripts of Hokekyō ongi are varied. Here I list all glosses of this phonogram from the various manuscripts (Ogura 1995.2:1170–1183): mei, mi, kamu, miyau, mii, yau, fiya. A few, like kamu and yau, are obvious mistakes or attempts to gloss an unfamiliar phonogram that had been corrupted, as some manuscripts have 咩 as 哶. For the time being, the three most common readings are miya, mii, and mei, which are possible Go-on readings. The earliest datable instance of this graph is from the Chikuzen Census of 702: 咩豆賣 Myetumye. This phonogram also appears once in Kojiki, in 當摩 之咩斐 Tagima NO Myepwi. This phonogram appears three times in the liturgies, each to write 比咩 pimye ‘princess, female deity’ (NT 10). This graph also appears in four annotational notes and in two songs in Nihon shoki: 少女、此云烏等咩 “ ‘Maiden’ is read wotomye” (NSG). NSK 35 瀰菟遇利能 mituguri no But hidden within 那伽菟曳能 nakatuye no the middle branches

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府保語茂利 pupwogomori 阿伽例蘆塢等咩 akareru wotomye 伊奘佐伽麼曳那 iza sakabaye na There are only six examples of this concentrated in Book 5: MYS 882 阿我農斯能 aganusi no 美多麻多麻比弖 mitama tamapite 波流佐良婆 paru saraba 奈良能美夜故尓 nara no miyakwo ni 咩佐宜多麻波祢 myesagye tamapane

馬

面

we spy a maiden who is red, like the blossom. Come! Bloom and shine for us. phonogram in Man’yōshū, all If I receive the spiritual power of my Lord, then when spring comes please summon me back to the capital in Nara.

OJ: mye OC: *mrâʔ LH: maʔ EMC: maʔ GO: me KN: ba NOM: mã SV: mã SK: ma Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. I placed 馬 ma in the WS because of its use in representing many toponyms in Wa / Yamato. This reading mye is attested mainly in Man’yōshū, but some manuscripts of Shoki gloss 馬 as it appears in Paekche materials quoted as me. Consider the following examples as preserved in Nihon shoki, but with glosses taken from Shiki as recorded in Shaku Nihongi. In the 10th month of Kinmei there is an individual from Paekche called 馬次文, and glossed ma-si-mon. In an entry in the following year, this individual is called 馬進文, glossed ma-sin-mon. Also in the 11th year of Kinmei another Paekche individual is mentioned, called 馬武, glossed ma-mu. In 15th year of Kinmei, another man of Paekche is mentioned, 馬丁安, glossed ma-tiyau-an. It is not improbable that these may have actually been me, but for the time being I focus only on Man’yōshū regarding 馬 used to transcribe mye. MYS 3236 IPATA NO MORI NO To the imperial deities 石田之社之 at the Iwata Shrine 須馬神尓 sumye KAMWI ni I hold to offer paper offerings— 奴左取向而 nusa TORIMUKYETE WARE PA KWOYEYUKU I am on my way over, 吾者越徃 over Mount Ausaka. 相坂山遠 APUSAKA YAMA wo OJ: mye OC: *mens LH: mianh EMC: mjiän GO: memu KN: ben NOM: diện SV: diện, riện SK: myen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears twice Man’yōshū. MYS 873 余呂豆余尓 yoroduyo ni Let us pass down this tradition 可多利都夏等之 kataritugye to si to the myriad generations— 許能多氣仁 kono take ni it seems she waved 比例布利家良之 pire purikyerasi her scarf on this peak, 麻通羅佐用嬪面 matura saywo pimye Princess Sayo of Matsura.

219

It is possible that this graph is being used both for its phonological as well as its semantic value, along with 嬪 ‘wife’; thus wife and 面 ‘countenance.’

迷 謎

綿

明

OJ: mye OC: *mî LH: mei EMC: miei GO: mei KN: bei NOM: mê SV: mê SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in two annotational notes in Nihon shoki: 罔象 女 、此 云 瀰 菟 破廼 迷 “ ‘sacred water women’ is read mitupanomye” (NSG); 稻魂女、此云于伽能迷 “ ‘food and drink woman’ is read ukanomye” (NSG). OJ: mye OC: *mîh LH: meih EMC: mieih GO: mai, mei KN: bei NOM: mê SV: mê SK: mi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in three annotational notes and 10 different poems in Nihon shoki: 言哭女、此云儺倶謎 “The individual called 哭女 is to be read nakumye” (NSG). NSK 64 於朋佐箇珥 oposaka ni I met a young maiden 阿布夜烏等謎烏 apu ya wotomye wo on my way to Ōsaka. 瀰知度沛麼 miti twopeba I asked the way— 哆駄珥破能邏孺 tada nipa norazu she did not say go straight, 哆𡺸摩知烏能流 tagimati wo noru but to take the Tagima Road. OJ: mye LH: mian EMC: mjiän NOM: mên, men, min SV: miên Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and shoki. NSK 38 彌知能之利 miti no siri 古波儾塢等綿 kwopada wotomye 阿羅素破儒 araswopazu 泥辭區塢之敘 nesiku wosi zo 于蘆波辭彌茂布 urupasimi mopu

OC: NA GO: men KN: ben SK: myen appears in three poems in Nihon This maiden from Kohada behind the road is wonderful, for she has lain with me offering no resistance.

OJ: mye OC: *mraŋ LH: mɨaŋ EMC: mjɐŋ LMC: miajŋ GO: miyau KN: mei NOM: minh, miêng SV: minh SK: myeng Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in a phonetic rendering of 天 皇 in Ryō no shūge: 須明楽美御徳 sumyera mikoto. As Ōno (1962:479) points out, this transcription was done more for visual effect than an attempt at a perfect

220

one-to-one match, as these graphs could be read sumeiraku migotoko. As is these graphs roughly mean ‘moustache-bright-music-beautiful-august-virtue.’

女 婦

OJ: mye OC: *nraʔ LH: ṇiaʔ EMC: ṇjwoʔ GO: nyo KN: dyo NOM: nữ, nớ, nợ, nữa SV: nhữ, nữ, nứ SK: nye Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ mye ‘woman.’ I have found four examples of this kungana in Man’yōshū: 三犬女乃浦能 MINUMYE no URA no ‘(in the offing) of the bay of Minume’ (MYS 946, 1065), 見宿女乃浦者 MINUMYE no URA PA ‘the bay of Minume’ (MYS 1066), and 戀乃余杼女留 KWOPWI no yodoMYEru ‘(your) yearning is dormant’ (MYS 2721). OJ: mye OC: *bəʔ LH: buʔ EMC: bjəuʔ GO: bu KN: fuu NOM: phụ, vợ SV: phụ SK: pwu Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ mye ‘women, wife.’ Jidai betsu kokugo daijiten (1967:901) claims this usage appears in Man’yōshū, but I have not found any examples. It is possible that there is some graphic confusion between 女 and 婦, though this seems unlikely. A possible example from excavated wooden tablets appears on a mokkan dated 767: 越中国婦負郡川合郷 KWOSI-[NO]NAKA Province (Etchū), MYEPI District, Kapapi Village (MK 31).

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N 奴

那

OJ: na OC: *nâ LH: nɑ EMC: nuo GO: nu KN: do NOM: nô, no, nó SV: nô SK: nwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, where it appears as early as 57 CE, transcribing the domain name Na 奴国. This reading of na appears to have been preserved in the PBS, perhaps because of a conservative stratum of Chinese on the peninsula. This evidence comes from Nihon shoki, with glosses that have consistently transcribed 奴 in Paekche names as na. The following names in Nihon shoki preserve the reading of na: 沙々奴跪 Sasanakwo (NSG), 阿禮奴 跪 Arenakwo (NSG), and 津守連己麻奴跪 TUMORI MURAZI Komanakwo (NSG)—all three from Paekche or born of Paekche parents in Japan. By around 400 CE the vowel of this graph had rounded to [no] (cf. Coblin 1994:150). In Japan nwo later underwent vowel raising to nu (see OJ: nwo and OJ: nu). OJ: na OC: *nâi LH: nɑi > nɑ EMC: nâ GO: na KN: da NOM: na, ná, nả, nà SV: na, ná, nả SK: na Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in the title of an official: 彌 彌那利 *me-me-na-ri. This phonogram also appears on the Kwangkaytho stele: 那旦城 *na-tan fortress, and 散那城 *san-na fortress. This phonogram also appears in Silla inscriptions. From the Tanyang inscription there is the place name 那利村 Nari Village. Also on the Naengsuri inscription there is the apparent personal name 那斯利 *na-se-ri, and the place name 蘇那支 *sɔ-na-ke. This graph also appears in the Suiko corpus, in the following genealogy preserved in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu: 名伊志支那郎女 “Named Princess Isikina IRATUMYE.” 怒那久良布刀多麻斯支天皇 “Great King Nunakura Putwo Tamasiki.” Ōno (1977:24) notes that in the Suiko era corpus 奈 is much more prevalent as a phonogram than 那. This is perhaps because 那 ‘which, what, that’ was semantically loaded, making it more difficult to use as a phonogram than 奈 ‘apple-pear.’ In spite of this difficulty, 那 was still used very productively in Japan. It appears three times in the liturgies: 狭久那多利爾下賜水乎 SAkunatari ni SITASITAMAPU MIDU wo “…the water that issues forth (from the mountains) with great energy…” (NT 3). This phonogram appears on a variety of mokkan: 那貴 首毛人 Nakwi OBITO KEPITO (MK 27), 伊豆国那可郡和志郷 Idu Province Naga District Wasi Village (MK 3197). Also, notice that in Kojiki 那 is used a total of 248 times, while 奈 is never used (奈 is reserved for the question 奈何 ‘how, why?’). A few examples illustrate this usage: 登美能那賀須泥毘古 Tomi no Nagasunebikwo ‘Nagasune 222

Hiko of Tomi’ (KG), 古那美 kwonami ‘main wife,’ 宇波那理賀 upanari ‘second wife’ (KG). KK 85 意富岐美袁 opokimi wo If you banish me, 斯麻爾波夫良婆 sima ni paburaba your great lord, to an island, 布那阿麻理 puna amari then I will definitely return 伊賀幣理許牟敍 igapyerikomu zo like a vast floating armada. 和賀多多彌由米 wa ga tatami yume Be vigiliant regarding 許登袁許曾 koto wo koso my reed mats. When I mention 多多美登伊波米 tatami to ipame my reed mats I really mean: 和賀都麻波由米 wa ga tuma pa yume be vigiliant with my spouse. The phonogram 那 appears 18 times in the annotational notes and 70 times in the poetry in Nihon shoki: 沫蕩、此云阿和那伎 “ ‘Foam settles,’ this is read awanagi” (NSG), 岐神、此云布那斗能加微 “ ‘Deity of the forked road,’ this is read punatwo no kamwi” (NSG), 毀、此云波那豆 “ ‘break down,’ this is read panatu” (NSG). NSK 104 斯那提流 sinateru Starving for want of food 箇多烏箇夜摩爾 katawokayama ni on Mount Kataoka, 伊比爾惠弖 ipi ni wete the shining hill, 許夜勢屢 koyaseru how pitiful is that farmer 諸能多比等阿波禮 sono tapito apare who has fallen. 於夜那斯爾 oya nasi ni Surely you were not 那禮奈理雞迷夜 narenarikyeme ya raised without parents. 佐須陀氣能 sasu take no Do you have no lord, 枳彌波夜那祇 kimi paya naki strong like bamboo? 伊比爾惠弖 ipi ni wete Starving for want of food 許夜勢留 koyaseru how pitiful is that farmer 諸能多比等阿波禮 sono tapito apare who has fallen. In Man’yōshū 那 is not as prevalent as 奈, but it is still the second most popular phonogram for na, appearing 49 times. MYS 3781 多婢尓之弖 tabi ni site Cuckoo, 毛能毛布等吉尓 mono mopu toki ni do not cry out recklessly 保等登藝須 pototogisu when I am on a journey 毛等奈那難吉曽 motona na naki so and thinking about things. 安我古非麻左流 a ga kwopwi masaru It only increases my longing. Here is an example of three different phonograms in a row, each representing na: 奈那難. Interesting that the poet wanted to avoid repeating the same graph.

難

OJ: na, nani OC: *nân < *nar? LH: nɑn EMC: nân GO: namu KN: dan NOM: nan, nạn, nàn SV: nan, nạn SK: nan Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in Wei zhi in the personal name 難升米 *na-nə-səgu-mei which I interpret to mean ‘Sogume of Na.’ Thus this phonogram was used to transcribe two syllables. This graph also appears on 223

the Kansu inscription of Silla from 568 CE: 与難大舎 Yɑ-nɑn of the 12th rank. The same name also appears, with the same spelling, on the Wenli Silla inscription from 568 CE. This phonogram also appears in the Japanese corpus, but only to write 難波 Nanipa. One mokkan from an excavation site in the ancient Nara capital contains the following place name: 多土評難田 Tazi District, Nanida (MKK 26:22). The usage of ‘district’ written 評 suggests this usage pre-dates the Taihō Code of 701. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, primarily to represent Nanipa 難波, but there is one example where it represents na: MYS 3781 多婢尓之弖 tabi ni site Cuckoo, 毛能毛布等吉尓 mono mopu toki ni do not cry out recklessly 保等登藝須 pototogisu when I am on a journey 毛等奈那難吉曽 motona na naki so and thinking about things. 安我古非麻左流 a ga kwopwi masaru It only increases my longing.

乃

奈

OJ: na OC: *nə̂ʔ LH: nəʔ EMC: nậiʔ GO: nai KN: dai NOM: nảy SV: nãi SK: nay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the first stele of the Silla Namsan stelae group: 沙喙音乃古. There are two possible readings for this name: If 音 is an abbreviation for 部 then this may be *na-kɔ of the Sa-tśhuas District of the Capital. If 部 has been left off, and 音 is a phonogram, then this may be *ʔɨm-na-kɔ of the Sa-tśhuas (District) of the Capital. This final reading is tempting, because the name almost sounds like a Japanese form of ‘son of Imna (Mimana).’ This phonogram also appears in a fragment on the Silla Cheng-tyey stele: □失利乃利 ‘(the name) *X-śit-ri-na-ri.’ This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, but in an interesting form that strongly suggests peninsular origins. Consider the usage of 乃 appears in the following stanaza: 乃楽能婆娑摩儞 nara(k) no pasama ni ‘In the valley of Mount Nara….’ (NSK 95). In the 37th year of Nintoku the name of this mountain is written 乃羅山, Nara YAMA. I believe that the usage evolved as narak > narah > nara. While some may argue that there are other examples where -k final graphs are used phonetically for the first syllable, the use of 乃 to represent na leads me to believe this to be a peninsular (Paekche?) usage that was carried over into Japan. This usage also appears on the Daianji Temple stele of 775, with the name 乃楽之京 ‘capital of Nara(k).’ OJ: na OC: *nâs LH: nɑs > nɑi EMC: nâih GO: nai KN: dai NOM: nài, nại, nạy SV: nại, nai SK: nay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. The place name 奈祇城 *nagi fortress appears on the Sataykcicek inscription of Paekche. This graph also appears in 224

Silla inscriptions, such as 奈弗耽郝失利 *na-put-təm-xak-sit-ri on the Tanyang inscription, and 壱夫 智奈 麻 *it-pu-te of the 11th rank (nama) from the Naengsuri inscription. This phonogram also appears in the Suiko era corpus. In Jōgū Shōtoku hōō we have names such as: 蘇我伊奈米宿禰 Swoga Iname Sukune, 位奈部橘王 Prince WinaBYE TATIBANA, and 多至波奈等已比乃弥己等 Tatibana Toyopi no mikoto. A mokkan excavated from the ruins of the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710) contains what appears to be a variant of a famous poem found in the Kana preface to the Kokinshū (MK 1613): 奈尓皮ツ尓 nanipatu ni At the ferry of Naniwa 佐久矢己乃皮奈 saku YA ko no pana how these blossoms bloom— 布由己母利 puyu gomori awakening from winter, 伊真皮々留部止 iMA pa paruPYE to now they say it is almost spring: 佐久矢□□皮奈 saku YA (ko no?) pana these blossoms in bloom. This phonogram appears six times in annotational notes, and 21 times in poetry in Nihon shoki song: 訛、此云興許奈磨盧 “ ‘to corrupt (langage)’ is read yokonamaru” (NSG). NSK 2 阿妹奈屢夜 ame naru ya In the heavens 乙登多奈婆多廼 oto tanabata no the jewels strung upon 汗奈餓勢屢 unagaseru the string hung around 多磨廼彌素磨屢廼 tama no misumaru no the neck of the Weaver Maiden 阿奈陀磨波夜 anadama pa ya are very beautiful— This is the primary phonogram in Man’yōshū to represent na, used roughly 1542 times (or nearly 30 times as often as 那). MYS 3 八隅知之 YASUMISIsi In the morning when WA GA OPOKIMI no my great lord of the heavenly 我大王乃 ASITA NIPA eighty [rays of] sunshine 朝庭 TORINADE TAMAPI takes in his hand and strokes 取撫賜 YUPUPE NIPA the catalpa bow, 夕庭 and in the evening stands 伊縁立之 iYORI TATASIsi MITORASI no with the bow by his side— 御執乃 ADUZA YUMI NO I can heard the sound 梓弓之 made by the middle 奈加弭乃 naka PAZU no OTO SU nari of the arrow notch. 音為奈利 ASAGARI ni It seems that he now will 朝猟尓 IMA TATAsurasi head out for the morning hunt. 今立須良思 YUPUGARI ni It seems that he now will 暮猟尓 IMA taTAsurasi head out for the evening hunt. 今他田渚良之 MITORASI no That weapon of his— 御執能 ADUZA YUMI NO I can hear the sound 梓弓之 made by the middle 奈加弭乃 naka PAZU no OTO SU nari of the arrow notch. 音為奈里 This phonogram is also used in the poetry of the Footprints of the Buddha sequence. 225

BSS 4 己乃美阿止 kono miato This divine footprint, 夜与呂豆比賀利乎 yayorodu pikari wo may it emit 波奈知伊太志 panati idasi 80,000 lights and 毛呂毛呂須久比 moromoro sukupi save the masses 和多志多麻波奈 watasitamapa na by ferrying them across. 須久比多麻波奈 sukupitamapa na May it save everyone. This phonogram also appears in a poem preserved in the Atsuta daijingū engi. 奈留美良乎 narumira wo How far it is 美也禮波止保志 miyareba toposi looking out over Narumi. 比多加知爾 pitakadi ni With this pure oar 己乃由不志保爾 kono yupu sipo ni I will cross repeatedly 和多良部牟加毛 wataraPYEmu kamo over this evening tide. The cursive form of this phonogram yields hiragana な, while taking the first two strokes from this phonogram produces katakana ナ.

儺

娜

OJ: na OC: *nâi LH: nɑi EMC: nâ GO: na KN: da NOM: NA SV: na SK: na Usage / History: I place this phonogram in the LJS, though it is possible it was used earlier. This graph is used mainly in Nihon shoki in various songs and annotational notes, but it also is used in a place name, 儺県 Na [NO] AGATA, an ancient name for modern Hakata in Fukuoka City. This cannot belong to the CBS, as the Kan-on reading is da. This phonogram is used 12 times in annotational notes, and 47 times in poetry: 吾夫君、此云阿我儺勢 “ ‘My beloved lord.’ This is read aga nase” (NSG), 不須也凶目汚穢、此云伊儺之居梅枳枳多儺枳 “ ‘Refuse, hideous, and polluted,’ this is read ina sikomeki kitanaki” (NSG). NSK 83 伊儺武斯盧 inamusiro The willow growing along 呵簸泝比野儺擬 kapaswopi yanagwi the banks of the river bends 寐逗愈凱麼 midu yukeba with the flow of the water. 儺弭企於己陀智 nabiki okwitati Fluttering or standing tall 曾能泥播宇世儒 sono ne pa usezu the roots remain unchanged. OJ: na OC: NA LH: NA EMC: na GO: na KN: da NOM: na, nạ SV: nã SK: na Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, (if it was from the CBS it would be da), and appears sparingly in Nihon shoki, three times in annotational notes, and once in poetry: 大己貴、此云於褒婀娜武智 “ ‘The deity’s name 大己貴,’ this is read opo anamuti” (NSG), 高胸、此云多歌武娜娑歌 “ ‘High chest,’ this is read takamuna saka” (NSG), 喧響、此云淤等娜比 “ ‘Ring with noise,’ this is read otonapi” (NSG).

226

NSK 115 舸娜紀都該 阿我柯賦古磨播 比枳涅世儒 阿我柯賦古磨乎 比騰瀰都羅武箇

寧 名

kanakwi tuke aga kapu kwoma pa pikide sezu aga kapu kwoma wo pito mituramu ka

The steed that I kept bridled with hard wood was never allowed outside. How has someone found that steed that I nurtured?

OJ: na OC: *nêŋ LH: neŋ EMC: nieŋ LMC: niajŋ GO: niyau KN: nei NOM: ninh SV: ninh SK: nyeng Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, as it appears that the Japanese heard this as nya. The only example of this as a phonogram is in the toponym 寧樂 Nara(k). Examples in Man’yōshū include 寧樂宮 Nara Palace (MYS 78, 79), 寧樂乃京尓者 nara no MIYAKWO ni PA ‘at the capital in Nara’ (MYS 80), and 寧樂乃京師者 nara no MIYAKWO PA ‘the Nara Metropolis…’ (MYS 328). OJ: na OC: *meŋ LH: mieŋ EMC: mjiäŋ GO: myau KN: mei NOM: danh, ranh SV: danh SK: myeng Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ na ‘name.’ The earliest datable example of this usage appears in the Taihō Census of 702, in personal names: 虫名 MUSINA, 虫名賣 MUSINAmye, and 小虫名賣 WOMUSINAmye. Examples from mokkan excavated from the ruins of the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710) include names or toponyms such as 猪 名 真 人 虫 麻 呂 WINA MABITO MUSImaro (MKK 13:13), and 名草郡 NAGUSA District (MK 1645). One example, 多遅比日名 Tadipi PINA, is dated Second month, seventh day, 708 (MK 1102). There are many examples of this kungana in Kojiki, but these are all confined to the first volume of the book: 天之眞名井 AME NO MANAWI ‘the Mana well of heaven’ (KG), 手名椎 TENADUTI ‘(her name was) Tenazuchi’ (KG), and 櫛名田比賣 KUSINADA pimye ‘Princess Kushinada’ (KG). This same type of usage also appears in Nihon shoki, a total of 83 times according to Ōno (1977:803): 伊豫二名洲 Iyo [NO] PUTANA SIMA ‘Futana Island of Iyo’ (NSG), 來名戸 KUNATWO ‘the deity Kunato’ (NSG), and 天眞名井 AME AME [NO] MANAWI (NSG). This kungana is very popular in Man’yōshū, appearing over 200 times in the anthology. MYS 10 KIMI GA YO mo Let us tie together 君之齒母 WA GA YO mo SIRU YA the grass on the hills 吾代毛所知哉 磐代乃 IPASIRO no of Iwashiro which has power WOKA NO KUSANE wo over the life of the ruler 岡之草根乎 IZA MUSUBITE NA as well as my own. 去来結手名

227

魚

中 菜

七

OJ: na OC: *ŋa LH: ŋɨɑ EMC: ŋjwo GO: go KN: gyo NOM: ngư, ngơ SV: ngư SK: e Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ na ‘fish.’ The modern word, sakana, is usually interpreted as saka-na ‘rice wine-greens.’ The Old Japanese word for fish is uwo. Consider, however, the following note from Nihon shoki: 魚、此云 儺 “ ‘Fish,’ this is read na” (NSG). In the Yamashiro census from 726 is the name 大魚, which is usually read OPONA (cf. Ōno 1977:77). The earliest datable example of this graph appears on a mokkan which contains the date of the fourth month, 709. This fragment contains what appears to be a name: 久己利魚 KukoriNA. This phonogram also appears once in Kojiki: 縻魚簀 MaNASU (KG). There is also one example in Nihon shoki: 八釣魚 YATURINA, and the early editor added a note saying that 魚 is to be read na (NSG). There are five examples of this semantogram in Man’yōshū. MYS 2190 WA GA KADWO NO The miscanthus at the gate 吾門之 ASADI IRODUKU of my house is in full color. 淺茅色就 吉魚張能 YONABARI no It seems that the autumn leaves 浪柴乃野之 NAMISIBA no NWO NO of the trees on Namishiba Plain MOMIDI TIRUrasi in Yonabari are scattering. 黄葉散良新 OJ: na OC: *truŋ LH: ṭuŋ EMC: tjuŋ GO: tiu KN: tiu NOM: trung, truông SV: trung, trúng, trọng SK: cyung Usage / History: This kungana calls to the mind of the reader OJ naka ‘inside,’ but Nihon shoki contains this interesting note: 于 三 國 坂 中 井 中 、 此 云 那 “…to SAKANAWI of MIKUNI… ‘Inside,’ this is read na.” OJ: na LH: tshəh NOM: NA Usage / History: This kungana calls appears in Man’yōshū. MYS 8 熟田津尓 船乗世武登 月待者 潮毛可奈比沼 今者許藝乞菜 OJ: na LH: tshit NOM: thất

EMC: tshậih SV: thái

OC: *tshə̂h GO: sai KN: sai SK: choy

to mind OJ na ‘side dish, vegetables.’ This usage only NIKITATU ni PUNANORAsemu to TUKWI MATEBA SIPO mo kanapiNU IMA PA kogiIDE NA

When I was about to board a ship at Nikita Port, waiting for the moon, the tide came in allowing us to depart. Shall we not row out presently?

EMC: tshjet SV: thất

OC: *tshit GO: siti KN: situ SK: chil

228

Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ na of nana ‘seven.’ It occurs five times in Man’yōshū, four of those times to represent part of naku ni ‘do not.’ MYS 506 WA GA SEKWO pa My beloved, 吾背子波 MONO NA OMOPI SO do not worry about things. 物莫念 KOTO si ARABA If something were to happen 事之有者 PWI nimo MIDU nimo do you not have me who would 火尓毛水尓母 WA GA NAKENAKU NI go through both fire and water? 吾莫七國

莫

嚢 諾 南

OJ: na OC: *mâkh LH: mah EMC: muoh GO: maku NOM: mạc SV: mạc SK: mwo, mak, moyk Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ na when it appears as a negative imperative na…so ‘do not do X.’ This usage appears in Man’yōshū five times. MYS 1167 I wonder who is 朝入為等 ASARI SU to ISWO ni WA GA MIsi harvesting the gulfweed 礒尓吾見之 that I saw 莫告藻乎 NANORISO wo IDURE NO SIMA NO as I fished from 誰嶋之 the rocky shore. 白水郎可将苅 AMA ka KARIKYEMU OJ: nagi OC: *nâŋ LH: naŋ EMC: nâŋ GO: nau KN: dau NOM: nang SV: nang SK: nang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, appearing in a toponym Harima fudoki, in the toponym 美嚢郡 Minagi District. Wamyōshō later represents this as 美 奈木 minaKWI. OJ: naki OC: *nâk LH: nak EMC: nâk GO: naku KN: daku NOM: nặc SV: nặc SK: nak Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Nihon shoki, in the name of the male creation deity: 伊奘諾 Izanaki. This name is generally pronounced as Izanagi, but consider that based on a note in Shiki, which represents the pronunciation of the name as 去来鳴 IZA-NAKI, this originally was pronounced as ki and not gi in Nihon shoki. OJ: name, nami, namu OC: *nə̂m LH: nəm EMC: nậm GO: namu KN: dan NOM: nam SV: nam SK: nam Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in a variety of records with a variety of readings. The earliest I can find is in documents preserved in Shōsōin: 229

印南 Inami, and 甘南備 Kamunabwi. A wooden document excavated from the Nara Capital ruins contains part of a name 正六位上甘南備真人 Kamunabwi MABITO of the Senior Sixth Rank Upper (MK 4209). A fragment of Yamashiro fudoki has: 雙栗社、風土記 南群社 “Namiguri Shrine. Fudoki makes this Namiguri Shrine.” Izumo fudoki has 南佐 Namesa. This reading is supported by the following explanation found in fudoki: 故云南佐神龜三年改字滑狹 “Thus it is called Namesa. In the third year of Jinki (726 CE) the characters were altered to NAMESA.” The usage of 甘南備 Kamunabwi appears to have been chosen, because the nasal final of 南 provided the prenasalization of the final -bwi < -npwi. This phonogram was also quite popular in Man’yōshū to represent namu. MYS 997 SUMINOYE no Like the corbicula on 住吉乃 粉濱之四時美 KWOPAMA NO sizimi Kohama Beach of Suminoe, AKE MO MIZU will I continue to yearn 開藻不見 KOMORITE NOMWI YA only in secret without 隠耳哉 KWOPWI WATARInamu even opening up to you? 戀度南

冉

尼

OJ: nami OC: *namʔ LH: ńamʔ EMC: ńźjämʔ GO: nemu KN: zemu NOM: nhiệm SV: nhiễm SK: ngyem Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram is only found in one name in Nihon shoki. It is tempting to back-date this phonogram even further because of the vocalism, as Go-on has a front mid vowel, and earlier states of Chinese have a lower vowel. However, as the Late Middle Chinese as reconstructed by Pulleyblank is riam, it possible that the scribes kept the later vowel, uncoalesced (separating /i/ from /a/), but used the earlier nasal. This graph appears in the name of the female creation deity: 伊奘冉 Izanami (NSG). OJ: ne OC: *nri or *ni LH: ṇi or neih EMC: nri GO: ni KN: di NOM: ni, nơi, này SV: ni, nậc, nật SK: ni, nil Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. The earliest known example of this graph appears on the Inariyama tumulus sword inscription (tentatively dated 471 or 531): 多加利足尼 *Ta-ka-ri Swok-ne. Likely *swok-ne underwent vowel raising to become the later title of sukune. This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki: There the name 慕尼夫人 Mone PASIKASI appears. Another usage appears in the record of Kinmei, this one a toponym: 尼彌方也地名未詳 “[This] is Nemi District, but nothing else is clear.” This phonogram also appears in the Suiko era corpus. Jōgū Shōtoku teisetsu also contains the same usage as noted above: 宗我稲目足尼 Swoga INAME Sukune (represented in Jōgū as 巷奇大臣名伊奈米足尼 Great Minister SWOga, named Iname Sukune). There is also the name 乎阿尼命 Woane [NO] MIKOTO. This phonogram appears on several mokkan: 佐々宜多尼一升 sasagetane PITO MASU ‘one quarter of a peck of black-eyed pea seeds’ (unnumbered tablet). 230

This graph appears once in Kojiki: 金云加尼 ‘Metal’ is read kane (KG). There is also only one example in Nihon shoki: 川原連加尼 KAPAPARA MURAZI Kane (NSG). This phonogram also appears on a few wooden documents excavated from the ancient Fujiwara Palace grounds (fl. 694–710). One such example is: 神門評阿尼里 Ane Village of KAMUDWO District (MKK 5:85). Izumo fudoki mentions there is the Ane Shrine (阿如社) in the Kamudo District. Man’yōshū also preserves ten examples of this phonogram. MYS 4389 志保不尼乃 sipopune no Like the whitecaps that 弊古祖志良奈美 pye kwoswo siranami suddenly crash over the bow 尓波志久母 nipasiku mo of the tide-ship, 於不世他麻保加 opusetamapo ka I was suddenly called away, 於母波弊奈久尓 omopapyenaku ni though I had not expected it.

禰

OJ: ne OC: *nêʔ LH: neʔ EMC: nieiʔ GO: nei KN: dei NOM: né, nẽ SV: nễ SK: nyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears in the Suiko era corpus, in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu, with 蘇我伊奈米宿禰 Swoga Iname Sukune. This provides an example of a newer rendition, where 足尼 is older, appearing on the Inariyama tumulus sword inscription, which may date from 417 or 531. The earliest datable example of this graph is from the Taihō Census (702), found in the name: 矢集宿禰宿奈麻呂 YADUMYE Sukune Sukunamaro. This phonogram appears three times in the liturgies: 倭國乃六御縣能刀禰男女爾至 万弖 YAMATO [NO] KUNI no MUTU [NO] MIAGATA no twone, WOTOKWO WOMINA ni ITARU made “…and down to the leaders of the six august districts and men and women of Yamato Province…” (NT 3). This phonogram appears on a variety of mokkan, written in an abbreviated style: 矢田部祢麻呂 YATABYE Nemaro (MK 2178), 長門国美祢郡 NAGATWO Province Mine District (MKK 12:21–22). In Kojiki 禰 is the main graph used to transcribe ne, but never in the poetry. It is found almost exclusively in the title sukune: 志夫美宿禰王 Prince Sibumi Sukune (KG), but there is also the example of 沙禰王 Prince Sane (KG). This phonogram is used once in an annotational note and 15 times in the poetry in Nihon shoki: 畝傍山、此云宇禰縻夜摩 “ ‘Mount Unebi,’ this is read unebwi yama” (NSG). NSK 3 阿磨佐箇屢 amasakaru Having crossed over 避奈菟謎廼 pinatu mye no the narrow, earthly straits, 以和多邏素西渡 iwatarasu setwo the provincial maidens 以嗣箇播箇柁輔智 isikapa kataputi stand on the banks of the river 箇多輔智爾 kataputi ni on the banks of the Ishikawa, 阿彌播利和柁嗣 ami pariwatasi spreading out their nets. 妹慮豫嗣爾 mero yosi ni Pull in those nets 豫嗣豫利據禰 yosi yorikone by pulling on the meshes! 以嗣箇播箇柁輔智 isikapa kataputi On the banks of the Ishikawa.

231

This is the primary phonogram to represent ne in Man’yōshū. The following chōka has five instances of this phonogram. MYS 804 等伎能佐迦利乎 toki no sakari wo Unable to hang on to 等々尾迦禰 todomwikane the best of those times, 周具斯野利都礼 sugusiyariture time has marched on. 美奈乃和多 mina no wata Upon this black hair, 迦具漏伎可美尓 kagurwoki kami ni black as the guts of the snail, 伊都乃麻可 itu no ma ka frost has lighted 斯毛乃布利家武 simwo no purikyemu without my knowing it. 久礼奈為能 kurenawi no Upon this crimson face 意母提乃宇倍尓 omote no upe ni wrinkles have come 伊豆久由可 iduku yu ka to visit me 斯和何伎多利斯 siwa ga kitarisi from somewhere. 麻周羅遠乃 masurawo no When a valiant one 遠刀古佐備周等 wotwokwo sabwisu to behaves like a man 都流伎多智 turugitati he would gird his waist 許志尓刀利波枳 kosi ni tworipaki with a sword and a knife, 佐都由美乎 satuyumi wo take his hunting bow 多尓伎利物知提 tanigimotite in his hand, 阿迦胡麻尓 akagwoma ni and throw his striped cloth 志都久良宇知意伎 situkura utioki on the red colt, 波比能利提 papinorite saddle up, and dash off 阿蘇比阿留伎斯 aswobi aru kisi for the hunt. 余乃奈迦野 yo no naka ya Has that kind of world 都禰尓阿利家留 tune ni arikyeru continued without change? 遠等咩良何 wotomyera ga Young men push open 佐那周伊多斗乎 sanasu itatwo wo wooden doors to the rooms 意斯比良伎 osipiraki where the young maidens sleep, 伊多度利与利提 itadworiyorite and groping toward them 麻多麻提乃 matamade no wrap their jewel-like arms 多麻提佐斯迦閇 tamade sasikape in their own, but the number 佐禰斯欲能 sanesi ywo no of nights they spend together 伊久陀母阿羅禰婆 ikuda mo araneba are few in number, 多都可豆恵 tatu kaduwe so with a cane 許志尓多何禰提 kosi ni taganete provided by their waist, 可由既婆 ka yukeba when they go that way 比等尓伊等波延 pito ni itopaye they are begrudged by people; 可久由既婆 kaku yukeba when they go this way 比等尓邇久麻延 pito ni nikumaye they are hated by people. 意余斯遠波 oyosi wo pa It seems that this is how 迦久能尾奈良志 kaku nomwi narasi it is with elderly men. 多麻枳波流 tamakiparu To the extent of the spirit— 伊能知遠志家騰 inoti wosikyedo life is precious, 世武周弊母奈新 semu subye mo nasi but there is nothing one can do.

232

泥

埿

OJ: ne OC: *nîʔ or *nîh LH: neiʔ, neih EMC: nieiʔ, nieih GO: nei KN: dei NOM: nê, nề, nễ, nè SV: nê, nệ SK: ni Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The earliest datable example comes from the Chikuzen Census of 702: 大神部泥麻呂 OPOKAMWIBYE Nemaro, 物 部泥婆賣 MONONOBYE Nebamye, and 大家部泥豆賣 OPOYABYE Netumye. The graph also appears in a mokkan excavated from the ruins of the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710), which contains a fragment of a name: 首泥麻 OBITO Nema (unnumbered tablet). This phonogram is also the main graph used to transcribe ne in the poetry of Kojiki: KK 19 阿斯波良能 asipara no In the dirty little hut 志祁志岐袁夜迩 sikyesiki woya ni on the reed plain 須賀多多美 sugatatami we cleaned and 伊夜佐夜斯岐弖 iya sayasikite spread out sedge mats, 和賀布多理泥斯 wa ga putari nesi and the two of us slept together. Nihon shoki also preserves one example of this phonogram in an annotational note, and 18 in the poetry. The majority of occurrences of this graph are to transcribe di, but I have found the following: 朱花、此云波泥孺 ” ‘crimsoncolored,’ this is read panezu”(NSG). NSK 58 菟藝泥赴 tuginepu This woman of 夜莽之呂謎能 yamasiromye no Yamashiro, thick with trees, 許玖波茂知 kokupa moti dug up a large radish 于智辭於朋泥 utisi opone with a wooden hoe. 泥士漏能 nezirwo no Those arms of hers, 辭漏多娜武枳 sirwotadamuki white like the large radish— 摩箇儒鷄麼虚曾 makazukyeba koso you could say you knew me not 辭羅儒等茂伊波梅 sirazu tomo ipame if we had never lay intertwined. The average kanji dictionary in Japan has the Go-on as nai for this phonogram, but all the manuscripts of Hokekyō ongi have tei, aside from one which has nii (ニイ). Clearly the reading tei is based on Kan-on, and it is fairly certain that the Go-on was nei. OJ: ne OC: *nîʔ or *nîh LH: neiʔ, neih EMC: nieiʔ, nieih GO: nei KN: dei NOM: NA SV: NA SK: ni Usage / History: This is a variant phonogram of 泥, and only appears twice in Nihon shoki according to Mori (1991:232), but the textual work of Ienaga et al. (1986.1:451) shows that the manuscripts agree the original graph was 泥. The Go-on reading is based on the same reasoning as 泥 above, as the textual data from Hokekyō ongi are exactly the same, down to the same manuscript. Ōno (1977:574) notes that there is one case of this phonogram, in MYS 1576.

233

MYS 1576 此岳尓 小壮鹿履起 宇加埿良比 可聞可聞為良久 君故尓許曽

年

涅

根

KONO WOKA ni WOSIKA PUMIOKOSI

ukanerapi kamokamo SUraku KIMI YUWE ni koso

In order to get a shot at the buck we have driven them on this hill— it is up to you, my lord, to do whatever it takes.

OJ: ne OC: *nîn LH: nen EMC: nien GO: nemu KN: den NOM: nên SV: niên SK: nyen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears four times in Man’yōshū. MYS 62 ARINE YOSI In the middle of the sea 在根良 in the channel of Tsushima 對馬乃渡 tusima no WATARI WATANAKA ni rich in rough rocks, 渡中尓 NUSA TORIMUKETE we hold up our soft offerings— 幣取向而 PAYA KAPYERIkone hurry and return home to us. 早還許年 OJ: ne OC: *nît LH: net EMC: niet GO: neti KN: detu NOM: nét, nít, nớt, nứt SV: nát, niết SK: nyel, nal Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only once in Nihon shoki: NSK 79 耶麼能謎能 yamanobye no I have no regrets 故思麼古喩衞爾 kwosimakwo yuwe ni parting with my prized 比登涅羅賦 pito nerapu eight horses people are eyeing— 宇麼能耶都擬播 uma no yatugwi pa all because of the woman, 嗚思稽矩謀那斯 wosikyeku mo nasi Yamanobe Koshimako. There is also the theory that this phonogram should be read with its Kan-on reading, as derapu ‘to show off,’ based on the word terapu ‘to let someone see, to show off.’ It seems likely that the prenasalization would come from the elision of a subject marker no (pito no terapu > pito nderapu), but I only know of cases where the subject marker is either present or absent, but I know of none where an eliding subject marker leaves a trace. For the time being, I leave this as is. OJ: ne OC: *kə̂n LH: kən EMC: kən GO: komu KN: kon NOM: căn, cỗi SV: căn SK: kun Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ ne ‘root,’ and first appears in the Taihō Census of 702 in names such as 石根 ISINE, 阿根賣 aNEmye, and 根 都賣 NEtumye. This kungana is also found throughout Kojiki and Nihon shoki. Examples from Kojiki include 天津日子根 AMATU PIKWONE (KG), 底津石根 SOKOTU IPANE (KG). 234

Examples from Nihon shoki are: 埿土根 UPIDINE (NSG), 根裂神 the deity NESAKU (NSG), 天津彦根 AMATU PIKWONE (NSG), and 正哉吾勝勝 速日天忍穗根 MASAKA AKATU KATIPAYAPI AMA [NO] OSIPONE (NSG). There are roughly 36 examples of this in Man’yōshū. MYS 123 多氣婆奴礼 takyeba nure The locks of my beloved, pinned up, they come undone. 多香根者長寸 taKANEBA NAGAKI IMWO GA KAMI Left as is, they are long. 妹之髪 KONO KORO MINU ni Having not seen her I wonder 此来不見尓 KAKIRETUramu KA if she has combed them? 掻入津良武香

嶺

念

爾

OJ: ne OC: *rêŋʔ LH: lieŋʔ EMC: ljäŋʔ GO: riyau KN: rei NOM: NA SV: lĩnh SK: lyeng Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ ne ‘mountain peak,’ based on an analysis, perhaps of OJ mine, where mi was analyzed as an honorific prefix. This usage only appears in Man’yōshū, and I have only found one example in the following. MYS 3314 次嶺經 TUGINEPU A stranger’s spouse YAMASIRODI wo rides a horse down 山背道乎 PITOduma no the Yamashiro Road 人都末乃 UMA YORI YUKU ni of recurring mountain peaks, 馬従行尓 ONODUMAsi but as my own spouse 己夫之 KATI YORI YUKEBA walks the road on foot, 歩従行者 MIRU GOTO NI every time I see him 毎見 NE NOMWIsi NAKAYU a cry naturally comes forth. 哭耳之所泣 OJ: nemu OC: *nîms LH: nemh EMC: niemh GO: nemu KN: demu NOM: niệm. niềm SV: niệm SK: nyem Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears but once in Man’yōshū. MYS 735 Haze lingers 春日山 KASUGA YAMA 霞多奈引 KASUMI tanaBIKI on Mount Kasuga, KOKOROguku and the hazy moon 情具久 TERERU TUKUYWO ni shines half-heartedly. 照月夜尓 PITORI KAMO nemu Will I sleep alone? 獨鴨念 OJ: ni < ne LH: ńeʔ NOM: nĩ

EMC: ńźjeʔ SV: nhĩ

235

OC: *neʔ GO: ni KN: zi SK: i

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in the apparent royal title of 爾支 *ne-ke, which I have postulated means ‘root-king.’ This graph also appears on the 蔚州 Silla in the name: 爾利夫智 *Ne-ri-pu-te. This graph also appears in Nihon shoki from quotes of Paekche records: 爾 波 移 Ne-pa-ya-i, 久 爾 辛 Ku-ne-sin, 爾 林 Ne-lim, 古 爾 解 Kɔ-ne-kɛ. Because of vowel raising in Japanese *ne raised to ni. The graph is often abbreviated to 尓. This phonogram appears in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu in the following names: 名阿米久尓意斯波留支比里尓波乃弥己等 “His name is Ame Kuni Osiparuki Piro no mikoto.” This phonogram appears often in the liturgies: 皇神 等前爾白久 SUME KAMWITATI [NO] MAPYE ni MAWOSAku “and declare before the imperial deities…” (NT 14). This phonogram appears on a variety of mokkan: 尓 良之布 nira NO NUNO ‘type of cloth’ (MK 2608), 和尓部臣牟良…和尓部安倍 WaniBYE OMI Mura…WaniBYE Abe (MK 318), 玉尓有皮手尓麻伎母知而伊 □・□□皮伊加尓加 TAMA ni ARU pa TE ni makimotiTE iX…XX pa ikani ka… “As for what is on the jewels, wrap them around your wrist…why…?” (MKK 10:90). This phonogram also is used often in Kojiki, though 邇 is more prevalent. Examples from Kojiki include: 建波爾安王 Prince TAKYE Pani YASU (KG), 和 爾 吉 師 Wani Kisi (KG), and 布 斗 麻 邇 爾 putwo mani ni ‘by great divination’ (KG). KK 28 多迦比迦流 taka pikaru The august son of the sun 比能美古 pi no mikwo which shines high above, 夜須美斯志 yasumisisi my great lord 和賀意富岐美 wa ga opokimi of the heavenly eight rays— 阿良多麻能 aratama no as the year comes and goes 登斯賀岐布禮婆 tosi ga kipureba like a rough gem, 阿良多麻能 aratama no the months come and go 都紀波岐閇由久 tukwi pa kipeyuku like a rough gem, 宇倍那宇倍那 ube na ube na Indeed it is! Indeed it is! 岐美麻知賀多爾 kimi matigata ni Unable to wait for you 和賀祁勢流 wa ga kyeseru will not the moon rise 意須比能須蘇爾 osupi no suswo ni and shine on the hem of 都紀多多那牟余 tukwi tatanamu yo the outer robe I am wearing? Nihon shoki contains this phonogram in eight annotational notes, and it appears 29 times in poetry: 葉木國、此云播擧矩爾 “ ‘Land of tree leaves,’ this is read pako kuni” (KG), 太占、此云布刀磨爾 “ ‘great divination,’ this is read putwo mani” (KG), 轠轤然、此云乎謀苦留留爾 “ ‘the jewel necklace will have no end,’ this is read wo mo kururu ni” (KG). NSK 104 斯那提流 sinateru Starving for want of food 箇多烏箇夜摩爾 katawokayama ni on Mount Kataoka, 伊比爾惠弖 ipi ni wete the shining hill, 許夜勢屢 koyaseru how pitiful is that farmer 諸能多比等阿波禮 sono tapito apare who has fallen. 236

於夜那斯爾 oya nasi ni Surely you were not 那禮奈理雞迷夜 nare narikyeme ya raised without parents. 佐須陀氣能 sasu take no Do you have no lord, 枳彌波夜那祇 kimi paya naki strong like bamboo? 伊比爾惠弖 ipi ni wete Starving for want of food 許夜勢留 koyaseru how pitiful is that farmer 諸能多比等阿波禮 sono tapito apare who has fallen. This phonogram is the principal graph used to represent ni in Man’yōshū, appearing approximately 4017 times, which works out to be about 200 times per book, and this is one of the few phonograms to be consistently used throughout the entire anthology. MYS 795 伊弊爾由伎弖 ipye ni yukite What am I to do once 伊可爾可阿我世武 ika ni ka a ga semu I have returned to my home? 摩久良豆久 makuraduku Likely I will have lonely 都摩夜左夫斯久 tumaya sabusiku thoughts of our sleeping hut 於母保由倍斯母 omopoyu besi mo where our pillows touch. This is the only phonogram used in the Footprints of the Buddha poetic sequence. BSS 6 麻須良乎乃 masurawo no As we gaze at the trodden 須々美佐岐多知 susumi sakitati footprints of the captain 布賣留阿止乎 pumyeru ato wo who had gone on ahead 美都々志乃波牟 mitutu sinopamu we will yearn for him; 多太爾阿布麻弖爾 tada ni apu made ni until we meet him directly; 麻佐爾阿布麻弖爾 masa ni apu made ni until we truly meet him.

貳

OJ: ni OC: *nis LH: ńis EMC: ńźih GO: ni KN: zi NOM: nhì, nhẹ SV: nhị SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in place names recorded in Nihon shoki. The following is illustrative: 斯二岐旱岐 seniki kanki ‘princes of Seniki.’ In general this phonogram and its simplified form were avoided, because of the semantics, ‘two.’ This phonogram also appears in three annotational notes and twice in one song: 覓國、此云矩貳磨儀 “ ‘View the land,’ this is read kuni magi” (NSG), 顯露、此云阿羅播貳 “ ‘Be visible,’ this is read arapa ni” (NSG), 齋庭、此云 踰貳波 “ ‘Sacred yard,’ this is read yunipa” (NSG). NSK 69 阿資臂紀能 asipikwi no Weary from climbing 椰摩娜烏菟勾利 yamada wo tukuri I cultivated mountain land. 椰摩娜箇彌 yamadakami The mountain being high, 斯哆媚烏和之勢 sitabwi wo wasise I buried irrigation pipes. 志哆那企貳 sita naki ni Thus I cry to myself. 和餓儺勾菟摩 wa ga naku tuma I weep for my spouse— 箇哆儺企貳 kata naki ni and I whimper. 237

和餓儺勾菟摩 wa ga naku tuma I cry for my spouse. 去鐏去會 kozo koso It was last night 椰主區泮娜布例 yasuku pada pure that our flesh calmly touched. This phonogram appears over 300 times in Man’yōshū. MYS 22 KAPA NO PE no On the sacred cluster of 河上乃 boulders upriver grass 湯津盤村二 YUTU IPAMURA ni KUSA musazu does not grow. I wish they 草武左受 TUNE NImo GAMO NA could forever remain thus. 常丹毛冀名 TUNE WOTOMYE NITE Forever like a young maiden. 常處女煮手

二 仁

OJ: ni OC: *nis LH: ńis EMC: ńźih GO: ni KN: zi NOM: nhì, nhẹ SV: nhị SK: i Usage / History: See the explanation under the character 貳. OJ: ni, nini OC: *nin LH: ńin EMC: ńźjen GO: nimu KN: zin NOM: nhân SV: nhân SK: in Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in the well known name 王 仁 Wani, who legend claims was sent from Paekche to educate the Yamato Court in Chinese writing and literature. It is difficult to date this usage, because Kojiki writes the name 和迩吉師 wa-ni kisi. There is also one example of this as nini in Kojiki: 番仁岐命 Po [NO] Ninigi, the imperial deity, the grandson of the Sun Goddess. Nihon shoki also contains the names of people from Paekche: one a vice envoy named 東部恩率調信仁 Teu-si-ni of the third rank from the eastern quarter, and another 鎭將劉仁願 Occupying Commander Riu-ni-guwen, and 侍醫百濟人億仁 Attending Pharmicist, a person from Paekche, (named) Oku-ni. This phonogram appears three times in the liturgies: 皇神等能広前仁白久 SUMEGAMWITATI no PIROMAPYE ni MAWOSAku ‘I declare before the broad audience of the imperial deitieis…’ (NT 2). This phonogram appears on mokkan to transcribe the following names or toponyms: 備前国上道郡居都郷和仁部太都万呂 BIZEN [NO] KUNI UPAMITI District Kotu Village WaniBYE Tatumaro (MKK 4:12), and 出雲国仁多郡 IDUMWO [NO] KUNI Nita District (MKK 20:14). The second example contains the date 757. There is also a mokkan with the following fragment of a poem: 奈仁波 都□佐久夜 nanipa tu (ni?) saku ya ‘At the ferry of Naniwa, (those blossoms that) are in bloom…’ (MKK 30:194). The phonogram appears in Man’yōshū over 50 times. MYS 3740 安米都知能 ametuti no Certainly if there 可未奈伎毛能尓 kamwi naki mono ni were nothing as the deities 安良婆許曽 araba koso of heaven and earth

238

安我毛布伊毛尓 安波受思仁世米

邇

尼

a ga mopu imwo ni apazu siniseme

then I would die without meeting the beloved I think of.

OJ: ni OC: *neʔ LH: ńeʔ EMC: ńźjeʔ GO: ni KN: zi NOM: NA SV: nhĩ SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The earliest datable example appears in the Buzen Census (702), in the name 秦部阿迩 PATABYE Ani. It also appears on mokkan, transcribing 宇邇 uni ‘sea urchin,’ and 石見国邇摩 IPAMI [NO] KUNI Nima (District). This phonogram appears a few times on mokkan: □国迩 摩郡 X Province Nima District (unnumbered tablet), 津迩郷 TUni Village (MK 181), where 迩 is an abbreviated graph of 邇. This phonogram is also popular in Kojiki, appear in examples such as: 宇比 地迩神 the deity Upidini (KG), 次妹須比智迩神 and his sister, the deity Supitini (KG), 久美度迩 kumidwo ni ‘at the wondrous door’ (KG). KK 29 袁波理迩 wopari ni Directly across 多陀迩牟迦幣流 tada ni mukapyeru from Owari— 袁都能佐岐那流 wotu no saki naru there a lone pine 比登都麻都 pitotu matu tree on the Cape of Otsu. This phonogram is used sparingly in Nihon shoki, appearing once in an annotational note, and four times in the poetry: 汝妹、此云儺迩毛 “ ‘Your beloved,’ this is read nanimwo” (NSG). NSK 66 佐瑳羅餓多 sasaragata Undo the string with 迩之枳能臂毛弘 nisiki no pimwo wo the bamboo whisk design— 等枳舎気帝 tokisakete that brocade string. 阿麻多絆泥受迩 amata pa nezu ni I cannot spend many nights; 多儾比等用能未 tada pito ywo nomwi let us spend but one night. This phonogram appears roughly 11 times in Man’yōshū (depending on the manuscript): MYS 215 PUSUMADI NO I left my beloved 衾路 in the mountains of Hikide 引出山 PIKIDE NO YAMA NI IMWO WO OKITE along the road of Fusuma. 妹置 YAMADI OMOPU ni I have no energy to live, 山路念邇 IKERU two mo NASI thinking about that road. 生刀毛無 OJ: ni OC: *nri or *nîh LH: ṇi, neih EMC: ṇi, nieih LMC: nri GO: ni KN: di, diti NOM: ni, nơi, này SV: ni, nậc, nật SK: ni, nil Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. As it appears in the Nihon shoki, it seems clear that the earlier reading of n- was used, since the LMC would require di, and there are examples of this in Shoki. This phonogram is used three times in

239

annotational notes, and four times in poetry: 和 幣 、 此 云 尼 枳 底 “ ‘Soft offerings’ (NSG), this is read nikite.” 比丘尼 bikuni “nun” (NSG). NSK 128 阿箇悟馬能 akagwoma no The red horse hestitates 以喩企波々箇屢 iyuki pabakaru to move toward 麻矩儒播羅 makuzupara the true vine field. 奈爾能都底擧騰 nani no tute koto Why send a message when you 多頴尼之曳鶏武 tadanisiyekyemu can just say it directly? There is also a curious word, reportedly of Silla origin: 久須尼自利 kusuniziri (< *kusoniziri), but the meaning is not clear. From simple context, it would appear to be some type of lament. This graph also appears in Man’yōshū, but only twice in the same poem, once to represent ni and once as ne. MYS 1694 細比礼乃 TAKUpire no White azaleas on Mount Sagisaka, 鷺坂山 SAGISAKA YAMA NO SIRATUTUzi like a hempen scarf— 白管自 WARE ni nipopane Stain me with your brilliance; 吾爾尼保波尼 IMWO ni SIMYESAMU I will show it to my beloved. 妹爾示

日

而

OJ: ni OC: *nit LH: ńit EMC: ńźjet GO: niti KN: zitu NOM: nhật, nhựt SV: nhật, nhựt SK: il Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, appearing in a Nara era document, written in the name 日富郡 Nipo District. This phonogram usage is very rare, as it was used more often as a kungana to transcribe pi (which see). This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, the majority of the time to represent pi, however, there is one example, MYS 87 where the poem ends with 万代日 made ni until….’ Ōno (1962:470–471) has argued that 日 in this poem is actually a mistake for 尓; however, there is continuity among the textual witnesses, so regardless that other poems may contain the phrase 万代爾 made ni, that does not prove that MYS 87 should also. Thus: MYS 87 ARITUTU MO I shall continue 在管裳 KIMI woBA MATAMU to wait for you like this— 君乎者将待 UTINABIKU until frost lights 打靡 WA GA KURWOKAMI ni upon my black hair 吾黒髪尓 SIMWO no OKU made ni that flutters in the wind. 霜乃置萬代日 OJ: ni OC: *nə LH: ńə > ńɨ EMC: ńźɨ GO: ni KN: zi NOM: nhí SV: nhi SK: i Usage / History: This rather rare usage belongs to the LJS. This usage appears only in the first three books of Nihon shoki, twice in annotational notes and four times in two songs: 妍哉、此云阿那而惠夜 “ ‘How delightful,’ this is read ana ni weya” 240

(NSG), 立於浮渚在平處、此云羽企爾磨梨陀毘邏而陀陀志 “ ‘There is a floating island, and they descend on the flat land and stand upon it,’ this is read ukizima (a)ri tapira ni tatasi” (NSG). NSK 9 於佐箇廼 osaka no Though there are many 於朋務露夜珥 opomurwoya ni who have come and entered 比苔瑳破而 pito sapa ni the great cavern of Osaka, 異離烏利苔毛 iriwori tomo and though many men 比苔瑳破而 pito sapa ni have entered here 枳伊離烏利苔毛 ki iriwori tomo and are seated before us, 瀰都瀰都志 mitumitusi you, the intrepid 倶梅能固邏餓 kume no kwora ga sons of the Kume, 勾鶩都々伊 kubututui with pommel-head hilts, 異志都々伊毛智 isitutui moti holding your stone-head swords, 于智弖之夜莽務 utitesi yamamu will now smite the enemy.

耳

珥

OJ: ni OC: *nəʔ LH: ńəʔ > ńɨʔ EMC: ńźɨʔ GO: ni KN: zi NOM: nhĩ SV: nhĩ SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram only appears in Man’yōshū, used four times. MYS 2946 TAMAPOKO NO Though we met on the path 玉桙之 MITI niYUKIAPITE protected by the jeweled axe 道尓行相而 YOSO ME nimo and I saw you only casually, 外目耳毛 MIREBA YOKI KWO wo but what a lovely child. 見者吉子乎 ITU TO KA MATAMU Should I wait to see you again? 何時鹿将待 OJ: ni OC: *nəh LH: ńəh EMC: ńźɨh GO: ni KN: zi NOM: nhẹ SV: nhị SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and is found mainly in Nihon shoki, three times in the annotational notes and 81 times in the poetry: 苞苴擔此云珥 倍毛菟 “ ‘Bear a gift for a superior,’ this is read nipemotu” (NSG), 妍哉、此云 鞅奈珥夜 “ ‘How delightful,’ this is read ana ni ya” (NSG), This graph is also used in names such as 和珥 Wani (NSG). NSK 102 夜酒瀰志斯 yasumisisi In the heavenly 和餓於朋耆瀰能 wa ga opo kimi no eighty [rays of] sunshine where 訶勾理摩須 kakurimasu my great lord hides, 阿摩能椰蘇河礙 ama no yaswokage who rules in peace— 異泥多々須 idetatasu if you go out and 瀰蘇羅烏瀰禮麼 miswora wo mireba look at the august sky, 豫呂豆余珥 yorodu yo ni for ten thousand reigns 訶勾志茂餓茂 kakusi mogamo may it remain as is, splendid. 241

知余珥茂 tiyo nimo For a thousand reigns 訶勾志茂餓茂 kakusi mogamo may it remain as is, wonderful. 訶之胡瀰弖 kasikwomite In reverence 菟伽倍摩都羅武 tukapematuramu we will serve the throne. 烏呂餓瀰弖 worogamite Prostrate on the ground 菟伽倍摩都羅武 tukapematuramu we will serve the throne. 宇多豆紀摩都流 utadukwimaturu I present this song. This phonogram also appears in Shoku Nihongi in the name 和珥麻呂 Wani Maro (745.4.25).

儞

OJ: ni OC: *nê LH: neʔ EMC: nɨʔ LMC: ri GO: ni KN: zi NOM: né, nẻ SV: nhĩ SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, found in Nihon shoki, with six examples in annotational notes, and 50 in poetry: 上國、此云羽播豆矩儞 “ ‘Upper land,’ this is read upatukuni” (NSG), 大醜、此云鞅奈瀰儞句 “ ‘How ugly,’ this is read ana miniku” (NSG). In the following poem it appears eight times. NSK 96 野絁磨倶儞 yasima kuni I searched the eight islands 都磨々祁哿泥底 tuma makikanete but could not find a spouse. 播屢比能 parupi no Under the spring sun 哿須我能倶儞々 kasuga no kuni ni in the land of Kasuga 倶波絁謎嗚 kupasi mye wo I had heard that 阿利等枳々底 ari to kikite there was a beautiful maiden. 與慮志謎嗚 yorosi mye wo I had heart that 阿利等枳々底 ari to kikite there was a proper woman. 莽紀佐倶 makwi saku A fine grain of wood, 避能伊陀圖嗚 pi no itatwo wo I pushed opened that door 飫斯毘羅枳 osipiraki made of Japanese cypress. 倭例以梨魔志 ware irimasi I went inside 阿都圖唎 atwo twori and held her leg, 都麼怒唎絁底 tumadworisite holding the edge of her hem, 魔倶囉圖唎 makura twori holding her pillow— 伊慕我堤嗚 imo ga te wo holding my spouse. 倭例儞魔柯斯毎 ware ni makasime I wrapped her hand 倭我堤嗚麼 wa ga te woba around my waist 伊慕儞魔柯絁毎 imo ni makasime and she my arm— 麼左棄逗囉 masakwidura wrapped it around her. 多々企阿藏播梨 tataki azapari And like a vine, 矢洎矩矢慮 sisikusiro we caressed, intertwined. 于魔伊禰矢度儞 umai nesi two ni We slept deeply, 儞播都等唎 nipatu tori sweet like meat on a skewer. 柯稽播儺倶儺梨 kakye pa nakunari The fowl I keep 奴都等利 nwotu tori have begun to cackle. 枳蟻矢播等余武 kigisi pa toyomu And in the fields 婆絁稽矩謨 pasikyeku mo the pheasants add their call. 242

伊麻娜以播孺底 阿開儞啓梨 倭蟻慕

丹

荷

煮

imada ipazute akenikyeri wagimo

The dawn has already come before I have been able to confess my feelings, my love.

OJ: ni OC: *tân LH: tan EMC: tân GO: tamu KN: tan NOM: đan, đơn SV: đan, đơn SK: tan Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ ni ‘red clay,’ based on 丹 ‘red.’ The oldest datable usage appears in a mokkan dated 697: 丁酉年若狭国小丹生評 the year (697), WAKASA [NO] KUNI WONIPU KOPORI (MK 182). This usage also appears in names and toponyms found in Kojiki: 丹羽臣 NIPA OMI (KG), and also in Nihon shoki in cases such as 丹生川 NIPU [NO] KAPA ‘Nifu River’ (NSG), 丹裳小野 NIMO WONWO ‘Nimo Moor’ (NSG), and 丹敷浦 NISIKI [NO] URA ‘bay of Nisiki’ (NSG). OJ: ni OC: *ɡâiʔ LH: ɡɑiʔ EMC: ɣâʔ GO: ga KN: ka NOM: ha, hà SV: hà, hạ, hả SK: ha Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ ni ‘burden.’ This transcription appears mainly in Man’yōshū: MYS 42 SIPOsawi ni Is my beloved 潮左為二 五十等兒乃嶋邊 IRAGWO no SIMApye riding in the boat rowing KOGU PUNE NI by Irago Island 榜船荷 IMWO NORUraMU KA in the roaring tide, 妹乗良六鹿 ARAKI SIMAMWI wo though it is rough going there. 荒嶋廻乎 OJ: ni OC: *taʔ LH: tśɑʔ EMC: tśjwoʔ GO: sio KN: sia NOM: NA SV: chử SK: cye, cya Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader the Old Japanese infinitive of the verb niru ‘to boil,’ ni. This usage appears only in the first book of Nihon shoki and Man’yōshū. In Shoki we find this graph used in the following names of deities: 埿土煮尊 UPIDINI [NO] MIKOTO, and 沙土煮尊 SUPIDINI [NO] MIKOTO (NSG). Man’yōshū preserves three examples of this usage. MYS 612 NAKANAKA NI It would have been better 中々煮 MODA mo ARAMASI wo had I remained silent. 黙毛有益乎 NANI SU TO KA Why did we start 何為跡香 APIMI SOMEkyemu seeing each other, 相見始兼 TOGEZARAMAKU ni if there is no chance of success? 不遂尓

243

Modern textual research believes the original graph to have been 者 (Satake et al. 1999.1: 373), some believing 者 to be an abbreviated form of 煮, but this theory seems hard to swallow, as 者 represents pa. Another example is: MYS 22 KAPA NO PE no On the sacred cluster of 河上乃 boulders upriver grass 湯津盤村二 YUTU IPAMURA ni KUSA musazu does not grow. I wish they 草武左受 TUNE NImo GAMO NA could forever remain thus. 常丹毛冀名 TUNE WOTOMYE NITE Forever like a young maiden. 常處女煮手

似

土 瓊

OJ: ni OC: *s-ləʔ LH: ziəʔ EMC: zɨʔ GO: zi KN: si NOM: tợ, tự, tựa SV: tự SK: so Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind the infinitive of the Old Japanese verb niru ‘resemble,’ ni. It is used only a six times in Man’yōshū. MYS 664 ISWONOKAMI I will not let it stop me, 石上 PURU TOMO AME ni even if it should rain, 零十方雨二 TUTUMAME YA as if from Isonokami. 将關哉 IMWO NI APAmu to I gave my word to my beloved 妹似相武登 IPITEsi MONO WO that I would see her. 言義之鬼尾 OJ: ni OC: *thâʔ LH: thɑʔ EMC: thuoʔ GO: tu KN: to NOM: thổ SV: thổ SK: thwo, twu Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ ni ‘red clay.’ This semantogram appears twice in Man’yōshū, both times in the same structure: X乎白土 X wo SIRANI ‘as I don’t have a clue about X’ (MYS 5, 1792). OJ: ni OC: *ɡweŋ LH: ɡyeŋ EMC: ɡjwäŋ GO: gyau KN: kei NOM: quỳnh, quềnh SV: quỳnh SK: kyeng Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ ni ‘jewel, red gem,’ but this is an unattested Old Japanese word. The association comes from this semantogram used to transcribe the imperial deity Ninigi (瓊々杵尊), the name of the grandson of the Sun Goddess, which is written in Kojiki as 仁岐 Ninigi (仁 is used as nini instead of just ni). Nihon shoki also contains the following helpful note: 瓊、玉也。此云努 “ ‘red gem stone’ is a kind of jade. This is read nu.” This provides important information that nwi ( *nəp LH: ńip EMC: ńźjəp GO: nifu KN: zifu NOM: nhập, nhọp SV: nhập SK: ip Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in the toponym 乎入郡 Wonipu District, as preserved in a document in the Shōsōin. OJ: no OC: *nə̂ʔ LH: nəʔ EMC: nậiʔ GO: nai KN: dai NOM: nãi, nảy SV: nãi SK: nay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on a number of Silla stelae. As an example, on the Pyengsin-nyen stele (536 CE) we find: □□失利乃利 … XX *sitrinəri, the name of an individual. We also find the following on the Namsan Sinsyeng number one stele (591 CE): 阿良邏頭沙喙音乃古大舎 *Arara dosatəkəm nəkɔ dahśah, a man of the 12th rank named Arara Dosatokom Noko. In the Suiko era corpus 乃 is the only graph used for no, such as in the following song preserved in Jōgū Shōtoku Hōō Teisetsu: 伊加留我乃 ikaruga no Our great ruler’s name 止美能乎何波乃 tomi no wogapa no will never be forgotten, 多叡婆許曾 tayeba koso even if the brook 和何於保支美乃 wa ga opokimi no Tomi in Ikaruga 弥奈和須良叡米 mina wasurayeme should cease to flow in its bed. This graph appears 195 times in the liturgies: 座摩乃御巫乃称辞竟奉皇神 等 能 前 爾 白 久 WIKASURI no MIKAMUNAGI no KOTO WOPEMATURU SUMEGAMWITATI no MAPYE ni MAWOSAku “The female attendants of Ikasuri declare before the imperial deities that they have finished their prayers…” (NT 1). This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan excavated from the grounds of the ancient Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710). The following is one example: 撫米 二古奈乃利毛一古 “two bamboo baskets of threshed rice, and one bamboo basket of nanorimwo ‘gulfweed’ ” (MK 1263). There are also examples such as: 手乎乃奈 TE no wona ‘? of the hand’ (unnumbered tablet), 久ツ乃乎由比四 kutu no woyupi YO ‘four (batches?) of small shoe strings’ (MK 415). This phonogram is also used very sparingly in Kojiki: 大 斗 乃 辨 神 OPOtwonobye [NO] KAMWI (KG), and in the following poem: KK 82 阿麻陀牟 amadamu Circling the heavens— 加流乃袁登賣 karu no wotomye if the maiden of Karu 伊多那加婆 ita nakaba cries so intensely 比登斯理奴倍志 pito sirinu besi people will find out. 波佐能夜麻能 pasa no yama no So like the dove 波斗能 patwo no of Mount Hasa 斯多那岐爾那久 sita naki ni naku she cries to herself. 245

This phonogram also appears frequently in Man’yōshū, approximately 2300 times, so this phonogram is used quite consistently throughout the anthology. Interestingly, however, the phonogram 能 no is more popular in the books where phonetic script is widespread (Books 5, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, and 20): 能 1334 versus 乃 729 examples. MYS 796 伴之伎与之 pasiki yosi Ah, how beloved! 加久乃未可良尓 kaku nomwi kara ni This is how it turned out— 之多比己之 sitapi kosi she longingly followed after me 伊毛我己許呂乃 imwo ga kokoro no but nothing can be done 須別毛須別那左 subye mo subye nasa about my beloved’s heart. This phonogram also appears quite frequently in the poetry preserved in Hitachi fudoki. 伊夜是留乃 iyazeru no How striking! 阿是乃古麻都爾 aze no kwomatu ni Soft offerings hanging 由布悉弖々 yupu sidete on the small pine at Aze. 和乎布利彌由母 wa wo purimiyu mo I can see it waving at me; 阿是古志麻波母 aze kwosi mapa mo that Aze child is dancing. The phonogram 乃 later yields both the hiragana form for の as well as the katakana form ノ.

能

OJ: no OC: *nəŋ LH: nə(ŋ) EMC: nəŋ GO: no, nou KN: dou NOM: năng, nưng SV: năng SK: nung, nay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, but may actually date earlier to the PBS. It appears on the Fune Obito epitaph, writing the name 安理故能刀自 Arikwo no Twozi, ‘the wife of Arikwo.’ This phonogram appears in the liturgies 186 times: 御門能御巫能称辞竟奉皇神等能前爾白久 MIKADWO no MIKAMUNAGI no KOTO WOPEMATURU SUMEGAMWITATI no MAPYE ni MAWOSAku “The female attendants of Mikado declare before the imperial deities that they have finished their prayers…” (NT 1). This phonogram appears frequently on mokkan: 能登郡 Noto District (MK 2280), 物部大□ 能万呂 MONONOBYE OPOXnomaro (MK 15), and what appears to be a funny poem: 目毛美須流安保連紀我許等乎志宜 見賀毛美夜能宇知可礼弖 MATUGE misuru apo MURAZI ki ga koto wo sigeMI kamo miya no uti karete ‘Apo Murazi Ki who is showing his eyelashes, alas, is noisy and leaves the inner chambers of the palace…’ (unnumbered tablet). The pun here is on the kunganas: 目毛 ‘eye-hair’ and 見 ‘see.’ This phonogram is the predominate choice in Kojiki to transcribe no. The following song is a prime example: KK 13 加牟加是能 kamukaze no On the large boulder 伊勢能宇美能 ise no umi no by the sea of Ise 意斐志爾 opwisi ni swept by violent winds— 波比母登富呂布 papimotoporopu the sea snail crawls about. 志多陀美能 sitadami no Like the periwinkle

246

伊波比母登富理 ipapimotoporopu we will encircle them, 宇知弖志夜麻牟 utitesi yamamu utterly destroying them. This phonogram is also used heavily in Nihon shoki, appearing 31 times in annotational notes, and 257 times in poetry: 衫子、此云莒呂母能古 “(the name) Koromonoko’ is read koromo no kwo” (NSG). NSK 124 于知波志能 utipasi no Come out, child 都梅能阿素弭爾 tume no aswobi ni to play at the edge of 伊提麻栖古 idemase kwo the plank bridge. 多麻提能伊鞞能 tamade no ipye no Mistress Yaheko of 野鞞古能度珥 yapyekwo no twozi the Tamade House. 伊提麻志能 idemasi no There will be no regrets 倶伊播阿羅珥茹 kui pa arazi zo if you come out. 伊提麻西古 idemase kwo Come out, child— 多麻提能鞞能 tamade no ipye no Mistress Yaheko of 野鞞古能度珥 yapyekwo no twozi the Tamade House. This phonogram is also very popular in Man’yōshū, appearing roughly 1538 times. Interestingly, aside from the books where phonogrammatic usage is high (Books 5, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, and 20), it is still used 204 times. As noted, this is the preferred phonogram in the phonogrammatic books. In the following chōka it appears seven times. MYS 800 TITI PAPA wo You feel admiration 父母乎 美礼婆多布斗斯 mireba taputwosi seeing your father and mother. MYEKWO MIreba You feel love and affection 妻子見礼婆 米具斯宇都久志 megusi utukusi seeing your wife and children. 余能奈迦波 yo no naka pa As for society 加久叙許等和理 kaku zo kotowari this is only natural. 母智騰利乃 motidori no Like a bird caught in birdlime 可可良波志母与 kakarapasi mo yo it is difficult to get out, as we 由久弊斯良祢婆 yukupye siraneba do not know where to go. 宇既具都遠 ukegutu wo And like one to takes off 奴伎都流其等久 nukituru gotoku shoes with holes in them 布美奴伎提 puminukite people who step on 由久智布比等波 yuku tipu pito pa and walk away from family 伊波紀欲利 ipakwi ywori are perhaps ones who 奈利提志比等迦 nari desi pito ka are born of boulders or trees. Tell me your name! 奈何名能良佐祢 na ga NA norasane 阿米弊由迦婆 ame pye yukaba If you go toward heaven 奈何麻尓麻尓 na ga mani mani you can do as you please. 都智奈良婆 tuti naraba If you are on the earth OPOKIMI imasu then there is a great ruler. 大王伊摩周 許能提羅周 kono terasu Below the sun and moon PITUKWI no sita pa which sheds light here 日月能斯多波 阿麻久毛能 amakumwo no to the ends of where 牟迦夫周伎波美 mukabusu kipami the clouds of the sky are, 多尓具久能 taniguku no to the ends of the place 247

佐和多流伎波美 企許斯遠周 久尓能麻保良叙 可尓迦久尓 保志伎麻尓麻尓 斯可尓波阿羅慈迦

廼

笶

荷

sawataru kipami kikosi wosu kuni no mapora zo kanikaku ni posiki mani mani sika ni arazi ka

where the toad dwells, this is the superior land that our sovereign rules over. Certainly it is not a place where one can do this or that as his heart desires.

OJ: no OC: *nə̂ʔ LH: nəʔ EMC: nậiʔ GO: nai KN: dai NOM: NA SV: nãi SK: nay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, but appears only in sections of Shoki, three times in annotational notes, and 12 times in the songs: 魁帥、此云比鄧誤 廼伽瀰 ‘leader’ is read pitogwo no kami’ (NSG), 叩頭、此云廼務 ‘bow to the ground’ is read nomu’ (NSG). NSK 2 阿妹奈屢夜 ame naru ya In the heavens 乙登多奈婆多廼 woto tanabata no the jewels strung upon 汙奈餓勢屢 unagaseru the string hung around 多磨廼彌素磨屢廼 tama no misumaru no the neck of the Weaver Maiden 阿奈陀磨波夜 anatama pa ya are very beautiful— 彌多爾 mitani like the beauty of him who 輔柁和柁羅須 puta watarasu shines over two hills, 阿泥素企多伽避顧禰 adisukitakapikwone Ajisuki Taka Hikone. OJ: no OC: *lhiʔ LH: śiʔ EMC: śiʔ GO: si KN: si NOM: thỉ, thẻ SV: thỉ SK: ci Usage / History: This is a variant graph for 矢 ‘arrow,’ and this kungana suggests to the reader OJ no ‘arrow.’ This usage appears on a wooden document excavated from the Heijō Palace ruins, containing the name 笶原連石足 NOPARA MURAZI IPATARI (unnumbered tablet). This kungana also appears 12 times in Man’yōshū. MYS 1776 TAYURAKI NO During the springtime 絶等寸笶 YAMA NO WO NO PE no when the cherry blossoms 山之峯上乃 SAKURABANA on top of Mount Tayuraki 櫻花 SAKAMU PARUPYE PA are in bloom 将開春部者 君乎将思 KIMI wo SINWOPAMU I will long for you. OJ: no OC: *ɡâiʔ LH: ɡɑiʔ EMC: ɣâʔ GO: ga KN: ka NOM: ha SV: hà, hạ, hả SK: ha Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ no ‘load,’ which is the bound form of the free form ni ‘load,’ suggesting that the form originally was nwi < *no-i. The 248

most well known usage is found in Shoki: 荷山, Mount Load, glossed as nomure, which preserves the Paekche word for mountain as mure. In the Jingū record of Shoki we find the following annotational note: 荷持田村 荷持、此云能登利 “The village of Notorida, the graphs 荷持 ‘load-hold’ are read notori” (NSG). This rather rare kungana appears once in Man’yōshū, according to Ōno (1977:578), but I have found two examples (MYS 23, 100): MYS 100 ADUMATO NO Like the cord tied around 東人之 荷向篋乃 NOSAKI NO PAKWO no the box of tribute from NI NO WO nimo the Eastern people of Nosaki, 荷之緒爾毛 IMWO PA KOKORO ni you, my love, tightly have 妹情尓 NORInikyeru KAmo a hold on my heart. 乗尓家留香問

箆

柔

蕤

OJ: no OC: bi LH: bi, bei EMC: bi, biei GO: fai KN: fei NOM: NA SV: tì SK: pi Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ no ‘bamboo used for arrows.’ While the graph 箆 represents a bamboo comb, it can also represent the bamboo shaft of an arrow. This usage appears twice in Man’yōshū. MYS 1603 KONO KORO NO Lately when you listen 頃者之 ASAKE ni KIKEBA at the break of dawn 朝開尓聞者 ASIPIKWI NO great bucks call for their mates 足日木箆 YAMA YWOBI TOYOMYE making the mountains, 山呼令響 狭尾壮鹿鳴哭 SAWOSIKA NAKU MO which tire the legs, resound. OJ: nu OC: *nu LH: ńu EMC: ńźjəu GO: niu KN:ziu NOM: nhu SV: nhu SK: yu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. There is one place in Shoki, in the reign of Kinmei, second year, where 久取柔利 is read kusutori in Shaku Nihongi, but not in the critical text (Ienaga et al. 1986.2:68). This may be confusion from the original kana, which likely glossed this graph 柔 with 奴 which could have been read nu or to. It must be acknowledged that two other cases of 柔 are read nu (柔等 in Jomei, read nuRA, and 州柔 in Tenji is read tunu). The NKBT also reads the above case as kusunuri, on the authority of one manuscript. Nevertheless, Shaku Nihongi, on the authority of the older Shiki manuscripts reads this as to. The other two cases are read as nu also in Shaku Nihongi. For the time being I have included the character here. It is also possible that the graph was used for its semantic, and not for its phonetic value. OJ: nu LH: ńui NOM: nhuy

EMC: ńźwi SV: nhuy

249

OC: *nui GO: nui KN: zui SK: ywu

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. There are only two known examples of this graph used phonogrammatically. One is from the Tenjukoku Mandala embroidered inscription of Hōryūji, where the name of Great King Bidatsu is written as 蕤奈久羅乃布刀多麻斯支乃彌己等 Nuna Kura no Putwotama Siki no mikoto. The other known example is found in the second year of Tenmu in Nihon shoki: 大蕤娘 Princess OPOnu (whose name is also recorded with the same graph in Shoku Nihongi).

奴

OJ: nu OC: *nâ LH: nɑ EMC: nuo GO: nu KN: do NOM: nô, no, nó SV: nô SK: nwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. Before the Suiko era this phonogram 奴 was used to transcribe na and then nwo, but with vowel raising (nwo > nu), this graph came to used to represent nu. There are apparent vestiges of this graph in Nihon shoki, which may point back to the PBS, but without more evidence, it is difficult to ascertain. For the time being I stick to the dating of the use of this graph in the EJS. In Nihon shoki we have a few names that preserve nu: 奴流枳 Nuruki, a man from Koguryŏ (though this may be read Nworuki). There is also an individual called 奴須久利 Nusukuri dispatched by the King of Kara, but the name may also be read Nwosukuri. There are also names of people from Paekche: 季徳進奴 Kuwitok Sinnu, 杆率汶斯干奴 Mose Kannu of the fifth rank, 奇奴知 Kanuti, and 余奴 Yonu. There is also the mention of a man from Silla, 奴弖大舍 Nute of the 19th rank. This phonogram also appears in the Suiko era corpus. Examples include 漢 奴加己利 Nukakori of Aya from Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu. The earliest datable example appears on a mokkan dated the ninth month of 699: 己亥年九月三野 国・汚奴麻里 MINWONWO…Unuma Village (MK 160). This phonogram appears once in the liturgies: 心悪子乎生置弖来奴 KOKORO ASIKI KWO wo UMIOKIte KInu “…and she came, having given birth to a child with an evil heart…” (NT 12). This phonogram is the sole graph used in Kojiki to transcribe nu: 都奴 Tunu, 久奴王 Prince Kunu, and 奴那登母母由良迩 nu na tomomoyura ni ‘jewels jingle’ (KG). KK 82 阿麻陀牟 amadamu Circling the heavens— 加流乃袁登賣 karu no wotomye if the maiden of Karu 伊多那加婆 ita nakaba cries so intensely 比登斯理奴倍志 pito sirinu besi people will find out. 波佐能夜麻能 pasa no yama no So like the dove 波斗能 patwo no of Mount Hasa 斯多那岐爾那久 sita naki ni naku she cries to herself. This phonogram is used once in the annotational notes, and three times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 瑲瑲乎、此云奴儺等母母由羅爾 “ ‘jewels jingle’ this is read nu na tomomoyura ni” (NSG). 250

NSK 85 阿佐膩簸囉 asadipara Through the rocky path of 嗚贈禰嗚須擬 wosone wo sugwi the mountains and over 謨謀逗頴甫 momodutapu Asaji Plain comes a distant, 奴底喩羅倶慕與 nute yuraku mo yo continuous jingle of a bell. 於岐毎倶羅之慕 okime kurasi mo It seems Okime has arrived. This phonogram is the primary graph used in Man’yōshū, appearing 412 times. MYS 798 伊毛何美斯 imwo ga misi The blossoms of the bead tree 阿布知乃波那波 aputi no pana pa that my beloved saw 知利奴倍斯 tirinu besi must have scattered— 和何那久那美多 wa ga naku namida though my tears 伊摩陀飛那久尓 imada pwi naku ni have not yet dried. This phonogram appears once in a poem in the Footprints of the Buddha sequence. BSS 16 己乃美阿止乎 kono miato wo Respectfully gazing 麻婆利麻都礼婆 mabarimatureba at these footprints, 阿止奴志乃 ato nusi no how we think of 多麻乃与曾保比 tama no yosopopi the jeweled figure of the owner 於母保由留可母 omopoyuru kamo of these footprints. 美留期止毛阿留可 miru goto mo aru ka As if we see him!

怒

OJ: nu OC: *nah or *naʔ LH: nɑh, naʔ EMC: nuoh, nuoʔ GO: nu KN: do NOM: nủa, nọ SV: nộ SK: nwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, and appears in the Suiko-era corpus, in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu, in the name 怒那久良布刀多麻斯支天皇 Great King Nunakura Putwo Tamasiki. This phonogram also appears in the Taihō Census of 702 in the following names: 伎 怒 賣 Kinumye, 知 怒 賣 Tinumye, 伊 怒 賣 Inumye, 恵 怒 賣 Wenumye, 彌 怒 麻 賣 Minumamye, 麻 怒 良 賣 Manuramye, and 真 怒 賣 MAnumye. This phonogram is also is used in one annotational note, and three songs and annotational notes in Shoki: 茅渟、此云智怒 “ ‘The place name 茅渟,’ this is read tinu” (NSG). NSK 12 哆々奈梅弖 tatanamete With our shields arrayed 伊那瑳能椰摩能 inasa no yama no we have fought many battles 虚能莽由毛 ko no mayu mo on Mount Inasa, 易喩耆摩毛羅毘 iyuki mamworapi going through the trees 多々介陪麼 tatakapeba and watching the enemy. 和例破椰隈怒 ware pa ya wenu Thus are we famished. 之摩途等利 simatutori Birds of the island—

251

宇介譬餓等茂 ukapi ga tomo come now to our rescue, 伊莽輸開珥虚禰 ima suke ni kone you friends of the cormorants. This phonogram is used consistently in Man’yōshū to represent nwo (which see), but there are two poems (MYS 4401, 4403) where 怒 must represent nu, as both are part of the verb ki ‘to come.’ MYS 4401 可良己呂武 kara koromu I have come, having left 須宗尓等里都伎 suswo ni torituki my children who clung. 奈苦古良乎 naku kwora wo crying, to the sleeves 意伎弖曽伎怒也 okite so kinu ya of my Paekche robes— 意母奈之尓志弖 omo nasi ni site in spite of their having no mother.

努

弩

農

OJ: nu OC: *nâʔ LH: naʔ EMC: nuoʔ GO: nu KN: do NOM: nỗ SV: nỗ SK: nwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in the Yōrō Census (721) in the name 伊努賣 Inumye. It also appears in the name 智努王 Prince Tinu found on the Bussokuseki stone (ca. 753). This graph is also used in Nihon shoki in the following annotational note: 瓊、 玉也。此云努 “ ‘red gem stone’ is a kind of jade. This is read nu” (NSG). There are four non-controversial examples of this in Man’yōshū also: MYS 1811 PAKA NO PE NO The branches of the tree 墓上之 KONOYE NABIKYERI above the grave are fluttering. 木枝靡有 KIKISI GOTO As I have heard 如聞 she gave her heart 陳努壮士尓之 tinu WOTOKWO nisi YORINIkyerasi mo to the young man from Chinu. 依家良信母 OJ: nu OC: *nâʔ LH: naʔ EMC: nuo GO: nu KN: do NOM: nỗ, nỏ, ná SV: nỗ SK: nwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, but is used sparingly. Most known examples are read nwo (which see) but a few clear examples of nu can be found. This phonogram appears in the Chikuzen census of 702 to write the name 弩弖 Nute. Another example is in Man’yōshū (MYS 1809), where this chōka repeats the toponym tinu (Chinu) twice, each with a different set of characters: 智弩 tinu, 血沼 TINU. This example parallels that found in MYS 1811 where Tinu is written as 陳努. OJ: nu LH: nouŋ NOM: nông

OC: *nûŋ EMC: nouŋ LMC: ndəwŋ GO: nou KN: dou SV: nông SK: nwong

252

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The earliest datable example of this graph is found on a mokkan dated 710: 伊勢国安農郡阿刀里 Ise Province, Anu District, Atwo Village. This graph also appears in Nihon shoki in two annotational notes and ten times in song: 白膠木、此云農利泥 “ ‘Hard Chinese tree,’ this is read nuride” (NSG). NSK 125 多致播那播 tatibana pa The fruit of the orange tree 於能我曳多々々 ono ga yeda yeda grows each on its own branch, 那例々騰母 nareredomo but when these are strung 陀麻爾農矩騰岐 tama ni nuk toki together as jewels they are 於野兒弘儞農倶 oyazi wo ni nuku strung on the same cord. There are 10 examples of this graph in Man’yōshū, but all are concentrated in Book 5. MYS 802 麻斯提斯農波由 masite sinupayu How I think of my child. 伊豆久欲利 iduku ywori Where on earth have 枳多利斯物能曽 kitarisi mono so children come from? 麻奈迦比尓 manakapi ni Right in front of my eyes 母等奈可可利提 motona kakarite they are thoughtlessly by me 夜周伊斯奈佐農 yasuisi nasanu robbing me of a good sleep.

濃

OJ: nu OC: *nroŋ, nôŋ LH: ṇioŋ, noŋ EMC: ṇjwoŋ, nuŋ GO: niu, nou KN: diou NOM: nống SV: nông SK: nwong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in Nihon shoki in two songs. NSK 28 伊徒姑播茂 itwokwo pa mo Men with relatives 伊徒姑奴池 itwokwo dwoti will fight together. 伊裝阿波那 iza apana Commence the battle, 和例波 ware pa shall we? 多摩岐波屢 tamaki paru Minister Uti, 于池能阿層餓 uti no aso ga possessing a strong spirit, 波邏濃知波 paranuti pa does not have a stomach 異佐誤阿例椰 isagwo are ya made of pebbles. 伊裝阿波那 iza apana Commence the battle, 和例波 ware pa shall we? This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, five times. MYS 3661 可是能牟多 kaze no muta The hem of 与世久流奈美尓 yose kuru nami ni the robes of the fishing 伊射里須流 izari suru maidens fishing in the incoming waves 安麻乎等女良我 ama wotoMYEra ga 毛能須素奴礼奴 mo no suswo nurenu driven with the wind are all wet. A variant text has: 253

安麻乃乎等賣我 毛能須蘇奴礼濃

沼

宿

寐

ama no wotomye ga mo no suswo nurenu

The hem of the fishing girl is all wet….

OJ: nu OC: *tauʔ LH: tśauʔ EMC: tśjäuʔ GO: seu KN: seu NOM: trẽo SV: chiểu SK: sywo, cywo Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ nu(ma) ‘marsh,’ and is found on many excavated wooden fragments, but sometimes it is unclear if the intended reading is nu or numa, so I have ignored these excavated data for the time being. Kojiki includes examples such as 沼河比賣 NUKAPA Pimye (KG), 血沼 海 Sea of TINU (KG), and 沼 名 木 郎 女 NUNAKWI IRATUMYE (KG). Man’yōshū also contains similar examples using with this semantogram: MYS 922 PITO MINA no If only the lives 人皆乃 INTOI mo WARE mo of all people, including mine, 壽毛吾母 三吉野乃 MIYOSINWO no could be eternal like these unchanging boulders 多吉能床磐乃 taki no TOKWIPA no TOKO NARANU KAMO at the falls at Miyoshino. 常有沼鴨 OJ: nu OC: *suk or *sukh LH: siuk, siuh EMC: sjuk, sjəh GO: suku KN: siuku NOM: túc SV: túc, tú SK: sywuk, sywu Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ nu ‘sleep.’ This usage only appears seven times in Man’yōshū. MYS 1056 WOTOMYERA GA Mount Kase, the spindle— 𡢳嬬等之 UMIWO KAKU TOPU like the thing maidens 續麻繁云 wrap spun wool on, 鹿脊之山 KASE NO YAMA TOKIsi YUKYEREBA has changed with the times. 時之徃者 MIYAKWO TO NARINU It has become a metropolis. 京師跡成宿 OJ: nu LH: mis NOM: mị Usage / History: This kungana calls poetry of Man’yōshū. MYS 2070 久堅之 天河津尓 舟泛而 君待夜等者 不明毛有寐鹿

EMC: mih SV: mị

OC: *mis GO: mi KN: bi SK: moy, mi

to mind OJ nu ‘sleep.’ This usage appears twice in the PISAKATA NO

AMA NO KAPADU ni PUNE UKETE KIMI MATU YWORA PA AKEZU mo ARANU KA

254

Let not this night end as I wait for my lord and prepare the ship at the port of the heavenly river, distant and firm.

渟

潤

奴

OJ: nu OC: *dêŋ LH: deŋ EMC: dieŋ GO: diau KN: tei NOM: dềnh SV: đình, đuềnh SK: tyeng Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ nu ‘marsh.’ This graph appears in Nihon shoki in names like 豐斟渟尊 the deity TOYO KUMUNU (NSG), 天渟 名井 AMA [NO] NUNAWI the heavenly Nuna well (NSG), and 茅渟山 Mount TINU (NSG). This graph also appears a few times in Man’yōshū, once to write 茅渟 TINU (MYS 1809), and three times to represent the name of Tenmu 天渟 中原瀛真人天皇 AMA [NO] NUNAPARA OKI [NO] MAPITO SUMYERA NO MIKOTO (MYS 22, 103, 156). OJ: nuni OC: *nuns LH: ńuinh EMC: ńźjwenh GO: nimu KN: ziun NOM: nhuần SV: nhuận SK: ywun Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This rare usage appears in Harima fudoki in the toponyms 雲潤 Ununi, where the first phonogram is un and the final nasal leads to the next nasal, nu, showing it was a short vowel. It should be pointed out that many scholars, following the varied glosses in the fudoki texts, believe that 雲潤 should be read urumi. Consider the note that explains the etymology as preserved in fudoki, “The reason this village is called 雲 潤 is because when the deity Nitu Pikwo said, ‘I want to cross over downstream of the Papuda River toward 雲潤,’ the great water deity that resided in that village spoke and declared, ‘I take the blood of beasts and cultivate my fields. Thus I do not desire water from the river.’ Nitu Pikwo said, ‘This deity has spoken thus because he is weary (umite) from digging a canal for a river.’ Thus that place was called umi (雲彌). Present day people call it 雲潤.” For the time being, I have tried to be faithful to the underlying Chinese phonology, as nuni fits better. OJ: nwo OC: *nâ LH: nɑ EMC: nuo GO: nu KN: do NOM: nô, no, nó SV: nô SK: nwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It is difficult to know whether this is a derogatory graph, meaning ‘slave,’ replaced by the Chinese historiographical office, or was used by the Wa. My personal view is that this phonogram was a derogatory graph used by the Chinese historiographers. Before the establishment of Yamatai, the graph 奴 was read na, but by the latter end of the Later Han era, the vowel had backed to nɔ. This graph appears in many word preserved in Wei zhi. An auxiliary official is called 卑奴母離 *pe-nɔ-mɔ-rai, which is often interpreted as the forerunner for the hinamori or border guards of Man’yōshū poetry. I have tentatively interpreted this title as originally meaning ‘grove of the western field,’ where a grove or forest referred to a place where the deities communicated with humans (2008:18–19). This phonogram appears several times in the other ‘barbaric’ sections of Wei 255

zhi: 匈奴 *xoŋ-nɔ, 樂奴國 *lak-nɔ domain. This graph also appears on several steles on the peninsula. On the Kwangkaytho stele we have: 奴抜城 *nɔ-bat fortress, 閏奴城 *ɲwin-nɔ fortress, 貫奴城 *kwan-nɔ fortress, and □□豆奴 城 *X-X-do-nɔ fortress. Vestiges of this usage appear also in Nihon shoki, showing that the usage survived in some strata of the PBS. The Paekche record preserves the name of a Yamato person, 日本斯那奴阿比多 Sinanwo Apita (of Yamato) and 斯那奴次 酒 Sinanwo Sicu, both likely from the Shinano (< sinanwo) area of Japan. There is also an individual called 奴須久利 Nwosukuri dispatched by the King of Kara, but the name may also be read Nusukuri. This usage appears once in documents preserved in Shōsōin: 美奴 Minwo. There is a fragment of a wooden document excavated in Shizuoka Prefecture with what may be a toponym: 都奴我 either tunwoga or tunuga (MK 68).

努

怒

OJ: nwo OC: *nâʔ LH: naʔ EMC: nuoʔ GO: nu KN: do NOM: nỗ SV: nỗ SK: nwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. Because of the ambiguity between being used to transcribe nu and nwo, it is somewhat difficult to find unambiguous examples of this graph in early fragments. Kojiki contains only one example of this phonogram transcribing nwo: 美努 ‘(province of) Minwo (KG). Thus Kojiki elects to avoid the ambiguity of this graph. Nihon shoki also only uses this graph twice, once in an annotational note and once in a song: 小竹、此云芝努 “ ‘Small bamboo,’ this is read sinwo” (NSG). NSK 110 烏智可拕能 wotikata no The pheasants in the sparse field 阿娑努能枳々始 asanwo no kigisi off in the distance 騰余謀佐儒 toyomosazu are making noise— 倭例播禰始柯騰 ware pa nesikado we have slept without a sound, 比騰曾騰余謀須 pito so toyomosu how people are making a fuss! This phonogram is the main one used in Man’yōshū to transcribe nwo, appearing 102 times, the majority to represent sinwopi- ‘to long for,’ or tanwos‘pleasant’: MYS 3725 和我世故之 wa ga sekwosi My beloved, perhaps 氣太之麻可良婆 kyedasi makaraba if you are to go away, 思漏多倍乃 sirwotape no please wave your sleeve, 蘇低乎布良左禰 swode wo purasane made of soft white bark. MItutu sinwopamu I shall long for you as I watch. 見都追志努波牟 OJ: nwo OC: *nah or *naʔ LH: nɑh, naʔ EMC: nuoh, nuoʔ GO: nu KN: do NOM: nủa, nọ SV: nộ SK: nwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, appearing in Kojiki: 布怒豆怒神 the deity Punwotunwo (KG). It is the sole graph in Kojiki for nwo in poetry. 256

KK 35 阿佐士怒波良 asazinwopara A field of shallow, thin bamboo 許斯那豆牟 kosi nadumu keeps us from making progress. 蘇良波由賀受 swora pa yukazu Without taking to the skies 阿斯用由久那 asi ywo yuku na we go by foot. This phonogram also appears four times in the poetry of Shoki: NSK 34 知麼能 tiba no Looking out over 伽豆怒塢彌例麼 kadunwo wo mireba the verdant plain of Kazu, 茂々智儾蘆 momotidaru I behold before me 夜珥波母彌喩 yanipa mo miyu an abundance of villages— 區珥能朋母彌喩 kuni no po mo miyu I also see a land of excellence. Man’yōshū also preserves eight examples of this phonogram: MYS 4403 意保枳美能 opokimi no What fear and wonder 美己等可之古美 mikoto kasikwomi for our great lord— 阿乎久牟乃 awokumu no I have come over 等能妣久夜麻乎 tonobiku yama wo the mountains 古与弖伎怒加牟 kwoyote kinwo kamu where blue clouds trail.

弩

OJ: nwo OC: *nâʔ LH: naʔ EMC: nuo GO: nu KN: do NOM: nỗ, nỏ, ná SV: nỗ SK: nwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, but it is somewhat difficult to know precisely how often it was used. There is some graphic confusion between this graph and 努・怒. This phonogram is used twice in the same song in Nihon shoki: NSK 126 美曳之弩能 miyesinwo no The trout of Eshino 曳之弩能阿喩 yesinwo no ayu beautiful Mieshino— 阿喩擧曾播 ayu koso pa it is good for 施麻倍母曳岐 simape mo yeki you trout to be near the island. 愛倶流之衞 ekurusiwe Ah, how painful 奈疑能母騰 nagwi no moto to be under the water-greens 制利能母騰 seri no moto to be under the water-cress. 阿例播倶流之衞 are pa kurusiwe I am in pain. According to Ōno (1977:577) this phonogram appears in Man’yōshū twice, but I have been able to find three examples (MYS 1609, 1624, 1809): MYS 1624 WA GA NARERU It is a head dress 吾之蒔有 WASADA NO PO MOTI I made from rice stalks 早田之穂立 TUKURITARU from early rice plants 造有 KADURA so MITUTU I am harvesting. Think of me, 蘰曽見乍 師弩波世吾背 sinwopase WA GA SE my beloved, as you look at it.

257

野

OJ: nwo OC: laʔ LH: jaʔ EMC: jiaʔ GO: ya KN: ya NOM: dã SV: dã SK: ya Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ nwo ‘field, moor.’ The earliest datable example of this is found on a mokkan dated 682: 壬午年十月□毛野 “Year 682, 10th month, X KENWO….” There is another mokkan dated 683 with the following: 癸未年七月三野大野評阿漏里 “Year 683, seventh month. MINWO (Province), OPONWO District, Arwo Village….” These actually may be logograms. Also, in the Taihō Census (702) the following names are recorded: 三野賣 MINWOmye, 麻野比賣 MaNWO Pimye, and 都野麻呂 TuNWO Maro. According to Ōno (1977:25), the Suiko era corpus does not preserve any examples of nwo in phonograms, but there is one example with this logogram, 野. This is also true of Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu: 大野岡 OPONWO WOKA ‘Ōno Hill.’ The absence of any phonograms for nwo likely reflects later rewriting, when nwo and nu appeared orthographically confused, and a semantogram usage was employed. This kungana appears on a variety of mokkan: 余志野女 YosiNWOMYE (unnumbered tablet).

258

O 意

OJ: o OC: *ʔəkh LH: ʔɨəh EMC: ʔɨ GO: i KN: i NOM: ấy, ý SV: ý, ỳ SK: uy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, and appears on the Inariyama tumulus sword inscription 意富比垝 *əpəpikwai > opopikwo ‘great prince?’ and on the Suda Hachiman mirror inscription (ca. 500) 意柴 沙 加 宮 *əzasaka MIYA, traditionally read osisaka ‘Oshisaka Palace,’ and on the inscription of the Tenjukokushuchō at Chūgūji (ca. 622) 阿米久爾意斯波留支比里爾波乃彌己 等 ame kuni osiparuki no mikoto, the name of Great King Kinmei. Regardless of the use of this ancient phonogram, the literati appear to have shied away from using it in poetic composition. Shoki’s rich poetry uses only three phonograms for /o/ in syllable-initial position 於・飫・淤 (there are two others [憶・乙] but these are each used only once), while the annotative notes employ the same three. Kojiki, on the other hand, uses this phonogram [意] for o a total of 33 times, though the poets appear to have preferred 淤, used 47 times. It should be mentioned here that Mabuchi (1957:81–83) had postulated that there anciently was a difference in the vocalism with 意 and 淤. He proposes that 意 represents type A, and 淤 type B o. Rather than simply checking the employment of the phonograms in Kojiki, checking the historical Chinese phonology is the more accurate approach to confirm this theory. Since 意 came into the ancient Japanese corpus around the late fourth or early fifth centuries, Later Han is the proper stage to search for the phonology the ancient Japanese used to map this graph onto the phoneme of Old Japanese. Compare these values: Graph 意 淤

OC *ʔǝh *ʔa

LH ʔɨəh ʔɨɑ

EMC ʔɨ ʔɨa

NOM ấy ứa

SK uy e

There does not appear to have been a difference in rounding, as both nuclei are mid and unrounded. Therefore, there is sufficient evidence to say that Kojiki did not make a distinction between two varieties of /o/. Both graphs 意淤 were used to transcribe initial /o/. This phonogram appears on several mokkan: 意伎 麻呂 Okimaro (MK 349), 意母都良牟奈 omoturamuna unknown meaning (unnumbered tablet), 備前国乾意毘壱斗伍升 ‘one PAKWO and five MASU (about nine bushels) of dried opi ‘black persimmon’ from Bizen Province’ (MK 20:33). Below are two samples of 意, one each from Kojiki and Nihon shoki: KK 63 都藝泥布 tuginepu Thick with trees 夜麻斯呂賣能 yamasiromye no the maiden of Yamashiro— 許久波母知 kokupa moti cultivating great radishes 259

宇知斯意富泥 utisi opone with her wooden hoe. 佐和佐和迩 sawa sawa ni And noisily 那賀伊幣勢許曾 na ga ipese koso you say things to me, 宇知和多須 utiwatasu so from far and wide 夜賀波延那須 yagapaenasu thick as the forest 岐伊理麻韋久禮 ki iri mawikure people have come here. It should be mentioned that ‘great root’ (> radish) is also written as 淤富泥 in poem KK 61, showing overlap with 意淤. In Nihon shoki, in the reign of Jingū, a Paekche village is written 意流村, glossed as oru SUKI. This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū, used 36 times, though 於 became the primary graph for the compiler (appearing 428 times): MYS 812 許等騰波奴 koto topanu Though a piece of wood does not 紀尓茂安理等毛 kwi nimo ari tomo utter words, would I ever lay it 和何世古我 wa ga sekwo ga on the ground, that favorite 多那礼乃美巨騰 tanare no mikoto august koto belonging 都地尓意加米移母 tuti ni okame ya mo to my beloved elder?

於

OJ: o OC: *ʔa LH: ʔɨɑ EMC: ʔɨa GO: o KN: yo NOM: ư, ớ, ờ, ưa SV: ư SK: e Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This graph appears on the Kwangkaytho stele: 於利城 *ʔɨɑ-ri fortress. Also, on the stele erected by Silla and T’ang after the destruction of Paekche in 660, we find the following name: 於曾城 *ʔɨɑ-tsəŋ fortress. This lends evidence that the Japanese likely learned this usage from their Paekche teachers. Also consider that this phonogram (於) appears in fragments from the Suiko era corpus. It appears in Jōgū shōtoku hōō teisetsu (ca. 800, but many parts are clearly from the Suiko era) three times. One example is 阿米久爾於志波留支廣 庭天皇, ame kuni osiparuki PIRO NIPA SUMYERA [NO] MIKOTO (the name of Great King Kinmei). There are several problems with this rendition. One is that the usage of ‘emperor’ 天皇 did not come into regular use until around the era of Tenmu or Jitō. Regardless, this is likely nothing more than the compiler of Teisetsu taking a clearly old name and adding ‘emperor’ to it, mirroring the text in Nihon shoki. The phonology works out perfectly, with the representation of the name also employing four phonograms from the WS or PBS (阿爾支留). Thus it seems clear that the orthographic representation of this name originated from around the Suiko era. There is only one example in the liturgies: 諸御神等波平久於太比爾伊麻 佐布倍志登申 MORO MIKAMWITATI pa TAPIRAKEku odapi ni imasapu besi to MAWOSE ‘Declare that the various august deities will be appeased and shall reside at peace…’ (NT 16). There are also 34 examples of this phonogram in the beta section of Shoki. The following is an example of an annotational note and a poem: 碩田此云於保 岐陁 “ ‘The place name 碩田’ is to be read opokita” (NSG). 260

NSK 43 望苔幣破 motopye pa I thought of you 枳瀰烏於望臂涅 kimi wo omopide at the trunk of the tree. 須慧幣破 suwepye pa I remembered you 伊暮烏於望比涅 imo wo omopide when I looked up at the crown. 伊羅那鷄區 iranakyeku I felt such sorrow 曾虚珥於望比 soko ni omopi thinking of you there. 伽那志鷄區 kanasikyeku I felt such sadness 虚々珥於望臂 koko ni omopi thinking about you here. 伊枳羅儒層區屢 ikirazu so kuru I left without cutting down 阿豆瑳由瀰摩由瀰 adusayumi mayumi the tree for the catalpa bow. This is the main graph used to transcribe o in Man’yōshū, used 428 times: MYS 104 WA GA WOKA NO The fine powdered snow 吾岡之 I told the water deity 於可美尓言而 okami ni IPITE PURASIMESI residing in my hill 令落 YUKI NO KUDAKEsi to make fall seems to have 雪之摧之 SOKO ni TIRIkyemu scattered over to your side. 彼所尓塵家武 The cursive form of this phonogram later becomes the kana form of お, and the katakana form took part of the phonogram to create オ.

淤

OJ: o OC: *ʔa LH: ʔɨɑ EMC: ʔɨa GO: o KN: yo NOM: ứ, ứa SV: ứ SK: e Usage / History: This graph belongs to the EJS. See 意 OJ: o above for the Mabuchi (1957) theory that there were two varieties of o (意・淤). It is perhaps more accurate to say that while 意 is from the PBS, 淤 was a Japanese native court innovation (whether this was done by native Wa people, or Paekche scribes who had immigrated to the court, is debatable). As noted above under the graph 意, there are many examples of 淤 in Kojiki. The title omi is consistently written 淤美 (though there is one case of 意 美). ‘Offing’ is written either 淤岐 or 淤伎. There are only two examples of 淤 in Nihon shoki, one in annotational note and one in a poem: 喧響此云淤等娜比 “ ‘reverberate’ is read otonapi” (NSG). NSK 39 伽辭能輔珥 kasi no pu ni In an oak forest 豫區周塢菟區利 yokusu wo tukuri we made a wide mortar. 豫區周珥 yokusu ni In that wide motar 伽綿蘆淤朋瀰枳 kamyeru opomiki we brewed this auspicious wine. 宇摩羅珥 umara ni Enjoy it as 枳虚之茂知塢勢 kikosi moti wose you partake of it— 摩呂餓智 maro ga ti our father.

飫

OJ: o LH: ʔɨɑh NOM: ứ

OC: *ʔah GO: o KN: yo SK: e

EMC: jɨa SV: ứ 261

Usage / History: The phonogram 飫 belongs to the LJS. This graph appears in Nihon shoki and Man’yōshū. Ōno (1962:148) mentions that 飫 is a phonogram worthy of note, but he does not elaborate, leaving the reader hanging. This phonogram appears in Shoki two times in the annotational notes, and a total of 19 times in the poetry: 曰母木邑。今云飫悶廼奇訛也 “That village was called OMOKWI ‘mother-tree.’ The place now called Omonokwi is a corruption of this.” NSK 5 飫企都鄧利 okitu tori Birds of the offing— 軻茂豆勾志磨爾 kamoduku sima ni ducks gather on the island. 和我謂禰志 wa ga winesi As long as I live 伊茂播和素邏珥 imo pa wasurazi I will always remember 譽能據鄧馭鄧母 yo no kotogoto mo the maiden with whom I slept. This phonogram appears only twice in Man’yōshū, both times to transcribe the place name Ou: 飫宇海 ou [NO] UMI (MYS 371), 飫宇能海 ou no UMI (MYS 536).

