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A STUDY OF THE HOLE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE MOTION PICTURE

A T h esis P re se n te d to The F a c u lty of the G raduate S chool U n iv e r s ity o f S outhern C a lif o r n ia

I n P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e R equirem ents f o r th e Degree M aster o f A rts

hy A dhir Kumar M ukherjee June 1950

UMI Number: EP42690

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL U SERS The quality of this reproduction is dep en d en t upon th e quality of th e copy submitted. In th e unlikely ev en t that the author did not sen d a com plete m anuscript and there are missing p ag es, th e se will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

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UMI EP42690 Published by P roQ uest LLC (2014). Copyright in th e Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © P roQ uest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United S tates Code

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MASTER OF ARTS ....................

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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I.

PAGE INTRQDUCTION......... .......... * . . . . The problem

.....................

1

S tatem en t o f th e problem

. . . . . .

1

. . . . . . .

1

. . . . . . . . . .

2

Im portance of th e stu d y Method

II.

• ......................

1

Review of th e l i t e r a t u r e ...............................

2

O rg a n iz a tio n o f rem ain d er o f th e t h e s i s •

4

PSYCHOLOGICAL fflEHtMENA IN THE MOTION PICTURE EXPERIENCE

...................................

5

M o t i o n ......................................................................

5

D epth

....................................................

A tte n tio n Em otion

.

............................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 19 24

O ther p s y c h o lo g ic a l phenomena i n r e l a t i o n to m otion p i c t u r e s III.

......................

28

SUGGESTED MANIPULATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS FOR EFFECTIVE CINEMA The u se o f m otion Tone

. . . . . .

..........................

35 36

.............................................39

S e t - u p ........................................................................... 40 F ilm -im a g e rie s S to ry -s tru c tu re

..................... .....................

42 44

iv

CHAPTER IV .

PAGE SUMMARY AMD CONCLUSIONS . .............. 4 ? Summary

. .

............... . . . . . . . .

C o n clu sio n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX TO FILMS

47 50

............................................................................. ........................................................................... 54

51

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION P s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t o r s p la y an im p o rta n t r o l e i n th e m otion p i c t u r e e x p e rie n c e .

What we se e i n th e cinem a

i s , t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , th e r e s u l t o f o u r o rg a n iz a tio n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e p h y s ic a l s t im u li p re s e n te d .

In

a d d itio n to th e b a s ic p e r c e p tu a l f a c t o r s in v o lv e d , th e r e a re many p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r in c i p le s t h a t may be used by th e c r e a t i v e cinem a i n i t s methods of e x p re s s io n to enhance th e p ro d u c tio n o f d e s ir e d e f f e c t s . I.

THE PROBLEM

S tatem en t o f the problem .

The problem of t h i s

stu d y has been (1) to d eterm in e th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l p h e*

nomena and p r i n c i p l e s t h a t a r e im p o rta n t i n a cinema e x p e rie n c e , and (2) to su rv ey th e te c h n iq u e s t h a t have been su g g ested f o r in c re a s in g th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l e f f e c t ­ iv e n e s s of m otion p i c t u r e e x p re s s io n . Im portance o f the s tu d y .

The im portance o f t h i s

s tu d y l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t th e e f f e c tiv e n e s s o f a m otion p i c t u r e i s dep en d en t on th e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e p h y s ic a l s tim u la tio n p r e s e n t and th e in n e r m en tal p ro c e s s e s o f th e p e rc e iv in g organism .

Knowledge o f how

'

in d iv id u a ls may be ex p ected to r e a c t when th e y a r e p re ­ s e n te d w ith v a rio u s k in d s o f p h y s ic a l s i t u a t i o n s i n th e cinem a w ould, th u s , a p p e a r to be o f b a s ic s ig n if ic a n c e in m otion p i c t u r e work.

Much of cin e m a tic p r e s e n ta tio n owes

i t s power t o th e co n sc io u s o r unconscious use o f psycho­ l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s to a c h ie v e c e r t a i n r e s u l t s .

S y stem atic

c o n s id e r a tio n o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t o r s i n th e tre a tm e n t o f sc e n e s m ighi w e ll be ex p e cted t o produce d e s ir e d o u t­ comes more f o r c e f u l l y and more s u c c e s s f u lly . I I . METHOD T reatm ent o f th e f i r s t p a r t of th e problem con­ s i s t e d o f a su rv ey o f the sm a ll amount o f l i t e r a t u r e a v a ila b le on th e s u b j e c t , and independent work to ap p ly f in d in g s from psychology t o th e cinem a s i t u a t i o n . The second p a r t o f th e i n v e s ti g a t io n inv o lv ed a s tu d y o f th e l i t e r a t u r e on c r e a tiv e cinem a to d is c o v e r sugge s tio n s of p s y c h o lo g ic a l m a n ip u la tio n s t h a t m ight be u sed t o in c re a s e e f f e c tiv e n e s s o f e x p r e s s io n , and a c r i t i c a l o b s e rv a tio n o f d i f f e r e n t m ovies to f in d exam ples o f s h o ts o r tre a tm e n ts t h a t seemed t o i l l u s t r a t e th e s e s u g g e s tio n s . III.

BEVIElf OF THE LITERATURE

A lthough th e r e h as been some work on the psycho-

l o g i c a l e f f e c t s of se e in g m otion p i c t u r e s , no a p p re c ia b le s tu d y has been done i n th e l i n e of the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i ­ g a tio n , which i s concerned w ith th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l b a s i s and means of th e cinem a r a t h e r th a n w ith i t s p s y c h o lo g ic a l e ffe c ts .

The m eager amount o f a v a ila b le l i t e r a t u r e t h a t

i s r e l a t e d to th e p r e s e n t stu d y can be c l a s s i f i e d in to th r e e g ro u p s:

(1) books and a r t i c l e s d i r e c t l y d e a lin g

w ith th e s u b j e c t , e . g . , th e books o f M u en sterb erg l and B u ck le;2 (2) books on psychology i n which q u e s tio n s p e r ­ t a i n i n g to m otion p i c t u r e s have been i n c i d e n t a l l y d i s ­ cu ssed a t a few p la c e s (some books on g e n e ra l and a p p lie d p sy ch o lo g y f a l l under t h i s c a te g o r y ) ; and, (3) books on th e a r t o f m otion p i c t u r e , i n which sometimes m ention i s made of p s y c h o lo g ic a l ap p ro ach es and p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f c in e m a tic c r e a t i o n .

S tudy

The works o f E i s e n s t e i n ,3 P udovkin,4

1 Hugo M u en sterb erg , The B xotoplav: A P s y c h o lo g ic a l (Hew York: D A p p leto n & Co. , 1916) , 233 pp.

3 G. P. B uckle, The Mind and th e F ilm George R outledge & S ons, L t d ., 1926). 119 pp. 3 S. E i s e n s t e i n , F ilm Form B race & C o ., 1 9 4 9 ), 279 pp.

(London:

(Hew York:

H a rc o u rt,

________________ F ilm Sense (Hew York: B race & C o ., 1 9 4 7 ), 288 pp.

H a rc o u rt,

4 V. I-. Pudov&in, F ilm Technique 1 9 4 9 ), 204 p p .

(Hew York:

L e a r,

Freeburg,5 Lindgren,6 and others may be cited as examples of this group,

IV .

ORGANIZATION OF REMAINDER OF THE THESIS

Chapter II deals with the first part of the problem, viz.:

the inquiry into the psychological phenomena and

principles which come into operation in the cinema ex­ perience.

Detailed discussion is given of such factors

as the perception of motion, depth, attention, emotion, memory, imagination, interest, suggestion, and unconscious factors.

The second part of the problem, viz.;

psycho­

logical manipulation for effective cinematography, is treated in Chapter I I I .

Possibilities in this respect

are discussed in the fields of motion, tone, set-up, filmic imageries and story-structure. viz.s

The last chapter,

Chapter IV , summarizes the whole study and states

conclusions.

5 V. O. Freeburg, The Art of Photoplay Making (New Yorks McMillan Co., 191877 283 pp. 6 E. Lindgren, The Art of the Film G. Allen & Unwin, 1948) , 242 pp.

(Londons

CHAPTER I I

PSYCHOLOGICAL HBENCMEHA IN THE MOTION PICTURE EXPERIENCE I.

MOTION

( M otion i s p ro b a b ly th e most im p o rta n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e film s i t u a t i o n .

I t i s t h i s phenomenon w hich caused

th e amazement of p eo p le and c a p tu re d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n when Nv

th e f i r s t movie was made.)

I t i s t h i s “m otion” t o w hich

th e medium owes i t s power o f l i v e im p re ssio n , w hich in tu r n h o ld s th e trem en d o u sly la rg e movie au d ien ce a l l th e w orld o v e r. T his m o tio n i s , however, n o t an o b je c tiv e e x is te n c e . (There i s no a c t u a l m otion on th e s c re e n .

O b je c tiv e ly ,

th e r e i s on th e s c re e n a co n tin u o u s p r o j e c ti o n o f com plete­ ly s ta tic p ic tu re s .

But we see movement i n th e m .) M otion,

w hich i s th e essen c e o f th e c in e m a tic medium, i s , t h e r e ­ f o r e , o n ly an in n e r im p re ssio n w ith o u t h av in g a c o r r e s ­ ponding c o u n te r p a r t in th e o u te r w orld w hich evokes t h i s im p re s s io n . C lhe b a s is o f th e m otion p ic t u r e i s , t h e r e f o r e , \

a p s y c h o lo g ic a l phenomenon. ) One t a s k o f the p s y c h o lo g is t i s to a c co u n t f o r t h i s m otion which r e s u l t s from non-moving s t i m u l i .

The r o u tin e

e x p la n a tio n i s to say t h a t i t in v o lv e s th e s tro b o s c o p ic phenomenons

S in ce ab o u t 1833, when th e stro b o sc o p e was in v e n te d , i t h as been known t h a t a s e r i e s of s ta tio n a ry v is u a l s tim u li, n o t f a r a p a rt i n th e v i s u a l f i e l d , p re se n te d i n f a i r l y ra p id s u c c e s s io n w ith in te rv e n in g b la n k i n t e r v a l s , g iv e s th e appearance o f m o tio n . T h is p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r i n c i p l e i s u t i l i z e d i n th e m otion p i c t u r e s . There i s no con­ tin u o u s m otion on th e s c re e n . The p ro ­ j e c t o r p r e s e n ts a s e r i e s o f s t i l l v iew s, w ith b la n k i n t e r v a l s due to c u tt in g o f f th e l i g h t w h ile th e f ilm i s advanced from each frame t o th e n e x t. What we see i s a c t u a l l y n o t a moving p i c t u r e . I f a p i c t u r e sh o u ld move slo w ly on th e s c re e n , th e ey es would fo llo w i t and we sh o u ld sim p ly see th e p ic tu r e m ove^ I f i t s m otion exceeded th e p o ssib le -' speed o f th e p u r s u i t movement o f th e e y e s, we should g e t b lu r s and s tr e a k s and no p i c t u r e . T e r r i f i c b l u r s and s tr e a k s would be see n i f th e movement of th e f ilm to o k p la c e w hile th e l i g h t was o n . l To say t h a t th e s tro b o s c o p ic phenomenon i s in v o lv e d i n m otion p i c t u r e s i n a sen se m erely i n d ic a te s th e kin d o f s tim u la tio n p r e s e n t and th e k in d o f e f f e c t produced. P s y c h o lo g is ts have a l s o t r i e d t o a n a ly z e t h i s phenomenon and to s u g g e s t how i t ta k e s p la c e . q u e s tio n ;

They have asked th e

Why do we see m otion when a l l th e r e i s i s a

s e r i e s of s t i l l view s w ith b la c k i n t e r v a l s ? One s u g g e s tio n t h a t h as been made i s t h a t th e p e r ­ c e p tio n o f movement i s due to th e p e r s is te n c e o r la g of r e t i n a l re a c tio n .

When a n o b je c t i s shown to us f o r a

v e ry s m a ll tim e, our s e e in g th e o b je c t does n o t end a s

York;

R. S. Woodworth, E x p erim en tal Psychology Henry H o lt & C o ., 1 9 4 8 ,)p . 680.

(New

7

soon a s th e o b je c t d is a p p e a r s .

We go on s e e in g th e o b je c t

f o r a f r a c t i o n o f a second even a f t e r i t i s rem oved.

In

o th e r w o rd s, a p o s i t i v e a fte r-im a g e of th e o b je c t p e r s i s t s i n o u r v i s i o n f o r t h a t s m a ll le n g th o f tim e . a s th e p e r s is te n c e of v i s i o n .

T h is i s known

I f s ti m u l i w ith s l i g h t l y

d i f f e r e n t p o s itio n s a re p re se n te d a t q u ick i n t e r v a l s so t h a t th e p o s i t iv e a f te r-im a g e of one s tim u lu s p e r s i s t s t i l l th e ap p earan ce of th e n e x t s tim u lu s , th e n , a c c o rd in g to t h i s ty p e o f e x p la n a tio n , th e r e s u l t i n g im p re ssio n i s a s i f th e f i r s t s tim u lu s s h i f t e d t o th e n e x t.

