A study of the use of sound effects in Elizabethan drama

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DATE

NAME AND ADDRESS

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RQRTHNE3TEBM UNIVERSITY

a m v m of the use or sound effects, IN ELIZABETHAN DRAMA

a dissertation

SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLHERT OF TBS REQUIREMENTS for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

SCHOOL OF SPEECH ■

BY JAMES WILSON BROCK

EVANSTON, ILLINOIS AUGUST, 1950

ProQuest Number: 10101201

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TABLE Of C0KTECT3

Introduction

1

Fart I

6

Part II.

Part XII.

TheDramatic Purpose of Found Effects Section 1. The Effects Signal® Battle Hunting Hatural.Phenomena Birds and Animals Clods Striking Human Bound® Knocking Miscellaneous Hoisee

7 7 14 15 16 18 19 30 31 31

Section Zm The Instruments Percussion Brass Instruments Woodbind String Instruments Ordnance swords and Armor Domestic Equipment

25 23 39 33 38 39 41 41

TheDramatic Function of 'founds As Specified by the Stage Direction®

45

Off-Stage Emphasis Symbolism Motivation Atmosphere Theatrical Intensification

44 47 50 51 54

Conjectural Bound Effects Descriptive Reference© Actuating Reference©

Part XV.

Part V.

The

The

58 39 64

Production of Sound Effect©

70

Physical Equipment Method of Cuing

70 80

Employment of Sound Effects

92

flection 1.

General Employment

Type of Play

Kj"CJC.J^ p 1

92 93

Chronological Development of Dramatic Technique Section 2*

Specific J^soioyment

Heal i sea Suggestion Stage Conventionalism Section 3#

Comparison

Oeorge Peele John Karst©a Thomas Haywood William Shakespeare John Fletcher

98 106 106 110 113 117 117 118 120 122 185

Summary

128

Bibliography

132 Section 1*

Plays

Collected and Complete Works Single Editions Section 2.

132 143

Contemporary Fon-Dramatic

Works

Vita

132

148

Section 3.

Later Hon~Dramatio Works

149

Scot Ion 4.

Modern Ron-Dramatic Works

150

Section 6.

Dictionaries and Play Lists

154

Section 6*

Special Technical References

155 156

IIITROmJCTlOH

tore recent theories of Elizabethan drama and stagecraft have led to the general assumption that the auditory element played a ©ore significant role than the visual element In the production of the plays.

Beyond this point very little pro­

gress has been made in determining the specific function of sound effect® as part of the total auditory Impact of the play.3* It Is of practical value for the reader and the pro­ ducer of an Elizabethan play to know why sound effects were used and fesw they were use&._j The purpose of this study Is to analyze sound effects, musical and nomsusloal, In term© of their dramatic purpose, function, and use.

The term #®oun& effects* In Elizabethan

drama ha© long been misunderstood, largely because of a failure to dlstlngttlsh between sound effects and stage music. In order to clarify the problem this study concerns itself with the various sound© called for as m

integral part of the

play, not with stage music— orchestral Interludes, songs, and dance®. To discover why and tow the Elizabethans used sound effects, the evidence contained in stage direction® has been carefully re-examined,

tee question of accepting these di­

rection® a® literal statements of actual stage practice is

brief description of the principal literature deal­ ing with aspects of the problem will follow.

2 bound up with the linos and stag© business.

Therefore,

attention 1© sailed to the relationship of the particular sound to the dramatic situation it is associated with; this calls for stricter methods of procedure m d a closer check m

the type of play*

The procedure has been to analyze ap­

proximately two-thirds of the extant plays produced between 1S?6 and 1642*

Such a broad field makes considerable demands

on the reader1© patience, but the detailed study of a few playwrights or a selected group of plays often leads to con­ clusions which arc too limited to be of much value to a per­ son seeking to understand the total significance of any on© aspect of ELlzabcthan drama. The results of such m comprehensive analysis have re­ vealed new information on the subject, since many unfamiliar plays were used.

IVen those play© which have been thorough­

ly worked over in the past were found to be mine© of infor­ mation when examined in the light of explicit direction® for sound.

A® any subject dealing with a particular phase of

Elizabethan drama cuts across many fields of investigation, it has boon necessary to mention the relevant opinion® re­ lating to the problem of sound effects.

Consequently, the

bulk of these opinions appears in the footnotes.

In order

to relieve the reader to some extent the editions of the plays cited in the text or footnotes are olearly indicated in the bibliography rather than in the main text.

The pertinent

stag© directions and lines are transcribed exactly as they appear in original, facsimile, or carefully edited editions.

The interest in Elizabethan sound effects is indicated by a few previous studies in this field.

Attention has been

called to Shakespeare* s use of music and sound effects in comparison with his contemporaries by Dr. W. W. Wood whose primary emphasis waa on stage music.^

A monograph, "ShakeS-

rt

peare* s Sound Effects,H by Dr. Lee Mitchell represents a direct attack on the specific problem of sound effects in ' i

l| !

a manner similar to the one used In this study. A German thesis has been written on the use of musical instruments in the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher.^

Mr.

!

j

William J. Lawrence deals with the various problems of the 4 ! illusion of sound, the use of the comet and trumpet in 1 n a the Indoor and outdoor theatres, and the use of bells. ! An article by Miss Janet Ogilvle, "Heard *Off* Stage Noises in the Elizabethan Theatre,1,7 describes the variety of the Illusions of sounds. In addition to these specific theses and articles on the use of music and sound effects, there are general refer­ ences to the importance of sound effects in connection with

Comparison Between Shakespeare and His Oontemporarleg in Thejjp Use of Muslc and Sound 'Effects. Unpublished dis­ sertation {Northwestern'Un'iversltiyr Evanston, Illinois, 1944). gjjpeech Monographs, XIV (1947), pp# 127-138* aDie InstJ^mtal^Musik in Beaumont und Fletchers Dramen: Eln^ Beitra^ qur^ In El'lzaMMisch#n Prai^L (Lugano fltalvl« 1916). ^Fre-Restoration Stage Studies (Cambridge, 1927), pp. 199*.220 • Shakespeare*s Workshop (Oxford, 1928), pp. 47 ff. ”T h o ^ "Eilzabethans (London, 1935), pp. 847Enellah Review. XLV (192?), pp. 67-77.

stage realism prior to 1578, * and the conventional use of stage traps and methods of prompting.

2

Of leas direct value

are the opinions stated by such eminent authors on Elizabe­ than drama as E. K, Chambere, ^Hhelia Creizen&oh, Harley aranvSlle**Barkert 0* Wilson Khlght* and Karl Fantzius,3 f

The dramatic function of sound effects in Elizabethan drama has generally been over-looked until recently.

