A reference grammar of Spanish
 9780521429610, 0521429617, 9780521728751, 0521728754

Table of contents :
Content: 1. Table of contents/Indice de materias
2. Preface/Prologo
3. Introduction to the Spanish language/Introduccion a la lengua Espanola
4. Acknowledgements/Agradecimientos
5. Glossary/Glosario
6. Bibliography/Bibliografia
7. Abbreviations/Abreviaturas
8. Register/Registro
9. Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation/Alfabeto, ortografia, pronunciacion
10. Stress and accent marks/Acento tonico y acento ortografico
11. Punctuation/Puntuacion, upper case, lower case/mayusculas, minusculas
12. Apocopation/Apocope
13. Agreement/Concordancia
14. Definite article/Articulo definido
15. Indefinite article/Articulo indefinido
16. Gender/Genero
17. Number (singular and plural)/Numero (singular y plural)
18. Verbs: moods of verbs/Verbos: modos de verbos
19. The infinitive/El infinitivo
20. Compound perfect infinitive/Infinitivo preterito perfecto
21. Infinitive viewed as a noun/Infinitivo como sustantivo
22. Present tense/Tiempo presente
23. Perfect tense/Preterito perfecto
24. Irregular past participles/Participios de pasado irregulares
25. Verbs with 2 past participles/Verbos con 2 participios de pasado
26. Past participles as nouns/Participios de pasado con funcion de sustantivos
27. Ablative absolute/Ablativo absoluto
28. Verbs + infinitive when that is used in English/Verbos + infinitivo cuando se usa that en ingles
29. Pluperfect tense/Preterito pluscuamperfecto de indicativo (antecopreterito - A/M)
30. Imperfect tense/Preterito imperfecto de indicativo (copreterito - A/M)
31. Preterit/Preterito
32. Contrasts with the imperfect, preterit and perfect tenses/Contrastes con el preterito, imperfecto, el preterito y el preterito perfecto
33. Future tense/Futuro
34. Future perfect tense/Futuro perfecto
35. Conditional tense/Condicional simple
36. Conditional perfect tense/Condicional perfecto (antepospreterito - M)
37. Progressive tense or gerund/Progresivo o gerundio
38. Imperative/Imperativo
39. Irregular verbs/Verbos irregulares
40. Radical changing verbs/Verbos con cambio vocalico (diptongacion, y verbos del tipo pedir) (i.e. e>
i)
41. Verbs with orthographical changes/Verbos con cambios ortograficos
42. Uses and contrasts of ser and estar/Usos y contrastes de ser y estar
43. Uses of quedar, resultar etc. as substitutes for ser and estar (including hay)/Usos de quedar, resultar etc. como sustitutos de ser y estar (incluyendo hay)
44. Transitive and intransitive verbs/Verbos transitivos e intransitivos
45. Reflexive verbs/Verbos reflexivos
46. Passive voice/Voz pasiva
47. Defective verbs/Verbos defectivos
48. Modal auxiliary verbs/Verbos auxiliares modales
49. Ellipsis of verbs in main and subordinate clauses/Elipsis de verbos en oraciones principales y subordinadas
50. Uses of dar, haber, ir, llevar, seguir, tener, venir/Usos de dar etc.
51. Impersonal verbs/Verbos impersonales
52. Verbs of perception + infinitive or gerund/Verbos de percepcion + infinitivo o gerundio
53. Periphrastic verb forms/Verbos con formas perifrasticas
54. Subordinate clauses related to time/Oraciones subordinadas referentes al tiempo (duracion)
55. Subordinate clauses related to concession/Oraciones subordinadas concesivas
56. Subordinate clauses related to condition/Oraciones subordinadas condicionales
57. Subordinate clauses related to consequence/Oraciones subordinadas consecutivas
58. Subordinate clauses related to manner/Oraciones subordinadas de modol
59. Verbs concerning unrealized actions/Verbos referentes a acciones no realizadas o inacabadas
60. Complex verbal expressions/Expresiones complejas de tipo verbal
61. Verbs of movement in English and Spanish/Verbos indicando movimiento en ingles y espanol
62. Subjunctive mood/Modo subjuntivo
63. Personal pronouns/Pronombres personales
64. Possessive adjectives and pronouns, also usage with parts of the body and clothes/Adjetivos y pronombres poses

Citation preview

This page intentionally left blank

A Reference Grammar of Spanish A Reference Grammar of Spanish is a comprehensive handbook on the structure of the Spanish language. Keeping technical terminology to a minimum, it provides a detailed yet clear point of reference on all the intricacies of Spanish grammar, covering word order, parts of speech, verb use, syntax, gender, number, alphabet and pronunciation. Accompanied by a wealth of carefully chosen examples, it looks at Spanish in Iberia, Mexico, Colombia and Argentina, and demonstrates the differences between these varieties. It is designed specifically with English-speaking learners in mind, and contains useful tools such as a glossary of terms, an index and a detailed examination of different registers of the language. Clearly structured and systematically organized, this volume is set to become the standard guide to the grammar of contemporary Spanish, and will be an invaluable resource for teachers and students, as well as a practical supplement to textbooks and classroom study. r. e. batchelor taught French and Spanish for 40 years in the Department of Modern Languages at the University of Nottingham. His recent publications include A Student Grammar of Spanish (Cambridge, 2006) and Using Spanish, Second Edition (with C. J. Pountain, Cambridge, 2005). mi guel áng e l san j osé is affiliated to the Universidad de Valladolid in Spain. His recent publications include Using Spanish Vocabulary (with R. E. Batchelor, Cambridge, 2003).

A Reference Grammar of

Spanish R. E. B ATCHELO R University of Nottingham

MI GU EL ÁN GEL SAN J O SÉ Universidad de Valladolid, Spain

cambri dge uni v e r si t y pr e s s Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521728751 © R. E. Batchelor and Miguel Ángel San José 2010 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2010 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library ISBN 978-0-521-42961-0 Hardback ISBN 978-0-521-72875-1 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

To Dr Tim McGovern of Santa Barbara, California, model teacher, a passionate hispanist and romance scholar, and, above all, a lover of humanity whose life was suddenly cut very short.

Contents/Lista de materias

Preface/Prólogo Acknowledgments/Agradecimientos Abbreviations/Abreviaturas Introduction to the Spanish language/Introducción a la lengua española

xi xiii xiv xv

Part I 1. Register/Registro

3

2. Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation/Alfabeto, ortografía, pronunciación

11

3. Stress and accent marks/Acento tónico y acento ortográfico

26

4. Punctuation, upper case, lower case/Puntuación, mayúsculas, minúsculas

30

5. Apocopation/Apócope

38

6. Agreement/Concordancia

42

Part II 7. Definite article/Artículo definido

51

8. Indefinite article and indefinite pronoun/Artículo indefinido y pronombre indefinido

60

9. Gender/Género

64

10. Number (singular and plural)/Número (singular y plural)

84

Part III (Some of the tenses here have an alternative Argentinian and Mexican assignation, as indicated below.)

11. Verbs and moods of verbs/Verbos y modos de verbos

97

12. Infinitive/Infinitivo

103

13. Compound/perfect infinitive/Infinitivo pretérito perfecto

108

14. Infinitive as noun/Infinitivo como sustantivo

109

15. Present tense/Tiempo presente

111

16. Perfect tense/Pretérito perfecto

117

17. Irregular past participles/Participios de pasado irregulares

121

18. Verbs with two past participles/Verbos con dos participios de pasado

123

19. Past participles used as nouns/Participios de pasado con función de sustantivos

126

20. Ablative absolute/Ablativo absoluto

128

21. Verb + infinitive when “that” is used in English/Verbo + infinitivo cuando se usa “that” en inglés

130 vii

viii

Contents 22. Pluperfect tense and past anterior/Pretérito pluscuamperfecto de indicativo (antecopretérito [A, M]) y pretérito anterior (antepretérito [A, M])

132

23. Imperfect tense/Pretérito imperfecto de indicativo (copretérito [A, M])

135

24. Preterit tense/Pretérito simple

138

25. Contrasts between the imperfect, preterit and perfect tenses/Contrastes entre el imperfecto, el pretérito y el pretérito perfecto

141

26. Future tense/Futuro

145

27. Future perfect tense/Futuro perfecto

148

28. Conditional tense/Condicional simple

149

29. Conditional perfect tense/Condicional perfecto (antepospretérito [M])

152

30. Progressive tense or gerund/Progresivo o gerundio

154

31. Imperative mood/Modo imperativo

161

32. Irregular verbs/Verbos irregulares

168

33. Radical changing verbs/Verbos con cambio vocálico (diptongación y verbos del tipo “pedir”, e > i)

174

34. Verbs with orthographical changes/Verbos con cambios ortográficos

179

35. Uses and contrasts of “ser” and “estar”/Usos y contrastes de “ser” y “estar”

190

36. Verbs used as substitutes for “ser” and “estar” (including “hay”)/Verbos utilizados como sustitutos de “ser” y “estar” (incluyendo “hay”)

200

37. Transitive and intransitive verbs/Verbos transitivos e intransitivos

207

38. Reflexive verbs/Verbos reflexivos

211

39. Passive voice/Voz pasiva

221

40. Defective verbs/Verbos defectivos

225

41. The modal auxiliary verbs “deber” and “poder”/Los verbos auxiliares modales “deber” y “poder”

228

42. Ellipsis of verbs in main and subordinate clauses/Elipsis de verbos en oraciones principales y subordinadas

237

43. Uses of “dar”, “ir”, “llevar”, “tener”, “venir”/Usos de “dar”, “ir”, “llevar”, “tener”, “traer” and “venir” 44. Impersonal verbs/Verbos impersonales

240 245

45. Verbs of perception + infinitive or gerund/Verbos de percepción + infinitivo o gerundio 46. Periphrastic verb forms/Verbos con formas perifrásticas

251 253

47. Subordinate clauses related to time (with indicative mood)/Oraciones subordinadas referentes al tiempo (duración) (con modo indicativo)

257

48. Subordinate clauses related to concession (with indicative mood)/Oraciones subordinadas concesivas (con modo indicativo)

260

49. Subordinate clauses related to condition (with indicative mood)/Oraciones subordinadas condicionales (con modo indicativo)

262

50. Subordinate clauses related to consequence (with indicative mood)/Oraciones subordinadas consecutivas (con modo indicativo)

264

Contents

ix

51. Subordinate clauses related to manner (with indicative mood)/Oraciones subordinadas de modo (con modo indicativo)

266

52. Verbs concerning unrealized or unfinished actions/Verbos referentes a acciones no realizadas o inacabadas 53. Complex verbal expressions/Expresiones complejas de tipo verbal

268 270

54. Verbs of movement in English and Spanish/Verbos indicando movimiento en inglés y español

274

Part IV 55. Subjunctive mood/Modo subjuntivo

279

Part V 56. Personal pronouns/Pronombres personales

301

57. Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns, and usage with parts of the body and clothes/Adjetivos y pronombres posesivos, y uso con partes del cuerpo y ropa

316

58. Relative pronouns/Pronombres relativos

322

59. Interrogative pronouns and adverbs/Pronombres y adverbios interrogativos

327

Part VI 60. Adjectives/Adjetivos

333

61. Adverbs/Adverbios

342

Part VII 62. Prepositions/Preposiciones

353

63. Compound prepositions/Preposiciones compuestas

371

64. Personal or distinctive “a”/Uso de la preposición “a” con el complemento directo

375

65. Prepositional constructions with verbs, nouns, adjectives and gerunds/ Construcciones preposicionales con verbos, sustantivos, adjetivos y gerundios 66. The prepositions “para” and “por”/Las preposiciones “para” y “por”

381 392

Part VIII 67. Demonstrative adjectives/Adjetivos demostrativos

401

68. Demonstrative pronouns/Pronombres demostrativos

403

69. Indefinite pronouns/Pronombres indefinidos

405

Part IX 70. Conjunctions/Conjunciones

413

71. Negative sentences/Frases negativas

416

72. Numbers, measurements, time and dimensions/Números, medidas, tiempo (duración) y dimensiones

421

x

Contents 73. Comparative adjectives and adverbs, and superlative adjectives and adverbs/Adjetivos y adverbios comparativos y adjetivos y adverbios superlativos

435

74. Word order/El orden de las palabras

442

75. Diminutives and augmentatives/Diminutivos y aumentativos

450

Part X 76. Names of countries, regions, US states, continents, oceans, rivers, mountains, volcanoes/Nombres de países, regiones, estados de los EE.UU., continentes, océanos, ríos, montañas, volcanes

459

77. Proper names/Nombres propios

467

78. Foreign and indigenous words/Palabras extranjeras e indígenas

469

79. Incorrect use of “la”/“le”/“lo”/Uso incorrecto de “la”/“le”/“lo” (laísmo, leísmo, loísmo)

485

80. Incorrect use of “de” and “que”/Uso incorrecto de “de” y “que” (dequeísmo, queísmo)

487

Appendix I: Verb tables/ Tablas de verbos

490

Appendix II: Glossary/Glosario

533

Bibliography/Bibliografía

544

General index/Índice general

547

Subjunctive index/Índice del subjuntivo

551

A web resource to accompany this book, containing eleven further chapters, can be found at the following URL: www.cambridge.org/9780521728751 1. Prefixes, infixes, suffixes/Prefijos, infijos, sufijos 2. Emphatic and affectionate expressions/Expresiones enfáticas y afectivas 3. Epistolary usage/Formas epistolares 4. Abbreviations/Abreviaturas 5. Forms of address/Tratamientos 6. Exclamations/Interjecciones 7. Fillers/Muletillas 8. Transition words/Conectores oracionales 9. Different frequency of usage/Diferencias en la frecuencia del uso 10. Uses of “sí” and “ya”/Usos de “sí” y “ya” 11. Misleading similarities/Falsos amigos

Preface

This volume is designed to provide a clear, practical and comprehensive guide to the grammar of the Spanish language. It surveys the grammatical structures, not only of Spain but also of the Americas. Any complete survey of Spanish grammar must needs attempt to cover both the language as it appears in the Iberian peninsula and the language that stretches from the Mexican border with the United States (from the Río Bravo = Río Grande in Iberian Spanish) to the southern tip of Argentina (Tierra del Fuego). In other words, it roams over vast territories in the examination and analysis of a language that mingles with, and derives a rich source of expansion from, indigenous tongues like the Quechua of the Bolivians or Peruvian Incas, or the Nahuatl of the Mexican Aztecs and Mayas of Central America, or even the Palenquero, a creole language in Colombia. However, rather than devoting unnecessarily an excess of print to the grammar of every Spanish-speaking country as though they all suggested different grammatical configurations, or simply referring to an item in an often misleading blanket fashion as “Amer.”, it was deemed wiser to concentrate on four countries – strategically placed, linguistically speaking – since these will suffice to emphasize the relative uniformity of most, if not all, of them. The four countries in question are Spain, first of all, given the history of the language; followed by Mexico (M), the most populous of Spanish-speaking countries forming part of North America; Colombia (C), a large country, four times the size of France, in the north-west of South America; and finally Argentina (A), representative of the Southern Cone. The principal aim of the book is to be as complete and straightforward as possible, avoiding much technical terminology that risks clouding the understanding of the linguistic processes of Spanish. It provides a point of reference for any serious student or teacher who seeks information on the broad sweep of Spanish grammar and its intricate detail, and who has already covered the basic structures of the Spanish language. It hopes to provide an instrument for all those attracted by the study and mastery of Spanish grammar by supplying close and detailed guidance on the numerous linguistic elements associated with pronunciation, alphabet, register or levels of language, gender, number, syntax, parts of speech, word order, use of verbs and the varieties within each of these elements. Its ambition is to demonstrate that, although Spanish is not identical in all places, any more than English retains an easy global homogeneity, it is a possible and desirable vehicle for foreign students of the language in communicating across frontiers and establishing a meaningful dialogue with numerous peoples who have inherited a fruitful and powerful means of expression. All grammatical features are accompanied by a wealth of natural and attested examples. These examples are often presented in the feminine form. The text avoids sexist bias and reaches out to females and males alike. Many of the chapters start with, and/or include within them, a small text in Spanish illustrating the function and use of the grammatical features under consideration. The relevant points are highlighted in bold. The skill of one of the authors (Miguel Ángel San xi

xii

Preface José), well versed in short-story writing, comes into play here. Dr. J. Pérez Larracilla has also contributed a few pieces on Mexican Spanish. It may be contended that some of the chapters in Part X, such as proper names or foreign and indigenous terms, do not correspond to grammatical structures, but it is considered that they would be of great usefulness in the articulation of these structures. It should be emphasized that constant cross-referencing will help in gaining a clear and more rounded picture of all the grammatical points. A few grammatical points are developed in two different chapters, resulting in very slight overlapping. However, where this occurs, treatment of the same feature is angled differently in the separate chapters. American English takes precedence over British English. American spelling is preferred to its English counterpart, but this should present no problem to the non-American learner. Where there could be lexical misinterpretation, both American and British terms appear side by side. Translations are provided when the meaning may not be clear to all, but otherwise no translation appears. The book contains a glossary (see pages 533–43) that will help in understanding any semi-technical grammatical expressions that may arise. Regular use of this glossary will assist in understanding the terms appearing in the text. It is so much easier to get to grips with the grammar of a foreign language if an insight is gained into the way that the English language functions. The text also has a comprehensive index, designed for locating any particular point of grammar. The book is up to date. For instance, Chapter 9 contains a section on the problems of gender now that females are working in fields once inaccessible to them. Compound nouns, once unusual in Spanish, are springing up like mushrooms, and the text pays serious attention to them. Register differences are not ignored. Regular attention is paid to differences in colloquial or spoken language, as opposed to the written word, and a simple system of R1, R2, R3 is set up, designating colloquial, standard and elevated or literary language respectively. It should be borne in mind that this grammar does not simply offer a presentation of the standard language but, much more, attempts to examine the state of the Spanish language – quite a different preoccupation. In other words, we are not merely concerned with the perfect grammatical accuracy promoted by the purists, but also with varieties of register that any serious student will encounter at every turn. Where there are colloquial constructions unacceptable to some, this is clearly indicated by the R1 assignation. The extent of the present volume has meant that eleven small chapters now appear online (www.cambridge.org/9780521728751): Prefixes, infixes, suffixes; Emphatic and affectionate expressions; Epistolary usage; Abbreviations; Forms of address; Exclamations; Fillers; Transition words; Different frequency of usage; Uses of “sí” and “ya”; Misleading similarities. Grammatical accuracy in Spanish will provide an entry into a splendid and admirable culture and civilization, the study of which will lead to an enrichment and flowering of one’s personality. It is the hope and expectation of the authors that a firm and fluent command of Spanish, and its grammar, will form part of a felicitous and fertile relationship between the worlds of English- and Spanish-speakers.

Acknowledgments

A volume of this dimension would have remained severely impoverished but for the most generous willingness of the following friends and colleagues to offer and confirm information on the Spanish language as it appears in Spain, the Canary Islands and Spanish America: Dr. M. Carricart (Argentina), Srta. L. Debernardi (Argentina), Dr. J. Larracilla (Mexico), Sra. A. Núñez (Mexico), Dr. M. Centeno (Mexico), Dr. L. Sánchez (Mexico), Dr. C. Patiño (Academia Colombiana de la Lengua). To be included in this list is Dr. Viola Miglio of Santa Barbara, California, who was kind enough to bring her most enviable skills to a final reading of the text before the printing stage. An incalculable debt must be expressed to our copy-editor, Alison Thomas, who has combined a fine grasp of the intricacies of the Spanish language with a strong sense of consistency of presentation. The present work is all the more polished for her invaluable contribution.

xiii

Abbreviations

m f pl s A ADL C M RAE

xiv

masculine feminine plural singular Argentina Academia de la lengua (Academy of Language) Colombia Mexico Real Academia Española (Royal Spanish Academy)

Introduction to the Spanish language

After English, Spanish is the most widely spoken language in the world.1 Recent calculations suggest that at least 400 million people use it as their mother tongue. Its study is therefore most worthy of our attention. As with English, it is characterized by a striking energy and inventiveness, and a high capacity for survival; for all its diffuseness, it exhibits a remarkable integrity, notably in its grammatical coherence. The Spanish language arose from the dissemination of Vulgar Latin, a spoken form of various dialects of the classical Latin of a Caesar, a Virgil or an Ovid, to be transformed into the most dynamic of the Romance languages, superseding even French. Alongside Dante’s Commedia dell’Arte, Camões’ The Lusiads, Rabelais’ Gargantua, and the writings of the Romanian Alecsandric, the vigor and imagination of the Spanish vernacular were expressed in Cervantes’ Don Quijote, which some feel created a paradigm for the language. Indeed, many Spanishspeakers, not just from Spain, refer to Spanish as “la lengua de Cervantes.” The first recognizable piece of writing in Spanish appeared in the year 800 under the title Los Cartularios de Valpuesta. Furthermore, this fragment of Spanish is the first of any kind in a Romance language and predates the Serment de Strasbourg, written in Old French in the year 842. Continuing in this vein of earliest texts, the first European grammar of a modern language is that of Spanish, written by Elio Antonio de Nebrija in 1492, a date which coincides miraculously with Christopher Columbus’ first sight of the Americas, the fall of Granada, and the improvident expulsion of the most resourceful and enterprising Jews and Muslims. Spanish is one of a group of languages which, derived in all essentials from Latin, are called Romance or Neo-Latin languages. These languages include Italian, Romanian, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan and French. One could, of course, include varieties like Occitan and Romansch, Corsican and Sardinian (both Italian dialects), and Galician, related more to Portuguese than to Castilian Spanish. (Some might categorize Catalan as a dialect – a theory that cannot be sustained, since it is spoken by about 12 million people, 1

Spanish (or varieties of Spanish) is the major and therefore official language, in the following countries: Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, El Salvador, Spain, Uruguay and Venezuela. It is spoken as a mother tongue by between 25 and 30 million inhabitants of the USA, particularly in the Southwest and California. (For self-evident reasons, statistics here are notoriously difficult to assess, although the numbers grow constantly.) There does exist some residual Spanish in the Philippines – once a Spanish colony, and then an American colony, but an independent country from 1946 – where English and Pilipino, which is the standardized version of Tagalog, seem to have engulfed it (all three are official languages). Interestingly and understandably enough, many Filipinos, notwithstanding the use of their newly acquired language of English, still manifest their links to Spanish colonial times with their family names. It should be added that the present authors can vouchsafe, through personal experience, the ease of communication between a Spanish speaker from Spain and an educated speaker from all the other countries cited above.

xv

xvi

Introduction to the Spanish language from Andorra to Valencia.) Each of these languages and dialects reflects the final development of Vulgar Latin as spoken in different areas of the Roman Empire. In each case, these tongues (as opposed to the literary or classical Latin) were spoken by Roman administrators, soldiers, colonists and traders. At this early stage, one must question parenthetically the striking absence of Arabic influence on the Spanish language (see Section 78. 3 for the lexical aspect). Apart from a legacy of some one thousand words, Arabic exerted almost no influence on the grammatical structures of the language of Castile, and the explanation is simple. The permanent enmity that provoked a deep rift between Christianity and Islam (the former doubtless shouldering most of the blame) meant that any meaningful linguistic intercourse that could have taken place between the two communities was rigorously shunned by the Christian ecclesiastical authorities, for all the attractive cultural hegemony wielded by Islam between the initial invasion of Spain in 711 and the fall of Granada in 1492. With respect to Spanish as a modified form of Latin, the lesson is clear and unequivocal. A type of expression finally considered faulty or incorrect in Latin generated a new standard, culturally exciting and linguistically exalting, which resolved itself into modern Spanish. The tension between the spoken and written word, in the aftermath of Rome’s decline, worked itself out in the domination of the former over the latter. What is considered today a solecism or linguistic incongruity could be conceived as the language model for tomorrow. As an illustration, the colloquial, and even journalistic, las miles de personas, may one day replace los miles de personas, or at least achieve a linguistic parity with it. In other words, current colloquial language is often “castizo” (pure, correct) in the future. Grammarians increasingly realize that their function, even responsibility, in the scrutiny and analysis of language consists less in prescribing and preserving norms – and in the case of the Spanish language, arbitrarily imposing the Castilian variety on Andalusia, the Canary Islands and all Spanish America – than in describing the varieties of Spanish, since all are perfectly valid and admissible. The Argentinian “vos” (see Chapter 56 on personal pronouns, and a further comment below) may not be common currency in Spain, any more than the Iberian “tú” form dominates in large parts of Argentina, but this does not mean that the inhabitants of these two countries speak different languages that are mutually unintelligible. Indeed, their discourse is remarkably similar. A shift in emphasis on the appreciation of language and its assessment in the context of the written and the spoken word has taken place in recent years. It no longer behoves commentators of language to establish patterns and models according to which all expression is judged, or to provide a code of syntax or strict linguistic analysis, so that we should all uniformly write like Shakespeare or Cervantes or Racine. A grammar is no longer required to be prescriptive but rather to put before the public what most people agree upon. Encouraging us to speak like books is manifestly not an activity to be promoted. The most conspicuous feature in the Spanish language is that, although any endeavor to embrace the Spanish of Colombia in the same context as that of Mexico, Argentina or Spain may appear futile, its grammar is broadly consistent and regular everywhere. The Mexican grammar of a Carlos Fuentes and an Octavio Paz may exhibit discrepancies from the Argentinian grammar of an Ernesto Sábato and a Borges, or the Colombian grammar of a Gabriel García Márquez, or the Iberian grammar of Carmen Martín Gaite and Cela, but the overall patterns are not dissimilar. Admittedly, the lexical aspects of these authors contain considerable divergences, but the grammatical structures that hold together their personal choice of words, patterns of imagery, metaphorical expression, sentence structure and so on, rest on homogeneous foundations. All the Spanish-speaking

Introduction to the Spanish language

xvii

countries enjoy a common linguistic heritage, while their respective language academies function chiefly to keep relatively stable and safeguard the idiom of their expression.2 At the same time, it may be argued that there is no such concept as the Spanish language of the Americas. Rather, as José G. Moreno de Alba points out in El Español en América, it would be more accurate to refer to the “Spanish language in America.” The preposition “en” as opposed to “de” in the title suggests all the difference. The latter preposition emphasizes one language in contradistinction to the varieties flowering throughout the continent. The various periods of colonization logically engendered different types of language in different regions of the Americas, while the basis of American Spanish corresponds to the preclassical period in Spain (1474–1525). The Spanish language in the Americas settled into more formal structures during the latter part of the sixteenth century, while many of their features originated in Andalusia, whence the conquistadores set out on their conquering mission. A further fascinating aspect of the importation of Spanish into the Americas during the sixteenth century lies in their retention of what in Spain nowadays would be considered archaisms or are used with a different or restricted meaning. Moreno de Alba provides a whole chapter on this issue (pp. 262–70). It is unquestionably true that if grammatical dissimilarities do arise from an investigation into the grammar models of the four countries concerned, these dissimilarities do not necessarily spring from a contrast between Spain and the Canary Islands and the Spanish American countries. Indeed, a telling illustration of this feature may be underlined by the Argentinian standard and, this we must accept, correct use of “adelante mío” (in front of me) and its varieties (adelante tuyo/suyo, etc.) eschewed by the speakers of the other three countries, who view it with scepticism as highly irregular and reject it without reservation. How can an adverb be juxtaposed in this way to a possessive pronoun? Nevertheless, “delante mío” (i.e. preposition and possessive pronoun) – a structure less familiar to Argentinian speakers – does creep into the colloquial language of Spain, Mexico and Colombia. In numerous cases, however, the differences that do manifest themselves between the four countries emerge, naturally enough, from a comparison between Spain vis-à-vis her distant relatives beyond the Atlantic. In the context of phonetics, the ubiquitous “seseo” of the Americas, the Canary Islands and parts of Andalusia (see Section 2.4.4 on pronunciation) provides a most convincing case in point. Again, the Iberian second person plural subject pronoun “vosotros/as” is comprehensively ousted by the third person plural form “ustedes” (Uds.), with the accompanying change in verb form. Furthermore, one observes at least a partial absence in Spanish America of the phenomena of “laísmo,” “leísmo” and “loísmo” (see Chapter 79), such common currency in Iberian Spanish. Furthermore, the “voseo,” firmly and permanently implanted in Argentina – and sporadically appearing throughout Central America – and Colombia, with its unique verbal form (see Section 56.3.1 on pronouns), although common enough in Spain in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, disappeared without a trace by the middle of the seventeenth century. 2

The academies of the Spanish language are: Real Academia Española, Academia Argentina/Boliviana/Chilena/Colombiana/Costarricense/Cubana/ Dominicana/Ecuatoriana/Filipina/Guatemalteca/Hondureña/Mexicana/Nicaragüense/Panameña/ Paraguaya/Peruana/Puertorriqueña/Salvadoreña/Venezolana de la Lengua, Academia Nacional de las Letras del Uruguay, Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española. The fruit of the collaboration of the above academies may be seen in such wide-ranging and challenging volumes as the Diccionario panhispánico de dudas.

xviii

Introduction to the Spanish language Likewise, prepositions and conjunctions provide rich seams of contrastive investigation. Yet again, Spanish America reveals a strong tendency to use certain intransitive verbs reflexively. “Amanecerse,” “regresarse,” “huirse,” “demorarse” (to delay), “pararse” (to stand up), “recibirse” (to graduate) and “dilatarse” (to delay) are very marked illustrations of Iberian archaisms that are still vigorously used in various parts of the Americas, notably, for our purposes, in Argentina, Colombia and Mexico (see Section 78.11. on foreign and indigenous terms for a fuller development of this theme). Finally, the apocopation of the feminine form of “primera” > “primer” that once existed in Renaissance Spain (la primer página/vez) still occurs in active form in Argentina, Colombia and Mexico. Notwithstanding some pronounced divergences between the grammar of Spain and the Canary Islands and that of the various countries of Latin America, most Spanish-speakers reveal a consciousness of what is correct and incorrect Spanish. For instance, there exists a consensus of opinion in the Spanish-speaking world with respect to the correctness of the simple sentence: “Vi a una chica mexicana ayer.” No one would dream of saying “mexicano” in this context, unless in jest or for some other unusual effect. Furthermore, there would be broad agreement on the use of the personal or distinctive “a” preceding “chica” (see Chapter 64 on the distinctive “a”). With respect to time, the preterit “Vi” attracted by the adverb of time “ayer” would elicit little disagreement anywhere. Of course, a Mexican speaker would probably say “chamaca” instead of “chica,” while a speaker from Spain would doubtless write “mejicana” instead of “mexicana,” a feature also most apparent, strangely enough, in Colombia, but not in Argentina. However, Iberian Spanish is slowly accommodating the “x” of Mexico – witness Manuel Seco’s note on the subject in his Diccionario de dudas. A Colombian speaker would not use “chica,” preferring “muchacha,” and so on. Of course, the point to stress here with reference to correctness is that, at any level of the register scale, Spanish-speakers will largely agree on the fundamental and grammatical characteristics of their language, just as the basic features of American English do not contrast conspicuously with those of British English. Differences over “chica” or “mexicana” may be construed as merely peripheral matters and certainly do not entail any serious misunderstanding of utterances. Similarly, that American English uses “have gotten” where British English resorts to “have got” does not create an abyss of incomprehension between them. The Spanish language is not unchangeable, while the task of its presentation and study does not consist in an aberrant attempt to keep it pure and free from foreign intrusion and from constant development, but rather to signal what a cultured person would say and write. To embark on the preservation of any given language through resistance to change will cause a severe impoverishment of that language, while its highest expression in literature will decline in power if it fails to keep pace with the spoken word of the day. Fortunately, the Spanish language is avoiding any form of atrophy by adapting itself successfully to the global challenge of a multitude of influences and a constant influx of neologisms, particularly from American technology, to retain its integrity and coherence, and a comparative homogeneity which makes the present work possible, and even desirable. The Spanish of Spain, the Canary Islands and the Americas, and notably their grammar, still point to a comforting and reassuring congruity for which we are indebted to the enlightened prescience of the Duque d’Escalona, who created the Academia de la Lengua Española in 1714.

Part I

1 Register / Registro Below are three short pieces illustrating the three levels of register with respect to grammar used in this book. They all offer, in a humorous way, Pedro and María’s experience at the dentist. The wrong teeth are removed. Note the colloquial use of the terms highlighted, especially in R1. R1 Hola colegas: Me gustaría de que al recibir la carta estéis fetén (very well). La María y yo hoy las hemos pasado canutas (we’ve had a terrible time) porque hoy la han sacado dos muelas, y luego decía que estaba media muerta, pero ya se ha rehecho; lo malo es que ahora sabemos que cualesquiera de esas dos muelas estaban buenas: el dentista ha metido la pata y la ha dejado sin sacar las muelas malas. Perico R2 Queridos Paco y Merche: Me alegraría que al recibir la presente estéis bien de salud. María y yo hemos pasado un mal día, pues a María le han extraído dos muelas y ha tardado un buen rato en recuperarse. El disgusto ha sido grande cuando nos hemos enterado que el odontólogo se ha equivocado y le ha sacado dos muelas sanas y le ha dejado las cariadas. Pedro R3 Estimados amigos: Espero que al recibo de la presente os encontréis en perfectas condiciones. Por nuestra parte, he de manifestaros que en el día de hoy hemos tenido un incidente desagradable: María ha acudido al odontólogo para una revisión rutinaria y, para nuestra frustración, el sanitario nos ha confesado haber errado, al extraer dos piezas dentarias sanas, en vez de las afectadas por la caries. Pedro A most dominant factor in the use of language and, in the case of the present book, of grammar, is register, or variety or level of language determined by the communicative situation in which the speaker or writer finds him/herself. In other words, the level of language we resort to depends, to a very large extent, on whether we are speaking with friends, which would attract a colloquial style or writing a letter or delivering a lecture involving a standard style or even a very formal register entailing an elevated type of expression. The levels of language may differ from informal to formal, and are determined by four factors: sex, age, status and intimacy. All these factors affect, in varying degrees, the way we use language in areas of both vocabulary and grammar. Of course, the present work is concerned exclusively with grammar, the use of which will be presented in the context of register, when suitable and necessary. Register assignations as treated in this book will appear as either R1, R2 or R3. These subsections may be summarized in the following manner: extreme informality R1 very informal, casual, colloquial, familiar, elliptical, grammatically unsound, repetitive, pleonastic

extreme formality R2 standard, polite, educated, grammatically sound

R3 formal, literary, official, language of scholars and purists, meticulously correct, reluctant to admit new grammatical structures

3

4

A Reference Grammar of Spanish It must be stressed that these subdivisions are the result of an artificial division, and that the reality behind them consists of subtle, imperceptible shifts, not rigidly defined categories. We have confined these register divisions to three, as being more practicable to handle, although one could argue the case for more. Looking towards the future, it is possible that some of what are deemed incorrect usages contained in R1 will become socially acceptable language. An excellent illustration of this point is the previous reluctance of British English to admit different to or different than, American importations but now gaining credibility. Similarly, the former resistance of Iberian Spanish to the spelling México as it appears in the country of that name, as opposed to Méjico, has now faded. In point of fact, México now appears quite regularly in Spain. It is manifestly obvious that the fact that the Spanish language is spoken over vast territories will inevitably entail grammatical diversity and even uncertainty, in the light of which what is acceptable in one Spanish-speaking country is unacceptable in another. One does, of course, need to examine what is meant by “correctness.” There are two senses in which a language is “correct.” The first relates to a foreigner’s manipulation of the language. If what is said is unacceptable to a native speaker or writer in any register, then it is “incorrect.” The second is connected to a native speaker’s attitude to her/his own language, and this is a more complex matter. In the popular and educated mind, there exists a close association between “correct” and the standard language: features of local varieties and registers which differ from “standard” usage are deemed “incorrect,” even though they are used by native speakers. The Real Academia Española (RAE) was once recognized as the guardian of the “correctness” of Spanish, but this is no longer the case (see note 2 in the introduction, p. xvii). There are as many academias as there are Spanish-speaking countries, and they all enjoy linguistic parity, and the judgment of correctness has in many cases become arbitrary. An Argentinian would find the juxtaposition of adverb and possessive pronoun adelante mío (in front of me), cerca tuyo (near you) perfectly admissible and would therefore classify them as R2, but these expressions would be considered strange by a Colombian, a Mexican or a speaker from the Iberian Peninsula, who doubtless would reject them. Of course, everyone would agree on the acceptability of delante de mí, considering it as R2. Yet how many Spanish-speakers of standard Spanish would admit delante mío as R2? Probably none. It would fall into the category of R1. Finally, the formal ante mí would correspond to an R3 category. Yet all these four expressions have validity in their own way, according to circumstances, locality, region or country. To note how these register categories vary, there follows a small compendium of examples illustrating how register is marked in the treatment of Spanish grammar in the present book. The categories R1 and R2 are mainly used here by way of illustration. It should be borne in mind that these are only rough indications, and that such divisions do not necessarily apply to all Spanish-speaking countries. (Many of these features will be treated more fully later in the text.) R1

R2

Use of gerund Llegó el presidente, iniciándose el acto de inmediato Vi un árbol floreciendo Estando en la base, llegó la orden de partir

Llegó el presidente y se inició el acto de inmediato Vi un árbol que florecía Cuando estábamos en la base, llegó la orden de partir

Register

5

Se abrogó la ley, quedando en libertad los presos

Se abrogó la ley, e inmediatamente quedaron en libertad los presos

Use of prepositions de arriba a abajo basta con mirarlo miré a alrededor debe de venir (obligation) con tal de que lo haga a menos de que venga

de arriba abajo basta mirarlo miré alrededor debe venir con tal que lo haga a menos que venga

Use of adverbial phrases desde 1990 a 2003 diferente a distinto a hablo a nombre de hubieron varios lesionados

desde 1990 hasta 2003 diferente de distinto de hablo en nombre de hubo varios lesionados

Use of que (queísmo) (see Chapter 80 for fuller treatment) Es a mi hermano que yo digo. . . Es a mi hermano a quien digo que. . . Es con mi amigo que voy al cine Es con mi amigo con quien voy al cine No es allí que están nuestros padres No es allí donde están nuestros padres Es por este camino que se va al Es por este camino por donde se va al cementerio cementerio Fue entonces que yo corrí Fue entonces cuando corrí Es a mediodía que sale su avión Es a mediodía cuando sale el avión Note: Most of these uses of que seem to arise from a contamination with the French.

(Lack of) correspondence between pronouns + ser + first or third person of following verb Soy yo quien lo hizo Soy yo quien lo hice Somos nosotros/as quienes lo hicieron Somos nosotros/as quienes lo hicimos Dequeísmo (use of the proposition de before the conjunction que and when the clause is impersonal; see Chapter 80 for fuller treatment) Me alegra de que seáis (sean) felices Me alegra que seáis (sean) felices Es seguro de que nos quiere Es seguro que nos quiere Lo/le preocupa de que no hayas llegado Lo/le preocupa que no hayas llegado Es posible de que nieve mañana Es posible que nieve mañana Note: When the main clause is personalized, the reverse applies.

Me alegro que seáis/sean felices Me preocupo que no os/les falte nada

Me alegro de que seáis/sean felices Me preocupo de que no os/les falte nada

Use of de que in verbs of saying, affirming, concluding Dice de que no puede venir Dice que no puede venir Afirman de que yo tengo razón Afirman que yo tengo razón Le platiqué (M) de que no es correcto Le platiqué que no es correcto Proper names with definite article La María tiene mucha gracia El Manolo quebró (M)/rompió el vaso

María tiene mucha gracia Manolo quebró/rompió el vaso

Gender (confusing because of the tonic stress on the initial “a”) un hambre epidémico un hambre epidémica todo el hambre toda el hambre el otro agua la otra agua el otro área la otra área

6

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

todo ese agua todo el ansia el mismo área el propio aula ese aula este hambre aquel agua este agua

toda esa agua toda el ansia la misma área la propia aula esa aula esta hambre aquella agua esta agua

Laísmo (use of la and las for indirect objects when le and les are required) A María la duele la cabeza A María le duele la cabeza A mis hijas las enviaron flores A mis hijas les enviaron flores Leísmo (use of the pronouns le and les for direct objects lo and los) A Juan *le vi al lado de Ana A Juan lo vi al lado de Ana Les veo esta tarde Los veo esta tarde *The use here of le and les is permissible. See Chapter 56 on pronouns.)

Loísmo (use of the pronouns lo and los instead of le and les) A Pedro lo dieron una paliza A Pedro le dieron una paliza Use of the imperfect subjunctive instead of the pluperfect Nunca entendí lo que me dijera la chica Nunca entendí lo que me había dicho la chica El que fuera Presidente del Gobierno ha El que fue Presidente del Gobierno declarado que. . . ha declarado que. . . Use of media as an adverb Juana estaba media muerta

Juana estaba medio muerta

Use of the indefinite cualquier dos mujeres cualquieras cualesquiera de estas dos mujeres

dos mujeres cualesquiera cualquiera de estas dos mujeres

Adverbs with possessive pronouns (referred to above in preliminary explanation, p. xvii) delante mío/mía delante de mí cerca nuestro/nuestra cerca de nosotros/as detrás tuyo/tuya detrás de tí en *contra suyo en contra suya *In reality, contra here is a noun (counter, opposition), so there is some uncertainty over this expression.