憶

應

OJ: o OC: *ʔək LH: ʔɨək EMC: ʔik GO: oku KN: yoku NOM: ức, SV: ức SK: uk, ek Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to LJS, appearing only sparingly in Shoki and Man’yōshū. There is only one example in Shoki, appearing in poetry. NSK 4 憶企都茂播 okitu mo pa It comes to the shore 陛爾播譽戻耐母 pye ni pa yoredomo the seaweed in the offing; 佐禰耐據茂 sanedoko mo but my wife comes not— 阿黨播怒介茂譽 atapanu kamo yo refusing to give me a bed. 播磨都智耐理譽 pamatu tidori yo Ah, the plovers on the beach! Another well known example of this phonogram comes from the name of the famous Man’yō poet, Yamanoue Okura 山 上 憶 良 (ca. 660–733). Ōno (1962:426) wonders if the traditional reading of okura is correct. It may have been okora, as we have good reason to believe, that he was of Paekche ancestry (Nakanishi 1972:174–178), thus either vowel /o/ or /u/ could have been inserted to represent what was probably his real name, Okla. The lingering velar in the Chinese phonological structure (the -k persisted into LMC) may have been used here to represent that. It should be noted that this phonogram and a related graph 億 are always used proceeding another phonogram that is transcribing a velarinitial syllable, thus ok-kV. Ōno (1962:450) provides the following examples: 億 岐 o-ki, 億計 o-kye, 億嶋 o-ki-sima, 億志 o-kosi. It would thus appear that this phonogram was used, with its final -k, to form a geminate that told the reader the next vowel was short. OJ: o LH: ʔɨŋh NOM: ưng, ứng

EMC: ʔiŋ SV: ưng, ứng

262

OC: *ʔəŋh GO: ou, omu KN: you SK: ung

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only once in Man’yōshū in the word 應婢 obi ‘belt’ (MYS 4130). The phonogram 應 appears a great number of times in Man’yōshū, but the usages fall into two groups: a graph to transcribe the debitive byesi ‘should, can, might have,’ or to represent its Chinese semantic meaning of ‘reply.’ There are many examples of this phonogram in Hokekyō ongi transcribed as wou, which is a later corruption of an earlier ou. There is also one example of this phonogram glossed as omu (Ogura 1995.2:208– 211), perhaps an attempt to deal with the original velar nasal coda.

隠 音 磤

邑

OJ: o OC: *ʔənʔ LH: ʔɨnʔ EMC: ʔɨn GO: omu KN: in NOM: ẩn, ổn SV: ấn, ẩn SK: un Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It was used quite frequently, being found in Kojiki (once), the imperial edicts of Shoku Nihongi (once), Izumo fudoki (once), and the text of Shoku Nihongi. Interestingly, all these examples represent the same place name: Oki Island 隠岐嶋. OJ: omi OC: *ʔəm LH: ʔɨm EMC: ʔim GO: omu KN: in NOM: âm SV: âm SK: um Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. While the LH and EMC data appear to show a high, front vowel, data from all three Sino-Xenic strains show a mid vowel (with the assumption that Go-on is originally showing əm). This is found in Shoku Nihongi in the name 家原音那 IPYEPARA Omina (712.9.3). OJ: ono OC: NA LH: NA EMC: NA GO: on KN: in NOM: NA SV: NA SK: un Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. Because of the rarity of this graph, it is difficult to garner very much Sino-Xenic information. The Go-on and SK information is all that I can locate, but it should be noted that the OC of the related graph 殷 is *ʔən, while the SV of the same graph is ân, demonstrating that all three Sino-Xenic strains appear to have had an initial unrounded vowel. This graph only appears in Nihon shoki in the mythical story of the birth of the island Onogoro: 磤馭慮嶋 onogoro SIMA. In Kojiki the name of this island is transcribed as 淤能碁呂嶋. OJ: opa, opo OC: *ʔəp LH: ʔip EMC: ʔip GO: ofu KN: ifu NOM: ấp, ọp SV: ấp SK: up Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage appears in the the Mino Census of 702 writing the name 邑等 Opoto (or perhaps Opato) and 邑等名 263

OpotoNA (or OpatoNA). Ōno (1977:33) suggests that these two are actually representing Opito. However, Nihon shoki, in the record of Jitō (in 693), has the name 巨勢邑治 glossed as Kose Opodi, which seems to suggest that the 邑 is here actually transcribing opo. Shoku Nihongi also perserves this same name of 巨勢朝臣邑治 (707.3.2) read as Kose Asomi Opodi. Interestingly, there are a few other names preserved in Shoku Nihongi: an emisi named 邑良志別君 Oporasi BETU KIMI (715.10.29), and a district 邑 久 郡 Opoku District (743.5.28). A slightly different reading is preserved in the district name 邑樂郡 glossed as Oparaki (769.4.27). This transcription is supported by the later usage in Wamyōshō, where the district is transcribed 於波良岐 oparaki. Interestingly, a wooden tablet was excavated from the ruins of the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694– 710), and on it appears the place name 大荒城評 OPOARAKWI District (MK 168). Regarding the graph 邑, this appears on several mokkan: 備前国邑久郡 Bizen Province Opoku District (MKK 10:91).

乙

OJ: oto, o OC: *ʔrət LH: ʔɨt EMC: ʔit GO: oti KN: itu NOM: ất, hắt SV: ất SK: ul Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in Kougryo-ki in a listing of noble ranks: 乙耆 Jet-ɡji (Takeuchi 1977:34). The earliest datable example of this in Japan appears in the Mino Census of 702 in the name 乙麻呂 Oto Maro. There is a single example of this usage in Nihon shoki: 乙等, but the text glosses this as Oto. This usage appears in Man’yōshū, in names such as 忍坂部乙麻呂 OSISAKABYE Oto Maro (MYS 71), 石上乙麻呂 ISWONOKAMI Oto Maro (MYS 368), and 能登臣乙美作 Noto [NO] OMI Oto Misaka (MYS 4069).

264

P 巴

伴

OJ: pa OC: *prâ LH: pa EMC: pa GO: fa KN: fa NOM: ba, bơ SV: ba SK: pha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, appearing in Wei zhi, in the toponym 巴 利 *pa-ri. It also appears on inscriptions on the peninsula. On the Kwangkaytho stele: 巴奴城 *pa-nɔ fortress. It also appears on the Silla Pyengsin-nyen stele (536 CE): 人只珎巴伊即刀 ‘…a person (named) *Kietorpa Itsitɑu.’ This phonogram also appears in a set of words ascribed to the language of Silla: 宇泥咩巴椰、彌々巴椰 unemye paya mimi paya. The Shoki compiler notes that the Silla men could not pronounce the names of the mountains Unebi and Miminasi correctly, so these became uneme and mimi, though this interpretation sounds forced. The following names of peninsular figures do contain this graph to transcribe pa: 賁巴委佐 Punpawasa, a man from Ara (Shoki glosses this name as Ponpawasa), 膳臣巴提便 KASIPADE [NO] OMI Padepi (which looks like a Japanese person born in Paekche, as the name does not seem sound Japanese), and a Paekche place name: 百濟加巴利濱 Kapari Beach in Paekche. Briefly, the reason I have relegated so-called ha-gyō phonograms to p- is because of careful research conducted by Miyake (1999, 2003a). As the SinoXenic data illustrate in this and other examples, the phonograms selected to represent what we call the ha-gyō series of sounds were for the most part a voiceless bilabial obstruent. I refer the reader to Miyake (2003a:164–166) for an explanation of examples where a bilabial fricative is used in Nihon shoki. OJ: pa OC: *phâns LH: phanh EMC: phwânh GO: ban KN: fan NOM: bạn, bọn SV: bạn SK: pan Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This usage only appears in the Keitai record of Nihon shoki. One simple example comes from the seventh year of Keitai, where the land known to the Korean as Ponpi is written 伴跛, papwi. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, eight times. MYS 796 伴之伎与之 pasiki yosi Ah, how beloved! 加久乃未可良尓 kaku nomwi kara ni This is how it turned out— 之多比己之 sitapi kosi she longingly followed after me 伊毛我己許呂乃 imwo ga kokoro no but nothing can be done 須別毛須別那左 subye mo subye nasa about my beloved’s heart.

265

半

叵

OJ: pa, pani OC: *pâns LH: panh EMC: pwânh GO: famu KN: fan NOM: bán SV: bán SK: pan Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This graph appears on the Inariyama tumulus sword inscription: 半弖比[垝] *pante-pi(kwa-i). It is highly probable that the final -n in pan was intended to show the pre-nasalization of the following syllable: pa-nde-pi-kwa-i. The final graph of this name has disappeared as the surface of the sword has degraded, but as there is another name with pikwa-i (比 垝) mentioned on the sword, this presumed reading is at least an educated guess. The phonogram 半 also appears in Paekche quotes found in Nihon shoki: 半古 pankwo, 散半奚旱岐 Sanpange Kanki ‘Prince Sanpange,’ and 散半下 Sanpanga ‘land of Sanpanga.’ It seems quite plausible, as noted above, that in all these examples, the final -n simply denotes prenasalization of the following syllable. This usage also appears in the earliest extant census, the Mino Census of 702: 半布里 Panipu Village. It also appears in documents preserved in the Shōsōin: 半太連稲村 Pada MURAZI INAMURA, and 半布 Panipu. Thus we see that this phonogram was used early on either to show prenasalization, or to transcribe pani. This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū, twice as what may be pani, and three times as pa. MYS 3846 You must not 法師等之 papusiRA GA PIGE no SORI KUPI violently pull on the horse 鬚乃剃杭 UMA TUNAGI that is tied up to the stubble 馬繋 ITAKU NA PIKI so on the chin of the bonze. 痛勿引曽 POPUSI pa nakamu The bonze will likely cry. 僧半甘 Some have interpreted this poem with 半甘, and the same in the next (MYS 3847), as panikamu ‘gnash one’s teeth in anger,’ but others interpret 半 as naka ‘half way between, in the middle’; thus NAKA+kamu = NAkamu. I have followed this interpretation for the present, though the other possibility is still plausible. MYS 849 能許利多留 nokoritaru Blossoms of the plum 由棄仁末自例留 yuki ni mazireru mixed in with 宇梅能半奈 ume no pana the snow that remains— 半也久奈知利曽 payaku na tiri so Do not scatter so quickly, 由吉波氣奴等勿 yuki pa kenu tomo even if the snow should vanish. OJ: pa OC: NA LH: NA EMC: pha GO: fa KN: fa NOM: NA SV: phả SK: pha Usage / History: This phonogram is a combination of 不 ‘not’ and 可 ‘can,’ and thus means ‘cannot.’ The reading of pa originates from fanqie: 不 p- + 可 -a. This rather strange usage belongs to the PBS, and appears on the Kwangkaytho stele: 叵富 山 Mount Papo. 266

This usage also appears twice in Man’yōshū: MYS 3256 SIKUSIKU NI She will probably not be 數々丹 OMOPAZU PITO pa thinking constantly of me, 不思人叵 ARURAMEDO but alas, I will not 雖有 be able to forget her 蹔文吾者 SIMASIKU mo A PA WASURAYENU KAMO for at least a little while. 忘枝沼鴨 Ōno (1977:580) also believes that MYS 385 contains 叵, but there is some reason to believe that this graph is actually a mistake for 可. Regardless, choosing either of these two graphs results in words that are difficult to interpret. Consider the following choices: Option 1 KUSA TORI panawa Cutting herbs, panawa… 草取叵奈和 Option 2 KUSA TORI kanawa Cutting herbs, kanawa… 草取可奈和 It is possible that panawa has something to do with letting go of the herbs that have been cut, a theory put forth by Satake et al. (1999.1:252–253), but the problem remains: what exactly is panawa? Is this one word? Two? It is difficult to decipher.

波

OJ: pa OC: *pâi LH: pɑi EMC: pwâ GO: fa KN: fa NOM: ba SV: ba SK: pha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, appearing as early as the Suiko era. It is found in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu in toponyms and personal names: 伊波礼 Ipare, 久波 太女王 Princess Kupada, 波止 利女王 Princess Patori, 難 波 Nanipa, and 阿米久尓意斯波留支比里尓波乃弥己等 Ame Kuniosi Paruki Pironipa no Mikoto (Great Ruler Kinmei). This phonogram appears 96 times in the liturgies: 山野能物波甘菜辛菜、青海原能物波波多能広物波多能狭物奥 都毛波邊津毛波爾至麻弖 YAMANWO no MONO pa AMANA KARANA, AWOMI [NO] PARA no MONO pa pata no PIROMONO pata no SAMONO, OKItu mwopa pyeTU mwopa ni ITARU made “Including things down to sweet herbs and bitter herbs from the mountain moors, things with wide fins and narrow fins from the ocean plains, and seaweed from the offing and close to the shore” (NT 5). This phonogram appears frequently on mokkan: 阿波国那賀郡 Apa Province Naga District (MK 2183), 乎波売 Wopamye (MK 3291), 謹申木未呂阿何波知・ 木未呂和礼波知 ‘I humbly declare, MOKU Mwiro, my begging bowl (pati), MOKU Mwiro, I am…’ (unnumbered tablet). This graph is used extensively to transcribe pa in Kojiki, as the following song demonstrates: KK 103 夜須美斯志 yasumisisi During the morning 和賀淤富岐美能 wa ga opokimi no our great lord of the heavenly 阿佐斗爾波 asatwo nipa eighty [rays] of sunshine 伊余理陀多志 iyoridatasi comes and stands, and

267

由布斗爾波 yuputwo nipa during the evening 伊余理陀多須 iyoridatasu he comes and stands. 和岐豆岐賀斯多能 wakiduki ga sita no How I would like to be 伊多爾母賀 ita nimo ga the board under 阿世袁 ase wo his armrest, my love. This phonogram also appears through out Nihon shoki, appearing in 20 annotational notes, and 80 poems: 罔象、此云美都波 ‘Deity of the water’ is read mitupa’ (NSG), 檍、此云阿波岐 ‘holm oak’ is read apagi’ (NSG), 毀、 此云波那豆 ‘destroy’ is read panatu’ (NSG). NSK 67 波那具波辭 panagupasi What beauty and detail 佐區羅能梅涅 sakura no mede these cherry blossoms have. 許等梅涅麼 kotomedeba If beauty is the same then 波椰區波梅涅孺 payaku pa medezu I should have loved sooner: 和我梅豆留古羅 wa ga meduru kwora my beloved little maidens. The phonogram 波 is also the primary graph used to transcribe pa in Man’yōshū, appearing 1575 times, more heavily in the phonogrammatic books of the anthology than in the others. MYS 11 WA GA seKWO pa If my beloved does not 吾勢子波 KARIPO TUKUrasu have thatch for the roof 借廬作良須 KAYA NAKU PA of the hut he is building, 草無者 KWOMATU GA MOTO no please cut some of the grass 小松下乃 KUSA wo KARASANE growing below the small pine. 草乎苅核 This is also the sole phonogram used to transcribe pa in the Footprints of the Buddha poetic sequence. BSS 14 舍加乃美阿止 saka no miato I copy the footprints 伊波尓宇都志於伎 ipa ni utusioki of Saka onto the stone, 由伎米具利 yukimeguri and walk around it 宇夜麻比麻都利 uyamapimaturi showing my reverence; 和我与波乎閇牟 wa ga yo pa wopemu my generation will be complete. 己乃与波乎閇牟 kono yo pa wopemu This time it will be complete. The cursive form of the graph 波 later yielded hiragana は.

播

OJ: pa OC: *pâih *pˤar-s § LH: pɑih EMC: pwâh GO: fa KN: fan NOM: vá, bệ SV: bá SK: pha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It is used to write the earliest transcription for 播磨 Parima Province. The reading of this as parima is underscored by the transcription 針間 NEEDLE-SPACE, PARI-MA, found in Kujiki. Some have believed that this is actually a two-graph representation of an originally older three-graph rendition (like 播利磨), but it should be noted that Baxter and Sagart reconstruct the Old Chinese form for 播 as *pˤar-s (2014:257–258). Schuessler compares 播 to Proto-Tibeto-Burman *bwâr, again suggesting that this phonogram originally had a liquid, thus providing the 268

possibility that *par > *paih. If this theory is accurate, then 播磨 would have represented par-ma. This phonogram later is clearly used to transcribe pa, however, as the following examples show. On a number of mokkan we find 播豆郡 Patu District in the province of Mikapa (MK 368). Another mokkan contains 播多郷 Pata Village (MKK 5:11). This phonogram is also used in Nihon shoki, eight times in the annotational notes, and 49 times in poetry: 葉木國、此云播擧矩爾 ‘Leaf-tree land’ is read pako kuni’ (NSG), 全剥、此云宇都播伎 ‘Peel completely off is read utupagi’ (NSG). NSK 3 阿磨佐箇屢 amasakaru Having crossed over 避奈菟謎廼 pinatu mye no the narrow, earthly straits, 以和多邏素西渡 iwatarasu setwo the provincial maidens 以嗣箇播箇柁輔智 isikapa kataputi stand on the banks of the river 箇多輔智爾 kataputi ni on the banks of the Ishikawa, 阿彌播利和柁嗣 ami pariwatasi spreading out their nets. 妹慮豫嗣爾 mero yosi ni Pull in those nets 豫嗣豫利據禰 yosi yorikone by pulling on the meshes! 以嗣箇播箇柁輔智 isikapa kataputi On the banks of the Ishikawa. Also, the following poem in Man’yōshū, from the earliest part of the collection, contains this pa. MYS 69 KUSA MAKURA If I had known that he 草枕 TABWI YUKU KIMI TO was our lord on a journey, 客去君跡 SIRAmaseba with grass as his pillow, 知麻世婆 KWISI no PANIpu ni I would have dyed your 崖乃埴布尓 仁寶播散麻思呼 nipopasamasi wo robes with the clay of the coast.

幡

OJ: pa OC: *phan LH: phuɑn EMC: phjwɐn GO: famu KN: fan NOM: phan SV: phan, phiên SK: pen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. On two different mokkan, we find a village called Pada. One is in Ki Province, written 幡陀郷, on a wooden fragment dated around the Tenpyō era (729–749), while another fragment dated around the era of Tenpyō Hōji (757–765) contains the village name transcribed as 幡太郷. This phonogram also appears in three songs in Nihon shoki: NSK 71 阿摩儾霧 amadamu Flying in the sky 箇留惋等賣 karu wotomye Princess Karu, 異哆儺介麼 ita nakaba people will notice 臂等資利奴陪瀰 pito sirinu bemi if I cry uncontrollably. 幡舍能夜摩能 pasa no yama no I will be like the dove 波刀能 patwo no of Mount Hasa 資哆儺企迩奈勾 sita naki ni naku who coos in a soft voice. 269

The editors of Jidai betsu kokugo daijiten (1967:898) claim that this phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū. It does appear in the reoccurring toponyms 因幡 inaba; other than that, several manuscripts have 幡 in two different poems (MYS 4092, 4111), but both examples are actually scribal errors for an earlier 播.

破

方

OJ: pa OC: *phâih LH: phɑih EMC: phwâh GO: fa KN: fa NOM: phá, vỡ SV: phá SK: pha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears as early as the Mino Census (702), in the name 不破 Pupa. It appears on a variety of mokkan, especially to transcribe Pupa District (不破評, MKK 13:154), a district in the province of Minwo (美濃国, MK 2899). There is also a personal name on one mokkan: 比売 太利・破奈利古 Pimyedari and Panarikwo (MKK 20:35). This phonogram is also used rather extensively in Nihon shoki, appearing in two annotational notes, and 53 times in poetry: 顯齋、此云于圖詩怡破毘 “ ‘spirit possession’ is read utusi ipapi” (NSG), 罔象女、此云瀰菟破廼迷 “ ‘the female deity of the water’ is mitupa no mye” (NSG). NSK 42 知破椰臂苔 tipaya pito Endowed with power 于旎能和多利珥 udi no watari ni you potent people 佐烏刀利珥 sawo twori ni who hold the staff. 破揶鷄務臂苔辭 payakyemu pito si at the ferry of Uji— 和餓毛胡珥虚務 wa ga mwokwo ni komu come rescue me, companions! The phonogram 破 also appears six times in Man’yōshū: MYS 632 ME nipa MITE What to do with my beloved? 目二破見而 TE nipa TORAYENU She is like the cassia tree 手二破不所取 TUKWI NO UTI NO that is on the moon 月内之 KATURA NO GOTOKI which you sees with your eyes, 楓如 IMWO wo IKA NI SEMU but cannot hold in your hand. 妹乎奈何責 OJ: pa OC: *paŋ LH: puɑŋ EMC: pjwaŋ GO: fau KN: fau NOM: phương, vuông SV: phương SK: pang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears on a mokkan from the Fujiwara Palace ruins (fl. 694–710), which predate the establishment of the Nara Capital, in a personal name: 五百木部連方曽 IPOKWIBYE MURAZI Paso (MK 1515). It is also used in the imperial edicts preserved in Shoku Nihongi, generally to represent the particle pa: 仲末呂可心乃逆仁惡状方知奴。然先仁之我奏之事方毎事仁 姦美謟天在家利 NAKAmaro ga KOKORO no SAKASIMA ni ASIKISAMA pa SIRInu. SIKA AREBA SAKI ni Siga MAWOSIsi KOTO pa KOTOGOTO ni KADAmi PETURAPIte ARIkyeri ‘We realize the evil intentions of the heart of Nakamaro. Because of this, the things that he had proclaimed earlier are completely false and fawning’ (SM 28). 270

This phonogram also appears once in Man’yōshū: MYS 3222 Mount Mimoro 三諸者 MIMOROPA PITO NO MORU YAMA is a mountain people watch over. 人之守山 MOTOPYE NIPA At the base of the mountain 本辺者 ASIBI PANA SAKI the andromeda blossoms, 馬酔木花開 SUWEPYE NIpa and at the tip of the mountain 末辺方 TUBAKWI PANA SAKU the camellia is in bloom. 椿花開 浦妙 URAGUPASI What a beautiful mountain it is. YAMA so A mountain like one 山曽 NAKU KWO MORU YAMA who watches over a crying child. 泣兒守山

防 芳 八

判

OJ: pa LH: buɑŋ EMC: bjwaŋ NOM: phòng SV: phòng Usage / History: See this usage under pwo.

OC: *baŋ GO: bau KN: fau SK: pang

OJ: pa OC: *phaŋ LH: phuɑŋ EMC: phjwaŋ GO: fau KN: fau NOM: NA SV: phương SK: pang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in the place name supa as found in Kojiki and Nihon shoki, transcribed as 周芳, a transcription which mirrors that in Kujiki: 周防. The graph is also used to transcribe place names such as 阿利芳 aripa, and 安利芳 aripa. OJ: pa, pati OC: *prêt LH: pɛt EMC: păt GO: fati KN: fatu NOM: bát SV: bát SK: phal Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in a name preserved in a document kept in Shōsōin: 八多 Pata, here apparently used for the final -t to show that the following vowel is short. Nihon shoki preserves the name 安八磨 郡 Apatima District. Another name, 安八萬王 Prince Apatima, appears in Shoku Nihongi. This usage also appears four times in Man’yōshū. MYS 762 KAMUsabu TO It is not because I have aged 神左夫跡 INABU NIPA ARAZU that I have rejected you. 不欲者不有 八多也八多 pata ya pata Supposing, just suppose— KAKU SITE NOTI ni shall I not be lonely 如是為而後二 佐夫之家牟可聞 sabusikyemu kamo after something like this? OJ: pa LH: phanh NOM: phán

EMC: phwânh SV: phán

271

OC: *phâns GO: fan KN: fan SK: phan

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears on a mokkan in one name: 凡 直判麻呂 OPOSI ATAPI Pamaro (MK 4525).

胖 簸

泮

絆

OJ: pa OC: *phâns LH: phanh EMC: phwânh GO: fan KN: fan NOM: phán SV: phán SK: phan Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Bungo fudoki in this phrase: 用療痂癬謂胖太氣 ‘(The water) is used to cure scabies. Scabies is read padake.’ OJ: pa OC: *pâih or * pâiʔ LH: pɑih, paiʔ EMC: pwâh LMC: pua GO: fa KN: fa NOM: NA SV: bả, phả SK: pha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in Nihon shoki, six times in the annotational notes, and eight times in poetry: 柱、此云美簸旨邏 ‘Pillar’ is read mipasira’ (NSG), 麓、山足曰麓。此云簸耶磨 ‘Base of the mountain refers to the foot of the mountain. It is read payama’ (NSG). NSK 74 飫瀰能古簸 omi no kwo pa The servant of the crown, 多倍能波伽摩嗚 tape no pakama wo arranging his hemp trousers 那々陛嗚絁 nanapye wo si and his seven-fold armor, 儞播儞陀々始諦 nipa ni tatasite is standing out in the garden. 阿遥比那陀須暮 ayepi nadasu mo He straightens his leg straps. OJ: pa OC: *phans LH: phɑnh EMC: phwânh LMC: phuan GO: fan KN: fan NOM: bận, bợn SV: phán SK: pan Usage / History: This usage belongs to LJS, appearing in two songs in Shoki: NSK 69 和餓儺勾菟摩 wa ga naku tuma I cry for my spouse. 去鐏去會 kozo koso It was last night 椰主區泮娜布例 yasuku pada pure that our flesh calmly touched. OJ: pa OC: *pâns LH: panh EMC: phwân LMC: phuan GO: fan KN: fan NOM: bận SV: bán SK: pan Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only once in Nihon shoki: NSK 66 佐瑳羅餓多 sasaragata Undo the string with 迩之枳能臂毛弘 nisiki no pimwo wo the bamboo whisk design— 等枳舎気帝 tokisakete that brocade string.

272

阿麻多絆泥受迩 多儾比等用能未

婆

房 薄

amata pa nezu ni tada pito ywo nomwi

I cannot spend many nights; let us spend but one night.

OJ: pa OC: *bâi LH: bɑi EMC: bwâ LMC: pɦua GO: ba KN: fa NOM: bà SV: ba, bà SK: pha Usage / History: This phonogram, when transcribing pa, belongs to the CBS. For the prenasalized version, see OJ: ba. This usage appears mainly in Nihon shoki, in two annotational notes, and 14 times in poetry: 波賦武志謀 papu musi mo ‘even the crawling insects,’ 一本、 以婆賦武志謀以下 ‘Another record has the following after papu musi mo… “even the crawling insects” ‘ (NSG). Notice that the original has 波 pa, while the annotational quote has 婆 pa. NSK 84 野麻登陸儞 yamatopye ni What I long to see 瀰我保指母能婆 migaposi mono pa is the palace of Tsunosashi, 於尸農瀰能 osinumi no this fortress built so high 莒能陀哿紀儺屢 kono takakwi naru in Oshinumi, in the vicinity 都奴娑之能瀰野 tunwosasi no miya of the province of Yamato. This phonogram also appears in a variety of imperial edicts in Shoku Nihongi：男能未父名負弖女波伊婆礼奴物尓阿礼夜 WOTOKWO nomwi TITI [NO] NA OPITE MYENOKWO pa iparenu MONO ni are ya ‘Only men carry the names of their fathers, so are women merely things that have no connection?’(SM 13). There are also a number of times when papa ‘mother’ is written 婆婆 in the edicts (in SM 7, 13, 23, 25). Jidai betsu kokugo daijiten (1967:898) claims that 婆 is used to represent pa in Man’yōshū. Ōno (1977:586) says that 婆 used for pa is doubtful, but does not provide any other information. I have found one example, MYS 3356, where the final stanza is 氣尓餘婆受吉奴 ke ni yopazu kinu ‘I came without panting.’ The Nishi Honganji witness, which has been the exemplar for most scholars over the years, has 婆, but there are a few witnesses that have 波, so it is difficult to decide the archetype. OJ: pa OC: *baŋ LH: buaŋ EMC: bjwaŋ LMC: fɦaŋ GO: bau KN: fau NOM: buồng, phóng SV: phóng SK: phang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in the toponyms 阿房 Apa. All other examples of this phonogram in Shoku Nihongi and Man’yōshū also represent this toponym. OJ: pa LH: phak NOM: bạc

OC: *phâk EMC: phâk LMC: pɦak GO: baku KN: faku SV: bạc SK: pak

273

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This usage only appears in Man’yōshū, and then only five times. MYS 1420 AWA YUKI KA Thinking that I see 沫雪香 puffs of snow 薄太礼尓零登 padare ni PURU to MIRU MADE ni fluttering down. 見左右二 NAGARApe TIRU pa What flower is it 流倍散波 NANI NO PANA so mo that is scattering its petals? 何物之花其毛

泊

盤

皤

OJ: pa OC: *bâk LH: bak EMC: bâk LMC: pɦak GO: baku KN: faku NOM: bạc SV: bạc SK: pak Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This phonogram is only found in Man’yōshū, appearing 15 times, all examples used to represent kapa ‘river,’ reflecting on the semantics of the graph ‘moor a boat.’ MYS 3605 和多都美乃 watatumi no Only on the day when 宇美尓伊弖多流 umi ni idetaru the Shikama River that empties 思可麻河泊 sikamagapa into the ocean of the Sea Deity stops flowing 多延無日尓許曽 tayemu PI ni koso 安我故非夜麻米 a ga kwopwi yamame will my longing for you cease. OJ: pa OC: *bân LH: ban EMC: bwân LMC: pɦuan GO: bamu KN: fan NOM: bàn, mâm SV: bàn SK: pan Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This graph appears several times in Man’yōshū. The obvious example appears in MYS 933, in the stanzas: 鰒珠 / 左盤尓潜出 APABI TAMA / sapa ni KADUKIDE ‘diving and bringing back many abalone jewels….’ The problematic example is found in MYS 2522: 恨登 / 思 狭名盤 URAMESI to / OMOPU sapa ni ‘often I think how vexing…,’ where 盤 is supposedly used for pani. Recent scholarship, however, finds this reading to be suspicious, and since Sengaku provided no rendering for us, we are left with little other evidence. OJ: pa LH: bɑi EMC: ba LMC pɦua NOM: NA SV: bà Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appearing four times in two songs. NSK 80 婀拕羅斯枳 atarsiki 偉儺謎能陀倶彌 winabye no tagumi 柯該志須彌儺皤 kakesi suminapa 274

OC: *bai GO: ba KN: fa SK: pen appears mainly in Nihon shoki, Such a pitiful waste, that inking string used by the Inabe carpenter.

旨我那稽麼 si ga nakyeba If he is no longer here, 拕例柯々該武預 tare ka kakemu yo what skilled person will remain 婀拕羅須彌儺皤 atara suminapa to use the inking string? This phonogram also appears once in Man’yōshū: MYS 434 加座皤夜能 kazapaya no The white azaleas on the coastline of 美保乃浦廻之 mipo no URAMWI NO SIRATUTUzi Miho with swift winds— 白管仕 MIREdomo SABUSI I still feel empty, thinking of 見十方不怜 NAKI PITO OMOPEBA the person who is no longer here. 無人念者

羽

齒

OJ: pa OC: *waʔ LH: *waʔ EMC: wua GO: u KN: u NOM: vũ, võ SV: vũ SK: wu Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ pa ‘feather.’ It appears rather early in the Japanese corpus. It appears on a mokkan excavated from the Fujiwara Palace ruins (fl. 694–710), predating the Taihō Codes of 701: 尾治国羽栗評 WOPARI [NO] KUNI PAKURI KOPORI ‘District of Hakuri in the province of Owari.’ This usage also appears often in Kojiki, in names such as 羽山津見神 PAYAMATUMI [NO] KAMWI ‘the deity Hayamatumi’ (KG), 尾 治 丹 羽 臣 WOPARI taniPA OMI ‘the Omi of Tanba in Owari’ (KG), 羽咋君 PAGUPI [NO] KIMI ‘the Hagui Kimi’ (KG). This semantogram is used somewhat sparingly in Nihon shoki: 羽明玉 PAKARUTAMA ‘the deity Hakarutama’ (NSG), 羽振苑 PAPURI SONO ‘garden of Hafuri’ (NSG), and 高 羽 川 上 TAKAPA [NO] KAPAKAMI ‘upstream of the Takaha River’ (NSG). There are roughly 40 examples to be found in Man’yōshū: MYS 12 或頭云 Another manuscript has the beginning as: WA GA PORISI But I have seen Kojima, 吾欲 KWO SIMA PA MISI wo which I had wanted to see… 子嶋羽見遠 OJ: pa OC: *k-hjəʔ LH: tśhəʔ EMC: tśhɨʔ GO: si KN: si NOM: xỉ SV: xỉ SK: chi Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ pa ‘teeth.’ It appears a few times in Kojiki, as in the following names: 道之長乳齒神 MITI NO NAGATI PA [NO] KAMWI ‘the deity Nagachiha of the path’ (KG), and 蝮之水齒別命 TADIPI NO MIDUPA WAKE [NO] MIKOTO Prince Mizuha of Tajihi’ (KG). There are a few examples of this semantogram in Nihon shoki, in names such as 水齒郎媛 MIDUPA [NO] IRATUMYE ‘Princess Mizuha’ (NSG), 瑞齒別天皇 MIDUPA WAKE [NO] SUMYERA MIKOTO ‘Great Ruler Mizuha Wake’ (NSG). This kungana also appears 11 times in Man’yōshū: MYS 1135 It appears that there is 氏河齒 UDIKAPA PA no shallow spot in Uji River. 与杼湍無之 yodoSE NAKARAsi 275

阿自呂人 aziro PITO I can hear the voices of people PUNE YWOBAPU KOWE at the fishing weir here and 舟召音 there calling for the boat. 越乞所聞 WOTI KOTI KIKOYU This kungana also appears once in Harima fudoki, in 大 御 津 齒 命 OPOMITUPA [NO] MIKOTO ‘the deity Ōmituha.’ It also appears once in the Hizen fudoki in the following note: 土齒池、俗言岸爲比遲波 ‘PIDIPA Pond, people in this area call the bank of a river pidipa.’

葉

者

博

OJ: pa OC: *lap or *lep LH: jap EMC: jiäp GO: efu KN: efu NOM: diệp, giấp, xẹp SV: diệp SK: yep Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ pa ‘leaf.’ The earliest datable usage appears in the Mino Census of 702: 木葉賣 KWIPAmye. Jidai betsu kokugo jiten (1967:899) claims this semantogram appears in Kojiki, and I have found a single example, 葉広熊 PABIROKUMA appears to be a strictly semantogrammatic usage, ‘big like a broad leaf.’ This kungana does appear in Nihon shoki: 葉木国野 PAKOKUNINWO, the name of a deity (NSG), and 葉田 PADA, a surname (NSG). This usage appears in Man’yōshū 13 times. MYS 705 In a dream I saw 葉根蘰 PANEKADURA IMA SURU IMWO wo the young maiden who 今為妹乎 IME NI MITE now wears the coming of age 夢見而 KOKORO NO UTI ni hair ornament, and in my heart 情内二 KWOPWI WATARU KAMO I continue to long for her. 戀渡鴨 OJ: pa OC: *taʔ LH: tśaʔ EMC: tśjaʔ GO: sia KN: sia NOM: giả SV: giả SK: cya Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ pa a topic marker, or focus particle. This usage appears a few times in Man’yōshū. The following example contains 者 once as a kungana, and then once as a topic marker. MYS 3800 者田為々寸 PADA SUSUKI Like pampas grass 穂庭莫出 PO NIPA NA IDE TO against my skin, my heart OMOPITARU realizes that I should not let 思而有 KOKORO PA SIRAYU my feelings show on my face. 情者所知 WARE MO YORINAMU I will come over to you. 我藻将依 OJ: paka OC: *pâk LH: pak EMC: pâk GO: faku KN: faku NOM: bác, bạc SV: bác SK: pak Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in a document preserved in Shōsōin in the name 田邊博多 TAbye Pakata, which name is also written as 276

田邊博太. A mokkan from the Nara Captial contains the toponyms 曽博郷 Sopaka Village (MK 343). Kojiki contains one example of this phonogram in the toponyms 掖上博多山 Mount Pakata in WAKIGAMI (KG). There are five examples of this phonogram in Nihon shoki, but these are limited to two toponyms: 博多 Pakata (NSG), and 博麻 Pakama (NSG).

伯

法 閉

OJ: paka OC: *prâk LH: pak EMC: pɐk LMC: pa:jk GO: fiyaku KN: faku NOM: bác, bạc SV: bác SK: pak Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in the Mino Census of 702, in the name 伯麻呂 Paka Maro. A document in Shōsōin also has the name 大 伴小伯 OPOTOMO WOpaka. This usage also appears on a variety of mokkan. The name Paka Maro appears a number of times, written variously as 伯麻呂 (MK 12836) and 伯末呂 (MKK 5:86). The better known usage, however, is of the province name 伯耆国 Papagi, which is written as 伯岐 in Kujiki. OJ: papu OC: *pap LH: puap EMC: pjwɐp LMC: fa:p GO: fofu KN: fafu NOM: phắp, phép SV: pháp SK: phep Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears on an epitaph dated the third year of Wadō (710), representing the toponyms 法美郡 Papumi District. This phonogram also appears in Harima fudoki in 法太里 Papuda Village. OJ: pe OC: *pît(s) LH: pes, pet EMC: pieih, piet GO: fei KN: fei NOM: bế, bé, bấy SV: bế SK: phyey, pyel Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The oldest datable example appears in the Taihō Census of 702. In the Mino Census we find names such as 多閉賣 Tapemye, 古閉 Kwope, and 意閉賣 Opemye. This phonogram appears 35 times in the liturgies: 御服波明多閇照多閇、和多閇荒多閇爾仕奉弖 MISO pa AKARUtape TERUtape NIKItape ARAtape ni TUKAPEMATURIte “As for the clothing (we will make) fabric that is brilliant, glowing, soft, and coarse…” (NT 2). This phonogram appears on a few excavated wooden tablets: 羅久於母閉皮 -raku omope pa ‘as for thinking about…’ (MK 730), 奈閉 nape ‘a seedling?’ (unnumbered tablet). This phonogram is the sole phonogram used in Kojiki to transcribe pe in poetry: KK 100 爾比那閇夜爾 nipinapeya ni At the palace of 淤斐陀弖流 opwidateru the First Fruits thickly grows 毛毛陀流 mwomwodaru a zelkova tree 都紀賀延波 tukwigaye pa with its many branches, 本都延波 pwotuye pa the top branches 阿米袁淤幣理 ame wo opyeri spreading out to cover the sky. 277

This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, twice in the annotational notes, and three times in song: 齊此云牟吾閉 “ ‘(The name) 齊’ is read mugwope” (NSG). It also is used in the name Ape: 阿閉臣 Ape OMI. NSK 43 智破揶臂等 tipaya pito Very powerful 于旎能和多利珥 udi no watari ni those catalpa trees 和多利涅珥 wataride ni standing by the bank 多氐屢 tateru of the ferry. 阿豆瑳由瀰摩由瀰 adusayumi mayumi To make a true catalpa bow, 伊枳羅牟苔 ikiramu to I thought in my heart, 虚々呂破望閉耐 kokoro pa mopedo to cut down a catalpa tree. 伊斗羅牟苔 itworamu to I thought in my heart 虚々呂破望閉耐 kokoro pa mopedo to hold one of those trees. 望苔幣破 motopye pa I thought of you 枳瀰烏於望臂涅 kimi wo omopide at the trunk of the tree. 須慧幣破 suwepye pa I remembered you 伊暮烏於望比涅 imo wo omopide when I looked up at the crown. 伊羅那鷄區 iranakyeku I felt such sorrow 曾虚珥於望比 soko ni omopi thinking of you there. 伽那志鷄區 kanasikyeku I felt such sadness 虚々珥於望臂 koko ni omopi thinking about you here. 伊枳羅儒層區屢 ikirazu so kuru I left without cutting down 阿豆瑳由瀰摩由瀰 adusayumi mayumi the tree for the catalpa bow. This phonogram also appears 14 times in Man’yōshū, as the following example illustrates: MYS 1782 YUKI koso pa Surely the snow will have 雪己曾波 PARUPI KIYUrame disappeared on a spring day. 春日消良米 KOKORO sape Because you likely will have 心佐閇 KIYE USEtare ya disappeared even from my heart, 消失多列夜 KOTO mo KAYWOPANU having no news from you. 言母不往来 This graph is also used exclusively for pe in the Footprints of the Buddha poetic sequence: BSS 20 伊加豆知乃 ikaduti no Like the flash 比加利乃期止岐 pikari no gotoki of lightning, 己礼乃微波 kore no mwi pa this body is always 志尓乃於保岐美 sini no opokimi accompanied by 都祢尓多具覇利 tune ni tagupyeri the great lord of death; 於豆閇可良受夜 odu pekarazu ya should we not be frightened? This last example should be read bekarazu, but I have not been able to find other examples where 閉 is read be. One of two possibilities exist: the reader would naturally prenasalize pe in reading (following odu), or this is an example of an earlier form of later beki, though this possibility is weaker because of a lack of supporting evidence.

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閇 拜

倍

OJ: pe OC: *pît(s) LH: pes, pet EMC: pieih, piet GO: fei KN: fei NOM: bế, bé, bấy SV: bế SK: phyey, pyel Usage / History: This is a variant graph for 閉 pe (see above). OJ: pe OC: *prêts LH: pɛs EMC: păih GO: fai KN: fai NOM: bái SV: bái SK: poy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Nara era documents, but only to write the surname Ape 阿拜 or 安拜. It also appears on a number of mokkan: 播多郷拝志里 Pata Village Pesi Hamlet (unnumbered tablet), 丹波国 何鹿郡拝師郷 Tanipa Province IKARUka District Pesi Village (MKK 9:12), and 伊賀国阿拝郡 Iga Province Ape District (unnumbered tablet). It also appears once in Man’yōshū to write the following: MYS 913 川津鳴 奈拜 KAPADU NAKU nape ‘along with the frogs croaking....’ The nape here is difficult to interpret. If this is a particle, its use in the poem is difficult to figure out; thus, most modern scholars see 拜 as a mistake for 利 (or perhaps 理). If this is true, then this graph would not be present in Man’yōshū. More work needs to be conducted. OJ: pe OC: *bə̂ʔ LH: bəʔ EMC: bwậiʔ LMC: pɦuaj GO: bai KN: fai NOM: bội, vội SV: bội SK: poy, phay Usage / History: The phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears four times in the annotational notes, and nine times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 船枻、此云浮那能倍 “ ‘bow of a ship’ is read puna no pe” (NSG). NSK 102 訶之胡瀰弖 kasokwomite In reverence 菟伽倍摩都羅武 tukapematuramu we will serve the throne. 烏呂餓瀰弖 worogamite Prostrate on the ground 菟伽倍摩都羅武 tukapematuramu we will serve the throne. 宇多豆紀摩都流 utadukwimaturu I present this song. This phonogram also appears in Nara era documents, such as the imperial edicts in Shoku Nihongi (senmyō): 白賜倍婆 MAWOSI TAMApeba ‘when we declare...’ (SM 6). In Man’yōshū this is the primary phonogram used to transcribe pe, appearing 188 times in the anthology: MYS 53 PUDIPARA NO How envious I am 藤原之 OPOMIYA tukape of the maidens 大宮都加倍 born to serve in 安礼衝哉 areTUKU YA WOTOMYE NO TOMO PA the great palace 處女之友者 TOMOSIkiro kamo of Fujiwara. 乏吉呂賀聞 See the same graph under OJ be. 279

陪

OJ: pe OC: *bə̂ LH: bə EMC: bwậi LMC: pɦuaj GO: bai KN: fai NOM: bồi SV: bồi SK: poy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and it appears once in the annotational notes and 11 times in the song of Nihon shoki: 御甂、此云彌那陪 “ ‘a pan (for frying fish)’ is read minape.” NSK 97 美母慮我紆陪儞 mimoro ga upe ni (Music) will reach to the top 能朋梨陀致 noporitati of Mount Mimoro. 倭我彌細麼 wa ga miseba When I gaze down 都奴娑播符 tunusapapu on Iware Pond, 以簸例能伊開能 ipare no ike no with rocks covered in vines 美那矢駄府 minasitapu even the fish 紆鳴謨 uwo mo come to the surface 紆陪儞堤々那皚矩 upe ni dete nageku and lament your passing. This phonogram also appears in the imperial edicts: 盧舎那仏乃慈賜比福 波陪 rusiana POTOKE no UTUKUSIBI TAMApi SAKIpape ‘Bless us by bestowing the mercy of the Rushana Buddha on us...’ (SM 12).

背

OJ: pe OC: *bə̂kh LH: bəh EMC: bwậi LMC: pɦuaj GO: bai KN: fai NOM: bối, bội SV: bối SK: poy, phay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing once in Nihon shoki, in the annotational notes: 嚴瓮、此云怡途背 “ ‘sacred jugs’ are read itupe” (NSG).

杯

OJ: pe OC: *pə̂ LH: pə EMC: pwậi LMC: puaj GO: fai KN: fai NOM: bôi SV: bôi SK: poy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears only in Nihon shoki, once in an annotational note, and three times in poetry: 棄戸、此云須多杯 “ ‘throw away’ is read sutape” (NSG). NSK 107 伊波能杯儞 ipa no pe ni On top of a rock 古佐屢渠梅野倶 kwosaru kome yaku a cute monkey cooks rice. 渠梅多儞母 kome dani mo Come and eat the rice 多礙底騰裒囉栖 tagete toporase then go on through, 歌麻之之能烏膩 kamasisi no wodi you old goat.

俳

OJ: pe LH: bɛi NOM: bài, vài

OC: *brə̂i EMC: băi LMC: pɦa:j GO: bai KN: fai SV: bài SK: poy

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Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears only in Nihon shoki, but only once in the annotational notes: 湌泉之竃、此云譽母都俳遇比 “ ‘hearth of the underworld’ is read yomotu pegupi” (NSG).

沛

珮

戸

OJ: pe OC: *pâts LH: pɑs EMC: pwâih LMC: phuaj GO: fai KN: fai NOM: phai, phảy, phới SV: phái, bái SK: phay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears once in a song in Nihon shoki: NSK 64 於朋佐箇珥 oposaka ni I met a young maiden 阿布夜烏等謎烏 apu ya wotomye wo on my way to Ōsaka. 瀰知度沛麼 miti twopeba I asked the way— 哆駄珥破能邏摩孺 tada ni pa norazu she did not say go straight. 哆𡺸摩知烏能流 tagimati wo noru She said take the Tagima Road. OJ: pe OC: *bêh LH: bəh EMC: bwậi LMC: pɦuaj GO: bai KN: fai NOM: NA SV: bội SK: phay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears in one song in Nihon shoki: NSK 6 阿軻娜磨廼 akadama no The radiant globe 比訶利播阿利登 pikari pa ari to is wonderfully brilliant, 比鄧播伊珮耐 pito pa ipedo so people may say, 企弭我譽贈比志 kimi ga yosopisi but I have now realized 多輔妬勾阿利計利 taputwoku arikyeri your brilliance is the finest. OJ: pe OC: *ɡâʔ LH: ɡɑʔ > ɡɔ EMC: ɣuoʔ GO: go KN: ko NOM: hộ, họ, hụ SV: hộ SK: hwo Usage / History: This kungana is explained under OJ: two as representing ‘door,’ but here it represents ‘house’ or ‘census,’ as pe was used as a counter for houses. The earliest datable use of this kungana is in the Mino Census of 702: 尾治戸稲寸女 WOPARIPE INAKIMYE, and in the Chikuzen Census from the say time: 飛鳥戸 ASUKAPE. This usage appears very rarely in Kojiki, one example is the potent phrase 黄 泉戸喫 YOMOTUPEGUPI ‘eating of the hearth of the underworld.’ It is also used very sparingly in Nihon shoki, 飛 鳥 戸 ASUKAPE (NSG) and 社 戸 臣 KOSOPE OMI (NSG). A few examples are also found in Man’yōshū: 斎戸乎 IPAPIPE wo ‘sacred jars’ (MYS 379), 言齒五十戸常 KOTO PA IPEDO ‘though I say this or that...’ (MYS 674).

281

綜 經 甕 缻 卑

OJ: pe OC: *tsûŋh LH: tsouŋh EMC: tsuoŋh GO: so KN: sou NOM: NA SV: tộng, tống SK: cong Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ pe ‘warp, as in weaving cloth.’ This usage appears in Nihon shoki, in examples such as the name 大 綜 麻 杵 OPOPESWOKI (NSG). The same usage appears in Kujiki. This graph also appears once in a Man’yōshū poem: 綜 麻 形 乃 PESWO KATA no ‘At Hesokata…’ (MYS 19). OJ: pe OC: *kêŋ LH: keŋ EMC: kɛjŋ GO: kiau KN: kei NOM: kinh SV: kinh SK: kyeng Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ the infinitive of the verb pu ‘set up a warp.’ This usage appears in Man’yōshū: 奥真經而 OKU MAPETE ‘to the very depths’ (MYS 1024); 名蘇經乍見武 NAswoPETUTU MImu ‘I will gaze (at the flower) as I compare it to you’ (MYS 1448). OJ: pe OC: *ʔôŋh LH: ʔoŋh EMC: ʔuŋh GO: u KN: wou NOM: ống, SV: ống, ung, úng, ủng SK: wong Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the read OJ pe ‘sacred jar.’ This complicated graph is often abbreviated to 瓮. This kungana appears twice in Nihon shoki: 吾瓮海 人烏摩呂 APE AMA Womaro (NSG), 穗瓮君 瓮、此云倍 POPE [NO] KIMI, 瓮 ‘sacred jug’ is to be read pe (NSG). OJ: pe OC: NA LH: NA EMC: kwan GO: kuwan KN: kuwan NOM: quán SV: quán SK: kwan Usage / History: This extremely rare usage is a kungana, calling to mind OJ pe ‘jar.’ This phonogram is a simplified form of 罐. This usage is only found once in Man’yōshū, in the place name 木缻之宮乎 KWIPE NO MIYA wo ‘(who founded) the Kihe Palace…’ (MYS 196). OJ: pi < pe OC: *pe LH: pie EMC: pjie GO: fi KN: fi NOM: ti, te SV: ti SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, and I have argued that this is a derogatory graph inserted by the Chinese historiographical office (2008:7). This graph appears in the titles of the queen of Wa and her enemy neighbor king: 卑 弥呼 *pe-me-ho, and 卑弥弓呼 *pe-me-kuŋ-ho. This phonogram also appears in the chieftain title 卑狗 *pe-kɔ. The usage of this graph is also found in an

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inscription on the peninsula. It appears on the Koguryŏ epitaph of Moturu: 鮮卑 □濊使人 ‘Sian-pie-X, a messenger from Wai.’ Because of the derogatory nature of the graph— 卑 means ‘base’ or ‘vular’—this graph appears somewhat infrequently in the OJ corpus. This graph appears twice on excavated wooden tablets, but only one has enough information to be of any value: 卑志釘 pisiKUGI ‘rhombus nail (a nail with the head in the shape of a rhombus’ (MK 5). In Kojiki this graph appears once, in the name 天之菩卑能命 AME NO Pwopi no MIKOTO (KG). In Nihon shoki this graph is used to transcribe pi twice, once in an annotational note, and once in a song: 饒速日、此云儞藝波椰卑 “ ‘Nigi Hayahi’ is read nigi payapi” (NSG). NSK 18 於朋耆妬庸利 opotwo ywori Occupying himself 于介伽卑氐 ukagapite with a princess, 許呂佐務苔 korosamu to he in unaware 須羅句塢志羅珥 suraku wo sirani that someone spies a chance 比賣那素寐須望 pimye naswobisu mo from the large gate to kill him. This phonogram appears once in Man’yōshū, but it is not noted in Ōno (1977:589): MYS 846 可須美多都 kasumi tatu Mist rises on this 那我岐波流卑乎 nagaki parupi wo long spring day— 可謝勢例杼 kazaseredo I have stuck a sprig of 伊野那都可子岐 iya natukasiki plum blossom in my hair, but 烏梅能波那可毛 ume no pana kamo how I long for those plums.

比

OJ: pi OC: *piʔ LH: piʔ EMC: piʔ GO: bi KN: fi NOM: tỉ SV: tỉ, tí SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Kwangkaytho stele: 豆 比 鴨 岑 韓 *doh-piʔ-ʔap-dzim-gɑn (kɑr), 比 利 城 *piʔ-ri fortress. This phonogram also appears on the Silla King Cin-hung stele commemorating his hunt in Hamcyu (568 CE), in a name: 喙部服冬智大阿干比知夫知 *puktouŋpiʔtibuti of the fifth rank, belonging to the *tśuas (first) District. This phonogram is also preserved in the inscription on the Inariyama tumulus sword (ca. fifth century), 意富比垝 *opo-pikwa-i and 半弖比(垝) *pante-pi(kwa-i). This graph appears in Suiko era texts, writing names such as: 比里古 Pirikwo, 伊斯比女 Isi Pimye ‘Princess Ishi,’ 止余美気加志支夜比売天皇 Toyo Mike Kasikiya Pimye [NO]SUMYERA [NO] MIKOTO ‘Great Ruler Toyo Mike Kashikiya Hime (Suiko).’ The earliest datable relic which uses this phonogram is from a mokkan dated the ninth month of what would be the year 694: 知田評阿具比里 Agupi Village in TiTA District (of Owari Province, MK 162). This phonogram is used in the liturgies 56 times, though some double as a prenasalized version: 参入罷 出人能選比所知志神等能伊須呂許比阿禮比坐乎 MAWIRIDURU PITO no ERAbiSIRAsi KAMWITATI no isurokopi arebi MASU wo “…who has authority over 283

the selection (of good and evil) of the people who enter and leave the palace and (rectifies) the terror and violence of the deities…” (NT 8). This is the primary graph used to transcribe pi in Kojiki: KK 47 本牟多能 pomuta no Ōsazaki, 比能美古 pi no mikwo the august son 意富佐邪岐 oposazaki of the sun of Homuta! 意富佐邪岐 oposazaki Yes, Ōsazaki— 波加勢流多知 pakaseru tati the sword that he wears 母登都流藝 moto turugi dangles at his waist, 須惠布由 suwe puyu and the tip sways back and forth. 布由紀能 puyukwi no Back and forth 須加良賀志多紀能 sukara ga sitakwi no like leaves falling to the ground 佐夜佐夜 saya saya below the barren winter trees. Reminiscent of Kojiki, which tends to favor one graph per syllable, the Footprints of the Buddha poems also use 比 exclusively to transcribe pi: BSS 1 美阿止都久留 miato tukuru The resounding sound of 伊志乃比鼻伎波 isi no pibiki pa the rock where the footprints 阿米尓伊多利 ame ni itari are carved reaches to heaven; 都知佐閇由須礼 tuti sape yusure the earth even reverberates. 知々波々賀多米尓 titi papa ga tame ni For father and mother— 毛呂比止乃多米尓 moropito no tame ni for all people. Nihon shoki also uses this phonogram 14 times in the annotational notes and 62 times song: 大日孁貴、此云於保比屢咩能武智 ‘(The name of the deity) Ōhirume no muchi is read opopirume no muti’ (NSG), 泉津平坂、此云余母都 比羅佐可 ‘The flat plain of Yomi is read yomotu pirasaka’ (NSG), 蘿、此云比 舸礙 ‘Club moss is read pikage’ (NSG). NSK 94 播屢 parupi We went by Kasuga, 箇須我嗚須擬 kasuga wo sugwi written ‘spring-day.’ 逗摩御慕屢 tumagomoru We traveled through 嗚佐裒嗚須擬 wosapo wo sugwi Osaho, the hidden wife. 拕摩該儞播 tamake nipa On the jeweled ritual plate 伊比佐倍母理 ipi sape mori we piled rice high. 拕摩慕比儞 tamamopi ni The jeweled ritual cup 瀰逗佐倍母理 midu sape mori we filled with water. 儺岐曾裒遲喩倶謀 nakisopoti yuku mo On goes the procession, 柯㝵比謎阿婆例 kage pimye apare weeping and wet; poor Kagehime. This phonogram is the principal graph used in Man’yōshū to represent pi, used 636 times. MYS 479 波之吉可聞 pasiki kamo How distressing! MIKWO NO MIKOTO no The road to Ikuzi 皇子之命乃 安里我欲比 arigaywopi that the august prince

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見之活道乃 MESIsi IKUDI no had always traveled down MITI pa AREnikyeri has been abandoned. 路波荒尓鷄里 This graph is later simplified to represent katakana ヒ.

必

賓

OJ: pi OC: *pit LH: pit EMC: pjiet GO: fiti KN: fitu NOM: tất SV: tất SK: phil Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. In the earliest known examples with this phonogram used as a phonogram, it appears to have been selected to represent pi plus a second syllable with an alveolar. The earliest known example appears in personal names, such as 必登 Pito, 訓志必登 Kusipito, 必志 Pisi. On a mokkan fragment we find this place name: 近江国□□郡必佐郷 APUMI [NO] KUNI, XX District, Pisa Village (MKK 11:23). This graph is generally avoided in most texts, because of its grammatical function in Chinese, 必 ‘surely, certainly.’ I have found one example in Nihon shoki, though there is some textual confusion: NSK 92 擧騰我瀰儞 kotogami ni The shadow of the zither 枳謂屢箇皚必謎 kiwiru kagepimye above my beloved-to-be— 拕摩儺羅磨 tama naraba if she were a jewel, 婀我裒屢柁摩能 a ga poru tama no she would be my favorite kind: 婀波寐之羅陀魔 apabisiratama a white pearl from an abalone. Some manuscripts of Nihon shoki have 必謎 in the second stanza as 比謎, where there has been confusion between 必 and 比. I have followed the NKBT editors in seeing 必 as the archetype (Ienaga et al. 1986.2:605). This usage is most prominent in Man’yōshū, where it appears 13 times in phonetic script, and which seven, or over half, follow the pattern noted above: 必 is followed by an alveolar. Consider two examples: MYS 850 由吉能伊呂遠 yuki no iro wo Stealing the color 有婆比弖佐家流 ubapite sakyeru of the snow as they bloom, 有米能波奈 ume no pana the plum blossoms 伊麻佐加利奈利 ima sakari nari are now at their best— 弥牟必登母我聞 mimu pito mo ga mo if only people could see them. MYS 872 夜麻能奈等 yama no na to Wanting to pass on 伊賓都夏等可母 ipitugye to kamo the name of this mountain— 佐用比賣何 saywopimye ga could it be that Princess Sayo 許能野麻能閇仁 kono yama no pe ni is on the mountain top 必例遠布利家牟 pire wo purikyemu waving her scarf? OJ: pi OC: *pin LH: pin EMC: pjien GO: fimu KN: fin NOM: tân SV: tân SK: pin Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears twice in Man’yōshū. 285

MYS 872 夜麻能奈等 伊賓都夏等可母 佐用比賣何 許能野麻能閇仁 必例遠布利家牟

臂

避

yama no na to ipitugye to kamo saywopimye ga kono yama no pe ni pire wo purikyemu

Wanting to pass on the name of this mountain— could it be that Princess Sayo is on the mountain top waving her scarf?

OJ: pi OC: *pekh LH: pieh EMC: pjieh LMC: pji GO: fi KN: fi NOM: NA SV: tí SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears 17 times in the poetry of Shoki: NSK 43 智破揶臂等 tipaya pito Very powerful 于旎能和多利珥 udi no watari ni those catalpa trees 和多利涅珥 wataride ni standing by the bank 多氐屢 tateru of the ferry. 阿豆瑳由瀰摩由瀰 adusayumi mayumi To make a true catalpa bow, 伊枳羅牟苔 ikiramu to I thought in my heart, 虚々呂破望閉耐 kokoro pa mopedo to cut down a catalpa tree. 伊斗羅牟苔 itworamu to I thought in my heart 虚々呂破望閉耐 kokoro pa mopedo to hold one of those trees. 望苔幣破 motopye pa I thought of you 枳瀰烏於望臂涅 kimi wo omopide at the trunk of the tree. 須慧幣破 suwepye pa I remembered you 伊暮烏於望比涅 imo wo omopide when I looked up at the crown. 伊羅那鷄區 iranakyeku I felt such sorrow 曾虚珥於望比 soko ni omopi thinking of you there. 伽那志鷄區 kanasikyeku I felt such sadness 虚々珥於望臂 koko ni omopi thinking about you here. 伊枳羅儒層區屢 ikirazu so kuru I left without cutting down 阿豆瑳由瀰摩由瀰 adusayumi mayumi the tree for the catalpa bow. This phonogram appears once in Man’yōshū: MYS 1783 MATUGAPYERI Waiting your return 松反 have you become dumb? 四臂而有八羽 sipiTE ARE ya PA 三栗 MITUGURI NO You do not come to court NAKA NOBORIKONU to make your middle report, 中上不来 麻呂等言八子 maro to IPU YATUKWO the servant known as Maro. OJ: pi LH: bieh NOM: tị

OC: *bekh EMC: bjieh LMC: pɦji GO: bi KN: fi SV: tị SK: phi

286

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears five times only in Nihon shoki song. In NSK 2 it is used to transcribe the name of a deity: 阿泥素企多伽 避顧禰, Adi Suki Takapikwone (NSG). NSK 3 阿磨佐箇屢 amasakaru Having crossed over 避奈菟謎廼 pinatu mye no the narrow, earthly straits, 以和多邏素西渡 iwatarasu setwo the provincial maidens 以嗣箇播箇柁輔智 isikapa kataputi stand on the banks of the river 箇多輔智爾 kataputi ni on the banks of Ishikawa, 阿彌播利和柁嗣 ami pariwatasi spreading out their nets. 妹慮豫嗣爾 mero yosi ni Pull in those nets 豫嗣豫利據禰 yosi yorikone by pulling on the meshes! 以嗣箇播箇柁輔智 isikapa kataputi On the banks of the Ishikawa.

毘

OJ: pi OC: *bi LH: bi EMC: bi LMC: pɦji GO: bi KN: fi NOM: NA SV: tì, bì SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, as the voiced initial has devoiced by the Late Middle Chinese period. I have found one example of this in Kojiki. KK 73 那賀美古夜 na ga mikwo ya Surely a wild goose has laid 都毘迩斯良牟登 tupi ni siramu to an egg, showing the posterity of 加理波古牟良斯 kari pa kwomurasi your highness will reign forever. This phonogram representing pi is seen primarily in Nihon shoki, where it appears 23 times in annotational notes, and eight times in poetry: 皇産靈、此云 美武須毘 ‘Imperial binding spirit’ is read mimusupi’ (NSG), 赤梼、此云伊知 毘 “(The personal name) ‘red-block of wood’ is to be read itipi” (NSG). NSK 11 愛瀰詩烏 emisi wo The barbarian 毘儾利 pidari having been insulted— 毛々那比苔 mwomwo napi to though people say 比苔破易陪廼毛 pito pa ipedomo they have seen a 100 battles 多牟伽毘毛勢儒 tamukapi mo sezu these do not even resist. There are other examples of this character in the early Nara corpus which has led some scholars to theorize that 毘 was also used as pi outside of Nihon shoki. Consider these examples from mokkan: 神護三年正月八日…□□□毘登 ‘Third year of Jingo (767), first month, eighth day XXX pito (bito)…” (MK 4), (田)毘登稲麻 Tapito (Tabito) INASA (MK 4512), 正八位下和毘登 Wapito (Wabito) of the True Eighth rank lower…; □毘登□虫 年六十 ‘Xpito XMUSI, age 60’ (MK 7592). As these examples show, it is difficult to know if this should be pi or bi. While the evidence is inconclusive, at this stage I would rather opt for the EMC reading of bi for these examples (which see).

287

譬

嬪

日

OJ: pi OC: *phekh LH: phieh EMC: phjieh LMC: phji GO: fi KN: fi NOM: ví, thí SV: thí, tỉ, tỷ SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It is found once in an annotational note, and ten times in song in Nihon shoki: 誓約之中、此云宇氣譬能美儺箇 ‘in the middle of making a vow’ is to be read ukepi no minaka’ (NSG). NSK 103 摩蘇餓豫 maswoga yo Truly you are the Swoga, 蘇餓能古羅破 swoga no kwora pa the posterity of the Swoga— 宇摩奈羅麼 uma naraba if you were horses, 譬武伽能古摩 pimuka no kwoma then steeds of Himuka you would be. 多智奈羅麼 tati naraba If you were swords, 勾禮能摩差比 kure no masapi then blades of Koguryŏ you would be. 宇倍之訶茂 ubesi kamo How true this is. 蘇餓能古羅烏 swoga no kwora wo That must be why 於朋枳瀰能 opokimi no the posterity of the Swoga 菟伽破須羅志枳 tukapasurasiki serve the great lord. Likely this graph was generally avoided when transcribing within texts written in classical Chinese, because of its semantic value: 譬 ‘for example.’ OJ: pi OC: *bin LH: bin EMC: bjien LMC: pɦjin GO: bin KN: fin NOM: NA SV: tần SK: pin Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū, but only once. MYS 873 余呂豆余尓 yoroduyo ni Let us pass down this tradition 可多利都夏等之 katarituge to si to the myriad generations— 許能多氣仁 kono take ni it seems she waved 比例布利家良之 pire purikyerasi her scarf on this peak, 麻通羅佐用嬪面 matura saywopimye Princess Sayo of Matsura. OJ: pi OC: *nit LH: ńit EMC: ɲit GO: niti KN: zitu NOM: nhật SV: nhật, nhựt SK: il Usage / History: This kungana was very popular in Japan, used because pi means ‘sun, day.’ In the Taihō census of 702 we already find names like 事日 KOTOPI. The toponym pimuka (later Hyūga) is consistently written 日向 in Kojiki, Kujiki, Nihon shoki, and Shoku Nihongi. A rather obscure deity such as Nigi Hayahi, nigi payapi, has his name written with 日 in Kojiki (邇芸速日命), Shoki (饒速日命), Kujiki (饒速日尊), and Shinsen shōjiroku (神饒速日命). Man’yōshū engages in some experimentation with the logographic nature of this graph, though it is limited because of the semantics: 日知之御世従 PIZIRI NO MIYO YU ‘from the reign of the sagacious ruler’ (MYS 29), where 日知 ‘sun288

know’ is a logographic transcription for piziri ‘sage.’ 足日木乃 山之四付二 ASIPIKWI no / YAMA NO siDUZU ni ‘where water drops from the mountain which cramps the legs…’ (MYS 107). Here it simply represents pi of pikwi ‘to cramp up.’ 佐日之隈廻乎 saPI NO KUMAMWI wo ‘that road of Hinokuma” (MYS 175). This usage is interesting because Hinokuma is generally written 檜隈, but here a different usage is invoked, perhaps to give attention to the idea of light or sun.

檜 氷

富

OJ: pi OC: *kôt or *kôts LH: kuɑs or kuat EMC: kwâih or kwât GO: kuwe KN: kuwai NOM: củi, cội SV: quái, cối SK: hwoy Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind pi (no kwi) ‘cypress tree.’ This usage is found twice in Kojiki in in the toponym 檜坰 PINOKUMA. This kungana appears in Nihon shoki 17 times, in names such as 檜隈 PINOKUMA ‘Hinokuma’ (NSG), and 檜笠岡 PIKASA Hill (NSG). OJ: pi OC: *prəŋ LH: pɨŋ EMC: pjəŋ GO: fiyou KN: fiyou NOM: băng, bông SV: băng SK: ping Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ pi ‘ice.’ Usages include 氷上郡 PIKAMI [NO] KOPORI ‘District of Hikami,’ and 氷田 PITA. Kojiki includes an interesting passage using this graph: 於高天原氷椽多迦斯理 TAKAMA GA PARA NI PIGWI takasiri ‘and raise the sun-rafters to the high plain of heaven’ (KG). This usage also appears in Nihon shoki 14 times, mainly in 氷上 PIKAMI or 氷連 PI [NO] MURAZI. This kungana also appears in Man’yōshū 11 times in the following types of examples: 足氷木乃 山邊乎指而 ASIPIKWI no / YAMAbye wo SASITE ‘headed toward the vicinity of the mountains that cramp one’s legs’ (MYS 460); 悪氷木乃 山下動 ASIPIKWI no / YAMASITA TOYOMI ‘causing the base of the mountains, where one’s legs get cramped, to stir’ (MYS 2704), and 丹穂氷 NIPOPI ‘be stained’ (MYS 3801, 3802). OJ: po OC: *pəkh *pək-s§ LH: puh EMC: pjəuh GO: fu KN: fuu NOM: phú SV: phú SK: pwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It has long been a point of contention that the Sino-Xenic data, as well as various reconstructed Chinese data show that the vowel of this graph was back and rounded. If true, then how could this phonogram be used to transcribe a syllable with a mid, unrounded nucleus? Or to put it bluntly: how can some scholars claim there was a distinction between a type one and a type two po? This discussion becomes all the more difficult, because of the labial nature of the initial consonant. First, the late Russian linguist, Segei Starostin (2005), reconstructs 富 as Late Old Chinese *pə. Schuessler’s latest work reconstructs this as *pəkh, and Baxter and Sagart reconstruct this as *pək-s. To this let us add data from Old Sino-Vietnamese. While Nom has phú for 富, notice that 婦 ‘wife, woman’ 289

which is nearly homophonous with 富, is vợ in Nom. Thus, the reading phú is based on LMC, while vợ is based on OC (Miyake pc.). This provides additional evidence that the earlier reading was *pə. The earliest datable example of this phonogram appears on the Kwangkaytho stele inscription: 叵富山 Mount Papo. The earliest example in Japan appears in the Inariyama tumulus sword inscription (sixth century): 意富比垝 *opopikwa-i ‘Great Prince (?).’ This phonogram also appears on a number of mokkan: 尾張国知多郡富具郷 WOPARI Province Tita District Pogu Village (MK 3080). There are numerous instances of this graph in Kojiki, mainly to write the prefix 意富 opo ‘large, great.’ An example from a song appears below: KK 13 加牟加是能 kamukaze no On the large boulder 伊勢能宇美能 ise no umi no by the sea of Ise 意斐志爾 opwisi ni swept by violent winds— 波比母登富呂布 papimotoporopu the sea snail crawls about. 志多陀美能 sitadami no Like the periwinkle 伊波比母登富理 ipapimotoporopu we will encircle them, 宇知弖志夜麻牟 utitesi yamamu utterly destroying them. This phonogram is used only in rare instances in Nihon shoki. There is one example of this in the annotational notes: 背評地名。亦名能備己富里 ‘The district name is read nobwi kopori’ (NSG). Other than that, this graph only appears eight other times: 層富縣 Sopo District, 意富加羅國王 King of Opokara, 新羅王宇流助富利智干 The Silla King, Urudzapori Tikan, 富羅母 智 a Silla envoy called Poramoti, 加羅己富利知伽 a toponym in Kara called Kopori Tika, 富加抃 a man from Koryo called Pokaben, 富干 another man from Koryo called Pokan, and 富杼 a Japanese courtier named Podo. It is interesting to note that of these eight examples, six are usages from the peninsula. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, found nine times in the anthology, mainly confined to Book 20. MYS 4368 久自我波々 kuzigapa pa Kuji River— 佐氣久阿利麻弖 sakeku ari mate wait for me, safe, unchanged. 志富夫祢尓 sipobune ni I am coming home 麻可知之自奴伎 makadisizi nuki in a tide boat with 和波可敝里許牟 wa pa kapyerikomu a true rudder thrust out.

費

OJ: po OC: *phəts LH: phus EMC: phjweih GO: fi KN: fi NOM: bí, phí, phía SV: phí, phị, phi SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. The oldest know example appears on the Suda Hachiman mirror inscription (ca. 503), where we find 費直, but I read this as atapi, according to the same usage found in Nihon shoki. This old usage for po is preserved in the Paekche orthographic pool. One example appears in the 23rd year of Great King Keitai, where a toponym, poti, is recorded as 費智. This phonogram falls out of usage, other than that found in a somewhat cryptic use in a song in Nihon shoki: 290

NSK 8 伽牟伽筮能 伊齊能于瀰能 於費異之珥夜 異波臂茂等倍屢 之多儾瀰能

番

蕃 方

kamukaze no ise no umi no opoisi niya ipapimotoporu sitadami no

On the large boulder by the sea of Ise, swept by violent winds— the sea snails crawl about: the perwinkle.

OJ: po OC: *phan LH: phuɑn EMC: phjwɐn GO: fon KN: fan NOM: phen, phiên SV: phiên SK: pan, pen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, and appears in Kojiki. This phonogram is used extremely sparingly, mainly in the name of the grandson of the Sun Goddess, 番能邇邇藝命 Po no Ninigi [NO] MIKOTO (KG). This same name is transcribed with kungana in Shoki, so that Ninigi’s name includes the semantogram 火 ‘fire’ po in it. The word poto ‘vulva’ is written 富登 (or as 美富登 mipoto, but in the story surrounding the comical dance by Uzumye, we find ‘vulva’ written 番登). In the Ōjin section of Kojiki, the Great King requests that Paekche send wise and learned men to court. Here we have the name of a man experienced in brewing named 仁番, read Nipo. Ōno (1962:912) comments on this name, “Because this is the orthography of a foreign individual’s name we cannot recognize 番 along with 仁 as kana.” But it is difficult to deny that both 仁 ni and 番 po are not used in the Japanese orthographic syllabary. OJ: po OC: *pan LH: puɑn EMC: pjwɐn GO: fon KN: fan NOM: phen,phồn SV: phiên, phiền, phồn SK: pen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to EJS, but appears to simply be a variation of 番, which see above. This phonogram is found once in Kojiki when Izanami gives birth to the fire deity, and dies from trauma when burned: 美蕃登 mipoto ‘august vulva.’ OJ: po OC: *paŋ LH: puaŋ EMC: pjwaŋ GO: fau KN: fau NOM: phương, vuông SV: phương SK: pang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only once in Man’yōshū: MYS 866 波漏々々尓 parwoparwo ni How far off it is, 於忘方由流可母 omopoyuru kamo one must think. 志良久毛能 sirakumwo no Separated by a thousand folds 知弊仁邊多天留 tipye ni pyedateru of white clouds 都久紫能君仁波 tukusi no kuni pa is the land of Tsukushi.

291

朋

倍

OJ: po OC: *bə̂ŋ LH: bəŋ EMC: bəŋ LMC: pɦuəŋ GO: bou KN: fou NOM: bằng SV: bằng SK: pung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears 20 times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 53 菟藝泥赴 tuginepu Taking my journey 揶莽之呂餓波烏 yamasiro gapa wo up the Yamashiro River 箇破能朋利 kapa nopori where trees grow thickly, 涴餓能朋例麼 wa ga noporeba I journeyed up the river 箇波區莽珥 kapakuma ni and came to a bend. 多知瑳介喩屢 tatisakayuru There stood a flourishing tree 毛々多羅儒 mwomwo tarazu with many branches. 揶素麼能紀破 yaswoba no kwi pa How this tree reminded me 於朋耆瀰呂介茂 opokimiro kamo of you, my Divine Ruler. This phonogram appears twice in Man’yōshū, in the same difficult-tointerpret poem: MYS 3300 忍照 OSITERU Placing a pull rope on the bright red-stained ship, 難波乃埼尓 nanipa no SAKI ni PIKINOBORU on that red-stained ship, 引登 AKE NO sopoPUNE I pull it up the river 赤曽朋舟 at Naniwa Cape, 曽朋舟尓 sopoPUNE ni TUNA TORIKAKE shining brilliantly, 綱取繋 PIKOdurapi I pull forcibly, 引豆良比 ARINAMI SUREDO but while I almost have it, 有雙雖為 IPIdurapi I call out forcibly, 曰豆良賓 ARINAMI SUREDO but while I almost have it, 有雙雖為 ARINAMI EZU zo I cannot get it— 有雙不得叙 IPARE NI SI A GA MWI there is now a rumor about me. 所言西我身 OJ: po OC: *bə̂ʔ LH: bəʔ EMC: bwậiʔ LMC: pɦuaj GO: bai KN: fai NOM: bội, vội SV: bội SK: poy, phay Usage / History: The phonogram belongs to the CBS. This is a somewhat puzzling development, because this phonogram is also used in Nihon shoki to transcribe pe. Miyake (2003a:231) explains that he reconstructs OJ e as “a mid central unrounded vowel followed by a palatal glide: *əy.” It seems plausible that some of the Nihon shoki scribes parsed 倍 into its parts: pə-y, which is supported by Miyake’s thesis that e is actually a diphthong (2003a:262). Usage of this phonogram to transcribe po is quite rare, and appears in only two annotational notes, and five poems in Shoki: 嚴矛、此云伊箇之倍虚 “ ‘sacred halberd’ is read ikasi poko” (NSG).

292

NSK 8 伽牟伽筮能 伊齊能于瀰能 於費異之珥夜 異波臂茂等倍屢 之多儾瀰能 之多儾瀰能 阿誤豫 阿誤豫 之多太瀰能 異波比茂等倍離 于智弖之夜莽務 于智弖之夜莽務

陪

裒

kamukaze no ise no umi no opoisi niya ipapimotoporu sitadami no sitadami no agwo yo agwo yo sitadami no ipapimotopori utitesiyamamu utitesiyamamu

On the large boulder by the sea of Ise, swept by violent winds— the sea snails crawl about: the perwinkle. And like those sea snails, you, my troops! You, my sons! Like the periwinkle, we will encircle them, utterly destroying them! Destroying the enemy!

OJ: po OC: *bə̂ LH: bə EMC: bwậi LMC: pɦuaj GO: bai KN: fai NOM: bồi SV: bồi SK: poy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears once in Nihon shoki, and while it is difficult to explain its usage from the vantage point of LMC, it appears to be nothing more than a graphic variant of 倍 po. NSK 32 等豫保枳 toyo poki It is he who brewed this wine, 保枳茂苔陪之 pokimotoposi with an eternal blessing, 訶武保枳 kamupoki dancing he blessed this wine 保枳玖流保之 pokikuruposi with divine, auspicious words. 摩菟利虚辭彌企層 maturi kosi miki so This wine was presented by him. 阿佐孺塢齋 asazu wose Drink every drop. 佐佐 sa sa Drink! Drink! OJ: po OC: *bû LH: po EMC: bəu LMC: pɦəw GO: bou KN: fou NOM: bâu, bầu, biệu SV: biều SK: phwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears 21 times in the poetry in Nihon shoki: NSK 75 野麼等能 yamato no On the peaks 嗚武羅能陀該儞 womura no take ni of the mountains of Yamato, 之々符須登 sisi pusu to who shall venture forth 拕例柯 tare ka to stand before 擧能居登 kono koto the great one and tell him 飫裒磨陛儞麻嗚須 opomapye ni mawosu where the beast lays waiting? 飫裒枳瀰簸 opokimi pa The great lord 賊據嗚枳舸斯題 soko wo kikasite overhears these words, 柁磨々枳能 tamamaki no takes his jeweled 阿娯羅儞陀々伺 agura ni tatasi dais and sits upon it. 293

施都魔枳能 阿娯羅儞陀々伺 斯々磨都登 倭我伊麻西麼 佐謂麻都登 倭我陀々西麼 陀倶符羅爾 阿武柯枳都枳 曾能阿武嗚 婀枳豆波野倶譬 波賦武志謀 飫裒枳瀰儞麼都羅符 儺我柯陀播 於柯武 婀岐豆斯麻野麻登

袍 火

焰

situmaki no agura ni tatasi sisi matu to wa ga imaseba sawi matu to wa ga tataseba takubura ni amu kakituki sono amu wo akidu paya kupi papu musi mo opokimi ni maturapu na ga kata pa okamu akitusima yamato

He takes the dais of cloth and sits upon it. Waiting for the beast. As I sit here waiting for the boar, as I rise to my feet, a horsefly lands on my arm and bites me. a dragonfly appears and devours the horsefly. Even the crawling insects continue to serve their lord. I shall leave a tribute for you, Akizushima Yamato.

OJ: po OC: *bhu LH: bou EMC: baw LMC: pɦuaw GO: bou KN: fou NOM: bào SV: bào SK: phwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears once in Nihon shoki in an annotational note: 秀眞國、此云袍圖莽句儞 “ ‘Luxuriant-true land’ is read potuma kuni’ (NSG). OJ: po OC: hmə̂iʔ LH: huɑiʔ EMC: xuâ GO: kuwa KN: kuwa NOM: hoả SV: hoả SK: hwa Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ po ‘fire,’ the bound form of pwi ‘fire.’ In Kojiki there are examples such as 天火明命 AME [NO] POAKARI [NO] MIKOTO (KG), and the brothers of Jinmu, who all were born from a fire and thus have this as part of their name: 火照命 PODERI [NO] MIKOTO, 火須勢理命 POsuseri [NO] MIKOTO, and 火遠理命 POwori [NO] MIKOTO (KG). In Nihon shoki these same usages are also found for Jinmu’s brothers: 火明命 PO [NO] AKARI [NO] MIKOTO, 火闌降命 PONOSUSORI [NO] MIKOTO, 火進命 PO [NO] SUSUMI [NO] MIKOTO, 火折尊 PO [NO] WORI [NO] MIKOTO, and 彦火 火出見尊 PIKWO POPODEMI [NO] MIKOTO (NSG). OJ: po OC: *s-lam or *s-ləm LH: ziam, zim EMC: zjäm, zjəm GO: emu KN: emu NOM: dim SV: diễm,riệm SK: yem Usage / History: This phonogram has a number of forms: 焰, 燄, 爓, and means ‘flames.’ Similar to 火 po ‘fire’ mentioned above, this kungana calls to mind OJ po ‘fire,’ which is a shortened form of ponopo ‘flames.’ One example in the record of Senka in Nihon shoki contains the name 火焔皇子 Prince PO [NO] PO (NSG).

294

帆

品

法

OJ: po OC: *bam LH: buam EMC: bjwɐm GO: bomu KN: famu NOM: buồm SV: phàm SK: pem Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ po ‘sail.’ There is a single example in Nihon shoki: 手置帆負神 the deity TAOKIPO OPI (NSG). Another example appears in Man’yōshū in the following poem. MYS 935 Out in the Bay of Matsuho 名寸隅乃 NAKI SUMI no PUNASE YU MIYURU by Awaji Island which 船瀬従所見 is visible from the ferry 淡路嶋 APADIZIMA at the corner of Naki 松帆乃浦尓 MATUPO no URA ni 朝名藝尓 ASANAgi ni I have heard TAMAMO KARITUTU that there are female divers 玉藻苅管 YUPU NAGI ni who cut gem weed 暮菜寸二 MOSIPO YAKITUTU in the morning waves, 藻塩焼乍 AMA WOTOMYE and burn seaweed for salt 海末通女 ARI TO PA KIKYEDO in the evening waves. 有跡者雖聞 OJ: pomu OC: *phrəmʔ LH: phimʔ EMC: phjəmʔ GO: fomu KN: fimu NOM: phẩm SV: phẩm SK: phum Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. This graph appears on several excavated wooden tablets: 品 遅 国 前 Pomudi KUNIMAPYE (MK 10227), 品 治 部 PomudiBYE (MK 805). It appears in the preface to Kojiki, written by Yasumaro. There he writes the name of Great King Ōjin as 品陀 pomuda (KG), following the spelling of Kojiki: 品陀和気命 Pomuda Wake [NO] MIKOTO (KG). Also, the name of a child of Great King Chūai is spelled 品夜和気命 Pomuya Wake [NO] MIKOTO (KG). There is also a name of group spelled 伊 勢 之 品 遲 部 君 Ise NO PomudiBYE KIMI (KG). This phonogram appears in Nihon shoki in names like 吉備品遲部 Kibi PomudiBYE (NSG), and 品治 Pomudi (NSG). These same two names appear also in Shoku Nihongi. OJ: popo OC: *pap LH: puap EMC: pjwɐp GO: fofu KN: fafu NOM: phắp, phép SV: pháp SK: pep Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears to be transcribing OJ popo. In Nihon shoki, a daughter of Soga no Umako is recorded as 法提郎媛. The interlinear kana is fofote no iratume, or Princess Hohote. A related usage appears in the Bungo Census of 702: 法提賣, apparently read Popotemye. In Izumo fudoki there is a village name written 法吉, which has a textual traditional reading of fofoki.

295

不

夫

OJ: pu OC: *pə or *pəʔ LH: pu, puʔ EMC: pjəu, pjəuʔ GO: fu KN: fuu NOM: bất SV: bất SK: pu, pul Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. In Wei zhi this phonogram transcribes two toponyms: 不彌 *pu-me and 不呼 *pu-ho. This phonogram appears in Koryŏgi in two place names: 不耐城 Pu-nə Fortress and 不而縣 Pu-nɨ Province (Takeuchi 1977:36). This usage also appears in the Paekche orthographic pool, once in the record of Keitai, and twice in the record of Kinmei. Perhaps the most famous example is that of Kawachi Atai 加不至費直 kaputi ATAPI, seen in the second year, seventh month of Kinmei. The other example appears in the 10th year of Keitai, fifth month, where a Paekche name is recorded: 木刕不麻甲 Mokra Pumakapu. This phonogram was generally avoided in Japan, because of its grammatical function as a negative, ‘not.’ However, there are a few examples of this graph preserved in Japanese records. In the Mino Census of the Taihō Census of 702 we find the surname 不破 Puha, which likely is an auspicious usage from the revolt of Temmu, whose troops had a decisive battle at Puha, thus 不破 ‘was not defeated.’ Perhaps the famous example in Nihon shoki is that of 不比等 Pubito (Fujiwara Fubito). As Ōno points out (1977:814) the choice of Chinese characters is deliberately the work of the compilers, as 不比等 means ‘he who is without equal.’ There is also the name 不遲 Puti (NSG). There is a mokkan excavated from the Heijō Captial: 不破万呂 Puha maro (unnumbered tablet). In Man’yōshū there are a number of examples of this graph, but many are not phonetic; hwever, they do provide clues to the reading, such as 不知 ‘don’t know’ which elicits the word isa ‘I’m not sure.’ I have been able to find 21 examples of 不 used as a phonogram. MYS 844 伊母我陛邇 imo ga pye ni How the plum blossoms 由岐可母不流登 yuki kamo puru to swirl about so much 弥流麻提尓 miru made ni that I think I see 許々陀母麻我不 kokoda mo magapu that it must be snowing 烏梅能波奈可毛 ume no pana kamo at the house of my beloved. OJ: pu OC: *ba or *pa LH: buɑ, puɑ EMC: bju, pju GO: bu KN: fu NOM: phu SV: phù SK: pwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, and appears to have been used to transcribe pu, though if this graph was used to transcribe pu in OJ texts, there are no surviving examples. The most well known example is 夫余 *pu-yɑ as found in Wei zhi, on the Kwangkaytho stele, and in other records. It is possible that on the peninsula this graph was used to transcribe pu in word-initial position, but bu in word-medial position. That might provide a clue to the word 安夫 seen in the Kwangkaytho stele, and suggest a reading of abu. It is also possible that 夫 at this early stage reflects bu in all positions. This graph also appears in a name preserved on on the Hamcwu stele: 服冬知夫 *puk-touŋ-te-puɑ. In Nihon shoki 296

there is Paekche delegate known as 夫智奈麻禮 Putinamare. It is not clear whether this should be a voiced initial or not, as OJ did not allow voiced initials, and this filter may have screened most examples out of our database. See 夫 for OJ bu.

服 布

OJ: pu OC: *bə or *bək LH: buʔ, buk EMC: bjəuʔ, bjuk GO: buku KN: fuku NOM: phục SV: phục SK: pok Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. There is an example of this graph preserved on the Hamcwu stele: 服 冬 知 夫 *puk-touŋ-te-puɑ. Only one example has been preserved in Nihon shoki, found in the record of Tenji, second year, ninth month, where several Paekche fortresss are listed, among them one known as 枕服岐城 Simpuki Fortress. This graph appears once in Kojiki, in the name of a mountain: 伊服岐能山 Ipuki no YAMA (KG). OJ: pu OC: *pâh LH: pɑh EMC: puoh GO: fu KN: fo NOM: bố SV: bố, bá SK: phwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, and appears in Nihon shoki’s transcription of peninsular toponyms. In one account in the 23rd year of Keitai, Silla attacks and destroys three fortresss belonging to Kara: 刀伽・古跛・布那 牟羅、三城 ‘The three fortresss of Twoka, Kwope, and Punamura.’ In the 24th year of Keitai, we find two names of peninsular people with mainland Japanese fathers, as their surname is 吉備 Kibwi: 又殺吉備韓子那多利・斯布利 ‘And they killed Kibwi Karakwo Natari and Sipuri.’ The earliest examples of 布 to appear in Japan are found in Jōgūki: 弟布遲 波良己等布斯郎女 ‘Princess OTO Pudipara Kotopusi’ and 妹布利比彌命 ‘(his) sister, Puri Pimye [NO] MIKOTO. Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu, which was compiled in the late eighth century, but which contains information that predates Kojiki and Nihon shoki contains the name of Bidatsu written as 怒那久良布刀多 麻斯支天皇 ‘Great King Nunakura Putwotamasiki.’ This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan: 布志□嶋 PusiX Island (unnumbered tablet), 布乃利 punori ‘seaweed glue’ (unnumbered tablet), 阿布 比二束 ‘two bundles of apupi ‘hollyhock’’ (MK 1756), and a fragment of the poem: 奈尓皮ツ尓佐久矢己乃皮奈布由己母利伊真皮々留部止 nanipatu ni / saku YA ko no pana / puyugomori iMA pa paruPYE to “At the ferry of Naniwa / how these blossoms bloom / awakening from winter / now they say it is almost spring…” (MK 1613). There are nine examples of this phonogram in the liturgies: 曾布登御名物白弖 sopu to MINA MONO MAWOSIte “(Those deities) who have the name of…the deity of the Sopu District…” (NT 1). This phonogram also appears in the earliest census of 702. In the Chikuzen census we find the name 加布知麻呂 Kaputi Maro. The graph 布 is the primary graph in Kojiki to transcribing pu. Examples include 布斗麻迩爾 putwomani ni ‘by heavy divination (using a deer bone)’ (KG), 建布都神 ‘the deity TAKYEputu,’ and 豐布都神 ‘the deity TOYOputu’ (KG). 297

KK 34 那豆岐能 naduki no On the stalks of rice 多能伊那賀良迩 ta no inagara ni in the field flooded with water, 伊那賀良爾 nagara ni on those stalks of rice 波比母登富呂布 papimotoporopu the eternal vine sends up 登許呂豆良 tokorodura shoots that wind around. This phonogram is prominent in the Bussoku stele poems, where 布 appears 10 times. Below is an illustrative example: BSS 15 久須理師波 kusurisi pa As for physicians 都祢乃母阿礼等 tune no mo aredo there are the commons ones, 麻良比止乃 marapito no but the present physican 伊麻乃久須理師 ima no kusurisi who is a stranger, 多布止可理家利 taputokarikyeri he is worthy of honor. 米太志加利鷄利 medasikarikyeri He is worthy of respect. This phonogram is also prominent in Man’yōshū, appearing roughly 532 times: MYS 800 TITI PAPA wo You feel admiration 父母乎 美礼婆多布斗斯 mireba taputwosi seeing your father and mother. MYEKWO MIreba You feel love and affection 妻子見礼婆 米具斯宇都久志 megusi utukusi seeing your wife and children. 余能奈迦波 yo no naka pa As for society 加久叙許等和理 kaku zo kotowari this is only natural. 母智騰利乃 motidori no Like a bird caught in birdlime 可可良波志母与 kakarapasi mo yo it is difficult to get out, as we 由久弊斯良祢婆 yukupye siraneba do not know where to go. 宇既具都遠 ukegutu wo And like one to takes off 奴伎都流其等久 nukituru gotoku shoes with holes in them 布美奴伎提 puminukite people who step on 由久智布比等波 yuku tipu pito pa and walk away from family 伊波紀欲利 ipakwi ywori are perhaps ones who 奈利提志比等迦 nari desi pito ka are born of boulders or trees. Tell me your name! 奈何名能良佐祢 na ga NA norasane

甫

OJ: pu OC: *paʔ LH: puɑʔ EMC: pjuʔ GO: fu KN: fo NOM: phủ SV: phủ SK: pwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, and appears in Chikuzen Census of 702, in the names 甫西豆賣 Pusetumye, 与曾甫賣 Yosopumye, and 伊止甫 Itopu. It also appears in Nihon shoki, once in the annotational notes and five times in song: 美飮喫哉、此云于魔羅儞烏野羅甫屢柯倭 “ ‘oh, how to drink’ is read umara ni wo yarapurugane’ (NSG). NSK 85 阿佐膩簸囉 asadipara Through the rocky path of 嗚贈禰嗚須擬 wosone wo sugwi the mountains and over 298

謨謀逗頴甫 奴底喩羅倶慕與 於岐毎倶羅之慕

賦

否

Asaji Plain comes a distant, continuous jingle of a bell. It seems Okime has arrived.

OJ: pu OC: *pah LH: puɑh EMC: pjuh GO: fu KN: fu NOM: phú SV: phú SK: phwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Kojiki in names like 伊賦 夜坂 Ipuya SAKA ‘Ifuya Hill’ (KG) and 賦登麻和訶比賣 Putomawaka Pimye ‘Princess Futomawaka’ (KG). It even appears in the name of the name of the ruler later known as Kōrei: 大倭根子日子賦斗迩命 OPOYAMATO NEKWO PIKWO putwoni [NO] MIKOTO (KG). This phonogram is also quite popular in Nihon shoki. It appears four times in annotational notes such as: 逐之、此云波羅賦 “ ‘Banish’ is read parapu” (NSG), 經津、此云賦都 “ ‘經津’ is read putu” (NSG). It is used 11 times in song: NSK 115 舸娜紀都該 阿我柯賦古磨播 比枳涅世儒 阿我柯賦古磨乎 比騰瀰都羅武箇

福

momodutapu nute yuraku mo yo okime kurasi mo

kanakwi tuke aga kapu kwoma pa pikidesezu aga kapu kwoma pa pito mituramu ka

The steed that I kept bridled with hard wood was never allowed outside. How has someone found that steed that I nurtured?

OJ: pu, puki, puku OC: *pək LH: puk EMC: pjuk GO: fuku KN: fuku NOM: phúc SV: phúc, phước SK: pwok Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It is rather rare, but appears in Tenpyō era documents to spell 福當 Putagi. It also appears in the Hitachi Fudoki, representing 福慈岳 Puzi [NO] YAMA ‘Mount Fuji.’ It also appears in a fragment of the lost Owari fudoki in the name 伊福 Ipuki. Shoku Nihongi preserves examples such as 伊志麻呂福地 Isimaro Pukuti (761.3.15), 福良津 port of Pukura (772.9.21), and 福那理 Pukunari (772.10.11). OJ: pu OC: *pəʔ LH: puəʔ > puʔ EMC: pjəuʔ GO: fu KN: fuu NOM: bĩ SV: phủ SK: pwu, pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 1170 It is said that when clouds 佐左浪乃 sasaNAMI no NAMIKURA YAMA ni appear on Mount Namikura 連庫山尓 KUMWO WIREBA of Sasanami, 雲居者 AME so PURUtipu there will be rain. 雨會零智否 KAPYERIKO WA GA SE Come home to me, my beloved. 反来吾背 299

敷

府

OJ: pu OC: *pha LH: phuɑ EMC: phju LMC: fuə GO: fu KN: fu NOM: phô SV: phu SK: pwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears three times in the song of Nihon shoki: NSK 40 阿波旎辭摩 apadisima The isle of Awaji 異椰敷多那羅弭 iya puta narabi truly lies next to Azuki Island. 阿豆枳辭摩 adukisima The isle of Azuki 異椰敷多那羅弭 iya puta narabi truly lies next to Awaji— 豫呂辭枳辭摩之魔 yoroskiki sima sima such wonderful islands. 儾伽多佐例阿羅智之 taka tasare aratisi Who is taking my consort? 吉備那流伊慕塢 kibwi naru imo wo I had just become intimate 阿比瀰菟流慕能 apimituru mono with that maiden from Kibi. This phonogram appears 47 times in Man’yōshū: MYS 4079 Mist trails over 美之麻野尓 misimaNWO ni 可須美多奈妣伎 kasumi tanabiki the plain of Mishima, 之可須我尓 sikasuga ni but in spite of that 伎乃敷毛家布毛 kinopu mo kyepu mo snow has fallen 由伎波敷里都追 yuki pa puritutu both yesterday and today. OJ: pu OC: *poʔ LH: puoʔ EMC: pjuʔ LMC: fuə GO: fu KN: fu NOM: phủ SV: phủ SK: pwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears twice in the annotational notes and three times in song in Nihon shoki: 柴、此云府璽 “ ‘Obstruct’ is read pusi” (NSG). NSK 97 莒母唎矩能 kumoriku no In the hidden land, 簸覩細能哿波庚 patuse no kapa yu the bamboo flowing down 那峨礼倶屢 nagarekuru the Hatsuse River— 駄開能 take no wonderful, flourishing bamboo 以矩美娜開余嚢開 ikumidake yodake with long joints and leaves. 謨等陛嗚麼 motopye woba We will make a koto 莒等儞都倶唎 koto ni tukuri out of the base of it, 須衞陛嗚麼 suwepye woba and make a flute 府曳儞都倶唎 puye ni tukuri out of the top of it, 符企儺須 pukinasu and out music 美母慮我紆陪儞 mimoro ga upe ni will reach to the top 能朋梨陀致 nobori tati of Mount Mimoro. 倭我彌細麼 wa ga miseba When I gaze down 都奴娑播符 tunwo sapapu on Iware Pond 以簸例能伊開能 ipare no ike no with rocks covered in vines 美那矢駄府 minasitapu even the fish 300

紆鳴謨 紆陪儞堤堤那皚矩

赴

富

負

符

uwo mo upe ni dete nageku

come to the surface and lament your parting.

OJ: pu OC: *phokh LH: phuoh EMC: phjuh LMC: fuə GO: fu KN: fu NOM: NA SV: phó, thú SK: pwu Usage / History: This graph belongs to the LJS, and appears in Nihon shoki once in the annotational notes, and 14 times in song. 韴靈、此云赴屠能瀰哆磨 “ ‘(the sword) Futu no mitama’ is read putu no mitama” (NSG). NSK 51 那珥波譬苔 nanipa pito Men of Naniwa! 須儒赴泥苔羅齊 suzu pune torase Grab the rope to the bell-boat. 許辭那豆瀰 kosi nadumi Get up to your waist in 曾能赴尼苔羅齊 sono pune torase the water and pull that boat! 於朋瀰赴泥苔禮 opomipune tore Pull the great boat in. OJ: pu OC: *pəkh LH: puh EMC: pjəuh LMC: fuw GO: fu KN: fu NOM: phú SV: phú SK: pwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. See 富 OJ po for its earlier usage. Even in the Taihō Census of 702 we still find 富 written as po, attesting to its earlier use. Ōno (1962:463) mentions 日富郡 NIpu District, as found in the Nara era records, but these examples are rare. Harima Fudoki records toponyms such as 宗我富 Sugapu and 與富等 Yoputo. There are only two possible examples of 富 used to transcribe pu in Nihon shoki: 層富縣 Sopu [NO] AGATA (NSG) and 富制臣 Puse [NO] OMI (NSG). It needs to be pointed out, however, that most manuscripts of Nihon shoki gloss 層富 as sopo and not sopu. This district is later written 添, which should be read sopu. For the time being I leave this as is. Shoku Nihongi contains the usage 富士 puzi (781.7.6). OJ: pu OC: *bəʔ LH: buəʔ > buʔ EMC: bjəuʔ LMC: fɦuw GO: bu KN: fu NOM: phụ SV: phụ SK: pwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. There are four examples in Man’yōshū. MYS 4400 伊弊於毛負等 ipye omopu to When I think of home 伊乎祢受乎礼婆 i wo nezuworeba and I find I cannot sleep 多頭我奈久 tadu ga naku I cannot see the reeds 安之弊毛美要受 asipye mo miyezu where the cranes call out, 波流乃可須美尓 paru no kasumi ni because of the spring mists. OJ: pu LH: buo NOM: phù, bùa

OC: *bo EMC: bju LMC: fɦuə GO: bu KN: fu SV: phù SK: pwu 301

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears in Nihon shoki, once in the annotational notes, and once in song: 壺、此云都符 “ ‘Jar’ is read tupu” (NSG). NSK 75 野麼等能 yamato no On the peaks 嗚武羅能陀該儞 womura no take ni of the mountains of Yamato, 之々符須登 sisi pusu to who shall venture forth 拕例柯 tare ka to stand before 擧能居登 kono koto the great one and tell him 飫裒磨陛儞麻嗚須 opomapye ni mawosu where the beast lays waiting? 飫裒枳瀰簸 opokimi pa The great lord 賊據嗚枳舸斯題 soko wo kikasite overhears these words, 柁磨々枳能 tamamaki no takes his jeweled 阿娯羅儞陀々伺 agura ni tatatsi dais and sits upon it. 施都魔枳能 situmaki no He takes the dais 阿娯羅儞陀々伺 agura ni tatasi of cloth and sits upon it. 斯々磨都登 sisi matu to Waiting for the beast. 倭我伊麻西麼 wa ga imaseba As I sit here 佐謂麻都登 sawi matu to waiting for the boar, 倭我陀々西麼 wa ga tatatseba as I rise to my feet, 陀倶符羅爾 takubura ni a horsefly lands 阿武柯枳都枳 amu kakituki on my arm and bites me. 曾能阿武嗚 sono amu wo a dragonfly appears 婀枳豆波野倶譬 akidu paya kupi and devours the horsefly. 波賦武志謀 papu musi mo Even the crawling insects 飫裒枳瀰儞麼都羅符 opokimi ni maturapu continue to serve their lord. 儺我柯陀播 na ga kata pa I shall leave a tribute 於柯武 okamu for you, 婀岐豆斯麻野麻登 akitusima yamato Akizushima Yamato.

浮 輔

OJ: pu OC: *bu LH: bu EMC: bjəu LMC: fɦuw GO: bu KN: fu NOM: phù SV: phù SK: pwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears only in Nihon shoki, six times in annotational notes: 吹棄氣噴之狹霧、此云浮枳于都屢伊浮岐能佐擬 理 “ ‘Expel from the mouth into a mist’ is read pukiuturu ipuki no sagiri” (NSG), 鯽魚女、此云浮儺謎 “ ‘The name 鯽魚女’ is read punamye” (NSG). OJ: pu OC: *baʔ LH: buɑʔ EMC: bjuʔ LMC: fɦuə GO: bu KN: fu NOM: NA SV: phụ SK: pwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears ten times in a variety of songs in Nihon shoki.

302

NSK 98 比攞哿駄喩 輔曳輔枳能朋樓 阿符美能野 愷那能倭倶吾伊 輔曳符枳能朋樓

pirakata yu puye puki noboru apumi no ya kena no wakugwo i puye puki noboru

Heading up through the port of Hirakata someone plays a flute. It is young Kena of Afumi, playing as as he rows upstream.

経

OJ: pu OC: *kêŋ or *kêŋh LH: keŋ, keŋh EMC: kieŋ, kieŋh GO: kiyau KN: kei NOM: kinh SV: kinh SK: kyeng Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ pu ‘pass through, time passes’ in the conclusive form. This usage appears in Nihon shoki in names like 経津主 PUTUNUSI (NSG), 眞経津鏡 MAPUTU KAGAMI ‘Mafutu Mirror’ (NSG), and 経湍屯倉 PUSE granary (NSG). This graph also appears in Man’yōshū: MYS 928 WOSU KUNI wo Because you 食國乎 WOSAMETAMAPYEBA rule over the land 治賜者 OKITU TORI the plain of Ajifu 奥鳥 birds in the offing 味経乃原尓 ADIPU no PARA ni 物部乃 MONONOPU no the eighty groups YASO TOMO NO WO PA of the officials 八十伴雄者 IPORI SITE have made the capital 廬為而 MIYAKWO NASITARI by pitching temporary huts 都成有 TABWI PA aredomo as if they are on a trip... 旅者安礼十方 It should be mentioned that Ōno (1977:598) has already pointed out that there are numerous examples of 経 in Man’yōshū, as in the beginning of MYS 135 角 障 経 TUNWO SAPAPU ‘covered in vines’ or MYS 194 流 觸 経 NAGARE PURABAPU ‘flow and touch together’ or MYS 264 不知代経浪乃 ISAYOPU NAMI no ‘waves that hesitate,’ where this kungana represents a verb or part a verb.

歴

OJ: pu OC: *rêk LH: lek EMC: liek GO: riyaku KN: reki NOM: lịch, lệch, rếch SV: lịch SK: lyek Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ pu ‘time passes,’ as 歴 means ‘to pass through in order.’ This usage appears in Nihon shoki only a few times, as in the name of the deity that possesses and talks through Jingū: 向匱男聞襲大歴五 御魂速狹騰尊 MUKAPITU WOmo OSOPU ITU [NO] KAMWI TAMA PAYASA NOBORI [NO] MIKOTO (NSG). Also in the first year of Tenmu we see the name of a highway, 倉歴道 KURAPU [NO]MITI ‘Kurafu Highway’ (NSG). This usage appears eight times in Man’yōshū. MYS 393 MIYEZU TOMO Even if it is not visible 不所見十方 孰不戀有米 TARE KWOPWIZARAme who does not yearn for it? 303

山之末尓 射狭夜歴月乎 外見而思香

乾 鳳 粉

弗

ni The moon hesitating to appear ISA YWOPU TUKWI wo over the edge of the mountains; YOSO NI MITE siKA To see it even from a distance. YAMA NO PA

OJ: pu OC: *kân or *ɡan LH: kɑn, ɡɨan EMC: kân, ɡjän GO: kemu KN: gamu NOM: càn, gàn SV: can, kiền SK: kan, ken Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ pu ‘dry up.’ This usage appears only in Nihon shoki, and then only once: 市乾鹿文、乾、此云賊 ‘(An elder sister named) ITIPU KAYA, the graph 乾 is to be read pu’ (NSG). OJ: puge OC: *bəms LH: buəmh EMC: bjuŋ LMC: fɦuwŋ GO: buu KN: fou NOM: phượng SV: phượng, phụng SK: pwong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This rare usage appears in Shoku Nihongi: 割越前國之羽咋、能登、鳳至、珠洲四郡。始置能登國 “(The court) took the four districts of Pakupi, Noto, Pugesi, and Suzu from Echizen Province and for the first time established Noto Province” (718.5.2). OJ: puni OC: *pənʔ LH: punʔ EMC: pjwənʔ GO: fun KN: fun NOM: phân, phấn SV: phấn SK: pwun Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 932 SIRANAMI NO Off I go to be covered 白浪之 TIPYE NI KIYOSUru in the yellow earth 千重来縁流 住吉能 SUMIYOSI no of the coast of Sumiyoshi KWISI no PANIpu ni where the white caps 岸乃黄土粉 二寶比天由香名 nipopite yuKANA wash in piled one upon another. OJ: puti, putu OC: *pət LH: put EMC: pjwət GO: futi KN: futu NOM: phất SV: phất SK: pwul Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This usage appears on the Tanyang Silla stele (ca. 550), in the name: 奈弗耽郝失利 *Nɑ-put Tam-hak-sit-li. It also appears in a toponym that apparently was part of a four-village area belonging originally to ancient Kara / Mimana: 弗知鬼 Put-tie-kui. This four-village area also appears in the Keitai record, with a variant of the earlier name 費智 Phətstie. The record of Bidatsu also has this toponym as 發鬼 Puɑt-kui. This phonogram appears in Book 5 of Sendai kuji hongi: 物部伊莒弗 MONONOBYE Ikoputu. This same name also appears in Nihon shoki. In Nihon shoki there is also a prenasalized variant of this phonogram in the name 忌部首

304

色弗 IMIBYE OBITO Sikobuti (NSG). Furthermore, a foreign name with this phonogram appears in Shoku Nihongi: 烏須弗 Usuputu (773.6.12).

皮

非

OJ: pwi OC: bai LH: bɨɑi > bɨe EMC: bje GO: bi KN: fi NOM: bì, bề, bìa, vừa SV: bì SK: phi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. Interestingly, the only Sino-Xenic data that support the Old Japanese reconstruction for pwi (phonetically [pɨy]) is the Nom data vừa, which phonetically is [vɨa], which matches nicely with Later Han bɨɑi. It is based on this evidence that I place 皮 here. Only one example of this phonogram used to transcribe pwi has been preserved in Nihon shoki. It appears in the 11th year of Kinmei, recording the name of a Paekche man Pwikukon, 皮久斤. It must be noted in passing, however, that the later annotation of Shoki, Shaku Nihongi, reads this as pikonkon, but the initial segment remains pwi. There are few examples of this phonogram, but on one mokkan we find the name 亀甘部伊皮□ KAMEKAPIBYE IpwiX (MK 3623). Another fragment contains the phonograms 加皮止利 kapwi tori ‘taking the fire (to chase away mosquitoes, MK 1642).’ It should be remembered that there are many cases where 皮 is a loan for 波 pa, so none of the readings above is completely secure. OJ: pwi OC: pəi LH: pui EMC: pjwei GO: fi KN: fi NOM: phi SV: phi SK: phi Usage / History: This graph belongs to the EJS. It appears in the name 乎非王 Prince Wopwi as preserved in the Jōgūki fragment. The graph also appears twice in the Chikuzen census of 702 CE: 非豆賣 Pwidumye and 志非 Sipwi. This graph is also preserved in a song in Hitachi Fudoki: 許智多鶏波 kotitakyeba As the rumors are painful 乎婆頭勢夜麻能 wobatuse yama no let us hide ourselves 伊波歸爾母 ipakwi nimo in the stone enclosure 爲弖許母郎奈牟 wite komoranamu on Mount Obatsuse. 奈古非敍和支母 na kwopwi so wagimo Do not yearn for me, my love. This phonogram also appears nine times in poetry in Man’yōshū, all used to write the verb kwopwi ‘yearn for,’ as the following example illustrates. MYS 871 得保都必等 topotu pito That person far off, 麻通良佐用比米 matura saywo pimye Princess Sayo of Matsura, 都麻胡非尓 tuma kwopwi ni yearning for her spouse 比例布利之用利 pire purisi ywori she waves her scarf— 於返流夜麻能奈 opyeru yama no na the name this mountain bears.

