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A STUDY OP MEANS BY WHICH CONFLICTS IN TEACHER-PUPIL RELATIONSHIPS MAY' BE PREVENTED, ELIMINATED, OR REDUCED

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the School of Education University of Southern California

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Education

by Emily Elizabeth Smith July,

1942

UMI Number: EP56453

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

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U

This thesis, written under the direction of the Chairman of the candidate’s Guidance Committee and approved by a ll members of the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School of Education of The University of Southern California in partia l fu lfillm e n t of the requirements fo r the degree of Master of Science in Education.

.........

D ean Guidance C om m ittee

D. Welty Lefever C hairm an

E. E. Wagner

Loui s P . Thorpe

TABLE OP CONTENTS CHAPTER I.

II.

PAGE

THE P R O B L E M ......................................

1

Statement of the p r o b l e m ............

2

Importance of the p r o b l e m .................... ■

2

Definition of terms u s e d ...................

3

Scope of the s t u d y .........................

3

Limitations of the s t u d y ...................

4

Procedure ....................................

4

Organization of the remainder of the thesis .

'5

THE NATURE OP C O N F L I C T S ......................... The nature of behavior

7

. . . . .

7

Definitions of behavior .....................

7

Children1s behavior as a factor in con­ flicts

....................................

Attitudes toward behavior .............

. . . .

11 13

Teachers1 attitudes toward children!s prob­ lems

..........

13

Comparison of clinicians1 ratings with teachers1 ratings .........................

29

The teacher1s part in promoting conflicts . . .

38

Reflection of teachers1 attitudes in the attitudes of p u p i l s ....................... Teachers1 reactions to children^ behavior

38 .

39

iii CHAPTER

PAGE Teachers1 treatment of behavior problems . .

41

Qualities in teachers which pupils dislike •

43

Summary III.

. . . ..............................

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE PUPILfSADJUSTMENT . Nature of basic needs and d r i v e s .............

46 47 47

D r i v e s ......................................

47

Classification of needs

...................

48

• ..............................

49

Basic urges

School and the needs of the p u p i l ........

50

Symptoms of m a l a d j u s t m e n t ...................

51

Characteristic responses between individ­ uals ...................................... Physical indicators of maladjustment . . . .

53

Undesirable relations to other people

54

Unsatisfactory school performance

...

........

57

Causes of pupil m a l a d j u s t m e n t ...............

58

Physical factors ............................

58

Home and family relations

IV.

52

. . . . . . . . .

61

Home and community relationships ...........

64

School e n v i r o n m e n t .........................

66,

S u m m a r y ....................................

69

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE TEACHER1S ADJUST­ MENT ..................................

. . . .

General status of teacher h e a l t h .............

71 71

iv CHAPTER

PAGE Physical health ..............................

71

Absence records ..............................

72

Nature of illnesses causing absences

74

. . . .

Mental h e a l t h ................................

75

Prevalence of mental disorders

.............

76

Symptoms of malad j u s t m e n t ...................

79

Causes of physical and mental ill health

V.

...

82

Personal a d j u s t m e n t ............

82

Health practices

............................

82

Life a d j u s t m e n t .............................. • ■ Adjustment to work . . .....................

87 90

Environmental causes of ill health

. . . . .

91

Conditions of e m p l o y m e n t ...................

92

Economic status and security

95

...............

Influence of the school environment ........

104

Out-of-school environment ...................

108

S u m m a r y ......................................

110

METHODS OP S O L U T I O N ..............................

114

Essentials of a d j u s t m e n t .....................

114

Satisfaction of n e e d s .......................

114

Essential characteristics of school policies Selection and training of teachers

........

.

116 116

Consideration of the emotional stability of c a n d i d a t e s .....................

117

V

CHAPTER

PACE Mental hygiene training for students and t e a c h e r s ..............................

118

Adjustment aids for the t e a c h e r .......

119

Adequate provision for teacher health and s e c u r i t y ............

122

School organization and practices favorable to the continuous growth, security, and happiness of c h i l d r e n ...............

125

The school p l a n t .......................

125

Curriculum adjusted to individualneeds

.

.

Needs of exceptional c h i l d r e n .........

VI.

127 129

Teacher attitudes and responsibility . . . .

132

Discipline versus punishment ...............

133

Redirecting childrenTs attitudes ...........

136

Enlisting the aid of s p e c i a l i s t s .......

138

S u m m a r y ................................

143

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

. . .

145

S u m m a r y ......................................... The nature of c o n f l i c t s ...............

145

145

Factors associated with pupil adjustment . .

146

Factors associated with the teacher’s adjust­ ment ...................................... C o n c l u s i o n s ............................

147 148

vi CHAPTER

PAGE Recommendations

..........

B I B L I O G R A P H Y ............................................

149 151

LIST OP TABLES TABLE I.

PAGE Wickmanfs Diagram of Behavior Problems Conceived as Evasions of Social R e q uirements ...........

II.

¥iTickmanfs Teachers1 Ratings on the Relative Seriousness of Behavior Problems in Children .

III.

........

27

Wickman*s Clinicians1 Ratings on the Relative Seriousness of Behavior Problems in Children .

VI.

20

Comparison of Ratings of Incidence of Behavior P r o b l e m s ......................................

V.

16

Comparative Ratings on the Relative Seriousness of Behavior Problems in Children .

IV.

10

31

Comparison of Teachers1 and Clinicians1 Ratings on the Relative Seriousness of Behavior Prob­ lems in C h i l d r e n ..........

VII,

32

Comparative Summary of the Attitudes of Teachers and Mental Hygienists Toward Be­ havior Problems

VIII.

. . . . . . . . . .

.......................

85

Relative Importance of Various Health Services According to the Opinions of Teachers

X.

36

Health Practices Considered Important and Those Practiced Most

IX.

........

. . . .

96

Health Services Provided for Teachers in 197 City Schools . . . . .