Redundant expressions (many of these R1 expressions are very common) salir fuera salir subir arriba subir bajar abajo bajar Se puso la gorra en la cabeza Se puso la gorra entierro del cadáver de don Fulano de Tal entierro de don Fulano Lo rehabilitaron de nuevo Lo rehabilitaron Ocurrió en el día de ayer Ocurrió ayer Hay un cuestionario de preguntas Hay un cuestionario Resultó inocente de culpa Resultó inocente Volvió a escribir la carta de nuevo Volvió a escribir la carta/Escribió la carta de nuevo Confusion over agradecer and dar las gracias Te agradezco por la carta que me Te doy las gracias por la carta que. . ./ mandaste Te agradezco la carta que. . .

Register

7

Confusion over agreement between the appropriate noun and the verb or adjective/past participle This often happens because two nouns are involved, one being in the genitive or possessive case. An abundant number of examples are provided to illustrate how widespread this phenomenon is becoming. One must speculate that R1 examples will end up as R2 and will one day be acceptable.

Se sucedieron una serie de encuentros casuales Cuatro millones de personas se han visto obligadas a abandonar su hogar Las 3 millones de vidas que la epidemia se cobra al año Decenas de pueblos estaban sin electricidad e incomunicados Un número mayor de gente está dispuesta a. . . Otro tipo de revelaciones provocaron la furia de. . . Otro tipo de delitos siempre terminan descubriéndose La mayoría de los incendios ha sido provocado

Se sucedió une serie de encuentros casuales Cuatro millones de personas se han visto obligados a abandonar su hogar Los 3 millones de vidas que la epidemia se cobra al año Decenas de pueblos estaban sin electricidad e incomunicadas Un número mayor de gente está dispuesto a. . . Otro tipo de revelaciones provocó la furia de. . . Otro tipo de delitos siempre termina descubriéndose La mayoría de los incendios ha sido provocada/han sido provocados

Confusion over use of the reflexive form of verbs (this is especially so when the main verb precedes the noun in the subject case) Se puede ver los barcos a lo lejos Se pueden ver los barcos a lo lejos Se envían a su país de origen 400 Se envía a su país de origen a inmigrantes 400 inmigrantes Se encontraba almacenado miles de Se encontraban almacenados miles archivos de archivos Confusion over plural nouns álbums/álbunes chotises (traditional dance of Madrid) malos entendidos relós tiques (nervous tics)

álbumes chotis malentendidos relojes tics

Note: See Chapter 10 on number.

Use of the superlative -ísimo (but an unresolved issue)* R2

R3

ciertísimo fervientísimo buenísimo fuertísimo

certísimo ferventísimo bonísimo fortísimo

* The superlatives in the right-hand column could easily be classified as R3. The superlatives in the left-hand column could easily be classified as R2 and are therefore standard, not R1. For a full discussion of this subject and other examples, see Chapter 73 on comparatives and superlatives.

Apocopation with the feminine form of primero > primer In standard Spanish, the feminine form of primero is primera. However, primer appears quite commonly in R1 usage in A, C and M: R1

R2

la primer vez/casa/página/palabra la primera vez/casa/página/palabra The loss of the a in the feminine form in Spain before feminine nouns is unquestionably

8

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

an archaism, but this is not the case in many Spanish American countries, although this usage is to be discouraged (see Diccionario panhispánico de dudas). It must be added that Seco, Diccionario de dudas, quotes many literary examples of Spanish writers, among whom are Calderón (aquella primer nave), Galdós (la primer palabra), Pardo Bazán (la primer señal), Valle-Inclán (la primer locomotora) and Cela (la primer postura). One can only comment that, since these authors find apocopation of primera to primer acceptable, they are indulging in their own way in some form of archaism. What is an unusual archaism in standard Spanish but quite common in Spanish America meets with the approval of writers of high literary standards. R1 usage therefore meets R3 usage.

One finds with children and the less well tutored, notably older people living in a rural environment with little formal education (and here one ought to distinguish between children and uneducated adults), that they “regularize” certain irregular features of the Spanish language, and regularization has its logic. In Spanish America (A, C and M, for instance, and all well attested), as well as in Spain, children, particularly young ones, and some adults, will readily say andé and andó instead of the standard anduve and anduvo (See Seco, Diccionario de dudas on andar), with repercussions for the imperfect subjunctive: andara, andaras, etc. Preterits are in fact especially subject to regularization. Thus, children will say cabí (= cupe, from caber), conducí (= conduje, from conducir), podí (= pude, from poder), poní (= puse, from poner), satisfací (= satisfice, from satisfacer), traí (= traje, from traer) and vení (= vine, from venir). Needless to add, verbal regularization with children has its equivalent in English with, for example, she felled down, he caughted the ball. The present tenses of the following verbs are prone to confusion: caber: “cabo” instead of the standard quepo – No quepo aquí. (There’s no room for me here.) oír: “oyo” instead of the standard oigo – No te oigo. poner: “pono” instead of the standard pongo – Yo pongo este juguete en la mesa. saber: “sabo” instead of the standard sé – No sé donde está. Irregular past participles also attract departures from the norm: “abrido” instead of abierto, “cubrido” instead of cubierto, “decido” instead of dicho, “ponido” instead of puesto and “volvido” instead of vuelto are excellent examples of this regularization. Radical changing verbs cause divergences too: colgar: “colgues” instead of the standard cuelgues – Cuando cuelgues mi blusa, me avisas. “cuelguéis” instead of the standard colguéis – No colguéis las bolsas de caramelos. forzar: “forces” instead of the standard fuerces – No fuerces el motor del coche. querer: “quero” instead of the standard quiero – No quiero ir a la cama. Imperatives are sometimes “mishandled”. Verb

Error

Model

Example

Estar Sentar

Estesen (R1) Se sienten (R1)

Estense Siéntense

Estense quietos Siéntense en seguida

A memorable example for this misuse of the imperative was heard on February 23, 1981, when the Spanish government was under siege and the members of Parliamentwere ordered to sit down: “¡Se sienten, coño R*!” (Sit down, fuck you!) (The asterisk here signifies obscene language.)

Register

9

Among other pronunciation and spelling “mistakes” made especially by adults, one comes across the following. Some of these “mistakes” are explained through metathesis, or inversion of letters, a common phenomenon which appears in the contrasting French Algérie and the Spanish Argelia. derritir/dirritir instead of the standard derretir – La nieve se ha derretido. presignarse instead of the standard persignarse (to cross oneself) – Juan no sabía persignarse en misa. inflingir/infringir instead of the standard infligir (to inflict) – Los jugadores han infligido una severa derrota al equipo contrario. infligir instead of the standard infringir (to infringe) – Pepe infringe todas las normas de circulación. repantingarse instead of the standard repantigarse (to sprawl) – Diego llegó cansado y se repantigó en la butaca. arrellenarse instead of the standard arrellanarse (to stretch out) – Se arrellanó en un sillón del vestíbulo. One hears very frequently the addition of “s” to the second person singular of the preterit, doubtless on analogy with the “s” of the second person singular of the present tense: amastes, temistes, estudiastes, suspendistes (= amaste, temiste, estudiaste, suspendiste). Below is a list of the types of “errors” made especially by children.

Verb

Error

Model

Example

Caer Ensuciar Haber Haber Hacer Hacer Hacer Ir Jugar Morir Oír Poner Poner Poner Querer Querer Romper Tener Tener Tener Traer

cayí ensucí haiga haíba hácelo hací/hacido hazo váyate jubar/jubal morido oyer pónelo puniendo punieron queriba tero rompido tenel teniste tuví traime

caí ensucié haya había hazlo hice hago vete jugar muerto oír ponlo poniendo pusieron quería quiero roto tener tuviste tuve tráeme

Me caí en la calle Ensucié el piso con las botas ¡Qué no haya clase! No había nada en el vaso Yo no sé. Hazlo tú Me hice daño Yo no hago esas cosas Vete a casa Quiero jugar con mis amigas Se ha muerto el loro Puedo oír el viento Se salió el zapato. Ponlo Me estoy poniendo morado Se pusieron las botas Yo no quería ir a la cama No quiero la manzana Me he roto la pierna Yo puedo tener el cubo ¿No tuviste tiempo? No tuve tiempo de jugar Tráeme una naranja

Children frequently make “substitution errors” in pronunciation, as with the phoneme /l/ instead of /r/, or /z/ for /s/; for example: “fumal” for “fumar” or “Zarita” for “Sarita” (diminutive of Sara). /S/ for /z/, also takes place as “sapato” for “zapato.” In the same way, /t/ replaces /ch/: “Tocolate” for “chocolate.” When /ch/ appears the child will easily say /t/: “tete” instead of “chupete.”

10

A Reference Grammar of Spanish One of the most difficult “substitutions” to eradicate is the replacement of /r/ by /g/: “gamo” for “ramo”; “guey” for “rey”; “gomano” for “romano.” It is not uncommon to come across “groma” for “broma.” Children also omit certain sounds completely: “ero chocolate/tocolate/oolate” for “quiero chocolate.”

2 Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation / Alfabeto, ortografía, pronunciación The RAE, founded in 1714 by the Duque d’Escalona, aims to preserve and improve the Spanish language. Alarcos Llorach’s Gramática and the Diccionario de la lengua española published by the Academy have traditionally established the standard for the language. However, it can no longer legislate for the Spanish of the Americas, where all the countries have created parallel academies that deliberate, sometimes collectively, on the development of the language (see note 2 in the introduction, p. xvii). As far as the grammar of the various countries is concerned, there is a comforting uniformity which applies to a large extent to the alphabet. Furthermore, the spelling system of the Spanish language is really quite easy compared to English – or to French or Italian for that matter. The following tables illustrate the Spanish alphabet, which includes thirty phonemes, or sets of speech sounds. Both upper and lower cases are provided. The Spanish names for these phonemes appear in parentheses, while Argentinian, Mexican and Colombian usage is also included. It should be borne in mind that symbols or letters can help towards accurate sound reproduction, but cannot replace the sounds, intonation and stress of a native speaker. However, help is at hand with the actual reproduction of Spanish sounds on the following website: www.uiowa.edu/~acadtech/phonetics/spanish/frameset.html

2.1 The Spanish alphabet A B

a b

C

c

Ch D E F G

ch d e f g

H I J

h i j

K

k

la a (English ah) la b (English bay) (la b grande in C and M; la b larga in A; la b alta in many parts of Spanish America) la ce (English th as in thick in Spain, but English se in A, C and M) la che la d (English th as in either) la e (English a as in take) la efe la ge (when before e and i, as in English horse, but more guttural; when before a, o and u, as in gate or goat) la hache la i (English ee as in seek) la jota (as in English horse, but more guttural) la ka (used very infrequently) 11

12

A Reference Grammar of Spanish L LL

l ll

M N Ñ O P Q R RR

m n ñ o p q r rr

S T U V

s t u v

W

w

X Y Z

x y z

la ele la elle (English y as in your in Spain and M; but English s as in pleasure in A); English j as in John in C) la eme la ene la eñe (as English ni as in pinion) la o la pe la cu la ere la erre doble (la doble erre in A and M; la erre in C) la ese la te la u (English oo as in food) (la uve) (la v corta in A; la v pequeña/chiquita in C [la uve is also used increasingly]; la v chica in M) la uve doble (la doble u in M [analogous with English double u]; la doble v in A and C [W is used very infrequently]) la equis la i griega la zeta (la seta in A, C and M)

The following general remarks should be considered before more specific treatment of vowels, diphthongs, triphthongs and consonants: 1. All letters are feminine. 2. Mayúscula = capital/upper-case letter. 3. Minúscula = small/lower-case letter. 4. Note that h is la hache, notwithstanding the general use of el before nouns with initial tonic a (e.g. in el agua). 5. Pronounced as isolated letters of the alphabet, r and rr are the same sound, that is, an r rolled at the tip of the tongue. This explains why the rr is called an erre doble/doble erre (A, M). 6. Before e and i, the Iberian c (center and north of Spain) sounds like the English th as in thick. Before a, o and u, it sounds like the English c as in cut. In all Spanish America, much of Southern Spain and the Canary Islands, the c before e and i sounds like the English ss, known as seseo. 7. The Iberian z sounds like the English th as in thick (ceceo), but in all Spanish America, much of Southern Spain and the Canary Islands it sounds like the English ss (seseo). 8. The ñ (n with tilde) is almost always referred to as la eñe. 9. Great importance is attached to the vowels in Spanish. Their sounds are full and clear, while those of the consonants can be obscure and even suppressed. There is a tendency in speech in Mexico (not in Spain, Argentina or Colombia) to lengthen vowel sounds near the end of words or sentences – for example, importaaancia, Es que no quieeeren, tranquiiiilo. In Mexico, notably in the north, there is a musicality in the sounds that recalls Italian, and this is manifestly different from the Spanish of Northern and

Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation

13

Central Spain (Castilla la Vieja), where utterance of sounds is much sharper and more emphatic.

2.2 Vowels There are five vowels, since y is a consonant in Spanish: playa, yunque (anvil), although y may be a vowel: pan y vino. a e i o u

la bata, la cama, nada, la patata el Este, el nene, la pera, remar Las Filipinas, la lima, la pila, la sidra el codo, la col, el lobo, el sol el mulo, la multa, la pulga, el susto

A and e are the most frequently occurring vowels, and letters for that matter.1 Furthermore, a has an imperious attraction for the feminine gender. Here are the words of “La marcha de las letras”, a children’s song created and sung by the Mexican Francisco Gabilondo Soler (Cri-Cri). It illustrates in imaginative and humorous style the Spanish vowels:

La Marcha De Las Letras 1 ¡Que dejen toditos los libros abiertos ha sido la orden que dio el General. ¡Que todos los niños estén muy atentos las cinco vocales van a desfilar!

2 Primero verás que pasa la “A” con sus dos patitas muy abiertas al marchar. Ahí viene la “E” alzando los pies, el palo de en medio es más chico como ves. Aquí está la “I”, la sigue la “O” una es flaca y la otra gorda porque ya comió. Y luego hasta atrás llegó la “U”, como la cuerda con que siempre saltas tú.

You can listen to the song at: www.cri-cri.net/mp3.html

2.3 Diphthongs and triphthongs Particular attention should be paid to this subject, as its understanding is necessary for a grasp of the laws of the written accent. 1

For those who wish to pursue further the frequency of use of letters see the following: “Frequency of Occurrence of Letters in Spanish”, in Fletcher Pratt, Secret and Urgent: The Story of Codes and Ciphers, Blue Ribbon Books, 1939, pp. 254–5. Inventario de frecuencias fonémicas y silábicas del castellano espontáneo y escrito: http://jth 2006.unizar.es/ finals/4jth_116.pdf Letters Frequency: www.aronetis.com/freq_en.html

14

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

2.3.1 Spanish diphthongs and triphthongs are indivisible combinations of vowels pronounced as single syllables, laying the stress on the stronger, more sonorous syllables, and passing rapidly over the weaker or less sonorous. If both vowels are weak (i and u), the stress falls on the last of the two: ruido (noise), viuda (widow). 2.3.2 The gradual scale of the sonority or strength of the vowels is as follows: a, o, e, i, u. A, o and e are called strong vowels, while i and u are weak vowels. 2.3.3 Diphthongs cannot be formed from the strong vowels alone, but are a combination of a strong and a weak vowel, or of i and u combined. When two strong vowels combine, each is considered as a separate vowel: real (real/royal), aéreo, héroe, oasis. 2.3.4 Triphthongs are composed of one strong vowel between two weak ones. 2.3.5 In brief, a Spanish diphthong consists of a vowel preceded or followed by either i or u. In a triphthong, one of these is on each side of the strong vowel. 2.3.6 Examples of diphthongs: ia: Asia, Santiago; ai: aire, caigo (I fall), fraile (monk); ie: miente ((s)he lies), piedra (stone), tiempo; ei: reina (queen), veinte, pleito (lawsuit), treinta; io: maniobra (maneuver), patriota, piocha (pickax), violento; oi: oigo (I hear), boina (beret); ua: cuanto, guante (glove), fragua (forge); au: pausa, cautela (prudence); ue: fuego (fire), puente (bridge), muestra (sample); eu: feudo (fiefdom), Europa, neutro; uo: cuota, (quota), continuo; iu: triunfo (triumph), oriundo (originating); ui: buitre (vulture), ruido (noise), fuiste (you were/went), Luisa. 2.3.7 Examples of triphthongs: iai: cambiáis (you change), variáis (you vary); iei: apreciéis (that you should appreciate), irradiéis (that you should radiate), contagiéis (that you should infect); uai: menguáis (you diminish), averiguáis (you check out); uei: amortigüéis (that you should deaden), santigüéis (that you should bless). 2.3.8 Since a diphthong or triphthong is, in pronunciation, treated as a single syllable, it requires a written accent, as with a single vowel. 2.3.9 In diphthongs containing a strong vowel, and in triphthongs, the accent mark belongs over the strong vowel; when placed over the weak one, the diphthong or triphthong disappears to become two syllables. Thus in causa and Cáucasa, au is a diphthong, but not in saúco (willow tree); iai in variáis is a triphthong, but not in temíais. As we shall see later, in Spanish America (e.g. Argentina, Colombia and Mexico) triphthongs hardly exist, since the second person plural (os, vosotros, vosotras) is replaced by Uds. (see Chapter 56 on pronouns). The absence of the vosotros form is a lot easier for Spanish Americans, who find triphthongs quaint, rebarbative or just plain difficult to pronounce. 2.3.10 If a syllable requiring a written accent contains a diphthong or a triphthong, the accent must be placed over the strong vowel; or, in the case of a diphthong, if both are weak, over the last vowel: huésped (guest), después, estudiáis, óiganos (listen to us). 2.3.11 Whenever the weak vowel of a triphthong or diphthong is stressed, or the first vowel when both are weak, the written accent is placed over that vowel, to show that there is no diphthong or triphthong: ataúd (casket, coffin), país (country), increíble, raíz (root), poesía, día, leía ((s)he was reading), baúl (trunk), paraíso (paradise). 2.3.12 A mute h between two vowels does not prevent a diphthong. The written accent is accordingly placed: barahúnda (ruckus, bedlam), ahínco (earnestness), ahíto (full, stuffed), búho (owl), prohíben (they forbid), rehúso (I refuse), retahíla (string, series), vahído (dizzy spell).

2.4 Consonants 2.4.1 F, k, l, m, n and p have at all times the same value in Spanish as in English: fama, kilo, comer, madre, entre, padre. 2.4.2 B and v have the same sound. Their sound varies according to where they are in the word. This applies to the Iberian Peninsula and the whole of Spanish America. When b and v

Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation

2.4.3

2.4.4

2.4.5 2.4.6

2.4.7

2.4.8

2.4.9

15

are in an initial position, the b of burro is the same as the English b of but, and the same goes for vaca. However, when b and v are within a word, and especially between two vowels, the lips are pressed lightly together, creating a kind of lisp: haber, saber, lavar, cavar (to dig). When v follows a consonant, it sounds like a b: tranvía. When b is followed by a consonant, and particularly by an s, it can disappear in pronunciation (astruso instead of abstruso; astracto instead of abstracto), but only in pronunciation. However, there are a number of words where the loss of the b in writing is accepted: insu(b)stancial, insu(b)stituible, o(b)scuro, o(b)scurecer, su(b)scribir, su(b)stancia, su(b)stituir, su(b) stitución, su(b)straer, su(b)stracción, su(b)scriptor, su(b)scribir. Preference for one or the other is not clear here. C has two sounds. Before e and i, it is pronounced like English th as in thin: centro, encima, cielo. In all other cases, it has the sound of k: encanto (charm), cura (priest), cruz (cross), esclavo (slave). However, in nearly all Southern Spain, the Canary Islands and the whole of Spanish America, c before e and i, as with z in all cases, is pronounced like that of English c as in city or center (called seseo): centro = sentro, encima = ensima, cielo = sielo, caza = casa, cazar = casar (room for confusion here!), zapato = sapato, durazno = durasno (M). For Spanish-American speakers of Spanish, the th sound of c and z is sometimes regarded as pedantic, affected and even archaic, harking back to colonial times. For some, however, it sounds attractive and highly cultured. (While on the subject of different countries’ appreciation of accent and intonation, the Colombian accent is particularly appealing to speakers in the Iberian Peninsula, who find it clear and cultured.) Ch is pronounced like English ch as in church: muchacho, chica, chava (M; girl). In Northern Mexico, it can often have the sound English of sh as in shoe: mushasho, shica. D never has the decided English sound of d, but has a tinge of the sound of th as in then: ciudad, dar, desde, doler, hablado, pegado. In many parts of Spain and Argentina, when d occurs between two vowels, and especially in past participles of the -ado type, the d can disappear completely in the spoken language. Thus, hablado (spoken) ends up as hablao, pasmado (amazed) as pasmao, pegado (hit/struck) as pegao. The practice is frowned upon by purists, and is not characteristic of some regions in Spanish America, where, as we shall see in Part III, the perfect tense he hablado = I have spoken is largely replaced by the preterit hablé = I spoke (see Section 25.3.1). Colombians do commonly omit the d. Mexicans find the omission odd and even illiterate. Note also that even when d occurs between two ‘a’s, it can often disappear in speech: demasia(d)a gente, na(d)a. Furthermore, the d at the end of usted or Madrid is frequently lost in speech. The tendency to drop the d between vowels explains its now standard disappearance in the imperative plural forms of reflexive verbs: sentaos, imaginaos but idos. One can legitimately argue that the ao replacement of ado points to a pattern from Latin to Italian to French: atum > ato > é. G has two sounds. Before e and i, it has the sound of a strongly aspirated h. In all other cases it sounds like English g as in go: gestión (procedure), gente, giro (turn), gimnasio, garage (M; not the second g), gusto (pleasure). In order to obtain the hard g of gusto before e and i, a u is inserted. In this case, the u is silent: guiar (to guide), guisar (to cook), enseguida, pegue (that he hits/strikes), agregue (that she should add). But if the u is retained as an independent sound, a diaresis (ü) is placed over it: lingüista, agüero (omen), desagüe (drain, wastepipe), but here it has a swallowed sound, as in agua. H has a slight trace of aspiration before ue: hueco (hollow), huevo (egg). In practice, it is a silent letter, so there is no difference in sound between, for example, hecho (done) and echo (I pour). This can be a source of confusion in spelling for the unlettered. H can have the sound of the jota, as with some foreign words: Hítler.

16

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

2.4.10 J has in all cases the same sound as g before e and i: juicio (judgment), jerga (slang), jugar, enjambre (swarm), ja, ja, ja, ja (ha, ha, ha, ha, as in laughing). 2.4.11 Ll had until recently in Spain the sound of English lli as in million. But such a sound is now considered pedantic by most Spanish-speakers, and this includes much of Spanish America, so that we end up with a double y, rather like the English y as in your, but slightly elongated: gallego (Galician [in Northern Spain]), llamar, llorar, lluvia, pollo. This phenomenon is called yeísmo. There is a very distinctive sound of the ll in Argentina as the English sh in show: llamar = shamar, etc. This sh sound replacing the ll is often frowned upon in Argentina, and points to a class distinction in pronunciation. In Colombia, the ll is like the English j as in John and here it is like the y in Colombia (e.g. llamar, etc.). 2.4.12 Ñ has the sound of the English letters ni as in pinion: niño, señor, otoño. 2.4.13 P is sometimes omitted, as in se(p)tiembre, sé(p)timo (seventh), in Spain and Argentina, but not in Colombia or Mexico. In the Teatro Colón (a world-famous opera house) in Buenos Aires, for instance, setiembre stands out in bold on posters. Words beginning with psic may be written sic: (p)sicología, (p)sicólogo, (p)sicosis, (p)sicoterapia, (p)sicoterapeuta, (p) siquiatra, (p)siquiatría, (p)sicópata. In general, the RAE prefers the inclusion of the p. 2.4.14 Q occurs only before ue and ui, and sounds like k, the following u being always silent: tanque (M; gas tank in car), quebrar (to break), parroquia (parish). 2.4.15 R has a roll, and a more marked roll (like a double rr) at the beginning of words: regla, parar, mirar, enredar (to confuse), cortar. If you have a Scottish accent, you will have no problem at all. When an initial r is preceded by an s, as in los rayos (rays), los rollos (rolls), Israel, the s often disappears to produce lo’ rayos/rollos, Irael, and this is not only restricted to the untutored. 2.4.16 S sounds like English as in hiss. There is no real problem here, except for the last comment in 2.4.15. In Andalusia and some regions of Spanish America (e.g. coastal areas of Eastern Mexico), the s can disappear in speech: E(s)paña, pue(s), de(s)pué(s), Vamo(s) a ganar. This is restricted to the uneducated or colloquial style. In some areas of Andalusia, the s can sound like th in English (ceceo): sierra > thierra. In Argentina, notably in Greater Buenos Aires (El Gran Buenos Aires), the s is aspirated when it occurs in a syllable-final position. In other words, a good percentage of the Argentinian nation pronounces bosque (wood, forest), as bohke, mosca (fly) as mohka, fresno (ash tree) as frehno, siesta as siehta, esta as ehta, and so on. The s may even be pronounced stronger than an h and may have the sound of a jota: bójke, únoj animáleh (some animals). 2.4.17 T is softer than the English t, and is pronounced with the tongue touching the palate more gently: tratar (to treat), pato (duck), total. Note that the t in fútbol is often lost: fúbol. 2.4.18 V: see 2.4.2. 2.4.19 W is an import found in, for example, Wágner = Vágner, Wáshington = Váshin(g)ton/ Vóshin(g)ton, although the original w is also heard. 2.4.20 X requires considerable comment, notably for Mexico. In Spain, the sound is English x as in axle: exacto, exigir (to demand). However, when it precedes a c it frequently ends up as an s: excelente = escelente, exceso = esceso. Condemned by purists, it is in general practice, although formal speech would require excelente. In Mexico, the x has four pronunciations. The first is as in Spain – that is between two vowels: taxi, máximo, laxitud. The second is like a jota: México, Oaxaca (city and State). The jota sound of the x overflows onto words like xenofobia. There is confusion whether the x of this word should be pronounced as an English x or a jota. Informed opinion is that this initial x should be pronounced as the English x. The third pronunciation is like an s. This pronunciation occurs not infrequently, especially with names of Aztec origin. Thus we have: Xochitl, Xochimilco (district in the south of Mexico City). Finally, the x of words like excelente

Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation

17

and explicar, preceding a consonant, is like the English x, and not like an s, as is often the case in Spain. The initial x in Argentina is pronounced like an s, although elsewhere, at the end of a word for example, it sounds like the English x: xerox, xenofobia. 2.4.21 In Spain, y has the same value as in English. However, in Argentina, like the Argentinian ll, it is similar to the English sh of show, pleasure: proyecto, cayó, mayor, tuyo, suyo. (As with the ll, the pronunciation of y as sh is often frowned on and marks a class distinction.) Colombian y resembles the English j as in John: yo, ya. 2.4.22 For z, see 2.4.4. Note that the terminal z in rapid speech can be lost: Badajo(z) (city in Spain). 2.4.23 The most frequently used consonant in Spanish is r, closely followed by s and n.

2.5 Elision in speech (elisión/sinalefa) 2.5.1 When a vowel at the end of one word immediately precedes a vowel at the beginning of the next word, the two vowels run together in speech. A mute h does not change this feature: Si_es así, cuesta_un peso, otro_ año, su_ hacienda/hilo. 2.5.2 This also applies to three words: Fue_ a_ Europa, salió_ a_ España. 2.5.3 When the two vowels are the same, one is always lost in rapid speech: La ayuda = L’ayuda, para agradecerle = par’agradecerle, para atrás = pa’atrás. Note the very common, colloquial Mexican expression for many: hasta pa’ aventar pa’arriba (hasta para aventar para arriba) (literal trans. to throw up in the air).

2.6 Orthographical changes with y and o In order to avoid the concurrence of two similar sounds, y (and) is changed to e when the following word begins with i or hi. This also happens with o (or), which becomes u before o or ho: español e inglés, padre e hijo, María e Isabel, plata u oro, vida u honor, siete u ocho. However, when a diphthong is involved, y does not change: madera y hierro, él y yo, limón y hielo, El agua se calienta y hierve.

2.7 Spelling traps (trampas de ortografía) Here are just a few Spanish words that have a near, and therefore misleading, spelling equivalent in English. There are many more. This small list serves to point out that care should be taken over the spelling of such words: aislar (to isolate), amenazar, área, Antártida, antártico, Á/ártico, atormentar, cacao, camaleón (chameleon), centinela (sentry), cómplice (accomplice), condena (condemnation), although occasionally condenación (eternal damnation), conmemorar, consuelo (consolation), consulta, consumo (consumption [of goods]), demostrar, deterioro (deterioration), dignatario (dignitary), distinto (different distinct), ejemplo, énfasis, enfático, éxtasis, feminismo, femenino, fisonomía, flác(c)ido, hipocresía, imagen, independiente, infantil, inmaduro, inmediato, inmerso (immersed), inmersión, inmigración, inmigrante, inmunidad, inmunitario, inusual, inventario, literario, literatura, previo, profecía, proyecto, quimioterapia, radiactividad, renuncia (renunciation), renunciar, responsable/ responsabilidad, Santo Grial (Holy Grail), sicomoro, su(b)scribir, tarifa, tenis, tema, vainilla.

2.8 Confusing consonants Consonants where confusion in spelling arises, even for Spanish-speakers, are explored below.

18

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

2.8.1 g and j: G geometría, geografía, apogeo, cirugía, colegio, refugio, magía, but: bujía, tejía (was weaving), crujía (was creaking) virginal, región, legionario, prodigioso ángel, congelar (to freeze), frágil, vigilar (to watch over) jilguero (goldfinch), perejil (parsley), digestión, gestión (management), gesto, legislación, registro 2.8.2 J granjear (to earn, win), arrojar (to throw), hojear (to leaf through), canjear (to exchange), manejar (M to handle/drive), ejercer (to exercise), but: agencia, agenda (agenda, diary), agente, drenaje (drainage), hereje (heretic), mensaje (message), paraje (place, spot), eje (axis), extranjero (foreign), consejero (advisor, counselor), relojero (watchmaker/mender) 2.8.3 b and v: B Confusion arises here because these two consonants are the same sound (see 2.4.2). The untutored may easily put a b where v occurs and vice versa). yo trabajaba (I used to work), tú trabajabas, etc. (It is not without interest that the Italian imperfect has a v: io lavoravo). deber (duty, must), beber (to drink), saber (to know), haber, prohibir, burro (donkey), dibujo (drawing) 2.8.4 V prever (to foresee), volver (to return), llover (to rain), hervir (to boil), servir, vivir (to live) 2.8.5 r and rr When between two vowels, the sound is strong and is shown by rr: antirracista, autorretrato (self-portrait), carretera, corrupción, error, prórroga (extension), párrafo (paragraph), corredor (runner/racing cyclist), correcto Sometimes the r between two vowels is weak: autoridad, erótico, paralelo R at the beginning of a word is strong and sounds like rr: regla, rey, reina, ropa When r follows a consonant within a word it sounds like rr: sonreír, alrededor When it forms a compound word the r is duplicated: grecorromano, vicerrector (vice-rector/deputy vice-chancellor), bancarrota (bankruptcy), pararrayos (lightning conductor), Monterrey (city in Mexico) There are many such examples with contra: contrarreforma (Counter-Reformation), contrarreloj (race against the clock in sport), contrarréplica (repartee) The r is not duplicated when it is preceded by a hyphen: franco-ruso, hispano-romano 2.8.6 k and q kiosko/quiosco (i.e. both) 2.8.7 h followed by a vowel As the h is not aspirate, many Spanish-speakers do not observe the difference between, for example: hecho (done) and echo (I throw), ojear (to have a look at) and hojear (to leaf through, i.e. a book). 2.8.8 ll and y These two consonants have the same sound:

Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation

19

anillo (ring), belleza, bullicio (noise, ruckus), folleto (flier/leaflet), muelle (quayside), orilla (bank of river), pesadilla (nightmare), apellido (surname) reyes, leyes, adyacente, disyuntiva (dilemma)

2.9 Tolerance The RAE does offer what are examples of tolerance – that is, two possibilities, as in: bara(h)únda (ruckus, racket), (h)armonía, yerba/hierba, ingerir/injerir (to ingest), kilogramo/ quilogramo, kiosko/quiosco, cinc/zinc, cedilla/zedilla. It also allows the exclusion of the n in a large number of words with the suffix trans, only some of which are included here: tra(n)salpino, tra(n)scender, tra(n)scurso, tra(n)sferir, tra(n)sfigurar, tra(n)sformar, tra(n)sgresión, tra(n)sposición. Similarly with b: su(b)stancia, su(b)stantivo, su(b)stracción. Two possibilities are found with compounds of sud and sur (south), although only sur exists by itself (i.e. en el sur de México): sud/surafricano, sud/suramericano, sud/sureste. The handbook of El País, however, does not recommend Sudamérica/Sudáfrica and prefers Suramérica and Suráfrica. Two possibilities also occur with post and pos-: pos(t)data, pos(t)meridiano, pos(t)palatal. Note also that only pos- appears in the following: posguerra (postwar), posventa (aftersales).

2.10 Words common to Spanish and English (We have drawn heavily for this section on Ramsey’s Spanish Grammar, pp. 20–3.) Two of the main sources of the English language are Latin and Greek, notably through the medium of one or other of the Romance languages. Spanish also derives to a large extent from these two languages, although the conspicuous presence of Arabic must not be ignored. It comes as no surprise that a large number of words in English and Spanish are very similar in form and meaning, and in some cases their form, if not their meaning, is exactly the same. The differences in the words listed below have a certain regularity, the understanding of which will provide considerable assistance to the student of Spanish. 2.10.1 The following orthographic peculiarities are to be observed: • Spanish contains no double consonants except rr, cc and, in a good number of cases, nn. Rr appears in many compound nouns, particularly between vowels: cuentarrevoluciones, contrarreloj, correligionario, grecorromano, neorrealismo, pararrayos. This does not apply to compound nouns separated by a hyphen: franco-ruso, hispanoromano. • Cc only occurs before e and i (here often ct in English), and mostly before the latter: accidente, acción, infección, inyección, lección (English different here), occidente, acceso and their variants. This explains why the Spanish equivalent of English accommodation is acomodación = accommodation, but in the sense of arrangement, adaptation. • Nn appears in the following words, among many others: ennegrecer, innato, innatural, innecesario, innegable, innocuo, innovar, sinnúmero, and their cognate terms. (Some of these words do not have an English equivalent.) • The n of the prefixes in and con does not change to m before a word beginning with m, as is the case in English, Latin, French and Italian: inmenso, inmoral, inmodestia, inmortal(idad), and their variants, as with the last term.

20

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

• Qu becomes cu: frecuente, consecuente, adecuado and their variants. The diphthongs æ and œ become e: Cæsar > Cesar, diæresis > diéresis, fœtus > fetus. Initial s, followed by a consonant, is preceded by an e: España, escéptico, escuadrón, espiral, estricto. This also explains why the pronunciation of the letter s involves an e preceding it > ese. 2.10.2 The following modifications apply only to words of Greek origin: • Y becomes i: hidratar, sífilis, simpatía, sincronizar, tipo, and their variants. • Ph becomes f: filantropía, filarmónico, filosofía, filatelia, and their cognates. • Th and rh drop the h: tesis, ortografía, reumatismo, rapsodia, and their variants (e.g. antítesis, síntesis). • Initial pn and ps drop the p: neumático (also = car tire), neumoconiosis (lung disease), (p)siquiatría, (p)sicología, (p)sicosomático (p is optional here). • Ch becomes c (except before e and i, when it is represented by qu): anacronismo, característico, coro (choir), cloro (chloride), cloroformo, coreografía, quimera, quiromancia. 2.10.3 The following is a list of the principal terminations common to both English and Spanish, embracing a very large number of words. NOUNS Gender of the class f m m m m m m m m m m m f m m m m f f. f m m

ade age al alt an ant arian ate ator ce cle ct cy ent ge gen graph ic ine ion isk ism

becomes " no change adds " " becomes " " " " adds becomes adds becomes adds becomes adds becomes no change becomes adds

m

ist

m m

ite ment

becomes adds

ito o

m

meter

becomes

metro

"

ada aje o o o ario ato ador cio culo o cia e gio o grafo a ina isco o a

brigada, parada equipaje, personaje canal, coral, metal asfalto, basalto, cobalto meridiano, veterano elefante, instante, litigante centenario, unitario carbonato, clorato, sulfato orador, regulador comercio, palacio, precipicio artículo, círculo, obstáculo contacto, efecto, producto aristocracia, potencia accidente, agente, regente privilegio, vestigio nitrógeno, oxígeno autógrafo, fonógrafo lógica, música, retórica disciplina, doctrina, mina confusión, infusión, religión asterisco, basilisco despotismo, romanticismo, paganismo artista, dentista, florista, pianista granito, lignito, nitrito fragmento, instrumento, monumento gasómetro, tacómetro

Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation

f f

mony nce

m m f m m m m f m f f f m f m m f

oid or ose ot phone ry scope sis ter/tre tion tude ty ule ure um us y

21

" " adds no change becomes adds becomes " " no change becomes " " " " " " " "

monia ncia e osa a fono rio scopio tro ción tud dad ulo ura o o ía

ceremonia, parsimonia abundancia, provincia, violencia celuloide, esferoide actor, color, horror, vapor glucosa, mucosa déspota, patriota teléfono, megáfono, xilófono adversario, directorio, misterio microscopio, telescopio crisis, neurosis, síntesis, tesis centro, ministro, pilastro condición, nación, tentación amplitud, multitud, solicitud eternidad, sociedad, moralidad cápsulo, glóbulo, mulo cura, figura, (agri)cultura ateneo, geranio, museo, premio aparato, censo, genio anatomía, energía, geografía, zoología

ADJECTIVES acious al

becomes no change

az

an

adds

o

ant

adds

e

ar arious ary ate ble

no change becomes " " no change

ario ario ado

ct

adds

o

ense ent

becomes adds

enso e

eous

becomes

eo

ferrous ic/ical

" becomes

fero ico

id

adds

o

ile

becomes

il

fugaz, sagaz, tenaz moral, central, natural americano, pagano, peruano abundante, dominante circular, solar precario, vicario ordinario, contrario duplicado, ornado noble, notable, soluble compacto, contacto, intacto, perfecto denso, inmenso evidente, prudente, saliente calcáreo, erróneo, ígneo aurífero, carbonífero pacífico, público, satírico rápido, sólido, válido dócil, fértil, frágil

22

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

ine

"

ino

ite ive

" "

ito ivo

lent

adds

o

nal

becomes

no

ocious ory

" "

oz orio

ose ous

" "

oso oso

tial

"

cial

und

adds

o

ure

becomes

uro

becomes

ar

aquilino, canino, felino, leonino, masculino erudito activo, decisivo, pasivo turbulento, violento, virulento diurno, eterno, nocturno atroz, feroz, precoz preparatorio, satisfactorio, propietario jocoso, verboso glorioso, luminoso, monstruoso (im)parcial, potencial, sustancial moribundo, rubicundo futuro, maduro, puro

VERBS ate fy ize e

calcular, evaluar, innovar, investigar " ficar fortificar, magnificar " izar civilizar, organizar, realizar A great number of verbs of this termination, which we inherit from the French, may be turned into Spanish by changing e to ar: admirar, combinar, causar, continuar, curar, determinar, imaginar, observar

It should be borne in mind that not all the English terminations listed above can be automatically turned into Spanish by the changes indicated; neither should it be assumed that all words with similar or identical spelling have the same meaning. Simple examples are pan (bread), red (net [for holding things]) and moroso (dilatory, particularly with respect to payment due).

2.11 Hyphenation The separation of words between one line and the next is determined by syllables: hom-bre, mu-jer, mos-qui-to, e-di-fi-cio, po-lí-ti-ca, fan-tas-ma, al-gu-no, rom-pe-o-las.

Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation

23

2.12 The language of texting Following the telegram, which, submitted to its own constraints, therefore created its own lapidary style, SMS (Short Message Service) or texting has also developed its characteristic language, in Spanish as in English. For generational reasons, the SMS is the preferred method of communication for young people between the ages of 15 and 25. It is discreet and cheap, while its coded messages can remain indecipherable to the uninitiated – therefore to most parents. There is nothing easier to establish a sense of community and belonging than inventing a kind of dialect known only to the members of that community. There exists also a further reason, clearly less “social”, and in the lower echelons of literary expression: to be able to send a message from a mobile phone where each key corresponds to several letters and this condensation enables the user to gain time, and to avoid keying in unnecessary information. In order to communicate speedily, words are reduced to their simplest written expression, so that qu becomes k: porque is transformed into xk, ¿qué tal? becomes k tl? Abbreviations, puzzles or acronyms of all kinds are obviously welcome: LAP = lo antes posible, KLS = que lo sepas, nad9o = nada de nuevo, MDR = muerto de risa. Certain expressions are even more cryptic: :(· = triste). The only prevailing rule in texting is precisely the absence of rules. Traditional spelling is cast to the wind, while kicking over orthographic traces is a virtue in itself. For many users, the essential is that phonetic transcription be correct and familiar or intimate: pa = para, na = nada, a2a2 = adosados. This new language allows the creation of a happier, livelier and more jolly sense of being: a2xaora is more acceptable than Adiós por ahora; T quieeeeero!!! strikes a tone of greater originality and even passion than Te quiero. There follows a simple text dictionary of terms, with their full Spanish equivalent (not to be copied in formal writing). The full Spanish equivalents include upper case and other forms of orthographic signs, which highlight the differences between texting and traditional writing. Following the tables of terms are five examples of texting which even include, not suprisingly, some use of English. SMS vocabulary + +ñana l 1/2nxe 1a 1os 9. A A+ A-k A. A.d A1k A2s Ablr Abr

más mañana uno medianoche una unos 9 en punto a además menos que a punto a punto de aunque adiós hablar haber

Abrvitura Abrzs Acmos Acstmbras Ai Aia Ants Apntar B.d. Bbr/mos Bea Ben Bnos Brr/s Bsos Ciao

abreviatura abrazos hacemos acostumbras hay gracias antes apuntar buenos días beber/emos Beatriz bien buenos cerveza/s besos adiós

24

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Cole Comnicras Conmgo D Demrs Diccirio Dl Dr E Enkntdo Estre Exo Finde Gsta Gstaria H! H lgo I Io Jovens K Kls Kike. Kmbiar Krmos L Lao Ls Lucy M Marga Mari Mdgar Mejr Mi Mndare Mnra Muxo mxo N N9o Na Nl Nmbr Nos Ns Nrmal Nstro/a Ntendms Nu Num

colegio comunicaras conmigo de demoras diccionario del dar e, he encantado estaré hecho fin de semana gusta gustaría ¡hola! hasta luego y, yo yo jóvenes que clase Enrique cambiar queremos él, lo, la lado los, les, las Lucía me, mi Margarita marihuana madrugar mejor mi, mío mandaré manera mucho mucho en, no nuevo nada en el nombre nosotros nos normal nuestro/a entendemos no, nunca número

NV Nxe Oi Ola Pa Paco Pblo pdes Pede Peli Podio Prfe/s Ps Psrmos Q Respndrt Rpdo Rue/s S Sabms Sben Scrbr sinto Slmos Smpre Sn T Tal Tds Tien Tlfo Trta Turn Vermos Viglando Vlvemos Vlver Vrte Vsto Weno/a X Xa Xcos Xo X fa Xk Xq Xq X/rdos Xtar

nos veremos noche hoy hola para/padre Francisco pueblo puedes puede película podido profesor/es pues pasaremos que responderte rápido calle/s se, es sabemos saben escribir siento salimos siempre son, sin te tal Todos Tiene teléfono trata vuelta veremos vigilando volveremos volver verte visto bueno/a por para chicos pero por favor porque porque por qué recuerdos chatear

Alphabet, spelling, pronunciation

25

SMS 1 H! PPlu. Ns vms a ls 9. , na n9o, e vsto k ls pas ia tinen diccirio d SMS: x ti i xa ti, n sben k nos krmos ablr d lo nstro a nstra mnra, smpre stn viglando k acmos, Muuuuuuxos bsos tio weno!. Lucy. Transcription: Hola, José Luis. Nos vemos a las 9 en punto, nada nuevo, he visto que los padres ya tienen un diccionario de SMS: Hecho por ti y para ti, no saben que nosotros queremos hablar de lo nuestro a nuestra manera, siempre están vigilando qué hacemos. Muchos besos tío bueno. Lucía (A happy face seen in the text allows the expression of the joy felt by the person writing the text. There exist, of course, all sorts of icons which point to anger, satisfaction, fear, sadness, etc.) SMS 2 K tal? Oi slmos x la nxe a dr 1a turn x ls rues dl pblo. T pdes apntar xq lo psrmos ben, vermos a xcos bnos i bbrmos 1s brrs. Vlvemos ants d 1/2nxe xq +ñana ai q mdgar xa ir l cole. Xdos. Bea. Transcription: ¿Qué tal? Hoy salimos por la noche a dar una vuelta por las calles del pueblo. Te puede apuntar porque lo pasaremos bien, veremos chicos buenos y beberemos unas cervezas. Volveremos antes de medianoche porque mañana hay que madrugar para ir al colegio. Saludos. Beatriz. SMS 3 Aia x t SMS. Sinto n abr podio respndrt ants. Estre enkntdo d vlver a vrte. Ciao. Brzs. Kike. Transcription: Gracias por tu SMS. Siento no haber podido responderte antes. Estaré encantado en volver a verte. ¡Hasta pronto! Abrazos. Enrique. SMS 4 B.d.! L sms s weno x la abrvitura, tene 1a parte wena i 1a mala xk t acstmbras a scrbr asi i n ai na pa kmbiar a nrmal, s puede scrbr + rpdo i n t demrs muxo. A2s. Paco Transcription: ¡Buenos días! El SMS es bueno por la abreviatura, tiene una parte buena y una mala porque te acostumbras a escribir así y no hay nada para cambiar a (la forma) normal, se puede escribir más rápido y no te demoras mucho. Francisco SMS 5 ola, a ls prfes n ls gsta xo a mi m parece q ls sms s d lo mejr q ai tds ls jovens lo ntendms i lo sabms scrbr i al q nu le gste ps q mire pa otro lao. M nmre s Marga i m gstaria k t comnicaras conmgo xa xtar. Transcription: Hola. A los profesores no les gusta pero a mí me parece que los SMS es de lo mejor que hay, todos los jóvenes lo entendemos y lo sabemos escribir, y al que no le guste pues que mire para otro lado. Mi nombre es Margarita y me gustaría que te comunicaras conmigo para chatear.

3 Stress and accent marks / Acento tónico y acento ortográfico 3.1

3.1.1

3.1.2

3.1.3

3.1.4

3.1.5

In Spanish, as in English, in words of two or more syllables, one is pronounced more forcibly than the others. This forcible utterance is called stress. In writing, it appears thus: á, é, í, ó, ú. As it would be laborious, unnecessary and even confusing to place an accent mark over every written word, words are grouped into classes. Words coming into these classes do not need the written accent; only the exceptions require it. Here are the basic rules governing the use of stress and the written accent. The greater part of words ending in a vowel are stressed (but not in writing) on the penultimate (next to last) syllable: pero (but), perro (dog), lleva (he/she takes), carro (M)/coche (car), casa (house), bomba (bomb/pump), libro (book). The greater part of words ending in n or s are stressed (but not in writing) on the penultimate syllable: toman (they take, you take), margen (margin/edge), imagen (image/picture), volumen, martes (Tuesday), crisis. The greater part of words ending in consonants other than n or s are stressed (but not in writing) on the last syllable: esperar (to hope/wait for), decir (to say), (all infinitives), alfiler (pin), peral (pear tree), perejil (parsley; and, extraordinarily, the name of a very small island, Persil, a Spanish possession a few hundred yards off the Moroccan coast that gave rise to a diplomatic incident in July 2002), altivez (haughtiness), majestad (majesty), magnitud. All exceptions to these rules require a written accent over the accented syllable: café (coffee/café), pedís (you ask), revés (setback), encontró (she/he met/found), césped (lawn), mármol (marble), ángel, difícil (difficult), fácil (easy). All words stressed on a syllable before the penultimate syllable require an accent mark: músico (musician), héroe (hero), régimen (regime), línea (line), dábamos (we used to give), crepúsculo (twilight), atmósfera, gramática (grammar).

3.2 Rules governing use of written accents 3.2.1 When one or more pronouns are added to any part of a verb in order to shift the accented syllable to the antepenultimate (two before the last one), or still farther from the end, the accent is marked: para comérmelo (for me to eat it all up), para conseguírtelo (to get it for you), dándoselos (giving them to her/him/them, you). 3.2.2 When two Spanish words are combined, each retains its original accent, whether written or not. This is especially common with adverbs: cortésmente (written accent on the first e and stress on the first two ‘e’s), naturalmente (stress on second a and first e), correctamente (stress on the first two ‘e’s), ferrocarril (stress on e and i). 3.2.3 Where there are two monosyllables of identical form, the more emphatic one (tonic as opposed to atonic) is distinguished by a written accent:

26

Stress and accent marks

27

dé (give) (subjunctive of dar) él (he, him) mí (me) más (more) sé (I know, be), (imperative of ser) sí (yes, one self) té (tea) tú (you) ¡vé! (go!) (imperative of ir)

de (of, from) el, the mi, my mas, but se (one self) si (if) te (you) tu (your) ve (sees) (present of ver)

3.2.4 The stress becomes normal when a suffix is added (-ito, -illo, -ote, -ucho, -eda, -azo) so that the written accent disappears: el pájaro > pajarito, el álamo (poplar tree) > la alameda, el periódico > periodicucho (cheap newspaper, rag), el ángel > angelito, la lámpara > lamparilla, el látigo > latigazo (whiplash). With compound words, the written accent of the first element disappears: asimismo (likewise), baloncesto, decimoséptimo (seventeenth), tiovivo (merry-go-round). An exception: the stress mark on adverbs ending in -mente is retained: difícilmente, fácilmente, dócilmente. 3.2.5 Past participles of verbs ending in -aer, -eer, -oer, and that of oír have a written accent: caer > caído, leer > leído, roer (to gnaw) > roído, oír > oído. 3.2.6 If two vowels do not form a diphthong, the one carrying the stress requires an accent: sandía (water melon), período (but also periodo), paraíso, oído (hearing/ear), egoísta, saúco (elder tree), púa (barb, quill [of hedgehog]). 3.2.7 The stress falls on the second vowel when the stressed syllable is a diphthong: triunfo, viuda (widow), siux (Sioux), ruina, diurno (daytime/of the day), jesuita, juicio (judgment), ruido. Note also: aun = even, aún = still; solo = alone, sólo = only.1 Aun los más torpes lo entienden = (Even the dumbest understand it) Aún no ha venido tu papa = (Your father still hasn’t come) Está solo/a = ((S)he’s alone) Tiene sólo cinco años = (She’s only five) 3.2.8 To distinguish between the interrogative or exclamatory from the relative use of pronouns and adverbs, a written accent is placed on the first two. Frequently, Spanishspeakers, even very literate ones, fail to observe this rule. ¿cómo? ¿cuál? ¿cuándo? ¿cuánto? ¿dónde? ¿qué?

(how?) (which?) (when?) (how much?) (where?) (what?)

como cual cuando cuanto donde que

(as, if) (which) (where) (as much) (where) (which, that)

¿Cómo puede hacerlo?/Como no puede hacerlo ahora, será mejor esta tarde. ¿Cuándo vienes?/Viene cuando puede. 1

The RAE now accepts solo as both adverb and adjective, with “solo” used to avoid ambiguity in phrases such as “Estaré solo un mes,” where “solo” could be interpreted as meaning either “alone” or “only.” In this book, “solo” is always used as an adjective (alone) and “sólo” as an adverb (only).

28

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

¿Dónde está el chico?/Sé donde está. ¿Quién lo ha hecho?/Yo sé quien lo ha hecho. ¿Cuál de los dos viene?/Yo sé cual de los dos viene. ¿Cuánto cuesta?/Te doy todo cuanto quieras. ¿Qué dijiste?/Me dice que regresa mañana. 3.2.9 A problem can arise, even for Spanish-speakers, when the question is indirect or a question is implied, as in the following examples. Le pregunté cuándo volvería (I asked her/him when (s)he would come back) ¿Por qué me preguntas dónde está la chava? (M) (Why do you ask me where the girl is?) Notice the upside-down question mark at the beginning of the second sentence. This also applies to an exclamation mark/point: ¡Híjole! (M), ¡Jolín! (both = Gees! Heavens above!).

3.3 Foreign names Whereas, once, foreign names (particularly place names like towns) did not seem to attract a written accent, it is now required, in many cases respecting the tonic accent of the English. The reason for the shift in policy must be that globalization encourages greater recourse to geographical names, while Spanish-speakers hear the names more and are now aware of the place of the tonic accent. Ámsterdam, Aquisgrán (Aachen, Aix-la-Chapelle), Berlín (accent has always been here), Bresláu, Cantón, Dánzig, Dénver, Dublín, Éfeso, Fráncfort, Gran Cañón (accent has always been here), Indianápolis, Kánsas, Los Ángeles, (accent has always been here), Mánchester, Míchigan, Misisipí (accent has always been here), Mónaco, Moscú, Múnich, Nueva Orleáns (uncertainty here, for Nueva Orleans appears as well), Nuevo México, Núremberg, Oregón, París, Pekín, Rosellón, Róterdam, Rumanía (also Rumania), Shanghái, Sídney, Wáshington, Wiscónsin. Note that Florida has no written accent in Spanish since the tonic accent falls naturally on the i. Reference is made to the full range of proper names in Chapter 77.

3.4 Optional accents There is a substantial list of words which offer the options of accent/no accent. Both are admitted by the RAE but this body prefers the words that are asterisked in the list below. acné*/acne, afrodisíaco*/afrodisiaco, amoníaco*/amoniaco, atmósfera/atmosfera, béisbol/beisbol, cardíaco*/cardiaco, demoníaco*/demoniaco, dínamo/dinamo*, elíxir/ elixir*, etíope/etiope, íbero/ibero*, metéoro/meteoro*, océano*/oceano, olimpíada*/ olimpiada, pedíatra/pediatra, período*/periodo, policíaco*/policiaco, Tenochtitlán/ Tenochtitlan (Aztec city), Teotihuacán/Teotihuacan (Aztec city), termóstato/ termostato, zodíaco*/zodiaco

3.5 Differences between Spain and America There are four common nouns where the tonic accent differs between Spain and Spanish America: el chófer (Spain)/el chofer (A, C, M); el Sáhara (Spain)/el Sahara (A, C, M [probably follows the English stress]); el vídeo (Spain)/el video (A, C, M), el fútbol (Spain) el futbol (A, M, C). In the case of Sáhara/Sahara, it would appear that Sáhara is preferred in Spain since this is where the tonic accent falls in Arabic. The Libro de Estilo of El País does not accept Sahara.

Stress and accent marks

29

3.6. Changes in the use of the written accent 3.6.1 There are a number of verbal forms creating a diphthong which once carried an accent, but this is no longer the case as it is not necessary. Such a comment is worth making, since any reading of literature, for instance, in publications of fifty years ago or more reveals the practice of a written accent. The former term appears first in the following examples: fuí/fui, fué/fue, vió/vio, dió/dio. 3.6.2 There was undoubtedly uncertainty surrounding written accents on upper-case letters. Both practices obtained in former times, as witnessed in Lecturas Españolas of Azorín, published in 1912. In the list of contents for this volume one reads: GARCILASO Y GÓNGORA, BALTASAR Y GRACIÁN, LA MÚSICA, PÍO BAROJA, MELANCOLÍA but the relevant chapters in the body of the text bear the titles: GARCILASO Y GONGORA, BALTASAR Y GRACIAN, LA MUSICA, and so on. No such ambiguity exists nowadays, since written accents are required on all upper-case letters: África, Álvaro, Ángel, Ávila, Éufrates, EL PAÍS (Spanish newspaper), DICCIONARIO DE LA ÓPERA, PROHIBIDO PISAR EL CÉSPED. Note that abbreviations take a written accent: página > pág., ídem > íd.

4 Punctuation, upper case, lower case / Puntuación, mayúsculas, minúsculas Here is a passage illustrating many of the features of Spanish punctuation. Note particularly lower case for days and months, the upside-down symbols for exclamation and question marks, and italics for names of books. Note also the difference between upper and lower case in the Paseo del Prado and the sierra de Guadarrama, explained in the text. El domingo pasado, último de mayo, me acerqué a la Cuesta de Moyano, lugar cercano al Paseo del Prado y de la Estación de Mediodía. Desde niño he disfrutado hojeando libros en este paraíso de bibliófilos: extraños personajes de brillantes ojos y pulso acelerado ante la perspectiva de hurgar entre los libros apilados. —¿Qué vale éste? —pregunto al librero, señalando un ejemplar de La venganza de Don Mendo (caricatura de tragedia en cuatro jornadas) de Muñoz Seca. —Vea en la contraportada —me responde, con aire afable. Abro el libro y leo la esquina superior: 2,5 euros; más abajo: “A mi apreciable amigo y condiscípulo D. Anselmo Rubio, 2-1-1975”, después una firma ilegible. —¡Es una ganga! [gift, real find]. Esta obra es bastante difícil de encontrar —me dice el hombre, mirándome directamente a través de sus gafas en equilibrio inestable en el extremo de su diminuta nariz. Me viene a la memoria la fotografía del autor cómico, inventor de aquel género teatral nuevo —“el astracán”— cuyo objetivo último era arrancar la risa al espectador: hombre elegante, metódico, de profunda moralidad, que triunfó durante diez años seguidos con sus graciosísimas obras en toda España. . . Colocado frente al “paredón”, para ser fusilado por sus creencias religiosas y lealtad monárquica; haciendo alarde de su ironía vital, sus últimas palabras fueron: “Me podéis quitar casi todo; pero hay algo que no me podréis quitar. . . : el miedo”. —¡Me lo llevo! ¡Es usted (Ud.) muy persuasivo! Se había levantado el cierzo y empezaba a notarse el frío procedente de la sierra de Guadarrama. Tras abonar el importe me dirigí a una cafetería para enfrascarme en la lectura del libro mientras degustaba un jerez. MAS

4.1 Punctuation Punctuation refers to the system of marks or points inserted in a text to clarify the meaning or to signal a change in pitch or intonation. Some punctuation marks divide discourse according to a scale of grammatical relationships. Spanish use of punctuation marks is very similar to that in English, although there are differences. The following punctuation marks are common currency in Spanish. 4.1.1 The period/full stop (el punto final) (.) indicates the completion of the largest punctuation unit, the sentence. 4.1.1.1 The period/full stop appears at the end of the sentence and, in speech, indicates a pause where descending intonation occurs on the last word pronounced. The following word is written with a capital. 30

Punctuation, upper case, lower case

31

Yo quisiera ir a Argentina en mayo. Tengo que. . . 4.1.1.2 It also marks, logically, the end of a paragraph. 4.1.1.3 It appears at the end of an abbreviation. Sr. (Señor), Sra. (Señora), D. (Don), Da. (Doña), Srta. (Señorita), SS.MM. (Sus Majestades), Ilmo. (Ilustrísimo) (Honorable, as in addressing someone), S.S. (Seguridad Social). For a more extensive list, see online chapter on abbreviations. 4.1.1.4 It separates minutes and hours and indicates abbreviation of horas. 18.40 h., 14.30 h., 1.15 h., 24.00 h. 4.1.1.5 When the period/full stop coincides with a closing of parenthesis or inverted commas, it follows them: Era la primera vez que solicitaba mis servicios (después de un silencio de seis años). Me contestaron que era “imposible mandar la carta”. 4.1.1.6 A period/full stop does not appear after a question or exclamation mark. ¿Viene mañana? ¡Cuánto tiempo sin hacer nada! 4.1.1.7 If the question or exclamation marks are surrounded by a parenthesis, a period/ full stop is used. Me dijo que no sabía donde estaba yo (¿pero cómo no sabía, dado que le acababa de mandar un texto?). No se acordaba de mí (¡y nos habíamos visto el día anterior!). 4.1.1.8 A period/full stop is not, quite naturally, used after suspension/ellipsis points/dot dot dot. (See 4.1.6.) 4.1.1.9 In numbers, a period/full stop is no longer recommended for numbers of a thousand or a million. A space separates every set of three figures. 1 897, 200 478, 8 327 451. A period/full stop is not used for decimals. It does sometimes appear, but only influenced by English. (See Chapter 72 on numbers.) 4.1.2 After the period/full stop, the next in rank is the colon (los dos puntos) i.e. [:] which indicates major divisions within a sentence. 4.1.2.1 The colon points to a pause and is accompanied by descending intonation. But, in contrast to the period, it suggests that the statement is not complete. 4.1.2.2 It precedes an explanatory enumeration. Existen distintas razas de indios en América del Norte: comanches, cheyenes, apaches, navajos, seminolas y otros. 4.1.2.3 It precedes quoted textual words. Dice el refrán: Hombre prevenido vale dos. 4.1.2.4 In letters, dedications, speeches, after the formulaic greeting. Muy señor mío/ Estimado amigo: Me es grato comunicarle que. . . 4.1.2.5 Before a question or exclamation mark. Los mexicanos exclamaron: ¡El rey ha muerto, viva el rey! 4.1.2.6 After propositions such as por ejemplo, a saber, lo siguiente. Debe tomar en cuenta lo siguiente: No se admitirán devoluciones después de quince días (Returned goods are not accepted after a fortnight). Hay varias formas de hacerlo. Por ejemplo: con madera, metal, plástico. Existen dificultades en el país: a saber, la inflación, el paro. . . 4.1.2.7 After verbs like afirmar, comentar, contestar, decir, escribir. Mi madre afirmó/ comentó/contestó/dijo/escribió: No podrás salir esta noche. 4.1.2.8 After words, often in an official context, such as acordar, certificar, decretar, dictaminar (to state), resolver. El secretario del ramo (branch) acuerda: A partir del mes entrante, la nómina (pay) tendrá un aumento del 25 por ciento. El Ayuntamiento decreta: Será sancionado el incumplimiento de pago de. . . Como profesora de este centro, certifico: Juan Larracilla ha aprobado todos sus exámenes.

32

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

4.1.2.9 When an explanation is connected to something to be announced. Eso es lo bonito: que sepáis/sepan (A, C, M) dialogar siempre. Me dijo de siempre: que me callara. 4.1.2.10 The reverse is also possible. Que siempre sepáis/sepan (A, C, M) dialogar: eso es lo bonito. 4.1.2.11 To exemplify something already said. Son claras las razones del problema: drogas, delincuencia, violencia. 4.1.3 In descending order follows the semicolon (el punto y coma) (;). 4.1.3.1 The semi-colon is used to express contrasts. El camino no ofrecía grandes riesgos; pero no me atreví. However, if one clause is short, often a comma will suffice. Lo hizo [here the main clause], pero de mala gana. 4.1.3.2 In a clause, when the pronoun is repeated and is represented by the relative pronouns que and quien. Escribo escenas de la vida real de mi país, de retratos de personas que ya murieron, de edificios que han sido derrumbados (knocked down); que son una especie de bosquejo de lo que ha pasado. 4.1.3.3 In juxtaposed clauses. Los hombres positivos salen adelante (make progress); los negativos nunca alcanzan su meta (reach their goal). 4.1.3.4 To separate enumerations of different elements. Literatura, redacción y gramática; puerta, ventana, pared; canario, gorrión (sparrow), jilguero (goldfinch). 4.1.4 Next comes the comma (la coma) (,), which marks off groups of word units. 4.1.4.1 It is used as a pause when a speaker addresses another person, calling her/him by name (vocative case). María, ven acá. Te he dicho, Juan, que no salgas hoy [here, both before and after Juan]. 4.1.4.2 The comma separates analogous elements. Verbos, sustantivos, adjetivos, adverbios, pronombres, frases, oraciones. However, if there is a linking word like e, ni, o, or y, the comma is not used. Ayer, hoy, mañana y siempre. Compra unos zapatos, una bolsa (purse/handbag [M], but bolso in Spain), un vestido o un suéter. 4.1.4.3 When nouns are placed in apposition. París, la Ciudad Luz, es la capital. México, la Ciudad de los Palacios, es hoy. . . María Elena, la prima de Luis, es mi nueva amiga. 4.1.4.4 The verb may disappear, and this produces an ellipsis. Narcotraficantes, en libertad. 4.1.4.5 The comma serves to isolate conjunctions. Todos conocían el problema, sin embargo, nadie habló. Siguió lloviendo, en consecuencia, no pudimos acudir (come/go). En fin, salimos mañana. 4.1.4.6 The comma is often used when the normal order is inverted. En el patio, detrás de la casa, hay un columpio (swing). 4.1.4.7 Before contrasting conjunctions in short clauses. Es una mujer muy atractiva, pero antipática. 4.1.4.8 Often after adverbial phrases. Al contrario, no pienses mal de él. 4.1.4.9 After separate cities or towns from a larger entity. León, estado de Guanajuato, México. 4.1.4.10 When the family name precedes the first name, as in administration. Murrieta López, Joaquín. 4.1.5 Inverted commas/quotation marks (las comillas) (« » or “ ”)1 1

The alternative form “ ” is the more usual form in English, but is not uncommon in Spanish. “Me saludó con un ‘Buenas’ malhumorado”. Lope de Vega, “Monstruo de la naturaleza”. Both are used in this book.

Punctuation, upper case, lower case

33

4.1.5.1 These encompass the words of a speaker. Benito Juárez dijo: «El respeto al derecho ajeno es la paz». 4.1.5.2 They highlight a word, phrase or sentence. Fue aprobada (She passed) con «magna cum laude» (with highest honors). 4.1.5.3 To use a proverb or saying. «Poderoso caballero es Don Dinero». (Money talks.) 4.1.5.4 They are used ironically. «Cuando le dijeron que era el más fortachón», se echó a reír. 4.1.5.5 In nicknames: Sor Juana fue conocida coma la «Décima Musa». 4.1.5.6 To highlight a proper name, institution, film, painting. Picasso pintó la célebre obra «El Guernica».2 4.1.5.7 To point to watchwords of institutions. El lema de la Universidad Iberoamericana es «La verdad nos hará libres». 4.1.5.8 Foreign words or phrases. Lorena irá de «cámping» al estado de Oaxaca. 4.1.5.9 To indicate that a word or phrase belongs to colloquial language. Eso es bien «chido» (M; marvelous). Ese chico me «chifla». (That boy sends me/I’m crazy about that boy.) 4.1.5.10 To show that a title is an article that forms part of a book, journal, etc. Me gustó mucho «La locura» en aquella revista de (p)sicología. 4.1.5.11 Single quotation marks may be used within double quotation marks. «Me saludó con un malhumorado». (“She greeted me with a grumpy ‘Hello’.”) 4.1.6 Suspension points/ellipsis dot dot dot (los puntos suspensivos) (. . .). 4.1.6.1 These indicate that information, perhaps understood, is withheld, or that something is held in suspense. De pronto, cayó y. . . entonces se abrió la puerta. . . Se oyeron unos pasos y. . . se apagó la luz. . . Se oyó un grito y. . . 4.1.6.2 They also express hesitation, doubt or thoughtfulness. Creo que. . . No, mejor. . . o tal vez. . . No sé si será mejor que vayamos o. . . bueno ya veremos. 4.1.6.3 They express a sudden change in subject. Quisiera contarte mis problemas, pero. . . no merece la pena. 4.1.6.4 They have the value of etcetera in enumerations. Son muchos los turistas que vienen a Argentina: americanos, coreanos, japoneses. . . 4.1.6.5 Question or exclamation marks generally come before suspension points. ¡Adelante!. . . ¿Qué has hecho?. . . When the word or sentence is incomplete, however, they come after. ¡Eres un hijo de p. . .! (You’re a son of a bitch!) 4.1.7 Parentheses/brackets (los paréntesis) ( ). 4.1.7.1 These are used to enclose a phrase by way of clarification. Nací en El Espinar (Segovia). Mis convecinos (muchos no asisten a las reuniones de comunidad) protestaron por tener que pagar un recibo extra. 4.1.7.2 They also appear in plays to mark an aside. Hicieron un aparte para comentar la situación. (Oye, lo que dicen es una locura.) 4.1.8 Square brackets (los corchetes) [ ]. Square brackets are the same as parentheses but occur in special circumstances. 4.1.8.1 They encompass dates and clarifications within a text which is already in parentheses. La última edición del Diccionario de la RAE (diccionario general o usual [2006]) recoge un sinfín (countless number) de neologismos. 2

Quotation marks are not used in reference to book titles. Italics (itálica [note the singular here] or letra cursiva) are used here. Leí Don Quijote el año pasado. Acabo de terminar Niebla de Unamuno.

34

4.1.9

4.1.10

4.1.11

4.1.12

A Reference Grammar of Spanish 4.1.8.2 They are used to encompass suspension points/ellipses/dot dot dot which indicate in the literally quoted text a word or sequence of words that are not reproduced. Volverán las golondrinas [. . .] (The swallows will return); pero [. . .] aquéllas que aprendieron nuestros nombres ¡ésas no volverán! Interrogation point/question mark (los signos de interrogación [note the plural here]) (¿ ?). 4.1.9.1 The interrogation point in Spanish appears at the beginning of the sentence or interrogative phrase (upside down), as well as at the end. Both are required, at the beginning and at the end. 4.1.9.2 They naturally occur in questions. ¿Dónde está la chava? (M; girl). ¿Qué has hecho? ¿Quién está en el cuarto? ¿Cuándo vienes? 4.1.9.3 The closing sign is used within parentheses in order to indicate credulity, doubt, irony or surprise. María dice que tiene cuarenta años(?). Dijo que no se había enterado(?). 4.1.9.4 Sometimes a statement can be a question and exclamation at the same time. In such a case, the exclamation point/mark lies at the beginning and the question mark at the end, or vice versa. ¡Acaso no eres un hombre? ¿Acaso no eres un hombre! 4.1.9.5 No period/full stop is used with the question mark. 4.1.9.6 The question mark is compatible with a comma, colon, semicolon and suspension points/ellipsis dot dot dot. ¿En qué sitio estabas?, ¿en la plaza? ¿Adónde vas?, ¿a la compra? ¿Por qué quería ir al mercadillo para comprar. . .? Exclamation point/mark (los signos de exclamación/admiración [note the plural here]) (¡ !). 4.1.10.1 The exclamation point/mark appears at the beginning and the end of the sentence or exclamatory phrase, the first one being upside down. They reproduce exclamations expressing emotions, admiration, fear, anger, pain, joy, and so on. ¡Qué alegría! ¡Qué barbaridad! ¡Qué bueno! ¡Qué bien! ¡Vaya! se me ha vuelto a caer. (Damn, it’s fallen down again.) 4.1.10.2 The closing mark in parenthesis indicates amazement. Creo que he acertado(!); ¡ya era hora! 4.1.10.3 As with the question mark, no full stop is used with the exclamation point/mark. 4.1.10.4 The exclamation point/mark is compatible with the comma. ¡Auxilio!, échenme una mano. (Help! Give me a hand.) Dash (la raya) (—). 4.1.11.1 The raya is longer than the guión. (See 4.1.12 below.) 4.1.11.2 It indicates the beginning of a monologue/dialogue in a novel, etc., without the need to point out who is speaking: —¿Le enseñaste el libro? —Sí, le gustó mucho. 4.1.11.3 If a speaker is indicated, with a verb, for example, the guión appears at the end as well, close up to spoken words that may follow dialogue. —¿Le enseñaste el libro? —preguntó María. —Sí, le gustó mucho —replicó Antonio. Hyphen (el guión).

Punctuation, upper case, lower case

35

4.1.12.1 The guión is used to split words at the end of a line. ca-sa, es-tatua, peque-ño, infor-mación. 4.1.12.2 To join up components of certain compound words. anglo-egipcio, hispanoamericano, teórico-práctico. 4.1.13 Bold, italics, underlining (negrita/negrilla [M], itálica/cursiva/bastardilla [R3], subrayar/ subrayado) 4.1.13.1 These are used to highlight letters, words, phrases or sentences. Hay que poner/pasar «dinámico» en negrita/negrilla > dinámico. Hay que poner/pasar «fórmula» en bastardilla/cursiva/itálica > fórmula. No dejes de subrayar la palabra «honor» > honor. 4.1.13.2 Italics are used for titles of books, songs, operas and articles. Fervor de Buenos Aires (Borges), Duelo en el Paraíso (Goytisolo), Crimen y castigo (Dostoevsky), Los payasos (Leoncavallo), Caballería rusticana (Mascagni). Ver el artículo (in a book) La influencia italiana en España (but also “La influencia en Espãna”)

4.2 Upper case (mayúsculas) (A, B, C. . .) In the following cases, the upper case (capital letters) is used. 4.2.1 To start a sentence. Yo que tú, lo haría. (If I were you, I would do it.) 4.2.2 For proper names, pseudonyms and nicknames. Juan, Juana, García Lorca, Paco, El Cid Campeador 4.2.3 Names designating divinities. Dios (i. e. considered as a single and only god), Jesucristo, El Redentor (Redeemer), Venus, Afrodita, Baco, Dionisio, Priapo, Titán, Prometeo, Zeus, Júpiter, La Pachamama (Earth goddess in southern cone) 4.2.4 Names designating lofty positions. El Papa, el Presidente, el Rey, Su Majestad, Su Eminencia, Su Excelencia, Su Santidad 4.2.5 Names of feasts. El Domingo de Ramos (Palm Sunday), Navidad(es), Semana Santa, Ascensión, Día de los Muertos (Mexico’s most celebrated fiesta), Posada (Mexico’s candlelit parade of children and adults), Día de la Raza (M)/Día de la Hispanidad (commemorating Columbus’ arrival in the New World) 4.2.6 When referring to the cardinal points which have a proper character. Continúa la pugna (struggle) entre Oriente y Occidente. 4.2.7 When using names of stars and constellations. la Tierra (not to be confused with tierra [earth, soil], la Luna, el Sol (not to be confused with sol, e.g. Le gusta tomar el sol), la Osa Mayor 4.2.8 When referring to the state as a sovereign entity. el Estado Colombiano 4.2.9 When speaking of government and church. La Iglesia y el Gobierno se pronunciaron contra la tortura. 4.2.10 When writing abbreviations and acronyms. (See online chapter on abbreviations.) OEA (Organización de Estados Americanos), OTAN (Organización del Tratado del Atlántico Norte) 4.2.11 When using the first two or three letters of words of an organization. Pemex (Petróleos Mexicanos) 4.2.12 When using Roman numerals which indicate volume, chapter, assembly, royalty and emperor. Carlos V, X Congreso Nacional Finalizó el siglo XX hace unos años. 4.2.13 On signs. COMISARÍA, PANADERÍA, TELÉFONOS, GUARDIA CIVIL, CORREOS, EL MUSEO DEL PRADO

36

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

4.2.14 As noted 3.6.2 above, written accents are now placed above capital letters. Formerly, this was not the case. 4.2.15 Names of religious orders. El Carmelo, El Temple, La Merced, La Calatrava 4.2.16 Prizes, distinctions and important cultural events. el Premio Cervantes/Nobel, los Goya, la Feria del Libro 4.2.17 When a noun forms part of the title. (See 4.3.13 below.) el Paseo del Prado 4.2.18 Points on the compass (los puntos del horizonte). The issue of whether to write Norte or norte, Sur or sur, Este or este, Oeste or oeste and their variants (Noroeste/noroeste, Suroeste/suroeste) is as complicated as North/north, South/south, Northern/northern, etc. In his Diccionario de dudas, Manual Seco reports that the Academia de la lengua (ADL) makes no comment on this feature. There is even a note of censure in his book on the way the ADL handles the issue. Clearly, there is no standard, uniform way of presenting the points of the compass. Seco embarks on the debate by stating that geographers prefer small letters, except where proper names are involved. América del Norte/Sur, el Cono Sur, los antiguos países del Este, el Mediodía (Midi) de Francia, la civilización de Occidente However, dictionaries and some grammar books consulted recommend capitals. The Diccionario Salamanca, the Diccionario de la lengua española and Gómez Torrego’s Gramática state clearly that only capitals are acceptable. Both upper and lower cases are admitted, and consistency is to be recommended. Abbreviations always attract a capital. N (norte), S (sur), E (este), O (oeste), NW/O (noroeste), SE (sureste/sudeste), SW/O (suroeste/sudoeste)

4.3 Lower case (minúsculas) (a, b, c. . .) 4.3.1 As opposed to English, lower case (small letters) is used in the following cases: • days of the week (lunes, martes) • months of the year (diciembre, enero) • seasons of the year (otoño, primavera). (See Chapter 72 on time.) But upper case is used with important dates, festivals or proper names. Primero de Mayo, Primavera de Praga, Viernes Santo, Hospital Doce de Octubre 4.3.2 Usted is in lower case except when abbreviated to Ud. (the alternative form Vd. is less common now). 4.3.3 Adjectives relating to countries and regions, whatever their derivations, are normally in lower case. El continente sudamericano, las pampas argentinas, las sierras mexicanas 4.3.4 Nouns of inhabitants of countries (gentilicios) and towns also appear in lower case. los chilenos, las argentinas, las sevillanas, los bonaerenses (from the province of Buenos Aires), los mexiquenses (from the state of Mexico), los neoyorkinos (New Yorkers) 4.3.5 The pronoun yo is written in lower case, except at the beginning of a sentence. 4.3.6 Titles and names of dignitaries receive a small letter when followed by a name. el rey Felipe IV, el papa Juan Pablo II, el presidente de Nicaragua 4.3.7 Lower-case letters apply to names of books, operas, songs, articles, except the initial letter, and proper names. El concierto de San Ovidio (Buero Vallejo), El laberinto de la soledad/Vuelta a El laberinto de la soledad (Octavio Paz), El amor en los tiempos del cólera (García Márquez), El túnel (Sábato), La cabalgata de las Walkirias (Wagner) 4.3.8 Musical notes appear in small letters. do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si 4.3.9 Proper names that apply generically. Siempre vas de quijote por la vida.

Punctuation, upper case, lower case

37

Su padre, de joven, era un donjuán. 4.3.10 Many objects associated with inventors, discoverers, industrialists or anyone who has popularized something. un zepelín, un braille, los quevedos (small, round, metal rimmed glasses, reminiscent of the Renaissance Spanish poet Quevedo). There is considerable hesitation here over upper case or lower case. The same comment applies to 4.3.11, 4.3.12 and 4.3.13. (See also Chapter 9 on gender.) 4.3.11 Objects associated with places. un rioja (wine), un damasco (cloth), un fez (hat typical of Fez, Morocco) 4.3.12 Objects associated with commercial makes, but which have become generic. Me aficioné al martini/vermú seco 4.3.13 Generic geographical names. la ciudad de Panamá/México, el río Amazonas, la sierra de Gredos, la cordillera de los Andes, el cabo de Hornos (Cape Horn). However, if the generic name forms part of the proper name, upper case applies. la Sierra Madre Oriental/ Occidental, Ciudad Real, Río de la Plata, Sierra Nevada, los Picos de Europa 4.3.14 Names of winds, unless personified in poetry or mythology. céfiro, austro, bóreas, tramontana (in northeastern Spain), mistral (cold wind in southern France), siroco (hot wind blowing from the Sahara to southern Europe), sudestada (southeastern storm wind in Argentina) 4.3.15 Names of religions. catolicismo, budismo, islamismo, cristianismo, protestantismo, judaísmo, mormonismo, cristadelfianismo, adventismo, hinduísmo, confucianismo 4.3.16 Names of tribes. los (pueblos) mayas/incas/aztecas 4.3.17 Forms of address. usted (see 4.3.2 above), señor, fray, don, san(to), sor (to a nun), reverendo. However, when abbreviated, an initial capital is required. Ud., Sr., Fr., D., Sto., Rvdo. Also when the coining of a name becomes a proper name, an initial capital is necessary. Fray Luis (fray Luis de León), Sor Juana (sor Inés de la Cruz), Santa Teresa (santa Teresa de Ávila/Jesús)

5 Apocopation / Apócope Below is a passage illustrating, in a limited way, how apocopation functions in Spanish. The highlighted words indicate this. —¡Es un niño, el primer niño de la familia! —le dijo la matrona sonriendo, según mostraba al recién nacido. Él miró de soslayo (looked out of the corner of his eye) como hubiera hecho cualquiera en esas circunstancias. Cualquier hombre puede ser padre, y quien “hace un cesto hace ciento”, lo importante es que fuera un buen hijo, no un santo, tanto no hacía falta, no un San Antonio, pero sí que fuera tan sacrificado por su familia cuan lo habían sido todos los varones de la familia durante tantas generaciones. Le miró despacio: tenía una gran boca, que no dejaba de abrir gimiendo como un gatillo, era grande y hermoso con aquellos ojos grandes. . ., pero algo extraño había en el asunto que no encajaba. ¡El niño era blanco, pecoso y pelirrojo!, y él era cien por cien moreno aceitunado, como tantos corsos y, tal como su esposa y todos sus abuelos y tatarabuelos sicilianos. ¡Cuan sorprendente es la vida! ¡Cuantas sorpresas nos guarda! Pensó que debía descambiar en el mismo lote (change in the same batch), hijo y mujer.

