A review of the literature in the field of school law

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A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE IN THE FIELD OF SCHOOL LAW

A P ro je c t P re se n te d to th e F a c u lty o f th e S c h o o l o f E d u c a tio n The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a

In P a rt i a l F u lfillm e n t of th e

R e q u ire m e n ts f o r t h e D egree

M a ste r of S c ie n c e in E d u c a tio n

by A r g y l e 0 . Wakeman Ju n e 1950

UMI Number: EP46118

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL U SERS The quality of this reproduction is d ep en d en t upon th e quality of the copy subm itted. In the unlikely event that th e author did not sen d a com plete m anuscript and there are missing p ag es, th e se will be noted. Also, if material had to be rem oved, a note will indicate th e deletion.

Dissertation Publishing

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/~4 ';ro U t / v l Th is p r o je c t rep or t, w ri tt en under the direction of the candidate’s ad vi ser a nd a p p r o v e d by him, has been p r es e n te d to an d ac c e p te d by the F acu lty of the Sc h o o l of E du c a ti o n in part ia l fu lfi llm en t of the requirements f o r the degree of M a s t e r of Science in E ducation.

Adviser

Dean

TABLE OP CONTENTS CHAPTER I. II.

PAG-E

THE PROBLEM ................................................................................

1

TEE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES AND ....................................

THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS

L egal Im p lic a tio n s of th e

. . . . .

3

C oncept o f E d u c a tio n

a s a F u n c t i o n o f t h e S t a t e . '...............................

4

C o n s titu tio n a l B a sis of P u b lic School E d u c a tio n

........................................

3

C o n s titu tio n a l R ig h ts in A c t i o n III.

.

6

STATE CONSITUTIONS AND THE CONSTITUTION OP THE STATE OP CALIFORNIA, AND THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS S ta te

. 7

C o n s t i t u ti o n a l P ro v is io n s f o r E d u c a tio n

8

L e g a l a n d G o v e rn m e n ta l B a s e s f o r t h e S u p p o rt and C o n tro l of E d u c a tio n i n U n ite d S t a te s IV .

• 9 10

LEGAL STATUS OP CENTRAL AGENCIES................................... The D e v e lo p m e n t o f a S t a t e

.

H

S t a t e s Make C h a n g e s i n S c h o o l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

H

Legal R e s p o n s ib ilitie s in te n d e n t

S c h o o l S y stem .

o f t h e C o u n ty S u p e r ­

i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .........................

S c h o o ls a n d C i t y G overnm ent , H ig h S p o t s i n S t a t e E n a c te d i n 1947

.

.

12

.................................... 12

School L e g is la tio n

...................................................................

S t a t e S c h o o l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ..............................

14 12

iii CHAPTER V.

PAGE

DISTRICT ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL:

THE SCHOOL

AND THE STATE, AND THE RELATIONSHIP OF SCHOOL DISTRICTS TO MUNICIPALITIES- . . . . . . . . . School D is tr ic t v s.

C i t y ..................... ..............................

C ity Sehool A d m in is tra tiv e C o n tro ls L e g a l,

Ille g a l,

. . . . .

18

and E x tra -L e g a l D egrees o f

F i s c a l D ependence V I.

17

....................................................

19

LEGAL AUTHORITY OF GOVERNING BOARDS, AND THE BOARD RULES AND REGULATIONS

...................................

L eg al A u th o rity

o f B oards o f E d u c a tio n .. . .

L eg al A u th o rity

of B o ard s o f E d u c a tio n to

E n fo rc e R u le s

and R e g u la tio n s

Law C o n c e r n i n g t h e P l a c e B o ard M e e tin g s.

.........................

21 2B

23

o f H o ld in g S ch o o l

. . . . . . .

...............................

24

L e g a l A s p e c ts f o r th e R eco rd s o f P ro c e e d in g s o f B o a r d s o f E d u c a t i o n ....................................................

25

Some F u n c t i o n s a n d R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f B o a r d s o f E d u c a t i o n ......................................

26

The L e g a l S t a t u s o f C i t y S c h o o l B o a r d s .

. . .

27

The V a lu e o f C a r e f u l l y D e f i n e d R u l e s a n d Re­ g u l a t i o n s C o v e r i n g t h e Work o f t h e

School

B o a r d a n d S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ......................................... The YJork o f B o a r d s o f E d u c a t i o n . . . . . . .

28 29

iv CHAPTER

PAGE The C o n t r a c t u a l S t a t u s o f C a l i f o r n i a C i t y S c h o o l S u p e i * i n t e n d e n t s ...................................

30

C ity S u p e r in te n d e n t and th e B o ard o f E d u c a tio n

31

The B u s i n e s s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f C i t y S c h o o l S y s t e m s a s Shown h y R u l e s a n d R e g u l a t i o n s

.

22

The S e h o o l B o a r d M e m b e r s . ...............................................

23

The D i s c r e t i o n a r y P o w e r s o f S c h o o l B o a r d s

24

.

.

S t a t u t o r y P r o v i s i o n s C o n c e rn in g th e C ity S c h o o l S u p e r i n t e n d e n c y .................................................... V II.

THE TORT L IA B IL IT Y OF SCHOOL DISTRICTS..................... The L e g a l L i a b i l i t y

27

of School D i s t r i c t s fo r

D a m a g e s ........................................................................................

28

The T o r t L i a b i l i t y o f I n d i v i d u a l E m p l o y e e s a n d O f f i c e r s o f S c h o o l D i s t r i c t s .......................... L i a b i l i t y f o r n e g lig e n c e

o f E d u c a tio n a l O ffic e rs

a n d E m p l o y e e s ............................................. The T o r t L i a b i l i t y

29

o f School D i s t r i c t s and

S e h o o l P e r s o n n e l .............................................

40

L i a b i l i t y f o r S c h o o l A c c i d e n t s ..........................

. .

L i a b i l i t y f o r A c c i d e n t s .................................. School P ro p e rty :

29

D istric t L ia b ilitie s ;

41 42

A c t i o n s .4 2

The L e g a l A u t h o r i t y o f t h e A m e r i c a n P u b l i c S c h o o l.

.

.

........................................................................

44

L i a b i l i t y f o r S c h o o l A c c i d e n t s ....................................

45

V

CHAPTER V III.

PAGE

THE CONTRACTUAL AUTHORITY AND L IA B IL IT Y OP SCHOOL DISTRICTS..............................................................46 R ig h ts and L i a b i l i t i e s

of P u b lic School

B o ards U nder C a p ita l O u tla y C o n tr a c ts The C o u r t s a n d P u b l i e IX .

School P ro p e rty

. . .

47

. . . .

48

LEGAL PROBLEMS OP EMPLOYMENT OP SCHOOL PERSONNEL.............................................................................

49

The T e a c h e r ' s C o n t r a c t u a l S t a t u s a s R e v e a l e d by an A n a ly s is A n e rie a n C o u rt D e c is io n s

.

.

50

The T e a c h e r ' s C o n t r a c t a n d O t h e r L e g a l P h a s e s o f T e a c h e r S t a t u s ............................ ................................. 50 R e s t r i c t i o n s on T e a c h e r s . . . . . . . . . . . X. PROBLEMS OP TEACHER TENURE LEGISLATION.

51

. . . .

53

New L aw s on P e r s o n n e l .............................................. 54 T each ers:

The I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f T e n u r e

S t a t u s ............................................................................... 5 4 In d e fin ite

T eacher T enure:

A C r i t i c a l S tu d y

o f th e H i s t o r i c a l , L e g a l, O p e ra tiv e , and C o m p a ra tiv e A s p e c ts A S tu d y o f th e

.........................

C a l i f o r n i a T e a c h e r T e n u r e L aw .

A H a n d b o o k o n T e a c h e r T e n u r e ................................... C o u rts C l a r i f y T enure X I.

55

..........................

.

. . . . . .

LEGAL PHASES OF DISMISSAL OP SCHOOL EMPLOYEES .

56 57 57 59

vi CHAPTER

PAGE Can t h e B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n D e l e g a t e t o a C o m m itte e t h e D i s m i s s a l o f T e a c h e r s .....................

60

R e c e n t C o u rt D e c i s i o n s on t h e D i s m i s s a l o f T e a c h e r s .......................................................................................

60

T e a c h e rs C e r t i f i c a t i o n , . A p p o in tm e n t a n d .D i s ­ m is sa l

.

S c h o o l T e a c h e r ' s Day i n C o u r t .

. . . . . .

61

. . . . . . . .

62

T he S c h o o l T e a c h e r ' s Day i n C o u r t . X II.

LEGAL PHASES OF RETIREMENT ACTS. T eachers:

. . .

R e tire m e n t and P e n sio n s

6b

. . . . . . r . . .

.

. . . . . .

C u rren t I s s u e s in T ea ch e r R e tire m e n t

66 67

. . . . . .

67

T e a c h e r s ' P e n s io n S y stem s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

69

T e a c h e r R e ti r e m e n t S y stem a n d S o c i a l S e c u r i t y .

70

A n a ly sis of L ocal P ro v is io n s f o r T eacher R e tire m e n t X III.

.

.

.

..............................................................

RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF PUPILS.AND.PARENTS,

, ,

,

,

71 ?2

Y o u t h a n d t h e Law.

73

New S t a t e Laws f o r P u p i l s .

73

R i g h t s o f P u p i l s a n d P a r e n t s ...................................

.

7b

The L e g a l S t a t u s o f t h e P u h l i c - S c h o o l P u p i l ,

.

75

S e p a ra tio n o f R aces in S c h o o l,

76

R ig h ts o f P u p ils and P a r e n t s .,

77

P u p ils'

78

Day i n C o u r t , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

R a c e o r C o l o r ....................................'..............................................

79

v ii CHAPTER

PACE Pow er o f E m a n c ip a te d M in o r t o E s t a b l i s h R e s i ­ dence f o r S ch o o l P u rp o s e s i n D i s t r i c t O th e r T h a n T h a t i n W hich H i s P a r e n t s a r e

Domi­

c i l e d .................................................* ................................................SO P u p ils'

The Daw E n t e r s t h e XIV.

1 9 4 7 ................

81

...............................

.

Day i n C o u r t R e v ie w o f C la ssro o m

82

THE ACQUIS IT I OH AND USE OF SCHOOL PROPERTY, THE CONTRACTOR'S BOND, AND RELATEDPROBLEMS.

. . .

83

P u b l i c S c h o o l P r o p e r t y .......................... R ig h ts a n d L i a b i l i t i e s

84

of P u b lic S ch o o l B oards

U nder C a p i t a l O u tla y C o n tr a c ts

. . . . . . .

The C o u r t s a n d P u b l i c S c h o o l P r o p e r t y .

85

. . . .

86

U se o f S c h o o l s f o r M e e t i n g s o n C o n t r o v e r s i a l S u b j e c t s ......................... XX.

.8 6

THE ADMINISTRATION OF SCHOOL MONEY....................................88 S c h o o l F in a n c e L e g i s l a t i o n o f 1935 . . . . . .

89

E f f e c t s o f L e g i s l a t i o n a n d C o u r t D e c i s i o n s on S ch o o l F in a n c e an d B u s in e s s A d m in is tr a tio n .

90

S a f e g u a r d i n g S c h o o l F u n d s .............................. . . . . . 9 1 F e d e r a l A id t o t h e L egal L im ita tio n s

S ta te s f o r C a p ita l O u tla y s.

91

on R i g h t s a n d P o w e r s o f S c h o o l

B o a r d s w i t h R e s p e c t t o T a x a t i o n ............................... 9 2 S ta te

C o n s titu tio n a l O b lig a tio n s and L im ita tio n s

i n F i n a n c i n g P u b l i c E d u c a t i o n .........................................9 3

v iii G H M TE R

PAGE

BIBLI QGIL&BKY................................................................................................................ 9 $

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTION The p u r p o s e o f th e l i t e r a t u r e , fie ld

th is

paper is to

p r e s e n t are v ie w of

o r s y n th e s is , f o r a sy lla b u s

c o v e rin g th e

of sc h o o l la w . In a d d itio n to t h e

a b o v e , s u c h a p a p e r w o u l d m ake

a v a ila b le to th e s tu d e n t a c o lle c tio n s c h o o l law .

In o rd e r to

a s p o s s i b l e , som e n i n e t y

o f b o o k r e v i e w s on

co v er th e s u b je c t a s th o ro u g h ly books and p e r i o d i c a l s w ere re v ie w e d

and a sse m b le d u n d e r f i f t e e n

to p ic s

q u ic k ly a s c e r ta in t h e v a lu e

of a book t o t h e

p r o b l e m o r q u e s t i o n he i s

s o t h a t t h e s t u d e n t may p a rtic u la r

stu d y in g .

I n e a c h r e v i e w a n e f f o r t h a s b e e n made t o s e t f o r t h w h a t th e book o r a r t i c l e t o what i t

is

s a y s , r a t h e r t h a n m a k in g a s t a t e m e n t a s

a b o u t.

Thus each r e v ie w becom es, i n a s e n s e ,

a q u ic k c o n d e n s a tio n o f t h e a r t i c l e w ith o u t any o p in io n fro m t h e w r i t e r as to

w hat he

th in k s th e

It

ty p e

re v ie w w i l l e n a b le th e s t u ­

i s hoped t h a t t h i s

dent to

of

a r tic le c o n ta in s .

r e c e i v e a p is p e r a n a l y s i s o f t h e b o o k o r p e r i o d i c a l

s o t h a t h e may u s e h i s

own j u d g e m e n t a s t o

it* s v a lu e , or

w o rth . The d a t a h a s b e e n c o m p i l e d f r o m s o u r c e s t h a t a r e w e l l r e c o g n iz e d i n s c h o o l law a s a u t h o r i t i e s . I t h a s been fo u n d t h a t a num ber o f books l i s t e d under th is

fie ld

a re not re a d ily a tta in a b le a t th e u n iv e r-

2 sity .

T h e s e b o o k s p r o v e d t o b e D o c t o f i a l d i s s e r t a t i o n s on

T i l e o n ly a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y w h ere t h e y w ere s u b m i t t e d . s u c h i s t h e c a s e a n o t a t i o n h a s b e e n m ade t o s a v e t h e d e n t v a lu a b le tim e i n l o c a t i n g

When stu ­

it.

In a few i n s ta n c e s i t h a s been fo u n d t h a t th e a r t i c l e , w h ile l i s t e d u n d er th e f i e l d v a lu e t o t h e s u b j e c t .

o f sc h o o l law , i s

of v ery l i t t l e

When p o s s i b l e , a t t h e e n d o f s u c h a

re v ie w , th e w r i t e r h a s n o te d t h i s

fa c t.

3

CHAPTER I I THE COEST ITUTI OH OF THE DEI TEH STATES AEH THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS

4

G a rb e r, L. 0 . , L e g a l I m p li c a t io n s o f th e C oncept o f E d u c a tio n a s a F u n c tio n o f th e S t a t e . U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ica g o , 1 9 3 2 . T h i s s t u d y i s m ade i n a n e f f o r t t o b r i n g f o r t h

th e

fo llo w in g p o in ts : 1.

To show t h r o u g h a n a l y s i s o f d e b a t e s o f t u t i o n a l c o n v e n tio n s th e c o n c e p ts t h a t fram ers of th e s ta te c o n s titu tio n s had c o n c e rn in g p ro p e r r e l a ti o n s h i p o f s t a t e t i o n a l sy ste m to o r g a n iz e d s o c i e t y a n d in d iv id u a l.

2.

To c l a r i f y t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e a s d e fin e d by th e c o u r ts .

3.

To p o i n t o u t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s w h i c h t h e c o u r t s h a v e made o f t h e c o n c e p t o f e d u c a t i o n a s a s t a t e f u n c t i o n t o p r a c t i c a l p ro b le m s o f s c h o o l ad m in ­ istra tio n .

sta te

The b o o k i s d i v i d e d i n t o tw o s e c t i o n s :

c o n sti­ th e i n m in d educa­ th e

to e d u c a tio n

1)

T he D e b a t e s

o f S t a t e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n tio n s and 2) C o u rt D e c is io n s . The a u t h o r r e g a r d e d p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n a s e s s e n t i a l t o p o l i t i ­ c a l s a f e t y a n d w e l l - b e i n g o f th e S t a t e w h ic h d e p e n d s on i n ­ te llig e n t c itiz e n sh ip . e lim in a te p u b lic

It

is

t h e m ost e f f e c t i v e a g e n c y to

su ch s o c i a l e v i l s a s p a u p e rism and c rim e .

sc h o o ls a re

F ree

th e f o u n d a tio n o f a r e p u b l i c a n form o f

g o v ern m en t an d th e e d u c a tio n o f th e c h i l d i s a n a t u r a l r i g h t ' of th e in d iv id u a l.

T h erefo re,

it

is

th e d u ty o f th e S ta te

t o e d u c a t e c h i l d r e n f o r t h e i r otcn w e l f a r e a s w e l l a s f o r t h e w e lfa re o f th e s t a t e . S in c e C h a p te r I d e a l s w i t h th e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f th e U n ite d S t a te s in r e l a t i o n

to th e p u b lic

sc h o o ls,

t h i s book

i s v e ry a p p ro p r ia te f o r th e c o n s t it u t i o n h as d e le g a te d such pow ers t o t h e S t a t e s .

L i d e , E d w in S . . 11C o n s t i t u t i o n a l B a s i s o f P u b l i c S c h o o l E d u c a tio n ," U n ite d S ta te s O f f ic e o f E d u c a tio n . B u l l e t i n N o. 4 0 , 1 9 3 1 . L id e p r e s e n t s p r o v i s i o n s r e l a t i v e

to p u b lic sch o o l

e d u c a t i o n b e lo w c o l l e g e t h a t h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n s titu tio n s

o f th e 48 s t a t e s .

H is a t t e n t i o n

in to

th e con­

in th e f i r s t p a r t

o f t h e b o o h i s d i r e c t e d to w a rd s t r e n d s i n t h e num ber o f c o n ­ s t i tu t i o n a l p ro v isio n s r e la tin g

to

e d u c a tio n a s re v e a le d by:

1.

C o m p ariso n o f t h e num ber o f s u c h p r o v i s i o n s t h a t have been w r itte n in to th e c o n s titu tio n s o f th e s t a t e s a d m itte d a t d i f f e r e n t p e rio d s in th e N a t io n 's h i s t o r y .

2.