.......................

97

TABLE XI.

PAGEInjurious Schoolhousing Conditions as Rated by Teachers, Principals, Superintendents and School Physicians . . . . .

XII.

........

. . . .

110

Importance of Certain Out-of-school Factors Which Sometimes Impair Teachers* Health as Ranked by 195 School Principals and 12 School Physicians ..............................

XIII.

Ill

Changes In the Out-of-school Environment Which Teachers Believe Would Improve Their Physical or Mental H e a l t h ..............................

112

CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Changes in basic philosophy during the past several decades have involved a shift in emphasis in educational goals; the emphasis moving from academic achievement toward the personal and social development of the individual*

In

all walks of life where groups of people are involved, the problems of personnel are emerging as of paramount importance. In a democracy wherein the welfare of the individual is the concern of the group and the welfare of the group depends upon the relationships of individuals to the group and to each other, the field of human relationships plays an Impor­ tant role Indeed.

Satisfactory human relationships are built

not In a day, nor in a week, nor in a year.

They are rather

the outcome of desirable attitudes and behavior patterns developed and practiced during the years of physical, social, and emotional growth. The relationship between teacher and pupil in school comprises but a single phase of the whole scope of human re­ lationships.

Yet the very existence of these relationships

holds numerous and significant implications for education and educators.

To develop and maintain satisfying relation­

ships in this single phase of society would be in itself a jCo major accomplishment of the educational program.

Statement of the problem.

How to reduce, eliminate,

or prevent conflicts in teacher-pupil relationships is the problem involved in the present study.

In a consideration of

any undesirable situation, m o d e m psychology emphasizes the importance of examining the underlying causes which produce

f/ the situation.

therefore, the present study includes a con­

sideration of the factors which may contribute to the pupil1s and to the teacherfs part in promoting undesirable relation­ ships and a survey of methods which may be successful in improving such relationships. Importance of the problem.

An accepted aim of modern

basic philosophy is that education should facilitate the ad­ justment of the individual to his environment. ment includes people as well as things.

This environ­

The necessity for

adjustment by the individual to the social group of which he is a member and to the social forces which operate to control his behavior is evident.

If it be the aim of education to

facilitate and not to interfere with this adjustment of the individual to his environment, then there is no place for conflicts between the pupil and the teacher who constitutes an important phase of the pupilTs environment.

In view of

educational aims and the increasing significance which human relationships hold for education, too much emphasis cannot be placed on the importance of improving relationships between teachers and pupils in school.

3 Definition of terms used,

The term "conflict” will

be used to indicate unsatisfactory relationships between teachers and pupils.

Unsatisfactory relationships between

individuals indicate a state of maladjustment, which in turn suggests a conflict within the individual.

Howard says,

"Conflict is the inner aspect of failure in social adjustment.”^ However, when used to indicate an inner state of the individual, the term will be so designated. The use of 11difficult” or "problem” relating to behavior of pupils will refer to behavior which is considered socially undesirable and toward which the teacher finds it hard to react constructively. Scope of the study.

It was the intention of the investi­

gator, in undertaking the present study, to consider the rela­ tionships of teachers and pupils in the late elementary grades. A preliminary survey of the literature relating to the study, however, showed that conflicts in these relationships persist at all grade levels.

Moreover, it is apparent that eliminating

conflicts at one grade level does not insure their permanent removal.

Consequently, it is hoped that the findings may prove

helpful in reducing and preventing problems of teacher-pupil relationships at all levels of teaching and learning.

1 Frank Howard and Frederick L. Patry, Mental Health (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1935), p. 238.

4 Limitations of the study.

The present study is limited

primarily by the difficulty of dealing with the complex and elusive factor of the human personality.

It is handicapped

further by the lack of research studies showing the actual effect on the teacher, of various factors which undoubtedly contribute to her maladjustment, and by limitations admitted in the studies consulted.

tude, children and their problems, adjustment and maladjustment. of teachers and pupils, and mental hygiene.

The litei^at|me f / / /I \ /

1 / / V by learned organizations which are related to the prejs^hiyqne.

The investigator hopes to reveal the nature ofJex^ ing conflicts, the underlying causes of conflicts, and tJYshg$4st **•V W A AV ^

V d k A

V

IVv 1 4 *

V H a * r

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Vd h

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the degree to which teachers and pupils are adjusted and to improve relations between them. As a guide to discovering causes of and means of im­ proving these relationships, an attempt has been made to answer the following questions: 1.

What is the nature of existing conflicts?

2.

What part do pupilsT problems play in promoting

conflicts?

3.

How serious is the "behavior of children considered

"by teachers? by mental hygienists? 4.

What part in conflicts is played "by the teacher?

5.

How do teachers meet these problems?

6.

What are the symptoms of maladjustment?

7.

What factors contribute to pupil maladjustment?

8.

What factors influence teachers’ attitudes?

9.

How well adjusted are teachers?

10.

?/hat factors contribute to teacher maladjustment?

11.

How can personal adjustment be improved for the

pupil? for the teacher? 12.

How can school policies contribute to the solution

of the problem? Organization of the remainder of the the sis.

Chapter

II presents a discussion of the nature of existing conflicts with consideration of the part played by the teacher and that played by the pupil in promoting them.

Included is a

review of studies comparing the attitudes of teachers and of mental hygienists toward the behavior of children.

Chapter

III deals with the pupil, factors involved in his behavior, and factors associated with his adjustment.

Chapter IV is

concerned with the teacher, her share in promoting conflicts and factors contributing to her degree of adjustment.

In

Chapter V the investigator attempts to suggest possible solutions to the problem.

Chapter VI presents a brief summary of the

findings and conclusions based thereon, followed by a selected and annotated bibliography of the material covered and references for further study.

CHAPTER II THE NATURE OP CONFLICTS In order to arrive at some constructive recommendations with respect to solving the problem at. hand, it is essential to accumulate all possible information bearing upon the problem Conflicts between teachers and pupils have some reason for existing, either apparent or underlying.