5.1 Words affected by apocopation Apocopation is a phenomenon which does not exist in English. It refers to the loss of final letter(s) or sound(s) of a word. It affects essentially qualifying, ordinal or indefinite adjectives. (See also Chapters 60, 69 and 72 on adjectives, indefinite pronouns and numbers, respectively). It only occurs in certain circumstances, which vary according to each case, as set out below. 5.1.1 Apocopation occurs when the qualifying adjectives bueno and malo, the ordinal numbers primero and tercero, and the indefinite adjectives alguno and ninguno lose their final o before a masculine singular noun. bueno > buen, malo > mal, primero > primer, tercero > tercer, alguno > algún, ninguno > ningún. Juan es un buen hijo. María tiene un buen trabajo. ¡Buen viaje! Su padre no está de buen humor. Es un mal amigo. Tiene un mal despertar. (She’s grumpy when she wakes up.) Adán fue el primer hombre. En primer lugar. . . El tercer ejemplo es incorrecto. Siempre surge algún contratiempo. (There’s always some mishap.) Iré algún día. Ponlo en algún lugar seguro. (Put it in a safe place.) 38

Apocopation

39

The ordinals primero and tercero, like the indefinite adjectives alguno and ninguno are also, but not always, apocopated when they are separated from the masculine noun by a qualifying adjective or by the indefinite adjective otro. Hizo su primer gran viaje el año pasado. Leí el tercer pequeño capítulo ayer por la tarde. Oigo algún débil ruido. El agente esperaba algún cliente posible. No veo a ningún otro chico en el patio. One sees the retention of the o in primero when primero combines with another adjective. Schoen Pérez escribe como si fuera el primero y último día de su vida. 5.1.2 In Argentina, Colombia and Mexico, apocopation can easily take place with the feminine form primera. This is R1 colloquial usage and not to be copied, for all its currency in the three countries cited. In Spain, it is considered an archaism. la primer casa/novela/ página/película/persona 5.1.3 The qualifying adjective grande and the indefinite pronoun cualquiera are apocopated when they are followed by a masculine or feminine noun. Ése es un gran coche. Le di un gran cubo. Es una gran escritora. Es una gran ciudad. Dame cualquier libro. Se adapta a cualquier clase de circunstancias. The adjective grande is not apocopated when it is used as a superlative. Trabajaba con el más grande cuidado. Reveló un secreto de la más grande importancia. The indefinite adjective cualquiera is also apocopated when it is separated from a noun by a qualifying adjective or by the indefinite otro. Arreglaba cualquier pequeña avería en la casa. Iremos a cualquier otro restaurante Grande and bueno do not assume the shortened forms if any word comes between them and their nouns. Un bueno y cariñoso padre. Un grande y estimable amigo. 5.1.4 The numeral ciento is apocopated to cien when it precedes a masculine or feminine noun in the plural, and when it multiplies the numbers mil, millones and billones. El mesero (M; waiter) recibió una propina de cien dólares. Construyeron cien casas en seis meses. Asistieron al partido cien mil espectadores. México tiene más de cien millones de habitantes. El gobierno X tuvo que pagar cien billones de libras esterlinas. But ciento takes its full form before all other numerals. ciento uno, ciento dieciséis (See Chapter 72.1.3 on numbers.) In percentage expressions, the formula por ciento is used. En un noventa por ciento de los casos. . . But the use of the apocopated form cien in this formula is R1. En un noventa por cien de los casos. . . However, if totality is expressed, both are used. Cien por cien. Este aparato es cien por cien japonés. However, in A, C, M, and the Americas generally, cien por ciento is the norm. A cada trabajador se le exige cien por ciento de eficacia.

40

5.1.5

5.1.6

5.1.7

5.1.8

5.1.9

5.1.10

5.1.11

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Apocopation also occurs when ciento functions as a pronoun. El futbolista iba buscando su gol número cien. Uno, dos, tres, cuatro. . . hasta el cien. Uno (a) is apocopated to un when it precedes a masculine noun. Veo a un niño. Subió a un árbol. Apocopation still takes place if an adjective intervenes between uno and the noun. Se compró un magnífico carro (M). Estoy leyendo un espléndido libro. The feminine form una (a) usually loses its a before feminine nouns which begin with a tonic a. un águila, un hacha Although una before such words is not considered incorrect, it should be classed as R1, and can be heard in popular speech, in C, for example. una águila, una hacha However, if an adjective occurs between una and the noun, apocopation does not take place. una majestuosa águila, una afilada (sharp) hacha When the adjective follows the feminine noun, it must agree with it. un águila majestuosa, un hacha afilada Majestuoso and afilado in these two cases are R1. Apocopation of the indefinite article does not take place when an adjective beginning with a stressed a precedes a noun. una amplia recopilación (collection) de textos, una amplia gama (range) de colores, una amplia zona Of course, in rapid speech, the a of the indefinite article would be lost. When uno (one, i.e. a numeral) precedes a masculine noun, it is apocopated to un. No quedó ni un soldado vivo. Afortunadamente, no había más que un policía. When uno and una are components of other numerals, written in one or various words, apocopation occurs. Tengo veintún años. Hasta ahora ha escrito treinta y una novelas. Ha reunido una colección de cuarenta y un(a) hachas. Apocopation of uno and its compounds is not admitted when they do not come before a noun, although it does occur in speech. El treinta y uno por ciento. El treinta y un por cien. (R1) Much of the above information on numbers is expanded in Chapter 72. The adjective santo is apocopated to san before the proper name of a saint recognized by the Catholic Church, unless the name begins with Do or To. San Pablo, San Pedro, San Francisco, San Bartolomé, San Juan, San Mateo Santo Domingo, Santo Tomás, Santo Tomé, San Toribio (an exception to the rule), El Santo Padre Santo is not used before Santiago (Saint James), since it is already included in this name. A la Vía Láctea la llaman los españoles el Camino de Santiago. The adverbs cuanto and tanto lose their last syllable before an adjective, another adverb or an adverbial saying. They occur in exclamations. ¡Cuán lista es esta niña! (How clever this child is!) ¡Cuán cerca está tu casa de aquí! (How near your house is to here!) Cuán can also appear in indirect and exclamatory clauses. No sabes cuán fácil me resultó el examen. (You can’t imagine how easy the exam was for me.) No seas tan orgullosa. (Don’t be so proud.)

Apocopation

41

No esperaba hacer el examen tan bien. (He didn’t expect to do so well in the exam.) No te tomes las cosas tan a pecho. (Don’t take things so much to heart.) 5.1.12 The adverb recientemente loses its adverbial ending before a past participle when it is used as an adjective. It is placed before participles which express a process that is still going on. Los recién llegados eran turistas holandeses. (The new arrivals were Dutch tourists.) Pon en el armario la ropa recién lavada. (Put the freshly laundered clothes in the closet/ cupboard.) Tengo café recién hecho. (I have recently brewed coffee.) pan recién cocido, un recién nacido (a new born), los recién casados (the newlyweds) Recién also operates like an ablative absolute, suggesting as soon as/hardly. Recién iniciada la charla, sonaron los primeros aplausos. (As soon as the talk had started. . .) Recién construída la torre, hubo que reforzarla. (As soon as the tower had been built. . .) Recién salidos del puerto, comenzó a relampaguear. (As soon as we had left the port. . .). Recién is also used in prepositional constructions. Con la cara lavada y recién peinada. . . (Having just washed her face and combed her hair. . .) Con el pelo recién cortado. . . (With his hair just cut. . .) 5.1.13 Recién is also used in Argentina, before and after verbs. This construction does not appear in Spain, Colombia or Mexico. It suggests to have/had just. Recién hablé con su madre. (I’ve just spoken with her mother.) Mi tía Lola recién tuvo una niña. (My aunt Lola has just had a little girl.) Había recién egresado de la escuela. (He had just left school.) 5.1.14 Recién may also be used in Argentina with certain adjectives coming from verbs which express a concluded action. Such a construction also appears in Spain. En mi habitación recién limpia. . . (In my room that I have just cleaned. . .) Juan, recién despierto, está acostado. (Having just woken up, Juan is lying down.)

6 Agreement / Concordancia Below is a piece of Spanish illustrating, in a limited way, how agreement between nouns and verbs, and adjectives and nouns, functions. Relevant words/parts of words are shown in bold. Casi la mitad de los alumnos salieron temprano en el autobús; la mayoría llevaba chubasquero y paraguas, porque, a pesar de que un poco antes una infinidad de estrellas titilaban (sparkled) en el cielo, el amanecer auguraba tormentas, y todos temían que la excursión terminara pasada por agua. El grupo de alumnos iba afectado, temiendo pasar el día bajo la lluvia o el granizo, hasta que uno de ellos logró animar el viaje sacando una vieja armónica y comenzando a tocar alegres melodías, consiguió que los compañeros relajaran el ánimo, y a poco, se elevaron las canciones por encima del ruido del desvencijado (worn out) motor. (Treatment of agreement appears throughout this book. For example, gender and number are analyzed in Part II; verbs and agreement of endings according to the subject receive attention in Part III; tenses according to the coincidence of main and subordinate clauses are also dealt with in Part III; and agreement of adjectives with nouns are examined in Parts VI and VIII. Nevertheless, at the risk of a slight overlap between the present chapter and other chapters in the book, it seems helpful to deal in a general way with the concept of agreement between various grammatical accidences since it is a fundamental feature of all Romance languages, and Spanish is no exception.) Many words change according to tense, person, case, number and gender. However, one can distinguish two main types of agreement: (a) Nominal agreement, which entails the coincidence of gender and number. This kind of agreement establishes the correct relationship between the noun and article or adjectives which accompany it (la casa blanca; estos viejos libros). It also governs the relationship between a pronoun and its antecedent or subsequent feature (a tus hijas las vi ayer; les di tu celular a los chicos). It affects the way in which the subject relates to the attribute (mi hijo es un santo), or in which the subject relates to the complement (ella se encontraba cansada); or in which the subject relates to a verb in the passive (esas casas fueron construidas a principios de siglo). (b) Verbal agreement, which requires coincidence of number and person (subject), and verb ending. El carro (C, M) corre mucho. (The car travels fast.) Las chicas/Ellas cocinan muy bien.

6.1 General rules 6.1.1 Two or more nouns or pronouns in the singular form a group which agrees with the verb and adjective in the plural. La sal y el agua son necesarias para la vida. Poner a remojo (soak) la cebolla y la zanahoria picadas durante quince minutos. 42

Agreement

6.1.2

6.1.3

6.1.4 6.1.5

6.1.6 6.1.7

6.1.8

6.1.9

6.1.10 6.1.11

6.1.12

43

El oxígeno, el hidrógeno y el carbono los proporciona el medio. (The atmosphere provides oxygen, hydrogen and carbon.) Two or more nouns or pronouns, of different gender, are qualified by a masculine adjective or pronoun. Hay que freír la cebolla y el ajo picados. La casa y el jardín son magníficos. Ni ellos ni ellas son listos. (Neither the boys nor the girls are clever.) If a noun is coordinated with the second person pronoun (tú) (less in Argentina; see voseo in Chapter 56 on pronouns), the verb is placed in the vosotros form. This applies only to the Iberian Peninsula. Papá y tú iréis juntos al cine. In all Spanish America, the Ustedes form is used. Papá y tú irán juntos al cine. If one of the pronouns is in the first person, agreement is made in the first person plural. ¿Te acuerdas de aquel día en que bailamos, tú y yo? Where there is a single determiner for various nouns, each noun is preceded by, for example, the definite article or the possessive adjective. La madre y la hija fueron a Argentina. Este permiso podrá ser disfrutado por la madre y el padre. Aprovecharon ilegalmente mi capital y mis acciones. It is not uncommon, however, to see: El matador y toro se entregaron a una lucha. . . (R1) Dejé mi cartera y llaves en la silla. (R1) (Purists would advocate “mis llaves”.) However, if the nouns refer to the same person, the loss of one determiner is permissible. La mujer y representante del empresario dijo que. . . The loss of the determiner is also allowed when the nouns are preceded by an adjective. Acostumbra cocer su propio pan y pizzas en el horno. (He usually bakes his own bread and pizzas in the oven.) The determiner is not necessarily repeated if the same concept is involved. Admiro vuestro empeño y dedicación (Spain only) (vuestra dedicación is also possible and would be preferred by the purist). Las ventanas y balcones estaban cerrados. When an adjective follows more than one noun, the preferred form for the adjective is masculine plural. Tiene el pelo y la barba enmarañados. Apareció vestida con traje y mantilla blancos. However, if only the mantilla were white, blanca would be used. If the nouns are conceived as a single unit, the adjective can agree in gender and number with the nearest noun. La gente de origen y habla francesa. . . When an adjective is placed before one or more nouns, the adjective normally agrees with the first noun. La indispensable vigilancia y control nocturnos. . . El rey destruyó su propio reino y dinastía. It is not uncommon for propio in this case to agree with the two following nouns, but this is R1 and is condemned by purists. But if proper names are used as nouns, the preceding adjective is in the plural. Los simpáticos Paco y Toni. When an adjective is placed after the noun which itself is linked to another noun by the conjunction o, the adjective is placed in the plural, provided that the adjective does not apply exclusively to that second noun. Cada vez que mueren un hombre o una mujer viejos. . . Hubo un silencio, el silencio o la pausa necesarios para. . .

44

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

El baño o la ducha diaria son beneficiosos. (ducha is not used in M = regaderazo) 6.1.13 More than one adjective in the singular can modify a plural noun when they define different parts of that noun. Las razas blanca y negra. Las lenguas alemana y japonesa. Las intenciones española y mexicana. 6.1.14 When more than one ordinal number follows and modifies the same noun, they remain in the singular but the noun is placed in the plural. El ascensor llegó abarrotado (packed) desde los sótanos (basement) primero y segundo. 6.1.15 When the ordinal numbers come before the noun, the noun may be plural or singular, but the ordinal numbers remain in the singular. Entre el cuarto y sexto piso/pisos. Leí el segundo y tercer acto/actos del drama. Note that when ordinals are used as adverbs, they do not agree with the noun. Primero llegaron las chicas, y después los chicos. 6.1.16 When a cardinal number functions as an ordinal number, it may be masculine or feminine. Busca la página doscientos/doscientas. 6.1.17 The nouns alteza, majestad, eminencia, señoría (lordship, your honour) and excelencia attract feminine determiners and adjectives, irrespective of the sex of the person referred to. Nos dirigimos a vuestra excelencia para manifestarle nuestra gratitud. Su Graciosa Majestad Británica, Jorge Sexto/Isabel Segunda. There can be some confusion over gender in the following sentences, where one noun is masculine and the other feminine, but the masculine form prevails. Su Majestad el Rey de España es digno de todos los honores. Su Eminencia el Cardenal fue premiado con el título de. . . When the noun is undoubtedly feminine but the gender of the person is male, the masculine form again prevails. Sus señorías estaban enfrascados en una fuerte discusión sobre. . . 6.1.18 When a noun is followed by de tipo/carácter and then an adjective, the adjective is placed in the masculine. Las discusiones de tipo/carácter económico. . . But: La situación puede obedecer a una razón de tipo estratégica. (R1 and therefore not accepted by purists.) 6.1.19 With the construction lo + adjective + que, the adjective agrees in number and gender with the noun referred to. No te puedo decir lo contentos que estuvieron. Esto demuestra lo espabiladas (alert) que son las chicas. 6.1.20 In reciprocal constructions of the type (el) uno con (el) otro, (la) una con (la) otra, if the sex of the persons referred to is not defined, the masculine form takes priority. Hablan bien el uno del otro. (Here, the sex is ambiguous.) Se apoyan unas a otras. (Here, the sex is female.) 6.1.21 If the sex is clearly defined (i.e. one male and one female), then the masculine form is used. Celebraron las bodas de oro, y no sabían vivir ni un instante el uno sin el otro. However, one does occasionally see masculine and female forms when the sex is clearly defined. Desde el principio, los enamorados se hicieron mucha gracia el uno a la otra. 6.1.22 Two singular nouns require a verb in the plural. El niño y la niña juegan en el jardín. However, if there exists a kind of unity between the two nouns, a singular verb is possible. El desorden y la algarabía (excitement) es total. (In this case, la may be omitted.)

Agreement

45

6.1.23 When the verb precedes the subjects (i.e. two nouns), it is often placed in the singular. Me gusta la piña y el mango. This is especially so when the determiners are not used. Sólo le quedaba ánimo y tiempo para. . . 6.1.24 When coordinated elements are the self-same person or thing, the verb is necessarily placed in the singular. La actriz y cantante está bastante molesta (upset). 6.1.25 If the coordinated elements are grammatically neutral, like infinitives, the verb is in the singular. Sumar y restar (adding and subtracting) es fácil. Ni aquello ni esto es posible. However, if the complement suggests a plural idea or is plural, then the verb is plural. Informar y opinar son dos fines esenciales del periodismo. 6.1.26 If the subject of the sentence is linked to another subject with junto con, además de or así como, the verb may be in the singular or the plural. Juan, junto con su padre, reparó el carro. El saxo, así como otros instrumentos de viento, es muy difícil de tocar. El profesor, además de los alumnos, pintó el aula. Dormía mi hija en la habitación, junto con su hermana. El médico, junto con sus colegas, cruzaron el puente. La llegada, así como la salida, fueron muy fáciles. 6.1.27 Similarly, a noun followed by con and another noun may be used with a verb in the singular or plural. El mesero (M) con sus ayudantes pone los cubiertos. Llegaron al puerto el padre con el hijo. El doctor con su esposa llegaron tarde. Of course, if esposa came after the verb, the verb would be in the singular = llegó. 6.1.28 In the expression tanto. . . como, the verb is plural. Tanto mi hermano como mi hermana hablan un español perfecto. Tanto los mexicanos como los colombianos respetan esta ley. 6.1.29 A disjunctive or contrastive o is used with either a singular or plural verb. El juicio es diferente si lo expresa un hombre o una mujer. Sólo un imbécil o un ciego podría confundirla con su madre. Mi madre o mi abuela debieron de preparar la cena. However, when the two subjects in question have a similar identity or equivalence, a singular verb is usual. El roble (oak tree) o la encina (holm oak) no forma grandes masas. 6.1.30 When one noun is accompanied by two ordinal numbers, the verb is placed in the plural. La primera y segunda división son casi iguales. 6.1.31 The singular subject of a collective noun, such as gente, familia, gobierno, policía, rebaño (flock), ejército is normally followed by a singular verb. La gente prefiere ir al cine. La familia está de vacaciones. But, if we go from one clause to another, a plural is possible. La gente se acercaba y en cuanto veían la escena chillaban. Pregunté a la gente cómo se imaginaban el infierno. However, with the verb ser and when the complement is plural, ser is plural: Esta gente son asesinos. 6.1.32 When stating the gender of a noun, the adjective is masculine. Cabeza no es masculino, es femenino. Casa no puede ser masculino.

46

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

6.1.33 When the collective noun includes the person speaking, the first or second person plural obtains, particularly in R1 speech. La gente de teatro nos conformamos (we are satisfied with/settle for/content ourselves with) con poco. La gente mayor siempre habláis/hablan (A, C, M) de los tiempos pasados. 6.1.34 When a quantifying noun is followed by de + noun in the plural, in most cases the verb can be in the singular or plural. Logic requires a plural verb, while grammar requires a singular verb, (See also Section 10.14 on number for a full development of this issue.) A selection of quantifiers follow. la mitad de los alumnos, la mayoría de los dentistas, una minoría de los obreros, el resto de los vecinos, el diez por ciento de los votantes, un grupo de turistas, un montón de coches, infinidad de estrellas, multitud de problemas, horda de gamberros (hooligans/vandals) La mitad de los alumnos salió/salieron temprano. La mayoría de los dentistas reivindicó/reivindicaron sus derechos. El diez por ciento de los votantes se opuso/opusieron a la ley. Una horda de gamberros invadió/invadieron la sala de fiestas. Una infinidad de estrellas centelleaba/centelleaban en el firmamento. However, if the initial noun is used alone, only the singular verb is possible. La mayoría/ la mitad salió/jugó. 6.1.35 When an adjective or past participle comes before a noun, it can be feminine or plural. Pasada la media noche. . . (After midnight. . .) Tengo comprada una casa. (I’ve bought a house.) But: He comprado una casa. Tiene intacta su afición al tenis. (His keenness on tennis has not wavered.) Hizo pública su opinión/posición. (He made his opinion/position public.) Dejó plasmadas sus intenciones. (She made her intentions clear.) Son épocas que tienen olvidadas. (They are periods quite forgotten.) 6.1.36 Past participles also agree with nouns. Dejé la puerta abierta. (I left the door open.) Tres niños la mantenían atareada. (Three children kept her busy.) 6.1.37 The construction uno de los que may lead to a singular or plural verb. Uno de los que logró/lograron nadar hasta la isla. . . Uno de los que votó/votaron en contra fue. . . However, if this construction forms the complement of a clause, and the subject of the verb ser is a first or second person singular pronoun (yo/tú/vos), a verb in the plural is preferred. Yo era uno de los que se manifestaron en la calle. 6.1.38 The construction yo soy de los que, tú eres/vos sos que (A) would normally require a verb in the plural. Soy de los que piensan que. . . But it is possible to say: Yo soy de los que cree. . . Note that a third person singular or plural is needed here and not, for example, a first person singular. Soy de los que pienso que. . . (R1) 6.1.39 The constructions yo soy el que/quien, tú eres/vos sos el que/quien would usually require a third person verb. Yo soy el que manda aquí. But in colloquial language one hears: Yo soy la que tengo control. (R1) If the above construction is inverted, the preferable construction is: El que manda soy yo. But in colloquial language one hears: El que mando soy yo. (R1)

Agreement

47

6.1.40 When the perfect tense involves an active agent, there is no agreement with the past participles. However, when the verb is in the passive, there is agreement. El hombre ha comprado la casa. (The man has bought the house.) La casa ha sido comprada por el hombre. (The house has been bought by the man.) 6.1.41 In the following type of construction with a feminine noun, uno remains uno, and the definite article preceding uno remains masculine. La página (número) uno. La tenista es el número uno. 6.1.42 When it remains unclear whether a word is an adjective or an adverb, the term retains its masculine form. La tenista dio positivo en un control de droga.

Part II

7 Definite article / Artículo definido The definite article is often treated with gender, which is understandable since it is intimately linked to gender and, more specifically, to the gender of nouns. However, the ways in which the definite article is used in Spanish differ quite considerably from those obtaining in English, and it is these different ways that are to be examined in this chapter, while the relationship of the definite article with the gender of nouns is treated in Chapter 9.

7.1 Characteristics of the definite article in Spanish 7.1.1 Unlike the English all-purpose the, the definite article in Spanish has various forms. el (masculine singular) la (feminine singular) lo (neuter) los (masculine plural) las (feminine plural) 7.1.2 It always precedes the noun, and frequently comes immediately before it. El carro (M)/auto (A) me parece muy caro. (The car seems very dear to me.) El hombre es un ser frágil. (Man is a fragile being.) Lo malo es que no quiere estudiar. (The bad thing is that he doesn’t want to study.) 7.1.3 There are, however, numerous cases where the definite article is separated from the noun by an adjective or other forms of speech. El viejo sombrero pertenece a mi padre. (The old hat belongs to my father.) La pequeña casa es nueva. (The small house is new.) El hasta ayer primer ministro. . . (The former prime minister. . .) La llamada jueza le dijo que. . . (The so-called judge told him that. . .) Habló del consabido problema. (She spoke of the usual problem.) Los ahora arrestados protestaron. (Those now arrested protested.) Los hasta ahora misteriosos motivos que. . . (The reasons, mysterious until now, which. . .) El, según las estadísticas, importante número de. . . (According to the statistics, the significant number of. . .) El equipo presenta a Sneijder, a la espera del también holandés Robben. (The team presents Sneijder, waiting for Robben who is also Dutch.) 7.1.4 El is distinguished from the pronoun él (he) by a written accent on the latter which is tonic. Él is the more emphatic word. (For other examples of this phenomenon, see the rules governing the use of the written accent in Chapter 3.) 7.1.5 El does not necessarily immediately precede a noun. El sí de los electores. (The yes of the electors.) El que fuese tarde no fue razón suficiente. (The fact that she was late was not an adequate reason.) Los que hayan entrado, siéntense. (Those who have come in, sit down.) 7.1.6 The feminine singular of the definite article (la) assumes the form el when it precedes the tonic a of a noun. el alba, el alga (seaweed; used in the singular by specialists since las algas is more common for the man in the street), el alma, el agua (but in M the diminutive 51

52

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

produces la agüita, although many Mexicans say el agüita = R1), el álgebra, el ama de llaves (female housekeeper), el ara (sacrificial altar), el área, el arma, el ascua (ember), el aura (halo), el ave, el hacha, el hambre, el águila (eagle), el África, el aula (class/ lecture room) The following exceptions exist: • Proper names of women: La Ángela, la Águeda, la Ana (R1 usage and very common usage) • The name of the city La Haya (The Hague) • The letter h > la hache, and the Greek letter alpha > la alfa • Before acronyms: La APA (Asociación de Padres de Alumnos), la AFA (Asociación de Futbolistas Españoles) • Unusually, and without a clear explanation, most Spanish-speakers seem to say spontaneously la árbitra as opposed to the expected el árbitra. This is probably linked to the new gender roles of females. (See Chapter 9 on gender.) Note: Although the form el is identical to that of the masculine article, it is in fact a variant of the feminine article which in Latin was illa, the demonstrative adjective. With time, illa became el before tonic a. El is only used immediately before a noun with a tonic a; if, for example, an adjective intervenes, it reverts to la. el agua fría, but la mejor agua, la misma agua, la eficaz arma el hacha del leñador (woodcutter) but la afilada hacha (the sharp ax) Inevitably, since the tendency to use el before tonic a is so strong, it can cause the accompanying adjective to change to the masculine form in R1 speech. el mismo agua, el nuevo arma, el último alza del petróleo (the latest rise in oil prices), el hambre epidémico 7.1.7 The use of the form el before a feminine singular noun beginning in tonic a also affects a whole range of adjectives (e.g. todo, mucho, poco, otro), and here again the register is R1. todo el agua Estuvimos con mucho hambre. Había poco agua. But R2: toda el agua Estuvimos con mucha hambre. Había poca agua. 7.1.8 La does not change to el when it precedes an adjective, although it did in the Middle Ages. la alta hierba, la alta cumbre, la alta sociedad, la alta definición Even if the noun disappears, and is understood, la is still used before an adjective. La Europa húmeda no tiene necesidad de irrigación, mientras que la árida, como España. . . Before atonic a, the article la is used when the noun is feminine. la amapola (poppy), la habitación, la araña (spider), la antipatía, la antítesis, la ansiedad (anxiety) The two ‘a’s (e.g. la amapola) often combine and elide in speech to give l’amapola, a phenomenon called sinalefa. (See Section 2.5.) There is the very strong tendency to use the masculine el before derivatives of feminine nouns when this form no longer bears the initial tonic a. A very common case is the Mexican el agua, which leads not only the untutored to say el agüita (R1) instead of la agüita (pointed out above). This same R1 usage applies to compound feminine nouns: la aguamarina (R2) (aquamarine) > el aguamarina (R1).

Definite article

53

7.1.9 It should be borne in mind that the use of el does not necessarily change nouns into a masculine gender, so that a feminine noun remains feminine, whatever the circumstances surrounding it. Thus in all R2 language we have el águila majestuosa, not majestuoso (R1); el acta constitutiva, and not constitutivo (R1). 7.1.10 In literary style, some names of Italian writers and painters are preceded by el, presumably in deference to their importance. el Petrarca, el Correggio, el Caravaggio, el Canaletto, el Tasso This is not the case with Dante or Manzoni. These definite articles follow the Italian pattern (il Petrarca/Boccaccio/Tasso, Leopardi/Manzoni, L’Ariosto, etc.). The Spanish inclusion or exclusion of the definite article here seems to be purely arbitrary, as in French. Spanish does not allow a contraction here between de/a and el. los cuadros, de el Correggio, la poesía de el Petrarca 7.1.11 The names of female artists or writers are frequently preceded by la. la Avellaneda, la Pardo Bazán, la Callas, la Caballé 7.1.12 When a famous name is qualified by an adjective, it is preceded by the definite article (as in English). el Mozart mexicano, el Camus argentino, el Diego Rivera español, la Frida Kahlo francesa 7.1.13 The same principle as in 7.1.12 applies to geographical names. la España de la posguerra, en el México oriental, en la Colombia actual, en el Portugal de estos días 7.1.14 Use fluctuates with feminine geographical names, especially continents. Existen diferencias grandes entre (el) África, (el) Asia y (la) América Latina. los pueblos del África subsahariana 7.1.15 There is a clear preference for the inclusion of el or la for cities and countries when they are qualified. en la Ámsterdam lluviosa (one could expect el Ámsterdam here), la Austria católica (one could expect el Austria here), la Ávila del siglo XVI (one would expect el here), el Gran Buenos Aires, el Toledo musulmán 7.1.16 Countries, regions, islands and cities do not normally attract the definite article. Italia, Castilla, Mallorca, Londres However, when the noun is plural or compound, it is used. los Países Bajos, las Landas (in France), los Estados Unidos These all take a plural verb, as with Las Naciones Unidas. Las Landas and los Estados Unidos may be used without the definite article, in which case a singular verb would be used. Los Estados Unidos/Las Naciones Unidas se han pronunciado sobre. . . Estados Unidos/Naciones Unidas se ha pronunciado sobre. . . 7.1.17 Certain names of cities have the definite article as part of their name, and this definite article has an initial capital letter. La Haya, La Coruña, El Calafate, El Ferrol, El Cairo, La Meca, El Escorial, El Cuzco, La Paz, La Habana, Las Palmas However, there is an increasing tendency to exclude the definite article in La Coruña and El Ferrol, notably with La Coruña, since, with the growing autonomy of Spanish regions and their accompanying languages, one only sees A Coruña on signposts. When the definite article el is used with a preposition, agglutination does not usually take place. Thus one would say: Voy a El Calafate (or simply Calafate)/a El Cairo/a El Cuzco/a El Cabo. 7.1.18 A number of countries have traditionally been preceded by an article, but this usage is fading in many cases:

54

7.1.19

7.1.20

7.1.21

7.1.22

7.1.23

A Reference Grammar of Spanish (el) Afganistán, (la) Argentina, (el) Brasil, (el) Camerún, (el) Canadá, (el) Chad, (la) China, (el) Congo, (el) Ecuador, (la) India, (el) Irak, (el) Irán, (el) Japón, (el) Líbano, (el) Pakistán, (el) Paraguay, (el) Perú, (el) Salvador, (el) Uruguay, (el) Yemen.1 There exists some hesitation and uncertainty here. Los jugadores de(l) Brasil, el conflicto en (el) Líbano. The continued use of the definite article is unquestionably R3 in most cases, although El Salvador seems to have retained its definite article in all circumstances. Names of rivers, seas, lakes and mountains contain an implicit generic idea and here there can be an abbreviated form. el Amazonas, el Tajo, el Orinoco, el Ebro, las Rocosas/Rocallosas (A, M; Rockies), los Alpes, el Himalaya, los Andes, los Pirineos, el Mediterráneo, el Pacífico, el Atlántico However, one would always say el océano Índico. Soccer teams belonging to cities or towns are preceded by the definite article. el Puebla, el Guadalajara, el Toluca, el Barça (el Barcelona), el Real (Madrid) But this is not the case in Argentina. Arsenal, Boca Juniors, River Plate (the two latter from Buenos Aires), Rosario Central, Estudiantes Furthermore, Argentinians do not use the definite article when referring to Spanish or Mexican teams. Conversely, Iberian speakers of Spanish precede the names of Argentinian soccer teams with the definite article. In some constructions, such as la mayoría de, el resto de, la mitad de, el x por ciento de + noun, the noun is preceded by the definite article. Its omission in careful language is to be avoided and would therefore be R1. La mayoría de los productores. . . (R1 > La mayoría de productores. . .) Más de la mitad de las familias. . . (R1 > Más de la mitad de familias. . .) El resto de los diarios. . . (R1 > El resto de diarios. . .) (See also Section 10.14 on number.) The use of the definite article also has a generic function or expresses any of the elements or features of nature, animals, plants, of which only one can be supposed to be under consideration. El hombre es mortal. (Man is mortal.) La mujer es el bello sexo. (Woman is the fair sex.) El sol puede ser peligroso. (The sun can be dangerous.) El lirio es una flor vistosa. (The lily is a bright and colorful flower.) The article is used when nouns represent abstract qualities and ideas. los estragos del tiempo (the ravages of time) El orgullo es un defecto. (Pride is a defect.) La envidia es un pecado capital. (Envy is a capital sin.) El destino del hombre no se puede evitar. (Man’s destiny cannot be avoided.) El zorro tiene fama por su astucia. (The fox is well known for its cunning.) La Tierra es redonda. (The Earth is round.) La cigüeña es un(a) ave pasajera. (The stork is a migratory bird.) 1

In the case of Argentina and India, there still seems to be a strong preference for the definite article, particularly with the former and as used in Argentina (less so in Spain). In fact, the Buenos Aires newspaper La Nación seems always to use la with the name of the country, perhaps an understandable demonstration of pride, through insistency, in their country. la importancia económica de la Argentina This also applies to Patagonia > la Patagonia. el paisaje espléndido de la Patagonia

Definite article

55

7.1.24 El is never immediately preceded by other determiners, except by todo and its variants. todo el terreno, toda la comida, todos los viernes, todas las muchachas 7.1.25 The definite article is also used in the following expressions: ¡No hagas el ridículo! (Don’t be so ridiculous!) ¡No te hagas la tonta! (Don’t be so stupid!) Ya está bien de hacer el tonto. (That’s enough of acting the fool.) Me gusta el dulce (not lo here). (I like sweet things.) 7.1.26 Technically, each noun is preceded by the definite article, but this usage is slipping away, and not only in speech. When the nouns are closely associated with each other, this is especially true. It even applies to nouns of different gender. la energía (f) y celo (m) que muestra (the energy and zeal he shows) el descuido (m) y negligencia (f) del soldado (the carelessness and negligence of the soldier) el interés (m), inteligencia (f) y honradez (f) del empleado (the clerk’s interest, intelligence and honesty) Similarly, the loss of the demonstrative adjective. Son incontables las ocasiones en que esta colaboración y ayuda se expresa de tantos modos y maneras. (The occasions when such collaboration and help are expressed in so many different ways are countless.) 7.1.27 The definite article also has a possessive value. (See Section 57.4 for a full treatment of usage with parts of the body.) Cerró los ojos. (She closed her eyes.) Me tocó la mano. (He touched my hand.) la mujer a la que se le murió el marido (the woman whose husband died) ¡Sácate las manos de los bolsillos! (Take your hands out of your pockets!) La mano en el corazón, te prometo. . . (Hand on heart, I promise you. . .) This possessive value extends to embrace a number of features, all connected here to the verb tener. The formula here is: tener + part of the body/article of clothing/any other belongings pertaining either to a person or an object. The first three examples below refer to objects as possessor, while the others refer to persons. It involves agreement of an adjective or past participle. La mesa tiene la pata rota. (The table leg is broken.) Tenían la casa toda desordenada. (Their house was most untidy.) La caseta tenía la ventana rota. (The shed window was broken.) ¡Oye, niño! Tienes las manos sucias. (Hey, little boy! Your hands are dirty.) Fui a ver al médico porque tenía el estómago trastornado. (I went to see the doctor because I had an upset stomach.) La enfermera me dijo que tenía la presión (A, C, M)/tensión muy alta. (The nurse told me my blood pressure was very high.) Tengo a la hija malucha. (My daughter is unwell.) ¿Qué has hecho/hiciste? Tienes la chaqueta/americana/campera (A)/chamarra (M) toda rota. (What have you done? Your jacket is all torn.) 7.1.28 The definite article is omitted with superlatives of the following type: los días más cálidos del verano (the hottest days of the summer) los libros más caros de la librería (the most expensive books in the bookstore) However, if the noun is preceded by a possessive adjective, the definite article is omitted. Convocó a sus colaboradores más próximos. (She convened her closest collaborators.) Guardaba en la caja fuerte sus joyas más preciosas. (She kept her most valuable jewels in the strongbox.) 7.1.29 El may also be used in constructions like the following. el de la barba negra (the one with the black beard)

56

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

los del carro (M) blanco (those with the white car) 7.1.30 El may also precede an infinitive. El tener que levantarse a las seis es una faena. (Having to get up at six is a real grind/ chore.) El estar obligado a estudiar tanto tiempo me da asco. (I loathe having to study so much.) El hablar así es su falta principal. (Speaking like that is his main weakness.) El comer y el beber son necesarios a la vida.2 (Eating and drinking are necessary for life.) 7.1.31 The article el must precede the infinitive being used as subject when it is modified by an adjective. El increíble cantar de los gitanos nos fascinó. (The incredible singing of the gypsies fascinated us.) El caminar perezoso de esos jóvenes me da rabia. (The lazy way those young people walk makes me angry.) 7.1.32 The infinitive can also be followed by a subject pronoun. El venir usted les mostrará que la cosa va en serio. (If you come, they’ll see it’s serious.) El decirlo ella prueba que ha ocurrido. (The fact that she said it proves it happened.) 7.1.33 In all other cases, the use of el before an infinitive functioning as subject is optional. (El) Hablar en voz alta puede ser de mala educación. (Speaking in a loud voice can be a sign of poor education.) (El) Comer rápidamente no es bueno para la salud. (Eating quickly is not good for your health.) 7.1.34 Both definite and indefinite articles (see the following chapter for the indefinite article) are omitted before a noun in apposition (i.e. when it explains a preceding noun). Veracruz, principal puerto en la costa oriental de México (Veracruz, the main port on the eastern coast of Mexico) Quito, capital de(l) Ecuador (Quito, the capital of Ecuador) Unamuno, autor de la Generación del ’98 (Unamuno, the author of the Generation of ’98) 7.1.35 The article is not repeated after the conjunction o (or), before a noun that is merely a synonym or explanation of the preceding noun. el vestíbulo o entrada de la casa (the hall or entrance to the house) Edimburgo es la capital o ciudad principal de Escocia. (Edinburgh is the capital or main city of Scotland.) 7.1.36 In the case of two Spanish archipelagos, there is a choice of inclusion or exclusion of the definite article, although there is a difference in register. en (las Islas) Canarias, en (las Islas) Baleares The exclusion of las Islas would be R1, but is very common. 7.1.37 The definite article may also be neuter in value and is not always easily translated. The neuter form of the article, lo, is not applicable to nouns since all nouns are masculine or feminine. It is used before adjectives, past participles, adjectival pronouns and occasionally adverbs. The effect of placing lo before such words is to form a phrase which often has an abstract idea. lo bueno (the good thing) lo curioso (the curious thing) lo importante (the important feature) lo destacable (the thing to be highlighted) lo correcto, lo mejor, lo necesario, lo imposible, etc. 2

It is likely that if the second el were omitted, a singular verb would be used, with the corresponding adjective in the singular > es necesario.