T his i s w hat

happens i n th e m otion p i c t u r e e x p e rie n c e d ) The p o s i tiv e / a f te r-im a g e of th e f i r s t p i c t u r e p e r s i s t s t i l l th e second p i c t u r e , w ith a s l i g h t change of p o s i t i o n o f i t s c o n te n ts , a p p e a rs .

The p o s i t iv e a f te r-im a g e of t h i s second p i c t u r e ,

a g a in , p e r s i s t s t i l l th e appearance of th e t h i r d p i c t u r e , w hich h a s a f u r t h e r change of p o s i t io n o f i t s c o n te n ts , and so on.

The r e s u l t i n g e f f e c t i s an im p re ssio n o f move­

ment sim p ly from th e p a ss in g of one p o s i tio n in to a n o th e r . T h is i s , however, a ’'h a s ty 4* e x p la n a tio n .

R e tin a l

a f te r-im a g e may b rid g e th e tim e gap betw een s u c c e s s iv e v iew s, b u t n o t th e space g a p .

I t can acco u n t f o r th e

te m p o ra l c o n tin u ity o f s e n s a tio n s and th e absence o f flic k e r.

I t does n o t , how ever, account f o r th e s p a t i a l

c o n t i n u i ty w hich we see i n th e p i c t u r e . I n one o f th e e a r l i e s t tre a tm e n ts o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l

!

f a c t o r s in v o lv e d i n th e m otion p ic tu r e s i t u a t i o n , M uensterberg s t a t e d t h a t th e a fte r-im a g e th e o ry was n o t an ad eq u ate e x p la n a tio n o f what o c c u rre d .

A ccording to

him , th e s e e in g o f movement i s a unique e x p e rie n c e t h a t in v o lv e s more th a n th e a c tu a l se e in g o f s u c c e s s iv e p ic tu re s .

He b e lie v e d t h a t th e e x p e rie n c e o f movement

ca n n o t be reduced to th e sim ple se e in g o f a s e r i e s o f d i f f e r e n t p o s itio n s and t h a t a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o n te n t o f c o n s c io u s n e s s m ust be added t o such a s e r i e s o f v i s u a l im p re s s io n s .

He s ta te d ?

HThe e s s e n t i a l c o n d itio n i s

r a t h e r th e in n e r m en tal a c t i v i t y w hich u n it e s th e s e p a r a te p h ase s i n th e id e a of co n n ected action.**^ O ther p s y c h o lo g is ts have gone beyond th e a fte r-im a g e e x p la n a tio n b u t have in tro d u c e d th e id e a o f th e p o s s ib le im p o rtan ce o f o th e r k in d s of sen so ry e x p e rie n c e i n t h i s phenomenon.

E x n e r,^ from h is ex p erim en ts w ith two e l e c t r i c

s p a r k s , came to th e c o n c lu sio n t h a t th e im p re ssio n o f move­ ment depended on a c tu a l s tim u la tio n o f th e in te r v e n in g r e t i n a l p o in ts by (,d i f f u s i o n c i r c l e s 1* r e s u l t i n g from im­ p e r f e c t accommodation.

A ccording to him , t h e r e f o r e , th e r e

i s a tendency i n th e o b se rv e r t o se e m otion w henever r e t i n a l

Study

S P ftP ” 1*** 3 Woodworth, p p . c i t . . p . 681.

9

s tim u la tio n o f t h i s kind makes su c h an appearance p o s s ib le . W ertheim er4 a ls o b e lie v e d i n th e s e d i f f u s i o n c i r c l e s .

He,

how ever, co n ceiv ed them i n th e c o r te x r a t h e r th a n i n th e re tin a .

A ccording to h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , th e c o r t i c a l

e x c i t a t i o n from s tim u la tio n may have some s p re a d , and th e s h i f t from one s tim u lu s to th e n e s t may produce a movement o f e x c i t a t i o n alo n g th e c o r te x .

The im p re ssio n o f move­

ment i s , a c c o rd in g ly , f u l l y se n so ry i n c h a r a c te r and n o t in fe re n tia l. /

I A c tu a lly , th e p e r c e p tio n o f movement i n m otion v. p i c t u r e s i s n o t b a s i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from v i s u a l p e r c e p tio n o f movement i n ev ery day e x p e rie n c e .

When an in d iv id u a l

lo o k s a t a moving t r a i n , f o r exam ple, i t i s n o t n e c e s s a ry f o r him to keep th e t r a i n in f u l l view a t a l l tim e s in o rd e r to p e rc e iv e i t a s moving.

As he lo o k s a t i t , he

g e t s a s e r i e s o f " p i c t u r e s ” o f th e t r a i n , i n d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s and s e p a ra te d i n tim e .

The t r a i n need n o t be

p e rc e iv e d i n a l l th e in te rm e d ia te p o s itio n s f o r i t to be se e n a s a moving o b je c t.

Hormal p e rc e p tio n o f movement,

th e n , in v o lv e s an a c t o f f i l l i n g i n b lan k s betw een " p i c t u r e s ” j u s t a s th e p e r c e p tio n o f movement i n f ilm s d oes.

I n m o tio n p i c t u r e s , a s i n l i f e , o b je c ts a r e see n

i n s u c c e s s iv e p o s itio n s i n sp a c e .

4 L oc. c i t .

When th e gaps betw een

a r e n o t to o g r e a t and when th e su c c e ssiv e p o s itio n s a re p e rc e iv e d r a p id l y enough, th e p e r c e p tio n o f co n tin u o u s movement ta k e s p la c e .^

One may th in k , th e n , o f th e f ilm a s

p r e s e n tin g i n r e g u la r and c o n tr o lle d fa s h io n a s e r i e s o f v i s u a l s t i m u l i su ch a s an in d iv id u a l m ight o b ta in when a c t u a l l y lo o k in g a t a moving o b je c t.

From th e te c h n ic a l

p o in t o f v iew , t h e r e f o r e , th e problem o f movement i n con­ n e c tio n w ith f ilm s in v o lv e s such q u e s tio n s a s :

What s iz e

o f gap betw een s u c c e s s iv e p o s itio n s can be to le r a te d ?

How

r a p id l y m ust th e p i c t u r e s be p re s e n te d f o r smooth movement to b e seen?

E a r ly m otion p i c t u r e s f r e q u e n tly seemed je r k y

and th e y f r e q u e n tly in v o lv e d f l i c k e r , because o f th e f a c t t h a t th e p o s itio n s and tim e i n t e r v a l s in v o lv e d were such t h a t th e in d iv id u a l could n o t Mf i l l i n th e gaps11 and se c u re th e p e r c e p tio n o f smooth movement.

At th e p r e s e n t tim e

t h i s i s n o t f r e q u e n tly th e e a s e , f o r th e s p e c i f i c q u e s tio n s o f tim in g have been answ ered s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . I I . EEFTK The m otion p ic tu r e i s a s e r i e s o f f l a t p i c t u r e s . I t h as o n ly two dim ensions — h o r i z o n ta l and v e r t i c a l .

5 F . L . Buch, Psychology and L if e & C o ., 1 941), p . 229.

( S c o tt, Foresm an

11

I t i s q u ite i n c o n t r a s t t o th e th in g s o f r e a l i t y , which, have a t h i r d d im en sio n , d e p th .

In r e a l i t y , o b je c ts move

from s id e t o s i d e , up and down, and a ls o tow ards o r away from u s .

On th e s c re e n , th e r e can be movement sidew ay s,

and up an d down, b u t n o t i n th e d i r e c ti o n o f tow ards o r away from u s . However, though we know th a t th e m otion p ic tu r e i s f l a t , th e im p re ssio n we re c e iv e when w atch in g a m otion p i c t u r e i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t .

We c a n n o t deny t h a t we do

see some d e p th d e s p ite o u r knowledge th a t, th e p i c t u r e s a r e fla t.

We do see t h a t th e window i s behind th e t a b l e .

We

do see t h a t one p erso n moves i n f r o n t o f o r b eh in d a n o th e r. We see a t r a i n ap p ro ach in g o r a b o a t re c e d in g .^ ) We do see th e d i s t a n t w ay sid e, th e long h a llw a y , and th e f a r - o f f meadow.

Though f l a t n e s s i s th e o b je c tiv e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ,

o u r s u b je c tiv e im p re ssio n i s n o t one o f f l a t n e s s . I f d e p th i s n o t a n a t t r i b u t e t h a t i s p r e s e n t i n th e v i s u a l s i t u a t i o n t h a t g iv e s r i s e to th e im p re ssio n o f d e p th , th e n (th e re m ust be some cues* p ro v id ed by th e s i t u a t i o n i n term s o f which i t i s i n f e r r e d .

Work done by

p s y c h o lo g is ts on the p e rc e p tio n o f d e p th and d is ta n c e under

* A cue i s a seco n d ary s tim u lu s , u s u a lly o f a f a i n t i n t e n s i t y , w hich s e rv e s to g u id e , u s u a lly s u b s c o n s c io u s ly , th e re sp o n se s o f th e organism . H ef.s H. C. W arren, D ic tio n a ry o f Psychology (New York: H oughton, M if f lin C o ., 1 9 3 4 ) , p . 66.

12

o r d in a r y c irc u m sta n c e s p ro v id e s in fo rm a tio n t h a t i s a p p l i ­ c a b le to th e m otion p ic t u r e s i t u a t i o n . The r e l a t i v e s i z e o f th e r e t i n a l image i s one cue t o th e p e r c e p tio n o f d e p th and d is ta n c e i n everyday e x p e r i­ ence.

The p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r in c ip le i s t h a t th e a p p a re n t

d is ta n c e o f an o b je c t i s in v e r s e ly p r o p o r tio n a l to th e s iz e o f the r e t i n a l im a g e .6

T his cue i s most e f f e c t i v e when we

have had s u f f i c i e n t p re v io u s e x p e rie n c e w ith th e o b je c t ( o r one s i m i l a r to i t ) to have a c l e a r - c u t s ta n d a rd w ith r e s p e c t to i t s s iz e .'y A man c lo s e t o u s a ro u s e s a r e l a t i v e ­ l y la r g e r e t i n a l im age.

I f he i s seen i n th e d i s t a n c e , th e

r e t i n a l image in v o lv e d i s s m a lle r .

We p e rc e iv e him in th e

l a t t e r ca se a s a man a t a d is ta n c e , n o t a s a m idget c lo s e to u s .

I f we had no e x p e rien ce w ith an o b je c t i n q u e s tio n

and i f o th e r cues o f d is ta n c e were e lim in a te d , we c o u ld n o t t e l l from the r e t i n a l image w hether th e o b je c t was l a r g e and f a r away o r s m a ll and c lo s e t o u s .

Under o rd in ­

a r y c irc u m s ta n c e s , however, we d e a l w ith o b je c ts co n cern ­ in g w hich we have some k in d of s iz e s ta n d a rd b u i l t up th ro u g h p a s t e x p e rie n c e . } /

T his cue o f d is ta n c e c a n be p re s e n t on th e s c r e e n . When th e f i l m i s made, a man s ta n d in g f a r t h e r from th e cam era w i l l be photo graphed a s s m a lle r th a n one who i s

York:

® A. G. B i l l s , G en eral E x p erim en tal Psychology (New Longman, Green & C o ., 1935), p . 129.

c l o s e r t o th e cam era.

When th e p ic t u r e i s p r o je c te d on

th e s c r e e n , t h i s s iz e d if f e r e n c e w i l l be m a in ta in e d , an d j b ecau se o f th e s ta n d a rd s t h a t we have b u i l t up i n con­ n e c tio n w ith th e s i z e o f men, we w i l l see th e fo rm e r as f a r t h e r away. CT his phenomenon i s o f g r e a t im portance in connec­ t i o n w ith c e r t a i n p r a c t i c a l a s p e c ts o f film p ro d u c tio n . I t makes p o s s ib le the use of m in ia tu re s o f o b je c ts i n p la c e o f th e o r i g i n a l s .

/

F o r example^^on th e s e t th e h ero

s ta n d s n e a r a window, and on ly te n y a rd s behind th e window i s p la c e d a m in ia tu re o f th e Empire S ta te B u ild in g .

The

p e r c e p tio n t h a t th e au d ien c e w i l l make i s t h a t th e hero i s lo o k in g a t th e d i s t a n t Empire S ta te B u ild in g from h i s window.

The m in ia tu re o f th e b u ild in g when p la c e d r e l a ­

t i v e l y c lo s e to th e cam era produces a p i c t u r e of t h e same s i z e a s would th e v e ry much l a r g e r b u ild in g a t a d is ta n c e . B ecause o f p re v io u s e x p e rie n c e w ith th e g e n e r a l s i z e o f b u ild in g s c o n s tru c te d l i k e th e Empire S ta te B u ild in g , th e au d ien ce g e ts th e p e r c e p tio n o f a la rg e s t r u c t u r e f a r away. The same phenomenon i s in v o lv ed i n s i t u a t i o n s where a n o b je c t i s to be p o rtra y e d a s moving from th e background o f a scene tow ard th e f r o n t .

When a t r a i n i s i n th e d i s ­

ta n c e , f o r exam ple, i t o c c u p ie s a sm a ll a r e a of th e s c re e n . As i t a p p ro a c h e s, i t o c c u p ie s a l a r g e r and l a r g e r a r e a .