305

斐

肥

OJ: pwi OC: phəiʔ LH: phuiʔ EMC: phjweiʔ GO: fi KN: fi NOM: phỉ SV: phỉ SK: phi Usage / History: This graph belongs to the EJS. It appears in once in the Buzen census of 702 CE, in the name 志斐 Sipwi. It is also used in Kojiki, in transcribing names and in song: 甲斐國 kapwi [NO]KUNI ‘the land of Kai’ (KG), and 當摩之咩斐 Tagima NO Myepwi ‘Mehi of Tagima’ (KG). KK 9 古那美賀 kwonami ga If your first wife 那許波佐婆 na kopasaba asks for a side dish, 多知曾婆能 tatisoba no cut her slices of meat 微能那祁久袁 mwi no nakyeku wo with almost no flesh— 許紀志斐惠泥 kokwisipwiwene barren like the hawthorn. 宇波那理賀 upanari ga If your favorite wife 那許波佐婆 na kopasaba asks for a side dish, 伊知佐加紀 itisakakwi cut her many slices of meat 微能意富祁久袁 mwi no opokyeku wo like the hisakaki fruit 許紀陀斐惠泥 kokwidapwiwene blessed in abundance. This phonogram appears in many early records, primarily to record the place name 甲斐國 kapwi [NO] KUNI ‘land of Kai.’ This graph also appears in Man’yōshū to transcribe the name 志斐 Sipwi and 斐太 Pwida. OJ: pwi OC: bəi LH: bui EMC: bjwei GO: bi KN: fi NOM: phì, phề, phè SV: phì SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears in the Chikuzen census of 702 CE, in the name 肥君 Lord Pwi. In the Buzen census is 肥賣 Pwimye and 阿 太肥人床持賣 TOKOMOTImye, a person of Adapwi. This graph also appears in various records to record the toponym 肥国 ‘land of Pwi.’ Kojiki also uses this graph to transcribe names such as 肥河 ‘Pwi River’ (KG), and 肥長比賣 ‘Princess PwiNAGA’ (KG). It is also used, albeit sparingly, in songs in Kojiki: KK 24 佐泥佐斯 sanesasi Standing in the midst of 佐賀牟能袁怒迩 sagamu no wonwo ni the flames of the burning fire 毛由流肥能 mwoyuru pwi no on the moor of Sagamu— 本那迦迩多知弖 pwonaka ni tatite where true peaks are lofty— 斗比斯岐美波母 twopisi kimi pa mo how my Lord called out for me. This phonogram appears three times in Nihon shoki, to represent the land of Pwi (肥後). Ōno (1977:595) believes that there is a single usage in Man’yōshū, with 肥人 額髪結在 pwi [NO] PITO [NO] / NUKAGAMI YUPERU (MYS 2496), but current scholarship sees this 肥人 as actually representing KWOMA PITO ‘a person from Koma.’ This Koma is modern Kuma in Fukuoka Prefecture.

306

飛

悲

彼

OJ: pwi OC: pəi LH: phui EMC: phjwəi GO: fi KN: fi NOM: phi SV: phi SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It is primarily found in a one toponym: 飛騨 Pwida. This appears to be a later representation, as the ‘Kokuzō Hongi’ chapter of Kujiki has this toponym as 斐陀 Pwida, but Nihon shoki as 飛騨. This phonogram is used sparingly as a phonogram, appearing only five times in Man’yōshū, all in Book 5: MYS 819 余能奈可波 yo no naka pa How bothersome are feelings 古飛斯宜志恵夜 kwopwi sigesi we ya of yearning in the human world. 加久之阿良婆 kaku si araba If this is how it is to be 烏梅能波奈尓母 ume no pana nimo it would have been better 奈良麻之勿能怨 naramasi mono wo if I had been a plum blossom. OJ: pwi OC: prəi LH: pɨ EMC: pji LMC: pi GO: fi KN: fi NOM: bi, bây SV: bi SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears once in Nihon shoki. NSK 123 枳瀰我梅能 kimi ga me no I dock and stand here 姑裒之枳舸羅儞 kwoposiki kara ni because I long for a glance 婆底々威底 patete wite of my highness’ eyes. 舸矩野姑悲武謀 kaku ya kwopwimu mo How I long for a look— 枳瀰我梅弘報梨 kimi ga me wo pori a look into my highness’ eyes. This phonogram also appears in Shoku Nihongi, in the name 大伴古慈悲 OPOTOMO Kwozipwi. It appears in Man’yōshū 26 times. The following is one example: MYS 560 What use is it after 孤悲死牟 kwopwi SINAmu NOTI PA NANI SEmu I have died longing for her? 後者何為牟 IKERU PI NO It is only for the day 生日之 TAME KOSO IMWO wo that I continue to live 為社妹乎 欲見為礼 MIMAKU PORI SUre that I want to see you. It seems clear that this phonogram was selected both for its phonological value as well as its semantic meaning when used in kwopwi ‘yearning,’ because 悲 means ‘sad.’ OJ: pwi OC: paiʔ LH: pɨɑiʔ EMC: pjeʔ LMC: pi GO: fi KN: fi NOM: bỉ, bẽ, bở SV: bỉ SK: phi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only in Nihon shoki, twice in the same song in Yūryaku:

307

NSK 81 農播頴磨能 柯彼能矩盧古磨 矩羅枳制播 伊能致志儺磨志 柯彼能倶盧古磨

祕 妃 被

火

nupatama no kapwi no kurwo kwoma kuraki seba inoti sinamasi kapwi no kurwo kwoma

If they had saddled that dark horse from Kahi, black as night, he would have lost his life. Alas, thanks to the dark horse.

OJ: pwi OC: pits LH: pɨs EMC: pjih LMC: pi GO: fi KN: fi NOM: bí SV: bí SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only in the annotational notes of the beginning of Nihon shoki: 廢渠槽、此云祕波鵝都 “ ‘destroy water troughs’ is read pwipagatu” (NSG). OJ: pwi OC: phəi LH: phui EMC: phjwəI LMC: fji GO: fi KN: fi NOM: phi SV: phi SK: pi, poy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to LJS, and appears once in Nihon shoki, in an annotational note in Book 1: 秉炬、此云多妃 “ ‘Torch’ is read tapwi” (NSG). OJ: pwi OC: *phai / *baih LH: phɨɑi / bɨɑih EMC: phje~bjeh LMC: pi~pɦi GO: bi KN: pi NOM: bị, bự SV: bị SK: phi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing in Nihon shoki, twice in one poem in the Jinmu section: NSK 7 固奈瀰餓 kwonami ga If your first wife 那居波佐麼 na kopasaba asks for a side dish, 多智曾麼能 tatisoba no cut her slices of meat 未廼那鷄句塢 mwi no nakyeku wo with almost no meat— 居氣辭被惠禰 kokwisipwiwene barren, like the hawthorn. 宇破奈利餓 upanari ga If your favorite wife 那居波佐麼 na kopasaba asks for a side dish, 伊智佐介幾 itisakakwi cut her many slices of meat 未廼於朋鷄句塢 mwi no opokyeku wo like the hisakaki fruit— 居氣儾被惠禰 kokwidapwiwene blessed in abundance. OJ: pwi OC: hmə̂iʔ LH: huɑiʔ EMC: xuâ GO: kuwa KN: kuwa NOM: hoả SV: hoả SK: hwa Usage / History: This a kungana suggests to the mind OJ pwi ‘fire.’ It can also represent po, the bound form of pwi (which see). As this is a logographic usage, it is difficult to know if the intended reading is pwi or po. The best way to determine the 308

intended reading is to triangulate the kungana with the same name preserved phonetically somewhere else. For example, in Nihon shoki we find 火国 ‘land of fire,’ but as this is written 肥国 in Kojiki, we know the proper reading is pwi [NO] KUNI ‘land of Hi.’ Kojiki also has the name 火君 PWI [NO] KIMI. Examples in Nihon shoki include 火葦北 PWI [NO] ASIKITA ‘Ashikita of Hi,’ 火国別 PWI [NO] KUNI WAKE, and 火中君 PWI [NO] NAKA [NO] KIMI. In Man’yōshū context makes it clear that the free form pwi is intended: MYS 2809 KYEPU NAREBA Because it is today 今日有者 PANA NO PANAPWIsi the reason I thought that 鼻之鼻火之 MAYWO kayuMI my nose was ticklish 眉可由見 OMOPIsi KOTO PA and my eyebrows itchy 思之言者 KIMI NI SI ARIKYEI is because of you, my lord. 君西在来

樋 乾

干

OJ: pwi OC: NA LH: NA EMC: NA GO: tuu KN: tou NOM: thông SV: NA SK: NA Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ pwi ‘gutter.’ This usage appears in Kojiki in the name 樋速日神 PWI [NO] PAYAPI [NO] KAMWI, the deity Hinohayahi (KG). This kungana also appears in Izumo fudoki: 神 名 樋山 KAMUNABWI YAMA ‘Mount Kamunabi’ and 樋速日子命 PWIPAYA PIKWO [NO] MIKOTO ‘Prince Hihayahi.’ OJ: pwi OC: *kân or *ɡan LH: kɑn, ɡɨan EMC: kân, ɡjän GO: kemu KN: gamu NOM: càn, gàn SV: can, kiền SK: kan, ken Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ pwi, the infinitive form of pu ‘to dry.’ There is one example in Man’yōshū, though it is the prenasalized form: bwi. MYS 2281 朝露尓 ASA TUYU ni Like the spiderwort SAKISUsaBWITARU that blooms in splendor 咲酢左乾垂 through the morning dew 鴨頭草之 TUKIKUSA NO PI KUTATUNAPE NI I feel as if my life 日斜共 KENU BEKU OMOPOYU will fade away as the sun sets. 可消所念 OJ: pwi OC: *kân LH: kɑn EMC: kân GO: kamu KN: kan NOM: can SV: can SK: kan Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ pwi, which is the infinitive of the verb pu ‘to dry.’ The phonogram mean to hang something out to dry. This usage appears twice in Man’yōshū. MYS 3848 Placing the rice in the storehouse 荒城田乃 ARAKWIDA no from the newly opened paddies 子師田乃稲乎 sisiDA no INE wo 309

倉尓擧蔵而 阿奈干稲干稲志 吾戀良久者

簸

KURA ni AGETE ana PWINEPWINEsi A GA KWOPUraku PA

where wild game frequents— how it has become dry and old, as my yearning for you.

OJ: pwi OC: *pâih or *pâiʔ LH: pɑih, paiʔ EMC: pwâh, pwâʔ GO: fa KN: fa NOM: NA SV: bả, phả SK: pha Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ pwi ‘winnow,’ as 簸 is a device to winnow grain. Pwi is the nominalized from of pu ‘to winnow.’ It is a testimony to the fact that a large number of sources went into the compilation of Nihon shoki in that it is the only record where this graph appears, along with 簸 used as a phonogram to transcribe OJ pa. In Nihon shoki, when Susanoo descends from heaven, he travels 簸之川上 PWI NO KAPAKAMI ‘upstream of the Hi River’ (NSG), whereas Kojiki writes the name of the river phonetically: 肥上河上 where pwi is the name of the river, and it is also marked as having a high accent (上). Interestingly, in modern Kyōto the word hiru ‘to winnow’ is tonic, or initial syllable high pitch.

熯

OJ: pwi OC: *hânʔ LH: hɑnʔ EMC: xânʔ GO: kan KN: kan NOM: NA SV: hãn SK: han Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ pwi ‘fire,’ which is a slight extrapolation from the graph 熯 ‘to burn.’ It is interesting that Nihon shoki is the only record to use this graph, and this is always used to represent pwi, while 火 ‘fire’ is always used to represent pwi or po. Consider the following examples, juxtaposed with the same name in Kojiki: 熯速日神 PWI [NO] PAYAPI [NO] KAMWI versus 樋速日神 PWI [NO] PAYAPI [NO] KAMWI.

菩

OJ: pwo OC: NA LH: bo EMC: bəu GO: bo KN: fo NOM: bồ SV: bồ SK: pwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on one Paekche stele: 須菩 提 *su-bo-te, referring to Deva Subhūti in Buddhist theology. This name appears in an inscription on a metal tablet that is dated prior to the downfall of Paekche in 660. The character 菩 appears once in Nihon shoki, in a Paekche name, 菩提 Pwote. This graph also appears a small number of times in Kojiki, mainly in the name 天之菩卑能命 AME NO Pwopi no MIKOTO (KG), and once in a song: KK 39 許能美岐波 kono miki pa This divine wine 和賀美岐那良受 wa ga miki narazu is not my wine. 久志能加美 kusi no kami The wondrous director 登許余迩伊麻須 tokoyo ni imasu who dwells in the Eternal Land, 伊波多多須 ipatatasu strong like the rocks, 310

須久那美迦微能 加牟菩岐 本岐玖琉本斯 登余本岐 本岐母登本斯 麻都理許斯美岐敍 阿佐受袁勢 佐佐

本

布 保

sukuna mikamwi no kamu pwoki pwokikurupwosi toyo pwoki pwokimotopwosi maturikosi miki zo asazu wose sa sa

the deity Sukuna— It is he who brewed this wine, dancing about brewing this wine with divine, auspicious words. This wine was presented by him. Drink every drop. Drink! Drink!

OJ: pwo OC: *pə̂nʔ LH: pənʔ EMC: pwənʔ GO: fomu KN: fon NOM: bản, bổn, vốn SV: bản, bổn SK: pwon Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. On the Kwangkaytho stele we find the following toponym: 忽本 *hut-pənʔ. This character also appears in Nihon shoki, in quotes from Paekche sources. One appears in the record of Jingū, recording the name of the king of Kara, 己本旱岐 Kopwo Kanki. This phonogram is the chief graph to transcribe OJ pwo in Kojiki, as the following examples demonstrate: 余曾多本毘賣命 Yoso Tapwobimye [NO] MIKOTO (KG), 沙本毘古王 Prince Sapwobikwo (KG), and 袁邪本王 Prince Wozapwo (KG). In poetry we find the following example: KK 30 夜麻登波 yamato pa Yamato is 久爾能麻本呂婆 kuni no mapworoba the most prosperous— 多多那豆久 tatanaduku a land ringed by 阿袁加岐 awokaki mountains arrayed 夜麻碁母禮流 yamagomoreru as a green, rolling fence. 夜麻登志宇流波斯 yamato si urupasi Yes, Yamato is beautiful. OJ: pwo OC: *pâh LH: pɑh EMC: puoh GO: fu KN: fo NOM: bố SV: bố, bá SK: phwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, apparently before vowel raising change changed this from pwo to pu. There are precious few examples of this pre-raised representation. One example is in the eighth year of Keitai, where the place name 匝布屯倉 ‘Sapwo Storehouse’ is found (NSG). Sapwo is represented as 佐保 in other records. OJ: pwo LH: pouʔ EMC: pâuʔ NOM: bảo, bầu SV: bảo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and Book 1 of Man’yōshū:

311

OC: *pûʔ GO: fo, fou KN: fou SK: pwo the earliest example appears in

MYS 21 MURASAKI no Like the purple grass 紫草能 if I were to think evil of 尓保敝類妹乎 nipopyeru IMWO wo my blushing beloved, 尓苦久有者 nikuku ARABA PITODUMA YUWE ni would I also yearn for 人嬬故尓 ARE KWOPWIME YAMO another’s spouse like this? 吾戀目八方 This phonogram is found in the liturgies three times: 古語云許止保企 “In the ancient vernacular, ‘pray’ is kotopwoki” (NT 8). It also appears frequently on mokkan: 須々保利 susupori ‘greens to be pickled’ (MK 3261), 奈保□ Napo X (District?) (MK 877). This phonogram is also used quite frequently in Nihon shoki: 神庫此云保玖 羅 “ ‘divine storage’ is read pwokura” (NSG). NSK 32 虚能彌企破 kono miki pa This divine wine is not 和餓彌企那羅儒 wa ga miki narazu divine wine of my brewing. 區之能伽彌 kusi no kami The wondrous director 等虚豫珥伊麻輸 tokoyo ni imasu who dwells in the Eternal Land, 伊破多々須 ipatatasu strong like the eternal rocks, 周玖那彌伽未能 sukuna mikamwi no the deity Sukuna— 等豫保枳 toyo pwoki It is he who brewed this wine, 保枳茂苔陪之 pwokimotoposi with an eternal blessing, 訶武保枳 kamupwoki dancing he blessed this wine 保枳玖流保之 pwokikuruposi with divine, auspicious words. 摩菟利虚辭彌企層 maturi kosi miki so This wine was presented by him. 阿佐孺塢齋 asazu wose Drink every drop. 佐佐 sa sa Drink! Drink! This phonogram is also the main graph used to transcribe po in the Footprints of the Buddha poetic sequence: 乃知乃保止気尓 noti no potoke ni ‘the Buddha of the future’ (BSS 9). The phonogram 保, in its cursive form, is later standardized to hiragana ほ, and minus its radical and a few strokes, it results in katakana ホ.

寶

OJ: pwo > po OC: *pûʔ LH: pouʔ EMC: pâuʔ GO: fou KN: fo NOM: bảo SV: báo SK: pwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. One of the earliest datable usages with this graph occurs in Shoku Nihongi, dated the 10th month of the fifth year of Yōrō (721), where the name 藏寳山 Sapo YAMA appears. Shoku Nihongi also preserves the usage 寳頭 Podu, a personal name (774.2.23). This phonogram appears 13 times in Man’yōshū: MYS 725 Pond water where 二寶鳥乃 nipoDORI no KADUKU IKEMIDU the grebe dives— 潜池水 KOKORO ARABA if you have a heart 情有者 KIMI ni A GA KWOPURU then clearly show him my heart 君尓吾戀 KOKORO SIMYEsane which yearns for my lord. 情示左祢 312

譜

報

OJ: pwo > po OC: NA LH: NA EMC: puo LMC: puə GO: fu KN: fo NOM: phả, phổ SV: phổ SK: pwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in Nihon shoki only twice in song: NSK 100 柯羅倶爾能 kara kuni no Standing upon the walls 基能陪儞陁致底 kwi no pe ni tatite of the Kara fortress 於譜磨故幡 opobakwo pa Ōbako is waving 比例甫囉須母 pire purasu mo her white scarf— 耶魔等陸武岐底 yamatopye mukite waving it toward Yamato. OJ: pwo OC: *pûh LH: pouh EMC: pâuh LMC: puaw GO: fou KN: fou NOM: báo SV: báo SK: pwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and only appears in Nihon shoki, and then there are only two examples in song: NSK 45 瀰箇始報 mikasipwo Filled with reverence, 破利摩波揶摩智 parima payamati Hayamachi of Harima 以播區娜輸 ipakudasu will brave danger 伽之古倶等望 kasikwoku tomo and take care of the maiden 阿例揶始儺破務 are yasinapamu of the turbulent waters.

褒

OJ: pwo OC: *pû LH: pou EMC: pâu LMC: puaw GO: fou KN: fou NOM: bao SV: bao SK: phwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and occurs only in Nihon shoki, once in poetry, and seven times in the annotational notes: 曼椒、此云褒曾紀 “ ‘prickly ash’ is read pwosokwi” (NSG). NSK 41 訶羅怒烏 karanwo wo The ship Karano 之褒珥椰枳 sipwo ni yaki was burned to make salt. 之餓阿摩離 si ga amari The leftover wood 虚等珥菟句離 koto ni tukuri was used to make a lute.

防

OJ: pwo OC: *baŋ LH: buɑŋ EMC: bjwaŋ LMC: fɦaŋ GO: bau KN: fau NOM: NA SV: phòng SK: pang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in the place name 周防 supwo, which appears in Kujiki, Man’yōshū, and Chikugo fudoki. As is clear from this usage and that in Kojiki and Nihon shoki (周芳) this must have represented supwo, which later contracts to Suō (*supau > supwo > suwo > suō). 313

The tradition of reading this as suwa is a later misconception, influenced by the older Sino-Japanese reading of 防・芳 as bau.

抱

OJ: pwo OC: *bûʔ LH: bouʔ EMC: bâuʔ LMC: pɦuaw GO: bou KN: fou NOM: bão SV: bão SK: pwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to CBS. It appears 13 times in Man’yōshū, all in Book 14. MYS 3450 乎久佐乎等 wokusawo to When I examine the two men, 乎具佐受家乎等 wogusazukyewo to Okusawo and Ogusa Zukewo, 斯抱布祢乃 sipwopune no lining them up like 那良敝弖美礼婆 narabyete mireba boats out in the tide, 乎具佐可知馬利 wogusa katimyeri it looks like Ogusa wins. Regardless that this poem is quite late, appearing in Book 14, which dates to the mid-Nara era, and in spite of this poem being an ‘eastern song,’ it is encouraging that the graph to write sipwo ‘tide’ uses a graph with a rounded nucleus. This does not mean that the poet’s dialect still made a distinction between pwo and po, but I would argue that the poet had been taught the older tradition from the capital.

袍

OJ: pwo OC: *bû LH: bou EMC: bâu LMC: pɦuaw GO: bou KN: fou NOM: bào SV: bào SK: pwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to CBS, and appears once in the annotational notes of Nihon shoki: 秀 眞 國 、 此 云 袍 圖 莽 句 儞 “ ‘superior country’ is read pwotuma kuni” (NSG).

穗

OJ: pwo > po OC: *s-wis LH: zuis EMC: zwih GO: zui KN: sui NOM: NA SV: huệ, tuệ SK: pwo Usage / History: This is a kungana, suggesting to the reader OJ po ‘rice ear,’ believed to have been *pwo. The earliest known usage appears in the Mino Census of 702: 穂積 PWODUMI, 志穂 SiPWO, and 加穂賣 KaPWOmye. Because Japanese was anciently euphemistically known as the land of ‘precious rice ears’ (瑞穂), and a plentiful harvest of rice in the fall was a sign of prosperity, this graph appears in many names. In Kojiki this graph is used when the island of Awaji is born, giving it the name 穗 之 狹 別 嶋 PWO NO SAWAKE [NO] SIMA (KG). The son of the Sun Goddess is named 正勝吾勝勝 速日天之忍穗耳命 MASA KATU AKATU KATI PAYAPI AME NO OSIPWO MIMI [NO] MIKOTO (KG). These same kind of usages also appear in Nihon shoki, Kujiki, Man’yōshū, and almost all other Asuka and Nara era texts.

314

百 福

凡

OJ: pwo > po OC: *prâk LH: pak EMC: pɐk GO: fiyaku KN: faku NOM: bách SV: bá, bách SK: poyk Usage / History: This is a kungana, suggesting to the mind the OJ word pwo ‘hundred.’ The earliest datable examples come from the Mino Census of 702: 五百木部 IPWOKWIBYE, 五百利部 IPWOriBYE. From the Yōrō Census (ca. 720) we find names such as 五百麻呂 IPWO Maro, 五百瀬麻呂 IPWOSE Maro. All examples are based on the OJ interpretation of ‘500’ ipwo. OJ: pwo, pwoki OC: *pək LH: puk EMC: pjuk GO: fuku KN: fuku NOM: phúc SV: phúc, phước SK: phwok Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It is found in surviving Sino-Japanese with a high back, rounded vowel, but as the SK shows, there was a mid back, rounded strain. It may have been that in Japanese this underwent vowel raising: pwok- > puk-. This appears in the Mino Census of 702 in the name 伊福利 Ipwori. Some may wonder why this cannot be Ipwokiri, but Ipwori appears in other parts of the same census, written 五百利 or 五百利部 IPWOriBYE. The same census also contains the name 伊福部 IpokiBYE. Nihon shoki contains that same name: 伊 福部 IpwokiBYE (NSG). OJ: pwo, pwomu OC: *bam LH: buam EMC: bjwɐm GO: bomu KN: famu NOM: phàm SV: phàm SK: pwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The earliest example appears in a work surrounding Shōtoku Taishi, which records a grandfather of the Great King Keitai in the fifth generation who was named 凡牟都和稀王 Prince Pwomuta Wake. This is supposedly the same name as Homutu Wake as found in the record of Suinin, written 誉津別皇子. The problem is that this usage appears to be from the Suiko era or earlier. Recently there has been a revisionist movement to claim that texts classified as remnants of the Suiko era are much later works. Specifically, Lurie (2001:421) has argued that Jōgūki cannot be taken seriously as a work from the Suiko era, but he does allow that the archaic nature of the orthography argues for a connection with the seventh century. While I have no intention of arguing the origins or dating of a work that only exists as a fragment, I will argue that the spelling of this name is very archaic. Notice that if we read this name according to the phonology of late Asuka, analogous to that in Kojiki, the name would be Pomutu Wakwi. But if we read this name in its Later Han Chinese form, then it matches perfectly with Great King Ōjin, whose name was Pomuta Wake, as recorded in Kojiki. This graph is also found in the name 凡治 Pwomudi. The reading of this graph is altered in Man’yōshū, where the Chinese usage of the graph is taken as a

315

hint. There is one poem, however, where the reading of pwomu is shortened to just po: MYS 1333 I had looked at 佐穂山乎 sapwo YAMA wo Mount Saho blankly, 於凡尓見之鹿跡 opo ni MIsi KA TO IMA MIREBA but now that I look at it 今見者 YAMA NATUKAsi mo how it tugs at my heart. 山夏香思母 KAZE PUKU NA YUME Don’t bother me, wind! 風吹莫勤

俾

邊

OJ: pye OC: *peʔ LH: pieʔ EMC: pjieʔ GO: fi KN: fi NOM: NA SV: tỉ SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The sole example appears in a genealogy linked to Shōtoku Taishi: 俾支 Pyeki. Reading 俾 as pye may ultimately go back to Sino-Paekche, as this is a Later Han-based reading. In Izumo fudoki we find a shrine in the Ou District called 都俾志呂社 Tupyesiro Shrine. Also, the name of an individual written 俾都久辰爲命 Pyetukusiwi [NO] MIKOTO appears in a story related to Shimane District in Izumo. This graph also appears in the genealogical section of Kujiki (Book 5) in the name 阿俾良 依姫 Apyera YORI PIMYE. It is possible, though difficult to determine, if this final name is Apira instead of Apyera. For the moment I place this name here. A mokkan excavated from the Fujiwara Palace ruins (fl. 694–710) contains this name: 漆部佐俾支 NURIBYE Sapyeki (MK 1497). Another mokkan contains this fragment: 委佐俾三升 ‘three MASU of wasabe’ (MKK 25:46). On the face of it, this should be wisapye, but no such word exists. The graph 委 often is an abbreviated form of 倭, so it seems safer to assume this is a form of wasabi ‘Japanese horseradish.’ OJ: pye OC: *pên LH: pen EMC: pien GO: femu KN: fen NOM: biên, bên, ven SV: biên SK: pen Usage / History: This graph is usually interpreted as a kungana, suggesting to the reader OJ pye ‘shore, vicinity, side.’ However, as the EMC reading of 邊 is pien, it seems almost as plausible that this graph is simply a phonogram, and the final nasal was ignored. Perhaps the Sino-Japanese reading and the semantics matched so tightly that this phonogram could have been used both as a phonogram and a kungana. I treat it as a phonogram, because I would argue that the phonogram and the kungana have became confused because of homophony. It appears as early as the EJS, to transcribe the name of Yōmei. In some early documents the name of the palace, Ikenopye, is transcribed 池邊大宮 Great Palace of IKE [NO] pye. Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu writes the palace name of Yōmei as 伊波礼池邊双槻宮 ‘the Ipare IKE [NO] pye NAMITUKWI Palace.’ This phonogram also appears in Kojiki, but primarily in toponyms and personal names: 邊疎神。次邊津那藝佐毘古神。次邊津甲斐辨羅神 ‘The

316

deity PyeZAKARU, next the deity PyeTU nagisabikwo, next the deity PyeTU KAPIbyera’ (KG). Likewise, this phonogram appears in Nihon shoki to transcribe toponyms and names: 大 戸 之 邊 OPOTWONOpye (NSG), 大 富 邊 尊 OPOTOMIpye [NO] MIKOTO (NSG), 級長戸邊命 SINA NATWOpye [NO] MIKOTO (NSG).

反

返

遍

OJ: pye OC: *panʔ LH: puanʔ EMC: pjwɐnʔ GO: fomu, femu KN: fan NOM: phản SV: phản, phan, phiên SK: pen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage appears six times, all in Book 15 of Man’yōshū. MYS 3706 多麻之家流 tama sikyeru Though it is a pretty beach 伎欲吉奈藝佐乎 kiywoki nagisa wo like one spread with jewels, 之保美弖婆 sipo miteba the tide had come in, 安可受和礼由久 akazu ware yuku so I will go unfulfilled; 可反流左尓見牟 kapyerusa ni MImu perhaps I will see it when I return. As Ōno (1962:501) has already noted, all six example appear in the verb kapyeru ‘to return,’ so this usage is a semantic play, as 反 includes the meaning ‘return.’ OJ: pye OC: *panʔ LH: puanʔ EMC: pjwɐnʔ GO: femu KN: fan NOM: phản SV: phản SK: pan Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It only appears twice in Book 5 of Man’yōshū to represent pye. MYS 854 多麻之末能 tamasima no We have a house here, 許能可波加美尓 kono kapakami ni upstream of this river, 伊返波阿礼騰 ipye pa aredo Tamashima, 吉美乎夜佐之美 kimi wo yasasimi but we were ashamed of you 阿良波佐受阿利吉 arapasazu ariki and did not disclose it. This rather rare usage of 伊返 ipye ‘house’ is also a semantic pun, being read ‘s/he returns,’ pointing to where people return. According to Ōno (1962:501), there is also an example in Man’yōshū, where this phonogram is read pyeni: 邊都返者 阿遅村動 奥邊者 鴨妻喚 pyetu pye niPA / adi MURA SAWAKI / OKIpye NIPA / KAMO TUMA YOBAPI ‘on the beach a flock of teal are noisy, while out in the offing wild ducks call for their mates…’ (MYS 260). However, as far as I can tell, all manuscripts have 遍 or a variation of this, but not 返, which would invalidate this example. OJ: pye, pyeni LH: penh NOM: biến

EMC: pienh SV: biẽn

317

OC: *pêns GO: femu KN: fen SK: pyen

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Man’yōshū, once in the name 許遍麻呂 Kopye Maro (MYS 1589). In the poetry it appears three times, but it should be mentioned that there are numerous cases of 千遍, which are glossed as TITABI ‘a thousand times’ or 二遍 PUTATABI ‘again, once more.’ Thus, the three cases in poetry I can find all represent pyeni. MYS 2026 SIRAKUMWO NO Though over there is 白雲 hidden by five hundred layers 五百遍隠 IPOpye ni KAKURI TOPOKU TOMO of white clouds that are distant, 雖遠 YOPI SARAZU MIMU I will gaze at them each night, 夜不去将見 IMWO GA ATARI PA out where my beloved lives. 妹當者

辧

平

覇

OJ: pye OC: *brans LH: bɨanh EMC: bjwänh LMC: pɦian GO: bemu KN: fen NOM: biện SV: biền SK: pyen, pan Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This phonogram was generally abbreviated to the simpler form of 弁. This phonogram appears four times in the Sakimori songs of Book 20 of Man’yōshū. MYS 4432 佐弁奈弁奴 sapye napyenu As I cannot refuse 美許登尓阿礼婆 mikoto ni areba the imperial command 可奈之伊毛我 kanasi imwo ga I will leave the arm 多麻久良波奈礼 tamakura panare of my beloved I slept upon— 阿夜尓可奈之毛 aya ni kanasi mo I am extremely sad. OJ: pye OC: *breŋ LH: bɨɛŋ EMC: bjɐŋ LMC: pɦiajŋ GO: biyau KN: pen, pei NOM: bình, bằng SV: bình SK: phyen, phyeng Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears the Chikuzen census of 702: 平羣郡 ‘Pyeguri District.’ This phonogram also appears in Kojiki and Nihon shoki, but only to transcribe 平群 pyeguri. This graph is not used as a phonogram in Man’yōshū, perhaps to avoid ambiguity, as the graph was popular, used for the various nengō which contained 天平 tenpyō, or 平城 Heijō. OJ: pye OC: *prâkh or *phrâk LH: pah, phak EMC: pah, phɐk LMC: pɛ: GO: fa, fiyaku KN: fa, faku NOM: NA SV: bá SK: pha, poyk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to CBS. There are three examples of this graph in Nihon shoki, all appearing in the same song: NSK 1 夜句茂多兔 yakumo tatu Endowed with power 伊弩毛夜覇餓岐 idumwo yapye gaki this two-fold Izumo fence— 318

兔磨語味爾 tumagome ni To conceal ourselves, 夜覇餓枳都倶盧 yapye gaki tukuru I have built this two-fold fence. 贈廼夜覇餓岐廻 sono yapye gaki we Yes, within this two-fold fence! This phonogram appears twice in Book 5 of Man’yōshū: MYS 816 烏梅能波奈 ume no pana You plum blossoms, 伊麻佐家留期等 ima sakyeru goto won’t you stay in bloom 知利須義受 tirisugwizu in the garden of my abode 和我覇能曽能尓 wa ga pye no sono ni as you are now? 阿利己世奴加毛 arikosenu kamo Do not scatter away.

敝

弊

OJ: pye OC: *bets or *bes LH: bias EMC: bjiäih LMC: pɦjiaj GO: bei KN: fei NOM: tệ SV: tế, tệ SK: phyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It only appears in Man’yōshū, but it appears in the earliest sections of the anthology, in Books 1 and 2: MYS 21 MURASAKI no Like the purple grass 紫草能 if I were to think evil of 尓保敝類妹乎 nipopyeru IMWO wo my blushing beloved, 尓苦久有者 nikuku ARABA PITODUMA YUWE ni would I also yearn for 人嬬故尓 ARE KWOPWIME YAMO another’s spouse like this? 吾戀目八方 OJ: pye OC: *bets LH: bias EMC: bjiäih LMC: pɦjiaj GO: bei KN: fei NOM: tệ SV: tế, tệ SK: phyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears four times in the song of Nihon shoki: NSK 43 阿豆瑳由瀰摩由瀰 adusayumi mayumi To make a true catalpa bow, 伊枳羅牟苔 ikiramu to I thought in my heart, 虚々呂破望閉耐 kokoro pa mopedo to cut down a catalpa tree. 伊斗羅牟苔 itworamu to I thought in my heart 虚々呂破望閉耐 kokoro pa mopedo to hold one of those trees. 望苔幣破 motopye pa I thought of you 枳瀰烏於望臂涅 kimi wo omopide at the trunk of the tree. 須慧幣破 suwepye pa I remembered you 伊暮烏於望比涅 imo wo omopide when I looked up at the crown. 伊羅那鷄區 iranakyeku I felt such sorrow 曾虚珥於望比 soko ni omopi thinking of you there. 伽那志鷄區 kanasikyeku I felt such sadness 虚々珥於望臂 koko ni omopi thinking about you here. 伊枳羅儒層區屢 ikirazu so kuru I left without cutting down 阿豆瑳由瀰摩由瀰 adusayumi mayumi the tree for the catalpa bow. This phonogram also appears in Books 4, 5, 17, 18, and 20 of Man’yōshū. 319

MYS 794 伊弊那良婆 迦多知波阿良牟乎 宇良賣斯企 伊毛乃美許等能 阿礼乎婆母 伊可尓世与等可 尓保鳥能 布多利那良毘為 加多良比斯 許々呂曽牟企弖 伊弊社可利伊摩須

幣

蔽 陛

ipye naraba katati pa aramu wo uramyesiki imwo no mikoto no are woba mo ika ni seyo to ka nipoDORI no putari narabi wi katarapisi kokoro somukite ipyezakari imasu

If I were at home there would be proper form. How regrettable my beloved— what would you have me do? Like the grebe we sat side by side and talked of things. And going against your wishes I am here, having left home.

OJ: pye OC: *bets LH: bias EMC: bjiäih LMC: pɦjiaj GO: bei KN: fei NOM: giẽ SV: tế, tệ SK: phyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. There is much graphic confusion between 弊 and 幣 in the various texts, so it is difficult to know which texts actually include which phonograms. Using data preserved on inscriptions on the Korean peninsula and in Japan, the original phonogram appears to be 弊 (actually it is written 碵). Because of this, I have included all data for the phonogram under 弊 (see above). OJ: pye OC: *pets LH: pias EMC: pjiäi LMC: pjiaj GO: feti, futi KN: fetu, futu NOM: NA SV: tế SK: phyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This graph appears solely in Nihon shoki, and only once in an annotational note: 後方羊蹄、此云斯梨蔽之 “ ‘(The toponym) Sirihesi’ is siripyesi” (NSG). OJ: pye OC: *bî LH: beiʔ EMC: bieiʔ LMC: pɦjiaj GO: fei KN: fei NOM: bệ SV: bệ SK: phyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This phonogram appears three times in the annotational notes, and 16 times in song: 頭邊、此云摩苦羅陛 “ ‘By the head’ is read makurapye’ (NSG), 脚邊、此云阿度陛 “ ‘By the legs’ is read atwopye” (NSG). NSK 127 於彌能古能 omi no kwo no The child of the vassal is 野陛能比母騰倶 yapye no pimo toku about to untie the eight-layer cord. 比騰陛多爾 pitopye dani Before he can untie 伊麻拕藤柯泥波 imada tokanepa even one layer of the cord 美古能比母騰矩 mikwo no pimo toku the prince has untied his cord. This phonogram appears once in Book 5 of Man’yōshū: 320

MYS 844 伊母我陛邇 由岐可母不流登 弥流麻提尓 許々陀母麻我不 烏梅能波奈可毛

鼙 鞞

部 重

imo ga pye ni yuki kamo puru to miru made ni kokoda mo magapu ume no pana kamo

How the plum blossoms swirl about so much that I think I see that it must be snowing at the house of my beloved.

OJ: pye OC: *bê LH: be EMC: biei LMC: pɦiaj GO: bai KN: fei NOM: NA SV: bề SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and only appears once in Nihon shoki, in the following annotational note: 戸畔、此云妬鼙 “ ‘(The title) Tope’ is read twopye’ (NSG). OJ: pye OC: *peʔ LH: pieʔ EMC: pjieʔ LMC: pji GO: fai KN: fei NOM: NA SV: tỳ SK: pi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing only in Nihon shoki, four times, but all in the same song: NSK 124 于知波志能 utipasi no Come out, child 都梅能阿素弭爾 tume no aswobi ni to play at the edge of 伊提麻栖古 idemase kwo the plank bridge. 多麻提能伊鞞能 tamade no ipye no Mistress Yaheko of 野鞞古能度珥 yapyekwo no twozi the Tamade House. 伊提麻志能 idemasi no There will be no regrets 倶伊播阿羅珥茹 kui pa arazi zo if you come out. 伊提麻西古 idemase kwo Come out, child— 多麻提能鞞能 tamade no ipye no Mistress Yaheko of 野鞞古能度珥 yapyekwo no twozi the Tamade House. OJ: pye LH: boʔ EMC: bəuʔ NOM: bộ, bõ SV: bộ Usage / History: See the same phonogram under OJ bye.

OC: *bôʔ GO: bu SK: pwu

OJ: pye OC: *droŋʔ or *droŋ LH: ɖioŋʔ, ɖioŋ EMC: ɖjwoŋʔ, ɖjwoŋ GO: diu KN: diou NOM: trộng, chùng SV: trọng, trùng SK: cyung Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ pye ‘folds,’ as the graph 重 means ‘pile up, duplicate.’ The following example appears in Kojiki in names or toponyms: 八 重言代主神 YAPYE KOTO SIRONUSI ‘deity Yae Koto Shironushi’ (KG), 三重村 MIPYE [NO] MURA ‘village of Mie’ (KG), and 三重婇 MIPYE [NO] UNEMYE 321

‘servant maidens from Mie’ (KG). Nihon shoki preserves much the same pattern, where 重 is used in conjunction with a number, representing a number of folds: 八百重 YAPOPYE ‘eight hundred folds’ (NSG),三重郡 MIPYE [NO] KOPORI ‘District of Mie (literally ‘three folds’)’ (NSG), 弟五百重娘 IRODO IPOPYE [NO] IRATUMYE ‘Princess Irodo Ihoe’ (NSG). Because of the heavy use of this graph to transcribe pye, when it was used in the name of Great Queen Kōgyoku: 天豐財重日足姫 AME [NO] TOYO TAKARA IKASIPI TARASI PIMYE, the editors of Shoki added the following note: 重日、此 云伊柯之比 ‘The graphs ‘fold-sun’ are to be read ikasipi’ to help the reader avoid reading 重 as pye.

隔

伯

篇

OJ: pye OC: *krêk LH: kɛk EMC: kɛk GO: kiyaku KN: kaku NOM: cách SV: cách SK: kyek Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ pye, a part of the verb pyedatu ‘be partitioned.’ It appears twice in Man’yōshū. 吾戀 千重之一隔毛 遣悶流 情 毛有八等 A GA KWOPURU / TIPYE NO PITOPYE mo / NAGUSAmoru / KOKORO mo ARIYA to ‘(thinking) she might have the intention to soothe even one thousandth of my yearning…’ (MYS 207). 吾戀流 千重乃一隔母 名草漏 情毛有哉跡 A GA KWOPURU / TIPYE NO PITOPYE mo / NAGUSAMORU / KOKORO mo ARIYA TO ‘(Thinking) it will soothe even one thousandth of my yearning…’ (MYS 509). Interesting that different poems by different poets use essentially the same kind of logographic convention, suggesting that perhaps this was one popular way to represent this usage. OJ: pyeki OC: *prak LH: pak EMC: pɐk GO: fiyaku KN: faku NOM: bá SV: bách SK: pha, poyk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears on a variety of mokkan dug up from the ruins of the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710): 佐伯直国依 Sapyeki ATAPI KUNIYORI, and 佐伯直麻呂 Sapyeki ATAPI Maro. This usage appears 35 times in Nihon shoki, mainly to represent Sapyeki (佐伯). This usage also appears in Man’yōshū, once for 佐伯山 sapyeki YAMA ‘Mount Saeki’ (MYS 1259), and once in 大伴等 佐伯乃氏者 OPOTOMO to / sapyeki no UDI PA ‘the heredetiary families of the Ōtomo and Saeki…’ (MYS 4094). OJ: pyeni OC: *phen LH: phian EMC: phjiän GO: fen KN: fen NOM: thiên SV: biển SK: phyen Usage / History: This rare usage belongs to the LJS. I have only found one example in Man’yōshū. MYS 2558 UTUKUSI to It seems that 愛等 OMOpyeniKYERAsi you have feelings for me— 思篇来師 322

莫忘登 NA WASURE to You said ‘Do not forget’ MUSUBIsi PIMWO no but I think about the rope 結之紐乃 TOKUraku OMOPEBA you tied, and how it comes undone. 解樂念者 Ōno (1962:500) argues that 篇 should be read pini, based on the somewhat convoluted reasoning based on rhyme dictionaries, but this can only be read pyeni. The other difficulty is that grammatically this cannot be omopye-ni-kyerwith a perfective ni there. That is why scholars interpret this stanza to be omopyeri-kyer-. For the time being, I leave the poem as is. It is possible that as both -r- and -n- are alveolars, the poet may have slurred the sound, like many do in modern Japanese, where wakaranai has become wakannai ‘I don’t know.’

323

R 羅

OJ: ra OC: *râi LH: lai > la EMC: lâ GO: ra KN: ra NOM: la, là SV: la SK: la Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Kwangkaytho stele: 新羅 *sin-la (or *sil-la, with the nasal showing a liquid geminate), 古模耶羅城 *kɔ-mo-ya-la fortress, 交羅城 *kau-la fortress, and 古家耶羅城 *kɔ-ka-ya-la fortress. It also appears on the Paekche Buddhist Pwun-san Wang-kung-li stele (pre-660): 阿耨多羅, which is a transcription for Anavatapta, a sacred place in Buddhism. This phonogram appears in quotes from Paekche historical material in Nihon shoki to write a variety of place names on the peninsula: 多々羅・素奈羅・弗 知鬼・委陀・南迦羅・阿羅々六城 ‘The six fortresss of Tatara, Swonara, Potikuwi, Wada, Southern Kara, and Arara.’ This phonogram also appears in the earliest extant Japanese corpus, appearing in the name of Great King Kinmei, inscribed on the base of a pagoda from Gangōji: 阿米久爾意斯波羅岐比里爾波彌己等 Ame Kuni Osiparaki Pironipa Mikoto. In Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu, Great King Bidatsu’s name is preserved as 蕤奈久羅乃布等多麻斯支乃弥己等 Nunakura no Putotamasiki no Mikoto. This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan: 此番止羅无 KORE pa toramu ‘I will take this…’ (unnumbered tablet), 知夫利評由羅五十戸 ‘Tiburi District Yura Village of fifty households’ (MKK 19:22). This phonogram is also quite popular in Kojiki, though 良 is the primary graph used to transcribe ra. Interstingly this phonogram, while appearing in a number of names and words, only appears in one poem. It appears in words such as 御 美 豆 羅 MImitura ‘male type of hair style’ (KG), 天 津 麻 羅 AMATUmara, a heavenly deity who represents blacksmiths (KG), and 天之羅 摩船 AMA NO ramaBUNE ‘the heavenly Rama boat’ (KG). KK 53 淤岐幣迩波 okipye ni pa There are boats 袁夫泥都羅羅玖 wobune turaraku lined up out in the offing. 久漏邪夜能 kurwozaya no Black like a sheath 摩佐豆古和藝毛 masadukwo wagimwo my beautiful beloved, 玖迩幣玖陀良須 kunipye kudarasu she heads for her home. This is the primary graph in Nihon shoki to transcribe ra, used in 28 annotational notes, and 99 times in the poetry: 美飮喫哉、此云于魔羅儞烏野 羅甫屢柯倭 “ ‘oh, how to drink’ is read umara ni wo yarapuruga wa” (NSG). NSK 103 摩蘇餓豫 maswoga yo Truly you are the Swoga, 蘇餓能古羅破 swoga no kwora pa the posterity of the Swoga— 宇摩奈羅麼 uma naraba if you were horses, 譬武伽能古摩 pimuka no kwoma then steeds of Himuka you would be. 324

多智奈羅麼 tati naraba If you were swords, 勾禮能摩差比 kure no masapi then blades of Koryŏ you would be. 宇倍之訶茂 ubesi kamo How true this is. 蘇餓能古羅烏 swoga no kwora wo That must be why 於朋枳瀰能 opokimi no the posterity of the Swoga 菟伽破須羅志枳 tukapasurasiki serve the great lord. This phonogram is used 24 times in Man’yōshū. MYS 1231 AMAGWIRAPI It seems that the sky is misty 天霧相 PIKATA PUKUrasi with rain and a southerly blowing. 日方吹羅之 MIDUKUKWI NO The waves are rising all over 水莖之 WOKA NO KADWO ni the inlet of the river 岡水門尓 NAMITATI WATARU at Woka, a place of grass stalks. 波立渡

邏

OJ: ra OC: *râi LH: lɑi > lɑ EMC: la GO: ra KN: ra NOM: lạ SV: lá SK: la Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in Koguryŏgi in reference to a military position: 諸小城置可邏達比長史…其武官曰大模達、比衛将軍、 一名莫何邏繍支 “In the various minor fortresses (the court) has established karadat, which is comparable to the post of Deputy Governor…The military officer is called Great mudat, which is comparable to the post of Defense General; this post is also called Makgarasiuke (Takeuchi 1977:34). There is also an example of this on the Silla Namsan stele (ca. 591) in a name: 阿良邏 *alala. Perhaps because of the high stroke count of this graph, it does not appear in any Japanese texts, other than Nihon shoki. Likely most writers would have used the more economical 羅. The phonogram 邏 is used in nine annotational notes, and 18 times in poetry in Nihon shoki: 希見、此云梅豆邏志 “ ‘a rare thing’ is read medurasi” (NSG). NSK 28 烏智箇多能 wotikata no In the direction of the thinly 阿邏々麻菟麼邏 arara matubara wooded pine grove, 摩菟麼邏珥 matubara ni we will venture across 和多利喩祇氐 watari yukite that pine grove. 菟區喩彌珥 tukuyumi ni Using zelkova bows with 末利椰塢多具陪 mariya wo tagupe sounding arrowhead arrows, 宇摩比等破 umapito pa those of noble birth 于摩譬苔奴知野 umapito dwoti ya will fight with their own kind. 伊徒姑播茂 itwokwo pa mo Men with relatives 伊徒姑奴池 itwokwo dwoti will fight together. 伊裝阿波那 iza apana Commence the battle, 和例波 ware pa shall we? 多摩岐波屢 tamaki paru Minister Uti, 于池能阿層餓 uti no aso ga possessing a strong spirit, 波邏濃知波 paranuti pa does not have a stomach 異佐誤阿例椰 isagwo are ya made of pebbles. 325

伊裝阿波那 iza apana Commence the battle, 和例波 ware pa shall we? There is also an extremely graph that appears to be a mixture of 邏 and 蘿, where the scribe writes 邏 with 艹. This extremely rare graph appears twice in the first book of Nihon shoki, in an annotational note. The editors of Jidai betsu kokugo daijiten (1967:902) are the only source I can locate that make mention of this phonogram, as neither Ōno (1977:793) nor Mori (1991:257) make mention of it. I thus put mention of it here. The annotational note is: 蹴散、此云倶穢簸 邏邏箇須 “ ‘kick and scatter,’ this is to be read kuwepararakasu” (NSG). For the time being, I leave this phonogram here in the dictionary.

良

OJ: ra, ragi OC: *raŋ LH: liaŋ EMC: ljaŋ GO: rau KN: riyau NOM: lương SV: lương SK: lyang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Silla Namsan stele (ca. 591) in 阿良村 *ala village, and in part of a name and title: 阿良邏 *alala. It also appears in the Nihon shoki, in the name of a temple architect sent over from Paekche, mentioned in the record of Sushun: 太良未太 Dara Mwida. Nihon shoki also mentions an envoy from Silla in the record of Tenmu named 奈末加 良井山 Kara Tsieŋsen. This phonogram appears in the earliest extant Japanese corpus, in names such as 等 由 良 宮 Toyura Palace (Gangōji temple record) or 伊 自 牟 良 Izimura (Jōgūki fragment). It also appears in a poem preserved in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu, written supposedly not long after the death of Prince Shōtoku. 伊加留我乃 ikaruga no Here in Ikaruga, 己能加支夜麻乃 kono kakiyama no surrounded by the mountains: I implore my master, 佐可留木乃 sakaruKWI no 蘇良奈留許等乎 swora naru koto wo but my desire is vain. 支美尓麻乎佐奈 kimi ni mawosana like the sky is empty. This phonogram appears 16 times in the liturgies: 神直日命大直日命聞直 志 見 直 志 弖 平 良 気 久 安 良 気 久 所 知 食 登 白 KAMUNAPOBI [NO] MIKOTO OPONAPOBI [NO] MIKOTO KIKINAPOsi MINAPOsite TAPIrakeku YASUrakeku SIROSIMESE to MAWOSU “(If there are any omissions), the deities Kamunaobi and Ōnaobi will hear and rectify, see and rectify, and be tranquil and at peace” (NT 8). This phonogram appears on many mokkan: 布久良 pukura ‘?’ (unnumbered tablet), 知夫利郡由良里軍 ‘the militia of Yura Village of Tiburi District’ (MKK 5:85), 麻須良女 MasuraMYE (MK 1958). This is the principal phonogram to transcribe ra for poetry in Kojiki: KK 58 都藝泥布夜 tuginepu ya How the peaks continue— 夜麻斯呂賀波袁 yamasirogawa wo sailing up the Yamashiro River 美夜能煩理 miya nobori to the palace, 和賀能煩禮婆 wa ga noboreba as I sailed upstream 阿袁迩余志 awo ni yosi I passed Nara 那良袁須疑 nara wo sugwi good that it is green.

326

袁陀弖 wodate I passed Yamato 夜麻登袁須疑 yamato wo sugwi like a small shield. 和賀美賀本斯久迩波 wa ga migapwosi kuni pa The land I desire to see 迦豆良紀多迦美夜 kadurakwi takamiya is Takamiya in Kazuraki; 和藝幣能阿多理 wagipye no atari the area around my house. This is the primary phonogram used to transcribe ra in Man’yōshū, appearing 1286 times. MYS 865 伎弥乎麻都 kimi wo matu Are the young maidens 麻都良乃于良能 matura no ura no who pine for their lord at 越等賣良波 wotomyera pa Pine Bay, Matsura, 等己与能久尓能 tokoyo no kuni no young women divers 阿麻越等賣可忘 ama wotomye kamo of the eternal land? This phonogram also appears in the poems of the Bussoku stone: BSS 3 与伎比止乃 yoki pito no I cannot see 麻佐米尓美祁牟 masame ni mikyemu even the footprints that 美阿止須良乎 miato sura wo the righteous men must 和礼波衣美須弖 ware pa emisute have seen before their eyes— 伊波尓惠利都久 ipa ni werituku engrave them on the rock. 多麻尓惠利都久 tama ni werituku Engrave them on the jewel. Shoku Nihongi contains the toponym 同 國 久 良 郡 ‘same province (Musashi) Kuragi District’ (768.6.21). The velar nasal is used to represent -gi.

浪

郎

OJ: ra OC: *râŋ LH: laŋ EMC: lâŋ GO: rau KN: rau NOM: lảng, lãng SV: lang, lãng SK: lang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and it appears only three times in Man’yōshū. MYS 4390 牟浪他麻乃 muratama no Having made a firm promise, 久留尓久枳作之 kuru ni kugi sasi as a door pivoting on a nail— 加多米等之 katametosi like a cluster of jewels, 以母加去々里波 imo ga kokoro pa my beloved’s heart will 阿用久奈米加母 aywokuname kamo probably not be moved. OJ: ra OC: *râŋ LH: laŋ EMC: lâŋ GO: rau KN: rau NOM: lang, sang SV: lang SK: lang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in the name 一難寳郎 Itinan Pora, a descendant of Paekche who lived in the Paekche District of Settsu. He is the copyist of the extant manuscript of Madhyamāgama.

327

廊 莨 囉

攞

𡤢

OJ: ra OC: *râŋ LH: laŋ EMC: lâŋ GO: rau KN: rau NOM: lang, làng, láng SV: lang, làng SK: lang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, found in the name 一難寳廊 Ichinan Pora. He is the copyist of the extant manuscript of Madhyamāgama. OJ: ra OC: *râŋ LH: lɑŋ EMC: laŋ GO: rau KN: rau NOM: NA SV: lương SK: lang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in the name 甘莨 Kamura in a document preserved in the Shōsōin. The name is written 甘良 Kamura in other documents. OJ: ra OC: *râi LH: lɑi > lɑ EMC: la GO: ra KN: ra NOM: la, ra SV: la SK: la Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only in Nihon shoki, appearing in six times in poetry: NSK 85 阿佐膩簸囉 asadipara Through the rocky path of 嗚贈禰嗚須擬 wosone wo sugwi the mountains and over 謨謀逗頴甫 momodutapu Asaji Plain comes a distant, 奴底喩羅倶慕與 nute yuraku mo yo continuous jingle of a bell. 於岐毎倶羅之慕 okime kurasi mo It seems Okime has arrived. OJ: ra OC: *râi LH: lɑi > lɑ EMC: la GO: ra KN: ra NOM: rà SV: NA SK: la Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only once in Nihon shoki: NSK 98 比攞哿駄喩 pirakata yu Heqading up through 輔曳輔枳能朋樓 puye puki noboru the port of Hirakata 阿符美能野 apumi no ya someone plays a flute. 愷那能倭倶吾伊 kena no wakugwo i It is young Kena of Afumi, 輔曳符枳能朋樓 puye puki noboru playing as he rows upstream. OJ: ra OC: NA LH: NA EMC: la GO: ra KN: ra NOM: NA SV: la SK: la Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in Shoku Nihongi in a toponym in Ōsumi: 株日向國肝坏贈於、大隅、姶𡤢四郡、始置大隅國 ‘The four districts of KIMOTUKI, Soo, OPOSUMI, and Apira were cut out from 328

PIMUKA and (the court) established the province of OPOSUMI for the first time’ (713.4.3).

𧟌

樂

OJ: ra OC: NA LH: NA EMC: la GO: ra KN: ra NOM: NA SV: la SK: la Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in Shoku Nihongi: 大隅隼 人姶𧟌郡 ‘OPOSUMI PAYATO of Apira District’ (729.7.22). Some manuscripts have this as 姶𡤢, so it is difficult to know which is the archetype. For the time being I leave it as is. OJ: ra, raka, raki, raku OC: *râuk LH: lak EMC: lâk GO: raku KN:raku NOM: lạc SV: lạc SK: lak Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in the mythical story on the Kwangkaytho stele, where the king is named 永樂 *waŋ-lak, named after a mythical king of the same name. It should be noted, however, that this reading is speculation, because the phonogram 樂 has two different readings, lè and yuè, the first meaning ‘joy’ and the second ‘music.’ These two are surely ultimately related, but by the Later Han period they had different readings. This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, in the record of Buretsu, transcribing the name of Mount Nara: 乃樂山 Mount Narak. Some have argued that this is simply Nara, with the -k ignored. It is interesting to note that in the Nintoku record the current manuscripts of Nihon shoki have 那羅山 Mount Nara, but Shiki notes that an earlier version (an earlier stage of the compilation?) of Shoki had 乃樂山 here, also. This same usage is seen on a stele at the Taianji Temple (dated 775): 乃樂之京 ‘the metropolis of Narak.’ This phonogram appears on several mokkan: 山背国相楽郡 YAMASIRO Province Sagaraka District (MKK 20:39). This phonogram also appears once in Kojiki in a related though interesting writing: 山代國之相樂 Sagaraka of YAMASIRO Province (KG). Here 樂 represents raka, but this is still based on the Chinese lak, with an echo vowel a-. This same transcription appears in the Kinmei section of Shoki: 相 樂 郡 Sagaraka District (NSG) and 相 樂 館 sagaraka [NO] MUROTWUMWI ‘government building of Sagaraka’ (NSG). Shoku Nihongi preserves an example of raki: the district name 邑樂郡 glossed as Oparaki (769.4.27). This transcription is supported by the later usage in Wamyōshō, where the district is transcribed 於波良岐 oparaki. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū. There are a number of examples of ‘the palace of Nara’ transcribed as 寧樂宮. This phonogram is also used in the poetry to transcribe either raku (MYS 992) or raka (MYS 481): MYS 992 PURUSATWO NO I still yearn for 古郷之 ASUKA PA AREDO Asuka, the old capital, 飛鳥者雖有 AWO NI YOSI but Asuka in Nara 青丹吉 329

平城之明日香乎 見樂思好裳 MYS 481 山代乃 相樂山乃 山際 徃過奴礼婆

落

覽

藍

NARA NO ASUKA wo MIrakusi YOSI MO YAMASIRO

no

sagaraka YAMA no YAMA NO MA NI YUKISUGWInureba

of the blue hills is indeed beautiful to look at. You went out to and then through the valley of Mount Sagaraka in Yamashiro….

OJ: raku OC: *râk LH: lak EMC: lâk GO: raku KN: raku NOM: lạc SV: lạc SK: lak Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Man’yōshū to transcribe raku, of which there are only three examples. MYS 3246 AME NARU YA The lord I yearn for is 天有哉 TUKWIPI NO GOTOKU like the sun and the moon, 月日如 A GA OMOPYERU those heavenly orbs— 吾思有 KIMI GA PI KE NI how regretful that he grows older 君之日異 OYUraku WOSI mo with each passing day. 老落惜文 OJ: ramu OC: *râmʔ LH: lamʔ EMC: lâm GO: ramu KN: ramu NOM: lãm SV: lãm SK: lam Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage appears only in Man’yōshū, in five poems, always used to transcribe the tentative suffix -ramu. MYS 1856 WA GA KAZASU The wind rustles the string 我刺 YANAGWI NO ITWO wo of the willow branch 柳絲乎 PUKIMIDARU I have stuck in my hair. 吹乱 KAZE ni ka IMWO GA Will the plum blossom decorating 風尓加妹之 UME no TIRUramu my beloved’s hair scatter? 梅乃散覽 OJ: ramu OC: *râm LH: lam EMC: lâm GO: ramu KN: ramu NOM: lam, chàm, xám SV: lam SK: lam Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It only appears in Man’yōshū three times. MYS 910 KAMUKARA ka Is it according to 神柄加 MIGAPOSIKAramu the will of the deities 見欲賀藍 三吉野乃 MIYOSINWO no that they want to see it? TAKI no KAPUTI PA I do not tire of gazing at 瀧乃河内者 MIREDO AKANU KAMO the banks of the Miyoshino falls. 雖見不飽鴨

330

濫

臘

例

OJ: ramu OC: *râms LH: lamh EMC: lâmh GO: ramu KN: ramu NOM: làm, rộm, trộm SV: lạm SK: lam Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram only appears in Man’yōshū a total of 12 times. MYS 651 久堅乃 PISAKATA no The heavenly dew has fallen AME NO TUYU SIMWO from the long and hard skies. 天露霜 OKInikyeri Does the person 置二家里 IPYE NARY PITO mo who is at home 宅有人毛 MATIKWOPWInuramu yearn because of this chill? 待戀奴濫 OJ: rapu OC: *râp LH: lap EMC: lâp GO: rafu KN: rafu NOM: chap SV: lạp, chạp SK: lap Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Man’yōshū only once, and then in a corrupted form. As Ōno (1962:524) explains this poem uses a variant graph, 臈 for 臘. MYS 1273 SUMINOYE NO The riding coat 住吉 of Lord Hazuma of Suminoe 波豆麻公之 paduma NO KIMI GA UMA NORI KOROMO is a garment sewn by 馬乗衣 SAPIDUrapu a foreign girl 雜豆臈 AYAMYE wo SUWETE with chirping speech 漢女乎座而 NUPYERU KOROMO zo that he made sit and sew. 縫衣叙 OJ: re OC: *rats LH: lias > liah EMC: ljäih GO: re KN: rei NOM: lệ, lề SV: lệ SK: lyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in an interesting title for the king of Sin: 辰王治月支國、臣智或加優呼臣雲遣支報安邪踧支濆臣離兒不 例拘邪秦支廉之號 “The Sin (*dźɨn) King rules the land of *nGyɑt-ke, and has the title of *Gin-teh or they even lengthen it out as *Gin-wun-khianʔ-ke-pouhan-ya-tsuk-ke-bun-gin-liɑh-ńe-pu-liah-kou-ya-dzin-ke-lem.” This phonogram appears on a wooden document excavated in Hamamatsu City in Shizuoka: 刑 部 宇 例 志 WOSAKABYE Uresi (MKK 30:202). This phonogram appears in Nihon shoki, where it is the primary phonogram used to transcribe re, appearing in three annotational notes, and 42 times in poetry: 肩巾 此云比例 “ ‘shoulder scarf’ is read pire” (NSG). NSK 63 夜輸瀰始之 yasumisisi Our great sovereign 和我於朋枳瀰波 wa ga opokimi pa who rules the eight quarters 于陪儺于陪儺 ube na ube na has spoken reasonably 和例烏斗波輸儺 ware wo twopasu na by asking this question of me. 331

阿企菟辭摩 akitusima But I have not heard 揶莽等能倶珥々 yamato no kuni ni anything about a goose 箇利古武等 kari kwomu to having laid an egg 和例破枳箇儒 ware pa kikazu in the land of Yamato. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, found in Books 5, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 a total of 41 times. MYS 4344 和須良牟弖 wasuramute I came here 努由伎夜麻由伎 nwo yuki yama yuki trying to forget them— 和例久礼等 ware kuredo over fields and mountains, 和我知々波々波 wa ga titi papa pa but I cannot forget 和須例勢努加毛 wasuresenu kamo my father and mother.

禮

OJ: re OC: *rîʔ LH: leiʔ EMC: lieiʔ GO: rai KN: rei NOM: lãi, rẽ, rảy, trễ SV: lễ SK: lyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Silla Namsan Stele (591), found in the fragment of one name: □叱禮干文尺□ *X-tsit-lei-kɑnmun-tsiak-X. This phonogram also appears in Paekche material quoted in Nihon shoki: 阿利那禮河 Arinare River, which according to the Jingū record is a river in Silla, but this is clearly a transcription from Paekche, as nare is a Paekche word for ‘river,’ so the word was spliced into Nihon shoki without careful consideration. The name actually means ‘the river Ari.’ There is also 汙禮斯伐 Ure Sipot, an envoy for the Silla King. Also, in the record of Keitai, Kena no Omi, who is on the peninsula builds a fortress called 久禮牟羅城 Kuremura Fortress. In the record of Kinmei there is also a mountain called 久禮山 Mount Kure. This phonogram is preserved in some of the earliest Japanese records. There are two examples of transcriptions for the toponym Ipare (modern Iware): 伊波 禮 and 夷波禮. This phonogram appears six times in the liturgies, every example for -reru: 四方國乃進礼留御調乃荷前乎取並弖 YOMO [NO] KUNI no TATEMATUreru MITUKI no NOSAKI wo TORINARABEte “And line up the tribute of first fruits that are presented from the provinces from the four directions…” (NT 6). This phonogram also appears on a number of mokkan: 多礼留波久留万 tareru pakuruma ‘carriages that are sufficient (in number)? hanging pinwheels?’ (MK 3299), 目毛美須流安保連紀我許等乎志宜見賀毛美夜能宇知可礼弖 MATUGE misuru APO MURAZI Ki ga koto wo sigeMI kamo miya no uti karete ‘Apo Murazi Ki who is showing his eyelashes, alas, is noisy and leaves the inner chambers of the palace…’ (unnumbered tablet). This is the principal phonogram used to transcribe re in Kojiki: 姓稗田名阿 禮 “A person with the surname PIYEDA, named Are” (KG), 神倭伊波禮毘古 天皇 Great King KAMU YAMATO Iparebikwo (KG), 宇士多加禮許呂呂岐弖 uzi takare kororokite ‘maggots had gathered and were squirming about’ (KG). KK 56 夜麻登幣迩 yamatopye ni A west wind blows 爾斯布岐阿宜弖 nisi pukiagete up toward Yamato, 332

玖毛婆那禮 kumwobanare and the clouds separate 曾岐袁理登母 soki woritomo hither and thither in the distance, 和禮和須禮米夜 ware wasureme ya but I will not forget you. This phonogram is generally avoided by the Nihon shoki scribes, and it does not appear in poetry or annotational notes. It is used three times in Nihon shoki to transcribe names. In a story where the Great King sends envoys to travel to Kure, a Chinese state, they get lost and ask the way. The two people who give them directions have kure in their names: 久禮波 Kurepa 久禮志 Kuresi. This phonogram is the principal graph to transcribe re in Man’yōshū, used a total of 698 times. MYS 32 INISIPYE NO Am I a person 古 PITO ni ware ARE YA from the ancient past? 人尓和礼有哉 SASANAMI no It saddens me 樂浪乃 PURUKI MIYAKWO wo to look at the remains 故京乎 MIREBA KANASIKI of the old capital at Sasanami. 見者悲寸 This phonogram is the principal phonogram to represent re in the Bussoku poetic sequence. BSS 10 己礼乃与波 kore no yo pa Even though this world 宇都利佐留止毛 uturisaru tomo should change and pass away, 止己止婆尓 tokotopa ni let these footprints remain 佐乃己利伊麻世 sanokori imase true on the eternal rock! 乃知乃与乃多米 noti no yo no tame For those in future generations. 麻多乃与乃□□ mata no yo no X X For generations yet to come….

連

列

OJ: re OC: *ranʔ or *renʔ LH: lianʔ EMC: ljänʔ GO: remu KN: ren NOM: liên, liền, len SV: liên SK: lyen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, appearing in the name 古連旦涇之水 the Ko-len Tan-geŋ River, a river near or in Paekche territory. Perhaps because of the final -n this phonogram was generally avoided. It appears once in Man’yōshū: MYS 3939 佐刀知加久 satwo tikaku How I hate myself 伎美我奈里那婆 kimi ga narinaba for the unfounded thought 古非米也等 kwopwime ya to that my longing for you 母登奈於毛比此 motona omopisi would subside if you 安連曽久夜思伎 are so kuyasiki were to return closer to home. OJ: re OC: *rat LH: liat EMC: ljät GO: reti KN: retu NOM: liệt, rệt SV: liệt SK: lyel Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram only appears only five times in Man’yōshū. 333

MYS 822 和何則能尓 宇米能波奈知流 比佐可多能 阿米欲里由吉能 那何列久流加母

烈

戻

黎

wa ga sono ni ume no pana tiru pisakata no ame ywori yuki no nagarekuru kamo

The plum blossoms in my garden are scattering. Or is it that snow is falling from heaven, which is so far away.

OJ: re OC: *rat LH: liat EMC: ljät GO: reti KN: retu NOM: lét, lẹt, lướt SV: liệt SK: lyel Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only once in Man’yōshū: MYS 3250 KWOPUre KAMO I yearn for you 戀烈鴨 KOKORO NO ITAKI and my heart is in pain. 心痛 SUWE TUPI ni If I am not to meet you 末逐尓 KIMI NI APAZU PA from this time forth 君丹不會者 WA GA INOTI no then I will live 吾命乃 IKERAMU KIPAMI the rest of my life 生極 KWOPWITUTU mo longing for you. 戀乍文 OJ: re OC: *rît, rîts LH: let, les EMC: liet, lieih LMC: liaj GO: rai KN: rei NOM: NA SV: lệ SK: lye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears only once in Nihon shoki: poem. NSK 4 憶企都茂播 okitu mwo pa It comes to the shore 陛爾播譽戻耐母 pye ni pa yoredomo the seaweed in the offing; 佐禰耐據茂 sanedoko mo but my wife comes not— 阿黨播怒介茂譽 atapanu kamo yo refusing to give me a bed. 播磨都智耐理譽 pamatutidori yo Ah, the plovers on the beach! OJ: re OC: *rî LH: lei EMC: lɛj LMC: liaj GO: rai KN: rei NOM: lê SV: lê SK: lye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears only in Nihon shoki, once in an annotational note, and five times in poetry: 慨哉、此云宇黎多棄伽夜 “ ‘how heart rending’ is read uretaki ka ya” (NSG). NSK 93 於彌能姑能 omi no kwo no The son of the Omi has 耶賦能之魔柯枳 yapu no sibagaki has made a brushwood fence. 始陀騰余瀰 sita toyomi But if the earth quakes, 那爲我與釐據魔 nawi ga yori koba that brushwood fence 耶黎夢之魔柯枳 yaremu sibagaki will likely fall to pieces. 334

廉

利

OJ: remu OC: *rem LH: liam EMC: ljäm GO: remu KN: remu NOM: lèm, lim SV: liêm SK: lyem Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only once in Man’yōshū, and by using the final nasal -m, the poet uses this graph to transcribe remu. MYS 2487 NARA YAMA NO Like the tip of the branches 平山 KWOMATU GA URE NO of the small pine tree 子松末 有廉叙波 uremu zo pa on Mount Nara— A GA OMOPU IMWO how can I go on without 我思妹 APAZU YAMINAMU seeing the beloved I yearn for? 不相止者 OJ: ri OC: *rih LH: lih EMC: lih GO: ri KN: ri NOM: lì, lời, lợi SV: lợi, lị SK: li Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in the following: 彌彌那利 *me-me-na-ri, an auxiliary title, 都市牛利 *tɔ-si-gu-ri, a personal name, and 巴利 *pa-ri, a toponym. This phonogram also appears on the Kwangkaytho stele inscription: 幹弖利 城 *kan-te-ri fortress, 古利城 *kɔ-ri fortress, 困利城 *kən-ri fortress, and 也利城 *ya-ri fortress. It also appears in an inscription of a silver bracelet from the tomb of the King Munyeng of Paekche: 多利作 ‘Made by Tari.’ This phonogram is also found on the Inariyama tumulus sword inscription (ca. fifth century) in two names: 多加利足尼 Ta-ka-ri Sukune. 弖已加利獲居 Te-yə Kari Waka. It is possible the second graph is actually 巳, as poor technique used to cut the graphs into the blade makes it hard to distinguish the two graphs (已 vs. 巳). If the second graph is actually the one intended, the name would be Te-zə Kari Waka. The graph also appears on the Suda Hachiman mirror inscription (ca. sixth century) in the name 今州利 *kɨm-tśu-lih. This phonogram is also found in the earliest texts of Japan. In the fragment from Jōgūki we find names such as 伊 久 牟 尼 利 比 古 大 王 Great King Ikumuneri Pikwo and 布利比彌 Puri Pimye. This phonogram appears 23 times in the liturgies: 足御世乃茂御世爾齋奉利常石爾堅石爾福閇奉利預而 TARASI MIYO no IKASI MIYO ni IPAPIMATUri,TOKIPA ni KAKIPA ni SAKIPApe MATUri, ADUKARIte “(We pray) that your reign be replete and magnificent, and blessed forever, like the eternal rocks, like the bedrock…” (NT 2). This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan: 布乃利 punori ‘seaweed glue’ (unnumbered tablet), 須々保利 susupori ‘greens to be pickled’ (MK 3261). It is interesting that this phonogram is never used in the conservative Kojiki, though the graph does appear twice, but is read twona. This phonogram is the primary graph to transcribe ri in Nihon shoki, used 14 times in annotational notes and 72 times in poetry: 白膠木、此云農利泥 “ ‘divine tree’ is read nuride” (NSG).

335

NSK 6 阿軻娜磨廼 akadama no The radiant globe 比訶利播阿利登 pikari pa ari to is wonderfully brilliant, 比鄧播伊珮耐 pito pa ipyedo so people may say, 企弭我譽贈比志 kimi ga yosopisi but I have now realized 多輔妬勾阿利計利 taputwoku arikyeri your brilliance is the finest. This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū a total of 325 times. MYS 3601 之麻思久母 simasiku mo Is it possible 比等利安里宇流 pitori ariuru for me to be alone for 毛能尓安礼也 mono ni are ya even a little while? 之麻能牟漏能木 sima no murwo no KWI The juniper tree on the island 波奈礼弖安流良武 panarete aruramu stands all alone. The cursive form of this graph later yields hiragana り, while the last two strokes of this graph give us katakana リ.

離

OJ: ri OC: *rai LH: liai EMC: lje GO: ri KN: ri NOM: li, lì, lia, lìa, le, SV: li, ly, lị SK: li Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, and appears to have been used at the end of nouns to show some kind of suffixation of -i. Consider the following from Wei zhi: 卑奴母離 *pe-nɔ-mɔ-rai, where this appears to turn a verb into a nominal (*mor- ‘to protect’ > *morai > mori). If this supposition is correct, then perhaps certain other toponyms on the peninsula are also nominalized forms of verbs: 古 離國 *kɔ-rai ‘growing fat?,’ 卑離國 *pe-rai ‘being humble,’ and 内卑離國 *nəj pe-rai ‘humble baggage.’ This phonogram was not popular, perhaps because of its high stroke count. However, this phonogram does appear in Nihon shoki, four times in annotational notes, and in seven times in poetry: 嚴呪詛、此云怡途能伽辭離 “ ‘sacred, solemn spell’ is read itunokasiri” (NSG). NSK 41 訶羅怒烏 karanwo wo The ship Karano 之褒珥椰枳 sipwo ni yaki was burned to make salt. 之餓阿摩離 si ga amari The leftover wood 虚等珥菟句離 koto ni tukuri was used to make a lute. 訶枳譬句梛 kaki piku ya When I strum on it 由羅能斗能 yura no two no the sound is wonderful, 斗那訶能異句離珥 twonaka no ikuri ni as the swaying of seaweed 敷例多菟 puretatu on a rock jutting 那豆能紀能 nadu no kwi no out in the Yura Straits— 佐椰佐椰 saya saya saya saya. This phonogram is also preserved in a fragment from a quote of Hizen fudoki by Sengaku in his Man’yōshū chūshaku: 肥前國風土記云、松浦縣之東三十里 有帔搖岑帔搖比禮府離 “Hizen fudoki records (1978:102), ‘MATURA District. Some 30 miles to the east of this district is PIREPURI Peak. ‘PIREPURI’ is pirepuri.’ ”

336

理

OJ: ri, rowi OC: *rəʔ *m(ə).rəʔ § LH: liəʔ EMC: ljɨʔ GO: ri KN: ri NOM: lí, lý SV: lí, lý SK: li Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears on the Funa Obito epitaph (668): 安理故能刀自 Arikwo no Twozi ‘Lady Ariko.’ It also appears in the Mino Census of 702 in the name 久須理 Kusuri. This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan: 占部久須理 URABYE Kusuri (MK 342), 佐波理波 sapari pa ‘as for the obstruction…?’ (MK 7:121). This is the principal phonogram used in Kojiki, which uses no other phonogram to represent ri: 訓分云久麻理 ‘The graph 分 “divide” is to be read kumari’ (KG), 多具理迩 taguri ni ‘(what appeared) from her vomit…’ (KG), and 訓入云能理 ‘The graph 入 “contain” is to be read nori’ (KG). KK 56 夜麻登幣迩 yamatopye ni A west wind blows 爾斯布岐阿宜弖 nisi pukiagete up toward Yamato, 玖毛婆那禮 kumwobanare and the clouds separate 曾岐袁理登母 soki woritomo hither and thither in the distance, 和禮和須禮米夜 ware wasureme ya but I will not forget you. This phonogram is used in Nihon shoki, appearing four times in annotational notes, and eight times in poetry: 背揮、此云志理幣提爾布倶 “ ‘wielding a sword with a backhand’ is read siripye ni puku” (NSG). NSK 87 之裒世能 sipwose no Looking at the line of waves 儺嗚理嗚彌黎麼 nawori wi mireba driven by the brisk tide, 阿蘇寐倶屢 aswobi kuru I see the fin 思寐我簸多泥儞 sibi ga patade ni of a swimming tuna, 都摩陀氐理彌喩 tuma tateri miyu where my spouse-to-be stands. This phonogram is used 149 times in Man’yōshū. MYS 793 余能奈可波 yo no naka pa When one comes to 牟奈之伎母乃等 munasiki mono to the realization that life 志流等伎子 siru toki si in this world is vain, 伊与余麻須万須 iyoyo masu masu then the sadness one feels 加奈之可利家理 kanasikarikyeri grows all the more profound. There is one other reading for this phonogram, and it is difficult to know where to place this usage, as it is only preserved in one toponym recorded in Shoku Nihongi: 物理郷 Motorowi Village (766.5.23). The reading of rowi (ロ ヰ) ultimately goes back to OC *m(ə).rəʔ. Miyake has argued that phonology of this graph originates from: *mʌ-rəʔ > *mʌ-rəʔ > *mʌ-rəʔ > *rəʔ > *rəɨʔ > *ləiʔ (Baxter and Sagart’s reconstruction is close to Miyake’s, [2014:349]). The *ləiʔ resulting from this third method of simplification may be the reading underlying the choice of 理 for Old Japanese *rəwi (Amritas blog, 10.7.2.2.36). This may suggest that it is a relic of a much earlier stratum, perhaps PBS.

337

里

隣

OJ: ri OC: *rəʔ LH: liəʔ > ljɨʔ EMC: ljɨʔ GO: ri KN: ri NOM: lịa, lẽ SV: lí, lý SK: li Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. In earlier stages of orthographic usage, 里 transcribed OJ ro. This usage appears in Nihon shoki in four annotational notes, and one poem: 賢遺、此云左舸能莒里 “ ‘the name Sakanokori’ is read sakanokori” (NSG). NSK 77 擧暮利矩能 komoriku no Mount Hatsuse 播都制能野麼播 patuse no yama pa hidden in the folds of the land 伊底頴智能 idetati no is a wondrous sight 與慮斯企野麼 yorosiki yama unfolding right before my door. 和斯里底能 wasiride no A short run from the house— 與慮斯企夜麼能 yorosiki yama the view of the wondrous peak, 據暮利矩能 komoriku no Mount Hatsuse, 播都制能野麼播 patuse no yama pa hidden in the folds of the land. 阿野儞于羅虞波斯 aya ni uragupasi Ah, what a beautiful mountain. 阿野儞于羅虞波斯 aya ni uragupasi Ah, what a beautiful mountain. This is the principal phonogram in Man’yōshū, appearing 560 times. MYS 3672 比左可多能 pisakata no Illuminating the heavens TUKWI PA teritari the moon is shining. 月者弖利多里 伊刀麻奈久 itwoma naku I can see the torches 安麻能伊射里波 ama no izari pa of the fishermen 等毛之安敝里見由 tomosi apyeri MIyu with their lights blending together. OJ: ri OC: *rin LH: lin EMC: ljen GO: rimu KN: rin NOM: lân SV: lân SK: lin Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Man’yōshū, and then only in two difficult poems; one is MYS 9, a cryptic poem I have addressed under 兄 OJ ye. The other poem is MYS 3242, which has some cryptic sections too. The graph 闕 appears in some manuscripts as 名闕 ‘the name is missing.’ This indicates that some scribes realized the stanza here was incomplete. I have only given the first section of the poem. MYS 3242 MWOMWOkine I heard that 百岐年 at the Takakita Palace 三野之國之 MINWO NO KUNI NO in Mino Province 高北之 TAKAKITA NO where there are many fields 八十一隣之宮尓 KUKUri NO MIYA ni 日向尓 PIMUKA ni that there was someone YUKI NABIKU ? WO who was walking humbly 行靡闕矣 ARI to KIKITE facing the sun.... 有登聞而 I have tried to illustrate how the final -n of 隣 rin introduces the following no with the idiosyncratic capitalization: nO. 338

唎

梨

釐

OJ: ri LH: NA EMC: li LMC: li NOM: lời SV: NA Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This Nihon shoki, and then in only three poems. NSK 96 倭例以梨魔志 ware irimasi 阿都圖唎 atwo twori 都麼怒唎絁底 tumadworisite 魔倶囉圖唎 makura twori 伊慕我堤嗚 imo ga te wo 倭例儞魔柯斯毎 ware ni makasime 倭我堤嗚麼 wa ga te woba 伊慕儞魔柯絁毎 imo ni makasime 麼左棄逗囉 masakwidura 多々企阿藏播梨 tataki azapari 矢洎矩矢慮 sisikusiro 于魔伊禰矢度儞 umai nesi two ni 儞播都等唎 nipatu tori 柯稽播儺倶儺梨 kakye pa nakunari 奴都等利 nwotu tori 枳蟻矢播等余武 kigisi pa toyomu 婆絁稽矩謨 pasikyeku mo 伊麻娜以播孺底 imada ipazute 阿開儞啓梨 akenikyeri 倭蟻慕 wagimo

OC: NA GO: ri KN: ri SK: li rare phonogram only appears in I went inside and held her leg, holding the edge of her hem, holding her pillow— holding my spouse. I wrapped her hand around my waist and she my arm— wrapped it around her. And like a vine, we caressed, intertwined. We slept deeply, sweet like meat on a skewer. The fowl I keep have begun to cackle. And in the fields the pheasants add their call. The dawn has already come before I have been able to confess my feelings, my love.

OJ: ri OC: *ri LH: li EMC: li LMC: li GO: ri KN: ri NOM: lê SV: lê SK: li Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Nihon shoki, found in ten annotational notes, and ten times in poetry: 膽振鉏、此云伊浮梨娑陛 “ ‘The (Emishi) name Ihurisahe’ is read ipurisapye” (NSG). NSK 106 野麻騰能 yamato no As I say I am about 飫斯能毘稜栖嗚 osi no pirose wo to cross the wide rapids at Oshi 倭柁羅務騰 wataramu to in Yamato, 阿庸比陀豆矩梨 aywopi tadukuri I tie up my foot straps 擧始豆矩羅符母 kosidukurapu mo and fix my waist band. OJ: ri LH: liə NOM: li

OC: *rə EMC: ljɨ LMC: liaj GO: ri KN: ri SV: ly, li SK: li

339

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS and appears only in Nihon shoki in a poem. NSK 91 於彌能姑能 omi no kwo no The son of the Omi has 耶賦能之魔柯枳 yapu no sibagaki made a fine brushwood fence. 始陀騰余瀰 sitatoyomi But if the earth quakes 那爲我與釐據魔 nawi ga yorikoba that brushwood fence 耶黎夢之魔柯枳 yaremu sibagaki will likely fall to pieces.

慮

里

OJ: ro OC: *rah LH: liɑh EMC: ljwoh LMC: lyə GO: ro KN: riyo NOM: lự SV: lự SK: lye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. In Koryŏgi it says, 其國建九等、其一 曰吐捽、比一品、舊名大對慮 “Koguryŏ established a nine-rank system (of government). The first is called tha-dzuət, which is comparable to the first rank. The old name of this rank was ta-tuəs-liah” (Takeuchi 1977:33). This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki in two annotational notes, and five poems: 鯯魚、此云擧能之慮 “The name ‘鯯魚’ is read konosiro” (NSG). NSK 82 瀰致儞阿賦耶 miti ni apu ya The youth of Oshiro 嗚之慮能古 wosiro no kwo engage in battle 阿母儞擧曾 amo ni koso on their way to war. 枳擧曳儒阿羅毎 kikoyezu arame Heaven may not hear 矩儞儞播 kuni nipa about our deeds— 枳擧曳底那 kikoyete na perhaps those at home will. OJ: ro OC: *rəʔ LH: liəʔ EMC: lɨəʔ GO: ri KN: ri NOM: lịa SV: lí, lý SK: li Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It is an important usage, because it shows that at an earlier point in time the vowel was unrounded, which fact is only preserved in Nom, almost all other Sino-Xenic data showing a high, front vowel. While Lurie (2001:399) argues that what scholars call the Suiko-era fragments are not as old as most scholars have argued, which I essentially agree with, the existence of such old phonograms in many of these should at least make scholars think twice about throwing the whole corpus out as later ‘unimportant’ texts. My argument is that whatever the dating of the specimen may be, these so-called ‘Suiko-era fragments’ have relied on data that date from a much earlier period. Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu contains the name of a consort of Great King Yōmei, Princess Hiroko, 比里古女子 Pirokwo, which name is written 広子 PIROKWO in Nihon shoki. Also Great King Sushun’s name in Teisetsu is written 阿 米 久 尓 意 斯 波 留 支 比 里 尓 波 乃 弥 己 等 Ame Kuni Osiparuki Pironipa no Mikoto, but in Shoki it is transcribed in semantograms as 天國排開 広庭天皇, glossed as ame kuni osiparaki pironipa. 340

Vestiges of this tradition carried over into the early Nara era. The Mino Census of 702 preserves the following names: 比里 Piro, 比里賣 Piromye, 小 比 里 賣 WOpiromye, 母 里 賣 Moromye, and 阿 止 里 Atoro. There are vestiges of this usage in Izumo fudoki: 支斯里社 Kisiro Shrine.

呂

OJ: ro OC: *raʔ LH: liɑʔ EMC: ljwoʔ GO: ro KN: riyo NOM: lữa SV: lữ, lã SK: lye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears twice in the liturgies: 古語云 志 呂 志 女 須 KOGO NI PU sirosiMYEsu “(Rule) is sirosimyesu in the old vernacular…” (NT 8). This phonogram appears on over 3000 mokkan, the majority writing the name Maro (麻呂, MK 2178, 末呂, MK 28, and 万呂, MK 1991, 満呂 MK 10771, 摩呂 unnumbered tablet). It is the principal phonogram used in Kojiki: 鹽許袁呂許袁呂迩 SIPO koworo koworo ni “salt water made a sound of crackling” (KG), 淤能碁呂嶋 onogoro sima ‘Onogoro Island’ (KG), 宇士多加禮許呂呂岐弖 uzi takare kororokite ‘maggots had gathered and were squirming about’(KG). KK 53 淤志弖流夜 ositeru ya When I came out and stood 那爾波能佐岐用 nanipa no saki ywo looking at my land from 伊傳多知弖 idetatite the cape of Naniwa 和賀久迩美禮婆 wa ga kuni mireba shining brilliantly 阿波志麻 apa sima I can see even 淤能碁呂志摩 onogoro sima Awa Island 阿遲麻佐能 adimasa no and Onogoro Island 志麻母美由 sima mo miyu and the island with betel palms. 佐氣都志麻美由 saketusima miyu I also see Sake Island. This phonogram is the principal graph in Nihon shoki to transcribe ro. It appears in three annotational notes, and 22 times in poetry: 神籬、此云比莽呂 岐 “ ‘a sacred grove on a mountain set aside for divine protection’ is read pimoroki” (NSG). NSK 30 阿布彌能彌 apumi no mi I have lost sight 齋多能和多利珥 seta no watari ni of the birds that dove here 伽豆區苔利 kaduku tori at the Seta Ferry 梅珥志彌曳泥麼 me nisi miyeneba on the sea of Afumi. 異枳廼倍呂之茂 ikidoporosi mo How irritating that is! This is also the principal graph to transcribe ro in Man’yōshū, appearing 265 times. MYS 53 How enviable are 藤原之 PUDIPARA NO OPOMIYA tukape those maidens who 大宮都加倍 were born and raised 安礼衝哉 areTUKU YA WOTOMYE GA TOMO PA to serve in the great palace 處女之友者 TOMOSIkiro kamo at Fujiwara. 乏吉呂賀聞

341

The cursive form of this phonogram later yields hiragana ろ, while using the top part (or perhaps the bottom) of this graph results in katakana ロ.

侶

閭 勒 廬

OJ: ro OC: *raʔ LH: liɑʔ EMC: ljwoʔ GO: ro KN: riyo NOM: lứa SV: lư, lô SK: lye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The earliest datable example is the representation of Yasumaro’s name in the preface to Kojiki: 太朝臣安万侶 OPO OASOMI YASUmaro. Also a wooden tablet from the ruins of the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–701) contains the name 移部止己麻尓侶 YaBYE Tokomaniro (MK 148). The tablet is not dated, so it is difficult to know when this was actually written. The only example of this phonogram in Kojiki is in the name of the compiler, Yasumaro. This phonogram is not used in the annotational notes or poetry of Nihon shoki, but it does appear in names like 中臣宮地連烏摩侶 NAKATOMI MIYADOKORO MURAZI Womaro (NSG), 境 部 臣 雄 摩 侶 SAKAPIBYE OMI WOmaro (NSG), 阿倍臣摩侶 Ape OMI Maro (NSG), 阿倍倉梯萬侶 Ape KURAPASI Maro (NSG), and 蘇我石川萬侶 Swoga ISIKAPA Maro (NSG). This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū, but only in seven poems. MYS 487 APUMIDI no The Isaya ‘how I wonder’ River 淡海路乃 that runs through Mount Toko 鳥篭之山有 TOKO NO YAMA NARU in Afumiji: like that name 不知哉川 ISAYAGAPA 氣乃己呂其侶波 ke no korogoro pa I suppose I will continue KWOPWITUTU MO ARAMU to yearn for a while. 戀乍裳将有 OJ: ro OC: *ra LH: lia EMC: ljwo KN: lyə GO: ro KN: riyo NOM: lơ, lừ SV: lư SK: lye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Nihon shoki, in one example, the name 更名、於閭礙 “He was also known as Oroge ‘the fool’ ” (NSG). OJ: ro OC: *rə̂k LH: lək EMC: lək GO: roku KN: roku NOM: lắc, lấc SV: lặc SK: luk Usage / History: This usage belongs to the LJS and appears in Nihon shoki in the name 徳勒 津宮 tokoroTU [NO] MIYA ‘the Tokorotsu Palace’ (NSG). OJ: ro LH: liɑ NOM: lư

EMC: ljwo LMC: liə SV: lư, lô

342

OC: *ra GO: ro KN: riyo SK: lye

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This phonogram is used in one annotational note and appears in two poems: 嘖讓、此云擧廬毘 “ ‘scold’ is read koropi” (NSG). NSK 120 瀰儺度能 minatwo no Sailing down the river 于之裒能矩娜利 usipo no kudari to the harbor, 于那倶娜梨 una kudari riding out to sea my mind 于之廬母倶例尼 usiro mo kure ni darkens even with the past— 飫岐底舸庾舸武 okite ka yukamu must I leave you and sail on?

稜

綾 流

OJ: ro OC: *rəŋ LH: lɨŋ EMC: ljəŋ LMC liəŋ GO: rou KN: riyou NOM: NA SV: lăng SK: lung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears only in Nihon shoki in one poem. NSK 106 野麻騰能 yamato no As I say I am about 飫斯能毘稜栖嗚 osi no pirose se wo to cross the wide rapids of Oshi 倭柁羅務騰 wataramu to at Yamato, 阿庸比陀豆矩梨 aywopi tadukuri I tie up my leg-straps 擧始豆矩羅符母 kosidukurapu mo and even fix my waist band. OJ: rogi OC: *rəŋ LH: lɨŋ EMC: ljəŋ GO: rou KN: riyou NOM: trăng SV: lăng SK: lung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in a document in the Shōsōin in the following toponym: 餘綾郡 Yorogi District. This same toponym appears in MYS 3372 as 余呂伎 Yorogi. OJ: ru OC: *ru or *riu LH: liu EMC: ljəu GO: ru KN: riu NOM: lưu SV: lưu SK: lywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Kwangkaytho stele in the name 于流城 *u-ru fortress. This also appears in Paekche material quoted in Nihon shoki: 彌州流 Mituru, a personal name, 意流村 Oru Village, 州流 須祇 Turu Suki (Village), and 枕流王 Prince Tomuru. This phonogram also appears once in the Mino Census of 702 in the name 久酢流賣 Kusuremye. This phonogram appears 17 times in the liturgies: 久度 古関二所能宮爾弖供奉来流皇御神 kudwo PURUAKI PUTA TOKORO no MIYA nite TUKAPE KITAREru SUME MIKAMWI ‘the august imperial deities who have come to be worshipped at the two shrines of Kudo and Furuaki….’ (NT 6). This phonogram also appears on a few mokkan: 要流加佐志万呂 Yerukasasimaro (unnumbered tablet), 比 流 多 利 pirutari ‘?’ (unnumbered tablet), and the 343

fragment of a poem: 波流奈礼波伊万志□□□…由米余伊母波夜久伊□□奴 □止利阿波志□ paru nareba imasi XXX…yume yo i mo payaku iXXnuX tori apasiX… ‘Because it is spring / right now… / never even (think of sleep) / quickly… / you harmonized with me’ (MK 179). This phonogram is the principal graph used to transcribe ru in Kojiki: 淤母 陀流神 the deity Omodaru (KG), 哭伊佐知流 NAKI-isatiru ‘to weep violently’ (KG), and 御須麻流之玉 MIsumaru NO TAMA ‘the august jewels that wrap around (to form a bracelet)’ (KG). KK 5 奴婆多麻能 nubatama no I put on black robes, 久路岐美祁斯遠 kurwoki mikyesi wo black as ink, 麻都夫佐爾 matubusa ni completely covering 登理與曾比 toriyosopi myself in them. 淤岐都登理 okitu tori When I look down at myself, 牟那美流登岐 munamiru toki fluttering my sleeves 波多多藝母 patatagi mo like the birds in the offing, 許禮婆布佐波受 kore pa pusapazu this outfit does not suit me. 幣都那美 pyetunami I pull the robes off my back 曾迩奴岐宇弖 so ni nukiute like the waves that come ashore. 蘇迩杼理能 swonidori no I put on blue robes, 阿遠岐美祁斯遠 awoki mikyesi wo blue like the kingfisher, 麻都夫佐迩 matubusa ni completely covering 登理與曾比 toriyosopi myself in them. 於岐都登理 okitu tori When I look down at myself, 牟那美流登岐 munamiru toki fluttering my sleeves 波多多藝母 patatagi mo like the birds in the offing, 許母布佐波受 ko mo pusapazu this outfit also does not suit me. 幣都那美 pyenami I pull the robes off my back 曾迩奴棄宇弖 so ni nukiute like the waves that come ashore. 夜麻賀多爾 yamagata ni I put on indigo blue robes, 麻岐斯 makisi made with fabric 阿多多尼都岐 atatane tuki dyed in the liquid of 曾米紀賀斯流迩 somekwi ga siru ni plants grown from foreign seeds 斯米許呂母遠 sime koromo wo that had been pounded, 麻都夫佐迩 matubusa ni completely covering 登理與曾比 toriyosopi myself in them. 淤岐都登理 okitu tori When I look down at myself 牟那美流登岐 munamiru toki fluttering my sleeves 波多多藝母 patatagi mo like the birds in the offing 許斯與呂志 ko si yorosi this one looks good on me. This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, found 15 times in the poetry. NSK 25 珥比麼利 nipibari How many nights have 菟玖波塢須擬氐 tukupa wo sugwite we spent since passing through 異玖用伽禰菟流 ikuywo ka neturu Niibari and Tsukuba? This is the principal phonogram used to transcribe ru in Man’yōshū, appearing in the anthology a total of 939 times. 344

MYS 815 武都紀多知 波流能吉多良婆 可久斯許曽 烏梅乎乎岐都々 多努之岐乎倍米

留

mutukwi tati paru no kitaraba kakusi koso ume wo wokitutu tanwosiki wopeme

When the new year’s moon rises and spring has arrived, we will enjoy ourselves, inviting the plum to bloom as we do right now.

OJ: ru OC: *ru LH: liu EMC: ljəu GO: ru KN: riu NOM: lưu SV: lưu SK: lywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to PBS. It appears on the Kwangkaytho stele in a variant form 畱 in the names 世子儒留王 Prince Noru, the heir, and 朱留王 King Suru. It also appears in Paekche material quoted in Nihon shoki: 都都岐留 Mount Tutukiru, and 疏留城 Soru Fortress. This phonogram also appears in the earliest extant corpus of Japan in the Jōgūki fragment in the name 久留比彌 Kuru Pimye. It also appears on the Hōryūji Tenjukoku mandala tapestry in transcribing the name of Great King Kinmei: 阿 米 久 爾 意 斯 波 留 支 比 里 爾 波 乃 彌 己 等 Ame Kuniosi Paruki Pironipa no Mikoto. This phonogram appears 40 times in the liturgies: 高成弖拠 留宇豆幣帛乎 TAKANASIte TATEMATUru udu [NO] MITEGURA wo “…the exalted offerings we present are piled high… (NT 15). It also appears on a variety of mokkan: □本佐留 XMOTO Saru (MK 2820), 弥留廿斤 ‘20 PAKARI of miru,’ or about 26 pounds of young seaweed (MK 1209). This phonogram is used in Kojiki, but is used almost one-tenth as often as 流: 此訓疎云奢加留 “This graph 疎 ‘grow distant’ is to be read zakaru” (KG), 訓鳴云那留 “The graph 鳴 ‘cry’ is to be read naru.” 然留 SIKAru ‘however’ (KG). KK 9 宇陀能 uda no In the high 多加紀爾 takakwi ni fort of Uda 志藝和那波留 sigi wana paru a trap for snipe I set, 和賀麻都夜 wa ga matu ya and as I waited— 志藝波佐夜良受 sigi pa sayarazu it did not catch a snipe. This phonogram is used somewhat rarely in Nihon shoki, appearing only three times in annotational notes, and five times in poetry: 轠然、此云乎謀苦 留留爾 “ ‘the string turns and turns’ is read wo mo kururu ni” (NSG). NSK 67 波那具波辭 panagupasi What beauty and detail 佐區羅能梅涅 sakura no mede these cherry blossoms have. 許等梅涅麼 kotomedeba If beauty is the same 波椰區波梅涅孺 payaku pa medezu then I should have loved sooner: 和我梅豆留古羅 wa ga meduru kwora my beloved little maidens. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū a total of 112 times.

345

MYS 97 三薦苅 信濃乃真弓 不引為而 弦佐留行事乎 知跡言莫君二

琉

瑠 屢

漏

Without even pulling back the string of the Shinano true bow— PIKAZU SITE cutting the rushes of Shinano, WO PAKUru WAZA wo you cannot say that. SIRU TO IPANAku ni You know how to string the bow!

MIKOMO KARU sinanwo no MAYUMI

OJ: ru OC: NA LH: NA EMC: luw GO: ru KN: riu NOM: lưu SV: lưu SK: lywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears in a mid-Nara document in the name 久琉理 Kururi. It also appears five times in Kojiki: 久羅下那洲多陀 用幣琉之時 kuragye nasu tadaywopyeru NO TOKI ‘when (the land) floated back and forth on the water like a jellyfish...’ (KG), 荒夫琉神 ARAburu KAMWI ‘violent deities’ (KG), and 大倭根子日子國玖琉命 OPO YAMATO NEKWO PIKWO KUNIkuru [NO] MIKOTO (KG). It also appears twice in Shoku Nihongi, both in the same word 琉璃 ruri ‘emerald,’ a transcription of Sanskrit vaiḍūrya, ‘lapis lazuli’ (754.11.8). OJ: ru LH: NA EMC: luw NOM: lưu SV: lưu Usage / History: This is a variant graph of 琉 (see above).

OC: NA GO: ru KN: riu SK: lywu

OJ: ru OC: *roh LH: lioh EMC: ljuh LMC: lyə GO: ru KN: ru NOM: lú, lũ SV: lũ SK: lwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This is the principal graph to transcribe ru in Nihon shoki. It appears in 12 annotational notes, and 38 times in the poetry: 大日孁貴、此云於保比屢咩能武智 “ ‘Ōhirume no muchi (variant name of the Sun Goddess)’ is read opopirumye no muti” (NSG). NSK 2 阿妹奈屨夜 ame naru ya In the heavens 乙登多奈婆多廼 woto tanabata no the jewels strung upon 汙奈餓勢屨 unagaseru the string hung around 多磨廼彌素磨屨廼 tama no misumaru no the neck of the Weaver Maiden 阿奈陀磨波夜 anatama pa ya are very beautiful— 彌多爾 mitani like the beauty of him who 輔柁和柁羅須 puta watarasu shines over two hills, 阿泥素企多伽避顧禰 adisukitakapikwone Ajisuki Taka Hikone. OJ: ru LH: loh NOM: lạu, làu, lậu

OC: *rôh EMC: ləuh LMC: ləw GO: ru KN: rou SV: lâu SK: lwu 346

Usage / History: If this usage actually exists, it belongs to the LJS. However, there is an interesting problem. This phonogram only appears once in Nihon shoki (cf. Mori 1991:227), supposedly in poem NSK 22. However, a careful look at the manuscripts show that other than the Kitano and Atsuta manuscripts, which have 漏 in the final stanza of this poem, all other manuscripts have 屢. Other than making this fact known, I say no more regarding this phonogram to transcribe ru.

樓

婁 蘆

盧

OJ: ru LH: lo EMC: ləu LMC: lyə NOM: lầu, lâu SV: lâu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It annotational note, and five times in just two “ ‘hook of stupidity’ is read urukedi” (NSG). NSK 99 柯羅屨儞嗚 kara kuni wo 以柯儞輔居等所 ika ni pu koto so 梅豆羅古枳駄樓 medurakwo kitaru 武哿左屨樓 mukasakuru 以祇能和駄唎嗚 iki no watari wo 梅豆羅古枳駄樓 medurakwo kitaru

OC: *rô GO: rou KN: ru SK: lwu appears in Nihon shoki in one poems: 癡騃鉤、此云干樓該膩 No matter what people may say about our land of Kara, Mezurako has arrived. Passing through the distant channel of Iki Mezurako has at last arrived.

OJ: ru OC: *roʔ or *rô LH: lioʔ, lo EMC: lju, ləu LMC: lyə GO: rou KN: ru NOM: lâu SV: lâu SK: lwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in one annotational note in Nihon shoki: 植、此云多底婁 “ ‘grow’ is read tateru” (NSG). OJ: ru OC: *ra LH: lia EMC: ljwo LMC luə GO: ro KN: ru NOM: lau, lứ SV: lô SK: lye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in Nihon shoki, used eight times in the poetry. NSK 34 知麼能 tiba no Looking out over 伽豆怒塢彌例麼 kadunwo wo mireba the verdant plain of Kazu, 茂々智儾蘆 momotidaru I behold before me 夜珥波母彌喩 yanipa mo miyu an abundance of villages— 區珥能朋母彌喩 kuni no po mo miyu I also see a land of excellence. OJ: ru LH: la > lɔ NOM: lu, lo

EMC: luo LMC luə SV: lô

347

OC: *râ GO: ro KN: ru SK: lwo

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in Nihon shoki, in two annotational notes, and one poem: 訛、此云興許奈磨盧 “ ‘corruption’ is read yokonamaru” (NSG). NSK 1 夜句茂多兔 yakumo tatu Endowed with power, 伊弩毛夜覇餓岐 idumwo yapyegaki this two-fold Izumo fence— 兔磨語昧爾 tuma gome ni to conceal ourselves, 夜覇餓枳都倶盧 yapyegaki tukuru I have built this two-fold fence. 贈廼夜覇餓岐廻 sono yapyegaki we Yes, within this two-fold fence!

類

路

OJ: ru OC: *rus LH: luis EMC: ljwih LMC: luaj GO: rui KN: rui NOM: loại, loài SV: loại SK: lywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears only in Man’yōshū, but where it is used quite extensively, appearing in Books 7–13 a total of 45 times. As Ōno (1977:711) points out over 70% of the usages appear in a transcription of the suffix kyeru. MYS 1071 YAMA NO PA ni While waiting for the moon— 山末尓 不知夜歴月乎 ISAYWOPU TUKWI wo which is hesitating to appear IDEMU KA to over the edge of the ridge, 将出香登 MATITUTU WORU ni waiting for it to appear any moment, 待乍居尓 YWO so PUKYENIkyeru the night has only deepened. 夜曽降家類 OJ: rwo OC: *râkh LH: lah > lɔh EMC: luoh GO: ro KN: ro NOM: trò, lần SV: lộ SK: lwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in toponyms such as 冉路國 *nam-lɔh domain, 弁 辰 半 路 國 *phuɑn-dźɨn-pɑn-lɔh ‘Pɑn-lɔh Domain of Phuɑn-dźɨn,’ 弁辰甘路國 *phuɑn-dźɨn- kɑm-lɔh ‘Kɑm-lɔh Domain of Phuɑndźɨn,’ and 戸路國 *ɡɔ-lɔh domain. This phonogram also appears in Kojiki, used to transcribe two colors: 久路 kurwo ‘black’ and 斯路 sirwo ‘white.’ KK 4 阿遠夜麻迩 awo yama ni If the sun hides behind 比賀迦久良婆 pi ga kakuraba the green mountains 奴婆多麻能 nubatama no then come visit me at night, 用波伊伝那牟 ywo pa idenamu black as ink. 阿佐比能 asapi no And with the morning sun 惠美佐加延岐弖 wemi sakayekite with a bright smile 多久豆怒能 takudunwo no with your white arms, 斯路岐多陀牟岐 sirwoki tadamuki white like mulberry, 阿和由岐能 awayuki no you will wrap them around

348

和加夜流牟泥遠 wakayaru mune wo my young breast, soft as fresh snow, 曾陀多岐 sodataki and gently caress me…. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, and is the principal graph to transcribe rwo, appearing only 32 times throughout the anthology. MYS 3412 Like the kuzu vine 賀美都家野 kamitukyeNWO 久路保乃祢呂乃 kurwopo no nero no that grows on the Kuropo Peak 久受葉我多 kuzuPAgata in Kamitsukeno, my poor child 可奈師家兒良尓 kanasikye KWOra ni 伊夜射可里久母 iyazakariku mo will be coming from afar.

盧

鹵

OJ: rwo OC: *râ LH: la > lɔ EMC: luo GO: ro KN: ru NOM: lu, lo SV: lô SK: lwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in toponyms such as 弁辰瀆 盧國 *phuɑn-dźɨn dok-lɔ ‘Dok-lɔ Domain of Phuɑn-dźɨn,’ 斯盧國 *si-lɔ (or an earlier *si-lɑ?) domain, 末盧國 *mat-lɔ domain. This phonogram also appears on the Kwangkaytho stele: 臼模盧城 *ɡu-mɔlɔ fortress, 若模盧城 *niak-mɔ-lɔ fortress, and 牟盧城 *mu-lɔ fortress. This usage also appears in Paekche material quoted in Nihon shoki: 蓋 盧 邑 Kapurwo Village. This phonogram appears once in Kojiki. KK 11 意佐賀能 osaka no In the great cavern 意富牟盧夜爾 opomurwoya ni at Osaka 比登佐波爾 pito sapa ni many men 岐伊理袁理 ki iriwori have come and entered. There is also one example of this phonogram each in the annotational notes and poetry of Shoki: 飄掌、此云陀毘盧箇須 “ ‘raise one’s hands and shake them’ is read tapirwokasu” (NSG). NSK 81 農播頴磨能 nupatama no If they had saddled that 柯彼能矩盧古磨 kapwi no kwurwo kwoma dark horse from Kahi, 矩羅枳制播 kura kiseba black as ink, 伊能致志儺磨志 inoti sinamasi he would have lost his life. 柯彼能倶盧古磨 kapwi no kurwo kwoma Alas, thanks to that dark horse. OJ: rwo OC: *râʔ LH: lɑʔ > lɔʔ EMC: luoʔ GO: ru KN: ro NOM: lỗ SV: lỗ SK: lwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Eta Funayama tumulus sword (ca. 500) inscription in a name, the inscription of which is heavily damaged: 獲□□□鹵大王 ‘Great King Wak-X-X-X-rwo. Fortunately we have the Inariyama tumulus sword (ca. 500) inscription that carries the same name of

349

the king, but with less damage on the inscription: 獲加多支鹵大王 Great King Waka Takyerwo. Some have speculated that this orthographic usage came from Paekche (cf. Murayama and Miller 1979:416, Bentley 2001), and recent excavations in South Korea confirm this. Inukai (2014:130–131) introduces a wooden tablet excavated from the Sam’i Temple ruins near the tombs of the Paekche kings. On that tablet is the designation 漢城下部對徳疏加鹵, a name: *Sio-ka-luo, 11th rank, lower section of the capital. Inukai notes that 鹵 is written in an abbreviated form, with 夕 inside the box instead of ※, a form also found on both the Eta Funayama and Inariyama tumulus sword inscriptions. This phonogram also appears in Paekche material quoted in Nihon shoki: 蓋 鹵王立 ‘Kapurwo was made king.’ There are also peninsular names like 麻鹵 Marwo and 阿鹵旱岐 Arwo Kanki. This phonogram appears in a name in Shoku Nihongi, 羿鹵 Keirwo (788.9.6).