The n m

approach from the standpoint of the practical theatrical con­ siderations of staging, audience response, and performance conditions has opened the. way for a n m Investigation,

Also

the problem of producing an Elizabethan play effectively on the stage requires a better understanding of what the author Intended his audience to hear as well as to see.

Thus, the

producer is faced with the problem of determining what the original sound effects were and how they can be used with or without jaodlfloation in order to restore the original vital­ ity of the play,

i

_ „ s

It is this consideration that motivates the analytical approach used in this study.

For it is not enough to know

* ^ 1. 0hnplea w*llaoe* 3ga.jaa^^gA..g:...JM JMUah.arassjaa ■to...ahy.«>w (Berlin, 1918), ?>. Ii2-113 jaaaJa^sTohn C. Adams, The 0-lob© Playhouse (Cambridge £Maee.], 1942) , pp. 139-121, 2X4/'arid "SlS-SS, Km Chambers. Th© Elizabethan St.aare (oxford, 1923),

HI, passim: W. q»»lMMBC*ftSHffig'B55.fr the Age of aha*en-

Philadelphia, 1916), pT 404; S T Cr&nviiie-Barker, . 2 volsu, ‘ ; a. (Princeton, 1946), Wilson Inigbt, “ 1936), PP. 67, wa j iu»t Aj rJffiRS! At$. (London, 1904), III, payalpu

that the Elizabethan© used sound effects; it Is essential to determine the principles which govern their use.

Because of

the nature and scope of the subject, this study in divided into five parts*

Part 1 deals with the problem of describing

and classifying the sound effects called for and the instru­ ment® specified*' and the general dramatic purpose that dic­ tates their use*

Part XI analyzes the various functions of

sound effects called for by the stage directions.

j

Part III

discusses the problem of conjectural sounds, i.e., sound:, not

| called for by stage directions, and how to determine whether I or not they were Intended to be used*

Part IV investigates

i

i the method© of production of sound effect®, the instruments i I and device® used* and the method of cuing sound effects dur­ ing performance*

Part V explain© how sound effects were

employed generally throughout the period of Elizabethan drama, and how they were employed by the playwright©.

A brief

comparison of the techniques of a few representative play­ wright® is given# Finally, a summary reviews the principal conclusions reached and suggest® grounds for further research in the field#

Part I The Dramatic Purpose of Hound Effects

The first problem in the study of the use of sound ef­ fects in Elizabethan drama is to define the auditory ele­ ments, exclusive of music, and to classify them as to type and dramatic purpose*

These auditory elements consist of

effects called for, and Instruments specified*

The first

classification is descriptive* 1.e., sounds or combinations of sounds that have a particular oonnot&tive meaning*

The

*

second classification is functional and refers to sound pro­ ducing agents employed for the various effects* This distinction is essential in understanding the fre­ quently Inexact Elizabethan stage terminology which calls for an effect one time and an instrument another time, often in the same situation.

An example of one such situation la the

entrance of a king*

Thus, i n ,The Shoemaker*s Holiday the

stage direction reads WA long flourish or tv/o« enter the King* * * . * (p. 73), but in Old Jortunatus the king enters as the rtTrumoets sound: * * * * (p* 134) • Therefore,Jit is necessary to understand first of all what the sound effects are, what the Instruments are, and what dramatic purpose dictates their use*/ Beetion 1 deals *■*/

dtflth— the- effects and section 2 deals -with the instrumen t s.

There are nine tynes of sound effects:

(1) signals

7 (2) battle, (3) hunting, (4) natural phenomena, (5) birds and animals, (0) d o c k striking, (?) human sounds, (8) knocking, (9) miscellaneous noises*

There are nine signals which have definite conventional meaning and one signal whose meaning is unknown. made by standard musical instruments,

Ml

are

The rtalarum*1 is a sig­

nal for “call to arms11 derived from the Italian All ^ r m e ,3* Rider1& Latin Pletlqnarle,, published In 1640, described the word as, **• • « a sound or peaie of trumpets or bells to call men together or to go to warre, • , ,

An interesting

account of the realistic nature of the stage alarm is found in Thomas Haywood1a story of an actual theatre Incident: * * * certains Spaniards were landed the same night, unsuspected and undiscovered, with intent to take in the towns, spoyle, and burns it, when sudden­ ly, even upon their entrance, the players {Ignor­ ant as the towne’sraen of any such attempt) present­ ing a battle on the stage, with their drum and trumpets strooke up a lowde alarms: which the enemy hearing, and fearing they were discovered, araasedly retired* * Heywood mentions two instruments, the drum and trumpet. These instruments were commonly used in the theatre to sound

^Oxford English Dictionary, ^As quoted in VI. C, Ha slitt, Shakespeare1s Library (London, 1875), V, 4B3, n. 1, 5An Apology for Actors (London, 1612, reprinted for the Shakespeare Society, London, 1841), p, 58,

Q the call to arm3 for battle,

1

or single duels.

°

The a l s m

also has a broader meaning than a rallying and attacking call, for It Is used as a civil alarm to indicate the nresenoe of disorder or danger,

Macduff orders,

*Ring the alarum

boll ,n following the revelation of -?uncnn1s murder {:gcbeth. 11-111-79), and Othello cries,

511 once that dreadful bell J*

after the alarm has been sounded following the street brawl (Qthello. 11— 111—175). The *charge51 is a call to advance and assault, or attack

the enemy*

According to Henry farmer the charge was a drum

signal in the infantry and a trumpet signal in the cavalry. A contemporary source positively identifies it as a cavalry signal*4

in stage practice the charge is used to indicate an

attack In the field or an offensive action In the lists.0

Thub m

The True Tragedy of Hichard III, the Page says:

. . . then my Lord display#® hi© colours straight, and with the charge of Trumpet, Brum and Fyfe, thee® braue batalians straight encountrod, • • « (p* 122)* — rtirnn— i iwinwnninwMnoaiwi imiimi »nm,»iw»i^nniwi m m u>nnw»!iiii»iini

iMimhiii— unwii turn liirxMWimmN ~rr~t -iitin m — ir~rrr"~'f nm n— u— p—

^qaesar1© Revenue. Prologue; Lporlne. JX-vl; The Two goble Ladles. 1-11. IV-l. and v-iil; ^ ^ P r o p h t t e ^ a , IV-iv; Ignduoa. XXX-lv : Jeronimo. IXX-il; Alison b u s . II-iT The. Birth IV-l; atchnrd I M v ? Antony and W e o p a t r a . T ^ v l i r . ftfh© Dumb Ynimt'* slET 1 §‘T v e r ©ol | Troll us and Creg.slda, XV-l; J&ffiith* ^-vliT Hi chard XXTl v-v: 2 Henry Vi. IJ-iil. °Ulse and Bevelopmcnt of Military Husic (Tendon, 1912),

PP. 19-20. ^Gervase Markham, Toldier *n Aociden ce (London, 1643), p. 53* $The charge 1© used to order an attack in The Double Magrlag^ (ll-l); The Two noble Kinsmen (v-iu): Jojhoni^a rfi-ii, V-li, a-nd V-lli): The beVllr© Charter fX^-iv); The Maid of Honour W . w > fiftaaae. m - D . .