14

T h is g ra d u a l in c r e a s e of s iz e o r s c r e e n - a r e a g iv e s r i s e to th e im p ressio n o f movement from th e background t o th e f o r e ­ g ro u n d , d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t th e s c re e n i t s e l f i s o n ly tw o-dim ens i o n a l . ^ ^ /\/' A nother cue t o the p e rc e p tio n of d is ta n c e i n o rd in ­ a r y c irc u m sta n c e s i s t h a t of a e r i a l p e rs p e c tiv e * ?

Because

o f smoke and d u s t i n the a i r , d i s t a n t o b je c ts a r e seen as more b lu r r e d i n t h e i r o u tlin e s and d e s a tu r a te d in t h e i r hues*

D e ta ils t h a t a r e c l e a r l y v i s i b l e when th e o b je c ts

a re c lo s e a r e l o s t when th e y a r e f a r away. u t i l i z e d on th e s c re e n .

T h is cue can be

When th e camera p h o to g rap h s a

d i s t a n t o b je c t, b ecause of th e atm o sp h eric c o n d itio n s , th e p i c t u r e ta k e n does n o t c a tc h th e d e t a i l s t h a t would be p r e s e n t i f th e o b je c t were c l o s e .

A b u ild in g w ith hazy

ap p e aran c e on th e s c re e n i s p e rc e iv e d a s b ein g a t a d i s ­ ta n c e , j u s t a s such a b u ild in g would be judged i n o rd in a r y e x p e rie n c e a s b e in g f a r away.

Here a g a in , by a r t i f i c i a l

p ro d u c tio n o f c o n d itio n s c a lc u la te d t o produce h a z in e s s and th e l i k e , i t i s p o s s ib le f o r th e f ilm p ro d u c e r to make u se o f t h i s cue t o produce, th e i l l u s i o n o f d is ta n c e when on th e s e t such d is ta n c e i s n o t r e a l l y in v o lv e d . / 'v A r e l a t e d cue i s t h a t of th e r e l a t i v e b r ig h tn e s s o f o b je c ts .

The p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r i n c i p l e in v o lv e d i s t h a t th e

7 I b id . . p . 131.

15

a p p a re n t d is ta n c e o f a n o b je c t i s in v e r s e ly p r o p o r tio n a l to i t s b r ig h tn e s s v a lu e .8

In th e film in g o f s c e n e s , an

o b je c t t h a t i s f a r away w i l l be l e s s b r i g h t th a n th e same o b je c t when i t i s c lo s e to th e cam era.

When th e p i c t u r e s

a re shown on th e s c r e e n , th e au d ien ce w i l l p e rc e iv e th e d is ta n c e o f th e o b je c t p a r t l y i n term s o f t h i s b r ig h tn e s s fa c to r.

Moreover., th e cameraman can c r e a te a n i l l u s i o n of

d is ta n c e and d ep th by c le v e r l i g h t i n g o f th e s e t .

R e la ­

t i v e l y dim l i g h t i n g o f som ething t h a t he w ish es to be p e rc e iv e d a s b ein g a t a c o n s id e ra b le d is ta n c e from th e fo re g ro u n d w i l l h e lp c r e a te th e i l l u s i o n - o f d is ta n c e even though th e o b je c t i s r e l a t i v e l y c lo s e to th e cam era.

C A v e ry

obvious cue to d is ta n c e in o rd in a ry e x p e r i­

ence i s t h a t o f th e r e l a t i v e p o s it io n o f o b j e c t s . 9

F ast

e x p e rie n c e has in d ic a te d to us t h a t n e a r o b je c ts tend to c o v e r up f a r o b j e c t s .

Thus, i f we s e e —e i t h e r i n r e a l

l i f e o r on t h e s c re e n —two c a rs and i f one o f them a p p e a rs i n i t s e n t i r e t y w hereas th e second seems to be covered up p a r t l y by th e f i r s t , we w i l l p e rc e iv e th e f i r s t a s c lo s e r

J

to US. r

^ R e la tiv e r a t e of movement i s a n o th e r f a c t o r t h a t

in f lu e n c e s p e r c e p tio n o f d is ta n c e .

8 I b i d . , p . 130 9 I b i d . . p . 131

I f two o b je c ts

a r e moving a t th e same sp eed and one i s f a r t h e r away th a n th e o th e r , th e more d i s t a n t one w i l l a p p e a r t o be moving more s l o w l y . T h u s ,

i f an o b je c t moves from one s id e o f

th e v i s u a l f i e l d t o th e o th e r v e ry r a p id l y , we w i l l judge t h a t i t i s c l o s e r to us th a n we would i f i t moved v e ry slo w ly a c ro s s th e v i s u a l f i e l d .

T his cu e, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n

co m b in atio n w ith o th e r s , can be u t i l i z e d i n m otion p i c tu r e w ork.

A m in ia tu re o f a b o a t f a i r l y c lo s e t o th e camera

b e in g moved slo w ly a c ro s s th e scene b e in g photographed * ^

would a p p e a r on th e s c re e n a s a la r g e b o a t a t a d istan ce... The same b o a t moved r a p id l y a c ro s s th e scene would a p p e a r in co n g ru o u s.

I t s s i z e would p ro v id e a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t i t

was a t a d is ta n c e , b u t i t s sp eed would g iv e th e im p re ssio n o f n e a rn e s s . There a r e a number o f m inor cues t o d is ta n c e in ev ery d ay e x p e rie n c e t h a t a r e a ls o found i n th e m otion p ic tu re .

Two p a r a l l e l l i n e s ( e . g . , ra ilw a y tr a c k s ) seem to

converge i n th e d i s t a n c e .\ s p e c t i v e .'1-1

T his i s known a s l i n e a r p e r -

The camera w i l l p ic k up t h i s phenomenon, j u s t

a s do es th e ey e.

The r e s u l t i s t h a t t h i s cue o f d is ta n c e

can be p o rtra y e d on th e s c re e n . However, t h e r e a r e some cues to d is ta n c e found i n m

10 Woodworth, op. c i t . . p . 652. 3-1 I b i d . , p . 6 5 1 .

a c t u a l e x p e rie n c e w ith o b je c ts t h a t a re n o t u t i l i z e d on th e sc re e n .

One of th e s e i s accom m odation.

When an in d iv id u a l

lo o k s a t n e a r o b j e c t s , th e le n s e s of th e ey es bulge so t h a t th e l i g h t waves from th e o b je c ts may be fo c u se d on th e r e tin a f o r c le a r v is io n .

S im ila r ly , when he lo o k s a t f a r

o b j e c t s , th e le n s e s f l a t t e n o u t.

The p a t t e r n s o f s e n s a tio n s

t h a t o ccu r i n c o n n e c tio n w ith th e s e changes i n th e shape o f th e le n s e s a r e cu e s to d is ta n c e i n o rd in a ry c irc u m s ta n c e s . However, when an in d iv id u a l lo o k s a t th e s c re e n , o b je c ts t h a t a r e in te n d e d t o be n e a r and o b je c ts t h a t a r e in te n d e d to be f a r away a r e b o th a c t u a l l y a t th e same d is ta n c e from th e i n d i v id u a l, th e d is ta n c e betw een him and th e s c r e e n . The r e s u l t i s t h a t t h i s cue o f accommodation i s l o s t . I n s i m i l a r f a s h io n , w ith r e a l - l i f e e x p e rie n c e , when we lo o k a t som ething c lo s e , th e eyes c o n v e rg e .

As we look

a t more d i s t a n t o b j e c ts , th e v i s u a l ax es become more n e a r ly p a ra lle l.

Inasmuch a s th e s c re e n m a in ta in s th e same d i s ­

ta n c e from u s , r e g a r d le s s o f th e d is ta n c e t h a t i s in te n d e d to be p o rtra y e d on th e s c re e n , t h i s k in d o f cue ca n n o t be u tiliz e d .

F u rth e rm o re , under o rd in a ry e x p e rie n c e , when we

lo o k a t a c lo s e o b j e c t , th e view o b ta in e d by th e r i g h t eye i s s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o b ta in e d by th e l e f t ey e. T his d if f e r e n c e i n r e t i n a l p i c t u r e s i s an im p o rta n t cue to d e p th and d i s t a n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e case o f o b je c ts t h a t a r e r e l a t i v e l y c lo s e t o u s .

On th e s c re e n how ever,

18

w ith o n ly one p i c t u r e p re s e n te d , i t i s n o t p o s s ib le f o r th e l e f t eye t o s e e s l i g h t l y f a r t h e r around th e l e f t s id e o f an o b je c t and f o r th e r i g h t eye to see s l i g h t l y f a r t h e r around th e r i g h t s i d e , even i n th e ca se of o b je c ts t h a t a r e in te n d e d to be s e e n a s n e a r.

The r e s u l t i s t h a t t h i s

im p o rta n t cue t o d e p th i s n o t a v a il a b le . I n summary, i t may be s a id t h a t th e m otion p i c t u r e c a n , and d o e s , make use o f a number o f th e cues to d e p th t h a t a re p r e s e n t i n o rd in a ry e x p e rie n c e , b u t t h a t i t does n o t u t i l i z e a l l th e c u e s.

I t i s , p e rh a p s, th e n n o t s u r ­

p r i s i n g t h a t p eo p le r e p o r t a r a t h e r complex r e a c t i o n i n r e s p e c t to th e p e r c e p tio n o f d e p th i n f i l m s .

C e r ta in o f

th e cu es f o r d e p th a r e p r e s e n t and a r e e f f e c t i v e a s f a r a s th e o b se rv e r i s co n c ern ed .

But some of them a ls o a r e

m is s in g , and th e r e s u l t i s t h a t th e p e r c e p tio n o f d e p th i s n o t a s r e a l i s t i c a s i t is in r e a l - l i f e .

Added t o t h i s

i s th e f a c t t h a t p eo p le know t h a t the p i c t u r e i s a f l a t one and may be in flu e n c e d in t h e i r p e r c e p tio n by su ch know ledge.

M oreover, i t may be t h a t som etimes th e a tte m p t

to produce a r t i f i c i a l l y v a rio u s cues t o d ep th on th e s c re e n h as in v o lv ed c e r t a i n in c o n g r u itie s t h a t make th e p e r c e p tio n o f d is ta n c e d i f f i c u l t .

A m in ia tu r e b u ild in g

p la c e d c lo s e t o th e eam era m ight be h ard to i n t e r p r e t a s a la r g e b u ild in g f a r away, f o r exam ple, i f on th e s c re e n e v e ry d e t a i l o f i t sto o d out c l e a r i y and d i s t i n c t l y .

19

I I I . ATTENTION The problem o f a ro u s in g and m a in ta in in g a t t e n t i o n i s an im p o rta n t one i n th e m otion p i c t u r e .

A n a ly sis by

p s y c h o lo g is ts h as in d ic a te d a number o f f a c t o r s t h a t have an in flu e n c e on th e d i r e c t i o n o f a t t e n t i o n .

Some of th e

m ost im p o rta n t of th e s e a r e d is c u s s e d below , w ith an i l l u s t r a t i o n i n th e ca se o f e a c h .

A ll o f th e s e f a c t o r s

c a n , and have b ee n , u t i l i z e d i n m otion p i c tu r e s i t u a t i o n s . As a g e n e r a l s ta te m e n t, i t m ight be s a id t h a t , i f a f ilm p ro d u c e r w an ts to fo c u s a t t e n t i o n on a p a r t i c u l a r o b je c t o r s i t u a t i o n , he can e x p e c t t h a t th e u se o f one o r more o f th e s e te c h n iq u e s w i l l be h e l p f u l i n a c h ie v in g h i s g o a l. Change o f any s o r t i s l i k e l y to draw a t t e n t i o n .1 2 Movement from one p o s i tio n to a n o th e r i s b a s ic i n th e film s itu a tio n .

On th e sc re e n we a r e shown in d iv id u a ls w alk in g ,

c a r s sp ee d in g a lo n g a ro a d , a f l a g w aving, e t c . * S tu d ie s have in d ic a te d t h a t i t i s j u s t i f i e d t o conclude t h a t a t t e n ­ t i o n w i l l be drawn to such o b je c ts more th a n would be th e ca se i f th e y were s t i l l . d is p la y s .

One stu d y was made on window

S ix p e r c e n t o f th e in d iv id u a ls who w alked by on

one day sto p p ed to see th e d is p la y .

The n e x t day when th e

d is p la y was on a r o t a t i n g t a b l e , 45% of th e in d iv id u a ls who

12 H. E. B u r t t , A p p lied Psychology P r e n tic e - H a ll, I n c . , 1 9 4 9 ), p . 688 f f .

(New York:

20

w alked by sto p p ed t o see i t . 13 a ls o p o s s ib le i n f ilm s .

Changes of i n t e n s i t y a re

The h e ro w alks in t o a darkened

room and tu r n s on th e l i g h t .

With th e sound accompaniment

o f f i l m s , changes o f b o th i n t e n s i t y and q u a l i t y a r e p o s s ib le .

F o o ts te p s a r e h eard f a i n t l y and th e n become

lo u d e r and lo u d e r.

A l u l la b y changes to a m a r t i a l a i r , o r

th e booming o f a cannon su d d en ly s to p s . !C o n tra s t i n c o l o r and b r ig h tn e s s i s a n o th e r im­ p o r ta n t means o f draw ing a t t e n t i o n .