C o m p a r i s o n o f t h e n u m b e r o f p r o v i s i o n s now a p p e a r ­ in g in th e c o n s titu tio n s of S ta te s lo c a te d in d i f f e r e n t g e o g ra p h ic a l s e c tio n s o f th e c o u n try .

T he s e c o n d p a r t o f t h e s t u d y i s d e v o t e d t o a n a n a l y s i s o f th e ty p e s of p ro v is io n s r e l a t i n g to p u b lic

e d u c a t i o n w h ic h

a r e now c o n t a i n e d i n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e s as: 1. 2. 3. 4.

P ro v isio n s P ro v isio n s P ro v isio n s P ro v isio n s

of g en eral r e la tin g to r e la tin g to r e la tin g to

P ra c tic a lly a l l ch arg e th e s t a t e

sta te

c h a ra c te r o rg a n iz a tio n of sc h o o ls su p p o rt o f sc h o o ls c o n tr o l o f sc h o o ls

c o n stitu tio n s s p e c ific a lly

le g i s la t u r e w ith g e n e ra l r e s p o n s ib ility

f o r p ro m o tin g e d u c a tio n a l I n t e r e s t s

of th e s t a t e .

M ost

s ta te

c o n stitu tio n s

p ro v id e fu n d s f o r se h o o l s u p p o rt.

c o n ju n c tio n w ith t h i s d i s c u s s i o n th e a u th o r a ls o

In

b rin g s

f o r t h th e in d iv id u a l lo c a l sch o o l re q u ire m e n ts . T h is

is an e x c e lle n t s tu d y o f th e h i s t o r y and p re s e n t

s ta tu s of e d u c a tio n a l l i t e r a t u r e

in th e U n ite d S ta te s .

R o s e n f i e l d , H . H . » C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R i g h ts i n A c t i o n ," H a tio n * s S c h o o l s , 4 0 : 4 1 , D ecem ber, 1 9 4 7 . T h is a r t i c l e

c o v e r e d t h e G a in e s c a s e i n w h ich t h e

c o u r t h e l d t h a t s e g r e g a t i o n o f r a c e s w as n o t c o n t r a r y t o t h e U n ite d S ta te s c o n s t i t u t i o n . fa c ilitie s

I t p ro v id e d o n ly t h a t e q u a l

a re p ro v id e d to b o th g ro u p s.

In a case In C a lif o r n ia th e se h o o l d i s t r i c t s re q u ir e d c h i l d r e n o f M e x ic a n a n c e s t r y to

a t t e n d s e g r e g a t e d s c h o o l s on

g r o u n d t h a t d e f i c i e n c y i n u s e o f t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e made i t n ecessary .

T h is w as h e l d a d e p r i v a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n ’ s

r i g h t s u n d er th e F e d e ra l C o n s titu tio n . I n a c a s e i n O k la h o m a a n e g r o w i s h e d a d m i t t a n c e t o la w s c h o o l a t U n i v e r s i t y .

He w a s r e f u s e d on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t

t h e r e w as a n e g ro u n i v e r s i t y a n d a l t h o u g h i t law s c h o o l ,

th e

one h a d n o t b e e n r e q u e s t e d t h e r e .

d id n o t have a

7

CHAPTER I I I STATE CONSIITUT I OHS AID THE CONSTITUTION OP THE STATE OP CALIFORNIA, M B THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS

M a t z e n , J o h n M ., S t a t e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l P r o v i s i o n s f o r E d u c a ­ tio n . T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C o lu m b ia U n i v e r s i t y C o n t r i b u ­ New Y o r k C i t y : B ureau o f t i o n s t o E d u c a t i o n , No. k 6 2 . P u b l i c a t i o n s , T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C o lu m b ia U n i v e r s i t y ,

19*31.

151 PP.

T he c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e

s ta te s in g en eral

co v er th e fo llo w in g : 1. 2. 3. k. 5. 6.

S t a t e B oard o f E d u c a tio n C h ief s t a t e s c h o o l o f f i c e r C o u n ty b o a r d o f e d u c a t i o n C h ief c o u n ty sc h o o l o f f i c e r L a n d g r a n t s f o r common s c h o o l s , s t a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s , and s t a t e norm al s c h o o ls The s t a t e p e r m a n e n t common s c h o o l f u n d a n d s t a t e d i s t r i b u t i v e common s c h o o l f u n d

T he b o o k c o v e r s ta il,

s h o w i n g how e a c h

th e above p ro v is io n s in

e x te n siv e

de­

s t a t e h a s s e t upth e s e p r o v i s i o n s .

I t i s an e x c e ll e n t so u rc e o f stu d y o f s t a t e

c o n stitu tio n s

fro m 1776 t o 1929 c o n v e r n in g e d u c a t i o n i n m in u te d e t a i l . sh o w s t h a t e d u c a t i o n i s th e N a tio n ,

a fu n c tio n o f th e S ta te ,

n o r p r im a r ily of th e L o c a lity .

It

and n o t of

I t n o t o n l y sho w s

in d e t a i l th e s e p r o v is io n s b u t a n a ly s e s th e good and e v i l o f such l e g a l a c t s .

Too many i n f i n i t e

t i v e m a c h in e ry r e l a t i n g

d e ta ils and a d m in istra ­

t o e d u c a t i o n s t a n d s i n t h e way o f

e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r e s s — d e v elo p m e n t s h o u ld n o t be r e s t r i c t e d b y i n c o r p o r a t i n g th e m i n t o o r g a n i c l a w s i n w h i c h c h a n g e s a r e m ade w i t h d i f f i c u l t y . sh o u ld n o t be in d e t a i l T he e n t i r e e a sily read .

stu d y

The a u t h o r re c o m m e n d s t h a t p r o v i s i o n s b u t,

ra th e r,

b r ie f and g e n e ra l.

c o v e r s C h a p te r I I i n d e t a i l w h ic h

is

9 E d w a r d s , H e w to n , " L e g a l a n d G o v e r n m e n t a l B a s e s f o r t h e S u p p o rt an d C o n tro l o f E d u c a tio n in th e U n ite d S t a t e s , ” E le m e n ta ry S chool J o u r n a l , 3 7 :5 6 2 -6 5 , A p r i l , 1937. A c co rd in g to th e

a u th o r th e

s ta te

c o n s t i t u t i o n s have

tw o p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n s : 1.

To e s t a b l i s h t h e s t r u c t u r e o f g o v e r n m e n t a n d t o a l l o c a t e f u n c t i o n s a n d p o w e r s among t h e v a r i o u s g o v e rn in g a g e n c ie s .

2.

To r e s t r a i n g o v e r n m e n t , t o l i m i t i t s o p e r a t i o n s to th e end t h a t th e r i g h t s of th e in d iv id u a l w i l l be a d e q u a t e l y a n d f u l l y p r o t e c t e d .

E d w ard s, i n t h i s

sh o rt a r tic le

i n th e E le m e n ta ry

S chool J o u rn a l h as a tte m p te d to p o in t out t h a t e d u c a tio n i s e s s e n t i a l l y a fu n c tio n of th e

S ta te and a s sueh i s

je c t to

S ta te and i t s

th e ups-an d -d o w n s o f th e

sub­

p o litic a l

ju g g lin g s. On t h e w h o l e , is

it

w o u ld a p p e a r t h a t

o f any con seq u en ce in r e g a r d to

o n ly in g e n e r a l i t i e s hand.

W h ile i t

of little

does, b r ie f ly ,

im p o rta n t enough to w a rra n t i t s

sta te

ju st

one p a r a g r a p h

e d u c a tio n and th e n

i n t e r e s t t o th e

su b je c t a t

c o v e r C h a p te r I I i t use.

is not

CHAPTER IV LEGAL STATUS OF CENTRAL AGENCIES

B i s h o p , E u g e n e A . , She D e v e lo p m e n t o f A S t a t e S e h o o l S y s t e m Hew H a m p s h i r e . T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C o lu m b ia U n i v e r s i t y C o n trib u tio n s to E d u c a tio n , l o . 391. Hew Y o rk C i t y : B u r e a u o f P u b l i c a t i o n s , T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C o lu m b ia U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 3 0 . 159 p p . T h is book t r a e e s th e v e ry b e g in n in g o f th e o v e r 300 y e a r s .

s ta te

h isto ry

o f e d u c a tio n fro m th e

o f Hew H a m p s h i r e , a p e r i o d o f

The a u t h o r b r o k e down t h i s h i s t o r y

in to

fo u r d is tin c t p a rts : 1. 2. 3. 4.

T he C o l o n i a l P e r i o d The D i s t r i c t P e r i o d P e rio d o f In c re a s in g S ta te In flu e n c e P e r i o d o f a S t a t e S c h o o l S y s te m

The s t u d y h a s sho w n t h a t n o s t a t e a h ig h e r d eg ree of c e n t r a l i z a t i o n

i n t h e U n io n h a s

o f a u t h o r i t y and pow er

in o r g a n iz a tio n , a d m in is tr a tio n , and su p p o rt of th e p u b lic s c h o o l s t h a n Hew H a m p s h i r e . becom es an e x c e l l e n t sta tu s

so u rce

I n v iew o f t h i s

f a c t th e book

o f i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e l e g a l

o f c e n tr a l a g e n c ie s - -

t h e i r h is to r y and t h e i r p re ­

s e n t p ro b lem s.

C h a m b e r s , M. M . , " S t a t e s l a k e C h a n g e s i n S e h o o l A d m i n i s t r a ­ t i o n , " n a t i o n 's S c h o o ls , 1 6 * 3 4 -5 , S e p te m b e r, 1 9 3 5 . T h is a r t i c l e sy s te m r e c e n t l y p u t in sta n c e s

o f th e

b rie fly in to

o u t l i n e s t h e new s t a t e

e f f e c t b y R hode I s l a n d .

school I t g iv e s

t y p e s o f s y s t e m s n o t g e n e r a l l y re c o m m e n d e d

fo r an e d u c a tio n a l a d m in is tra tio n .

W h ile d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e

s y s t e m s t h e a u t h o r o u t l i n e s new m e t h o d s s e t up b y U t a h ,

IE T e n n e s s e e , O re g o n , a n d Iow a. On t h e w h o l e ,

I fo u n d i t

su b je c t u n le ss a b r i e f re fe re n c e

o f v ery l i t t l e is

v a lu e to th e

d e s i r e d c o n c e rn in g th e

new p o l i c y b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d i n on e o f t h e

s ta te s

lis te d

above.

G y r , F r a n k W ., a n d K o b a l , A n d r e w , ^ l e g a l R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e C o u n ty S u p e r i n t e n d e n t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , ” A m e ric an S c h o o l B o a rd J o u r n a l , 9 1 :3 5 ~ E 7 , S e p te m b e r, 1 9 3 5 . The c o u n t y s u p e r i n t e n d e n t - a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a b o u t m id - w a y b e t w e e n t h e p a rtm e n t of e d u c a tio n . o ffic e .

The p r e s e n t

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of th e

lo c a l sch o o l and th e

T h is

is

te n d e n c y i s

se t-u p sta te

is

de­

an im p o rta n t f a c t o r in th e to

in c re a s e

c o u n ty s u p e r i n te n d e n t .

a d m in istra tiv e At t h e p r e s e n t

t i m e t h e d u t i e s a r e v a r i e d a n d c o m p l e x a n d come u n d e r e i g h t m ain h e a d i n g s : 1. 3* 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

School S u p e rv isio n P erso n n el a d m in istra tio n B u i l d i n g s and g ro u n d s T ex tb o o k s and s u p p l i e s ( s e l e c t i o n an d p u rc h a s e ) School fin a n c e (b u d g e ta ry , a u d itin g , p a y ro ll) D i s t r i c t b o u n d a rie s (a d v iso ry ) O th e r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s S p e c i a l l e g a l f u n c t i o n s (law e n f o r c i n g a g e n t o f th e s c h o o l law f o r th e S t a t e )

I n a few s t a t e s t h i s o f f i c e s ta te by

d e p a rtm e n t o f e d u c a tio n , th e i t and re s p o n s ib le to i t .

is an in te g ra l p a rt

of th e

o f f i c e r b e in g a p p o in te d

I n m an y s t a t e s

th e o f f i c e

f i l l e d by p e o p le a t g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n an d r e s p o n s ib le

is

d ire c t-

13 l y t o th e m .

Some h a v e s e t - t i p a s y s t e m r e a c h i n g a h a p p y

m ediu m - t h e r e

i s a n o f f i c e r a p p o i n t e d h y a h o a rd ., t o w h ic h

he i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c e r t a i n d u t i e s ; p o n s ib le to th e is

th e p re s e n t

sta te

h o w e v e r , h e i s res**

d e p a rtm e n t f o r o t h e r s .

T h i s m edium

day tr e n d .

S h i s i s a n e x c e l l e n t h o o k on t h e l e g a l s t a t u s

o f th e

c o u n ty s u p e r in te n d e n t o f s c h o o ls .

H e n r y , K e l s o n B. , a n d K e r w i n , J e r o m e G. , S c h o o l s a n d C i t y G o v e rn m e n t. C h ica g o : The U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s , T9&8'...... 104' p p . T h is s tu d y i s r e s t r i c t e d to c i t i e s

o f 5 0 , 0 0 0 o r m o re

p o p u l a t i o n a n d m akes i n q u i r y i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n m e n ta l o r g a n iz a tio n in c o n tr o l o f s c h o o ls to

o f th e g o v e r n ­

th e m u n io ip a l

g o v ern m en t s . The s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s f e e l t h a t t h e he a d m in is te re d f r e e p u b lic

o ffic ia ls.

b e lie v e t h is

s c h o o ls sh o u ld

fro m t h e c o n t r o l o r i n f lu e n c e

P o litic a l s c ie n tis ts,

on t h e

of lo c a l

o th e r hand,

can he done th r o u g h c l o s e r c o o r d i n a t i o n o f th e

s c h o o ls a n d m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n ts. The a u t h o r a t t e m p t e d to p o in ts hy p e rso n a l v i s i t s

cover b o th of th e s e

v iew

.

t o c e r t a i n c i t i e s vtfhere h e i n t e r ­

v iew ed l e a d in g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s

of e d u c a tio n and p u b lic ad ­

m in istra tio n . F i n a l l y , a n a n a l y s i s w a s m ade o f t h e l e g a l b a s i s

of

14 s c h o o l and m u n ic ip a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and h ig h e r c o u r t d e c i ­ sio n s.

T h e y came t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e r e

uous and in c re a s in g sc h o o ls.

c o - o p e r a t i o n b e tw e e n th e

I t g iv e s s t a t i s t i c s

is a c o n tin ­

c i t i e s a n d th e

o n how t h e v a r i o u s c i t i e s

s u r v e y e d a r e r u n i n d e t a i l b u t d o e s n o t d ra w a n y c o n c l u s i o n s a s to

th e b e s t m eth o d s b e in g u s e d . T h is i s a w e l l - w r i t t e n a r t i c l e w h ic h can be e a s i l y

re a d and q u ic k ly used a s a re fe re n c e *

The f o l l o w i n g r e f e r e n c e is not a tta in a b le .

It

s h o u ld n o t be u se d s in c e

it

i s a d o c t o r i a l d i s s e r t a t i o n on f i l e

a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ica g o . W i l l i a m s , K e n n e t h R . , The S t a t u t o r y B a s e s o f t h e P o w e r s a n d D u t i e s o f tii e C h i e f S t a t e S c h o o l ” O f f i c e r . U h T v e rsT E y o f C K I ' c a g b T T S ^ ---------------------------------------------

" H ig h S p o t s i n S t a t e S c h o o l L e g i s l a t i o n E n a c t e d i n 1 9 4 7 , H H. E . A. R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n , M a r c h , 1 9 4 8 . 53 p p . The 1 9 4 7 sum m ary w a s made f r o m r e p o r t s

of sta te

educa­

tio n a s s o c ia tio n s , d isc u ssio n s of l e g is la tio n

in s ta te

jo u rn a ls,

a n d e o p i e s o f nevs? l a w s r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e

com m erce c l e a r i n g

house. T hese la w s a r e l i s t e d w i t h i n e a c h c a ta g o r y a c c o r d in g to

s t a t e s a n d g i v e s a t h o r o u g h v i e w o f w h a t o c c u r r e d i n 194 7

th r o u g h o u t th e n a t i o n . F in a n c e :

Some c i t e d w e r e a s f o l l o w s :

e n e r g i e s w ere d e v o te d t o r e p a i r i n g

dam age

15 o f w a rtim e n e g l e c t .

Some i m p r o v e m e n t s i n d i s t r i b u t i o n p r o ­

c e d u r e s w e r e made u n d e r 1. 2. 3. 4.

A p p r o p r i a t i o n s o f s t a t e m oney f o r p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n D e fin in g f o u n d a tio n program o f e d u c a tio n Tax a u t h o r i z a t i o n an d l i m i t a t i o n Bond i s s u e s a n d c a p i t a l o u t l a y s

T each ers1 S a la rie s : by l e g i s l a t i o n . fo rb id d in g

1 8 s t a t e s r a i s e d m inim um s a l a r i e s

Two a n t i - d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l a w s w e r e p a s s e d ,

s a l a r y d i f f e r e n c e s on b a s i s o f m a r i t a l s t a t u s a n d

of sex. T eaeher R e tire m e n t: le g isla tio n ;

36 s t a t e s e n a c t e d r e t i r e m e n t

31 la w s l i b e r a l i z e d b e n e f i t s o r r e d u c e d q u a l i ­

f ic a tio n s fo r re tire m e n t;

2 s t a t e s e n a c te d c o n tin u in g

con­

tra c t le g isla tio n . L e g isla tio n a ffe c tin g P u p ils : in g th e

sc h o o l term , tig h te n in g th e

p r o v is io n s , and p ro v id in g

le g isla tio n

le n g th e n ­

co m p u lso ry a tte n d a n c e

s p e c ia l e d u c a tio n and tr a n s p o r ­

ta tio n .

G u b b e rie y , E llw o o d P . , S t a t e S c h o o l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . M a ssa c h u se tts: H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n C om pany, 1 9 2 7 . The a u t h o r h a s a t t e m p t e d t o make t h i s of p r in c ip le s and to

s ta te

of fu tu re

The e x i s t i n g

p ro g ress.

lin e s

v o lu m e a b o o k

of a c tio n and d ir e c tio n s c o n d itio n s and s ta g e s of

p ro g re s s o f e d u c a tio n th ro u g h o u t th e n a tio n a re m e a n s o f m aps a n d g r a p h s .