Fart I, S i g n a l s **

cf*

49 theatre by the time the Sitzabethsns were translating *s

Vitruvius#

. Whenever gods, devils, apparitions, or omens,

appeared the stage directions usually specify thunder.s Certain sounde are symbolic through association. M r u m ® or *aarefe* represents an array on the march.

Thus,

In i u i

la...Kot Good the direction reads, "XSraqs afar off marching" (p* 330)*

The tabor mid ?>lp® are sounds associated with

merrymaking and comedy*

The horn is mentioned so frequently

In connection with hunting and messengers that it certainly may be considered m& symbolic of these activities* of m

An example

Occupational sound* occurs In Lord Cromwell when "ham-

mere41 are ordered to suggest the sound of a blacksmith* s shop (p* 16?). Bells are symbolic of dire events when used as an alarm, the sound of a clock striking assumes the proportions of sym­ bolism when fate Is suggested by such a sound*4

The death

knell of the nuns is sounded by the bells in fflag Jewof. M 1 M {XVWl}* {X!**ilD*

Knocking also becomes symbolic of fate In Macbeth &11 of these sounds have a normal functional

• gods enter to the accompaniment of sudden claps (Pollio Vitruvius, Vit^uylus^ the .ten M o k & of thunder>. . on .archltei. %t©rIT ^ • . (The Two Noble.Jly

ju^t

no easily to technical effects used in the masques produced at court as to the public playhouse*

Although drums may hrve

been used In the tiring house as suggested by the reference

*n

Wpnfleraf % » . drumes

bouse, * * «*

2

make

thunder In the tiring

it I® unlikely that cannon balls could be rout­

ed around In such limited space. the use of drum® for thunder brings up the question of the storm or tempest effect and the problem of its production* There are approximately eleven directions for a a t o m effect. Seven specifically mention thunder* ®

The remaining four men**

tion no Individual sounds, but In some cases sounds are sug­ gested by other directions or by references In the lines*

^

S M J k & M X M th• direction

contynjgwM1* (II~1) im­

plies the us© of thunder since the preceding and following directions call for thunder; the meaning of this direction be­ comes clear in terms of other directions* scene© in

The famous storm

h m r have a total of seven, directions for

^There was a considerable amount of necessary equipment kept in the hut to m y nothing of the trumpeter tt. . . who fsounded thrice* before the play. » .n (Adams, o p* clt. t p* 366). ^Cited by T. 3. Graves, *;5ome References to Elizabethan Theatres ,* on* cit*. p* 321. „„ S2fef?,M p H z & L X ~ U 1 and ll-ll; ffte golden P» the Arrajgmaant of Vta-Xn. XX-1; Sfeft'AMKSL It-ll; JR & .Uanatural Combat. 111-111: The Oea Voyage. 1-1.

74 "storm* (II-lv, XI1~I, XIX-11, IIX-Iv), and althoueh thunder, lightning, wind, and rain, are mentioned frequently, the dir* ©otions give no clue as to the nature of the sounds ussd.

The refermc&s to wind are Intriguing.^ use the sound effect of wind? to suggest that they did. ence® In Kln.fi

Did the n i s f h e t h m a

There Is very little evidence

In addition to storm scene refer­

there is one direction for wind in ffie lee*

tragedy (XV-iv), and a peculiar marginal note for % l n & * in the stage plot of 1 Tamar Cam.2

which may have

referred to the ploying of horns since the designation % l n & *5 home®* Is common enough In the stage directions." It Is possible that the ^llaabetlmne were familiar with ancient methods of producing the effect of wind.4

Perhaps our lack

of knowledge of r&lsabethaa stage custom in this connection is due in part to the fact that the sound of wind was not employed frequently* That ingenious mechanical devices were used by the Cllasa* beth&ns Is shown by their methods of producing the sound of birds, ip » !

I I I, H UM —

.m —

william J. Lawrence has ©filled attention to the m fti i

m m

m C i m«

... . .............

. . i i i m w i r .

« m

im

im . . . . . . .

i .

i .. . . ^ i i

* . the bleak winds* (TX-lv*304); “Bids the wind blew the earth into the a©a. * • * (111*1*5); Blow winds, and crack your cheeks!11 (XXX*i*l). % r e g , ffiramati© Spqjaienta Reproductions,, plate vii. % f * Part 2, “fliyjis. i m t m m m t M * * ^Am K* Peterson in his article entitled *Tiind4 says: *• * . wind machine®, consisting of long, thin pieces of wood of different widths, with holes of varying shapes bored through them and whirled around the head by means of a thong, were known to the ancients*11 fljhe Theatre, and Starts (London, 1934), 2, 275>.

75 number of bird noise a In KLiznbethan plays and the manner In which they may have been produced*^

Whereas T./wence suggests

mechanical devices, on the other hand, T. 3# Craves reasons that the sound of bird© was probably vocal Imitations by choir boy© sinee he claim© that be found only one example of the sound of birds in the public playhouses before 1803 sound of ravens, however, Is called for In Steward III (sig* H4 r^fCtpj } which wa® entered on the registry In 1595, and la tentatively assigned to the lord Chamberlain1© Company dene© of meChanlcsl device© does exist In the plays#

The &i-

root ions,

euggeet the,nee of devices#

John Bate give© directions for

the construction of various water and wind powered bird ©all©

of Mature and Art. pp. 22, 24, #7-28, 87-88). Thomas Nash® also mention© an artificial device for bird calls ln

« * * chirping bir&es, whose throated basing conduit pipt with squared narrow© shels, and charged sirlng-wiso with searching sweet water, driven in by © little wheel®# • . ©ad® a spirting sound, such at chirping is in bubling upward© through the rough crannies of their

closed bills#4

*Bm». flaw© enfl the g l l g a b e m 13*1^

Wm J IA BSLS L 1915), p# 82, n# 55.

•ixiJhaabera, gllaafrethan .!»fife IV, 385. Rhya (ad.), Shorter Movals Ellaabetton and Jacobean (Mew York, 1989), 1, 383.

76 stage and that those calls were mad© artificially if necessary. 11 such were the case, then there seems to be no reason to assume that such mechanical devices should have been unavail­ able to the public playhouses* fh® loudest noise to be produced by mechanical means was that of an explosion of gun powder*

There are some fifty-one

stag® directions calling for such sounds.