Definite article

57

Lo bueno es que vienen mañana. (The good thing is that they’re coming tomorrow.) Lo importante es que lo hagan ahorita. (The important point is that they do it now.) Lo barato es caro. (Cheap things turn out to be dear.) Lo americano está de moda. (American things are fashionable.) lo de los perros (that thing to do with the dogs) lo de Juan y el dentista (that business of Juan and the dentist) lo que me dijiste ayer (what you said to me yesterday) lo de ayer (that business/thing yesterday) Vuelvo a lo anterior. (I return to what was said/what happened before.) lo agradable (what is pleasant/pleasantness) lo mexicano (what is Mexican) lo hecho/dicho/mencionado (what is/was done/said/mentioned) Critica lo investigado por otros. (She criticizes research carried out by others.) Lo ocurrido me impactó. (What [had] happened affected me deeply.) Hice lo posible/lo necesario. (I did what I could/what was necessary.) Es lo último que sabemos. (It’s the last thing we know.) Prefiero lo práctico a lo decorativo. (I prefer the practical to the decorative.) No les escribió ni una sola vez, lo cual les causó bastante disgusto Lo cual here has the value of the lo que above, but is R3. (She didn’t write them a single time, which upset them quite a lot.) 7.1.38 Lo may also be used with adjectives and has an emphatic value. Note also that although lo is neuter in these constructions, the adjective agrees with the noun it qualifies. ¡Lo grande que es esta casa! (How big this house is!) ¡Lo listas que son estas chicas! (How intelligent these girls are!) ¡Lo simpática que es esa mujer! (How nice that woman is!) 7.1.39 As with adjectives lo may be used with adverbs in this way. ¡Lo lejos que está! (How far away it is!) ¡Está de lo más insoportable! (He’s as unbearable as can be!) 7.1.40 The following are a series of miscellaneous features which largely highlight the difference in usage between English and Spanish with respect to the definite article. (See also Chapter 62 on prepositions for a fuller treatment of this topic.) 7.1.40.1 Time (See also Chapter 72 for usage with time.) el jueves 9 de agosto (Thursday, August 9) (note position of el), a las diez (at ten o’clock), a las catorce horas (at fourteen hundred hours), el viernes pasado (last Friday), el martes próximo (next Tuesday), el próximo año (next year), a los diez minutos (in ten minutes), a las dos horas (two hours later), a los ocho años (at eight years [old]/ eight years later), a primera/última hora (at the first/last hour), tres veces a la semana (three times a week), en los noventa/ochenta (in the nineties [1990s]/eighties [1980s]) 7.1.40.2 Quantity Lo vende a docenas. (She sells it by the dozen.) unos beneficios superiores/inferiores a los 10 millones de dólares (profits higher/lower than 10 million dollars) inversiones cercanas a los cinco millones de pesos (investments close to 5 million pesos) Echó a correr, y a los treinta metros se paró súbitamente. (She started to run, and after thirty meters, she suddenly stopped.) Corre los cien metros. (She runs the hundred meters.) 7.1.40.3 Other Tengo derecho a/el derecho de asistir. (I have the right to attend.) a través de/en Internet (on the Internet)

58

7.1.41

7.1.42

7.1.43

7.1.44

A Reference Grammar of Spanish a mano derecha/izquierda (on the right-/left-hand side) declarar a Hacienda3 (to declare to the Internal Revenue Service [HM Revenue and Customs]) Ese futbolista sobre el papel es muy bueno pero. . . (That soccer player is good on paper but. . .) el Gobierno en el poder (the government in power) excepto en Buenos Aires y Rosario: en dichas ciudades. . . (except in Buenos Aires and Rosario: in these cities. . .) Llegaron a un pacto, pero dicho acuerdo. . . (They reached a pact, but this agreement. . .) Tengo a la abuela pachucha. (My grandmother is not well.) El abuelo ha salido. (Grandpa has gone out.) In many cases, interestingly, casa corresponds to the English home, which does not usually take the definite article, deriving from the Latin domus, where the declension system does not require the definite article. Voy/vuelvo/regreso a casa. (I go/return home.) estar en casa (to be at home) la dirección de casa (the home address) el número de teléfono de casa (the home telephone number) Needless to add, when casa means house, it is frequently preceded by la. Often, when a plural subject involves an object which is part of the body or an article of clothing, the latter is usually in the singular. Diez personas perdieron la vida. (Ten people lost their lives.) Las chicas se quitaron el sombrero. (The girls took off their hats.) With titles of books and articles, the definite article is frequently used. las ovejas y su lana (sheep and their wool) los animales y sus críos (animals and their young) la piel y sus funciones (fur/skin and its functions) Although the following feature could fall into the category of prepositions, it seems helpful and appropriate to underline it here. When the masculine form of the definite article comes immediately after the preposition a or de, a contraction takes place: a + el > al, de + el > del. Se dirigió al niño. (She addressed the boy.) Hablé al profesor. (I spoke to the teacher.) Fui al bosque. (I went to the wood.) La casa del hombre es grande. (The man’s house is big.) El volante del carro (M) está torcido. (The steering wheel of the car is twisted.) But if the noun is feminine, a la and de la are used, which is what one would expect. Se dirigió a la mujer. (He addressed the woman.) Acercó la silla a la mesa. (She moved the chair towards the table.) el tejado de la casa (the roof of the house) los pétalos de la flor (the flower’s petals) The contraction does not occur when the title of a book, newspaper, film, opera, etc. is involved, whether the noun is masculine or feminine. Escribí una carta a El País. (I wrote a letter to El País.) el argumento de El Túnel (the plot of El Túnel) Me gusta el estilo de El laberinto de la soledad. (I like the style of El laberinto de la soledad.) A repeated noun can be dispensed with, and simply replaced by el/la, as in the following constructions. 3

Of course, hacienda with the meaning of estate, ranch would not be used like this.

Definite article

59

en el mundo musulmán como en el católico (in the Muslim world as in the Catholic one) una tasa de alcohol superior a la permitida (an amount of alcohol higher than what is allowed) Te mandé un mensaje pero ¿recibiste el anterior? (I sent you a message, but did you receive the previous one?) 7.1.45 In numerous grammatical terms, the definite article is not used. en subjuntivo/indicativo/ plural/singular/femenino/masculino/pretérito/futuro/imperfecto/condicional/presente

8 Indefinite article and indefinite pronoun / Artículo indefinido y pronombre indefinido Below are two short pieces of Spanish illustrating the varied uses of the indefinite article and pronoun. Some of the vocabulary is translated. Uno no es de piedra, tiene sus tentaciones como cada cual, y cuando ves un águila perdiguera (that hunts partridges) que se elevaba tras unos matojos (thickets) con una comadreja (weasel/opossum in A) en el pico, aún siendo época de veda (close season when no hunting is allowed), áun sabiendo que las águilas son (una) especie protegida, Pedro, sintió cierta excitación, tal como si estuviera a las puertas de un éxtasis: llevaba su escopeta (shotgun) al hombro, un arma vieja, una de ésas de la fábrica de Eibar, donde uno de sus abuelos había trabajado un montón de años, por una buena paga y una actual misérrima pensión. No dudó un instante, disparó una andanada (volley) que hizo caer al ave entre unos verdioscuros juncos (dark-green reeds). Pedro siempre se había tenido por hombre juicioso, pero uno nunca sabe hacia donde le va a llevar el corazón. No pensó si le podía caer una multa de un euro o de treinta y uno. Sabía que el guarda tenía un chozo (hut) cercano, donde pasaba gran parte de la jornada, sabía que era muy posible que oyera los disparos, pero, a veces, uno no puede controlar los impulsos, ni el dedo teniendo una pieza a tiro, barruntando (glimpsing) lo que le esperaba, puso pies en polvorosa (ran off) en dirección contraria al chozo, hacia una alameda cercana, por donde sería fácil escabullirse (slip away). Todo en vano, porque, ¡casualidad de las casualidades!, en ese momento salía de aquella arboleda el guarda forestal acompañado de una pareja de la guardia civil. Uno de los hunos (Huns) se atrevió a dar un azote a Atila un día, cuando aún era niño, y el futuro rey, en una soberbia manifestación de carácter, se autodisciplinó golpeándose, no una, sino diez veces, con una fusta (long whip) de arrear a su caballo. Un águila, que sobrevolaba el lugar, haciendo un gran picado (dive), arrebató con una de sus garras el látigo y se vino a posar, tras describir un enorme círculo, sobre el hombro derecho del futuro conquistador. Después me desperté: había sido un sueño, no de él, sino mío. Pero, ¿dónde podemos establecer una frontera entre lo onírico y lo real?

8.1 Characteristics of the indefinite article 8.1.1 As with the definite article, the indefinite article is closely connected with the notion of gender. It has four forms in Spanish. In the singular, they correspond to the English a(n), and in the plural they correspond to some or any. These forms are:

Singular Plural

Masculine

Feminine

un(o) unos

una unas

Following the model of the definite article, the indefinite article precedes the noun and changes according to its number and gender. 60

Indefinite article and indefinite pronoun

8.1.2

8.1.3

8.1.4

8.1.5

8.1.6

8.1.7 8.1.8

8.1.9 8.1.10

61

un muchacho (a boy), una muchacha (a girl), unos muchachos (some boys), unas muchachas (some girls) The indefinite article functions like an adjective but can also function like a pronoun, and, in this case, corresponds to the English one or some. Una de tus amigas me llamó ayer. (One of your friends called me yesterday.) Unos de los alumnos no acudieron a clase esta mañana. (Some of the pupils didn’t come to class this morning.) As an adjective, the indefinite article always takes the form un when it precedes a masculine noun, even if another word, such as an adjective, intervenes. un árbol > un gran árbol This phenomenon of apocopation (see Chapter 5) also affects the feminine form una before feminine nouns beginning with tonic a. un águila (an eagle), un hacha (an ax), un arma atómica However, the full form una before such nouns is not considered incorrect, according to the Diccionario panhispánico de dudas, although it is very infrequently used and should probably be discouraged. una arma, una alma (soul), una arca (chest) Of course, the a of una would hardly be heard in speech, given the elision of the a (see Chapter 2 on alphabet). In the feminine form, una always retains its full form if an adjective intervenes between it and the noun. una majestuosa águila, una afilada (sharp) hacha If the adjective comes after the noun, it must agree with the noun, despite the tendency to treat the feminine noun as masculine. un(a) águila majestuosa, un(a) hacha afilada The loss of the feminine form here would be R1. majestuosa > majestuoso, afilada > afilado The indefinite pronoun uno may be used with reference to the person who is speaking. Normal usage entails agreement with the sex of the speaker. Una ya no está para estas caminatas. One (female) is not keen on such hikes/walks. But if a female does not refer specifically to herself, uno would be used. En este mundo en que vivimos, uno ya no sabe a qué atenerse. (In the world in which we live, one doesn’t know how to deal with things.) The reflexive tonic pronoun corresponding to uno is sí. Es fácil si uno está seguro de sí mismo. (It’s easy if you’re sure of yourself.) Pero uno, a pesar de sí mismo, sigue trabajando. (But in spite of yourself, you continue working.) The indefinite pronoun uno acts as a reflexive element in impersonal clauses. Para triunfar, hay que ser un poco ajeno a uno mismo. (In order to triumph, you have to be somewhat foreign to yourself.) A cardinal number occupying the first place in a series can be either an adjective or a pronoun. The gender may vary, but not the number. En la finca había solamente un pozo. (On the farm there was only one well.) De las manzanas del árbol, ya no queda ni una. (Of the apples on the tree there’s not one left.) To designate a particular number, uno can have a plural. El once se escribe con dos unos. (The number eleven is written with two ones.) The apocopation rule applying in Section 8.1.2 appears in other compound numerals. Tengo veintiún años. (I’m twenty-one years old.) Ha escrito treinta y una novelas. (She has written thirty-one novels.) Ha reunido una colección de cuarenta y un(a) hachas. (She has collected up forty-one axes.) The apocopation of uno and its compounds is colloquial (R1) when they are not before a noun. el treinta y un por ciento (R1; thirty-one per cent), el treinta y uno por ciento (R2) Uno and una, and their compounds, agree in gender when they immediately precede a noun. treinta y un kilos (thirty-one kilos), veinituna toneladas (twenty-one tons)

62

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

8.1.11 However, when the word mil intervenes between a number and a feminine noun, gender agreement is optional. Eran treinta y un mil hectáreas. (It was thirty-one thousand hectares.) Costó unas cuarenta y una mil libras esterlinas. (It cost forty-one thousand pounds.) Agreement in the hundreds in the feminine is now gaining ground: setecientas mil toneladas (six hundred thousand tons), setecientos mil toneladas (R1) It is difficult to assess the adjectival or substantive nature of mil, hence the hesitation. 8.1.12 When referring to pages in a book, for example, uno and its compounds are used, although página is feminine. Busca la página uno/veintiuno. (Find page one/twenty-one.) This phenomenon extends to other nouns. la fase uno, la prioridad número uno 8.1.13 It is important to note the differences in usage between the indefinite article in Spanish and English. 8.1.13.1 With professions, rank, religion, political association, and so on, un is not used unless the noun is qualified by an adjective or adjectival phrase. Juan es dentista. María es cocinera. Sofía es musulmana. But: Juan es un dentista magnífico. María es una buena cocinera. Sofía es una musulmana ferviente. 8.1.13.2 With tal, cierto (a certain), otro (another), semejante and aparecido (both these latter adjectives meaning similar). Nunca he hecho tal cosa. (I’ve never done such a thing.) Con tal clima no es prudente. . . (With such a climate it is not wise to. . .) Le produjo cierta alegría. (It gave her a certain joy.) en cierto momento (at a certain moment) Pedí otro café. (I asked for another coffee.) Nunca he visto semejante caso. (I’ve never seen such a case.) Leí parecido libro el año pasado. (I read a similar book last year.) (See also Section 74.4.2 for more on semejante and parecido.) 8.1.13.3 When a class of noun is implied. No tienen lavadora. (They don’t have a washing machine.) But: No tienen una lavadora en su segunda vivienda. (However, omission of una is possible here.) 8.1.13.4 The indefinite article is also omitted when a noun or adjective occurs so frequently that it becomes a set expression. Es buena persona.1 ([S]he’s a nice person.) Es buen católico. (He’s a good Catholic.) Barack es gran orador. (Barack is a great speaker.) 8.1.13.5 A very common usage with the exclusion of un is when the perfect tense or preterit of ser is used. No ha sido/fue gol/falta/penalty. (It wasn’t a goal/foul/penalty.) 8.1.14 Unos, unas have the meaning of approximately. Hubo unos tres mil espectadores. (There were some three thousand spectators.) 8.1.15 The plural forms unos and unas are not frequently used, particularly when a series of nouns occurs, as in English.

1

Omission here is especially common.

Indefinite article and indefinite pronoun

8.1.16

8.1.17

8.1.18 8.1.19

63

Organizaron entrevistas, encuestas, mesas redondas, ruedas de prensa. (They organized interviews, surveys, round tables, press conferences.) En su pintura alternaban diferentes temas: bodegones, marinas, retratos, desnudos. (In his painting, there alternated different subjects: still lives, seascapes, portraits, nudes.) However, unos and unas are often used when the noun usually appears in the plural form. Se vistió de negro como si fuera a unos funerales. (She dressed in black as if she were going to a funeral.) La niña guardaba unos ahorrillos en una hucha. (The little girl kept her savings in a piggy bank/money box.) Los ingresos de la compañía son de unos 1900 millones de dólares. (The company’s receipts are some 1,900 million dollars.) A great number of set expressions which are not accompanied by the indefinite article un attract it when emphasis is required, particularly in speech. tener calor/frío/hambre/sed/sueño/agujetas (to be hot/cold/hungry/thirsty/sleepy/stiff) hacerse daño (to hurt yourself) dar gusto/pena a (to give pleasure to/to sadden) (Yo) tenía un calor. . . (I was so hot. . .) Tuve un frío. . . (I was so cold. . .) Tengo un sueño. . . (I’m so sleepy. . .) Tengo unas agujetas. . . (I’m so stiff. . .) Me dio una pena. . . (I was so sad. . .) Pasar tanto tiempo en la playa me dio un gusto/placer. (Spending so much time on the beach gave me so much pleasure.) In all these cases, stress on the experience is added by emphasizing the un/a/os/as > uuun, etc. Note also a similar use with hacer, entrar and sentir. hacer calor/frío > Hizo un calor. (It was so hot.)/Hizo un frío. (It was so cold.) entrar calor/frío/miedo/sueño/pánico a > Me entró un calor/un frío/un miedo/un sueño/ un pánico. (I got so hot/cold/frightened/sleepy/panicky.) Sentí un miedo/frío/calor/pánico etc. (I felt so frightened, etc.) As with the previous list, in speech, the end of these phrases is marked by a rising intonation, and often a lengthening of, and emphasis on, un and its variants > uuun. Sometimes it depends on the verb, as with calambre (cramp). Tengo un calambre. But: Me da calambre. (I’ve got cramp.) When there is a choice between the inclusion or exclusion of the indefinite article, there is little change in meaning. Tiene (una) casa en León. Tiene (un) catarro. Tiene (un) carro. It may be argued that the inclusion places emphasis on the noun.

9 Gender / Género Below is a passage narrating a small incident at a zoo. Javi(er), the son of a veterinary surgeon, who is used to animals of all kinds, takes photos of the zoo’s animals. Clearly, the female elephant prides herself on her beauty. The text illustrates notably the use of gender with respect to animals, although other gender elements are not excluded. Hoy, muy temprano, un guarda (zoo keeper) vino a avisar a mi mujer que trabaja en el zoo como veterinaria porque un elefante estaba nervioso y temían que pudiera hacer daño a las crías (its young [female]). Habitamos en una vivienda anexa a esa institución, donde han nacido nuestros tres hijos varones y una hembra (three sons and a daughter). Aunque la casa no es cómoda, los niños han tenido la ventaja de ver siempre animales reales: caballos y yeguas (mares), toros y vacas, ovejas y carneros (rams), cocodrilos machos y hembras (male and female crocodiles), es decir a los animales de verdad, no conocer las bestias a través de la tele, como otros chicos. Por eso mi hijo Javier, de seis años, persona responsable y amante de las fieras (wild/dangerous animals), se ha empeñado en acompañar a mamá con una cámara de fotos. Yo, que soy graduado en ciencias empresariales (business studies), entiendo poco de bichos (animals/creatures/critters = any sort of animal or insect), pero he ido también para que el niño dejara trabajar tranquila a su madre. Cuál sería nuestra sorpresa cuando el animal se ha calmado a las primeras fotos de Javi, quien para nuestro asombro ha comentado: “¡Claro, se ha calmado porque es elefanta y quiere salir guapa en las fotos!” As stated at the beginning of the two previous chapters, the notion of gender is intimately connected to the definite and indefinite articles. This is why it seems so important to use the said articles as markers for an assimilation of the genders of masculine and feminine nouns. In this chapter, we restrict ourselves to the subject of gender, the factors that determine masculine and feminine nouns, certain ambiguities, exceptions, words of varying gender according to their meaning and so on.

9.1 Gender and sex Nouns referring to people of the male sex are nearly always masculine. Nouns referring to people of the female sex are nearly always feminine. This principle can generally override the gender of a noun which otherwise does not refer to a person – for example, la piel roja (red skin), but, el piel roja (redskin = native American). There are some exceptions: • The generic words la persona, el individuo, la víctima and la estrella (star, film star) are invariable in gender (e.g. a male film star has to be feminine: una estrella). • El desnudo (nude = for portrait, etc.) is always masculine (Does this say anything about the Latin psyche, or does the noun simply refer to the painting or sculpture, with the idea of cuadro, for example, implied? Doubtless it is the latter.) • The feminine form modista can mean male fashion designer, although modisto is in current use. 64

Gender

65

• Similar gender distinctions are made in nouns referring to animals, e.g. toro (bull), vaca (cow), although one word is commonly used to refer generically to the animal: el caballo (horse), la yegua (mare). (See Section 9.4 for macho and hembra.)

9.2 General features of gender: masculine nouns 9.2.1 Names and designations of males, and the males of large or well-known animals, are masculine, irrespective of endings. el caballo (horse), el león (lion), el centinela (sentry), el monarca (monarch), el cardenal (cardinal), el príncipe (prince), el cura (priest), el tigre (tiger), el gato (cat) 9.2.2 Gender associated with noun ending: in most cases, genders ending in -o are masculine. el barco (boat), el libro (book), el caso (case, example), el ojo (eye), el cigarro (cigar[ette] = i.e. both), el palo (stick), el hombro (shoulder) Exceptions are as follows: la dínamo (dynamo), la moto (motorcycle), la foto (photo), la radio (radio), la mano (hand), la líbido (libido) Foto and moto are shortened forms of fotografía and motocicleta, while radio and dínamo are masculine in A, C and M. That foto is feminine explains mucha foto (R1 = many photos > muchas fotos). Radio meaning radius is masculine for all Spanish-speaking countries. 9.2.3 Some masculine nouns ending in -o do not change their ending when denoting females. la miembro (member), la soprano (soprano), la modelo1 (model), la testigo (witness) Exceptions are: when a feminine noun is implied or understood, la Gestapo, la UNESCO 9.2.4 Nouns ending in -or. el amor (love), el conductor (driver), el autor (author), el color (color), el calor (heat), el valor (courage, valor), el licor (liquor) An exception is la labor (work; R3). (See also calor in Section 9.7.1 for nouns of varying gender.) 9.2.5 Nouns ending in -aje. el andamiaje (scaffolding), el paisaje (landscape), el equipaje (baggage), el viaje (journey) 9.2.6 Nouns ending in -men. el certamen (contest), el volumen (volume), el régimen (regime, diet) 9.2.7 Nouns ending in -gen. el origen However, imagen is feminine. 9.2.8 The proper names of countries or territories are masculine, except when they end in unstressed -a. (el) Brasil, (el) Canadá, Chile (not usually preceded by el), (los) Estados Unidos (United States), (el) Japón, (el) México, (los) Países Bajos (Netherlands), (el) Panamá, (el) Perú, el Reino Unido (United Kingdom) The following countries are therefore feminine: Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, China, Colombia, España, Francia, Grecia, Guatemala, Holanda, India, Italia, Rusia, Nueva Zelanda, Venezuela 9.2.9 The following types of noun are all masculine: Rivers: el Amazonas (Amazon), el Río Bravo (M but el Río Grande in Spain; Rio Grande) el Paraná, el Sena (Seine), el Támesis (Thames), el Colorado, el Nilo, el Rin (Rhine) Seas/oceans: El Atlántico/el Pacífico/el Mediterráneo 1

El modelo (male model) also exists, but supermodelo is only: la supermodelo.

66

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Months: Mountains:

enero (January), mayo El Himalaya, el Acongagua, los Andes, los Alpes (but las [Montañas] Rocosas/Rocallosas (A, M; Rockies) Volcanoes: el Etna, el Popocatepetl, el Vesubio Cars: el *Chrysler,2 el Ford, el Toyota, el Mercedes, el Porsche, el Maserati Watches: el *Seiko, el Longines Ships and aircaft carriers: el Reina Mary, el Nimitz, el Enterprise Airplanes: el *Boeing, el Concorde Languages: el español, el francés, el inglés británico/americano, el ruso, el chino Metals: el hierro (iron), el cobre (copper), el acero (steel), el bronce (bronze) Many trees: el olmo (elm), el roble (oak), el fresno (ash), el álamo (poplar) but [el feminine] haya [beech], la encina [holm oak], la higuera [fig tree] Musical notes: fa sostenido (F sharp) Cheeses: el *Brie, el queso manchego Wines: el *Borgoña (Burgundy) (but La Borgoña [Burgundy = area in France]) el Rioja (Rioja [wine]) (but La Rioja [Rioja = region of Spain]) el Penedés (region in Cataluña) Paintings: el *Velázquez, un Picasso

9.3 General features of gender: feminine nouns 9.3.1 The designations of females are feminine. la dama (lady), la princesa (princess), la gallina (hen), la reina (queen), la muchacha (girl), la vaca (cow) 9.3.2 Most nouns ending in -a are feminine. la casa (house), la puerta (door), la caza (hunting), la ventana (window), la comida (meal, food) Exceptions are as follows: • Nouns denoting males: el artista (artist), el guardia (guard), el cura (priest), el jesuita (jesuit), el cabecilla (local chief) • Pareja is only feminine whether it means male or female partner, or a pair or couple (i.e. man and woman). Parejo/a in C means male or female dancing partner. • Centinela is a masculine noun (sentry), as is bocata (sandwich of the roll type). • Alerta (alert), which is clearly feminine in Spain, causes considerable uncertainty in the Americas. It is often used in the masculine in A, C and M (el alerta), although there exists the feeling that it is feminine. • Tequila is also masculine. 2

The nouns in this list marked with an asterisk cause considerable uncertainty with respect to upper or lower case. It could easily be argued that one should write: un chrysler, un seiko, un boeing, un brie, un borgoña, un velázquez, etc., since reference is made generically to a car, watch, airplane, etc. This is an unresolved issue.

Gender

67

9.3.3 The majority of nouns ending in -o change to -a to form the feminine. el amigo/la amiga (friend), el alumno/la alumna (pupil), el chavo/la chava (M; guy/girl), el chico/la chica (guy/girl), el cocinero/la cocinera (cook), el conocido/la conocida (acquaintance), el criado/la criada (male/female servant), el huérfano/la huérfana (orphan), el muchacho/la muchacha (boy/girl) 9.3.4 Nouns ending in -ma, -dad (many of these), -tad (just a few of these), -tud, -ión (many of these), -umbre, -ie, -sis and -tis are feminine (-sis includes a good number of medical terms, and -tis includes a number of medical terms applied to illnesses). -ma: el asma (asthma), la gema (gem), la cama (bed), la lima (file), la crema (M; cream), la trama (plot), la estrategema (strategem), la yema (yolk, fingertip), la forma (form), la flema (phlegm [both senses] -dad: la agilidad (agility), la severidad (severity), la ansiedad (anxiety), la sociedad (society), la enfermedad (sickness, illness), la verdad (truth), la eternidad (eternity) -tad: la libertad (freedom) -tud: la virtud (virtue), la longitud -ión: la ambición, la región, la pasión, la nación, la intuición, la sensación -umbre: la (in)certidumbre ([un]certainty), la costumbre (custom), la cumbre (peak), la muchedumbre (crowd) -ie: la intemperie (bad weather), la planicie (plain), la serie (series) -sis: la antítesis, la artrosis, la brucelosis, la catarsis, la cirrosis, la crisis, la dosis, la escoliosis, la metamorfosis, la neumoconiosis, la neurosis, la parálisis, la sífilis, la silicosis, la sintaxis (here = xis), la síntesis, la sobredosis (overdose), la tesis, la trombosis, la tuberculosis -tis: la amigdalitis (tonsillitis), la apendicitis, la artritis, la celulitis, la cistitis, la colitis, la conjuntivitis, la dermititis, la faringitis, la meningitis, la otitis (inflammation of the ear), la poliomielitis, la sinusitis However, the following are masculine: el análisis, el apocalipsis, el avión (air plane), clima, el camión (trunk; but commonly bus in M), el carisma (charisma), el cisma (schism), el cometa (comet), el delta, el día, el eccema/eczema, el emblema, el énfasis (emphasis), el enfisema, el enigma, el esquema (sketch diagram), el estigma, el éxtasis (ecstasy), el fantasma (ghost), el gorrión (sparrow), el hematoma (bruise), el herpes, el lema (watchword), el magma, el mapa, el melanoma, el paradigma, el paréntesis (parenthesis), el planeta, el poema, el problema, el reuma/reúma (R1; rheumatism), el sarampíon (measles), el SIDA (Aids), el sistema, el teorema, el tranvía (streetcar/tram), el trauma, el yoga. In all these cases (save día, mapa, and tranvía), the fact that these nouns end in -a but are masculine is explained by their Greek origin. Tranvía comes from the English tramway, and probably tren or ferrocarril is implied. Pijama is masculine in Spain and Argentina, and feminine in Colombia and Mexico. Matters are not improved with this word since it is even spelt differently in these three Spanish American countries: piyama. The same goes for American and British English (pajamas/pyjamas). 9.3.5 The following types of nouns are feminine: Islands: las Filipinas, las Marianas, las Malvinas (Falklands), Córcega (Corsica), Cerdeña (Sardinia), Sicilia, Las Baleares, las Canarias (but las Islas de los Galápagos [Galapagos Islands]) Letters of the alphabet: la a, la b, la c, la h (hache), etc. Firms: la Ford, la British (Airways), la General Motors

68

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

9.4 Names of animals Where the names of animals do not have distinct masculine and feminine forms, macho and hembra (invariable) are used to make the distinction, but gender does not change. el rinoceronte/los rinocerontes/la ardilla (squirrel)/las ardillas macho (for all four nouns) el ratón (mouse)/los ratones/la ardilla/las ardillas hembra (for all four nouns)

9.5 Family relations and titles 9.5.1 With nouns denoting titles and family relations, a masculine plural in Spanish may correspond to a masculine and feminine pair, or to more than one male and one female. Tengo tres hijos. (I have three children). los Reyes Católicos (the Catholic Monarchs = Queen Isabel and King Ferdinand), los abuelos (the grandparents), los bisabuelos (the great-grandparents), los bisnietos (the great-grandchildren), los chicos (the boys [and girls]), los consuegros (the parents-in-law of one’s daughter or son), los cuñados (the brother[s] and sister[s]-in-law), los hermanastros (the step-brothers [and sisters]), los hermanos (brother[s] and sister[s], brothers), los hijastros (the stepsons [and daughters]), los niños (the children/the boys), los nietos (the grandchildren/grandsons), los padrastros (the step-parents), los padres (fathers/parents/ mother and father), los papás3 (A, C, M; parents/Mom and Dad) (R1), los padrinos (the godparents), los primos (the cousins), los sobrinos (the nephews [and nieces]), los suegros (the parents-in-law), los tíos (uncle[s] and aunt[s]/uncles), los duques de Alba (the Duke and Duchess of Alba), los Presidentes (the President and First Lady), los Señores García (Mr and Mrs Garcia), los novios (the engaged couple/the bride and groom), los tatarabuelos (greatgreat-grandparents) 9.5.2 It may sometimes be unclear what certain plurals mean with respect to gender. Niños, chicos, hermanos, hijos and reyes are good cases in point. Hijos, for instance, could signify three sons, or two sons and one daughter, or one son and two daughters, and so on. Unfortunately for females, even when the male is in a minority, as in the last case, the plural is still masculine. Clarification comes with, for example, dos hijos y una hija, dos hijas y un hijo. And if this still does not clear up the ambiguity, and you had three sons, you could say tres varones after tres hijos: Tengo tres hijos, o sea (that is) tres varones.

9.6 Adjectives used as nouns In a growing number of cases, a phrase consisting of a noun and an adjective has undergone ellipsis of the noun, leaving only the adjective, which usually, but not always, retains the gender of the original noun.

3

Adjective

Noun

English

amistoso (m) aseguradora (f) ausente (mf) celular (m; A, C, M) clasificatoria (f)

partido compañía persona teléfono prueba

friendly (match) insurance company absentee, absent person cellular/mobile qualifying round

Papás exists in Spain, but is only used with and by children. Papis (R1) is very common in C.

Gender

69

comarcal (f) coordinadora (f) depuradora (f) desaladora (f) digitales (fpl) documental (m) eliminatoria (f) empresariales (fpl) encargado/a (mf) evasiva (f) Exteriores (m) filial (f) general (f) gordo (m) de la lotería* industrial (mf) inmobiliaria (f) Interior (m) Internacional (f) juguetera (f) legislativas (fpl) máxima(s) (f[pl]) mínima(s) (f[pl]) móvil (m) multinacional (f) mundial (m) municipales (fpl) nacional (f) Panamericana (f) parciales (fpl) patronal (f) pendiente** (m)

carretera organización estación/planta planta televisiones programa prueba ciencias persona contestación Ministerio de Asuntos compañía/empresa carretera premio empresario agencia Ministro del. . . Asociación compañía elecciones temperaturas temperaturas teléfono compañía campeonato elecciones carretera carretera elecciones asociación asunto

pequeño/a (mf) (also peque [R1]) plenaria (f) pleno (m) portátil (m) *** postal (f) presente (mf) presidenciales (fpl) primaria (f)

niño asamblea/sesión comité ordenador tarjeta persona presente elecciones enseñanza/educación

(de) primera (f) productora (f) profesional (mf) (hasta la) próxima responsable (mf) secundaria (f) siguiente (mf) tabacalera (f)

categoría/clase compañía trabajador vez persona enseñanza, educación persona/tema compañía

minor road coordinating body purifying plant desalination plant digital television channels documentary eliminator (in competition) business studies official in charge evasive answer Ministry of Foreign Affairs subsidiary main highway/road jackpot (in prize) industrialist real estate agent Ministry of the Interior (Socialist) International toy company parliamentary elections maximum temperature(s) minimum temperature(s) cellular/mobile multinational world championship local elections major road, highway Pan-American highway mid-term/bi-election employers’ organization outstanding/unresolved matter small child, infant plenary session full committee laptop/portable (computer) postcard present person presidential elections elementary/primary education first class production company professional (until) next time official in charge secondary education following person/one tobacco company

70

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

* In Argentina el grande de la lotería is used. ** Not in Spain, expect with meaning of a student who has failed an examination. *** Spanish-American speakers do not use portátil > laptop (f). Note also that contrarreloj (f) is often used instead of carrera contrarreloj (time trial; i.e.in sport).

9.7 Nouns of varying gender 9.7.1 anatema: Both masculine and feminine, although the former is more common. arte: When masculine singular = individual art = el arte azteca/clásico/recolombiano. When collective = the Arts = las bellas artes/decorativas/plásticas. bebé: As in Spain, a male and female baby is always masculine in A, C and M > el bebé. However, a female baby in A, C and M is also una beba, although it is likely that in M bebita would be used. calor: This noun is generally masculine but is often found in the feminine form, particularly in Southern Spain, probably influenced by Catalan and French (la chaleur). The masculine form is the recommended one. creciente: This noun is masculine when it means “first quarter of the moon.” It is feminine when it means a “rise in the river” or a “flood”. doblez: When masculine, it means fold (in sheet or cloth). Haz otro doblez en la sábana. (Make another fold in the sheet [on a bed].) When feminine, it means cunning or hypocrisy. dote: Generally feminine in the sense of dowry but can be masculine with this meaning. Only feminine in the plural with the meaning of good qualities of a person. las dotes personales del primer ministro mar: Masculine in general. Me gusta nadar en el mar. el Mar Mediterráneo Sometimes feminine in formal, poetic style, and frequently in set phrases. Lo/la (M) pasé la mar de bien. (I had a great time.) en alta mar (on the high seas), mar gruesa (heavy sea), mar picada (choppy sea), hacerse a la mar (to put to sea) margen: When = river bank it is feminine and usually found in literary texts. When masculine = margin (of page/maneuver [margen de maniobra = room for maneuver]), edge (of society) modelo: Masculine and feminine gender, applying to males and females. However, as seen in Section 9.1.3, supermodelo is only feminine. opus: This term is of neuter gender in Latin. As a single work, as in other Romance languages, it is masculine, and Spanish follows this pattern. However, musicologists say both el opus 20 and la opus 20, basing the feminine gender on obra. porno(grafía): Porno is masculine and is R1. Pornografía is feminine. One could have expected the shortened form also to be feminine, like moto and foto, but this is not so. reserva: When it means reserve in the sense of discretion, reservation (i.e booking of ticket, etc., but in this sense reservación in M), or extra player, it is feminine, although in the last meaning it can be masculine when referring to male players. When it refers to a good-quality wine it is masculine. Terminal: When it refers to an electrical contact it is masculine. When it refers to a train/plane terminal, it is feminine. 9.7.2 There are nouns that are both masculine feminine, with the same meaning.

Gender

71

acne/acné (acne), casete (cassette), linde (boundary [usually f]), interrogante (question), maratón (marathon [usually f]), armazón (frame [of a structure]), lente (lens) (but only los lentes [M; glasses, i.e. for seeing]), dracma (drachma), tortícolis/torticiolis (stiff neck [usually f]), reo (prisoner), vodka (vodka) 9.7.2.1 The noun chance (opportunity, possibility), which is not used in Spain, is masculine in M and C, but feminine in A. Dictionaries give the gender of chance as masculine and merely state that it is sometimes feminine. This is not very helpful, given its imprecision. It is uncertain whether this noun derives from English or French. In French, it is feminine (la chance). 9.7.2.2 The Spanish word for computer is exposed to confusion. Computador (m) is used in Colombia, computadora (f) in Argentina and Mexico, while neither is used in Spain, where ordenador (m) is the preferred term. 9.7.3 Usually the names of towns are feminine, but practice is not always clear, and there is no true guide. la Ávila del siglo XVI en la Roma antigua/la antigua Roma Guanajuato es bella la atractiva París la bella Bogotá la Segovia romana la nueva New Orleans On the other hand, it is more usual to say: todo Chihuahua/Acapulco/Valencia el Toledo del Emperador en el Madrid de los Austrias el Valladolid burgués el Buenos Aires de la Avenida Corrientes Yet again, one can read in the same paragraph: mi Buenos Aires querido, la otra Buenos Aires, la Gran Buenos Aires. In an article on Borges (“Borges y Buenos Aires” Mundo, 15 agosto, 2007), one reads: nuestra Buenos Aires and todo Buenos Aires. The conclusion is that there seems to be no rigid rule on this point. It would even appear that in Mexico towns are usually masculine, even when they end in -a, like Chihuahua. 9.7.4 Soccer teams of towns are referred to as masculine. El Puebla, el Guadalajara, el Toluca, el Barcelona (more usually, el Barça), el Real (Madrid) El is not used in A in this context. (See also Chapter 7 on the Definite Article for more information on this topic.) 9.7.5 A few nouns of endings other than -a have a common form for both genders. el/la bombón (R1, f, good-looker, stunner; mf nice-looking child), el/la canciller alemán/ alemana (in Germany), el/la chef, el/la chófer/chofer (A, C, M; chauffeur), el/la cómplice, el/la criminal, el/la escolar (schoolboy/girl, pupil), el/la hereje (heretic), el/ la joven (young man/women), el/la jerarca (R3; chief, leader), el/la líder (leader; often political), el/la mártir, el/la miembro, el/la militar (soldier), el/la monarca, el/la notario (notary, solicitor, although la notaria does exist in the dictionary), el/la obispo (bishop), el/la pariente (relation [in family]), el/la portavoz (spokesperson), el/la piloto, el/ la rehén (hostage), el/la reo (accused person/convicted offender), el/la suicida (i.e. person who commits suicide), el/la sumiller (wine waiter/waitress), el/la testigo (witness), el/la ujier (usher, attendant), el/la vocal (committee member) 9.7.5.1 With the increase in recruitment in the military services, there may be no female form for the following but the definite article corresponds to the female occupation.

72

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

el/la cabo (corporal), el/la brigada (sergeant major), el/la teniente (lieutenant), el/la brigadier (brigadier), el/la capitán, el/la coronel, el/la alférez (second lieutenant), el/la soldado 9.7.6 There are some masculine/feminine pairs, the most common of which are as follows: -o/-a:4 el tío/la tía (uncle/aunt), el teólogo/la teóloga (theologian) -e/-a: el monje/la monja (monk/nun) -or/-ora: el autor/la autora (author) Note also the following less common distinctive feminine endings: -esa: el abad/la abadesa (abbot/abbess), el guarda/la guardesa (gatekeeper, guard) -isa: el profeta/la profetisa (prophet/prophetess), el poeta/la poetisa (poet) (la poeta is most common now), el sacerdote/la sacerdotisa (priest/priestess) -riz: el actor/la actriz (actor/actress) -ista: el/la comentarista (commentator), el/la corista (chorister, chorus girl [in the feminine]), flautista (flautist), el/la periodista (journalist), el/la pianista (pianist), el/la violinista (violinist), el/la cronista (chronicler) 9.7.6.1 There are few special cases, which do not fit into the categories outlined above. • Sastre (tailor) has a distinct feminine form = sastra. • Clienta for females has now overcome the masculine and feminine form cliente. • Gobernante means governor, leader, but gobernanta means governess, staff manageress or housekeeper. • There is no specific feminine form for amante = la amante

9.8 Complications appear with the two following categories. 9.8.1 When the feminine form already has a distinct meaning: el físico (physicist, physique)/la física (physics) el alcalde (mayor)/la alcaldesa (mayor’s wife; see also 9.8.2) el policía (police officer)/la policía (police [force]) el informático (computing engineer)/la informática (computing) el técnico (technician, expert)/la técnica (technique) el químico (chemist)/la química (chemistry), el político (politician)/la política (politics) How one refers to a female physicist or female chemist is not clear. A subterfuge could be resorted to: Ella estudia como física/química. As with a female politician, (política?), this is an unresolved issue. 9.8.2 When there was previously no feminine form in existence, and few females in the job: ministro (was m and f); now ministra for feminine form presidente (was m and f); now presidenta for feminine form cónsul (el was used for both genders); now la cónsul agente (el was used for both genders); now la agente As women take on new roles in Western society, Spanish, like French and Italian, has had to find new feminines, and feminists are doing their best to establish new forms. The feminine form of professional nouns is now used regularly and applies to women in these professions and also corresponds to what is politically correct. For example: médica signifies female doctor, not doctor’s wife, but médico is still by far the preferred term. • Alcaldesa means female mayor and can mean mayor’s wife. • Abogada only means female lawyer. • Policía is now the accepted term for policewoman as well as policeman and police force (room for dangerous confusion here?). 4

This includes all the pairs referred to in Section 9.5.1.

Gender

73

• Primera ministra has now supplanted primer ministro for a female prime minister. • Informática can now mean a female computing engineer. • Bombera (firefighter) has come alongside bombero. Ginecóloga (gynecologist) has established itself alongside its masculine counterpart, ginecólogo. Even the abbreviated forms with their distinctly masculine -o have taken on a feminine gender: el/la fisio (physiotherapist), el/la otorrino (ear, nose and throat specialist). This sometimes imperious need to distinguish between male and female and obey new social and gender norms often affects constructions such as the following, where traditionally the first noun in each case would have sufficed. Ayudó a sus compañeros y compañeras. Asistieron a la reunión alumnos y alumnas. It is significant to point out that this change to a markedly feminine form still does not encourage dictionaries to put an equal number of examples in the feminine, as is the case in the present work, so there is a residual resistance somewhere. The following are now acceptable feminine forms, apart from those quoted above: árbitra (referee), candidata, concejala (city/town hall councilor), diputada (member of parliament), edila (member of town hall council), jefa (head of an establishment), reportera, senadora, sirvienta However, even here concejal and edil can be feminine. With respect to the neuter gender, see Section 9.13.

9.9 Nouns with masculine and feminine forms A number of Spanish nouns are both masculine and feminine, but have different meanings, which are sometimes related. This phenomenon is common to all Romance languages. 9.9.1 The feminine noun is collective while the masculine is individual:

barra brava (A) batería

centinela defensa escolta guardia policía

f

m

group of soccer fans (usually with a bad reputation) battery (of guns), (car) battery, footlights, percussion section of orchestra, set of kitchen utensils guard, watch (body) defense (in most senses) escort (group) guard (group), custody police, policewoman

individual fan of this group drummer (in band)

sentry defender (in soccer) escort (individual) guard (individual), policeman policeman

9.9.2 The feminine noun is literal, while the masculine noun is a person or thing associated with a metaphoric function:

bestia cabeza* calavera cámara

f

m

beast, uncouth woman head skull camera

uncouth man, brute head of an organization reckless/rakish man cameraman

74

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

caza crianza cura espada facha génesis guía mañana meta mierda** recluta vigía

hunt rearing, upbringing cure sword appearance, look origin guidebook, guide (female) morning objective, goal crap, shit, bitch recruitment watchtower, female lookout

fighter (plane) crianza (vintage wine) priest (Catholic) swordsman, matador fascist (term of abuse; R1) Book of Genesis guide (male) future goalkeeper son of a bitch rookie, recruit watchman

* Cabeza is always feminine in A, C and M, whether referring to a part of the anatomy or to the head of an organization or family. El padre es la cabeza de la familia. (The father is the head of the family.) ** This word would be classified as R1 since it has a vulgar connotation. It is therefore considerably lower than the assignation R1 used in this book.