魯

婁

漏

OJ: rwo OC: *râʔ LH: lɑʔ > lɔʔ EMC: luoʔ GO: ru KN: ro NOM: lỗ, lõ, sỗ SV: lỗ SK: lwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, and appears in quotes of Paekche material found in Nihon shoki: 左魯 Sarwo and 佐魯麻都 Sarwo Matwo. This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, twice in the poetry. NSK 109 波魯波魯儞 parwo parwo ni Far off in the distance 渠騰曾枳擧喩屢 koto so kikoyuru you can hear someone speaking 之麻能野父播羅 sima no yabupara in the thicket on the island plain. OJ: rwo OC: *roʔ or *rô LH: lioʔ, lo EMC: lju, ləu GO: ro KN: rou NOM: lâu SV: lâu SK: lwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This phonogram appears on the Kwangkaytho stele (ca. 414) in names like 婁売城 *lo-mɛh fortress, 燕婁城 *ʔen-lo fortress, 古牟婁城 *kɔ-mu-lo fortress, and 味仇婁鴨廬 *muh-gu-loʔɑɨp-lɔ (District). It also appears in the Paekche material quoted in Nihon shoki in two personal names: 己州己婁 Kotu Korwo and 沙宅己婁 Satak Korwo. This phonogram appears on several mokkan: 紀伊国牟 婁郡牟婁 Kii Province Murwo District Murwo… (MK 435), 牟婁大夫 Minister Murwo (MK 160). This usage, though rare, appears in the native sections of Nihon shoki, in the name 牟婁 Murwo in the record of Saimei. This same representation for the name of Murwo appears also in Shoku Nihongi (765.10.22). OJ: rwo LH: loh NOM: lạu, làu, lậu

EMC: ləuh SV: lâu

350

OC: *rôh GO: ro KN: rou SK: lwu

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. This phonogram appears 21 times in the liturgies, mainly in the names of the two procreative deities: 高天原爾神留坐皇 睦 神 漏 伎 命 神 漏 彌 命 TAKAMAPARA ni KAMUDUMARIMASU SUME MUTU KAMUrwoki [NO] MIKOTO KAMUrwomi [NO] MIKOTO “The divine, imperial male procreative deity and the divine, imperial female procreative deity who augustly dwell in the high plain of heaven…” (NT 7). This graph appears a number of times on mokkan: 紀伊国无漏郡 Kii Province Murwo District (MK 2285), 阿漏□ arwoX ‘master?’ (MKK 20:16). It appears in Kojiki only 12 times: 其麻都漏波奴人 SONO maturwopanu PITO ‘those people who would not submit (to the rule of the court)...’ (KG), 訶具 漏比賣 Kagurwo Pimye (KG). KK 52 淤岐幣迩波 okipye ni pa There are boats 袁夫泥都羅羅玖 wobune turaraku lined up out in the offing. 久漏邪夜能 kurwozaya no Black like a sheath 摩佐豆古和藝毛 masadukwo wagimwo my beautiful beloved, 玖迩幣玖陀良須 kunipye kudarasu she heads for her home. This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, twice in one poem: NSK 58 菟藝泥赴 tuginepu This woman of 夜莽之呂謎能 yamasiromye no Yamashiro, thick with trees, 許玖波茂知 kokupa moti dug up a large radish 于智辭於朋泥 utisi opone with a wooden hoe. 泥士漏能 nezirwo no Those arms of hers, 辭漏多娜武枳 sirwotadamuki white like the large radish— 摩箇儒鷄麼虚曾 makazukyeba koso you could say you knew me not 辭羅儒等茂伊波梅 sirazu tomo ipame if we had never lay intertwined. This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū, but only seven times. MYS 1798 INISIPYE NI When I gaze out at 古家丹 IMWO to WA GA MISI Kuro-ushi Beach, 妹等吾見 NUBATAMA NO black as ink, 黒玉之 久漏牛方乎 kurwo USIGATA wo that my beloved and I saw together MIREBA sabuSIMO I feel so lonely. 見佐府下

樓

OJ: rwo OC: *rô LH: lo EMC: ləu LMC: lyə GO: ro KN: ru NOM: lầu, lâu SV: lâu SK: lwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears in Kojiki, only once in the verb 摩都樓波奴 maturwopanu ‘someone who will not submit’ (KG). This phonogram also appears once in Nihon shoki, in one poem: NSK 119 耶麻古曳底 yama kwoyete Though I cross over mountains 于瀰倭柁留騰母 umi wataru tomo and traverse the ocean, 於母之樓枳 omosirwoki can I ever forget 351

伊麻紀能禹知播 倭須羅庾麻旨珥

露

六

imakwi no uti pa wasurayumasizi

the pleasant land that is Imaki?

OJ: rwo OC: *râkh LH: lah > lɔh EMC: luoh GO: ro KN: ro NOM: lộ, lồ, rò SV: lộ SK: lwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears once in Nihon shoki: NSK 9 於佐箇廼 osaka no Though there are many 於朋務露夜珥 opomurwoya ni who have come and entered 比苔瑳破而 pito sapa ni the great cavern of Osaka, 異離烏利苔毛 iriwori tomo and though many men 比苔瑳破而 pito sapa ni have entered here 枳伊離烏利苔毛 ki iriwori tomo and are seated before us, 瀰都瀰都志 mitumitusi you, the intrepid 倶梅能固邏餓 kume no kwora ga sons of the Kume, 勾鶩都々伊 kubututui with pommel-head hilts, 異志都々伊毛智 isitutui moti holding your stone-head swords, 于智弖之夜莽務 utitesi yamamu will now smite the enemy. OJ: rwoku OC: *ruk LH: liuk EMC: ljuk GO: roku KN: riku NOM: lục SV: lục SK: lwuk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears just from the Sino-Xenic evidence that perhaps the nuclear vowel lowered in Go-on, but a look at Nom shows evidence of -o-: 𠯿 lóc, 𡉽 lóc. The sole example of this phonogram appears in a document preserved in the Shōsōin: 六呂 rwokuro ‘lathe.’

352

S 沙

OJ: sa OC: *srâi LH: s̘ai EMC: s̘a GO: sa, sia KN: sa NOM: sa, sà SV: sa SK: sa Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This graph appears on the Kwangkaytho stele, in the following place names: 彌沙城 *mie-sai fortress, 沙 水城 *sai-tsui fortress, and 沙溝城 *sai-ko fortress. The oldest surviving example of 沙 found in Japan appears on the Inariyama tumulus sword, in the name 其児名多沙鬼獲居 “His child’s name [being] Tasakwi Wakka.” This phonogram also appears in the Korean records quoted in Nihon shoki: 沙至比跪 satipikwo (or maybe satipiku?). This appears to be a version of (Kaduraki) Sotupiko. Another example is the name of a Paekche official, 上佐平 沙己婁 Sakorwo of the Upper First rank. This phonogram 沙 also appears in the inscription found on the base of the Buddhist statue at Gangōji, in the names 阿沙都麻 Asatuma and 未沙乃 Mwisano (Ōno 1977:23). This phonogram is found on a number of mokkan, but mainly in inscriptions related to Buddhism: 沙弥麻呂 Sami Maro ‘Maro the Novice Priest’ (unnumbered tablet), 安 房 国 安 房 郡 廣 湍 郷 沙 田 里 Apa Province Apa District PIROSE Village SaDA Hamlet (unnumbered tablet), and □沙賀我太雲朗□具不祢乃都久 X saka ga PUTO UMURAU X(ko)gu pune no tuku… (MKK 17:52), which I tentatively interpret as ‘the boat rowed by the Great Umurau of Xsaka arrives at….’ This phonogram is also found 29 times in Kojiki, though it was not used in the poetry. Several examples include 姓日下謂玖沙訶 “The family name 日下 is read kusaka” (KG), 次妹若沙那賣神 “The younger sister deity (is) WAKA sanamye” (KG). This phonogram is also used sparingly in Nihon shoki, appearing once in the annotational notes, and once in the poetry: 顧眄之間、此云美屢摩沙可梨爾 “ ‘To look back’ is read miru masakari ni” (NSG). It also appears in toponyms like 沙麼之浦 sama NO URA ‘the bay of Sama,’ and 訶沙郡 Kasa District. NSK 33 許能彌企能 kono miki no It is strange 阿椰珥 aya ni how very 于多娜濃芝 utadanwosi delightful this wine is. 作沙 sa sa Drink! Drink! This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū. There appears to be some textual confusion between 沙 and 紗, but Ōno (1977:405) concludes that while most of these examples should have 沙 as the archetype, there are a couple of examples where 紗 appears to be original (see that entry below).

353

MYS 757 遠有者 和備而毛有乎 里近 有常聞乍 不見之為便奈沙

佐

TOPOKU AREBA

wabwiTE mo ARU wo SATWO TIKAKU ARI TO KIKITUTU MINU GA SUBE nasa

If you were far away I could endure loneliness, but it leaves me feeling anxious when I hear you are in a close village and I do not see you.

OJ: sa OC: *tsâih LH: tsɑiʔ EMC: tsâʔ GO: sa KN: sa NOM: tá SV: tá SK: ca Usage / History: This phonogram also belongs to the PBS. The earliest known usage is in Shoki, in the quotes from the peninsular source records. A sample usage appears in the Mimana name 佐魯麻都 with the interlinear reading of sarwomatu. Another example is the Paekche first rank, written 佐平 sape (or sapeŋ). This phonogram also appears in the Suiko era corpus, in the Buddhist inscription on the base of the Buddhist statue in the Gangōji temple, and in three names in the genealogy in Jōgūki. Those three names are 佐久羅韋 Sakurawi, 佐 富 女 王 Princess Sapo, and 佐 富 王 Prince Sapo (Ōno 1977:23). This phonogram appears in a number of liturgies: 磐根木根履佐久彌弖 IPANE KINE PUMIsakumite “the couriers will stamp through the rocks and the roots of trees…” (NT 1). This appears frequently on mokkan: 播磨国佐用郡 Parima Province Saywo District (MK 2080), 阿治麻佐女 AdimasaMYE (MK 2348), 丹波国加佐郡 Tanipa Province Kasa District (MK 451). 佐 is the main phonogram used in Kojiki: 佐度嶋 Sadwo Island (KG), 奧 津那藝佐毘古神 the deity OKITU Nagisabikwo (KG), 建速須佐之男命 TAKYE PAYA Susa NO WO (KG). According to Ōno (1977:174) there are 118 examples of 佐 in the poetry of Kojiki. Below is an example from one poem: KK 68 比婆理波 pibari pa The skylark 阿米迩迦氣流 ame ni kakeru flies up high, 多迦由玖夜 taka yuku ya across the heavens. 波夜夫佐和氣 payabusa wake Prince Hayabusa Wake! 佐邪岐登良佐泥 sazaki torasane Capture the wren! This phonogram is also quite popular in Nihon shoki, appearing 19 times in the annotational notes, and 59 times in poetry: 天吉葛、此云阿摩能與佐圖羅 “ ‘Heavenly auspicious vine’ is read ama no yosatura” (NSG), 泉津平坂、此云 余母都比羅佐可 “ ‘The flat plain of Yomi’ is read yomotu pira saka” (NSG). NSK 15 許能瀰枳破 kono miki pa This divine sake 和餓瀰枳那羅孺 wa ga miki narazu is not for myself. 椰磨等那殊 yamato nasu It was prepared by 於朋望能農之能 opomononusi no the builder of Yamato, 介瀰之瀰枳 kamisi miki Ōmononushi. 伊句臂佐 ikupisa Prosper forever, 伊句臂佐 ikupisa forever.

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This phonogram is quite prominent in Man’ yōshū. According to Ōno (1977:402), the phonogram 左 “is used much more frequently than 佐,” but the numbers do not bear this out. I have counted 626 examples of 佐, but only 383 examples of 左 in the anthology. Perhaps Ōno has 左 and 佐 reversed. MYS 3581 AKI saraba When autumn comes 秋佐良婆 we will see each other again; 安比見牟毛能乎 apiMImu mono wo 奈尓之可母 nani sika mo so why is it 奇里尓多都倍久 kwiri ni tatubeku that you lament so much 奈氣伎之麻佐牟 nagekisimasamu that a mist arises?

左

OJ: sa OC: *tsâiʔ LH: tsaiʔ EMC: tsâʔ GO: sa KN: sa NOM: tả SV: tả, tá SK: ca Usage / History: This phonogram also belongs to the PBS. The oldest known example of this phonogram appears in the peninsular records quoted in Nihon shoki: 左魯 glossed as saru, but the EMC reading of tsâʔ lɔ suggests that it likely was closer to sarwo. This may show that the Korean orthographies had no vowel corresponding to a back, low round vowel, and shifted the sound to the next closest vowel, which was a back, high, round vowel. Another example is the spelling of the first rank in Paekche: 下左平木尹貴 Moku Unkwi of the lower first rank (first rank being sape or sapeŋ). Likely Paekche avoided this graph as a phonogram, because of its semantic importance, ‘left’ being superior over ‘right’ in Chinese culture. This phonogram appears in the liturgies, but it is confined to the following phrase, where it appears five times in the liturgies: 皇神等能依左志奉牟奥津御 年乎 SUMEGAMWITATI no YOsasi MATURAmu OKITU MITOSI wo “The final harvest of grain ordered to be presented to the imperial deities…” (NT 1). There is only one example of this phonogram 左 in Kojiki: 土左国 the land of Twosa (KG). There are eight examples of 左 in the annotational notes, and five examples in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 正勝、此云麻娑柯。一云麻左柯豆 “ ‘Surely I have won’ is read masaka. Another record has masa katu” (NSG). NSK 114 模騰渠等爾 motogoto ni Though blossoms are blooming 婆那播左該騰模 pana pa sakyedomo at the trunk of every tree, 那爾騰柯母 nani to kamo why is it that my lovely 于都倶之伊母我 utukusi imo ga beloved has not come 磨陀左枳涅渠農 mata sakidekonu and bloomed again? As noted under 佐, the phonogram 左 is the second most used graph to transcribe sa in Man’yōshū. Simple examples are 久左麻久羅 kusamakura ‘a pillow made of grass’ (MYS 3612, 3637, 3674, 3719, 4263), 比左 pisa ‘long’ (MYS 3600, 3604, 3650, 3667), 左枝 saki ‘tip’ (MYS 1937), 左倍 sape ‘only’ (MYS 198, 723, 745, 770, 781), 左礼婆 sareba ‘when it comes’ (MYS 3625, 3627, 3629, 3699), 左夜 saYWO ‘night’ (MYS 274, 1732, 1937, 2820, 2906, 3220, 3310), and 左小壮鹿 saWOSIKA ‘buck’ (MYS 2220, 2267, 2268, 2277). 355

差

OJ: sa OC: *tshrâi LH: tshai EMC: tsha GO: sa, sia, sai KN: sa NOM: sai, sây SV: sa, sai, si, soa SK: cha, chi, chay, choy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Inariyama sword inscription, in the name 加差披余 *ka-sa-pai-ya. The readings preserved in Hokekyō ongi attest to the mixed nature of Go-on. This phonogram has three consistent readings in the various manuscripts: sa, sia, and sai (1995.2:528–536). This phonogram is not used in any other extant record, aside from Nihon shoki, where it is used once in the poetry. NSK 103 摩蘇餓豫 swoga yo Truly you are the Soga, 蘇餓能古羅破 swoga no kwora pa the posterity of the Soga— 宇摩奈羅麼 uma naraba If you were horses, 譬武伽能古摩 pimuka no kwoma steeds of Hyūga you would be. 多智奈羅麼 tati naraba If you were swords, 勾禮能摩差比 kure no masapi fine blades of Koryŏ you would be. 宇倍之訶茂 ubesika mo How true this is. 蘇餓能古羅烏 swoga no kwora wo That must be why 於朋枳瀰能 opokimi no the posterity of the Soga 菟伽破須羅志枳 tukapasurasiki serve the great lord.

娑

OJ: sa OC: *sâi LH: sai EMC: sâ GO: sa KN: sia NOM: sa SV: ta, tả, toa SK: sa Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, and appears in the peninsular record quotes in Nihon shoki, though only twice in the toponym 娑陀 Sada located in Mimana. This phonogram appears seven times in the annotational notes, and 10 times in the poetry recorded in Shoki: 荳角、此云娑佐礙 “ ‘The name of Princess Sasage’ is read sasage” (NSG). NSK 110 烏智可拕能 wotikata no The pheasants in the sparse field 阿娑努能枳々始 asanwo no kigisi off in the distance 騰余謀佐儒 toyomosazu are making noise— 倭例播禰始柯騰 ware pa nesikado we have slept without a sound, 比騰曾騰余謀須 pito so toyomosu how people are making a fuss!

柴

OJ: sa OC: *dzrê LH: dʑɛ EMC: dʑaɨ GO: zia KN: sai NOM: sài, sầy, thày SV: sài, sái SK: si Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. The oldest known usage of this phonogram in Japan is on the Sumida Hachiman mirror inscription, which is of unclear date, but which must date from at least the early seventh century, perhaps earlier. On that inscription is the toponym 意柴沙加宮 osesaka MIYA ‘the 356

Palace of Osesaka.’ This one place name has caused much debate, because many scholars wish to make this Oshizaka Palace (忍坂宮)。As Ōno has already noted (1977:832), the phonogram 忍 is read osa in Nihon shoki, so a reading of osa is not unprecedented, but as the LH data suggest, this appears to have been ose, and then underwent vowel raising to osi. This phonogram also appears twice in Man’yōshū, both times to write nadusapi ‘glide along.’ MYS 1750 ITOMA ARABA If we have time 暇有者 how I would like 魚津柴比渡 NADUsapi WATARI MUKATWO NO to glide over and cross the river 向峯之 SAKURA NO PANA mo and break off a blossom 櫻花毛 WORAmasi MONO WO of the cherry tree. 折末思物緒

舎

OJ: sa OC: *lhaʔ or *lhah LH: śaʔ or śah EMC: sjaʔ or sjah GO: sia KN: sia NOM: xá SV: sá, xá, xả SK: sya Usage / History: This phonogram also belongs to the PBS, appearing on the Kwangkaytho stele, transcribing these place names: 古舎蔦城 *kosatio fortress, and 旻舎獲 城 *mosakak fortress. This phonogram also is used in Nihon shoki, a few times in the peninsular source material, and then in the main text of the Japanese annal. The peninsular example appears in Book 19, with the name 奴弖大舎 glossed as nute dasa. Shaku Nihongi preserves a quote from Shiki which says, “大 is read da, and 舎 is read sa.” As is clear from the record of Samguk sagi, and Chinese records, dasa is the 12th rank of the Silla court ranking system. Thus this man’s name is Nute of the 12th rank. It should be noted, however, that at the PBS level this graph may actually transcribe sia [ʃa]. This possibility is further noted below. This phonogram is also used three times in Nihon shoki’s poetry: NSK 68 等虚辭陪迩 tokosipe ni Shall I ever see you 枳彌母阿閇揶毛 kimi mo apeya mo consistently? (Likely not) 異舎儺等利 isana tori (I wish you would visit) like 宇彌能波摩毛能 umi no pamamo no the seaweed near the beach, 余留等枳等枳弘 yoru tokitoki wo seldom washed ashore— Notice how this graph is used in the Bussokuseki poems to transcribe the name of Śākya (釋迦): 舎加. The name Śākya appears twice in the 21-poem sequence, both times written with this phonogram. This makes me believe that here, at least, the graph was intended to be read sia.

作

OJ: sa, saka, saku LH: tsɑk NOM: tác

EMC: tsâk SV: tảc, tố

357

OC: *tsâk GO: saku, sa KN: saku SK: cak

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The phonogram 作 was used for its phonetic reading, and the final velar originally was ignored. This phonogram appears as early as the Suiko era corpus. The genealogy of Prince Shōtoku has the name of Princess Sasa written 作作女王, but as Ōno points out, this may be nothing more than a miscopy of the graph 佐 (1977:23). For now I treat this as the original. The Go-on reading of sa is found in 27 different manuscripts of Hokekyō ongi (Ogura 1995.2:191–200), so it cannot be ignored. This phonogram also appears once in the annotational notes and twice in the poetry of Nihon shoki, but notice that both examples precede a velar-initial graph: 事瑕、此云居騰作柯 “ ‘break a contract’ is read kotosaka” (NSG). NSK 108 武舸都烏爾 mukatuwo ni On the peak over there 陀底屢制囉我 tateru sera ga that person standing 儞古泥擧曾 nikwode koso with soft hands— 倭我底烏騰羅毎 wa ga te wo torame he should take my hand. 拕我佐基泥 ta ga sakwide These dry, cracked hands, 作基泥曾母野 sakwide so moya who would take my hand 倭我底騰羅須謀野 wa ga te torasu mo ya in his own hands? This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, used five times. MYS 221 TUMA mo ARABA If your spouse were here also 妻毛有者 TUMITE tagemasi you would pick and eat herbs— 採而多宜麻之 has not the best time passed for 作美乃山 sami no YAMA NWO NO UPE no upagwi the starwort growing 野上乃宇波疑 SUGWINIkerazu ya in the fields of Mount Sami? 過去計良受也 There are a few examples where the phonogram 作 is used to represent saka or saku. The well known example of the province 美作 Mimasaka is one example. In Shoku Nihongi the name 紀朝臣作良 Kwi ASOMI Sakura appears (778.1.16). This last example of sakura ‘cherry’ also appears in Man’yōshū: 作 楽花 sakuraBANA ‘cherry blossoms’ (MYS 3309), which appears to have a dual role, as it can also visually mean ‘the flower that makes music.’

者

OJ: sa OC: *tâ LH: tśaʔ EMC: tśjaʔ GO: sia KN: sia NOM: giả SV: giả SK: ca Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram 者 was not very popular, because it had a more fitting function in classical Chinese, that of marking a topic. This worked nicely, when the graph 者 was used to represent the Japanese topicalizer, pa. In a document preserved in the Shōsōin we find 達者牛甘 Tasa [NO] USIKAPI. A related representation of this name is found in Shoku Nihongi: 達沙 牛養 Tasa [NO] USIKAPI (761.5.13). The phonogram 者 also appears in Man’yōshū, where it is used four times. Below is a poem where the graph 者 is used twice, once as a topic marker, and once as a phonogram. 358

MYS 985 天尓座 月讀壮子 幣者将為 今夜乃長者 五百夜継許増

紗

草

瑳

AME ni MASU TUKWIYOMI WOTOKWO MAPI PA SEMU KOYOPI no NAGAsa IPOYWO TUGI koso

Master Tsukiyomi who resides in the heavens— I offer you a gift, so make the length of our night tonight five hundred nights joined together.

OJ: sa OC: NA LH: NA EMC: saɨ GO: sa KN: sa NOM: sa SV: sa SK: sa Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears primarily in Man’yōshū. As noted above under 沙, there is some confusion in the various witnesses of Man’yōshū, where it is difficult to determine if the archetype is 沙 or 紗. The example below is one of the few where the witnesses agree, and it is easy to see why 紗 is the intended graph, as this stanza contains two other graphs with the ‘thread’ radical. MYS 1851 AWOYAGWI NO How beautiful are the string-like 青柳之 ITWO no KUPASIsa branches of the green willow tree. 絲乃細紗 PARU KAZE ni How I wish I could show 春風尓 MIDARENU ima ni this sight to someone before 不乱伊間尓 MISEMU KWO MOGAMO the spring wind disturbs it. 令視子裳欲得 OJ: sa OC: *tshûʔ GO: sau KN: sau LH: tshouʔ EMC: tshâuʔ NOM: thảo, thau SV: thảo SK: chwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Man’yōshū three times. MYS 3678 伊毛乎於毛比 imo wo omopi Thinking about my beloved 伊能祢良延奴尓 i no nerayenu ni I cannot fall asleep. Out in the autumn field 安伎乃野尓 aki no NWO ni 草乎思香奈伎都 sawosiKA nakitu a stag has cried out, 追麻於毛比可祢弖 tuma omopikanete unable to bear thinking of its mate. OJ: sa OC: *tshâiʔ LH: tshɑiʔ EMC: tshâʔ LMC: tsha GO: sa KN: sa NOM: NA SV: tha, thả, thá SK: cha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears once in the annotational notes and 13 times in the poetry in Nihon shoki: 坂下、此云瑳伽梅苔 “ ‘base of the hill’ is read sakamoto” (NSG). NSK 47 虚呂望虚曾 koromo koso It may be pleasing 赴多幣茂豫耆 putapye mo yoki to wear two layers of robes, 瑳用廼虚烏 saywodoko wo but how appalling that you 359

那羅陪務耆瀰破 narabemu kimi pa would put two women’s 介辭古耆呂介茂 kasikwokiro kamo sleeping places side by side. The phonogram 瑳 also appears in Fudoki fragments, but some manuscripts have apparently mistakenly copied 瑳 as 縒, which transcribes si. One example is from a song preserved in a fragment of Hizen fudoki: 區瑳刀理 kusa twori ‘take (pull) herbs.’

磋

狹

OJ: sa OC: *tshâi LH: tshɑi EMC: tshâ LMC: tsha GO: sa KN: sa NOM: tha SV: tha SK: cha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears but once in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 46 于磨臂苔能 umapito no I tell you plainly, 多菟屢虚等太氐 taturu kotodate making a nobleman’s promise— 于磋由豆流 usayuduru she is only 多曳麼菟餓務珥 tayema tugamu ni a spare bowstring for the time 奈羅陪氐毛餓望 narabete mo ga mo when the one I have breaks. OJ: sa OC: *ɡrêp LH: ɡɛp EMC: ɣăp GO: gefu KN: kafu NOM: hẹp SV: hiệp SK: hyep Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ sa, meaning ‘narrow.’ This phonogram was popular and appears in most records from the late Asuka era on, though it is mainly used in toponyms and personal names. For example, in Kojiki, there are several names of islands and deities written with this phonogram: 淡道 之穂之狹別嶋 APADI NO PONOSA WAKE SIMA ‘Awaji no Honosa Wake Island’ (KG), 天 之 狹 手 依 比 賣 AME NO SADE YWORI Pimye ‘Princess Ame no Sadeyori’ (KG). Also several words are formed with this graph: 狹霧 SAKWIRI ‘mist’ and 狹蝿 SAPAPE ‘spring flies.’ It is not clear what this prefix sa means, though most scholars agree that as it appears primarily in poetry as opposed to prose it may be an honorific or beautifier for nouns. This usage appears 145 times (cf. Ōno 1977:803) in Nihon shoki, in names like 國狹槌尊 KUNI SATUTI [NO] MIKOTO (NSG), also known as 國狹立尊 KUNI SATATI [NO] MIKOTO (NSG), 泉津日狹女 YOMOTU PISAMYE (NSG), and toponyms like 狹城池 SAKWI [NO] IKE ‘the Saki Pond’ (NSG). This usage also appears in Man’yōshū some 41 times. MYS 19 綜麻形乃 PESWOKATA no Like the black alder tree PAYASI NO SAKI no on the edge of the woods 林始乃 in Hesokata, my beloved— 狭野榛能 SANWO PARI no KINU ni TUKU NASU you color my eyes 衣尓著成 ME ni tuku wa ga se as robes dyed in color. 目尓都久和我勢

360

猿

羅

相

倉

OJ: sa OC: *wan LH: wan EMC: jwɐn GO: won KN: wen NOM: vượn SV: viên SK: wen Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ saru ‘monkey.’ This usage appears in Shoku Nihongi, in one toponym: 猿嶋郡 SASIMA District (769.8.14), and the name 安倍猿嶋 Ape SASIMA (773.2.8). There is a possibility that this usage also appears in Man’yōshū in one poem. That poem, MYS 1827, contains the stanza 狭帆之内敝 SAPO NO UTI pye ‘toward Saho.’ Some manuscripts have 猨 instead of 狭. The difficulty is that both can be read sa. The phonogram 猨 is a variant form of 猿. OJ: sa OC: *râi LH: lai EMC: lâ GO: ra KN: ra NOM: la, là SV: la SK: la Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ sa ‘silk gauze.’ This is likely a loan from Chinese 紗 ‘silk gauze.’ This usage is only found in Man’yōshū: MYS 1159 SUMINOYE NO How clear the sound 住吉之 KWISI NO MATUGANE of the waves that come 岸之松根 UTISARASI crashing in and wash 打曝 YOSEKURU NAMI NO the trunks of the pine trees 縁来浪之 OTO NO SAYAKESA on the beach of Suminoe. 音之清羅 OJ: saga, sagu OC: *saŋ or *saŋh LH: siaŋ or siaŋh EMC: sjaŋ or sjaŋh GO: sau KN: siau NOM: tướng, tương SV: tướng SK: syang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage is preserved mainly in toponyms, most notably 相武 Sagamu, later transcribed as 相模. This later becomes Sagami. In Harima fudoki there are toponyms such as 安相里 Asagu Village and 阿相郡 Asagu District. Later scholars would rather read these two as asako, but I view sagu as representing a dialect version where the vowel has raised: *o > u. A fragment of the now lost Yamashiro fudoki contains this information: 相 樂郡内久江里 ‘The KuYE Village within the Sagaraka District.’ OJ: sagu OC: *tshâŋ LH: tshaŋ EMC: tshâŋ GO: sau KN: sau NOM: thương SV: thảng, thương SK: chang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This rare usage appears in a toponym recorded in a fragment of the Yōrō Census (721): 倉麻郡 Saguma District.

361

積

OJ: saka OC: *tsek or *tsekh LH: tsiek or tsieh EMC: tsjäk or tsjeh GO: siaku KN: seki NOM: tích SV: tích SK: cyek, co Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. In the Asago District register of Yamashiro Province, dated 733, the toponym 積太郡 Sakata District appears. In a different Shōsōin document, the name 生江臣積多 IKUYE OMI Sakata appears. In Shoku Nihongi we find a personal name, 丈 部 造 智 積 PATUKAPIBYE MIYATUKWO Tisaka (715.3.25) and a toponym: 安 積 郡 Asaka District (718.5.2). Another interesting example of Asaka appears in Man’yōshū: MYS 3807 Mount Asaka— 安積香山 asaKA YAMA KAGE SAPE MIYURU like the mountain spring 影副所見 YAMA NO WI NO where the reflection is visible 山井之 ASAKI KOKORO wo I do not reflect upon you 淺心乎 WA GA OMOPANAKU NI with a shallow heart. 吾念莫國 Here the poet writes out the name of the mountain with three graphs, representing a-sa-ka, but it is also plausible that this type of writing is influenced by peninsula habits, where short vowels were represented by writing a geminate, for example, a velar-final graph, and then a velar initial graph: 積香 sak-ka.

尺

OJ: saka OC: *thak ? LH: tśhak EMC: tśhjäk GO: siaku KN: seki NOM: xách, xế, xệch SV: sích, xích SK: chyek Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. Perhaps the most well known example is in Nihon shoki, 船史惠尺 PUNA PUBITO Wesaka, who rescued part of the history supposedly compiled by Shōtoku Taishi and Soga no Umako when it was burned during the downfall of the Soga. Shoku Nihongi includes these other examples: 狹井宿祢尺麻呂 SAWI [NO] Sukune Sakamaro (700.6.17), 文忌寸 尺加 PUMU [NO] IMIKI Saka (704.1.7) [some manuscripts have 釋加], and 尺度 池 Sakatwo IKE ‘Sakato Pond’ (781.7.19). On a wooden document excavated from the Nara capital ruins, we find: 伯 耆国汗入郡尺刀郷・・・天平十七年十月 ‘Papaki Province ASIRI District Sakatwo Village...10th month of 745...’ (MK 360). This phonogramy appears in Man’yōshū in examples like the note to MYS 3821 右時有娘子 姓尺度氏也 ‘The poem to the right refers to when there was a young maiden, whose surname was Sakatwo.’

釋

OJ: saka OC: *lhak LH: śak EMC: śjäk GO: siaku KN: seki NOM: thích SV: thích SK: syek Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The best known example with this is the transcriptional name for 釋迦 Śākyamuni. In Shoku Nihongi, the name of PUNA Wesaka is represented as 惠釋 (700.3.10). Also, as noted above under 362

尺, 文忌寸尺加 PUMU [NO] IMIKI Saka (704.1.7) in some manuscripts is written as 釋加.

跡 參 三

OJ: saki OC: *tsjak LH: tsiak EMC: tsjäk GO: siaku KN: seki NOM: tích SV: tích SK: cyek Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. There is only one example that I can find in the ancient corpus, in Harima fudoki: 麻跡里 Masaki Village; however, on a wooden document excavated from a dig site in Kyōto the following appears: 播 磨 国 飾 磨 郡 真 跡 郷 Parima Province Sikama District, MAsaki Village (unnumbered tablet). OJ: sama, sami OC: *srəm or *tshə̂m LH: s̘im or tshəm EMC: s̘jəm or tshâm GO: samu KN: samu NOM: sâm, tham SV: sâm, tham SK: sam, cham, som, chom Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. Shoku Nihongi records, 從相模國夷參 驛 “From the relay station of Isama in Sagami Province...” (771.10.27). In two separate documents preserved in Shōsōin we find the name Yosami represented as 与參 and 預參. OJ: samu OC: *sə̂m LH: sam or səm EMC: sâm GO: samu KN: samu NOM: tam SV: tam SK: sam Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only twice in Man’yōshū. In one particular poem the use of numerals is part of the orthographic architecture. MYS 907 TAKI NO PE NO Like the spruce tree that 瀧上之 MIPUNE no YAMA ni extends its unblemished branches 御舟乃山尓 MIDUYE SASI which fill the tree growing 水枝指 on Mount Mifune 四時尓生有 sizi ni OPITARU that is above the waterfall, 刀我乃樹能 twoga no KWI no IYA TUGITUGI ni is not the Akizu Palace 弥継嗣尓 萬代 YORODU YO NI in Miyoshino KAKU SI SIRAsamu where she shall reign 如是二二知三 for ten thousand generations 三芳野之 MIYOSINWO NO AKIDU no MIYA PA in continuing succession 蜻蛉乃宮者 KAMUKARA KA dignified in this way 神柄香 TAPUTWOKU ARURAMU with its divine nature? 貴将有 Several numeric tricks are employed here: 四時 ‘four times’ calls to mind the four seasons, with the time the poem was composed referring to the best of times. 二二 is a mathematical equation, where 2+2=4 (si). 三 in the stanza 如 是二二知三 is to be read as a phonogram samu. In the very next stanza, however, the reader is required to process 三芳野 as miyosinwo.

363

散

戔 贊

讃

OJ: sani, sa OC: *sânʔ or *sâns LH: sanʔ or sanh EMC: sânʔ or sânh GO: samu KN: san NOM: tan, tản SV: tản, tán SK: san Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears seven times in Man’yōshū, four times to represent sa and three times to represent sani. Below is an example of each. MYS 31 左散難弥乃 sasanami no The great inlet of Shiga in Sasanami— 志我能大和太 siga no OPOwada 與杼六友 yodoMU TOMO though it quietly waits, MUKASI NO PITO ni will it ever be able to meet 昔人二 MATA mo APAMEYAmo those people of ancient days? 亦母相目八毛 MYS 2523 Red with color— 散頬相 saniTURAPU IRO PA IDEZU it does not show on my face 色者不出 SUKUNAKU mo but at least 小文 KOKORO NO UTI NI within my heart 心中 WA GA OMOPANAku ni I am thinking of you. 吾念名君 In a legendary story preserved in Harima fudoki, Great King Richū supposedly traveled to Harima, and on the way he arrived at a place called Wanasa of Apa Province (阿波和那散). OJ: sano OC: *dzân LH: dzan EMC: dzân LMC: tsɦan GO: zan KN: san NOM: tàn SV: tàn SK: can, cyen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in Nihon shoki to transcribe the name of Susanowo (素戔嗚尊). OJ: sano, sanu, sa OC: *tsâns LH: tsanh EMC: tsânh GO: samu KN: san NOM: tán SV: tán SK: chan Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The well known usage is 贊岐 Sanuki, though the variant 讃岐 Sanuki gains greater popularity as time goes on. In Harima fudoki the name of Saywotu Pimye is transcribed as 贊用都比賣命. On the Takada Village stone memorial from 726 we find the following toponyms: 上野国群馬郡下賛郷高田里 Takada Hamlet in Lower Sano Village in Kurima District of UPATUKENWO Province. Ōno (1977:832) notes that the reading of sano for 賛 is not secure, but it should be mentioned that the tradition in Takazaki City where the stone resides is that the village is later known as Lower Sano Village (下佐野). OJ: sanu, sa LH: tsanh NOM: tán

EMC: tsân SV: tán 364

OC: *tsâns GO: samu KN: san SK: chan

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The toponym 讃岐 is perhaps the best known example of this usage. In Harima fudoki this is written in a number of different ways: 讚伎 and 讚藝 sanuki. Such examples appear in Kojiki, Nihon shoki, Man’yōshū, and other Nara era records. There are also several examples where this phonogram is used to represent sa. In Harima fudoki there is 讚容郡 Saywo District. The following inscription appears on a wooden document excavated from the Nara Capital: 讃良郡山家郷人宗我部飯麻呂馬・・・天 平 十 八 年 四 月 廿 三 日 ‘The horse of SwogaBYE IPImaro, who is from YAMAPYE Village in Sarara District....23rd day of the fourth month of the 18th year of Tenpyō (746)...’ (unnumbered tablet). This interesting reading of sarara for 讃良 is likely due to assimilation of -n- to -r-: *san-ra > *sanara > sarara.

雜

匝

OJ: sapa, sapi, sapu OC: *dzə̂p LH: dzəp EMC: dzəp LMC: tsɦap GO: zafu KN: safu NOM: tạp SV: tạp SK: cap Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. In a document preserved in Shōsōin the toponym 雜太 Sapata appears. This same name appears in Shoku Nihongi: 雜 太郡 Sapata District (721.4.20). In another document the name 雜物 sapimoti appears. In Shoku Nihongi the name 紀朝臣雜物 Kwi ASOMI Sapimoti appears (728.5.21). In Izumo fudoki the toponym 佐雜埼 Sasapu Cape is recorded. This usage also appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 1273 SUMINOYE NO The riding coat 住吉 of Lord Hazuma of Suminoe 波豆麻公之 paduma NO KIMI GA UMA NORI KOROMO is a garment sewn by 馬乗衣 雜豆臈 sapidurapu a foreign girl AYAMYE wo SUWETE with chirping speech 漢女乎座而 NUPYERU KOROMO zo that he made sit and sew. 縫衣叙 OJ: sapi, sa OC: *tsə̂p LH: tsəp EMC: tsập GO: safu KN: safu NOM: táp, tấp SV: tap SK: cap Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage appears once in Nihon shoki, in the name 匝布屯倉 Sapo Granary. As noted before, this type of usage may have a peninsular influence, where peninsular transcriptions often use geminate consonants, perhaps to demonstrate that the preceding vowel is short. Here we have sap-po. This usage appears once on a mokkan: 備前国赤坂郡周匝郷 Bizen Province Akasaka District Susapi Village (MK 311). This phonogram 匝 also appears once in Man’yōshū, representing sapi. MYS 443 Standing then sitting there, 牛留鳥 NIPODORI NO 名津匝来与 NADUsapi KOMU TO wondering if he’ll return, gliding TATITE WITE down the road, like little grebes, 立居而 MATIkyemu PITO PA the person who surely is waiting 待監人者 365

王之 命恐 押光 難波國尓 荒玉之 年經左右二

颯

薩

OPOKIMI NO MIKOTO KASIKWOMI OSITERU nanipa NO KUNI ni ARATAMA NO TOSI PURU MADE ni

obeys in reverence the august words of the great ruler until the new regnal year, rough like jewels, is decided upon in the land of Naniwa where the sunlight pushes through.

OJ: sapu OC: *sə̂p LH: səp EMC: sâ̘p GO: safu KN: safu NOM: táp SV: táp SK: sap Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 430 YAKUMO SASU The black hair of 八雲刺 IDUMWO NO KWORA GA the maidens of Izumo 出雲子等 KURWOKAMI PA where eight clouds pierce through 黒髪者 YOSINWO NO KAPA NO is floating lithely in the offing 吉野川 OKI NI NAdusapu of the river of Yoshino. 奥名豆颯 OJ: sati, satwo, satu OC: NA LH: NA EMC: sat LMC: sat GO: sati KN: satu NOM: tát SV: tát SK: sal Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS when representing sati, but belongs to the CBS when representing satu. The single instance of sato likely belongs to the CBS, but may preserve a variant form that later underwent vowel raising: *wo > u. The LJS usage first appears in a document in Shōsōin, with the name: 茨田 連薩毛智 MAMUTA MURAZI Satumoti. This usage also appears in Shoku Nihongi in the following names: 大伴宿祢小薩 OPOTOMO Sukune WOsati (763.1.9), and 大 伴 古 薩 OPOTOMO Kwosati (764.9.29). Interestingly, in Hitachi fudoki the following toponym is recorded: 薩都里 Satu Village. This likely is a transcription influenced by peninsular practice, where sat-tu becomes satu. The CBS usage appears in Nihon shoki. It also appears in the following names in Shoku Nihongi: 薩末比賣 Satuma Pimye (700.6.3), 薩摩多褹 Tane of Satuma (702.8.1), and 藤原朝臣薩雄 PUDIPARA ASOMI SatuWO (757.4.4). This usage also appears three times in Man’yōshū, in the toponym 薩摩 Satuma (MYS 248) and twice to represent satuwo ‘hunter.’ MYS 2147 YAMA NO pye ni Though there are many 山邊尓 hunters who come and go 射去薩雄者 IYUKU satuwo PA OPOKAREDO near the mountain, 雖大有 YAMA nimo NWO nimo the stags cry out, 山尓文野尓文 in both the mountains and fields. 紗少壮鹿鳴母 saWOSIKA NAKU mo The single instance of sato occurs in the Yamashiro toponym 邑薩里 Oposatwo Village, as preserved in documents in Shōsōin. Other records record this toponym as 大里 OPOSATWO, attesting to the height of the final vowel. 366

刷 早 草 最 斯 齊

OJ: satu OC: *srot LH: ṣuat EMC: s̘jwät LMC: ʂɰa:t GO: sati LN: satu NOM: loát, loạt SV: loát SK: swal Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This phonogram appears in Shoku Nihongi in the name 藤原朝臣刷雄 PUDIPARA ASOMI SatuWO (752.3.9). OJ: sawa OC: *tsûʔ LH: tsouʔ EMC: tsâuʔ GO: sau KN: sau NOM: tảo SV: tảo SK: cwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage appears in Shoku Nihongi: 早良 Sawara (781.4.4). The same usage also appears in a document preserved in the Shōsōin: 早良 Sawara. OJ: sawa OC: *tshûʔ GO: sau KN: sau LH: tshouʔ EMC: tshâuʔ NOM: thảo, thau SV: thảo SK: chwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This appears in a document preserved in the Shōsōin, with the name 草良部 SawaraBYE. On a mokkan from a dig in Shizuoka we find 草良臣 Sawara OMI (MK 12). OJ: sayo OC: *tsôs LH: tsuas EMC: tswâih GO: sai KN: sai NOM: tối SV: tối SK: chwoy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. One example appears in Izumo fudoki: 最邑 Sayo Village. OJ: se > si OC: *se LH: sie EMC: sje GO: si KN: si NOM: NA SV: tư SK: sa Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. As the Old Chinese and Later Han data point out, this graph was read *se. While there is no Nom data, related graphs such as 厮廝嘶 all are read tê in Nom, attesting to the height of the vowel. See the explanation of this graph under 斯 OJ: si. OJ: se OC: *dzî LH: dzei EMC: dziei GO: zai KN: sei NOM: trai, chay, chây SV: tề, trai, chay SK: co, cyey, coy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears once in an indirect quote from a Paekche record. There the Paekche king, Cik-ci (直支王), sends his younger sister to the court. Her name is recorded as 新齊都媛 Sisetu Pime. 367

This phonogram is also used nine times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 51 那珥波譬苔 nanipa pito Men of Naniwa! 須儒赴泥苔羅齊 suzu pune torase Grab the rope to the bell-boat. 許辭那豆瀰 kosi nadumi Get up to your waist in 曾能赴尼苔羅齊 sono pune torase the water and pull that boat! 於朋瀰赴泥苔禮 opomipune tore Pull the great boat in. This phonogram is also found in Man’yōshū only once, to transcribe the place name 安齊可我多 aseka gata ‘the salty beach of Aseka’ (MYS 3503).

西

洒

OJ: se OC: *sî < *snî LH: sei EMC: siei GO: sai KN: sei NOM: tây SV: tây, tê SK: sye Usage / History: This phonogram also belongs to the PBS. This assignment is based on the inscription on the Kwangkaytho stele. The opening paragraph of the stele contains this toponym: 忽本西城 *huət-pən-sei fortress. It is also used in the following personal names found on a Silla stele. On the Tanyang border stele we find 西夫叱智 *sei-puɑ-tshit-ʈeh. This phonogram does not appear in any early Japanese documents, but does surface in 702, in the Mino Census: 乎布西 Wopuse, 知西売 Tisemye, 伊波 西 Ipase, 小西爾 KWOseni. There are fragments of this usage on mokkan: 布 西里□軍布 ‘military blanket…Puse Village’ (MK 1642), and 西奈里 Sena Village (unnumbered tablet). This phonogram appears five times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 75 倭我伊麻西麼 wa ga imaseba As I sit here, 佐謂麻都登 sawi matu to waiting for the boar, 倭我陀々西麼 wa ga tataseba as I rise to my feet, 陀倶符羅爾 takubura ni a horsefly lands 阿武柯枳都枳 amu kakituki on my arm and bites me. This phonogram appears about 22 times in Man’yōshū: MYS 4378 都久比夜波 tukupi ya pa The moon and sun 須具波由氣等毛 sugu pa yukyedomo do trek across the sky, 阿母志々可 amo sisi ka but we do not forget 多麻乃須我多波 tama no sugata pa the jewel-like forms 和須例西奈布母 wasuresenapu mo of our mothers and fathers. OJ: se OC: *sriʔ LH: ṣɛiʔ EMC: ṣăj GO: sai, sia KN: sei NOM: sái, rải, rái, vẩy SV: sái SK: syey, say, sway, sa Usage / History: This phonogram also belongs to the PBS. It appears in the peninsular records quoted in Nihon shoki, specifically in a personal name. In the record of Kinmei the name 許勢臣 Kose OMI appears, and then a quote from Paekche ponki notes that the person is called 既洒臣. This name is glossed kose; thus we have a 368

fortunate case where a specific name is written two different ways. Because of the date of the Paekche writing (early seventh century), it is tempting to see this name as actually written with graphs reconstructed by Miyake (2003a:231) *kəsəy. Notice that 洒 is LH sei, and 勢 is MC śjäih, suggesting that there was an offglide at least until the early seventh century.

施

勢

OJ: se OC: *lhai LH: śɑi EMC: śje GO: se KN: si NOM: thí, thia, the, thè SV: thi, thí SK: si, i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, but was not used much by the Japanese until it was reintroduced into the orthographic system based on LMC (and then belonged to the CBS), and transcribed si (see 施 si). This phonogram is used to write the Paekche eighth rank in Nihon shoki: 施 徳 śɑi-tək. This same rank is quoted in Zhou zhu, written the same as in Nihon shoki. Shoki glosses the reading as setoku. Interestingly, the name recorded in Shoki with this rank has a Japanese surname—Mononobe (cf. Ienaga et al. 1986.2:76). There also is a Japanese monk, named 恵施 Wese, who is sent to China to study. The texts gloss this 施 as se showing that the reading continued until the introduction of LMC. OJ: se OC: *nhets < *hŋets LH: śas EMC: śjäih GO: se KN: sei NOM: thế SV: thế, thể SK: syey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, and was the basic phonogram to transcribe OJ se. This phonogram appears in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu, an early Heian compilation, but which has relied on much earlier documents. It contains usages such as 伊勢神 ise [NO] KAMWI ‘the deity of Ise,’ 佐勢 sase ‘Sase, a toponym,’ and 巨勢 kose ‘Kose, a surname.’ This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan, the majority to transcribe Ise (伊勢). There is also 山背国久 勢郡 Yamasiro Province Kuse District (unnumbered tablet), and 巨勢若守 Kose WAKAMORI (unnumbered tablet). This is the primarily phonogram used in Kojiki for se: 那勢 nase ‘my beloved’ (KG), 伊呂勢 irose ‘older brother by the same mother’ (KG), 伊勢能 宇美 ise no umi ‘the sea of Ise’ (KG). This phonogram also appears in many Kojiki songs. KK 101 登余美岐 toyomiki Present to him 多弖麻都良勢 tatematurase the bountiful wine! 許登能 koto no These are words 加多理碁登母 katarigoto mo that have been handed down 許袁婆 ko woba by us. This phonogram also appears once in annotational notes and 11 times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 吾夫君此云阿我儺勢 “ ‘My beloved lord’ is read aga nase” (NSG).

369

NSK 27 烏波利珥 多陀珥霧伽弊流 比苔菟麻菟阿波例 比等菟麻菟 比苔珥阿利勢麼 岐農岐勢摩之塢

Here stands a pine facing straight in the direction of Owari; yes, a single pine. If this tree were a man, I would dress you in your garments. 多知波開摩之塢 tati pakemasi wo I would gird you with your sword. The phonogram 勢 is also one of the main graphs in Man’yōshū to transcribe se: 吾勢子 WA GA seKWO ‘my beloved’ (MYS 11), 勢能山 se no YAMA ‘Mount Se’ (MYS 35), 巨勢道 koseDI ‘the Kose Road’ (MYS 50), 伊勢 能国 ise no KUNI ‘the province of Ise’ (MYS 162), and 伊勢海 ise [NO] UMI ‘sea of Ise’(MYS 600).

世

wopari ni tada mukapyeru pitotu matu apare pitotu matu pito ni ariseba kinu kisemasi wo

OJ: se OC: *lhats LH: śas EMC: śjäih GO: se KN: sei NOM: thá, thế, thé SV: thế SK: syey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears in the 702 Mino Census in personal names: 奈世麻呂 Nasemaro, 止世売 Tosemye, 麻加世 Makase. This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan: 粟田戸世万呂 KURITA PEsemaro (MK 145), 伊世国奄伎郡 Ise Province Amuki District (unnumbered tablet), and 田辺久世万呂 TABYE Kusemaro (MKK 22:287). This phonogram also appears in Kojiki: 阿世袁 ase wo ‘rhythmical words’ (homophonic with ase ‘my beloved,’ KG), 宇那賀麻世流 unagaseru ‘(the jewels) put around (your) neck’ (KG), 波都世能夜麻能 patuse no yama no ‘(the great peak) of Mount Hatsuse that…’ (KG). KK 89 許母理久能 komoriku no The place that is hidden— 波都世能夜麻能 patuse no yama no on the great peak 意富袁爾波 opowo nipa of Mount Hatsuse 波多波理陀弖 pata paridate I plant and spread out an ensign. Ōno (1977:209) notes that the first half of the first book of Kojiki relies heavily on the graph 勢 for se, but the last half relies heavily on 世, a distinction that appears to have some import, though he does not specify what it may be. This phonogram also appears once in the annotational notes and five times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 経湍此云俯世 “(The place name) 経湍 is read puse” (KG). NSK 115 舸娜紀都該 kanakwi tuke The steed that I kept 阿我柯賦古磨播 aga kapu kwoma pa bridled with hard wood 比枳涅世儒 pikide sezu was never allowed outside. 阿我柯賦古磨乎 aga kapu kwoma wo How has someone found 比騰瀰都羅武箇 pito mituramu ka that steed that I nurtured? 370

This phonogram appears regularly in Man’yōshū, some 210 times, so that it stands with 勢 as one of the two primary graphs to transcribe se in the anthology. MYS 3671 奴婆多麻乃 nubatama no If I were the moon 欲和多流月尓 ywo wataru TUKWI ni that traverses the night sky 安良麻世婆 aramaseba black as ink 伊敝奈流伊毛尓 ipye naru imwo ni then I would be able to come 安比弖許麻之乎 apite komasi wo meet my beloved who is home.

制

細

OJ: se OC: *kets or *tats LH: tśas EMC: tśjäih LMC: tʂiaj GO: sei KN: sei NOM: chế, chơi SV: chế SK: cyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to LJS, and appears once in the annotational notes and eight times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 兄此云制 “ ‘older brother,’ this is read se” (NSG). NSK 126 美曳之弩能 miyesinwo no The trout of Eshino 曳之弩能阿喩 yesinwo no ayu beautiful Mieshino— 阿喩擧曾播 ayu koso pa It is good for 施麻倍母曳岐 simape mo yeki you trout to be near the island. 愛倶流之衞 ekurusiwe Ah, how painful 奈疑能母騰 nagwi no moto to be under the water-greens 制利能母騰 seri no moto to be under the water cress. 阿例播倶流之衞 are pa kurusiwe I am in pain. OJ: se OC: *sîh LH: seih EMC: sieih LMC: siaj GO: sai KN: sei NOM: tế, té, tới SV: tế SK: syey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears three times in one poem in Nihon shoki: NSK 97 莒母唎矩能 kumoriku no In the hidden land, 簸覩細能哿波庚 patuse no kapa yu the bamboo flowing down 那峨礼倶屢 nagarekuru the Hatsuse River— 駄開能 take no wonderful, flourishing bamboo 以矩美娜開余嚢開 ikumidake yodake with long joints and leaves. 謨等陛嗚麼 motopye woba We will make a koto 莒等儞都倶唎 koto ni tukuri out of the base of it, 須衞陛嗚麼 suwepye woba and make a flute 府曳儞都倶唎 puye ni tukuri out of the top of it, 符企儺須 pukinasu and our music 美母慮我紆陪儞 mimoro ga upe ni will reach to the top 能朋梨陀致 nobori tati of Mount Mimoro. 倭我彌細麼 wa ga miseba When I gaze down 371

都奴娑播符 以簸例能伊開能 美那矢駄府 紆鳴謨 紆陪儞堤堤那皚矩 野須美矢々 倭我於朋枳美能 於魔細屢 娑佐羅能美於寐能 武須彌陀例 駄例夜矢比等母 紆陪儞泥堤那皚矩

栖

是

劑

tunwo sapapu ipare no ike no minasitapu uwo mo upe ni dete nageku yasumisisi wa ga opokimi obaseru sasara no miobi no musubitare dare yasi pito mo upe ni dete nageku

on Iware Pond with rocks covered in vines even the fish come to the surface and lament your parting. And like the sash worn by my great lord who rules over all with its dainty design, who is there that will not come out and lament your parting?

OJ: se OC: *sî < *snî LH: sei EMC: siei LMC: siaj GO: sai KN: sei NOM: thê SV: tê, thê SK: syey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. In most documents, this graph was used as a kungana representing the Old Japanese word ‘nest’ su. In Nihon shoki, however, this graph is used as a phonogram to transcribe se. The graph appears only three times in the poetry: NSK 106 野麻騰能 yamato no As I say I am about 飫斯能毘稜栖嗚 osi no pirose wo to cross the wide rapids of Oshi 倭柁羅務騰 wataramu to in Yamato, 阿庸比陀豆矩梨 aywopi tadukuri I tie up my leg-straps 擧始豆矩羅符母 kosidukurapu mo and even fix my waist band. OJ: se OC: *deʔ LH: dźeʔ EMC: źjeʔ LMC: ʂɦi GO: ze KN: si NOM: thị SV: thị SK: si Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This graph is well known as the oldest extant example of the prenasalized counterpart of se (see ze below). It is thus interesting that 是 appears in one annotational note in Nihon shoki: 言於母亦 兄、於吾亦兄此云於慕尼慕是、阿例尼慕是 “ ‘To my mother he is an elder brother; and to me he is a husband’ is read omo nimo se, are nimo se” (NSG). In this example, 是 has to be read se, which meant a beloved male (cf. Martin 1987:521). Martin wonders if se does not come from an original prenasalized ze. For the time being I place this usage of 是 here. OJ: se OC: *dzîh LH: dzeih EMC: dzieih KN: tsɦiaj GO: zai KN: sei NOM: tễ SV: tễ SK: co, cyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears once in Nihon shoki:

372

NSK 57 菟藝泥赴 tuginepu This woman of 揶摩之呂謎能 yamasiromye no Yamashiro, with thick trees, 許久波茂知 kokupa moti dug up a large radish 于智辭於朋泥 utisi opone with a wooden hoe. 佐和佐和珥 sawasawa ni The rustling of leaves 儺餓伊弊劑虚會 na ga ipese koso reminds me of things you said. 于知和多須 utiwatasu I look out and see 椰餓波曳儺須 yaga paye nasu richly growing foliage. 企以利摩韋區例 ki iri mawikure I have come with a rich troupe. There is some confusion in the manuscripts. Many manuscripts have 齋 instead of 劑, which appears in a marginal line in the Kitano manuscript, but also in Shaku Nihongi. For the time being I err on the side of caution and leave the graph as is here.

瀬

湍

背

OJ: se OC: *râts LH: lɑs EMC: lâih GO: rai KN: rai NOM: NA SV: lại SK: lai Usage / History: This is a kungana where 瀬 ‘rapids’ suggests to the reader Old Japanese se ‘rapids.’ There are several mokkan with names transcribed with this kungana: 高 瀬村 TAKASE Village (unnumbered tablet), and 廣瀬 PIROSE (MK 802). This kungana also appears in Kojiki: 五瀬命 Prince ITUSE (KG), 稲瀬毘 古王 Prince INASEbikwo (KG), and 河瀬舎人 Retainer KAPASE (KG). Man’yōshū also has 33 examples of this kungana, of which the following are representative: 泊瀬山 PATUSE YAMA ‘Mount Hatsuse’ (MYS 45), 広瀬川 PIROSE KAPA ‘the river Hirose’ (MYS 1107), 伊波瀬乃社 ipaSE no MORI ‘the sacred grove of Iwase’ (MYS 1419). OJ: se OC: *thôn EMC: thwân GO: tamu KN: tan LH: thuɑn NOM: NA SV: thoan SK: tan Usage / History: This is a kungana where 湍 is Chinese ‘rushing water,’ suggesting to the reader Old Japanese se ‘rushing water, rapids.’ This usage appears once in the Nihon shoki: 経湍 PUSE ‘place name Fuse’ (NSG), and in Harima fudoki: 速 湍 PAYASE ‘village of Hayase.’ This graph also appears three times in Man’yōshū: 許湍乃春野 koSE no PARUNWO ‘the spring field of Kose’ (MYS 54), 後 湍 山 NOTISE YAMA ‘Mount Nochise’ (MYS 739), and 泊 湍 川 PATUSE KAPA ‘the Hatsuse River’ (MYS 2706). OJ: se OC: *pə̂kh LH: pəh EMC: pwâ̘ih GO: fai KN: fai NOM: bối, bội, bồi, bổi SV: bối, bội SK: poy, phay Usage / History: This is a kungana, where 背 ‘back, behind’ conjures up to the mind Old Japanese se ‘back.’ This usage appears in the Mino Census of 701: 広背 373

PIROSE and 長背 NAGASE. This usage also appears in Man’yōshū: 吾背子 WA GA SEKWO ‘my beloved’ (MYS 268), 妹背乃山 IMOSE no YAMA ‘Mount Imose’ (MYS 544), and 来背社 KUSE [NO] MORI ‘the sacred grove of Kuse’ (MYS 1286).

脊

迫

OJ: se OC: *tsek LH: tsiek EMC: tsjäk GO: siaku KN: seki NOM: tích SV: tích SK: chyek Usage / History: This is a kungana where 脊 ‘spine’ calls to mind Old Japanese se ‘back (as in back bone).’ This usage appears five times in Book 6 Man’yōshū. MYS 1056 WOTOMYERA GA Mount Kase, the spindle, 𡢳嬬等之 UMIWO KAKU TOPU like the thing maidens 續麻繁云 wrap spun wool on, 鹿脊之山 KASE NO YAMA TOKIsi YUKYEREBA has changed with the times. 時之徃者 MIYAKWO TO NARINU It has become a metropolis. 京師跡成宿 OJ: se OC: *prâk LH: pak EMC: pɐk GO: faku KN: faku NOM: bạch, bách SV: bách SK: poyk Usage / History: This is a kungana where 迫 ‘press upon’ suggests to the reader Old Japanese se of semaru ‘press against.’ This usage is only found once in Man’yōshū. MYS 2696 ARAKUMA NO Mount Shihase 荒熊之 SUMU TO IPU YAMA NO where wild bears 住云山之 are said to live— 師齒迫山 siPASE YAMA SEMETE TOPU TOMO though I ask you sternly 責而雖問 NA GA NA PA NORAZI you will not tell me your name. 汝名者不告 OJ: se OC: NA LH: NA EMC: NA GO: NA KN: NA NOM: NA SV: NA SK: NA Usage / History: This is a kungana where these two graphs together conjur up the sound. Here these two mean ‘flower of the rocks,’ suggesting to the reader with a knowledge of the area around Mount Fuji the Old Japanese word se ‘barnacle’ that cling to rocks along the coast like flowers. This usage appears twice in Man’yōshū. MYS 2991 hiding in their cocoons, 眉隠 MAYWOGOMORI 馬聲蜂音石花蜘蟵荒鹿 IBUSEKU MO ARU KA I am surrounded by gloom, because I cannot see you. 異母二不相而 imo ni APAZUSITE This poem is rare in that the fourth stanza is almost completely composed of binomes that suggest a variety of sounds: 馬聲 ‘the (voice) sound of a horse,’ 蜂音 ‘the sound of the bee,’ 蜘呑 ‘spider.’ It seems possible to argue that the

石花

374

poet wanted to aurally describe the feeling of loneliness through the neigh of the horse, the buzz of the bee, and the barnacle out in the wave-swept sea, all perhaps suggesting an air of gloom.

瞻

斯

OJ: semi OC: *tam LH: tśam EMC: tśäm GO: semu KN: semu NOM: chiêm SV: chiêm SK: chyem Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It only appears once in Man’yōshū: MYS 729 TAMA NARABA If you were jewels 玉有者 TE nimo MAKAMU wo I would wrap you around my wrist. 手二母将巻乎 欝瞻乃 utusemi no But as you are a man YO NO PITO NAREBA of the visibile world, it is difficult 世人有者 TE ni MAKIGATASI to wrap you around my wrist. 手二巻難石 OJ: si < se OC: *se LH: sie EMC: sje GO: si KN: si NOM: NA SV: tư SK: sa Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. As the Old Chinese and Later Han data point out, this graph was earlier *se and not *si. This graph is used in Wei zhi in a personal name 載 斯 烏 越 *sə-se-ɔ-watu, and a toponym 斯 馬 *se-ma. Interestingly, there are several place names in the Han section (韓伝) of Wei zhi that also use 斯: 速廬不斯國 *sok-lɔ-pu-se domain, 臼斯烏旦國 *gu-se-ɔ-tan domain, and 不斯濆邪國 *pu-se-bun-ya domain. This phonogram is also used in peninsular inscriptions. For example, the Kwangkaytho stele records a place name 粛斯舎 *sjuk-se-tsa. This graph was also used by the Paekche, where the epitaph of King Munyeng of Paekche preserves his name as: 斯麻王 King Se-ma. The inscription on the Inariyama tumulus sword (fifth century) has the palace name 斯鬼 *se-kui, which many believe to be later Sikwi. Kinmei is said to have resided in the Shikishima Kanasashi Palace. As Frellisvig and Whitman (2004) point out, this underscores that the vowel originally was lower in Japanese, and later vowel raising occurred, as is so prevalent in a sister language, Ryūkyūan: (*sema > sima, and *sekui > sikwi). This also provides evidence that the word sima here does not mean ‘island,’ but may be closer to the Ryūkyūan meaning of ‘village’ (cf. Bentley 2008:17). Interestingly, the inscription on the Suda Hachiman mirror contains the place name 斯麻 *se-ma. This phonogram is also used in the ancient Korean records as recorded in Nihon shoki. A small territory under the rule of Mimana is recorded in the second year of Kinmei as 斯二岐国 seniki. There is also the famous example of the Paekche word for island 斯麻, glossed in Nihon shoki as sema. This should not surprise us, since it has already been shown above that pre-EMC, 斯 was used to represent se. There are only a couple of instances of this phonogram found on mokkan: 猪甘部斯多布 WIKAPIBYE Sitapu (MKK 27:38), and 皮留久佐乃皮

375

斯米之刀斯□ paru kusa no pazime no twosi X ‘the spring grass that (sprouts) at the beginning of the year…’ (MKK 31:34). This phonogram is one of two primary graphs used in Kojiki, the other being 志. It is used in words such as 亦云以其追斯伎斯而號道敷大神 MATA IPAKU SONO OPOsikisi WO MOTITE TISIKI OPOKAMWI TO NADUKU ‘It is also said that he was called the Great Deity of Chishiki because he was pursured by him (Izanagi)’ (KG); 地矣阿多良斯登許曾我那勢之命爲如此登 TOKORO WO atarasi to koso WA GA nase NO MIKOTO KAKU SITURAME ‘My beloved brother has done this because he regretted to lose the land’ (KG). In the following Kojiki poem the phonogram 斯 is used six times. KK 57 都藝泥布夜 tuginepu ya With peaks continuing— 夜麻志呂賀波袁 yamasirogapa wo as I journeyed upstream 迦波能煩理 kapa nobori on the Yamashiro River, 和賀能煩禮婆 wa ga noboreba I journeyed upstream, 賀波能倍迩 kapa no pe ni and there growing tall 淤斐陀弖流 opwidateru by the edge of the river 佐斯夫袁 sasibu wo a Sea bilberry, 佐斯夫能紀 sasibu no kwi You, Sea bilberry tree! 斯賀斯多迩 si ga sita ni That sacred true 淤斐陀弖流 opwidateru camellia tree growing 波毘呂 papiro beneath your branches 由都麻都婆岐 yutumatubaki with its broad leaves— 斯賀波那能 si ga pana no glowing radiant 弖理伊麻斯 teri imasi like its blossoms, 芝賀波能 si ga pa no being at ease 比呂理伊麻須波 pirori imasu pa like its leaves, 淤富岐美呂迦母 opokimiro kamo is my great lord. Mabuchi (1957) proposed that the compiler of Kojiki made a distinction between two types of [si]: 斯 (type 1) and 志 (type 2). From a Chinese phonological point this theory appears to have some validity: 斯 (LH sie EMC si) versus 志 (LH tśə EMC tɕɨ). If we ignore the fricative versus plosive distinction in initial position, it seems that the distinction between type one and type two would be the height of the vowel. However, my own research (Bentley 1997) has shown that a careful examination of these data does not support this theory about OJ preserving two types of si. As a case in point, consider the following five words, and how each is transcribed phonetically in Kojiki (numbers in parentheses refer to the frequency of the word in Kojiki): sita ‘below’ 斯 (8) 志 (3)

sima ‘island’ 斯 (3) 志 (2)

sipo ‘tide’ 斯 (1) 志 (1)

sibi ‘tuna’ 斯 (1) 志 (8)

asi ‘leg’ 斯 (1) 志 (1)

These data make it clear that these two si were interchangeable, but just to put the final nail in the coffin, consider the following poem from Kojiki, where sisi ‘boar’ is used as word play in the verse, and is represented both ways: 斯志 and 志斯. 376

KK 98 夜須美斯志 yasumisisi Of the heavenly 和賀意富岐美能 wa ga opokimi no eighty rays of sunshine— 阿蘇婆志斯 aswobasisi the boar that was shot 志斯能 sisi no by my great lord, 夜美斯志能 yami sisi no from the terrible fear 宇多岐加斯古美 utaki kasikwomi in the cry of the wounded boar 和賀爾宜能煩理斯 wa ga nigenoborisi I am on a branch of the black alder 阿理袁能 ariwo no on this open hill where 波理能紀能延陀 pari no kwi no yeda I have climbed and fled. Clearly the graphs 斯 and 志 were interchangeable, and there was no distinction between a type A and type B si. This phonogram appears in Nihon shoki eight times in the annotational notes and 25 times in the poetry: 捶籤、此云久斯社志 “ ‘stick a comb in’ is read kusizasi” (NSG). NSK 77 擧暮利矩能 komoriku no Mount Hatsuse 播都制能野麼播 patuse no yama pa hidden in the folds of the land 伊底頴智能 idetati no is a wondrous sight 與慮斯企野麼 yorosiki yama unfolding right before my door. 和斯里底能 wasirede no A short run from the house— 與慮斯企夜麼能 yorosiki yama the view of the wondrous peak, 據暮利矩能 komoriku no Mount Hatsuse, 播都制能野麼播 patuse no yama pa hidden in the folds of the land. 阿野儞于羅虞波斯 aya ni uragupasi Ah, what a beautiful mountain. 阿野儞于羅虞波斯 aya ni uragupasi Ah, what a beautiful mountain. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū. The following poem uses 斯 eight times. MYS 794 OPOKIMI no As a member of 大王能 the great lord’s far off court 等保乃朝廷等 topo no MIKADWO to 斯良農比 siranupi in the land of Tsukushi where the spirit cannot divine, 筑紫國尓 tukusi NO KUNI ni NAKU KWO nasu I came here yearning, 泣子那須 斯多比枳摩斯提 sitapi kimasite like a weeping child, 伊企陀尓母 iki danimo without even a moment 伊摩陀夜周米受 imada yasumezu to compose my breathing. TOSI TUKWI mo Though months or years 年月母 伊摩他阿良祢婆 imada araneba have yet to pass 許々呂由母 kokoroyu mo and without 於母波奴阿比陀尓 omopanu apida ni any kind of warning 宇知那毘枳 utinabiki I am listless 許夜斯努礼 koyasinure and lay on the ground. 伊波牟須弊 ipamu subye What can I say? 世武須弊斯良尓 semu subye sirani I know not what to do. IPAKWI wo mo I cannot inquire 石木乎母 刀比佐氣斯良受 twopisake sirazu of the trees or rocks. 377

伊弊那良婆 迦多知波阿良牟乎 宇良賣斯企 伊毛乃美許等能 阿礼乎婆母 伊可尓世与等可 尓保鳥能 布多利那良毘為 加多良比斯 許々呂曽牟企弖 伊弊社可利伊摩須

資

次

ipye naraba katati pa aramu wo uramyesiki imwo no mikoto no are woba mo ika ni seyo to ka nipoDORI no putari narabi wi katarapisi kokoro somukite ipyezakari imasu

If I were at home there would be proper form. How regrettable my beloved— what would you have me do? Like the grebe we sat side by side and talked of things. And going against your wishes I am here, having left home.

OJ: si OC: *tsi or *tsəi LH: tsi EMC: tsi GO: si KN: si NOM: tư SV: tư SK: co Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This usage appears in Paekche material quotesd in Nihon shoki. There is the name of a man of Paekche, 木羅斤資 Mokura Konsi. Also, in the record of Saimei, where the failed attempt to recapture Paekche from the jaws of Silla is outlined, there is a variant work, which includes this line: 或本云、今年七月十日、大唐蘇定方、率船師、軍 于尾資之津 ‘Another manuscript says, “On the 10th day of the seventh month of this year Xian Dingfang of Great Tang led a naval armada and launched an invasion at the Port of Bisi.” ’ 尾資 Bwisi (though it may also be Mwisi) is a Paekche port, but it is not clear today where it was located. This phonogram also appears in documents in Shōsōin where the toponym 資 母 郷 Simo Village appears. This evidence is supported by a wooden document excavated at a dig in the Nara capital: 但馬国出石郡資母郷 Tanima Province IDUSI District Simo Village (MKK 19:28). There is one example of this graph found on a mokkan: 但馬国出石郡資母郷 Tanima Province IDSI District Simo Village (unnumbered tablet). This phonogram appears three times in the poetry of Nihon shoki. NSK 71 阿摩儾霧 amadamu Flying in the sky 箇留惋等賣 karu wotomye Princess Karu, 異哆儺介麼 ita nakaba If you cry sorely 臂等資利奴陪瀰 pito sirinu bemi people will find out— 幡舎能夜摩能 pasa no yama no so like a dove 波刀能 patwo no from Mount Hasa 資哆儺企邇奈句 sita naki ni naku I will cry silently (for you). OJ: si OC: *tshis/h LH: tshih, tshis EMC: tshi GO: si KN: zi NOM: thứ, thớ SV: thứ SK: cho Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This graph appears on several inscriptions from Silla. From the Chang-nyeng stele of Sin-hung, king of Silla, 378

comes a personal name, 次叱智奈末 *sih-tshit-trie of the 11th rank. From the Tanyang border stele we find the name 比次夫智阿干支 *pi-sih-puɑ-trie of the sixth rank. An interesting example appears in Nihon shoki in what may be a Paekche transcription of a Japanese surname: 斯那奴次酒 Sinanwo Sisu. This surname likely has a connection with the province of Shinano (sinanwo 信濃国), but also consider that three of the eight names in the list of men in this record are immigrants from Paekche. Those three are Sisu, noted above, 科 野 新 羅 Sinanwo Sira, and 科 野 友 麻 呂 Sinanwo Tomomaro. There are several explanations why Paekche immigrants have what appear to be Japanese surnames: 1) the immigrants are descendants of Japanese who immigrated to Paekche, 2) simple chance that the surname is homophonous with the place name in Japan, or 3) the place name Shinano is originally of Paekche origin, and immigrants to Japan brought the place name with them. If we can trust the overall story in Nihon shoki, then the first choice is perhaps the best. The phonogram 次 appears to have been avoided in most instances for semantic reasons (meaning ‘next’). It appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 2651 Like the people of Naniwa 難波人 nanipa PITO ASIPWI TAKU YA NO who light reed fires in their homes, 葦火燎屋之 they may be covered in soot, 酢四手雖有 susiTE AREDO ONOGA TUMA koso but there is no one more 己妻許増 TOKO MEDURAsiki delightful than my spouse. 常目頬次吉 Clearly the usage in the last stanza is a graphic play on words, because the graphs together also mean ‘eyes-cheeks, then next lucky.’

子

OJ: si OC: *tsəʔ LH: tsiəʔ EMC: tsi GO: si KN: si NOM: tử, tí, gã SV: tử, tí SK: co Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on several Silla inscriptions. On the Chang-nyeng stele of King Sin-hung there is the fragment of a personal name: 子力智□□干□ *tsi-lik-trie (of the fifth rank?). This phonogram also appears in Shoki in quotes from Paekche source material, used to transcribe /si/. Here are a few examples from the record of Kinmei: 子他旱岐 Sita Kanki, 子莫古 Simakkwo, and 子言 Sigom. This usage also appears in documents preserved in Shōsōin, such as the name 安子 Asi. This may appear to transcribe aKWO, but consider that the name asi also appears in these same documents represented both as 安志 Asi and 安字 Asi. The phonogram 子 was also used in Nihon shoki, in the following annotative note: 牡鹿此云左鳴子加 “ ‘Buck,’ in the vernacular this is sawosika” (NSG). This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū four times. MYS 3848 Placing the rice in the storehouse 荒城田乃 ARAKWIDA no from the newly opened paddies 子師田乃稲乎 sisiDA no INE wo 倉尓擧蔵而 KURA ni AGETE where wild game frequents— 379

阿奈干稲干稲志 吾戀良久者

之

ana PWINEPWINEsi A GA KWOPUraku PA

how it has become dry and old, as my yearning for you.

OJ: si OC: *tə LH: tśə EMC: tɕɨ GO: si KN: si NOM: chi, gì SV: chi SK: ci Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. I acknowlege that it is somewhat difficult to determine from which orthographic writing system this graph originated. Because of the grammatical nature of 之 in Chinese, it may have been avoided as a phonogram, though evidence from Korean personal names quoted in Shoki lend important evidence that 之 was used as a phonogram. Consider this evidence from Nihon shoki regarding Paekche names: 味摩之 Mwimasi. Mabuchi (1999:741) also includes the Paekche name 素之 Swosi, but this is a copyist’s mistake for 素子. As I consider much of the phonogrammatic material in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu to be from the Suiko era, I believe the two examples of 之 in the poetry to be from the early seventh century. Below is one example. 伊我留我乃 ikaruga no In Ikaruga springs water from the fountain of Tomi. 止美能井乃美豆 tomi no WI no midu 伊加奈久尓 ikanakuni If I had known she could not 多義弖麻之母乃 tagete masimono live without that water, I would have let her drink some. 止美乃井能美豆 tomi no WI no midu This phonogram also appears on an inscription in metal dated 658. What appears to be a name, 伊之沙古 isisakwo, is found in the inscription. The graph also appears in two names found in the Mino Census of 701: 之祁 良売 Sikyeramye and 稲之伎売 INAsikimye. Also, on a wooden document excavated from the ruins of the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710), three names appear: 刀良・安利・之比 Twora, Ari, and Sipi (MK 804). This phonogram is used 16 times in the annotational notes and 71 times in the poetry in Nihon shoki: 檮、此云柯之 “ ‘oak tree’ is read kasi” (NSG). This note has reference to a hill, named 甘檮丘 Amakasi Hill. While 檮 generally refers to a block of wood, it also could refer to a strong or hard tree, like an oak tree; thus, the necessity for a note. NSK 52 夜莽之呂珥 yamasiro ni To Yamashiro, 伊辭鷄苔利夜莽 isikye toriyama to Toriyama, you will go. 伊辭鷄之鷄 isikye sikye Catch up with her! 阿餓茂赴菟磨珥 a ga mopu tuma ni Will you catch up with 伊辭枳阿波牟伽茂 isiki apamu kamo and see my beloved spouse? This phonogram is the most popular graph used to represent si in Man’yōshū, appearing 1937 times, consistently appearing in every book of the anthology. MYS 3578 I parted with you, my lord, 武庫能浦乃 mukwo no URA no whom I have brooded over 伊里江能渚鳥 iriYE no SUDORI 羽具久毛流 pagukumoru like the birds of the shoals

380

伎美乎波奈礼弖 古非尓之奴倍之

尸

師

kimi wo panarete kwopwi ni sinu besi

at the inlet to Muko Bay, and will likely die of longing.

OJ: si OC: *lhi LH: *śi EMC: ɕi GO: si KN: si NOM: thi, thây SV: thi SK: si Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This phonogram appears in the earliest songs of the peninsula (hyangga). Both Miyake (1998) and Vovin (1999) demonstrate that the phonogram 尸 transcribed a lateral. Because the initial of this graph was a fricative-lateral, the lateral later lenited, and 尸 became a fricative si. In spite of this, the graph 尸 is never used to transcribe a lateral in the Old Japanese corpus. This graph is preserved in one peninsular inscription, on the Namsan stele of Silla, transcribing the following: 可尸利 *khɑi-śi-li or *khɑi-l-li. The graph 尸 appears in Shoki only twice. This phonogram clearly used as si appears in the following poem. NSK 84 野麻登陸儞 yamatopye ni What I long to see 瀰我保指母能婆 migaposi mono pa is the palace of Tsunosashi, 於尸農瀰能 osinumi no this fortress built so high 莒能陁哿紀儺屢 kono takakwi naru in Oshinumi, in the vicinity 都奴娑之能瀰野 tunwosasi no miya of the land of Yamato. A more difficult to interpret representation is found in early books of Nihon shoki, apparently reproducing a Silla place name 曾尸茂梨, usually interpreted to be sosimori. The Nihon shoki editors (Ienaga et al. 1986.1:126, n. 7) suggest that the four-graph word is really a Silla word 徐耶伐, and means ‘the king’s capital.’ Kojima et al. concur with this identification (2002.1:99, n. 9). Below is a comparison of the OC and LH of these two words: 曾尸茂梨 徐耶伐 OC *tsəŋ-lhi-məh-ri *s-la-la-bat LH *tsəŋ-śi-məh-li *ziɑ-ya-buɑt OJ sə-li-mə-li or sə-si-mə-li siə-ra-batu or siə-ya-batu As far as I can tell, these two words are different, but a similiarity seems to exist between the first two syllables of each word. It is possible that the first half of this word is a Japanese version of the word for gold/metal (MK swoy). Another possibility is that the ancient Silla word for capital was sal or səl, and this might be the basis for the toponym Silla. A wooden tablet excavated from the Heijō Palace ruins contains this fragment: 斤斗口小少川尸久 小□之乃 中 (unnumbered tablet), where 少川 尸久 may represent satusiku, if 少 is an abbreviated form of 沙; however, there is not enough material to decipher this. OJ: si LH: ṣi NOM: sư

OC: *sri GO: si KN: si SK: so

EMC: ʂi SV: sư

381

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This graph appears in the fragment of a name on the inscription of the Cengim Temple: 兵曹李□師 Sergeant *li X si. This phonogram appears in the Mino Census of 702: 恵師 Wesi. This phonogram appears in Kojiki, but only in surnames: SiKWI 師木 and 壱師君 Lord Itisi. Nihon shoki also uses this graph solely in the name: 吉師 Kisi. This phonogram appears to not have been popular as a phonogram. An apparent exception to this statement is the use of the graph in Man’yōshū, where it appears 153 times, in almost every book of the anthology, aside from Books 5 and 20. What perhaps can be said is that the phonogram was popular in the books where semantogrammic script is predominant, attesting to the dual nature of the graph: phonetic si, semantic ‘director, teacher.’ MYS 3631 伊都之可母 itusikamo Awa Island that I had thought MImu to omopisi I longed to see someday— 見牟等於毛比師 安波之麻乎 apasima wo will I yearn for it 与曽尓也故非無 yoso ni ya kwopwimu from afar, even though 由久与思乎奈美 yuku yosi wo nami I have no way to get there?

新

思

OJ: si OC: *sin LH: sin EMC: sin GO: simu KN: sin NOM: tân, tâng SV: tân SK: sin Usage / History: This graph belongs to the PBS, and appears several times on the Kwangkaytho Stele, as the following two examples attest: 新羅 *sira (later Silla), and 新城 *sin fortress. Regarding sira, it appears that the Japanese have imported the Paekche reading of sirakwi, likely from 新羅城 ‘Sira Fortress.’ The problem is with the reading of sil-la in Middle Korean. This reading suggests that perhaps 新 was sir instead of sin. As I have shown with the graph 珍 (cf. tor-), the final nasal is a later development, and there is evidence that the nasal was originally a liquid. Greater research on this problem is still required, but I submit that there is a possibility that the 新 may have been used by the Paekche to transcribe sir. Naturally, the Japanese did not use this phonogram, for either sin or sir, to transcribe native Japanese words, because the language of Old Japanese did not allow closed syllables. Nara era documents, including Kojiki, primarily use 新 to represent the toponym sira. Kojiki uses two different ways to represent the name of this kingdom: 新羅 and 新良. The interposed reading of sirakwi is likely a Paekche innovation. The phonograms as are suggest simply sira. This phonogram also appears in the Paekche names preserved in Nihon shoki. A Paekche Princess appears in the record of Ōjin: 新齊都媛 Princess Sisetu. OJ: si LH: siə NOM: tư, tứ, tơ

OC: *sə GO: si KN: si SK: soy

EMC: sɨ SV: tư, tứ

382

Usage / History: This graph belongs to the PBS. This graph is preserved twice on the Tanyang Silla border stele in the toponym: 勿思伐城 *mut-sɨ-buɑt fortress. In the Nara Capital, a wooden document was excavated, and contains the date 736 and the following toponyms: 但馬国気多郡思殖郷 Taniba Province, Keta District, Siwe Village (unnumbered tablet). This phonogram also appears four times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 79 耶麼能謎能 yamanobye no Because people want to have 故思麼古喩衛爾 kwosimakwo yuwe ni Maiden Koshimako 比登涅羅賦 pito nerapu from Yamanobe, 宇麼能耶都擬播 uma no yatugwi pa I do not even regret having 鳴思稽矩謀那斯 wosikyeku mo nasi to pay [a fine] of eight horses. This graph is also used extensively in Man’yōshū, roughly 450 times, found in every book, but only once in Books 5 and 16. In the following poem it appears twice. MYS 3597 和多都美能 watatumi no It seems that white caps are rising and rushing in the offing 於伎津之良奈美 okiTU siranami 多知久良思 tatikurasi of the sea deity. 安麻乎等女等母 ama wotoMYEdomo I can see the diving maidens hiding in the shadow of the island. 思麻我久流見由 simagakuru MIyu It is possible that this phonogram was popular because of its graphic etymology: a farmer thinking 心 ‘heart’ about his field 田. Thus, the heart of the farmer is drawn to his field. This was then extended to anything the poet’s heart is drawn to.

四

OJ: si OC: *sis LH: sis > sih EMC: sih GO: si KN: si NOM: tứ SV: tứ SK: so Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in Nihon shoki in the Paekche name 四比福夫 Sipi Pukbu. This surname is perhaps connected to a toponym on the peninsula: 泗沘 Sipi. This usage also appears in a document preserved in Shōsōin, where a Paekche immigrant name 四比元孫 Sipi Gwan-son appears. This same surname appears in Shoku Nihongi: 四比忠勇 Sipi Tiuyupu (724.5.13) and 四比河守 Sipi KAPAMORI (766.3.17). This phonogram also is used 141 times in Man’yōshū. MYS 4225 ASIPIKWI NO You will be crossing 足日木之 YAMA NO MOMIDI ni over the mountain road 山黄葉尓 where our legs get tired, 四頭久相而 siduku APITE 将落山道乎 TIRAMU YAMADI wo with the autumn leaves falling, KIMI GA KWOYEmaku mixed in with the water droplets. 公之超麻久

383

司

志

OJ: si OC: *sə LH: siə EMC: sɨ GO: si KN: si NOM: ti, tư, tơ SV: ti, tư SK: so Usage / History: The evidence is quite slim, but on what evidence there is, I believe this phonogram belongs to the PBS. Available evidence comes from such Paekche surnames as Siba 司馬, or Susi 州司 (on the Cengim Temple inscription). This graph appears in Nihon shoki in the surname Siba. Mori (1991:207) also believes 司 appears in one poem (NSK 75), but I adhere to the textual analysis of Ienaga et a1. (1986.1:650). According to Mori, NSK 75 has three examples of 伺 and one of 司. An analysis of the various manuscripts show that all manuscripts have 伺 other than the Maeda and Kunaichō texts. I thus believe that NSK 75 originally had 伺 four times. 司 was never there. The phonogram 司 also appears in Man’yōshū, but only in the name 司馬 Siba. OJ: si OC: *təh LH: tśəh EMC: tɕɨ GO: si KN: si NOM: chí SV: chí SK: ci Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears a number of times in Jōgū shōtoku hōō teisetsu, in names like 伊志支那郎女 Isikina IRATUMYE or 伊止 志 古王 Prince Itosikwo. Perhaps more importantly is the transcription of Suiko’s name: 止余美気加志支夜比売天皇 Toyo Mike kasikiya Pimye. The addition of the title 天皇 ‘heavenly sovereign’ is clearly a later interpolation, and should not reflect poorly on the archaic phonograms used to represent her name. Compare how her name is also represented in Kojiki and Nihon shoki: Teisetsu 止余美気加志支夜比売

Kojiki 豐御食炊屋比賣

Nihon shoki 豐御食炊屋姫

Both Kojiki and Nihon shoki use logorams for the majority of her name, with Kojiki electing to phonetically represent pimye 比賣, with Shoki opting for a complete logographic representation. So while Jōgū teisetsu may have been compiled at a much later date, it is clear the basic material preserves an older tradition. This phonogram also appears in a poem preserved in Jōgū teisetsu: 美加弥乎須 mikami wosu Mount Tabasami 多婆佐美夜麻乃 tabasami yama no that rules from above; 阿遅加気尓 adikake ni alas, I stood there 比止乃麻乎之志 pito no mawosisi in the shade of the aji, 和何於保支美波母 wa ga opokimi pamo begging our master’s return. This phonogram appears in the liturgies: 八束穂能伊加志穂爾、皇神等能 依左志奉者 YATUKAPO no ikasi PO ni, SUMEGAMWITATI no yosasiMATURABA “If we present the long rice, eight-hands long of fine rice according to the command of the imperial deitieis…” (NT 1). This phonogram also appears on a variety of mokkan: 志加麻評 Sikama District (MK 194), 之比等等々流刀毛意夜志己々 384

呂曽 sipito to toru twomo iyasi kokoro so ‘Even if I take (him as) my father-inlaw, such base feelings…’ (MK 174), and 伊止志 Itosi (MK 1007). This phonogram is also used in Kojiki, as in the name of the deity, 志那都比 古神 sinatupikwo Shinatsuhiko (KG), and in the clause 志多多爾母 sita dani mo ‘even if he comes stealthily’ (KG). It also appears in a number of the poems in Kojiki. KK 92 美母呂能 mimoro no The trunk of the sacred oak tree 伊都加斯賀母登 itukasiga moto growing in Mimoro— 賀斯賀母登 kasi ga moto like the trunk of that oak tree 由由斯伎加母 yuyusiki kamo what trepidation she inspires, 加志波良袁登賣 kasipara wotomye the maiden of Kashiwara. The phonogram 志 is used frequently in Nihon shoki, appearing 12 times in the annotational notes and 52 times in the poetry: 醜女、此云志許賣 “ ‘ugly woman’ is read sikomye” (NSG). NSK 101 柯羅倶爾能 kara kuni no Standing upon the walls 基能陪儞陀々志 kwi no pe ni tatasi of the Kara Fortress 於譜磨故幡 opobakwo pa I can see 比禮甫羅須彌喩 pire purasu miyu Ōbako waving her scarf 那儞婆陸武岐底 nanipa pye mukite in the direction of Naniwa. For a discussion about Mabuchi’s theory (1957) that Kojiki used 志 and 斯 to transcribe two different types of /si/, see the discussion under 斯 OJ: si. The phonogram 志 is used quite frequently in Man’yōshū, though not as often as 之. It appears about 298 times in the anthology. MYS 183 WA GA MIKADWO How sad am I 吾御門 TIYO TOKOtoba ni who believed that 千代常登婆尓 SAKAYEMU to my prince’s palace 将榮等 OMOPITE ARIsi would prosper for a thousand reigns, 念而有之 WARE si KANASI mo would prosper forever. 吾志悲毛

紫

OJ: si OC: *tseʔ LH: tsieʔ EMC: tsia GO: si KN: si NOM: tử, tía SV: tử SK: co Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The graph 紫 is rarely used in Old Japanese records, other than to fairly consistently transcribe the place name Tukusi 筑紫. Kojiki consistently represents the name with 紫, as does Nihon shoki. Kojiki also preserves a variant rendition, 竺紫, but the final graph is the same. A few mokkan also have 筑紫 for Tukusi (MK 3068). One other example of 紫 appears as a phonograms in Nihon shoki, in the personal name 巨勢臣紫壇 Kose OMI Sitanwo. The same name is written differently in the 14th year of Tenmu 許勢朝臣辛壇努 Kose ASOMI Sitanwo. Also notice that in Shoku Nihongi his name is 志丹 Sitano (717.1.18). There are 28 examples of 紫 used phonetically in Man’yōshū, but all are found in the

385

toponym Tukusi. An example where the name is written out mora by mora is below. MYS 866 波漏々々尓 parwoparo ni How I think of 於忘方由流可母 omopoyuru kamo this distant place. 志良久毛能 sirakumwo ni White clouds piled up 知弊仁邊多天留 tipye ni pyedateru a thousand times separate 都久紫能君仁波 tukusi no kuni pa the land of Tsukushi. The final stanza appears to have been created using specific phonograms for a visual effect. If we look at the graphs semantically, the final stanza reads: capital-far-purple-of-lord-benevolence-waves. The phonogram 紫 was likely chosen to remind the reader of the traditional way that Tukusi was written 筑紫, while 能 and 波 simply function as particles. One problematic poem that appears to use 紫 needs to be addressed. The authorial text for Man’yō studies, the Nishi Honganji-bon, perserves poem MYS 2859 thus: ASUKAGAPA The Asuka River— 飛鳥川 TAKAKAPA YOKAsi I have come crossing it, 高川避紫 KWOYEKOSI WO avoiding where the water is high. 越来 MAKOTO KOYOPI PA Truly tonight will you come back 信今夜 AKEZU YUKAME YA before the dawn breaks? 不明行哉 However, there are no readings attached to this poem in the older manuscripts. Omodaka notes that the Zōteihon Shinkō mentions that some manuscritps have the second stanza written differently, as 南川柴避 and read nadusapi. Omodaka rejects the idea that this is the archetype (1983, 12:30). The latest scholarly text of Man’yōshū, Shin Nihon koten bungaku taikei follows the Shinkō text’s theory of corruption, and presents the poem as follows: ASUKAGAPA The Asuka River— 飛鳥川 As I have come here, 奈川柴避越 nadusapi WATARI KOSI MONO WO crossing the river with difficulty, 来 MAKOTO KOYOPI PA surely it would be nice if 信今夜 AKEZU MO IKANU KA tonight would not end. 不明行哉 As it is difficult to know which is correct, I have elected to note both possibilities, one with 紫 , and one without, where it appears that 柴 ‘brushwood’ has been corrupted into 紫.

芝

OJ: si OC: *tə LH: tśiə EMC: tɕɨ GO: si KN: si NOM: NA SV: chi SK: ci Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. This is based on the record of Suiko in Nihon shoki. There a man from Paekche comes to Japan and is about to be banished to an island because of a skin disease, but he convinces the court he has a skill they can take advantage of. The record says “He was also called 芝耆摩 呂 Siki Maro,” which does not sound like a Paekche name, but one perhaps given to him. This phonogram is also used once in a poem in Kojiki. 386

KK 57 佐斯夫能紀 sasibu no kwi You, Sea bilberry tree! 斯賀斯多迩 si ga sita ni That sacred true 淤斐陀弖流 opwidateru camellia tree growing 波毘呂 papiro beneath your branches 由都麻都婆岐 yutumatubaki with its broad leaves— 斯賀波那能 si ga pana no glowing radiant 弖理伊麻斯 teriimasi like its blossoms, 芝賀波能 si ga pa no being at ease 比呂理伊麻須波 piroriimasu pa like its leaves, 淤富岐美呂迦母 opokimiro kamo is my great lord. This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, once in the annotational notes, and once in the poetry: 小竹、此云芝努 “ ‘Small bamboo’ is read sinwo” (NSG). NSK 33 許能彌企能 kono miki no It is strange 阿椰珥 aya ni how very 于多娜濃芝 utadanwosi delightful this wine is. 作沙 sa sa Drink! Drink! Jidai betsu kokugo jiten claims this phonogram is also used to transcribe si in Man’yōshū (1967:894), but I have not been able to locate a single poem that includes it.

詩

OJ: si OC: *lhə LH: śə EMC: ɕɨ GO: si KN:si NOM: thi, thơ SV: thi SK: si Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears twice in the annotational notes and once in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 可美真手此云于魔詩莽耐 “ ‘(The name) Umashimade’ is read umasimade” (NSG). NSK 11 愛瀰詩烏 emisi wo The barbarian 毘儾利 pidari having been insulted— 毛々那比苔 mwomwo napi to though people say 比苔破易陪廼毛 pito pa ipedomo they have seen a 100 battles 多牟伽毘毛勢儒 tamukapi mo sezu these do not even resist. This phonogram appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 3885 A GA TUNWO PA My antlers 吾角者 MIKASA no payasi are decorations for his hat. 御笠乃波夜詩

旨

OJ: si LH: kiʔ > tśiʔ NOM: chỉ

OC: *kiʔ GO: si KN: si SK: ci

EMC: tɕi SV: chỉ

387

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, appearing once in the annotational notes, and three times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 柱、此云美簸旨邏 “ ‘pillar’ is read mipasira” (NSG). NSK 80 婀拕羅斯枳 atarsiki Such a pitiful waste, 偉儺謎能陀倶彌 winabye no tagumi that inking string used by 柯該志須彌儺皤 kakesi suminapa the Inabe carpenter. 旨我那稽麼 si ga nakyeba If he is no longer here, 拕例柯々該武預 tare ka kakemu yo what skilled person will remain 婀拕羅須彌儺皤 atara suminapa to use the inking string? This phonogram also appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 159 ASU mo KAMO Perhaps it will be tomorrow 明日毛鴨 MESITAMAPAmasi that he will gaze up 召賜萬旨 SONO YAMA wo at that mountain, 其山乎 PURISAKE MITUTU while he watches from afar. 振放見乍 YUPU SAREBA And when evening comes 暮去者 AYA NI KANASIMI he will be helplessly sad. 綾哀 AKE KUREBA And when dawn breaks 明来者 裏佐備晩 URAsabwi KURASI he will spend his time in loneliness. 荒妙乃 ARATAPE no The sleeves of his robe KOROMO NO SWODE PA made of rough hemp 衣之袖者 PURU TOKI mo NASI will not have time to dry. 乾時文無

寺

OJ: si, zi OC: *s-ləh LH: ziəh EMC: zɨ LMC: sɦʑ GO: zi KN: si NOM: chùa SV: tự SK: so, si Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS when representing zi, but to the CBS to represent si. There is only one example of this phonogram used to represent zi, and that appears in Man’yōshū: MYS 2928 ONOGAzisi It appears that people 各寺師 PITO SINISUrasi die each in their own way. 人死為良思 IMWO ni KWOPWI I have grown thinner day by day 妹尓戀 PI NI KE NI YASEnu longing for my beloved— 日異羸沼 PITO NI SIRAEZU without her ever knowing it. 人丹不所知 There is only one example of this phonogram in Nihon shoki, in what is perhaps a phonetic representation of an Ainu word: 伊寺水門 the port of Isi. There is also only one example of this phonogram for si in Man’yōshū. MYS 3225 吉畫矢寺 YOSIWE YAsi That is no problem, ISWO PA NAKU TOMO though it has no beach. 礒者無友 OKITUNAMI Row and push through 奥津浪 SINWOGI KOGI IRIKO the waves in the offing, 諍榜入来 AMA NO TURIBUNE you boats of the fisher people. 白水郎之釣船 388

指

OJ: si OC: *kiʔ LH: kiʔ > tśiʔ EMC: tɕi LMC: tʂi GO: si KN: si NOM: chỉ, chỏ, xỉ SV: trỉ, chỉ SK: ci Usage / History: This graph belongs to the LJS. It appears once in the poetry of Nihon shoki. NSK 84 野麻登陸儞 yamatopye ni What I long to see 瀰我保指母能婆 migaposi mono pa is the palace of Tsunosashi, 於尸農瀰能 osinumi no this fortress built so high 莒能陀哿紀儺屢 kono takakwi naru in Oshinumi, in the vicinity 都奴娑之能瀰野 tunwosasi no miya of the province of Yamato. This phonogram also appears in nine poems in Man’yōshū. MYS 3627 安佐散礼婆 asa sareba By the beach of Mitsu which name reminds me of my beloved 伊毛我手尓麻久 imwo ga TE ni maku 可我美奈須 kagami nasu who wraps her hand around a mirror 美津能波麻備尓 mitu no pamabwi ni when morning comes 於保夫祢尓 opobune ni with numerous oars sticking out 真可治之自奴伎 makadi sizinuki of the great ship 可良久尓々 kara kuni ni headed toward Minume— 和多理由加武等 watari yukamu to we suppose we will cross the sea 多太牟可布 tadamukapu straight for the land of Kara. 美奴面乎左指天 minumye wo sasite Waiting for the tide 之保麻知弖 sipo matite and following the course of the sea 美乎妣伎由氣婆 miwobiki yukeba the waves in the offing 於伎敝尓波 okipye nipa are white capped in height. This poem uses a number of graph-sets to provide subliminal Chineseinduced ideas. Notice that 之 is used 11 times to represent si, but for sirusi ‘momento,’ written as 之留思 ‘this-detain-thoughts.’ The verb here is 左指天 sasite ‘to point to, head toward.’ The phonogram 指 sasu means point, so the poet has selected this graph to do double duty, phonologically and semantically.

死

OJ: si OC: *siʔ LH: siʔ EMC: si GO: si KN: si NOM: tử SV: tử SK: so Usage / History: I tentatively place this phonogram in the LJS. This phonogram was generally avoided because of the semantics, ‘death, to die.’ This usage only appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 86 KAKU BAKARI If I am to have such longing 如此許 KWOPWITUTU ARAZU PA thoughts of you, like this, 戀乍不有者 TAKAYAMA NO it would be better if I made 高山之 IPANE siMAKITE my pillow among the rocks of 磐根四巻手 a high mountain and died there. 死奈麻死物呼 sinamasi MONO wo Here it can be argued that the graph 死 is used in a dual role, as a semantogram, and a phonogram. 389

此

時

偲

OJ: si OC: *tshəʔ LH: tshieʔ EMC: tshiə GO: si KN: si NOM: thử SV: thử SK: cho Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears six times in Man’yōshū. MYS 3939 佐刀知加久 satwo tikaku How I hate myself 伎美我奈里那婆 kimi ga narinaba for the unfounded thought 古非米也等 kwopwime ya to that my longing for you 母登奈於毛比此 motona omopisi would subside if you 安連曽久夜思伎 are so kuyasiki were to return closer to home. It also appears once in Harima fudoki, in the name 意此川 Osi River. OJ: si OC: *də LH: dźə EMC: dʑɨ LMC: ʂɦi GO: zi KN: si NOM: thì, thời SV: thì, thời SK: si Usage / History: This graph belongs to the CBS. It appears twice in the annotational notes, and once in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 排別此云飫時和句 “ ‘Move and split’ is read osiwaku” (NSG). NSK 10 伊莽波豫 ima pa yo We have now won! 伊莽波豫 ima pa yo For now we have won! 阿々時夜塢 aa si ya wo Fools! Serves you right! 伊莽儾而毛 imada ni mo Have they had enough, 阿誤豫 ago yo you, my troops? 伊莽儾而毛 imada ni mo Have they had enough, 阿誤豫 agwo yo you, my lads? This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, but only twice. MYS 4206 之夫多尓乎 sibutani wo Along this beach SASITE WA GA YUKU we travel headed for Shibutani. 指而吾行 KONO PAMA ni Let us gaze at 此濱尓 TUKWIYWO akitemu the moon until we tire of it. 月夜安伎氐牟 UMA simasi TOME Stop the horses here for a while. 馬之末時停息 OJ: si OC: *sə LH: siə EMC: sɨ GO: si KN: si NOM: NA SV: tư, ty SK: soy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears but once in Man’yōshū. MYS 3992 布勢能宇美能 puse no umi no Continue to see me 意枳都之良奈美 okitu siranami like the incoming white cap waves 安利我欲比 arigaywopi from the offing of the sea of Fuse— 伊夜登偲能波尓 iya tosi no pa ni we should appreciate MItutu sinwopamu this scene year after year. 見都追思努播牟 390

Notice how the poet has selected the graphs 登偲 ‘longing climbs’ for tosi ‘year’ and has 思 ‘think, long for’ to represent 思努播牟 sinwopamu ‘long for, appreciate.’

信

詞

嗣

OJ: si, sina OC: *sin LH: sinh EMC: sin GO: simu KN: sin NOM: tín, tin SV: tín SK: sin Usage / History: This phonogram belonsg to the LJS. The use of this phonogram to represent si appears in Hitachi fudoki in the toponyms 信太郡 Sita District and 信筑川 Siduku River. In Harima fudoki the word 信深貝 Sizimi KAPI ‘corbicula shell’ appears. In all three cases the consonant after 信 is prenasalized, suggesting that the underlying form is *sinC-, where C represents the consonant of the second syllable. One other important example is found in Shoku Nihongi, with 大伴宿 祢祜信備 OPOTOMO Sukune Kosibwi (737.9.28). A different example is what appears to be a representation of the name of the Island of Ishigaki 信覺 Singaku (714.12.5). There are very few examples of this graph representing sina. The most well known example is the province Shinan. 信濃 Sinanwo. This toponym is found in Nihon shoki, Shoku Nihongi, and Man’yōshū. Two other examples are a name 信紗 Sinasa (714.11.4), and the toponym 麑嶋信尓村 KAGOSIMA Sinani Village (764.12). OJ: si OC: *s-lə LH: ziə EMC: zɨ LMC: sɦʑ GO: zi KN: si NOM: từ SV: từ SK: so Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 3627 左欲布氣弖 saywo pukete As the night wears on 由久敝乎之良尓 yukupye wo sirani we lose our sense of direction 安我己許呂 a ga kokoro so we stop the ship 安可志能宇良尓 akasi no ura ni at the bay of Akashi 布祢等米弖 pune tomete which brightens my heart, 宇伎祢乎詞都追 ukine wo situtu and while we sleep on the water 和多都美能 watatumi no when I look out at the offing 於枳敝乎見礼婆 okipye wo mireba of the sea deity 伊射理須流 izarisuru the fisher maidens about to go fishing 安麻能乎等女波 ama no wotoMYE pa WOBUNE NORI get in their small boats 小船乗 都良々尓宇家里 turara ni ukyeri and float on the water in a line. OJ: si LH: ziəh NOM: tự

EMC: zɨ LMC: sɦʑ SV: tự

391

OC: *s-ləh GO: zi KN: si SK: so

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears five times in Nihon shoki, all in the same poem. NSK 3 阿磨佐箇屢 amasakaru Having crossed over 避奈菟謎廼 pinatu mye no the narrow, earthly straits, 以和多邏素西渡 iwatarasu setwo the provincial maidens 以嗣箇播箇柁輔智 isikapa kataputi stand on the banks of the river, 箇多輔智爾 kataputi ni on the banks of the Ishikawa, 阿彌播利和柁嗣 ami pariwatasi spreading out their nets. 妹慮豫嗣爾 mero yosi ni Pull in those nets 豫嗣豫利據禰 yosi yorikone by pulling on the meshes! 以嗣箇播箇柁輔智 isikapa kataputi On the banks for the Ishikawa.

辭

試

璽

OJ: si OC: *s-lə LH: ziə EMC: zɨ LMC: sɦʑ GO: zi KN: si NOM: từ SV: từ SK: so Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears three times in the annotative notes, and 48 times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 椎、此云辭毘, “ ‘pasania tree’ is read sipi” (NSG). This note is important because 椎 often refers to wooden mallets, so the annotative note alerts the reader to read the graph as a kind of tree. NSK 55 揶莽辭呂能 yamasiro no When I behold 菟々紀能瀰揶珥 tutukwi no miya ni my brother, sent to relay 茂能莽烏輸 mono mawosu a message to this, 和餓齊烏瀰例麼 wa ga se wo mireba the Palace of Tsutsuki in Yamashiro, 那瀰多遇摩辭茂 namitagumasi mo anguish moves me to tears. OJ: si OC: *lhəkh GO: si KN: si LH: śəh EMC: ɕɨ LMC: ʂi NOM: thí. thử, thía SV: thí SK: si Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing only once in the poetry of Nihon shoki. NSK 22 夜摩苔波 yamato pa Yamato is 區珥能摩倍邏摩 kuni no maporama the most prosperous— 多々儺豆久 tatanaduku a land ringed by 阿烏伽枳 awokaki mountains arrayed 夜摩許莽例屢 yama komoreru as a green, rolling fence. 夜摩苔之于屢破試 yamato no urupasi Yes, Yamato is beautiful. OJ: si LH: sieʔ NOM: NA

EMC: siə LMC: sʑ SV: tỉ

392

OC: *sneʔ GO: si KN: si SK: so

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This graph appears in two annotative notes in Nihon shoki: 重播種子、此云璽枳磨枳 “ ‘Planting seed where seed had already been planted’ is known as siki maki” (NSG), Also, 柴、此云府璽 “ ‘Brushwood’ is called pusi” (NSG).

始

伺

自

OJ: si OC: *lhəʔ LH: śəʔ EMC: ɕɨ LMC: ʂi GO: si KN: si NOM: thỉ, thuỷ SV: thỉ, thi, thuỷ SK: si Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing once in the annotative notes, and 18 times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 葉、此云箇始婆 “ ‘Leaf’ is called kasipa” (NSG). NSK 49 那菟務始能 natumusi no It is never good 譬務始能虚呂望 pimusi no koromo for the larva of 赴多幣耆氐 putapye kite the summer moth 介區瀰夜儾利破 kakumi yadari pa to wrap itself in robes 阿珥豫區望阿羅儒 ani yoku mo arazu of two different cocoons. OJ: si OC: *sə(h) LH: siə(h) EMC: sɨ LMC: sʑ GO: si KN: si NOM: NA SV: tư, tứ SK: so Usage / History: This graph belongs to the CBS, used three times in the poetry of Nihon shoki. All three examples appear in the same poem. NSK 75 野麼等能 yamato no On the peaks 嗚武羅能陀該儞 womura no take ni of the mountains of Yamato, 之々符須登 sisi pusu to who shall venture forth 拕例柯 tare ka to stand before 擧能居登 kono koto the great one and tell him 飫裒磨陛儞麻嗚須 opomapye ni mawosu where the beast lays waiting? 飫裒枳瀰簸 opokimi pa The great lord 賊據嗚枳舸斯題 soko wo kikasite overhears these words, 柁磨々枳能 tamamaki no takes his jeweled 阿娯羅儞陀々伺 agura ni tatasi dais and sits upon it. 施都魔枳能 situmaki no He takes the dais 阿娯羅儞陀々伺 agura ni tatasi of cloth and sits upon it. A note says that in place of tatasi, another manuscript has 伊麻伺 imasi “sitting (on the throne).” OJ: si LH: dzih NOM: tự, từ

EMC: dzi LMC: tsɦʑ SV: tự

393

OC: *dzih GO: zi KN: si SK: co

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. As Ōno (1962:597) has pointed out, this usage also survives in a fragment of what appears to be a draft of an imperial edict from Kōken: 天下者所知物尓在自止奈母 AME [NO] SITA PA SIROSIMESU MONO ni ARUrasi to namo ‘(We think) that everything under heavenly can be governed....’ This usage also appears in the imperial edicts. The following quote from an edict contains this phonogram three times to represent si: 別宮尓御坐坐牟時自 加得言 也 。此 波 朕劣 尓 依 弖之 加久言 良之止 念召 波 愧 自弥 伊等保 自弥奈母 念 須 。 KOTO MIYA ni OPOMASIMASAmu TOKI sika E IPAME ya. KO pa WA GA ODINAKI ni YORItesi kaku IPUrasi to OMOPOSIMESEba PADUKAsimi itoposimi namo OMOPOsu ‘If only I had been residing in a separate palace then would I have been able to say this. Rather this is because I was foolish, and I think it is unbearable and I should be ashamed that it appears that I am talking like this’ (SM 27).