The majority of ef­

fects represent cannon fire, such as would be heard in battle or on ceremonial occasions*

The term "chamber* has been ac­

cepted by most authorities as the type of ordnance used to produce explosions; however, the stage directions often use a variety of teams* ordinance* * . , bers* *3

For example there is

. . a peal of

* . a peal® of shot. * . ,,,s and “cham­

Variant terms Include “piece*1 and “shot**^

Notwithstanding the frequent use of the term “chamber* In Elizabethan stage directions, it was not a military wea­ pon according to English ordnance lists.^

It must however,

have been a dangerous piece of equipment, for tradition

Jeronimo. II-l, Ill-iii; ffiie Devil1a Charter, IV-iv; 1 Henr? vxT ll- ill. fSfro -Wfe** of Babylon, p. 273; 2 It Xou Know Wet m . p. 336 i

m O ^ U d a .

i-i.

^ I .ffontgr^on, p . 483; Jfatft Haig, of Honour. 11-11 if Thg Revenue of Bu s b y D*Ambols, IVfg 3^0.tn,t^ada>' XV-vlll; isgaka.; p- 4o; m p L i i

~

W q t examples of “piece* see The Fair Kaid of the .rest (XV-iv); Fortune By Land and 3©a try-lTs" The Double Marriage (IX-i)j Hamlet (r j-ivT* for 'exmplee of “shot* see The >'a£r Maid of theliest (XXI-iil): Fortune By hand and 3®a (iv-i)2 (II-l); M e r (I-ivT; Of. Part I, T

77 attributes the burning of the d o b s Theatre to the explosion of & faulty chamber*

Ben Jonson described the situation in

* * • the Globe* the glory of the Bank: Which* though it were the fort of the whole Blank'd with a ditch* and forcfd out of a march* 2 saw with two poor chambers taken in, * • * Stephen do seen speaks derisively of the use of ordnanee

la the theatre with the taunt, *• • . off go the pieces to encounter a shadow, or oonquere a Paper monster*

But, what-

ewer it® site, ordnance was certainly used in the Elizabethan Theatre* at least on the stage of the open air playhouses*

w*

J* h m r m m hints at the use of smaller pieces in the indoor theatres and cites a marginal n o te calling for th e use of a pistol to S im u la te a larger gun in .LoweV® Pilgrimage* the private theatres m

In

explosion of any great Intensity

would be both dangerous and (defining,) so that there is a strong likelihood that such explosions had to be modified. There is a suggestion of a device for making such an effect

of* Ben Jnmann. C. H- K&rfnnd and Pmvav 3imnann eds*

dated July 2\ 1613* describe® the same incident but uses another terms *• * • certain cannon being shot off at hia fling Henry) entry* some of the paper or other stuff, wherea .with one or them was stopped* did light on the thatch. * .n 7 (Johnson's and Steevens *% cp* clt., p. 176). Chambers citing uses the word *chambers* (MJkMbr --------

x— .), ?fee School* of Abuse (v.'eetnilnster,

1902), p. a . SatMUteeoeaafe* s Workshop* p. 163, n. 3 .

78 in Bate's Mysteries of Nature and Art

b s

follows:

How to make Chambers made from a rocket filled with gunpowder and stopoed with leather wad (plug). A series mounted side by side for a series of orderly explosions. j&so called saucissous {pp. 124*25). i

Although there is no way of knowing whether or not Bate's device was known to the Elizabethan acting companies, it is interesting to find evidence of a device admirably suited to the stage, used in this period. For many of the minor realistic sound effects called for, It is reasonable to suppose that the actual instruments sug­ gested by the sound effects were used.

Thus, in The Fijgrlm

(IV-iil), the sound of "Irons" which fettered the unfortunate occupants of the madhouse could b© made by rattling chains in the tiring house.

Chains may also have been used to suggest

the ship1b anchor being pulled up in The Travels of Three English Brothers sino© the stage direction reads,M(a noise within,* followed by the words, MHarke, they way anchor" (p. 45).

Added realism by means of the conventional HYo, he, ho J*

Is also a possibility since the stage direction is so general. Another minor sound effect was "clashing swords, H an easy sound effect to produce in an age when swords were still the principal weapon and © gentleman's side arm.

1

Because of

the great number of scenes involving sword play in Elizabethan drama, a play company had many weapons as part of their reg­ ular equipment.2 The Prologue to The Doubtful Heir disparages

•*-Yhe sound of swords is called for in Rule a Wife. (V-i) and Love* s Cure (I-iii). _ _ T'ffj' longe" sorde. • . xvlj foyles" (Henslowe Papers, p. 115 ff).

79 the public*® tagte/ for auoh spectacless j Bo shews, no dance, and, what you most delight in, Grave understanders, her'*1s no targeWightlng Upon the stage, all work for outfitters barr*cl Cp* 3 7 9 )*

^

The phrases *targ©t«*flghting" and “work for ouEghrs*1 are obvioils gibes at the custom of stage sword play, such as the duel scene in

{?~Ii)•

Some idea of the noise made by clash*

ing swords may be gained from the amusing character sketch, mjtok

**»

s u t h edition (1615) of

jfeajraoterif which says of the actor, *« * . his voice tie not lower then the prompter, nor lewder then the Foil® and Target* * In addition to the use of swords, there is at least one specific instance where the use of pieces of armor Is require ed*^

Armor, like swords, would he common equipment readily

obtainable b y the actor1s companies#

hard Cromwell (X~ii), a blacksmith1® shop is suggest** ed by the sound of hammers off-stage* instantly recognisable in m

Such a sound would be

age when the blacksmith1® shop

was as Commonplace as a g&r&ge today#

Other realistic sounds 3

in this same category include the sound of horses rings wheels#

4

and oar-

Although there is no way of knowing how these

sounds were produced, it is reasonable to assume that they

^ O l t e d in Chambers, The Kli anbethan Gtajgp, IV, 258#

2V b m J b t t > S M t lfLJheajBd.,glahgij^ cylA^i!# « * * ttie tvo if# ■gmtlveg# V~ii; The Chances* XXX-lv; The In .satiate. .

,

The Guardlaiu iv^i#

% Hew .**ay to Fay

Old Pjcbtg* IIX-111#

00 u a r t i f i c i a l horses* hooves and a r m l conch wheel In th© n

tiring house. In summery, it is possible to say that musical instru­

ments accounted for the majority of symbolic sound effects, ordnance and hand implements being reserved mostly for realis­ tic sound effects.

It is evident that th© Elizabethan stage

equipment for the production of sound effects was extremely simple to operate with th© possible exception of ordnance which would require careful timing because of the fuse and powder train.