The ap p earan ce o f a

s in g le c o lo re d p i c t u r e in a b la c k and w h ite f ilm would be ex p ected to em phasize a tt e n ti o n ^

A long w ith th e v a lu e

o f a d if f e r e n c e in i n t e n s i t y i s 1 th e f a c t t h a t th e more in te n s e i s th e s tim u la tio n th e b e t t e r i t i s f o r a t t e n t i o n p ro d u c in g p u rp o s e s . ^M otion p i c t u r e p r o j e c ti o n seems to p ro v id e c o n d itio n s which f a c i l i t a t e draw ing the a t t e n t i o n o f th e a u d ie n c e . r e g io n , v i z . :

The t h e a t e r i s made d a rk and o n ly one

th e s c re e n , i s l e f t l i g h t e d .

p r o f u s e ly illu m in a te d .

I t is ra th e r

P h y s ic a l c o n d itio n s i n th e movie

t h e a t e r th u s ten d t o e lim in a te d iv e r s io n o f a t t e n t i o n and to fo c u s a t t e n t i o n on th e p i c t u r e s .

I n o th e r w ords,

th e c o n d itio n s o f m otion p ic t u r e p r o j e c tio n o f f e r an e x c e l le n t o p p o rtu n ity f o r c a p tu r in g and m onopolizing one’ s r\ a tte n tio n .\ 1 J 13 I b i d . , p . 6 9 6 .

21

A tte n tio n may som etimes be c a u g h t by weak s t i m u li t h a t would n o t i n a s in g le p r e s e n ta tio n a ro u se i t , i f th e s t i m u l i a r e p re s e n te d r e p e t i t i v e l y .

The f a i n t sound o f a

ta p p in g a t th e window m ight n o t draw a t t e n t i o n if - p re s e n te d on ly once, f o r exam ple, b u t m ight be h ig h ly e f f e c t i v e i f r e p e a te d a number o f tim e s . zp A nother f a c t o r h as been g iv e n th e name o f s t r i k i n g q u a lity .

When two s t im u li a r e o f the same i n t e n s i t y , one

o f them may be more a t t e n t i o n - c a tc h in g th a n th e seco n d . A h ig h sound h as g r e a t e r s t r i k i n g q u a li ty th a n a low sound o f th e same p h y s ic a l s t r e n g th .

The c o lo r re d c a tc h e s

a t t e n t i o n more r e a d i l y th a n , s a y , a p a s t e l c o l o r . S o c ia l s u g g e s tio n may a ls o be u t i l i z e d i n a t t r a c t ­ in g a t t e n t i o n .

I n th e c a se o f f i l m s , f o r exam ple, i f th e

h e ro lo o k s a t a c e r t a i n o b je c t, i t i s l i k e l y t h a t th e a u d ie n c e w i l l lo o k a t i t , to o .

I f the h ero re a d s a l e t t e r

i n h i s hand, th e au d ien c e can be ex p e cted t o pay a t t e n t i o n to th e l e t t e r . A ppeal to m o tiv es o f th e in d iv id u a l i s a f u r t h e r f a c t o r i n c a tc h in g a t t e n t i o n .

I n th e movie s i t u a t i o n , such

a p p e a l must be r a t h e r g e n e r a l i n n a tu r e .

P ic tu r e s o f

t o p i c a l i n t e r e s t a re f r e q u e n tly made i n o rd e r to draw p eo p le t o th e t h e a t e r , b u t i n a d d itio n to t h i s i t i s p o s s ib le i n th e f ilm i t s e l f to draw a t t e n t i o n to p a r t i c u l a r sc e n e s by r e f e r e n c e s t o common d e s ir e s ', i n t e r e s t s , o r

22

problem s o f th e d ay . m o tio n p ic tu r e can u t i l i z e th e s e v a rio u s te c h n iq u e s f o r draw ing a t t e n t i o n .

I t i s a ls o i n a f a v o r ­

a b le p o s i t i o n , from the t e c h n i c a l p o in t o f view , f o r h o ld in g a t t e n t i o n .

S tu d ie s have shown t h a t a stim u lu s

can c a l l f o r t h a t t e n t i o n , b u t cannot h o ld i t f o r lo n g . A tte n tio n w i l l fa d e away w ith in a s h o r t tim e.

To h o ld

a t t e n t i o n , i t i s th e r e f o r e n e c e s s a ry t h a t a t th e p o in t o f i t s fa d in g away, th e re should be a change o f stim u lu s to re v iv e i t .

The q u ic k change o f s h o ts , which i s so

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the m otion p i c t u r e , s e rv e s i n a way to h o ld a t t e n t i o n .

New s h o ts go on im pinging on th e au d ien ce

c o n tin u a lly to r e s t o r e d e c lin in g a t t e n t i o n . A tte n tio n i s o f two ty p e s : u n ta r y .

v o lu n ta ry and in v o l­

With th e v o lu n ta r y v a r i e t y we a tte n d to th in g s

b ecau se we want t o do s o , , We l i s t e n t o th e ra d io f o r a w h ile to f in d o u t what i s going on.

We look a t th e d i f f e r ­

e n t fa c e s i n a p a r ty to see i f th e r e i s any f a m i l i a r f a c e . As f a r a s f ilm s a r e co n cern ed , a p p e a l to v o lu n ta ry a t t e n ­ t i o n i s p ro b a b ly made la r g e ly i n term s o f the kin d o f s t o r y in v o lv e d , though i t i s tr u e t h a t some in d iv id u a ls may be so i n t e r e s t e d i n t e c h n i c a l d e t a i l s o f d ra m a tic o r cin em ato g ra p h ic p ro d u c tio n t h a t t h e i r v o lu n ta ry a t t e n t i o n w i l l be d ir e c te d tow ard them. I n th e ca se of th e in v o lu n ta ry v a r i e t y , we a tte n d

to th in g s ev en though we do n o t want t o . a r e a s i f t h r u s t upon u s .

The s tim u li

Change, i n t e n s i t y , r e p e t i t i o n ,

e .o n tra s t, s t r i k i n g q u a l i t y , and s o c i a l s u g g e s tio n a r e a l l f a c t o r s t h a t may be used by th e film p ro d u c e r to f a c i l i t a t e . th e draw ing o f th e a u d ie n c e ’ s a t t e n t i o n t o p o in ts t h a t he w ish es t o s in g le o u t and em phasize.

Among th e a c t o r s , one

who i s sp eak in g i s l i k e l y to draw our a t t e n t i o n .

B u t, i f

he i s re b u k in g somebody, our a t t e n t i o n (th ro u g h s o c i a l s u g g e s tio n ) i s l i k e l y to go t o th e l a t t e r .

We cannot b u t

a t t e n d , i t seem s, to a q u ic k a c ti o n , a g la r i n g o b je c t, an unusual d re s s .

Our a t t e n t i o n i s , a s i t w ere, c a r r i e d i n ­

d e p e n d e n tly of. o u r v o l i t i o n from one p la c e to a n o th e r , from one p e rs o n to a n o th e r . The good m otion p ic tu r e n o t o n ly u se s th e s e v a r io u s d e v ic e s f o r a t t r a c t i n g a t t e n t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n s b u t , a l s o , i s c a r e f u l to a n a ly z e th e s i t u a t i o n so t h a t i t ca n s a t i s f y i n t e r e s t s and m o tiv a tio n s a ro u se d and th u s h e ig h te n v o lu n ta ry a t t e n t i o n .

The h ero g e ts a te le g ra m .

We a t once want t o see what i s w r i t t e n t h e r e i n . n e x t moment we see a c lo s e -u p o f th e te le g ra m .

I n th e W hile

ta k in g out th e h a n d k e rc h ie f from h is p o c k e t, th e man un­ know ingly d ro p s som ething on th e f l o o r .

We a t once w ant

t o se e w hat t h a t i s , and a c lo s e -u p o f th e o b je c t i s g iv e n on th e s c re e n . window.

We see a man s t a r i n g through th e

We, to o , want t o see what he i s lo o k in g a t , and

24

th e n e x t s h o t shows a co u p le o f b ir d s on th e branch o f a tre e .

The e f f e c t i v e m otion p i c t u r e th u s u se s v a rio u s

d e v ic e s f o r a ro u s in g in v o lu n ta ry a t t e n t i o n to h e ig h te n i n t e r e s t i n th e s u b je c t m a tte r and t o s tre n g th e n v o lu n ­ ta ry a tte n tio n . / I n summary , th e r o l e o f a t t e n t i o n in th e m otion p i c t u r e i s o f c o n s id e ra b le s i g n i f ic a n c e .

The showing o f

th e film i n a dark en ed t h e a t e r and th e movement t h a t i s such an i n t e g r a l p a r t of th e s i t u a t i o n p ro v id e r a n a tte n tio n - p r o d u e in g b a s is f o r m ovies.

In th e p ro d u c tio n

of f i l m s , i t i s p o s s ib le t o ta k e advantage o f numerous d e v ic e s f o r a t t r a c t i n g in v o lu n ta ry a t t e n t i o n .

F u r th e r ­

m ore, th e film p ro d u cer ca n shape th e f ilm t o m eet th e i n t e r e s t s a ro u se d by such d e v ic e s to h e ig h te n v o lu n ta ry a tte n tio n . IV .

EMOTION

(^The r o le o f em otion i n m otion p i c t u r e s does n o t d i f f e r i n many re s p e c ts from t h a t i n s ta g e p lay s.. a s p e c ts a r e in v o lv e d :

Two

th e e x p re s s io n o f em otions by a c to r s

i n su ch a way t h a t th e au d ien ce w i l l know the em otion i n -

^ ...

te c h n iq u e s used a r e s i m ila r and i n th e s ta g e p la y .

i n th e m otion p ic t u r e p la y

N e v e rth e le s s , th e m otion p ic t u r e

h as ways o f com m unicating and evoking em otions t h a t a r e

25

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f i t s own medium. Much work h a s h een done by p s y c h o lo g is ts on th e problem o f th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f em otions i n o th e rs from v a r io u s k in d s o f b o d ily e x p re s s io n .

For th e m ost p a r t , th e

p s y c h o lo g is t h a s b een i n t e r e s t e d in i s o l a t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r k in d o f e x p re s s io n and d e te rm in in g th e e x te n t t o which i t co u ld be used i n i d e n ti f y in g th e em otion in v o lv e d .

S tu d ie s

have been made, f o r exam ple, in w hich in d iv id u a ls have been ask ed t o judge em otion from p h o to g rap h s, f i n c o n n e c tio n w ith such s t u d i e s , i t should be p o in te d o u t t h a t two d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t i e s o f “ em otion” have been in v o lv e d :

em otion i n th e

r e a l - l i f e s i t u a t i o n and em otion in a dram atic" s i t u a t i o n , w here th e p rim ary c o n c e rn of th e p e rso n p o rtra y in g th e em otion i s to “g e t a c r o s s 1* t o th e au d ien c e th e n a tu re o f th e e x p e r i e n c e T h e r e s u l t s of the f i r s t kind o f stu d y a r e n o t p e r t i n e n t to th e problem a t hand.

More a p p lic a b le

a r e th e s t u d i e s i n w hich em otions have been p o sed , and p h o to g rap h s o f them have been u sed t o d eterm in e w h e th e r o u ts id e in d iv id u a ls could i d e n t i f y the p a r t i c u l a r em otions in v o lv e d .

Such s t u d i e s have in d ic a te d t h a t posed em otions

may be judged from photographs w ith c o n s id e ra b ly b e t t e r .th an chance s u c c e s s .

H ighly s p e c if ic judgm ents betw een

c lo s e ly r e l a t e d em otions cannot be made, b u t judgm ent i s f a i r l y s u c c e s s f u l f o r broad c a te g o r ie s o f em otion.

■^ Woodworth, op. c i t . . pp. 242-256.

Common e x p e rie n c e a l s o in d ic a te s t h a t e m o tio n al to n e can be ju d g ed from v o c a l e x p r e s s io n w ith a c e r t a i n d eg ree o f succes„s.

Such c o n c lu s io n s , i t should be n o te d , d e a l w ith

r a t h e r i s o l a t e d a s p e c ts of e m o tio n a l e x p r e s s io n ,

[in th e fyf i K

f ilm and p la y s i t u a t i o n , th e s tim u la tio n in v o lv e d i s muehj more com plex. /The a c t o r n o t only g iv e s a p a r t i c u l a r f a c i a l e x p re s s io n a t a g iv e n i n s t a n t of tim e , b u t i n a d d i t i o n , th e au d ien c e can g a in in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e em otion from th e v o c a l q u a l i t y in v o lv e d , th e change i n e x p r e s s io n from one moment to th e n e x t, t h e movement o f th e h an d s, th e g e n e r a l p o s tu re o f th e p e rs o n , and th e su g g e s tio n from th e n a tu re o f t h e p l o t o f th e k in d o f em otion t h a t would be e x p e c te d ^ / One w ould, t h e r e f o r e , p r e d ic t t h a t i f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s were made o f em o tio n s ex p re sse d i n p lay s o r in f ilm s , th e su c c e ss i n judgm ent would be much g r e a t e r th a n in th e case o f s i t u a ­ t i o n s in v o lv in g a n i s o l a t e d f a c t o r , su ch a s f a c i a l e x p re s ­ s io n a t a p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n t .