C a m b rid g e, 7 73 pp*

sh o w n b y

5?he e n t i r e "book i s v e r y c o m p a c t a n d s e e m s t o c o v e r m any a s p e e t s

o f t h i s c o u rse and c o u ld w e ll he u se d a s a

q u ick g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e .

17

CHAPTER ¥ DISTRICT ORGAHIZATIOH M D CQITRQL: THE SCHOOLS AHD THE STATE, AHD THE RELATIONSHIP OF SCHOOL DISTRICTS TO M IM ICIPALITIES

18 The f o l l o w i n g r e f e r e n c e is not a tta in a b le .

It

s h o u l d n o t he u se d b e c a u s e

is a d o c to rial d isse rta tio n

it

on f i l e

a t Hew Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y o n l y . A x te ll, P a u l, J u d i c i a l D eterm in atio n s A ffe c tin g t h e Power to C r e a te a n d A l t e r S c h o o l D i s t r i c t s i n t h e U n i t e d 1" S t a t e s , Mew Y o r k , 1 9 3 3 .

C h a m b e r s , M. M . , " S c h o o l D i s t r i c t 1 8 : 2 9 - 3 0 , Hovem ber, 19 3 6 . T his s h o r t a r t i c l e b earin g

vs.

C i t y » H H a t i o n f s Soho o l s ,

m e r e l y s h o w s some r e c e n t i n c i d e n t s

on t h e q u e s t i o n o f c o n t i n u a n c e o f i n d e p e n d e n t s c h o o l

c o r p o r a t i o n s w h i c h may b e u s e f u l t o t h e r e a d e r i n f o r m u l a t i n g a p h ilo s o p h y of t h e

s u b j e c t upon w h ieh o p i n i o n , r e g a r d i n g

its

v a r i o u s p h a s e s , may l a t e r b e b a s e d a s o c c a s i o n a r i s e s . It

shows t h a t t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t d e r i v e s a f i n a n c i a l

b e n e f i t from i t s o ften th is

f i s c a l d e p e n d e n c e on t h e c i t y .

statem en t

is o therw ise.

Through c a s e s c i t e d

the a u t h o r g i v e s e x c e l l e n t exam ples

o f e x i s t i n g dependence o f th e c ip a lity

However,

in fin a n c ia l m atters.

school d i s t r i c t It

upon t h e m uni­

sh o u ld be c o n s id e re d a

good r e f e r e n c e m erely to h i g h li g h t th e s t a t u s

o f the

school

d istric t.

on t h e

su b ject

However,

is av ailab le,

i f a n o th e r good re fe re n c e

co n sid er th e a r t i c l e

a w aste of tim e .

S e a rs , Je ss e B ., C ity School A d m in is tra tiv e C o n tro ls. Hew York: M c C r a w - H J .il B o o k Com pany, i n c . , 1 9 3 8 . P art I ., 56 p p .

19 Th© s t u d y b y S e a r s o f f e r s a c o m p r e h e n s i v e t h e o r y o f sc h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n upon w hich th e

com plex p r o c e s s e s o f

d e m o c r a t i c m a n a g e m e n t may be o p e r a t e d . stra c t p rin cip les

I t p u ts f o r th ab­

in p r a c t i c a l form s of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

P a rt I of th e book is a sh o rt a r t i c l e pages c o n s is tin g

o f two c h a p t e r s :

- some f i f t y - s i x

She P r o b l e m o f S c h o o l

C o n t r o l a n d The T h e o r y a n d P r i n c i p l e s o f L e g i s l a t i v e a n d A d m in istrativ e

C ontrol of Schools.

The a u t h o r e x a m i n e d t h e

g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f s c h o o l g o v e rn m e n t, a s he f e e l s be e s t a b l i s h e d .

The s o u r c e o f a u t h o r i t y ,

sta te

it

should

fu n ctio n ,

l o c a l b o a rd - a l l t h e i r f u n c t i o n s a r e exam ined t o f i n d p r i n c i p l e s to be u s e d .

He p i c k s o u t t h e w e a k n e s s e s i n

t h e p r e s e n t s y s t e m s d i s c u s s e d a n d how t h e y s h o u l d b e c o r ­ rected . For a b r i e f r e fe re n c e je c t of a d m in istra tiv e

it

s e r v e s v e r y w e l l on t h e s u b ­

co n tro ls but a read er w ill fin d i t a

book w hich is n o t e a s i l y fo llo w e d .

B o lm e ier, "L eg a l, I l l e g a l , and E x tra -L e g a l D egrees o f F i s c a l D ependence," S chool B oard J o u r n a l , 1 1 8 :2 2 -2 4 , 68, A u g u st, 1949. A sc h o o l system is b o ard ’s budget estim ate

is

by m u n icip al a u t h o r i t i e s .

f i s c a l l y d e p e n d e n t when t h e s u b j e c t to r e v i s i o n At l e a s t

54 of t h e

school

or re je c tio n c i t i e s w ith

p o p u l a t i o n s o v e r 5 0 , 0 0 0 a r e g o v e r n e d b y l a w s w h i c h empower c ity

o f f i c i a l s w ith such a u t h o r i t y .

T h e re a r e 13 c i t i e s

in

20 w hich c i t y

o f f i c i a l s a re a u th o r iz e d to s t r i k e

out or a lte r

s p e c i f i c budget item s. A school is also

f i s c a l l y d e p e n d e n t w hen t h e

c ity

o f f i c i a l s a re a u th o r iz e d to reduce sc h o o l budget e s tim a te s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 40 c i t i e s to t h a t

degree.

w ith the

c ity

above 5 0 ,0 0 0 a r e f i s c a l l y

In s i x c i t i e s th e m ayor,

c o u n c il h o ld s the

dependent

in d iv id u ally

v e to power o v e r th e

or

e n tire

school estim ate. The l a w s o f some s t a t e s a r e n e i t h e r m a n d a t o r y n o r p ro h ib itiv e w ith resp ect to of the

the

degree o f f i s c a l

v a r io u s b o a rd s of e d u c a tio n .

indep en den ce b u t p erm it o fficers

dependence

They o f t e n im p ly f i s c a l

sh a rin g o f c o n tr o l w ith m u n icip al

i f t h e b o a r d do d e s i r e s .

T his o f t e n d e v elo p s in to

m u n icip al o f f i c e r s v i r t u a l l y d eterm in in g th e

school bud g et.

El

CHAPTER VI LEGAL AUTHORITY OF GOVERNING BOARDS, AND THE BOARD HOLES AID REGULATIONS

22 The f o l l o w i n g r e f e r e n c e

s h o u ld n o t be u s e d b e c a u s e i t

is not a ttain a b le . B r u m b a u g h , A a r o n J . , The A u t h o r i t y o f B o a r d s o f E du catio n in th e A d m in is tra tio n of P u p ils and T e a c h e r s , a s D e fin e d by th e C o u rts . U npublished D o c t o r 's D i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago, 1929.

E d w ard s, Newton, " L e g a l A u t h o r i t y o f B o a r d s o f E d u c a t i o n , " E lem entary School J o u r n a l . 372-386, ^3 1 -^3 9 , J a n u a ry , F e b r u a r y , 1930* The S t a t e B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n may d i r e c t a n d m a i n ­ t a i n a model s c h o o l f o r u se o f n o r m a l - s c h o o l s t u d e n t s ;

the

d e p a rtm e n ts to be e s t a b l i s h e d and c o u r s e s of i n s t r u c t i o n to be g iv e n a re m a tte r s w holly w ith in th e d i s c r e t i o n o f th e school board.

The t e a c h e r s i n c h a r g e o f t h e c l a s s r o o m s i n

w h ic h p r a c t i c e t e a c h i n g i s do n e u s u a l l y a r e p a i d by t h e S t a te Board o f E d u c a tio n and th e c o l l e g e . The S t a t e B o a rd h a s t h e a u t h o r i t y

to pay expenses of

school o f f i c e r s and te a c h e rs w h ile in a tten d a n ce a t th e e d u c a tio n a l co n v en tio n s. sid erab le

On t h i s p o i n t t h e r e h a s b e e n c o n ­

c o n f l i c t of j u d ic i a l o p in io n .

The S t a t e B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n h a s t h e a u t h o r i t y employ l e g a l c o u n s e l ,

many s t a t e s h a v e s t a t u t e s

sp e cifica lly

a u t h o r i z i n g t h e s c h o o l b o a r d s t o employ a t t o r n e y s . w ithout t h i s ,

to

Even

b o a r d s g e n e r a l l y may e m p l o y c o u n s e l t o r e p r e ­

s e n t them . They h a v e t h e a u t h o r i t y t o I n s u r e

school p ro p e rty and

23 tea ch e rs.

They h a v e a u t h o r i t y t o em p loy a f o o t b a l l c o a c h ,

to d e le g a te b o a rd ’ s d is c r e tio n ;

how ever, t h e y can n o t be

d e le g ated to any o th er person. It

is an e n lig h ten in g a r t i c l e

on t h e p o w ers o f a

s c h o o l b o a rd g i v in g p r o s and cons o f j u d i c i a l view s th ro u g h court d e cisio n s

in v a rio u s s t a t e s .

E d w a r d s , l e w t o n , rtL e g a l A u t h o r i t y o f B o a r d s o f E d u c a t i o n t o E nforce R u les and R e g u la ti o n s ,” E lem en tary School J o u r n a l , 3 1 :4 4 6 - 5 9 , 5 0 4 -1 3 , 6 1 9 -2 7 , F e b r u a r y , M arch, A p r i l, 1931. T his

c o n s is ts of a s e r ie s

o f a r t i c l e s by the au th o r.

S t a t u t e s c o n f e r upon b o a rd s of e d u c a ti o n b r o a d pow ers w ith r e s p e c t to

c o n d u c t and management o f s c h o o l s . However,

sin ce th e y

do n o t g i v e d e t a i l s

of such powers

the

coux^ts

a r e f r e q u e n t l y c a l l e d upon to d e c i d e such p o w e rs.

The

purpose o f t h i s

o f the

article

i s to s ta te

c a s e o r common l a w g o v e r n i n g e d u ca tio n to

th e p rin c ip le s

the a u t h o r i t y o f the b o a rd of

e n fo rc e r u l e s and r e g u la tio n s .

In o rd er to e s t a b l is h

such a u th o r i ty the

a rticle

covers the fo llo w in g : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

G eneral a u t h o r i t y to r e g u la te R ules r e s t r i c t i n g a d m issio n to A u th o rity to r e q u ir e p u p ils to school p ro p erty . H ealth re g u la tio n s . V accin atio n . E nforce r e g u l a t i o n s g o v ern ing t h e sc h o o l g ro u n d s and out of

conduct of p u p ils school pay f o r i n ju r y to

p u p il conduct o ff school hour.

34 7*

A u t h o r i t y o f s c h o o l "boards t o r e q u i r e p u p i l s to p u rsu e p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t s .

A l l t h e a b o v e a r e " b r o u g h t f o r t h "by t h e a c t u a l c a s e s w h ie h makes th e a r t i c l e u n d erstan d ab le. trad icto ry d e fin ite c ites

the r u le s

of a s ta te g iv en ,

it

s t a t e s h o ld con­

p o w e r s on e e a n n o t d r a w a

s e t of r u l e s fro m t h e a r t i c l e s .

c a s e s from v a r io u s s t a t e s ,

of

p r a c t i c a l and r e a d i l y

S ince c o u r t s o f d i f f e r e n t

o p i n i o n s o n many o f t h e

c itatio n

However, s i n c e

i f you a re

it

in te r e s te d in

is ex ce llen t.

G a r b e r , L . 0 . , Wla w C o n c e r n i n g t h e P l a c e o f H o l d i n g S c h o o l B o a r d M e e t i n g s , ” E d u c a t i o n a l Law a n d A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , 4:40-43, A p ril, TSW . It

is a g e n e ra l

p rin cip le

of law t h a t

the a u t h o r i t y

to o rg a n iz e , a d m in is te r,

and m a in ta in a p u b lic

r e s i d e s w ith the

It

its

state*

e x e r c is e s t h i s a u t h o r i t y through

l e g i s l a t u r e w h i c h may r e t a i n t h e

d eleg ate

i t to e x i s t i n g

t i o n s o r may c r e a t e

s c h o o l system

a u th o rity i t s e l f

o r may

m u nicip al or q u a si-m u n ic ip a l c o rp o ra ­

a q u a s i-m u n ic ip a l c o rp o r a tio n w ith th e

so le fu n c tio n o f a d m in iste rin g th e p u b lic

sch o o ls lo c a te d

w ith in th e i r b o undaries.

u s u a l l y u se s the

last. sta te

T herefore, th e school d i s t r i c t s are and school d i s t r i c t

t h e i r pow ers a r e are

'The l e g i s l a t u r e

lim ited .

c r e a t u r e s of the

o f f ic e rs are s ta te

o f f i c e r s and

The b o a r d h a s o n l y s u c h p o w e r s as

e x p r e s s l y c o n f e r r e d by s t a t u t e

o r im p lied th e re fro m and

a r e n e c e s s a r y t o p e rfo rm d u t i e s r e q u i r e d o f them .

25 The c o u r t s h e l d t h a t a m e e t i n g h e l d "by t h e h o a r d a t some p l a c e ille g a l trary ,

o u tsid e

o f the l i m i t s

of th e hoard d i s t r i c t

i n th e a b se n c e o f s t a t u t o r y en actm ent to th e and the

acts

is

con­

of th e h o a rd a t t h a t tim e a re n u l l and

void.

K e y w o r t h , M. R . , L e g a l A s p e c t s F o r The R e c o r d s o f P r o c e e d i n g s of B oards o f .E ducation. ¥ew f o r k : The B r u c e P u b l i s h T n g Com pany, 1 3 3 1 . 171 p p# T his s t u d y i s an a tte m p t

to

show t h e

fo llo w in g

sub­

jects: 1.

Source and l i m i t s pass re so lu tio n s.

o f th e power o f th e b o a rd to

2.

P r o c e d u r e s t o be f o l l o w e d w h ic h g i v e l e g a l i t y t o the fo rm o f th e r e s o l u t i o n s a s w e l l a s to t h e i r su b stan ce.

3.

The r e q u i s i t e l e g a l o b s e r v a n c e s t o b e made i n re c o rd in g r e s o l u t i o n s and p ro c e e d in g s in o rd e r to be l e g a l .

On t h e w h o l e , t h i s b o o h d e a l s p r i m a r i l y w i t h how p r o c e e d in g r e c o r d s of th e b o a r d s h a l l be k e p t an d n o t w ith th e l e g a l a u t h o r i t y o f th e g o v e rn in g b o a r d s , w hich i s th e to p ic a t hand.

As s u c h ,

the book i s

s h o u l d be p a s s e d by a s a r e f e r e n c e . p p . 1 - 3 5 "The L e g a l n a t u r e

o f the

of l i t t l e

w o rth and

How ever, C h a p te r I ,

S ch o o l D i s t r i c t " m ight

w e l l b e r e v i e w e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h C h a p t e r V.

26 M o o r e , C l y d e B . , ’’Some F u n c t i o n s a n d R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f B o a rd s o f E d u c a t i o n , ” A m erican S chool B oard J o u r n a l , F e b ru ary , 1935. By 1 6 4 2 ,

in M a ssach u setts,

the

c o l o n i a l law was a l ­

r e a d y l o o k i n g to w a rd s e d u c a t i o n by p r o v i d i n g f o r a b o a r d of ed u catio n . B oards o f e d u c a tio n to d a y a re l a y b o d ie s s e l e c t e d by t h e p e o p le to r e p r e s e n t them in th e c a t i o n to meet th e

p rom otion o f p u b lic edu­

common n e e d s a n d i t

is th e r e s p o n s ib ility

o f e a c h member o f a b o a r d o f e d u c a t i o n t o r e c o g n i z e t h e f a c t t h a t he i s

to fu n ctio n o f f i c i a l l y

only in co n ju n c­

t i o n w ith h is a s s o c ia te s . It

i s a prim e f u n c t i o n o f a b o a rd of e d u c a tio n to

be s e n s i t iv e

to the

l a r g e r and grow ing e d u c a ti o n a l n e e d s

o f t h e com m unity — m u st b e a l e r t It

is

assist

the

re sp o n sib ility

p rise.

It

changing n e e d s.

of the bo ard o f e d u ca tio n to

the p eo p le of th e

e d u catio n i s a s ta te

to the

com m unity t o

understand th a t

f u n c t i o n and no t m erely a l o c a l e n t e r ­

is resp o n sib le

f o r the

r a i s i n g and disbursem ent

of sc h o o l f u n d s , and f o r t h e e x a m in a tio n and a p p ro v a l of th e a n n u a l buO get. On t h e w h o l e ,

it

is the d u ty o f th e bo ard of educa­

t i o n to l a y out th e g e n e r a l p la n of the o f a com m unity w i t h t h e ap p ro p ria te

ex p erts,

e d u c a tio n a l program

s p e c i f i c t a s k s b ein g d e le g a te d to

under t h e d i r e c t i o n o f the

su p erin ten -

27 dent of sch o o ls

(who i s

s e l e c t e d by t h e h o a r d o f e d u c a t i o n ) .

T h is i s a w e ll w r i t t e n a r t i c l e fro m w hich to r e c e i v e a g e n e r a l view of t h e d u t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

of a

board of ed u catio n .

M o r e h a r t , G-rover C . , She L e g a l S t a t u s o f C i t y S c h o o l B o a r d s . T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y C o n t r i b u t i o n s to E d u c a t i o n , Ho. 2 7 0 . Hew York; C i t y : B ureau o f P u b lic a ­ t i o n s , T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 2 7 . 96 p p . T h i s i s a v a l u a b l e w o r k on t h e a b o v e s u b j e c t , it

co v ers the

problem in d e t a i l .