Huslel&ns were responsible for most of the

sound effects since so many were ra~d© by musical instruments, but they could not be expected to fire th© cannon or to han­ dle the mechanical devices peculiar to the theatre.

The problem of determining the method of cuing sound ef­ fects on the stage is complicated by .the fact that few de­ scriptions of actual Elizabethan theatre practice exist. Therefore, th© method used must be reconstructed on the basis of three types of evidence:

(1) stage directions and margin­

al notes, (2) allusions In the dialogue, and (3) oommentarles

on the stage,

A Th« m o d e m technique of using coconut shells or a pair of rubber plungers to create the effect of horses la an ex­ ample of a typical method probably no better than the one used by the Elizabethans. Th© only genuine progress in the field of realistic sound effects sine© th© sixteenth century is th© us© of recorded live sound with electrical amplification.

The first type of evidence— stags directions and margin­ al note® may, be treated as primary evidence, but only when they are interpreted In terns of the stag© business suggested by the lines, do they become meaningful as cues.

Allusion©

in th© dialogue are helpful but dubious as to their literal­ The f m commentaries on theatre practice are usually

ness*

vague, being written t r m the layman*s point of view. One of the most Important factors In cuing is th© proper timing of the cue,

In ^arlemagn© the prompter* a marginal

notes parallel th© actual line or action involved, e.g., "J£&M

m £ S $ m * for "Kunepsll rounds. .

(1. 8721), and "m a x A n h *

for the direction “Enter Charllreamg. . .* (1. 2820).

The

fact that th© marginal notes do not appear well in, advance of th© directions In th© script suggests that cuing was closely timed.

Another example of m

original marginal not© la *Nqw

* preceding th© direction, Humphrey Stafford

(X Contention, p* 492).

.Again th© position of th© prompter's

note indicates a minimum of time between th© cue and th© re­ sponse, in this case, th© entrance of several actors marching to th© sound of a drum*

Stilt another ©jearanle 1© the origin­

al prompt booh of >ort

If such a practice was common, it would certain*,

ly be suggested by the nature of the prompter1?? notations in the margin of the prompt book, but such Is not the case*

This

system would greatly complicate the routine of production since it meant that the prompter would have to train apprentices and supervise their work* The most likely explanation of the system of cuing sounds, is that musicians and tlre-m@n followed by script and ob­ served the action of the play whenever the prompter was not a position to warn them to be ready*

In

It wag possible to hear

what was being said on stage from any part of th© theatre* The tire^men in th© hut could probably observe th© outer-stag© through-th© “heavens* trap,2* and the musicians could look through the gallery curtain that masked them from the view of th© audience*

2

According to this Interpretation the stag© business in Th© Devil1© Charter (IV-iv) suggest© direct cues taken from th© lines*

In this scene the first direction, H£nter Caesar

Barbarosma souldiers drums and trumpet^1* suggests musi­ cians formed part of th© procession*

When Caesar orders

*Summon a paries, * th© drummers on ©tag© “Sound drum* * . .“

?&»«■« g^bid.. ?. sr

P* •"«

fB Bine© the remainder* of this direction reads, H. • . any-rer trumpetr* it may be assumed that another musician off-stage answered the parley signal, either from the music room or from the balcony since the following direction, "Enter vpon Countess© Catherine, Xullo, nforsa,•Enslrne. * suggests the balcony.

Then

C^eear telle hie group on the main stage, 11Assault, assault, ©barge noble hearts a charge,n and a long detailed stage direction follows? iMBBLgajUU^ fgJBm. . g i n fi&L

m

Caesar Katherln

bringL

m m : -

....opand

It Is necessary to reconstruct this action sequence in terms of the cues#

Caesar*a trumpeter, on stage, sounds a "charge"

which signals the "hirelings** in the hut to fir© Ordinance.» and the battle is Joined.

peal© of

Caesar* s forces fall

back twice and the trumpeter sounds "retreats.tt At last they throw up a "^palado** or scaling ladder^ and swarm up onto the balcony to close with Katharine*s forces.

The victory calls

for the musicians to "Sound Drums and Trump.©fyg* in a final flourish*

Thus* the cues for sound effects are the action

on stage and the sounds are produced on stage without any

P.9 need for off-stag* prompting.1 Th© sound of si striding clock Is often accompanied by the counting of th© hours*

Sine© this sound would probably

b© mad© with a bell in tlx© hut, or somewhere off-stage, it follows that the feellrlnger probably got his cm© in th© sari at and th© actor depended on th© sound for his lines. ^iftarAw;

2

Thus, in

" S t i i U E t o s a *

» Bn4 letej? "Ika

i* (p. 170). slightly ml ©placed m

The latter direction is

the script sine© Lax ton says, H. - •

terke what© this, one, two, three, * * * * followed by th© di­ rection, and then, H. * * three by the clock at Sauoy. ♦ •* (Ibid.).

apparently th® doc k , or *bellf w started sounding

before the.line,

• harfee whnta this, * .. .* unless a

customary chime effect precoded th© striking of the hour.

3

It is apparent from th® foregoing discussion that no on© method of cuing can bs entirely Justified*

Coubtlesely

several methods such as direct promoting by the bookkeeper, relayed prompting by ©tag© assistants and actor®, and cues In th© script were all used at on© time or another.

Th© faot

*Chambers thinks that this play was presented at court (Ulsabethan a t a m . II, a s ) , The violent action of scenes if&lBSa ^ o l e ^ S S m b e d above and the use of a scaling ladder implies th© u m of the facilities of a public playhouse. ^Cmbellne. II-ll; Julius Ca&gar. ix-l; Pl,cM^JLl£« vin# T^ii. 3b# Wm Spurgeon, pp. P i t *. P* 382.

90 that sounds were produced (1) in the tiring house,* (2) in o •» 4 the hut* (3) in the music room, (4) under th© stage makes a single method of cuing quite unii&ely. In the second place It is obvious that there were two types of m m

for sound* visible and audible*

implicit ge;>*

tures like the one© suggested by "Alexander d,rinketh. trum^

a«*jg Bound* (.The 3«yll.l.a..gharteffi, V-iv) and *. . . Prospero on th© top*1 tfhe Truest.. Xll-iii) are exam )les of visible cues; direction© like* % e r l i n strikes his wand. a n d Lightening;

. , .* (ttaJMLgttt

of Merlin,

Thunder

IV-i) and,

Magi with their rod© b©ate th© ground. • . while the Trumpettes sound®* (A Looking qia.as f o r London and S n g l a M , 1. 22)

are examples of audible cues®

"core frequently, however, audl5 bin cues were merely lines calling for sound. To assume that th© Elizabethan method of cuing always

worked properly is dubious, although the evidence assembled

^Probably most of the sounds called for "within." fBells* cannon, and drums for thunder. 3Most of th© conventional military and ceremonial sig­ nals. There ar© a few directions which specifically suggest th© music room: (2 k l ,^ro^ber, p.