"'c'M

F u rth e rm o re ,. one would e x p e c t t h a t em otion would be b e s t re c o g n iz a b le i f th e accom panying b o d ily e x p re s ­ s io n s were c l e a r l y m a n ife s t.

The m otion p ic t u r e i n t h i s

r e s p e c t h as one b ig ad v an tag e o v er th e s ta g e p l a y .

Through

i t s c lo s e -u p te c h n iq u e , i t can p r e s e n t th e b o d ily m ani­ f e s t a t i o n s o f em otion w ith v iv id n e s s and as much d e t a i l as d e s ire d .

I t th u s is p ro b a b ly a b le to evoke more e a s i l y

th a n th e s ta g e p la y , th e im p re ssio n o f th e c o rre sp o n d in g

em o tio n in th e mind of t h e s p e c ta to r#

A man may he p o r­

tra y e d a s an g ry r a t h e r e a s i l y by showing a c lo s e -u p o f h i s f a c e on which th e c o n v e n tio n a l f a c i a l e x p re s s io n o f anger is c le a rly v is ib le . Em otion comes in to moving p ic t u r e s in a second way.

F re q u e n tly , i t i s d e s ir a b le to a ro u se a c e r t a i n

e m o tio n a l r e a c t i o n on th e p a r t o f th e a u d ie n c e , i n a d d i­ t i o n to conveying the em otion t h a t th e a c t o r i s p o r tr a y ­ in g .

I n a m y stery f i l m , f o r exam ple, i t may be d e s ir e d

n o t o n ly t o communicate th e id e a t h a t th e a c t o r i s ex­ p e r ie n c in g f e a r b u t a ls o to a ro u se a c e r t a i n f e a r re sp o n se J:

i n th e au d ien ce so t h a t th e e f f e c t o f th e s t o r y w i l l be made more s t r i k i n g .

C reaking d o o rs , s tra n g e n o is e s , '

✓yotf't

f l a s h e s o f l i g h t , and o th e r such d e v ic e s may be used to h e ig h te n su spense and a ro u se re sp o n se s o f f e a r , d i s t r u s t , shock and th e l i k e i n an a u d ie n c e .

I n r e l a t i o n to a r o u s ­

in g g e n e r a l e m o tio n a l to n e s , the fo rm a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f th e m otion p i c t u r e medium ca n p la y an im p o rta n t p a r t . F o r exam ple, a “f a s t m otion -1 p h o to p la y of th e busy s e c tio n o f th e c i t y h a s been su g g e ste d a s a p o s s ib le way o f a ro u sin g i n th e mind of th e o n lo o k er a f e e l i n g of te n s io n A “ slow m otion1* p h o to g rap h o f a g i r l ' le a p in g i n th e m id st o f wind w ith sky i n th e background

and. b ew ild erm e n t.

^ ' }v ' / A: ^

has been in d ic a te d as; a te c h n iq u e f o r evoking a f e e l i n g o f m irth o r jo y .

This w i l l be d is c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n th e t h i r d

28

c h a p te r , P s y c h o lo g is ts have in d ic a te d t h a t th e m otion p i c t u r e can b rin g to th e o b s e rv e r an e x p e rie n c e o f e m o tio n al e x c i t ment w hich may a t tim es be v e ry in t e n s e .

( I n one s tu d y , i t

was found t h a t th e e x c ite m e n t produced b y s e n s a tio n a l m otion p i c t u r e s b ro u g h t a b o u t i n y o u n g ste rs v i s c e r a l changes t h a t d id n o t s u b s id e f o r mo re th a n tw e n ty -fo u r h o u rs

The

problem o f th e film p ro d u c e r i s to use h i s te c h n iq u e s to produce em otions i n th e a u d ie n c e i n such a way as to h e ig h te n th e e f f e c t t h a t he w ishes to em phasize. / /

V.

OTHER| PSYCHOLOGICAL HiENQMENA IN RELATION

'v

>

\

TO MOTION PICTURES

.

The r e a c t i o n o f an in d iv id u a l to a p a r t i c u l a r s tim u lu s or p a t t e r n of s tim u la tio n i s in flu e n c e d t o a c e r ­ t a i n e x te n t by h is p re v io u s e x p e rie n c e w ith i t .

I n o rd in ­

a r y s i t u a t i o n s , a p e r s o n 's re sp o n se on m eeting a g iv e n in d iv id u a l may be one o f h e a r ty g r e e tin g because p a s t c o n ta c ts w ith t h a t p e rso n have been p l e a s a n t .

J u s t th e

re v e rs e may be th e ca se i f p re v io u s e x p e rie n c e s have been u n p le a s a n t.

R e a c tio n t o a n o th e r p e rso n may be q u ite

d i f f e r e n t i f i t is known t h a t he has s u f f e r e d a se v e re m is fo rtu n e i n th e r e c e n t p a s t .r ^ I n more g e n e r a l te rm s ,

^

Ruch, p p . c i t . , p . 171.

29

r e t e n t i o n of p a s t e x p e rie n c e in flu e n c e s r e a c ti o n s a t any g iv e n tim e . '(Memory i s an im p o rta n t f a c t o r i n d e te rm in in g both, f e e l i n g to n e and o v e rt r e s p o n s e .) R tf

vy

Memory n eeds to be d e a l t w ith i n th e m otion p ic tu r e i n two ways.

I n c e r t a i n in s ta n c e s i t i s im p o rta n t t h a t

th e o b s e rv e rs know th e memories t h a t a r e in flu e n c in g a \

p a r t i c u l a r person.)

T his s i t u a t i o n i s much e a s i e r t o handle

i n th e m o tio n p i c t u r e th a n i t i s i n r e a l l i f e , where ob­ s e r v e r s a r e f r e q u e n tly unaware o f im p o rta n t f a c t o r s from th e p a s t t h a t a r e in f lu e n c in g th e a c tio n s o f th e p e rso n s r w ith whom th e y d e a l . ( A f i l m , however, can e x p r e s s what i s g o in g on in th e memory o f a c h a r a c te r .

An in d iv id u a l re a d s

th e death-new ® o f h i s f r i e n d , and o v er h is fa c e a re su p e r­ imposed th e s c e n e s o f th e bygone days when th e y used t o move a b o u t to g e th e r .

The i n d i v i d u a l 's memories can be

V/1

e x o re s s e d c l e a r l y i n v i s u a l and a u d ito r y f a s h io n .) f/ i n o th e r c irc u m s ta n c e s , f ilm s make use o f s p e c ia l s h o ts t o v i s u a l i z e and s tim u la te th e memory o f th e a u d ie n c e . p o v e ris h e d .

A c h a r a c te r , fo rm e rly w e ll o f f , becomes im­ To h e ig h te n th e im p re ss io n , i t i s im p o rta n t

t h a t th e au d ien ce remember h i s p re v io u s c o n d itio n so t h a t th e c o n t r a s t i s a more s t r i k i n g one.

F or t h i s p u rp o se ,

some scene from th e e a r l i e r p a r t o f th e film may be f la s h e d o nto th e sc re e n .^ j Such p ro c ed u re may be e x p e c te d to f a c i l i J

t a t e r e c a l l b y th e au d ien ce o f v a rio u s a s p e c ts o f th e p r e -

30

v io u s c o n d itio n , even th o se which a r e n o t a c t u a l l y shown a g a in on th e screen * \ '- .J

By means o f s u c h s p e c i a l s h o ts v a r io u s o th e r p s y c h o lo g ic a l phenomena which i n r e a l l i f e a r e communi­ c a te d to o th e r p e rso n s o n ly by i n tr o s p e c tiv e a c c o u n t ( i f a t a l l ) can be p o r tr a y e d s t r i k i n g l y on the s c r e e n .

The

boy who h as j u s t e n l i s t e d a s a s a i l o r im agines h i s f u tu r e d a y s , when he w i l l see th e sh o re s of d i s t a n t la n d s .

On th e

m o tio n p i c t u r e s c r e e n , th e s e c a n be p re s e n te d a s sce n es flo w in g o v er th e f a c e of th e boy.

A shy young man dream s

t h a t he i s a b ig s o c i a l s u c c e s s .

On th e s c re e n he can be

shown dancing s k i l l f u l l y a t a la r g e b a l l . d iv id u a l g o es to s le e p and h as a "nightm are.

A tr o u b le d i n ­ The dream ,

w ith a l l i t s d i s t o r t i o n s and in c o n g r u i ti e s , can be shown much more v i v i d l y on th e sc re e n th a n i t c a n be d e s c rib e d i n w ords.

F a n ta s y , th o u g h t, dream s, im a g in a tio n —a l l such

in n e r , and u s u a lly h id d e n , p ro c e s s e s can be g iv e n v i s u a l and a u d ito r y e x p re s s io n i n the p i c t u r e medium. I n one of the p re v io u s s e c t i o n s , i t was p o in te d out t h a t s u g g e s tio n may be used a s a n a t t e n t i o n - g e t t e r .

T his

f a c t o r i s , how ever, o f b ro a d e r s ig n if ic a n c e i n th e f ilm s itu a tio n .

S u g g e stio n m y be made d i r e c t l y , a s , f o r ex­

am ple, when one c h a r a c te r says t o a n o th e r , " L is te n to th e s in g in g o f th e b i r d s ."

I t may a ls o be i n d i r e c t .

Two

c h a r a c te r s d is c u s s a t h i r d , p o in tin g out h is m eanness and

31

s e lfis h n e s s .

The id e a im plan ted "by t h e i r speech i s l i k e l y

to in flu e n c e th e r e a c tio n s of th e a u d ie n c e .

Throughout a

f i l m , a c h a r a c t e r may be p ic tu r e d a s g e n t l e , k in d and good* Bo f i r m l y may t h i s s u g g e s tio n ta k e e f f e c t t h a t th e aud ien ce i s shocked t o f i n d a t th e end o f th e f ilm t h a t th e p e rso n h as com m itted a v ic io u s m urder.

The m otion p i c t u r e would

t'*A

seem to p ro v id e ample scope f o r th e p la y o f s u g g e s tio n , and e x p e rim e n ta l work h a s in d ic a te d t h a t a t t i t u d e s a c t u a l l y can be s u ^ e s t e d by f i l m s .

I n one s tu d y y o u n g s te rs f i l l e d

o u t some s c a le s which m easured t h e i r a t t i t u d e to w ard s th e C h in ese. them .

A f i l m fa v o ra b le t o t h a t ra c e was n e x t shown to

1/hen th e y f i l l e d

out th e a t t i t u d e s c a le s a g a in , i t

was found t h a t th e y had s h i f t e d i n p o s i t i o n on th e s c a le i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f h av in g a more fa v o ra b le a t t i t u d e tow ard C hinese people.-*-®

""I

S u g g estio n i s used i n o th e r ways in f i lm s .

The

m otion p ic tu r e s t o r y o f te n must proceed on the assum ption t h a t so m eth in g , n o t shown on th e sc re e n b u t e s s e n t i a l f o r c o n t i n u i ty , i s known o r im agined by th e a u d ie n c e .

A s u ic id e

may n o t, f o r exam ple, be shown on th e s c re e n , b u t th e s u g g e s tio n o f i t can be made so t h a t ' th e film ca n p ro ceed w ith o u t a c t u a l l y showing th e d e a th .

The c h a r a c te r g o in g

to couanit s u ic id e w r it e s h i s l a s t l e t t e r , p ic k s up a gun,

16 B u r t t , op . e i t . , p . 1 0 0 .

V^

32

and w alks o u t o f th e room.

The s u ic id e i s n o t shown.

s t e a d , th e p i c t u r e s h i f t s to some l a t e r s c e n e s . m ust b rid g e th e g u l f .

In ­

Im a g in a tio n

S u g g e stio n h e re h as re p la c e d th e

a c tu a lity . r"' I t h a s b een p o in te d out by some w r i te r s t h a t th e g e n e r a l p h y s ic a l c o n d itio n s i n a moving p ic tu r e t h e a t e r may te n d to h e ig h te n th e in d iv id u a l s e n s i t i v i t y t o s u g g e s tio n . The d a rk n e ss of t h e room, th e com fort of th e s e a t s , th e warmth of th e p la c e , th e r e l a x a t i o n o f d i s t a n t v i s i o n , ami th e f i x a t i o n o f a t t e n t i o n on th e s c re e n p ro v id e c o n d itio n s more o r l e s s a k in to th o se in d u cin g h y p n o sis.

Thus o p in io n s ,

s e n tim e n ts , and a t t i t u d e s i n th e f ilm may be e a s i l y a c c e p te d by th e a u d ie n c e .1 ^ U nder o th e r c irc u m sta n c e s th e r e m ight be g r e a t e r r e j e c t i o n o f them .

The le s s e n in g o f l o g i c a l th in k in g

makes room f o r e a s y e m o tio n a l e x c ite m e n t, to which th e f ilm g r e a t l y owes i t s im p act. When p e o p le a r e q u e s tio n e d a s to why th e y a tte n d m ovies and why th e y e n jo y them , th e y a r e l i k e l y t o g iv e a \

number o f re a s o n s .

Some sa y th e y want r e l a x a t io n .