In some way or for

some reason, the behavior of teachers and pupils in unsatis­ factory relationships Is not mutually acceptable.

Consequent­

ly, there must be an examination of the nature of this behavior behavior per se, and the behavior of teachers and of pupils to determine what It is that makes the behavior of one unacceptabl to the other. I.

THE NATURE OF BEHAVIOR 1

Definitions of behavior.

According to Race,

behavior

Is activity in response to a situation, the result of which tends to bring satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

Satisfaction

tends to strengthen the mental connection between the behavior and the situation, and repetition tends to make the connection permanent.

Dissatisfaction with the result tends to discourage

the response and to make the individual avoid the situation. 1 Henrietta V. Race, Psychology of Learning Through Experience (Boston: Ginn and Company,"T9Lb), pp7

While this study is concerned primarily with behavior in its social sense, it is well to keep in mind this psychological theory, particularly because of its important significance for education. Behavior, in a social sense, is defined by Tsfickman as "a socially evaluated and socially regulated product; and behavior problems represent conflicts between individual be-

2

havior and social requirements for behavior.”

He says further

that traditional beliefs about behavior have led people to think about behavior problems in terms of the offending indi­ vidual rather than in terms of the individual and the social forces which determine what is acceptable and what is unaccept­ able.

Wickman continues:

We may observe in the first place that social forces tend to regularize and to control personal behavior, while behavior problems represent an effort on the part of the individual to evade these regularizing forces and to pursue an individual course. Whether behavior is desirable or undesirable depends, therefore, upon the social medium in which it occurs.

Seabury

has said: If it were notfor m a n ’s relation to those about him there would be no problem of his own nature.Robinson Crusoe had little need to understand himself until Friday came along. 2 E. K. Wickman, Children1s Behavior and Teachers1 Attitudes (New York: The Commonwealth Fund, 1928), p. 2. 5Ibld., p. 133. 4

A

/



David Seabury, Unmasking Uur Minds (New York:Boniand Liveright, 1924. Blue Ribbon Books, 1936), p. 66.

What is termed acceptable behavior in one situation may not be considered so in another; what is acceptable conduct to one parent may not be acceptable in another home; standards established and upheld in one school or by one teacher may not be supported in another school or by another teacher; behavior accepted by one teacher, on the other hand, may not be tolerated by another. The attitudes of adults are primarily the starting 5 point in determining what is problem behavior. Bain calls problematic the activities of individuals which conflict with ideals held by others for desirable behavior.

In other

words, the attitudes, ideals, and standards held by adults for social behavior constitute the regularizing forces which tend to control the behavior of children. problems, on the other hand,

Children’s behavior

are the attempts to evade these

regularizing forces and to pursue individual courses. The accompanying chart, Table I, by Wickman, roughly illustrates two characteristic methods by which the individual evades behavior requirements imposed by social forces.

Only

the extreme examples of attacking and withdrawing behavior which are apt to occur at various stages of individual develop­ ment, he explains, are listed in the table.

Lesser degrees

of these tendencies may be detected in most individuals.

In

explaining the table, Wickman says further; 5 W. E. Bain, "A Study of the Attitudes of Teachers Toward Behavior Problems,” Child Development, 5:19-35, 1934.

TABLE I

10

WICKMAN*S DIAGRAM OP BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS CONCEIVED AS EVASIONS OP SOCIAL REQUIREMENTS21 REQUIREMENTS IMPOSED BY SOCIAL FORCES ON INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

EVASIONS BY WITHDRAWAL Fearfulness Sulkiness Dreaminess Shyness dependency on adults Unsocialness Dependency on routine Pedantry Solitariness Pear of criticism Suspiciousness Inability to carry responsibility Inefficiency Social inadequacy

REGRESSIVE ESCAPES

REQUIREMENTS FOR CHILD BEHAVIOR IMPOSED BY FAMILY NEIGHBORHOOD COMPANIONS SCHOOL REQUIREMENTS FOR ADULT BEHAVIOR ESTABLISHED BY SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS TRADITIONS CUSTOMS

RETREATS INTO PRODUCTIVE ACTIVITY

Neurotic complaints Economic dependency Drug addiction Functional insanity Suicide

Invention Research Science Literature Art

Wickman, o£. cit., p. 139♦

EVASIONS BY ATTACK Temper tantrums Disobedience Overactivity Aggressiveness Defiance to authority Fighting Delinquency Rejection of routine Pursuing own methods of work Wanting to direct Breaking conventions Antagonistic attitudes Exploitation of own authority Contentiousness Egocentricity

CONSTRUCTIVE ATTACKS

DESTRUCTIVE ATTACKS

Competitive sports Exploration Industrial exploits Social and political reforms

tfP sy chop a thi c1f tendencies ftI w o n ’t work” Crime

11

Behavior development leading to adult social maladjust­ ment of the attacking or of the withdrawing type does not proceed along pure or regular stages as the diagram might suggest. Though there is a tendency for an individual to learn to respond characteristically by attack or by with­ drawal, both kinds of behavior often occur together in the same individual. Early habits of evading requirements may work themselves out to constructive or productive ends and in that case they may modify the social requirements. Though art, literature, science, political and social reforms may represent evasions of social requirements in individual cases, the inference is not to be drawn from the diagram that such activities are always the product of conflict with social influences or social forces. It is psychologically unsound to make fine distinc­ tions between withdrawing and attacking forms of behavior, inasmuch as both represent individual modes of response to frustrations experienced on encountering social require­ ments. The distinctions between them are sharply made, however, by social attitudes ,toward the individual who responds in a manner that is interpreted as attack or wi thdrawal.6 Behavior then, it may be said, is the response of an individual to a situation, the behavior being acceptable or unacceptable according to the social requirements of the en­ vironment in which it occurs.