9.9.3 Others

canal capital central

cólera coma cometa corte

corriente editorial final frente granuja hincha moral orden

f

m

pipe capital city (national or provincial) head office, telephone exchange (central nuclear/ hidroeléctrica = nuclear/ hydroelectric power station) anger comma kite (royal) court (Las Cortes = Spanish Parliament, La Corte madrileña = Madrid) flow, current (of water, electricity) publishing house final (match) forehead

canal, channel capital (money)

grapeseed grudge, ill will ethics, morale order, command, military/religious order (e.g. la Orden de Calatrava)

center forward, central defender (soccer) cholera coma comet cut (general), outage, power cut current month lead article end (of street, show, game) front (part), front (battle, political) rogue, rascal supporter (in sport) blackberry bush order, arrangement (e.g. orden alfabético), civil order e.g. las fuerzas del orden), style (e.g. el orden dórico [an architectural style])

Gender

75

ordenanza

decree, ordinance

panda parte

gang part (of something)

pendiente pez radio

slope (on hill) pitch, tar radio (but in C, M = m)

terminal

bus/ airplane terminal (but both are f in M) vowel, committee member (female)

vocal

office boy, orderly (in armed forces) panda report (e.g. parte meteorológico = weather forecast) earring fish (alive in water) radius, spoke (in wheel), radium (electrical) terminal committee member (male)

9.10 Problem genders

9.10.1

9.10.2

9.10.3

9.10.4

The gender of the following words is especially liable to confusion, notably if the study of French and/or Italian is involved. Words ending in -e: 9.10.1.1 Masculine auge (boom, highest point), avance (advance), bache (pothole [in road]), balance (balance [accounting], assessment, result), calambre (cramp), cauce ([river] bed/course) comprobante (proof [of identity, having sent something]), conclave/cónclave (conclave), declive (slope, incline), desmadre (R1; chaos), eclipse (eclipse), enclave (enclave), enchufe (electrical plug, influence), fraude (fraud), límite (limit), orbe (R3; sphere, orb), peine (comb), postre dessert), romance (ballad, Romance language), síndrome (syndrome), timbre (bell, postage stamp M]), tomate (tomato) 9.10.1.2 Feminine base, catástrofe, élite/elite, gripe (bad cold, flu), hecatombe (slaughter), hélice (propellor), higiene, índole (nature, character), masacre, mole (mass, bulk), pose (pose), pirámide, sede (see, seat [of government]), tilde (written accent mark), urbe (R3) large city, metropolis), variable Words ending in -al 9.10.2.1 Masculine cereal, zarzal (bramble, thicket) 9.10.2.2 Feminine central (power station, telephone exchange), credenciales (fpl; credentials), digital (foxglove), espiral (spiral), filial (subsidiary company), inicial (initial letter), multinacional (multinational), postal (postcard), sal (salt), señal (sign), semi-final (semifinal), sucursal (branch[office]) Words ending in - ante and -ente 9.10.3.1 Masculine ante (suede, elk), componente (component), paciente (patient; can be feminine) 9.10.3 .2 Feminine constante (constant), mente (mind), patente (patent), pendiente (slope), simiente (seed), vacante (vacancy), vertiente (slope) Words ending in -z 9.10.4.1 Masculine

76

9.10.5

9.10.6

9.10.7

9.10.8

9.10.9

A Reference Grammar of Spanish aprendiz (apprentice, learner), avestruz (ostrich), cáliz (chalice), matiz (hue, shade of meaning), pez (fish [alive]), regaliz (licorice), zigzag 9.10.4.2 Feminine coz (kick [of animal]), faz (R3; surface, face), hoz (sickle, gorge), lombriz (worm), perdiz (partridge), tez (complexion [of skin]) A number of feminine words armazón5 (frame[work]), bacanal (bacchanal), bilis (bile), cárcel (prison), circular (circular), crin (horse’s mane), diabetes/diábetes, efemérides (commemorative day), errata6 (erratum), flor (flower), metrópoli (metropolis), miel (honey), pelvis (pelvis) sangre (blood), sartén7 (fry[ing] pan), sien (temple (on head)), tos (cough), tribu (tribe), víctima There is much variation in Spanish in the naming of new gadgets. el aspirador/la aspiradora (vacuum cleaner), el batidor/la batidora (whisk), la freidora (deep-fat fryer), la lavadora (washing machine), el secador (hair dryer), el tostador/la tostadora (toaster) These modern gadgets become a gender minefield when we consider them in Argentina, Colombia and Mexico, and it serves no great purpose to dwell on them at length. However, as an illustration (and no more than this) of the other possibilities, the following genders are standard in Mexico: la aspiradora, la batidora, la secadora The English -ive corresponds to Spanish -ivo or -iva. la alternativa, la defensiva, la iniciativa, la misiva, la negativa, la ofensiva But: el objetivo, los preparativos (preparations; usually plural in this context) Azúcar (sugar) represents a unique case. It is masculine in Spain and Colombia, but feminine in Argentina and Mexico. Since azúcar is feminine in the latter two countries, one would expect the definite article preceding it to be la. This is emphatically not the case. Mexicans and Argentinians write and say: El azúcar es blanca/refinada/morena (brown). In Spain and Colombia, on the other hand one hears and reads: El azúcar es blanco, refinado, moreno. It must be added here, however, that even in Spain, one readily comes across the expression el azúcar blanquilla (semi-refined white sugar in lumps [en cortadillos]), although only in this one expression. One also sees el azúcar blanquillo. How el is reconciled in Argentina and Mexico, and, just occasionally, in Colombia and Spain, with the feminine form of the adjective is difficult to explain, but not impossible. There seem to be two plausible possibilities, the second of which suits morphological changes in the language. The first suggestion is that Argentinians, Mexicans and, to a much lesser extent, Spaniards, confuse the initial a of azúcar with that of agua, for instance, where el is required (see Chapter 2 on pronunciation) to deal with the spoken stress on the first a. But there is no spoken stress on the initial a of azúcar. It falls on the ú. The second explanation is that el also derives from the demonstrative adjective in Latin, illa, which developed into el. A protracted philological discourse could ensue here, but this simple explanation should suffice. In any case, all dictionaries indicate that the noun in question is both masculine and feminine, although largely the former. A number of Argentinian, Colombian and Mexican nouns applying to vehicles need some attention, since they are of relatively recent creation. These three are masculine: 5

Armazón can be masculine. Errata is clearly an anomaly. This term is neuter plural in Latin, from neuter erratum, but it has ended up as feminine singular in Spanish, whereas the English erratum/errata reflect more accurately the original Latin. 7 Sartén is feminine in Spain, but masculine in A, C and M. This is also true of radio (radio). 6

Gender

77

bondi (A; local bus), micro (A, M; bus, coach [often long distance]), remise (A; chauffeurdriven car) The following are feminine: combi (A, M; combi van, minibus [similar in M to the pesera]), rural (A; station wagon, estate car), troca (M; truck), (A, M; station wagon) Picop (M) and pic-up (A, C) (pick-up truck) are generally masculine, but in Argentina picup can be feminine. Disconcertingly, the todo terreno vehicle 4x4 is unquestionably masculine in Spain > un 4x4, but feminine in A, C and M > una 4x4.

9.11 Gender of compound nouns

9.11.1

9.11.2

9.11.3

9.11.4

Another possible minefield, since many of these terms are fairly modern and therefore have unestablished forms, and, in keeping with the ease with which English lends itself to placing two or more nouns side by side, compound nouns are starting to burgeon in Spanish. However, the gender of compound nouns follows a certain logic. Two masculine nouns are obviously masculine. buque fantasma (ghost ship), café concierto (café with live music), café teatro (café theater), piso piloto (show apartment/flat), proyecto piloto (pilot scheme), retrato robot (photofit), satélite espía (spy satellite), tiempo récord (record time), vehículo todo terreno (off-road vehicle, Land Rover, 4x4), viaje relámpago (lightning journey) Two feminine nouns are naturally feminine. bomba trampa (booby trap [bomb]), barra brava8 (A; soccer fans [as a group]), célula madre (mother cell [organism]), civilización madre (mother civilization), etapa reina (star part [of cycle race]), hora punta (rush hour), lengua madre (mother tongue), madre patria (mother country), obra cumbre (culminating work), palabra clave (key word), prueba reina (key event [in sports race]), villa miseria (A; shanty town) Bocacalle (street turning) and madreselva (honeysuckle) now constitute single words and follow the above rule. When two nouns are of different gender, the first determines the gender of the compound noun. Masculine nouns include: camión cisterna (tanker [vehicle]), factor sorpresa (surprise factor), coche bomba (car bomb), gas ciudad (town gas [coal gas for domestic use]), coche cama (sleeper [train]), papel moneda (paper money), coche patrulla (patrol car) The exception to this rule is radiorreceptor (radio receiver), which is masculine, even though radio is feminine. Feminine nouns include: cama nido (trundle bed, bunk bed), cárcel modelo (prison in Barcelona), ciudad dormitorio (dormitory town, residential area), ciudad fantasma (ghost city), fecha tope (final/closing date), guerra relámpago (lightning war), hora pico (M; rush hour), luz piloto (pilot light), zona euro (eurozone) Compound nouns formed with other parts of speech are usually masculine and form one word. abrelatas (can opener), altavoz (loudspeaker), cortacésped (lawn mower), espantapájaros (scarecrow), hazmerreír (laughing stock), marcapasos (pace maker), montacargas (service elevator), montaplatos (dumbwaiter), paraguas (umbrella), pararrayos (lightning conductor), pasacalles (street band), pasatiempo (hobby, pastime), quedirán (public 8

El barra brava means a single fan forming part of this group.

78

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

opinion), quehaceres (domestic chores), rompecabezas (puzzle), tensiómetro9 (blood pressure monitor), terremoto (earthquake) However, there are exceptions – for example, la sinrazón (injustice) and la enhorabuena (congratulations). 9.11.5 Some compound nouns coming from other parts of speech can be masculine and feminine, since they apply to male and female alike. angloparlante/hablante (English-speaker/speaking), caza-autógrafos (autograph hunter), cazamariposas (butterfly collector; also butterfly net and here = m), cazatalentos (talent spotter, headhunter), guardametas (goalkeeper), hispanohablante/parlante (Spanish-speaker/speaking), malaleche (nasty person, son of a bitch), malapata10 (clumsy person), malasombra (nuisance, pest, clumsy sort), portavoz (spokesperson), purasangre (throughbred horse), trotamundos (globetrotter)

9.12 Words distinguished by the ending -a/-o 9.12.1 Because of its distinctive gender endings, Spanish does not have many words with the same form but different meanings. However, as in Italian, there are numerous pairs of words distinguished only by -a and -o endings which are easily confused, and are a splendid test of one’s memory. The Mexicans do not make it any easier, as with bolsa/bolso below. Falla/fallo is also problematic on both sides of the Atlantic. All these terms are known as gender paronyms, or doublets (dobletes in Spanish). Below is a very wide, if not comprehensive, selection of such testing words. Space does not allow us to show how all these words are used, and we would then move into the area of usage, which is not the function of this work. The feminine form precedes the masculine in the following list. acera (sidewalk, pavement), acero (steel) acta (minutes, record of a meeting), acto (action, deed, act [in a play]) ánima (soul, spirit [as religious concept]), ánimo (energy, courage, spirit [as quality]) ara (altar), aro (child’s hoop) arca (chest, box), arco (arch[way], bow [violin, archery]) azucarera (sugar refinery, sugar bowl [A, C, M]), azucarero (sugar bowl) banca (banking [as system]), parliamentary seat [A], banco (bank [as individual establishment], bench) banda (band, gang, [music] band, strip, ribbon), bando (faction, party, side, edict) barca (small boat [for rowing, fishing]), barco (boat [larger than barca], vessel, ship) barra (bar, rail, parallel bars [gymnastics], toolbar [computer], gang of people [A]), barro (mud [less used in M and is replaced by lodo, a higher-register word in Spain]) baza (trick [at cards], ace, trump card [also figurative]), bazo (spleen) bola ([often solid] ball [as in bowls and billiards], group of friends or family [R1, M]), bolo (skittle) bolsa ([any] bag, lady’s purse/handbag [M], Stock Exchange [Bolsa]), bolso (lady’s purse/handbag) bomba (bomb, pump), bombo (bass drum) bombilla (light bulb), bombillo (light bulb [C]) (arrojar por la) borda (to throw overboard), (estar a) bordo ([to be on] board) braza (breaststroke, style [in swimming]), brazo (arm [of person or chair]) 9

One would have expected tensiómetro to be feminine, since tensión is feminine, but it is in fact masculine. 10 Malapata also means bad luck throughout the Spanish-speaking world, and here it is only feminine. It is also written mala pata.

Gender

79

bula ([papal] bull), bulo (lie, fib, gossip) caca (R1; poop, poo), caco (thief) calzada (road[way]), calzado (footwear) canasta (basket [for shopping: made of wicker with two handles]), canasto ([a tall]) canasta with two handles) caña (reed, stalk, [sugar] cane, [fishing] rod, beer glass), caño (pipe, jet) capa (layer [of earth, paint, etc.], stratum), capo (boss, big shot) carda (wire brush [for combing wool]), cardo (thistle) carga (load [to be carried], charge [military and explosive]), cargo (burden, responsibility, post, position [in employment]) cartera (mailwoman, billfold, wallet, brief case, lady’s purse/handbag [C]), cartero (mailman) casa (house), caso (case, instance) casca (bark [used in tanning], grape skins [after being trampled on]), casco (helmet [of soldier, motorcyclist], central area of city, downtown [often casco urbano]) caza (hunting [f], fighter plane [m]), cazo (small saucepan, ladle) (una) centena (de botellas) (about a hundred [bottles]), centeno (rye) cepa (plant [of vine], stock), cepo (wheel clamp, trap [for catching game]) cera (wax), cero (zero) cerca (hedge, fence), cerco (hedge, fence, enclosure [more general than cerca], ring, hoop, rim, siege) cerilla (match [for lighting]), cerillo (same meaning of match, but only in M) (neither word is used in A or C, where they are replaced by fósforo, which only appears in the written form in Spain) cesta (basket [for shopping, waste paper]), cesto (basket [usually larger than cesta]) cigarra (cicada), cigarro (cigar, cigarette) cinta (band, strip, ribbon, tape, magnetic tape, [conveyor] belt), cinto (belt [around waist]) clara (white [of egg], bald patch [on head]), claro (glade, clearing [in wood]), bright interval [in weather]) cobija (blanket [M]), cobijo (shelter) conducta (conduct, behavior), conducto (conduit [for gas, water], also figurative = channel) copa (wine glass, trophy, top of tree), copo (snowflake/cornflake) costa (coast), costo (cost) cota (contour, level, coat [of mail]), coto (reserve [for game, fishing]) cruzada (crusade), cruzado (crusader, Brazilian unit of currency) cuadra (stable [for all animals], block of buildings [A, C, M] [e.g. dar la vuelta a la cuadra = to go round the block]), cuadro (any shape made with right angles, square, pane of glass, frame, picture, garden patch, top official, specialist [in an organization]) cuba (cask, barrel [as for wine]), cubo (cube, bucket, bin [for trash, garbage]) cubierta (cover, jacket [of book]), cubierto (place setting, individual item of knife, fork or spoon) cuchilla (blade, big heavy knife, kitchen knife, butcher’s knife, cleaver), cuchillo (any knife) cuenca ([geographical] basin), cuenco ([earthenware] bowl) cuenta (account, bill), cuento (story, tale) cuerna (antler), cuerno (horn [of bull or musical instrument]) cuña (wedge), cuño (die, die stamp for coining) charca (pond), charco (puddle, but also refers humoristically to the Atlantic Ocean = the Pond) derecha (right-hand side, right wing [political]), derecho (right, rightful claim, justice, law) deuda (debt), deudo ([family] relation [usually pl, used for relatives of a deceased person])

80

A Reference Grammar of Spanish dicha (R3; happiness), dicho (saying, adage) diestra (R3; right hand), diestro (matador) directiva (board of directors, guideline), directivo (manager, executive) emisora (radio station), emisor (transmitter [no -o here]) escala (scale, stop [on journey, sea voyage], set of [household] steps [for reaching things]), escalo (climbing [commonly used in the phrase robo con escalo = breaking and entering]) espina (thorn, bone [in fish]), espino (hawthorn) faja (girdle, wide belt, strip of land [as with Gaza, although franja is more common here]), fajo (wad, roll [of bank notes], bundle, sheaf) falla (flaw, geological fault [A, C, M; fallo used in Spain]), fallo (error, fault [in mechanism or system] [largely applies to Spain in this masculine form], verdict [legal; A, C, M]) foca (seal [animal]), foco (focus, focal point, headlight, spotlight, light bulb [M]) fonda (tavern, small restaurant), fondo (bottom, background, fund) fosa (grave, sea/land depression), foso (pit, hole, ditch) fruta (fruit [as on the table]), fruto (fruit [as on a tree] [also used figuratively: frutos secos are nuts and fruta seca is dried fruit such as prunes, apricots, sultanas]) gama (hind [female deer], scale, range), gamo (buck [male deer]) gesta (great exploit), gesto (gesture) gimnasia (gymnastics), gimnasio (gymnasium) gira (tour, trip [theatrical]), giro (gyration, turn [e.g. in car], trend [in events]) gorra (peaked cap), gorro (tight-fitting cap with no peak [e.g. for swimming]) grada (step, stair, in pl stadium steps), grado (degree [temperature], rank) grana (cochineal [insect]), deep red), grano (grain [cereals], particle [e.g. sand], pimple [on face]) helada (frost), helado (ice cream) huerta ([large] garden, typically for cultivation of fruit and vegetables), huerto (small private garden, kitchen garden) labia (talkativeness), labio (lip [of mouth]) leña (wood, firewood), leño (log [usually larger than leña and also for making fire]) libra (pound [in weight, money]), libro (book) libreta (savings book, pass book), libreto ([opera] libretto) loma (R3; small hill), lomo (back [of an animal]) llamada (call [telephone], call [for action]), llamado (call [A, M; telephone], [C; call (for action) e.g. llamado a la concordia nacional) llanta (metal rim [of wheel]), llanto (weeping, crying) madera (wood [general], plank [of wood]), madero ([piece of] timber) manga (sleeve [coat, shirt]), mango (handle) manta (blanket, large shawl), manto (cloak, gown, mantle [R3], stratum, layer [of rock]) marca (brand, trademark, record [sport], stain), marco (frame [of picture], framework [also used figuratively]) marea (tide), mareo (travel sickness, giddiness, vertigo) media (stocking, average), medio (middle, means, half) moda (fashion, style), modo (way [of doing something], method) mora (blackberry), moro (Moor, Arab, North African) muñeca (wrist, female doll), muñeco (male doll [muñeco de nieve = snowman]) negativa (negative [act of negating], refusal), negativo (negative [photography]) paga (pay, installment, pocket money), pago ([single] payment) pala (shovel, spade), palo (stick, post, mast) palma (palm [of hand or palm tree]), palmo (any short length or distance)

Gender

81

papelera (waste [paper] basket, paper mill), papelero (paper manufacturer) pareja (pair [of people], [female or male] partner, female dancing partner), parejo (male dancing partner [C]) partida (departure, register, certificate [of birth/marriage/death], hand [in cards], game [chess]), partido ([political] party, game [soccer/football]) pasa (sultana, raisin), paso (passage, way through, mountain pass, footstep, rate [of doing something]) pasta (pasta, paste, pastry, pulp, [R1]), pasto [pasture, grass [A, C, M]) pata (leg [of animal]), pato (duck) pedida ([commercial] order, request), pedido ([marriage] proposal) pelas (cash [pl R1]), pelo (hair) pera (pear), pero (objection) pesa (weight [physical object placed on scales], pendulum [of clock], weight [for exercise]), peso (weight, [measurement and general], weighing scales, Mexican and Argentinian unit of currency) pesera (minibus [for a small number of passengers] [M]), pesero (bus [for twenty or thirty passengers; bigger than a pesera] [M]);11 pimienta (pepper [for seasoning]), pimiento (pepper [vegetable]) pintada (piece of graffiti), pintado (small milky coffee [C]) plana (sheet of paper), plano (plane, level, map [of city showing streets]) plata12 (silver, money [A, C, M]), plato (plate, dish, course of meal) plaza (public square, place [for parking lot/car park], job, fortified town), plazo (period of time, time limit, periodic payment, installment) política (politics), político (politician) porra (billy club, truncheon), porro (joint, reefer, undercover cop [M]) puerta (door), puerto (port, pass [in mountains]) puesta (past participle of poner, and used in many of the senses of this verb: puesta en marcha [starting of engine], puesta en escena [staging/production of play]) (see Batchelor, Using Spanish Synonyms), puesto (place, position, job, post, stall [in market]) pulpa (pulp), pulpo (octopus, baggage strap) punta (point, sharp end), punto (dot, speck, point [in scoring]) pupila (pupil [of eye], ward [of court]), pupilo (lodger, ward [of court]) quinta (estate, large farmhouse in own grounds, call-up, draft), quinto (military conscript [this no longer exists in Spain]) rama (branch [of tree/science], section [of a party, group of people]), ramo (bunch [of flowers], part [into which an activity or discipline is divided])13 rastra (harrow [for agriculture]), rastro (trail, trace, sign, slaughterhouse/abattoir [M], as in rastro municipal) rata (rat), rato (short while) raya (line, streak [on paper, stone, sand, etc.], boundary, limit, part(ing) [in hair]), rayo (ray, beam of light, flash of lightning, thunderbolt) reina (queen), reino (kingdom, realm, not to be confused with reinado = [reign]) 11

Both nouns are found in Mexico City, where they can have the same meaning = minibus, although pesera is used more than pesero. The two terms are less used in other Mexican cities. For example, pesera alone is used in Salamanca, while neither term occurs in Guanajuato. Outside Mexico City, there is considerable uncertainty over the use and application of these two nouns. 12 Plata is also the name of the Lone Ranger’s horse = Silver. 13 The two words above overlap considerably, especially in the meaning of a branch of a group of people, a political party, for instance.

82

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

resta (subtraction [in math]), resto (remains, remainder) ría (estuary [as in Galicia on the northwest coast of Spain], [long, narrow] tidal inlet [like the narrows in Northwest Canada]), río (river) rodilla (knee), rodillo (roller, rolling pin, mangle, wringer) rosca (thread [screw]), rosco (bread roll [in ring shape], zero, nothing) rueda (wheel, tire), ruedo (bullring, small round mat) rumba (rumba), rumbo (direction, course [for boat]) seta (mushroom), seto (hedge) sigla (symbol, abbreviation, acronym), siglo (century) sobrecarga (excess load), sobrecargo (flight attendant, purser) suela (sole [of shoe]), suelo (ground, surface, floor(ing) [of house]) técnica [technique], técnico [technician, engineer, coach, trainer) tinta (ink), tinto (small cup of black coffee [C], [glass of] red wine) tira (strip [of paper, cloth], strap [of shoe]), tiro (shot [from gun and in sport], throw) tormenta (storm [usually violent]), tormento (torment, anguish) trama (plot, intrigue), tramo (section, stretch [of road]) trata (trade [especially of slaves]), trato (relationship [between people], behavior, pact, deal) traza (layout [in architecture], appearance [of person or object; often pl], trace [often pl]), trazo (line, stroke [as in writing or drawing], feature [of face; often used in pl]) trompa ([elephant] trunk), trompo (spinning top) tumba (tomb, grave), tumbo (tumble, fall, jolt) tuna (student music group [often parading in streets in Spain]), tuno (member of a tuna, rascal [R1]) vela (sail, candle), velo (veil) vuelta (return [from somewhere]), vuelto (change [in money]) A significant exception to the general rules set out here are maná ([with accent] manna), which is masculine, and mano, which is feminine. Boleta (f) and boleto (m) require some attention and present labyrinthine complications across the Atlantic. In Argentina boleta refers to a gas, electricity, telephone or water bill. It also means a ticket issued by the police for an offense. In Mexico, it is commonly used for an elementary/primary school report. In Argentina and Mexico, it is a document used as proof of payment. It is rarely, if ever, used these days in Spain, but does survive in the jocular expression dar la boleta (to dismiss from work, to polish off [i.e. to kill]). Boleto means a theater, movie, bus, train or airplane ticket in both Argentina and Mexico, and largely replaces the Iberian Spanish entrada for the first two of these. Pasaje can easily be used for boleto in Argentina for a ticket for any form of transportation. Boleto frequently occurs in Argentina with the meaning of a contract note or bill of sale. In Spain, boleto is commonly used to mean a receipt for a bet placed on a soccer match, horse race or lottery in general, although for the Lotería Nacional, one would say recibo. 9.12.2 For many, but by no means all, fruit trees, the fruit is feminine and the tree is masculine. The feminine precedes the masculine in the following list. algarroba (carob bean), algarrobo (carob tree) almendra (almond), almendro (almond tree) banana (banana), banano (banana tree) cereza (cherry), cerezo (cherry tree) granada (pomegranate), granado (pomegranate tree) manzana (apple), manzano (apple tree) naranja (orange), naranjo (orange tree) oliva14 (olive), olivo (olive tree)

Gender

83

toronja (grapefruit), toronjo (grapefruit tree)

9.13 The neuter The demonstrative and third person pronoun have a distinctive “neuter” form: esto, eso, aquello; ello, lo. They always refer to a proposition or general idea, never to a noun. Compare the following Un pacto social resulta casi imposible. Por ello. . . (A social compact is almost impossible. Because of this. . .) Lo he hecho por él. (I’ve done it for him.) Eso de no tener dinero me extrañó. (That business of not having any money surprised me.) Nuestra idea es ésa. (That is our idea.) (See also Sections 7.1.37–7.1.39 on lo for further examples and more explanation.) The rules set out above with respect to gender are those that seem to have some grammatical value, notwithstanding the many exceptions originating in dialectical forms or the language of Spanish America. Much could be said about remembering the gender of Spanish nouns. However, suffice to say that the simplest and easiest way to learn the gender is, when you come across a new noun, to put the article in front of it every time, and it will be learnt by association, following the pattern of a Spanish-speaking child.

14

Aceituna is much more common for olive in the Spanish-speaking world, although this is not the case in Catalonia, where oliva is the term for the fruit. However, the ubiquitous term for olive oil is aceite de oliva.

10 Number1 (singular and plural) / Número (singular y plural) This chapter is largely devoted to nouns but there is some reference to adjectives, although the treatment of adjectives proper occurs in Chapter 60. The following passage illustrates the use of the plural s for nouns and adjectives, and the use of the plural n for verbs. El viernes pasado, como casi todos los viernes del año, cargado con la mochila, emprendí mi marcha junto a los hermanos Martínez, curiosos especímenes: cargados de espalda, alforjas al hombro, vestidos y calzados de negro de pies a cabeza; el mayor pequeño (the short oldest one), y el pequeño grande y huesudo (the tall and bony youngest one). La Ruta del río Cares, serpenteando entre profundos precipicios, ha dado fama a los habitantes de Caín, nacidos entre estas neblinosas montañas, de ellos que se dice: “Los cainejos (inhabitants of Caín) no se mueren. . .”, y después, suelen añadir: “no se mueren, porque se despeñan (throw themselves off a cliff)”. Entre aquellas empinadas veredas, yo caminaba con mis botas de montaña, ellos calzaban unos sencillos zapatos, que, seguro, se quitarán para escalar con los pies desnudos, como siempre. Íbamos contentos sorteando rocas inmensas, deseosos de alcanzar el pie del Pico Urriello, cuando de improviso, estuve a punto de toparme con lo que me pareció un enorme oso. De repente me vino a la memoria el rey Favila devorado por un oso por aquellos parajes. Quedé paralizado. No es que no me moviera porque la recomendación de los expertos es la de no moverse en estos casos. Es que estaba paralizado por el miedo, y el pánico no se me pasó ni aún después de ver aparecer tras el oso a una cuadrilla de titiriteros (puppeteers), con su cabra, sus instrumentos de viento y su vestimenta multicolor. No fui capaz de articular palabra cuando el viejo bigotudo (with a moustache) que llevaba sujeto al escuálido (skinny) oso con una cadena, tras saludarnos quitándose la visera, nos ofreciera la bota (gourd), diciendo: —¡Qué. . .! ¿Les hace (would you like) un trago?

10.1 Plural of nouns 10.1.1 In the plural, the definite article has the following forms, agreeing with the nouns they accompany: • masculine: los (the) • feminine: las (the) los hombres/chicos/libros (the men/boys/books) las mujeres/chicas/mesas (the women/girls/tables) 10.1.2 The plurals of all nouns of Spanish origin end in -s. Nouns ending in an unstressed vowel or diphthong merely add an s. el agua/las aguas (water/waters), la casa/las casas (house/houses), el mexicano/los mexicanos (Mexican/Mexicans), la tribu/las tribus (tribe/tribes) 1

84

Not to be confused with Chapter 72 on numbers.

Number (singular and plural)

10.1.3

10.1.4

10.1.5

10.1.6

85

Monosyllables are treated in the same way. la bici/las bicis (bicycle/bicycles), la fe/las fes (faith/faiths), el pie/los pies (foot/feet), el pro y contra/los pros y contras (pro and contra/pros and contras), el té/los tés (tea/teas) Nouns and adjectives ending in a consonant insert e as a connecting vowel. el álbum/los álbumes, el árbol/los árboles (tree), el jardín/los jardines (yard[s], garden[s]), el harén/los harenes (harem[s]), el mártir/los mártires, el autor/los autores, el canal/ los canales, el español/los españoles (Spanish/Spaniards), el inglés/los ingleses (English) Final -z is changed to -ces. el cáliz/los cálices (chalice[s]), la cruz/las cruces (cross[es]), el desliz/los deslices (error[s], slip-up[s]), el juez/los jueces (judge[s]), el lápiz/los lápices (pencil[s]), el matiz/los matices (shades of meaning, nuance[s]), la paz/las paces (peace[s]), la raíz/las raíces (root[s]), tenaz/ tenaces (tenacious), voraz/voraces (voracious), la voz/las voces (voice[s]) Nouns and adjectives ending in a stressed vowel add -es. el alhelí/los alhelíes (wallflower[s]), el bajá/los bajá(e)s (pasha[s]), baladí/baladíes (paltry, trivial), el bambú/los bambúes (bamboo[s]), el bantú/los bantú(e)s (Bantu[s]), el champú/los champú(e)s (shampoo[s]), el esquí/ los esquíes (ski[s]), el hindú/los hindúes1 (Hindu[s]), el israelí/los israelíes (Israelí[s]), el jabalí/los jabalíes (wild boar[s]), el marroquí/los marroquíes (frequently in speech > los marroquís) (Morrocan[s]), el magrebí/los magrebíes (person[s] from the Maghreb [North Africa]), el rubí/los rubíes (ruby/rubies), el tabú/los tabúes (taboo[s]), el yemení/los yemeníes (yemen[s]), el zahorí/ los zahoríes (water diviner[s]), el zulú/los zulúes (Zulu[s]) However, the following exceptions exist. el bebé/los bebés (baby/babies), el buró/los burós (bureau[s], writing desk[s]), el café/los cafés (café[s]), el cliché/los clichés (cliché[s]), el dominó/los dominós (domino[es]), la gachí/las gachís (R1; broad[s], chick[s]), el gachó/los gachós (R1; guy[s], fellow[s]), mi papá/mis papás (A, C, M; my pop, my dad/my mom and dad, my parents), el sofá/los sofás (sofa[s]), el vermú/los vermús (vermouth[s]) Unstressed endings in -is, -es and -us in words of more than one syllable; pure Latin terms; and family names ending in -z, not stressed on the last syllable, do not change. Other possibilities are indicated el/los análisis (analysis/analyses), el/los cactus (cactus[es]), el/los campus (campus[es]), el/los caos (chaos[es]), la/las caries (caries, tooth decay), el/los corpus (corpus [of material]), la/ las crisis (crisis/crises), el currículum/los currículum2 (curriculum/curricula), el/los chasis (chassis), el/los déficit (déficit[s]), el/los desiderátum (desideratum/desiderata), la/las dosis (dose[s]), el/los forum (forum[s]), el/los ítem (item/items), el/los lunes, martes, etc. (Monday[s], Tuesday[s] [i.e. days of the week ending in -s]), el/los maquis (maquis), Martínez (name)/los Martínez (Martinez/[the] Martinez[es]), el memorándum/los memorándums (memorando[s]/ memoranda), el/los referéndum (referéndum[s]/referenda), el réquiem/los réquiem(s) (requiem[s]), el/los rictus (grimace[s], grin[s]), el/los superávit (surplus[es]), el/los ultimátum (ultimátum[s]), el vademécum/los vademécums (handbook[s]), el/los virus (virus[es]) 2

There is an increasing tendency to hispanize words such as curriculum, forum, memorándum and referendum to currículo(s), foro(s), memorando(s), referendo(s). This is not the case with ultimátum. Los córpora/ currícula/memoranda/referenda are also seen, but these are not accepted by many since they are English imports which derive directly from Latin. Referendums is also gaining in frequency.

10.1.7 Final diphthongs ending in -y require -es for their plural. el buey/los bueyes (ox/oxen), el convoy/los convoyes (convoy[s]), la grey/las greyes (R3; flock [often used figuratively]), la ley/las leyes (law[s]), el rey/los reyes (king[s] [and queen(s)]), el virrey/los virreyes (viceroy[s]) 1

This term is also commonly, although incorrectly, used with the meaning of Indian (i.e. from India).

86

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

10.2 Anglicisms and other foreign words (See Chapter 78 on foreign and indigenous words for more on these words. Needless to say, we concentrate on their plural variations here.) Some Anglicisms have the English plural form, while other foreign words, such as French and Italian, do vary. Usage is uncertain for both these areas. el bar/los bares (bar[s] [for drinks etc.]), el bestseller/los bestsellers (bestseller[s]), la boutique/las boutiques (boutique[s]), el carné(t)/los carné(t)s3 (driver’s license/drivers’ licenses), el club/los club(e)s (club[s]), el cómic/los cómics (comic[s]), el complot/los complots (plot[s] [scheming]), el crac(k)/los crac(k)s (sports star[s], financial crash[es]), el chalé(t)/los chalé(t)s (chalet[s]), el chándal/los chándales (tracksuit[s]), el chip/ los chips ([computer] chip[s]), el chófer (A, C, M chofer)/los chóferes (chauffeur[s]), el dandy/los dandis (dandy/dandies), el debut/los debuts (debut[s]), el eslip/los eslips ([under]pants), el eslogan/los eslóganes4 (slogan[s]), el esnob/los esnobs (snob[s]), el fan/ los fan(e)s (fan[s] [not in sport]), el fax/los faxes (fax[es]), el ferry/los ferris/los ferrys (ferry/ferries), el film/los film(e)s (movie[s], film[s]), el flan/los flanes (flan[s]), el flas(h)/ los flas(h)es (flash[es] [from camera, piece of information]), el gán(g)ster/los gán(g) sters (gangster[s]), el gol/los goles (goal[s]), el gong/los gongs (gong[s]), el graffito/grafiti/ los grafiti (graffiti), el iceberg/los icebergs (iceberg[s]), el jersey/los jerseys/jerséis (sweater[s]), el/los kib(b)utz (kibbutz/kibbutzim), el líder/los líders/líderes (leader[s]), el lord/los lores5 (lord[s]), el míster/los místers (soccer coach [same in Italian]), el penaltí/ los penaltís (penalty/penalties [in soccer]), el pony/los ponies (pony/ponies), el póster/ los póster(e)s (poster[s]), el récord/los récords (record[s]), el shock/los shocks (shock[s]), el stock/los stocks (stock[s] [of goods]), el stand/los stands (stand[s] [at exhibition]), el suéter/los suéteres (M; sweater[s]), el test/los tests (test[s] [often, but not always, intelligence test]), el yogur/los yogures (yoghourt[s]), el zigzag/los zigzags (zigzag[s])

10.3 Variation in stress Some nouns have the stress on different syllables in the singular and plural. el carácter/los caracteres (character[s]), el espécimen/los especímenes (specimen[s]), el régimen/los regímenes (régime[s])

10.4 Stress and the formation of plurals In the formation of plurals, the place of the stress and the sound of the final consonant of the singular remain the same, and the spelling reflects this. el almacén/los almacenes (warehouse[s]), el autobús/los autobuses (bus[es]), el balcón/ los balcones (balcony/balconies), el burgués/los burgueses (bourgeois), el caimán/ los caimanes (caiman[s]), el camión/los camiones (truck, lorry, bus [M]), el cañón/los cañones (canyon[s]), el ciprés/los cipreses (cypress[es]), el escocés/los escoceses (Scot[s]), la imagen/las imágenes (image[es]), inglés/ingleses (English), el interés/los intereses (interest[s] [often suggests finance]), el jardín/los jardines (yard[s], garden[s]), el/la joven/los/las jóvenes (youth[s]), el lápiz/los lápices (pencil[s]), el margen/los márgenes 3

With the inclusion of the t, the written accent is lost (carnet, also chalet). There is a struggle here between the spellings eslogan and slogan, and eslip and slip, and the outcome is not clear. In speech, the sound is the same: es. 5 Understandably, from the point of view of pronunciation, the plural of el lord is los lores. 4

Number (singular and plural)

87

(margin[s]), el montañés/los montañeses (highlander[s], mountain dweller[s], person from Santander, Northern Spain), el origen/ los orígenes (origin[s]), el país/los países (country/countries), el rehén/los rehenes (hostage[s]), el retén/los retenes (police patrol[s]/ post[s]), la virgen/las vírgenes (virgin[s])

10.5 Plurals of family relations and titles Some plurals in Spanish do not have a concise equivalent in English. los duques (dukes, duke[s] and duchess[es]), los marqueses (marquises, marquis[es] and marchioness[es]), los padres (fathers, father[s] and mother[s], parents), los papás (A, C, M)/ los papis (C) (father[s] and mother[s], parents), los reyes (kings, king[s] and queen[s]), los tíos (uncles, uncle[s] and aunt[s]) (See Section 9.5.1 for a substantial list of this kind.)

10.6 Proper names, names of towns, articles

10.6.1 10.6.2 10.6.3

10.6.4

10.6.5

These do not usually change in the plural. However, there are circumstances where they do change. When specific places are referred to. En América, hay dos Córdobas, una en la Argentina y otra en México. First names follow the normal plural pattern. los Raúles, los Pablos, las Cármenes, las Pilares Family names remain unchanged when referring to members of the same family. los García, los Almodóvar, los Mendoza When the name ends in -z, there is, of course, no change. los Menéndez, los Martínez However, one readily hears: En la Telefónica (Spanish telephone directory), hay muchos Garcías (although García is also possible here). Dynasties and well-known families show variation. los Habsburgo, los Tudor, los Borgia los Borbones, los Austrias, los Capuletos Commercial brands show variation too. los Yamaha, los Opel, los Seiko, los Camembert, los Borgoña (Burgundies), los Coñac (Capital or small letters here is another issue, discussed in Section 4.3.10, 4.3.11, 4.3.12.) While a compound noun usually remains invariable: Los nuevos Corte Inglés [department store] de la ciudad. . . one also sees the following, for example: Han abierto muchos Zaras [clothes shop] en el extranjero.