T his

in th a t

i s d o n e i n tw o p a r t s :

1. To d i s c o v e r t h e p r e s e n t s t a t u s 2 . To u s e t h e m o s t p r o m i s i n g a v a i l a b l e c r i t e r i a t o e v a lu a te the e x i s t i n g l e g a l p r o v is io n s A fter t h i s , th e

a u th o r o f f e r s th o se le g a l p r in c ip le s

an d p r o v i s i o n s i n d i c a t e d a s of most i n t r i n s i c w o r th i n s c h o o l code d r a f t i n g . In the f i r s t in g to

do w i t h t h e © r e a t i o n a n d p r e s e n t s t a t u s o f t h e

d istric t. tio n ,

p a r t he a n a l y z e s t h e l e g a l s o u r c e s h a v ­

T his

in c lu d e s the

leg a l n atu re

support i t s

acts.

of t h e

o rig in , v a r ie tie s of org an iza­

d istric t,

He a l s o

school

a n d th e p r i n c i p l e s w hich

shows t h e

l i m i t a t i o n s and p r e s e n t s t a t u s

source,

le g a l n atu re,

of th e c i t y board.

t i o n t o a l l t h i s he h a s c o m p ile d th e developm ent and d i s c u s s e s th e f a c t o r s

In a d d i­

p r i n c i p l e s o f code u n d e r l y i n g t h e m aking

and grow th of sc h o o l codes. P a r t Two c o v e r s t h e l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d p r o v i s i o n s

£8 w h ic h would f o s t e r t h e g r e a t e s t e d u c a t i o n a l g r o w th . covers le g a l p r a c tic e

It

in r e g a r d to s c h o o ls in an e x h a u s tiv e

m anner. T he e n t i r e w o r k i s

e x ce llen t.

M o r r i s o n , J . 0 . , "The V a l u e o f C a r e f u l l y D e f i n e d R u l e s a n d R e g u l a t i o n s C o v e r i n g t h e Work o f t h e S c h o o l B o a r d a n d th e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , ” A m erican S c h o o l B o ard J o u r n a l , 7 £ : 4 8 * 5 0 , F e b r u a r y , 192:6”. M orrison a tte m p ts to e s t a b l i s h the th r o u g h the m aking, r e v i s i n g ,

th esis th at

and use o f r u l e s and r e g u l a ­

t io n s forw ard lo o k in g boards and s u p e rin te n d e n ts a re e s ta b ­ l i s h i n g new a n d i m p r o v e d p r o c e d u r e s i n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e t h e o r y and p ra c tic e .

I n o r d e r t o do t h i s t h e

b o a rd s in tw en ty c i t i e s

a n d came t o

the

a u th o r review ed fo llo w in g co n clu ­

sio n s: 1. £. S. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

The i n f l e x i b i l i t y o f r u l e s m u s t b e o v e r c o m e . R u le s sh o u ld be f o r m u l a t e d from a n a n a l y s i s of t h e s e r v i c e to be r e n d e r e d . I t should d e f i n i t e l y f i x r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . Should e lim in a te the o v e rla p p in g o f a u t h o r i t y . S h o u l d gro w o u t o f e x p e r i e n c e o f men a n d women. S h o u l d be c o n s t a n t l y s u b j e c t t o r e v i s i o n u n d e r s u c h c o n d i t i o n s a s w o u ld i n s u r e due c o n s i d e r a ­ t i o n fo r p u b lic good. To w h a t e x t e n t may t h e b o a r d f o r m u l a t e r u l e s g overning te a c h e rs o u t- o f-s c h o o l a c t i v i t i e s ? What a r e t e a c h e r s r i g h t s i n a s s i g n i n g l e s s o n s ? Does b o a r d h a v e r i g h t t o s e t a s i d e g r a d e s o r .change g r a d e s to accom odate a n i n d i v i d u a l ? What i s t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 1s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n c o n s t r u c t i o n and r e p a i r o f b u i l d i n g s ? What a r e t h e d u t i e s o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a s t o g en eral su perv ision ? S e le c tio n of te a c h e rs?

29 12. 13.

What i s t h e v a l u e o f c o m m i t t e e s o f t h e h o a r d ? What i s t h e r e l a t i o n o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t t o h o a r d ?

A l l t h e a h o v e r a l e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s s h o u l d be c a r e ­ f u l ly d efin ed . Shis ta il

i s an e x c e l l e n t a r t i c l e

each of th e ahove s u b j e c t s ,

w hich f i l l s

oat

i n de­

s h o w i n g t h e r e a s o n s why

th e y mast he c o v e re d hy r a l e s .

O l s e n , H a n s 0 . , She Work o f B o a r d s o f E d u c a t i o n . Seachers C o lle g e , C o lo m b ia ''U n iv e rs ity C o n t r ib u t i o n s to E d u c a tio n , Ho. 2 1 3 . Hew Y o r k C i t y : Bureau o f P u b l i c a t io n s , S e a c h e rs C o lle g e , C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y , 1927. 169 p p . She i s s u e

of th is

hook i s

to

discover th e fu n c tio n s

a h o a rd o f e d u c a tio n s h o u ld i t s e l f p e rfo rm ; w hich f u n c t i o n s it

sh o a ld d e le g a te to

c u tiv e and h is

its

em ployed p r o f e s s i o n a l c h i e f e x e ­

su b o rd in a te s; and l a s t ,

hut not l e a s t ,

to

a s c e r t a i n how a h o a r d o f e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d do i t s w o r k . A c c o rd in g t o O lse n th e work o f t h e h o a rd o f e d u c a ­ tio n

is

th reefo ld : 1.

So s e l e c t t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f s c h o o l s

2.

So d e t e r m i n e p o l i c i e s o f t h e

3.

So s e e t o i t t h a t t h e s e p o l i c i e s a r e c a r r i e d o u t hy th e s u p e r in te n d e n t of s c h o o ls and a s s o c i a t e s

I n o r d e r t o e n l a r g e upon t h e d iv id e d the

sc h o o l system

ahove th e a u t h o r h a s

hook i n t o t h r e e s e c t i o n s w hich c o n t a i n th e

fo llo w in g : P a r t _I:

S h i s s e c t i o n s e t s up c r i t e r i a h y m e a n s o f

30 w h ic h th e r e s p e c t i v e d u t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s b o a rd and of i t s

c h ie f ex ecu tiv e

of a school

o f f i c e r may b e d e t e r m i n e d

and a ssig n e d . P art

II:

fhe above c r i t e r i a a re

a p p lie d to th e p ro ­

blem s and jo b s a c t u a l l y fo u n d t o o e c u r i n a d m i n i s t e r i n g th e schools of t h ir t e e n c i t i e s ,

f h i s makes p o s s i b l e

the easy

d e te rm in a tio n o f the r e s p e c t i v e d u t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of th e b o ard of e d u c a tio n and of i t s

su p erin ten d en t of

sch o o ls. Part the

III:

schools r e s t s

throughout

it

H ere th e

a u t h o r show s t h a t

the

c o n tro l of

in the b o a rd o f e d u c a tio n a c t in g as a u n i t ,

i s shown t h a t t h e

su p e rin te n d e n t is the p ro ­

f e s s io n a l a d v is o r of the board.

S e y f r ie d , John E . , th e C o n tr a c tu a l S t a tu s o f C a l i f o r n i a C ity School S u p e rin te n d eh tsT U n iv e rsity of C a lifo rn ia P u b l i c a t i o n ' s i n E d u c a t i o n , Volume V I I , 1 9 3 2 - 1 9 4 2 . B e r k e l e y a n d L os .A ngeles; U n iv e rsity of C a lifo rn ia P r e s s , 1942. Pp* 6 4 - 1 4 4 . th is

b o o k p r e s e n t s d a t a a n d c o n c l u s i o n s on c o n t r a c ­

t u a l r e l a t i o n s betw een c i t y

s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and

c i t y b o a rd s of e d u c a tio n in C a li f o r n i a and a tte m p ts to answer the fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s : 1.

What p r o v i s i o n s i n C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e L a w s , i n R u les and R e g u la tio n s o f C a l i f o r n i a S t a te Board of E d u catio n and in c h a r te r s of C a li f o r n ia c i t i e s , and what c o u rt d e c is io n s d i r e c t l y a f f e c t con­ t r a c t s betw een c i t y s c h o o l s u p e r in te n d e n ts and c i t y b oards of e d u c a tio n .

31 2. 3. 4. 5.

T ypes of c o n t r a c t s u s e d b e t w e e n c i t y s c h o o l s u p e rin te n d e n ts and c i t y boards o f e d u c a tio n . How do t h e s e c o n t r a c t s c o n f o r m t o r e q u i r e m e n t s of C a li f o r n i a law . What p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s h a v e C a l i f o r n i a c i t y s u p e r in te n d e n ts a c q u ir e d by c o n t r a c t . What s h o u l d b e t h e c o n t e n t a n d f o r m o f a c o n t r a c t to g u a ra n te e c i t y sch o o l s u p e rin te n d e n ts of C alifo rn ia a p ro fessio n al sta tu s .

The a u t h o r h a s u s e d a s m a t e r i a l t o tio n s

answer th e s e

ques­

th e C a lifo rn ia w r itte n law , co u rt d e c is io n s , fo u r

e d u c a tio n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , and th e d en ts c o n tr a c ts .

stu d y of su p e rin te n ­

Thus t h e s u b j e c t i s

an g le and bro ug ht about

c o v e re d from e v e ry

t h e d r a w i n g up o f a n " i d e a l ” s u p e r ­

i n t e n d e n t 1s c o n t r a c t . It

is

one o f t h e m ost c o n c i s e a r t i c l e s

on t h e

ject

of s u p e r in te n d e n ts and c o n t r a c t u a l s t a t u s .

len t

quick re fe re n c e as th e e n ti r e

a rticle

is

w i t h a su m m ary a n d c o n c l u s i o n i n o n e - t w o - t h r e e

sub­

In ex cel­

d r a w n up o r d e r so

t h a t any q u e s t i o n and answ er c an be q u ic k ly fo u n d .

T h e i s e n , W i l l i a m W . , The C i t y S u p e r i n t e n d e n t a n d The B o a r d of E d u catio n . T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , Colum bia U n i v e r s i t y ( T o n t r i b u t i o n s t o E d u c a t i o n * Wo. 8 4 . Wew Y o r k C i t y : T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C o lu m b ia U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 1 7 . 137 p p . The p r o b l e m s e t f o r t h h e r e

i s to

d i s c o v e r how l a y

b o ard s of e d u c a tio n provide fo r a d m in is tr a tio n of c i t y s c h o o l sy stem s th ro u g h p r o f e s s i o n a l c h i e f e x e c u t i v e s . is

done by a n a y z i n g t h e p r a c t i c e s

of boards in c i t i e s

v a rio u s s iz e s and e v a lu a tin g such p r a c t i c e s .

It

i s an

T his of

32 a tte m p t to d is c o v e r what f u n c t i o n s h o a rd s of e d u c a tio n th e m s e lv e s p e rfo rm , a s a body or th ro u g h c o m m itte e s , what f u n c t i o n s a r e d e l e g a t e d t o e x e c u t i v e s , a n d how t h e s e f u n c ­ tio n s are d eleg ated . The a u t h o r h a s shown w hat p o w e rs s h o u l d h e g i v e n t o the p r o f e s s i o n a l c h i e f e x e c u tiv e and th e

scope of a u th o r ity

t h a t s h o u l d h e g iv e n them . T h e is e n ’ s c o n c lu s io n s and recom m endations g iv e us an e x c e lle n t p i c tu r e

o f how a h o a r d s h o u l d -

p o s s i b l e - he h a n d l e d ; dent - c e n tra liz e

th at

au th o rity

is,

if at a ll

the se le c t a su p erin ten ­

i n him - p e r m i t him t o o r i g i n a t e

p o l i c i e s a n d t h e n t o d i s c u s s s u c h p r o p o s i t i o n s w i t h him a n d p r o v i d e the p r o p e r l e g i s l a t i o n to p u t them i n t o e f f e c t . A good r e f e r e n c e w hich c o v e r s t h e h o a r d o f e d u c a ti o n a n d s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 1s r e l a t i o n s h i p

in d e ta il .

Van D y k e , G. E . , " T h e B u s i n e s s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f G i t y S y s t e m s a s Shown h y R u l e s a n d R e g u l a t i o n s , " Am erican S c h o o l B o a r d J o u r n a l , H o v e m h e r , D e c e m b e r , 193CT! S c h o o l b u s i n e s s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s grow n and d e v e lo p e d s p e c i a liz e d s k i l l s and t e c h n i c a l in fo rm a tio n .

The p u r p o s e

of t h i s a r t i c l e

o rg an iza­

i s to

s tu d y the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

tio n s f o r h an d lin g the b u sin e ss a f f a i r s through an a n a ly s is

in p u b lic schools

of th e p r i n te d r u l e s and r e g u la tio n s

of h o ard s of edu catio n .

33 It

d e a ls only w ith the

o r g a n i z a t i o n s s e t up f o r t h e

a d m in istra tio n of bu sin ess a f f a ir s .

It

of th e b u s in e s s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of p u b lic g u is h e d from th e f o r th e

p re s e n ts the

statu s

schools as d i s t i n ­

in stru ctio n a-1 a d m in is tra tio n .

The d a t a

i n v e s t i g a t i o n was s e c u r e d f r o m r u l e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s

o n l y a s t h e w r i t e r w i s h e d t o d e t e r m i n e how t h e s e p r i n t e d docum ents w ere f u n c t i o n i n g , b e s t m ethods to e x e r c i s e din ate

o fficers

f h u s he fo u n d t h a t

on e o f t h e

c o n tro l over ex ecu tiv e and su b o r­

i s th r o u g h use o f p r i n t e d r u l e s ,

reg u la tio n s,

and in s tr u c tio n s . The a r t i c l e

can be q u ic k ly u n d e rsto o d ;

show ing th e num ber o f t y p e s of r u l e s , resp o n sib le,

et c etera.

in p ra c tic a lly a ll

it

uses ta b le s

ty p es of o f f ic e r s

T he t a b l e s show t h a t t h e y f a i l

c a se s to p ro v id e d e f i n i t e l y f o r the

ad m in istratio n of a l l

im p o rtan t b u sin e ss d u tie s th a t a r is e

in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f sc h o o l sy stem s. Ihe a u th o r a n a ly z e s each t a b l e p o in ts of ru le s

c ritic a lly ,

show ing good

or l a c k of u n ifo rm ity .

" I h e S c h o o l B o a r d M e m b e r s , ” H. E . A. R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n , January, 1933. £ p . 1-41* It

is the p u rp o se of t h i s

fu ndam ental p r i n c i p l e s o f th e

to p r e s e n t the

s e h o o l b o a rd work.

t h e b o a r d s o r i g i n a n d some o f t h e developm ent.

a rticle

It

im portant tre n d s in

She a u t h o r t h e n s h o w s t h e

traces its

o f f i c i a l r e l a t i o n # ! ip

34 of th e

s c h o o l h o a r d members to

one a n o t h e r ,

em ployees, and to th e p u b l ic - in c lu d in g about the

to t h e i r

im portant f a c t s

s c h o o l law a n d t h e a c t u a l d u t i e s a n d a c t i v i t i e s

o f a sc h o o l board. The a u t h o r a n a l y z e s some o f t h e d i f f i c u l t

problem s

w hich s c h o o l b o a rd s e n c o u n te r and f a c t s an d p r i n c i p l e s to c o v e r them su c h a s m e e t i n g s , e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s ,

per­

sonnel problem s, and b u s in e s s a f f a i r s *

M e s s i e k , J o h n D . , The D i s c r e t i o n a r y P o w e r s o f S e h o o l B oards. D u r h a m , Itfo rth C a r o l i n a : Duke U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 9 . 147 p p . The 3 t a t e

le g is la tu r e has d eleg ated i t s

pow ers to

s c h o o l b o a rd s to a d m i n i s t e r and s u p e r v is e s c h o o l s , and in t h e s e d u t i e s b ro a d pow ers a r e d e le g a t e d or im p lie d and a w ide d i s c r e t i o n i s v e s t e d i n th e

b o ard to c a r r y out th e s e

pow ers. The p u r p o s e o f t h i s

in v estig atio n is

from num erous c o u r t d e c i s i o n s are

j u s t what d i s c r e t i o n a r y pow ers

v ested in a board of school c o n tro l,

t o s e e how f a r

c o u r t s w i l l a llo w s c h o o l b o a rd s to e x e r c i s e judgm ent when t h e r e

to d eterm in e

t h e i r honest

i s no s t a t u t o r y e d i c t .

O r d i n a r i l y th e c o u r ts w i l l n o t i n t e r f e r e w ith the ex ercise

of d i s c r e t i o n v e s te d in a board of school c o n tro l

u n less th e re

i s a c le a r abuse of d i s c r e t io n

or a v i o la t io n

35 of law .

The c o u r t s a r e u s u a l l y d i s i n c l i n e d t o

in te rfe re

w ith r e g u l a t i o n s a d o p te d hy sc h o o l h o a rd s h u t m e re ly d e­ c id e w hether t h e r e

is a reaso n ab le ex ercise

o f t h e power

and d i s c r e t i o n of the hoard a c tin g r e s p o n s ib ly w ith in th e pow ers c o n f e r r e d . Th e c o u r t d e c i s i o n s e i t e d i n t h i s

s tu d y have b een

u s e d t o sh o w t h a t a h o a r d o f c o n t r o l h a s a b r o a d d i s c r e ­ tio n

in i t s

pow ers.

The h o o k c o v e r s t h e f o l l o w i n g

c la ssific a tio n s: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Abuse o f d i s c r e t i o n a r y p o w e rs i n e s t a b l i d i n g sc h o o l d i s t r i c t s and s e h o o ls. S e le c tio n , p u rch ase, and sa le o f b u ild in g s . C reatio n and sa le of school p la n ts . M aintenance and o p e r a t i o n o f s c h o o ls . A d m in istra tio n and su p e rv isio n of sch o o ls. C o n tro l w ith r e fe re n c e to bonds. In r e s p e c t t o s u p e rin te n d e n ts . In re s p e c t to te a e h e r s . In r e s p e c t to em ployees. T ra n s p o rta tio n of p u p ils . P u p il atten d an ce. D isc ip lin e. C urriculum . I n r e g a r d to t e x tb o o k s .

Each s e c t i o n i s pow ers and a b u s e o f i t

s u m m a riz e d so t h a t t h e b o a r d s ’ can q u i c k l y be noted*

C h a n d l e r , B. J . , " S t a t u t o r y P r o v i s i o n s C o n c e r n i n g t h e C i t y S c h o o l S u p e r i n t e n d e n c y , ” A m erican S chool B oard J o u r n a l , 1 1 8 :2 5 - 7 , M arch, 1949. The c i t y sib ility

su p erin ten d en t

of schools has th e resp o n ­

fo r the g e n e ra l d i r e c t i o n o f th e

in stru ctio n al

36 p r o g r a m and. c o m p l i m e n t a r y a c t i v i t i e s s tu d y i s l i m i t e d to sy stem s,

sch o o ls.

T his

the le g a l p ro v isio n s fo r the c i t y sch o o l

and t h e i r pow ers.