Problem behavior is the attempt

on the part of the individual to evade, either by attack or by withdrawal,

the regularizing forces of this environment.

Children1s behavior as a factor in conflicts. *7 defines behavior as the ’’purposive use of energy.” Y/ickman,

0 £.

Anderson All uses

cit., p. 138.

Harold H. Anderson, ”The Dynamic Nature of Personality,” Fifteenth Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals (Ytfashington, D. C.: 1936), p7 244.

12

of energy, wh.eth.er

in

desirable orundesirable behavior, are

called forth by needs which may be clearly defined.

either evident or not too

While no attempt is here made to discuss in

detail the biology

of

needs or the psychology of drives, it is

to be kept in mind

that these human drives to action and urges

to satisfy basic human needs are the controlling and determining 8 forces ,:in human behavior. Howard and Patry mention, among the most dominant basic drives, the following:

(1) satisfaction

of bodily needs such as food, clothing, shelter, and comfort; (2) craving for success, achievement, avoidance of failure; (3) craving for recognition, involving relationships with others, rather than the inner feeling of achievement mentioned above;

(4) craving for sympathy, affection, intimacy;

(5) the

urge for security, freedom from physical want, a sense of possession and away from feelings of anxiety and insecurity; (6) craving for adventure, action, new contacts, and dislike for routine, boredom, dullness;

(7) the sex urge.

The authors

maintain: These urges are inheritable, reactive assets more or less developed, modified, and conditioned by experience. They are dynamic forces shaping our thoughts, emotions, and our sense of values. When these driving forces are gratified, satisfaction results to the individual; failure to satisfy them results in discomfort g

Prank E. Howard and Frederick L. Patry, 9 Ibid., p. 51.

ojd.

cit., pp. 51-52.

13 and annoyance.

S y m o n d s ^ supports the theory of ”drives and

behavior” and says that when the needs of a child are satisfied in socially acceptable ways, he is a stable, happy, busy indi­ vidual.

When any one of these basic urges is continually

thwarted, a problem of adjustment results.

In such a case,

the child must try whatever type of behavior he has learned to seek satisfaction of his needs. Children’s behavior must, therefore, be recognized as the effort to satisfy these basic human urges, needs, or drives. Social attitudes and requirements will label it as desirable or undesirable.

In this connection, Wickman says:

In ordinary practice the factor of attitudes is often forgotten in the behavior equation. When parent or teacher is distressed by the behavior of a child, the usual assumption is that the difficulty is with the child. . . . It is impossible to consider a child’s be­ havior apart from the attitudes that are taken toward his conduct. The two. are intimately related and bound up in the same issue. II.

ATTITUDES TOWARD BEHAVIOR

Teachers’ attitudes toward children’s problems.

The

teacher’s recognition and treatment of problem behavior will vary with his experience, training, and special interests in

10 P. M. Symonds, ’’Fundamental Drives to Action,” Fifteenth Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals TWashington, D. C.: 1936), pp. 238-244. 11

Wickman, o£. cit., p. 4.

child training.

Standards vary and will thus help in deter­

mining problems.

The teacher’s evaluation of behavior, his

purpose in dealing with problems, and his attitude toward the factors which produce the problem will determine, according to Campbell,

12

his practices in meeting problems.

In inter­

preting teachers’ responses to child behavior, Wickman reminds his readers that it is necessary to keep in mind the particular nature of their teaching responsibilities which are In a

large

measure laid upon them b y the school system and by the estab­ lished aims of modern public school education.

He says, ” In a

sense, the measurement of teachers’ responses to child behavior constitutes a measurement of the attitudes of the public school.’1 Numerous studies have been made with regard to teachers’ attitudes toward children’s behavior.

Probably the best known

of these is that of Wickman, who began his study in a Minneapolis public school, in 1924.

From 29 teachers in this school and

from 27 teachers in a Cleveland public school two years later, Wickman obtained lists of problem behavior which these teachers had observed.

A list of 51 Items, so obtained, was submitted

to 23 homeroom teachers in Cleveland, who rated their pupils with respect to the Incidence of the items and as to their

12 N. M. Campbell, The Elementary School Teacher’s Treatment of Behavior Problems (hew York: Teachersv College, Columbia University, 1935), p. 2. 13 Wickman, op. cit., p. 5.

15 opinions concerning the adjustment of each of their pupils* Basing his judgment on these ratings, Wickman concluded that behavior problems which most interest teachers are those relating to school requirements, and that to the teacher the problem child is one who is antagonistic to authority, disturbs classroom routine, does not apply himself to prescribed school work, and violates the teacher*s standard of integrity.

His

final conclusion was that personality problems which do not interfere with the immediate purposes of the teacher are not recognized as signs of maladjustment.

Ratings on relative

seriousness of 50 types of problem behavior by the Cleveland teachers and by 600 teachers from other communities led tffickman to believe that behavior which offends the teacher*s moral standards and which challenges his authority or which inter­ feres with class routine is regarded as more serious than per­ sonality problems which affect the general welfare of the child. Furthermore, these ratings seem to indicate that aggressive behavior is considered more serious than regressive behavior. Table II presents the teachers* ratings on the seriousness of 14 problem behavior from Wickmanfs study. 15 Betts made a study, in 1927, in which 256 teachers described a total of 90 problems which constituted their most \

14

E. K. Wickman, op. cit., p. 113.

15 George H. Betts, “Teachers* Diagnosis of Classroom Difficulties,” Elementary School Journal, Vol. 27, No. 8, April, 1927, pp.',6’ 0'D-’BD, 8.