施

絁

OJ: si OC: *lhai LH: śɑi EMC: ɕiə LMC: ʂi GO: se KN: si NOM: thí, thia, the, thè SV: thi, thí SK: si Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS.This phonogram appears once in the poetry of Nihon shoki. NSK 126 美曳之弩能 miyesinwo no The trout of Eshino 曳之弩能阿喩 yesinwo no ayu beautiful Mieshino— 阿喩擧曾播 ayu koso pa it is good for 施麻倍母曳岐 simape mo yeki you trout to be near the island. 愛倶流之衞 ekurusiwe Ah, how painful 奈疑能母騰 nagwi no moto to be under the water-greens 制利能母騰 seri no moto to be under the water-cress. 阿例播倶流之衞 are pa kurusiwe I am in pain. For an earlier usage of 施 from the Paekche orthography system, see the same graph under se. OJ: si LH: śɑi EMC: ɕiə LMC: ʂi NOM: NA SV: the Usage / History: The phonogram belongs to the CBS. This poetry of Nihon shoki. NSK 96 野絁磨倶儞 yasima kuni 都磨々祁哿泥底 tuma makikanete 播屢比能 parupi no 哿須我能倶儞々 kasuga no kuni ni 倶波絁謎嗚 kupasi mye wo 阿利等枳々底 ari to kikite

394

OC: *lhai GO: si KN: si SK: si usage appears eight times in the I searched the eight islands but could not find a spouse. Under the spring sun in the land of Kasuga I had heard that there was a beautiful maiden.

與慮志謎嗚 阿利等枳々底 莽紀佐倶 避能伊陀圖嗚 飫斯毘羅枳 倭例以梨魔志 阿都圖唎 都麼怒唎絁底 魔倶囉圖唎 伊慕我堤嗚 倭例儞魔柯斯毎 倭我堤嗚麼 伊慕儞魔柯絁毎 麼左棄逗囉 多々企阿藏播梨 矢洎矩矢慮 于魔伊禰矢度儞 儞播都等唎 柯稽播儺倶儺梨 奴都等利 枳蟻矢播等余武 婆絁稽矩謨 伊麻娜以播孺底 阿開儞啓梨 倭蟻慕

茲 矢

yorosi mye wo ari to kikite makwi saku pi no itatwo wo osipiraki ware irimasi atwo twori tumadworisite makura twori imo ga te wo ware ni makasime wa ga te woba imo ni makasime masakwidura tataki azapari sisikusiro umai nesi two ni nipatu tori kakye pa nakunari nwotu tori kigisi pa toyomu pasikyeku mo imada ipazute akenikyeri wagimo

I had heart that there was a proper woman. A fine grain of wood, I pushed opened that door made of Japanese cypress. I went inside and held her leg, holding the edge of her hem, holding her pillow— holding my spouse. I wrapped her hand around my waist and she my arm— wrapped it around her. And like a vine, we caressed, intertwined. We slept deeply, sweet like meat on a skewer. The fowl I keep have begun to cackle. And in the fields the pheasants add their call. The dawn has already come before I have been able to confess my feelings, my love.

OJ: si OC: *dzə LH: dziə EMC: tsɨ LMC: tsz̩ GO: si KN: si NOM: NA SV: ti, tư SK: co Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. There are only two examples of this phonogram in Nihon shoki, both in annotative notes: 抜本截末、此云謀登岐利 須衛於茲波羅比 “ ‘Cut the base, and strip off the branches’ is read moto kiri suwe osiparapi” (NSG), and 鮪此云茲寐 “Tuna (Shibi, a personal name) is read sibi” (NSG). OJ: si OC: *lhiʔ LH: śiʔ EMC: ɕi LMC: ʂi GO: si KN:si NOM: thỉ, thẻ SV: thỉ SK: ci Usage / History: This is a phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears eight times in the poetry of Nihon shoki. NSK 97 倭我彌細麼 wa ga miseba When I gaze down 都奴娑播符 tunwo sapapu on Iware Pond 以簸例能伊開能 ipare no ike no with rocks covered in vines 美那矢駄府 minasitapu even the fish under the water 395

紆鳴謨 紆陪儞堤堤那皚矩 野須美矢々 倭我於朋枳美能 於魔細屢 娑佐羅能美於寐能 武須彌陀例 駄例夜矢比等母 紆陪儞泥堤那皚矩

洎

爲

uwo mo upe ni dete nageku yasumisisi wa ga opokimi obaseru sasara no miobi no musubitare dare yasi pito mo upe ni dete nageku

come to the surface and lament your parting. And like the sash worn by my great lord who rules over all with its dainty design, who is there that will not come out and lament your parting?

OJ: si OC: NA LH: NA EMC: ɡi LMC: kɦi GO: ki KN: ki NOM: NA SV: kị SK: kuy, key Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. What is interesting is that looking at this graph from the point of phonology, it should not belong here. Marc Miyake has suggested to me that the simplest answer is that the poet or scribe misused this phonogram based on the phonology of 自 (Miyake, pc). This position is strengthened by the fact that this phonogram only appears once in Nihon shoki, in the following poem. NSK 96 多々企阿藏播梨 tataki azapari And like a vine, 矢洎矩矢慮 sisikusiro we caressed, intertwined. 于魔伊禰矢度儞 umai nesi two ni We slept deeply, 儞播都等唎 nipatu tori sweet like meat on a skewer. 柯稽播儺倶儺梨 kakye pa nakunari The fowl I keep 奴都等利 nwotu tori have begun to cackle. 枳蟻矢播等余武 kigisi pa toyomu And in the fields 婆絁稽矩謨 pasikyeku mo the pheasants add their call. 伊麻娜以播孺底 imada ipazute The dawn has already come 阿開儞啓梨 akenikyeri before I have been able 倭蟻慕 wagimo to confess my feelings, my love. Another possibility is that this phonogram originated from graphic corruption during transmission of the manuscripts: 自 > 洎, but I find this explanation less persuasive. OJ: si OC: *wai LH: wɑi EMC: wiə GO: wi KN: wi NOM: ví, vì, vị, vờ, vay SV: vi, vị SK: wuy Usage / History: This kungana suggests OJ si ‘doing’ to the reader. This usage appears in Nihon shoki, in the record of Ninken: 大脚更名大爲, “His name was OPOSI ‘Great Leg,’ also known as OPOSI ‘Great Action’ ” (NSG). Ienaga et al. (1986.1:526) wish to read 大爲 as Ōsu (OPOSU), but consider that Ninken’s name is also recorded in the record of Kenzō as 大石, glossed as OPOSI ‘Great Stone.’ This is one of the most popular kunganas in Man’yōshū for si. 396

MYS 109 大船之 津守之占尓 将告登波 益爲久知而 我二人宿之

磯

OPOBUNE NO

TUMORI GA URA ni NORAMU to pa MASASIku SIRITE WA GA PUTARI NEsi

What likely will become clear from the fortune told by Tsumori, a name calling to mind a great ship, is something truly I already knew: the two of us have slept together.

OJ: si OC: *kəi LH: kɨi EMC: kɨj GO: ke KN: ki NOM: cơ SV: cơ SK: kuy Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ isi ‘rock’ or ‘rocky beach.’ In the record of Jinmu in Nihon shoki we find the following: 兄磯城 a name read ESIKWI. This must have been a rather counter-intuitive reading, as after this name appears we find the following annotational note: 磯、此云志 “The graph 磯 is to be read si” (NSG). All Other examples are the same: SIKWI. This usage also quite popular in Man’yōshū. MYS 7 I recall that temporary hut 金野乃 AKI NO NWO no where we spent one night 美草苅葺 miKUSA KARIPUKI YAdorerisi in the capital at Uji 屋杼礼里之 兎道乃宮子能 uDI no MIYAKWO no which was thatched with grass 借五百礒所念 KARI IPO SI OMOPOYU from the golden fields. OJ: si OC: NA LH: NA EMC: NA GO: NA KN: NA NOM: NA SV: NA SK: NA Usage / History: This is a kungana, where 羊蹄 ‘Japanese dock’ suggests to the reader OJ si. In Nihon shoki, there is a quote from an Ainu individual that includes the phrase 後方羊蹄 with a note: 此云斯梨蔽之 “This is read siripyesi.” It is possible this is a transcription of the Ainu word siripet < *siripetsu ‘great river.’ This usage also appears twice in Man’yōshū. MYS 1857 TOSI NO PA NI Even though the plum 毎年 UME PA SAKEDOMO blooms every year, 梅者開友 spring does not come for me, 空蝉之 UTUSEMI NO 世人吾羊蹄 YO NO PITO WARE SI this person in the world 春無有来 PARU NAKARIKYERI of visible subjects.

羊蹄

鍾

OJ: sigu OC: *toŋ LH: tśoŋ EMC: tɕuawŋ LMC: tʂywŋ GO: syuu KN: sio NOM: chuông SV: chung SK: chwong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears twice in Man’yōshū, each time representing 鍾禮 sigure ‘cold drizzle (rain)’ (MYS 3213, 3223).

397

鐘 餝

色

式

OJ: sigu OC: *toŋ LH: tśoŋ EMC: tɕuawŋ LMC: tʂywŋ GO: syuu KN: sio NOM: chuông SV: chung SK: chwong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This usage only appears in Man’yōshū, used 11 times exclusively to represent 鐘禮 sigure ‘cold drizzle (rain)’ (MYS 1551, 1553, 1571, 1583, et seq.). OJ: sika OC: *lhək LH: śɨk EMC: ɕik GO: siki KN: sioku NOM: sức SV: sức SK: sik Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage appears in Harima fudoki, in the toponym 餝磨郡 Sikama District. The legendary explanation for the naming of the district in Harima fudoki claims it was named after the ruler heard a deer (sika) calling out (naku). In the Yōrō Census (721) the toponym 葛餝郡 Katusika District appears. This same district name appears in a head note in Man’yōshū (MYS 4385). OJ: sika, siki, siko OC: *srək LH: ṣək EMC: ʂik GO: siki KN: sioku NOM: sắc SV: sắc SK: soyk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram appears in a name in the Mino Census of 702: 色夫知 Sikobuti. In the Chikuzen Census of the same era we find the name 色夫 Sikobu, and in the Buzen Census there is the name 色乎 Sikowo. This usage also appears on a number of mokkan: 名張里色夫知 Sikobuti of NABARI Village (MK 2250). This usage appears in Kojiki, in names like 印色之入日子命 Inisiki NO IRIBIKWO [NO] MIKOTO (KG). Consider also, however, that the final -k in 色 is also used in representing siko: 内色許男命 UTUsikoWO [NO] MIKOTO (KG) and 伊賀迦色許賣命 Ikaga Sikomye [NO] MIKOTO (KG). In Shoku Nihongi an Ainu place name is recorded: 色麻柵 Fort Sikama (737.4.14). There is only one example of this phonogram in Man’yōshū. MYS 222 My lord who lies on 奥波 OKITUNAMI 来依荒礒乎 KIYORU ARISWO wo the rocks on the rough beach as a pillow of bedding cloth 色妙乃 sikiTAPE no MAKURA to MAKITE where the waves of the offing 枕等巻而 come crashing in! 奈世流君香聞 naseru KIMI KAmo OJ: siki OC: *lhək LH: śɨk EMC: ɕik GO: siki KN: sioku NOM: thức SV: thức SK: sik Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in a document preserved in Shōsōin in the toponym 式下郡 Siki [NO] SIMO District, and the name 式万呂 398

Sikimaro. This same name also appears in Shoku Nihongi: 式麻呂 (721.1.27). This phonogram also is used once in the poetry of Man’yōshū. MYS 323 MOMOsikwi no I do not recall the year when 百式紀乃 OPOMIYAPITO NO the courtiers of the great palace, 大宮人之 NIGITATU ni a fortress of 100 stones piled up 飽田津尓 PUNANORISIKYEMU boarded their ship 船乗将為 TOSI NO SIRANAku and left the port of Nigita. 年之不知久 Here the phonogram 式 introduces the initial consonant of 紀: sikkwi > sikwi.

拭

叔

OJ: siki OC: *lhək LH: śɨk EMC: ɕik GO: siki KN: sioku NOM: xức, rị SV: thức SK: sik Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 1337 KADURAKWI no I wish I had known 葛城乃 TAKAMA NO KUYANWO earlier about the thatch field 高間草野 PAYA SIRITE high in the Kazuraki mountains 早知而 SIME SASAMASI wo and marked it with a rope. 標指益乎 IMA SO KUYAsiki I now regret it. 今悔拭 The phonogram 拭 is used in a dual-role here. It represents the final -siki of the stative verb kuyasi ‘to regret,’ but it also adds a visual impact, as the graph also means ‘wipe away,’ suggesting that the poem wishes to wipe away the mistake (cf. Ōno 1962:484). OJ: siku OC: *nhiuk LH: śuk EMC: ɕuwk GO: suku KN: siuku NOM: NA SV: thức SK: sywuk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Man’yōshū. Ōno (1962:451–452) wants to read all examples of this graph as suku, based on the example in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu: 蘇我馬古叔尼 Swoga Umako Sukune. However, the examples found in Man’yōshū point to siku. MYS 4190 While you, my beloved, 叔羅河 sikuraGAPA 湍乎尋都追 SE wo TADUNEtutu follow the shallows 和我勢故波 wa ga sekwo pa of the Shikura River 宇可波多々佐祢 ukapa tatasane you should raise cormorants KOKORO nagusa ni to lift your spirits. 情奈具左尓 It is possible that the example in Teisetsu is based on an earlier reading tradition where the palatalized ś- was flattened to just s- plus -u-, while later readings ignored the -u-, and made an attempt to represent ś as si.

399

襲 質

漆

曾

OJ: sipi OC: *s-ləp LH: zip EMC: zip LMC: sɦip GO: zifu KN: sifu NOM: tập SV: tập SK: sup Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. A quote from Chikuzen fudoki preserved in Man’yōshū chushaku has the following: 哿襲宮、哿襲ハ可紫比也 ‘Kasipi Palace. The graphs 哿襲 are (read) kasipi.’ OJ: siti OC: *tət LH: tśit EMC: tɕit GO: siti KN: situ NOM: chất SV: chất SK: cil Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. In Izumo fudoki the name 質留比社 Sitirupi Shrine appears. Later this name is changed to 七類 sitirui ‘seven types.’ In documents preserved in Shōsōin we find the toponym 越前國敦賀郡質覇郷 Echizen Province Turuga District Sitipye Village. A mokkan excavated from Heijō ruins contains the name: 私部(質)比万呂 KISAKITIBYE (Siti)pi Maro (unnumbered tablet). OJ: situ OC: *tshit LH: tshit EMC: tshit LMC: tshit GO: siti KN: situ NOM: tất SV: tất SK: chil Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in a toponym in Izumo fudoki: 漆 沼 郷 、 本 字 志 刀 沼 ‘SituNUMA Village. It originally was SitwoNUMA.’ Ōno (1962:463) believes that the phonogram should be 柒, and claims that it is not a vulgar graph for 漆, because “柒 is used as an official graph to represent ‘seven.’ ” However, 漆 is also used to represent ‘seven,’ so it is better to view these two graphs as the same graph with variation. Some also argue that 刀 should be read tu, but it is possible that the original reading of two underwent vowel-raising. For the time being I follow the reading above. Documents preserved in Shōsōin have names such as 漆治 Situdi and 漆美 賣 Situmimye. OJ: so OC: *tsə̂ŋ LH: tsəŋ EMC: tsəŋ GO: zou KN: sou NOM: tằng, tưng, từng SV: tằng, tăng SK: chung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Tang-pyeng Paykcey Stele, ca. 660 in the kingdom of Paekche: 於曾城 *osə(ŋ) fortress. This phonogram is also found in the name of a mountain in Paekche recorded in Nihon shoki: 居曾山 Koso Mure (Ienaga et al. 1986.2:122). This phonogram is also preserved in the Suiko era corpus. In Jōgū shōtoku hōō teisetsu, the phonogram 曾 appears in a poem: 伊加留我乃 ikaruga no Our Great Ruler’s name 止美能乎何波乃 tomi no wogapa no will never be forgotten, 多叡婆許曾 tayeba koso even if the brook 400

和何於保支美乃 wa ga opokimi no Tomi in Ikaruga 弥奈和須良叡米 mina wasurayeme should cease to flow in its bed. This phonogram was perhaps the most commonly used graph for writing so. The earliest dateable example of this phonogram appears in the Mino census of 702: 也曾布売 Yasopumye, 彌曾売 Misomye, 与曾麻呂 Yoso Maro, and 也曾売 Yasomye. This phonogram is used in the oldest liturgies: 曾布 Sopu (place name), and in the following phrase: 吾乎奈見給比曾 WARE wo na MITAMAPI so “Please do not look at me” (NT 12). This phonogram appears on a variety of mokkan: 笠阿 曽弥安 KASA Asomi YASU (MK 1926), 曽祢黒女 Sone KURWOMYE (MK 4661). According to Ōno (1977:172–174), the graph 曾 is used a total of 71 times in Kojiki. As an example: 曾毘良邇 sobira ni “on the square of her back…” (KG). KK 72 多迦比迦流 takapikaru Prince of the sun 比能美古 pi no mikwo which shines high 宇倍志許曾 ubesi koso how truly 斗比多麻閇 twopitamape you have inquired. 麻許曾迩 makoso ni Of a truth 斗比多麻閇 twopitamape you have inquired. 阿禮許曾波 are koso pa It is certainly I who has 余能那賀比登 yo no nagapito lived so long in the world. 蘇良美都 sworamitu In the land of Yamato 夜麻登能久迩爾 yamato no kuni ni which fills the firmament 加理古牟登 kari kwomu to I have never heard of 伊麻陀岐加受 imada kikazu a wild goose laying an egg. This phonogram is also used often in Nihon shoki, appearing four times in annotational notes, and 29 times in the poetry: 添 山 此 云 曾 褒 里 能 耶 麻 “ ‘Mount Sohori’ is read sopori no yama” (NSG), 曼椒此云褒曾紀 “ ‘Ginger’ is read posokwi” (NSG). NSK 48 於辭氐屢 osi teru The beautiful beaches 那珥破能瑳耆能 nanipa no saki no situated together on Naniwa Cape, 那羅弭破莽 narabi pama illuminated by the sun— 那羅陪務苔虚層 narabemu to koso the princess surely 曾能古破阿利鷄梅 sono kwo pa arikyeme has been alive (such a pity). This phonogram is the primary phonogram found in Man’yōshū, appearing roughly 545 times. Admittedly, some scholars believe a number of these examples actually represent zo. MYS 815 武都紀多知 mutukwi tati If the first month arrives 波流能吉多良婆 paru no kitaraba and spring comes 可久斯許曾 kaku si koso we will be like this, 烏梅乎乎岐都々 ume wo wokitutu enjoying our time 多努之岐乎倍米 tanwosiki wopeme inviting the plum blossoms.

401

思

所

OJ: so OC: *sə or *səh LH: siə EMC: sɨ or sɨh GO: si KN: si NOM: tư, tứ, tơ SV: tư, tứ SK: so Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. The usage of this graph is preserved on the inscriptions of Silla. On the Silla Cek-seng stele (ca. 551) the following toponym appears: 勿思伐城 *mot-sɨ-pat fortress. This phonogram is also preserved in the Suiko corpus. In the fragment of Jōgūki, the following name appears: 母母思己麻和加比彌, read as Momoso Komawaka Pimye. There are several interesting problems with this name. First, many scholars are confused by the use of 彌, which is mi, but as Ōno (1962:110) points out, there are examples like 吉多斯比彌乃彌己等: Kitasi Pimye no myikoto. This usage attests to the archaic nature of the transcription in Jōgūki, a fragment some still view suspiciously. In LH 彌 is *mieʔ. Second, attempts to relate this name to the mother of Prince Wakano Futamata in the record of Ōjin in Kojiki are tenuous. In Kojiki the name of the mother is written 百師木伊呂弁, but this represents MWOMWOsiKWI irobye, and that is only vaguely similar to Momoso Komawaka. Some may claim that the graphs 母 (OJ mo) and 毛 (OJ mwo) are easily confused when written in cursive, but the two do not resemble each other. It is better to consider this part of the genealogy either unreliable or altered. OJ: so OC: *sraʔ LH: ṣɑʔ EMC: ṣjwoʔ GO: sio KN: so NOM: sỡ, sửa SV: sở SK: swo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, and appears in the Mino Census of 702: 所波 Sopa, 所乃麻呂 Sono Maro. This phonogram also appears once in the Nihon shoki poetry: NSK 99 柯羅屨儞嗚 kara kuni wo No matter what people 以柯儞輔居等所 ika ni pu koto so may say about our land of Kara, 梅豆羅古枳駄樓 medurakwo kitaru Mezurako has arrived. 武哿左屨樓 mukasakuru Passing through the distant 以祇能和駄唎嗚 iki no watari wo channel of Iki 梅豆羅古枳駄樓 medurakwo kitaru Mezurako has at last arrived. The phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū six times. A number of these examples consist of 所 used in a skillful way, transcribing soko ‘there’ as 所虚, 所己, or 所許 using 所 ‘place’ to represent so, but also giving the hint of ‘that place’ (MYS 194, 196, 1740). Another example is 曾許念尓 / 胸己所痛 soko OMOPU ni / MUNE koso ITAKI ‘when I think about that / it is my chest that is pained’ (MYS 466). As Ōno (1977:475) points out, there is also a problematic poem, quoted below: MYS 3362 相模祢乃 sagamune no Looking out far at the peak of Sagamu Ridge 乎美祢見所久思 womine MIsokusi 402

和須礼久流 wasurekuru I call out the name of my beloved whom I have come to forget— 伊毛我名欲妣弖 imwo ga NA ywobite A wo nesi naku na do not call out and make me cry. 吾乎祢之奈久奈 This is what most manuscripts of Man’yōshū have, but as there are no other examples of the verb misokusu recorded, scholars have been skeptical of this form. Currently scholarship amends the second stanza to 乎美祢見可久思 womine MIkakusi ‘pretending not to see the peak.’ For the time I have followed what the texts have, relying on the interpretation of Sengaku (1978:174).

增

噌 僧

OJ: so OC: *tsə̂ŋ LH: tsəŋ EMC: tsəŋ LMC: tsəaŋ GO: sou KN: zou NOM: tăng, tâng SV: tăng, tặng SK: cung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears once in Nihon shoki in the Jinmu record: 層增岐野 Sosoki Plain. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, appearing in ten different poems, but interestingly nine of these use an established set of graphs: 許增 koso ‘indeed’ (examples found in MYS 985, 1391, 2145, 2269, 2651, 2865, 2868, 2922, and 2979). MYS 985 AME ni MASU Master Tsukiyomi 天尓座 TUKWIYOMI WOTOKWO who resides in the heavens— 月讀壮子 MAPI PA SEMU I offer you a gift, so make 幣者将為 KOYOPI no NAGAsa the length of our night tonight 今夜乃長者 IPOYWO TUGI koso five hundred nights joined together. 五百夜継許増 OJ: so OC: NA LH: səŋ EMC: səŋ GO: siau KN: sau NOM: tằng, tăng, tưng SV: tưng SK: coyng, cung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Hizen fudoki for the toponym 噌唹 Soo. This same usage appears in fragments of Fudoki quoted in Shaku Nihongi (Chikuzen fudoki and Hizen fudoki). As this phonogram is only used for the toponyms in southern Kyūshū it likely is simply an idiosyncratic usage, an innovative use linked to 曾於, perhaps to show vowel length. OJ: so OC: NA LH: səŋ EMC: səŋ GO: sou KN: sou NOM: tăng SV: tăng SK: sung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This graph appears in a Nara era document in the Shōsōin: 奈能僧 nanoso. This phonogram also appears in one poem in Man’yōshū: MYS 817 烏梅能波奈 ume no pana The green willow 佐吉多流僧能々 sakitaru sono no in the garden where 阿遠也疑波 awoyagwi pa the plum is in bloom 403

可豆良尓須倍久 奈利尓家良受夜

則

諸

贈

kadura ni subeku narinikyerazu ya

has filled out so well that you could adorn your hair.

OJ: so OC: *tsə̂k LH: tsək EMC: tsək GO: soku KN: soku NOM: tắc SV: tắc SK: cuk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The graph appears twice in Man’yōshū: MYS 822 和何則能尓 wa ga sono ni The plum blossoms 宇米能波奈知流 ume no pana tiru scatter in my garden. 比佐可多能 pisakata no Or does snow come 阿米欲里由吉能 ame ywori yuki no wafting down from 那何列久流加母 nagare kuru kamo the heavens far above? OJ: so OC: *ta LH: tśɑ EMC: tśjwo LMC: tʂia GO: sio KN: sio NOM: chư, chứ, chơ SV: chư SK: cye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to LJS, and appears twice in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 104 斯那提流 sinateru Starving for want of food 箇多烏箇夜摩爾 katawokayama ni on Mount Kataoka, 伊比爾惠弖 ipi ni wete the shining hill, 許夜勢屢 koyaseru how pitiful is that farmer 諸能多比等阿波禮 sono tapito apare who has fallen. 於夜那斯爾 oya nasi ni Surely you were not 那禮奈理雞迷夜 narenarikyeme ya raised without parents. 佐須陀氣能 sasu take no Do you have no lord, 枳彌波夜那祇 kimi paya naki strong like bamboo? 伊比爾惠弖 ipi ni wete Starving for want of food 許夜勢留 koyaseru how pitiful is that farmer 諸能多比等阿波禮 sono tapito apare who has fallen. OJ: so OC: *dzə̂ŋh LH: dzəŋh EMC: dzəŋh LMC: tsɦəaŋ GO: zou KN: sou NOM: tặng SV: tặng SK: cung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in Nihon shoki three times in the poetry. NSK 85 阿佐膩簸囉 asadipara Through the rocky path of 嗚贈禰嗚須擬 wosone wo sugwi the mountains and over 謨謀逗頴甫 momodutapu Asaji Plain comes a distant, 奴底喩羅倶慕與 nute yuraku mo yo continuous jingle of a bell. 於岐毎倶羅之慕 okime kurasi mo It seems Okime has arrived. 404

This phonogram is also found in Shoku Nihongi, in the toponym 贈於 Soo. This same usage also appears in Hizen fudoki.

層

賊

衣

OJ: so OC: *dzə̂ŋ LH: dzəŋ EMC: dzəŋ LMC: tsɦəəŋ GO: zou KN: sou NOM: tầng, từng SV: tằng, tầng SK: chung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears four times in the poetry of Nihon shoki. NSK 28 伊徒姑播茂 itwokwo pa mo Men with relatives 伊徒姑奴池 itwokwo dwoti will fight together. 伊裝阿波那 iza apana Commence the battle, 和例波 ware pa shall we? 多摩岐波屢 tamaki paru Minister Uti, 于池能阿層餓 uti no aso ga possessing a strong spirit, 波邏濃知波 paranuti pa does not have a stomach 異佐誤阿例椰 isagwo are ya made of pebbles. 伊裝阿波那 iza apana Commence the battle, 和例波 ware pa shall we? OJ: so OC: *dzə̂k LH: dzək EMC: dzek LMC: tsɦəăk GO: zoku KN: soku NOM: tặc SV: tặc SK: cuk, cek Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in one poem in Nihon shoki: NSK 75 野麼等能 yamato no On the peaks 嗚武羅能陀該儞 womura no take ni of the mountains of Yamato, 之々符須登 sisi pusu to who shall venture forth 拕例柯 tare ka to stand before 擧能居登 kono koto the great one and tell him 飫裒磨陛儞麻嗚須 opomapye ni mawosu where the beast lays waiting? 飫裒枳瀰簸 opokimi pa The great lord 賊據嗚枳舸斯題 soko wo kikasite overhears these words, 柁磨々枳能 tamamaki no takes his jeweled 阿娯羅儞陀々伺 agura ni tatatsi dais and sits upon it. It should be noted that this usage again shows the underlying germination of velars, with soko < sokko (賊據). OJ: so OC: *ʔəi or *ʔəih LH: ʔɨi or ʔɨih EMC: ʔjəi or ʔjəih GO: e KN: i NOM: y, e SV: y, ỳ, ỷ SK: uy Usage / History: This is a kungana, where 衣 ‘robe’ suggests to the reader Old Japanese so ‘robe, outer garment.’ This usage appears in both Kojiki and Nihon shoki to write

405

the same name of a princess: 衣通郎女 SOtu IRATUMYE (in Nihon shoki her name is written 衣通郎姫). This kungana also appears twice in Man’yōshū. MYS 2885 As the night deepens 左夜深而 saYWO PUKETE IMWO wo OMOPIDE and I recall my beloved, 妹乎念出 even my pillow with 布妙之 SIKITAPE NO MAKURA mo SOYO ni the spread out fiber bedding 枕毛衣世二 NAGEKITURU KAMO creaks as I have lamented. 嘆鶴鴨

背

苑

襲

OJ: so OC: *pə̂kh LH: pəh EMC: pwâ̘ih GO: fai KN: fai NOM: bối, bội, bồi, bổi SV: bối, bội SK: poy, phay Usage / History: This phonogram is used as a kungana, suggesting to the mind Old Japanese ‘back.’ This usage appears once in Man’yōshū, in the first poem. MYS 1 YAMATO no KUNI PA The land of Yamato 山跡乃國者 押奈戸手 OSInaPETE every nook and cranny WARE koso WORE I alone rule over! 吾許曾居 師吉名倍手 sikiNAbeTE The entire realm WARE koso IMASE I alone govern! 吾己曾座 WA koSO BA Then it shall be I 我許背齒 NORAME who will tell you 告目 IPYE wo mo NA WO mo of my home and of my name. 家呼毛名雄母 OJ: so OC: *ʔonʔ or *wənʔ LH: ʔyanʔ or wunʔ EMC: ʔjwɐnʔ or jwən GO: won KN: wen NOM: tặc SV: tặc SK: cuk, cek Usage / History: This is a kungana, where 苑 ‘garden’ suggests to the reader’s mind Old Japanese so ‘garden,’ likely a truncated form of sono. This usage appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 3792 SINABA KOSO You will surely avoid it 死者木苑 APIMIZU ARAME if you were to die, 相不見在目 生而在者 IKITE ARABA but if you live on SIRWOKAMI KWORA NI then you young ones 白髪子等丹 OPWIZAME YAMO will grow grey hair. 不生在目八方 Some have said this 苑 cannot be a kungana, as there are no examples of so to represent sono. However, it is difficult to imagine what else the semantic match of 木苑 ‘tree-garden’ could represent. OJ: so LH: zip NOM: tập

EMC: zjəp SV: tập

406

OC: s-ləp GO: zifu KN: sifu SK: sup

Usage / History: This is a kungana, where the graph 襲 ‘extra layer of clothing’ calls to mind Old Japanese so ‘robe, outer garment.’ This usage appears in Nihon shoki, mainly to write the name of the rebellious tribe 熊襲 KUMASO. Kojiki represents this tribe’s name as 熊曾 KUMAso. Shoki’s rendition likely is a pun, since 襲 also means ‘surprise attack.’ This phonogram is also used for the famous general Sotsuhiko, sent by the court to chastise Silla. His name is spelled 襲津彦 SOTU PIKWO.

須

OJ: su OC: *sno LH: sio EMC: suə GO: su KN: siu NOM: tua SV: tu SK: sywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. A stele at a Paekche Buddhist temple contains the name 須菩提 Subote (Subhūti), one of the disciples of Buddha. This phonogram is also found on the Kwangkaytho stele: 須鄒城 *sio-tsuw fortress. The phonogram 須 does not appear in the Suiko era corpus, but does appear in many names recorded in the Korean records quoted in Nihon shoki. The name of the 14th king of Paekche, King Kunkusu, is written as 王子貴須 Crown Prince Kwisu (Ienaga et al. 1986.1:357). Also, Paekche King Kayro (蓋鹵王) is called 加須利君 Lord Kasuri in the record of Yūryaku (ibid. 1986.1:471). This is interesting from a Later Han phonological point of view as 蓋鹵 is kas-lɔ is quite close to the Japanese rendition of kasuri. This phonogram appears in the liturgies: 所知食止(古語云志呂志女須) SIROSIMYESU to (KOGO NI sirosiMYEsu) “(We say) rule (‘rule’ is sirosimyesu in the ancient vernacular)…” (NT 8). This phonogram appears on a variety of mokkan: 須佐里 Susa Village (MK 2200), 古須酒二升 ‘two MASU (about 7 pints) of kwosu SAKE (strained sake)’ (MK 104), 加 麻 須 五 烈 kamasu ITUTURA ‘five lines of saury pike’ (unnumbered tablet). The phonogram 須 was popular in Japan, and is the main character used to transcribe su in Kojiki. In Kojiki many names contain this phonogram: 須比智迩 神 the deity Supitini (KG), and 波迩夜須毘古神 the deity Paniyasubikwo (KG). Perhaps the best known example is 建速須佐之男命 TAKYE PAYANOWO [NO] MIKOTO (KG). This phonogram also appears in Kojiki poetry: KK 93 比氣多能 piketa no On the field of young, 和加久流須婆良 wakakurusubara nestled chestnuts in Hiketa 和加久閇爾 wakaku pe ni I should have slept with you 韋泥弖麻斯母能 winete masi mono when you were still young, 淤伊爾祁流加母 oinikeru kamo but now how I have aged. This phonogram is also used widely in both the annotational notes and poetry of Nihon shoki, appearing 18 times in the notes, and 49 times in the poetry. The following are from the annotational notes: 皇産靈、此云美武須毘 “ ‘The spirit

407

of imperial birth’ is read mimusupi” (NSG), 御統、此云美須磨屢 “ ‘Honorific jewels on a string’ is read misumaru” (NSG). NSK 94 伊須能箇瀰 isu no kami We passed through 賦屢嗚須擬底 puru wo sugwite Furu of Isunokami. 擧慕摩矩羅 komo makura We passed by the valley 柁箇播志須擬 takapasi sugwi of Takahashi of straw pillows. 慕能娑播儞 monosapa ni We walked through 於裒野該須擬 opoyake sugwi Ōyake where many things are. 播屢比 parupi We went by Kasuga, 箇須我嗚須擬 kasuga wo sugwi written ‘spring-day.’ 逗摩御慕屢 tumagomoru We traveled through 嗚佐裒嗚須擬 wosapo wo sugwi Osaho, the hidden wife. 拕摩該儞播 tamake nipa On the jeweled ritual plate 伊比佐倍母理 ipi sape mori we piled rice high. 拕摩慕比儞 tamamopi ni The jeweled ritual cup 瀰逗佐倍母理 midu sape mori we filled with water. 儺岐曾裒遲喩倶謀 nakisopoti yuku mo On goes the procession, 柯㝵比謎阿婆例 kage pime apare weeping and wet; poor Kagehime. This is also the predominant phonogram used in Man’yōshū, appearing roughly 600 times in the anthology. MYS 3582 OPOBUNE wo My lord who is on 大船乎 安流美尓伊太之 arumi ni idasi the great ship that will depart out into the choppy sea— 伊麻須君 imasu KIMI 都追牟許等奈久 tutumu koto naku Come back to me 波也可敝里麻勢 paya kapyerimase without any impediments. The simplified form of 須 is the basis for katakana ス.

周

OJ: su OC: *tiu LH: tśu EMC: tɕuw GO: siu KN: siuu NOM: chu SV: chu, châu SK: cywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. A Paekche name appears in Shoki: 周 智 suti (Ienaga et al. 1986.2:196). The interlinear reading is シュ, which is based on the scribes’ knowledge of Go-on, the earlier usage being シウ. Notice that the EMC is tɕuw, and LH is tśu. Old Japanese did not have an affricate initial, so su would have been the closest sound. Granted, it is possible that the Korean name was affricate initial (tsuti), but if the phonogram 周 was used in the early Japanese orthography, it would have represented su. This phonogram appears in the following place names: 周芳國造 Governor of Supa. This same place name is found in other records with the same initial graph 周 (Kujiki’s 10th book, Kokuzō hongi, Man’yōshū, and Shoku Nihongi all have 周防). Wooden documents (mokkan) also preserve a place name from Oki Island: 隠伎国周吉郡 Oki Province, Suki District (MKK 5:82). The place

408

name 播磨国赤穂郡周勢郷 Parima Province Akapo District Suse Village (MK 12601) also appears on an excavated bamboo tablet. This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki in three poems: NSK 39 伽辭能輔珥 kasi nopu ni In an oak forest 豫區周塢菟區利 yokusu wo tukuri we made a wide mortar. 豫區周珥 yokusu ni In that wide mortar 伽綿蘆淤朋瀰枳 kamyeru opomiki we brewed this auspicious wine. 宇摩羅珥 umara ni Enjoy it as 枳虚之茂知塢勢 kikosi motiwose you partake of it— 摩呂餓智 maro ga ti our father. This phonogram also appears a number of times in Man’yōshū, aside from representing Supa. MYS 877 比等母祢能 pito mo ne no Will you forget 宇良夫禮遠留尓 urabure woru ni even the people who 多都多夜麻 tatuta yama are feeling dejected 美麻知可豆加婆 mima tikadukaba if the august horse 和周良志奈牟迦 wasurasinamu ka approaches Mount Tatsuta?

州

酒

OJ: su OC: *tu LH: tśu EMC: tɕuw GO: su KN: siuu NOM: châu SV: chu, châu SK: cywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Paekche Cengrin Temple inscription (ca. 660), writing the name Susiba: 州司馬. Notice also on the Sumida Hachiman mirror inscription (ca. 503?) the phonetic rendering 今州 利 *kɨm-tśu-lih, a name, Komtsuri. This phonogram is also used in Nihon shoki to record various names of people related to the peninsula (I render 州 as a fricative instead of an affricate as we do not know for sure how the Paekche used this phonogram): 彌州流 Myisuru, 汶州王 King Monsu, 州利即爾将軍 General Suri Soni, and 己州己 婁 Kosukoru. Several of these names are glossed in Nihon shoki and Shaku Nihongi as つ tu, but I believe this is a later rendering. As the Sino-Xenic data show, this graph likely had an affricate initial, which Japanese lacked. Therefore, su was the closest available syllable. As evidence for this, consider that King Monsu is written 汶州王 in Shoki, but Samkwuk saki gives 文周 and a note that he was also known as 汶洲. This phonogram is used once in Kojiki, where the graph 烟 ‘soot’ is glossed as 州須 susu (KG). As the Japanese became more proficient in writing their language, this graph was discarded, because it did not match a specific Japanese syllable close enough to have been of use. OJ: su LH: tsiuʔ NOM: tửu

EMC: tsuw SV: tửu 409

OC: *tsju(ʔ) GO: siu KN: siuu SK: cywu

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. A name appears in the record of Kinmei 次酒 with the interlinear reading of sisu. Again, based on the reconstructed phonology of Chinese, these two characters are likely transcribing tsih-tsuw, but as Old Japanese had no affricates, this became sisu. The phonogram 酒 also appears in the following annotational note: 春日此 云箇酒鵝 “ ‘Kasuga,’ this is read kasuga.” Clearly 酒 is transcribing [su]. Several names preserved in the Shōsōin documents of the Nara era use this graph: 宇酒万呂 Usumaro, 川造伊酒賀賣 KAPA MIYATUKWO Isugamye, and 川部牟酒賣 KAPABYE Musumye. This phonogram appears sparingly in Kojiki, used twice in one song: KK 42 伊知遲志麻 itidi sima Reaching Ichiji and 美志麻迩斗岐 misima ni twoki Mishima Islands 美本杼理能 mipwodori no diving into the water 迦豆伎伊岐豆岐 kaduki ikiduki of the diving grebe, 志那陀由布 sinadayupu and coming back up for air— 佐佐那美遲袁 sasanamidi wo as I steadily advance across 酒久酒久登 suku suku to the ripples of the waves 和賀伊麻勢婆夜 wa ga imaseba ya that are high and low 許波多能 kopata no there is a maiden 美知迩 miti ni that I have run across 阿波志斯袁登賣 apasisi wotomye on the path to Kohata. There is some textual variation here in this poem regarding the use of 酒. There is a textual variant, which most editors accept, where the stanza is 須久須 久. Onoda Mitsuo’s critical text waffles on the choice, but his note reminds us (1977:445–446), “It goes without saying that the archetype was this character 酒, but that does not necessarily mean that 須 is simply a scribal error. I believe 須 was already in the original text.” The textual issues need not detain us, because it is already clear that the character 酒 was used to transcribe [su] before Kojiki was compiled. Perhaps the archetype of this stanza was 酒久須久 or 須久酒久, and dittography later corrupted the text. This phonogram appears once in the annotational notes and once in the poetry of Nhion shoki: 春日、此云箇酒鵝 “ ‘Kasuga’ is read kasuga” (NSG). NSK 102 夜酒瀰志斯 yasumisisi In the heavenly 和餓於朋耆瀰能 wa ga opokimi no eighty [rays of] sunshine where 訶勾理摩須 kakurimasu my great lord hides, 阿摩能椰蘇河礙 ama no yaswokage who rules in peace— 異泥多々須 idetatasu if you go out and This phonogram is used in Man’yōshū nine times, of which over half, five examples, appear in Book 14. MYS 3487 安豆左由美 adusayumi Jewels wrapped around 須恵尓多麻末吉 suwe ni tama maki the end of the catalpa bow— 可久須酒曽 kaku susu so like that wrapped together

410

宿莫奈那里尓思 於久乎可奴加奴

洲

酢

NE NAna narinisi oku wo kanu kanu

we were not able to sleep, thinking too much of the future.

OJ: su OC: *tu LH: tśu EMC: tɕuw GO: su KN: siu NOM: chao SV: châu SK: cywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The earliest attestation of this character is in Kojiki in the place name 洲羽海 supa [NO] UMI ‘Sea of Supa’ (KG). This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, in the name of the mother of Keikō: 日 葉洲媛, PIBAsu PIMYE (NSG). This phonogram appears on a wooden document, dated the ninth month of 735: 賀郡都比□□洲里 …ga District TupiXXsu Village (unnumbered tablet). This phonogram appears in two poems in Man’yōshū (MYS 4029, 4101), transcribing the same place name: 珠洲能宇美 susu no umi ‘the Sea of Susu.’ It seems certain that these two phonograms were selected because of the underlying semantics: 珠洲 susu ‘pearl-island.’ MYS 4125 安麻泥良須 amaderasu From the Age of the Gods 可未能御代欲里 kamwi no MIYO ywori who shined in the heavens, 夜洲能河波 yasu no kapa the Yasu River forming 奈加尓敝太弖々 naka ni pyedatete a partition in the middle, 牟可比太知 mukapi tati they stand facing each other, 蘇泥布利可波之 swode purikapasi waving their sleeves at each other. OJ: su OC: *dzâk LH: dzɑk EMC: dzak GO: su KN: so NOM: tạc SV: tạc SK: cak, chwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. At first glance, one is tempted to label this a kungana, meaning ‘vinegar,’ su. But from the Sino-Xenic data (GO and SK), it seems clear that the reading of this graph without the final velar was used to represent su, and this word was imported from Chinese into Japanese as ‘vinegar.’ The word is still used in Mandarin cù. Vowel raising in Old Japanese changed this to su (*tshɔh > *swo > su). While the usage of 酢 su is somewhat rare, it appears in both Nihon shoki and Kojiki. There is only one example in Kojiki, 酢鹿 Suga, the name of a person (KG). Conversely, there are 18 examples of 酢 in Nihon shoki, but these are all in personal names. A prime example is 火酢芹命 PO [NO] SuSERI, the brother of Jinmu. This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū 19 times, the majority writing 為酢 寸 SUsuKI ‘eulalia, miscanthus.’ MYS 307 皮為酢寸 PADA SUsuKI Eulalia waving in the wind 久米能若子我 kume no WAKUGWO ga the young men of the Kume are present among us. 伊座家留 i MASIkyeru

411

三穂乃石室者 雖見不飽鴨

主

MIPO no IPAYA PA MIREDO AKANU KAMO

How I never tire of looking at the cavern of Miho.

OJ: su OC: *toʔ LH: tśoʔ EMC: tɕua GO: siu KN: siu NOM: chủ chúa SV: chủ, chúa SK: cywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. This character appears twice in Kojiki in the same word, 国主, KUNIsu, which is the earlier version of the later word kuzu (kunisu > kunsu > kunzu), the original dwellers in Yamato. This phonogram appears in one Nihon shoki poem: NSK 69 和餓儺勾菟摩 wa ga naku tuma I weep for my spouse— 箇哆儺企貳 kata naki ni and I whimper. 和餓儺勾菟摩 wa ga naku tuma I cry for my spouse. 去鐏去會 kozo koso It was last night 椰主區泮娜布例 yasuku pada pure that our flesh calmly touched.

寸

OJ: su OC: *tshûns LH: tshənh EMC: tshwənh GO: sumu KN: son NOM: són, thốn, xốn SV: thốn SK: chwon Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It is tempting to date it back further, but as there is no evidence on the peninsula, I have placed it here. It appears in the hereditary title 寸主 suguri (Nihon shoki, mokkan), which may be partly phonetic, and partly semantic. The phonogram 寸 represents sun- of sunguri. The cursive form of this phonogram later yields hiragana す.

珠

OJ: su OC: *to LH: tśo EMC: tɕua GO: su KN: siu NOM: châu, chau SV: châu SK: cywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears in the Yamashiro provincial census of 733 to write the place name Yasu District 夜珠郡. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū to write the Sea of Susu 珠洲海 (MYS 4029 and 4101). This phonogram is also used in Hitachi fudoki to render the names of several deities: 毗那良珠命 and 比奈良珠命, both which represent ‘the deity Pinarasu.’ An old word for the heavenly grandchild is also written 珠売美萬 sumye mima ‘the ruling grandchild.’

數

OJ: su OC: *sro LH: ṣoʔ EMC: ʂuə GO: su, soku KN: su NOM: sổ, số, sô, xổ, xỏ SV: sổ, số SK: swu, sak, chwok Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in Man’yōshū, once in the following poem. 412

MYS 1742 級照 片足羽河之 左丹塗 大橋之上従 紅 赤裳數十引 山藍用 揩衣服而

種 衆 春 秀

SINATERU

KATASIPAGAPA NO saNI NURI NO OPOPASI NO UPE YU KURENAWI NO AKAMO SUSWOBIKI YAMA AWI MOTI SURERU KINU KITE

Pulling the red skirt over the top of the great bridge painted crimson spanning the Katashiha River, the shining river, you put on the garment dyed in mountain indigo.

OJ: su OC: *toŋ LH: tśoŋ EMC: tɕuawŋ GO: siu KN: siou NOM: chủng, giống, tròng SV: chủng, chúng SK: cywong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This appears in the toponym 種淮郡 Suwe District (MYS 4358). This toponym in Upper Fusa is later written 周淮 suwe. OJ: su OC: *tuŋh LH: tśuŋh EMC: tśuŋh GO: siu KN: siuu NOM: chúng SV: chúng SK: cywung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This appears in Shoku Nihongi in the the name 狛 祁 乎 理 和 久 古 衆 連 (And altered his name from) KOMAgye Woriwaku to Kwosu [NO] MURAZI (724.5.13). OJ: su OC: *thun LH: tśhuin EMC: tśhjwen GO: siun KN: siun NOM: xuân, xoan SV: xuân SK: chywo, swo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Shoku Nihongi in the name: 荅本陽春麻田連 (The name of) Tapo Yasu was altered to ASADA [NO] MURAZI (724.5.13). OJ: su OC: *suh LH: siuh EMC: suw LMC: siw GO: siu KN: siu NOM: tú SV: tú SK: sywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in one poem in Nihon shoki: NSK 24 阿佐志毛能 asasimwo no The morning frost melts— 瀰悶能佐烏麼志 mike no sawobasi courtiers cross over 魔弊菟耆瀰 mapyetu kimi the little tree bridge 伊和哆羅秀暮 iwatarasu mo to and fro from work; 瀰開能佐烏麼志 mike no sawobasi over the little tree bridge.

413

殊

輸

素

OJ: su OC: *do LH: dźo EMC: dʑuə LMC: ʂɦyə GO: ziu KN: siu NOM: thùa, thò SV: thù SK: sywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and it appears four times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 18 瀰磨紀異利寐胡播揶 mimakwi iribikwo paya Oh, Mimaki Iribiko! 飫廼餓烏塢 ono ga wo wo You play with a princess, 志齊務苔 sisemu to not even knowing that 農殊末句志羅珥 nusumaku sirazi someone is secretly 比売那素寐殊望 pimye naswobisu mo planning to take your life. OJ: su OC: *lho or *hjo LH: śo EMC: ɕuə LMC: ʂyə GO: siu KN: siu NOM: thâu, thua SV: du, thâu, thú SK: sywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to CBS. It appears 13 times in the poetry of Nihon shoki. NSK 73 瀰椰比等能 miyabito no How unfortunate. 阿由臂能古輸孺 ayupi no kwosuzu The small bells on the leg straps 於智珥岐等 otiniki to of the courtiers 瀰椰比等々豫牟 miyapito toyomu fell off and the courtiers clamor. 佐杜弭等茂由梅 satobito mo yume Beware, you people at home! OJ: su OC: *sah LH: sɑh > sɔh EMC: sɔ LMC: suə GO: so KN: su NOM: tố SV: tố SK: swo Usage / History: The phonogram 素 is used to transcribe two different syllables, swo and su. When 素 represents su it belongs to the CBS, based on LMC, which is only found in Nihon shoki. The famous example from Nihon shoki is the rendition of Susanoo’s name, 素戔嗚尊 Susa [NO] wo [NO] MIKOTO (Kojiki writes the name as 須佐之男命). This phonogram appears once in the annotational notes, and four times in the poetry: 清地此云素鵝 “ ‘Pure land,’ this is called suga” (NSG). NSK 2 阿妹奈屢夜 ame naru ya In the heavens, 乙登多奈婆多廼 ototanabata no the jewels strung upon 汙奈餓勢屢 unagaseru the string hung around 多磨廼彌素磨屢廼 tama no misumaru no the neck of the Weaver Maiden 阿奈陀磨波夜 anadama pa ya are very beautiful— 彌多爾 mitani like the beauty of him who 輔柁和柁羅須 puta watarasu shines over two hills, 阿泥素企多伽避顧禰 adisuki takapikwone Azisuki Takahikone.

414

蒭 樔

栖

簀

OJ: su OC: *tshro LH: tṣho EMC: tʂhuə LMC: tʂhuə GO: siu KN: su NOM: so SV: sô SK: chywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to CBS, appearing only once in the annotational notes of Nihon shoki: 壓、此云飫蒭 “ ‘suppress’ is read osu” (NSG). OJ: su OC: *dzrâu LH: dẓau EMC: dzaɨw GO: zeu KN:sau NOM: sào, rào SV: sào SK: chywo, swo Usage / History: This is a kungana, with the graph suggesting to the mind Old Japanese su ‘nest.’ This usage is mainly found in Kojiki and Nihon shoki. The graph 樔 is used primarily in Kojiki to represent the names of deities or royal princes and princesses: 高御産樔日神 the deity TAKA MIMUSUBI (KG), 石樔比売神 the deity ISISU Pimye (KG), and 石樔別命 ISISU WAKE (KG). According to Ōno (1977:824), there are seven examples of 樔 used to write toponyms in Nihon shoki, but he does not list any examples. I provide three examples: 歌荒樔田 UTA ARASUDA (a place in Yamashiro, NSG), 倉樔 KURASU (it is not clear which province this place was in, NSG), and 國樔部 KUNISUBYE (of Yoshino, NSG). OJ: su OC: *sə̂i or *snə̂i LH: sei or sen EMC: sɛj GO: sai KN: sei NOM: thê SV: tê, thê SK: sye Usage / History: This kungana, 栖 ‘nest,’ suggests to the reader Old Japanese word su ‘nest.’ There are two graphs, both representing su ‘nest’ in the corpus, this graph and 樔 (see above). This usage 栖 appears a number of times in the Mino census (702): 栗栖太里 KURISU PUTOri, and 栗栖田 KURISUDA. It also appears a few times in Man’yōshū. MYS 1919 KUNISURA GA Like the people of Kunisu 國栖等之 PARUNA TUMURAMU who are out picking wild herbs 春菜将採 on the moor of Shiba, 司馬乃野之 siba no NWO NO time and again 數君麻 SIBASIBA KIMI WO OMOPU KONO KORO I find myself thinking of you. 思比日 OJ: su OC: *tsrêk LH: tṣɛk EMC: tʂəɨjk GO: siaku KN: saku NOM: NA SV: trách SK: choyk Usage / History: This kungana, 簀 ‘bed mat,’ and suggests Old Japanese su ‘mat for bedding made of reeds or other material.’ This graph appears once in the Mino Census (702) in the toponym 本簀郡 MOTOSU District. It is also used once in Kojiki in the phrase 末押縻魚簀 SUWE OSINABURU NASU ‘and as if one were waving the tip (of the bamboo) back and forth…’ (KG). 415

There are also seven examples of this, all in the first half of Nihon shoki, in personal names like 稻田宮主簀狹之八箇耳 INADA [NO] MIYANUSI SUSA NO YATUMIMI (three times, NSG), 彦蒋簀命 PIKWO KOMOSU [NO] MIKOTO (NSG), and 宮簀媛 MIYASU PIMYE (three times, NSG). This kungana also appears twice in Man’yōshū. One example is: MYS 1176 NATU SWOBIKU Pulling up hemp in summer, 夏麻引 UNAKAMIGATA no on the sandbar in the offing 海上滷乃 OKITUSU ni of the Unakami wetlands 奥洲尓 TORI PA SUDAKEDO birds noisly flock together, but I 鳥者簀竹跡 KIMI PA OTO mo SEZU have not heard a peep from you. 君者音文不為

渚

爲

足

OJ: su OC: *taʔ LH: tśɑʔ > tśɔʔ EMC: tśjwoʔ GO: sio KN: sio NOM: chã, chớ, chưa SV: chử SK: cye Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind Old Japanese su ‘sandbar.’ This graph mainly appears in Man’yōshū and Nihon shoki. Below is an example from each work. In Nihon shoki there is the toponym 長渚崎 NAGASU Cape (NSG). MYS 2751 Like the pines on 味乃住 ADI no SUMU the rough beach of the inlet 渚沙乃入江之 SUsa no IRIYE no ARASWO MATU where the teal settle, 荒礒松 A wo MATU KWORA pa there is only one 我乎待兒等波 TADA PITORI NOMWI who pines for me. 但一耳 OJ: su OC: *wai LH: wai EMC: jwe GO: wi KN: wi NOM: vị, vi, vì SV: vị, vi SK: wuy Usage / History: When transcribing su this kungana suggests to the reader Old Japanese su ‘to do.’ This usage is only found in Man’yōshū. MYS 307 皮為酢寸 PADA SUsuKI Eulalia waving in the wind 久米能若子我 kume no WAKUGWO ga the young men of the Kume are present among us. 伊座家留 i MASIkyeru How I never tire of 三穂乃石室者 MIPO no IPAYA PA MIREDO AKANU KAMO looking at the cavern of Miho. 雖見不飽鴨 OJ: suku OC: *tsok LH: tsiok EMC: tsjwok GO: siu, soku KN: sioku NOM: túc SV: túc, tụ SK: cyok, cwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It is mainly used to transcribe a hereditary title, sukune, and appears on the earliest sword inscription in Japan. The title is transcribed as 足尼, interpreted as suk-ne (LH tsiok-neih), but 416

actually suggesting *sok-nei (which may represent an earlier form before vowel raising). It is unclear why, but this earlier usage (as well as 叔尼, see below) was later altered to 宿禰 (see 宿 below), unless to bring the phonogrammatic transcription in line with the current pronunication. The latest date for the use of 足尼 is 681, when the Yamana Mura monument was set up. It preserves the name 斯多多彌足禰 Sitatami Sukune. A wooden document from the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710) has a fragment of a name: □甘足尼 X-kamu Sukune, but it cannot be dated (MK 1526). Perhaps this usage fell out of use about the time the capital was moved to Nara in 710. The name 足奈 Sukuna is also seen in the Mino Census (702). Two variations of sukune appear in Shoku Nihongi: 足尼 (773.5.7) and 足禰 (779.1.8).

宿

叔 淑

OJ: suku, suko OC: *suk LH: siuk EMC: sjuk GO: suku KN: siuku NOM: túc, tú SV: túc, tú SK: sywuk, sywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and is primarily used to transcribe the title sukune (宿禰). It is unclear why the usage was altered, unless it was to represent a change in the phonology. If 足尼 was really sok-nei as noted under the graph 足, then perhaps vowel-raising in Japanese led the court to update the spelling (sok > suk). There are a number of other examples where the final -k appears to have been used to preface a following velar-initial syllable. Consider these examples: 宿久波賣 Sukupamye, 宿古太賣 Sukwodamye, and 宿古代賣 Sukwodemye (all from the Chikuzen Census of 702), as well as 宿古弖賣 Sukwotemye (from the Atago District Izumo Village Shrine record of 726). Several excavated mokkan have been preserved a number of names with this phonogram: 宿奈麻呂 Sukunamaro (MK 2074), □原宿麻呂 XPARA Sukumaro (MK 2111), and 宿奈 女 SukunaMYE (MK 1856). Ōno mentions a few examples where the reading is suko instead of suku (1962:452), 宿太 Sukoda and 宿提 Sukode, but it is possible that these are abbreviations of the male versions of the female versions seen in the Chikuzen Census. It is not clear, so I leave it as is. OJ: suku OC: *nhuk LH: śuk EMC: śjuk GO: suku KN: siuku NOM: thúc SV: thúc SK: sywuk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu, writing the name 蘇我馬古叔尼 Swoga UMAkwo Sukune. OJ: suku LH: dźuk NOM: NA

EMC: źjuk SV: thục

417

OC: *diuk GO: ziuku KN: siuku SK: sywuk

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, appearing once in an Izumo Provincial Financial document preserved in the Shōsōin and dated 734: 小野臣淑奈麻呂 WONWO OMI Sukunamaro.

駿

蘇

OJ: suru OC: *tsjuns < *tsur-s§ LH: tsuinh EMC: tsjwenh GO: siun KN: siun NOM: NA SV: tuấn SK: cywun, sywun Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, and perhaps earlier, due to the preservation of -r-. The sole example of this graph is the toponyms 駿河 Suruga. The earliest attestation of this usage appears in Nihon shoki. Kujiki transcribes suruga as 珠流河国, attesting to the medial -ru-. There is a fragment of a wooden document from the Fujiwara Capital ruins (fl. 694–710) which contains 駿度之子 ‘the son of Surudwo’ (MK 3465). OJ: swo OC: *sŋâ LH: sɑ > sɔ EMC: suo GO: so KN: so NOM: to, tô SV: tô, tồ, lộ SK: swo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in Wei zhi in the toponyms 対 蘇 *tos-sɔ, 蘇奴 *sɔ-nɔ, and 華奴蘇奴 *wa-nɔ-sɔ-nɔ. This graph also appears on the Kwangkaytho stele: 蘇 効 城 *swokwo fortress, 南 蘇 城 *namswo fortress. This phonogram also appears in a peninsular name quoted in Nihon shoki: 蘇那曷叱知, glossed as Swonakasiti. While this phonogram does not appear in the Suiko era corpus, that may simply reflect the dearth of material. The representation for the active volcano Mount Aswo is found in the Chinese record, Sui shu (ca. 656), as 阿蘇, a usage likely taken from the Japanese, again suggesting that the use of 蘇 for swo originated before the Suiko era. The phonogram 蘇 is later found in the liturgies: 噪岐、古語云蘇蘇伎 “ ‘Clamor’ in the old tongue is swoswoki” (NT 8). This phonogram appears a few times on mokkan: 安 蘇 郡 Aswo District (MK 3548), 物 部 麻 蘇 売 MONONOBYE Maswomye (MK 1707), 加夜評阿蘇里 Kaya Village Aswo Hamlet (MK 21). This phonogram was primarily used to transcribe swo in Kojiki, as these examples attest: 於天浮橋宇岐士摩理蘇理多多斯弖 AME [NO] UKIPASI NI ukizimari swori tatasite ‘from the floating bridge of heaven he ascended up to the floating island and stood there…’ (KG). KK 46 美知能斯理 miti no siri The maiden of Kohada 古波陀袁登賣波 kwopada wotomye pa from behind the path 阿良蘇波受 araswopazu does not resist me, 泥斯久袁斯敍母 nesiku wo si zo mo but has slept with me. 宇流波志美意母布 urupasimi omopu How pure is her heart.

418

This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, once in the annotational notes, and eight times in the poetry: 送糞此云倶蘇摩屢 “ ‘Spread dung’ is read kuswomaru” (NSG). NSK 102 夜酒瀰志斯 yasumisisi In the heavenly 和餓於朋耆瀰能 wa ga opo kimi no eighty [rays of] sunshine where 訶勾理摩須 kakurimasu my great lord hides, 阿摩能椰蘇河礙 ama no yaswokage who rules in peace— 異泥多々須 idetatasu if you go out and 瀰蘇羅烏瀰禮麼 miswora wo mireba look at the august sky, 豫呂豆余珥 yorodu yo ni for ten thousand reigns 訶勾志茂餓茂 kakusi mogamo may it remain as is, splendid. This phonograms appears in Man’yōshū to transcribe swo 120 times. MYS 157 MIWA YAMA NO The hemp offerings hung 神山之 YAMApye MAswo YUPU in the vicinity of Mount Miwa 山邊真蘇木綿 MIZIKA YUPU are short paper offerings. 短木綿 KAKU NOMWI YUWE ni Though they are thus short 如此耳故尓 NAGAKU to OMOPIki I will long think of her. 長等思伎

巷

OJ: swo OC: *ɡrôŋh LH: ɡɔŋh EMC: ɣåŋh GO: gou KN: kau NOM: NA SV: hạng SK: hang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The use of this phonogram is somewhat enigmatic, because the usage appears to be logographic in nature, but it is not readily clear what the relation is. For the time being I view this usage as a kungana. On the surface, one is tempted to believe that 巷 ‘lane, fork in a road’ reflects OJ swo, but no such known word exists. Another possibility is that 巷 is a graphic abbreviation for another phonogram used to transcribe swo. As Ōno notes (1962:53), some have theorized that the rendition with 巷 is really a mistake for 楚 or even 麤, but Kujiki writes the Swoga name as 巷宜, showing the antiquity of the rendition (宜 is LH ŋɨai representing pre-OJ *ga-i, while EMC ŋi representing OJ gwi). There is ample proof that this usage is archaic. In the record of origins in possession of the Gangōji Temple, the following rendition appear: 巷宜名伊那米大臣 “Swoga, named Great Minister Iname.” Iname’s name is also found written as 巷哥名伊奈米大臣 “Swoga, named Great Minister Iname.” Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu contains this quote from a nolonger extant cloth inscription: 巷奇大臣名伊奈米足尼 “Great Minister Swoga, named Iname Sukune.” Here are three different ways to spell the same name, but all three use 巷 to transcribe the initial swo. There is one example of this on a mokkan: 巷宜部刀由弥 SwogaBYE Twoyumi (MK 196). Ōno (1962:54) claims: “It is unthinkable that this graphic usage is related to Chinese or Korean orthography.” I hesitate to sweep continental influence aside so easily, but for the time being I leave the question open, and place the phonogram/kungana here. Because this phonogram only appears in the spelling of the Swoga family 419

name, it is quite possible that this is an idiosyncratic usage, perhaps based on the possible peninsular origins of the family. I propose the following theory as a possible solution: Sura in some dialects of Ryūkyūan means ‘lineage,’ and this goes back to an earlier *sora. If this word underlies the usage of 巷 ‘fork in the road, as genealogy branches off,’ then perhaps the following development occurred: *sora > *sura > *sura > swo.

嗽

宗

OJ: swo OC: *sôkh LH: soh EMC: səu GO: su, soku KN: sou, soku NOM: NA SV: sứu SK: swu, sak Usage / History: This is a rare phonogram, and the Sino-Vietnamese reading is unclear, so I have relied on a homophone. Mineya (1972:66) notes that the SV reading of a homophonous graph, 漱, is sứu. As the Sino-Japanese and Korean point out, there are two readings for this graph. Notice that a typical Han-Viet Tu-Dien records the reading of 漱 as sâu. Miyake (p.c.) notes, “SV sâu for 漱 seems to be a compromise reading blending the s of sứu with the rhyme of tấu. SV thâu for 漱 is a garbling of theoretical (and at one time existent?) tấu with the initial of 束 thuc. 嗽 LMC *səw` should result in SV tâu.” For the time being, I have relied on Mineya’s reading. It is interesting that by the time of Early Middle Chinese, this graph (嗽) would have represented otsu-rui /so/, but in the earlier, Later Han times, it had an overt rounded vowel. This attests to the antiquity of the rendition; however, as no other examples exist in our corpus, I place this phonogram in the EJS. The only extant example of this usage comes from an inscription on a halo of a Buddhist statue. That inscription contains the name of the Swoga family, written as 嗽加. OJ: swo OC: *tsûŋ LH: tsouŋ EMC: tsouŋ GO: so KN: sou NOM: tông, tong SV: tong SK: cwong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, and appears as early as the Suiko era corpus. This phonogram appears twice in the biographic work, Jōgū shōtoku hōō teisetsu, both times to write the name of the powerful Minister Swoga no Iname Sukune 宗我稲目足尼大臣. Other early Nara era documents write the Swoga family name as 宗我, 宗宜, or 宗何. Kojiki also preserves proper names written with 宗: 針間阿宗君 PARIMA Aswo KIMI (KG), 宗賀稲目宿禰大臣 Minister Swoga INAME Sukune (KG), and 宗賀之倉王 Prince Swoga NO KURA (KG). Man’yōshū contains a number of examples of this graph: MYS 3087 MASUGE YOSI True sedge is good— 真菅吉 宗我乃河原尓 swoga no KAPAPARA ni like the constant calling of plovers NAKU TIDORI on the riverbed of the Soga River 鳴千鳥 MANASI WA GA SEKWO I am longing for you, 間無吾背子 A GA KWOPURAKU PA unceasingly, my beloved. 吾戀者

420

素

祖

泝

OJ: swo OC: *sâh LH: sɑh > sɔh EMC: suoh LMC: suə GO: so KN: su NOM: tố SV: tố SK: swo Usage / History: The phonogram 素 is used to transcribe two different syllables, swo and su. When representing swo it belongs to the LJS. It appears twice in the annotational notes, and five times in the poetry in Nihon shoki: 素珥山 Mount Swoni (NSG). NSK 18 瀰磨紀異利寐胡播揶 mimakwi iribikwo paya Oh, Mimaki Iribiko! 飫廼餓烏塢 ono ga wo wo You play with a princess, 志齊務苔 sisemu to not even knowing that 農殊末句志羅珥 nusumaku sirazi someone is secretly 比売那素寐殊望 pimye naswobisu mo planning to take your life. This phonogram is also a primary graph in Man’yōshū to transcribe swo, used three times in the logographic portions of the anthology, but 16 times in the phonogrammatic sections: MYS 3604 IMWO ga swode It has been a long time since 妹我素弖 和可礼弖比左尓 wakarete pisa ni I parted with the sleeve of 奈里奴礼杼 narinuredo my beloved, but has there been 比登比母伊毛乎 pitopi mo imwo wo even one day that I have 和須礼弖於毛倍也 wasurete omope ya forgotten to think of her? OJ: swo OC: *tsâʔ LH: tsɑʔ > tsɔʔ EMC: tsuoʔ GO: so KN: so NOM: tổ, tỏ SV: tổ SK: cwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in various personal names preserved in various Shōsōin documents: 祖古比麻呂 Swokwopi Maro, 彌祖 咋萬呂 Miswo KUPI Maro, and 調乎具祖 TUKWI Woguswo. This phonogram also appears a three times in Man’yōshū: MYS 4389 志保不尼乃 sipopune no Like the whitecaps that 弊古祖志良奈美 pye kwoswo siranami suddenly crash over the bow 尓波志久母 nipasiku mo of the tide-ship, 於不世他麻保加 opusetamapo ka I was suddenly called away, 於母波弊奈久尓 omopapyenaku ni though I had not expected it. OJ: swo OC: *sŋâkh LH: sɑh > sɔh EMC: suoh LMC: suə GO: su KN: so NOM: NA SV: tố SK: swo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears only once in the poetry in Nihon shoki:

421

NSK 83 伊儺武斯盧 呵簸泝比野儺擬 寐逗愈凱麼 儺弭企於己陀智 曾能泥播宇世儒

麻 十

inamusiro kapaswopi yanagwi midu yukeba nabiki okwitati sono ne pa usezu

The willow growing along the banks of the river bends with the flow of the water. Fluttering or standing tall the roots remain unchanged.

OJ: swo OC: *mrâi LH: mai EMC: ma GO: ma KN: ma NOM: ma, mà SV: ma SK: ma Usage / History: This is a kungana, where 麻 ‘hemp’ suggests to the reader Old Japanese swo ‘hemp.’ This usage is preserved in personal names in Nihon shoki.The only example in Shoki is the Mononobe chief, 大綜麻杵 OPOPESWOKI. OJ: swo OC: *ɡip LH: dźip EMC: źjəp GO: zifu KN: sifu NOM: sập, thập SV: thập SK: sip Usage / History: This kungana,十 ‘ten,’ calls to mind Old Japanese swo ‘tens.’ This simple graphic association appears rather early in the extant records. The earliest known usage dates from 702, and appears in the Mino census: 八十麻呂 YASWO Maro. A Tsuchigumo woman named 八十女 YASWOMYE appears in Hizen fudoki, but some scholars believe this simply means ‘eighty shamanistic woman.’ This use of 十 also appears in Kojiki, Nihon shoki, and Man’yōshū, illustrating that this rendition likely originated in the Asuka era. Man’yōshū contains various words with 十, but most examples are of one specific usage: MASWOKAGAMI (真十鏡) ‘true-ten mirror,’ sometimes interpreted as a clear mirror. OJ: swo OC: NA LH: NA EMC: NA GO: NA KN: NA NOM: NA SV: NA SK: NA Usage / History: This is a interesting logographic usage based on Chinese grammar. The predicate here means ‘shoo away a horse,’ suggesting to the reader what one says when s/he shoos away a horse. There is a poem in Man’yōshū that provides clear evidence for this usage of swo: MYS 3451 左奈都良能 sanatura no I planted millet on 乎可尓安波麻伎 woka ni apa maki the hill of Sanatsura— 可奈之伎我 kanasiki ga even if my beloved’s 古麻波多具等毛 kwoma pa tagu tomo colt should eat the millet 和波素登毛波自 wa pa swo to mo pazi I will not shoo it away. The final stanza wa pa swo to mo pazi literally means I will not chase it away by saying ‘swo’ (which is close to English ‘shoo’). This usage of 追馬 only appears twice in Man’yōshū; the following is one example.

追馬

422

MYS 2645 宮材引 泉之追馬喚犬二 立民乃 息時無 戀渡可聞

MIYAGWI PIKU Like the workers IDUMI NO SWOMA ni at Izumi Soma TATUTAMI no cutting lumber for the palace, YASUMU TOKI NAKU I have no time to do anything KWOPWI WATARU kamo but continue to long for you.

423

T 多

OJ: ta OC: *tâi LH: tɑi > tɑ EMC: tâ GO: ta KN: ta NOM: đa, đơ SV: đa SK: ta Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in Wei zhi in the following title, 多模 *tamɔ. This graph also appears on several inscriptions in Paekche. On the inscription marking the grave of King Munyeng of Paekche is the name 多利 *tari. Also, on the Buddhist stone tower of Uysan-wangkung (益山王宮) is 阿耨多羅 anutara which represents Sanskrit anuttara ‘unparalleled.’ This phonogram is also used in Korean names recorded in Nihon shoki: 多沙 城 Tasa Fortress, 多羅 land of Tara, 末多王 Prince Mata, 意多郎 Otara (man from Paekche), 斯那奴阿比多 Sinanwo Apita (Japanese name spelled in a Paekche record), 多沙津 Port of Tasa, 己能末多干岐 Kono Mata Kanki, 多多羅原 Tatara Plain, 那多利 Natari (name of a Japanese person, born on the peninsula), 国雖多 Koksuwita (man from Paekche). This phonogram also appears in the oldest inscriptions in Japan. On the Inariyama tumulus sword inscription appears the following names: 多加利足尼 Takari Sukune, 多加披次獲居 Takapesi Waka, 多沙鬼獲居 Tasakwi Waka. It is very interesting that many of these Japanese names recorded on the sword have similar renditions as the Paekche usages preserved in Nihon shoki. Clearly this phonogram was the most popular for representing ta. In the Suiko era corpus this graph is used for names such as 多米王 Prince Tame, 加 多 夫 古 臣 Katapukwo OMI, 怒 那 久 良 布 刀 多 麻 斯 支 天 皇 Great King Nunakura Putwotama Siki, 支多斯比売 Princess Kitasi Pimye, 多至波奈等已 比乃弥己等 Tatibana Toyopi no Mikoto, and others. This phonogram appears often in the liturgies: 御服波明多閇照多閇、和多閇荒多閇爾仕奉弖 MISO pa AKARUtape TERU tape NIKItape ARAtape ni TUKAPEMATURIte “As for the clothing (we will make) fabric that is brilliant, glowing, soft, and coarse…” (NT 2). This phonogram appears on many mokkan: 多可夜万takayama ‘a high mountain’ (MK 551), 己亥年十二月二方評波多里・大豆五斗 ‘In the twelfth month of the year tutinoto wi (699) Pata Hamlet in PUTAKATA District (presented tribute) of five PAKWO (about half a bushel) of beans’ (MK 1173), and 阿支波 支乃之多波毛美智 aki paki no / sita pa mwomidi ‘The lower leaves of the autumn bush clover are crimson…’ (MKK 31:28). This final example has the same beginning as MYS 2205. This phonogram continued to be used in later records, like Kojiki, Nihon shoki, Man’yōshū, and others: 於名帶字謂多羅斯 “In a name, the graph 帶 ‘belt’ is read tarasi” (KG), 訓立云多知 “The graph 立 ‘standing’ is read tati” (KG), 訓 立云多多志 “(Here) the graph 立 ‘standing (honorific)’ is read tatasi” (KG). KK 15 夜麻登能 yamato no Of the seven 多加佐士怒袁 takasazinwo wo maidens who traverse 424

那那由久 nana yuku the Takasaji Moor 袁登賣杼母 wotomyedomo In Yamato— 多禮袁志摩加牟 tare wosi makamu of these who will you wed? In Nihon shoki this phonogram appears in 28 annotational notes, and 108 times in the poetry: 少童、此云和多都美 “少童 ‘few-youth,’ this is read watatumi” (NSG), 秉炬、此云多妃 “秉炬 ‘take-fire,’ this is read tapwi ‘torch’ ” (NSG), 玉籤、此云多摩倶之 “玉籤 ‘jewel-bamboo tally,’ this is read tamakusi ‘spiritually endowed branch” (NSG). NSK 44 瀰儺曾虚赴 minasokopu Who will look after 於瀰能烏苔咩烏 omi no wotomye wo this maiden, my subject 多例揶始儺播務 tare yasinapamu catching fish? This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū 1252 times, as these examples demonstrate: 迦多知波 katati pa ‘as for the shape…’ (MYS 794); 紀利多知 和多流 kwiri tati wataru ‘the mist rises and spreads out’ (MYS 799), and 麻佐 礼留多可良 masareru takara ‘a jewel that is above others’ (MYS 803). Finally, the following are found on wooden documents (mokkan) that contain dates: 辛卯年十月尾治国知多評 “Tenth month of 691, WOPARI Province, Tita District” (MK 166); 尾張国智多郡番賀郷花井里丸部龍麻呂・・・神亀四年 十月七日 “WANIBYE TATUmaro of the PANAWI Hamlet of Paniga Village in the Tita District of WOPARI Province…(dated seventh day of the 10th month of 727, MK 319);” 多米里多米部麿・・・・和銅六年 “TameBYE Maro of Tame Hamlet…713.” 多 比 真 人 ・ ・ ・ ・ 和 銅 七 年 九 月 廿 五 日 “Tapi MABITO…twenty-fifth day of the ninth month, 714” (unnumbered tablet). The simplified form of 多 is the origin of katakana タ.

哆

OJ: ta OC: *d-lai or k-hlaiʔ *[t-l̥ ]ajʔ § LH: tśhɑiʔ EMC: tśhjeʔ GO: ta KN: si NOM: đe, đớ, đứ SV: xỉ SK: chya, chi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, which fact seems odd if we consider that Japanese character dictionaries consistently claim that the Go-on is si. However, Hokekyō ongi preserves many glosses of this phonogram as ta (Ogura 1995.2:1184–1196). Also, in Chữ Nôm we find 殯 as đớ and 捶 is đứa both dental-initial. Baxter and Sagart (2014:270) also reconstruct this with intial *t-. One toponym with this phonogram is preserved in a Paekche name quoted in Nihon shoki: 上哆唎 Okoshi Tari ‘Upper Tari.’ This phonogram also appears four times in the annotational notes, and 14 times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 韴靈、此云赴屠能瀰哆磨 “ ‘(The powerful sword) Futsu no Mitama’ is read putu no mitama” (NSG). NSK 70 於裒企彌烏 opokimi wo They exiled the great ruler 志摩珥波夫利 sima ni paburi to a distant island. 布儺阿摩利 punaamari The boat will be full, 異餓幣利去牟鋤 igapyeri komu zo and she will return to me. 和餓哆哆瀰由梅 wa ga tatami yume So purify all the mats. 去等烏許曾 koto wo koso ‘The mats’ are my words, 425

哆多瀰等異泮梅 和餓菟摩烏由梅

大

太

tatami to ipame wa ga tuma wo yume

but that is not what I meant. Stay clean and pure, my spouse.

OJ: ta OC: *dâs LH: dɑh, das EMC: dâih GO: da, dai KN: ta, tai NOM: đại SV: đại, thái SK: ta, tay, thay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, appearing on various inscriptions preserved on the Korean peninsula. On the Kwangkaytho stele, the graph appears in the following names: 大朱留王 King *tasuru, 大山韓城 *tasankan fortress. It should be mentioned that 大 may actually be a logogram here, rather than a phonogram, meaning ‘great.’ As it is impossible to be sure without corroborating evidence I leave 大 here. This phonogram also appears in Koryŏgi: 次大使者、 比正四品、一名大奢, “Next is the Great Envoy, which is comparable to the Senior Fourth Rank, also known as tasa.” (Takeuchi 1977:34). This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, in quotes from Paekche records: 大不孫 Tapuson, 大市頭 Tasitu. There are many examples in the Shōsōin with 大, but as Ōno points out (1962:111), these may be nothing more than abbreviations of 太. Onoda Mitsuo (1977:11–12) has carefully examined scribal tendencies when writing 大 or 太 in the various texts of Kojiki and notes, “In the ancient manuscripts, scribes wrote 大 or 太 freely with almost no distinction between the two.…It has been shown…that from the earliest times in China there has been an overlapping usage of 大 and 太….This is also true of the Korean peninsula.” There is one example of 大 representing ta in the annotational notes of Book 26 of Nihon shoki: 田身山名。云大務 “ ‘田身’ is the name of a mountain. It is read tamu” (NSG). The graph 大 was generally avoided in Japan as a phonogram because it was so useful as a logogram ‘great.’ OJ: ta OC: *thâs LH: thɑs EMC: thaih GO: tai KN: tai NOM: thái SV: thái SK: thay Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. For an explanation of the problems with distinguishing between 大 and 太 see the explanation under 大 ta. Because of the textual difficulties in determining when 大 is intended and not 太, I place this phonogram here. As Ōno (1962:166) explains, this graph was used to write da, but because it was only a few strokes, many scribes used it to transcribe ta. This phonogram appears on the Kwangkaytho stele: 加太羅谷 *ka-tas-ra valley. It also appears in the Paekche name of a monastery builder preserved in Nihon shoki: 太良未太 Taramwida. The record of the origin of the Gangōji Temple contains the same name as 丈羅未大, glossed as Daramwida. However, as 太 and 丈 are easily confused, it is highly probable that 丈 is simply a mistake for 太. A mokkan from the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710) contains the name 大伴直 可太末呂 OPOTOMO ATAPI Katamaro (or Kadamaro? MKK 5:86). Shoku Nihongi contains the following examples: 伊太祁曾 Itakyeso Shrine 426

(702.2.22), 巨勢朝臣太益須 Kose ASOMI Tayasu (706.7.11), and 佐渡國雜太 郡 Sadwo Province Sapata District (721.4.20). The cursive form of this phonogram yields hiragana た.

侈

他

託

OJ: ta OC: *d-lai or *k-hlaiʔ *t-l̥ ajʔ § LH: tśhai EMC: tśhjeʔ GO: si KN: si NOM: xỉ, xí, xẫy SV: xỉ, xí SK: chi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, appearing once in the Suiko era corpus, in the genealogy of Prince Shōtoku: 久波侈女王 Princess Kupata. As Ōno (1962:54) argues, using this graph to transcribe ta may be based on Old Chinese phonology. Schuessler (2007:187) provides two possible Old Chinese reconstructions, but as Baxter and Sagart demonstrate, this was *t- initial at the OC stage (2014:270). OJ: ta OC: *lhâi LH: thai EMC: thâ GO: ta KN: ta NOM: tha, thà, thơ SV: tha SK: tha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, appearing in Kojiki and Man’yōshū. This phonogram appears once in the poetry of Kojiki, and once in a toponym: 御 陵在沙紀之多他那美也 ‘His august burial tumulus is located at Tatanami of Sakwi’ (KG). KK 66 賣杼理能 myedori no Princess Medori, 和賀意富岐美能 wa ga opokimi no my royal maiden, 於呂須波多 orosu pata who will wear 他賀多泥呂迦母 ta ga tanero kamo that fabric that you weave? This phonogram also appears five times in Book 20 of Man’yōshū. MYS 4390 牟浪他麻乃 muratama no Having made a firm promise, 久留尓久枳作之 kuru ni kugi sasi as a door pivoting on a nail— 加多米等之 katametosi like a cluster of jewels, 以母加去々里波 imo ga kokoro pa my beloved’s heart will 阿用久奈米加母 aywokuname kamo probably not be moved. OJ: ta, taku OC: *thâk LH: thak EMC: thâk GO: taku KN: taku NOM: thác SV: thác SK: thak Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. There is one instance of this in Nihon shoki, 託基 read Takwi, but it seems fairly certain that the velar-final 託 was used to introduce the velar initial 基. This is also true of the example in Harima fudoki: 託賀郡 Taka District. Izumo fudoki preserves one name: 託和 社 Takuwa Shrine. Man’yōshū contains only one example of this phonogram.

427

MYS 395 The violet foliage 託馬野尓 takUMANWO ni OPOru MURASAKI growing on Takuma Moor— 生流紫 KINU NI SIME I dyed my cloth in it, 衣染 IMADA KIZU SITE but before I could wear the robes 未服而 IRO ni IDENIKERI people already knew about it. 色尓出来 Some scholars want to read 託馬 as tukuma, but that seems unwarranted. Consider that a number of wooden documents (mokkan) contain the place name 肥後国託麻郡 PWIGO Province Takuma District, which has a reading tradition of takuma (MK 302, MKK 11:19). This phonogram also appears three times in Hizen fudoki, used to represent the toponym 託羅 Ta(ku)ra. A modern place name of Tara still exists, making scholars believe this set should be read tara, but consider, as Ōno points out (1962:452), that Wamyōshō contains the place name 託羅 found in the province of Awa and it is read takara. I propose that the Hizen place name was takura and as time went on -ku- devoiced and dropped.

黨

陀 陁

OJ: ta OC: *tâŋʔ LH: tɑŋʔ EMC: tâŋʔ LMC: taŋ GO: tau KN: tau NOM: đảng SV: đảng SK: tang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears once in the early section of Nihon shoki’s poetry: NSK 4 憶企都茂播 okitu mo pa It comes to the shore 陛爾播譽戻耐母 pye nipa yoredomo the seaweed in the offing; 佐禰耐據茂 sanedoko mo but my wife comes not— 阿黨播怒介茂譽 atapanu kamo yo refusing to give me a bed. 播磨都智耐理譽 pamatutidori yo Ah! The plovers on the beach! OJ: ta OC: NA LH: dai EMC: dâ LMC: tɦa GO: da KN: ta NOM: đà SV: đà SK: tha Usage / History: This phonogram has a variant form, 陁 (see below). OJ: ta OC: draiʔ LH: ḍiaiʔ EMC: ḍjeʔ LMC: tɦa GO: da KN: ta NOM: đà SV: đà SK: tha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears 16 times in the annotational notes, and 38 times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: 碩田此云於保岐陁 “ ‘Large field’ is read opokita” (NSG), 立出此云陁豆豆 “ ‘Stand and leave’ is read tatudu” (NSG).

428

NSK 113 耶麻鵝播爾 烏志賦頴都威底 陁虞毘預倶 陁虞陛屢伊慕乎 多例柯威爾雞武

柁 柂

駄

yamagapa ni wosi putatu wite tagupi yoku tagupyeru imo wo tare ka winikyemu

There are two mandarin ducks at the mountain stream, paired off so nicely. Who has taken my beloved who paired off so well with me?

OJ: ta OC: thraiʔ LH: ṭiaiʔ EMC: ṭhjeʔ LMC: tɦa GO: da KN: ta NOM: đà, xà SV: đạ SK: tha Usage / History: See this phonogram under its variant, 柂 (see below). OJ: ta OC: thraiʔ LH: ṭiaiʔ EMC: ṭhjeʔ LMC: tɦa GO: da KN: ta NOM: đà, xà SV: đạ SK: tha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. The original graph was 舵, later simplified to 柁, which was then altered to 柂. This phonogram appears six times in the annotational notes, and 27 times in Nihon shoki poetry: 木蓮子、此 云伊柂寐 “ ‘The name Itabi’ is read itabwi” (NSG). NSK 78 柯武柯噬能 kamukaze no By the divine-wind swept ocean 伊制能 ise no of Ise Province 伊制能奴能 ise no nwo no on the plain in Ise 娑柯曳嗚 sakaye wo a man cuts the branches 伊裒甫流柯枳底 ipo puru kakite that have grown so thickly. 志我都矩屢麻泥爾 si ga tukuru made ni He cuts so many branches 飫裒枳瀰爾 opokimi ni they cannot be counted, 柯頴倶 kataku all for his lord— 都柯陪麻都羅武騰 tukapematuramu to building a strong edifice. 倭我伊能致謀 wa ga inoti mo He has continued to say 那我倶母鵝騰 nagaku mo ga to that his great desire 伊比志柂倶彌皤夜 ipisi takumi paya was to live a long life. 阿柂羅陁倶彌皤夜 atara takumi paya Alas, that pitiful carpenter. OJ: ta OC: NA LH: NA EMC: da LMC: tɦa GO: da KN: ta NOM: NA SV: đà SK: tha Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears eight times in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 99 柯羅屨儞嗚 kara kuni wo No matter what people 以柯儞輔居等所 ika ni pu koto so may say about our land of Kara, 梅豆羅古枳駄樓 medurakwo kitaru Mezurako has arrived. 武哿左屨樓 mukasakuru Passing through the distant 429

以祇能和駄唎嗚 梅豆羅古枳駄樓

田

手

iki no watari wo medurakwo kitaru

channel of Iki Mezurako has at last arrived.

OJ: ta OC: *lîn LH: den EMC: dien GO: demu KN: ten NOM: điền, ruộng SV: điền SK: tyen Usage / History: This kungana calls to the reader’s mind OJ ta ‘cultivated field.’ It is difficult to date this usage, as it appears as early as the Suiko era corpus, but this might actually show contamination, with a mixture of styles: 小治田 WOPARITA, 田 宮中比彌 TAMIYA NAKA pimye Princess Tamiya Naka, 他田宮 WOSATA Palace. This kungana also appears in the early Taihō census (702): 栗 栖 田 KURISUTA, 大 田 OPOTA, 黒 田 KURWOTA, 古 田 賣 KwoTAmye (or possibly PURUTAmye), 伊波田賣 IpaTAmye. This usage appears in Kojiki fairly frequently, especially in names recorded in Book 1 of the work: 姓稗田名阿禮 “(an individual) with the family association name of PIYETA and having the name of Are” (KG), 田寸津比賣 TAKITU Pimye (KG). According to Ōno (1977:803) there are some 536 examples with 田 as ta in Nihon shoki: 吾田邑 ATA Village (NSG), and 城田 KWITA (NSG). There are over 100 examples of this kungana in Man’yōshū. MYS 83 WATA NO SOKO From the bottom of the sea 海底 OKITU SIRANAMI white caps on the offing— 奥津白波 when will I cross over 立田山 TATUTA YAMA ITU KA KWOYEnamu Mount Tatsuta, to see 何時鹿越奈武 IMWO GA ATARI MImu things around my beloved? 妹之當見武 OJ: ta OC: *nhuʔ or *hjuʔ LH: śuʔ EMC: śjəuʔ GO: su KN: siuu NOM: thủ SV: thủ SK: sywu Usage / History: This phonogram was used as a kungana, suggesting to the reader the OJ bound form ta- ‘hand.’ This graph is first found in the census records of the Taihō (702) era: 手纒賣 TAMAKWImye, 手 束賣 TASOKUmye. It also appears in Kojiki in the name 手白髪郎女 TASIRWOKA [NO] IRATUMYE. Examples in names in Nihon shoki include: 手研耳命 TAGISI MIMI [NO] MIKOTO and 手白香皇女 Princess TASIRWOKA. This usage only occurs at the beginning of names. There are eight examples of this kungana in Man’yōshū, and all occur at the beginning of a morpheme string. MYS 41 KUSIRO TUKU Reminding one of arm ornaments— 釼著 手節乃埼二 TAPUSI no SAKI ni at Cape Tafushi KEPU mo ka mo are the people of the great palace 今日毛可母

430

大宮人之 玉藻苅良武

當

宕 宅 澹 淡

OPOMIYAPITO NO TAMAMO KARUramu

out enjoying themelves today cutting the gem weed?

OJ: tagi OC: *tâŋ LH: taŋ EMC: tâŋ GO: tau KN: tau NOM: đang, đáng SV: đang, đáng SK: tang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS and appears in early renditions, but almost all are to represent the toponym 當麻 Tagima, but there are a number of exceptions. The scholarly tradition is that this phonogram can also represent ta, but as the following examples show, this graph was often used to anticipate the velar in the next syllable: 當藝志美美命 Tagisi Mimi [NO] MIKOTO, 當藝比古 Tagi Pikwo, 當藝麻 Tagima, and 當岐麻 Tagima (all from Kojiki). In Shoku Nihongi we find 當耆皇女 Princess Tagi (698.9.10) and 福當連 Putagi [NO] MURAZI (761.3.15). OJ: tagi OC: *dâŋh LH: daŋh EMC: dâŋ LMC: tɦaŋ GO: dau KN: tau NOM: NA SV: đáng SK: thang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in Shoku Nihongi in the name 愛宕郡 Otagi District (780.4.26). OJ: taku OC: *drâk LH: ḍak EMC: ḍɐk LMC: trɦa:jk GO: daku KN: taku NOM: trạch SV: trạch SK: choyk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This phonogram appears in Shoku Nihongi in the name 藤原宅美 PUDIPARA Takumi (771.11.25). Ōno (1962:452) mentions that at the end of Izumo fudoki is a section of addenda that includes the toponym 宅和 Takuwa, written as 宅波 Takupa in a variant manuscript, so he has set it aside for the time being. OJ: tama OC: *lâmʔ or *lâms LH: damʔ or damh EMC: dâmʔ LMC: tɦam GO: damu KN: tan NOM: NA SV: đạm SK: tam Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears in Izumo fudoki in the toponym 澹由比濱 Tamayupi Beach. The NKBT editor has this glossed as た ゆひ, but I do not know on what authority. As Ōno (1962:467) points out, other witnesses have 玉結濱 TAMAYUPI Beach. OJ: tama, tamu OC: *lâmʔ or *lâms LH: damʔ or damh EMC: dâmʔ LMC: tɦam GO: dan KN: tan NOM: đạm, đặm, đượm SV: đạm SK: tam

431

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and several examples appear in documents preserved in the Shōsōin: 志淡思郷 Sitamusi Village, 大伴淡等 OPOTOMO Tabito (< Tam-pito representing prenasalization). There is also the name 多治比真人倓世 Tadipi MABITO Tamase (or Tamuse?). This is a rare example of 倓, so it is possible this is simply a variant of 淡, as the radical 氵 written in cursive resembles 亻. In Harima fudoki we find 淡 奈 志 Tamanasi, though there is some argument about the true reading. The NKBT editor has altered an original 淡奈 志 to 談奈志 IPAnasi, but for now I have followed the critical text.

倓 覃 潭 丹

OJ: tama OC: *lâm or *lâms LH: dam or damh EMC: dâm LMC: tɦam GO: dan KN: tan NOM: NA SV: đảm SK: tam Usage / History: This phonogram is likely a variant (a product of cursive writing?) of 淡 (see above). OJ: tami OC: *lə̂m LH: dəm EMC: dậm LMC: tɦam GO: don KN: tan NOM: đầm SV: đàm SK: tam Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in two different spellings in Bingo fudoki: 球覃 and 救覃, both read Kutami. OJ: tami OC: *lə̂m LH: dəm EMC: dậm LMC: tɦam GO: dan KN: tan NOM: đằm SV: đàm SK: tam Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears once in Izumo fudoki in 玖 潭郷 Kutami Village. OJ: tani, tanu OC: *tân LH: tan EMC: tân GO: tamu KN: tan NOM: đan, đơn SV: đan, đơn SK: tan Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram is mainly confined to representing the toponym Tanipa 丹 波 (Kojiki, Nihon shoki, Kujiki, and Man’yōshū). There is also the family name 丹治比 Tadipi, matching very nicely Old Japanese phonology, because we know the medial consonant was prenasalized: ta-ndi-pi, which is what 丹治比 actually represents: tan-di-pi. As time went on, this tri-graph was shortened to a digraph: 丹比 but continued to be read tadipi. Documents contained in the Shōsōin have the name 丹治 Tadi. Shoku Nihongi also contains the following: 志丹 Sitani (though some manuscripts have this glossed as sitanu, a personal name, 717.1.18), and 丹比 Tadipi.

432

旦 但 檀

答 塔

OJ: tani OC: *tâns LH: tanh EMC: tânh GO: tamu KN: tan NOM: đán SV: đán SK: tan Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram is used to represent Tanipa 旦波 as found in a document found in the Shōsōin. OJ: tani OC: *dânʔ LH: danʔ EMC: dânʔ LMC: tɦan GO: damu KN: tan NOM: đãn, đỡn SV: đán, đãn SK: tan Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It is used to represent Tanipa 但波 in the Izumo Otagi District Register of 726. It also is found in an Izumo tax record from 739: 但馬 Tadima, which is a shortened form of 但治馬 Tan-di-ma. OJ: tanwo, ta OC: *dân LH: dan EMC: dân LMC: tɦan GO: damu KN: tan NOM: đàn SV: đàn SK: tan Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in Nihon shoki in the name 許勢朝臣辛檀努 Kose ASOMI Sitanwo (NSG). This same person is earlier found as 巨勢臣紫檀 Kose OMI Sitanwo (NSG). He also appears in Shoku Nihongi, with his name written as 志 丹 Sitanwo (717.1.18). Different manuscripts have different readings for the graphs 檀 and 丹, but based on Nihon shoki’s single instance of -tanwo, I have kept that spelling throughout. OJ: tapu OC: *tə̂p LH: təp EMC: tập GO: tafu KN: tafu NOM: đáp SV: đáp SK: tap Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in Shoku Nihongi in 答他 伊奈麻呂 Tapuda Inamaro (761.3.15). This same family name is found in a document from the Shōsōin: 答田 TapuDA and 答多 Tapuda. This usage also appears on a mokkan: 答志郷 Tapusi Village (MK 11411). OJ: tapu OC: NA LH: thap EMC: thâp GO: tafu KN: tafu NOM: tháp, thóp SV: tháp SK: thap Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in the Buzen census of 702 in the name 塔里 Tapuri and 塔勝 Tapusio, both which may be peninsular names. Other names found in documents in Shōsōin include 江沼塔麻呂 YENUMA Tapumaro and 紀部塔万呂 KwiBYE Tapumaro. This phonogram also appears in one poem in Man’yōshū. MYS 1089 OPOKI UMI ni Though there are 大海尓 SIMA mo ARANAKU ni no islands in the wide ocean 嶋毛不在尓 433

海原 絶塔浪尓 立有白雲

帶

達

鞮 弖

UNAPARA NO TAYUtapu NAMI ni TATERU SIRAKUMWO

out on the sea-plain there are white clouds above the towering waves.

OJ: tara OC: *tâs *C.tʕa[t]-s § LH: tas EMC: tâi GO: tai KN: tai NOM: đái, đáy, đới SV: đái,đới SK: toi Usage / History: This kungana appears in Man’yōshū, and should call to mind obi ‘belt,’ but instead it must be read tara, likely a Paekche word for belt. This usage appears once in Man’yōshū in the following: MYS 443 My august mother 帶乳根乃 TARATINE no PAPA NO MIKOTO PA a suckling at her breast, 母命者 IPAPIPYE wo places wine cup of worship 齊忌戸乎 MAPYE NI SUWEOKITE in front of her…. 前坐置而 OJ: tata, tate, tati OC: *thât or *dât LH: that or dat EMC: thât or dât GO: dati KN:tati NOM: đạt, đặt, đật SV: đạt SK: tal Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in a Koguryŏ surname found in Nihon shoki: 達沙 Tatisa. There is also the name of an individual: 覩貨羅人 乾豆波斯達阿 Genzu Hasidatia from Tokara. There is also the name 鞍部村主 司馬達等 KURATUKURI SUGURI Simadatito, This last individual may be from Paekche. This phonogram is also found in names like 吉敷郡達理山 YOSIKI District Mount Tadari (730.3.13), 佐伯宿祢伊達 Sapeki Sukune Itate (785.7.17) in Shoku Nihongi. Harima fudoki also contains the name 因達 Idate, which comes from in-tate. OJ: te OC: *tê or *dê LH: te, de EMC: tiei, diei GO: tai KN: tei NOM: NA SV: đề SK: tyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It is used in Wei zhi to transcribe the title of an auxiliary official: 奴佳鞮 *nɔ-ke-te. While this phonogram does not appear in any other Japanese record, other related graphs like 提堤題 are used to represent OJ te (see below). OJ: te OC: *tîʔ LH: teiʔ EMC: tiei GO: tei KN: tei NOM: đê SV: đê, để SK: tye Usage / History: Anciently there appears to have been two phonograms for te, 氐 and 弖, but I argue that these originate from the same graph, one actually a graphic variant (弖) of the other (氐). Chinese character dictionaries in Japan (kanwa 434

jiten) label 弖 as a 国字 kokuji ‘native character,’ based on the arguments of some scholars (cf. Tōdō 1978:431, Kamata et al. 1987:337). It needs to be pointed out, however, that this graph is preserved on the Kwangkaytho stele in Koguryŏ, strongly suggesting that this altered form of graph at the very least came from the peninsula. See Kitagawa (1991:234) for a rubbing of this kanji. Both usages and their history are addressed here. Based on the available data, I place this phonogram in the PBS. There is one example of this graph on the Kwangkaytho stele: 幹弖利城 *ɡɨɑn-tei-li fortress. It is possible that the first graph 幹 represents *kən, as the graph 翰 is used to represent ‘large’ in a Paekche place name. Both graphs have mid, unrounded vowels. This phonogram also appears on the Eta Funayama tumulus sword inscription, in the name 无利弖 Murite. On the Inariyama tumulus sword inscription there appears the following two names: 弖巳加利獲居 *teyo-kariwaka, 半弖比[垝] *pante-pi-(kwa-i). These data are important, because it is generally accepted that at this point in time (fifth century?) the Wa were mostly illiterate, and this inscription was likely transcribed by an immigrant from Paekche, and carved into the blade by a Wa swordsmith. Looking at the usages in Nihon shoki is also enlightening. Consider these data in Nihon shoki: 久氐 Kute, man from Paekche 奴氐大舎 Nute Tasa, a man from Silla 彌弖 Myite, a port in Paekche 弖礼 Tere, name of a fortress 牟弖 Mute, an official from Paekche Consider that all Nihon shoki manuscripts, other than Shaku Nihongi, record the first name Kute as 久氐. In the record of Tenchi, however, a Paekche official named Mute 牟弖 and a Paekche fortress, Tere 弖礼, are written with 弖 in all manuscripts, including Shaku Nihongi (Ienaga et al. 1986.2:361, Onoda 1986:532). These renditions should first show that the phonogram 弖 was already being used on the Korean peninsula, and was taught by the Paekche to the Wa. This is further confirmed by the inscription on the Inariyama tumulus sword inscription, as noted above. Second, it would seem that there indeed were two different graphs for te. I submit, however, that 弖 is a cursive form of 氐. This phonogram also appears in the earliest recorded material in Japan, preserved in a Suiko-era inscription, that of the Gangōji Halo inscription: 奴加 弖古 Nukatekwo, and 古弖古郎女 Kwotekwo IRATUMYE. This phonogram also appears in Jōgū shōtoku hōō teisetsu: 須加弖古女王 Princess Sukatekwo. It also appears in one poem in the same work: 伊我留我乃 ikaruga no In Ikaruga springs water from the fountain of Tomi. 止美能井乃美豆 tomi no WI no midu 伊加奈久尓 ikanakuni If I had known she could not 多義弖麻之母乃 tagete masimono live without that water, I would have let her drink some. 止美乃井能美豆 tomi no WI no midu This phonogram also appears in the late Asuka liturgies: 高天原爾千木高知 弖 TAKAMAPARA ni TIGWI TAKA SIRIte “raise the roof pillars to heaven” (NT 10), 白弖 MAWOSIte “said, and…” (NT 1). This phonogram appears on several mokkan: 伊 弖 志 Itesi (MK 100), 佐 波 利 弖 saparite ‘and obstruct…’ (unnumbered tablet). This phonogram is also the principal graph for representing te in Kojiki: 宇 435

士多加礼許呂呂岐弖 uzi takare kororokite “maggots had gathered and were squirming, and…” (KG), 宇気比弖 ukepite “vowed, and…,” 伊多弖淤波受 itate opazu “(he) did not get wounded…” (KG). KK 108 斯本勢能 sipwose no Looking at the line of waves 那袁理袁美禮婆 nawori wo mireba driven by the brisk tide, 阿蘇毘久流 aswobikuru I see the fin 志毘賀波多傳爾 sibi ga patade ni of a swimming tuna, 都麻多弖理美由 tuma tateri miyu where my spouse-to-be stands. This phonogram is used 33 times in the poetry in Shoki: NSK 104 斯那提流 sinateru Starving for want of food 箇多烏箇夜摩爾 katawokayama ni on Mount Kataoka, 伊比爾惠弖 ipi ni wete the shining hill, 許夜勢屢 koyaseru how pitiful is that farmer 諸能多比等阿波禮 sono tapito apare who has fallen. 於夜那斯爾 oya nasi ni Surely you were not 那禮奈理雞迷夜 narenarikyeme ya raised without parents. 佐須陀氣能 sasu take no Do you have no lord, 枳彌波夜那祇 kimi paya naki strong like bamboo? 伊比爾惠弖 ipi ni wete Starving for want of food 許夜勢留 koyaseru how pitiful is that farmer 諸能多比等阿波禮 sono tapito apare who has fallen. This phonogram is the primary graph used in Man’yōshū to represent te, appearing roughly 655 times. MYS 806 How I want to obtain 多都能馬母 tatu no MA mo 伊麻勿愛弖之可 ima mo ete sika even a dragon steed right now, 阿遠尓与志 awo ni yosi in order to return 奈良乃美夜古尓 nara no miyakwo ni to the Nara capital, 由吉帝己牟丹米. yukite komu tame which is good in its greenery.

天

OJ: te OC: *thîn LH: then EMC: thien GO: temu KN: ten NOM: thiên SV: thiên SK: thyen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. There is one example of this phonogram on the Kwangkaytho stele: 仇天城 *ɡu-ten fortress. The final nasal is written in superscript because while it is possible that the language of Koguryŏ ignored the final, the possibility does exist that this name required the -n. This phonogram then appears in a toponym preserved in the documents of the Shōsōin: 天萬郷 Tema Village (in Haki Province). It is also used as a particle in the edicts preserved in Shoku Nihongi: 兵乎發朝庭乎傾動武止之天鈴印 乎奪復皇位乎掠天先仁捨岐良比賜天之道祖我兄鹽燒乎皇位仁方定止云天官印乎押 天 天下 乃 諸國 仁 書 乎 散 天 告知 之米 IKUSA wo OKOSI, MIKADWO wo KATABUKE UGOKASAmu to site SUZU ORITE wo UBAPI MATA MIKADWO [NO] KURAWI wo KSAWOPITE, SAKI ni SUTEkirapi TAMAPItesi PUNATWO ga E SIPOYAKI wo MIKADWO 436

[NO] KURAWI nipa SADAMETU to IPIte TUKASA [NO] ORITE wo OSIte AME [NO] SITA no KUNIGUNI ni PUMI wo AKATIte TUGESIRAsime ‘(Nakamaro) raised troops, and tried to tip over the court, stole the relay bells and government signets, and tried to take the throne. Beforehand he said that he had established (Prince) Shihoyaki, the older brother of Funato. He pressed the official seal and distributed the document to the various provinces and let them know of his decision’ (SM 28). This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū: MYS 3595 安佐妣良伎 asabiraki When we rowed out 許藝弖天久礼婆 kogidete kureba into the bay of Muko 牟故能宇良能 mukwo no ura no at daybreak, 之保非能可多尓 sipopwi no kata ni the call of cranes came from 多豆我許恵須毛 tadu ga kowe su mo the wetlands at low tide. Shinsen jikyō (ca. 892) uses both 氐 and 天 to transcribe te: 衒 天良波 須 “Make a show, terapasu.” The cursive form of the phonogram 天 results in hiragana て, while the simplified form results in katakana テ.

帝

提

OJ: te OC: *têh LH: teh EMC: tieih GO: tai KN: tei NOM: đế, đấy, đí SV: đế SK: thyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, appearing a few times in Kojiki: 名布帝 耳 “(Her) name is Pute MIMI.” 伊多玖佐夜芸帝阿理那理 itaku sayagete arinari “(the land) is in a terrible state of boisterous (confusion)” (KG). This phonogram appears only once in Nihon shoki’s poetry: NSK 66 佐瑳羅餓多 sasaragata Undo the string with 迩之枳能臂毛弘 nisiki no pimwo wo the bamboo whisk design— 等枳舎気帝 tokisakete that brocade string. 阿麻多絆泥受迩 amata pa nezu ni I cannot spend many nights; 多儾比等用能未 tada pito ywo nomwi let us spend but one night. There is only one clear example of 帝 in Man’yōshū: MYS 806 How I want to obtain 多都能馬母 tatu no MA mo 伊麻勿愛弖之可 ima mo ete sika even a dragon steed right now, 阿遠尓与志 awo ni yosi in order to return 奈良乃美夜古尓 nara no miyakwo ni to the Nara capital, 由吉帝己牟丹米. yukite komu tame which is good in its greenery. As Ōno (1977:510) points out, this single example in Man’yōshū is likely an artistic usage, being a play on the previous stanza of Nara capital (even written 奈良, where the ruler 帝 ‘ruler’ lives). OJ: te LH: teh, de NOM: đề, đè, dề, chề

OC: *têʔ or dê EMC: tieih, diei LMC: tiaj GO: dai KN: tei SV: đề, thì SK: tyey

437

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This graph appears in various records from the Taihō Census (702): 宇提 Ute, 牟久提賣 Mukutemye, 由彌提 Yumite, 彌多提賣 Mitatemye, 伊提 Ite, and 等能提 Tonote. It also appears on various mokkan, usually in Buddhist transcriptions: 迦葉那提迦葉舎利□ kapa nate kapa siari X ‘Kāsyapa, Nadī, sacred bone of Kāsyapa’ (MKK 16:135). This phonogram also appears twice in the poetry in Nihon shoki. NSK 104 斯那提流 sinateru Starving for want of food 箇多烏箇夜摩爾 katawokayama ni on Mount Kataoka, 伊比爾惠弖 ipi ni wete the shining hill, 許夜勢屢 koyaseru how pitiful is that farmer 諸能多比等阿波禮 sono tapito apare who has fallen. 於夜那斯爾 oya nasi ni Surely you were not 那禮奈理雞迷夜 narenarikyeme ya raised without parents. 佐須陀氣能 sasu take no Do you have no lord, 枳彌波夜那祇 kimi paya naki strong like bamboo? 伊比爾惠弖 ipi ni wete Starving for want of food 許夜勢留 koyaseru how pitiful is that farmer 諸能多比等阿波禮 sono tapito apare who has fallen. As the reconstruction makes clear, this phonogram could be used for both te and de, and this is what we find in Nihon shoki, de appears five times in the poetry, and twice in the annotated notes.Consider the following song in Nihon shoki where 提 appears five times, all transcribing de: NSK 124 于知波志能 utipasi no Come out, child 都梅能阿素弭爾 tume no aswobi ni to play at the edge of 伊提麻栖古 idemase kwo the plank bridge. 多麻提能伊鞞能 tamade no ipye no Mistress Yaheko of 野鞞古能度珥 yapyekwo no twozi the Tamade House. 伊提麻志能 idemasi no There will be no regrets 倶伊播阿羅珥茹 kui pa arazi zo if you come out. 伊提麻西古 idemase kwo Come out, child— 多麻提能鞞能 tamade no ipye no Mistress Yaheko of 野鞞古能度珥 yapyekwo no twozi the Tamade House. This phonogram also appears quite frequently in Book 5 of Man’yōshū, and less frequently in Book 14. MYS 800 宇既具都遠 ukegutu wo And like one to takes off 奴伎都流其等久 nukituru gotoku shoes with holes in them 布美奴伎提 puminukite people who step on 由久智布比等波 yuku tipu pito pa and walk away from family 伊波紀欲利 ipakwi ywori are perhaps ones who 奈利提志比等迦 nari desi pito ka are born of boulders or trees. Tell me your name! 奈何名能良佐祢 na ga NA norasane 阿米弊由迦婆 ame pye yukaba If you go toward heaven 奈何麻尓麻尓 na ga mani mani you can do as you please. 438

都智奈良婆 大王伊摩周 許能提羅周 日月能斯多波 阿麻久毛能 牟迦夫周伎波美 多尓具久能 佐和多流伎波美 企許斯遠周 久尓能麻保良叙

低

底

tuti naraba OPOKIMI imasu kono terasu PITUKWI no sita pa amakumwo no mukabusu kipami taniguku no sawataru kipami kikosi wosu kuni no mapora zo

OJ: te, de LH: tei EMC: tiei NOM: đê, đây SV: đê Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and Man’yōshū, twice as te and once as de. MYS 3878 PASITATE NO 堦楯 KUMAKI no yara ni 熊來乃夜良爾 SIRAKWI WONO 新羅斧 OTOSI IRE wasi 堕入和之 阿毛低阿毛低 aGEte aGEte NA NAKASI so ne 勿鳴為曽祢 UKI IDUru ya to 浮出流夜登将見 MIMU wasi 将見和之 MYS 3725 和我世故之 wa ga sekwosi 氣太之麻可良婆 kyedasi makaraba 思漏多倍乃 sirwotape no 蘇低乎布良左禰 swode wo purasane MItutu sinwopamu 見都追志努波牟

If you are on the earth then there is a great ruler. Below the sun and moon which sheds light here to the ends of where the clouds of the sky are, to the ends of the place where the toad dwells, this is the superior land that our sovereign rules over. OC: *tî GO: tei KN: tei SK: tye appears in only two poems in In the bog of Kumaki of the standing ladder— his Silla axe he has dropped. Yo ho. Lifting! Lifting up your voice do not weep so. Let us watch to see if it comes up. Yo ho. My beloved, perhaps if you are to go away, please wave your sleeve, made of soft white bark. I shall long for you as I watch.