I n i t i a t o r y Pow ers: the

of th e

th ese are fu n c tio n s

s c h o o l "board h a s n o c o n t r o l u n t i l t h e

makes a re c o m m e n d a tio n .

Ih is

sta tu te

o v e r w hich

su p erin ten d en t

safeguards the

super­

in te n d en t'* s p o s i t i o n . A d v iso ry Pow ers: in ten d en t

i n some c i t i e s

by s t a t u t e

the

super­

i s r e q u i r e d to a d v is e th e B oard o f E d u c a tio n in

two w ay s: 1.

Make B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n t h e i n i t i a t o r i n u t i l i z a t i o n of a d v ice of s u p e r in te n d e n t. I h o s e w h ic h a r e composed o f p r o v i s i o n s which d e f i n i t e l y s p e c ify su p e rin te n d e n t s h a ll ad v ise the b o a rd c o n c e rn in g c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n s .

S.

Independent Pow ers: a r e d e l e g a t e d by law o f t h e d en t.

In th e s e

the

re stric te d

to

th e c it y

su p erin ten ­

on S u p e r i n t e n d e n t :

some s t a t u t e s p r o ­

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t from d o in g c e r t a i n t h i n g s .

fh is of a c i t y

sta te

c a s e s he i s r e s p o n s i b l e t o t h e s t a t e .

P ro h ib itio n s h ib it

th o s e pow ers a n d d u t i e s w hich

is a thorough a r t i c l e

on t h e v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a n d on th e ways i n w h ic h he i s i n h i s w ork.

CHAPTER V I I THE TORT LIA BILITY OF SCHOOL DISTRICTS

38 The f o l l o w i n g r e f e r e n c e s s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d b e c a a s e th ey a re n o t a t t a i n a b le .

These a re

doc t o r i a l d i s s e r t a t i o n s .

C a v i c c h i a , J o h n , The Law o f T o r t a s A p p l i e d t o P u b l i c S c h o o ls, R u tg ers U n iv e rs ity , 1941. M a n t e l l , H e r m a n n P . , The L i a b i l i t y o f T e a c h e r s a n d O t h e r S c h o o l O f f i c e r s i n Hew Y o r k S t a t e a n d P r o p o s e ' s Hew L e g i s l a t i o n t o H u r t h e r T h e i r ~ P r o t e e t ' i o n , Mew f o r k U n iv ersity , 1^45.

C l o v e , J a m e s , "The L e g a l L i a b i l i t y o f t h e S c h o o l D i s t r i c t f o r D am ages." U n p u b lis h e d d o c t o r ' s d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s , 1937. 185 p p . T h i s was w r i t t e n t o of sc h o o l d i s t r i c t s

d eterm in e th e l e g a l l i a b i l i t y

f o r t h e p a y m e n t o f damage c l a i m s f o r

w ro n g fu l i n j u r y done t o p e rs o n s o r p r o p e r t y by t h e d istric t,

and to

im p licatio n s

school

c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o some o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l

of such l i a b i l i t y

and in te rp re t^ th e m

i n term s

of school p ra c tic e . C love h a s l o o k e d i n t o t h e l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d r u l e s in v o lv ed in s u i t s

o f t h i s ty p e and i n t e r p r e t e d them i n te r m s

of sc h o o l p r a c t i c e

from t h e p o i n t of th e laym an.

I t w ould seem t h a t th e f i e l d betw een th em . lia b ility tric t,

th e a u t h o r a n d D ice hav e d i v i d e d D ice w r i t i n g p r i m a r i l y o f th e

o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h e employm ent o f t h e

w h ile Clove h a s d e a l t w i t h t h e l e g a l l i a b i l i t y

th e d i s t r i c t

alo n e .

The t w o p r o b l e m s a r e ,

t o g e t h e r a n d s h o u ld be u s e d j o i n t l y .

in r e a l i t y ,

d is­ of tie d

39 B o th a u t h o r s have done a g r e a t

d e a l o f r e s e a r c h into

t h e w o r k s of o t h e r a u t h o r s a n d m any o f t h e i r m o s t i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s and i s s u e s can he found condensed h e re .

D i c e , C l i f f o r d 0 . , ” f h e S o r t L i a b i l i t y o f I n d i v i d u a l Em­ p lo y e e s and O f f ic e r s of School D i s t r i c t s . ” U npublished d o c to r ’ s d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e rs ity o f S outhern C a lif o r n ia , Los A n g e le s, 1937. 303 p p . In th is

d is c o u r s e th e a u th o r has a tte m p te d to d i s ­

c o v e r a n d p r e s e n t some o f t h e l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d r u l e s in v o lv e d i n t o r t a c t i o n s from th e

sta n d p o in t of the

v i d u a l b o a r d member, a d m i n i s t r a t o r , em ployee o f t h e

d istric t.

teacher,

in d i­

or oth er

He p o i n t s o u t some o f t h e e d u ­

c a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f s u c h l i a b i l i t y w i t h some r e m e d i e s t h a t may b e a p p l i e d b y s t a t e s , D ice a l s o

d istric ts,

or in d iv id u a ls .

i n d i c a t e s some m e a n s o f p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e s e

e m p l o y e e s a n d o f f i c e r s a g a i n s t damage s u i t s a n d p o i n t s o u t c h a n g e s i n s t a t u t e s w h ic h n e e d t o be made. On t h e w h o l e , he c o n c e r n s h i m s e l f p r i m a r i l y w i t h the

in d iv id u a l in v o lv ed in l i a b i l i t y

tric t

and,

as such,

it

is

of th e

school d is ­

concise and w e ll put to g e th e r ,

fh e a u th o r u se s e x te n s iv e l e g a l r e f e r e n c e s and p u b lis h e d a rticle s

on t h e

su b ject.

F u l l e r , E d g a r , ’’L i a b i l i t y f o r H e g l i g e n c e o f E d u c a t i o n a l O f f i c e r s and E m p lo y e e s ,” A m erican S ch o o l B o a rd J o u r n a l ,

40 1 0 3 : 3 9 - 3 0 , 3 3 - 2 5 , 2 7 - 2 8 , O c t o b e r , H ovem ber, December 1 9 4 1 . T h is i s a d i s c u s s i o n of th e an a c c id e n t scho o ls.

It

concerns th e r i g h ts and l i a b i l i t i e s in v o lv ed ,

An a t t e m p t

2. 3.

4.

in clu d in g th e

of a ll

school d i s t r i c t .

i s made t o t h e f o l l o w i n g :

The s c o p e o f t h e l i a b i l i t y p r o b l e m a s i t a f f e e t s t e a c h e r s and sc h o o l d i s t r i c t s . The s t a n d a r d o f c a r e t e a c h e r s a n d s c h o o l d i s ­ t r i c t o f f i c e r s must o b s e r v e u n d e r t h e la w . The m a n n e r i n w h i c h a d j u s t m e n t s a r e made o f th e r e s p e c tiv e r i g h t s of an in ju r e d p erso n , t h e p e r s o n who e a u . s e d t h e i n j u r y , a n d t h e p u b lic. What m i g h t b e d o n e t o m o t i v a t e m o r e c a r e f u l c o n d u c t a n d make a b e t t e r a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e r i g h t s of a l l p a r t i e s concerned.

The e n t i r e w o r k i s r e s t r i c t e d t o lig en ce.

a fter

has happened in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e p u b lic*

the p a r t i e s

1.

problem s t h a t a r i s e

It

i s u n d erstan d ab le

common t o r t

of neg­

in th a t the heavy c o m p licatin g

and t e c h n i c a l f a c t o r s have b e en o m itte d a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e l e a v i n g em p h asize on t h e

s u b je c t, n eg lig en ce

t o g e t h e r w ith recom m endations f o r on n e g l i g e n c e reduce

of the

teach er,

im p r o v in g t h e law o f t o r t

to remove t h e f e a r o f l i a b i l i t y

of teach ers,

c o s t a n d make r e c o v e r y p r o m p t .

L o c k e n o u r , R oy I . , " T h e T o r t L i a b i l i t y o f S c h o o l D i s t r i c t s a n d S c h o o l P e r s o n n e l , * ? 1 0 t h Y e a r b o o k o f S c h o o l L aw , 76-86, 1942. T his a r t i c l e 1.

is

d iv id ed in to

T ort L ia b ility

of P ublic

two s e c t i o n s , n a m e l y : School D i s t r i c t s

41 2.

T ort L i a b i l i t y

o f P u b l i c S c h o o l Em ployees

U n d e r s e c t i o n one we f i n d c a s e s c i t e d f r o m C a l i f o r ­ n ia,

I o w a , a n d New Y o r k .

when a d e f e n d e n t by s t a t u t e ,

H e r e we f i n d a l l e a s e s s h o w i n g

had n o t e x e r c is e d o r d in a r y c a re a s r e q u i r e d

he was l i a b l e .

I f a t e a c h e r i s s u p p o s e d t o be

p re s e n t a t re c e s s and is n o t, d i s t r i c t w ould b e l i a b l e . sittin g

and an i n ju r y f o llo w s ,

H ow ever,

on a window s i l l f a l l i n g ,

In the ease

the

the

of a g ir l

d e f e n d e n t was n o t a t

f a u l t a l t h o u g h t h e t e a c h e r was n o t p r e s e n t s i n c e p r u d e n t p e r s o n s w ould not danger of a f a l l ,

sit

i n a window b u t w o u l d f o r e s e e t h e

A g ain , a boy i n j u r e d by a b a s e b a l l b a t

co u ld n o t re c o v e r, th e r i s k v isib le ,

o f t h e ga me b e i n g p l a i n l y

and s h o u ld have been assum ed by th e p l a i n t i f f .

How ever, p r o p e r equipm ent m ust be s u p p l i e d o r th e

defen­

dent s h a l l be found g u i l t y . In s e c t i o n tw o, t o r t l i a b i l i t y

of sc h o o l em ployees,

we f i n d i n o r d e r f o r t h e n e g l i g e n t a b s e n c e o f t h e t o be the

p roxim ate cause

of th e

i n j u r y i t w ould be n e c e s ­

s a r y t o show t h a t h a d t h e t e a e h e r b e e n p r e s e n t i t reaso n ab ly in fe rre d th a t th e

teach er

c o u ld be

i n j u r y w ould n o t have o c c u r r e d .

These a r t i c l e s a r e w o rth w h ile t o

show t h e l e a n i n g s

o f the c o u r t s to d a y .

R o s e n f i e l d , H a r r y N . , L i a b i l i t y f o r S c h o o l A c c i d e n t s . New York: H a r p e r a n d B r o t h e r s P u b T i s h e r s , 1 9 4 2 . 22t> p p .

42 The a u t h o r s e t s u p t h e s t u d y o f l i a b i l i t y a c c i d e n t s by f i r s t common l a w . c ip les

for

school

g i v in g th e h i s t o r y o f t h e law o f t o r t a t

T h is i s fo llo w e d c lo s e l y w ith th e g e n e r a l p r i n ­

o f t h e common l a w o f t o r t a s a p p l i c a b l e

He r o u n d s t h i s

to sch o o ls.

o u t by show ing t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n s

o f t h i s law

by s t a t u t e s and j u d i c i a l changes. R o se n fie ld has brought the e n tir e i n s u c h a way a s t o make i t In s e ttin g

su b ject to g eth er

u n d e r s ta n d a b le to e v e r y laym an.

f o r t h th e s e l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s the

a u th o r has

shown n a t i o n w i d e c o u r t c a s e s a n d o p i n i o n s o f a t t o r n e y s g en eral.

He h a s t r i e d t o b r i n g f o r w a r d t h e s u b j e c t o f

s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n b y p r e s e n t i n g p r a c t i c a l l e s s o n s t o be g a in e d from l e g a l c a s e s of l i a b i l i t y ,

to e d u c a to rs f o r

safety ,

s u p e r v is io n , and

ed u ca tio n al th e o ry ,

p rac tic e,

a d m in istratio n . T his

i s a n e x c e l l e n t bo o k f o r use b y e v e r y t e a c h e r

a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r i n s h o w i n g h i m t h e s a f e t y way a g a i n s t to rt

lia b ilitie s.

R o s e n f i e l d , H. H . , " L i a b i l i t y S S hools, 21:2 7 -2 9 , A p ril, T h is a r t i c l e

fo r A ccid en ts," N a tio n ’s 1943.

i s a r e v ie w o f s c h o o l c a s e s i n 1942

c o v e r i n g p o i n t one o f t h e g r o u p d i s c u s s i o n . Under th e

g e n e ra lly accep ted ru le

S ta te s a school d i s t r i c t ,

i n the U n ite d

as an agency o f the

sta te ,

cannot

43 be h e l d l i a b l e ever,

in n eg lig en ce w ith o u t

through a l l cases c ite d

it

s ta tu to r y co n sen t.

How­

w a s sh o w n t h a t t h e s c h o o l s

do n o t h o l d s u c h i m m u n i t y . I f n e g l i g e n c e was e a s i l y p r o v e d on t h e p a r t p la in tiff,

the

If,

o th e r hand, the

on t h e

c a s e was i n f a v o r o f t h e

(d efend an t).

s c h o o l knew o f t h e d a n g e r ,

s h o u l d h a v e known, t h e p l a i n t i f f Ih is

school

o f the

is m erely an a r t i c l e

or

could re c o v e r. to h ig h lig h t d if f e r e n c e s

in eo o rt r u lin g s over the g e n e ra l r u le

u n d e r C hapter V II.

W eltzin , F re d e ric k , "School P ro p e rty ; D i s t r i c t L i a b i l i t i e s ; A c t i o n , " 1 s t Y earb o o k of S c h o o l Law, 1 : 3 9 - 4 5 , 1 9 3 3 . f h e r e a r e a number o f g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s g o v e r n in g the

a cq u isitio n ,

u se and d i s p o s i t i o n

o f school p ro p erty

w hich a r e l i s t e d below : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

School b o a rd h a s power t o p u rc h a s e p r o p e r t y . B o a rd h a s b r o a d pow ers of judgm ent i n c o n t r o l of p ro p erty . Use o f p r o p e r t y m u s t b e i n i n t e r e s t o f p u b l i c in stru ctio n . S t a t u t e g r a n t i n g b o a rd r i g h t to e s t a b l i s h w ard s c h o o l s , im p lie s r i g h t to d i s c o n t i n u e such w ard s c h o o l s when th e y s e e f i t . P la n s f o r b u i l d i n g m ust m eet a l l p r o v i s i o n s f o r b u i l d i n g a n d s a n i t a r y c o d e s b e f o r e w o rk c a n be sta rte d . In c o n tr o l and use o f sc h o o l p r o p e r t y , b o a rd has no power o f d i v e s t i n g i t s e l f o f l a w - g i v e n c o n t r o l , Use o f s c h o o l s a s p o l l i n g p l a c e s i f p r a c t i c a l . S t a te b o a rd h as r i g h t to buy o u t r i g h t books o u t­ s id e of s t a t e , i f s u i t a b l e ones a re n o t a v a i la b l e in s ta te . M o s t s t a t e s f o l l o w common l a w r u l e w h i c h p r o h i ­ b i t s reco v ery a g a in s t p u b lic sehool c o rp o ra tio n .

44

10.

Law i n C a l i f o r n i a pu.t s c h o o l c o r p o r a t i o n s on p a r w ith in d iv i d u a ls and p r iv a t e c o r p o r a tio n . Sehool d i s t r i c t h a s r i g h t of a c t i o n to a n n u l, r e s c i n d , or c a n c e l an i l l e g a l conveyance of school p ro p erty .

T h is i s an e x c e l l e n t s e l e c t i o n o f c i t a t i o n s o a t the r i g h t s and d a t i e s

t o "bring

of a h o ard of e d a c a tio n .

W e l t z i n , J . F . , The L e g a l A a t h o r i t y o f t h e A r n e r i c a n P u b l i c S chool. (Cran'd F o r k s , 1'Torth D a k o t a : The M i d - W e s t Book C o n c e r n , 1 9 3 1 . 286 p p . The p u b l i c by law ,

sehool is a e re atu re

and m a in ta in e d by law .

pow ers, d e f in e s a l l a ll

its lia b ilitie s.

its

of the

law , c r e a te d

The l a w g r a n t s a l l

d u tie s and p r iv ile g e s ,

However,

th ere

its

a n d im poses

is a great

deal of

law w h ic h i s n o t t o be fo u n d i n a n y l e g i s l a t i o n - t h e common l a w . sch o o l,

The common l a w , a s

it

a p p li e s to th e

i s w orthy of c o n s id e ra tio n as i s

i s draw n fro m th e

in fo rm a tio n f o r t h i s book.

It

of i t s

tio n a l s ta ff.

o fficers,

is

o f the

1. 2.

source

T his

The b o o k i s w r i t t e n

of a rticle

p u b lic sehool

an d members o f i t s

in stru c ­

a s a r e f e r e n c e w i t h work

a rra n g ed , as f a r as p o s s ib le , by s t a t e s . c elle n t a rtic le

the

is th e purpose o f th e

s tu d y th e s u b j e c t of t o r t l i a b i l i t y

co rp o ra tio n ,

law .

d ecisio n s of co u rts of record in cases

in v o lv in g school c o n tr o v e r s ie s and t h i s

to

sta tu te

p u b lic

T h is i s an ex ­

f o r C h ap ter V II c o v e rin g :

H ature o f th e p u b lic school c o r p o r a tio n . L egal a u th o r i ty of c i t i e s over p u b lic se h o o ls.

45 3.

L e g a l a u t h o r i t y o f p u b l i c s e h o o l a s sh o w n b y t h e common l a w r u l e . L e g a l a u t h o r i t y o f s c h o o l o f f i c e r s a s shown by t h e i r t o r t l i a b i l i t y in r e l a t i o n to the sc h o o l board. Legal a u th o rity of school o f f ic e rs in r e la tio n to p u p i ls and t e a c h e r s . Legal a u th o r ity of te a c h e rs and school ad m in istrato rs. L egal a u t h o r i t y to i n f l i c t c o rp o r a l punishm ent.

4. 5♦ 6. 7.

R o s e n f i e l d , H. H . , " L i a b i l i t y f o r S c h o o l A c c i d e n t s , " n a tio n * s S chools, 4 1 :4 4 -5 , June, 1948. Up t o 1 9 4 8 t h e r u l e s t i l l

p rev ailed th a t

school

bo ard s are n o t l ia b l e

fo r n eg lig en ce.

o f t h e c o u r t s on t h i s

t o p i c t y p i c a l c a s e s were c i t e d ,

o f w hich a re

To show t h e f e e l i n g s some

shown b e lo w :

T exas:

n o n -lia b ility

of t h e b o a r d was u p h e ld i n a

b u s c o l l i s i o n a l t h o u g h tw o p a s s e n g e r s w e r e f r o m o u t o f t h e d istric t

and p a id f o r r i d e .