TABLE II

16

WICKMAN’S TEACHERS* RATINGS ON THE RELATIVE SERIOUSNESS OP BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS IN CHILDRENa Hetrosexual activity .................................... 17.3 S t e a l i n g ................................, ................. 17.3 M a s t u r b a t i o n .......... 16.7 Obscene notes, t a l k ..........'........................... 16.6 U n t r u t h f u l n e s s ............................................ 15.8 T r u a n c y ................................................... 15.6 Impertinence, defiance ......................... 15.0 Cruelty, bullying ....................................... 14.8 14.7 C h e a t i n g ............ Destroying school materials ............................ 14.3 Disobedience ............................................. 14.1 Unreliableness ........................................... 13.9 Temper tantrums .................................... 13.0 Lack of interest in school work ...................12.8 P r o f a n i t y .................................................12.3 Impudence, rudeness ........ .12.2 L a z i n e s s ................................................... 12.2 Smoking • • • • • . 12.0 E n u r e s i s .......... 11.8 N e r v o u s n e s s ............... 11.7 Disorderliness in c l a s s ..................................11.7 Unhappy, depressed ....................................... 11.5 Easily discouraged . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 Selfishness ...................................... 11.3 Carelessness in w o r k ............................ • • • • • 11.3 I n a t t e n t i o n ................................ 11.2 Q u a r r e l s o m e n e s s .......... 11.1 S u g g e s t i b l e ...............................................11.0 R e s e n t f u l n e s s ...................................... 10.8 T a r d i n e s s .................................................10.5 Physical c o w a r d ........................... 10.4 S t u b b o r n n e s s ....................... 10.3 D o m i n e e r i n g ..................... * • • • 10.3 Slovenly in appearance . ............................... 10.1 S u l l e n n e s s ............ 9.9 Pear f u l n e s s ............................................... -9.7 Suspiciousness................................ 9.1 T h o u g h t l e s s n e s s ................................ 8.7 Attracting a t t e n t i o n ................. 8.5 U n s o c i a l n e s s ...................................... 8.3 D r e a m i n e s s ..................................................8.3 Imaginative l y i n g ....................... 8.1 Interrupting . . . . ’ ............... 8.0 Inquisitiveness . ....................................... 8;0 Overcritical of others ............................ 7.9 Tattling ................................ 7.5 *7.5 W h i s p e r i n g ................. Sensitiveness ........................................... 7.0 R e s t l e s s n e s s ....................... 6.9 S h y n e s s .................................................... 5.4 S.

Wickman, op. cit., p. 113.

17 pressing classroom difficulties.

Reports from 451 teachers,

to whom the list of 90 points, grouped under ten headings, were presented, ranked the difficulties as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

School attitudes and conduct Study and lesson getting Teaching the lesson Building and equipment The teacher himself Organization and administration of the school Social demeanor Community and home Textbooks and materials Attendance and regularity

Here again is evidence that teachers have found most diffi­ cult those matters which concern routine and classroom work. Social demeanor, relating to personality traits, and attend­ ance and regularity, relating to phases of the pupil!s adjust­ ment, both rank relatively low in the amount of difficulty they cause the teacher. A study of 167 elementary-school teachers in Saskatoon, 16 Saskatchewan, in 1929, by Laycock, produced results which he reported to be.in harmony with those of Wickman.

They differed

only in rating regressive traits as more.serious than aggressive behavior.

In general, Laycock!s results may be said to support

Wickman1s conclusions that teachers are most concerned about the behavior that interferes with their immediate purposes, and feel relatively little concern about the personal problems of children.

S. R. Laycock, "Teachers1 Reactions to Maladjustmen of School Children.’1 British Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. IV, Part 1, 1934, pp. 11-29.

18 According to Peck,

17

neither Wickman nor Laycock

asked the teachers directly what children they considered to he maladjusted, or why.

Both investigators sought answers

to these questions only by inference.

Perhaps the response

of the teachers involved in each study would have differed considerably had they been dealing with actual cases rather than rating abstract items of behavior. T O

In 1932, Yourman

made a study of maladjustment in

the elementary schools of New York City.

/

Reports of 200

problem children had in common the following general tendency: f,evinced in the classroom aggressive, disturbing forms of be­ havior that upset classroom routine, made them difficult to 19 teach, and made it difficult to teach other children.” Asked to indicate on the Wickman scale how serious they considered various forms of behavior, the teachers showed, consistent with WickmanTs study, that they considered as serious problems: (1) behavior which violates moral standards, and (2) behavior which violates regulations of the school or which disturbs classroom situations.

Both of these types represent aggressive

behavior. 17

L. Peck, ”Teachers1 Reports of the Problems of Unadjusted School Children,” Journal of Educational Psychology, 26:123-138, February, 1935. 18

Julius Yourman, ”Children Identified by Their Teachers as Problems,” Journal of Educational Sociology, 5:334-343, February, 1932. 19 Ibid., p. 334.

19 In Yourmanfs study, no pupils with shy, evasive per­ sonality traits were designated as problems; neither were any mentally-gifted children so identified.

However, many of low 20 mentality were listed as problem children. It seems to be a general opinion among mental hygienists that teachers are more concerned with teaching subjects than with developing the personalities of their pupils and that they are “unfortunately shackled with the traditional criteria of professional success."

21

The teacher's responsibility for group academic achievement makes "conduct” problems more obvious and of more immediate Importance than personality problems.

The findings of Yourmanfs

study raise, in his mind, two significant questions:

(1) are

teachers falling to recognize as problems many children who are so from the point of view of mental health? and (2) are the schools making problems of children who learn with difficulty?

22 Table III presents a comparative summary of the ratings

of Wickman, Laycock, and Yourman on the relative seriousness of behavior problems in children.

It will be noticed that

there is a prevailing tendency in all the teachers' ratings 20 Research Committee of the National Education Association, "Summary of Research Studies,” (Washington, D. C., 1936), p. 592.

21 Howard and Patry, ££. cit.3 p. 300. 22

Yourman, o£. cit., p. 337.