O th ers

r e p o r t t h a t th e moving p i c t u r e g iv e s them a chance t o g e t away f o r a tim e from th e c a re s o f ev eryday l i f e .

S till

o th e r s r e p o r t t h a t th e y en jo y a good a c tin g p erfo rm an ce, o r

............. 17 G e rtru d e K e ir , “P sychology and th e F ilm ft, Penguin F ilm Review, Ho. 9, p . 67.

t h a t th e y l i k e a la u g h -p ro d u c in g p i c t u r e o r a s t o r y o f ad­ v e n tu r e .

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e a p p e a l of m otion p i c t u r e s may

r e s t t o a c o n s id e ra b le e x te n t on f a c t o r s which in d iv id u a ls do n o t r e p o r t b ecau se th e y a re on ly v a g u e ly , i f a t a l l , aw are o f them .

I t h as been p o in te d o u t t h a t th e h e ig h te n e d

e m o tio n a l e x c ite m e n t o f th e aud ien ce may be to a g r e a t ex­ t e n t due t o th e im pact of th e m otion p i c tu r e on unco n scio u s d e s i r e s and m o tiv es of th e in d iv id u a ls who com prise i t . One p ro c e s s of w h ic h a n in d iv id u a l i s l i k e l y to be unaware and t h a t may a c tu a lly draw him t o th e movie t h e a t e r is th a t of id e n tific a tio n .

(ft

I n many i n s ta n c e s , w h ile w itn e s s ­

in g a f i l m , th e o b s e rv e r p r o je c ts h im s e lf i n t o th e c h a r a c te r and i d e n t i f i e s h im s e lf w ith i t .

He, w ith th e h e r o , o v e r­

comes th e v i l l a i n and w ins th e g i r l , and he g e ts a f e e l i n g o f s a t i s f a c t i o n from th e e x p e rie n c e .

D e s ire s t h a t have b een

d e n ie d to him i n r e a l l i f e th u s may g e t f u l f i l l m e n t i n t h i s v ic a r io u s way.

On one e v e n in g he may be a famous b a s e b a ll

s t a r , on a n o th e r an em inent j u r i s t , and on a t h i r d a Don Juan* Some f e e l t h a t , i n a d d itio n to s i t u a t i o n s o f t h i s s o r t , a p p e a l may a ls o be made to th e m o tiv a tio n o f th e i n ­ d i v i d u a l i n term s o f unco n scio u s sym bols.

These a r e d i f f i ­

c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t , b ecause d i f f e r e n t sc h o o ls of a n a ly s is le a d t o d i f f e r e n t a n a ly s e s of the same sym bol.

The "W estern *1

p i c t u r e s o f America have been an a ly z ed by P a rk e r T y le r i n th e l i g h t o f F re u d ia n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

A ccording t o him ,

34

th e h o rse i s n o t o n ly a pow er-sym bol a s a f l e s h y e n g in e , b u t a s an e x te n s io n o f m an 's p e r s o n a l pow er, more s p e c i f i c a l l y , o f h is s e x u a l power. I n more s e r io u s f i l m s , the r i d e r l e s s h o rse o r y e t untamed h o rs e b e ­ comes a symbol f o r man h im s e lf , o b je c tiv e ­ l y o r s u b j e c t i v e l y , f a t h e r o r son—and som etimes a symbol f o r woman, th e woman to be s e x u a lly r e je c t e d o r o b t a i n e d . ^ Sueh i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a re i n t e r e s t i n g , 'bat i t sh o u ld be p o in te d out t h a t th e y a r e i n th e n a tu re o f h y p o th eses r a t h e r th a n v e r i f i e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I/ I S tudy of th e f ilm s made i n v a r io u s c o u n tr ie s i n d i c a te s e e r t a i n d i f f e r e n c e s betw een them even t o th e o rd in a r y m o v ie -g o e r.

K ra cau e r made an a n a ly s is of German p i c t u r e s

from 1918 t o 1933.

As th e r e s u l t o f h is s tu d y , he concluded

t h a t f ilm s p ro v id e c lu e s t o th e unseen dynam ics of human r e l a t i o n s i n th e in n e r l i f e o f th e n a tio n from w hich th e f ilm s em erge.3-9

S u re ly i t would be g ra n te d t h a t , i f th e r e

a r e im p o rta n t c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s in m o tiv a tio n s and i n t e r ­ e s t from one n a tio n to a n o th e r , w hether th o s e d if f e r e n c e s a r e on th e co n sc io u s l e v e l o r n o t, e f f e c t i v e f ilm te c h n iq u e would ta k e in t o ac co u n t such d if f e r e n c e s and a tte m p t to produce m otion p i c t u r e s w h ich would have r e a l a p p e a l f o r th e a u d ie n c e s .

18 paricer T y le r , “The H o rse -to tera Anim al of Am erican F ilm s'1, S ig h t and Sound. -Autumn. 1947. S . K ra c a u e r, From C a lig a r i to H i t l e r : A Psycho­ l o g i c a l H is to ry o f th e German F ilm (P rin c e to n U n iv e r s ity , 1947).

CHAPTER I I I

SUGGESTED MANIPULATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS FOR EFFECTIVE CINEMA I n th e p re c e d in g c h a p te r , th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f v a r io u s p s y c h o lo g ic a l phenomena (such as a t t e n t i o n , p e r c e p tio n and em otion) to th e m otion p ic tu r e was d is c u s s e d .

Where p o s s i b l e ,

g e n e ra l p r i n c i p l e s which m ight be a p p lie d to film s were s ta te d .

I n t h i s c h a p te r , s p e c if ic te c h n iq u e s t h a t have b een

su g g e ste d f o r p ro d u cing c e r t a i n e f f e c t s i n p ic tu r e s w i l l be p r e s e n te d .

Many o f th e s u g g e s tio n s have b een made on th e

b a s i s o f l o g i c a l a n a ly s is r a t h e r th a n e x p e rim e n ta l work.. O b s e rv a tio n a l ch eck to d eterm in e t h e i r e f f e c ti v e n e s s i s n eed ed , though i t must be re c o g n iz e d t h a t i n many in s ta n c e s su ch t e s t i n g would be e x tre m e ly d i f f i c u l t . The m otion p ic tu r e p r e s e n ts many p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f m a n ip u la tio n t o b rin g a b o u t a d e s ire d p s y c h o lo g ic a l e f f e c t , o r t o make i t more pronounced.

T his h a n d lin g may in v o lv e

e i t h e r th e form o r the c o n te n t o f th e f ilm o r both.-'. S p e c ia l te c h n iq u e s i n c o n n e c tio n w ith b r ig h tn e s s , m o tio n , a n g le and o th e r such a s p e c ts o f th e f ilm would be i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f th e fo rm e r.

P a r t i c u l a r a c t i o n o f th e c h a r a c t e r s , ‘^props '1 o r

b u s in e s s in th e scene would be exam ples o f t h e l a t t e r .

In

a f i l m , the e f f e c t i s the r e s u l t o f th e in te rm in g lin g o f th e f o r c e s of th e s to r y c o n te n t and th e fo rm a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

36

one o r b o th o f w hich may be m an ip u lated d e l i b e r a t e l y . A ccording t o S lavko V orkapich, The v i s u a l ap p earan ce o f . . . s h o ts and th e rhythm im p arted t o them in c u t t i n g w i l l su p p ly th e e x c ite m e n t and th e n e c e s s a ry b o d ily c h a n g es, w h ile th e c o n te n ts of th e im ages, t h e i r mean­ in g , th e s t o r y th e y t e l l , and what p re c e d e s them w i l l g iv e th e p a r t i c u l a r em o tio n al to n e to t h a t e x c ite m e n t, w i l l g iv e th e r e g is t e r e d p a t t e r n to t h a t re a c tio n .^ I n th e fo llo w in g p ages some o f th e p o s s ib le m a n ip u la tio n s t h a t may be employed I.

Y fill

be d is c u s s e d .

THE USE OF MOTION

W orkers in th e f i e l d o f cinema have su g g e ste d t h a t d i f f e r e n t p s y c h o lo g ic a l e f f e c t s may be produced by t h e use o f v a rio u s k in d s o f m o tio n .

The id e a s th e y have p re se n te d

a re p re s e n te d below , worded i n term s o f d e f i n i t e s ta te m e n ts , d e s p i t e t h e i r h y p o th e tic a l n a tu r e . D if f e r e n t ty p e s of m otion can be in tro d u c e d to evoke d i f f e r e n t f e e l i n g s .

A c c e le ra te d and r e ta r d e d

m o tio n a p p e a rs to be s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h i s r e s p e c t.

Such

d if f e r e n c e s a r e produced by v a r i a t i o n of. cam era sp e e d .

If

th e camera i s ru n a t d o uble th e norm al sp e e d , f o r t y - e i g h t fram es w i l l be exposed i n a second.

When th e s e a r e su b ­

s e q u e n tly shown a t th e norm al p r o je c ti o n speed o f tw en ty f o u r a seco n d , th e a c ti o n o f th e sh o t w i l l a p p e a r i n r e ­

1 S lavko V orkapich,"T he P s y c h o lo g ic a l B a s is of E f f e c ­ t i v e C inem atography", T e c h n ic a l B u l l e t i n , V ol. 1934, Ho. 10.

37

ta r d e d o r 11slay motion*1.

C o n v e rse ly , i f a c ti o n i s s h o t

w ith a cam era ru n n in g a t h a lf sp eed , th e r e s u l t on th e s c re e n w i l l he an a c c e le r a te d o r “ f a s t m o tio n " .

A e c e le r a t-

\

ed m otion g iv e s th e e f f e c t o f te n s io n and im p act, a s i s

j

s e e n i n th e f a s t m otion s h o ts of th e t r a f f i c i n P h i l l i p

I I \

l i e f f 's "Symphony i n M otion".

R etard ed m otion can g iv e a

f e e l i n g o f e a s e , jo y , and f a n ta s y , a s i s se e n in M arion E m erson's "B esid e th e S e a s id e ," i n w h ich h o lid a y -m a k e rs, d a n c in g t o th e s e a s id e hand on a s u l t r y a f te r n o o n , move i n a slo w , dreajsm-like rhythm . A smooth and c o n tin u o u s pan sh o t (s h o t ta k e n w ith th e cam era r o t a t i n g h o r iz o n ta lly ) o r d o lly s h o t (s h o t

^ \

ta k e n w ith th e cam era moving sid ew ay s, backw ards, o r f o r w ards) can g iv e a p le a s in g f e e l i n g .

\

A co n tin u o u s smooth

upward movement can b r in g a s o r t o f sensuous f e e l i n g .

A

t r a i n coming r i g h t a t us evokes an a tta c k in g and f r i g h t e n ­ in g s e n s e .

V ery q u ic k c u ts can b r in g d i z z i n e s s , and when

th e s e q u ick s h o ts in v o lv e in te n s e m o tio n , th e e f f e c t i s more pronounced.

V orkapich;'s " F in g le Gave" h as such s h o ts

to w ards th e end—q u ic k c u ts o f th e waves of th e se a from d i f f e r e n t a s p e c ts .

Some p erso n s com plained o f d iz z in e s s

i n s e e in g t h i s p i c t u r e . of b e in g p u lle d i n . p r e s s io n o f monotony. o f m u scu lar s t r a i n .

A moving s p i r a l g iv e s th e f e e l i n g

A to - a n d - f r o movement g iv e s th e im­ A w eight slow ly l i f t e d b rin g s a s o r t A ll th e s e ty p e s o f m otion can th e r e f o r e

38

be used to b r in g i n t o e f f e c t d i f f e r e n t f e e l in g s and s e n s a tio n s . 2 ■ F a c to rs in co n n e ctio n w ith p re fe re n c e f o r v a r io u s ty p e s of movement may a l s o be ta k e n i n to c o n s id e r a tio n . 3 F or i n s t a n c e , a h o r i z o n t a l m otion i s p r e f e r r e d to a v e r t i ­ c a l one a n d , t h e r e f o r e , w ould be e x p e c te d to produce a more p le a s a n t e f f e c t .

I n p an n in g , a clo ck w ise d i r e c t i o n

i s lik e d more th a n a c o u n te r-c lo c k w is e one. I n th e p re c e d in g c h a p te r g e n e ra l c o n s id e r a tio n was g iv e n to f a c t o r s p ro d u c in g the p e r c e p tio n o f d e p th .

T his

t o p ic h as been d is c u s s e d by in d iv id u a ls w orking w ith th e m o tio n p i c t u r e .

I t h as b ee n p o in te d o u t t h a t movement o f

th e camera i n a d o l l y s h o t can produce th e im p re ss io n of d e p th . O b je c ts in d i f f e r e n t p la n e s w i l l a p p e a r to move a t d i f f e r e n t sp eed s a c c o rd in g to t h e i r d is ta n c e from th e cam era le n s ( j u s t a s n e a r o b je c ts se e n from a moving t r a i n a p p e a r to t r a v e l p a s t th e window a t a g r e a t e r speed th a n more d i s t a n t o b j e c t s ) , and th e r e l a ­ ti o n s h ip betw een th e s e v a rio u s movements c a n , on o c c a s io n , su g g e st a lm o st a th r e e d im e n sio n a l e f f e c t . 4

3 S lavko y o rk a p ic h , “C in e m a tic s", Am erican Cinema­ to g ra p h e rs A nnuali 1930. 3 H. F . B ra n d t, "The Psychology of S eeing M otion P i c t u r e s ” , F ilm and E d u c a tio n (New York: P h i l . L i b r a r y ,1948) 4 E. L in d g re n , The A rt of th e F ilm (London: A lle n & Unwin, L t d . , 1 9 4 8 ), p . 127.