OJ: te OC: *tîʔ LH teih MC: tieih LMC: tiaj GO: tai KN: tei NOM: để SV: để SK: tye, ci Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This phonogram appears 27 times in the poetry of Nihon shoki and twice in the annotational notes: 植此云多底婁 “ ‘Plant (a seed)’ this is read tateru” (NSG). NSK 123 枳瀰我梅能 kimi ga me no I dock and stand here 姑裒之枳舸羅儞 kwoposiki kara ni because I long for a glance 婆底々威底 patete wite of my highness’ eyes. 舸矩野姑悲武謀 kaku ya kwopwimu mo How I long for a look— 枳瀰我梅弘報梨 kimi ga me wo pori a look into my highness’ eyes.

439

This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū. As Ōno points out (1977:507), the phonogram 底 only appears in books 17 through 20, which perhaps shows a shift in the orthographical tastes of the later compiler. The following examples are representative: 見底 MIte “looking, and…” (MYS 4032), 奈美多底波 nami tateba “When the waves get rough…” (MYS 4033), and 由吉底之見弖婆 yukite si MIteba “If you go and look…” (MYS 4040).

堤

諦

題

OJ: te OC: *dê LH: de EMC: diei LMC: tiaj GO: tai KN: tei NOM: đê SV: đê, đề SK: tyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears once in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 97 倭我彌細麼 wa ga miseba When I gaze down 都奴娑播符 tunwo sapapu on Iware Pond 以簸例能伊開能 ipare no ike no with rocks covered in vines 美那矢駄府 minasitapu even the fish 紆鳴謨 uwo mo come to the surface 紆陪儞堤堤那皚矩 upe ni dete nageku and lament your parting. This poem provides an interesting example, because the phonogram 堤 transcribes both te and de here. It should be noted that this is the only example of 堤 transcribing a voiced de in Shoki. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, but all examples I have been able to find represent de, with one example a toponym: 佐堤乃埼 Sade no SAKI ‘Sade Cape’(MYS 662). The other is 井堤超浪 WIde KWOSU NAMI ‘the waves that break over the dam’ (MYS 2717). OJ: te OC: *têh LH: teh EMC: tieih LMC: tiaj GO: tai KN: tei NOM: NA SV: đế SK: thyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears in Nihon shoki once: NSK 74 飫瀰能古簸 omi no kwo pa The servant of the crown, 多倍能波伽摩嗚 tape no pakama wo arranging his hemp trousers 那々陛嗚絁 nanapye wo si and his seven-fold armor, 儞播儞陀々始諦 nipa ni tatasite is standing out in the garden. 阿遥比那陀須暮 ayepi nadasu mo He straightens his leg straps. OJ: te OC: *dê LH: de EMC: diei LMC: tɦiaj GO: dai KN: tei NOM: đề SV: đệ, đề SK: tyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears once in the poetry in Nihon shoki:

440

NSK 75 野麼等能 嗚武羅能陀該儞 之々符須登 拕例柯 擧能居登 飫裒磨陛儞麻嗚須 飫裒枳瀰簸 賊據嗚枳舸斯題 柁磨々枳能 阿娯羅儞陀々伺

代

手

yamato no womura no take ni sisi pusu to tare ka kono koto opomapye ni mawosu opokimi pa soko wo kikasite tamamaki no agura ni tatasi

On the peaks of the mountains of Yamato, who shall venture forth to stand before the great one and tell him where the beast lays waiting? The great lord overhears these words, takes his jeweled dais and sits upon it.

OJ: te OC: *lə̂kh LH: dəh EMC: dậih GO: dai KN: tai NOM: đại, đời SV: đại SK: toy Usage / History: Most scholars treat the kanji 代 as a kungana, but looking at the phonology, I think this should be reexamined. Knowing that te is often a secondary form, from a coalescence of ta-i, the possibility that this is actually a phonogram is too great to ignore. I have thus placed this character here. A name appears in a Suiko-era record, 錦代王 Prince NISIKIte. Also consider the following from Kojiki: 糠代比賣 NUKAte Pimye (KG). It also appears twice in Nihon shoki. In one example, the text explains why this character was selected: 故納其地赦死 罪。是以、號其地曰玉代 ‘His land was accepted as payment for granting his life. This land was renamed TAMAte’ (NSG). This example seems to be treating the graph as a kungana, but it is more likely that the semantics of the character and the phonology match. Thus, the character is being used as a both a phonogram and a kungana. The other example is a name: 錦代皇女 Princess NISIKIte (NSG). I have only found two examples of this in Man’yōshū, MYS 1212 and 1718. MYS 1212 Cherry blossoms 足代過而 Ate SUGWITE 絲鹿乃山之 ITWOGA no YAMA NO on Mount Itoga SAKURABANA that are beyond Ate— 櫻花 TIRAZU MO ARAnamu please stay without scattering, 不散在南 KAPYERIKURU made at least until I come back. 還来万代 It is interesting that this poem has 代 once as te, and then at the end as a phonogram, de. OJ: te OC: *hjuʔ or nhuʔ LH: śuʔ EMC: śjəuʔ GO: su KN: siu NOM: thủ SV: thủ SK: sywu Usage / History: This is a kungana, suggesting to the mind OJ te ‘hand.’ This usage in Japan appears to be quite old. The earliest known example is from the Suiko era corpus: 手嶋女王 Princess TESIMA. This same name appears to have been recorded in Jōgū shōtoku hōō teisetsu, but all the manuscript has is 手□□□□ and 441

someone placed a piece of paper over this spot with the characters 嶋女王. If this last example can be trusted, then the name of this princess is preserved in two different Suiko era records. This name does not appear in Kojiki or Nihon shoki. It should be said, however, that Kojiki records a 手嶋連 TESIMA MURAZI (KG). The phonogram 手 is also used quite extensively in the Taihō Census (702): 継手 TUGITE, 宗手 SwoTE (SwoDE?), 小手子賣 WOTEKWOmye, 馬手 UMATE, 稲手 INATE, 犬手賣 INUTEmye, and 牛手賣 USITEmye. On several mokkan excavated from the Fujiwara Palace ruins (fl. 694–710) we find: 手嶋連 TESIMA MURAZI (unnumbered tablet), 玉手臣 TAMATE OMI (MK 1888), 阿手良 ATEra (MK 325), and 犬甘咋手 INUKAPI KUPITE (MK 1209). This phonogram is also used in various names in Kojiki, showing that the documents Kojiki relied on already had preserved these names written with 手: 日子穂穂手見命 PIKWO POPO TEMI (KG), 大野手比賣 OPONWOTE Pimye (KG), 手名椎神 TENADUTI [NO] KAMWI the deity Tenazuchi (KG). Naturally, this kungana is also used in names recorded in Nihon shoki. According to Ōno (1977:803), there are 78 examples of names with this graph, but he does not list a single example. I give the following as a small sampling: 糠手 NUKATE (NSG), 小手子 WOTEKWO (NSG), 紗手媛 SaTE PIMYE (NSG), 猪手 WITE (NSG). There are also numerous examples of this usage in Man’yōshū, the following is representative. MYS 1 師吉名倍手 sikiNAbeTE The entire realm WARE koso IMASE I alone govern! 吾己曾座 WA koSO BA Then it shall be I 我許背齒 NORAME who will tell you 告目 IPYE wo mo NA WO mo of my home and of my name. 家呼毛名雄母

價

直

OJ: te OC: *krâh LH: kah EMC: kah GO: ke KN: ka NOM: giá SV: giá SK: ka Usage / History: This is a kungana, suggesting to the reader OJ te ‘price, compensation.’ This usage appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 2949 With this unusual situation 得田價異 UTATE KYE NI KOKORO IBUSESI my heart is feeling gloomy. 心欝悒 KOTO PAKARI Would you do something different 事計 YOKU SE WA GA SEKWO my beloved, even if 吉為吾兄子 APERU TOKI DANI it is only when we meet each other? 相有時谷 OJ: te LH: ḍiə or ḍɨk EMC: ḍɨh or ḍjək NOM: trực, chực, sực SV: trực, chực

442

OC: *drəkh or *drək GO: diki KN: tioku SK: chi, cik

Usage / History: This is a kungana, suggesting to the reader OJ te ‘substitute, compensation.’ The original Chinese meaning is direct or straight, but it could also be used as a loan for 値 ‘price.’ This kungana is only found once in Man’yōshū. MYS 2877 ITU PA simo It is not as if 何時志毛 KWOPWIZU ARI to PA there will come a time when 不戀有登者 ARANEDOMO my longing will cease, 雖不有 but the unusual situation lately 得田直比来 UTATE KONOKORO KWOPWIsi SIGESI mo leaves my longing even stronger. 戀之繁母

點

智

OJ: temu OC: *têmʔ LH: temʔ EMC: tiem GO: temu KN: temu NOM: chấm, điểm, đếm SV: điểm SK: tyem Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage appears twice in Man’yōshū (MYS 1272 and 2353). MYS 1272 TATI NO SIRI In Irino deep in the mountains, 劔後 SAYA NI IRINWO ni like the tip of a sword in its sheath, 鞘納野迩 KUZU PIKU WAGIMWO my beloved pulls arrowroot. 葛引吾妹 MASWODE MOTI Is she cutting the summer herbs 真袖以 KISEtemu to KAMO (to weave) so she can put 著點等鴨 NATUKUSA KARU mo the garment on me with both arms? 夏草苅母 OJ: ti < te OC: *treh LH: ṭieh EMC: ṭjeh GO: ti KN: ti NOM: trí, tré SV: trí SK: ci Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, as found in the Wa chieftain title 狗古 智卑狗 *kɔ-kɔ-te-pe-kɔ. The Han section of Wei zhi also notes: 各有長帥、大 者自名爲臣智 ‘Each land has a leader, and the powerful ones call themselves *ɡin-te.’ This phonogram also appears on the Paekche Sathaykcicek stele: 砂宅智積 *sa-tak-te-sek．The graph 智 appears in many names in Silla inscriptions, the most frequent being to transcribe 夫智 *pute, part of a name. This phonogram appears in several names of people who originated from the Korean peninsula, which data are preserved in Nihon shoki: 于斯岐阿利叱智干 岐 (King of Mimana) Usiki Arisiti Kanki, 伊叱夫礼智干岐 Isipureti Kanki. This phonogram also appears in the Suiko era corpus: 伊波智和希 Ipati Wakwi, 阿加波智君 Akapati KIMI, 乎波智 Wopati, 多智奴女王 Princess Tatinu. This phonogram appears once in the liturgies, in the name of the deity 御 賀豆智命 MIkaduti [NO] MIKOTO (NT 2). This phonogram also appears on a variety of mokkan: 名己智牛養 ‘named Koti USIKAPI (MK 3290) and 智万呂 Timaro (MK 807). This phonogram is also used in Kojiki, but not as often as 知: 国之久比奢 母智神 the deity KUNI NO Kupizamoti (KG), 久久能智神 The deity (of the 443

trees) Kukunoti (KG), 八俣遠呂智 The eight-headed serpent Woroti (KG). It is never used in the poetry in Kojiki. The phonogram 智 is used 36 times in Nihon shoki (compared to 34 times for 知), appearing five times in annotational notes, and 31 times in poetry: 茅渟 此云智怒 “ ‘(The place name) Chinu’ is read tinu” (NSG). NSK 3 阿磨佐箇屢 amasakaru Having crossed over 避奈菟謎廼 pinatu mye no the narrow, earthly straits, 以和多邏素西渡 iwatarasu setwo the provincial maidens 以嗣箇播箇柁輔智 isikapa kataputi stand on the banks of the river 箇多輔智爾 kataputi ni on the banks of the Ishikawa, 阿彌播利和柁嗣 ami pariwatasi spreading out their nets. 妹慮豫嗣爾 mero yosi ni Pull in those nets 豫嗣豫利據禰 yosi yorikone by pulling on the meshes! 以嗣箇播箇柁輔智 isikapa kataputi On the banks of the Ishikawa. This is the second most commonly used phonogram in Man’yōshū to represent ti (知 appears 406 times, but 智 only 18 times). MYS 4164 My royal fathers, like the ti 知智乃實乃 titi no MWI no TITI no mikoto of the seed of the titi plant, 父能美許等 and my royal mothers, 波播蘇葉乃 papa swoBA no PAPA no mikoto like the pa of the Japanese oak, 母能美己等 於保呂可尓 oporoka ni I think they KOKORO TUKUSITE generally tried 情盡而 OMOPUramu to do all in their power. 念良牟

知

OJ: ti OC: *tre LH: ṭie EMC: ṭje GO: ti KN: ti NOM: trí, tri SV: tri, trí SK: ci Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS, and it appears on various inscriptions preserved on the Korean peninsula. On various stelae from Silla this phonogram is used to transcribe: 夫知王 Prince Puti, 知居伐干支 Tikopat Kanki, 夫阿干 比知夫知 Pua Kanpiti Puti. This phonogram also appears in various Paekche quotes preserved in Nihon shoki: 沙知比跪 Sati Pikwo, an apparent Paekche rendition of the Japanese legendary figure 襲津彦 SOTU PIKWO. 伊叱夫礼知奈未 Isipure Tinam, 久 知波多枳 (fortress of) Kutipataki. This phonogram also appears in the Suiko era corpus and on, where 知 becomes the standard graph for ti: 多知波奈止与比天皇 Great King Tatipana Toyopi (halo inscription recorded in the origin record of Gangōji), 波知乃古王 Prince Patinokwo (genealogy of Prince Shōtoku). This phonogram appears frequently in the liturgies: 北方佐渡与里乎知能所乎奈牟多知疫鬼之住加登 定賜比 KITA [NO] MO [PA] sadwo yori woti no TOKORO wo namutati EKI [NO] ONI NO SUMIka to SADAMETAMApi “From the direction of the north, (the deities) have determined that the dwellings of you, the demons of pestilence, will be the distant places from Sado Island northward…” (NT 16). This phonogram is 444

popular on mokkan: 尾治国知多郡 WOPARI Province Tita District (MK 151), 知夫利郡由良里 Tiburi District Yura Village (unnumbered tablet), and 夫由己 母利伊・己知知知屋 puyugomori i…koti titiYA ‘hiding in the winter…this house of Titi…’ (MKK 28:207). In Kojiki 知 is the standard graph for ti: 啼伊佐知伎 NAKI isatiki ‘weep violently’ (KG), 赤加賀知 AKA kagati ‘red cherry’ (KG), 木花知流比賣 KONO PANA tiru pimye ‘Princess Kono Hana Chiru’ (KG), 天之都度閇知泥神 ‘the deity AMA NO Tudwopetine’ (KG). According to Ōno (1977:175) 知 is used 77 times in the poetry of Kojiki. KK 80 意富麻幣 opomapye In the shade of 袁麻幣須久泥賀 womapye sukune ga the metal gate of Ōmae 加那斗加宜 kanatwo kage and Womae Sukune, 加久余理許泥 kaku yorikone come gather together! 阿米多知夜米牟 ame tatiyamemu Let us wait for the rain to end. The phonogram 知 appears ten times in annotational notes, and 24 times in poetry in Nihon shoki: 灼然、此云以椰知擧 “ ‘Brilliant’ is read iyatiko” (NSG), and 百濟俗號此鳥曰倶知 “People in Paekche call these birds kuti” (NSG). NSK 21 波辭枳豫辭 pasikiyosi Ah, how wonderful! 和藝幣能伽多由 wagipe no katayu Clouds are climbing upward 區毛位多知區暮 kumwowi tatiku mo from the direction of home. This phonogram is very prominent in Man’yōshū, appearing 406 times, dwarfing in number all other phonograms used to represent ti. MYS 3583 MASAKIKUTE If my beloved performs 真幸而 伊毛我伊波伴伐 imwo ga ipapaba purification rituals for my safety, 於伎都奈美 okitu nami even if the waves in the offing 知敝尓多都等母 tipye ni tatu tomo pile up a thousand times, 佐波里安良米也母 sapari arame yamo would there be any obstacles?

至

OJ: ti OC: *tits LH: tśis EMC: tśih GO: si KN: si NOM: chí SV: chí, trí SK: ci Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. While there are no examples on the extant stele in Paekche, there is an example of this phonogram on the Kwangkaytho stele: 巖門至城 *ɡɨɑm-mən-ti fortress. Various names with this graph also appear in Paekche quotations preserved in Nihon shoki: 百久至 Pak Kuti, 阿首至 Asuti, 爾汶至 Nimonti, 既殿至 Ketenti (all from a Paekche quote found in the record of Jingū). In one record, the Nihon shoki compilers only had a surname, Mononobe Muraji, and did not know the first name of the person, so they relied on a Paekche record, which records that the person was named 物部至至連 MONONOBYE Titi MURAZI. It is also interesting that Paekche records represent the Japanese surname Kaputi (traditionally written 河内 Kawachi) as 加不至 kaputi. 445

This graph is last seen used in the Suiko era corpus: 多至波奈等已比乃彌 己 等 Tatipana Toyopi no Mikoto, and 多 至 波 奈 大 女 郎 Tatipana OPOIRATUMYE. Perhaps because of the semantics (至 means ‘arrive, most’) this graph was generally avoided in the Asuka and Nara eras. The only example I can find on wooden documents (mokkan) is within part of a name, 至古志 Tikwosi (unnumbered tablet).

致

直

恥

OJ: ti OC: *trits LH: ṭis EMC: ṭih GO: ti KN: ti NOM: trí SV: trí SK: ci Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in a few Paekche names preserved in Nihon shoki: 久羅麻致支彌 Kura Mati Kimi, and 怒唎斯致契 Nworisitike. This phonogram also appears in a fossilized relic in Nihon shoki: 安 致臣 Ati OMI, a man from Tukusi and perhaps originally of peninsular lineage. This phonogram is also used by the Nihon shoki editors in one annotational note, and nine times in poetry: 蓬蔂、此云伊致寐姑 “ ‘Ichibiko Hill’ is read itibikwo” (NSG). NSK 125 多致播那播 tatibana pa The fruit of the orange tree 於能我曳多々々 ono ga yeda yeda grows each on its own branch, 那例々騰母 nareredomo but when these are strung 陀麻爾農矩騰岐 tama ni nuku toki together as jewels they are 於野兒弘儞農倶 oyazi wo ni nuku strung on the same cord. OJ: ti, tiki OC: *drəkh or *drək LH: ḍiə or ḍɨk EMC: ḍɨh or ḍjək GO: diki KN: tioku NOM: trực, chực, sực SV: trực, chực SK: chi, cik Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This is based on the fact that the name of the person sent by the kingdom of Paekche to educate the Japanese court in Chinese is known as 阿直岐 Atiki. It should be remembered that Kojiki records this same name as 阿知吉師 Ati Kisi. Another person from Paekche is called 直支 that may be Toki as the interlinear reading has, or it may be Tiki. Considering the Sino-Vietnamese data, it is possible this graph entered the peninsula as *trək. This is further supported by the interlinear reading in Nihon shoki of 直支 as toki (< *tək-ki). Perhaps the names preserved in documents in Shōsōin from the Nara era are people related to these Paekche immigrants: 阿 直 史 姪 賣 Atiki PUBITO MEPImye, 阿直立萬呂 Atiki TATUmaro, 安直刀足 Atiki Twosuku (?). This phonogram appears on many mokkan, but the majority represent the title atapi. OJ: ti LH: ṭhiəʔ NOM: sỉ, xỉ

EMC: ṭhɨʔ SV: sỉ

446

OC: *rhəʔ GO: ti KN: ti SK: chi

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears once in Man’yōshū, in a somewhat cryptic poem: MYS 3458 奈勢能古夜 nase no kwo ya My beloved husband! 等里乃乎加恥志 torino wo katisi The middle field that 奈可太乎礼 nakada wore he conquered of Tori Moor bends, 安乎祢思奈久与 a wo ne si naku yo and causes me to cry. 伊久豆君麻弖尓 ikuduku made ni Even so that I heave a sigh. The problem with previous attempts to decipher this poem is that they consistently read 恥 as di ‘road,’ but it is evident that the graph is ti, and should be interpreted as such. As the eastern songs do not distinguish between no and nwo, I interpret torino as torinwo ‘Tori Moor.’

陳 笞

池

OJ: ti OC: *drin LH: ḍin EMC: ḍjen GO: dimu KN: tin NOM: chặn,trằn, trườn SV: trận, trần SK: cin Usage / History: This is phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only twice in Man’yōshū, both times to represent the toponym Chinu: tinu 陳奴 (MYS 1145) and 陳努 (MYS 1811). This phonogram may have been selected for the nasal final to show a short vowel in the following syllable: tin-nu. OJ: ti OC: *rhə LH: ṭhiə EMC: ṭhɨ LMC: trhi GO: ti KN: ti NOM: xuy SV: xuy SK: chi Usage / History: This is a rare phonogram that belongs to the LJS. It appears once in a poem in Nihon shoki: NSK 13 瀰都瀰都志 mitumitusi You, the intrepid 倶梅能故邏餓 kume no kwora ga sons of the Kume— 介耆茂等珥 kakimoto ni at the base of the fence 阿波赴珥破 apa pu nipa in the millet field 介瀰羅毘苔茂苔 kamira pitomoto there is one fetid leek. 曾廼餓毛苔 sono ga moto As one would pull it 曾禰梅屠那藝弖 so ne me tunagite by root and by stem, 于笞弖之夜莽務 utitesi yamamu we will utterly smite them. OJ: ti OC: *drai LH: ḍiai EMC: ḍieLMC: trɦi GO: di KN: ti NOM: đìa, trì, trề SV: trì SK: tha, co Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing twice in one poem in Nihon shoki:

447

NSK 28 伊徒姑播茂 伊徒姑奴池 伊裝阿波那 和例波 多摩岐波屢 于池能阿層餓 波邏濃知波 異佐誤阿例椰 伊裝阿波那 和例波

馳 鎭 㨖

千

itwokwo pa mo itwokwo dwoti iza apana ware pa tamaki paru uti no aso ga paranuti pa isagwo are ya iza apana ware pa

Men with relatives will fight together. Commence the battle, shall we? Minister Uti, possessing a strong spirit, does not have a stomach made of pebbles. Commence the battle, shall we?

OJ: ti OC: *drai LH: ḍiai EMC: ḍieLMC: trɦi GO: di KN: ti NOM: NA SV: trì, chì SK: chi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears twice in Nihon shoki in the name of the deity of trees 句句廼馳 kukunoti. OJ: ti OC: *trin LH: ṭin EMC: ṭjen GO: den KN: ten NOM: chắn, trấn, trớn SV: trấn SK: cin Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears once in Izumo fudoki in the fish name 鎭仁 tini, which is also known as tinu. This phonogram likely was selected because of the final -n which is followed by a nasal initial ni. OJ: ti OC: *trit LH: ṭis EMC: ṭih LMC: tri GO: ti KN: ti NOM: NA SV: trí SK: ci Usage / History: This is a rare phonogram that I tentatively group in the CBS. It appears twice in one poem in Nihon shoki. NSK 89 飫裒陁㨖嗚 opotati wo Though I stand here 多黎播枳多㨖氐 tarepakitatite girded with a large sword 農哿儒登慕 nukazu tomo I intend to fulfill 須衞娑陀志氐謀 suwe patasite mo my desire and meet her— 阿波夢登茹於謀賦 apamu tozo omopu without drawing my sword. OJ: ti OC: *tshîn LH: tshen EMC: tshien GO: semu KN: sen NOM: thiên SV: thiên SK: chyen Usage / History: This is a kungana, with 千 ‘a thousand’ calling to mind OJ ti ‘thousand.’ The earliest datable use of this graph appears in the Taihō census (702): 千縄 TINAPA, 千嶋賣 TISIMAmye, 千麻呂 TImaro. While it is impossible at this 448

point to date these, there are several instances of 千 used on mokkan excavated from the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710) site: 千麻呂 TImaro (MK 1126) and 阿 曇千足 ADUMI TIASI (MKK 5:86). This kungana also appears in Kojiki: 八千矛神 YATI POKO [NO] KAMWI the deity Yachihoko (KG), 高千穂宮 TAKATIPO [NO] MIYA the Takachiho Palace (KG), and 千 千 都 久 和 比 賣 TITI tukuwa pimye ‘Princess Chichi Tsukuwa’ (KG). This kungana is also quite prominent in Nihon shoki, where Ōno (1977:825) notes there are 37 examples in the work, but he does not quote any examples. I have provide the following three examples, all from names: 千千衝倭姫 TITI TUKU YAMATO PIMYE Princess Chichi Tsuku Yamato (NSG), 千 熊 長 彦 TIKUMA NAGA PIKWO (NSG), 高千穗 TAKATIPO (NSG). I have counted roughly 34 examples of 千 in Man’yōshū. MYS 266 APUMI no UMI You plovers of the evening waves 淡海乃海 YUPU NAMI TIDORI on the sea of Afumi— 夕浪千鳥 NA GA NAKEBA when you call out 汝鳴者 KOKORO mo sinwo ni my thoughts wither 情毛思努尓 INISIPE OMOPOYU thinking of days long ago. 古所念

茅

道

OJ: ti OC: *mrû LH: mɔu EMC: mau GO: meu, mau KN: bau NOM: NA SV: mao SK: mwo Usage / History: This phonogram is used as a kungana, with 茅 ‘thatch’ suggesting to the reader OJ ti ‘cogon grass.’ The earliest known example of this appears in Nihon shoki where there are many examples, but these all transcribe the place name Chinu: 茅渟 TINU. This phonogram also appears once in Shoku Nihongi in the name 茅野王 Prince TInu (739.3.21). This kungana also appears once in Man’yōshū, but only in the toponym Chinu: TINU 茅渟 (MYS 999). OJ: ti OC: *lûʔ LH: douʔ EMC: dâuʔ GO: dau KN: tau NOM: đạo, dạo SV: đáo,đạo SK: two Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ ti ‘path.’ This kungana appears in Kojiki: 道敷大神 TISIKI OPOKAMWI ‘the great deity Chishiki’ (KG), 日名照 額田毘道男伊許知邇神 PINA TERU NUKATAbiTI WOikotini KAMWI ‘the deity Hina Teru Nuka Tabichi Oikotini’ (KG). According to Ōno (1977:803) Nihon shoki contains 59 examples of 道 used to transcribe ti, but most examples are actually of the voiced counterpart di; he does not quote any examples of ti, however. I provide the following: 長道磐神 the deity NAGATIPA (NSG), 道守臣 TIMORI OMI (NSG), and 道守朝臣 TIMORI ASOMI (NSG). This same usage appears but once in Man’yōshū, 年魚 道 AYUTI, a toponym, Ayuchi (MYS 3260). Often when ti occurs medially it undergoes progressive prenasalization to di. 449

This usage appears in Kojiki: 淡道 (Island of) APADI. An example from Nihon shoki is 大戸之道尊 the deity OPOTWO NO DI. This graph also appears in a few place names in Man’yōshū: 莵道 UDI (MYS 7), 活道山 IKUDI YAMA ‘Mount Ikuji’ (MYS 478).

血

乳

敕

OJ: ti OC: *hwît LH: huet EMC: xiwet GO: kuweti KN: kuwetu NOM: huyết, hoét SV: huyết SK: hyel Usage / History: This is a kungana, where the graph for blood calls to mind OJ ti ‘blood.’ This usage appears in Kojiki, mainly in toponyms, where the underlying meaning of ‘blood’ appears to have been stressed, though the original etymology is unclear: 血沼海 TINU [NO] UMI ‘Sea of TINU,’ 宇陁之血原 uda NO TIPARA, 血浦 TIURA ‘Bay of Ti.’ Kojiki uses a folk etymology to say that these places were scenes of bloody events, and were named thus. This is likely nothing more than folk etymology, and an original phonetic rendition was changed to kungana. This theory is strengthened by the way 血 is used in Nihon shoki: 血原 TIPARA ‘field of blood,’ 血田 TIDA (cultivated field of blood?). Regarding the first example, the Shoki compiler claims that the blood was so deep that the field was labeled the field of blood, while the second contains the explanatory line, “The place where the blood flowed was called tida.” There are three examples of this kungana in Man’yōshū: 血沼壮士 TINU WOTOKWO ‘the valiant man of Chinu’ (MYS 1809), 血沼之海 TINU NO UMI ‘sea of Chinu’(MYS 2486), and 血速舊 / 于遅乃渡 TIPAYABURU / udi no WATARI ‘the ferry of Uji that is endowed with power’ (MYS 3236). OJ: ti OC: *noʔ LH: ńoʔ EMC: ńźjuʔ GO: niu KN: ziu NOM: nhũ, vú SV: nhũ SK: ywu Usage / History: This is a kungana, suggesting to the reader OJ ti ‘breast, breast milk.’ This graph appears once in Kojiki, likely used to infer the meaning ‘breasts’: 道之長 乳齒神 MITI NO NAGATIPA [NO] KAMWI ‘the deity of the road of long breasts and teeth.’ Philippi (1968:521) wonders if nagati does mean ‘long-road,’ but this seems redundant, since miti already means ‘road, path.’ Nihon shoki records two names words written with 乳: 乳近稲置 TIDIKA INAKWI, likely a place name. Another is 乳娘 TI IRATUMYE, the daughter of Swoga Yamada Isikapa Maro. This usage also appears on a mokkan excavated from the Heijō Palace ruins: 大宅乳母 OPOYAKE TIOMO (unnumbered tablet). OJ: tiki OC: *rhək LH: ṭhɨk EMC: ṭhjək GO: tiki KN: tiyoku NOM: sắc SV: sắc SK: chiku Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram appears in the Paekchebased name 安勅連 Atiki MURAZI, which appears in a Nara era document, as well as in Shinsen shōjiroku. It is Shōjiroku that labels this a family from 450

Paekche. It is thus tempting to label this usage from the PBS, but without any other information, I have erred on the side of caution.

珍

秩

臺

OJ: tinu, ti OC: *trən *trə[n]§ LH: ṭɨn EMC: ṭjen GO: timu KN: tin NOM: trân SV: chân, trân SK: cin Usage / History: I place this phonogram in the PBS. This phonogram is found in a title recorded in the beginning of the record of Jingū: 微叱己知波珍干岐 Mwisikoti Patori Kanki. Shiki glosses the digraph 波珍 as 波止利 patori, which is based on Old Chinese, as Starostin (2005) reconstructs 珍 as *tər. However, as Schuessler’s work is a minimal Old Chinese reconstruction, I have elected to ignore this reading for the time being. Baxter and Sagart reconstruct this as OC *trə[n], where they claim that [n] could be *-r or *-n (2014:252–255). This phonogram appears in documents preserved in Shōsōin in the following toponyms: 珍努 Tinu, and 珍縣主 District Chieftain of Tinu. This usage as tinu also appears in Man’yōshū once: MYS 2486 Like the small pine tree 珍海 tinu NO UMI PAMApye NO KWOMATU near the beach of the sea of Chinu 濱邊小松 NE PUKAMETE with its roots deep, 根深 ARE KWOPWI WATARU I will continue to yearn 吾戀度 PITO NO KWO YUWE NI because of that man. 人子姤 We are assured that the intended reading of 珍海 is tinu [NO] UMI, because after this poem is a note which says that a different poem has: 血沼之海之 TINU NO UMI NO. OJ: titi OC: *drit LH: ḍit EMC: ḍjet GO: diti KN: titu NOM: chặt, chật,giựt SV: trật SK: cil Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears most commonly in the toponym 秩父 Titibu, as found on a wooden document excavated from the Nara capital: 武蔵国秩父郡 Muzasi Province, Titibu District. The ‘Kukozō Hongi’ section of Kujiki preserves the name as 知々夫 titibu, thus underscoring that 秩 represents titi. This phonogram also appears in a tax register of Izumo from 730 in the toponym: 伊秩郷 Ititi Village, though the exact reading is unclear. No such toponym is found in Izumo fudoki. OJ: to OC: *də̂ LH: də EMC: dậi GO: dai KN: tai NOM: đài SV: đài SK: toy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, appearing in the well known place name 邪馬臺 *yamadə ‘Yamato.’ It also appears in the name 臺与 *təyɑ ‘Toyo.’ Later the graph 台 comes to represent 臺 (see below).

451

登

OJ: to OC: *tə̂ŋ LH: təŋ EMC: təŋ GO: tou KN: tou NOM: đăng, đáng SV: đăng SK: tung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. While I have not found any examples in the Paekche corpus, the following example appears in the following name from the record of Kinmei: 薦集部首登弭 KOMOTUBYE OBITO Tomi. The record in Shoki gives the impression this is a Japanese person, but his wife’s house, where he stops on his way from Mimana to Paekche, is located on the peninsula. This suggests that he was likely a soldier already on the peninsula, and the story was preserved in a Paekche account, suggesting a Paekche tradition. This phonogram is popular in the Asuka era corpus. It appears frequently in the liturgies: 今年二月爾御年初将賜登為而、皇御孫命宇豆能幣帛乎、朝日 能 豊 逆 登 爾 称 辞 竟 奉 久 登 宣 KOTOSI [NO] KISARAGI ni MITOSI PAZIMETAMAPAMU to SITE SUME MIMA [NO] MIKOTO [NO] udu no MITEGURA wo ASAPI no TOYO SAKANOBORI ni TATAPEGOTO WOPEMATURAku to NORITAMAPU “In the second month of this year, as (the Divine Ruler) is about to begin planting, I finish presenting these words as the morning sun richly rises into the sky, and the Imperial Grandson presents the exalted offerings” (NT 1). This phonogram appears a number of times on mokkan: 能登郡 Noto District (MK 2280), 登宇 波伊伊伊 to upa iii: no meaning, simply practicing writing (MK 1976), and 毘 登 pito (bito?) ‘person’ (MK 7553). Representative examples appear in Kojiki: 訓常云登許 “The reading for the graph 常 is toko” (KG), 袁 登 古 wotokwo ‘adult male’ (KG), 袁 登 賣 wotomye ‘adult female’ (KG), 美蕃登 mipoto ‘august vulva’ (KG), and 登賀米 受 togamezu “(The Sun Goddess) did not criticize him” (KG). In the following poem it appears six times. KK 96 美延斯怒能 miyesinwo no Did someone announce 袁牟漏賀多氣爾 womurwo ga take ni before the great ruler that 志斯布須登 sisi pusu to game lies in waiting 多禮曾 tare so on the peak of Omuro 意富麻幣爾麻袁須 opomapye ni mawosu in Miyoshino? 夜須美斯志 yasumisisi In the heavenly eighty rays 和賀淤富岐美能 wa ga opokimi no of sunshine, my great lord 斯志麻都登 sisi matu to sat upon his high seat 阿具良爾伊麻志 agura ni imasi waiting for game when 斯漏多閇能 sirwotape no a horsefuly bit him 蘇弖岐蘇那布 swode kiswonapu on the flesh of his arm 多古牟良爾 takwomura ni where he wore his sleeve, 阿牟加岐都岐 amu kakituki like white hemp offerings. 曾能阿牟袁 sono amu wo Then a dragonfly quickly 阿岐豆波夜具比 akidu payagupi scooped up the horsefly, 加久能碁登 kaku no goto so thus it must have been, 那爾於波牟登 na ni opamu to that people named 蘇良美都 sworamitu the land of Yamato

452

夜麻登能久爾袁 yamato no kuni wo which fills the firmament 阿岐豆志麻登布 akidu sima topu Akizushima. This phonogram appears quite frequently in Nihon shoki, appearing three times in annotational notes and 15 times in poetry: 荷持、此云能登利 “ ‘The (village) 荷持,’ this is read notori” (NSG), 伐本截末、此云謨登岐利須衞於 茲波羅比 “ ‘Cut the base and stripped of its branches,’ this is read moto kiri suwe osiparapi” (NSG). NSK 75 野麼等能 yamato no On the peaks 嗚武羅能陀該儞 womura no take ni of the mountains of Yamato, 之々符須登 sisi pusu to who shall venture forth 拕例柯 tare ka to stand before 擧能居登 kono koto the great one and tell him 飫裒磨陛儞麻嗚須 opomapye ni mawosu where the beast lays waiting? 飫裒枳瀰簸 opokimi pa The great lord 賊據嗚枳舸斯題 soko wo kikasite overhears these words, 柁磨々枳能 tamamaki no takes his jeweled 阿娯羅儞陀々伺 agura ni tatatsi dais and sits upon it. 施都魔枳能 situmaki no He takes the dais 阿娯羅儞陀々伺 agura ni tatasi of cloth and sits upon it. 斯々磨都登 sisi matu to Waiting for the beast. 倭我伊麻西麼 wa ga imaseba As I sit here 佐謂麻都登 sawi matu to waiting for the boar, 倭我陀々西麼 wa ga tataseba as I rise to my feet, 陀倶符羅爾 takubura ni a horsefly lands 阿武柯枳都枳 amu kakituki on my arm and bites me. 曾能阿武嗚 sono amu wo a dragonfly appears 婀枳豆波野倶譬 akidu paya kupi and devours the horsefly. 波賦武志謀 papu musi mo Even the crawling insects 飫裒枳瀰儞麼都羅符 opokimi ni maturapu continue to serve their lord. 儺我柯陀播 na ga kata pa I shall leave a tribute 於柯武 okamu for you, 婀岐豆斯麻野麻登 akitusima yamato Akizushima Yamato. This phonogram is the second most popular to transcribe to in Man’yōshū, appearing 522 times, in every book of the anthology. The first is 等. In the following poem 登 appears three times. MYS 3625 由久美都能 yuku midu no I am a person of the world 可敝良奴其等久 kapyeranu gotoku that leaves not even a trace, 布久可是能 puku kaze no like the water that flows on 美延奴我其登久 miyenu ga gotoku and never returns, 安刀毛奈吉 atwo mo naki or like the wind that blows 与能比登尓之弖 yo no pito ni site but cannot be seen; 和可礼尓之 wakarenisi I will sleep alone on the sleeves 伊毛我伎世弖思 imwo ga kisete si of the well-worn robe 奈礼其呂母 naregoromo that my beloved put on me

453

蘇弖加多思吉弖 比登里可母祢牟

止

swode kata sikite pitori kamo nemu

before she departed spread out on the floor.

OJ: to OC: *təʔ *təʔ§ LH: tśəʔ EMC: tśɨʔ GO: si KN: si NOM: chỉ SV: chỉ SK: ci Usage / History: This is one of the oldest known phonogram used to represent Old Japanese to, and I place it in the PBS based on its phonology. Some scholars have argued that this is not a phonogram, but a kungana (cf. Ōno 1962:171), based on Old Japanese tom- ‘stop’ (止 means ‘stop’). Ōno (ibid.) states, “It is difficult to believe that the use of this graph was influenced by the orthography of either China or the peninsula.” Consider, however, that Starostin (2005) reconstructs this as Old Chinese *təʔ, and Coblin (1983:153) reconstructs it in Eastern Han as *tjəh. The newest reconstruction by Schuessler (2009:97) reconstructs OC *təʔ and Later Han *tśəʔ. Baxter and Sagart reconstruct this exactly as Schuessler. As the *t- of 止 affricates to tɕɨ fairly early in Chinese phonological history, I conclude that this graph is a fossilized remnant of an Old Chinese usage imported into the peninsula, and then passed on to the Wa by Paekche (or other) mediaries. The earliest examples with 止 are found in Jōgū Teisetsu, where Suiko’s name is written 止余美気加志支夜比売 Toyo mike kasikiya pimye. In a mokkan excavated from the ruins of the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710), the following fragment of a song is found (MK 1613): 奈尓皮ツ尓 nanipatu ni At the ferry of Naniwa 佐久矢己乃皮奈 saku YA ko no pana how these blossoms bloom— 布由己母利 puyugomori awakening from winter 伊真皮々留部止 iMA pa paruPYE to now they say it is almost spring. This phonogram appears in many of the liturgies: 此神止白止負賜支。此 乎物知人等乃卜事乎以弖卜止母。出留神乃御心母無止白止聞看弖。KONO KAMWI to MAWOSE to OPOSETAMAPIki. KO wo MONO SIRI PITODOMO no URAGOTO wo MOTIte URAPEdomo, IDUru KAMWI no MIKOKORO mo NASI to MAWOSU to KIKOSIMESIte, “(The Divine Ruler) commanded (the diviners) to declare which deity it was. The diviners performed divination, but humbly reported that nothing appeared from any deity” (NT 4). There are no examples of 止 in Kojiki or Nihon shoki. Interestingly there are a variety of examples found on wooden fragments that have been excavated. From the ruins of the Fujiwara Palace we find examples like: 移部止己麻 YaBYE Tokoma (personal name, MK 148), 伊止志 Itosi (name, MK 1007), 詔 大 命 乎 伊 奈 止 申 者 MIKOTONORI OPOMIKOTO wo ina to MAWOSU PA… ‘Regarding those who say they do not agree with the command of the great one…’ (MK 1063). There are six examples in Man’yōshū, but they all appear in Book 18. MYS 4074 SAKURABANA People say that 櫻花 IMA so SAKARI to the cherry blossoms 今曽盛等 PITO PA IPEDO are now at their best, 雖人云 454

我佐不之毛 WARE PA sabusi mo but I am so lonely— as I am not with you. 支美止之不在者 kimi to si ARANEBA Ōno (1962:171) believes this graph was generally avoided because of its overly common semantics, but interestingly its use appears to have become common enough, with its simple shape and low stroke count, to be both the basis for hiragana と and katanaka ト.

等

OJ: to OC: *tə̂ŋʔ LH: təŋʔ EMC: təŋʔ GO: tou KN: tou NOM: đẳng, đấng SV: đẳng SK: tung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, examples found in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu: 名阿米久尓意斯波留支比里尓波乃弥己等 “His name is Ame Kuni Osiparuki Piro no mikoto.” 生名多至波奈等已比乃弥己等 “She gave birth to a son, named Tatibana Toyopi no mikoto.” This phonogram also appears on a number of mokkan: 袁等売 wotomye ‘maiden’ (MK 2243), 之比等等々流刀毛 意夜志己々呂曽 sipito to toru twomo iyasi kokoro so ‘Even if I take my father-in-law, such base feelings…’ (MK 174). This phonogram also appears in Kojiki: 伊毛能美許等 imwo no mikoto “my honorific beloved” (KG). KK 54 夜麻賀多迩 yamagata ni How delightful it is 麻祁流阿袁那母 makyeru awona mo to pick together even 岐備比登登 kibwi pito to the greens that were planted 等母迩斯都米婆 tomo ni si tumeba in the mountain fields, 多怒斯久母阿流迦 tanwosiku mo aru ka with that person from Kibi. This graph is the most dominant for to in Shoki, appearing nine times in annotational notes, and 72 times in poetry: 並訓美擧等 “(Those of high status) are all called mikoto” (NSG), 少男、此云烏等孤 “A young man,’ this is called wotokwo” (NSG), 絶妻之誓、此云許等度 “ ‘A pledge of divorce to one’s wife,’ this is called kotodwo” (NSG). NSK 35 伊奘阿藝 iza agi Behold, my son. 怒珥比蘆菟湄珥 nwo ni piru tumi ni To the moor, garlic to pick, 比蘆菟瀰珥 piru tumi ni gathering we will go. 和餓喩區瀰智珥 wa ga yuku miti ni On the way there, we will find 伽遇破志 kagupasi the most splendid scent 波那多智麼那 pana tatibana of the orange in bloom. 辭豆曳羅波 siduyera pa The lower branches 比等未那等利 pito mwina tori have been emptied by men. 保菟曳波 potuye pa The upper branches 等利委餓羅辭 tori wigarasi have been scattered by birds. 瀰菟遇利能 mituguri no But hidden within 那伽菟曳能 nakatuye no the middle branches 府保語茂利 pupwogomori we spy a maiden 阿伽例蘆塢等咩 akareru wotomye who is red, like the blossom. 伊奘佐伽麼曳那 iza sakabaye na Come! Bloom and shine for us. 455

This phonogram is the primary graph in Man’yōshū to represent to, appearing approximately 1080 times. MYS 805 等伎波奈周 tokipa nasu Though I think that 迦久斯母何母等 kakusimogamo to I would like to stay here 意母閇騰母 omopedomo like the eternal rocks, 余能許等奈礼婆 yo no koto nareba I cannot remain here 等登尾可祢都母 todomwikanetu mo because the world is ephemeral.

澄

騰

OJ: to OC: *drəŋ LH: ḍɨŋ, ḍaŋ EMC: ḍjəŋ, ḍɐŋ LMC: trɦiəŋ GO: diou KN: tiou NOM: chừng SV: trừng, chừng SK: cing Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This interesting usage appears once in Man’yōshū, in a somewhat cryptic poem. MYS 160 MWOYURU PWI mo Do they not say that 燃火物 TORITE TUTUMITE by taking and wrapping it up 取而褁而 福路庭 pukurwo NIPA even a burning fire IRU to IPAZU YA can be put in a bag? 入澄不言八 面智男雲 moti WONOKWO KU MO Will the man of the full moon come, too? In an effort to make sense of the poem, some have suggested that 澄 is a mistake for 燈 ‘lantern,’ which would go along nicely with the image of 火 ‘fire’ in the first stanza. However, there are no witnesses with this reading. Sengaku even wonders if 澄 should simply be 登 (1978:55). I have followed Sengaku in dividing the stanzas as above; otherwise the fourth stanza creates jiamari. My interpretation of this poem has also generally followed that of Sengaku. As the headnote reads, “(One of) two poems composed by the Dowager (Jitō) at the demise of the Heavenly Ruler (Temmu).” Consider, further, that on the surface, the poet has selected Chinese graphs with dual meanings. The poem can also be interpreted as: the thing of burning fire / take it and wrap it / lucky road yard / enter clear and still, people do not say ‘eight (a lucky number)’ / face of wisdom the man of the clouds. Thus the poem speaks to the reader on two levels. OJ: to OC: *lə̂ŋ LH: dəŋ EMC: dəŋ LMC: GO: dou KN: tou NOM: NA SV: đằng SK: tung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in Nihon shoki in three annotational notes, and 27 times in poetry. 日本、此云耶麻騰 “ ‘日本,’ this is read yamato” (NSG), 行去、此云騰褒屢 “ ‘pass through,’ this is read toporu” (NSG). NSK 127 於彌能古能 omi no kwo no The child of the vassal is 野陛能比母騰倶 yapye no pimo toku about to untie the eight-layer cord. 456

比騰陛多爾 pitopye dani Before he can untie 伊麻拕藤柯泥波 imada tokanepa even one layer of the cord 美古能比母騰矩 mikwo no pimo toku the prince has untied his cord. This phonogram appears only three times in Man’yōshū: MYS 89 WORI AKASITE I shall wait for you 居明而 KIMI woBA MATAMU through the night, not sleeping. 君乎者将待 奴婆珠能 nubaTAMA no Even if frost should WA GA KURWO KAMI ni descend on my black hair, 吾黒髪尓 SIMWO PA PURU tomo black as ink. 霜者零騰文

台 苔

㔁

OJ: to OC: *lhə̂ LH: thə EMC: thậi LMC: thaj GO: dai KN: tai NOM: đài, thai, thơi, thay SV: đài SK: thoy Usage / History: This phonogram later came to replace 臺 , though the one is not an abbreviated form of the other. See 臺 OJ: to above. The graph 台 belongs to the CBS, and appears once in Nihon shoki: 興台産靈 (the deity) Kogoto MUSUPI (NSG). There is also a somewhat strange name on a mokkan: 台床万呂 ToTOKO Maro? (MKK 12:42). This phonogram is related to 苔 (see below). OJ: to OC: *lə̂ LH: də EMC: dậi LMC: tɦaj GO: dai KN: tai NOM: đày, đầy, dầy, SV: đài SK: thoy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears in Nihon shoki, five times in the annotational notes, and 35 times in the poetry: 一柱騰宮、此云阿斯毘苔 徒鞅餓離能宮 “ ‘a palace with one pillar,’ this is read asi pitotu agari no MIYA” (NSG). NSK 9 於佐箇廼 osaka no Though there are many 於朋務露夜珥 opomurwoya ni who have come and entered 比苔瑳破而 pito sapa ni the great cavern of Osaka, 異離烏利苔毛 iriwori tomo and though many men 比苔瑳破而 pito sapa ni have entered here 枳伊離烏利苔毛 ki iriwori tomo and are seated before us, 瀰都瀰都志 mitumitusi you, the intrepid 倶梅能固邏餓 kume no kwora ga sons of the Kume, 勾鶩都々伊 kubututui with pommel-head hilts, 異志都々伊毛智 isitutui moti holding your stone-head swords, 于智弖之夜莽務 utitesi yamamu will now smite the enemy. OJ: to OC: *də̂ŋh LH: dəŋh EMC: dəŋh LMC: tɦəəŋ GO: dou KN: tou NOM: đặng, đựng SV: đặng SK: tung Usage / History: This phonogram is a variant of 鄧 (see below). 457

鄧

藤

縢 鳥

OJ: to OC: *də̂ŋh LH: dəŋh EMC: dəŋh LMC: tɦəəŋ GO: dou KN: tou NOM: đặng, đựng SV: đặng SK: tung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It only appears four times in Nihon shoki, and some manuscripts have this simplified to 㔁. NSK 5 飫企都鄧利 okitu tori Birds of the offing— 軻茂豆勾志磨爾 kamoduku sima ni ducks gather on the island. 和我謂禰志 wa ga winesi As long as I live 伊茂播和素邏珥 imo pa wasurazi I will always remember 譽能據鄧馭鄧母 yo no kotogoto mo the maiden with whom I slept. OJ: to OC: *lə̂ŋ LH: dəŋ EMC: dəŋ LMC: tɦəəŋ GO: dou KN: tou NOM: đằng SV: đằng SK: tung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears but once in Nihon shoki: NSK 127 於彌能古能 omi no kwo no The child of the vassal is 野陛能比母騰倶 yapye no pimo toku about to untie the eight-layer cord. 比騰陛多爾 pitopye dani Before he can untie 伊麻拕藤柯泥波 imada tokanepa even one layer of the cord 美古能比母騰矩 mikwo no pimo toku the prince has untied his cord. OJ: to OC: *lə̂ŋ LH: dəŋ EMC: dəŋ LMC: tɦəəŋ GO: dou KN: tou NOM: NA SV: đằng SK: tung Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and is a variant of 騰 (see above). OJ: to OC: *tiûʔ LH: teuʔ EMC: tieuʔ GO: teu KN: teu NOM: điểu SV: điểu SK: tywo Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ to ‘bird,’ which is a truncated form of tori. The earliest datable evidence of this semantogram is from the Taihō census (702), with the name 鳥取部 TOTORIBYE. A mokkan from the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710) has the name 鳥羽 TOBA (MK 429). Kojiki contains examples such as 鳥取 TOTORI (KG), and Nihon shoki contains examples like 鳥 見 TOMI (NSG), and 鳥 籠 山 TOKWO YAMA ‘Mount Toko’ (NSG). Man’yōshū also has examples of 鳥羽 TOBA (MYS 1757), and 鳥籠山 TOKWO YAMA (MYS 2710). MYS 1234 SIPO PAYAMI Do they stare because the person 塩早三 ISWOMWI NI WOREBA among the rocks is a fisherwoman 礒廻荷居者 KADUKI SURU diving for a catch 入潮為 458

海人鳥屋見濫 多比由久和礼乎

十

跡

迹 常

AMA TOYA MIramu tabi yuku ware wo

because the tide is swift— I who am on a journey?

OJ: to, towo OC: *ɡip LH: dźip EMC: źjəp GO: zifu KN: sifu NOM: sập, thập SV: thập SK: sip Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader the OJ word to(wo) ‘ten.’ This usage can be dated fairly early, an example appears in the Taihō census (702): 十足 TOSUKU (reading unclear). It should be noted, however, that many examples of this semantogram actually transcribe OJ towo instead of just to. Consider this example from a mokkan: 本 須 郡 十 市 Posu District (in Mino Province) TOWOTI (MKK 5:84). The name of this same place was later written 遠市 TOWOTI, where 遠 represents OJ towosi ‘far.’ Regardless, Man’yōshū contains examples of 十 to transcribe to, such as 十 羽 TOBA (MYS 2601) and 十方 TOMO ‘even though’ (MYS 172, 319, 345, 346, 393 et seq.). OJ: to OC: *tsjak LH: tsiak EMC: tsjäk GO: siaku KN: seki NOM: tích SV: tích SK: cyek Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ ato ‘footstep.’ Examples appear in Nihon shoki: 倭跡々日百襲姫命 Princess YAMATO TOTOPI MWOMWOSO (NSG), 倭跡々稚屋姫命 Princess YAMATO TOTOPI WAKAYA (NSG), and 跡見池 TOMI IKE ‘the Tomi pond’ (NSG). The kungana 跡 is used 14 times to transcribe the particle to in Man’yōshū: MYS 3265 YO NO NAKA wo Having taken the tonsure, 世間乎 USI TO OMOPITE thinking what a distressing 倦迹思而 IPYEDE SESI world it is, what shall I 家出為 WARE YA nani ni ka become if I return to the world 吾哉難二加 還而将成 KAPYERITE NARAMU of the common man? There is also an example on a mokkan, though the reading is uncertain: 跡沙 弥 TOsami (unnumbered tablet). OJ: to LH: tsiak EMC: tsjäk NOM: tích SV: tích Usage / History: This is a variant form of 跡 (see above).

OC: *tsjak GO: siaku KN: seki SK: cyek

OJ: to LH: dźaŋ NOM: thường

OC: *djaŋ GO: ziau KN: siau SK: syang

EMC: źjaŋ SV: thường

459

Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ to(ko) ‘eternal, long lasting.’ This usage appears in Man’yōshū 84 times. MYS 1452 YAMI NARABA It is logical not to come 闇夜有者 if the night is dark. 宇倍毛不来座 ube mo KIMASAZI UME NO PANA But would you say you will not 梅花 SAKERU TUKUYWO ni come out on a moonlit night 開月夜尓 伊而麻左自常屋 iDEmasazi TOYA when the plum is in bloom?

徳

OJ: toko, toku OC: *tə̂k LH: tək EMC: tək GO: toku KN: toku NOM: đức SV: đức SK: tek Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears as early as the Buzen Census (702), appearing in names like 徳瀬 TokoSE, 徳麻呂 Tokomaro, and 徳賣 Tokomye. There are a few examples preserved on mokkan: 徳万呂 Tokomaro (MK 28), 徳女 TokoMYE (unnumbered tablet). It also appears in Nihon shoki in the name of an envoy who kept a journal that was incorporated into Nihon shoki: 伊吉連博徳 Iki [NO] MURAZI Pakatoko, also found written as 壹伎連博徳. His name is written as 伊岐連博得 in Shoku Nihongi (700.6.17). In Man’yōshū we find the names 大伴長徳卿 Minister OPOTOMO NAGAtoko (MYS 101) and 太朝臣徳太理 OPO ASOMI Tokotari (MYS 3926). There is also a strange stanza 烏徳自物 wotokozi MONO that appears in a chōka (MYS 210), which is generally interpreted to mean something as ‘like a man’ or ‘masculine,’ but the greatest difficulty for this interpretation is the fact that ‘man’ is wotokwo, and the vowels here are clearly toko. It should be noted that the collapse of OJ ko versus kwo is completed after Man’yōshū is compiled. Others have noted that this poem uses allusions to ‘Rhapsody on a Widow’ from Wen xuan, “I carry my orphan child to the side of the bier…Sparrows, flying in flocks, head for their nests in the pillars; chickens climb onto their roosts and fold their wings…Stroking quilt and bed-curtain, I heave a deep sigh” (Knechtges 2000:187). Based on that, I interpret the relevant part of this chōka as: MYS 210 YO NO NAKA wo As she could not turn her back 世間乎 SOMUKISIENEBA against things in this world 背之不得者 KAGIRWOPWI NO she is hidden like 蜻火之 MWOYUru ARANWO ni a heavenly white scarf that 燎流荒野尓 SIRWOTAPE NO rises above the glimmer fires 白妙之 AMEPIREGAKURI that burn in the rough fields; 天領巾隠 TORIzi MONO like a bird 鳥自物 朝立伊麻之弖 ASADATI imasite she took to flight in the morning, IRIPI NASU and has become hidden 入日成 KAKURINIsiKABA like the setting sun, 隠去之鹿齒 WAGIMWOKWO GA so every time the young child 吾妹子之 KATAMI ni OKERU whom my beloved left 形見尓置有 460

若兒乃 MIDORIGWO no as a token cries, KOPINAKU GOTO NI begging for something, 乞泣毎 TORIATAPURU I have nothing 取與 MONOsi NAKEREBA to give to him, 物之無者 so like a small bed-frame 烏徳自物 wotokozi MONO WAKIBASAMI MOTI I hold him, 腋挟持 WAGIMWOKWO TO sandwiched under my arm, 吾妹子与 PUTARI WA GA NEsi and inside the spouse-hut 二人吾宿之 MAKURADUKU where the two of us laid 枕付 TUMAYA NO UTI ni our pillows drawn together, 嬬屋之内尓 PIRU PAMO I spend the days 晝羽裳 in lonely thoughts. 浦不樂晩之 URASABI KURAsi I thus interpret wo-toko as ‘small-bed.’ This seems the best interpretation, which is not completely without precedent, since MYS 886 contains the stanza 等許自母能 tokozi mono ‘like a bed.’ Thus the allusion would seem to connect with ‘Rhapsody of a Widow,’ where she strokes her quilt and bed-curtain.

得

對

OJ: toko, to OC: * tə̂k LH: tək EMC: tək GO: toku KN: toku NOM: đắc, đác SV: đắc SK: tuk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in the Mino Census (702) in names like 得米賣 Tokomemye, 得麻呂 Tokomaro, 西爾得 Senitoko, and 万得 Matoko. This usage appears on a few mokkan: 大市得万呂 OPOITI Tokomaro (MK 790). This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki in the name 得許 Toko, and 得志 Tokosi. Here it is clear the final velar could be used to show a short vowel in the next mora that was velar initial, as well as the velar plus a vowel could be used to create a second mora altogether. The name 伊岐連博得 Iki [NO] MURAZI Pakatoko appears in Shoku Nihongi (700.6.17). This phonogram also appears 24 times in Man’yōshū, but most of these represent to. MYS 4126 安麻能我波 amanogapa If there were a bridge 波志和多世良波 pasi wataseraba that spanned the river of heaven, 曽能倍由母 sono pe yu mo then I would cross 伊和多良佐牟乎 iwatarasamu wo over the top of it to meet you, 安吉尓安良受得物 aki ni arazu tomo regardless that it is not autumn. OJ: tu OC: *tûts LH: tuəs EMC: twâih GO: tai KN: tui NOM: đối, đỗi SV: đối SK: toy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. The most famous example is of the island 對馬 *tuəs-ma, representing something close to the modern reading of tusima, perhaps *təsima or *tusima. Other examples of this phonogram in Wei zhi are the toponyms: 對盧 *tuəs-lɑ (in Koguryŏ), and 對蘇 *tuəs-sɔ (in Wa). 461

In Koryŏgi it says, 其 國 建 九 等 、 其 一 曰 吐 捽 、 比 一 品 、 舊 名 大 對 慮 “Koguryŏ established a nine-rank system (of government). The first is called thadzuət, which is comparable to the First Rank. The old name of this rank was tatuəs-liah” (Takeuchi 1977:33). This character fell out of use and only survives later in the name of the island Tsushima (対馬).

豆

都

OJ: tu OC: *dôh LH: doh EMC: dəuh GO: du KN: tou NOM: đậu SV: đậu SK: twu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. The following toponyms appear on the Kwangkaytho stele: 豆奴城 *to-nwo fortress, 豆比鴨岑韓 *to-pi-ʔaɨp-dz̘imkara. Vowel raising changed /to/ to /tu/. This phonogram also appears in the Taihō census (702), but in all cases it is used to write female names with the suffix 豆女 tuMYE. It also appears several times on mokkan, though it is sometimes difficult to know if this is tu or du: 弖豆支女 TetukiMYE (MK 204), □支豆里 Xkitu Village (MK 1195). This graph is used once in Kojiki for the voiceless tu: KK 78 阿志比紀能 asipikwi no Weary from climbing 夜麻陀袁豆久理 yamada wo tukuri I cultivated mountain land. 夜麻陀加美 yamadakami The mountain being high 斯多備袁和志勢 sitabwi wo wasise I buried irrigation pipes. 志多杼比爾 sitadopi ni Secretly I visited my wife. 和賀登布伊毛袁 wa ga topu imwo wo My beloved who I visited— 斯多那岐爾 sitanaki ni thus I cry to myself. 和賀那久都麻袁 wa ga naku tuma wo I weep for my spouse. 許存許曾波 kozo koso pa It was last night 夜須久波陀布禮 yasuku pada pure that our flesh calmly touched. There are several of examples of this voiceless tu in the annotational notes of Shoki: 圓此云豆夫羅 “ ‘Circular’ this is read tubura” (NSG), 頭槌此云箇歩 豆智 “ ‘Pommel-head mallet’ this is read kabututi” (NSG). See the same graph under du. OJ: tu OC: *tâ LH: tɑ > tɔ EMC: tuo GO: tu KN: to NOM: đô, đo, đua SV: đô SK: two Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears that vowel raising occurred sometime before the EJS era: tɔ > tu. This graph appears in the Suiko era corpus: 凡牟都和希王 Prince Pomutu Wakwi, 伊波都久和希 Ipatuku Wakwi, 都奴 牟斯君 Tunumusi KIMI. This phonogram appears in the liturgies: 大海爾舟満 都都気弖。自陸往道者荷緒縛堅弖磐根木根履佐久彌弖。馬爪至留限。長 道 無 間 久 立 都 都 気 弖 狭 國 者 広 久 OPOUMI ni PUNE MITEtudukete, KUGA YWORIYUKU MITI PA NI [NO] WO YUPIKATAMEte, IPANE KINE PUMIsakumite, UMA [NO] TUME [NO] ITARITODOMARU KAGIRI, NAGAMITI MA NAKU TATEtudukete “And continue to fill the great ocean with ships, while on the paths on land the ropes 462

that hold tribute will be tightened in all areas, and the couriers will stamp through the rocks and the roots of trees, with horses continuing to stand without gap along the long road, their hooves reaching every spot…” (NT 1). This phonogram appears on a variety of mokkan: 都 麻 郷 Tuma Village (unnumbered tablet), 召都牟自 ‘…summon Tumuzi…’ (unnumbered tablet), 伊都支宮奴婢 ‘male and female slaves of the Ituki Palace’ (MK 1013). This phonogram is also the standard graph in Kojiki to transcribe tu: 伊都之 尾羽張 Itu NO WOPAPARI (name, KG), 豫母都志許賣 yomotu sikomye ‘the deity Yomotsu Shikome’ (of the pass to Hades, KG). There are also many examples in the poetry: KK 10 意佐賀能 osaka no Though there are many 意富牟盧夜爾 opomurwoya ni who have come and entered 比登佐波爾 pito sapa ni the great cavern of Osaka, 岐伊理袁理 kiiriwori and though many men 比登佐波爾 pito sapa ni have entered here 伊理袁理登母 iriwori tomo and are seated before us, 美都美都斯 mitumitusi you, the intrepid 久米能古賀 kume no kwo ga the sons of the Kume, 久夫都都伊 kubututui with pommel-head hilts, 伊斯都都伊母知 isitutui moti holding your stone-hilt swords, 宇知弖斯夜麻牟 utitesi yamamu will now smite the enemy. 美都美都斯 mitumitusi You, the intrepid 久米能古良賀 kume no kwora ga sons of the Kume, 久夫都都伊 kubututui with pommel-head hilts, 伊斯都都伊母知 isitutui moti holding your stone-hilt swords, 伊麻宇多婆余良斯 ima utaba yorosi it is well if you strike now. This phonogram is also used quite frequently in Nihon shoki. It appears 16 times in the annotational notes, and 50 times in the poetry. NSK 96 野絁磨倶儞 yasima kuni I searched the eight islands 都磨々祁哿泥底 tuma makikanete but could not find a spouse. 播屢比能 parupi no Under the spring sun 哿須我能倶儞々 kasuga no kuni ni in the land of Kasuga 倶波絁謎嗚 kupasi mye wo I had heard that 阿利等枳々底 ari to kikite there was a beautiful maiden. 與慮志謎嗚 yorosi mye wo I had heart that 阿利等枳々底 ari to kikite there was a proper woman. 莽紀佐倶 makwi saku A fine grain of wood, 避能伊陀圖嗚 pi no itatwo wo I pushed opened that door 飫斯毘羅枳 osipiraki made of Japanese cypress. 倭例以梨魔志 ware irimasi I went inside 阿都圖唎 atwo twori and held her leg, 都麼怒唎絁底 tumadworisite holding the edge of her hem, 魔倶囉圖唎 makura twori holding her pillow— 伊慕我堤嗚 imo ga te wo holding my spouse. 倭例儞魔柯斯毎 ware ni makasime I wrapped her hand 463

倭我堤嗚麼 wa ga te woba around my waist 伊慕儞魔柯絁毎 imo ni makasime and she my arm— 麼左棄逗囉 masakwidura wrapped it around her. 多々企阿藏播梨 tataki azapari And like a vine, 矢洎矩矢慮 sisikusiro we caressed, intertwined. 于魔伊禰矢度儞 umai nesi two ni We slept deeply, 儞播都等唎 nipatu tori sweet like meat on a skewer. 柯稽播儺倶儺梨 kakye pa nakunari The fowl I keep 奴都等利 nwotu tori have begun to cackle. 枳蟻矢播等余武 kigisi pa toyomu And in the fields 婆絁稽矩謨 pasikyeku mo the pheasants add their call. 伊麻娜以播孺底 imada ipazute The dawn has already come 阿開儞啓梨 akenikyeri before I have been able 倭蟻慕 wagimo to confess my feelings, my love. This is the main phonogram used to represent tu in Man’yōshū, appearing roughly 1072 times in the anthology. MYS 2 UNAPARA pa Over the plain of the sea 海原波 sea gulls were ascending. 加萬目立多都 kamaME TATItatu UMASI KUNI so What a splendid land— 怜 國曽 the islands of the dragonful— 蜻嶋 AKIDUSIMA YAMATO no KUNI PA the land of Yamato is! 八間跡能國者 This phonogram is found over 30 times in the poems of the Buddhist footprints monument. BSS 7 麻須良乎乃 masurawo no The prints stamped 布美於祁留阿止波 pumiokyeru ato pa by the excellent man 伊波乃宇閇尓 ipa no upe ni still remain today 伊麻毛乃己礼利 ima mo nokoreri on top of the stone. 美都々志乃覇止 mitutu sinopye to We say, “Praise them as you look.” 奈賀久志乃覇止 nagaku sinopye to We say, “Praise them forever.”

通

OJ: tu OC: *lhôŋ LH: thoŋ EMC: thuŋ GO: tuu KN: tou NOM: thống, thong SV: thông SK: thwong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This appears on a mokkan excavated from the Heijō Palace ruins: 山 代 内 都 通 岐 YAMASIRO UTItutuki (unnumbered tablet). This phonogram also appears 15 times in Man’yōshū. MYS 282 角障經 TUNWOSAPAPU Covered in vines, Iware— IPARE mo SUGWIZU we have not even passed it. 石村毛不過 PATUSE YAMA When will we 泊瀬山 ITUKA mo KWOYEMU cross over Mount Hatsuse? 何時毛将超 YWO PA PUKEtutu The night continues to deepen. 夜者深去通都 This phonogram appears in Shoku Nihongi in the name 大神朝臣通守 OPOMIWA ASOMI TuMORI (724.2.22). 464

追

丑 川

菟

OJ: tu OC: *trui LH: ṭui EMC: ṭwi GO: tui KN: tui NOM: choai, truy SV: truy SK: thoy, chwyu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Man’yōshū, roughly 86 times. MYS 3726 己能許呂波 kono koro pa Let us spend this time 古非都追母安良牟 kwopwitutu mo aramu while we yearn for each other. 多麻久之氣 tamakusike After the dawn breaks, 安氣弖乎知欲利 akete woti ywori like a jeweled comb box, 須辨奈可流倍思 subye nakaru besi nothing else can be done. OJ: tu OC: *rhuʔ LH: ṭhuʔ EMC: ṭhjəuʔ GO: tiu KN: tiu NOM: sửu SV: sửu SK: chywu Usage / History: This rare usage phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in a name found in a tax register from Izumo that is dated 739: 丑牟自賣 Tumuzimye. OJ: tu OC: *k-hlun LH: tśuan EMC: tśjwän GO: semu KN: sen NOM: xuyên SV: xuyên SK: chyen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The use of this phonogram may have been influenced by the graph 州 (LH: tśu) and its phonology, not to mention the graphic similarity. The earliest usage of this phonogram as a phonogram that I can locate is the Mino Census record of 702, where 川 is written consistently in a cursive form as つ. The phonogram is found in names like 阿尼川賣 Anetumye, 嶋 川 賣 SIMAtumye, and 多 米 川 賣 Tametumye. This usage appears also on a number of mokkan: 山部加之川支 YAMABYE Kasituki (MK 11313), □志川□ XsituX meaning unclear (MK 6). There is one example in Man’yōshū, which Ōno apparently did not notice (cf. 1977:490–498). It appears in the stanza 奈介伎都々 / 安我末川君我 / 許登 乎波里 nagekitutu / a ga matu KIMI ga / koto wopari ‘While I lament, the lord I have waited for finishes his assignment…’ (MYS 4116). This somewhat rare usage also appears twice in Hitachi fudoki: 器仗俗曰伊 川乃 “ ‘weapon’ which the locals call ituno.” There is also the word 加支川爾 kakituni, which scholars believe refers to a type of pigment used in painting. As mentioned above, the cursive form of this phonogram yields hiragana つ as well as katakana ツ. OJ: tu LH: thɑ > thɔ NOM: thố, thỏ, đồ

OC: *lâ EMC: thɔ LMC: tɦuə GO: tu KN: to SV: thố, thỏ SK: two, thwo

465

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and even though it appears only in Nihon shoki, 54 times in the poetry, I have placed it in the LJS. The CBS strata would have it read two, but this did not happen. NSK 35 伊奘阿藝 iza agi Behold, my son. 怒珥比蘆菟湄珥 nwo ni piru tumi ni To the moor, garlic to pick, 比蘆菟瀰珥 piru tumi ni gathering we will go. 和餓喩區瀰智珥 wa ga yuku miti ni On the way there, we will find 伽遇破志 kagupasi the most splendid scent 波那多智麼那 pana tatibana of the orange in bloom. 辭豆曳羅波 siduyera pa The lower branches 比等未那等利 pito mwina tori have been emptied by men. 保菟曳波 potuye pa The upper branches 等利委餓羅辭 tori wigarasi have been scattered by birds. 瀰菟遇利能 mituguri no But hidden within 那伽菟曳能 nakatuye no the middle branches 府保語茂利 pupwogomori we spy a maiden 阿伽例蘆塢等咩 akareru wotomye who is red, like the blossom. 伊奘佐伽麼曳那 iza sakabaye na Come! Bloom and shine for us.

頭

屠

OJ: tu OC: *dô LH: do EMC: dəu LMC: tɦəw GO: du KN: tou NOM: đầu SV: đầu SK: twu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. There are two examples in the annotational notes of Nihon shoki: 広津此云比慮岐頭 “ ‘Vast ferry’ this is read piroki tu” (NSG), 倭文此云之頭於利 “ ‘Traditional Japanese weaving’ this is read situori” (NSG). Hitachi fudoki contains a poem with this phonogram. 許智多雞波 kotitakyeba As the rumors are painful 乎婆頭勢夜麻能 wobatuse yama no let us hide ourselves 伊波歸爾母 ipakwi nimo in the stone enclosure 爲弖許母郎奈牟 wite komoranamu on Mount Obatsuse. 奈古非敍和支母 na kwopwi so wagimo Do not yearn for me, my love. OJ: tu OC: *dâ LH: da EMC: duo LMC: tɦuə GO: do, du KN: to NOM: đồ SV: đồ SK: two, cye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and it appears once in a poem in Nihon shoki: NSK 13 瀰都瀰都志 mitumitusi You, the intrepid 倶梅能故邏餓 kume no kwora ga sons of the Kume— 介耆茂等珥 kakimoto ni at the base of the fence

466

阿波赴珥破 介瀰羅毘苔茂苔 曾廼餓毛苔 曾禰梅屠那藝弖 于笞弖之夜莽務

途

徒 突

圖

apa pu nipa kamira pitomoto sono ga moto so ne me tunagite utitesi yamamu

in the millet field there is one fetid leek. As one would pull it by root and by stem, we will utterly smite them.

OJ: tu OC: *lâ LH: dɑ EMC: duo LMC: tɦuə GO: do, du KN: to NOM: đồ SV: đồ SK: two Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This graph appears once in a poem in Nihon shoki: NSK 12 哆々奈梅弖 tatanamete With our shields arrayed 伊那瑳能椰摩能 inasa no yama no we have fought many battles 虚能莽由毛 ko no mayu mo on Mount Inasa, 易喩耆摩毛羅毘 iyuki mamworapi going through the trees 多々介陪麼 tatakapeba and watching the enemy. 和例破椰隈怒 ware pa ya wenu Thus are we famished. 之摩途等利 simatutori Birds of the island— 宇介譬餓等茂 ukapi ga tomo come now to our rescue, 伊莽輸開珥虚禰 ima suke ni kone you friends of the cormorants. OJ: tu OC: *dâ LH: dɑ EMC: duo LMC: tɦuə GO: do KN: to NOM: đồ, đò, trò SV: đồ SK: two Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears once in an annotational note in the third book of Nihon shoki: 一柱騰宮此云阿斯毘苔徒鞅餓離能宮 “ ‘A palace with one pillar,’ this is read asi pitotu agari no MIYA” (NSG). OJ: tu OC: *thût or *dût LH: thuət, duət EMC: thwət, dwət LMC: tɦut GO: doti KN: totu NOM: đột SV: đột SK: twol Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears once in the first book of Nihon shoki, used to introduce the fire deity whose birth kills Izanami: 軻遇突智 kagututi. Ōno (1977:812) believes this graphic usage represents the personality of this deity. This is an interesting theory, because if we look at the semantics of the phonograms of this deity’s name we have “damaged axle-meet-emerge suddenly-wisdom.” It would appear that the compiler of Shoki picked the graphs for a specific reason. On the other hand, it is also possible that 突 was also selected with its -t final to introduce the final graph, which is t- initial. OJ: tu LH: dɑ NOM: đồ

OC: *dâ EMC: duo LMC: tɦuə GO: du KN: to SV: đồ SK: two 467

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This graph appears in two annotational notes in the record of Great King Jinmu in Nihon shoki: 顕齋此云于圖詩怡破 毘 “ ‘Visible ritual’ this is read utusi ipapi” (NSG), 秀真国此云袍圖莽句儞 “ ‘Superior true land’ this is read potuma kuni” (NSG).

覩

津

OJ: tu OC: *tâʔ LH: tɑʔ EMC: tuoʔ LMC: tuə GO: tu KN: to NOM: đỏ SV: đổ SK: two Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in one poem in Nihon shoki: NSK 97 莒母唎矩能 kumoriku no In the hidden land, 簸覩細能哿波庚 patuse no kapa yu the bamboo flowing down 那峨礼倶屢 nagarekuru the Hatsuse River— 駄開能 take no wonderful, flourishing bamboo 以矩美娜開余嚢開 ikumidake yodake with long joints and leaves. OJ: tu OC: *tsin LH: tsin EMC: tsjen GO: sin KN: sin NOM: NA SV: tân SK: cin Usage / History: This phonogram is a kungana, where 津 ‘ford’ suggests to the reader OJ tu ‘port, ferry.’ The earliest dateable example of this graph is from the Taihō census (702): 津嶋連 TUSIMA MURAZI, 志津加比賣 SiTUka Pimye, and 牟下津辺 MugyeTUpye. This kungana appears in Kojiki. Ōno (1977:213) notes that this kungana is used 160 times in Kojiki, compared to 160 times for 都. While the total numbers are a perfect match, the distribution is different: One hundred cases of 津 appear in the first book of Kojiki, while only 35 cases of 都 appear in the first book: 津 嶋 TUSIMA (KG), 大綿津見神 the deity OPOWATATUMI (KG), and the deity 速秋津日子神 PAYA AKITU PIKWO (KG). This graph is also used frequently in Nihon shoki, 252 times according to Ōno (1977:803). Like Kojiki, many names of deities and toponyms are written with 津 : 豊 秋 津 洲 TOYO AKITU SIMA (NSG), 経 津 主 神 the deity PUTUNUSI (NSG), and 泉津日狭女 YOMOTU PISAMYE Hisame maiden of Yomotu (NSG). Man’yōshū has numerous examples of this usage in its poetry. MYS 15 渡津海乃 WATATUMI no The setting sun illuminates TOYO PATA KUMWO ni the eternal banner clouds 豊旗雲尓 伊理比紗之 iribi sasi over the great sea— KOYOPI no TUKUYWO may the moon this evening 今夜乃月夜 SAYAKEKARI koso be bright and clear. 清明己曽

468

筑

築 竹

竺

OJ: tuka, tuki, tuku OC: *truk LH: ṭuk EMC: ṭjuk GO: tiku KN: tiku NOM: NA SV: trúc SV: chywuk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The most well known example is 筑紫 Tukusi (island) which appears in Kojiki and Nihon shoki. In a wooden document (mokkan) excavated from the Fujiwara Palace ruins (fl. 694–710) we find 筑志 前 Tukusi [NO] MITI [NO] KUTI (unnumbered tablet). Shoku Nihongi contains toponyms like 筑紫 Tukusi (697.11.11), and 常陸國筑波郡 PITATI Province Tukupa District (767.3.14). Another wooden document excavated from the Nara Capital contains the toponym 信濃國筑摩郡 Tukama District of Sinanwo Province (MKK 4:15). Another dated document excavated from Shiga Prefecture contains the phrase 遠 江国長下郡伊筑郷天平十六年七月 “TOPOTU APUMI Lower Naga District Ituku Village. Seventh month of the sixteenth year of Tenpyō (744)…” (MKK 18:101). Izumo fudoki preserves the name 筑陽川 Tukiya River. Hitachi fudoki contains a number of examples of this phonogram, the most famous being 筑波 Tukupa. There is also the name 夜筑斯 Yatukusi. There is also a somewhat problematic toponym found in Hitachi fudoki: 密筑 which is glossed Mituki. As 密 is mitu, it is possible that this is actually Mitutuki, but as with so many other examples, it is possible this is actually mit-tuki, with a geminate showing a short vowel in the first mora. For now I follow the reading of mituki. OJ: tuku OC: *truk LH: ṭuk EMC: ṭjuk GO: tiku KN: tiku NOM: trốc SV: trúc SV: chywuk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears once in a Nara era document in the possession of Shōsōin: 築志 Tukusi. OJ: tuku OC: *truk LH: ṭuk EMC: ṭjuk GO: tiku KN: situ NOM: trúc SV: trúc, chúc SV: cywuk Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in a tax record from Izumo dated 739: 竹良賣 Tukuramye. In Nara era documents in the possession of Shōsōin we find 竹志 Tukusi, 竹良賣 Tukuramye, and 乎竹志 Wotukusi. Nihon shoki contains examples like 竹斯嶋 Island of Tukusi (NSG) and 采女 臣竹羅 UNEMYE OMI Tukura (NSG). This last name is glossed Tikura in the texts, but for the time being I leave it here. OJ: tuku LH: touk NOM: trúc

EMC: tuok SV: trúc

469

OC: *tûk GO: tiku, toku KN: diku SV: chywuk, twok

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in the Chikuzen Census of 702 in the name 竺志賣 Tukusimye. There is also a name in Harima fudoki: 故名阿豆 ‘Thus it was named Atu.’ However, the critical text actually has 阿笠. Ōno argues (1977:527, n. 47) that this should actually be emended to 阿姜, the final graph being a variant of 竺.

敦 綴 都

OJ: tunu OC: *tûn LH: tuən EMC: twən GO: ton (tun?) KN: ton NOM: đôn SV: đôn SV: twon, tan, thoy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram is used to represent the toponym Tunuga: 敦我 (Nara document, Shōsōin), 敦加 (Nara document, Shōsōin), and 敦賀 (Shoku Nihongi, 765.5.7). OJ: tutu OC: *trot or *trots LH: ṭyat or ṭyas EMC: ṭjwät, ṭjwäih GO: teti KN: tei NOM: xuýt, choét SV: xuyết, chuế SV: chyel, chye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This appears in a Nara era document in possession of Shōsōin: 綴喜 Tutuki. The same toponym appears in Shoku Nihongi: 綴喜郡 Tutuki District (711.1.2). OJ: two OC: *tâ LH: tɑ > tɔ EMC: tuo GO: tu KN: to NOM: đô, đo,đua SV: đô SK: two Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in Wei zhi to transcribe the following personal names or toponyms: 都市牛利 *tɔ-si-ŋgu-ri ‘personal name,’ 都支 *tɔ-ke ‘place name,’ and 好古都 * ho-kɔ-tɔ ‘place name.’ This phonogram also appears in Silla inscriptions: the Naengsu-ri stone inscription has the personal name 至都盧 *ti-tɔ-lɔ. The following examples appear in Korean proper nouns preserved in Nihon shoki, with the reading preserved in Shoki, and a possible Paekche reading in brackets: 新齊都媛 Princess Sisetu (possibly Siseto), 佐魯麻都 Sarwomatu (or Saro Mato), 沙都 嶋 Satwo Island. Likely by the time of the Paekche records, the Go-on reading of 都 had already raised to tu, and thus it would have been read that way at the Yamato court. This phonogram then reappears on wooden documents excavated from the Fujiwara Palace ruins (fl. 694–710): 多々那都久 tatanatuku “one placed upon another” (unnumbered tablet) or 依 都 利 eturi “crossbeam” (unnumbered tablet), showing that 都 generally was still used to transcribe tu. With the importation of the more innovative Chang’an dialect of Chinese, this graph was occasionally used to transcribe two. The earliest attested examples are from the Nara era, but there are only two examples: 安都 (or 阿都) atwo and 伊都郡 Itwo District. The first name is also written 阿刀, but the rendition with 都 is found more often, likely a favored usage because of the semantics with ‘capital.’ The same is likely true of Itwo, a place name in Kyūshū, and one 470

that is believed to correspond to one of the states the Chinese recorded in Wei zhi: 伊都. Interestingly, Nihon shoki, with its innovative orthography based on Chang’an Chinese, rarely used 都 to transcribe two. It appears once in a poem, where 都 represents both tu and two: NSK 96 倭例以梨魔志 ware irimasi I went inside 阿都圖唎 atwo twori and held her leg, 都麼怒唎絁底 tumadworisite holding the edge of her hem, 魔倶囉圖唎 makura twori holding her pillow— 伊慕我堤嗚 imo ga te wo holding my spouse. Notice that in this poem 都 represents tu four times: twice in tuma ‘spouse,’ and once each in nipatu ‘in the yard’ and nwotu ‘in the field.’ It appears once as 阿都圖唎 atwo twori ‘hold her leg.’ According to Jidai betsu kokugo daijiten, this phonogram is also used in Man’yōshū (1967:897) to represent two, but this is disputed by Ōno (1977:516– 517). I have found one name of a poet, 安 都 宿 祢 年 足 Atwo Sukune TOSITARI, in Man’yōshū (MYS 663).

刀

OJ: two OC: *tâu LH: tɑu EMC: tâu GO: tau KN: tau NOM: đao, dao, đeo SV: đao SK: two Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This graph appears in Nihon shoki in the following Paekche and Silla names: 刀伽 Twoka, and 安刀奈末 Atwo Nama. This graph also appears in the Suiko era corpus: 刀自古郎女 twozikwo IRATUMYE Princess Tojiko, 怒那久良布刀多麻斯支天皇 nunakura putwo tamasiki SUMYERA Great King Nunakura Futotamashiki, 等已刀弥々乃弥己等 Toyotwo Mimi no mikoto Toyo Tomimi (name of Shōtoku Taishi). On a metal epitaph of Funa Obito dated the seventh year of Tenji (668) appears the name 刀羅古 tworakwo ‘tiger-child (born in the year of the tiger?).’ Mokkan examples include: 阿刀田人 Atwo TAPITO (MK 1945), 物部刀良 MONONOBYE Twora (MKK 5:85), and from a fragment dated 710.4.10 is a fragment with the name: 阿刀部志祁太女 AtwoBYE SikyetaMYE (MK 17). This phonogram is one of the main graphs used in Kojiki for /two/ along with 斗. Examples are 布刀玉 putwo TAMA ‘thick jewels’ (KG), 布刀詔戸 putwo NORITWO ‘thick litgury’ (KG), and 布刀斯理 putwo siri ‘firmly plant’ (KG). KK 5 伊刀古夜能 itwokwo ya no Like a cousin 伊毛能美許等 imwo no mikoto my august beloved— 牟良登理能 mura tori no if my followers were to leave 和賀牟禮伊那婆 wa ga mure inaba like a flock of birds…. The phonogram 刀 appears in one annotational note, and two poems in Nihon shoki: 太占此云太刀磨爾 “ ‘Thick divination,’ this is read putwomani” (NSG).

471

NSK 42 知破椰臂苔 tipaya pito Endowed with power 于旎能和多利珥 udi no watari ni you potent people 佐烏刀利珥 sawo twori ni who hold the staff. 破揶鷄務臂苔辭 payakyemu pito si at the ferry of Uji— 和餓毛胡珥虚務 wa ga mwokwo ni komu come rescue me, companions! This phonogram is the primary phonogram in Man’yōshū to represent two, used roughly 118 times. MYS 3747 和我屋度能 wa ga yadwo no Let us say that I pine for you while gazing at the needles 麻都能葉見都々 matu no PA MItutu 安礼麻多無 are matamu of the pine tree in my yard. 波夜可反里麻世 payakapyerimase Please hurry back to me, 古非之奈奴刀尓 kwopwisinanu twoni before I die of yearning.

斗

OJ: two OC: *tôʔ LH: toʔ EMC: təu GO: to KN: tou NOM: đẩu, đấu SV: đẩu SK: twu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. While the graph does not appear in any of the early census data, it appears in a fragment on a wooden document excavated from the Fujiwara Palace ruins (fl. 694–710): 人□阿斗 PITO X atwo… (MK 1636), which might be part of a name. There is also the fragment 斗麻都余之大 子 ‘Prince Twomatuyo’ (MK 5098). This phonogram was generally avoided, because it also functioned as a measure of liquid, equaling roughly two quarts. This phonogram appears once in the liturgies: 久那斗止御名者申弖 kunatwo to MINA PA MAWOSIte “…who are known as…Kunatwo” (NT 13). This phonogram is one of the main graphs used in Kojiki to represent two: 布 斗 斯 理 putwo siri “firmly plant” (KG), 多 布斗 久 taputwoku “highly esteemed” (KG), 阿 久 斗 比 売 akutwo pimye Princess Akuto (KG). The following two songs use this phonogram: KK 17 阿米都都 ametutu Like a candy-colored wagtail, 知杼理麻斯登登 tidori masitoto or a plover, or a bunting 那杼佐祁流斗米 nado sakyeru twome why the tattooed, sharp eyes? KK 18 袁登賣爾 wotomye ni It is only to meet 多陀爾阿波牟登 tada ni apamu to a young maiden, I thought, 和加佐祁流斗米 wa ga sakyeru twome with my opened, sharp eyes. This phonogram is also used in Nihon shoki, three times in the annotational notes, and five times in the poetry: 太諄辞此云布斗能理斗 “ ‘Thick words of import’ this is read putwo noritwo” (NSG). NSK 41 訶羅怒烏 karanow wo The ship Karano 之褒珥椰枳 sipwo ni yaki was burned to make salt. 之餓阿摩離 si ga amari The leftover wood 虚等珥菟句離 koto ni tukuri was used to make a lute. 472

訶枳譬句梛 kaki piku ya When I strum on it 由羅能斗能 yura no two no the sound is wonderful, 斗那訶能異句離珥 twonaka no ikuri ni as the swaying of seaweed 敷例多菟 puretatu on a rock jutting 那豆能紀能 nadu no kwi no out in the Yura Straits— 佐椰佐椰 saya saya saya saya. This phonogram appears three times in the poetry in Man’yōshū: MYS 800 TITI PAPA wo You feel admiration 父母乎 美礼婆多布斗斯 mireba taputwosi seeing father and mother. MYEKWO MIreba You feel love and affection 妻子見礼婆 米具斯宇都久志 megusi utukusi seeing your wife and children.

土

度

OJ: two OC: *thâʔ LH: thɑʔ EMC: thuoʔ GO: to KN: to NOM: thổ SV: thổ SK: thwo, twu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, and appears once in Kojiki: 土左国 Twosa Province. The same usage appears in Nihon shoki, 土佐 Twosa, along with 土羅羅 Tworara. The rendition 土左 Twosa is also found in Man’yōshū. A search of over 50,000 mokkan yields the following number of spellings: 土左 Twosa (5), 土佐 Twosa (4), 多土 Tatwo (5), 怡土 Itwo (4), 伊土 Itwo (1), 土万呂 Twomaro (3), 土麻呂 Twomaro (1), 宇土 Utwo (1), and 土茂 Twomo (1). Thus, this graph was used to write proper nouns, but was not used in any extant poetry. This phonogram appears on a variety of mokkan, but many of the readings are tenuous. Here are some that are secure: 怡土郡 Itwo District (MK 283), 土左国 Twosa Province (MK 4670). OJ: two OC: *dakh LH: dɑh EMC: duoh LMC: tɦuə GO: do KN: to NOM: độ, đo, đụ SV: độ SK: two Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to CBS, appearing in Nihon shoki, once in the annotational notes and five times in the poetry: 脚邊、此云阿度陛 “ ‘Around the legs,’ this is read atwopye” (NSG). It also is used in the following song: NSK 124 于知波志能 utipasi no Come out, child 都梅能阿素弭爾 tume no aswobi ni to play at the edge of 伊提麻栖古 idemase kwo the plank bridge. 多麻提能伊鞞能 tamade no ipye no Mistress Yaheko of 野鞞古能度珥 yapyekwo no twozi the Tamade House. 伊提麻志能 idemasi no There will be no regrets 倶伊播阿羅珥茹 kui pa arazi zo if you come out. 伊提麻西古 idemase kwo Come out, child— 多麻提能鞞能 tamade no ipye no Mistress Yaheko of 野鞞古能度珥 yapyekwo no twozi the Tamade House. This phonogram also appears in Shoku Nihongi, once in a poem: 473

SN 2 蘇良美都 夜麻止乃久尓波 可未可良斯 多布度久安流羅之 許能末比美例波

渡

覩

圖

swora mitu yamato no kuni pa kamwi karasi taputwoku arurasi kono mapi mireba

This land of Yamato which fills the firmament, does seem to be a divine land, so it is worthy of honor, when I watch this dance.

OJ: two OC: *dakh LH: dɑh EMC: duoh LMC: tɦuə GO: do KN: to NOM: đò SV: độ SK: two Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing three times in poetry in Nihon shoki: NSK 16 宇磨佐開 umasake What sweet sake! 瀰和能等能々 miwa no tono no How we wish to return 阿佐妬珥毛 asatwo nimo to our homes this morning, 伊弟氐由介那 idete yukana going through the gate 瀰和能等能渡塢 miwa no tonotwo wo of this, the shrine of Miwa. OJ: two OC: *tâʔ LH: tɑʔ EMC: tuoʔ LMC: tuə GO: tu KN: to NOM: đổ, đủ SV: đổ SK: two Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. I have found only a few examples of this graph in Nihon shoki, but mainly in toponyms: 筑紫伊覩縣 tukusi [NO] itwo AGATA ‘the Ito District of Tsukushi’ (NSG), 覩貨邏國 twokara [NO] KUNI ‘land of Tokara’ (NSG). There is also one example in the annotational notes in Shoki: 戸母、此云覩自 “ ‘Mistress of the house,’ this is read twozi” (NSG). This phonogram also appears in Shaku Nihongi, in a quote from Tsukushi fudoki, which has been lost. There we find 逸覩 Itwo. OJ: two OC: *dâ LH: dɑ EMC: duo LMC: tɦuə GO: du KN: to NOM: đồ SV: đồ SK: two Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing once in the annotational notes and three times in one poem in Nihon shoki: 倭文神、此云斯圖梨俄未 “ ‘the deity of native weaving,’ this is read sitworigamwi” (NSG). NSK 96 莽紀佐倶 makwi saku A fine grain of wood, 避能伊陀圖嗚 pi no itatwo wo I pushed opened that door 飫斯毘羅枳 osipiraki made of Japanese cypress. 倭例以梨魔志 ware irimasi I went inside 阿都圖唎 atwo twori and held her leg, 都麼怒唎絁底 tumadworisite holding the edge of her hem,

474

魔倶囉圖唎 伊慕我堤嗚

妬

徒

杜

makura twori imo ga te wo

holding her pillow— holding my spouse.

OJ: two OC: *tâkh LH: tah EMC: tuoh LMC: tuə GO: tu KN: to NOM: đố, đú SV: đố SK: thwu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in Nihon shoki, once in an annotational note, and four times in the poetry: 戸畔、此云妬鼙 “ ‘lord of the house,’ this is read twobye” (NSG). NSK 6 阿軻娜磨廼 akadama no The radiant globe 比訶利播阿利登 pikari pa ari to is wonderfully brilliant, 比鄧播伊珮耐 pito pa ipyedo so people may say, 企弭我譽贈比志 kimi ga yosopisi but I have now realized 多輔妬勾阿利計利 taputwoku arikyeri your brilliance is the finest. OJ: two OC: *dâ LH: dɑ EMC: duo LMC: tɦuə GO: do KN: to NOM: đồ, đò, trò SV: đồ SK: two Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing in Nihon shoki, twice in one poem: NSK 28 伊徒姑播茂 itwokwo pa mo Men with relatives 伊徒姑奴池 itwokwo dwoti will fight together. 伊裝阿波那 iza apana Commence the battle, 和例波 ware pa shall we? 多摩岐波屢 tamaki paru Minister Uti, 于池能阿層餓 uti no aso ga possessing a strong spirit, 波邏濃知波 paranuti pa does not have a stomach 異佐誤阿例椰 isagwo are ya made of pebbles. 伊裝阿波那 iza apana Commence the battle, 和例波 ware pa shall we? OJ: two OC: *dâʔ LH: dɑʔ EMC: duoʔ LMC: tɦuə GO: du KN: to NOM: đỗ SV: đỗ SK: twu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It is interesting that Nom has đỗ, but the Nom character 笶 has the reading of duã, which preserves evidence of the EMC and LMC evolution of this graph. The phonogram 杜 appears twice in the poetry in Nihon shoki. Below is one example: NSK 72 於朋摩幣 opomapye Everyone! 烏摩幣輸區泥餓 womapye sukune ga Gather together under 訶那杜加礙 kanatwokage the eaves of the iron gate 475

訶區多智豫羅泥 阿梅多知夜梅牟

屠 塗 戸

聰

kaku tatiyorane ame tatiyamemu

of Ōmae and Womae. The rain will soon abate.

OJ: two OC: *dâ LH: da EMC: duo LMC: tɦuə GO: do, du KN: to NOM: đồ SV: đồ SK: two, cye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in Nihon shoki, once in the following annotational note: 撫 劒 、 此 云 都 盧 耆 能 多 伽 彌 屠 利 辭 魔 屢 “ ‘firmly holding the hilt,’ this is read turugi no takami tworisibaru” (NSG). OJ: two OC: *lâ LH: dɑ EMC: duo LMC: tɦuə GO: du KN: to NOM: đồ SV: đồ SK: two Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, appearing in Nihon shoki in the following annotational note: 問菟、此云塗毘宇 “ ‘(The place name) 問菟,’ this is read twopiu” (NSG). OJ: two OC: *ɡâʔ LH: ɡɑʔ EMC: ɣuoʔ GO: go KN: ko NOM: hộ, họ SV: hộ SK: hwo Usage / History: This is one of the oldest known kunganas for two in Japan. The graph 戸 ‘door’ suggests to the mind OJ two ‘door.’ Kojiki preserves names such as 戸山 津見神 the deity TWOYAMATUMI (KG), also 豐戸別王 Prince TOYOTWO WAKE (KG), 廬戸宮 the IPOTWO Palace (KG), and 苅幡戸辨 KARIPATA TWObye (KG). Nihon shoki also preserves the following: 戸畔、此云妬鼙 “ ‘TWOBYE, lord of the house,’ this is read twobye” (NSG). Here ‘door’ refers to the house. Other examples include 苅幡戸辺 KARIPATA TWObye (NSG), 廬戸宮 the IPOTWO Palace (NSG), and 穴戸 ANATWO (NSG). This kungana also appears rather frequently in Man’yōshū. A variant note to a poem in Book 2 of Man’yōshū has: 玉 匣 / 三 室 戸 山 乃 TAMAKUSIGE / MIMUROTWO YAMA no ‘Mount Mimoroto, that is like a jeweled comb box…’ (MYS 94). OJ: two OC: *tshôŋ LH: tshoŋ EMC: tshuŋ GO: su KN: sou NOM: thông SV: thông SK: chwong Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ two ‘sharp.’ It appears in the name of Regent Shōtoku Taishi’s name, 豊聡耳聖徳 TOYOTWO MIMI Shōtoku, or 豊 聡耳法大王 Great King of the Buddhist Law TOYOTWO MIMI. This graph was selected because of its auspicious semantics: ‘hear well, intelligent.’ Here the name works out to mean ‘eternal intelligent / quick ear.’ This usage appears in all

476

records that deal with the prince, attesting to its rather early creation, perhaps within decades after his death in 621.

利 門

鋭 砥 速

OJ: two OC: *rih LH: lih EMC: lih GO: ri KN: ri NOM: lì, lợi, lòi SV: lị, lợi SK: li Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ two-si ‘sharp’ and two ‘whetstone.’ An example appears in the surname 高志之利波臣 “The TWONAMI OMI of Kwosi.” The same usage appears in Man’yōshū, 利波山 Mount TWONAMI (MYS 4177). OJ: two OC: *mə̂n LH: mən EMC: mwən GO: momu KN: bon NOM: môn, mon SV: môn SK: mwun Usage / History: This is a kungana, calling to mind OJ two ‘door, gate.’ Examples are found in Kojiki: 穴門之豐浦宮 TOYOURA Palace of ANATWO (KG). Similar usages are preserved in Nihon shoki, such as the following place names: 穴 門 ANATWO (NSG), 渟田門 NUTA [NO] TWO (NSG), and 山門 YAMATWO (NSG). This kungana appears also in Man’yōshū: 長門 NAGATWO (MYS 1024). OJ: two OC: *lots LH: juas EMC: jiwäih GO: ei KN: ei NOM: nhọn SV: nhuệ, duệ SK: yey Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ two ‘sharp.’ This rare graph appears only in Nihon shoki: 天口鋭田 AME [NO] KUTITWODA, a name for a poor plot of ground cultivated by Susanoo (NSG). Kuti is written with a kungana 口 ‘mouth,’ but likely refers to kuti ‘to rot.’ OJ: two OC: *tiʔ LH: tśiʔ EMC: tśiʔ GO: si KN: si NOM: đe SV: chỉ SK: ci Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ two ‘whetstone,’ appearing in Kojiki and Nihon shoki: 眞砥野 Princess MATWONWO. Izumo fudoki records 砥神 嶋 TWOGAMWI Island and a place called 麁砥 ARATWO. OJ: two OC: sôk LH: sok EMC: suk GO: soku KN: soku NOM: tốc SV: tốc SK: swok Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ two-si ‘quick, sudden.’ This usage appears once in Man’yōshū:

477

MYS 1718 足利思代 ATWOMOPIte Have the boats KOGIYUKU PUNE pa that called out together 榜行舟薄 TAKASIMA NO and rowed toward 高嶋之 足速之水門尓 ATWO NO MINATWO ni the port of Ato in Takashima PATEnikemu KAMO arrived there already? 極尓監鴨 Both words that begin atwo have been traditionally interpreted as adwo. Take, for example, the phonograms 足利 ‘leg-sharp’ atwo, which only appears twice in Man’yōshū. This kungana works because it calls to mind a ‘leg’ as in MYS 3387: 安能於登世受 a no oto sezu ‘without your feet making any sound.’ A also appears in the word ayupi ‘leg straps.’ Naturally 利 ‘sharp’ calls to mind OJ two ‘sharp,’ as noted above. The apparent voicing that appears to have crept into the texts is likely a later phenomenon. I believe the same thing can be said for 足速.

疾 礪

OJ: two OC: *dzit LH: dzit EMC: dzjet GO: ziti KN: situ NOM: tật SV: tật SK: cil Usage / History: This kungana suggests the OJ reading two-si ‘quick, sudden.’ It appears only in Nihon shoki, in the following name: 田疾來 TATWOKU (NSG). OJ: two OC: *rats LH: lias EMC: ljäih GO: re KN: rei NOM: NA SV: lệ SK: lye Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind of the reader OJ two ‘whetstone.’ This kungana appears in the following two place names in Nihon shoki 吾礪 ATWO (NSG) and 菟礪 UTWO (NSG). It also appears in Man’yōshū in the topoynm 礪波郡 TWONAMI District (MYS 4021, 4138). There is also a poem in Man’yōshū with a variation, where the kungana is variant. MYS 3231 TUKWI MO PI MO Even if the sun and moon 月日 KAPARAPINU TOMO perpetually change, 攝友 PISA NI PUru the place of the Totsu Palace 久經流 三諸之山 MIMORO NO YAMA NO at Mount Mimoro which has lasted 礪津宮地 TWOTU MIYA TOKORO for a long time will not. A note states that there is another manuscript with the final two stanzas as 故王都・跡津宮地 PURUKI MIYAKWO NO / TWOTU MIYA TOKORO ‘the place of the Totsu Palace which is the old royal capital will not….’

478

U 于

OJ: u OC: *wa LH: wɑ EMC: wuă GO: u KN: u NOM: vu, vo SV: vu SK: wu Usage / History: This phonogram belong s to the PBS. This graph appears on the Kwangkaytho stele, in the following toponym: 于流城, *uru (or *wuru) fortress. This graph (于) also appears in the Silla epigraphic data base. On the Wicywu stele (539) 僧徒于□ appears, transcribing the name of a Bonze, something close to *to(w)uX. This graph 于 also appears in a single Korean name recorded in Shoki in the record of Tenmu: 阿于 au or awu. There are a few examples also found on mokkan: 于度部子人 UdwoBYE KWOBITO (MKK 17:35), 于遅 Udi (MKK 27:37). In Shoki’s poetry, the phonogram appears 20 times in the annotational notes, and in 29 poems: 大人此云于志, “A man of stature is known as usi.” A single example from the poetry will suffice: NSK 105 于泥備椰摩 unebwi yama Though the trees 虚多智于須家苔 kotati usukyedo are sparse on Mount Unebi, 多能彌介茂 tanomi kamo is it the young Ketsu 氣菟能和區呉能 ketu no wakugwo no who has hidden himself there 虚茂羅勢利祁牟 komoraserikyemu hoping for support? This phonogram also appears six times in Man’yōshū. Regarding MYS 1259 and 3236 Ōno (1977:343) notes that these may actually be mistakes for 宇. However, the most recent textual research on Man’yōshū (Satake et al. 1999, 2:155, 3:232) shows that the handwritten manuscripts agree that the archetype is 于. MYS 852 烏梅能波奈 ume no pana The blossoms of the plum 伊米尓加多良久 ime ni kataraku spoke to me in a dream— 美也備多流 miyabwitaru we think of ourselves as 波奈等阿例母布 pana to are mopu elegant blossoms. 左氣尓于可倍許曽 sake ni ukabe koso Float us in your sake.

有

OJ: u OC: *wəʔ LH: *wuʔ EMC: wuw GO: u KN: iu NOM: hữu, hỡi SV: hữu SK: yu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. There are three examples in Paekche material quoted in Nihon shoki. In the fifth year of Kinmei the following note appears from Paekche pongi: 名有非岐, transcribing the name Upwiki. There are also two names 有至臣 Uti OMI and 丁有陀 Tyau Uda. It is clear from the Shoki that 有至臣 is from a Paekche record, because one entry earlier we see the same person as 内臣 UTI OMI. The name of the famous scion, Swoga 479

Umakwo (蘇我馬子), is recorded in the Gangōji Temple record as 有明古 umakwo. This graph is used eight times in Man’yōshū, six of which are in the poetry in Book 5: MYS 826 有知奈毘久 utinabiku Bending supplely 波流能也奈宜等 paru no yanagwi to the spring willow and 和我夜度能 wa ga yadwo no and the blossoms of 烏梅能波奈等遠 ume no pana to wo the plum in my garden— 伊可尓可和可武 ika ni ka wakamu how can I single out the better?

宇

OJ: u OC: *waʔ LH: wɑʔ EMC: wua GO: u KN: u NOM: vũ, võ SV: vũ SK: wu Usage / History: On fairly tentative evidence I place this phonogram in the PBS. While my copy of the text of the Kwangkaytho stele does not contain this graph, Kitagawa’s epigraphic dictionary has a photograph of this carved graph from the stele (1991:123). It is possible that where my copy has □婁城 ‘Xro Fortress,’ that this may be 宇婁城 ‘Uro Fortress.’ In the Jingū record, when the Queen is said to have invaded Silla, the name of the king is written 宇流助富利智干 urudzapori tikan. This is believed to be the son of the 10th king of Silla, who is recorded as being named Uro, and held the 10th Silla rank of Sopulkan, which matches the name fairly nicely. This is one of the most popular phonograms used to represent the syllable u in OJ, but according to evidence in the extant texts, this usage appears to be relatively recent. As the phonogram 宇 does not appear in the so-called Suiko era corpus, it is tempting to assign this graph to the LJS. On the scarcity of the records at hand, however, such a theory likely is jumping to conclusions. Ōno (1962:141, 145) is a good example of this. This phonogram appears regularly in the liturgies: 御膳持須留若宇加能賣 能 命 登 御 名 者 白 弖 此 皇 神 御 前 爾 辞 竟 奉 久 MIOPOMIKE MOTIsuru WAKAukanomye no MIKOTO to MINA PA MAWOSIte, KONO SUMEGAMWI [NO] MAPYE ni KOTO WOPEMATURAku ‘We announce the name of the deity Waka Ukanome who is in charge of the royal food, and while we worship before this deity…’ (NT 3). This phonogram is found often on mokkan: 宇和評 Uwa District (MK 165), 矢田宇佐万呂 YATA Usamaro (MK 3523), and目毛美須流安保連紀我 許等乎志宜見賀毛美夜能宇知可礼弖 MATUGE misuru APO MURAZI ki ga koto wo sigeMI kamo miya no uti karete ‘Apo Murazi Ki who is showing his eyelashes, alas, is noisy and leaves the inner chambers of the palace…’ (unnumbered tablet). There are three examples of this phonogram in the Jinmu poetry, and five examples in the commentary in the Jinmu record. As the research of many scholars has pointed out, the record of Jinmu found in Shoki was clearly put together independent of the compilation of the greater work, and the orthography is indeed archaic. I believe there is no problem with dating the phonogram 宇 used by the Japanese from at least the era of the Taika Reforms (ca. 645). Below is one example of 宇 from a poem recorded in the Suiko record: 480

NSK 103 宇摩奈羅麼 uma naraba If you were horses 譬武伽能古摩 pimuka no kwoma steeds of Hyūga you would be.... 宇倍之訶茂 upesi kamo How true this is. This is the principal graph used to transcribe u in Man’yōshū. MYS 1037 IMA TUKURU When I gaze at the clear 今造 mountains and rivers 久邇乃王都者 kuni no MIYAKWO PA YAMA KAPA NO where the royal capital 山河之 SAYAKYEKI MIREBA of the land is now being built 清見者 I see how reasonable this is. 宇倍所知良之 ube SIRASUrasi This phonogram and its various cursive forms give us the later form for hiragana う, as well as the katakana form ウ. It should be noted also that Seeley (1991:65) contains a copy of the Kana-ten of the Abidatsuma zojuron, where katakana ウ is actually a cursive form of 有.

汚

OJ: u OC: *ʔwâ LH: ʔua EMC: ʔᴐ LMC: ʔuə GO: u KN: wo NOM: ô,ố SV: ô,ố SK: wo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. This graph is almost always written as 汙. It would appear that the Go-on reading is the oldest of the three Sino-Xenic readings, because by the EMC era, this graph transcribed a round, back vowel /o/. Ōno (1962:145) notes that this phonogram appears some five times in the Suiko era corpus. The Jōgūki fragment records the name of Prince Usi, the father of Great King Keitai, as: 汙斯王. The major impediment to a broader usage of this phonogram was semantic, as it meant ‘defilement’ or ‘indecent.’ It still appears on the Amida inscription of Kanshin-dera (658) in the name 汙 麻 尾 古 Umawokwo. This phonogram appears a number of times on mokkan: 汙奴麻里 Unuma Village (MK 160), 汙久皮ツ二升 ‘two MASU (half a peck) of ukupitu (a type of fish?) (MKK 27:37). This graph also appears once in Kojiki to transcribe the religiously important word ‘tub’ on which Ame no Uzume danced to get the Sun Goddess out of the cave: 汙気 uke. This graph also appears but once in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 2 阿妹奈屢夜 ame naru ya In the heavens 乙登多奈婆多廼 woto tanabata no the jewels strung upon 汙奈餓勢屢 unagaseru the string hung around 多磨廼彌素磨屢廼 tama no misumaru no the neck of the Weaver Maiden 阿奈陀磨波夜 anatama pa ya are very beautiful— 彌多爾 mitani like the beauty of him who 輔柁和柁羅須 puta watarasu shines over two hills, 阿泥素企多伽避顧禰 adisukitakapikwone Ajisuki Taka Hikone. This phonogram is only used twice in Man’yōshū in the same poem. MYS 837 波流能努尓 paru no nwo ni In the springtime fields 奈久夜汙隅比須 naku ya ugupisu the bush warbler is singing. 481

奈都氣牟得 和何弊能曽能尓 汙米何波奈佐久

羽

烏 紆

natukemu to wa ga pye no sono ni ume ga pana saku

The plum tree in my garden is in full bloom, trying to tame the bird.