TABLE III

20

COMPARATIVE RATINGS ON THE RELATIVE SERIOUSNESS OP BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS IN CHILDREN

Rating Scale

'is:s' '

4I£ of only slight consequency

makes for considerable difficulty

PROBLEM

io'.h

extremely grave

RATING ACCORDING TO Wickman

Hetrosexual activity Stealing Mas turbation Obscene notes, talk Untruthfulne ss Truancy Impertinence, defiance Cruelty, bullying Cheating Destroying school materials Disobedience Unreliableness Temper tantrums Lack of interest in s*chool work Profanity Impudenc e , rudene s s Laziness Smoking Enuresis Nervousness Disorderliness in class Unhappy, depressed Easily discouraged Selfishness Carelessness in work Inattention Quarre1somene s s Suggestible

'

17.3 17.0 16.7 16.6 15.8 15.6 15.0 14.8 14.7 14.3 14.1 13.9 13.0 12.8 12.3 12.2 12.2 12.0 11.8 11.7 11.7 11.5 11.5 11.3 11.3 11.2 11.1 11.0

Laycock8- Yourman^ 15.5 14.8 15.8 13.4 13.5 9.0 11.2 11.3 12.3 10.7 10.7 12.2 12.2 12.1 11.7 11.2 10.5 12.1 . . .

8.8 7.8 10.1 - -

9.8 11.3 7.1 7.4

19.0 18.5 18.4 17.0 19.0 15.1 18.3 16.3 18. 6 14.4 18.3 15.3 18.1 15.2 14.3 13.2 14.2 13.0 11.4 ....

16.4 13.4 14.1 13.3 12.1 12.2 16.2 11.5

a Although Laycockfs ratings were based on 109 items stead of 50, their position on the scale serves as a basis comparison. ^The ratings of Yourman are here estimated. from the positions of the various items on ; a graph in his report.

21

TABLE III (continued) COMPARATIVE RATINGS ON THE RELATIVE SERIOUSNESS OP BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS IN CHILDREN PROBLEM .

. RATING ACCORDING TO Wickman

Res en tfulne s s Tardiness. Physical Coward Stubbornness Domineering Slovenly in appearance Sullenness Pearfulness Suspiciousness Thoughtlessness Attracting attention Unsocialness Dreaminess Imaginative lying Interrupting Inquisitiveness Overcritical of others Tattling Vftiispering Sensitiveness Restlessness Shyness

a Wickman,

10.8 10.5 10.4 10.3 10.3 10.1 9.9 0.7 9.1 8.7 8.5 8.3 8.3 8.1 8.0 8.0 7.9 7.5 7.5 7.0 6.9 5.4

cit,, p. 113,

b Laycock, op, cit,, pp. 17-19, c Yourman, op, cit., p. 335.

Laycock8* Yourman^ 8.6 8.1 9.2 8.9 8.4 9.0 9.6 7.2 8.4 5.4 8.0 7.2 5.3 8.1 5.7 9.2 6.0 7.1 8.1 7.3 5.2

15.4 10.1 10.0 13.1 11.2 8.2 16.1 12.0 8.3 6.3 11.3 6.1 9.0 8.0 11.1 7.0 6.2 8.1 11.0 6.0 9.1 5.0

22 to attach more seriousness to behavior that is aggressive, disturbing, and annoying to teachers than to behavior which indicates regressive, withdrawing tendencies upon the part of the pupil. An investigation by Campbell,

O'K

in 1931, included an

analysis of teachers* attitudes toward behavior problems in studying methods of treatment used in meeting problem behavior. In analyzing 1,232 problems reported, six major- divisions were formed and the problems classified accordingly.

Ihese six

major groups coincided very closely with the groups into which Wickman classified his problems.

The groupings will be sum­

marized and compared in Table IV which follows the discussion of teachers’ attitudes toward behavior problems.

The author’s

conclusions were that overt actions of the pupil interfering with order in the classroom are the most frequently reported classroom behavior problems, and that problems relating to withdrawing and recessive personality traits, although con­ sidered of most importance by mental hygienists, are rarely reported. Smith,

24

in 1934, made a study of factors in situations

where teachers found it difficult to deal constructively with 23 Campbell, op. cit., pp. 11-19. 24 Helen R. Smith, The Difficult Child and the Teacher nA Doctoral Dissertation, Columbia University, New York, 1934), p. 39.

23 their pupils.

The attitudes of teachers toward problems

compared rather favorably with those of visiting teachers and case workers included in the study.

Reporting on 50

children, the teachers listed as most difficult aggressive, annoying, defiant, and disturbing behavior, which occurred in 54 per cent of the cases.

The visiting teachers, reporting

on 500 cases, selected 44 per cent of the problems as re­ lating to this type of behavior.

Indifferent, inattentive,

withdrawing behavior was reported in 32 per cent of the cases by the teachers, by the case workers.

and in 38 per cent of those reported In this study, personality problems

of the pupil were considered the most important factors in situations where the teacher found it difficult to deal con­ structively with the.pupils, but, again, aggressive traits were found to cause more difficulty than regressive traits. 25 Bain used the Wickman scale in studying the atti­ tudes of six groups of teachers toward the seriousness of common behavior problems.

These teachers were enrolled in

three different college classes:

(l) child development,

(2) parent education, and (3) training-school problems.

Bain

compared the ratings of each of the three groups at the begin­ ning and at the end of a semester*s work in college, first, in 1927, and, again, in 1932.

Her first study was made at about

the same time when Wickman was completing his study. 25 W. E. Bain,

op. cit., pp. 19-35.

24 26 Results of the first rating of Bainfs first study were reported, in part, as follows: 1. Problems relating to sexual immorality and dis­ honesty were assigned the place of greatest seriousness in all three groups. Among these problems were included untruthfulness, cheating, stealing, masturbation, hetrosexual activity, obscene notes. 2. Problems relating to difficulties which disturb a teacher were rated as least serious. Such problems included whispering, interrupting, inquisitiveness, restlessness, stillness, thoughtlessness, and inatten­ tion. 3. With fair consistency, the ratings midway were shared by problems relating to difficulties with authori­ ties, social antagonism, and withdrawing behavior. On the second rating, two of the classes ranked problems of the unsocial, introverted, and recessive type more seriously than before.