George

39

T hus, a s h o t from a moving c a r alo n g a highway le n d s a g r e a t e r d e p th to th e ro a d th a n a s t a t i c s h o t o f th e ro a d . I n th e f ilm f,F o r e s t Murmurs11 (by V orkapich) , th e f i r s t s h o t s t a r t s w ith a d o lly to g iv e th e im p re ssio n o f th e d e p th of th e f o r e s t .

Movement of an o b je c t round i t s

v e r t i c a l a x is may a ls o produce an im p re ssio n o f d e p th . T hus, a s h a f t r o t a t i n g a lo n g i t s v e r t i c a l a x is shows more d e p th th a n when i t i s s t a t i o n a r y . I I . TONE The to n e and b r ig h tn e s s of a sh o t c a n g iv e r i s e to d e f in ite fe e lin g s .

• °

C o n sid er a vetfy sim ple sc e n e , a bedroom i n 1 w hich a s i c k c h i l d l i e s w h ile i t s m other i keeps c o n s ta n t v i g i l . I f t h i s sce n e be \ p re s e n te d i n sombre to n e s w ith lo n g m enacj in g shadows on th e s c r e e n , you f e e l a t ! once t h a t th e c h ild i s g ra v e ly i l l and may n e v e r r e c o v e r . I f , on th e o th e r hand, th e room i s i n l i g h t e r to n e s , w ith th e s u n lig h t stre a m in g th ro u g h th e windows and a c h e e r­ f u l s p a rk le e v id e n t everyw here— th e sug­ g e s t i o n i s t h a t th e c r i s i s h as p a ss e d , and th e c h ild i s on th e ro ad to re c o v e ry . 5 D ark to n e s te n d to d e p re s s our s p i r i t s , and p ro fu se il lu m in a tio n l i f t s them up.®

5 J . A rn o ld , We Make th e Movies (New York: and F a b e r, 1 9 3 8 ). 6 L in d g re n , op. c i t . , p . 132.

P aber

40

S h o ts can he changed from fo c u s to o u t- o f - f o c u s o r v ic e - v e r s a t o o b ta in a s u b je c tiv e e f f e c t . A m o th er, f o r exam ple, lo o k s up from h e r sewing to see h e r lo n g -a b s e n t s a i l o r son u n e x p e c te d ly i n th e doorway; th e sh o t of th e son q u ic k ly g e ts hazy and c o n fu se d , and when we a g a in see th e m o th er, h e r eyes a r e f i l l e d w ith t e a r s . I n th e cream s e p a r a to r sequence o f 'The G en eral L in e 1, E is e n s te i n r e v e r s e s th e d e v ic e . P e a s a n ts , a re b e in g in tro d u c e d t o th e f i r s t cream s e p a r a to r th e y have e v e r s e e n . When th e d u s t-c o v e r i s sn atch e d from i t , th e s e p a r a to r i s shown o u t o f fo c u s ; g r a d u a lly i t comes i n t o fo c u s , and th e p e a s a n ts gasp w ith amazement. Here th e pu rp o se was presum ably t o su g g e st t h a t p e r c e p tib le i n t e r v a l d u rin g which th e p e a s a n ts g r a d u a lly to o k i n th e unaccustom ed o b je c t.' I n th e p i c t u r e ’’King Kong11, th e i s la n d lo o k s h azy when th e group a r r i v e s , p a lp a b ly to b rin g th e im p re s sio n of m y stery a s s o c ia te d w ith i t . III.

SET-UP

The m e n ta l s t a t e of a c h a r a c te r and o u r im p re ssio n ab o u t him ca n be conveyed by o b ta in in g a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v ie w p o in t o r s e t- u p .

Thus, i f th e camera i s r a is e d above

e y e - l e v e l so t h a t i t lo o k s down on th e su fe je e t, i t w i l l 'produce a p i c t u r e in w hich th e s u b je c t a p p e a rs dw arfed and o f d im in ish e d im p o rtan ce; c o n tr a r iw is e , i f th e cam era

7 I b i d . , p . 135

41

i s p la c e d "below e y e - le v e l and d ir e c te d upw ards, th e s iz e and im p o rtan ce o f th e s u b je c t w i ll a p p e a r exaggerated* F o r exam ple, . . . th e German f i lm , ‘The L a s t Laugh1, d i r e c t e d b y F. W. Murmau, d e p ic ts th e b i t t e r h u m ilia tio n o f th e doorman o f a la r g e h o t e l who h as become too o ld f o r h is jo b , and i s made th e la v a to r y a t t e n ­ d a n t. A ll th e s h o ts o f the doorman a s he s t r u t s ab o u t i n h i s m a g n ific e n t g o ld b ra id e d uniform i n th e e a r ly p a r t o f th e f i l m a r e ta k e n from a p o in t a l i t t l e b e ­ low e y e - l e v e l , t o enhance h i s g ra n d e u r 5 a f t e r he h as had h is u n ifo rm s tr ip p e d from him , a l l s h o ts i n which he a p p e a rs a r e ta k e n from a p o in t a l i t t l e above > eye l e v e l , lo o k in g down on him t o empha­ s i z e h is d e j e c t i o n . 8 I n th e R u ssian f ilm "The End o f S t. P e te rs b u rg 1*, t h i s te c h n iq u e was u sed w ith e x a g g e ra te d e f f e c t s when th e cam era to o k s h o ts of th e c a p i t a l i s t , Lebedev, from a v e ry low a n g le , and o f h i s c l e r k from a v e ry h ig h a n g le , to d e p i c t th e im p e rio u sn e ss o f th e em ployer and th e s e r v itu d e of th e em ployed. A t i l t e d p o s i t i o n o f th e camera w h ile ta k in g a s h o t , g iv in g r i s e t o an appearance of th e s u b je c t t i l t e d sid ew a y s, h as been used t o su g g e st th e in n e r te n s io n and la c k o f b a la n c e o f Hie c h a r a c te r .

I n th e p ic t u r e “C arn e t

de B al” , which shows th e l i f e o f an e p i l e p t i c d o c to r

8 I b i d . , p . 122

42

l i v i n g o u t a h o p e le s s e x is te n c e , many s h o ts of th e d o c to r a re ta k e n i n t h i s f a s h io n .

The la c k o f e q u ilib riu m in

th e co m p o sitio n adds c o n s id e r a b ly to th e com m unication of n erv o u s te n s io n . IV.

FILM-IMAGERIES

F ilm -im a g e rie s and sym bolic a c ts may be d e v is e d and e f f e c t i v e l y employed f o r a p s y c h o lo g ic a l p u rp o se .

They ca n

be u sed t o i d e n t i f y p erso n s i n th e p i c t u r e , to i n d i c a te o r i

em phasize th e c h a r a c te r of p e rso n s , t o e x p re ss m eanings w hich c o u ld n o t o th erw ise be e x p re sse d , to em phasize m eanings s im u lta n e o u s ly ex p ressed i n o th e r te rm s , and to em phasize the p l o t a s su ch by r e in f o r c in g i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e . 9 The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a c h a r a c te r b y means of a symbol h as been done i n G r i f f i t h 's " I n to le r a n c e " i n th e scene o f th e m arria g e o f Cana, where C h r is t i s e a s i l y s in g le d o u t from th e o th e rs by th e r a d ia n t l i g h t i n th e shape o f a c r o s s , w hich he seems t o p r o j e c t from h im s e lf a s he w alks a lo n g .

I n th e Famous P la y e rs f ilm a d a p ta tio n of

"The G i r l P h ilip p a " , P h ilip p a , a fo u n d lin g , i s o f u n id e n t i­ f i e d p a re n ta g e u n t i l we see a package o f th in g s found w ith h er.

T his package c o n ta in s a b e a u t i f u l c lo a k w ith th e

9 V. O. F re e b u rg , The A rt of P h o to p la y Making (Hew

York:

The M acm illan C o ., 1918), p . 114.

f l e u r - d e - l i s o f F rance em broidered in one c o r n e r .

T h is

emblem i n d i c a t e s t h a t she i s o f p r in c e ly o r i g i n . 10 A c in e m a tic e x p e d ie n t o f em phasizing c h a r a c te r i s th e sym bolic s e t t i n g .

I n th e p ic tu r e nP u r ity ” , a man who

i s t o be th o u g h t of a s the d e v i l p e r s o n if ie d i s shown i n one p la c e q u ite a t home b e s id e a grow th o f c a c tu s and a n e s t o f w rith in g s e r p e n ts .

A nother example m ight be a

f i c k l e - h e a r t e d woman who comes to th e scene h o ld in g h e r d r a p e r ie s i n such a way t h a t th e shadow throw n h as th e form o f a b u t t e r f u l y , o r some s a i n t l y man who s ta n d s w ith o u ts tr e tc h e d arms so t h a t h is shadow makes th e s ig n o f th e c r o s s . 11

I n th e famous German f ilm , flThe C ab in et o f

D r. C a l i g a r i ” , th e s e t s a re p a in te d w ith marked d i s t o r t i o n , g iv in g th e i n d i c a t i o n o f som ething gruesome i n which D r. C a l i g a r i i s engaged. The m ost im p o rta n t and needed use o f film -im a g e rie s i s when a n id e a , o th e rw ise i n e x p r e s s ib le , i s b ro u g h t to th e au d ie n c e by means o f af"sm bqr> iilSiglSaSS!^

Thus,1 in a f ilm by V orkapich

p r o s p e r i ty h as been e x p re sse d by th e p i l i n g up o f c o in s,, and a d v e r s i ty by th e f a l l i n g down o f th e p i l e .

I n a R u ssian

f ilm a sound e f f e c t h as been used f o r th e p u rp o se . ca n n o t g e t any s o lu tio n o f h is problem .

10 Ib id * j P* 116 11 I b i d . . p . 117

A man

We h e a r th e sound

44

o f a t r a i n slow ing down and s to p p in g .

A f te r a s h o r t w h ile ,

we h e a r th e sound o f th e t r a i n s t a r t i n g , in d ic a tin g th a t th e man h as found a s o l u t io n .

Many t r a d i t i o n a l sym bols

can be p i c t o r i a l l y used i n the f ilm to e x p re ss a b s t r a c t id e a s . Symbols can em phasize o r supplem ent a meaning s im u lta n e o u s ly e x p re sse d in o th e r te rm s .

Thus, i n

E i s e n s t e i n ’s f ilm “A lex an d er H e v sk i", th e c e s s a tio n of war i s shown i n a s h o t o f A lexander N evski when he p u ts h is sword i n th e s h e a th . The w hole p l o t o f a p la y can be in d ic a te d th ro u g h a sym bol.

The l a s t s h o t of th e film “A l l Q u iet on th e

W estern F ro n t *1 i s a v e ry good exam ple.

A hand goes to

c a tc h a b u t t e r f l y w hich s i t s i n f r o n t o f th e b a r r e l o f a gun.

S im ila r ly , to em phasize th e theme t h a t love i s

i l l u s o r y , a scene o f a fa c e lo o k in g a t a m irage may be e f f e c t i v e ; o r , t o show th e u ltim a te end o f l i f e , a scene o f a p e rso n g a z in g a t a s k u l l i n h i s hand i s v e ry e x p r e s s iv e . V.

STORY-STHJCTURE

A stu d y of th e r o le o f psychology i n m o tio n p ic tu r e ea n n o t ex clu d e th e elem ent o f s t o r y - s t r u c t u r e , a lth o u g h , p s y c h o lo g ic a l methods i n t h i s f i e l d do n o t d i f f e r much from th o s e employed in o th e r form s o f s t o r y - w r i t i n g , v i z : s h o r t s t o r y , n p v e l o r s ta g e p la y .

th e

So f a r a s th e p r e s e n t

45

s tu d y i s c o n c ern ed , th e d is c u s s io n i s c o n fin e d t o t r e a t ­ m ents w hich have d e f i n i t e p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n th e m otion p i c t u r e s t o r y and may n o t a p p ly so e f f e c t i v e l y i n the: o th e r m edia. From t h i s p o in t o f v iew , th e m otion p i c t u r e p re ­ s e n ts a c o m p a ra tiv e ly g r e a t e r o p p o rtu n ity f o r showing th e e n t i r e s o c i a l s e t t i n g from w hich th e p l o t e m erg es.1^

It

can show sc e n e s o f any p la c e o r any time w ith im m ediate v iv id n e s s and can th e r e f o r e s e t up an a c q u a in ta n c e w ith a l l c o rre la te d fo rc e s .

A nother p o s s i b i l i t y of th e m otion

p i c t u r e i s i t s r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r power to c o n tr o l th e temp 3 o f th e s t o r y .

By g o v ern in g th e d u r a tio n o f s h o ts

and by means o f c r e a t iv e c u t t i n g , th e speed of th e s t o r y can be c o n t r o l l e d a t w i l l .