Hew Y o r k :

c o u r t a llo w e d r e c o v e r i e s where i n j u r i e s

w ere c a u se d b y n e g lig e n c e s m a ll c h i l d was h u r t h eld l ia b le

of sehool p ersonnel.

Ihen a

on some a p p a r a t u s t h e b o a r d w a s a l s o

b e c a u s e th e a p p a r a t u s was d a n g e r o u s i f u s e d b y

sm all c h ild r e n . C alifo rn ia:

q u e stio n before th e

c o u r t was - i s

m om entary f o r g e t f u l n e s s b y a s t u d e n t a u t o m a t i c a l l y c o n t r i ­ b u to ry n eg lig en ce

so t h a t

it

prev en ts reco v ery a g a in st an

a d m itte d ly n e g lig e n t school board?

The c o u r t h e l d i t w a s n o t .

46

CHAPTER 7 1 11 SHE CONTRACTUAL AUTHORITY AND L IA B IL IT Y OF SCHOOL DISTRICTS

4? H e n z lik , F ra n k E . , R ight a and L i a b i l i t i e s of P u b lic S ch o o ls B o a r d s U n d e r Q a p i t a l ~ Q u t 1 a y Gont r a c T s • T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o ' E d u c a t i o n , No. 1 5 3 . New Y o r k C i t y : T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y , 1924. 1 18 p p . T h is

i s a stud y o f c o n tra c tu a l r e la tio n s h ip s w ith

re sp e c t to c a p ita l o u tla y .

It

is l a r g e l y a l e g a l and h i s ­

to ric a l research. The p u r p o s e o f t h e b o o k i s

to f i n d s ta n d a r d s or

r u l e s f r o m t h e c o u r t s w h i c h may b e a p p l i e d a n d , w h e n p o s s i b l e , to p o in t

out the

c o n d i t i o n s a n d s i t u a t i o n s u n d e r w hich t h e y

may b e a p p l i e d . T h e s e l a w s came f r o m l e g i s l a t i o n c o v e r the r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s ing

of the

and case law .

They

sch o o l bo ard in the f o llo w ­

situ atio n s: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

P roviding school s i t e s . U n d e r w h a t c o n d i t i o n s may s c h o o l b o a r d s make c o n t r a c t s b i n d i n g on t h e d i s t r i c t s . Are e e r t a i n a c t s s u f f i c i e n t t o im p l y c o n t r a c t s b i n d i n g on t h e b o a r d o r d i s t r i c t . May u n a u t h o r i z e d a c t s o f t h e d i r e c t o r s b e r a t i f i e d by bo ard or d i s t r i c t . A re s c h o o l d i r e c t o r s p e r s o n a l l y l i a b l e on c o n ­ trac ts? What c o n s t r u c t i o n w i l l c o u r t s g i v e t o common c l a u s e s and g e n e r a l c o n d it i o n s fou n d i n b u i l d ­ in g c o n tr a c ts ?

The a b o v e a r t i c l e g i v e s a v e r y t h o r o u g h v i e w o f t h e lia b ilitie s

and r i g h t s

o f a b o a r d on c o n t r a c t s .

The f o l l o w i n g r e f e r e n c e it

is not a tta in a b le .

It

should n o t be used beeause

i s a d o e t o r i a l d i s s e r t a t i o n on

48 r e c o r d a t t h e lew York U n i v e r s i t y o n l y . H o d g o n , D a n i e l R . , ttI » e g a l A s p e c t s i n t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and C o n tro l o f P u b lic School P r o p e r t y . * U n p u b lish ed D o c t o r ’ s d i s s e r t a t i o n , lew York U n i v e r s i t y , le w Y o rk , 1931.

P u n k e , H a r o l d , The C o u r t s a n d P a b l i c S c h o o l P r o p e r t y . C hicago: The U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o J r e s s , 1 9 3 6 . 313 p p . T h i s s t u d y w a s made i n o r d e r t o s e t f o r t h

the p r in ­

c i p l e s o f common l a w t h a t a p p l y t o t h e p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s of p u b lic school a d m in is tra tio n as th e y r e l a t e a cq u isitio n , use,

to th e

and d isp o sa l of school p ro p e rty .

It

u s e s a g r e a t many c i t a t i o n s b u t t h r o u g h t h e m g i v e s a c l e a r , d e ta ile d an aly sis

of c o u rt d e c is io n s r e l a t i n g

to

th e

sub­

jec t. C h apter I c o v e rs au th o rity

in d e ta il

the g e n e r a l c o n t r a c t u a l

of school a u t h o r i t i e s r e l a t i v e

to p r o p e r t y w hich

i s d i s c u s s e d under T opic ¥111. Every c h a p t e r is

sum m arized i n o n e, tw o,

f a s h i o n b r i e f l y and to th e p o i n t ,

so t h a t

the

th ree

essence

w hat h a s b e e n s a i d c a n be q u i c k l y c o m p re h e n d e d .

of

49

CHAPTER I X LEGAL PROBLEMS OP EMPLOYMENT OP SCHOOL PERSONNEL

50 A l l e n , I r a M . , The T e a c h e r 1 s C o n t r a c t u a . 1 S t a t u s * T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , Colum bia U n i v e r s i t y C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o E d u c a t i o n , Ho. 3 0 4 , le w York C i t y : T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , Colum bia U n iv e rs ity , 19S8. 147 p p . The p u r p o s e o f t h i s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b o ard s and t e a c h e r s , in v o lv ed ;

s tu d y is to d eterm in e th e n a tu r e

of t h e c o n t r a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een co n d itio n s,

r i g h t s and l i a b i l i t i e s

stan d ard s,

of c o n tra c tin g p a r t i e s ,

and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t e a c h e r ' s fessio n al

c o n tr a c tu a l and p r o ­

sta tu s.

The a n s w e r s t o t h e found by in v e s ti g a t i n g

above and o th e r q u e s t io n s a re

the d e c is io n s ' of th e c o u r ts and

a n a ly z in g th e l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s and s ta n d a r d s A fter th ese in to

and p r in c ip le s

p r in c ip le s are

th a t ap p ly .

determ in ed th ey a re

o rganized

c a te g o rie s of g u id in g p r i n c i p le s . It

i s a n e x c e l l e n t work c o v e r i n g a l l

o f C h a p t e r IX.

It

i s r e a l l y a su p p le m e n ta ry to A n d e rs o n 's s tu d y in t h a t

it

sum m arizes th e

common l a w p r o v i s i o n s d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e

to te a c h e rs c o n tra c ts , sp ecific

and is

of v alu e

in p o in tin g

out

d a t a a n d i n f u r n i s h i n g c h e c k s o n v a r i o u s eommon

law p o i n t s

in a c o n c is e m anner.

A n d e r s o n , E a r l W . , The T e a c h e r ' s C o n t r a c t a n d O t h e r L e g a l P h a s e s o f T e a c h e r S t a t u s . T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , Colum bia U n i v e r s i t y C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o E d u c a t i o n , Ho. S 4 6 . Hew York C i t y : B ureau of P u b lic a tio n s T eachers C o lle g e , C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y , 19B7. 130 p p . T h is stu d y u n d ertak es four

th in g s:

51

1.

To d i s c o v e r t h e l o c a l l e g a l r e s t r i c t i o n s a n d reg u latio n s a ffe c tin g teach ers.

2.

To s u r v e y t h e f i e l d o f s t a t e c o n t r o l o f t e a e h e r s , i n c l u d i n g s t a t u t o r y powers o f s t a t e h o a r d s .

3.

To d e t e r m i n e l e g a l a n d p r a c t i c a l l i m i t s o f h o a r d c o n tro l over te a c h e rs th ro u g h c o n tr a c tu a l s t i ­ p u latio n s.

4.

To s e t up t h e rela tio n sh ip .

optimum l e g a l h o a r d - t e a c h e r

T h is t i e s up w e l l w i t h t h e w ork o f I r a A l l e n , h i s h e i n g l i m i t e d to c o u r t d e c i s i o n s w h i l e a c t u a l form s of c o n t r a c t s

th is

covers the

in use and s t a t u t e s

covering

co n tractu al r e la tio n s . There i s

a great

d e a l o f u s e made o f c h a r t s a n d

g r a p h s w hich h e l p i n c h e c k in g d e f i n i t e in any given s t a t e

p o in ts of in te re s t

- an e x c e lle n t re fe re n c e .

l e n t z , A. E . , " R e s t r i c t i o n s o f T e a c h e r s , " News, 3 2 : 1 5 , A p r i l , 1 9 3 6 . T his a r t i c l e

covers th e r e s t r i c t i o n s

under th e

C a l i f o r n i a law a n d i s

c itatio n s

of c o u rt c a se s c o n ce rn in g the

rig h t of a p u b lic

of o th er p riv a te the p o in ts 1.

on t e a c h e r s

s e t f o r t h hy t h e means o f

sc h o o l t e a c h e r to

w h ic h b r i n g him i n t o

S ie r r a E d u catio n al

q u e s tio n o f the

engage i n a c t i v i t i e s

c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h m e r c h a n ts and owners

e n t e r p r i s e s in the

in c lu d e d in the

com m unity.

Some o f

c ita tio n s are:

A te a c h e r cannot purchase

s u p p lie s and r e t a i l

52 2.

3.

4.

them t o h i s p u p i l s . S c h o o l code p r o h i b i t s any t e a c h e r o r o f f i e e r o f a p u b l i c s c h o o l from a s s i s t i n g d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t ­ l y any p u b lis h e r or m a n u fa c tu re r in p la c in g h i s m a te r ia ls in p u b lic sc h o o ls . W hatever b u s i n e s s a c t i v i t i e s a s c h o o l t e a c h e r may e n g a g e i n a f t e r s e h o o l h o u r s a r e h i s own b u s i n e s s s o l o n g a s t h e y a r e l a w f u l a n d do n o t in te r f e r e w ith h is d u tie s as a te a c h e r. T e a c h e r may n o t u s e p u b l i c s e h o o l b u i l d i n g i n g iv in g p r i v a t e i n s t r u c t i o n f o r co m p en satio n .

T his i s a s h o r t , of r e s tr ic tio n s put

to t h e p o i n t ,

on t e a c h e r s

co n d en satio n of ty p es

i n t h e i r work i n C a l i f o r n i a .

The f o l l o w i n g r e f e r e n c e s s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d b e c a u s e th ey are not a t t a i n a b l e . D u d a , M i e h e a l , ITL e g a l I s s u e s I n v o l v e d i n t h e S e l e c t i o n , A p p o i n t m e n t , a n d Term o f E m p l o y m e n t o f T e a c h e r s a s Shown b y C o u r t D e c i s i o n s . ” U n p u b l i s h e d D o c t o r ’ s d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i ty o f P i t t s b u r g , 1945. I f i e h o l s , A l b e r t S y l v a n u s , ’’The L e g a l S t a t u s o f T e a c h e r s . ” U npublished D o c to r's d i s s e r t a t i o n , C h ic a g o .U n iv e rs ity , C hicago* 1 9 4 2 .

53

CHAPTER X PROBLEMS OP TEACHER TENURE LEGISLATION

54 C h a m b e r s , M. M ., "New Laws o n P e r s o n n e l , " 2 8 : 5 7 - 5 8 , November, 194 1 . The s t a t u t o r y

N a tio n ^

S ch o o ls.

ch an g es In 1941 a f f e c t i n g p u p i l s an d

te a c h e r s in a dozen d i f f e r e n t s t a t e s a re

r e v i e w e d by Chambers

in th e above a r t i c l e . U n l e s s o n e d e s i r e d t o c h e c k o n t h e new t e n u r e l a w in U tah,

Illin o is,

F lo rid a,

o r Kansas - t h i s a r t i c l e h a s

no v a l u e w h a t e v e r f o r t h e s u b j e c t a t h a n d .

I t d eals p r i ­

m a rily w ith th e problem o f h a n d ic ap p e d c h i l d r e n , tatio n ,

a th le tic

in ju ries,

et cetera.

r e f e r e n c e on an y o f t h e s e t o p i c s i t

tran sp o r­

For a general

is of l i t t l e

v alu e.

Hodgon, D a n i e l , R . , " T e a c h e r s : The I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f T e n u r e S t a t u s , " 1 0 t h Y e a r b o o k o f S c h o o l L aw , 4 9 - 5 6 , 1 9 4 2 . Alabam a h a s h e l d t h a t t h e T e n u re A c t was t o i n s u r e teach ers su rable

some m e a s u r e o f s e c u r i t y a n d f r e e e x te n t from p o l i t i c s

and f e e l in g s

T here i s a d u a l o b j e c t of te n u re :

t h e m t o a m ea­ of a d m in is tr a to r s . to g iv e co n tin u o u s

s e r v i c e fro m y e a r t o y e a r u n l e s s rem oved f o r d i s a b i l i t y , in efficien cy ,

in su b o rd in atio n ,

o r m oral t u r p i t u d e ;

and to

give s e c u r i t y of te a c h e r s and b e n e f i t to p u b lic a s a r e s u l t o f p l a c i n g t h e t e n u r e o f p o s i t i o n s on d e m o n s t r a t e d q u a l i f i ­ c a tio n s and m e rit. The t e n u r e m o d ified .

It

is

sta tu te

i s n o t a c o n t r a c t t h a t c a n n o t be

m e r e ly a p o l i c y t o be p u r s u e d u n t i l t h e

55 l e g i s l a t o r e s h a l l o rd a in otherw ise*

Some o f t h e s e c t i o n s

o f t e n u r e l e g i s l a t i o n a r e l i s t e d "below: 1. 2* 3. 4. 5* 6.

C e rtific a tio n C om pensation tra n sfe r of teach ers le a v e o f absence D ism issal A b o litio n of p o s itio n

S c o t t , C e c i l W ., I n d e f i n i t e T e a c h e r T e n u r e . T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C o lu m b ia U n i v e r s i t y C o n t r i b u t i o n s t o E d u c a t i o n , Ho. 6 1 3 . Hew Y o r k C i t y : T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y , 1934. 165 p p . The a im o f t h e

au th o r is

to

exam ine e a r e f u l l y th e

p ro v isio n s and o p e ra tio n of e x is tin g

law s w i t h a view to

p r o p o s i n g s u g g e s t i o n s f o r t h e i r im provem ent and f o r t h e d raftin g

of o t h e r la w s ,

He a l s o w i s h e d t o a s c e r t a i n w h a t p r o v i s i o n s s h o u l d make up a n i n d e f i n i t e ment o f i n d e f i n i t e concerning th e o p eratio n .

te n u r e law and to

te n u re law , p lu s p re s e n tin g

p ro v isio n s

I n a d d i t i o n , he

common c l a i m s made f o r

th e develop­ in fo rm atio n

of e x is ti n g s t a t u t e s and t h e i r id en tified

fu n d am e n ta l problem s o f i n d e f i n i t e the

trace

a m a jo rity o f the

te n u re and e v a lu a te d

the p r a c tic e and th e le g a l

asp ects. A lso s e t f o r t h a r e t h e

m ain p r o v i s i o n s f o r t e a c h e r

te n u re of s i x E uropean c o u n t r i e s , A m erican s t a t u s ,

a com parison w ith th e

and recom m endations f o r p r o t e c t i v e

ten u re

56 b a s e d on t h e

outcom e of t h e s t u d y .

T his i s a n e x c e ll e n t

s t u d y on i n d e f i n i t e

te n u re law s

and r e g u la tio n s covering e v e ry a sp e c t o f th e p re s e n t a c ts a n d how t h e y m i g h t h e i m p r o v e d . attem p t to prove th e v a lu e ten u re.

It

or d e s i r a b i l i t y

i n any way,

of in d e fin ite

c o n c e n t r a t e s o n l a w s i n e f f e c t - n o t on t h e

concept of in d e fin ite tic s

I t does n o t,

ten u re.

t o h e lp in checking

The a u t h o r u s e s may s t a t i s ­

sta te s

of p a r tic u la r

in te rest.

S t o n e , S e y m o u r I . , "A S t u d y o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a T e a c h e r T e n u r e Law ." U n p u b lis h e d D o c to r ’ s d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e l e s , 1 9 3 4 . 400 pp . The a u t h o r a t t e m p t e d t o d i s c o v e r a n d e v a l u a t e e ffects tio n

of th e

in te rp retatio n ,

of te a c h e r ten u re

ad m in istratio n ,

leg islatio n

the

and o p era­

in C a lifo rn ia .

T his

was done by c o v e r in g s u c h q u e s t i o n s a s : 1. S. 3. 4. 5. 6.

How h a v e t h e c o u r t s c o n s t r u e d t h e t e n u r e leg isla tio n ? What a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o b l e m s a r e i n v o l v e d i n d ism is sa l of u n s a tis f a c to r y te a c h e rs under ten u re ? What p r o v i s i o n s a r e t h e r e f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f teach ers? What a r e t h e e f f e c t s o f t e n u r e l e g i s l a t i o n on teach ers in serv ice? What i s t h e r e a c t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c t o t e n u r e leg islatio n ? What a r e t h e m a j o r p r o b l e m s c a u s e d b y l e g i s l a t i o n ?

The a r t i e l e

shows w h a t t e n u r e p r o v i s i o n s h a v e done

and s u g g e s t s rem e d ie s i n th e

leg islatio n .

C a l i f o r n i a t e n u r e a e t from e v e ry d e t a i l ,

It

covers the

u s i n g many

57 c i t a t i o n s fro m t h e e o u .rts an d c a n he u s e d t o e x c e l l e n t a d ­ v an tag e

u n d e r C h a p t e r X.