In 1932, the raters showed little change at the

end of the period of study and the ratings may be summarized as follows: Easily discouraged Lack of interest Temper tantrums Enuresis MORE Truancy Obscene notes Unsocial withdrawing Suggestible SERIOUS Nervousness I Fearfulness Unreliableness Cheating THAN Cruelty, bullying Unhappy, depressed Stealing Hetrosexual activity Destroying materials Masturbation Un truthfulne ss 26

Bain, cyp. cit., pp. 22-23

Whispering Interrupting Imaginative lying Inquisitiveness Silliness Restlessness Thoughtlessness Slovenliness Profanity Tardiness Disorderliness Tattling Impudence Inattention Stubbornness Impertinence Shyness

25 The author concluded that sound instruction concern­ ing the nature and needs of children can do much to influence teachers* attitudes*

She was of the opinion that the study

might he indicative of a general shift toward new viewpoints in education.

It is the opinion of the investigator that the

findings of Bain*s study may have been due in part, at least, to the factors influencing the attitudes of the teachers. Being enrolled in classes which dealt directly with child study, and being subject to the influence of training-school teachers concerned primarily with child development and wel­ fare, these teachers would probably develop more desirable attitudes toward children*s behavior problems than they would under ordinary teaching conditions. 27 In 1935, Peck asked teachers enrolled in summer school classes to present case studies of unadjusted chil­ dren and to include in their reports why they considered the children to be unadjusted, what factors they thought tended to cause the maladjustment, and what steps should be taken. Cases of 175 children were presented.

A total incidence of

698 problems, of 90 different types, was reported, an average of 4 problems per child.

The 90 problems were classified into

seven groups listed by Wickman.

In Wickman*s study, undesirable

personality traits were sub-divided into aggressive and

27 L. Peck, ££. cit.f pp. 125-126.

regressive types.

This study added a third type, atypical

mental traits. According to Peck!s findings, undesirable personality traits were reported as the chief reason for considering pupils maladjusted.

These traits comprised 53 per cent of the 698

problems reported.

Violations of school work requirements and

violations of conventional standards of morality and integrity were assigned to a position of median importance, comprising together 32 per cent of the total, and disciplinary offenses such as violations of classroom rules, difficulty with other children, violations of general school requirements, and transgressions against authority comprised the remaining 15 per cent of the problems reported.

OQ

The teachers contributing to this study placed upon prob­ lem behavior almost the opposite emphasis to that reported by Wickman,

Table IV shows a comparison of the emphasis placed on

the various types of problems by Yfickman, Laycock, Campbell, and Peck.

While both Wickman and Laycock reported their teach­

ers as considering undesirable personality traits least serious and disburbances of school routine most serious, the teachers concerned in PeckTs study gave overwhelming emphasis to un­ desirable personality traits, considered the various classes of disciplinary offenses as least serious, and placed a median emphasis on violations of moral standards and school work.^9 20 Peck, op. cit., p. 127, 29

Peck, op. cit., p. 137.

TABLE IV COMPARISON OF RATINGS OF INCIDENCE OF BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

VIOLATIONS OF GENERAL STAND­ ARDS OF MORALITV AND INTEG­ RITY (stealing, dishonesty, immorality, profanity, etc.)

27

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL INCIDENCE Wickman Laycock Campbell Peck 1928& 1929^ 1931c 1932 1933 1934 "The Contribution of Research to the Mental Hygiene Program for Schools,” School and Society, 34:39-49, July, 1931. An excellent article giving results of research but main­ ly giving suggestions as to what to do about it. _______ , "Mental Hygiene in Education,” Teachers1 College Record, 42:696-699, May, 1941. An article stating the mental hygiene attitude toward dis­ cipline. , "Problems Faced by Teachers,” Journal of Educational Research, 35:1-15, September, 1941. A survey of personal and professional problems considered important by ninety-eight teachers in service. Thorpe, Louis P., "Danger Signals of Heeded Pupil Adjustment,” School and Society, 46:799-801, December, 1937. Calls attention to unwholesome symptoms, physical and emotional, indicative of pupil maladjustment. Townsend, Marion E., "Mental Hygiene and Teacher Recruiting,” Mental Hygiene, 17:598-604, October, 1933. An article stressing the need for mental hygiene training in the preparation of teachers.

\

161 Travis, L. E . , "Personality Hazards and Potentialities of the Modern Home,” Education, 61:601-607, June, 1941. Includes suggestions as to how unadjusted parents threaten the v/elfare of their children. Wallin, J. E. Wallace, ,1The Grade Teacher Not Qualified to Handle Handicapped and Maladjusted Pupils,” Nation*s Schools, 16:37-39, July, 1935. Suggests need for modification of certification principles and for more highiy specialized training in educational institutions. Williams, H. D., "Survey of Pre-delinquent School Children of Nineteen Midwestern Cities,” Journal of Juvenile Re­ search, 17:163-174, July, 1933. A study showing the prevalence of maladjustment among school children who later became delinquent. Witty, Paul A. and Helen S. Shacter, ”Hypothyroidism as a Factor in Maladjustment,” Journal of Psychology, 2:377392, July, 1936. An article stressing the importance of Investigating the physical health of unadjusted children. Worth, Charles L., "Personality Difficulties--Does Your School Cause or Cure Ihem?” Nation*s Schools, 27:53-54, May, 1941. A discussion of factors in school organization which handi­ cap satisfactory adjustment. Yourman, Julius, ’’Children Identified by Their Teachers as Probl'ems,” Journal of Educational Sociology, 5:334-343, February, 1932. A mental hygiene study of maladjustment in the elementary school of New York City. C.