183)? "trumpets

n % e .p « U M t p» 053 ?=

"g o r g e t s

.aeaaend C u p M r T & E M , rs J-2***)?. „ * ■Kttii. of t h e hautboys is under the stage (^Qt2BZ™SSS

M t r a . IY-111). JH Sound, trumpet.** (King Lear. V-ii1-109); 1hlng the Alarum bell. . .• (WaobctK, fl-lll-79); *Proolain our hon­ ours, lords, w i t h truss?. . .* (X f l f l f t h , .f * "ttome, bl ew thy blast* (.fer^ql.aBk* shrill throats of warree l oud lnVtrunent a, • • • a n d SoiPio. Il-i); "Gunners straight give fire i~2-~Pr.it n a T d o f t K e W a t , p. 316)? ’Therefore, drum, sound e .«rle

(qrlan&o >urloaaI ii-U-372).

91 here suggest© th a t th® persons re sp o n sib le fo r sound e f f e c t s did not la ck fo r s ig n a ls to know what to do and when to do it.

The Employment of Sound Effects «

Th© final oonsideration of sound effects is the manner in which they are employed, generally and specifically, by the playwrights*

In certain respects most of the playwrights

used sound in a routine or conventional manner*

This Is natu­

ral sine© Elizabethan stage conventions; namely, popular dra­ matic traditions, governed th© us© of auditory effects.3, Within th© framework of these traditions individual character1st!os did develop, however, and some playwrights went beyond conventional usage to achieve their particular alms.

There­

fore, it is desirable to examine th© factors which caused sound effect© to be standardised, and to seek an explanation of the difference© in individual playwright®1 techniques* | Section .1, deals with the factors responsible for th© general employment of sound effects; section 2 with th© reasons for the specific employment of sound effects; and qectlon 3 with th© differences in the techniques of 0 few representative Playwrights.

Section

1.

Igeneral implement i

There are two factors influencing the general employment

*Th#re is an excellent analysis of tSllssbethan stage con­ vention a and their effect on the playwrights in Kery C. Hyde, W.ywrlKhtlna; for Kllgabethans 1600-16PB (New York, 1949), p. 305. paaate.

93 of sound effect®*

The first factor 1® the type of play and

th® second factor is the Chronological development of dra­ matic techniques.

When the play® are grouped into three general categoriots

tragedy# history# and comedy#

It is apparent that the

first two type® habitually employ more sound effect® and a greater variety of sound affects.

Using Shakespeare*© play®

h« a typical example# w® find thirty-seven directions for sound in ten comedies# two hundred and nine direction® for sound in ten histories# and two hundred and twenty-nine di­ rection® for sound in twelve tragedies*

Thus# Shakespeare

employes approximately five time® as many directions for sound in hi® tragedies and histories a® in hie comedies*

IWhy i® there such a distinct difference# and why does sound play a more Important role In tragedy and history than in comedy*

Fart of the answer lies in the inherent nature of

the different types of drama. quality*

Tragedy has a strong ©motional

Thu®# to arouse the ©motions of th© audience it is

essential that the imagination toe powerfully stimulated.

It

is for this reason that the auditory stimulus plays such a vi­ tal role# since that which is heard can toe more suggestive

^These categories are the ones most frequently used by the m & a b e t h a n © themselves# e.g.# jftv . ^ m iarn qhakeFP.eare.lfl Qoaed^eq#. Histories & Tragedies {for* 1023). Of* Herbage# tonal S* m sijtm*......... rSiiio is not unusual. A quantitative analysis of the other playwrights included in this study reveals about the same proportion.

94 than that which is seen*

The proper mood for experiencing

the emotions revealed in tragedy is effectively established by sound*

Uvea &$ the Elizabethan audience responded to the vis­

ual elements of physical violence and bloodshed, it also re­ sponded to stirring sounds of trumpets, drums, c&nnorv-f ire, thunder, and the like*

I

Knowledge that the audience expected

plays to be filled with sound effects is indicated by the fact that playwrights often felt compelled to apologize for the absence of sound effects In comedy#

Thus, in the prologue to

Thft-Tgo..Merry..Milkmaids the author tells his audience 2 This Day we entreat All that are hither come. To expect no noyse of Gun©, Trumpet, no Drum, Mer Sword and Tnrguet; but to hears Sense and Words, Fitting the matter, that the Scene affords* So that the Stage being reform1*!, and free From the lewd Clamors It was wont to bee, Turmoyef& with Battalles; you I hope will cease Tour dayly Tumults, and with vs wish Peace* * . (slg. A1 rrwaajl ). The lines, *So that the Stage being reform *d, and free. * .** suggest a criticism of the excessive use of sound effects In response to popular taste.

The prologue to The Fn&llah Travel-

ler opens with the words: A Strange play you are like to have, for know We use no drum, no trumpet, nor dumb show; Ho combat, marriage, not so much to-day As song, dance, masque, to bombast out a play (p. 155). Since the author Is Thomas Haywood, who ^bonbasted out1* many a play at the Red Bull Theatre, the statement has the element of irony In It* Tragedy depended upon auditory effects to enhance mood;

the popular history play depended upon authentic sound ef­ fects associated tfith military and ceremonial events.

'There­

fore* since the historical or legendary events dramatized In 111story plays required many conventional signals* the flourish, the sennet* and,the tucket would he an Integral part of re­ quired staging*

.Proof that the playwrights were anxious to

provide an abundance of authentic symbols for this type of drama la indicated by the use of the drum In the first scene of 4

for hair Womeru

The scene begins with the di­

rection* *fflgfter at one door History, with Drum and ensign*’* The character representing Tragedy says*

Whither away so fast?

Peace, with that drum J Down with that ensign, which disturbs our stage I {1* I}*

There are at least fifty directions for sound in {1592)*

This early use of sound effects Indicated the rapid­

ity with which playwrights responded to the popular demand for effective stage production*

There can be little doubt

that playwright® used only such sound effects as would be meaningful to their audiencej the reason the terms sennet, parley* and the like* seem strange to us today is because their meaning 1® bound up in the custom© of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries**

The iTLl&abcthane were as familiar

with them a© Americans are with the significance of such

h h aranville-Barker claim® that «. . . It la hard to estimate what the KJLisnbethan audience read Into ulourlgnc%

and Alarms* A m t r m t kB_3pmM§L

(Prefaces, Ij.* lu9f n-

l§Tr The meahing of theseei^ialfi seems cui^e cl-ar the previous discussion in Part I, jjljffiiilJI*

96 sounds as the fire siren ami bell, the and the fog horn,

'ollcemnn’g whistle,

Th® nature of an TXizabethan audience with

Its broad cross**section of society, ranging from the returned soldier to the London dandy, made it possible for the p l a y ­ wright to employ a great variety of symbolic sounds with the assurance that, his audience would understand them. This variety of sound effects employed in the history play may be explained, in part, by the fact that hi story plays dealt with such spectacular events as battles, marriagec, fu~ naral®, coronations, and celebrations,

naturally the audi­

tory element in these elaborate spectacles would not be slighted even though they taxed the physical resources of the stag®. In the ease of ©ome&y, however, the playwright was faced with an entirely different problem.