"A H a n d b o o k o n T e a c h e r T e n u r e , " K. S . A. R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n , Septem ber, 1936. 3?p. 1 6 7 - 1 9 4 , The f i r s t J e rs e y in 1909,

sta te

t o p a s s t e a c h e r t e n u r e l a w w a s Hew

S ince t h a t d a te

have p a s s e d te n u r e la w s .

to 1936 f o u r t e e n s t a t e s

Under th e t y p i e a l la w s t e a c h e r s

serv e a p ro b a tio n a ry p e rio d of 1-3 y e a r s , t h e y may b e d i s c h a r g e d a t w i l l

of th e

d u r in g w hich tim e

school board.

t h a t t h e y may b e d i s c h a r g e d o n l y a f t e r a p u b l i c ineo m p etency , im m o ra lity , s e e k to keep th e

from u n j u s t The t e n u r e teach ers to

The l a w s

s e h o o ls f r e e from p o l i t i c a l ,

p erso n al,

p ro tec ts

com peten t t e a c h e r s teach .

law s encourage com petent p u b l i c - s p i r i t e d stay

in the sc h o o ls.

te n u re w ith c h a r t s It

It

d i s c h a r g e and p e r m i t s them t o r e a l l y

The a r t i e l e

sta te .

hearin g f o r

of du ty .

o r com m ercial d o m in a tio n .

or n e g le c t

A fter

co v ers the of t h e

present

sta tu s

of te a c h e r

p r o v is io n s to be found in e v e ry

i s an e x c e l l e n t a r t i c l e

on t e n u r e l a w ,

C h a m b e r s , M, M . , " C o u r t s C l a r i f y T e n u r e , " n a t i o n ’ s S c h o o l s , 4 3 :5 4 , A p r il, 1949. The 1 9 4 8

in te rp retatio n s

v a ry c o n s i d e r a b ly from s t a t e

to

of perm anent te n u r e sta te .

sta tu tes

I n Hew Y o r k t h e

58 c o u rt holds ten u re s t a t u t e s a p p lic a b le to c e n t r a l school d istric ts

d e p riv e s the school boards

c o n tra c t w ith

teachers

sin ce

it

of a l l a u t h o r i t y to

provides th a t

the

may b e d i s c h a r g e d s u m m a r i l y a n y t i m e d u r i n g t h e

teacher

proba­

tio n a ry p erio d . I n M i n n e a p o l i s a t e a c h e r was a s k e d t o tra tiv e

do a d m i n i s ­

a s s i s t a n t w o r k f o r t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t f o r two y e a r s .

When h e r e t u r n e d t o h is ten u re.

teach in g

the

The c o u r t s h e l d t h a t

b o a rd c la im e d he h a d l o s t it

did n o t c o n s titu te

abandonm ent o f h i s t e n u r e r i g h t s a s t h e r e was a b se n c e in te n tio n to g iv e

up t e a c h i n g p e r m a n e n t l y .

of

CHAPTER XI LEGAL PHASES OF DISMISSAL OF SCHOOL EMPLOYEES

60 G r a v e s , F r a n k , "Can a B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n D e l e g a te t o a C om m ittee A u t h o r i t y t o D is m is s T e a c h e r s ? 0 E le m e n t a r y S e h o o l J o u r n a l , 36:645*r46, May, 1 9 3 6 , She a u t h o r ,

S t a t e C o m m i s s i o n e r o f E d u c a t i o n o f Hew

Y ork, h e r e i n r e n d e r e d an o p in io n .

He h e l d

it

t o be i l l e g a l

f o r a p r i n c i p a l t o be d i s m i s s e d w i t h o u t t h e h e a r i n g o f an e n tire tiv e

board f o r ,

a b o a r d may d e l e g a t e m e r e l y a d m i n i s t r a ­

or m in is te ria l d u tie s. She c o u r t s h a v e r u l e d t h a t

may n o t d e l e g a t e e x e r c i s e s

the b oard o f e d u c a tio n

of judgem ent o r d i s c r e t i o n .

T h is i s a v e r y s h o r t a r t i c l e w hich e s t a b l i s h e s

one p r i n ­

c ip le as n o ted above.

H a l l , R. K . , " R e c e n t C o u r t D e c i s i o n s on t h e D i s m i s s a l o f T e a c h e rs," E d u ca tio n a l A d m in istra tio n and S u p e rv isio n , 2 3 :2 1 -3 4 , Ja n u ary , 1937. A ccording t o t h e a u t h o r p u b lic s c h o o l t e a c h e r s and p rin cip als

a re em ployees r a t h e r t h a n p u b l ic

may b e d i s m i s s e d u n d e r t h e s t a t u t e s ficien t

cause.

Where t h e r e

o f f i c e r s and

o r f o r good and s u f ­

is a sta tu te

sta tin g

d i s m i s s a l th e c o u r t s h a v e h e l d no o t h e r c a u s e i s c ie n t except

cause

of

su ffi­

one r e c o g n i z e d b y law a s v o i d i n g a l l c o n t r a c t s .

T h e r e a r e t w o b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s a p p l i e d t o t h e d i s m i s s a l of teachers,

in the

a b sen c e o f s t a t u t o r y r e g u l a t i o n s , w hich

are as fo llo w s: 1.

E x ecu tio n and v a l i d i t y

o f t e a c h e r employm ent

61

2.

c o n t r a c t s w i l l be g o v e rn e d by t h e r a l e s a p p ly ­ ing t o c o n t r a c t s i n g e n e r a l . The b o a r d m a st a c t i n g o o d f a i t h a n d w i t h o a t su b terfu g e.

U n d e r t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s a t e a c h e r may b e d i s m i s s e d f o r incom petency, f o r n e g le c t o f d u ty , f o r im m o ra lity , lack

of funds.

teach er is

H ow ever,

i t h a s b e e n h e l d t h a t where a

em ployed f o r a d e f i n i t e

term th e

may n o t v o i d t h e c o n t r a c t b y c l o s i n g t h e not reassig n

and r e q u i r e

d i f f e r e n t k in d from t h a t

and

a tea ch e r to

school board

school.

(They may

perform s e rv ic e

s e t f o r th in th e

c o n tract;

of

b a t,

t h e y may t r a n s f e r a t e a c h e r f r o m o n e s c h o o l t o a n o t h e r u n l e s s same i s d o n e i n a n u n r e a s o n a b l e m a n n e r o r p e r s o n a l m atter. There a r e case

a number of re m e d ie s open t o t h e

teach er in

of d is m is s a l. 1. 2.

3.

I f t h e r e i s a s t a t u t e c a l l i n g f o r n o t i c e and h e a r i n g he m ast be g i v e n s u c h an o p p o r t u n it y . I f s u c h h e a r i n g i s u n f a v o r a b l e a n a p p e a l may be h ad to a e o u r t ; a l t h o u g h a c o u r t u s u a l l y w i l l n o t i n t e r f e r e except i f th e r e has been f r a u d , b ad f a i t h , c o r r u p t i o n , o r g r o s s abuse of d is c re tio n . I f th e te a c h e r has been i l l e g a l l y d ism isse d t h e r e a r e tw o a v e n u e s o p e n t o h i m f o r r e c o v e r y .

T h is is

an e x c e lle n t a r tic le

on t h e d i s m i s s a l o f

teach ers,

R o s e n f i e l d , H. H . , " T e a c h e r s C e r t i f i c a t i o n , A p p o in tm e n t, a n d D i s m i s s a l ; The C o n t r a c t o f E m p l o y m e n t , 11 1 0 t h Y earb o o k o f S c h o o l Law, 1 6 - 3 1 , 1 9 4 2 .

62 In a d d it io n to c e r t i f i c a t i o n and ap p o in tm en t of teach ers,

th e s t a tu s

o f a v a s t arm y o f t e a c h e r s

U n ited S ta te s la c k p r o te c tio n

o f te n u re law s g u a r a n te e ­

in g them s e c u r i t y d u r i n g good a n d e f f i c i e n t In c e r t i f i c a t i o n the teaeh ers.

serv ice.

B oard o f E xam iners e e r t i f y

The A p p e a l s C o u r t w i l l n o t s u b s t i t u t e

ju d g em en t u n l e s s shown by c l e a r e v i d e n c e t h a t a c t i o n was th e r e s u l t gross e rro r, facts.

of m alice, p re ju d ic e ,

th eir

the B oard’s

bad f a i t h ,

or

They c a n r e v o k e f o r m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f

In o r d e r t o r e c o v e r , h o w ev er, a c o n t r a c t m ust be

w ritte n . h eld .

in the

An o r a l a g r e e m e n t n o t f u l f i l l e d w i l l n o t b e

In a d d itio n ,

a t o w n e a n n o t c l o s e down a s c h o o l t o

av o id c o n tra c tu a l o b lig a tio n s . a te a c h e r h old in g

A b o a rd cannot d isch arg e

c o n t r a c t f o r f i n a n c i a l o r econom ic

reasons. Even w ith o u t during th e

ten u re

te r m i f he h o l d s a c o n t r a c t ,

dance w ith th e term s. few p u p i l s

a t e a c h e r may n o t b e d i s m i s s e d

I t m ust be f o r

except in accor­

ng o o d ft c a u s e , t o o

ju s tif y in g th e c lo sin g of sc h o o ls,

and th e l i k e .

’’S c h o o l T e a c h e r s ' B a y i n C o u r t , R e v i e w o f 1 9 4 4 , ” H. E . A. R e se a rc h B u l l e t i n , M arch, 1945. T h i r t y - s i x c a s e s of t e a c h e r s d iscu ssed in th is th o se

article ;

in c o u r t i n 1944 a re

th e m ost f r e q u e n t

of te a c h e r te n u re law s.

cases

involve

The g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s

63 brought f o r th

under th e v a rio u s h eadings a re a s fo llo w s:

A ssignm ent:

t e a c h e r c a n n o t compel r e a s s ig n m e n t to

same s c h o o l . Leave o f A bsence: it

i s g r a n te d by the

te a c h e r cannot tak e lea v e b e fo re

board;

o th e rw is e he w i l l l o s e h is

ten u re r i g h t s . . T ransfer: tenure

c a n n o t t r a n s f e r w ith o u t com plying w ith

procedure. S alary :

rein sta te d ,

is

ten u re te a c h e r i l l e g a l l y e n t i t l e d to b ack s a l a r y .

D em otion:

m ay n o t t r a n s f e r a n d r e d u c e s a l a r y .

Tenure S cope: p ro v isio n s o f tenure

c o u r t s h o l d b o a r d s may n o t i g n o r e law s.

C orporal P unishm ent: of restra in t

in cid en t to

of p u n ish in g . der n a tu re ,

d i s m i s s e d - whe n

c o u rts ho ld th a t t e s t

d isc ip lin e

i s t h e sa m e a s t h e a c t

What i s r e a s o n a b l e p u n i s h m e n t ?

of o f f e n c e , a p p a re n t m o tiv e,

i n assignm ent

Must c o n s i ­

in flu e n ce,

Teacher L i a b i l i t y f o r P u p il I n ju r y : lig e n ee

fo r act

sex.

m ust prove neg

or su p erv isio n .

T h is i s a c o n c is e p am p h let of c i t a t i o n s fro m w hich a g e n e r a l view o f th e

p o sitio n of a teach er

in court

in

1944 can be draw n.

The f o l l o w i n g r e f e r e n c e s h o u l d n o t be u s e d b e c a u s e it

c a n n o t be a t t a i n e d .

64 W o t r i n g , C l a y t o n W . , ’The L e g a l S t a t u s o f M a r r i e d Women T e a c h e rs i n t h e P u b lic S c h o o ls of th e U n ite d S t a t e s a s D eterm ined by J u d i c i a l D e c isio n s and L eg a l O pinions {from 1778 t o 1 9 3 2 } . ° U n p u b l i s h e d D o c t o r ' s d i s s e r t a ­ t i o n , l e w Y ork U n i v e r s i t y , l e w Y o r k , 1932#

" S h e S c h o o l T e a c h e r s ' Day i n C o u r t , " H. 1 . A. R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n , F eb ru ary , 1948. IS pp. I n 1 9 4 7 t e a c h e r s a p p e a r e d i n 30 h i g h c o u r t c a s e s i n 15 s t a t e s .

Some o f t h e

A ppointm ent: board i s e n t i t l e d

t y p i c a l c a s e s a r e l i s t e d below :

co u rt h eld g e n e ra l

to r e j e c t

a p p lic a tio n s w ithout g iv in g

any r e a s o n an d no p e r s o n h a s t h e S alary : type

p rin cip le th a t a

rig h t

t o demand a p o s i t i o n .

e q u a l p a y l a w r e q u i r e s e q u a l p a y f o r same

o f w o rk , p r e p a r a t i o n and t r a i n i n g .

law r e q u i r e s t h a t a v e r i f i e d

I n le w York th e

c l a i m m u s t b e s e r v e d on a

s c h o o l b o a r d w i t h i n 90 d a y s f r o m a c c r u a l o f a s a l a r y c l a i m . Res Ig n at io n : power to

c o u rt h eld th a t

a c t fo r the b o a rd ,

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t h a d no

in r e g a r d to a c c e p tin g a r e ­

sig n atio n . D is m is s a l o f T e a c h e rs u n d e r C o n tr a c t o f F ix e d Dura­ tio n :

c o u r t h e l d wh en t h e r e

i s procf o f s u f f i c i e n t

f o r d is m is s a l, b o ard had n o t breach ed th e c o n tra c t

cause in d is ­

m issin g a te a c h e r. T enure:

a ten u re

c o n t r a c t may b e t e r m i n a t e d b y

m u tu a l a g re em e n t, e x p r e s s e d b y w ords or a c t i o n s . b o a rd s have t h e power to

A lthough

a b o lis h p o s i t io n s and suspend

65 t e a c h e r s no l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y u n d e r t h e

tenure

use t h i s p ro ced u re a s a s u b s t i t u t e

the t e n u r e p ro c e d u re

for

law i t

cannot

to d ism iss a te a c h e r.

P

CHAPTER X I I LEGAL PHASES OF RETIREMENT ACTS

67 G arber, lee

0*, "tea ch e rs: R e tire m e n t and P e n s i o n s , " 10 t h Y e a r b o o k o f S c h o o l jtons, 4 9 - 5 6 , 1 94 3 * C ases u n d er t h i s t o p ic

from y e a r to y e a r ;

th ere

court in te rp re ta tio n . c a l l e d upon to

d i f f e r in kind b u t l i t t l e

is m erely a s l i g h t d if f e r e n c e

in

I n M a s s a c h u s e t t s t h e c o u r t was

i n t e r p r e t the

sta tu tes

concerning r e t i r e ­

m ent and to d e te rm in e w h e th e r o r n o t t h e y a p p l i e d t o members of t h e t e a c h e r s r e t i r e m e n t retirem en t 1. £. 5. 4.

2. 3.

They h a d f o u r

sy stem s: E m ployees o f c i t i e s a n d t o m s Em ployees o f th e s t a t e E m ployees o f c o u n t i e s T eachers

The c o u r t 1.

system .

s ta te d th a t alth o u g h th ere

i s a t e n u r e law:

R e tirem e n t can be f o r c e d i f s t a t u t e h a s age lim it. P e r s o n may n o t a c c e p t a c o n t r a c t a s p h y s i c a l l y a b l e t o w o r k a n d t h e n a s k f o r p e n s i o n f o r sam e p a io d a s p h y s i c a l l y u nab le to w ork. W here p e n s i o n o r r e t i r e m e n t b o a r d h a s n o p o w e r to g r a n t p e n sio n f o r tem p o rary in c a p a c ity , a p p l i c a t i o n must b e f o r o n e ’ s l i f e t i m e .

I n C olorado th e c o u r t r u l e s t h a t w aive o r r e l e a s e h e r s t a t u t o r y r i g h t

to a p e n sio n , w hile

a Hew Y o r k c o u r t h e l d t h a t a r e t i r e m e n t on t h e S t a t e

a t e a c h e r may

a p p lic a tio n served

T e a c h e rs ’ R e tire m e n t system by th e b r o t h e r o f

a n in co m p eten t t e a c h e r p r i o r to ap p o in tm en t of a g u a rd ia n was n o t i n a c c o rd a n c e w i t h t h e la w .

" C u r r e n t I s s u e s i n T e a c h e r R e t i r e m e n t , " N. E . A. R e s e a r c h

68 B u l l e t i n , November, 1 9 30. T his a r t i c l e

Pp. 222-277.

i s a r e p r i n t o f t h e 1930 r e p o r t o f t h e

C o m m i t t e e o n R e t i r e m e n t A l l o w a n c e s o f t h e N. E . A. a n d c o n ­ ta in s an a n a ly s is of l6 c r u c ia l is s u e s in te a c h e r r e t i r e ­ m ent.

Under such a system th e s t a t e and th e t e a c h e r a r e

co n tractin g p a rtie s . 1. 2. 3.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 1^. 15. - 16.

T e a c h e r makes a r e g u l a r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a fu n d a c c o rd in g to r a t e s a g re e d upon a f t e r s c i e n t i f i c in v estig atio n . S t a t e makes a p p r o p r i a t i o n s t o a r e s e r v e f u n d . M em bership c o m p u lso ry f o r t e a c h e r s e n t e r i n g t h e serv ice; o p tio n a l f o r tea ch e rs a lre a d y in serv ice. R etirem en t ages and r u l e s sh o u ld be d e fin e d and a d m in iste re d to r e t a i n te a c h e rs and provide r e t i r e m e n t when s e r v i c e i s no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e . Sums d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f s e r v i c e sh o u ld be a p p r o x im a te ly e q u a l . Amount s h o u l d b e s t a t e d i n a n a c t s u b j e c t t o ad ju stm en t. P a y m e n t s s h o u l d b e made r e g u l a r l y a n d c o n c u r r e n t l y . R e tir e m e n t b o a rd s h o u ld open a c c o u n t f o r eac h t e a c h e r a n d h o l d p ay m en ts i n t r u s t f o r him . A dequate an d a c t u a r i a l l y sound f u n d s h o u ld be created . P e r i o d i c a c t u a r i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s h o u l d b e made. T eachers le a v in g s e rv ic e b e fo re re tire m e n t r e t a i n r i g h t s t o money a c c u m u l a t e d t o h i s a c c o u n t . R ig h t to e l e c t manner i n w hich to r e c e i v e b e n e f i t s . R eceive c r e d i t f o r s e r v i c e p r i o r to e s t a b l i s h ­ ment o f s y s te m . Ha ve c o o p e r a t i v e o r r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n r e t i r e m e n t system s of d i f f e r e n t s t a t e s . A d m in is tra tio n sh ou ld be in hands of r e tir e m e n t board. D i s a b i l i t y paym ents s h o u ld be p r o v i d e d .

A t h o r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e a b o v e 16 i s s u e s i n th eo ry and p r a c tic e

i s made b y t h e u s e o f t a b l e s

what i s done in v a r io u s

show ing

s t a t e s and l o c a l r e tir e m e n t sy stem s.

69 It

i s a n e x c e l l e n t r e p o r t s h o w i n g how t h e s e s y s t e m s s h o u l d

he e s t a b l i s h e d .