OJ: u OC: *waʔ LH: *waʔ EMC: wua GO: u KN: u NOM: vũ, võ SV: vũ SK: wu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The phonogram appears twice in Nihon shoki in annotational notes in the second book, ‘the Age of the Gods’: 上國此云 羽播豆矩爾, ‘The upper country is called upatukuni’ (NSG). This graph also appears once in Man’yōshū: MYS 3817 可流羽須波 karu usu pa I can see TABUSE no moto ni the foot mortar 田廬乃毛等尓 WA GA SEKWO PA next to the hut in the fields 吾兄子者 and my beloved standing 二布夫尓咲而 nipubu ni WEMITE TATImaSERI MIYU next to it, smiling. 立麻為所見 OJ: u OC: *ʔâ EMC: ʔɔ LMC: ʔuə GO: u KO: wo LH: ʔa > ʔɔ NOM: ô, o SV: ô SK: wo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It is strange that this graph transcribes wo back to the WS (see the same graph under wo), and yet the GO is u. This may be evidence of vowel raising (*wo > u). The answer may lie in the fact that this usage only appears in Man’yōshū (MYS 815, 816, 817, 818 passim), and then only to transcribe ume ‘plum.’ That rendition is 烏梅 ‘crow-plum,’ which is certainly a graphically motivated transcription. OJ: u OC: *ʔwa LH: *ʔyɑ EMC: ʔua GO: u KN: u NOM: vò, vu SV: vu SK: wu Usage / History: This is a graphic variation of the phonograms 于汙宇. I assign this graph to the CBS as it only appears in Shoki. Another oddity about this graph is that it appears in Shoki four times, all in the same poem, suggesting idiosyncrasy: NSK 97: 謨等陛嗚麼 motopye woba We will make a koto 莒等儞都倶唎 koto ni tukuri out of the base of the tree, 須衞陛嗚麼 suwepye woba and make a flute 府曳儞都倶唎 puye ni tukuri out of the top of it, 符企儺須 pukinasu and our music 美母慮我紆陪儞 mimoro ga upe ni will reach to the top 能朋梨陀致 nobori tati of Mount Mimoro. 倭我彌細麼 wa ga miseba When I gaze down 都奴娑播符 tunwo sapapu on Iware Pond 482

以簸例能伊開能 ipare no ike no with rocks covered in vines 美那矢駄府 minasitapu even the fish 紆鳴謨 uwo mo come to the surface 紆陪儞堤堤那皚矩 upe ni dete nageku and lament your parting. 野須美矢々 yasumisisi And like the sash 倭我於朋枳美能 wa ga opokimi worn by my great lord 於魔細屢 obaseru who rules over all 娑佐羅能美於寐能 sasara no miobi no with its dainty design, 武須彌陀例 musubitare who is there that 駄例夜矢比等母 dare yasi pito mo will not come outside 紆陪儞泥堤那皚矩 upe ni dete nageku and lament your parting? It is interesting that 紆 appears in the word upe ‘above, upward’ three times, and uwo ‘fish’ once. The phonogram 紆 means ‘bend, turn,’ and perhaps the poet/scribe wished for a visual effect by using this phonogram.

兎

OJ: u OC: *tha(k)s h h h EMC: t ɔ LMC: t uə GO: tu KN: to LH: t ɔ NOM: thỏ, thố SV: thỏ SK: tho, two Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ u ‘hare.’ This usage only appears in Shoki, and then only in later era poetry, specifically that found in the records Kōgyoku and Saimei. The phonogram did not gain much popularity. NSK 112 兎都麻佐波 utumasa pa Utsumasa Kawakatsu 柯微騰母柯微騰 kamwi to mo kamwi to will punish and chastise 枳擧曳倶屢 kikoye kuru the deity of the eternal land 騰與預能柯微乎 tokoyo no kamwi wo who we have heard is 宇智岐多麻須母 utikitamasu mo the supreme deity of all deities. The name of this family, utumasa, also appears in Shinsen shōjiroku, Japan’s oldest extant genealogical register, and there the name is written 兎都万佐, showing that the spelling of this name was set. This family’s genealogy claims they came from a descendant of a Qin emperor. The long-standing theory is that the name came from piles of cotton presented by this family, but the name may simply be a Japanese approximation of the original pronunciation, or its point of origin on the continent.

鵜

OJ: u OC: *tî LH: dei EMC: dɛj GO: dai KN: tei NOM: dẽ, đề SV: dẽ SK: tyey Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ u ‘cormorant.’ The phonogram is never used in Shoki’s poetry or annotative commentary. Even in Kojiki, while the phonogram 宇 appears 143 times throughout the text, 鵜 appears only four times (Ōno 1977:171–175). Kojiki writes the name of the father of Jinmu, Ugaya Fukiaezu: 鵜草不合命 (KG). In Nihon shoki this graph also transcribes 鵜鹿々 UKAKA ‘shining’ (NSG).

483

菟

OJ: u OC: *lâ GO: tu KN: to LH: tha > thɔ EMC: thɔ NOM: thỏ, đồ, thố SV: thố, thỏ SK: two, thwo Usage / History: This kungana is a variation of the older 兎 (see above). The phonogram appears in Kojiki a total of eight times (Ōno 1977:171) and appears in Shoki only in certain toponyms. The graph appears in various toponyms and personal names in Kojiki, such as 菟田 UDA ‘District of Uda’ (KG), 菟上王 UNAKAMI [NO] MIKWO ‘Prince Unakami’ (KG), or 下菟上国 SIMOTU UNAKAMI [NO] KUNI ‘Province of Lower Unakami’ (KG). This usage is quite popular in Nihon shoki. A single example is quite explanatory: 菟狹。菟狹者地名也。此云宇佐 “ ‘USA.’ USA is a place name. It is read usa” (NSG). The reading was likely attached because this graph 菟 is also a phonogram to transcribe tu in Nihon shoki (which see). Likewise in Man’yōshū this graph was used to render several toponyms: 菟道 UDI (MYS 7) and 菟名日 UNAPI (MYS 1801).

卯

OJ: u OC: *mrûʔ LH: mɔuʔ EMC: maɨw > mɛ:w GO: meu KN: bau NOM: mão, mẫu, méo SV: mão SK: mywo Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reading OJ u ‘hare,’ representing one of the animals in the 12 ‘earthly branches.’ This phonogram was introduced to the ancient Wa when they became acquainted with the Paekche chronology and its attendant calendar, which was based on the Chinese system. This phonogram represents the hare, number four in the cycle. Thus, with the early introduction of this phonogram, it likely was used with the native reading, u-sagi ‘rabbit.’ Clearly the ancients felt that the initial syllable was sufficient to make the association with the animal. That is how the phonogram came to represent the sound u. Perhaps due to this graph’s semantic representation of the hare in the heavenly stems and earthly branches system, most writers shied away from using this graph phonetically. Kojiki and Nihon shoki never use the graph. In Man’yōshū this graph is only used to transcribe toponyms: 卯名手 UNATE (MYS 1344), and 卯管 UTUTU (MYS 3280). Consider, however, the following examples from excavated wooden tablets: 阿曇郷戸主伊香連卯人 ‘IGA MURAZI UBITO, head of household, village of Adumi’ (MK 3559), and 卯倍阿何 Upe Aga (MKK 15:29).

得

OJ: u OC: *tə̂k LH: tək EMC: tək GO: toku KN: toku NOM: đắc, đác SV: đắc SK: tuk Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ u ‘to get, obtain.’ This graph appears a number of times in Man’yōshū. MYS 2949 With this unusual situation 得田價異 UTATE KYE NI KOKORO IBUSESI my heart is feeling gloomy. 心欝悒 484

事計 吉為吾兄子 相有時谷

鸕 雲

鬱

KOTO PAKARI YOKU SE WA GA SEKWO APERU TOKI DANI

Would you do something different my beloved, even if it is only when we meet each other?

OJ: u OC: *ra LH: lɑ EMC: lɔ GO: ru KN: ro NOM: NA SV: lư SK: lwo Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ u ‘cormorant.’ This rather rare usage is found only in Nihon shoki in the name 鸕濡渟 UKADUKUNU (NSG). While this phonogram does not appear in Hokekyō ongi, a related phonogram, 驢, does, glossed ru. OJ: una, uru, u OC: *wən *[ɢ] wər§ LH: *wun EMC: wun GO: umu KN: un NOM: vân SV: vân SK: wun Usage / History: The phonogram 雲 belongs to the LJS. This graph transcribes una, uru, and u, a usage that mainly appears in Man’yōshū and later era works. It likely was used for the sound u because of the somewhat poetic nature of the semantics, 雲 meaning ‘cloud.’ MYS 13 Mount Kagu fought 高山波 KAGUYAMA pa 雲根火雄男志等 unebwi WO WOsi to with Mount Unebi 耳梨與 MIMINASI TO afraid to lose his spouse, APIARASWOPIKI Mount Miminashi. 相諍競伎 KAMWIYO YWORI It appears that it has been 神代従 KAKU ni ARUrasi thus since the Age of the Gods. 如此尓有良之 INISIPYE mo But simply because it was 古昔母 SIKA ni ARE koso this way anciently it appears 然尓有許曽 虚蝉毛 UTUSEMI mo that people in the present TUMA wo fight one another 嬬乎 APISWOPUrasiki to get the other’s spouse. 相挌良思吉 Harima fudoki contains one example of 雲濃 Unwo, with a note that this should be read 有怒 unwo to prevent a misreading. Shoku Nihongi contains an example where 雲 represents una: 雲梯連 Unade MURAZI (761.3.15). There are two examples where 雲 represents uru, both found in Harima fudoki: 雲箇里 Uruka Village and 雲潤里 UruMI Village. Because of the examples of uru, there is a strong possibility that 雲 goes back to an earlier OC *wər > *wən, reminiscent of 韓 *ɡar > *ɡan. Baxster and Sagart actually reconstruct 雲 as *[ɢ]wə[n], but they reconstruct 云 as *[ɢ]wə[r], so I have taken the liberty to emend their reconstruction based on these Japanese data. OJ: utu LH: ʔut NOM: uất

EMC: ʔut LMC: ʔyt SV: uất

485

OC: *ʔut GO: uti KN: utu SK: wul

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This transcription appears in Nihon shoki, in names like 鬱色雄命 UtusikoWO [NO] MIKOTO and 鬱色謎命 Utusikomye [NO] MIKOTO (NSG). Hizen fudoki records the name 鬱 比 袁 麻 呂 Utupi Womaro. This usage also appears in Man’yōshū to transcribe utusemi ‘visible mortals’ (as opposed to invisible ghosts): 欝蝉 (MYS 443) and 欝瞻 (MYS 729).

486

W 倭

獲

OJ: wa OC: *ʔoi LH: ʔyai EMC: ʔjwe GO: wa KN: wa NOM: oa, oải SV: oa SK: wa, wi Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in the ethnonym 倭 *wa-i, which I have earlier theorized is a first person pronoun with a suffix -i that may have been a subject or nominative marker (Bentley 2008:16). This same phonogram appears on the Kwangkaytho stele (412) 倭人 ‘people of Wa’ or simply 倭 ‘the Wa.’ Interestingly they are never called 倭國 ‘land of Wa,’ perhaps because King Kwangkaytho did not have diplomatic relations with the Wa. It is also possible that this usage is meant to disparage the Wa, making them sound like marauders. The Chinese history, Suishu, records that the Japanese disliked the label 倭, so they abandoned its use. This helps explain why the phonogram does not appear in many extant records in Japan. However, this was an official stance, and the small group of people that were literate do not seem to have had problems with the usage. It appears on a large number of wooden tablets that have been excavated in and around the Nara area. We find people named, such as 檜前舎 人倭麻呂 PINOKUMA TONERI Wamaro (MK 81), 真人倭万呂 MABITO Wamaro (MK 178), 倭万呂 Wamaro (MKK 18:137). A different wooden tablet contains the fragment: 倭毘登廣名 Wabito PIRONA (or YAMATObito PIRONA?, MK 7446). There is also a wooden tablet dated 己亥年□月十九 19th day of X month, 699. On this tablet is the name 若倭部廣末呂 WAKA YAMATOBYE PIROmaro (MK 42). While this graph here surely transcribes yamato, it is the fact that what scholars consider to be a derogatory usage is still in use that I wish to draw attention. This phonogram appears in Nihon shoki in three annotational notes and 22 times in poetry: 美飮喫哉、此云于魔羅儞烏野羅甫屢柯倭 “ ‘oh, how to drink’ is to be read umara ni wo yarapuruga wa” (NSG). NSK 119 耶麻古曳底 yama kwoyete Though I cross over mountains 于瀰倭柁留騰母 umi wataru tomo and traverse the ocean, 於母之樓枳 omosirwoki can I ever forget 伊麻紀能禹知播 imakwi no uti pa the pleasant land 倭須羅庾麻旨珥 wasurayumasizi that is Imaki? This phonogram also appears in Izumo fudoki, in the name 赤衾伊努意保須 美比古佐倭氣能命 AKAPUSUMA Inu Oposumi Pikwo Wake no MIKOTO. OJ: wak LH: ɣuak NOM: hoạch

EMC: ɣwɛk SV: hoạch

487

OC: *wâk GO: kuwiyaku KN: kuwaku SK: wak, woyk

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in the title of an official: 彌 馬獲支 *Mie-maʔ-ɣuak-kie, which represents the Wa word *mema-wake. I have theorized this means ‘Iron-land Lord of Wa’ (2008:22). This phonogram appears to have been used with its velar-final because it preceded another velarinitial syllable, thus perhaps showing the following vowel was short. The Go-on reading is interesting, as it shows that the phonogram did not fit terribly well with, at least, sixth or seventh century Japanese phonology. While most manuscripts of Hokekyō ongi have kuwiyaku (クヰヤク), or something close to that, there is one manuscript with wa (ワ) written in the margins (Ogura 1995.2:762). This phonogram also appears on two sword inscriptions found in tumuli in Japan, transcribing the same name of the king: 獲加多支鹵 Waka Takerwo. It is possible that the Japanese later abandoned this graph, because of its high stroke count, but there is one name preserved on a wooden tablet that may show the graph continued to be used, even if rarely: 丈部獲万呂 which I tentatively read as PASETUBYE Waku Maro, though it might just as well be Emaro (MK 3268).

委

和

OJ: wa OC: *ʔoi or *ʔoih LH: ʔyai, ʔyaih EMC: ʔjwe, ʔjweh GO: wi KN: wi NOM: uỷ, uể SV: uỷ SK: wuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in Paekche material quoted in Nihon shoki: 委陀村 Wada Village. Logically this should be read wida, but right after this village is mentioned with three others there is a quote from a variant source, which spells this village as 和多 wata. It thus seems fairly certain that this is read Wa here. Another example is the name 賁巴委佐. Nihon shoki has this name glossed as Pon-pa Wasa. A Later Han reading would be *bun-pa-ʔuɑi-tsɑi. In the Mino Census of 702 there is a name: 三 委 賣, MIwamye. There are also a few wooden fragments excavated from Nara where this phonogram is still used as wa: 伊委志 iwasi ‘sardines’ (unnumbered tablet), 委尓部栗 WaniBYE KURI (MK 4). Scholars often say that 委 is an abbreviated form of 倭, which it may be, but as the earlier reading for 委 was wa, the possibility still exists that this was a fossilized usage of 委 as wa. Because of the shift in vowel from Later Han to Early Middle Chinese, this phonogram fell out of use to transcribe wa and instead came to transcribe wi (which see). OJ: wa OC: *wâi LH: ɣuai EMC: ɣwâ GO: wa KN: kuwa NOM: hoà, hoạ, huề SV: hoà, hoạ SK: hwa Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, and appears in the earliest corpus of Japanese texts. It appears in a poem supposedly written not long after the death of Shōtoku Taishi, preserved in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu: 伊加留我乃 ikagruga no Our great ruler’s name 止美能乎何波乃 tomi no wogapa no will never be forgotten, 多叡婆許曾 tayeba koso even if the brook 488

和何於保支美乃 wa ga opokimi no Tomi in Ikargua 弥奈和須良叡米 mina wasurayeme should cease to flow in its bed. There have also been wooden tablets excavated from the ruins of the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710) with this phonogram on them. One example has the name 和尓積木万呂 Wani TUMIKWI Maro (MK 1479). Other examples include 伊与国和気郡 Iyo Province Wake District (MK 242), 和尓志 Wanisi (MK 416), 志摩国志摩郡和具郷 Sima Province Sima District Wagu Village (MK 2893). This is the primary graph to transcribe wa in Kojiki: 訓別云和氣 “The graph 別 is to be read wake.” 和豆良比能宇斯能神 The deity Wadurapi no Usi; 和禮 ware ‘I.’ KK 49 須須許理賀 susukori ga I have become completely 迦美斯美岐迩 kamisi miki ni drunk on the wine 和禮惠比迩祁理 ware wepinikyeri that Susukori brewed. 許登那具志 koto nagusi The wine of peace, 惠具志爾 wegusi ni the wine of satisfaction— 和禮惠比迩祁理 ware wepinikyeri I am entirely drunk. This is also the principal phonogram used to transcribe wa in Nihon shoki, appearing in four annotational notes, and 51 times in poetry: 沫蕩、此云阿和那 伎 “ ‘foam-calm’ is read awanagi” (NSG). NSK 63 夜輸瀰始之 yasumisisi Our great sovereign 和我於朋枳瀰波 wa ga opokimi pa who rules the eight quarters 于陪儺于陪儺 ube na ube na has spoken reasonably 和例烏斗波輸儺 ware wo twopasu na by asking this question of me. 阿企菟辭摩 akitusima But I have not heard 揶莽等能倶珥々 yamato no kuni ni anything about a goose 箇利古武等 kari kwomu to having laid an egg 和例破枳箇儒 ware pa kikazu in the land of Yamato. This is the principal phonogram used to transcribe wa in Man’yōshū, appearing 506 times in the anthology. MYS 19 綜麻形乃 PESWOKATA no Like the black alder tree PAYASI NO SAKI no on the edge of the woods 林始乃 SANWO PARI no in Hesokata with which 狭野榛能 KINU ni TUKU NASU robes are dyed in color, 衣尓著成 ME ni tuku wa ga se you, my beloved, caught my eye. 目尓都久和我勢

涴

OJ: wa OC: *ʔon LH: ʔuan EMC: ʔwân LMC: ʔuan GO: wa, won KN: kuwa, wen NOM: NA SV: NA SK: wa, wan, wen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, as the KN reading would be wen or kuwa. This phonogram appears only in Nihon shoki, appearing in two poems.

489

NSK 14 瀰都瀰都志 倶梅能故邏餓 介耆茂等珥 宇惠志破餌介瀰 句致弭比倶 和例破涴輸例儒 于智弖之夜莽務

王 丸

輪

mitumitusi kume no kwora ga kakimoto ni uwesi pazikami kuti pipiku ware pa wasurezu utitesi yamamu

You, the intrepid sons of the Kume— ginger is growing under the fence of our land. As I will not forget the sharp taste of that ginger we will utterly smite the enemy.

OJ: wa OC: *waŋ LH: waŋ EMC: jwaŋ GO: wau KN: wau NOM: vương SV: vương, vượng SK: wang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in Nihon shoki in the name 王仁 Wani. OJ: wa, wani OC: *wân LH: ɣuan EMC: ɣwân GO: guwan KN: kuwan NOM: hoàn, hòn SV: hoàn SK: hwan Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears to have originally been meant to transcribe a syllable that preceded a nasal. This appears on a number of mokkan, mainly to transcribe wani: 丸 部 伊 夜 売 WaniBYE Iyamye (unnumbered tablet), 丸尓部刀良 WaniBYE Twora (unumberd tablet). This usage appears in Kojiki: 丸爾臣 Wani OMI, 丸爾之許碁登臣 Wani NO Kogoto OMI, and 丸爾之佐都紀臣 Wani NO Satukwi OMI. Almost all later usages have 丸 transcribing wani. Related to this, an interesting use of this graph appears once in Man’yōshū: MYS 2362 開木代 YAMASIRO NO It is I who desires 来背若子 KUSE NO WAKUGWO GA to have the young man PWOSI TOIPU WARE from Kuse in Yamashiro. 欲云余 APUSAwa ni And recklessly he says 相狭丸 WARE WO PWOSI TO IPU that he desires to have me, 吾欲云 開木代来背 YAMASIRO NO KUSE that youth from Kuse in Yamashiro. OJ: wa OC: *run LH: luin EMC: ljwen GO: rimu KN: rin NOM: luân, luôn SV: luân SK: lyun Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ wa ‘wheel, circle.’ This usage appears in Nihon shoki in names such as 三輪之神 MIWA [NO] KAMWI ‘the deity of Miwa,’ and 磯輪上秀眞國 SIWA KAMI [NO] POTUMA KUNI ‘a superior, country with its center high, surrounded by boulders,’ and 輪 韓 河 WAKARAGAPA ‘the Wakara River.’ This usage also appears in Man’yōshū, but all examples transcribe 三輪 MIWA, a place name.

490

曲 曰

OJ: wa OC: *khok LH: khuok EMC: khjwok GO: koku KN: kioku NOM: khúc SV: khúc SK: kwok Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ wa ‘circle, circular.’ This extremely rare usage appears only in Nihon shoki: 川曲 KAPAWA and 河曲 KAPAWA. This same toponym appears on a number of excavated tablets: 伊勢国河曲郡 Ise Province KAPAWA District (MK 6687), 安房国安房郡廣湍郷河曲里 Apa Province Apa District PIROSE Village KAPAWA Hamlet (MKK 12:12). OJ: wata, wati OC: *wat LH: wat EMC: jwɐt GO: wati KN: wetu NOM: viết SV: viết SK: wal, wil Usage / History: This usage belongs to the EJS, and appears in a document preserved in Shōsōin, in the name 曰丸 Watawani. It also appears in a document to record the toponym 曰理郷 Watari Village. Also, in Harima fudoki we find the name 邑曰野 OpowatiNWO ‘plain of Ōwachi.’

穢

OJ: we OC: *ʔwats LH: ʔyas EMC: ʔjwɐih GO: we KN: wai NOM: uế SV: uế SK: yey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Kwangkaytho stele as a compound toponym 韓穢 ‘the states of *ɣan (Kara?) and *ʔwiaj.’ This graph also appears on the Suda Hachiman mirror (ca. 500) inscription: 穢人今州利 ‘Kim-tɕuw-ri, a person of *ʔwiaj.’ There is a tendency in scholarly circles to interpret 穢人 as Ayahito (漢人), but I have left it as is, especially since the Kwangkaytho stele inscription is chronologically closer to the inscription on the Suda Hachiman mirror. Very likely this Kim is a person from the peninsula. Likely because of the semantics, 穢 means filth, this phonogram was generally avoided as a phonogram in Japanese texts. Having said that, it does appear in Nihon shoki once in an annotational note: 蹴散、此云倶穢簸邏邏箇 須 “ ‘kick and scatter’ is read kuwepararakasu” (NSG).

衞

OJ: we OC: *wes LH: was > wah EMC: jwäih GO: we KN: wei NOM: vệ, về SV: vệ SK: wuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Punsanwang Kungli stele (ca. pre-660): 舎衞國 *ɕia-waij land ‘land of Śrāva’ (better known as Śrāvastī, which was the capital of Kosala in ancient India). This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, appearing in three annotational notes and five times in poetry: 湯人、此云臾衞 “ ‘person in charge of the royal bath’ is read yuwe” (NSG).

491

NSK 97 駄開能 take no 以矩美娜開余嚢開 ikumidake yodake 謨等陛嗚麼 motopye woba 莒等儞都倶唎 koto ni tukuri 須衞陛嗚麼 suwepye woba 府曳儞都倶唎 puye ni tukuri This phonogram also appears in Izumo Shrine.

惠

Wonderful, flourishing bamboo with long joints and leaves— We will make a koto out of the base of it, and make a flute out of the top of it. fudoki: 須衞都久社 Suwetuku

OJ: we OC: *wîs LH: ɣues > ɣueh EMC: ɣiweih GO: we KN: kuwei NOM: huệ SV: huệ SK: hyey Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The earliest attested example is found on a wooden tablet dug from the Fujiwara Palace site (fl. 694–710): 惠悲宗賀□ we piswokaX ?... (MKK 15:29). It is difficult to translate this fragment, but we could be ‘bait’ or ‘picture.’ Piswoka may be ‘secretly.’ Another interesting fragment has: □不能食欲白・恵伊支比乃 “…X could not eat, but wanted to say…weikipi no” (MK 1425). Both are fragments, and it is difficult to decipher we. This phonogram appears twice in the liturgies: 高山之伊恵理短山之伊恵理 乎撥別弖 TAKAYAMA NO iweri PIKIYAMA NO iweri wo KAKIWAKEte “…and thrusted apart the haze on the high mountains and the haze on the low mountains…” (NT 8). This is the primary phonogram in Kojiki to transcribe we: 御眞津日子訶惠 志泥命 MIMATU PIKWO Kawesine [NO] MIKOTO (KG), 御眞木入日子印惠命 MIMAKWI IRIBIKWO Iniwe [NO] MIKOTO (KG), and 河内惠賀 Wega in KAPUTI (Province, KG). KK 4 阿遠夜麻迩 awo yama ni If the sun hides behind 比賀迦久良婆 pi ga kakuraba the green mountains 奴婆多麻能 nubatama no the come visit me at night, 用波伊伝那牟 ywo pa idenamu black as ink. 阿佐比能 asapi no And with the morning sun 惠美佐加延岐弖 wemi sakayekite with a bright smile 多久豆怒能 takudunwo no with your white arms… This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, in one annotational note and five times in poetry: 妍哉、此云阿那而惠夜 “ ‘how beautiful’ is read ana ni we ya” (NSG). NSK 104 斯那提流 sinateru Starving for want of food 箇多烏箇夜摩爾 katawoka yama ni on Mount Kataoka, 伊比爾惠弖 ipi ni wete the shining hill— 許夜勢屢 koyaseru how pitiful is that farmer 諸能多比等阿波禮 sono tabito apare who has fallen. 於夜那斯爾 oya nasi ni Surely you were not 那禮奈理雞迷夜 nare narikyeme ya raised without parents. 492

佐須陀氣能 sasu take no 枳彌波夜那祇 kimi paya naki 伊比爾惠弖 ipi ni wete 許夜勢留 koyaseru 諸能多比等阿波禮 sono tapito apare This is also the principal phonogram used used 91 times in the anthology. MYS 486 YAMA NO PA ni 山羽尓 味村驂 ADIMURA SAWAKI YUKU naredo 去奈礼騰 WARE PA sabusiwe 吾者左夫思惠 KIMI ni si ARANEBA 君二四不在者

佪

Do you have no lord, strong like bamboo? Starving for want of food how pitiful is that farmer who has fallen. to transcribe we in Man’yōshū, From the ridge of the mountain a flock of teal quack nosily as they fly overhead, but I am terribly lonely as they are not you, my love.

OJ: we OC: *wə̂i LH: ɣuəi EMC: ɣwậi GO: we KN: kuwai NOM: NA SV: hồi SK: hwoy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears once in Man’yōshū. Some manuscripts have this graph as 廻. MYS 2760 ASIPIKWI NO Please see me, even if it is only 足桧之 YAMASAPA wegu wo on a day when you go to the marsh 山澤佪具乎 TUMI NI YUKAMU of the mountains to pick 採将去 PI DANI mo APASE black arrowhead— 日谷毛相為 PAPA PA SEMU TOMO Even if mother scolds me. 母者責十方

廻

OJ: we OC: *wə̂i LH: ɣuəi EMC: ɣwậi GO: we KN: kuwai NOM: hùi SV: hồi SK: hwoy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Nihon shoki in one poem: NSK 1 夜句茂多兔 yakumo tatu Endowed with power, 伊弩毛夜覇餓岐 idumwo yapyegaki this two-fold Izumo fence— 兔磨語昧爾 tuma gome ni to conceal ourselves, 夜覇餓枳都倶盧 yapyegaki tukuru I have built this two-fold fence. 贈廼夜覇餓岐廻 sono yapyegaki we Yes, within this two-fold fence! Ōno (1977:719) claims that this phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, once, in MYS 2760, but most manuscripts agree that this is actually 佪, which some manuscripts have corrupted to 徊. This appears to be the source of later 廻 (see above).

慧

OJ: we LH: ɣues > ɣueh NOM: NA

EMC: ɣiweih SV: tuệ

493

OC: *wîs GO: we KN: kuwei SK: hyey

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The SV data appears to be anomalous, but consider that related graphs like 嘒 and 嚖 are both SV huệ. This phonogram appears once in Nihon shoki, in a poem: NSK 43 虚々呂破望閉耐 kokoro pa mopedo I thought of you 望苔弊破 moto pye pa at the trunk of the tree. 枳瀰烏於望臂涅 kimi wo omopide I remembered you, 須慧弊破 suwepye pa my beloved, when 伊暮烏於望比涅 imwo wo omopide I looked up at the crown. Some, such as Jidai betsu kokugo daijiten (1967:903), claim this phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, but if it ever did, evidence suggests that would have been in MYS 804, but most scholars agree that 慧 in some manuscripts is actually a mistake for 惠. I treat it as such.

隈

坐 畫

OJ: we OC: *ʔûi LH: ʔuəi EMC: ʔwậi GO: we KN: wai NOM: ôi SV: ôi SK: woy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Nihon shoki, and only once in a poem: NSK 12 哆々奈梅弖 tatanamete With our shields arrayed 伊那瑳能椰摩能 inasa no yama no we have fought many battles 虚能莽由毛 ko no mayu mo on Mount Inasa, 易喩耆摩毛羅毘 iyuki mamworapi going through the trees 多々介陪麼 tatakapeba and watching the enemy. 和例破椰隈怒 ware pa ya wenu Thus are we famished. 之摩途等利 simatutori Birds of the island— 宇介譬餓等茂 ukapi ga tomo come now to our rescue, 伊莽輸開珥虚禰 ima suke ni kone you friends of the cormorants. OJ: we OC: *dzôiʔ LH: dzuaiʔ EMC: dzwâʔ GO: za KN: sa NOM: toạ SV: toạ SK: cwa Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ we ‘sit.’ This usage appears in Kojiki, though only three times, in the names: 額田部湯坐連 NUKATABYE YUWE MURAZI (KG), 大湯坐 OPOYUWE (KG), and 若湯坐 WAKAYUWE (KG). This usage also appears in Hitachi fudoki: 湯坐連 YUWE MURAZI. OJ: we LH: ɣuɛh, ɣuɛk EMC: ɣwaɨh, ɣwɛk NOM: hoạ, hoạch, vệch SV: hoạ

494

OC: *wrêkh or *wêk GO: we KN: kuwai SK: hway

Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ we ‘picture, drawing.’ This usage only appears in Man’yōshū, twice in a toponym, transcribing the place name Yoshie: 縦畫 YOSIWE, 吉畫 YOSIWE.

座 咲 爲

OJ: we OC: *dzôih LH: dzuɑih EMC: dzwa GO: za KN: sa NOM: toà SV: toà SK: cwa Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ we ‘seat.’ This usage only appears in Man’yōshū in the name 若湯座王 Prince WAKA YUWE. OJ: we OC: *siauh or *sauh LH: tshiauh, siauh EMC: sjäuh GO: seu KN: seu NOM: tiếu SV: tiếu SK: sywo Usage / History: This kungana suggests OJ we ‘smile.’ The graph 咲 is an older form of 笑 ‘smile,’ and later took the derivative meaning of ‘bloom,’ since it appears that the blossom opens up and smiles. This usage only appears in Man’yōshū. There are only six examples, and all represent the place name yosiwe: 能咲 YOSIWE, 吉 咲 YOSIWE, 縦咲 YOSIWE, and 忍咲 YOSIWE. OJ: wi OC: *wai LH: wai EMC: jwe GO: wi KN: wi NOM: ví, vì, vị, vơ, vờ SV: vi, vị SK: wuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, appearing in one toponym in Wei zhi: 爲吾 *wai-ngɔ. This phonogram was generally avoided because of its more common function as a verb. However there is evidence in the Paekche material quoted in Nihon shoki that Paekche also used this as a phonogram: 爲哥可君、 百濟本記云、爲哥岐彌、名有非岐 ‘Wikaka KIMI; Paekche pongi states that Wika Kimi is named Upwiki.’ This usage, though rare, appears in the Chikuzen Census of 702: 沙留爲賣 Saru Wimye. This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, once in a poem: NSK 91 於彌能姑能 omi no kwo no The son of the Omi has 耶賦能之魔柯枳 yapu no sibagaki made a fine brushwood fence. 始陀騰余瀰 sitatoyomi But if the earth quakes 那爲我與釐據魔 nawi ga yorikoba that brushwood fence 耶黎夢之魔柯枳 yaremu sibagaki will likely fall to pieces. This is the primary phonogram used to transcribe wi in Man’yōshū, appearing a total of 48 times. MYS 42 SIPOsawi ni Is my beloved riding on a boat 潮左爲二 五十等兒乃嶋邊 IRAGWO no SIMApye rowing toward Irago Island

495

榜船荷 KOGU PUNE NI among the violent breakers IMWO NORUraMU KA near the shore? 妹乗良六鹿 ARAKI SIMAMWI wo It is dangerous around the island. 荒嶋廻乎 This also appears in the Bussoku poetic sequence. BSS 12 佐伎波比乃 sakipapi no The band of brothers 阿都伎止毛加羅 atuki tomogara who are greatly blessed 麻爲多利弖 mawitarite journeyed and saw these 麻佐米尓弥祁牟 masame ni mikyemu with their actual eyes— 比止乃止毛志佐 pito no tomosi sa Praise be to them. 宇礼志久毛阿留可 uresiku mo aru ka How delighted are we, too.

位

韋

OJ: wi OC: *wus or *wrəts LH: wɨs > wih EMC: jwih GO: wi KN: wi NOM: vị, vì SV: vị SK: wuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in Koryŏgi, 次抜位使者、 比従五品 “Next is the bat-wih Envoy, which is comparable the Junior Fifth Rank” (Takeuchi 1977:34). This phonogram appears in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu in the name 位奈部橘 王 Prince WinaBYE TATIBANA. Because the graph semantically referred to imperial ascension to the throne, and the rank one held at court, this graph was generally avoided as a phonogram. This graph also appears in Nihon shoki, used once in a poem: NSK 21 波辭枳豫辭 pasikiyosi Ah, how wonderful! 和藝幣能伽多由 wagipye no katayu Clouds are climbing upward 區毛位多知區暮 kumwowi tati kumo from the direction of home. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, but only four times. MYS 2449 Like Mount Kagu seen dimly 香山尓 kaguYAMA ni KUMWOwi TANABIKI through the thin clouds, 雲位桁曵 於保々思久 opoposiku will I yearn for the children APIMI KWORA wo even though I only saw 相見子等乎 NOTI KWOPWImu KAMO their faces dimly? 後戀牟鴨 OJ: wi OC: *wəi LH: wui EMC: jwei GO: wi KN: wi NOM: NA SV: vi SK: wuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. This usage first appears in the Gangōji Temple record in the name 佐久羅韋 Sakurawi. It also appears on the Nasu Kokuzō stele (700) in the name 那須韋提 Nasu Wide. This phonogram is the primary graph used to transcribe wi in Kojiki, but there are only 20 examples in the entire work, like 佐韋河 Sawi River (KG).

496

KK 21 佐韋賀波用 sawigapa ywo Clouds rise and spread 久毛多知和多理 kumwo tatiwatari over this way from Sawi River. 宇泥備夜麻 unebwi yama The leaves of the trees 許能波佐夜藝奴 ko no pa sayaginu on Mount Unebi are rustling. 加是布加牟登須 kaze pukamu to su A strong wind is about to blow. This phonogram is used in Nihon shoki, once in an annotational note, and once in a poem: 片居、此云伽哆韋 “ ‘The place name 片居’ is read katawi” (NSG). It also appears in the name 韋那公 Wina KIMI (NSG). NSK 57 于知和多須 uti watasu I look out and see 椰餓波曳儺須 yaga payenasu richly growing foliage; 企以利摩韋區例 ki irimawikure I have come with a rich troupe.

威

謂

OJ: wi OC: *ʔui LH: ʔui EMC: ʔjwei GO: wi KN: wi NOM: uy, oai SV: uy SK: wuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears on the Ina Mabito epitaph stone (707) in the name 威奈卿 Minister Wina, and 威奈鏡公 Minister Wina KAGAMI. I have found one fairly firm example on mokkan: □威那 Xwina (MK 324), which may be part of the name Wina. It also appears in Nihon shoki, three times in poetry: NSK 113 耶麻鵝播爾 yamagapa ni There are two mandarin ducks 烏志賦頴都威底 wosi putatu wite at the mountain stream, 陀虞毘預倶 tagupi yoku paired off so nicely. 陀虞陛屢伊慕乎 tagupyeru imo wo Who has taken my beloved 多例柯威爾雞武 tare ka winikyemu who paired off so well with me? OJ: wi OC: *wəs LH: wus > wuh EMC: jweih LMC: yj GO: wi KN: wi NOM: NA SV: vị SK: wuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. The use of this graph is quite limited, because of its semantics, as it is a verb ‘to say.’ It appears in Nihon shoki in three poems: NSK 5 飫企都鄧利 okitu tori Birds in the offing— 軻茂豆勾志磨爾 kamoduku sima ni ducks gather on the island. 和我謂禰志 wa ga winesi As long as I live 伊茂播和素邏珥 imo pa wasurazi I will always remember 譽能據鄧馭鄧母 yo no kotogoto mo the maiden with whom I slept. This phonogram appears once in Man’yōshū, in a difficult to penetrate poem: MYS 503 TAMAGINU no Sunken deep into the turmoil, 珠衣乃 like disheveled robes, 狭藍左謂沈 SAWI sawi SIDUMI 497

家妹尓 物不語来而 思金津裳

委

偉

萎 井

IPYE NO IMWO ni MONO IPAZU KINITE OMOPIKANETU MO

I came to my beloved at home without saying a word. How unbearable are my thoughts.

OJ: wi OC: *ʔoi or *ʔoih LH: ʔyai, ʔyaih EMC: ʔjwe LMC ʔyj GO: wi KN: wi NOM: uỷ, uể SV: uỷ SK: wuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears twice in Nihon shoki poetry. NSK 36 瀰豆多摩蘆 midu tamaru Water dammed up at 豫佐瀰能伊戒珥 yosami no ike ni the reservoir of Yosami— 奴那波區利 nunapa kuri I did not realize 破陪鷄區辭羅珥 papekyeku sirani how far the water shield 委遇比菟區 wigupi tuku had grown. 伽破摩多曳能 kapamataye no And I did not realize 比辭餓羅能 pisigara no how much the water chestnut 佐辭鷄區辭羅珥 sasikyeku sirani had grown by the weirs. 阿餓許居呂辭 a ga kokoro si What a fool I have been, 伊夜于古珥辭氐 iya ukwo ni site my heart not having noticed. OJ: wi OC: *wəiʔ LH: wiuʔ EMC: jweiʔ LMC ʔyj GO: wi KN: wi NOM: vĩ SV: vĩ SK: wuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in Nihon shoki, once in a personal name 偉那 Wina. It also is found in two poems. NSK 80 婀拕羅斯枳 atarasiki Such a pitiful waste, 偉儺謎能陀倶彌 winabye no tagumi that inking string used by 柯該志須彌儺皤 kakesi suminapa the Inabe carpenter. 旨我那稽麼 si ga nakyeba If he is no longer here, 拕例柯々該武預 tare ka kakemu yo what skilled person will remain 婀拕羅須彌儺皤 atara suminapa to use the inking string? OJ: wi OC: *ʔoi LH: ʔyai EMC: ʔjwe LMC ʔyj GO: wi KN: wi NOM: NA SV: uy, uý SK: wuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears in Nihon shoki in one annotational note: 屯聚居、此云怡波瀰萎 “ ‘gather in a large group’ is read ipamiwi” (NSG). OJ: wi LH: tsieŋʔ NOM: tỉnh, tểnh

EMC: tsjäŋʔ SV: tỉnh

498

OC: *tseŋʔ GO: siau KN: sei SK: cyeng

Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ wi ‘well.’ This usage appears to been quite popular, as it appears in the earliest extant Japanese corpus, appearing in 櫻井 SAKURAWI and 坂井 SAKAWI. The earliest datable usage is in the Mino Census of 702: 酒井 SAKAWI, 石井 ISIWI, and 井手 WITE. This usage also appears on the Ina Mabito epitaph stone (707) in the name 狛井山崗 KUMAWI YAMA WOKA. This usage also appears in Kojiki in names: 名謂井氷鹿 ‘My name is WIPIKA.’ 狹井河 SAWIGAPA ‘Sawi River,’ and 神八井耳 KAMU YAWI MIMI. This graph appears in Nihon shoki in a variety of names: 井光 WIPIKA, 神八井耳 KAMU YAWI MIMI, and 糸井媛 ITWOWI PIMYE. There is only one example of 井 in Man’yōshū, though it appears in a number of names and toponyms: MYS 3398 比等未奈乃 pito mwina no Even if all the words 許等波多由登毛 koto pa tayu tomo of people were to vanish, 波尓思奈能 panisina no do not let the words of my child at 伊思井乃手兒我 isiWI no TEGWO ga 許登奈多延曽祢 koto na tayeso ne Ishii in Hanishina vanish.

猪

居

OJ: wi OC: *tra LH: tra EMC: trjwo GO: tio KN: tio NOM: trơ, chưa SV: trư, chư SK: cye Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ wi ‘boar.’ This usage is primarily used in people’s names that were born in the year of the boar. Examples from the Mino Census in 702 are 猪麻呂 WImaro, 赤猪 AKAWI, 黒猪 KURWOWI, and 猪手賣 WITEmye. There are a few examples in Kojiki: 少名日子建猪心 SUKUNA TAKYEWI KOKORO and 赤 猪 子 AKAWIKWO. Examples in Nihon shoki include 猪使連 WI TUKAPI MURAZI, 男弟猪手 IRODO WITE, and 武猪心 TAKYEWI KOKORO. This usage also appears six times in Man’yōshū, though many represent the place name Wina. Below is a representative example. MYS 2731 The violent waves at Ushimado 牛窓之 USIMADWO NO NAMI no SIPOsaWI crash upon the shore and 浪乃塩左猪 SIMA TOYOMI cause the island to resound— 嶋響 YOSORISI KIMI PA maybe I will not see the noble 所依之君 APAZU KAMO ARAMU whose report clamored in my ears. 不相鴨将有 OJ: wi OC: *ka LH: kɨɑ(h) EMC: kjwo GO: ko KN: kio NOM: cư SV: cư SK: ke, kuy Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ wi ‘to sit.’ This usage appears in Kojiki in one toponym: 居寤清泉 WISAME [NO] SIMIDU (KG). This same toponym appears in Nihon shoki as 居醒泉 WISAMEGAWI (NSG). Both 499

usages are based on the story where Yamato Takeru sits at the springs and clears his head by drinking of the water. This usage also appears three times in Man’yōshū. MYS 312 MUKASI KOSO Surely anciently 昔者社 it was called the rural area 難波居中跡 nanipa WINAKA TO IPAREkyeme of Naniwa, but now 所言奚米 IMA MIYAKWOBIKI the metropolis has moved 今者京引 MIYAKWObwinikyeri and it is more like a capital city. 都備仁鷄里

藺

員 呼

OJ: wi OC: NA LH: linh EMC: ljenh GO: rin KN: rin NOM: NA SV: lận SK: lin Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ wi ‘a rush.’ This usage appears once in Man’yōshū: MYS 3192 KUSAKAGE NO While gazing out at Arai Cape, 草蔭之 hidden in the grass, 荒藺之埼乃 ARAWI NO SAKI no on Kasa Island, 笠嶋乎 KASA SIMA wo MITUTU ka KIMI NO perhaps you are crossing over 見乍可君之 YAMADI KWOYUramu on the mountain path. 山道超良無 OJ: wina OC: *wən or *wen LH: wun, wan EMC: jwən, jwän GO: win, wen KN: win NOM: viên SV: viên SK: wen, wun Usage / History: This usage belongs to the LJS, appearing in documents preservered in Shōsōin, in the toponyms 員辧郡 Winabye District or 員辯郡 Winabye District. This usage also appears on a wooden tablet excavated from the Nara capital site: 隠伎国智夫郡□美多郷石部員万呂 Oki Province Titibu District X Mita Village, ISIBYE Winamaro…’ (unnumbered tablet). OJ: wo OC: *hâ or *hâh LH: ha, hah EMC: xuo, xuoh GO: ko KN: ko NOM: hô, ho, hò SV: hô SK: hwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, and appears to have dropped out of the orthographic pool by the inception of the Paekche-influenced orthography. The initial of this phonogram appears to have transcribed a fricative, which likely then lenited to a glide (*h > w). Because of this reasoning, this graph is placed here in the dictionary. The phonogram 呼 is used to redner the names of both the queen of Yamatai, and her enemy, the king: 卑彌呼 *Pe-me-hɔ, versus 卑 彌弓呼 *Pe-me-kuŋ-hɔ. There is also two toponyms: 不呼國 *Pu-hɔ Domain and 呼邑國 *Hɔ-ʔip Domain. This phonogram reappears in Man’yōshū, used a total of 22 times in the anthology. 500

MYS 1 我許背齒 告目 家呼毛名雄母

烏

塢

WA kosoBA NORAME IPYE wo mo NA

Then it shall be I who will tell you WO mo of my home and of my name.

OJ: wo OC: *ʔâ EMC: ʔɔ GO: u KN: wo LH: ʔa > ʔɔ NOM: ô, o SV: ô SK: wo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, preserved in Wei zhi in toponyms such as 臼斯烏旦國 *ɡuʔ-sie-ʔɔ-tɑnh domain, 弁辰彌烏邪馬國 *phuɑn-dźɨn-mieʔɔ-ya-ma domain, ‘Mie-ʔɔ-ya-ma Domain of Phuɑn-dźɨn,’ and 烏奴 *ʔɔ-nɔ. This phonogram also appears on the Silla Chyeng-Tyey stele (536) in the names 大烏第尺人小烏未苐小烏一支□ *dei-tśhak of the 15th rank (Dɑh-ʔɔ), *dei-mus of the 16th rank (Siɑu-ʔɔ), and *ʔit-kie-X of the 16th rank (Siɑu-ʔɔ). Also on the Tanyang Silla stele (551) there is the name 烏禮兮 *ʔɔ-leiʔ-ɣɛi. This phonogram is one of the primary graphs used in Nihon shoki to transcribe wo, used nine times in annotational notes, and 48 times in poetry: 少 男、此云烏等孤 “ ‘young man’ is read wotokwo” (NSG). NSK 54 菟藝泥赴 tuginepu Taking my journey 揶莽之呂餓波烏 yamasirogapa wo up the Yamashiro River, 瀰揶能朋利 miya nopori where trees grow thick, 和餓能朋例麼 wa ga noporeba I journeyed past the palace. 阿烏珥豫辭 awo ni yosi I traveled beond 儺羅烏輸疑 nara wo sugwi the blue hills of Nara. 烏陀氐 wodate I headed beyond 夜莽苔烏輸疑 yamato wo sugwi the aegis peaks of Yamato. 和餓瀰餓朋辭區珥波 wa ga migaposi kuni pa The land I longed to behold was 箇豆羅紀多伽瀰揶 kadurakwi takamiya the high palace in Kazuraki— 和藝幣能阿多利 wagipye no atari everything around my home. This phonogram also appears in Izumo fudoki: 須佐乃烏 Susanowo. Ōno (1977:723, 727) claims that this phonogram appears in Man’yōshū a total of five times, but exclusively in the verb woworu. However, recent textual criticism now believes all five examples of 烏 to be corruptions of an original 為 (see below). OJ: wo OC: *ʔâ LH: ʔɑ EMC: ʔɔ GO: u KN: wo NOM: ổ, ọ SV: ổ SK: wo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in the fragment of what is likely a name on the Silla Chyeng Tyey stele (536): 大塢□□□□ *dɑhʔɔXXXX. Likely this is a variant of the 15th Silla rank, often written as 大烏. This graph is also used in Nihon shoki, once in an annotational note, and 25 times in poetry: 丘岬、此云塢介佐棄 “ ‘tip of the hill’ is read wokasaki.”

501

NSK 37 彌知能之利 古破儾塢等綿塢 伽未能語等 枳虚曳之介廼 阿比摩區羅摩區

曰

乎

miti no siri kwopada wotomye wo kamwi no goto kikoyesikado apimakura maku

I had heard about the maiden from Kohada in the land behind the road, her reputation like thunder, but here we lie together.

OJ: wo OC: *wat LH: wat EMC: jwɐt GO: wati KN: wetu NOM: viết SV: viết SK: wal, wel Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in the Paekche materials quoted in Nihon shoki: 曰佐分屋 Wosa Bun’woku. It seems clear that this wosa means ‘interpret’ or ‘interpreter’ in the languae of Paekche, as this word is also found in Nihon shoki written as 譯語 ‘interpet speech.’ It is interesting that these two phonograms taken as semantograms means ‘talk-assist.’ This rendition is preserved in a number of wooden tablets. One dated ninth month of 762 has the name 秦曰佐大村 PADA Wosa OPOMURA (MKK 19:20). The Mino Census of 702 preserves this same name or title in 曰佐賣 Wosamye. OJ: wo OC: *ɦâ LH: ɦa > ɣɔ EMC: ɣuo GO: wo, go KN: ko NOM: hồ SV: hồ SK: hwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. This appears in the earliest extant Japanese corpus. In the genealogy preserved in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu we find names like 乎麻呂古王 Prince Womarokwo, 乎阿尼乃弥己等 Woane no Mikoto, and 乎沙多宮 wosata MIYA ‘the Wosata Palace.’ It also appears in a poem supposedly written not long after the death of Shōtoku Taishi. 美加弥乎須 mikami wosu Mount Tabasami 多婆佐美夜麻乃 tabasami yama no which rules from above: 阿遅加気尓 adikake ni alas, I stood there 比止乃麻乎之志 pito no mawosisi in the shade of the aji tree 和何於保支美波母 wa ga opokimi mo begging our master’s return. This phonogram also appears on the Funa Obito epitaph, recording the name 乎娑陁宮 wosada MIYA ‘Wosada Palace.’ This phonogram appears 173 times in the liturgies: 参入罷出人名乎問所知志咎過在乎波神直備大直備爾見直聞直 坐弖 MAWIRIMAKADURU PITO [NO] NA wo TWOPISIRAsi, TWOGA AYAMATI ARAMU woba KAMUNAPObwi OPONAPObwi ni MINAPOSI KIKINAPOSIMASIte “He will enquire and know the names of the people who enter and leave (the palace), and if there are transgressions or mistakes, Kamu Naobi and Ōnaobi will see and rectify, and hear and rectify these…” (NT 9). This phonogram appears on a variety of mokkan: 乎波売 Wopamye (MK 3291), 久ツ乃乎由比四 kutu no woyupi YO ‘four (batches?) of small shoe strings’ (MK 415). This phonogram is used somewhat sparingly in Nihon shoki, appearing once in an annotational note, and in five poems: 轠然、此云乎謀苦留留爾 “ ‘the string turns and turns’ is read wo mo kururu ni.” 502

NSK 117 伊磨紀那屢 imakwi naru Above the knoll 乎武例我禹杯爾 womure ga upe ni that is Imaki— 倶謨娜尼母 kumo dani mo if even a cloud 旨屢倶之多々婆 sirukusi tataba would clearly appear to rise up 那爾柯那皚柯武 nani ka nagekamu then I would not lament. This is the primary phonogram to transcribe wo in Man’yōshū, used 2104 times in the anthology. MYS 797 久夜斯可母 kuyasi kamo How regrettable. 可久斯良摩世婆 kaku siramaseba If I had known that things 阿乎尓与斯 awo ni yosi would turn out this way. 久奴知許等其等 kunuti kotogoto I would have shown you the scenery 美世摩斯母乃乎 misemasi mono wo of this land, surrounded by green. An abbreviated version of this phonogram yields katakana ヲ.

雄

袁

OJ: wo OC: *wəŋ LH: wuŋ EMC: juŋ GO: wou KN: yuu NOM: hùng SV: hùng SK: ung Usage / History: This usage is difficult to date. Since it is used to represent wo, it would seem to preserve a tradition that predates Middle Chinese. For now I date it as EJS. It appears once in Shoku Nihongi, in the surname 雄儀 Wogi (765.4.12). Most believe that this phonogram was used as a kungana for OJ wo ‘male,’ which I agree with. What I argue here is that it is possible that originally this phonogram was used for its earlier reading of wou, and as the name above suggests, the final -ŋ introduced the pre-nasalized gi of the second syllable. Later, when the Middle Chinese reading of this phonogram had evolved into something closer to yuu, the usage was reanalyzed as a kungana, which see below. OJ: wo OC: *wan LH: wan EMC: jwɐn GO: won KN: wen NOM: NA SV: viên SK: wen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, and appears once on a mokkan: 袁等売 wotomye ‘maiden’ (MK 2243). This phonogram is the primary graph to transcribe wo in Kojiki. 鹽許袁呂許 袁呂迩 SIPO koworo koworo ni “salt water made a sound of crackling”; 阿那迩 夜志愛上袁登古袁 ana ni yasi e wotokwo wo ‘Oh my, what a wonderful young man.’ And 訓食云袁須 “The graph 食 ‘to govern’ is read wosu.” KK 53 淤岐幣迩波 okipye ni pa There are boats 袁夫泥都羅羅玖 wobune turaraku lined up out in the offing. 久漏邪夜能 kurwozaya no Black like a sheath 摩佐豆古和藝毛 masadukwo wagimwo my beautiful beloved, 玖迩幣玖陀良須 kunipye kudarasu she heads for her home. This phonogram appears nine times in Man’yōshū. 503

MYS 4341 多知波奈能 美袁利乃佐刀尓 父乎於伎弖 道乃長道波 由伎加弖努加毛

遠

tatibana no miwori no satwo ni TITI wo okite MITI no NAGATI pa yukikatenu kamo

I left my father in Miori Village in Tachibana, and I find it so hard to take this long path home.

OJ: wo, woni OC: *wanʔ LH: wanʔ EMC: jwɐnʔ GO: womu KN: wen NOM: viễn, viện SV: viễn, viện SK: wen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS.There are a few examples of this phonogram found on mokkan: 安遠郷 Awo Village (unnumbered tablet), 加川 遠 katuwo ‘bonito’ (MKK 27:37). It is a primary phonogram to transcribe wo in Kojiki in the first third of the work. 八俣遠呂智 YAMATA woroti ‘eight headed serpent’ (KG), 打竹之登遠遠 登遠遠迩 SAKITAKE NO towowo towowo ni ‘the drainboard made of split bamboo bending over with the weight (of the fish)...’ (KG). KK 2 夜知富許能 yatipoko no The august deity 迦微能美許登波 kamwi no mikoto pa Yachi Hoko 夜斯麻久爾 yasimakuni could not marry a spouse 都麻麻岐迦泥弖 tuma makikanete in the land of eight islands. 登富登富斯 topotoposi Then he heard 故志能久迩迩 kwosi no kuni ni there was a wise maiden 佐加志賣遠 sakasimye wo in the far-off land 阿理登岐加志弖 ari to kikasite of Koshi. 久波志賣遠 kupasimye wo He heard there was 阿理登伎許志弖 ari to kikosite a beautiful maiden. 佐用婆比迩 saywobapi ni Off he hurriedly went 阿理多多斯 aritatasi to seek her hand in marriage. 用婆比迩 ywobapi ni He went back and forth 阿理迦用婆勢 arikaywopase seeking her hand in marriage. 多知賀遠母 tati ga wo mo Without even undoing 伊麻陀登加受弖 imada tokazute the belt of his sword— 淤須比遠母 osupi wo mo without taking off 伊麻陀登加泥婆 imada tokaneba his cloak 遠登賣能 wotomye no he pushed repeatedly 那須夜伊多斗遠 nasu ya itatwo wo on the door to 淤曾夫良比 osoburapi where the maiden slumbered. 和何多多勢禮婆 wa ga tatasereba As I stand here 比許豆良比 pikodurapi I repeatedly pull on the door. 和何多多勢禮婆 wa ga tatasereba As I stand here, 阿遠夜麻迩 awoyama ni in the blue mountains 奴延波那伎奴 nuye pa nakinu the thrush has called out. 佐怒都登理 sanwotu tori The bird of the true field, 岐藝斯波登與牟 kigisi pa toyomu the pheasants are rowdy. 504

爾波都登理 nipatu tori The bird of the yard, 迦祁波那久 kakye pa naku the chickens are cackling. 宇禮多久母 uretaku mo How vexing, 那久那留登理加 naku naru tori ka these birds who cry out! 許能登理母 kono tori mo Someone strike and silence 宇知夜米許世泥 utiyamekosene even these birds. This phonogram appears very rarely in Nihon shoki, but it is used to write the name 遠智娘 Woti IRATUMYE (NSG). This phonogram also appears 57 times in Man’yōshū. MYS 191 KEkoroMO wo When it is time for hunting 毛許呂裳遠 and we wear our down robes 春冬片設而 TOKI KATAMAKETE IDEMASIsi on the great plain of Uda 幸之 where we have gone out 宇陀乃大野者 uda no OPONWO PA OMOPOYEmu KAMO I will likely be reminded of you. 所念武鴨 In documents preserved in Shōsōin we find names like 小野朝臣遠倍 WONWO ASOMI Wonibe, and 遠敷郡 Wonipu District. There are also wooden tablets excavated from Nara with the toponym 若 狭 国 遠 敷 郡 WAKAsa Province Wonipu District, one dated 750 (MK 1950). The cursive form of this phonogram yields hiragana を.

怨

OJ: wo OC: *ʔons LH: ʔyanh EMC: ʔjwɐn GO: womu KN: wen NOM: oán SV: oan, oán SK: wen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears twice in Man’yōshū. MYS 819 余能奈可波 yo no naka pa How bothersome is longing 古飛斯宜志恵夜 kwopwi sigesiweya in the world. 加久之阿良婆 kakusi araba If this is how things are 烏梅能波奈尓母 ume no pana nimo I wish I could have been 奈良麻之勿能怨 naramasi mono wo a plum blossom instead.

爲

OJ: wo OC: *wai LH: wai EMC: jwe GO: wi KN: wi NOM: ví, vì, vị, vơ, vờ SV: vi, vị SK: wuy Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This usage is quite peculiar, as the phonology does not match well, but there are five examples of this phonogram in Man’yōshū, all representing the second mora of the verb woworu ‘to bend under the weight of something.’ This graph appears to have been corrupted during scribal transmission, changing from 爲 > 為 > 烏. MYS 1752 射行相乃 IYUKIAPI no How I desire a maiden 坂之踏本尓 SAKA NO PUMOTO ni who would show me SAKIwoworu the blooming cherry blossoms 開乎爲流

505

櫻花乎 令見兒毛欲得

弘

雍 越

SAKURA NO PANA wo MISEMU KWO moGAMO

so full they bend the branches at the foot of Iyukiai Hill.

OJ: wo OC: *ɡwə̂ŋ LH: ɣuəŋ EMC: ɣwəŋ LMC: xɦuəŋ GO: gu KO: kou NOM: NA SV: hoằng SK: hwoyng Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It only appears in Nihon shoki. The most well known usage is in the name of Great King Kenzō, whose name is 弘計 Wokye. This phonogram also appears five times in poetry: NSK 66 佐瑳羅餓多 sasaragata Undo the string with 邇之枳能臂毛弘 nisiki no pimwo wo the bamboo whisk design— 等枳舍氣帝 tokisakete that brocade string. 阿麻多絆泥受迩 amata pa nezu ni I cannot spend many nights; 多儾比等用能未 tada pitoywo nomwi let us spend but one night. OJ: wo OC: *ʔoŋ LH: ʔuoŋ EMC: ʔjwoŋ GO: wou KN: you NOM: úng, ủun SV: ung SK: wong Usage / History: This usage belongs to the LJS, and appears in the Shoku Nihongi, in the name 雍良岑 Wora Peak (721.10.13). OJ: wo, woti, woto OC: *wat LH: wat EMC: jwɐt GO: woti KN: wetu NOM: việt, vượt SV: việt SK: wel, hwal Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It can transcribe wo as well as woti and woto. This phonogram appears in Nihon shoki to transcribe the toponym 越智 Woti (NSG), and it is plausible that this continues an older tradition of using a geminate to signify the preceding vowel is short: wotti. The place name 越智 Woti also appears in Man’yōshū; but the anthology preserves a variety of usages of this phonogram: 泊瀬越女 PATUSE WotoMYE ‘the maiden of Hatsuse’ (MYS 424), though in another poem we find 越等賣良波 wotomyera pa ‘as for the maidens...’ (MYS 865); there are even times when the phonogram appears alone and the reading has to be inferred: 越能菅原 Woti no SUGAPARA ‘the field of rushes in Ochi’ (MYS 1341). An example where the phonogram is used to transcribe wo appears below. MYS 848 久毛尓得夫 kumwo ni tobu Rather than consuming the potion 久須利波牟用波 kusuri pamu ywo pa ‘Flying through the clouds’ 美也古弥婆 kiyakwo miba if I could see the capital 伊夜之吉阿何微 iyasiki a ga mwi then this decrepit body of mine 麻多越知奴倍之 mata wotinu besi would be young again. An example where it is used for woti is below.

506

MYS 194 玉垂乃 越能大野之 旦露尓 玉裳者埿打 夕霧尓 衣者沾而 草枕 旅宿鴨為留 不相君故

嗚

TAMADARE no woti no OPONWO NO ASA TUYU ni TAMAMO PA PIDUTI YUPUGWIRI ni KOROMO PA NURETE KUSA MAKURA TABINE KAMO SUru APANU KIMI YUWE

On the great plains of Ochi where the jewels hang down, your jeweled skirts drenched with the morning dew, and your robes soaked with the evening mists you make a grass pillow to sleep outdoors, because you will not meet your lord.

OJ: wo OC: *ʔâ LH: ʔa EMC: ʔuo LMC: ʔuə GO: u KO: wo NOM: ô SV: ô SK: wo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears only in Nihon shoki. It is perhaps well known for representing the name of Susanowo: 素戔嗚尊 (NSG). This phonogram also appears twice in annotational notes and 16 times in poetry: 雄誥、此云嗚多稽眉 “ ‘ferocity’ is read wotakyebwi” (NSG). NSK 96 野絁磨倶儞 yasima kuni I searched the eight islands 都磨々祁哿泥底 tuma makikanete but could not find a spouse. 播屢比能 parupi no Under the spring sun 哿須我能倶儞々 kasuga no kuni ni in the land of Kasuga 倶波絁謎嗚 kupasi mye wo I had heard that 阿利等枳々底 ari to kikite there was a beautiful maiden. 與慮志謎嗚 yorosi mye wo I had heart that 阿利等枳々底 ari to kikite there was a proper woman. 莽紀佐倶 makwi saku A fine grain of wood, 避能伊陀圖嗚 pi no itatwo wo I pushed opened that door 飫斯毘羅枳 osipiraki made of Japanese cypress. 倭例以梨魔志 ware irimasi I went inside 阿都圖唎 atwo twori and held her leg, 都麼怒唎絁底 tumadworisite holding the edge of her hem, 魔倶囉圖唎 makura twori holding her pillow— 伊慕我堤嗚 imo ga te wo holding my spouse. 倭例儞魔柯斯毎 ware ni makasime I wrapped her hand 倭我堤嗚麼 wa ga te woba around my waist 伊慕儞魔柯絁毎 imo ni makasime and she my arm— 麼左棄逗囉 masakwidura wrapped it around her. 多々企阿藏播梨 tataki azapari And like a vine, 矢洎矩矢慮 sisikusiro we caressed, intertwined. 于魔伊禰矢度儞 umai nesi two ni We slept deeply, 儞播都等唎 nipatu tori sweet like meat on a skewer. 柯稽播儺倶儺梨 kakye pa nakunari The fowl I keep 奴都等利 nwotu tori have begun to cackle.

507

枳蟻矢播等余武 婆絁稽矩謨 伊麻娜以播孺底 阿開儞啓梨 倭蟻慕

汚

惋

小

kigisi pa toyomu pasikyeku mo imada ipazute akenikyeri wagimo

And in the fields the pheasants add their call. The dawn has already come before I have been able to confess my feelings, my love.

OJ: wo OC: *ʔwâ LH: ʔua EMC: ʔɔ LMC: ʔuə GO: u KO: wo NOM: ô, ố SV: ô, ố SK: wo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This graph is almost always written as 汙. As noted under this graph read as u, this is primarily used to transcribe u, but as Ōno (1962:115) points out, there are a number of examples in the Mino Census of 702 where it seems quite certain that this usage is transcribing wo, which the Sino-Xenic data support. Examples from the Mino Census include 汙 手賣 WoTEmye, 汙奈賣 Wonamye, 汙麻呂 Womaro, 汙志賣 Wosimye, and 汙屋賣 WoYAmye. OJ: wo OC: *ʔônʔ LH: ʔuanʔ EMC: ʔwânʔ LMC: ʔyan GO: won KN: wan NOM: NA SV: uyển SK: wan Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. This rare usage appears once in Nihon shoki in a poem. NSK 71 阿摩儾霧 amadamu Flying in the sky 箇留惋等賣 karu wotomye Princess Karu, 異哆儺介麼 ita nakaba people will notice 臂等資利奴陪瀰 pito sirinu bemi if I cry uncontrollably. 幡舍能夜摩能 pasa no yama no I will be like the dove 波刀能 patwo no of Mount Hasa 資哆儺企迩奈勾 sita naki ni naku who coos in a soft voice. OJ: wo OC: *siauʔ LH: siauʔ EMC: sjäuʔ GO: seu KN: seu NOM: tiểu, tĩu SV: tiểu SK: swo Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ wo ‘small.’ Because it has only three strokes, this kungana gained popularity rather early on. This usage appears in Nihon shoki: 小倉 WOKURA (NSG), and 小橋 WOBASI (NSG). There are also many examples in Man’yōshū. MYS 1214 Even the leaves of 安太部去 ada PYE YUKU 小為手乃山之 WOSUTE no YAMA NO the Podocarp tree on Mount Osute on the road toward Ada, 真木葉毛 MAKWI NO PA mo PISASIKU MINEBA which I have not see for a long time, 久不見者 KOKE MUSInikyeri have become covered with moss. 蘿生尓家里. 508

尾

少

麻

OJ: wo OC: *məiʔ LH: muiʔ EMC: mjweiʔ GO: mi KB: bi NOM: vĩ, vã, vải SV: vĩ SK: mi Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ wo ‘tail.’ In Kojiki there are names such as 天 之尾羽張 AMA NO WOPAPARI (KG), and 白梼尾 KASINOWO (KG). On wooden tablets excavated from the old Fujiwara Palace ruins (fl. 694–710) we find names like 語部君尾勝 KATARIBYE KIMI WOKATU (MKK 11:32). Nihon shoki also preserves a number of examples of this graph, primarily in names and toponyms: 三尾 MIWO (NSG) and 物部大連尾輿 MONONOBYE OPOMURAZI WOKOSI (NSG). This kungana is quite popular in Man’yōshū: MYS 750 OMOPITAYE Having given up 念絶 和備西物尾 wabwiNISI MONO WO and languishing in despair, NAKA NAKA NI then half-heartedly 中々荷 NANI ka KURUSIKU I started seeing you again, 奈何辛苦 APIMISOMEkyemu somewhat painfully. 相見始兼 OJ: wo OC: *hjau or *hjauh LH: śauʔ, śauh EMC: śjäuʔ, śjäuh GO: seu KN: seu NOM: thiếu, thỉu, thểu SV: thiểu, thiếu SK: swo Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ wo ‘small (in number).’ This usage appears in Nihon shoki: 少 郊 WONWO (NSG), and 少 麻 呂 WOmaro (NSG). Regarding 少郊 WONWO above, while NKBT has this as 小郊, it seems clear that there are more manuscripts with 少 than 小, though I admit deciding which is original is difficult. There are a few examples of this usage in Man’yōshū. There is the name 日 置少老 PEKI [NO] WO-OYU (MYS 354), 紀少鹿女郎 Kwi [NO] WOSIKA [NO] IRATUMYE (MYS 1648). OJ: wo OC: *mrâi LH: mai > ma EMC: ma GO: ma KN: ma NOM: ma SV: ma SK: ma Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ wo ‘hemp.’ There is only one example in Kojiki: 麻組郎女 WOKUMI [NO] IRATUMYE (KG). Only one name is written with this graph in Nihon shoki: 麻績 WOMI (NSG). There are five examples of this graph transcribing wo in Man’yōshū. MYS 2172 A GA YADWO NO My beloved, put out your hand 吾屋戸之 and touch the miscanthus 麻花押靡 WOBANA OSINABE OKU TUYU ni in my yard that bends 置露尓 TE PURE WAGIMOKWO under the weight of the dew; 手觸吾妹兒 OTIMAKU mo MIMU let us watch it fall. 落巻毛将見

509

男

雄

緒

OJ: wo OC: *nə̂m LH: nəm EMC: nậm GO: namu KN: damu NOM: nam SV: nam SK: nam Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ wo ‘male.’ There is a tradition that the earliest example of this kungana appears on the Suda Hachiman mirror inscription (ca. 500) where we find 大 王 年 男 弟 王 , which sometimes is interpreted as ‘In the time of the Great King, King WO-OTO....’ However, this is the sole evidence for a kungana this far back in time, and I think David Lurie (2001:163–164) is right to interpret this as simply ‘the younger brother, the prince.’ This means that some of the earliest examples come from wooden documents dug up from the site of the ancient Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710) where we find a name 八田部忍男 YATABYE OSIWO (MK 2025). This semantogram appears in Kojiki, in names like 天之忍男 AME NO OSIWO (KG), 火之夜藝速男神 the deity PWI NO YAGIPAYAWO (KG), and 石 筒 之 男 神 the deity IPATUTNOWO (KG). Related names appear also in Nihon shoki: 磐筒男命 IPATUTUNOWO [NO] MIKOTO (NSG), 男大迹天皇 Great King WOPODO (NSG), and 許勢男人 Kose WOPITO (NSG). This usage also appears in Man’yōshū: MYS 13 Mount Kagu fought 高山波 KAGUYAMA pa 雲根火雄男志等 unebwi WO WOsi to with Mount Unebi 耳梨與 MIMINASI TO afraid to lose his spouse, APIARASWOPIKI Mount Miminashi. 相諍競伎 KAMWIYO YWORI It appears that it has been 神代従 KAKU ni ARUrasi thus since the Age of the Gods. 如此尓有良之 OJ: wo OC: *wəŋ LH: wuŋ EMC: juŋ GO: wou KN: yuu NOM: hùng SV: hùng SK: wung Usage / History: This kungana, like 男 above, suggests to the reader OJ wo ‘male.’ This usage appears in Nihon shoki, in examples like 難波吉士雄成 Nanipa Kisi WONARI (NSG), 境部臣雄摩侶 SAKAPIBYE OMI WOmaro (NSG), and 蘇我 倉麻呂、更名雄當 Swoga KURAmaro, also known as WOMASA (NSG). This usage also appears in Man’yōshū. MYS 436 人言之 PITOGOTO NO These days when rumors SIGEKI KONO PI from people are bothersome— 繁比日 TAMA NARABA if you were a jewel then I would 玉有者 TE ni MAKI MOTITE wrap you around my wrist and 手尓巻持而 KWOPWIZARAMASI WO I would not have to yearn for you. 不戀有益雄 OJ: wo LH: ziaʔ NOM: NA

EMC: zjwoʔ SV: tự

510

OC: *s-laʔ GO: zio KN: sio SK: sye

Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ wo ‘thread, string.’ This usage appears in Man’yōshū. MYS 321 In awe of the highness 布士能嶺乎 puzi no NE wo TAKAMI KASIKWOMI of the peak of Mount Fuji 高見恐見 AMAKUMWO mo even the heavenly clouds 天雲毛 are spreading out, 伊去羽斤 iYUKI PABAKARI 田菜引物緒 TANABIKU MONO WO unable to continue on. This usage also appears in Izumo fudoki in the name 日置部根緒 PIOKIBYE NEWO. It is also see in Hizen fudoki in the name 健緒組 TAKEWOGUMI.

綬

峽 𠮧

OJ: wo LH: dźuh EMC: dźjəuh NOM: NA SV: thụ Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ wo in Man’yōshū, and then only once. MYS 2918 OPOKATA PA 大方者 NANI KAMO KWOPWIMU 何鴨将戀 KOTOAGE SEZU 言擧不為 IMWO ni YORI NEmu 妹尓依宿牟 TOSI PA TIKAKI WO 年者近綬

OC: *duh GO: ziu KN: siu SK: sywu ‘string.’ This usage only appears Why should I be so smitten if this were ordinary? Even if I do not declare it the time when I can be near and sleep with my beloved is close.

OJ: wo OC: *ɡrêp LH: ɡɛp EMC: ɣiep GO: gefu KN: kafu NOM: giáp SV: hiệp SK: hyep Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ wo ‘peak.’ This usage is only found in Nihon shoki in the following place names: 曲峽宮 the MAGARIWO Palace (NSG), 豐前國長峽縣 TOYO [NO] KUNI [NO] MITI [NO] KUTI [NO] KUNI [NO] NAGAWO [NO] AGATA ‘Nagao District of the Buzen Province’ (NSG), and 柏 峽 KASIPAWO (NSG). OJ: wo OC: *kiûh LH: keuh EMC: kieuh GO: keu KN:keu NOM: khiếu, kêu SV: khiếu SK: kywo Usage / History: This phonogram appears to be a vulgar version of the character 叫 ‘shout’ (叫 > 叫 > 𠮧). As Ōno (1962:123) points out, this kungana suggests to the mind OJ wo which is a shout or exclamation. There are 22 examples in Man’yōshū, which is the only text that preserves this usage. Every example of this graph represents the accusative (or direct object) particle wo.

511

MYS 1405 蜻野𠮧 人之懸者 朝蒔 君之所思而 嗟齒不病

AKIDUNWO WO PITO NO KAKUREBA ASA MAKISI KIMI GA OMOPOYETE NAGEKI PA YAMAZU

512

As people mentioned the moor of Akizu, I thought of you whose ashes I spread this morning and my laments cease not.

Y 邪

OJ: ya OC: *la or *ja LH: ja EMC: jia GO: zia KN: sia NOM: tà SV: tà SK: ya Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. As I have already argued (2008:7) it is very likely that the Historiographical Office of the Wei replaced a semantically more neutral graph, such as 耶 LH ja with 邪. Because 耶 does not have the z- initial reading, it is more likely that 邪 was selected to transcribe ya. This graph represents the name of the queen’s capital city in Wei zhi: 邪馬台 *yama-tə. It also renders toponyms such as 伊邪 *i-ya and 邪馬 *ya-ma. This phonogram also appears in several toponyms on the peninsula as preserved in Wei zhi: 不 斯 濆 邪 國 *pu-se-bun-ya domain, 彌 烏 邪 馬 國 *me-ɔ-ya-ma domain, 狗邪國 *kɔ-ya domain, and 安邪國 *an-ya domain. This phonogram is used by the Kojiki compiler to transcribe za (which see). As this phonogram means ‘wickedness,’ it was generally avoided in Japanese transcriptions. See 耶 below.

益

OJ: ya, yaku OC: *ʔek LH: ʔiek EMC: ʔjiäk GO: yaku KN: eki NOM: ích,ịch SV: ích SK: ik Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in one name in the record of Tenmu in Nihon shoki: 韓奈末金利益 Komu Riyak of the 10th rank. This graph appears in Nihon shoki: 巨勢朝臣多益須 Kose [NO] ASOMI Tayasu, and 益須郡 Yasu District (of Afumi Province). It also appears in Man’yōshū in toponyms like 讃岐國安益郡 Aya District in Sanuki Province. Shoku Nihongi preserves names like 巨勢朝臣太益須 Kose ASOMI Tayasu (706.7.11), whose name also appears later as 巨勢朝臣多益首 Kose ASOMI Tayasu (708.3.13), and 佐益郡 Saya District (722.2.16). There are a variety of cases where the -k- is retained, or is used to show a velar geminate: 益氣王 Prince Yake (Shoku Nihongi, 713.4.23), 上高益信 Ziyau-kau Yakusinu (724.5.13), 益 救 郡 Yaku Distrcit (Shoku Nihongi, 733.6.2), and 益久嶋 Yaku Island (754.1.17), and 益頭郡 Yakidu (Yakudu?) District (757.8.13).

移

OJ: ya OC: *lai LH: jai > je EMC: jie GO: i KN: i NOM: di, day, dời, giay, rơi SV: di, ri, gi SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears in quotes in Nihon shoki from Paekche material. In the Jingū record there appears a Paekche man named 爾波 移 Nipaya. It is interesting that in the Atsuta manuscript there is a marginal note 513

to the side of this name: 私記、移音野 ‘Shiki notes that the phonogram 移 is to be read as 野 ya.’ Then in the seventh year of Keitai, a Japanese official named 穗積臣押山 PODUMI [NO] OMI OSIYAMA is mentioned in Paekche pongi as 委意斯移麻岐彌 Osiyama Kimi of Wa (委). Finally in the sixth year of Kinmei, when the king of Paekche presents a Buddhist statue to the Yamato court, the compilers note 以此功徳、願天皇獲勝善之徳、天皇所用、彌移居 國、倶蒙福祐 ‘With this merit (of making a Buddhist statue) we pray that the Divine Ruler will obtain excellent virtue, and that the land of the miyake (彌移居 國) under his jurisdiction will be blessed.’ It is very possible that the Shoki compilers have adjusted parts of this missive, like changing 倭王 to 天皇, but the rendition 彌移居國 attests to the fact that the original content of the missive was not seriously altered. There are a number of examples of 移 transcribing ya in the earliest extant corpus of Japan. In the no longer extant ‘Gangōji roban inscription’ we find Prince Shōtoku Taishi’s name written as 有 麻 移 刀 等 已 彌 彌 乃 彌 己 等 Umayatwo Toyomimi no Mikoto and Empress Suiko’s name is preserved as 等 已彌居加斯支移比彌乃彌己等 Toyo Mike Kasikiya Pimye no Mikoto. There are also a few examples still preserved in people’s names in the Mino Census of 702: 移乎賣 Yawomye, 志賣移賣 Simyeyamye, 彌移賣 Miyamye, and 移 和 Yawa. There is also an interesting mokkan excavated from the Ōtsu dig with this information: 誣阿佐ム加ム移母 “ ‘falsely accuse’ is glossed asamukamu ya mo ‘could (someone/thing) deceive us?’ ” (MKK 33:145). There is one example of this orthographic tradition preserved in Man’yōshū. MYS 812 許等騰波奴 koto topanu Though a piece of wood does not 紀尓茂安理等毛 kwi nimo ari tomo utter words, would I ever lay it 和何世古我 wa ga sekwo ga on the ground, that favorite 多那礼乃美巨騰 tanare no mikoto august koto belonging 都地尓意加米移母 tuti ni okame ya mo to my beloved elder?

耶

OJ: ya OC: *la or *ja LH: ja EMC: jia GO: ya KN: ya NOM: NA SV: da, ra SK: ya Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It appears on the Kwangkaytho stele: 古模耶羅城 *kɔ-mo-ya-la fortress, and 古家耶羅城 *kɔ-ka-ya-la fortress. It appears once in the record of Kinmei in the name of a man from Koguryŏ, 高麗 人頭霧唎耶陛 ‘Tumuriyapye, a man from Kwoma.’ The Yōrō Census of 721 contains a few names with this graph: 阿耶賣 Ayamye and 古阿耶賣 Kwoayamye. This phonogram appears on one mokkan dated 745: 凡海阿耶男 OPOSIAMA AyaWO (MK 327). This phonogram is also used in Nihon shoki, in six annotational notes, and 15 times in poetry: 日本、此云耶麻騰 “ ‘Japan’ this is read yamato” (NSG). NSK 91 於彌能姑能 omi no kwo no The son of the Omi has 耶賦能之魔柯枳 yapu no sibagaki made a fine brushwood fence. 始陀騰余瀰 sitatoyomi But if the earth quakes 514

那爲我與釐據魔 nawi ga yorikoba that brushwood fence 耶黎夢之魔柯枳 yaremu sibagaki will likely fall to pieces. This phonogram appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 818 波流佐礼婆 paru sareba When it is spring 麻豆佐久耶登能 madu saku yado no will I spend the spring days 烏梅能波奈 ume no pana gazing alone at 比等利美都々夜 pitori mitutu ya the plum blossoms 波流比久良佐武 parupi kurasamu that bloom first in my garden?

夜

OJ: ya OC: *jah < *jakh LH: jah EMC: jiah GO: ya KN: ya NOM: dạ SV: dạ, rạ SK: ya, iok Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It appears in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu, in a very old rendition of the name of Great Queen Suiko: 止余美気加志支夜比 売天皇 Great King Toyo Mikekasikiya Pimye. It also appears in a poem composed by Kose Mitsue after the death of the prince: 美加弥乎須 mikami wosu Mount Tabasami 多婆佐美夜麻乃 tabasami yama no that rules from above; 阿遅加気尓 adikake ni alas, I stood there 比止乃麻乎之志 pito no mawosisi in the shade of the aji, 和何於保支美波母 wa ga opokimi pamo begging our master’s return. This phonogram appears eight times in the liturgies: 王等卿等乎母平久天 皇我朝廷爾伊加志夜久波叡能如久仕奉利 OPOKIMITATI MAPYETU KIMITATI wo mo TAPIRAKEku SUMYERA ga MIKADWO ni ikasiyaku paye no GOTOku TUKAPEMATUri “We pray that the princes and ministers also will be at peace, and that they may serve the throne as the plants grow thickly…” (NT 2). This phonogram is popular in the orthography found on mokkan: 丸部伊夜売 WaniBYE Iyamye (unnumbered tablet), 之比等等々流刀毛意夜志己々呂曽 sipito to toru twomo iyasi kokoro so ‘Even if I take my father-in-law, such base feelings…’ (MK 174). This is the principal phonogram found in Kojiki: 妹阿夜上訶志古泥神 ‘a younger sister, the deity Aya Kasikwone’ (KG), 阿那迩夜志愛上袁登古袁 ana ni ya si e wotokwo wo ‘Ah, what a wonderful male’ (KG), and 波迩夜須毘古神 ‘the deity Paniyasubikwo’ (KG). KK 40 許能美岐袁 kono miki wo The person who 迦美祁牟比登波 kamikyemu pito pa brewed this august wine— 曾能都豆美 sono tudumi did he brew it 宇須迩多弖弖 udu ni tatete while singing, 宇多比都都 utapitutu standing his drum 迦美祁禮迦母 kamikyeru kamo as if it were a mortar? 麻比都都 mapitutu Did he brew it 迦美祁禮加母 kamikyeru kamo while he danced? 許能美岐能 kono miki no This august wine 美岐能 miki no august wine, 515

阿夜迩宇多陀怒斯 aya ni utadanwosi how delightful it is. 佐佐 sa sa Drink! Drink! This phonogram is the principal graph used in Nihon shoki, appearing in six annotational notes, and 45 times in the poetry: 妍哉、此云阿那而惠夜 “ ‘how beautiful’ is read ana ni we ya” (NSG). NSK 1 夜句茂多兔 yakumo tatu Endowed with power, 伊弩毛夜覇餓岐 idumwo yapyegaki this two-fold Izumo fence— 兔磨語味爾 tuma gome ni to conceal ourselves, 夜覇餓枳都倶盧 yapyegaki tukuru I have built this two-fold fence. 贈廼夜覇餓岐廻 sono yapyegaki we Yes, within this two-fold fence! This phonogram also appears in the Bussoku stone poems: BSS 2 弥蘇知阿麻利 miswoti amari The person who is complete 布多都乃加多知 putatu no katati with the thirty-two marks 夜蘇久佐等 yaswokusa to and the eighty types of merits 曾太礼留比止乃 sodareru pito no at the place where the footprints 布美志阿止々己呂 pumisi ato tokoro have been trod— 麻礼尓母阿留可毛 mare nimo aru kamo how rare these are! This is the principal phonogram in Man’yōshū, appearing some 543 times in the anthology. MYS 3618 夜麻河伯能 yamagapa no Though we enjoy ourselves 伎欲吉可波世尓 kiywoki kapase ni by the pristine shoals 安蘇倍杼母 aswobedomo of the mountain river, 奈良能美夜故波 nara no miyakwo pa I cannot forget 和須礼可祢都母 wasurekanetu mo the capital in Nara.

也

楊

OJ: ya OC: *laʔ LH: jaʔ EMC: jiaʔ GO: ya KN: ya NOM: rã, rả, giã SV: rã SK: ya Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in the Mino Census of 702 in names like 也里都賣 Yaritumye, 也利賣 Yarimye, 止也麻呂 Toya Maro, and 也曾麻呂 Yaso Maro. This phonogram is the second most popular graph to transcribe ya in Man’yōshū, after 夜, appearing 146 times. MYS 243 OPOKIMI PA Our great lord 王者 TITOSE ni masamu will exist for a thousand years. 千歳二麻佐武 SIRAKUMWO mo Will there ever come a day 白雲毛 MIPUNE no YAMA ni when the white clouds on 三船乃山尓 TAYURU PI arame ya Mount Mifune disappear? 絶日安良米也 OJ: ya LH: jaŋ NOM: dàng, thang

EMC: jiaŋ SV: dương

516

OC: *laŋ GO: yau KN: yau SK: yang

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in the name 楊貴氏 Yakwi, which is found on a stone epitaph dated to the 11th year of Tenpyō (739). It also appears on a tablet excavated from a dig in North Takagi in Toyama Prefecture: 安万呂楊麻呂呂楊楊万呂楊万呂, where someone was practicing writing names: YASUmaro, Yamaro-ro ya Yamaro Yamaro (MKK 17:135). This phonogram also appears in a Silla name recorded in Shoku Nihongi 韓 奈麻昔楊節 Ziaku Yausetu of the 10th rank (723.8.8). This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū, where it is used both for its phonological and semantic value: 楊 is a poplar tree. MYS 840 波流楊那宜 paru yanagwi The spring willow— 可豆良尓乎利志 kadura ni worisi the plum blossom I broke off 烏梅能波奈 ume no pana to decorate my hair, 多礼可有可倍志 tare ka ukabesi who has let it float 佐加豆岐能倍尓 sakaduki no pe ni inside my wine cup?

陽

揚 野

OJ: ya OC: *laŋ LH: jaŋ EMC: jiaŋ GO: yau KN: yau NOM: dương SV: dương, cang, giang SK: yang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and it appears that this usage was influenced by Chinese immigrants. This phonogram appears in documents preserved in Shōsōin, in names such as 陽候 Yakwo or 陽胡 Yakwo, or 陽枳 Yaki. This phonogram appears in Nihon shoki in the names 陽胡史 Yakwo [NO] PUBITO (NSG), and 上陽咩郡 Upper Yamye District (NSG). It should be noted that Ōno (1977:817) writes that 陽胡 appears in the record of Sujin, but it actually appears in the 10th year of Suiko. This phonogram also appears in Man’yōshū in the poet’s name 麻田連陽春 ASADA [NO] MURAZI Yasu (MYS 569–570). OJ: ya OC: *laŋ LH: jaŋ EMC: jiaŋ GO: yau KN: yau NOM: đàng, đang SV: dương SK: yang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in the name 揚胡 Yakwo as found in a document in the Shōsōin. OJ: ya OC: *laʔ LH: jaʔ EMC: jiaʔ GO: ya KN: ya NOM: dã SV: dã, rạ SK: ya Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It is seldom used to transcribe ya because it was more popular as a semantogram for nwo ‘field.’ It appears once in Nihon shoki: 筑紫君薩野馬 Tukusi KIMI Sarayama. This phonogram appears twice in one poem in Man’yōshū. 517

MYS 804 等伎能佐迦利乎 等々尾迦禰 周具斯野利都礼 美奈乃和多 迦具漏伎可美尓 伊都乃麻可 斯毛乃布利家武

椰

揶

toki no sakari wo todomwikane sugusiyariture mina no wata kagurwoki kami ni itu no ma ka simwo no purikyemu

Unable to hang on to the best of those times time has marched on. Upon this black hair, black as the guts of the snail, frost has lighted without my knowing it.

OJ: ya OC: NA LH: NA EMC: jia GO: ya KN: ya NOM: da, dà, dừa SV: da SK: ya Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, but it is confined to Nihon shoki. It appears in one annotational note, and 31 times in poetry: 饒速日、此云儞藝波 椰卑 “ ‘The deity Nigi Hayahi’ is read nigi payapi” (NSG). NSK 12 哆々奈梅弖 tatanamete With our shields arrayed 伊那瑳能椰摩能 inasa no yama no we have fought many battles 虚能莽由毛 ko no mayu mo on Mount Inasa, 易喩耆摩毛羅毘 iyuki mamworapi going through the trees 多々介陪麼 tatakapeba and watching the enemy. 和例破椰隈怒 ware pa ya wenu Thus are we famished. 之摩途等利 simatutori Birds of the island— 宇介譬餓等茂 ukapi ga tomo come now to our rescue, 伊莽輸開珥虚禰 ima suke ni kone you friends of the cormorants. OJ: ya OC: NA LH: NA EMC: jia GO: ya KN: ya NOM: NA SV: da SK: ya Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only in Nihon shoki. This graph appears in three annotational notes and 13 times in the poetry in Nihon shoki: 泳宮、此云區玖利能彌揶 “ ‘Kukuri Palace’ is read kukuri no miya” (NSG). NSK 54 菟藝泥赴 tuginepu Taking my journey 揶莽之呂餓波鳥 yamasirogapa wo up the Yamashiro River, 瀰揶能朋利 miya nopori where trees grow thick, 和餓能朋例麼 wa ga noporeba I journeyed past the palace. 阿烏珥豫辭 awo ni yosi I traveled beyond 儺羅烏輸疑 nara wo sugwi the blue hills of Nara. 烏陀氐 wodate I headed beond 夜莽苔烏輸疑 yamato wo sugwi the aegis peaks of Yamato. 和餓瀰餓朋辭區珥波 wa ga migaposi kuni pa The land I longed to behold was 箇豆羅紀多伽瀰揶 kadurakwi takamiya the high palace in Kazuraki— 和藝幣能阿多利 wagipye no atari everything around my home. 518

瑘 掖 養

屋

OJ: ya OC: NA LH: NA EMC: jia GO: ya KN: ya NOM: NA SV: da SK: ya Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS and appears once in an annotational note in Nihon shoki: 言屋、此云伊浮瑘 “ ‘Ifuya Shrine’ is read ipuya” (NSG). OJ: ya OC: *jak LH: jak EMC: jiäk GO: yaku KN: eki NOM: dịch SV: rịch SK: oik Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in Nihon shoki, but only to write the name of an island: 掖玖 Yaku. Again, it is important to notice the geminate here (yakku) which likely signifies a short vowel in the first syllable. OJ: ya OC: *jaŋʔ LH: jaŋʔ EMC: jiaŋʔ LMC: jiaŋ GO: yau KN: yau NOM: dưỡng SV: dưỡng, dượng SK: yang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears in rather innovative spellings. In a document preserved in Shōsōin we find 養徳 which apparently represents Yamato, with the assumption that the velar nasal of yang was interpreted as an -m- (cf. Ōno 1977:126). Interestingly this same usage appears on five different mokkan excavated from the Nara ruins (MK 78, 91, 144, 12118, MKK 12:138). This phonogram also appears in Hizen fudoki in the toponym 養 父 Yabu < *yanpu. OJ: ya OC: *ʔôk LH: ʔok EMC: ʔuk GO: woku KN: woku NOM: ọc SV: ốc SK: wok Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ ya ‘roof.’ This usage is very old, and appears in the oldest extant records. In the genealogy of Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu the following name is preserved: 物部室屋 MONONOBYE MURWOYA. This name may actually be a mistake for 守屋 MORIYA, but the texts agree on MURWOYA. This appears on several mokkan: 伊勢国安濃郡長屋郷 Ise Province Anwo District NAGAYA Village (MKK 3:12), 高屋佐美 TAKAYA Sami (unnumbered tablet). This usage appears in Kojiki in a number of names: 天兩屋嶋 the island AME PUTAYA (KG), 大屋毘古神 the deity OPOYAbikwo (KG), 鹿屋野比賣 神 the deity KAYANWO Pimye (KG). This phonogram is used over 100 times in Nihon shoki, as the following few examples illustrate: 吾屋惶根尊 AYA KASIKONE [NO] MIKOTO (NSG), 吾屋橿城尊 AYA KASIKWI [NO] MIKOTO (NSG), 大屋津姫命 OPOYATU PIMYE [NO] MIKOTO (NSG), and 長屋 the place name NAGAYA (NSG). This semantogram is also quite prevalent in Man’yōshū.

519

MYS 7 金野乃 美草苅葺 屋杼礼里之 兎道乃宮子能 借五百礒所念

AKI NO NWO no miKUSA KARIPUKI YAdorerisi uDI no MIYAKWO no KARI IPO SI OMOPOYU

I recall that temporary hut where we spent one night in the capital at Uji which was thatched with grass from the golden fields.

八

OJ: ya OC: *prêt LH: pɛt EMC: păt GO: fati KN: fatu NOM: bát SV: bát SK: phal Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ ya ‘eight.’ This usage is also used fairly early. In the Mino Census of 702 the following names include this graph: 八十麻呂 YASWO Maro, 八嶋賣 YASIMAmye, and 八知波 YAtipa. There are also a number of examples of this kungana in Kojiki: 日子八井命 PIKWO YAWI [NO] MIKOTO (KG). As this represents a number, in the mythology many of these same names are used in Nihon shoki. This kungana is also popular in Man’yōshū. MYS 21 MURASAKI no Like the purple grass 紫草能 if I were to think evil of 尓保敝類妹乎 nipopyeru IMWO wo my blushing beloved, 尓苦久有者 nikuku ARABA PITODUMA YUWE ni would I also yearn for 人嬬故尓 ARE KWOPWIME YAMO another’s spouse like this? 吾戀目八方

矢

OJ: ya OC: *lhiʔ LH: śiʔ EMC: śiʔ GO: si KN: si NOM: thỉ, thẻ SV: thỉ SK: ci Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ ya ‘arrow.’ The earliest datable example appears in the Mino Census of 702: 矢 田 部 YATABYE, and 寸 矢 賣 KIYAmye. This phonogram is also found in Kojiki in two names: 倭飛羽矢若 屋 比 賣 YAMATO TOBIPAYA WAKAYA Pimye and 宮 主 矢 河 枝 比 賣 MIYANUSI YAKAPAYE Pimye. This phonogram appears on a number of excavated tablets: 矢田部 YATABYE (MK 13), □田別君矢乎 XTA WAKE KIMI YAwo (unnumbered tablet). It also appears in a fragment of a poem (MK 1613): 奈尓皮ツ尓 nanipatu ni At the ferry of Naniwa 佐久矢己乃皮奈 saku YA ko no pana how these blossoms bloom— 布由己母利 puyugomori awakening from winter 伊真皮々留部止 iMA pa paruPYE to now they say it is almost spring. 佐久矢□□皮奈 saku YA (ko no?) pana These blossoms that are in bloom. This usage also appears in Nihon shoki: 矢田皇女 Princess YATA (NSG), and 矢田部 YATABYE (NSG). This usage is somewhat prevalent in Man’yōshū, though the majority of cases are not logographic, but simple semantograms of 矢 ‘arrow.’

520

MYS 3225 吉咲八師 浦者無友 吉畫矢寺 礒者無友 奥津浪 諍榜入来 白水郎之釣船

箭

鹽 延

YOSIWEYAsi

TOMO YOSIWEYAsi ISWO PA NAKU TOMO OKITU NAMI URA PA NAKU

SINWOGI KOGIRI KO AMA NO TURIBUNE

But that is fine, though we have no bay— that is fine, though we have no rocky beach— you fishing boat with the divers, push your way over here, rowing over the waves in the offing!

OJ: ya OC: *tsens LH: tsianh EMC: tsjänh GO: semu KN: sen NOM: tên, tiễn SV: tiến, tiễn SK: cyen Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ ya ‘arrow,’ as 箭 is a bamboo arrow. There is only one example of this kungana in Nihon shoki: 箭田珠勝大兄皇子 Prince YATA [NO] TAMAKATU [NO] OPOYE (NSG). A fragment of a name on a bamboo tablet contains this graph: 箭口朝臣大足 YAX ASOMI OPOTARI (MKK 9:13). This phonogram appears in Izumo fudoki, mainly toponyms: 赤 箭 KAMINOYA, 箭山 Mount YA, and 幡箭 PATAYA. It is also in Hitachi fudoki: 箭括 YAPAZU, a surname. OJ: yamu OC: *jam LH: jam EMC: jiäm GO: yemu KN: yemu NOM: diêm SV: diêm, riêm SK: yem Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in Izumo fudoki: 鹽冶郷 Yamuya Village, and 鹽夜社 Yamuya Shrine. OJ: ye OC: *lan LH: jan EMC: jiän GO: yemu KN: yen NOM: dan SV: diên, ruyên SK: yen Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in the name of a domain included in the federation called Benshin: 馬延國 *ma-jan or *ma-jen. This phonogram also has multiple readings, like 移. In Nihon shoki this phonogram transcribes the personal name, 延那斯 Yenasi, which is also written in a quote from Paekche pongi as 移那斯 Yenasi. This phonogram also appears in Kojiki, and is the main graph to transcribe ye. Examples include the following from a song: KK 2 阿遠夜麻迩 awoyama ni In the blue mountains 奴延波那伎奴 nuye pa nakinu the thrush has called out. 佐怒都登理 sanwotu tori The bird of the true field, 岐藝斯波登與牟 kigisi pa toyomu the pheasants are rowdy. 爾波都登理 nipatu tori The bird of the yard, 迦祁波那久 kakye pa naku the chickens are cackling. 521

This phonogram appears once in Nihon shoki’s poetry. NSK 23 異能知能 inoti no You young men who 摩曾祁務比苔破 masokyemu pito pa are so full of life— 多々瀰許莽 tatami komo take a branch of white oak of 弊愚利能夜摩能 pyeguri no yama no multi-layered Mount Heguri. 志邏伽之餓延塢 sirakasi ga ye wo Stick in your hair, 于受珥左勢 uzu ni sase and adorn your head. 許能固 kono kwo Even you, my child. This phonogram appears 56 times in Man’yōshū, and along with 要, is the main phonogram to transcribe ye. MYS 807 宇豆都仁波 ututu nipa There is no way 安布余志勿奈子 apu yosi mo nasi for us to meet in reality. 奴婆多麻能 nubatama no See me in your 用流能伊昧仁越 yworu no ime ni wo dreams at night, 都伎提美延許曽 tugite miye koso black as ink.

移

叡

OJ: ye OC: *lai LH: jai > je EMC: jie GO: i KN: i NOM: di, day, giay, rơi SV: di, ri, gi SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram, as mentioned under OJ: i, belongs to the PBS. There is some evidence that this phonogram also had the reading /ye/, which may have been a transitional reading from OC to EMC. Coblin (1983:149) reconstructs the Eastern Han pronunciation of this graph as *jie, showing that the nucleus was likely the mid front vowel /e/ and not the high front one /i/. Schuessler (2009:213) seems to agree. A good example of this usage appears in Shoki: 阿賢移那斯 ake yenasi. The apparent Japanese version of this name is 延那斯 Yenasi. This name also appears in the main record as well as in the quotes from Paekche pongi. The opposite may also be true, however, and the nuclear vowel was actually the fronted one. It is difficult to know, so I list this graph under both headings and . OJ: ye OC: *los or *lots LH: juas EMC: jiwäih GO: ye KN: yei NOM: NA SV: duệ SK: ye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The earliest example appears in the early poetry contained in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu: 伊加留我乃 ikaruga no Our great ruler’s name 止美能乎何波乃 tomi no wogapa no will never be forgotten, 多叡婆許曾 tayeba koso even if the brook 和何於保支美乃 wa ga opokimi no Tomi in Ikaruga 弥奈和須良叡米 mina wasurayeme should cease to flow in its bed. This phonogram is used in the liturgies, which I have already posited actually 522

reflect a state of early Old Japanese (2001:26): 伊加志夜久波叡 ikasiya kupa ye ‘flourish like the thick branches of the mulberry’ (NT 2) and 佐加叡志米賜 sakayesime TAMAPYE ‘that you may be made to prosper’ (NT 2). This phonogram also appears in Nihon shoki, once in the annotational notes: 肖、此云阿叡 “ ‘protective arm pad worn by archers’ is called aye.” This phonogram is used twice in Man’yōshū: MYS 4428 和我世奈乎 wa ga sena wo I have sent 都久志波夜利弖 tukusi pa yarite my husband to Tsukushi 宇都久之美 utukusimi and miss him dearly. 叡比波登加奈々 yepi pa tokana na Perhaps I should sleep 阿夜尓可毛禰牟 aya ni kamo nemu with the cord of my robe tied.

曳

遥

OJ: ye OC: *lats LH: jas EMC: jiäih GO: yei KN: yei NOM: dại, dái, dài SV: dệ, duệ SK: ye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It is the main phonogram in Nihon shoki to transcribe ye, appearing in one annotational note, and 25 times in poetry: 荑、此云波曳 “ ‘the graph 荑 sprout’ is read paye” (NSG). NSK 86 於岐毎慕與 okime mo yo Alas Okime, 阿甫瀰能於岐毎 apumi no okime Okime from Afumi— 阿須用利簸 asu ywori pa tomorrow you return to hide 瀰野磨我倶利底 miyamagakurite in the mountains and I will 彌曳孺哿謨阿羅牟 miyezu kamo aramu be able to see you no more. This phonogram also appears twice in Man’yōshū, but both are in border poems. MYS 4321 可之古伎夜 kasikwoki ya Filled with trepidation 美許等加我布理 mikoto kagapuri I receive the august command— 阿須由利也 asu yuri ya From tomorrow I likely will 加曳我牟多禰牟 kaye ga muta nemu be sleeping with straw, 伊牟奈之尓志弖 imu nasi ni site without my beloved. This phonogram is also used once in the imperial edicts. 如是醜事者聞曳自 KAKU [NO] SIKOGOTO PA KIKOyezi ‘Such filthy acts will probably not be handed down (to others)’ (SM 17). OJ: ye OC: *jau LH: jau EMC: jiäu GO: yeu KN: yeu NOM: rao SV: dao, rao, giao SK: ywo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It occurs in one poem in Nihon shoki, which Mori (1991:243) lists as ywo instead of ye. However, as noted below, this graph appears twice in one Man’yōshū poem, both times clearly transcribing ye. The usual explanation for 阿遥比 is that aywopi is a variant form of ayupi ‘leg straps.’ For the time being I view this as a variant form. 523

NSK 74 飫瀰能古簸 omi no kwo pa The servant of the crown, 多倍能波伽摩嗚 tape no pakama wo arranging his hemp trousers 那々陛嗚絁 nanapye wo si and his seven-fold armor, 儞播儞陀々始諦 nipa ni tatasite is standing out in the garden. 阿遥比那陀須暮 ayepi nadasu mo He straightens his leg straps. This graph appears twice in one poem in Man’yōshū. MYS 3309 MONO OMOPAZU While walking along the road 物不念 MITI YUKU YUKU MO without being deep in thought 路行去裳 AWOYAMA wo when I looked back up 青山乎 PURISAKE MIREBA at the blue mountains 振酒見者 there was a beautiful maiden, 都追慈花 tutuzi PANA 尓太遥越賣 niPOye wotomye colorful as the azalea blossoms. SAKURABANA A maiden in full bloom 作樂花 佐可遥越賣 sakaye wotomye like the cherry blossoms. NARE wo zo mo People say that 汝乎叙母 WARE ni YOSU TO IPU you are attracted to me. 吾尓依云 WARE wo zo MO People say that 吾乎叙物 NARE ni YOSU TO IPU I am attracted to you. 汝尓依云 NA PA IKA NI OMOPU What do you think? 汝者如何念也

要

穎

OJ: ye OC: *ʔiauh LH: ʔiauh EMC: ʔjiäu GO: yeu KN: yeu NOM: yêu, yếu, eo, éo SV: yêu, yếu SK: ywo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Man’yōshū, but it is the primary graph used to transcribe ye, appearing in the anthology a total of 70 times. MYS 1418 IPABASIRU Yes, spring has come 石激 when the true bracken 垂見之上乃 TARUMI NO UPE no 左和良妣乃 sawarabi no standing by the waterfall 毛要出春尓 mwoye IDURU PARU ni gushing forth from the boulder NARI NI KYERU KAMO has shot forth its buds. 成来鴨 OJ: ye OC: *weŋʔ LH: weŋʔ EMC: jiwäŋʔ GO: yau KN: yei NOM: giảnh, nhảnh SV: dĩnh SK: yeng Usage / History: This usage belongs to the LJS. It appears once in Shinshaku kegon onshiki, where 簫 ‘panpipes’ is glossed as 布穎 puye. There also is a wooden fragment (mokkan) excavated from Dazaifu which contains the toponym 薩麻穎娃(郡) Satuma Yee District (representing a long vowel). In neighboring Ōsumi Province there is a district Soo traditionally written as 囎唹. The place name 紀伊 for Kii also comes to mind. It is possible that Old Japanese, like modern Ryūkyūan,

524

had compensatory lengthening for monosyllables. These renditions may be a vestige of this.

兄

OJ: ye OC: *hwaŋ LH: hyaŋ EMC: xwiajŋ GO: kiyau KN: kuwei NOM: huênh, huyênh SV: huynh SK: hyeng Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ ye ‘older.’ It is possible that this usage was modeled after that on the peninsula. Koryŏgi records, 次太大兄、比二品 “Next is Great da-hyaŋ, which is comparable to the second rank” (Takeuchi 1977:34). This usage was quite popular, and appears in the earliest extant records preserved in Japan. In Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu we find it in the name 山代大 兄王 Prince YAMASIRO OPOYE. In the Mino Census of 702 there is the name 兄 麻 呂 YEmaro and 兄 屋 賣 YEYAmye. On the Sairinji Buddha statue inscription (ca. 659) we find the name 長兄 NAGAYE. This usage also appears in Kojiki in names like 兄比賣 YEpimye (KG) or 兄師木 YEsiKWI (KG), which possibly are not really names as much as rather vague designations: ‘elder X’ or ‘elder Y.’ Nihon shoki contains examples much like those in Kojiki: 兄猾 YEUKASI (NSG), 兄磯城 YESIKWI (NSG), and 兄倉下 YEKURAZI (NSG). There are a number of similar usages in Man’yōshū, but perhaps the best known example is the cryptic poem, number nine. My translation of the first two extremely cryptic lines follows that of Vovin (2002:456–458). MYS 9 莫囂圓隣 nacuh-oi tolal-in When I look up at 之大相七兄爪謁氣 thyeta-po-ni-ke-ca mud-ke the evening moon, I asked— WA GA SEKWO GA at the base of 吾瀬子之 the sacred oak tree that 射立為兼 ITATASERIkyemu my beloved had planted. 五可新何本 ITUkasi ga MOTO Thus this is actually the remnant of a Paekche or Silla poem, the first two stanzas preserving the Old Korean rendition, while the last three stanzas have been converted into Old Japanese. As can be seen, 兄 here is not ye, but is ke, based on the EMC xwiajŋ. An example of 兄 transcribing ye in Man’yōshū appears below: MYS 196 SIKARE KAMO Is it because of this? 然有鴨 I feel deep sadness, 綾尓憐 AYA ni KANASIMI like the unrequited love of 宿兄鳥之 NUYEDORI no KATAKWOPWIDUMA the thrush longing for its mate, 片戀嬬 ASA TORI NO or the morning bird 朝鳥 KAYWOPASU KIMI GA flying back and forth, 徃来為君之 夏草乃 NATUGUSA no and my thoughts for you droop OMOPI siNAYETE as the wilting summer grass. 念之萎而

江

OJ: ye LH: kɔŋ NOM: giang, nhăng

EMC: kåŋ SV: giang 525

OC: *krôŋ GO: kau KN: kau SK: kang

Usage / History: This kungana causes the reader to connect 江 ‘great river’ to OJ ye ‘river inlet.’ This usage appears in Kojiki in toponyms like 長江 NAGAYE (KG), 大 江 OPOYE (KG), or a name such as 墨江大神 ‘the great deity SUMIYE’ (KG). In Nihon shoki examples are limited to names like 磯城縣主葉江 PAYE, the district governor of SIKWI (NSG), 堀江 PORIYE (NSG), or 瑞江浦嶋子 MIDUNOYE URASIMAKWO (NSG). This kungana also appears in Man’yōshū. It appears in the name 清江 SUMINOYE and others. MYS 252 ARATAPE NO At the bay of Fujie 荒栲 of rough fabric 藤江之浦尓 PUDIYE NO URA ni will I be mistaken as a 鈴寸釣 SUZUKWI TURU AMA TO KA MIRAMU diver catching sea bass? 白水郎跡香将見 TABI YUKU WARE wo The wayfarer that I am. 旅去吾乎

枝

吉

OJ: ye OC: *ke LH: kie EMC: tśje GO: si KN: si NOM: chi SV: chi SK: ci Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ ye ‘branch.’ The earliest datable examples appear in the Mino Census of 702: 百枝賣 MWOMWOYEmye. This kungana also appears in Kojiki in a number of names: 大枝王 Prince OPOYE, 矢 河 枝 比 賣 YAKAPAYE Pimye, and 惠 賀 長 枝 NAGAYE of Wega. Examples of this kungana in Nihon shoki include names like 大葉枝皇子 Prince OPOPAYE (NSG), 河邊百枝臣 KAPApye MOMOYE OMI (NSG), and 五百枝 IPOYE (NSG). There is one example of this usage in Man’yōshū. MYS 3256 數々丹 SIKUSIKU NI She will probably not be OMOPAZU PITO PA thinking constantly of me, 不思人叵 ARURAMEDO but alas, I will not 雖有 be able to forget her 蹔文吾者 SIMASIKU mo A PA WASURAYENU KAMO for at least a little while. 忘枝沼鴨 OJ: ye OC: *kit LH: kit EMC: kjit GO: kiti KN: kitu NOM: kiết, cát SV: cát SK: kil Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ ye ‘good, fortunate.’ This usage is generally confined to the place name 住吉 SUMIYE, which appears in both Nihon shoki and Man’yōshū. This usage also appears in Harima fudoki in the place name 吉川 YEGAPA and 大吉川 OPOYEGAPA. It also appears in Hitachi fudoki in 吉前邑 YESAKI Village.