In this type of play the

elements of dialogue and situation predominated over stage spoctaole and emotional scenes.

The use of stock characters,

crude horseplay, puns, topical Jokes, and the popular themes of love, trickery, prodigality, and human folly characterized 1 Elizabethan comedy* Thus, a majority of comedies did not depend so heavily upon auditory effects.

There are excep­

tions, however, for Elizabethan comedy is seldom pure comedy, and it Is rather the degree of fanciful ness that seems to determine the extent to which sound is employed.

1Hyde,

o

p

.

olt.. pp. 31-51 p^gate.

Thus, a

0? relatively straight comedy like The Merchant of Venice hr-.c only one direction for sound,* and a f a n c if u l comedy like 3Chft- Tempest, has seven. ^ The comedian that fall into the category of wdrr. rtic romance e4* seem to employ a large number of sound effects*3 The fanciful nature of many of these plays calls for more elaborate staging than is the case with other types of come­ dy.

But even in this category there is wide variety in the

U0K.C

unde* (V-l).

Cin-iti); fused noise. • .n (TT-i);

Uttdk)* or. a t ^•Fioui* ■ X-U);

*. . . a strange, hollow,, and connoise of hunters heard.

Qeyll of Edraonton; The Bwehful Lover cornets. H

(frgifl*, xIi-l }i ’-Flour 1,41. 1X141115 1 “A tucket afar off. . • •: a s « ftk4 a ). and Colour (Ibid.. XII-ivT; (Ibid.. ■iMtl_t* i.K. .A...i5ort u^afuia "i ajarua with(iMfl-li "n.ourlah. . . ■' (Ibid.. 7-ill); "i^burlohT* )| "nourish Cornets. * . .1 •_1 txhe Birth of _ Merlin, a "Flourish Oomets. a. —354): ...- . . * (Ibid.. .T1t—. . — w .. ..Tw ^. * * i'11 lourleh.14 (Ifelfl., p. 335) | “Within SKims beat Marches. H (X M d .. p. 361)| *• • • Trumpets sound alarm. • . Thunder within.* (lbi.fl.. )i “Thunder and Lightning. . (Ibid.„ p. 368);. “Thuaoei^ * tlbld.); “Within Drums beat a low march. * (Ibid., p. 374); « . . . Thunder and Lightning. . . * (Ibid.. pT 375}; "Thunder, . . . ** (Ibid.): MA Tucket.*4 (Ibid.. p. 11 iIbid. 7; % l o r i s h Tromp. . .* (ibid.. p, 376); •Alarum. 377): “Thunder, then Husick. . (Ibid.. p. 379); S u n ­ der. * (Ibid., p. 380); “S u n d e r and Lightnlng Xn the Hook. (Ibid.. p. 380); “Flor. Troap." ^ d O l^ lX a r u m a f a r o f f . * k®e. Ijoeboys* (Ibid., p. 382). *i p. 381); “Merlin strikes

98

number or sound effects specified by gt«~e directions.

JtonfllOKieg-l Sevelorment of Dramatic feolmlcue

In addition

the influence exerted upon sound e ffe c ts

by the type of play, the development of popular ta stes bad u*uoh to do with the use of sound as a production device.

There i s a seemingly direct relationship

between

the

d e v elops

ment of sound e ffe c ts and the development o f prof easionallsoj in the theatres, beginning around the la s t decade of the six­ teenth century. The plays produced from about 15BX to about 1013 give evidence that the number of stage directions callin g for sound Inereaoe.^

startin g with the plays of John Lyly, one

fin d s no s p e c ific d irection s for sound.

Although there i s no

conclusive proof that sound e ffe c ts were not used in Ms plays, i t i s en tirely possible that they were not necessary, at le a s t to any great extent. On the other hand George Peel®, w riting about the same time

m

Lyly, supplied a great many sp ecifio directions for

sound in hie p lays.

There are fifte e n direction s for sound

I f xamnleTrh® feyS^Master; TKjT {plotT; m e ^our Prent 1eeg. of » Jif % 1 X dates have been taken from Harbage, Annals, Gr^g,

Lifgt of I^Mlieh fflayt. and H. w. Wells, ( %, xiof E x t a n t F r o d u o e d . In_pr_ About^ ^

Tortc, 1940).

92 Battle of Alca&arr a logic??.! enough number in terns of

la

what has been said here concerning the relationship between the type of play and the use of sound*

Both the extant stage

Plot and the quarto (1594) of The Battle of .Moazar in&icv te a yell developed system of effects designed for maximum thoa1 trioal effectiveness* As the play was probably produced, by ■

■

SipsTnge *a Men, either in the Hewington Butts Theatre or the

2

Bose Theatre, '* it shows how far advanced the stage techniques were by this time* Alnhonatty (ascribed to Greene, and possibly to Peele) has many detailed direction® for sound, written in the mood suggesting actual production Instructions*

As the produc­

tion date assigned to this play is o* 1094, it is obvious that production routines or sound must have been well estab­ lished In the theatre by this time, at least for standard con­ ventional effects* Christopher Marlow®1® great pi ay a i and 2 nTaffiburlajne. are typical of the type of play which was becoming popular in the last two decades of the sixteenth century*

J a w s # TWO mzab*.tfai^

%arbage/ Annals. op. 48-49. 24B.

The

J£@g&

ChambereTEllZP.-

, ii, l i e - 1 3 you haue sounded thrloe.let Vonuafro let &,oms. . . strife vg alarua a while. .