10.7 Compound nouns, or nouns preceded by verbs or adjectives to which they are joined There are two kinds of compound nouns: those that constitute one word and those where the two words are separate. Usually, when the nouns are joined, the second noun takes an -s, and this applies also to other parts of speech. With respect to verbs/adjectives + nouns, they are always joined, and the noun takes an -s in the plural. el/los anglohablante[s]/angloparlante[s] (English-speaker[s]/-speaking), la/las bocacalle(s) [street entrance[s]), el/los camposanto(s) (cemetery/cemeteries), el/los ferrocarril(es) (railroad[s], railways), el/los guardameta(s) (goalkeeper[s]), el/los hispano- parlante(s)/

88

A Reference Grammar of Spanish hispanohablante(s) (Spanish-speaker[s]/-speaking), la/las madreselva(s) (honeysuckle[s]), el/los montacargas (service elevator, goods lift), el/los montaplatos (dumb waiter), el / los padrenuestro(s) (Lord’s Prayer[s], Pater Noster[s]), el/los pasodoble(s) (pasodoble[s]), el/los quitaesmalte(s) (nail varnish remover[s]), el/los quitasol(es) (sunshade[s]), la/las telaraña(s) (spider’s web[s]) However, but there is no plural for: los hazmerreír (laughing stocks), los correveidile (telltales) When the term already implies a plural, it remains invariable. el/los cazamariposas (butterfly collector[s]), el/los cazatalentos (talent spotter[s], headhunter[s]), el/los cienpiés (centipede[s]), el/los limpiabotas (shoe shiner[s]), el/ los mondadientes (tooth pick[s]), el/los portaaviones (aircraft carrier[s]), el/los quitamanchas (stain remover[s]), el/los quitanieves (snow plough[s]), el/los rascacielos (skyscraper[s]), el/los sacacorchos (corkscrew[s]) When the nouns are separate, the first noun is usually put in the plural but the second noun may also take a plural -s, although this is less frequent, and would even sound strange if, for example, the last word of the following expression had an -s: un vehículo(s) todo terreno. It should be added that, since compound nouns and their pluralization are a comparatively recent linguistic phenomenon, hard and fast rules are still difficult to come by, and Spanishspeakers hesitate themselves, so we are in good company. The following is just a small selection of the ever-increasing number of compound nouns as they are used in the plural. los apartamentos piloto (show apartments [for public viewing]), las autoridades dopaje (doping authorities), los barcos chatarra (wrecks of boats [for illegal immigrants]), los cafés teatro (café theaters/pub theatres), las carreras reina (main races), las células madre (mother cells), las ciudades dormitorio (dormitory towns), las ciudades modelo (model cities), los coches bomba (car bombs), los coches cama (wagon-lits, sleepers), los coches patrulla (patrol cars), las conferencias cumbre (summit meetings), los factores sorpresa (surprise factors), las fechas tope (final/closing dates), las horas pico (rush hours [M]), las horas punta (rush hours), las ideas clave (key ideas), los límites tope (final/closing dates), los perros policía (police dogs), los retratos robot (photofits), los sectores clave (key sectors), las villas miseria (shanty towns [A]) Clave is certainly one of the nouns often used adjectivally in the plural. las actividades claves (key activities), los elementos claves (key elements), las ideas claves (key ideas)

10.8 Adjectives formed with a prefix + noun These are invariable in the plural when the second noun is singular. faros antiniebla (fog lights), máscaras antigás (gas mask) But when the second noun is plural, logically the s is retained: policía antidisturbios/ policías antidisturbios (riot policeman/woman/riot policemen/women) There are two forms of the following: mina/minas antipersona/mina/minas antipersonas (antipersonnel mine[s]) (See also Section 9.11 on the gender of compound nouns.)

10.9 Spanish plural = English singular 10.9.1 There is often a plural noun in Spanish corresponding to an English singular noun. The following list only provides a rough guide, since many of these nouns (marked with*) may be used in the singular, and sometimes in a different way.

Number (singular and plural)

89

las agujetas (stiffness [in limbs]), por los aires* (through the air), las algas* (seaweed), las andas (portable platform [for religious processions]), los aplausos* (applause), las barbas* (beard), las bodas* (wedding), ¡Buenos días!/ ¡Buenas tardes/noches! (Good morning!/Good afternoon/evening/night!), los cascotes/escombros (rubble), los celos* (jealousy), los conocimientos* (knowledge), los consejos* (advice), (los) Correos* (Post Office), las cosquillas (tickling), con creces (with interest [financially], abundantly), los cubiertos (cutlery), los chanchullos* (maneuvering, shady dealing[s]), los datos (information, data), los deberes (homework), las diarreas ([bouts of] diarrhea), las diligencias* ([administrative] procedure), los efectivos (personnel), las enaguas (petticoat), los escarceos (romantic adventure, affair), las espaldas* (back [of person] [often in set expressions]), a mis expensas (at my expense), ¡Felices Pascuas/Navidades! (Merry Christmas!), las fuerzas* (strength), los funerales* (funeral), los honorarios* (fees [professional]), los impresos* (printed matter [for correspondence]), los informes* (information, particulars), los ingresos* (income), los intereses* (interest [financial]), las investigaciones (research), las lluvias (rain[s]), las municiones (ammunition), las narices (nose), las nieves* (snow), los pertrechos (gear), los plácemes (congratulation[s]), un político de derechas (a right-wing politician), un político de izquierdas (a leftwing politician), las precipitaciones* (precipitation, rain, snow), hacer progresos (to make progress), los remordimientos* (remorse), los restos* (remainder, remains), las tinieblas (darkness), los transportes (públicos) (public transportation), los trapicheos* (maneuvering, shady dealings), en vísperas de (on the eve of), los vómitos ([bouts of] vomiting) The following four nouns are also used in the singular with no real change of meaning: aplauso, espalda, funeral, remordimiento. El aplauso duró varios minutes. (The applause lasted for a few minutes.) Me pica la espalda. (My back is itchy) But one could easily say: Se cargó los sacos sobre las espaldas. (She loaded the bags on her back.) Estaba cargado de espaldas. (He had a stoop./He bent forward.) Al funeral asistió mucha gente. (Many people attended the funeral.) No siente el menor remordimiento. (She feels not the slightest remorse.) 10.9.2 Some singular uses of the nouns in Section 10.9.1 follow below. El aire means the air, as in: Necesitamos aire para respirar. (We need air to breathe.) or: Hay mucho aire hoy. (It’s breezy today.) The plural would be used in: saltar por los aires (to explode into the air). Alga in the singular has a technical connotation, and would be used by a marine botanist. Las bodas is used in: las bodas de plata/oro (silver/golden wedding anniversary), but in the singular it refers to a specific wedding, as in: Ayer asistí a una boda. (Yesterday I attended a wedding.) El celo means zeal (el celo religioso) and (in) heat (of animals = en época de celo). Un consejo in the singular is a piece of advice. El correo means mail, post, as in: No recibí correo esta mañana. Las cosquillas is used in the expressions: hacer/tener cosquillas (to tickle/to be ticklish), and is rarely used in a singular form. El dato may be used in the singular as a piece of data, datum. El deber means duty. Una diligencia is an administrative document. Un informe means a report (document).

90

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

El ingreso means entrance, entry. El interés means interest (in something). Las lluvias is frequently used, as in: las lluvias abundantes/torrenciales (heavy/torrential rain), but is also used in the singular: No me gusta la lluvia. (I don’t like rain.) Las narices is often used figuratively: Estoy hasta las narices. (I’m sick of it.) In the plural it also has the meaning of courage: Hay que tener narices para escalar esa montaña. (You’d need to have guts to climb that mountain.) Of course, the singular is also used: Tiene la nariz chata. (He has a snub nose.) Me sale sangre de la nariz. (My nose is bleeding). And it is used figuratively: Mi marido no tiene nariz para los perfumes. (My husband doesn’t appreciate perfumes.) Las nieves has a poetic touch, as in: Escasean las nieves este año. (There has not been much snow this year.) But also: Me gusta jugar en la nieve. (I like playing in the snow.) Many more examples could be cited, but we are now moving into the area of usage, which is not the intention of the book. 10.9.3 The inexplicable case of las SS. This plural Spanish form of the notorious German protection unit is hard to explain. It is also plural in French (Les SS), and in Italian (Le SS [the Italian plural never has an s]). It is singular in German (SchutzStaffel). Perhaps the plural comes from a collective idea. 10.9.4 Prueba (proof, test, event [in sport] is commonly used in the plural for proofs, as in publishing, and this corresponds to an English plural = proofs: Las pruebas de este libro están plagadas de faltas. (The proofs of this book are riddled with errors.) 10.9.5 An extremely common expression, sin papeles, may be used in singular or plural: un sin papeles/unos sin papeles (a person/persons without [official] documents).

10.10 Spanish singular = English plural 10.10.1 el alicate* (pliers), la braga* (panties, knickers), el calzón (long underwear, longjohns), el calzoncillo (underpants), la dinámica (dynamics), la escalera* (stairs), la estadística (statistics), la gente* (people), la malla* (tights), el pantalón* (pants, trousers), el pijama/la piyama (M) (pajamas), la pinza* (pincers), la ropa (clothes), la táctica (tactics), la tropa* (troops) The words asterisked also have a plural form. In fact, alicates, bragas, escaleras, mallas and pinzas are used more than their singular counterparts. Los pantalones is used as frequently as its singular equivalent. The same is true of las tropas. As for dinámica, estadística, táctica, la física and la política, they seem to suggest a plural in English but are singular. Gente, originally and still meaning people, is increasingly used in Spain with the idea of “a single person”: Es buena gente. ([S]he’s a nice person.) 10.10.2 Some nouns are, logically, only singular. cenit, nadir, hambre, norte, occidente, oriente, sed, sur

10.11 In R1 speech, nouns often occur in the singular when a plural idea is suggested. mucho carro/coche (many cars), mucha foto (many photos), mucha vaca (many cows) Había mucha tía en la discoteca. (There were lots of girls in the discoteque.)

Number (singular and plural)

91

10.12 10.12.1 There are some nouns that are hardly ever used in the singular. las afueras (outskirts), los aledaños (R3; outskirts), los alrededores (outskirts, surrounding area), los anteojos (A; glasses [for seeing] [in Spain, C, and M = R3]), las antípodes (antipodes), los arrabales ([economically poor] districts, outlying area), los berros6 (watercress), los binoculares (M; binoculars), los bronquios7 (bronchial tubes), las cercanías (surrounding area), los espaguetis (spaghetti), los esponsales (R3; betrothal), las estribaciones (foothills [of mountains]), las exequias (R3; funeral), los fideos8 (vermicelli), las gafas (glasses [for seeing]), las inmediaciones (surrounding area), los lares9 (household gods, home), los lentes10 (M; glasses [for seeing]), los macarrones (macaroni), las náuseas ([bouts of] nausea), las nupcias (wedding [nearly always in segundas nupcias]), los prismáticos (binoculars), los pros y los contras11 (pros and cons), los suburbios ([economically poor] outlying districts), las termas (thermal baths), los vaivenes12 (ups and downs [in life]) 10.12.2 Two other nouns should be mentioned here: rayo and trueno. In the singular, among other meanings (ray, beam of light), rayo means a bolt (or flash) of lightning. But in the plural it has the general idea of lightning. Similarly, trueno means a clap of thunder in the singular but in the plural it has the general idea of thunder. Al niño le asustan los rayos y los truenos. (The child is frightened of thunder and lightning.)

10.13 The following form a miscellaneous group. 10.13.1 The plural of vowels is as follows: a > (las) aes, e > (las) es, i > (las) íes, o > (las) oes, u > (las) úes 10.13.2 The plural of consonants is as follows: b > (las) bes, c > (las) ces, d > (las) des, etc. 10.13.3 The plural of shortened words usually takes an -s. las fotos, los buses But: los híper, los súper (stores) When they are adjectives they become invariable. las películas porno 10.13.4 If abbreviations are formed through truncation, an -s is added. páginas > pags But: Estados Unidos > EE.UU. 10.13.5 If abbreviations are obtained through contraction, the general rules are applied. departamentos > depts., Señores > Srs/Sres., administraciones > admones. The common exception is: Ustedes > Uds. (i.e. no e) 10.13.6 Acronyms are invariable in the plural. los CD, los DVD, las ONG (organizaciones no gubernamentales) 6

Berro may be used in the singular.

El berro contiene mucha vitamina. (Watercress contains a lot of vitamins.) 7

Bronquio (bronchial tube) may be used in the singular in a semi-technical or medical way. One hears the plural much more frequently.

Tengo un problema con los bronquios. (My chest is troubling me.) 8

Fideo may be used in the singular.

Es más flaca que un fideo. (She’s as skinny as a rake.) 9

Lar could mean a household god, but it is nearly always used in the plural with this meaning. However, when it means home, it is always in the plural and, here, it is used humorously.

Todo bien por estos lares. (Everything is fine at home.) 10

La lente exists but means lens in all Spanish-speaking countries. 11 The gender of contras (los) is difficult to defend since it is really a feminine noun = la contra. Clearly pro has an effect on the gender of contra. 12 El vaivén can mean a child’s swing.

92

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

10.13.7 Also: no > noes, yo > yoes, sí > síes And the musical notes: dos, res, mis, fas, soles, las, sis. Musical notes may be used in the singular even when suggesting a plural.

10.14 Agreement in number and verb Difficulties can occur, even for Spanish-speakers, when a collective noun is followed by de + plural noun, just as in English we may hesitate over: The government states/state that. . . or The police has/have released a statement. In the following cases, logic requires a plural, but purists would argue for the singular. What is certain is that the higher the register, the closer the agreement between the initial singular noun and a singular verb. Un número de profesores se reúne esta tarde. (A number of teachers is/are meeting this afternoon.) Se reúnen is also acceptable. Un grupo de chicos jugaba en el patio. (A group of boys was/were playing in the yard.) Jugaban is also aceptable. La mayor parte/La mayoría de los carros fue estropeada. (Most of the cars were damaged.) Fueron estropeados is also acceptable. El noventa por ciento de los estudiantes saca una buena nota. (Ninety percent of the students get a good mark.) Sacan is also aceptable. Similarly: La mitad/Un tercio de las chicas dice(n). . . (Half/One-third of the girls say. . .) Una docena/Un centenar de coches estaba(n). . . (A dozen/hundred-odd cars were. . .) Buena parte de los edificios se derrumbó/derrumbaron. (A good part of the buildings collapsed.) Medio millón de jóvenes acudió/acudieron. (Half a million young people came.) However, there is increasing confusion over this type of agreement. Witness the following, some of which appear also in Section 6.1.34 on agreement. Otro tipo de revelaciones originaron muchos problemas. (Another type of revelation gave rise to many problems.) Aún quedan una serie de actividades. (There still remains a series of activities.) El Colón (Buenos Aires theater) tiene previstas una serie de óperas para. . . (The Colón Theater has a series of operas planned for. . .) Un total de veinte terroristas fueron detenidos. (A total of twenty terrorists were arrested.) Un grupo de manifestantes se sentó en el césped. (A group of demonstrators sat down on the grass.) La mayoría de los incendios ha sido provocado. (Most of the fires were started deliberately.) El noventa por ciento de la ciudad estaba sumergida. (Ninety percent of the city was submerged.) The last two examples illustrate the complexity of these constructions. In both these striking cases, the gender of the initial noun is affected by the following noun, with the result that the past participles agree, half with the subject and half with the second noun. What is certain is that in the formula: collective noun + de + singular noun, the verb is never in the plural, not even in R1. La mayoría/el resto/la mitad etc. de la gente dice que. . . Los Estados Unidos is usually followed by a plural verb, while Estados Unidos (i.e. no definite article) is followed by a singular verb. Los Estados Unidos proponen un pacto. (The United States propose a pact.) Estados Unidos sugiere una mesa redonda. (The United States suggests a round table.) The same comment applies to Las Naciones Unidas.

Number (singular and plural)

93

Las Naciones Unidas se oponen a. . . (The United Nations opposes. . .) La ONU (Organización de las Naciones Unidas) se opone a. . . (The United Nations opposes. . .)

10.15 Noun + “ser” + noun Ser agrees in number with the following noun. El problema son los estudiantes. (The problem is the students.) La manifestación eran unos gamberros que rompían cristales. (The demonstration was hooligans breaking windows.) However, gente, which is grammatically singular and therefore takes a singular adjective, may be used both ways – that is, with es or son. Es/Son gente muy amable. (They are very nice people.) Es/Son muy buena gente. (They are very nice people.)

10.16 Clase, especie and tipo Certain nouns, like clase, especie and tipo, may be followed by a singular or plural noun when preceded by the demonstrative adjective este, esta, etc. Of course, the verb can vary. In English, we only have a singular noun with a singular noun, or a plural noun with a plural noun. Esta clase/suerte/este tipo de libro(s)/película(s), equipo(s) me interesa(n) enormemente. (This type [etc.] of book[s]/movie[s]/team[s] interest[s] me enormously.)

Part III

11 Verbs and moods of verbs / Verbos y modos de verbos The following passage narrates an encounter in a café between a mathematician and a possibly mentally unstable person who has attempted suicide, and who fails to distinguish between a medical doctor and a doctor of mathematics. Suicide does not work, so he will find another way of ending his life! The passage has recourse to a great variety of tenses of verbs, embracing indicative, subjunctive and imperative moods. Yo diría que es mi pedigüeño de cabecera.1 Ya no recuerdo cuando fui adoptado por él, pero creo que me faltaría algo si desapareciera de mi vida. Ayer, estaba yo en la cafetería enfrascado (absorbed) en mis pensamientos, cuando lo vi acercarse sorteando (weaving among) las mesas. —Buenos días doctor. ¡Hacía tiempo que no coincidíamos! —me saludó, y seguido, sin darme tiempo a responder— ¿Me da un euro? Solté el euro sin rechistar (without complaining), deseando seguir tranquilamente, pero él, habiendo metido la moneda en el bolsillo, continuó: —Verá. . . me he intentado suicidar. . . Sí, me tiré por el puente. ¡Huy, qué golpe me pegué! Me hice un daño atroz. . . Yo, que me vi debajo del agua, y con la pierna destrozada. . . ¡Quién me viera manotear (splashing about) para salir del agua! Cuando me sacaron, me llevaron al hospital. . . Mire, mire como tengo la pobre pierna, pero ni me la miraron. Me querían meter en psiquiatría. ¡Ajá, me escapé! De verdad: duele mucho suicidarse. Seguro que no me vuelvo a suicidar; me moriré de otra manera. No tuve más remedio que examinarle la pierna dos o tres veces. No hay forma de convencerlo de que yo soy doctor en matemáticas. A él le da lo mismo. It seems helpful to offer a general statement about verbs as a preface to individual characteristics which will be analyzed in the succeeding chapters. Inevitably, there is some very slight overlap here with those chapters. The verb is the word par excellence which expresses judgments. For example, it expresses changes (El árbol crece/florece/fructifica/envejece/muere); it expresses movement (El chavo camina/corre/nada); and it expresses how we react with the phenomena of the external world (leemos/vemos/tememos). The verb is the class of word that indicates the person and number of the subject, and the tense and mood of the clause. Verbs are first presented in dictionaries as infinitives. Infinitives in Spanish end in -ar, -er or -ir. We call them first conjugation, second conjugation and third conjugation respectively. Every verb has a root (technically a lexeme), so that when we remove the endings -ar, -er or -ir, what is left usually imparts a meaning. What accompanies this root is a complex of indicators of person, tense and mood. The terminaciones (endings), or, technically, desinencias, as they are also known in Spanish, are set out below, using the verb llamar as an example. 1 A play on words. One would refer to a family physician as a médico de cabecera. The expression pedigüeño de cabecera would suggest “a person who is always asking for help”.

97

98

A Reference Grammar of Spanish llam root or lexeme

ar conjugation

llam root

o ending or morpheme of tense and person (present tense and first person singular)

llam root llam

as ending (present tense and second person singular) ás (vos)

llam root

a ending (present tense and third person singular)

11.1 Conjugation2 If we add to the root or lexeme of a verb the endings which express the different persons, number, tense and mood, we arrive at the conjugation. Generally speaking, there exist four persons in the singular (yo, tú, Ud. and él or ella): but in Argentina and various parts of Central America, vos largely replaces tú, and the ending of the second person verbal form is different. (See Section 15.1.2 on the present tense.) There are four plural forms (nosotros/as, vosotros/as, ellos/as and Uds.). The vosotros form is only used in Spain and is replaced in the whole of Spanish America and the Canary Islands by Uds. Briefly, the verb expresses an action or thought completed by the subject. It also indicates the existence or state of the subject. It links the subject to its attribute or adjective or adjectival phrase (estar, ser, parecer).

11.2 Mood of the verb Conjugations of verbs are divided into three moods: indicative, subjunctive and imperative. • The indicative mood is the mood of reality, that which is certain to have happened or will happen. • The subjunctive mood expresses wish, possibility, probability, uncertainty, doubt – in short a future hypothesis. • The imperative is the mood of recommendation, command and request. Below are the details of the three moods in their various tenses.

11.3 Indicative mood 11.3.1 Present 11.3.1.1 Refers to the moment when the action takes place, or to the period when someone is speaking. Yo preparo (prepare) la comida. 11.3.1.2 Present of estar + gerund stresses the present moment when an action takes place. Estoy preparando (I am preparing) la comida ahora mismo. 11.3.1.3 The historic present tense refers to historic facts or realities. 2

A full conjugation list of regular and irregular verbs appears in Appendix I, on page 490.

Verbs and moods of verbs

11.3.2

11.3.3

11.3.4

11.3.5

99

Benito Juárez dijo: “El respeto al derecho ajeno es la paz”. (Respect for other people’s rights is peace.) Colón descubre (discovers/discovered) América en 1492. 11.3.1.4 The present as future replaces the future. It may be argued that this use is a result of a lack of imagination or slothfulness. Regreso mañana. (I’ll be back tomorrow.) 11.3.1.5 The present as command acts as an imperative. Escribes (Write) la carta esta tarde. 11.3.1.6 The habitual present expresses repeated actions. Me levanto (get up) cada día a las seis. Preterit 11.3.2.1 Expresses a completed action in the past. Llegué ayer. (I arrived yesterday.) 11.3.2.2 Indicates a series of completed actions. Llamé (I called) tres veces a la puerta. 11.3.2.3 Specifies the time when an action takes place. Ayer/La semana pasada me compré (bought) un carro/coche. Imperfect 11.3.3.1 In Spain and Colombia it is called pretérito imperfecto, while in A and M (also C) it is called copretérito. Indicates a series of events or actions with no real suggestion of beginning or end; used in narrations and descriptions. Caminaba (walked) sin rumbo fijo. 11.3.3.2 Expresses a habitual process. Me rasuraba (M)/afeitaba (shaved) siempre a las siete. 11.3.3.3 Used when actions occur simultaneously. Yo cocinaba (cooked) mientras/cuando/ al tiempo que él leía (was reading). 11.3.3.4 Expresses age, profession and occupation. Tenía (She was) veinte años cuando se casó. Era (She was) profesora/vieja. 11.3.3.5 Expresses something in the process of happening when interrupted by a single event or clearly defined events. Miraba (I was looking) por la ventana cuando entró. Future 11.3.4.1 Indicates a future event or action, but now having to compete increasingly with the present. Iré (I’ll go) la semana próxima. 11.3.4.2 Replaces the imperative, in expressions of request or order. Here, it is usually of a higher register (R3), characteristic of the commandments issued to Moses. No tendrás (Thou shalt not have) a otro Dios que a mí. No te harás (Thou shalt not make unto thee) esculturas. No te postrarás (Thou shalt not bow down) ante ellas. 11.3.4.3 Indicates probability. Tendrá (He’s probably) diez años ahora. Supongo que volverá (will come back). 11.3.4.4 Has the value of surprise. ¿Te atreverás (Will you dare) a negarlo? Conditional 11.3.5.1 Called condicional simple in Spain and C, but pospretérito in A and M. Si viniera, la acompañaría. (If she came, I would go with her.) 11.3.5.2 Expresses probability with reference to the past, corresponding to the future (see 11.3.5.3). Serían (It was probably) las diez cuando empezó a nevar. 11.3.5.3 Expresses a future action seen from the past. Me dijo que regresaría (would return). 11.3.5.4 Indicates request. ¿Sería tan amable (Would you be so kind) de decirme la hora? 11.3.5.5 A courteous way of asking for help. ¿Podría Ud. ayudarme (Would you kindly help me) a levantar la caja?

100

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

11.3.6 Perfect 11.3.6.1 In Spain and C, it is called the pretérito perfecto compuesto, but in A and M it is called the antepresente. Formed by the auxiliary verb haber and a past participle. He visto (I have seen) la película. Ha hablado (She has spoken) con su hermano. 11.3.6.2 With the adverb no, indicates that something has not happened yet. Aún no he comprado (I have not yet bought) el regalo. 11.3.6.3 Indicates an action that has not been completed and overflows into the present. Lo he esperado (I have waited for him) toda la mañana y no se le ve. 11.3.6.4 Also indicates that the action has just ended. He visitado (I have visited) hoy a tu padre. 11.3.7 Past anterior 11.3.7.1 In Spain it is called pretérito anterior, in C it is the anterior pasado, and in A and M antepretérito. It is little used except in narratives of novels and literary journalism. It is introduced by adverbial expressions such as: apenas, luego que, tan pronto como, después que, así que. Después (de) que hubo salido (After she had gone out), gritó. Cuando hubo anochecido (When night had fallen), empezó a llover. 11.3.8 Pluperfect 11.3.8.1 Called pluscuamperfecto in Spain and C, and antecopretérito in A and M (also C). Expresses a past action preceding another. Cuando llegaste (When you arrived) a la escuela, yo ya había salido (I had already gone out). Cuando regresé (When I returned) a casa, ella ya se había ido a la pachanga (M) (she had already gone to the bash). 11.3.9 Future perfect 11.3.9.1 In Spain and C it is called the futuro perfecto, but in A and M it is called antefuturo. Expresses a future action preceding another yet to come. Cuando te levantes (When you get up), ya habré desayunado (I’ll already have had breakfast). 11.3.10 Conditional perfect 11.3.10.1 In Spain and C it is called condicional perfecto, but in A and M it is called antepospretérito. Expresses a future action in relation to a past action considered as the point of departure. Nos avisaron (They informed us) que para el próximo lunes ya habrían terminado (they would have completed) la reparación. 11.3.10.2 Indicates an unreality, uncertainty or probability in the past. Habría comprado (I would have bought) el libro si no hubiera olvidado (if I hadn’t forgotten) el dinero. 11.3.10.3 On occasions, points to a friendly criticism. Yo que tú, no me habría puesto esa ropa. (If I were you, I wouldn’t have put on those clothes.)

11.4 Subjunctive mood The subjunctive mood expresses wishes, probability, supposition, hypothesis and doubt. It is particularly, but not exclusively, used in subordinate clauses. 11.4.1 Present 11.4.1.1 Denotes doubt in the future. Tal vez vaya (Perhaps I’ll go) al cine. 11.4.1.2 Refers to a future action. ¡Ojalá venga mañana! (O that he would come/I hope he comes tomorrow!) 11.4.1.3 Expresses an order. ¡Venga esta tarde! (Come this afternoon!) 11.4.1.4 Indicates an immediate condition, or doubt about whether an action will be carried out in a short period of time.

Verbs and moods of verbs

11.4.2

11.4.3

11.4.4

11.4.5

11.4.6

101

Mi novio vendrá cuando termine la clase de francés. (My boyfriend will come when the French class ends.) Probablemente lleve a mi hija a la escuela. (I’ll probably take my daughter to school.) Imperfect 11.4.2.1 Called pretérito imperfecto de subjuntivo by Spanish speakers. It is used to refer to a past, present or future tense. It depends on another verb in the indicative mood, preterit, –imperfect or pluperfect. Me pidieron que vigilara a los niños. (They asked me to look after the children.) Me pedirían que vigilara a los niños. (They would ask me to look after the children.) 11.4.2.2 In clauses expressing wish or doubt. ¡Ojalá pudiera (Would that I could) comprar la casa aquella! Posiblemente estuviera (He was possibly) allí ayer. Future 11.4.3.1 Called futuro de subjuntivo. Expresses an incomplete action in the present or future. Rarely used these days, either orally or in writing. It is considered an archaism. It would be wise simply to observe its existence. Used in proverbs or administrative and legal contexts. Adonde fueres, haz lo que vieres. (Wherever you are, act according to what you see.) Si alguien dudare del cumplimiento de esta promesa, yo lo convenceré de su error. (If anyone doubted that I would keep this promise, I would convince him of the error.) Perfect 11.4.4.1 Called pretérito perfecto de subjuntivo in Spain and C, but antepresente de subjuntivo in A and M. Used in subordinate clauses when the main verb expresses a wish or an emotion: Jorge desea que su hija haya sacado el primer lugar en la escuela. (Jorge would have liked his daughter to be first in school.) 11.4.4.2 When judgments are used impersonally. Ha sido peligroso que Rosa haya salido tan de noche. (It’s been risky for Rosa to go out so late.) Ha sido vergonzoso que Marta haya hablado mal de su familia. (It has been shameful for Marta to have spoken badly about her family.) 11.4.4.3 When a reference is made to the past. Ha sido maravilloso que hayas viajado por toda Europa. (It’s been marvelous that you should have traveled all over Europe.) 11.4.4.4 When indicating possibility in the recent past. Quizá haya llegado hoy. (Perhaps she’s arrived today.) 11.4.4.5 Expresses a desire, supposition or probability with respect to a past and completed action. ¡Ojalá haya comprado el pastel! (I hope she bought the cake!) Pluperfect 11.4.5.1 Called pretérito pluscuamperfecto de subjuntivo in Spain and C, but antepretérito de subjuntivo in A and M. Refers to an action completed in the past. Ignoraba que te hubieras titulado hace dos años. (I didn’t know that you got your degree two years ago.) Pluperfect 11.4.6.1 Called futuro perfecto de subjuntivo in Spain, and antefuturo de subjuntivo in A and M. As with the future subjunctive, it is archaic now, and is replaced by the pluperfect (see 11.4.5). Refers to a future action. Si para Navidad no hubiere vuelto, no me esperes. (If I’m not back by Christmas, don’t wait for me.) Si para el fin de semana hubiere tenido noticias, te lo diré. (If I get news by the weekend, I’ll let you know.)

102

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

11.5 Imperative mood 11.5.1 Present 11.5.1.1 There are five forms of the imperative, which expresses orders or commands. • Camina (tú)/caminá (A; vos) rápido • Camine rápido (Ud.) • Caminemos rápido (nosotros/as) • Caminad rápido (vostros/as) • Caminen rápido (Uds.) The vosotros/as forms are not used in Spanish America, and are used infrequently in the Canary Islands. 11.5.1.2 When in the negative, the imperative forms are the same as the present subjunctive. • No camines. . . • No camine. . . • No caminemos. . . • No caminéis. . . • No caminen. . .

12 Infinitive / Infinitivo Below is a passage where a dog owner puts his dog to good use on the stage, but finally has to get rid of him. Carrying out the fatal injection himself, the owner slips and injects himself with the syringe. . . The passage illustrates the wide and varied uses of the infinitive. No hemos cesado de trabajar juntos durante muchos años. Él se deja llamar “Toby” en escena, consciente de ser mi socio, pero en familia sólo me permite llamarlo “Canelo”. Fue un flechazo (immediate liking for him): lo vi pelearse con otros cachorros (puppies) y ladrar fieramente, y no pude por menos de quedarme con él. En el escenario (stage) tuvimos ratos buenos y malos, como suele ser en esa azarosa vida. Pero el tiempo pasa raudo. . . (swiftly) Cuando el veterinario me dijo que debía sacrificarlo (put him down), casi me eché a llorar. No, desde luego, yo no podía dejar a nadie hacerlo. No por ahorrar, sino porque eso tiene que hacerlo uno mismo. Se me vuelve a nublar la vista. . . Fui a comprar la inyección fatal; no me tembló el pulso al llenar la jeringuilla (syringe). Él no dejaba de mirarme algo escéptico con sus ojos de glaucoma y no me extrañó que al llamarlo se negara a acudir y tuviera que perseguirlo por toda la casa. . . Hasta que, al tropezar, caí con tan mala fortuna que, sin darme cuenta, llegué a inyectarme casi todo el contenido en el cuello. . . Y ahora, yaciendo en el suelo, veo como Canelo, tranquilamente, no deja de observarme con cierta mirada burlona (mocking), como queriendo decir: “Estás viejo, es hora de acabar.”

12.1 Uses of the infinitive 12.1.1 Verbs with no preposition before an infinitive If the infinitive is the subject of the verb, no intervening preposition is used. For example, in the sentence Me aburre hacer eso, hacer eso is the subject of me aburre. Notice that the most usual English equivalent of such sentences is often not parallel in structure. Me aburre hacer eso might be translated by I am bored doing that, in preference to the more literal Doing that/To do that bores me. ¿Te apetece ir al cine? (Do you feel like going to the movies?) Me costó mucho leer Guerra y Paz. (I found War and Peace hard-going.) 12.1.2 The infinitive as direct object When the following infinitive has essentially the same function as a direct object noun, there is no intervening preposition. Compare the following two pairs of sentences. Lamento no poder venir. (I am sorry I can’t come.) Lamento el error. (I am sorry about the error.) Prefiero ir al teatro. (I prefer to go to the theater.) Prefiero este libro. (I prefer this book.) 12.1.3 Verbs of perception are often followed by an infinitive. Oí cantar a María. (I heard Maria singing.) Oí cantar una canción a María. (I heard Maria singing a song.) Lo vi salir esta mañana. (I saw him leave this morning.) 103

104

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

12.1.4 For verbs + preposition (a/de/por, etc.) + infinitive, see Chapter 65 on prepositional constructions. 12.1.5 The infinitive is used for giving orders, or suggesting things to be done. It often replaces both the affirmative and the negative of the subjunctive and the imperative, but is considered slothful by purists. Preguntar al portero. (Ask the concierge.) Escribirme mañana. (Write [to] me tomorrow.) No volver hasta mañana. (Don’t come back until tomorrow.) 12.1.6 The construction set out in 12.1.5 is particularly common in commerce, public places and recipes. Consumir preferentemente antes del 31 de agosto (Use by 31 August) No tocar la fruta (Please do not handle the fruit) No aparcar/estacionar (Do not park here) No fijar carteles (Stick no bills) No fumar en el ascensor (Please do not smoke in the elevator/lift) Manejar/Conducir con prudencia (Drive with care) No tirar basura (Do not throw trash/rubbish here) Tirar (Pull [the door]) Empujar (Push [the door] Hervir papas/patatas en agua y sal (Boil potatoes in water and salt) Pelarlas bien calientes, y pasarlas por un tamiz (Peel them while nice and hot, and put them through a sieve) 12.1.7 The infinitive is regularly used in speech (R1) to avoid the second person plural (-ad, -ed, -id) which is slowly disappearing, since it has an archaic resonance. A teacher would easily say to her/his pupils: Levantaros y callaros. (Stand up and keep quiet.) 12.1.8 The usage in 12.1.7 can be reinforced by the addition of the preposition a. A ver si me dices la verdad. (Let’s see if you tell me the truth.) ¡A callar! (Keep quiet!) ¡A comer! (Food!) 12.1.9 The infinitive is also used as part of a narrative (the narrative infinitive), and here it would be R3. Aplaudieron y todos a reír. (They applauded and they all laughed.) 12.1.10 The infinitive occurs after an interrogative word. No sé qué decir. (I don’t know what to say.) Dime adónde ir. (Tell me where to go.) No sabía cómo arreglarlo. (I didn’t know how to repair it.) Dime cuándo llegar. (Tell me when to arrive.) 12.1.11 Since the infinitive of a verb can be the subject, it often precedes a verb. Protestar es inútil. (To protest is pointless.) Escribir una carta no sirve para nada. (Writing a letter serves no purpose.) Nadar en ese río me parece una locura. (Swimming in that river is madness.) Manejar a los doce años está prohibido. (Driving at the age of twelve is forbidden.) Alternative constructions (including the reflexive form and adjectives) are as follows: Es una hazaña asombrosa alunizar. (It’s an amazing feat to land on the moon.) Fue una cosa admirable no decir nada. (It was an admirable thing to say nothing.) En la casa era un continuo moverse. (There was constant movement in the house.) El perpetuo llover le entristecía. (The persistent rain saddened him.) El dulce lamentar de los novios. (The gentle lamenting of the betrothed.) Su mirar triste me conmovió. (Her sad look moved me.) Este constante interrumpir es insufrible. (These constant interruptions are unbearable.)

Infinitive

105

12.1.12 The infinitive may be preceded by al with the value of on + gerund, and has a temporal meaning. Al llegar a la estación me compré un periódico. (On arriving at the station I bought a newspaper.) Al volver la esquina choqué con mi novia. (On going round the corner I bumped into my girlfriend.) Al bajar las escaleras me di una caída. (On coming down the stairs, I fell.) 12.1.13 The construction set out in 12.1.12 may also be used with estar. A estas alturas estarán al llegar. (They must be arriving at this point.) Dicen que las relaciones entre los dos países se hacen más tirantes y que la guerra está al estallar. (They say that relations between the two countries are becoming more strained and that war is about to break out.) 12.1.14 The construction al + infinitive may also be used when the subjects are different. This construction is not entirely accepted by purists. Al llegar mi madre, me acosté. (When my mother arrived, I went to bed.) Al llegar ella, me acosté. (When she arrived, I went to bed.) Al salir yo a la calle, se produjo un accidente. (No sooner had I gone into the street than there was an accident.) 12.1.15 The formula nada más + infinitive is commonly used with the meaning as soon as, no sooner had I/you, etc. Nada más volver a casa, se acostó. (No sooner had she come home than she went to bed.) Nada más llegar a la estación, compré una revista. (As soon as I arrived at the station, I bought a newspaper.) As with the construction al + infinitive, the subjects may be different. Nada más preparar yo la comida, entraron todos los hijos. (No sooner had I prepared the meal than all the children came in.) 12.1.16 A relatively recent use of the infinitive may be observed with television and radio news presenters, journalists and even writers and teachers. It involves the verb decir or a synonym (advertir, señalar, exponer, destacar, añadir), followed by que, introducing a form of message. Ya en la información internacional, destacar que el parlamento checo. . . (Now on the world news, we emphasize that the Czech government. . .) Finalmente, señalar que el Primer Ministro. . . (Finally, we point out that the Prime Minister. . .) Por lo que respecta al Mundial, sólo añadir que. . . (With reference to the World Cup, we should only add that. . .) Comunicar, señoras y señores, que empezaremos dentro de unos segundos. (We inform you, ladies and gentlemen, that we will begin in a few moments.) 12.1.17 The infinitive is used with a medio where in English a past participle would occur. Salió con la chaqueta a medio abotonar. (He came out with his jacket half done up.) Había en la mesa unos vasos a medio vaciar. (On the table there were some half-empty glasses.) ¿Es lo mismo una puerta a medio abrir que una puerta a medio cerrar? (Is a half-open door the same as a half-closed one?) 12.1.18 De tanto + infinitive has the value of for. Estaban en la mesa unos tarros abollados de tanto servir. (On the table there were some jars with dents in them from excessive use.) De tanto mirar por el microscopio se le habían empequeñecido los ojos. (He had looked down a microscope so much that his eyes had gotten smaller.)

106

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

12.1.19 Con solo + infinitive has the value of merely. Con sólo ver a su madre entrar en el cuarto, el niño dejó de llorar. (Merely by seeing his mother come in, the child stopped crying.) A mí, sólo de pensarlo, se me pone la carne de gallina. (I get goose pimples just thinking about it.) 12.1.20 The formula auxiliary verb + infinitive may be used in three ways with pronouns, as shown in the examples below. (See Sections 56.6.6–56.6.10 for a fuller treatment of this construction.) Se lo voy a decir./Voy a decírselo. (I’m going to tell her.) Se lo quiero dar./Quiero dárselo. (I want to give it to him.) Os puedo ir a visitar./Puedo ir a visitaros. (I can come and visit you.) There is no difference in meaning when the pronoun precedes the auxiliaries or when It is attached enclitically to the infinitive. It is a question of personal choice. 12.1.21 There is a wide range of expressions involving the preposition a and the infinitive, and they frequently involve a hypothesis or condition. These expressions do not always have an easy equivalent in English: A no ser por el capitán, todos hubiéramos muerto. (If it hadn’t been for the captain, we would all have died.) A no ser por mí, el negocio hubiera fracasado. (If it hadn’t been for me, the business would have collapsed.) A decir verdad, me tiene sin cuidado. (To tell you the truth, I don’t care.) A juzgar por lo que dicen, es una mujer muy inteligente. (Judging by what they say, she’s a very intelligent woman.) A no asegurarme Juan que usted es persona desinteresada y de ánimo generoso, no me decidiera nunca. (If John hadn’t assured me that you are a fair-minded and generous person, I would never have decided.) 12.1.22 The formula noun + a + infinitive has now become standard in Spanish in all countries, but once it was avoided by purists, having derived from French and/or English usage. Es una tarea a realizar. (It’s a job to be done.) Tengo un asunto urgente a ventilar. (I have to air/discuss some urgent business.) El problema a resolver consistirá en. . .(The problem to be resolved will consist in. . .) Es otro punto a examinar. (It’s another point to examine.) Tiene una serie de pruebas a corregir. (He’s gotten a series of proofs to correct.) La discusión irá precedida de un solemne acto a celebrar el próximo lunes. (The discussion will be preceded by a solemn act to take place next Monday.) Other formulae, such as que or por + infinitive were once more prevalent, but are now being ousted by the preposition a as being simpler. These two expressions are now viewed as clumsy or inelegant, notably the que + infinitive, as set out below. Hay una tarea que realizar. (There is a task to be carried out.) Es una incógnita por despejar de la Guerra Civil. (It’s an unknown quantity to be cleared up over the Civil War.) This use of a versus que and por has given rise to a linguistic polemic. However, the RAE seems to tolerate the a in certain commercial or administrative expressions, such as the examples below. total a pagar (sum to pay) cantidades a deducir (sums to deduct) efectos a cobrar (sums to receive) asuntos a tratar (topics to discuss) terrenos a vender (plots to sell)

Infinitive

12.1.23

12.1.24

12.1.25

12.1.26

12.1.27

107

pisos a alquilar/departamentos a rentar (A, C, M) (apartments/flats to rent) personas a convocar (persons to convene) oraciones a rezar (prayers to be said) However, according to the individual case, the RAE prefers the following: Tengo terrenos que/para vender, pisos para alquilar, asuntos que/por tratar, personas que convocar. De + infinitive or de + perfect infinitive performs a similar function to a + infinitive. (See Section 12.1.22.) Again, there is no apparent simple equivalent in English. De cenar, que sea pronto. (If we are going to have an evening meal, let’s do it soon.) De llover, que lo haga hoy. (If it’s going to rain, let it be today.) De ir a verte, sería este domingo. (If I/we were to come to see you, it would be this Sunday.) De no poder hacerlo tú, dile a Paco que lo haga. (If you can’t do it, tell Paco to do it.) De haberte conocido antes, todo habría sido diferente. (If I/we had known you before, everything would have been different.) De haber querido ir al cine, te lo habría dicho. (If I had wanted to go to the movies, I would have told you.) Following certain verbs, like mandar, ordenar, hacer, where the English equivalent is a past participle, an infinitive is used. El director mandó construir este palacio. (The director had this palace built.) El concejal ordenó abrir la caja fuerte. (The councillor ordered the safe to be opened.) El Ayuntamiento hizo montar el andamio para restaurar la catedral. (The city/town hall had scaffolding put up to restore the cathedral.) An infinitive follows an adjective + preposition. No soy capaz de aguantar este dolor. (I’m not able to put up with this pain.) Es muy hábil para diseñar macetas. (She’s very skilled in designing flower pots.) With certain adjectives, de + infinitive has a passive value. ¿Levantarse a las cuatro? Es fácil/difícil de hacer. (Getting up at four in the morning? That’s easy/difficult to do.) Este pastel es muy agradable de comer. (This cake is very nice to eat.) Este coñac es muy fuerte. Es desagradable de beber. (This cognac is very strong. It’s unpleasant to drink.) Es un gran novelista, digno de alabar. (He’s a great novelist, worthy of praise/to be praised.) Por + infinitive may suggest finality and corresponds closely to para. Lo he hecho por/para ayudarte. (I’ve done it to help you.) Hablé en portugués por/para hacerme entender mejor. (I spoke in Portuguese to be better understood.)