S t u d e n s k y , P a u l * '"'T e a c h e r s 1 P e n s i o n S y s t e m s i n The U n i t e d S t a t e s : A C r i t i c a l a n d D e s c r i p t i v e S t H d y . •• Sew Y o r k : D. A p p l e t o n a n d C o m pany, 1 9 '2 0 . 460 p p . T h i s volum e i s b o t h c r i t i c a l aim s to g i v e t h e

and d e s c r i p t i v e .

p r o v is io n s t h a t have b e e n ,

made w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e

retirem en t

w hich have been e n a c te d .

or should b e ,

of teach ers.

u se d s e s s i o n law s and c o d e s o f v a r i o u s

It

The a u t h o r

s t a t e s f o r a l l law s

Annual School r e p o r t s o f th e

U n ite d S t a t e s B ureau o f E d u c a tio n and th e s t a t e s w ere u se d . L e t t e r s were s e n t t o P art tea ch e rs*

It

o fficials

of d iffe re n t

T h is i s a d e s c r ip tio n of th e

pensions

and a n a n a l y s i s

p ro v id in g re tire m e n t allow ances to g e th e r w ith a d is c u s s io n of th e

sta te

sy stem s.

e v o lu tio n of

of g e n e ra l problem of tea ch e rs is g iv en , to ­

p r i n c i p le s governing th e

e s t a b l i s h m e n t and m a in te n a n c e of sound sy s te m s. P art

I I ':.

An a c c o u n t

is g iv e n

o f t h e m o v em en t i n t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s and a d e s c r i p t i v e a n d c r i t i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n i s m ade o f t h e h i s t o r y a n d p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n o f t h e m o r e im p o rta n t system s i n e x i s t e n c e .

In

o r d e r t o do t h i s

he

r e v i e w e d 24 s y s t e m s . The a u t h o r ’ s c o m b i n a t i o n o f d i s c u s s i o n o f p r i n c i p l e s w ith d e s c r ip tio n

of th e e x p e rie n c e

of e x is tin g

system s i s

70 a p r a c tic a l aid

to a n y o n e i n t e r e s t e d

I t makes e a s y r e a d i n g , resort

to

but

in t h i s

phase of w ork.

is not e a s ily a v a ila b le .

th e U .C .Ii.A . l i b r a r y

to

Had t o

o b ta in th e book.

" T e a c h e r R e t i r e m e n t S y s t e m a n d S p c i a l S e c u r i t y , " H. E . A. R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n , May, 1 9 3 7 , Pp. 92-151. The t e a c h e r r e t i r e m e n t l e g i s l a t i o n e a r ly stag e

of developm ent.

is

still

i n the

In re c e n t y e a rs tho u san d s of

t e a c h e r s have e n r o l l e d in r e tir e m e n t

s y s t e m s s i n c e more

t h a n h a l f o f t h e s t a t e s a n d 56 l o c a l

c o m m u n i t i e s h a v e made

progress

in p ro v id in g d i s a b i l i t y and r e tire m e n t.

t o be o p e r a t e d on a b a s i s teach ers, m ent.

fo r a larg e

o f a h i g h t u r n o v e r am o n g a c t i v e

p ercent w ill never ap p ly f o r r e t i r e ­

The R e t i r e m e n t C o m m i t t e e r e c o m m e n d s t h a t r e t i r e m e n t

ages and r u l e s tain

They h a v e

s h o u l d be d e f i n e d a n d a d m i n i s t e r e d t o r e ­

teach ers.

The e f f e c t i v e n e s s

o f the system w i l l depend

upon t h e amount o f a l l o w a n c e s g r a n t e d f o r ,

a t the p re s e n t

t i m e , th e amount g r a n t e d i s b u t a f r a c t i o n

of present

activ e s a la r ie s . B e fo re t h e S o c i a l S e c u r i t y Act w as p a s s e d c o n s i d e r ­ a b l e h a d b e e n made i n p r o v i d i n g r e t i r e m e n t b e n e f i t s f o r v a rio u s o ccu p atio n s. not lik e ly

show t h a t t e a c h e r s a r e

to accum ulate enough to c o n s t i t u t e

earning b e n e f it a group are

S ta tistic s

under S o cial S e c u rity i f

in cluded under th e a c t .

a larg e

to ta l

the te a c h e r s as

T each ers, a t the p r e ­

71 sent

t i m e , r e c e i v e m ore u n d e r t h e i r r e t i r e m e n t s y s t e m s ;

th erefo re,

th e y s h o u ld s u p p o rt m e a su re s p r o v id in g f o r sound

teach er retirem en t

sy stem s.

T h is a r t i c l e

has a s e r i e s

every s itu a tio n d isc u sse d in a l l It

is

of ta b le s

(1-23)

s ta te and lo c a l

covering system s.

o ne o f t h e m o s t t h o r o u g h a r t i c l e s r e a d .

The f o l l o w i n g r e f e r e n c e s h o u l d n o t be u s e d b e c a u s e it

is not a t tain ab le . Wang, G h e e , " S t a t e R e t i r e m e n t S y s t e m s f o r P u b l i c S c h o o l E m p lo y ees." U n p u b l i s h e d D o c t o r * s d i s s e r t a t i o n , Mew York; U n i v e r s i t y , Mew Y o r k , 1 9 3 1 .

" A n a ly s is of L o cal P r o v i s i o n s f o r T each er R e t i r e m e n t," If. E . A. R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n , H a y , 1 9 4 0 . Pp. 83-182. T his s tu d y re v ie w s th e l o c a l s i t u a t i o n retirem en t

a n d c o n t a i n s d a t a f r o m 65 l o c a l p l a n s .

r e a l l y p e n sio n schem es; s ta te retirem en t

system s. law s th e a u t h o r s have c o v ered

e n a b lin g law s w hich p erm it l o c a l r e tir e m e n t T hree-fo u rth s

tab u latio n s

Some a r e

o t h e r s a r e m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n some

In a d d itio n to lo c a l sta te

of teach er

of th e a r t i c l e

c o n sists

actio n .

of d e ta ile d

of a l l phases of lo c a l r e tir e m e n t to g e th e r

w i t h S t a t e e n a b l i n g l a w s , m aking a n e x c e l l e n t r e f e r e n c e f o r p i c k i n g up a l l

law s f o r any p a r t i c u l a r sy ste m .

72

CHAPTER X I I I RIGHTS M D DUTIES OP PU PIL S AND PARENTS

73 C h a m b e r s , M. M . , nY o u t h a n d t h e L a w , ” E d u c a t i o n a l Law a n d A d m in is tr a tio n , 4 :4 1 , A p r il, 1936. U n iv e r s a l com pulsory e d u c a ti o n i s a c e n tu r y o ld i n Hew E n g l a n d w h e r e t h e y h a v e h a d a c t u a l s t a t u t o r y p r o v i ­ sio n s for th a t

le n g th o f tim e.

The n e w s t a t e

law s p r o h i b i t

c h i l d l a b o r and h o u rs and wages. I n 1935 o n ly e i g h t e e n s t a t e s r e q u i r e d c h i l d r e n t o c o m p lete the

e i g h t h g r a d e t o work:;

a s i x t e e n y e a r o l d m in im u m . tio n

is

to

in s ix s ta te s

th ere

is

A law f o r p h y s i c a l e x a m in a ­

be f o u n d i n o n l y t w e n t y - f i v e

sta te s

f o r w orking

p erm its. In view o f t h e above s t a t i s t i c s the n e e d f o r a p p r e n t i c e m ents f o r th e h e alth

train in g

and b e tte r h e a lth re q u ire ­

c u r r e n t know ledge r e g a r d i n g p r o t e c t i o n o f

o f young p e r s o n s i s f a r a h e a d o f c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s . M ajor a d v an c es n e ed to

reg u la tio n s

be made i n p r o v i s i o n s a n d

of more am ple f a c i l i t i e s f o r e d u c a t i o n , e m p lo y ­

m ent, r e c r e a t i o n , h e alth .

the a u t h o r s u g g e s ts

and c o n s e r v a tio n of p h y s ic a l and m ental

B e t t e r s t a n d a r d s and s t a t u t e s n e e d t o be a c h i e v e d .

C h a m b e r s , M. M . , "Hew S t a t e Laws f o r P u p i l s , ” n a t i o n * s S c h o o ls , 2 8 :6 2 , A ugust, 1941. O utside

of th e-W est V i r g i n i a l a w , w h ic h is

sm all p a ra g ra p h ,

the a r t i c l e

ju st a

h a s n o t h in g to do w ith

s u b je c t a t hand and th e w r ite r

found the r e f e r e n c e

the of

74 little

use* 1*

She f e w t h i n g s n o t e d i n t h e a r t i c l e She d e f e n s e c r i s i s

e s ta b lis h m e n t of s t a t e 2.

trad e

w ere:

o f 1941 b r o u g h t a b o u t th e s c h o o l s i n Oregon a n d N e b r a s k a .

W e st V i r g i n i a c l a r i f i e d

the m a tte r of c o n f l i c t

b e tw ee n com pulsory e d u c a t i o n s t a t u t e s and t h e e x c l u s i o n of p u p ils

from s c h o o l f o r la w fu l r e a s o n s . 3.

Laws i n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d l i a b i l i t y

of the bus

d riv ers.

C o o k e , D e n n i s H . , ”The R i g h t s o f P u p i l s a n d P a r e n t s , ” She, F i f t h Yearbook o f S c h o o l Law, 5 : 1 5 - 2 2 , 1937. T his a r t i c l e

c o v e rs a number o f r i g h t s

of p u p ils

a n d p a r e n t s a s shown t h r o u g h c o u r t d e c i s i o n s f r o m v a r i o u s sta te s.

These

in clu d es

1.

T ra n s p o rta tio n of p u p i ls .

2.

Payment of t u i t i o n .

3.

S u sp en sio n of p u p ils from sc h o o l.

4.

A tten d a n ce upon t h e n e a r e s t s c h o o l.

5.

R ig h ts of p a r e n t s to p re v e n t change

6.

R ig h ts o f n e g ro p u p i l s to have e d u c a ti o n a l fa c ilitie s.

7.

Ho r i g h t s t o e n j o i n t e a c h e r s f r o m w e a r i n g s e c ­ t a r i a n garb in sc h o o l.

Cooke c o v e r s t h e l i m i t a t i o n s and p a re n ts

or rig h ts

of tex tb o o k s.

o f the p u p i l s

on t h e a b o v e s u b j e c t s v e r y t h o r o u g h l y .

75 "The L e g a l S t a t u s o f t h e P u b l i c - S c h o o l P u p i l , " 1 . E . A. R esearch B u l l e t i n , £ 6 :3 -3 8 , F eb ru ary , 1948. P h is pam phlet a n a ly z e s t h e s t a t u t o r y so u rc e s w hich d e fin e th e p u p il. tio n s

It to

leg al sta tu s

and .ju d ic ia l

of th e p u b lie-sch o o l

covers req u irem en ts f o r ad m issio n , th e excep­

com pulsory e d u c a ti o n ,

re g u la tio n of p u p ils,

p o ssib le re d re ss f o r p u p il in ju rie s . Some o f

the g e n e ra l

p r in c ip le s p o in te d out are as

fo llo w s: A dm issions:

th is

de pends upon m e e tin g th e a u th o ritie s,

is no t an a b s o lu te r ig h t q u a lific a tio n s

co n stitu tio n s

e sta b lis h e d by le g a l

and law s a s t o a g e ,

t u i t i o n charges f o r n o n -re sid e n ts,

but

resid en ce,

and v a c c in a ti o n .

Some

s t a t e s have p r o v i s i o n s r e q u i r i n g s e g r e g a t i o n o f r a c e s w hich m ust be e q u i v a l e n t t o

th a t o ffe re d in p u b lic

schools fo r

w hites. A ttendance: is

a sta tu to ry

school.

th is

is

a p riv ileg e ,

o b lig a tio n of p a re n ts to

n o t a r i g h t and send c h ild r e n to

A p a r e n t may s e n d t h e m t o p r i v a t e

sc h o o l or p ro v id e

or se cta ria n

i n s t r u c t i o n a t ho m e.

In stru ctio n :

w ith in l i m i t s the

p u b lic

school p u p il

h a s r i g h t to l e a r n s u b j e c t s he s e l e c t s . P u p il c o n tro l: law s, r u l e s ,

p u p ils are req u ire d to

and r e g u l a ti o n s ,

leach ers are

obey sch o o l

req u ired to

m a in ta in d i s c i p l i n e and e n fo rc e law s and r e g u l a t i o n s ;

76 t h e r e f o r e , c o r p o r a l punishm ent i s w i t h i n th e t e a c h e r * s au th o rity . A ccid en ts:

the

leg a l rig h t

of t h e p u p i l t o r e d r e s s

i n money d a m a g e s f o r i n j u r i e s d e p e n d s o n tw o p r i n c i p l e s ; w ith r e s p e c t to

lia b ility

of sc h o o l d i s t r i c t t h e r e

is

p r i n c i p l e o f g o v e rn m e n t im m unity a n d r e s p e c t t o l i a b i l i t y of te a c h e r o r bus d r iv e r th e p r i n c i p le The a r t i c l e d irect

c itatio n

a n a ly z e s the

o f n eg lig en ce.

above p r i n c i p l e s through

of c ase s and is v e ry c le a r in e v ery de­

ta il.

H e n d e r s o n , Hok e F . , " S e p a r a t i o n o f R a c e s i n S c h o o l , " Law H o t e s , 3 2 : 1 4 7 - 5 0 , l l o v e m b e r , 1 9 2 8 , T h is c o v e rs a number of c o u r t su b ject.

above

The g e n e r a l v i e w h e l d b y t h e c o u r t s w a s t o t h e

e ffe c t th at w elfare

c a s e s on t h e

s e p a r a t i o n t e n d s t o w a r d s p e a c e , harm ony, and

of t h e

r a c e s by p r o v id in g e a c h r a c e

le g e s and a d v a n ta g e s o f e q u a l i t y b u t

equal p r i v i ­

k e e p i n g them a p a r t

in th e schoolroom because th e y have n a t u r a l d if f e r e n c e s w h i c h c a u s e a n t a g o n i s m w hen t h r o w n t o g e t h e r . In th e absence tio n a l p ro v isio n s

it

b o a r d s h a v e no r i g h t fo r the a free

purpose

of sta tu to ry au th o rity

or c o n s titu ­

has g e n e ra lly been h e ld th a t school to

sep arate w h ite

of e d u catio n .

and c o l o r e d c h i l d r e n

When a s t a t e

estab lish es

s c h o o l a n d n o p r o v i s i o n s a r e made b y t h e l e g i s l a t u r e

77 as to

d is tin c tio n in re g a rd to

c h ild because

of rac e

the r a c e

or e o lo r of th e

or c o lo r .

Most c a s e s in v o lv e t h e q u e s t i o n w h e th e r a s t a t u t e is

u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l u n d e r t h e 1 4 t h amendment t o t h e

C o n stitu tio n . p rim a rily to

How ever, t h e

c o u r t s have h e ld

th at

s e c u r e to th e n e g ro r a c e e q u a l i t y

r i g h t s and was n o t in te n d e d to on c o l o r o r t o

F ederal

i t was

of c iv il

ab o lish d is tin c tio n s based

e n fo rc e s o c i a l a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d from p o l i ­

t i c a l e q u a l i t y o r a com m ingling o f t h e r a c e s u n s a tis fa c to ry to e ith e r race;

th erefo re,

on t e r m s

race and co lo r

reco g n ized as a proper bases f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n fo r c e r­ ta in purposes as in th e be p ro v id e d w ith

case

of law r e q u i r i n g a n e g ro t o

sep arate sch o o ls.

It

is necessary th at

s c h o o l s be m a i n t a i n e d f o r t h e e d u c a t i o n o f c o l o r e d c h i l d r e n i n o r d e r t h a t t h e i r e x c l u s i o n from t h e s e h o o l s f o r w h ite c h i l d r e n may b e u p h e l d , p r o v i d e d t h a t e g . u a ! a c c o m o d a t i o n s and f a c i l i t i e s

are

su p p lie d to

c h ild r e n of b o th r a c e s .

K e e s e e k e r , Ward W ., ,fI h e R i g h t s o f P u p i l s a n d P a r e n t s , ” 1 0 t h Y e a rb o o k o f S c h o o l Law, 1 0 : 1 - 1 6 , 194E. G ourt d e c i s i o n s

a f f e c t i n g the

rig h ts

p a r e n t s w ith r e s p e c t to e d u c a tio n o f t e n are s o n a l c o n ce rn and

c o v er a w ide ra n g e

number o f s u b j e c t s i n t h i s a r t i c l e , are

shown b e lo w :

of p u p i l s a n d of deep p e r ­

of i n t e r e s t s .

A

covered by c i t a t i o n s

78 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

R ig h ts of c h ild re n a tte n d in g p r iv a te sch o o ls Race s e p a r a t i o n R i g h t s of p u p i l s a s members o f s c h o o l b a n d s F la g s a l u t e a s c o n d i t i o n of s c h o o l a tte n d a n c e T u itio n and r i g h ts o f n o n -re sid e n t p u p ils

T h is a r t i c l e

g iv es a g en eral

id ea of th e r ig h ts

p u p ils a g a in s t th e sch o o ls th e y a tte n d

of

in th e above m a tte r s

w ith in v ario u s s ta te s .

"P u p ils'

Day i n C o u r t , " 1 . E . A. R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n , 1 9 4 4 .

T his a r t i e l e sio n s

is

th ird annual d ig est

in v o lv in g p u b lic sch o o l p u p ils

dance, tr a n s p o rta tio n , low .

th e

of c o u r t d e c i

d ealin g w ith a t t e n ­

e t e . , some o f w h i c h a r e c i t e d b e ­

The f a c t s p u t f o r t h a r e

of in te r e s t

in th a t they

g i v e a n i d e a o f some o f t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s

s e t up b y

th e c o u r ts . A tten d an ce: p ro tectio n of rig h ts

fo rc e d p e rm is s io n to v a e c in a te s in c e d id n o t e x te n d to en d an g e rin g th e l i v e s

of o th e rs . T ran sp o rta tlo n :

c o u r ts held

it

was i m p o s s i b l e t o

m a in ta in door to sc h o o l r o u te s . C om pulsory f l a g s a l u t e :

ex p u lsio n v io la te s fe d e ra l

and s t a t e

c o n s titu tio n a l g uarantee

and r i g h t

o f a c h i l d to