526

炎 與

OJ: yemu OC: *lam LH: jam EMC: jiäm GO: yemu KN: yemu NOM: viêm SV: viêm SK: yem Usage / History: This usage belongs to the LJS, and appears as the toponym 飛炎 Pwiyemu, which appears in ancient documents in possession of Shōsōin. This same toponym appears on several mokkan (MK 2015, 2020). OJ: yo OC: *la LH: ja EMC: jiwo GO: yo KN: yo NOM: dữ SV: dữ, giữ SK: ye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS, used in the name of the queen’s heir, as recorded in Wei zhi: 台與 *də-yɑ. This phonogram also appears on the Chyangnyeng Silla inscription (561) in the name 大等與古奈末 *dai-təng-ja-kɔ of the 11th rank. It also appears on the Hamcwu Silla King hunting stele (568), in the name 喙部與難大舎 *ja-nan of the 12th rank from the First Quarter of the Capital. This phonogram also appears in the earliest extant corpus of Japanese texts, appearing in the now lost inscription on the Iyo Dōgo Hot springs stele, supposedly dated around 596 (though it may actually date much later). The toponym in question is 夷與村 Iyo Village. This phonogram appears five times in the liturgies, four of which represent yori ‘from’: 北方佐渡与里乎知能所乎 奈牟多知疫鬼之住加登定賜比 KITA [NO] MO [PA] sadwo yori woti no TOKORO wo namutati EKI [NO] ONI NO SUMIka to SADAMETAMApi “From the direction of the north, (the deities) have determined that the dwellings of you, the demons of pestilence, will be the distant places from Sado Island northward…” (NT 16). This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan: 伊与国伊与郡 Iyo Province Iyo District (MK 3561), 与曽布女 YosopuMYE (unnumbered tablet), and 与祢 万呂 Yonemaro (unnumbered tablet). This phonogram is generally avoided by the Kojiki scribe/editor, because of its grammatical use in classical Chinese syntax, meaning ‘and.’ There are, however, seven examples of this graph in the early Kojiki poetry: KK 6 阿波母與 a pa mo yo Because I too 賣迩斯阿禮婆 mye ni si areba am but a woman, 那遠岐弖 na wo kite other than you 遠波那志 wo pa nasi I have no other man. 那遠岐弖 na wo kite Other than you 都麻波那斯 tuma pa nasi I have no other spouse. 阿夜加岐能 ayakaki no At the bottom of 布波夜賀斯多爾 pupayaga sita ni the veil of finely woven cloth— 牟斯夫須麻 musibusuma at the bottom of 爾古夜賀斯多爾 nikwoyaga sita ni the soft bedding— 多久夫須麻 takurbusuma at the bottom of the gently 佐夜具賀斯多爾 sayaguga sita ni rustling mulberry sheets— 阿和由岐能 awayuki no please lie with me, 527

和加夜流牟泥遠 waka yaru mune wo taking my young breast, 多久豆怒能 takudunu no soft like powder snow, 斯路岐多陀牟岐 sirwoki tadamuki in your white arms, 曾陀多岐 sodataki wrapping your hands, 多多岐麻那賀理 tataki managari those true hands 麻多麻傳 matamade around my back 多麻傳佐斯麻岐 tamade sasi maki with your arms outstretched 毛毛那賀迩 mwomwo naga ni like jewels on a string 伊遠斯那世 i wo si nase and your legs stretched out. 登與美岐 toyo miki Drink this 多弖麻都良世 tatematurase eternal wine. This phonogram is used three times in Nihon shoki annotational notes, and seven times in poetry: 天吉葛、此云阿摩能與佐圖羅。一云、與會豆羅 “ ‘heavenly auspicious vine’ is read ama no yosatura. Another tradition says this is yosotura” (NSG). NSK 91 於彌能姑能 omi no kwo no The son of the Omi has 耶賦能之魔柯枳 yapu no sibagaki made a fine brushwood fence. 始陀騰余瀰 sitatoyomi But if the earth quakes 那爲我與釐據魔 nawi ga yorikoba that brushwood fence 耶黎夢之魔柯枳 yaremu sibagaki will likely fall to pieces. This is the primary phonogram to transcribe yo in Man’yōshū, appearing 171 times. MYS 27 YOKI PITO no Good people of old took a good 淑人乃 YOSI TO YOKU MITE look at this place, 良跡吉見而 YOSI TO IPIsi saying it was good, Yoshino. 好常言師 芳野吉見与 YOSINWO YOKU MIyo You good people here, YOKI PITO YOKU MI take a good look at Yoshino. 良人四来三 This phonogram also appears on the Bussoku stone inscription: BSS 3 与伎比止乃 yoki pito no I cannot see 麻佐米尓美祁牟 masame ni mikyemu even the footprints that 美阿止須良乎 miato sura wo the righteous men must 和礼波衣美須弖 ware pa emisute have seen before their eyes— 伊波尓惠利都久 ipa ni werituku engrave them on the rock. 多麻尓惠利都久 tama ni werituku Engrave them on the jewel.

餘

OJ: yo OC: *la LH: ja EMC: jiwo GO: yo KN: yo NOM: dư, rư SV: dư SK: ye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. This phonogram is often abbreviated to 余. It appears in the name of the land of 夫餘 *pu-yɑ (what is later called Puyo). Wei zhi also mentions a king of Puyo known as 麻餘 *ma-yɑ.

528

This phonogram also appears on the Kwangkaytho stele: 夫余 *pu-yɑ, 余 城 *yɑ fortress, and 賣勾余民国 the people of *mɛ-ko-yɑ. This phonogram also appears on the Inariyama tumulus sword: 加差披余 Ka-sa-pai-yo. This phonogram appears in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu, in Suiko’s name: 止 余 美 気 加 志 支 夜 比 売 天 皇 Empress Toyo Mike Kasikiya Pimye. This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan: 余 志 野 女 YosiNWOMYE (unnumbered tablet), and a fragment of a poem: 波流奈礼波伊万志□□□…由 米余伊母波夜久伊□□奴□止利阿波志□ paru nareba imasi XXX…yume yo i mo payaku iXXnuX tori apasiX… ‘Because is is spring / right now… / never even (think of sleep) / quickly… / you harmonized with me’ (MK 179). This is the principal phonogram used in Kojiki: 故阿佐米余玖 KARE asame yoku ‘Thus, look around well…’ (KG), 比賣多多良伊須氣余理比賣 Princess Pimye Tatara Isukeyori (KG). KK 8 阿加陀麻波 akadama pa The red beads 袁佐閇比迦禮杼 wo sape pikaredo glow even on the string, 斯良多麻能 siratama no but your appearance, 岐美何余曾比斯 kimi ga yosopisi white like a pearl, 多布斗久阿理祁理 taputwoku arikyeri is indeed magnificent. This phonogram appears twice in the annotational notes and nine times in the poetry in Nihon shoki: 泉津平坂、此云余母都比羅佐可 “ ‘the flat hill of Yomi’ is read yomotu pirasaka” (NSG). NSK 97 駄開能 take no Wonderful, flourishing bamboo 以矩美娜開余嚢開 ikumidake yodake with long joints and leaves— 謨等陛嗚麼 motopye woba We will make a koto 莒等儞都倶唎 koto ni tukuri out of the base of it, 須衞陛嗚麼 suyepye woba and make a flute 府曳儞都倶唎 puye ni tukuri out of the top of it. This phonogram appears in Man’yōshū 142 times. MYS 873 余呂豆余尓 yoroduyo ni Let us pass down this tradition 可多利都夏等之 kataritugye to si to the myriad generations— 許能多氣仁 kono take ni it seems she waved 比例布利家良之 pire purikyerasi her scarf on this peak, 麻通羅佐用嬪面 matura saywo pimye Princess Sayo of Matsura.

余 已

OJ: yo LH: ja NOM: dư, rư Usage / History: See 餘 above. OJ: yo LH: jəʔ > jɨʔ NOM: dĩ

EMC: jiwo SV: dư

OC: *la GO: yo KN: yo SK: ye

EMC: jiɨ SV: dĩ

OC: *ləʔ GO: i KN: i SK: i

529

Usage / History: This is a somewhat difficult phonogram to track, as it is easily confused with 己 ko. Based on the currently available data, I place this phonogram in the PBS. It appears on the Inariyama tumulus sword inscription in the name 弖已加利獲 居 Teyokari Waka. This phonogram also appears on in a Buddhist inscription preserved in the Gangōji Temple record, in the name of Suiko: 等已彌居加斯夜比彌乃彌己等 Toyo Mikasiya Pimye no Mikoto. It also appears in the rendition of the name of Shōtoku Taishi as preserved in an inscription said to have been written on the Hōryūji Tenjukoku mandala tapestry: 等已刀彌彌乃彌己等 Toyo Twomimi no Mikoto. This phonogram fell out of use, likely because of its grammatical use in classical Chinese syntax. One meaning of 已 is ‘only’ or ‘very.’

豫

預

OJ: yo OC: *lah LH: jah EMC: jiwoh GO: yo KN: yo NOM: dự SV: dư, dự, dụ, rư, rữ SK: ye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It is often abbreviated to 予. It appears early on in the name 伊豫 or 伊予 Iyo Province. Of the three examples of this phonogram in Kojiki, two transcribe Iyo, while the third is 豫母都志許賣 yomotusikomye ‘the ugly woman of Hades’ (KG). This phonogram is the primary graph used to transcribe yo in Nihon shoki, appearing 29 times in the poetry. NSK 10 伊莽波豫 ima pa yo We have now won! 伊莽波豫 ima pa yo For now we have won! 阿々時夜塢 aa si ya wo Fools! Serves you right! 伊莽儾而毛 imada ni mo Have the had enough, 阿誤豫 ago yo you, my troops? 伊莽儾而毛 imada ni mo Have the had enough, 阿誤豫 agwo yo you, my lads? This phonogram appears quite often in Man’yōshū, though it is frequently used to represent arakazime ‘in advance.’ It is also used for Iyo in many headnotes, but the phonogram used to transcribe yo actually only appears in one poem: MYS 322 極此疑 kogosi KAMO And you stood on Izaniwa Hill, 伊豫能高嶺乃 iyo no TAKANE no 射狭庭乃 IzaNIPA no a high peak in Iyo WOKA ni TATASITE that is rugged and steep.... 崗尓立而 OJ: yo LH: jaʔ NOM: dự, dựa

EMC: jiwoʔ SV: dự

530

OC: *laʔ GO: yo KN: yo SK: ye

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It is sometimes used to transcribe the toponym 伊預 Iyo in the Nara era. This phonogram appears in Nihon shoki, once in an annotational note and in three poems: 謠、此云宇哆預瀰 “ ‘song’ is read as uta yomi” (NSG). NSK 113 耶麻鵝播爾 yamagapa ni There are two mandarin ducks 烏志賦頴都威底 wosi putatu wite at the mountain stream, 陀虞毘預倶 tagupi yoku paired off so nicely. 陀虞陛屢伊慕乎 tagupyeru imo wo Who has taken my beloved 多例柯威爾雞武 tare ka winikyemu who paired off so well with me?

予 譽 世

吉

OJ: yo LH: jah NOM: dự Usage / History: See 豫 above.

OC: *lah EMC: jiwoh GO: yo KN: yo SV: dư, dự, dụ, rư, rữ SK: ye

OJ: yo OC: *la LH: ja EMC: jiwo GO: yo KN: yo NOM: dợ SV: dư, dự, du, rư SK: ye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears once in an annotational note in Nihon shoki: 湌 泉 之 竃 、 此 云 譽 母 都 俳 遇 比 “ ‘hearth of the underworld’ is read yomotu pegupi” (NSG). OJ: yo OC: *lhats LH: śas MC: śjäih GO: se KN: sei NOM: thá, thế, thé SV: thế SK: syey Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ yo ‘world, society.’ Nihon shoki preserves names such as 世襲足媛 YOSO TARASI PIMYE (NSG) and 瀛津世 襲 OKITU YOSO (NSG). This usage also appears in Man’yōshū, but primarily to transcribe TOKOYO. MYS 2885 As the night wore on 左夜深而 saYWO PUKETE IMWO wo OMOPIDE I recalled my beloved 妹乎念出 SIKITAPE NO and lamented so bitterly 布妙之 MAKURA mo SOYO ni that the spread out bedding, 枕毛衣世二 嘆鶴鴨 NAGEKITURU KAMO my pillow, shook. OJ: yo OC: *kit LH: kit EMC: kjit GO: kiti KN: kitu NOM: kiết, cát SV: cát SK: kil Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ yo ‘good, auspicious.’ In the Yamashiro Atago Census of 726 we find the name 吉刀自賣 which appears to represent 531

YOtwozimye, but also might be KITItwozimye. In Nihon shoki there are two names with this kungana: 鰐積吉事 WANI TUMI YOGOTO (NSG), and 菟田吉 穩 UDA [NO] YONABARI ‘Yonabari of Uda District’ (NSG). This kungana also appears in Man’yōshū a total of five times, but all transcribe Yonabari (吉隠, 吉名張 or 吉魚張). MYS 2190 WA GA KADWO NO The miscanthus at the gate 吾門之 ASADI IRODUKU of my house is in full color. 淺茅色就 吉魚張能 YONABARI no It seems that the autumn leaves 浪柴乃野之 NAMISIBA no NWO NO of the trees on Namishiba Plain MOMIDI TIRUrasi in Yonabari are scattering. 黄葉散良新

四

代

呼

OJ: yo OC: *sis LH: sis > sih EMC: sih GO: si KN: si NOM: tứ SV: tứ SK: so Usage / History: This kungana calls to mind OJ yo ‘four.’ This usage is only found in Man’yōshū, appearing five times. MYS 27 YOKI PITO no Good people of old took a good 淑人乃 YOSI TO YOKU MITE look at this place, 良跡吉見而 YOSI TO IPIsi saying it was good, Yoshino. 好常言師 芳野吉見与 YOSINWO YOKU MIyo You good people here, YOKI PITO YOKU MI take a good look at Yoshino. 良人四来三 OJ: yo OC: *lə̂kh LH: dəh EMC: dậih GO: dai KN: tai NOM: đời SV: đại SK: doy Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader the OJ word yo ‘reign or dynasty.’ This usage is only found in Man’yōshū, used twice. MYS 1461 PIRU PA SAKI The Albizia, the sleeping tree 晝者咲 YWORU PA KWOPWINURU whose flowers bloom in the day 夜者戀宿 and slumber at night. 合歡木花 NEBU NO PANA KIMI NOMWI MIME YA Shall only I gaze at it? 君耳将見哉 You view it also! 和氣佐倍尓見代 wake sape ni MIYO OJ: yo OC: *hâ or *hâh LH: ha, hah EMC: xuo, xuoh GO: ko KN: ko NOM: ho, hò, hô SV: hô SK: hwo Usage / History: This kungana is somewhat cryptic. There is only one example of this usage in Man’yōshū, so the proper interpretation is not completely clear. It seems that the graph 呼 ‘to call out’ is intended here, suggesting yo, a similar word used as a greeting in some forms of vulgar English.

532

MYS 723 常呼二跡 吾行莫國 小金門尓 物悲良尓 念有之 吾兒乃刀自緒 野干玉之 夜晝跡不言 念二思 吾身者痩奴 嘆丹師 袖左倍沾奴

齒

由

TOKOYO ni TO WA GA YUKANAKUNI WOKANATWO ni MONOGANASIra ni OMOPYERIsi A GA KWO no twozi WO NUBATAMA NO YWORU PIRU TO IPAZU OMOPU ni si A GA MWI PA YASEnu NAGEKU NI si SWODE sape NUREnu

OJ: yo LH: tśhəʔ EMC: tśhɨʔ NOM: xỉ, xỉa xẻ, xể SV: xỉ Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader the usage is found once in Man’yōshū. MYS 2773 SASU TAKE NO 刺竹 齒隠有 YOGOMORITE ARE WA GA SEKWO GA 吾背子之 WAGARISI KOZU 吾許不来者 ARE KWOPWIME YAMO 吾将戀八方

It is not as if I am going to the Eternal Land. Thinking about how you, my child, young lady, stood at the small metal gate with such a somber look— remembering you day and night, black as ink, I have lost weight. Because of my lamenting even my sleeves have become wet. OC: *k-hjəʔ GO: si KN: si SK: chi

OJ word yo of yopapi ‘age.’ This Hide within the joint of the bamboo stalk sticking out! If you, my beloved, had not come to my place would I have fallen in love?

OJ: yu OC: *ju LH: ju EMC: jiəu GO: yu KN: yuu NOM: dô, do, ro SV: du, do, ro SK: ywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the WS. It appears in Wei zhi in the toponym 優 由國 *ʔu-ju domain. This phonogram appears in early texts to transcribe the palace of Empress Suiko: 等由良宮 Toyura Palace and 等由羅宮 Toyura Palace. This phonogram appears three times in the liturgies: 持由麻波利仕奉禮 留幣帛乎、神主祝部等受賜弖 MOTIyumapari TUKAPEMATUreru MITEGURA wo KAMUNUSI PAPURIBYERA UKETAMAPARIte “…the offerings presented that have been purified are received and presented by the shrine officiators and the ritual officiators…” (NT 1). This phonogram appears on a number of mokkan: 阿由 ayu ‘trout’ (MK 190), 石川由恵万呂ISIKAPA Yuwemaro (MKK12:138), 知夫 利 郡 由 良 里 Tiburi District Yura Village (MKK 5:85), and 比 由 piyu ‘amaranth’ (MK 2214). This is also the only phonogram used in Kojiki to transcribe yu: 矛由氣 POKO yuke ‘squeeze (the handle) of his halberd....’ KK 15 多多那米弖 tatanamete Having proceeded through 伊那佐能夜麻能 inasa no yama no the trees on Mount Inasa 533

許能麻用母 ko no ma ywo mo where shields are arrayed, 伊由岐麻毛良比 iyuki mamworapi and fought our battles 多多加閇婆 tatakapeba while keeping watch, 和禮波夜惠奴 ware pa ya wenu how I am famished. 志麻都登理 simatu tori You birds of the island, ukapi ga tomo friend of the cormorants, 宇上加比賀登母 伊麻須氣爾許泥 ima suke ni kone come now to my rescue. This phonogram is quite prevalent in Nihon shoki, appearing in two annotational notes, and 13 times in the poetry: 靫、此云由岐 “ ‘quivers’ are called yuki” (NSG). NSK 46 于磨臂苔能 umapito no I tell you plainly, 多菟屢虚等太氐 taturu kotodate making a nobleman’s promise— 于磋由豆流 usayuduru she is only 多曳麼菟餓務珥 tayema tugamu ni a spare bowstring for the time 奈羅陪氐毛餓望 narabete mo ga mo when the one I have breaks. This is the main phonogram used to transcribe yu in Man’yōshū, appearing roughly 444 times. MYS 867 枳美可由伎 kimi ga yuki Long are the days 氣那我久奈理奴 ke nagaku narinu since you took your journey. 奈良遅那留 naradi naru The trees in the courtyard 志滿乃己太知母 sima no kodati mo along the Nara road 可牟佐飛仁家里 kamusapwinikyeri have taken on an antique air. This phonogram also appears in the Bussoku footprint poems: BSS 1 美阿止都久留 miato tukuru The resounding sound of 伊志乃比鼻伎波 isi no pibiki pa the rock where the footprints 阿米尓伊多利 ame ni itari are carved reaches to heaven; 都知佐閇由須礼 tuti sape yusure the earth even reverberates. 知々波々賀多米尓 titi papa ga tame ni for father and mother— 毛呂比止乃多米尓 moropito no tame ni for all people. The cursive form of this graph is the basis for hiragana ゆ, while an abbreviation of this graph results in katakana ユ.

喩

OJ: yu OC: *loh LH: joh EMC: jiuh GO: yu KN: yu NOM: dụ, giộ, nhủ SV: dụ, dũ, giụ SK: ywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This graph appears in Nihon shoki, in one annotational note, and 23 times in poetry: 老此云於喩 “ ‘elderly’ is read oyu” (NSG). NSK 128 阿箇悟馬能 akagwoma no The red horse hestitates 以喩企波々箇屢 iyuki pabakaru to move toward 麻矩儒播羅 makuzupara the true vine field.

534

奈爾能都底擧騰 nani no tutekoto Why send a message when you 多頴尼之曳鶏武 tada nisi yekyemu can just say it directly? This phonogram also appears once in Man’yōshū: MYS 894 阿麻能見虚喩 ama no MISWORA yu From the august, heavenly sky 阿麻賀氣利 amakakeri flying through the firmament MIWATASItamapi you look down upon us, 見渡多麻比 KOTO WOPARI having finished your assignment— 事畢

遊

OJ: yu OC: *ju LH: ju EMC: jiəu GO: yu KN: yuu NOM: du SV: du SK: ywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This phonogram appears in a name on one mokkan: 阿 斗 部 小 殿 万 呂 同 遊 万 呂 ‘AtwoBYE WOTONOmaro and Yumaro of the same surname’ (MKK 17:162). It appears in one name in Shoku Nihongi: 安遊麻呂 Ayu Maro. It appears in Izumo fudoki in 遊記山 Mount Yukwi. This phonogram appears only six times in Man’yōshū. MYS 111 INISIPYE ni Is it because the bird 古尓 KWOPUru TORI KAMO yearns for the past? 戀流鳥鴨 弓絃葉乃 YUDURUPA no It soars over the imperial well by the Yuzuriha tree, 三井能上従 MIWI no UPE YWORI NAKIWATARI yuku crying out as it flies by. 鳴濟遊久

油

OJ: yu OC: *ju LH: ju EMC: jiəu GO: yu KN: yuu NOM: dẫu, dầu, rầu SV: du, ru SK: ywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only once in Man’yōshū. MYS 4122 夜麻能多乎理尓 yama no tawori ni On the saddle of the mountain 許能見油流 kono MIyuru the white heavenly clouds 安麻能之良久母 ama no sirakumo that I see presently— 和多都美能 watatumi no please stretch out 於枳都美夜敝尓 okitu miyapye ni to the palace in the offing 多知和多里 tatiwatari of the deity of the sea, 等能具毛利安比弖 tonogumori apite cloud up the whole sky 安米母多麻波禰 ame mo tamapane and give us rain.

瑜

OJ: yu OC: *lo LH: jo EMC: jiu GO: yu KN: yu NOM: du SV: du SK: ywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to CBS. It appears only in Nihon shoki, appearing only once in the poetry.

535

NSK 88 飫瀰能古能 耶陛耶哿羅哿枳 瑜屢世登耶瀰古

踰 愈

臾 庾

omi no kwo no yapye ya karagaki yuruse to ya mikwo

The son of the Omi— do you, prince, demand entrance within my two-fold Kara fence?

OJ: yu OC: *lo LH: jo EMC: jiu GO: yu KN: yu NOM: NA SV: du SK: ywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears only in Nihon shoki, twice in annotational notes: 齋庭、此云踰貳波 “ ‘sacred rice paddy’ is read yunipa” (NSG), 齋忌、此云踰既 “ ‘sacred wine’ is read yukwi” (NSG). OJ: yu OC: *loʔ LH: joʔ EMC: jiuʔ GO: yu KN: yu NOM: rũ SV: dũ, rũ SK: ywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, but appears only in Nihon shoki, appearing once in the annotational notes and once in the poetry: 㞙、此云愈磨 理 “ ‘urine’ is read yumari” (NSG). NSK 83 伊儺武斯盧 inamusiro The willow growing along 呵簸泝比野儺擬 kapaswopi yanagwi the banks of the river bends 寐逗愈凱麼 midu yukeba with the flow of the water. 儺弭企於己陀智 nabiki okwitati Fluttering or standing tall 曾能泥播宇世儒 sono ne pa usezu the roots remain unchanged. The editors of the NKBT edition of Nihon shoki argue that the graph in the third stanza should be 喩, based on a number of texts, but they have followed the Kunaichō text. The editors of the Shōgakkan text have the poem as I have provided above, perhaps precisely because they have not used the Kunaichō text in their collation. This is a difficult textual issue, as the NKBT editors have relied on five different manuscripts here, while the Shōgakkan editors have consulted eight different manuscripts. For the time being I have followed the Shōgakkan editors. OJ: yu OC: *jo LH: jo EMC: jiu GO: yu KN: yu NOM: dua SV: du SK: ywu, ywong, kwe Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, but only appears in Nihon shoki, appearing once in an annotational note: 湯人、此云臾衞 “ ‘a woman in charge of the royal bath’ is read yuwe” (NSG). OJ: yu LH: joʔ NOM: NA

EMC: jiuʔ SV: dũ, rũ

536

OC: *joʔ GO: yu KN: yu SK: ywu

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and only appears in Nihon shoki, used in four different poems: NSK 119 耶麻古曳底 yama kwoyete Though I cross over mountains 于瀰倭柁留騰母 umi wataru tomo and traverse the ocean, 於母之樓枳 omosirwoki can I ever forget 伊麻紀能禹知播 imakwi no uti pa the pleasant land 倭須羅庾麻旨珥 wasurayumasizi that is Imaki?

弓

OJ: yu OC: *kwəŋ LH: kuŋ EMC: kjuŋ GO: kuu KN: kiu NOM: cung SV: cung SK: kwung Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader the OJ word yumi, which is sometimes shortened to yu ‘bow.’ It appears fairly early, appearing in the genealogy of Prince Shōtoku as preserved in Jōgū Shōtoku hōō teisetsu: 弓削王 Prince YUGE. It is also used for three names in Nihon shoki, the above mentioned Prince YUGE and 弓月君 YUTUKWI [NO] KIMI, who appears to be an immigrant from Paekche. The true reading of this name is thus in some doubt. This kungana also appears five times in Man’yōshū poetry. MYS 2353 My spouse whom I hid 長谷 PATUSE NO 弓槻下 YUDUKWI GA SITA NI at the base of the sacred KAKUSITARU TUMA zelkova tree in Hatsuse— 吾隠在妻 赤根刺 AKANE SASI under the moonlit night, TERERU TUKUYWO ni bright like the madder tree, 所光月夜邇 PITO MItemu KAMO perhaps someone has seen her? 人見點鴨

湯

OJ: yu OC: *lhâŋ LH: thaŋ EMC: thâŋ GO: tau KN: tau NOM: thang SV: thang, tháng SK: thang, syang Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the mind OJ yu ‘hot water.’ It appears in Kojiki in words like 湯津石村 YUTU IPAMURA ‘village of the sacred rock’ (or ‘group of sacred rocks,’ KG) and 湯津津間櫛 YUTU TUMA GUSI ‘a scared moonshaped comb’ (KG). This usage appears in Nihon shoki in words like 湯津爪櫛 YUTU TUMA GUSI ‘sacred moon-shaped comb’ (NSG), 湯山 Mount YU (NSG), 吾湯市村 AYUTI Village (NSG), and 湯津杜木 YUTU KATURA ‘a scared katsura tree’ (NSG). This usage appears 28 times in Man’yōshū. MYS 22 KAPA NO PE no On the sacred cluster of 河上乃 boulders upriver grass 湯津盤村二 YUTU IPAMURA ni

537

草武左受 常丹毛冀名 常處女煮手

用

KUSA musazu TUNE NImo GAMO NA TUNE WOTOMYE NITE

does not grow. I wish they could forever remain thus. Forever like a young maiden.

OJ: ywo OC: *loŋh LH: joŋh EMC: jiwoŋh GO: yuu KN: you NOM:, dùng, rụng SV: dụng SK: ywong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. The syllable ywo is quite rare in OJ, so there are few words or names that contain it, and this explains why such usages are difficult to find. The earliest datable example is from a wooden fragment dated 729 which reads 播磨國佐用郡 Parima Province Saywo District (MK 2080). Another undated fragment reads 播磨国佐用郡佐用郷江川里 Parima Province, Saywo District, Saywo Village YEGAPA Hamlet (MK 12655). In Kojiki 用 is the sole phonogram used to transcribe ywo: 久羅下那洲多 陀用幣琉之時 kuragye nasu tadaywopyeru NO TOKI ‘when (the land) floated back and forth on the water like a jellyfish...’ (KG); and 香用比賣 KAywo Pimye (KG). In the following poem this phonogram appears three times. KK 2 夜知富許能 yatipoko no The august deity 迦微能美許登波 kamwi no mikoto pa Yachi Hoko 夜斯麻久爾 yasimakuni could not marry a spouse 都麻麻岐迦泥弖 tuma makikanete in the land of eight islands. 登富登富斯 topotoposi Then he heard 故志能久迩迩 kwosi no kuni ni there was a wise maiden 佐加志賣遠 sakasimye wo in the far-off land 阿理登岐加志弖 ari to kikasite of Koshi. 久波志賣遠 kupasimye wo He heard there was 阿理登伎許志弖 ari to kikosite a beautiful maiden. 佐用婆比迩 saywobapi ni Off he hurriedly went 阿理多多斯 aritatasi to seek her hand in marriage. 用婆比迩 ywobapi ni He went back and forth 阿理迦用婆勢 arikaywopase seeking her hand in marriage. 多知賀遠母 tati ga wo mo Without even undoing 伊麻陀登加受弖 imada tokazute the belt of his sword— 淤須比遠母 osupi wo mo without taking off 伊麻陀登加泥婆 imada tokaneba his cloak 遠登賣能 wotomye no he pushed repeatedly 那須夜伊多斗遠 nasu ya itatwo wo on the door to 淤曾夫良比 osoburapi where the maiden slumbered. In Nihon shoki this phonogram is used once in the annotational notes, and six times in poetry: 睩、此云麻用弭枳 “ ‘eyebrows’ is read maywobiki” (NSG). The following exchange of poems revolves around the OJ word ywo ‘night.’ NSK 25 is a question, and the answer is given in NSK 26.

538

NSK 25 珥比麼利 nipibari How many nights have 菟玖波塢須擬氐 tukupa wo sugwite we spent since passing through 異玖用伽禰菟流 ikuywo ka neturu Niibari and Tsukuba? NSK 26 伽餓奈倍氐 kaganabete Counting the days— 用珥波虚々能用 ywo nipa kokono ywo nine nights have come and gone 比珥波苔塢伽塢 pi nipa towo ka wo and the sun has risen ten times. There are only 11 examples of this phonogram in Man’yōshū. MYS 217 AKIYAMA NO The beautiful maiden like 秋山 SITAPYEru IMWO the leaves of autumn mountains, 下部留妹 what did they think 奈用竹乃 naywo TAKE no 騰遠依子等者 towo YWORU KWORA PA those supple maidens, IKASAMA ni tender and delicate 何方尓 OMOPIWORE ka like young bamboo? 念居可

欲

容

OJ: ywo OC: *lok LH: jok EMC: jiwok GO: yoku KN: yoku NOM: dục SV: dục, rục SK: ywok Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Izumo fudoki in the following line: 阿用 郷。 本 字阿 欲 ‘The village of Aywo originally was rendered a-ywo.’ This phonogram also appears in Hitachi fudoki in the following poem: 都久波尼爾 tukubane ni On the Tsukuba Peak 伊保利弖 iporite I set up temporary lodging, 都麻奈志爾 tuma nasi ni and will it end up 和我尼牟欲呂波 wa ga nemu yworo pa being a night I spend alone 波夜母 paya mo without my spouse? 阿氣奴賀母 akenu kamo Daybreak, hurry and come. This phonogram is the primary graph used to transcribe ywo in Man’yōshū, appearing 171 times. MYS 822 和何則能尓 wa ga sono ni The plum blossoms 宇米能波奈知流 ume no pana tiru in my gardent are scattering. 比佐可多能 pisakata no Or is it that snow 阿米欲里由吉能 ame ywori yuki no is falling from the sky, 那何列久流加母 nagarekuru kamo the far-off sky? OJ: ywo OC: *loŋ LH: joŋ EMC: jiwoŋ GO: yuu KN: you NOM: dung, rong, rung SV: dung, dong SK: ywong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in Harima fudoki: 讚容郡 Saywo District. This phonogram also appears once in Man’yōshū:

539

MYS 883 於登爾吉岐 目爾波伊麻太見受 佐容比賣我 必禮布理伎等敷 吉民萬通良楊満

庸

𠰩

夜

oto ni kiki ME nipa imada MIzu saywo pimye ga pire puriki to pu kimi matura yama

I have heard the rumors but have not seen it yet— Mount ‘I-will-wait-for-you’ Mount Matsura where Princess Sayo waved her scarf.

OJ: ywo OC: *loŋ LH: joŋ EMC: jiwoŋ GO: yuu KN: you NOM: dong, dung SV: dong SK: ywong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Nihon shoki, used in two poems. NSK 18 一云 Another tradition says: 於朋耆妬庸利 opoki two ywori Occupying himself 于介伽卑氐 ukagapite with a princess, 許呂佐務苔 korosamu to he is unaware 須羅句塢志羅珥 suraku wo sirani that someone spies a chance 比賣那素寐須望 pimye na swobisu mo from the large gate to kill him. OJ: ywo OC: *loŋh LH: joŋh EMC: jiwoŋh LMC: jywŋ GO: yuu KN: you NOM: dọng, dùng, rùng SV: NA SK: NA Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears once in Kakyō hyōshiki in the phrase 己能𠰩 kono ywo ‘this night.’ OJ: ywo OC: *jah < *jakh LH: jah EMC: jiah GO: ya KN: ya NOM: dạ SV: dạ, rạ SK: ya, oik Usage / History: This kungana suggests to the reader OJ ywo ‘night.’ This usage appears in Nihon shoki in names like 月夜見尊 TUKWI YWOMI [NO] MIKOTO (NSG) and 火夜織命 PO [NO] YWORI [NO] MIKOTO (NSG). This usage also appears seven times in Man’yōshū. MYS 393 MIYEZU TOMO Even if it is not visible 不所見十方 孰不戀有米 TARE KWOPWIZARAme who does not yearn for it? YAMANO PA ni The moon hesitating to appear 山之末尓 射狭夜歴月乎 ISA YWOPU TUKWI wo over the edge of the mountains; YOSO NI MITE siKA To see it even from a distance. 外見而思香 This usage also appears in Izumo fudoki: 夜見嶋 YWOMI SIMA ‘Yomi Island.’ Also in Harima fudoki we find 五月夜郡 SAYWO District, and a person named 狹井連佐夜 SAWI [NO] MURAZI SaYWO.

540

Z 射

OJ: za OC: *m-lak or *m-lakh LH: źak, źah EMC: ʑiajk or ʑia GO: zia KN: sia NOM: xạ SV: xạ SK: syek, sya Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. It is used only once in the peninsular source material quoted in Nihon shoki: 任射岐山 nizaki [NO] MURE ‘Mount Nizaki.’ An apparently related example is 任存山. Compare the reconstructed phonology of the two: 射 LH źah EMC ʑia 存 LH dzən EMC dzwən If these two are representations of the same mountain, then this suggests two possibilities: Paekche made no distinction between a voiced fricative and a voiced affricate. Also Paekche may not have made a distinction between the vowels /a/ and /ə/. Another possibility is, like with Japanese, Chinese did not provide a complete one-to-one match of phonograms with Paekche phonology. It is also possible there is a difference in time between the two transcriptions, showing evolution in one of the two languages (Chinese versus Paekche), or both. This phonogram is used in the Buzen census of 702 in the name 阿射彌勝 Azami SUGURI. It also appears in the Atago register of 733: 袁射比賣 Woza Pimye. This phonogram also appears in Shoku Nihongi: 服 部 連佐 射 PATORI MURAZI Saza (though some read it saya, 698.91), 波多眞人余射 Pata MABITO Yoza (703.1.2), 与射女王 Princess Yoza (706.6.24), and 牟射志 Muzasi (765.5.20). This usage also appears in the imperial edicts recorded in Shoku Nihongi: 高天原神積坐須皇親神魯岐神魯弥命乃 定賜來流 天日嗣高御座次乎 加蘇毘奪將盜止爲而惡逆在奴久奈多夫礼。麻度比。奈良麻呂。古麻呂等伊 逆 黨 乎 伊 射 奈 比 率 而 先 内 相 家 乎 圍 而 其 乎 殺 而 TAKAMA [NO] PARA NI KAMUDUMARIMAsu SUMYERA GA MURU KAMUrwoki KAMUrwomi [NO] MIKOTO no SADAME TAMAPIKYEru AMATU PITUGI TAKAMIKURA [NO] TUGITE wo kaswopi UBAPI NUSUMAMU to SITE ASIKU SAKASIMA NI ARU YATUKWO kunatabure, madwopi, naramaro, kwomaroRA i SAKASIMA NI ARU TOMOGARA wo izanapi PIKITE MADU NAISAU [NO] IPYE wo KAKUMITE SO wo KOROSITE ‘They planned to steal the order of succession to the heavenly sun-succeeding throne that was established by the male and female deities who came from the high plain of heaven and who are the ancestors of our imperial ruler. Kunatabure, Madohi, Naramaro, Komaro, and others induced and led their wicked band, and first surrounded the house of the Interior Minister and killed him...’ (SM 19). This phonogram is the primary graph used in Man’yōshū to transcribe za. It appears in examples such as 加射之 kazasi ‘hair ornament’ (MYS 38), 伊射利 izari ‘catch fish’ (MYS 252), 左射礼浪 sazareNAMI ‘ripples’ (MYS 206, 3012), and 和射 waza ‘action, behavior’ (MYS 721, 2348, 2722). An example of this in a poem that is primarily in phonetic script is below. 541

MYS 3905 遊内乃 多努之吉庭尓 梅柳 乎理加謝思底婆 意毛比奈美可毛

邪

ASWOBU UTI no tanwosiki NIPA ni UMEYANAGWI

wori kazasiteba omopinami kamo

In the garden where our festivity is joyous, if we were to break off sprigs of the plum and willow to decorate our hair then we would leave no regrets.

OJ: za OC: *la or *ja LH: zia EMC: zia GO: zia KN: sia NOM: tà SV: tà SK: sya, ya Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, and appears mainly in Kojiki and Man’yōshū. The famous usage appears in the names of the procreation duo, Izanagi (伊邪那岐) and Izanami (伊邪那美). It appears in other names like 牟 邪臣 Muza OMI (KG), 春日之伊邪河宮 KASUGA NO IzaKAPA MIYA ‘the Kasuga Izakawa Palace’ (KG), and 袁邪本王 Prince Wozapo (KG). There is an interesting sentence stuffed into the mouth of Great King Ōjin, when he asks his two sons which is the dearer of two children, the older or the younger. Nintoku (Oposazaki) is quoted as saying the younger is dearer, at which point Ōjin says: 佐邪岐。阿藝之言如我所思 sazaki, agi NO KOTO ZO WA GA OMOPU GA GOTOKO NARU ‘Sazaki, your words are precisely what I have been thinking.’ KK 43 伊邪古杼母 iza kwodomo You children, 怒毘流都美迩 nwobiru tumi ni let us go pick wild leeks— 比流都美迩 piru tumi ni on the path that I travel 和賀由久美知能 wa ga yuku miti no to pick leeks 迦具波斯 kagupasi there was the fragrance 波那多知婆那波 pana tatibana pa of the blossoms of the orange. 本都延波 pwotuye pa In the upper branches birds have 登理韋賀良斯 tori wigarasi nested and scattered them. 志豆延波 siduye pa In the lower branches 比登登理賀良斯 pito torigarasi people have picked them. 美都具理能 mituguri no In the middle branches, 那迦都延能 nakatuye no as the middle of three chestnuts, 本都毛理 pwotumori there is a bud— 阿加良袁登賣袁 akara wotomye wo a ruby of a maiden. 伊邪佐佐婆 iza sasaba It would be well 余良斯那 yorasi na if you made her your own. It is interesting to note that 邪 only appears three times in Man’yōshū, all in Book 13. MYS 3226 The Hatsuse River 沙邪禮浪 sazare NAMI UKITE NAGARURU with the ripples 浮而流 that come floating down— 長谷河 PATUSEGAPA YORU BEKI ISWO NO how forlorn that there is no 可依礒之 NAKIGA SABUSISA beach for our boat to approach. 無蚊不怜也

542

奢

蔵

OJ: za OC: *lha LH: śa EMC: ɕia GO: sia KN: sia NOM: xa SV: xa SK: sya Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, and appears only in Kojiki. According to Ōno (1977:171–175), this phonogram is used a total of eight times in Kojiki to represent various toponyms and names. It also appears once in the poetry. The majority of examples of 奢 in Kojiki render the word iza ‘let’s do it’ (KG). There is also a somewhat obscure name 久比奢母智神 kupizamoti (KG). KK 38 伊奢阿藝 iza agi Come on, you fellows, 布流玖麻賀 purukuma ga rather than bear 伊多弖淤波受波 itate opazu pa the wounds from Furukuma, 迩本杼理能 nipodori no let us dive and hide 阿布美能宇美迩 apumi no umi ni in the sea of Afumi, 迦豆岐勢那和 kaduki senawa where the grebes are. OJ: za OC: *dzâŋ LH: dzɑŋ EMC: dzaŋ GO: zau KN: sau NOM: tàng SV: tàng SK: cang Usage / History: I place this graph in the LJS. While this was a somewhat popular phonogram, appearing in Nihon shoki, Man’yōshū, Shōsōin documents and others, it does not appear to have been an early usage. The earliest usage I can find is to represent the toponym 武蔵 Muza(si). Note that Kujiki’s list of provinces has Muzasi written as 旡邪志, making one believe the name evolved thus: mun-sasi > muzasi. This likely is an old Ainu place name, perhaps meaning ‘grass fortress’ (cf. Bentley 2006:369, n. 43). There is no reason to have 武蔵 represent the trisyllabic name muzasi, so it is logical to assume this is a type of abbreviation. An examination of the evidence preserved on wooden documents shows that almost all examples of this toponym from Nara era digs have the digraph 武蔵. Only one example that I have found has 武蔵志 muzasi (MKK 19:12). However, there is one possibility, a tablet excavated from the old Fujiwara Captial (fl. 694– 710), where a faint transcription seems to be 牟邪之 muzasi (MK 1238). This somewhat tenuous evidence suggests that the trisyllabic word was later represented by the digraph 武蔵, where 蔵 does not represent final -si, but suggests to the reader that it should be added. All but one example of 蔵 in Nihon shoki is used to represent muzasi. The single example appears in a poem: NSK 96 倭例以梨魔志 ware irimasi I went inside 阿都圖唎 atwo twori and held her leg, 都麼怒唎絁底 tumadworisite holding the edge of her hem, 魔倶囉圖唎 makura twori holding her pillow— 伊慕我堤嗚 imo ga te wo holding my spouse. 倭例儞魔柯斯毎 ware ni makasime I wrapped her hand 倭我堤嗚麼 wa ga te woba around my waist 543

伊慕儞魔柯絁毎 imo ni makasime and she my arm— 麼左棄逗囉 masakwidura wrapped it around her. 多々企阿藏播梨 tataki azapari And like a vine, 矢洎矩矢慮 sisikusiro we caressed, intertwined. There are eight examples of 蔵 in Man’yōshū, all representing 武 蔵 Muzashi.

社

謝

OJ: za OC: *daʔ LH: dźaʔ EMC: dʑia GO: zia KN: sia NOM: xã SV: xã SK: sya Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and was mainly used in toponyms and personal names. It appears twice in the annotational notes in Nihon shoki: 率川 此云伊社箇波 “ ‘Iza River’ is read izagapa” (NSG). This phonogram appears twice in Man’yōshū: MYS 880 阿麻社迦留 amazakaru Having lived five years 比奈尓伊都等世 pina ni itutose in the countryside, 周麻比都々 sumapitutu far from heaven, 美夜故能提夫利 miyakwo no teburi I have competely forgotten 和周良延尓家利 wasurayenikyeri the proper conduct of the capital. OJ: za OC: *s-lakh LH: ziah EMC: zia GO: zia KN: sia NOM: tạ SV: tạ SK: sya Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears in the imperial edicts of Shoku Nihongi: 天坐神地坐神乎 祈祷奉。挂畏遠我皇天皇御世始弖 拜仕奉利 衆 人 乎 伊 謝 奈 比 率 弖 AME [NI] MASU KAMWI KUNI [NI] MASU KAMWI wo INORIMATURI, KAKEMAKU [MO] KASIKWOKI TOPOSUMYERAGI [NO] MIYO [WO] PAZIMETte, WOROGAMI TUKAPEMATUri, MOROBITO wo izanapi PIKIWIte ‘We implore the deities that reside in the heavens and the deities that reside in the earth, and from the beginning of the successive reigns of the distant ancestors of the imperial rulers, whose names we reverence too much to speak, our ruler reveres and worships (the Buddha) and invites and leads the masses to (the construction of the Rashana Buddha)...’ (SM 13). This phonogram also appears once in a toponym in Shoku Nihongi: 丹後國 与謝郡 Tanigo Province Yoza District (776.8.28). This phonogram appears six times in Man’yōshū, five of which appear in the poetry. The single example outside of the poetry is the name: 譽謝女王 Princess Yoza (MYS 59). MYS 846 可須美多都 kasumi tatu Mist rises on this 那我岐波流卑乎 nagaki parupi wo long spring day— 可謝勢例杼 kazaseredo I have stuck a sprig of 伊野那都可子岐 iya natukasiki plum blossom in my hair, but 烏梅能波那可毛 ume no pana kamo how I long for those plums.

544

座

奘

裝

OJ: za OC: *dzôiʔ LH: dzuɑiʔ EMC: dzwa GO: za KN: sa NOM: toà SV: toà SK: cwa Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 434 加座皤夜能 kazapaya no The white azaleas on the coastline of 美保乃浦廻之 mipo no URAMWI NO SIRATUTUzi Miho with swift winds— 白管仕 MIREDOMO SABUSI I still feel empty, thinking of 見十方不怜 NAKI PITO OMOPEBA the person who is no longer here. 無人念者 OJ: za OC: *dzaŋh LH: dẓɑŋh EMC: tʂɨaŋ LMC: tʂa:ŋ GO: zau KN: sau NOM: NA SV: tảng SK: cang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. The phonogram 奘 only appears in Nihon shoki, appearing once in the annotational notes, and three times in the poetry. Beside these, it is mainly used in the names of the two procreating deities: 伊奘諾尊 izanaki [NO] MIKOTO and 伊奘冉尊 izanami [NO] MIKOTO (NSG). The annotational note is: 去來、此云伊奘 “ ‘Shall we?’ is read iza” (NSG). NSK 60 破夜歩佐波 payabusa pa The quick falcon 阿梅珥能朋利 ame ni nobori climbs into the sky 等弭箇慨梨 tobikakeri and soars overhead. 伊菟岐餓宇倍能 ituki ga upe no Dive down and capture the wren 裟奘岐等羅佐泥 kazaki torasane that is upon the sacred place. OJ: za OC: *dzaŋh LH: dẓɑŋh EMC: tʂɨaŋ LMC: tʂa:ŋ GO: siau KN: sau NOM: trang SV: trang SK: cang Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears three times in Nihon shoki poetry. NSK 28 烏智箇多能 wotikata no In the direction 阿邏々麻菟麼邏 arara matubara of the thinly wooded pine grove, 摩菟麼邏珥 matubara ni we will venture 和多利喩祇氐 watari yukite across that pine grove. 菟區喩彌珥 tukuyumi ni Using zelkova bows with 末利椰塢多具陪 mariya wo tagupe sounding arrowhead arrows, 宇摩比等破 umapito pa those of noble birth 于摩譬苔奴知野 umapito dwoti ya will fight with their own kind. 伊徒姑播茂 itwokwo pa mo Men with relatives 伊徒姑奴池 itwokwo dwoti will fight together. 伊裝阿波那 iza apana Commence the battle, 和例波 ware pa shall we? 545

多摩岐波屢 于池能阿層餓 波邏濃知波 異佐誤阿例椰 伊裝阿波那 和例波

蹔 是

筮

tamaki paru uti no aso ga paranuti pa isagwo are ya iza apana ware pa

Minister Uti, possessing a strong spirit, does not have a stomach made of pebbles. Commence the battle, shall we?

OJ: zami OC: NA LH: NA EMC: dzam GO: zamu KN: samu NOM: NA SV: tạm SK: cam Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears only in Nihon shoki in the toponym 和蹔 wazami. OJ: ze OC: *deʔ LH: dźeʔ EMC: źjeʔ GO: ze KN: se NOM: thị SV: thị SK: si Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It would appear that Kojiki may have been one of the first documents to make a distinction between se and ze, as the latter was fairly rare. Earlier writers likely felt that context made the distinction sufficiently clear. This graph appears four times in Kojiki. One example appears below: KK 51 知波夜比登 tipaya pito Very powerful those people 宇遲能和多理迩 udi no watari ni at the ferry of Uji 和多理是邇 watarize ni at the shallows of the river 多弖流 tateru where stands bow material: 阿豆佐由美麻由美 adusayumi mayumi the zelkova and catalpa trees. 伊岐良牟登 ikiramu to To cut down those trees 許許呂波母閇杼 kokoto pa mopedo I had thought in my heart— 伊斗良牟登 itworamu to to hold those trees 許許呂波母閇杼 kokoro pa modedo I had thought in my heart, 母登幣波 motope pa but at the base 岐美袁於母比傳 kimi wo omopide I recalled my Lord. This graph also appears 28 times in Man’yōshū: MYS 799 OPONWO YAMA Mist spreads out over 大野山 紀利多知和多流 kwiri tatiwataru the entire face of Mount Ōno. 和何那宜久 wa ga nageku Mist spreads out, 於伎蘇乃可是尓 okiswo no kaze carried by the wind from 紀利多知和多流 kwiri tatiwataru the breath of my lament. OJ: ze LH: dźas NOM: vầu

OC: *dats EMC: źjäih LMC: ʂɦiaj GO: ze KN: sei SV: phệ SK: sye

546

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This graph only appears in Nihon shoki poetry: NSK 8 伽牟伽筮能 kamukaze no On the large boulder 伊齊能于瀰能 ise no umi no by the sea of Ise, 於費異之珥夜 opoisi ni ya swept by divine winds— 異波臂茂等倍屢 ipapimotopori the sea snails crawl about: 之多儾瀰能 sitadami no the perwinkle.

噬

自

OJ: ze OC: *dats LH: dźas EMC: źjäih LMC: ʂɦiaj GO: ze KN: sei NOM: phệ, phè, thĩ SV: thệ SK: sye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears once in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 78 柯武柯噬能 kamukaze no By the divine-wind swept ocean 伊制能 ise no of Ise Province, 伊制能奴能 ise no nwo no on a plain in Ise, 娑柯曳嗚 sakaye wo a man cuts the branches 伊裒甫流柯枳底 ipo puru kakite that have grown so thickly. OJ: zi OC: *dzih LH: dzih EMC: dzi GO: zi KN: si NOM: tự, từ SV: tự SK: co Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the PBS. This phonogram appears on the Namsan stele, in what appears to be a fragment of a name: □自叱兮 *X-dzitshit-gəi. This phonogram also appears in several quotes from Paekche records preserved in Nihon shoki. Below are three examples of names or words from these Paekche quotes: 達率自斯 Tal-syu Zisi, 牟自毛礼 Muzi Mwore, 久須 尼自利 Kusu Neziri. This phonogram is also found in the Suiko era corpus, as these two examples show: 伊自牟良君 izimura KIMI Princess Ijimura (Jōgūki fragment), and 刀自 古 郎 女 twozikwo IRATUMYE Princess Tojiko (Shōtoku genealogy). This phonogram also appears on a number of excavated tablets: 下毛野国足利郡波 自可里鮎大贄一古参年十月廿二日 ‘On the twenty second day of the tenth month of the third year (703) one basket of trout was presented for the Great First Fruits Festival, from Pazika Village in ASIKAGA District of Lower KENWO Province’ (MK 3), 秦刀自女 PATA Twozimye (MK 858), and a fragment of text: 可奈□自阿佐□□己之乎□久利之自□理利□須利女 kanaXzi asa XXkosi wo Xkuri sizi X KOTOWAri XsuriMYE (MK 1111). My translation is based on assumptions according to the grammar, so the following rendition and translation are very tentative. Assumed readings are underlined: kanapazi asa podokosi wo kakuri sizi ni KOTOWARrite suriMYE… “I hid my unexpected morning performance, judging it profusely, and Surimye….” 547

This phonogram is also used in Kojiki, not in the poetry, but in place names which perhaps reflects an older usage: 伊自牟国造 izimu [NO] KUNI [NO] MIYATUKWO ‘Governor of Ijimu’ (KG), and 志自牟 sizimu, a man named Shijimu (KG). This phonogram is used fairly extensively in Man’yōshū to represent zi. MYS 849 能許利多留 nokoritaru The plum blossoms 由棄仁末自例留 yuki ni mazireru that have mingled with 宇梅能半奈 ume no pana the enduring snow— 半也久奈知利曽 payaku na tiri so Do not be in a hurry to scatter. 由吉波氣奴等勿 yuki pa kenu tomo Even if the snow should melt.

士

盡

OJ: zi OC: *dzrəʔ LH: dẓəʔ EMC: dʑɨ GO: zi KN: si NOM: sĩ, SV: sĩ SK: so Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS. It is used in Kojiki, representing the verb 根許士爾許士 nekozi ni kozi ‘pull up the root by the root’ (KG). An excavated bamboo tablet contains the following fragment dug up from the Fujiwara Palace (fl. 694–710): 十人刀士 TOWO [AMARI NO] PITO twozi ‘ten women folk’ (MK 6081). This phonogram appears in Nihon shoki in the word 牟 士 那 muzina ‘raccoon dog’ (NSG). The phonogram also appears twice in Nihon shoki poetry: NSK 58 菟藝泥赴 tuginepu This woman of 夜莽之呂謎能 yamasiromye no Yamashiro, thick with trees, 許玖波茂知 kokupa moti dug up a large radish 于智辭於朋泥 utisi opone with a wooden hoe. 泥士漏能 nezirwo no Those arms of hers, 辭漏多娜武枳 sirwotadamuki white like the large radish— 摩箇儒鷄麼虚曾 makazukyeba koso you could say you knew me not 辭羅儒等茂伊波梅 sirazu tomo ipame if we had never lay intertwined. This phonogram appears once in the edicts preserved in Shoku Nihongi: 所 思坐而我皇太上天皇大前尓恐古士物進退匍匐廻保理白賜比 WA GA OPOKIMI OPOKI SUMYERA MIKOTO [NO] OPOMAPYE ni KASIkwozi MONO SIZIMAPI PARABAPI MOTOpori MAWOSI TAMApi ‘We tremble in awe before our Queen Dowager, and advance and retire as if crawling on the ground, and ask of her…’ (SM 6). This phonogram likely fell out of use in the Nara era because of its prominent use in many Chinese titles: 博士 ‘doctor,’ 兵士 ‘soldier,’ and 右衛士 ‘palace guard of the right.’ OJ: zi OC: *dzinʔ LH: dzinʔ or dzinh EMC: dzin GO: zimu KN: sin NOM: tận, hết SV: tận SK: cin Usage / History: Examples of this phonogram used to write zi are quite rare, and as far as I can tell, only used to render one place name. Because of this, I tentatively place this 548

in the EJS, on the assumption that renderings of toponyms are resistant to change. Examples with the graph 盡 appear rarely in both Man’yōshū and Nihon shoki. All examples represent the place name puzi (Fuji) as 不盡.

茲 慈

時

仕

OJ: zi LH: tsiə EMC: tsɨ NOM: NA SV: ti, tư Usage / History: See the same phonogram under si.

OC: *tsə GO: si KN: si SK: co

OJ: zi OC: *dzə LH: dziə EMC: dzɨ GO: si KN: si NOM: từ SV: từ SK: co Usage / History: It is difficult to chronologically place this phonogram, but extant textual evidence leads me to place it in the LJS. The earliest examples of this graph appear in early Nara texts, for example the rendition of 久慈 kuzi ‘Kuji District’ appears in both Man’yōshū and other documents. Almost all extant examples of 慈 are used to write Kuji, which means this was a set spelling, and likely predates the late Asuka or early Nara eras. On this evidence it is tempting to place the graph in the EJS. There is also a personal name in Nihon shoki, 櫻井臣 和慈古 SAKURAWI OMI Wazikwo, which appears in the record of Jomei, and lends some evidence that this phonogram may date back to the EJS. With such little evidence it is difficult to date, so I tentatively place it in the LJS. OJ: zi OC: *də or *dəʔ LH: dźə EMC: dzɨ GO: zi KN: si NOM: thì, thìa, thời SV: thì, thời SK: si Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only in Man’yōshū, where it is used three times. MYS 997 SUMINOYE no Like the corbicula on 住吉乃 粉濱之四時美 KWOPAMA NO sizimi Kohama in Suminoe, AKE MO MIZU will I continue to yearn 開藻不見 KOMORITE NOMWI YA only in secret without 隠耳哉 KWOPWI WATARUnamu even opening up to you? 戀度南 OJ: zi OC: *dzrəʔ LH: dẓəʔ EMC: dzɨ GO: zi KN: si NOM: sĩ SV: sĩ SK: so Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only in Man’yōshū, where it is used three times. MYS 434 加座皤夜能 kazapaya no The white azaleas on the coastline of 美保乃浦廻之 mipo no URAMWI NO 549

白管仕 見十方不怜 無人念者

寺 珥

茸 餌

SIRATUTUzi MIREDOMO SABUSI NAKI PITO OMOPEBA

OJ: zi LH: ziəh EMC: zɨ LMC: sɦʑ NOM: chùa SV: tự Usage / History: See the same phonogram under si.

Miho with swift winds— I still feel empty, thinking of the person who is no longer here. OC: *s-ləh GO: zi KN: si SK: so, si

OJ: zi OC: *nəh LH: ńəh EMC: ɲɨ LMC: riˋ GO: ni KN: zi NOM: nhẹ SV: nhị SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears five times in the poetry of Nihon shoki. NSK 124 于知波志能 utipasi no Come out, child 都梅能阿素弭爾 tume no aswobi ni to play at the edge of 伊提麻栖古 idemase kwo the plank bridge. 多麻提能伊鞞能 tamade no ipye no Mistress Yaheko of 野鞞古能度珥 yapyekwo no twozi the Tamade House. 伊提麻志能 idemasi no There will be no regrets 倶伊播阿羅珥茹 kui pa arazi zo if you come out. 伊提麻西古 idemase kwo Come out, child— 多麻提能鞞能 tamade no ipye no Mistress Yaheko of 野鞞古能度珥 yapyekwo no twozi the Tamade House. OJ: zi OC: *noŋ LH: ńoŋ EMC: ɲuawŋ LMC: rywŋ GO: niou KN: ziou NOM: nhung SV: nhung SK: ywong Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears only twice in Nihon shoki, both times in the annotational notes: 不負於族此云宇我邏磨悶茸 “ ‘I will not lose to a relative’ is read ugara makezi” (NSG), 梔此云波茸 “ ‘Wax tree’ is read pazi” (NSG). OJ: zi OC: *nəh LH: ńəh EMC: ɲɨ LMC: riˋ GO: ni KN: zi NOM: NA SV: nhĩ, nhị SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears three times in Nihon shoki. Two examples from annotational notes are: 手抉此云多衢餌離 “ ‘Hand-scoop’ is read takuziri” (NSG), 倉下此云衢羅餌 “The name 倉下 is read kurazi” (NSG). There is one example in the poetry:

550

NSK 14 瀰都瀰都志 倶梅能故邏餓 介耆茂等珥 宇惠志破餌介瀰 句致弭比倶 和例破涴輸例儒 于智弖之夜莽務

耳

貳

兒

mitumitusi kume no kwora ga kakimoto ni uwesi pazikami kuti pipiku ware pa wasurezu utitesi yamamu

You, the intrepid sons of the Kume— ginger is growing under the fence of our land. As I will not forget the sharp taste of that ginger we will utterly smite the enemy.

OJ: zi OC: *nəʔ LH: ńəʔ EMC: ɲɨ LMC: riˋ GO: ni KN: zi NOM: nhải, nhãi, nhĩ SV: nhĩ SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS. It appears once in the poetry in Nihon shoki: NSK 90 飫裒枳瀰能 opokimi no Though the great lord 耶陛能矩瀰哿枳 yapye no kumikaki desires to weave together 哿々梅騰謀 kakamedomo a multi-layer fence of branches, 儺鳴阿摩之耳彌 na wo amasizimi you will not weave the branches 哿々農倶彌柯枳 kakanu kumikaki and there will be no fence. The proper interpretation of the above stanza is in doubt, because amasizimi is of unknown meaning. Some scholars wonder if this is word is a form derived ultimately from arumasizimi, with -r-loss that often occurs before a high vowel giving amasizimi. If that interpretation is correct, then the meaning would be ‘you should not be here.’ I have tentatively interpreted this as a form of amu ‘to weave.’ OJ: zi OC: *nis or *nih LH: ńis or ńih EMC: ɲi LMC: riˋ GO: ni KN: zi NOM: nhẹ, nhì, SV: nhị SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to CBS. It appears once in Nihon shoki poetry: NSK 95 婀嗚儞與志 awo ni yosi In the valley of 乃樂能婆娑摩儞 nara no pasama ni the blue hills of Nara, 斯々貳暮能 sisizi mono like beasts of prey, he lies 瀰豆矩陛御暮梨 miduku pyegomori hidden by the banks— 瀰儺曾々矩 mina sosoku a large catch of tuna, 思寐能和倶吾嗚 sibi no wakugwo wo the young man, Shibi. 阿娑理逗那偉能古 asaridunawi no kwo Boars, do not try to find him! OJ: zi LH: ńe NOM: nhi

EMC: ɲiə LMC: ri SV: nhi

551

OC: *nje GO: ni, gei KN: zi SK: yey, o

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears only once in Nihon shok, in the poetry: NSK 125 多致播那播 tatibana pa The fruit of the orange tree 於能我曳多々々 ono ga yeda yeda grows each on its own branch, 那例々騰母 nareredomo but when these are strung 陀麻爾農矩騰岐 tama ni nuk toki together as jewels they are 於野兒弘儞農倶 oyazi wo ni nuku strung on the same cord. It should be mentioned that Nom preserves an older reading of nhè with the graph 唲, thus underscoring the reading of gei and the Later Han reading of ńe.

爾

下

深

OJ: zi OC: *neʔ LH: ńeʔ EMC: ɲiə LMC: riˊ GO: ni KN: zi NOM: nhải, nhãi SV: nhĩ SK: i Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, and appears only once in Nihon shoki, in the annotational notes. I group this in the CBS because 爾 is one of the main graphs used to transcribe ni (see 爾 under ni). Thus, this graph transcribes zi because of a later change in Chinese phonology. Consider the sole example in Shoki: 立 於浮 渚在 平處此 云羽 企爾 磨梨 陁毘 邏而 陁陁 志 “The graphs ‘standing on the flat area of the flowing island’ are read ukizima ri tapira ni tatasi” (NSG). Thus, ‘on the floating island’ is written 羽 企爾磨梨 and represents uki ‘floating’ zima ‘island’ (a)ri ‘to be.’ OJ: zi OC: *ɡrâʔ LH: ɡaʔ EMC: ɣaɨ > ɣɛ: GO: ge KN: ka NOM: hạ SV: há, hạ SK: ha Usage / History: The usage of this character to represent OJ zi is very interesting. Clearly this usage has nothing to do with the underlying phonetics of the graph, because the graph transcribes a voiced fricative, but the Chinese has a velar. Thus, I conclude that this is a kungana. This graph must represent OJ si ‘down, below.’ Because the examples with 下 always undergo sequential voicing, the rendition is always zi. The best example of 下 for zi is in the name 高倉下 TAKA KURAZI. Perhaps because the compilers thought the reading was somewhat counterintuitive, a gloss was added: 衢羅餌 kurazi. OJ: zimi OC: *nhəm LH: tśim or śim EMC: ɕim GO: simu KN: simu NOM: thẳm, thằm SV: thâm SK: sim Usage / History: The usage of this phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears only Harima fudoki in the toponym 志深 sizimi Shijimi.

552

甚 敍

存

OJ: zimi OC: *dəmʔ or *dəms LH: dźimʔ or dźimh EMC: dʑim GO: zimu KN: simu NOM: thậm SV: thầm SK: sim Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears in the toponym 伊甚 izimi Ijimi, word appearing four times in Nihon shoki, and several times also in Kujiki. OJ: zo OC: *s-laʔ LH: ziɑʔ EMC: zjwoʔ GO: zio KN: sio NOM: tự SV: tự SK: sye Usage / History: This is one of the few phonograms for zo, the voiced counterpart of so. It would appear from the available data that originally the early scribes did not make an attempt to represent the prenasalized counterpart. This may have been because the prenasalized fricative was rare. This phonogram belongs to the EJS. Consider the following examples from Kojiki: KK 44 美豆多麻流 midutamaru Those who pound the stakes 余佐美能伊氣能 yosami no ike no into the dike at Yosami Pond 韋具比宇知 wigupi uti where water is dammed up 比斯賀良能 pisigara no do not know that someone else 佐斯祁流斯良迩 sasikyeru sirani has already stucks stakes in. 奴那波久理 nunapa kuri Those who gather pond rope 波閇祁久斯良迩 papekyeku sirani do not know others have taken it. 和賀許許呂志敍 wa ga kokoro zo It is my own heart 伊夜袁許迩斯弖 iya woko ni site that has been so foolish. 伊麻敍久夜斯岐 ima zo kuyasiki Now I am irritated. This phonogram appears once in the poetry of Nihon shoki: NSK 38 彌知能之利 miti no siri This maiden from 古波儾塢等綿 kwopada wotomye Kohada behind the road 阿羅素破儒 araswopazu is wonderful, 泥辞区塢之敍 nesiku wo si zo for she has lain with me 于蘆波辭彌茂布 urupasimi mopu offering no resistance. All five examples of 敍 in Man’yōshū represent the emphatic particle zo: MYS 219 SWORA KAZWOPU Counting in my head 天數 OPOTU NO KWO GA I vaguely looked at the maiden 凡津子之 APISI PI NI from the indefinite port 相日 於保尓見敷者 opo ni MISIKU PA on the day we met, IMA zo KUYASIKI but now, how vexing it is. 今敍悔 OJ: zo LH: dzən NOM: tồn

EMC: dzwən SV: tồn

553

OC: *dzə̂n GO: zomu KN: son SK: cwon

Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, and appears once in Kojiki: KK 78 阿志比紀能 asipikwi no Weary from climbing 夜麻陀袁豆久理 yamada wo tukuri I cultivated mountain land. 夜麻陀加美 yamadakami The mountain being high 斯多備袁和志勢 sitabwi wo wasise I buried irrigation pipes. 志多杼比爾 sitadopi ni Buried, I snuck to see 和賀登布伊毛袁 wa ga topu imwo wo my beloved who asked of me. 斯多那岐爾 sita naki ni Thus I cry to myself. 和賀那久都麻袁 wa ga naku tuma wo I weep for my spouse— 許存許曾波 kozo koso pa it will be tonight 夜須久波陀布禮 yasuku pada pure that I will gently touch her skin.

賊 序

OJ: zo OC: *dzə̂k LH: dzək EMC: dzek LMC: tsɦəăk GO: zoku KN: soku NOM: tặc SV: tặc SK: cuk, cek Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 150 A GA KWOPURU My lord who I long for, 吾戀 KIMI so kizo no YWO you visited me 君曽伎賊乃夜 IME NI MIYETURU last night in a dream. 夢所見鶴 OJ: zo OC: s-laʔ LH: ziɑʔ EMC: zjwoʔ LMC: sɦiə GO: zio KN: sio NOM: tựa SV: tự SK: sye Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears once in the poetry of Nihon shoki, and eight times in Man’yōshū. NSK 50 阿佐豆磨能 asaduma no It is good, however, 避介能烏瑳介烏 pika no wosaka wo to have a companion 介多那耆珥 katanaki ni when one is sobbing deeply 瀰致喩區茂能茂 miti yuku mono mo as she walks along Hika Knoll 多遇譬氐序豫枳 tagupite zo yoki in Asazuma. Interestingly all examples of 序 in Man’yōshū are confined to Books 10, 11, 12, and 13. MYS 2019 INISIPYE YU A year has come and gone 自古 擧而之服 AGETESI PATA MO and I did not even look back KAPYERIMIZU at the loom that was set up 不顧 AMA NO KAPADU ni from long ago. I have been here 天河津尓 TOSI zo PENIKYERU at the port to the river of heaven. 年序經去来

554

鋤

鐏

茹

受

OJ: zo OC: *dzra LH: dẓɑ EMC: dẓjwo LMC: tʂɦuə GO: zio KN: sio NOM: sừ, xừ SV: sừ SK: cwo Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears once in the poetry in Nihon shoki: NSK 70 於裒企彌烏 opokimi wo They exiled the great ruler 志摩珥波夫利 sima ni paburi to a distant island. 布儺阿摩利 punaamari The boat will be full, 異餓幣利去牟鋤 igapyeri komu zo and she will return to me. 和餓哆々瀰由梅 wa ga tatami yume So purify all the mats. 去等烏許曾 koto wo koso ‘The mats’ are my words, 哆多瀰等異泮梅 tatami to ipame but that is not what I meant. 和餓菟摩烏由梅 wa ga tuma wo yume Stay clean and pure, my spouse. OJ: zo OC: dzûns LH: dzuənh EMC: dzwənh LMC: tsɦun GO: zon KN: son NOM: NA SV: tốn SK: cwun Usage / History: This phonogram should belong to the LJS, as it only appears in Nihon shoki, but as it clearly represents zo. It only appears once in the poetry of Shoki. NSK 69 和餓儺勾菟摩 wa ga naku tuma I cry for my spouse. 去鐏去曾 kozo koso It was last night 椰主區泮娜布例 yasuku pada pure that our flesh calmly touched. OJ: zo OC: *naʔ or *nah LH: ńɑʔ or ńɑh EMC: ńźjwo LMC: riə GO: nio KN: zio NOM: nhự,, nhà, nhựa SV: như, nhự, nhữ SK: ye Usage / History: This graph belongs to the CBS. It appears twice in the poetry of Nihon shoki poetry. Below is one example: NSK 89 飫裒陁㨖嗚 opotati wo Though I stand here 多黎播枳多㨖氐 tarepakitatite girded with a large sword, 農哿儒登慕 nukazu tomo I intend to fulfill 須衞娑陀志氐謀 suwe patasite mo my desire and meet her— 阿波夢登茹於謀賦 apamu to zo omopu without drawing my sword. OJ: zu OC: *duʔ LH: dźuʔ EMC: źjəu GO: ziu KN: siu NOM: thụ SV: thọ, thụ SK: sywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the EJS, and is the oldest known phonogram used to represent OJ zu. The phonogram is used in Kojiki, as the following examples illustrate: 天宇受売 the deity AME Uzumye, 伊須受能宮 isuzu no MIYA 555

‘Isuzu Palace,’ and 美夜受比売 Miyazu Pimye. It also appears in the following song: KK 37 波麻都知登理 pamatutidori Plovers of the beach 波麻用波由迦受 pama ywo pa yukazu do not travel from the beach. 伊蘇豆多布 iswodutapu They send from the rocky shore. This phonogram is also used in Nihon shoki and Man’yōshū. In Nihon shoki, the phonogram 受 is used only once in the annotational notes, and twice in the poetry: 假庪 此云佐受枳 “ ‘Cupboard’ is read sazuki” (NSG). NSK 66 佐瑳羅餓多 sasaragata Undo the string with 邇之枳能臂毛弘 nisiki no pimwo wo the bamboo whisk design— 等枳舍氣帝 tokisakyete that brocade string. 阿麻多絆泥受邇 amata pa nezu ni I cannot spend many nights; 多儾比等用能未 tada pitoywo nomwi let us spend but one night. The phonogram 受 is the main graph used to render OJ zu in Man’yōshū, appearing roughly 200 times in the anthology. MYS 22 KAPA NO PE no On the sacred cluster of 河上乃 boulders upriver grass 湯津盤村二 YUTU IPAMURA ni KUSA musazu does not grow. I wish they 草武左受 TUNE NImo GAMO NA could forever remain thus. 常丹毛冀名 TUNE WOTOMYE NITE Forever like a young maiden. 常處女煮手

授

殊

OJ: zu OC: *duh LH: dźuh EMC: źjəuh GO: ziu KN: siu NOM: thụ, thò SV: thọ, thụ SK: sywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and is used once in Man’yōshū. MYS 4130 波利夫久路 paribukurwo While I continue to wear 應婢都々氣奈我良 obitutukyenagara the bag of needles and 佐刀其等邇 satwogoto ni have walked from village to 天良佐比安流氣騰 terasapi arukyedo village flashing it as I go 比等毛登賀米授 pito mo togamezu not a person has criticized me. OJ: zu OC: *do LH: dźo EMC: źju GO: ziu KN: siu NOM: thùa SV: thù SK: sywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. It appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 864 於久礼為天 okure wite Rather than being left behind 那我古飛世殊波 nagakwopwi sezu pa with a long yearning, 弥曽能不乃 misonopu no how I would like 于梅能波奈尓忘 ume no pana nimo to be even a plum blossom 奈良麻之母能乎 naramasi mono wo in the august garden. 556

聚

儒

孺

俗

OJ: zu OC: *dzoʔ, *dzoh LH: dzioʔ, dzioh EMC: dzjuʔ, dzjuh GO: ziu KN: siu NOM: tụ SV: tụ SK: chywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS, and appears once in Man’yōshū. MYS 3229 When I look at the hair decoration 五十串立 IGUSI TATE MIWA SUWEMATURU of the Shintō priest who sets up 神酒座奉 PAPURIBYE GA the holy skewer, and prepares 神主部之 and presents the holy wine, 雲聚玉蔭 uzu TAMAKAGE MIREBA TOMOSImo how my heart is drawn to him. 見者乏文 OJ: zu OC: *no LH: ńo EMC: ńźju LMC: ryə GO: niu KN: ziu NOM: nho, nhô, nhua SV: nho, nhu SK: ywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS, used in Nihon shoki. This graph appears 17 times in the poetry. Below is one example. NSK 89 飫裒陁㨖嗚 opotati wo Though I stand here 多黎播枳多治氐 tarepakitatite girded with a large sword, 農哿儒登慕 nukazu tomo I intend to fulfill 須衞娑陀志氐謀 suwe patasite mo my desire and meet her— 阿波夢登茹於謀賦 apamu tozo omopu without drawing my sword. OJ: zu OC: *noh LH: ńoh EMC: ńźjuh LMC: ryə GO: niu KN: ziu NOM: nhú, nhọ SV: nhụ SK: ywu Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the CBS and only appears in Nihon shoki. It appears twice in the annotational notes, and 12 times in the poetry: 髻花、此云 于孺 “ ‘hair flowers (as ornaments)’ are known as uzu” (NSG). NSK 111 烏麼野始儞 wobayasi ni Pulling me into the grove 倭例烏比岐例底 ware wo pikirete I know not which person 制始比騰能 sesi pito no did it to me— 於謀提母始羅孺 omote mo sirazu I know not the face, 伊弊母始羅孺母 ipye mo sirazu mo nor even his home. OJ: zwo OC: *s-lok LH: ziok EMC: zjwok GO: zoku KN: sioku NOM: tục, thói SV: tục SK: sywok Usage / History: This phonogram belongs to the LJS. This is the only clear usage for zwo in the ancient Japanese corpus. It is interesting that neither Kojiki nor Nihon shoki have any clear examples of zwo. Rather than claim that this prenasalized syllable

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did not exist in early Old Japanese, it is perhaps better to claim that it was rare, and the voiceless counterpart was multitasked. One example of this phonogram is found in Man’yōshū: MYS 890 IDEte yukisi While counting the days 出弖由伎斯 PI wo kazwope tutu since I left home, 日乎可俗閇都都 家布々々等 kyepu kyepu to today, it will be today! 阿袁麻多周良武 a wo matasuramu father and mother say 知々波々良波母 titi papara pa mo who are surely waiting for me.

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CHART OF PHONOGRAMS AND WHERE EACH APPEARS The top row is a list of sources, arranged chronologically. The left column is each phonogram, arranged alphabetically. WS

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A 阿 安 婀 鞅 吾 足 嗚呼 AGA 英 AKU 惡 AMA 菴 奄 AMU 闇 APA 鴨 API 姶 AYU 愛 BA 婆 伐 麼 魔 磨 薄 BE 倍 陪 毎 BI 鼻 毘 婢

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彌 寐 弭 妣

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BO 煩

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BU 夫 扶 部 父 府 歩 矛 符 鶩 蜂音 BWI 備 媚 眉 縻 BYE 婢 謎 部 DA 大 太 陁 騨 娜 嚢 儴 DAMI 談 DANI 騨 DE 傳 殿 代 堤 提

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低 田 弟 泥 埿 涅 耐

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DI 遲 治 地 尼 泥 旎 膩 道 路

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縢 杼 藤 特 耐 迺

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頭 豆 逗 圖 弩 砮 DUMI 曇 DWO 土 度 渡 奴 怒 E 衣 愛 亞 依

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WS 哀 埃 榎 荏 得 朴 可愛 GA 我 奇 宜 賀 何 河 蛾 餓 峨 俄 鵝 GE 義 宜 礙 碍 㝵

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皚 GI 祇 藝 儀 蟻 𡺸

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GO 其 期 碁 凝 語 馭 御

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GU 具 吾 遇

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WS 愚 娯 求 隅 愚 虞 GURI 群 GWI 疑 宜 義 擬 GWO 吾 胡 候 後 虞 誤 呉 悟 GYE 下 牙 介 雅 夏 霓 I 伊 夷 移 已 異 以 怡 易 射 五 膽 馬聲 INA 因

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563

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ITI 壹

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加 居 迦 奇 可 訶 哥 介 哿 珂 箇 嘉 架 伽 賀 河 舸 柯 軻 香 髪 蚊 鹿 芳 歟 KAGU 芳 KAGO 香 KAKU 各 覺 KAMU 甘 含 敢

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564

WS KANA 閑 KANI 干 漢 KAPA 甲 KAPI 合 KARA 韓 KATU 葛 KAWA 考 KE 居 既 希 擧 氣 戒 開 該 慨 概 凱 愷 階 毛 食 飼 消 笥 KI 支 耆 岐 吉 枳 棄 伎 企 祇

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565

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WS 祁 來 寸 杵 KITI 吉 KO 己 許 既 去 巨 居 虚 忌 擧 莒 據 渠 木 KOGO 興 極 KOMU 今 金 感 紺 KONO 近 KOTI 乞 KU 久 跪 垝 苦 句 玖 口 群 丘 九 鳩

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566

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WS 孔 倶 區 矩 絇 寠 衢 屨 來 KUGU 功 KUKU 菊 鞠 KUNI 君 訓 KUTA 忽 KUTU 骨 KWI 鬼 貴 歸 紀 幾 奇 記 寄 綺 騎 機 基 己 既 氣 木 城 黄 樹 KWO 古 觚

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567

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WS 高 固 故 庫 祜 枯 姑 孤 顧 子 兒 小 籠 粉 KYE 奚 祁 家 計 鷄 介 谿 價 賈 結 係 稽 啓 異 KYEMU 兼 監 險 MA 馬 麻 末 昧 滿 莫 明 磨 萬 摩

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568

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WS 麼 魔 莽 間 目 信 鬼 眞 喚犬 MAGA 望 MAKU 幕 ME 米 梅 迷 昧 毎 妹 目 眼 海藻 MI 彌 美 瀰 民 弭 寐 湄 三 御 見 水 參 視 MINU 敏 MO 母 文 梅 茂

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569

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WS 望 暮 慕 莽 謀 墓 悶 聞 忘 蒙 門 問 勿 畝 物 裳 藻 喪 哭 裙 MOKU 木 MOTO 没 MU 牟 武 模 無 務 霧 夢 謀 鵡 儛 六 身 牛鳴 MUKU 目 MWI 未 味 微

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570

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WS 尾 身 實 箕 MWITU 密 MWO 模 謨 毛 MYE 賣 咩 馬 面 迷 謎 綿 明 女 婦 NA 奴 那 難 乃 奈 儺 娜 寧 名 魚 中 菜 七 莫 NAGI 嚢 NAKI 諾 NAME 南 NAMI 冉

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571

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BSS MYS

NE 尼 禰 泥 埿 年 涅 根 嶺 NEMU 念 NI 爾 貳 仁 邇 尼 日 而 耳 珥 儞 丹 荷 煮 似 土 瓊 NIPU 入 NO 乃 能 廼 笶 荷 箆 NU 柔 蕤 奴 怒 努 弩

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572

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WS 農 濃 沼 宿 寐 渟 NUNI 潤 NWO 奴 努 怒 弩 野 O 意 於 淤 飫 憶 應 隠 OMI 音 ONO 磤 OPA 邑 OTO 乙 PA 巴 伴 半 叵 波 播 幡 破 方 芳 八 判 胖

PBS

NT

SSI

KJK

MK ○

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NS ○ ○

SM

SNG

FK

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BSS MYS ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

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573

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WS 簸 泮 絆 婆 房 薄 泊 盤 皤 羽 齒 葉 者 PAKA 博 伯 PAPU 法 PE 閉 拜 倍 陪 背 杯 俳 沛 珮 戸 綜 經 甕 缻 PI 卑 比 必 賓 臂 避 毘 譬 嬪 日

PBS

NT

SSI

KJK

MK

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NS ○ ○ ○ ○

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SM

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SNG

FK

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BSS MYS

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574

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WS

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檜 氷

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BSS MYS ○ ○

PO 富 費 番 蕃 方 朋 倍 陪 裒 袍 火 焰 帆 POMU 品 POPO 法 PU 不 夫 服 布 甫 賦 福 否 敷 府 赴 富 負 符 浮 輔 經 歴 乾 PUGE 鳳 PUNI 粉

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575

WS PUTI 弗 PWI 皮 非 斐 肥 飛 悲 彼 祕 妃 被 火 樋 乾 干 簸 熯 PWO 菩 本 布 保 寳 譜 報 褒 防 抱 袍 穂 百 福 凡 PYE 俾 邊 反 返 遍 辧 平 覇

PBS

NT

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SM

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NS

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FK

BSS MYS

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SNG

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576

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WS 敝 幣 蔽 陛 鼙 鞞 重 隔 PYEKI 伯 PYENI 篇 RA 羅 邏 良 浪 郎 廊 莨 囉 攞 𡤢 𧟌 RAKU 樂 落 RAMU 覽 藍 濫 RAPU 臘 RE 例 禮 連 列 烈 戻 黎 REMU 廉

PBS

NT

SSI

KJK

MK

NS

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FK

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BSS MYS ○ ○

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577

WS

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NT

SSI

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KJK

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BSS MYS

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RI 利 離 理 里 隣 唎 梨 釐

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RO 慮 里 呂 侶 閭 勒 廬 稜 ROGI 綾 RU 流 留 琉 屢 漏 樓 婁 蘆 盧 類 RWO 路 盧 鹵 魯 婁 漏 樓 露 RWOKU 六 SA 沙

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578

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WS 佐 左 差 娑 柴 舎 作 者 紗 草 瑳 磋 狹 猿 羅 SAGA 相 SAGU 倉 SAKA 積 尺 釋 SAKI 跡 SAMA 參 SAMU 三 SANI 散 SANO 戔 贊 讚 SAPA 雜 SAPI 匝 SAPU 颯 SATI 薩 刷

PBS ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

NT ○ ○

SSI ○ ○

KJK ○ ○

MK ○

NS ○ ○ ○ ○

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SM ○ ○

SNG ○ ○

FK ○ ○

BSS MYS ○ ○ ○

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579

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WS SAWA 早 草 SAYO 最 SE 斯 齊 西 洒 施 勢 世 制 細 栖 是 劑 瀬 湍 背 脊 迫 石花 SEMI 瞻 SI 斯 資 次 子 之 尸 師 新 思 四 司 志 紫 芝 詩 旨 寺

PBS

NT

SSI

KJK

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MK

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SNG

FK

BSS MYS

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580

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WS 指 死 此 時 偲 信 詞 嗣 辭 試 璽 始 伺 自 施 絁 茲 矢 洎 爲 磯 羊蹄 SIGU 鍾 鐘 SIKA 餝 色 SIKI 式 拭 SIKU 叔 SIPI 襲 SITI 質 SITU 漆 SO 曾 思 所 增

PBS

NT

SSI

KJK

MK

NS ○

SM

SNG

FK

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BSS MYS ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

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581

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WS

PBS

NT

噌 僧 則 諸 贈 層 賊 衣 背 苑 襲

SSI

KJK

MK

NS

SM

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FK ○

BSS MYS

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SU 須 周 州 酒 洲 酢 主 寸 珠 數 種 衆 春 秀 殊 輸 素 蒭 巣 栖 簀 渚 爲 SUKU 足 宿 叔 淑 SURU 駿 SWO 蘇

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582

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WS 巷 嗽 宗 素 祖 泝 麻 十 追馬 TA 多 哆 大 太 侈 他 託 黨 陁 柂 駄 田 手 TAGI 當 宕 TAKU 宅 TAMA 澹 淡 倓 TAMI 覃 潭 TANI 丹 旦 但 TANWO 檀 TAPU 答 塔

PBS

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KJK

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NS

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BSS MYS

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583

WS TARA 帶 TATA 達 TE 鞮 弖 天 帝 提 低 底 堤 諦 題 代 手 價 直 TEMU 點 TI 智 知 至 致 直 恥 陳 笞 池 馳 鎭 㨖 千 茅 道 血 乳 TIKI 勅 TINU 珍

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584

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WS TITI 秩 TO 臺 登 止 等 澄 騰 台 苔 鄧 藤 鳥 十 跡 常 TOKO 徳 得 TU 對 豆 都 通 追 丑 川 菟 頭 屠 途 徒 突 圖 覩 津 TUKU 筑 築 竹 竺 TUNU 敦

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BSS MYS

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585

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WS TUTU 綴 TWO 都 刀 斗 土 度 渡 覩 図 妬 徒 杜 屠 塗 戸 聡 利 門 鋭 砥 速 疾 礪 U 于 有 宇 汚 羽 烏 紆 兎 鵜 菟 卯 得 鸕 URU 雲 UTU 欝

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BSS MYS

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WA 倭 獲 委 和 涴 王 丸 輪 曲 WATA 曰 WE 穢 衞 惠 佪 廻 慧 隈 坐 畫 座 咲 WI 爲 位 韋 威 謂 委 偉 萎 井 猪 居 藺 員 WO 呼 烏 塢 曰 乎

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雄 袁 遠 怨 爲 弘 雍 越 嗚 汙 惋 小 尾 少 麻 男 雄 緒 綬 峽 𠮧

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YA 邪 益 移 耶 夜 也 楊 陽 揚 野 椰 揶 瑘 掖 養 屋 八 矢 箭 YAMU 鹽

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YE 延 移 叡 曳 遥 要 穎 兄 江 枝 吉 YEMU 炎 YO 與 餘 已 豫 預 譽 世 吉 四 代 呼 齒 YU 由 喩 遊 油 瑜 踰 愈 臾 庾 弓 湯 YWO 用 欲 容 庸

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ZA 射 邪 奢 蔵 社 謝 座 奘 裝 ZAMI 蹔 ZE 是 筮 噬 ZI 自 士 盡 慈 時 仕 寺 珥 茸 餌 耳 貳 兒 爾 下 ZIMI 深 甚 ZO 敍 存 賊 序 鋤

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Nguyễn, Quang Xỹ. 1971. Tự điển chữ Nôm (Character Dictionary of Chu Nom). Saigon: Bộ Giáo dục. Nihon shoki. See Ienaga Saburō et al. 1987. Numoto Katsuaki. 1997. Nihon kanjion no rekishiteki kenkyū. Tokyo: Kyūko Shoin. ——–. 2006. “Nihongo no gogen to go’on, kan’on.” Contained in Yoshida Kanehiko, ed. Nihongo no gogen o manabu hito no tame ni. Kyoto: Sekai Shisōsha. Pp. 68–79. Ogura Hajime. 1995. Nihon go-on no kenkyū. Tokyo: Shintensha. 4 volumes. Omodaka Hisataka. 1967. Jidai betsu kokugo daijiten: Jōdaihen. Tokyo: Sanseido. ——–. 1983. Man’yōshū chūshaku. Tokyo: Chūō Kōronsha. Ōno Tōru. 1962. Man’yōgana no kenkyū. Tokyo: Meiji Shoin. ——–. 1977. Zoku man’yōgana no kenkyū. Tokyo: Takayama Honten. Onoda Mitsuo. 1977. Kojiki. Shintō Taikei. Tokyo: Shintō Taikei Hensankai. ——–. 1986. Shaku Nihongi. Shintō Taikei. Tokyo: Shintō Taikei Hensankai. Phillipi, Donald. 1968. Kojiki. Tokyo: Tokyo University Press. Pulleyblank, E. G. 1970–1971. “Late Middle Chinese.” Asia Major 15, pp. 197–239; 16, pp. 121–168. ——–. 1984. Middle Chinese: A Study in Historical Phonology. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. ——–. 1991. Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. Satake Akihiro, Yamada Hideo, Kudō Rikio, Ōtani Masao, and Yamazaki Yoshiyuki, eds. 1999. Man’yōshū. Shin Nihon Koten Bungaku Taikei. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. 5 volumes. Schuessler, Axel. 2007. ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. ——–. 2009. Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press. Seeley, Christopher. 1991. A History of Writing in Japan. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers. Sengaku. 1978. Man’yōshū chūshaku. In Man’yōshū kochūshaku taisei. Tokyo: Seishinsha. Starostin, Sergei. 2005. “Tower of Babel.” Internet resource: http://starling.rinet.ru. Takeuchi Rizō. 19777. Kan’en. Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan. Tōdō Akiyasu. 1978. Kanwa daijiten. Tokyo: Gakushū Kenkyūsha. ——–. 1980. Chūgokugo on’inron: Sono rekishiteki kenkyū. Tokyo: Kōseikan. Trương, Ðình Tín. 2007. Ðại từ điển chữ Nôm (The Great Character Dictionary of Chu Nom). Ho Chi Minh City: Nhà xuất bản Thuận Hóa. Vovin, Alexander. 1999. “Once Again on the Reading of the Old Korean 尸.” In The Emergence of the Modern Language Sciences: Studies on the Transition from Historical Comparative to Structural Linguistics in Honour of E.F.K. Koerner, vol. 2. Methodological Perspectives and Applications, edited by Sheila Embleton, John E. Joseph, and Hans-Josef Niederehe. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Pp. 289–300. ——–. 2002. “An Old Korean Text in the ‘Manyoshu.’” In The Linguist’s Linguist: A Collection of Papers in Honour of Alexis Manaster Ramer, edited by Fabrice Cavoto, ed. Muenchen: Lincom Europa. Pp. 455–460. ——–. 2012. Man’yōshū, Book 14. Leiden: Global Oriental. 595

PINYIN INDEX Character page number Non-pinyin 嗚呼 17 蜂音 33 可愛 59 馬聲 91 喚犬 187 海藻 193 牛鳴 217 石花 386 羊蹄 410 追馬 436

bàn 半 274 絆 281 辧 328

ā 阿 13

bào 抱 324 袍 303, 324 報 323

āi 埃 58 哀 58 ái 皚 67 ài 愛 18, 56 㝵 67 礙 66 ān 安 14 菴 18 àn 闇 18 bā 八 279, 536 巴 273 băi 百 325

bāo 褒 323 băo 寳 322 保 321

bēi 杯 289 卑 291 悲 317

bì 婢 25, 35 避 295 臂 295 譬 296 必 294 敝 329 幣 329 蔽 330 陛 331 箆 257 祕 317 閉 286

bù 不 305 歩 32 布 306, 321

biān 邊 326

cán 戔 375

biàn 遍 328 辧 328

cāng 倉 373

bīng 氷 298

bèi 倍 22, 288, 301 背 289, 386, 419 備 33 被 318

bĭng 鞞 331 bō 波 275

bĕn 本 321

bó 伯 285, 333 泊 282 博 285 薄 22, 282

bí 鼻 24 bĭ 俾 326 妣 27 比 292 彼 317

bŏ 簸 280, 320 bò 播 276

597

cāi 偲 403 cài 菜 236 cān 參 199, 374

cáng 蔵 560 căo 草 370, 379 cēn 參 199, 374 céng 曾 414 層 418 chā 差 367 cháng 裳 208 常 475 cháo 巣 429

chĕ 哆 439

chūn 春 427

dān 丹 250, 447

堤 41, 454 鞮 449

chéng 城 160 澄 471

cí 詞 404 慈 566 辭 405

dăn 膽 90

dĭ 氐 449 弖 449 底 454

chī 笞 462 chí 提 41, 452 池 462 馳 463 遲 44 chĭ 尺 373 侈 441 哆 439 移 87, 529, 538 恥 461 柂 443 陁 38, 443 齒 284, 550

dàn 旦 447 但 447 倓 446 淡 446 澹 446

cĭ 此 402 cì 次 391

dāng 當 445

cōng 聡 492

dăng 黨 442

cóng 賓 294 cù 酢 425

dàng 宕 445 當 445

cún 存 571

dāo 刀 487

chì 勅 465

cùn 寸 129, 426

dào 道 48, 464

chóng 重 332

cuō 磋 371

chŏu 丑 480

cuŏ 瑳 371

dé 得 59, 476, 501 德 475

chú 鋤 572 蒭 429

dá 答 447 達 448

chŭ 杵 130

dà 大 37, 440

dèng 鄧 473

chuān 川 480

dài 代 41, 455, 549 帶 448

dī 氐 449 低 41, 453 砥 493 弖 449

chuán 傳 40

dēng 登 467 dĕng 等 470

598

dì 地 46 帝 451 諦 455 帶 448 弟 42 diăn 點 458 diàn 田 42, 444 殿 40 diāo 刀 487 dŏu 斗 487 dòu 豆 52, 477 逗 53 dū 都 478, 486 dŭ 竺 485 覩 483, 490 dù 杜 491 度 54, 489 渡 54, 489 妬 490 duī 追 480

duì 對 477

fă 法 286, 305

dūn 敦 485

fà 髪 107

duō 多 438

fān 帆 304 番 300 幡 277 蕃 300

duó 度 54, 489 ē 婀 15 é 俄 64 峨 63 蛾 63 鵝 64 è 惡 17 餓 63 ĕn 眼 192 ér 而 248 兒 168, 569 ĕr 耳 249, 568 珥 249, 567 餌 568 爾 243, 569 邇 246 èr 二 245 貳 245, 569 fá 伐 20

fŏu 否 309 缻 291 fū 夫 28, 306 敷 309 fú 夫 28, 306 扶 29 福 308, 325 服 306 符 32, 311 浮 312 弗 314

fán 凡 325 煩 27 făn 反 327 返 327 fāng 方 279, 300 芳 108, 279 fáng 防 323 房 282 fēi 非 315 飛 316 妃 318

fĕn 粉 169, 314

599

gĕ 哿 100 舸 105

gēn 根 242

găn 敢 110 感 140

fèng 鳳 313

gé 隔 332

fù 赴 310 父 31 賦 308 傳 40 負 311 婦 228 服 306 富 298, 310

gān 干 111, 319 甘 110 乾 319

fèi 費 299

gē 哥 99 歌 99

gè 各 109 箇 101 葛 113

gài 概 118

fĕi 斐 315

gāo 高 163

fŭ 甫 308 輔 312 府 31, 310

gāi 該 117

féi 肥 316

gàn 紺 140

gōng 弓 554 功 151 gōu 句 143 勾 143 區 148 gū 孤 166 觚 163 姑 166 gŭ 古 161 賈 175 骨 153

gù 故 164 固 164 顧 166

hū 乎 518 呼 517, 549 忽 152

guī 歸 155

hú 胡 80

guĭ 垝 142 鬼 153, 187

hŭ 許 131

guì 跪 142 檜 298 貴 154 hán 含 110 韓 113

huì 穢 507 惠 508 慧 510

hòu 候 81 後 81

jì 既 114, 133, 158 伎 126 劑 384 其 69 紀 155 記 157 忌 136 寄 157 計 172 洎 409

huáng 黄 161

hē 訶 98

hóng 弘 522

jĭ 己 130, 158 枳 125 幾 156

huà 畫 511

huí 佪 509 廻 509

hè 荷 251, 256 賀 62, 103

jí 極 139 脊 386 吉 124, 543, 548 疾 494

hù 戸 290, 492 祜 165

hàn 熯 320 漢 112

hé 和 504 合 113 何 62 河 62, 105 荷 251, 256

稽 175 跡 374, 474

jiā 介 84, 99, 173 加 93 家 171 嘉 102 迦 95

huŏ 火 303, 318 huò 畫 511 獲 504

jiă 甲 112 榎 58

jī 劑 384 基 158 箕 221 積 373 鷄 173 奇 61, 96, 156 磯 410 機 158

jià 架 102 價 174, 457 賈 175

jiān 監 177 間 186 兼 176 jiàn 監 177 見 198 箭 537 jiāng 江 542 jiào 𠮧 528 jiē 階 119 jié 結 175 jiè 介 84, 99, 173 戒 117 jīn 今 139 津 483 金 139 jìn 近 140 盡 566 jīng 經 291, 312 jĭng 井 515 jiū 鳩 147 jiŭ 九 146 久 140

600

玖 144 酒 423

kăo 考 113

jū 居 94, 113, 134, 516 倶 147

kē 柯 105 珂 101 軻 106

jú 菊 151 鞠 151

kĕ 可 96

jŭ 巨 134 矩 148 莒 137 擧 115 jù 句 143 勾 143 巨 134 具 73 據 137 寠 149 屨 150 聚 574 jué 覺 110 jūn 君 151 jùn 駿 432 kāi 開 117 kăi 凱 118 愷 119 kài 慨 117

láng 廊 338 浪 337 莨 338 郎 337

liáng 良 336

làng 浪 337

liè 戻 345, 357 列 344 烈 344

lè 勒 353 樂 339 𡤢 339 𧟌 339

kŏng 孔 147 kŏu 口 145

lèi 類 359

kū 枯 165 哭 209

léng 稜 354 lí 釐 350 離 347 梨 350 黎 345

kŭ 苦 143 kù 庫 165

lĭ 里 348, 351 理 347 禮 342

là 臘 341 lái 來 128, 150

lán 藍 341

lì 利 346, 492 例 341 戻 345, 357 歴 313 礪 494

lăn 濫 341 覽 340

lián 廉 345 連 344

làn 濫 341

liăn 連 344

lài 瀬 385

601

liào 樂 339

lín 隣 349 lĭng 嶺 242 liú 流 354 琉 357 留 356 liù 六 216, 363 lóng 籠 169 lóu 婁 358, 361 樓 358, 363 lòu 漏 358, 362 lú 盧 359, 360 廬 353 鸕 501 lŭ 魯 361 鹵 360

lù 路 48, 359 露 363 鹿 107 lǘ 婁 358, 361 蘆 358 閭 353 lǚ 呂 351 侶 352 屢 357 lǜ 慮 351 luó 羅 334, 372 囉 338 邏 335 luŏ 攞 338 luò 落 340 má 麻 178, 436, 526 mă 馬 178, 225 mài 賣 224 măn 滿 181 măng 莽 185, 204 máo 毛 119, 221

矛 32 茅 464

彌 25, 193 瀰 195

măo 卯 500 mào 茂 202

mì 祕 317 密 221 mián 綿 227

méi 梅 190, 201 眉 34 湄 197

miàn 面 226 miē 咩 225

mĕi 美 194 毎 23, 191

mín 民 196

mèi 眉 34 媚 34 妹 192 昧 181, 191 寐 26, 196, 262 mén 門 206, 493 悶 205 mèn 悶 205 méng 蒙 206

mí 迷 190, 226 謎 35, 227 彌 25, 193 瀰 195 縻 35

míng 名 234 明 182, 227

nài 耐 44, 50 奈 232

mó 模 213, 221 謨 221 麼 21, 184 摩 184 磨 22, 182 魔 21, 185

nán 男 526 南 237 難 231

mòu 茂 202

602

nà 那 229 năi 乃 231, 253 迺 50, 256

móu 謀 204, 215 牟 210

mĭ 米 188 弭 26, 196

mù 木 138, 159, 210 莫 181, 236 暮 203 幕 188 墓 205 慕 203 目 186, 192, 217

mĭn 敏 199

mò 莫 181, 236 莽 185, 204 末 180 没 210

mèng 夢 215

mŭ 母 200 畝 207

náng 嚢 39, 236 儴 39 néng 能 254 ní 尼 46, 238, 247 泥 42, 47, 240 埿 43, 241 霓 85 nĭ 儞 249 禰 238

擬 78 旎 47

nuò 諾 237

nì 膩 47

ōu 區 148

nián 年 241

pái 俳 289

niàn 念 243

pán 胖 280 盤 283

niăo 鳥 474 niè 涅 43, 241 níng 凝 72 寧 234 nóng 農 260 濃 261 nú 奴 54, 229, 258, 263 nŭ 努 260, 264 弩 53, 260, 265 砮 53 nù 怒 55, 259, 265 nǚ 女 227 nuó 那 229 娜 39, 234 儺 233

pì 譬 296 被 318 piān 篇 333 pín 嬪 297 pĭn 品 304 píng 平 328

pàn 伴 273 判 280 泮 281

pó 婆 19, 281 皤 283

páng 方 279, 300

pŏ 叵 274

pàng 胖 280

pò 迫 386 覇 329 破 278

páo 袍 324 péi 陪 23, 288, 302

qí 其 69 期 70 碁 71 枝 543 岐 123 祇 67, 128 奇 61, 96, 156 騎 157 耆 122 𡺸 69 祁 128, 170 齊 379 qĭ 乞 140 企 127 綺 157 啓 176 稽 175 qì 氣 115, 159 棄 125 qià 姶 18

póu 裒 302

qiān 千 463

pŏu 部 30, 36

qián 戔 375

péng 朋 301

pú 菩 320

qié 伽 102

pī 被 318

pŭ 朴 59 譜 323

qióng 瓊 252

pèi 沛 289 珮 290

pí 皮 314 鼙 331 毘 24, 296

qī 七 236 谿 174 漆 413

pĭ 否 309 603

qiū 丘 146 qiú 求 75

qū 曲 507 虚 135 區 148 qú 渠 137 絇 149 衢 150

ruì 叡 539 鋭 493

să 洒 380

qún 群 77, 146 裙 209

sà 颯 377 薩 378

răn 冉 237

sān 三 197, 374

rén 仁 246

sàn 散 375

rĕn 荏 58

sāng 喪 209

rì 日 248, 297

sè 色 411

róng 容 556 茸 568

shā 沙 364

rú 茹 573 儒 574 孺 575 rŭ 乳 465

shēn 深 570 身 217, 220

rùn 潤 263

qù 去 133

róu 柔 257

shè 射 90, 558 舎 368 社 561

ruí 蕤 257

shèn 甚 570 shī 尸 393 詩 400 施 381, 407 絁 407 師 394 shí 十 436, 474 釋 374 射 90, 558 時 403, 566 食 120 實 221 shĭ 矢 408, 536 笶 256 始 406 shì 士 565 仕 567 式 412 拭 412 試 405 餝 411 是 384, 563 施 381, 407 世 382, 548 筮 564 噬 564 勢 381 視 199

shăi 洒 380 shăo 少 526 shē 奢 560 shĕ 舎 368

rù 入 252

604

shŏu 手 444, 456 shòu 受 573 授 574 綬 527 shū 輸 428 妹 192 殊 428, 574 叔 413, 431 淑 432 shŭ 數 426 shù 杼 49 樹 161 shuā 刷 378 shuĭ 水 198 sī 司 396 伺 406 思 395, 415 偲 403 斯 379, 387 sĭ 死 402 sì 笥 121 嗣 404 飼 120 似 252 寺 401, 567 四 396, 549

sòu 嗽 434 sū 蘇 432 sú 俗 575 sù 素 428, 435 泝 436 速 493

tuó 柂 443 陁 38, 443 駄 444 騨 38, 40

téng 縢 48 騰 472 tí 題 455

wán 丸 506

tiān 天 451 tián 田 42, 444

wăn 涴 505 惋 524

téng 藤 49, 473

wàn 萬 183

tíng 渟 263

wáng 王 506

tā 他 441

tōng 樋 319 通 480

wàng 望 188 忘 206

tă 塔 448

tóu 頭 51, 481

tāi 台 472 苔 472

tū 突 483

wēi 委 504, 514 倭 503 萎 515 威 513 微 219

suì 穂 324 suŏ 所 416

tái 臺 466 tài 太 37, 440 tán 倓 446 談 40 覃 446 潭 446 曇 54 檀 447 tè 特 50

tú 兎 499 菟 481, 500 途 482 塗 492 屠 482, 491 徒 482, 491 圖 53, 483, 490

wéi 爲 410, 430, 511, 522 韋 513 wĕi 委 504, 514 尾 220, 525 偉 514

tŭ 土 54, 252, 489

wèi 位 512 未 218 味 218 謂 513 衛 507

tuān 湍 385 tuō 他 441 託 442 605

wén 文 201 蚊 107 聞 205 wèn 問 207 聞 205 wèng 甕 291 wŏ 我 60 wū 於 268 烏 498, 517 鳴 523 汙 524 汚 497 屋 535 wú 吾 16, 74, 79 呉 82 無 214 wŭ 五 90 儛 216 武 212 鵡 216 wù 惡 17 悟 83 誤 82 務 214 鶩 32 霧 215 勿 207 物 208 xī 奚 170 希 114

西 380 栖 384, 429

xiè 謝 561

yà 亞 57

xí 襲 413, 420

xīn 新 395

xĭ 洒 380 璽 406

xìn 信 187, 404

yán 炎 543 鹽 537 延 538

xì 係 175 細 383 xía 峽 528 狹 371

yăn 奄 18

xīng 興 138

yàn 焰 304

xiōng 兄 541

yāng 鞅 15

xióng 雄 519, 527

xià 下 83, 569 夏 85

xiù 秀 427 宿 262, 431

yáng 揚 533 楊 533 陽 533

xián 閑 112

xū 須 420

yăng 養 535

xiăn 險 177

xŭ 許 131

yāo 要 541

xiāng 相 372 香 106, 109

xù 序 571 敍 570 緒 527

yáo 遥 540

xiàng 巷 433 xiāo 消 121 xiăo 小 168, 525 xiào 咲 511 xié 邪 529, 559 耶 530

yé 邪 529, 559 耶 530 揶 534 椰 534 瑘 534

xuè 血 465 xùn 訓 152

yĕ 也 532 野 266, 534

yā 鴨 18 yá 牙 83

yè 夜 531, 557 掖 535 葉 284

yă 雅 84 606

yī 壹 92 伊 86 衣 56, 419 依 57 揖 92 yí 怡 89 疑 77 儀 69 宜 61, 65, 78 夷 87 yĭ 乙 272 已 88, 546 以 89 蟻 69 yì 意 267 憶 270 異 88, 176 益 529 邑 272 易 89 義 64, 78 曳 539 藝 68 yīn 音 271 因 91 yĭn 磤 271 隠 271 yìn 印 91 yīng 英 17 應 271

yĭng 穎 541 yōng 雍 522 庸 557 yòng 用 555 𠰩 557 yóu 遊 552 由 550 油 552 yŏu 有 495 yū 紆 498 淤 269 yú 于 495 魚 235 娯 76 虞 75, 82 餘 545 歟 108 譽 548 臾 553 瑜 552 踰 553 隅 76, 510 愚 76 yŭ 羽 283, 498 宇 496 語 72 與 543 庾 553 yù 於 268 御 73, 197

馭 73 預 547 豫 547 譽 548 喩 551 愈 553 遇 74 欲 556 飫 270 欝 502

zăo 早 378 藻 208

yuán 袁 520 猿 372

zēng 曾 414 僧 417 增 416 層 418

zé 則 417 簀 429 zéi 賊 419, 571

yuăn 遠 520

zèng 贈 418

yuàn 怨 521 苑 420

zhāi 齊 379

yuē 曰 507, 518

zhài 宅 445

yuè 樂 339 越 523

zhān 瞻 387 zhàn 蹔 563

yún 雲 501 員 516

zhăo 沼 262

zā 匝 377

zhĕ 者 285, 369

zá 雜 376

zhēn 眞 187 珍 466

zàn 贊 376 讚 376

zhèn 鎭 463

zāng 蔵 560

zhī 之 392 607

芝 399 知 459 枳 125 支 121 zhí 直 457, 461 zhĭ 止 469 旨 400 指 401 zhì 志 397 智 458 直 457, 461 制 383 治 45 至 460 致 461 㨖 463 秩 466 質 413 zhōng 中 235 鍾 411 鐘 411 zhŏng 種 427 zhòng 衆 427 zhōu 周 422 州 423 洲 424 zhū 珠 426 猪 515 諸 418

zhú 竹 485 筑 484 築 485 zhŭ 斗 487 主 426 渚 430 煮 251 zhù 杼 49 zhuàn 傳 40

zhuāng 奘 562 裝 562

zì 柴 368 自 407, 564

zhuì 綴 485

zōng 宗 434 綜 290

zī 茲 408 資 390

zú 足 16, 430

zĭ 子 167, 392 紫 398

zŭ 祖 435

608

zuì 最 379 zūn 鐏 572 zuŏ 左 366 佐 365 zuò 作 369 坐 510 座 511, 562