Long s h o ts and c lo s e -u p s c a n

a l t e r n a t e l y show mass e x p re s s io n s and th e in n e r s t a t e o f th e i n d i v id u a l, and c a n .th e r e f o r e “ l i n k up th e in d iv id u a l to th e system o f s o c i a l r e la t i o n s h i p s in w hich h i s a c t i v i t y i s p l a c e d .”- ^

The s a t i s f a c t i o n of th e v a r io u s m o tiv es w ith

which a re a d e r o r an o b se rv e r e n jo y s a s t o r y o r a p la y ca n be enhanced i n th e m otion p i c t u r e p r e s e n t a t io n .

F or ex­

am ple, th e escap e m otive of th e au d ie n c e may be f u l f i l l e d

^ J . H. Lawson, Theory and Technique o f P lay w r itin g and S c re e n w ritin g (Hew York: G. P. Putnam’ s S ons, 1949J p p . 396-399. 22

I b i d . , p . 395

46

t o a g r e a t e r e x te n t i n th e f ilm e x p e rie n c e on acco u n t o f th e power o f th e cinem a to ti d e over sp ace and tim e . I n c l o s i n g , i t should be r e i t e r a t e d t h a t th e sug­ g e s tio n s p re s e n te d i n t h i s s e c tio n have f o r th e m ost p a r t come from a rm -c h a ir a n a ly s is and from methods t h a t have a lr e a d y b een used in film s f o r c e r t a i n p u rp o se s.

Though

/

m ost o f them a p p e a r re a s o n a b le , th e e x te n t o f th e e f f e c t ­ iv e n e s s o f th e te c h n iq u e s h as n o t been checked i n e x p e r i - ’ m e n ta l f a s h io n .

F u r th e r i n v e s t i g a t io n i s needed i n term s

o f t e s t i n g v a rio u s of th e se te c h n iq u e s to d e te rm in e to w hat d eg ree in d iv id u a ls r e a c t to them in th e way p r e d ic te d .

CHAPTER IV

SUMMARY AHD CONCLUSIONS I.

summary

The p r e s e n t stu d y has been d iv id e d i n to two p a r t s . The f i r s t d e a l t

w ith th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e common

p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r i n c i p l e s and phenomena t h a t a r e in v o lv ed i n th e m otion p i c t u r e e x p e rie n c e .

I n t h i s p o r t io n ,

q u e s tio n s r e l a t i n g t o th e p e r c e p tio n o f m o tio n , p e r c e p tio n o f d e p th , a t t e n t i o n , em o tio n , memory, s u g g e s tio n and un­ c o n sc io u s f a c t o r s w ere d is c u s s e d . I n d e a lin g w ith th e p e r c e p tio n of m o tio n , i t was found t h a t th e f ilm s i t u a t i o n d o es n o t d i f f e r b a s i c a l l y from th e norm al p e r c e p tio n of movement i n r e a l - l i f e s itu a tio n s .

V arious t h e o r i e s a c c o u n tin g f o r th e s u b je c tiv e

im p re ssio n o f movement from non-moving s t i m u l i were p r e ­ s e n te d . I n re g a rd to d e p th , i t w as found t h a t many cues l i k e s i z e - d i f f e r e n c e , b r i g h t n e s s - d i f f e r e n c e , a e r i a l p e r­ s p e c ti v e , and l i n e a r p e r s p e c tiv e , te n d t o g iv e r i s e to th e im p re ssio n of d e p th i n f ilm s a s in o rd in a ry s i t u a t i o n s . However, th e m otion p ic tu r e la c k s some cues t h a t a r e p r e s e n t i n norm al d e p th p e r c e p tio n .

T his d if f e r e n c e ap ­

p e a r s to make d e p th -im p re ss io n i n f ilm s l e s s com plete ^.nd,

48

a t tim e s , p erh ap s even u n a c c e p ta b le . As f a r a s a t t e n t i o n i s c o n c e rn e d , th e cinem a i n ­ v o lv e s b o th v o lu n ta iy and in v o lu n ta ry ty p e s .

By employ­

in g the f a c t o r s of m o tio n , i n t e n s i t y , r e p e t i t i o n , c o n t r a s t , s t r i k i n g q u a l i t y , and s o c i a l s u g g e s tio n , th e m otion p i c t u r e i s a b le to a t t r a c t in v o lu n ta ry a t t e n t i o n .

V o lu n ta ry a t ­

t e n t i o n may a ls o be m an ip u lated by th e te c h n iq u e s of th e f ilm medium and t w i s t s i n th e story-m ovem ent. Em otion i s in v o lv e d in th e cinem a i n two w ays.

In

f i l m s , i t i s n e c e s s a ry t h a t th e em otion of th e a c t o r be e x p re sse d t o th e a u d ie n c e .

A lso , i n many in s ta n c e s i t i s

d e s i r a b le t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r em otion be a ro u se d in th e a u d ie n c e i t s e l f .

The cu e s f o r id e n t if y i n g an em otion i n

m ovies w ere d is c u s s e d , and th e use o f c lo s e -u p s was su g ­ g e s te d a s a n ad v an tageous te c h n iq u e f o r com m unicating em otion t h a t i s d i s t i n c t i v e o f th e G inem atic medium. M a n ip u la tio n s o f th e s to r y - c o n te n t and o f th e fo rm a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e f ilm medium w ere n o ted a s means o f b r in g in g f o r t h an em otion i n th e mind o f the a u d ie n c e . The m o tio n p ic tu r e was found to o f f e r e f f e c t i v e p ro c e d u re s f o r d e p ic tin g th e memory o f th e c h a r a c te r s and f o r g iv in g v i s u a l and a u d ito r y e x p r e s s io n t o th e phenomena o f f a n ta s y , dream , th o u g h t, and im a g in a tio n . F u r th e r , i t was found t h a t sugge s t i o n p la y s an im p o rtan t p a r t i n th e f ilm s i t u a t i o n .

The su rro u n d in g environm ent

49

i t s e l f i s conducive t o th e e f f e c t o f s u g g e s tio n .

I n th e

p i c t u r e , s u g g e s tio n w orks b o th d i r e c t l y (a s when a m eaning i s in d ic a te d p l a i n l y ) and i n d i r e c t l y (by im p lic a tio n th ro u g h th e acen es and a c t i o n s ) .

U nconscious f a c t o r s were d is c u s s e d

a s p o s s ib ly p la y in g some p a r t i n draw ing au d ien ce and d e t e r ­ m ining r e a c t i o n to c h a r a c t e r s .

The phenomenon o f i d e n t i ­

f i c a t i o n and th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o b je c ts and' s i t u a t i o n s a s sym bolic were l i s t e d a s p o s s ib le p ro c e s s e s in v o lv e d . The second p a r t o f th e s tu d y was a n in q u ir y in to th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m a n ip u la tin g f a c t o r s t o enhance th e psycho­ l o g i c a l e f f e c t of th e cinem a.

I t was n o ted t h a t d i f f e r e n t

k in d s of m otions m ight be used to evoke d i f f e r e n t f e e l i n g s . S u g g e stio n h a s a l s o been made t h a t th e tone o f th e p i c t u r e and i t s c o n te n t may be v a r ie d to c a r r y th ro u g h th e meaning and f e e l i n g in te n d e d .

The p h y s ic a l s e t- u p o f a sc e n e , i n

term s o f cam era p o s i t io n and a n g le , may a ls o be u t i l i z e d f o r t h i s p u rp o se .

Sym bolic a c ti o n s and f ilm ic im a g e rie s

may be employed t o e x p re s s and em phasize p l o t , c h a r a c t e r , o r a c tio n .

L a s t l y , i t was n o te d t h a t th e scope o f showing

th e e n t i r e s o c i a l fram ework o f th e p l o t and o f e o n tr o lin g th e tempo of th e s t o r y , and th e o th e r ad v an tag es o f th e f i l m medium in c a r r y in g s t o r y developm ents may c o n tr ib u te much to e f f e c t i v e s t o r y c o n s tr u c tio n , w hich i s no i n s i g n i ­ f i c a n t a s p e c t o f th e m otion p i c t u r e .

The d e s i r a b i l i t y o f

e x p e rim e n ta l check on th e s e su g g e stio n s was n o te d .

so II.

CONCLUSIONS

The c o n c lu s io n s from the p r e s e n t s tu d y a r e : (1)

T hat th e m otion p i c tu r e in v o lv e s many psycho­

l o g i c a l phenomena and t h a t many a s p e c ts of i t can he i n t e r p r e t e d i n term s o f "basic p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r in c ip le s } (2)

T hat c a r e f u l m a n ip u la tio n a c c o rd in g to

p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r i n c i p l e s , i f employed i n a m otion p i c t u r e m aking, may enhance d e s ir e d e f f e c t s ; (3)

T hat e x p e rim e n ta l work i s needed to t e s t th e

a c c u ra c y o f th e d e d u c tio n s t h a t have been made from g e n e r a l p s y c h o lo g ic a l work t o s p e c if ic c in e m a tic s i t u ­ a tio n s .

)

B I 3 L I

OGHAPHY

52

B i l l s , A. G ., G e n e ra l E x p erim en tal P sychology. Longman, Green & C o ., 1935.

Hew York:

B ra n d t, F . H ., “ The Psychology of S eein g M otion P ictu res* * , F ilm and E d u c a tio n . Hew York: P h i l . L ib r a r y , 1948. B u ck le, G. F . , The Mind and th e F ilm . R outledge & S ons, 1926. B u r t t , H. E . , A p p lied P sychology. H a l l , I n c . , 1949. 8 2 1 p p . E i s e n s t e i n , S ., F ilm Form. C o ., 1949. 279 pp. _______________ , F ilm S e n se . C o ., 1947. 288 pp.

London:

Hew York:

Hew York: Hew York:

George P r e n tie e -

H a rc o u rt, B race & H a rc o u rt, B race &

F re e b u rg , V. 0 . , The A rt of P h o to p lay M aking. The M acm illan C o ., 1918 . 283 p p . ”*

Hew York:

K e ir , G e rtru d e , “ Psychology and th e Film**, The Penguin F ilm Review. Ho. 9 , 67-72. K ra c a u e r, S ., From C a lig a r i to H i t l e r : A P sy c h o lo g ic a l H is to ry o f th e German F ilm . P rin c e to n U n v e rs ity P r e s s , 1947. Lawson, J . H ., The Theory and Technique of P la y w ritin g and Sc re e n w rit in g . Hew York: G. P. P utnam 's S ons, 1949. 464 pp. L in d g re n , E . , The A rt of th e F ilm . & Unwin, L t d . , 1948. 242 pp.

London:

George A lle n

Lowy, S . , "P sychology o f th e F ilm g o e r", Cinem a. J u ly , 1947. M au erh o fer, H . , “ Psychology of F ilm E x p e rie n c e " , The Pen­ g u in F ilm R eview . Ho. 8 , 108-109. M u en sterb erg , H ., The P h o to p la y : A P s y c h o lo g ic a l S tu d y . Hew York: D. A ppleton & C o ., 1916. 233 pp. Haumberg, Haney, We Make th e M ovies. F a b e r, 1938. P udovkin, V. I . , F ilm T echnique.

New York:

Hew Yohk;

F aber &

L e a r, 1949.

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T y le r , P a rk e r, "The H o rse-to tem Animal o f A m erican F ilm s” , S ig h t and Sound, Autumn, 1947. 7 V o rk ap ich , S lav k o , “C in e m a tic s" , A m erican C in em ato g rap h ers1 A n n u al. V ol. 1930. __________ , "The P s y c h o lo g ic a l B a sis o f E f f e c t iv e Cinema­ to g ra p h y " , T e c h n ic a l B u l l e t i n . V o l. 1934, No. 10. Woodworth, R. S . , E x p e rim e n ta l P sychology. Henry H o lt & C o ., 1948. 88© pp.

New York:

IHDEX OF FILMS

“A lex an d er K evski” ( R u s s ia n ), M osfilm , 1938. D ir e c to r : B is e n s te in . “A l l Q u iet on th e W estern F ro n t” , U n iv e r s a l, 1930. D ir e c to r : Lewis M ile sto n e . "B esid e th e S e a s id e " .

D ir e c to r :

M. G rie rs o n .

"C a rn e t de B al” , P a r is E x p o rt F ilm C o ., 1937. D ir e c to r : J . D u v iv ie r. “F in g le Cave1'.

D i r e c to r :

" F o r e s t Murmurs’1.

V orkapich.

D ir e c to r :

V o rk ap ich .

" I n to l e r a n c e ” , Work P roducing C o rp o ra tio n , 1916. D ir e c to r : D. W. G r i f f i t h . "King Kong” , R. K. O ., 1933. D ir e c to r : H. 0 . O’B rie n . " P u r i t y ” , 1915. D ir e c to r : Howard C l if f o r d . "Symphony i n M otion” , 1948. D ir e c to r : P h i l l i p L e f f . "The C ab in et of D r. C a l ig a r i” (German)., D ec la-B io sk o p , 1919. D i r e c t o r : R obert Wiene. "The End of S t . P e te rs b u rg ” ( R u s s ia n ), 1927. D ir e c to r :' Pudovkin. “The G en e ral L in e ” (R u s s ia n ), 1929. D ir e c to r : E i s e n s te i n . “The L a s t Laugh” (Germ an), 1924. D ir e c to r ; Murraau and J e n n in g s .