PARTS OF SERIES

Campbell, Nellie M., The Elementary School TeacherTs Treatment of Behavior Problems. Contributions to Education, No. 668. New York: Teachers1 College, Columbia University, 1935. 71 pp.

162 A comparison of ways used by teachers rated superior and inferior, and by student teachers in responding to and in treating behavior problems of their pupils, Flemming, Cecile White, Pupil Adjustment in the Modern School. Horace Mann School Studies in Education, New York: Teach­ ers1 College, Columbia University, 1931. 94 pp. Discusses the problems of adjustment and all of the various means of solution which are used in the Horace Mann School. Griffin, J. D. M . , S. R. Laycock, and W. Line, Mental Hygiene, A Manual for Teachers. American Psychology Series. New York: American Book Company, 1940. 291 pp. Chapter X is particularly pertinent and helpful to the teacher's own adjustment. Hicks, Frances R., The Mental Health of Teachers. Peabody Contributions to Education, No. 123. Nashville, 1934. 36 pp. A study of the nature and extent of emotional instability among 600 teachers. Robinson, C. L., Psychology and the Preparation of Teachers. Contributions to Education, No. 418. New York: Teachers' College, Columbia University, 1930. 121 pp. A survey and analysis of practices in the teaching of psychology in certain professional schools for the train­ ing of teachers. Special -Education: The Handicapped and the Gifted. Whitehouse Conference on Child Health and Protection. New York: Century Company, 1931. 604 pp. Contains a section devoted to the extent of physical dis­ ability of school children. Washburne, Carleton W . , Adjusting the School to the Child. Measurement and Adjustment Series. New York: World Book Company, 1932. 190 pp. Presents a description of the various means used in Winnetka for facilitating pupil adjustment. Winslow, C. E. A., The School Health Program. Report of the Regent's Inquiry into the Character and Cost of Education in the state of New York. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Incorporated, 1938. 120 pp.

163 Some practical suggestions for adjustment based on the organization of the school. D.

PUBLICATIONS OP LEARNED ORGANIZATIONS

nCharacter Education,’1 Tenth Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association. Washington, Dl C., 1932. 535 pp. Chapter XI, ’’The Teacher in Character Education,” gives an account of the characteristics of a good teacher. ’’The Education of Teachers,” Twenty- third Yearbook of the National Society of College Teachers of Education. Uni­ versity of Chicago Press, 1935. 266 pp. A report and criticism of a survey of current practices in respect to curricula for teachers. ’’Employment Status and Leaves of Absence of Teachers, 19371938,” National Education Association, Research Circular, N o . 1, of the American Association of School Administra­ tors, 1938. A survey of provisions for sick leave and sabbatical leaves for teachers. ’’Pit to Teach,” Ninth Yearbook of the Department of Classroom Teachers of the National Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1938. 276 pp. A study of health problems of teachers from various angles. Most helpful to teachers, teachers’ organizations and ad­ ministrators . ’’Health in Schools,” Twentieth Y e a r b o o k of the Association of School Administrators of the National Education Association. Washington, D. C., 1942. 544 pp. A book written from the standpoint of the administrative responsibility for physical and mental health of teachers and pupils. ’’Mental Health in the Classroom,” Thirteenth Yearbook of the Department of Supervisors and Directors of Ins truetion of the National Education Association. Washington, D. C., 1940. 304 pp.

164 While designed for educators, the book is helpful for all who are interested in improving the health of children. It is written from the point of view of the normal child. "Mental Hygiene in the Classroom," Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education of the National Education Associa­ tion and the American Medical Association, with the co-operation of the National Committee for Cental Hygiene and the American Orthopsychiatric Association, Incorporated. Washington, D. C., 1940. 68 pp. Case studies of problem behavior with recommendations for the proper way of handling from the mental hygiene point of view. "Personality Adjustment of the Elementary School Child," Fifteenth Yearbook of the Department of Elementary School Principals of the National Education Association. Wash­ ington, D. C., 1936. 672 pp. Thorough and valuable discussions of factors influencing both pupil and teacher adjustment and preventive and remedial measures, a most comprehensive treatment of the immediate problem. "Personality Adjustment of the School Teacher," Thirteenth Yearbook of the American Association of Teachers1 Colleges of the National Education Association. Oneonta, New~^ork7 1934. 120 pp. An article by Caroline B. Zachry stresses the importance of teacher adjustment and urges educators to select and train teachers wisely. Carleton Washburne describes the mental hygiene program at ?/innetka. "Salaries of Teachers in Relation to Incomes of Other Groups," Research Division of the National Education Association, Release NoT 4~. (pamphlet, 12 pp.), 1942. Calls attention to the slow rise of teachers1 salaries in periods of increased cost in living. "Status of the Teaching Profession," Research Bulletin of the National Education Association, Vol. 18, NoT 2, inarch, 1940. 29 pp. A thorough discussion of the economic status of teachers with respect to salary, tenure, retirement, and sick leave provisions.

165 E.

UNPUBLISHED

MATERIALS

Gould, Arthur, ”The Mental and Physical Health of Teachers with Special Reference to Los Angeles," Unpublished Doctor1s dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1940. 189 pp. A survey of the status of teacher health as shown by attendance records, mortality rates, and health records. O fMalley, Kathleen E. A., ”A Psychological Study of the Annoy­ ances or Irritations of Teachers.ff Unpublished Doctor’s dissertation, Hew York University, Hew York, 1935. 213 pp. Urell, Catherine, ” The Contentment of Women Teachers in Elemen­ tary Schools.” Unpublished Doctor’s thesis, N ew ^ork Uni­ versity, Hew York, 1935. 461 pp. A study of factors associated with contentment or dissatis­ faction in teachers. P.

NEWSPAPER

The Kalamazoo Gazette, April 17, 1942. An article by Angelo Patri on the need for considering the health of the teacher.