. . .» (I-lh

“ (Ibid.-); "Otrlke t o a anfl Druianea S i r l M O i

within ce (v-iy.

to

al’aruiaT".'**’ .'* (Ibid.)I *5trlk* TO Alarum

100 relatively small number of directions for sound In \ Tambur*» lijJIS 1® curious in comparison to the directions in 2 TamMrlatner

although both were produced during the sane season*

It is Interesting to observe that there are no directions calling for the sound of artillery in ^ and 2 Tainburlalnc* although Marlow® docs employ it effectively In Mhe Massacre a® a signal for the beginning of the massacre off stage*

Also in the same play Marlowe uses the sound of

trumpet® to intensify a crowd effect,

^ftound Trumpets with*

l&gfjj&i cry® wiu© le Hoy two or three times* {p. 462)*

Ab Ihe Massacre at Parle was produced In 1593 by

Strang.®*® Ment^ it is evident that Marlowe %m& learning to utilise the medium of sound in a more effective manner. Additional early plays with numerous explicit directions for sound include 3fte. Woun&q of Civil Wnr (c* 1588), Doctor* £a.M£.aa . n ^ ) }

within.“

•‘atiros. . . urwm*

(p. 134)I "Alarme, .

shot of._ the bell tollea.M (p, 454). ^Chambers,

HI, 426.

101 nn3 She. Troublesome

of King John Co. 1500).

Of the^e

the history play, The Wound a of H v l l War. has n great many vivid direct lone for sound, ^ although the author, Thomas lodge, was not an experienced professional playwright* The vogue of history plays that flourished in the last decade of the sixteenth century may be responsible for the fact that so many play a produced chiring this period are filled with directions for conventional sounds of battle, and military signals; the stage plot of 1 Tamar Opm (a. 1592) lists eighteen direction© for sound*^ In the period around the turn of the century the in­ creased number of performances and the greater variety of types of play© 1© reflected in the more systematic use of sound effects*

The popularity of the childrens1 companies

had its Influence on the staging and production techniques# Even the employment of sound effects was subject to certain modifications, some of which have been discussed earlier (Part IV,

Physical Equipment*)*

Hie increased professionalization

of the acting companies brought about a refinement of pro­ duction technique that must have enhanced the performances

*A i&reafa isreat Alarums.. * (I-ii); /ll arums. • .*" v i-iij; ^Exeunt "jBtxron* to *>Q the ; gifaMn,43?;«uix-i); CTcat sklm l a h in Borne and long. * . * . " Maar p n IT: WA gereaf skirmish ** (V-i); (v-l); ^M Knter K m e^etrea|v ^ (Ibid.)i " Knt'

IsBB* . > T7-U1); l M e ^ M S L & « •« (itiO; J1&

(V-lv)i "grum^eto .oo.und; . .

nlo copy were any more plot© usually entrances and

of the play exists to indicate whether there directions for sound effects, although the stage indicated only the sound effects that marked exits.

102 of play© during this period.^

For example, there is good

evidence of better integration of sound effects into the per­ formance in view of the fact that there is an increased num­ ber of directions for the difficult effect of ordnanoe~that Is* difficult from the standpoint of timing the euea.° Another indication of a maturing stagecraft was the use of such instruments as the kettledrum (Har.lct« III-ll, V-ii), and the trumpet and cornet both in the same play (The Two Moble. J a n ^ e n f V-lii and Henry VIIX» Il-iv).

At this noint

it %b necessary to mention Professor W. J. Lawrence’s theory regarding the use of the cornet*

Lawrence claims, on good

evidence* that the c o m e t was habitually used in the ”select" or Indoor theatre in place of th© noisy trumpet so as to not d r e w out the voices of th© child actors*

Thus, when the

childrens’ companies were abandoned and their theatres taken over by adult companies, the use of the oornet was adopted

1 * Chambers says that the n m type of public theatre Ilk© th© 01 ob© and th© Fortune had no distinct effect upon, **. • • the dramatic construction of plays and upon the wording of their ©tag© directions*1 (Elizabethan Staire* Ill* 103). There teem to be many subtle ©tangee, however, that Chamber a has overlooked* &For examples of the us© of ordnance see: Henry V \XII-

v-in;^gj&3a§gU«3£ :ma^.jgnVf. Siiii dSaaiai p j n -(i-iv. i , iv-i, V w i)T l^ S B rriTiv)i S S spH a

i (p. 273 )i \ W . m i s r e t .Me (p. 338): The Paid ..pf -). The Bloody Banouet (n.ldl9 3; The Double Marrlar.e Co. 1620).

105 sentimental, and comedy wag less fanciful.

The new tyoes of

blaye required less spectacular sound effects then the old history plays and tragedies.

Instead of familiar storise

refurbished with colorful effects, the later Elizabethan play® demit with more unfamiliar themes and new .ideas.

The

symbolism of the musical instruments used is indicative of this change# hautboy

1

The trumpet and the drum were rivaled by the

and the recorder,

Z

neither of which were used to any

great extent In sixteenth century plays according to the stage directions#.*5 Although th© type of plays in the latter period of

For examples of the use of the hautboy in seventeenth century play® see: the Bloody Brother (r/~U); v

(V; I

S S p T T E D ;

(faeaar ana J^mp'gxT pT 3 7 7 );

115

which served &$ a kind of prologue to a c ts or scenes was o f­ ten accompanied by sound e f f e c t s designed to help make th e ir meaning d e a r *

A good example o f t h is may be seen In Caesar

. ---^>waloiUL of all? the five Kings jlgcn ovey the .stags. Ora ssinlug 'pursuing* &_.tM door enter again the five Kings* continued within C o * 37?). Although It Is not possible to lay down any blanket general­ isations concerning the use of sound effects for all scene changes, there Is good reason to believe that sounds frequent­ ly accompanied Important scene changes.

In m ward IX the king

telle his l o y d followers! "teuldlerts, good harts, defend your soueralgnes right,

For now, m ® n now, we marche to make them stoope* &wny*

Exeunt { «. . . the gpmata sound a flourish, riourlsh, and a pesle

of shot is

/ p. 1 7 ); "One wlndes a Cornet

m a u n * ( a M to iiifi -ana m U M . p » *'gha atill Vlutaa sound a mournfull Cynet. Kntor a t. ■m j a a B E r p r jo r * & ■ « s g r z f i g gfl ,* (g Anionlo and elllda. p. 113).

130 Thomas One of the best examples of the use of sound effects by

a profession©! playwright Is the work of Thomas Feywood, the principal playwright for the Red Bull Theatre.

In the twenty

extent play® attributed to Haywood there are approximately two hundred and. sixty-seven directions for sound,

The close

Working relationship Heywood maintained with the play company at the Red Bull Theatre gives validity to the belief that his direction* represent fact rather than fancy In spite of their elaborateness.

Frofeseor Reynolds defends the directions in

the four 4ge.fi with this statement: We must* therefore, accept the directions in the 4fijM as statements of what the author, a practical man of the theatre if there ever was one, expected the stag® manager to provide for.1 Haywood goes to great pains to provide suggestive sound effects for off-stage actions; there is the

and

(l.ugrecg, p. 344), *A great wlmllng

0* t

e m

A Jgaaals"