13 Compound/perfect infinitive / Infinitivo pretérito perfecto 13.1 Uses of the compound/perfect infinitive 13.1.1 The compound infinitive indicates that something has happened prior to another event. A variety of expressions leads to this construction. Por haber salido tú, me he tenido que quedar en casa. (The fact that you went out means I had to stay at home.) Por no haber hablado él, no le dieron el regalo. (Because he did not speak, they did not give him the present.) Me dio las gracias por habérselo llevado. (She thanked me for having taken it to her.) Logró aprobar a pesar de no haber estudiado. (She managed to pass, despite not having studied.) Además de haber comido un melon entero, bebió cuatro litros de vino. (As well as having eaten a whole melon, he drank four liters of wine.) De haberlo sabido, te habría avisado. (If I had known, I would have told you.) 13.1.2 Certain verbs lead logically to the use of the perfect infinitive. La policía lo acusó de haber cometido el delito. (The police accused him of having committed the offense.) Recuerdo haberlo encontrado en Colombia. (I remember having met him in Colombia.) No me acuerdo de haber leído la novela. (I don’t remember having read the novel.) Se quejó de haber pasado tanto tiempo bajo la lluvia. (She complained about having spent so much time in the rain.) Se arrepintió de no haber venido/de no haber hecho los deberes. (He was sorry not to have come/not to have done his homework.) Tengo la impresión de haberlo leído hace unos años. (I have the impression of having read it some years ago.) Niega haber mentido. (She denies having lied.) Gracias por haber venido. (Thanks for coming.) Some expressions can easily take the straightforward infinitive without any real change of meaning. For example, Gracias por haber venido could easily be rendered by Gracias por venir, and Por no haber hablado no le dieron el regalo by Por no hablar no le dieron el regalo, although strictly speaking, the perfect infinitive would be required. 13.1.3 The compound/perfect infinitive can suggest some form of recrimination. Me hubiera gustado ir con vosotros. (I would have liked to go with you.) Pues haberlo dicho. (Well, you should have said.)

108

14 Infinitive as noun / Infinitivo como sustantivo 14.1 Functions of the infinitive The Spanish infinitive can perform the role of a real noun, and may function as the subject or object of a verb. It may also stand independently as a noun, as can be seen in the following list, in which all the nouns are masculine. 14.1.1 Verbs that can be used purely as nouns are as follows: amanecer (dawn), andar (R3; gait, way of walking), anochecer (evening), atardecer (early evening), cantar (song, singing, poem [generally set to music]), deber (duty, obligation), haber (assets [finance], credit side), oscurecer (nightfall), parecer (opinion), pesar (grief), placer1 (pleasure), poder (power), ser (being) Saldremos al amanecer. (We’ll leave at sun-up/sunrise.) el amanecer de la cultura árabe (the awakening of Arab culture) El andar del tiempo hace que todo se olvide. (The march of time means that all is forgotten.) Al anochecer/ atardecer llegamos a Salta [in Argentina]. (We arrived in Salta in the evening/ late afternoon.) Que lo pases bien, pero volver a las cuatro de la madrugada es otro cantar. (Have a good time, but coming back at four in the morning is another story.) No somos del mismo parecer. (We are not of the same opinion.) María tiene un gran pesar por la muerte de su padre. (Maria is really grieving over her father’s death.) un ser vivo/inanimado (a living/an inanimate being) Varias fincas forman parte de su haber. (His assets include various properties.) The following also have a plural form. andares (preferable in the plural when used literally), deberes (homework), haberes (income, payment; preferable in the plural with this meaning), pareceres (opinions), seres irracionales (irrational beings) Tiene andares garbosos. (She has an elegant style of walking.) Desde lejos, se le reconoce por sus andares. (You can recognize him/her from afar by her walk/gait.) Le fueron confiscados todos sus haberes. (All her assets were confiscated.) En el sobre están sus haberes. (His wages are in the envelope.) 14.1.2 There are some compound nouns which are masculine. enseres ([household/office] equipment, tools), quehaceres [household] work/chores) Quehaceres does exist in the singular = work (el quehacer del presidente), but it is seen most often in the plural form. 14.1.3 The verb in the infinitive may be preceded by the definite article. The examples below illustrate the complications of translation.

1

Hardly used as a verb, but common currency as a noun.

109

110

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Es una hazaña asombrosa el alunizar. (It’s an amazing feat to land on the moon.) Fue una cosa admirable el callar. (It was an admirable thing to say nothing.) El golpear de la lluvia lo ayudó a dormirse. (The pattering of rain helped him to go to sleep.) El llegar el tren con retraso no es una disculpa. (The fact that the train was late is not an excuse.) El embriagarse el tío Juan se comentaba mucho. (The fact that Uncle Juan would get drunk drew many comments.) El no asistir a la reunión era castigado. (The fact that he did not attend the meeting meant that he was punished.) No hay que extrañar el desear todos tener un coche. (It’s hardly surprising that everyone wants a car.)

14.2 Verbs used as nouns but retaining verbal function These are often translated by the gerund in English. 14.2.1 When the expression has the meaning of the fact that. el comer temprano (the fact of eating early) el salir de paseo (the business of going out for a walk) el andar descalzo (walking barefoot) Lo único que lamentaba era el no cambiarse a diario de camisa. (The only thing she complained about was the fact of him not changing his shirt every day.) 14.2.2 When functioning as a subject or object Sólo el ver al niño desnudo le daba pena. (Merely seeing the child naked made her unhappy.) Mentir es vergonzoso. (Lying is shameful.) Este constante interrumpir es insufrible. (This constant interrupting is unbearable.) No oyó nada sino el gotear del grifo/de la llave (C, M)/ de la canilla (A). (All he could hear was the dripping of the faucet/ tap.) Imaginaba la muerte como un dormir eterno. (She imagined death like an eternal sleep.) ¡Jolín!/¡Híjole! Es un llover sin tregua. (Gees! It doesn’t stop raining.) Estos jarros conservan ese brillar como si fuesen nuevos. (These pots maintain their shine as if they were new.) Con tanto gritar y gemir la casa parecía un manicomio. (With so much shouting and groaning, the house seemed like a madhouse.) el dulce lamentar de los pastores (the gentle, plaintive sounds of the shepherds) 14.2.3 There is a whole range of verbs connected to the sounds made by animals where the substantivized verb is R3 and the derivative noun is R2. balar/balido (bleat[ing]), barritar/barrito (trumpet[ing]), bramar/bramido (roar[ing]), chirriar/chirrido (chirp[ing] [cricket]), gorjear/gorjeo (warbl[e]/[ing]), graznar/graznido (caw[ing]), ladrar/ladrido (bark[ing]), maullar/maullido (miao[ing]), mugir/mugido (moo[ing]), piar2 (chirp[ing] [bird]), rebuznar/rebuzno (bray[ing]), relinchar/relincho (neigh[ing]), rugir/rugido (roar[ing]), silbar/silbido (hiss[ing]) Se oía el balar de las ovejas. (You could hear the sheep bleating.) Me dio miedo el bramar de los leones. (I was frightened of the roaring of the lions.) Se oía el graznar de los grajos. (You could hear the rooks cawing.) El relinchar de los caballos subía del valle. (The neighing of the horses rose out of the valley.) Me encantaba el gorjear de los canarios. (I loved the warbling of the canaries.)

2

Piar has no separate noun.

15 Present tense / Tiempo presente The passage below narrates the disquiet of the wife of a famous bullfighter who always worries about her clumsy husband, who is persistently (and paradoxically) hurting himself with tools, knives, and so on. In this case, he is cutting up bull’s meat for a barbecue. The wife conveys this worry to her sister Pepa. The passage illustrates the use of the present tense in Spanish. Note that sometimes the present tense is used in Spanish where a past or future tense is used in English. —¿Qué hace tu marido? —me pregunta Pepa cuando contesto al móvil. —Ahora termina su toro —respondo, mostrando cierto nerviosismo ante la situación. —Pero, ¿está terminando el toro tan pronto? —Sí, lleva un buen rato con él (he’s been at it for some time), y se le resiste (it’s not easy). Yo siempre desconfío si la faena (work; note also that this noun means bullfighting) resulta fácil al principio, —digo, algo inquieta. Estoy intranquila. Hace cuatro días que no veo a mi hermana Pepa (I haven’t seen my sister Pepa for four days) y, aunque suelo charlar telefónicamente mucho con ella, la situación delicada de mi marido, torero de renombre, no me permite concentrarme en cotilleos (gossip). —Pepa, te dejo. Mañana nos vemos a las seis (I’ll see you at six), y te cuento todo (I’ll tell you everything). Si tardo un poco, me esperas. Ya sabes que siempre llego tarde —dije para terminar. —En ese momento oí el alarido (scream) de mi marido. “Vuelve a suceder” (He’s done it again/ It’s happened again), pensé. “Se ha vuelto a cortar, mientras trocea (cutting up) la carne de toro para la barbacoa, que tanto le gusta. Sigue siendo un patoso (clumsy fool/ oaf). No se le puede dejar con una herramienta en las manos. Siempre termina lesionado (ends up hurting himself).”

15.1 Present indicative of the three model verbs (There is a slight overlap between these comments on the present tense and the use of personal pronouns treated fully in Sections 56.1.1 and 56.1.2.) All Spanish verbs in the infinitive end in -ar, -er or -ir. They are divided into three classes, or conjugations, according to these endings. 1st Conjugation: Comprar (to buy) 2nd Conjugation: Vender (to sell) 3rd Conjugation: Vivir (to live) The vowels a, e and i are characteristic of these three conjugations. The first conjugation includes approximately ninety percent of all the verbs in the language, so we have no justification in complaining here. There are about 300 verbs which deviate from these patterns, but this figure includes some uncommon verbs, little used except in quizzes, for instance. If we cut off the endings -ar, -er, -ir from the infinitive, we have the stem of the verb to which endings of various moods and tenses may be added. This excludes the 111

112

A Reference Grammar of Spanish future and conditional. Spanish verbs therefore reflect the pattern of Romance languages – French, Italian and Portuguese. Here, then, is the present indicative conjugation of the three model verbs. 1st person (s) 2nd person (s) 3rd person (s) 1st person (pl) 2nd person (pl) 3rd person (pl)

yo tú él, ella, Ud. nosotros/as vosotros/as ellos, ellas, Uds.

compro compras compra compramos compráis compran

vendo vendes vende vendemos vendéis venden

vivo vives vive vivimos vivís viven

Two comments must be made here. 15.1.1 The vosotros/as form is not used in Spanish America. 15.1.2 There are areas in Spanish America where the tú form is replaced by vos (or complements it), and the corresponding verb form is modified. This is called voseo. The use of vos is not always admitted everywhere; it depends on the region. In some regions it is considered characteristic of the untutored and could therefore appear substandard, while in others it is the accepted form of the second person singular. At the same time, it should be added that specifically in the River Plate area, for example, it replaces tú almost completely. In Buenos Aires, Rosario and Santa Fé, the two pronouns can exist side by side, the vos form simply being more informal than the tú form. The same person could use both, depending on the circumstances. However, what is said here in a tentative way is much more pronounced in Colombia, where the two forms, tú and vos, exist in parallel and are used with little differentiation. According to some scholars, there exist four types of the use of the voseo. However, for our purposes, the most important, relevant and therefore dominant type, classified above, may be heard in the Mexican states of Chiapas, Tabasco, Yucatán and Quintana Roo; in Central America except for the Eastern coast of Panama; on the Pacific coast and Andean region of Colombia; in the hinterland of Venezuela; on the coast of Ecuador; in most areas of Bolivia, Argentina (Misiones, Corrientes, Formosa, Buenos Aires, Santa Fé, la Pampa, Río Negro, Chabut and Tierra de Fuego); and in various parts of Paraguay and Uruguay. Given these vasts tracts of land, the voseo is a linguistic feature to be reckoned with. (See Section 56.3 for a more complete discussion of voseo and examples of verb usage.) As far as the corresponding verb forms of vos are concerned, the modifications to note are in the present tense, the imperative and the subjunctive. These vary marginally from area to area. The following are the standard forms in Central America, Colombia and the River Plate area. Present indicative: comprar > vos comprás vender > vos vendés vivir > vos vivís Imperative: comprar > comprá vender > vendé vivir > viví Reflexive forms of the imperative: Sentarse > sentate moverse > movete vestirse > vestite (For the subjunctive forms see Section 55.1.)

Present tense

113

As far as the present indicative is concerned, it corresponds to three English forms, and here we do not include the voseo forms. yo compro, tú compras, etc. (I buy/do buy/am buying, you buy, etc.) yo vendo, tú vendes, etc. (I sell/do sell/am selling, you sell, etc.) yo vivo, tú vives, etc. (I live/do live/am living, you live, etc.) Since the endings of Spanish verbs (like those of Italian verbs and, to a lesser extent, French verbs) have a distinctive sound characteristic, the subject pronouns yo, tú, él, and so on, are much less used than in English. They are only used to avoid ambiguity or to stress the reference to a particular person. If you wanted to say, I am buying a house, you would probably say in Spanish: Compro una casa. However, if you wanted to highlight the fact that it is you who is buying the house and not someone else (your brother, a friend, etc.) you would probably say: Yo compro la casa (y no él). Furthermore, if reference has already been made to, say, él, ella or Ud., and their corresponding plurals, although the verb ending is the same, it is likely that the subject pronoun would not be repeated.

15.2 The functions of the present tense 15.2.1 Any kind of present, including reference to a general state of affairs which includes the present. Ahora terminan su trabajo. (They’re finishing their work now.) Ahora sé que hacer. (Now I know what to do.) Leo el periódico. (I read/am reading the newspaper.) Hoy hace mucho frío. (It’s very cold today.) Siempre llego a las cinco. (I always arrive at five.) Los Andes son muy altos. (The Andes are very high.) Examples of forms with vos follow below. Appearing in an advert in La Nación newspaper: Cada 1000 pesos pagás sólo 30 pesos por mes. Es simple. Llamás y en sólo 24 horas lo tenés aprobado. Ahora vos elegís como gastarlo. Appearing in a children’s newspaper: ¿Te animás? (Are you up for it?) La próxima vez que vayas al teatro, fijate [not fíjate as in Iberian Spanish, for example] los datos escritos en el programa. Si le ponés [from poner] la fecha, y lo [one would expect la here] guardás, tendrás un recuerdo grato. . . Si querés conocer los grandes teatros. . . Para conocer por dentro al Cervantes, tenés que ir los viernes a. . . 15.2.2 When referring to the future. This is colloquial usage and R1. El tren sale a las seis. (The train leaves at six.) Nos vemos la semana próxima. (We’ll see each other next week.) Mañana vamos a la playa. (We’ll be going to the beach tomorrow.) 15.2.3 When referring to the immediate past. ¿Qué me cuentas? (What have you told me?) Te traigo un regalo. (I’ve brought you a present.) 15.2.4 When referring to a past event which invests the narrative with a vivacious style. Often referred to as the historic present. Se oyó un ruido. Luego salgo del bar y estoy en la calle. (We heard a noise. Then I left the bar and went into the street.) 15.2.5 Also regularly used with por poco. Por poco lo mato. (I nearly killed him.) Por poco me toca la lotería. (I nearly won the lottery.)

114

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

15.2.6 When the past continues into the present. Vivo aquí desde hace dos meses. (I’ve been living here for two months.) Te espero aquí desde hace una hora. Hace una hora que te espero aquí. Llevo esperándote aquí una hora. Tengo una hora esperándote aquí (M). (I’ve been waiting for you here for an hour.) 15.2.7 When the period of time suggests that something has not happened, the present is used, and in R1 the imperfect may be used. Hace dos meses que no te veo. Hace dos meses que no te veía (R1). (I haven’t seen you for two months.) 15.2.8 The present tense is used in the following construction with primera vez. Es la primera vez que te veo aquí. (It’s the first time I’ve seen you here.) (Compare this construction with the imperfect tense in Section 23.2.8.) 15.2.9 When tener is used with a past participle, it suggests a present idea, whereas past participle used with haber suggests a past idea. Compare the following two sentences. Tengo comprada una casa. (I’ve bought a house.) He comprado una casa. (I’ve bought a house.) In the first case, the action overflows onto the present moment and the past participle agrees with the noun, while in the second case the action is completed and there is no agreement.

15.3 Rules and agreement of verbs 15.3.1 The greater number of verbs that govern an infinitive do so directly, without a connecting preposition. Deseo leer el periódico. (I want to read the newspaper.) Temo ofenderla. (I fear offending her.) Necesito beber agua. (I need to drink water.) Aprender and enseñar, two basic verbs, require a before an infinitive. Aprendo a hablar chino. (I am learning to speak Chinese.) Enseño a los alumnos a tocar el arpa. (I am teaching the pupils to play the harp.) 15.3.2 A number of phrasal verbs, consisting of tener (to have) + noun, usually require de before an infinitive. The following are among the most usual. tener ganas de (to be inclined to/ to be keen on), tener miedo de (to be frightened to), tener medios de/para (to have the means to), tener tiempo de (to have the time to), tener (la) intención de (to intend to) Tengo ganas de ir a la alberca (M). (I feel like going to the swimming pool.) Tiene (la) intención de regresar. (She intends to come/go back.) 15.3.3 In some cases the verb is followed by a definite article and then a noun + de + infinitive. tener la bondad de (to have the kindness to), tener la costumbre de (to be accustomed to), tener la desgracia de (to have the misfortune of), tener el gusto de (to have the pleasure of), tener el honor de (to have the honor of), tener la intención de (to intend to), tener la ocasión/oportunidad de (to have the opportunity to), (tener el privilegio de (to have the privilege of), tener la suerte de (to be lucky to) Ten la bondad de acompañarme. (Kindly accompany me.) Tengo el gusto de presentarles. . . (I have the pleasure of introducing to you. . .) 15.3.4 When the verb has two or more joint subjects of either number, it is regularly put in the plural. Mi padre y yo nadamos cada día. (My father and I swim each day.) Tú y tu hermana jugáis1 cada día. (You and your sister play each day.)

Present tense

115

La niña y la madre leen un libro. (The child and the mother read a book.) 15.3.5 The subject is frequently placed after the verb. It does not affect the meaning, but gives variety and balance to the sentence. Llega mi padre a las tres. (My father arrives at three.) Viajan mis hermanos en primera. (My brother[s] [and sister(s)] travel first class.) Almorzamos nosotros a las dos. (We have lunch at two.) 15.3.6 Some verbs do not always have a strict equivalent of tense in English. This applies to their use in both the present tense and the imperfect. (See also Section 23.2.10 on the imperfect tense.) It can also apply to the preterit, but this is not necessary for our purposes here. Such verbs are: acostumbrar, soler, llevar and hacer. Acostumbro a dormir la siesta. (I usually have a siesta.) Suelo ir al cine los viernes. (I usually go to the movies on Fridays.) Suele rentar un carro (M) el domingo. (He usually rents a car on Sundays.) Solemos pasar la Semana Santa en el campo. (We usually spend Easter week in the countryside.) Llevo más de un mes estudiando mucho. (I’ve been studying a lot for more than a month.) ¡Lleva dos años intentando manejar el carro (M)/conducir el coche! (He’s been trying to drive the car for two years!) Empecé a trabajar hace dos semanas. (I began working two weeks ago.) 15.3.7 In verbs ending in -iar, the i forms a diphthong with the vowel at the end, with the result that the spoken accent falls on the previous syllable; as in limpiar. limpio, limpias, limpia, limpiamos limpiáis, limpian Here is list of verbs that function like limpiar. acuciar (to press, to harass, to plague), ajusticiar (to execute), anunciar (to announce), auxiliar (to help), cambiar (to change), columpiar(se) (to push on a swing, to swing), comerciar (to trade), concienciar (to make aware), conferenciar (to hold talks), contagiar (to infect), defoliar (to defoliate), desahuciar (to give up hope [for sick person], to evict), diluviar (to deluge), divorciar(se) (to [get] divorce[d]), elogiar (to praise), enjuiciar (to indict, to commit for trial), enturbiar(se) (to cloud/become cloudy, to be marred), enviciarse (to become addicted/hooked), expoliar (to plunder), fastidiar (to annoy), filiarse (to become affiliated), financiar (to finance), incordiar (to annoy/ trouble), influenciar (to influence), iniciar (to begin), intercambiar (to exchange), intermediar (to mediate), licenciar(se) (to discharge, to graduate), mediar (to mediate), negociar (to negotiate), obsequiar (to present), presenciar (to witness), principiar (to begin), pronunciar (to pronounce), radiar (to radiate), reconciliar(se) (to reconcile), repatriar (to repatriate), sentenciar (to sentence [wrongdoer]), silenciar (to silence), subsidiar (to subsidize), viciar(se) (to get into a bad habit, to mar), vidriar (to glaze) Vidriar is also pronounced vidría, vidrías, etc. Such is not the case with enviar. envío, envías, envía, enviamos, enviáis, envían The following verbs function like enviar. cariar(se) (to [cause to] decay), confiar(se) (to trust), desconfiar (to mistrust), desviar (to divert), enfriar(se) (to chill, to make/get cold), escalofriar(se) (to feel chilly, to get the shivers), espiar (to spy), esquiar (to ski), expiar (to expiate), hastiar(se) (to tire [of]) Note also criar (to breed/raise), guiar (to guide) and piar (to chirp) where the diphthong does not have a preceding syllable: crío, crías, cría, criamos, criais, crían guío, guías, guía, guiamos, guiais, guían 1

But juegan in Spanish America.

116

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

15.3.8 In verbs ending in -cuar and -guar, the u forms a diphthong, as with limpiar. Adecuar is an example of this. adecua, adecuas, adecua, adecuamos, adecuáis, adecuan It must be added here that adecúo, adecúas, etc. is also used (i.e. like actuar: actúo, actúas, etc.), although one frequently finds adecuar in the infinitive, probably to avoid the problem. Averiguar (to check/find out) is another example. averiguo, averigua, averigua, averiguamos, averiguáis, averiguan Two other verbs that function like averiguar are apaciguar(se) (to pacify/calm down) and santiguar(se) (to bless/make the sign of the cross.) 15.3.9 A number of verbs of the -uar type do not function like averiguar, but have an accent on the u, as in acentuar (to accentuate). acentúo, acentúas, acentúa, acentuamos, acentuáis, acentúan The following verbs function in the same way as acentuar. actuar (to act), adecuar (to adapt), continuar (to continue), desvirtuar (to distort, to disprove), evacuar2 (to evacuate), exceptuar (to except), fluctuar (to fluctuate), garuar (A), (to drizzle), graduarse (to graduate), infatuarse (to become infatuated), puntuar (to punctuate) The imperatives of the above verbs function in the same way – limpia, cría, averigua, continua – and, in a general way, the comments on the present indicative apply equally to the subjunctive mood. 15.3.10 In Iberian Spanish, the simple indicative is, in many circumstances, used as much as the gerund. If we asked the question, referring to the present moment, ¿Qué tiempo hace?, the answer could just as easily be Llueve as Está lloviendo. Similarly, the answer to the question, again referring to the present moment, ¿Qué haces? (What are you doing?), could be either Leo un libro or Estoy leyendo un libro. The question ¿Qué escribes? could just as easily elicit Escribo una carta as Estoy escribiendo una carta. Just as this is not the case in English, where the gerund would be required (It is raining, etc.), neither is it the case in A, C or M. Only Está lloviendo, Estoy leyendo un libro, Estoy escribiendo una carta would be heard in these countries. 15.3.11 For the passive voice of the present tense, see Chapter 39.

2

Evacuar is like adecuar, as the accent is permissible in both places (evacua/evacúa).

16 Perfect tense / Pretérito perfecto Below is a small, surrealist dialogue, which one could call a diálogo de besugos (nonsense dialogue), between a turkey and a slaughterman carrying out his Christmas duties. The turkey opens the conversation, stating that he has done nothing wrong. The dialogue contains a number of verbs in the perfect tense, including a perfect subjunctive at the end. —Yo me he portado bien siempre. Nunca he dado problemas. Ninguno de nuestra familia ha hecho nada digno de reproche; todos hemos sido ejemplares. No entiendo por qué nos tratáis así. —En toda mi vida he visto (Never have I seen) un caso como el tuyo. Has hablado como un libro abierto y has conseguido conmoverme. Pero vosotros habéis cumplido con vuestro deber y yo he de cumplir el mío. —Tus jefes te han lavado el cerebro (have brainwashed you). Tú te has manchado las manos de sangre y te las vas a manchar con la nuestra, mientras ellos se enriquecen. —No. . . si yo también he leído a Marx, a Lenin ya Marcuse. Pero tú eres un pavo, ahora es Navidad y yo he trabajado años en este matadero industrial. ¡Es una lástima que nos hemos/ hayamos conocido en estas circunstancias!

16.1 “Haber” and the perfect tense 16.1.1 There are two equivalents in Spanish of the English verb to have: haber and tener. They are not interchangeable. They are both used for the creation of the perfect tense, but for the moment we shall concentrate on haber (see Section 32.2 on irregular verbs). The perfect tense in Spanish is made up of haber (to have) and the past participle of the verb in question. This is similar to the English equivalent construction. The perfect tense in Spanish for verbs ending in -ar is as follows: 1st person (s): He comprado (I have bought) 2nd person (s): Has comprado (You have bought) 3rd person (s): Ha comprado ([S]He has/You have bought) 1st person (s): Hemos comprado (We have bought) 2nd person (s): Habéis comprado (You have bought) 3rd person (s): Han comprado (They/You have bought) Verbs ending in -er and -ir follow a similar, but not identical, pattern. Comer: He/has/ha/hemos/habéis/han comido (I/you/[s]he/you/we/you/they have/has eaten) Vivir: He/has/ha/hemos/habéis/han vivido (I/you, etc. have/has lived) Bear in mind that the vosotros/as forms are not used in Spanish America and are replaced by the Uds. form. Unfortunately, there are a large number of irregular verbs, the past participle of which does not respect this simple pattern. They will be dealt with in Chapter 17. To a large extent, the use of the perfect tense in Spanish corresponds to the use of the perfect tense in English. However, there is one important reservation here. In all Spanish 117

118

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

America, the perfect tense is used much less frequently than in Iberian Spanish. Three simple examples will illustrate this feature. • When you get up in the morning, you would say in Spain ¿Has dormido bien? (Have you slept well?), but in A, C and M the question would almost certainly be ¿Dormiste bien? (Did you sleep well?). • Again, during the morning, say at 11 o’clock, if a Spaniard asked you what you had done that morning, (s)he would doubtless say ¿Qué has hecho esta mañana?, but in A, C and M that question would be ¿Qué hiciste esta mañana? Finally, after having just eaten a meal, a Spaniard would probably say ¿Has comido bien?, but an Argentinian, Colombian or Mexican would doubtless ask ¿Comiste bien? In other words, in the three other countries in question, a different tense is used. This tense is called the past definite or preterit tense, and will be treated in a later chapter (24), so we shall not concern ourselves anymore with it here. It should be pointed out, in consequence, that the examples in this chapter will not involve American Spanish, since it would not be logical or authentic to provide examples with an Argentinian, Colombian or Mexican flavor. It may be more helpful, and certainly more logical, to call the perfect tense the past indefinite tense, for one simple reason, and that is the meaning of indefinite. Although the perfect tense refers to the past, it is really the recent past, which can often overflow into the present moment, as in: Duerme porque ha tomado demasiado vino. In this sense, it is not perfect, or complete, at all. Again, it is as though there is business left undone in the sentence: He hablado con Juan. (I have spoken to Juan.) This sentence suggests that there remains something to add, such as: ¿Y qué ha dicho? (What has he said/did he say?), hence the appropriateness of the term indefinite. However, the perfect tense in Iberian Spanish stretches further back in time than in English, which is why you may legitimately and logically say: He perdido el conocimiento, but the equivalent English I have lost consciousness has no meaning at all, unless you have a spectacular imagination. American Spanish is much more like English in this last example, for it too would require a great leap of the imagination. The perfect tense is therefore used in the following cases. 16.1.1.1 Where an action has begun in the past and continues until the present moment. He vivido aquí varios años. (I have lived here for a number of years.) 16.1.1.2 Where an action has been repeated several times and can continue to be repeated. Lo he leído cuatro veces. (I have read it four times.) 16.1.1.3 Where an expected action has still not taken place. El médico no ha llegado. (The doctor has not arrived.) 16.1.1.4 Where an action has taken place in the very recent past. Han adivinado la verdad. (They have guessed the truth.) The following further examples will illustrate the usage of the perfect tense in Spanish. He hablado con mi amiga. (I’ve spoken with my friend.) Han llegado tus hermanos. (Your brother[s] [and sister(s)] have arrived.) He terminado la lectura del libro. (I’ve finished reading the book.) ¿Has aprendido italiano? (Have you learnt Italian?) Hemos comido unos pasteles muy ricos. (We’ve eaten some very nice cakes.) 16.1.2 The auxiliary verb haber is not separated by another word from the past participle, as is often the case in French and Italian. He estudiado muy mal la lección. (I have studied the lesson very badly.) Todavía no han llegado. (They still haven’t arrived.)

Perfect tense

16.1.3 16.1.4

16.1.5

16.1.6

119

Siempre han sacado buenas notas. (They have always gotten good marks.) Has hecho muy bien tu trabajo. (You’ve done your work very well.) Since the perfect tense is closely related to the present moment, it can have a future idea. En un minuto he acabado. (I’ll have finished in a minute.) When a past participle is used with a verb other than haber, agreement in number and gender occurs, since it operates like an adjective. Deja la(s) ventana(s) abierta(s). (Leave the window[s] open.) He encontrado la caja cerrada. (I found the box locked.) Encontré a la chica escondida. (I found the girl hidden.) Dejé la televisión rota. (I left the television broken.) When conjugated with haber, the past participle never agrees with its object. He escrito la carta. (I have written the letter.) Han abandonado la casa. (They have left/abandoned the house.) Hemos alquilado dos coches. (We’ve rented two cars.) When two perfect tenses are involved with a pronoun, the pronoun is not usually repeated. (La carta) La he escrito y mandado. (I’ve written it and sent it.) (La tesis) La he terminado y hecho encuadernar. (I’ve finished it and had it bound.)

16.2 “Tener” and the perfect tense 16.2.1 When the verb tener is used with a past participle of a transitive verb, agreement does occur since the meaning is not quite the same. Compare the following pairs of sentences with haber and tener. He escrito la carta. (I have written the letter.) Tengo escrita la carta. (I have the letter written./I have written the letter.) Han abandonado la casa. Tienen abandonada la casa. Hemos alquilado dos coches. Tenemos alquilados dos coches. When tener is used, the past participle operates as an adjective, agreeing with the noun. 16.2.2 Tener may be used in what amounts to a metaphorical sense. Según tengo oído, estudiaba antes de casarse. (According to what I’ve heard, she studied before getting married.) Los pocos libros que hay aquí los tiene leídos y releídos. (He’s read and reread the few books there are here.) ¿Quién no tiene oídas historias de baqueanos (A) que encuentran huellas donde nadie las supo ver? (Who hasn’t heard of the experts who find traces that no one else could have?) No te apures, no te tengo olvidado. (Don’t worry, I’ve not forgotten you.) 16.2.3 Tener + past participle can often suggest repetition or insistence. Le tengo dicho (Le he dicho muchas veces) que no lo suba al segundo piso. (I’ve told him I don’t know how many times not to take it upstairs.) 16.2.4 Since the past participle must agree with the complement, a masculine singular is not admissible if the complement is other than masculine (i.e. feminine or plural). It does appear, however, in colloquial usage, and is therefore R1, and is not uncommon. Estados Unidos parece tener asegurado esta segunda plaza. (The USA seems to have second place assured.)

120

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

16.2.5 Tener + past participle is not recommended with intransitive verbs. It does appear, but, again, this is R1. No creas que me tengo ida al sicoanalista. (Don’t think I’ve been to the psychoanalyst.) The construction tener + past participle is commonly used in Argentina, Colombia, Mexico and Spain. For the perfect passive voice, see Chapter 39.

17 Irregular past participles / Participios de pasado irregulares Below is a passage illustrating the use of Spanish irregular participles. The passage describes the life and conviction of a man who only wanted to be loved but ended up murdering his doctor. Bernabé deseaba ser amado, eso se había leído y suscrito. Tuvo una infancia desgraciada; había sido abandonado en un portal a poco de nacer. Descubierto e inscrito en el registro civil, había sido criado en instituciones públicas. Según habían descrito sus abogados, se consideraba proscrito de la sociedad desde su niñez, lo mismo habían dicho los compañeros de cárcel en el juicio. Él quería ser amado, pero disparó contra aquel hombre con saña (rage), como siempre había hecho; disparó hasta verle muerto con los brazos abiertos y los ojos vueltos hacia el techo, como un juguete roto. El buen hombre nunca había visto al criminal. Era un médico jubilado, que se sentía satisfecho de su vida; había antepuesto el servicio a la sociedad a su comodidad para acabar siendo víctima del pobre Bernabé, que todo lo que deseaba era ser amado, tal como había suscrito su abogado en el alegato. El fiscal, bastante impuesto, aseguró que también su propia canción favorita era “All you need is love”, de Los Beatles.

17.1 Verbs with irregular past participles 17.1.1 The following verbs, which are otherwise regular, have an irregular past participle. abrir (to open) > abierto cubrir > (to cover) > cubierto escribir (to write) > escrito imprimir (to impress, to print) > impreso 17.1.2 The compounds of abrir, cubrir and escribir form their past participles in the same manner as these verbs. adscribir (to assign) > adscrito circunscribir > circunscrito descubrir > descubierto describir > descrito encubrir (to cover up/hide) > encubierto inscribir > inscrito prescribir > prescrito proscribir > proscrito reabrir > reabierto suscribir > suscrito transcribir > transcrito It should be added that escribir and its compounds include a p in Argentina (and in Uruguay for that matter): adscripto, circunscripto, descripto, inscripto, prescripto, proscripto, transcripto.

121

122

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Escribir assumes an ironic hypercorrection in the following unique expression: Yo también soy un hombre leído y escribido (I am also a well-read man, skilled in writing.) 17.1.3 The following irregular verbs, together with their compounds set out below (Section 17.1.4), have an irregular past participle. decir (to say, tell) > dicho, hacer (to do, make) > hecho, morir (to die) > muerto, poner (to put) > puesto, romper (to break) > roto, ver (to see) > visto, volver (to return) > vuelto 17.1.4 The past participles of the compounds of the verbs listed in Section 17.1.3 follow the same pattern. contradecir > contradicho, desdecir (to belie) > desdicho, maldecir (to curse) > maldicho, predecir (to foretell) > predicho contrahacer (to copy/counterfeit) > contrahecho, deshacer > deshecho, rehacer > rehecho, satisfacer > satisfecho anteponer (to put before) > antepuesto, componer > compuesto, deponer (to abandon/ depose/make a statement) > depuesto, imponer > impuesto, posponer > pospuesto, suponer > supuesto, tra(n)sponer (to surpass/surmount) > tra(n)spuesto, yuxtaponer > yuxtapuesto prever (to foresee) > previsto, entrever (to glimpse) > entrevisto devolver (to return/give back) > devuelto, revolver (to stir/rummage) > revuelto Note that for bendecir, bendecido is the past participle, while bendito acts as an adjective. For more detail, see Chapter 18.

18 Verbs with two past participles / Verbos con dos participios de pasado Below is a passage showing the use of sets of two past participles coming from the same verb. The monk in question seems confused to the point that he devotes too much time to rock music rather than preaching to the faithful. El monje estaba absorto/abstraído en su trabajo; había dejado de estar atento a la campana que marcaba el paso de las horas. De joven había sido pervertido por el ambiente, no se había sujetado a norma alguna, mas bendecido por la fe se había convertido al catolicismo y recluido en el monasterio. Como convertido/converso, siempre estaba sujeto a la regla para ser corregido. Se consideraba desprovisto de mérito y aquel día se encontraba confuso/confundido: había sido distinguido con el honor de leer en el refectorio (dining room). Sabía que los monjes elegidos/electos para aquel menester solían ser incluidos en una terna (group of three) para predicar en las parroquias vecinas, así que no se extrañó ser requerido ante el prior. —Hijo, llevas muchos años sujeto a nuestra disciplina —comenzó el superior—. Nunca te has torcido. He pensado en ti para que prediques en el exterior, pero con una condición: tienes que ir desprovisto de auriculares y de tu sempiterno (everlasting) reproductor MP3, porque está bien que nos hayas maltratado tantos años a todos nosotros con tu música rock, pero no quiero que espantes a los extraños con tu Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, Cat Stevens y esos otros, que, además, están ya superados.

18.1 Remarks on verbs with two past participles 18.1.1 In the cases given in Chapter 17, the irregular past participle is the only one in use. There are, however, a considerable number of verbs which have two past participles: one regular in form and usage, and the other, closer in adherence to Latin, irregular. The regular past participle is used with the auxiliary verb haber and retains the function of the perfect tense. However, the irregular past participles function like adjectives. Below is a list of the most common pairs of past participles.

Infinitive

Regular

Irregular

absorber abstraer atender bendecir confesar confundir convertir corregir corromper desertar

absorbido abstraído atendido bendecido confesado confundido convertido corregido corrompido desertado

absorto abstracto atento bendito confeso confuso converso correcto corrupto desierto

123

124

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

despertar desproveer difundir distinguir elegir extender extinguir fijar freír hartar imprimir incluir invertir juntar maldecir maltratar manifestar marchitar nacer ocultar omitir pervertir poseer prender proveer recluir refreír requerir salvar soltar sujetar suspender torcer

despertado desproveído difundido distinguido elegido extendido extinguido fijado freído hartado imprimido incluido invertido juntado maldecido maltratado manifestado marchitado nacido ocultado omitido pervertido poseído prendido proveído recluido refreído requerido salvado soltado sujetado suspendido torcido

despierto desprovisto difuso distinto electo extenso extinto (R3) fijo frito harto impreso incluso inverso junto maldito maltrecho manifiesto marchito nato (R3) oculto omiso perverso poseso preso provisto recluso refrito requisito salvo suelto sujeto suspenso tuerto

El alquiler ha absorbido buena parte de sus ingresos. (The rent has absorbed most of her income.) Estaba absorta en sus pensamientos. (She was absorbed in her thoughts.) La doctora ha atendido al enfermo. (The doctor has dealt with the patient.) Los alumnos atentos aprenden más. (Attentive pupils learn more.) He confundido los nombres. (I’ve muddled up the names.) Tiene la mente confusa. (His mind is confused.) Aquel ruido me ha despertado. (That noise woke me up.) Está despierta, puedes hablar. (She’s awake, you can talk.) ¿Has fijado la fecha? (Have you fixed the date?) ¿Tienes una fecha fija? (Have you gotten a fixed date?) El calor ha marchitado los rosales. (The heat has caused the rosebushes to wither.) Las flores están marchitas. (The flowers have withered away.)

Verbs with two past participles

125

18.2 Further remarks 18.2.1 Freído and frito are both used, but the second is much more common. As an adjective, frito is the only possibility: pescado frito, patatas fritas. 18.2.2 Matar is a regular verb. Its past participle is therefore matado. El hombre ha matado el oso. (The man has killed the bear.) However, in literary language (R3), muerto is sometimes used in passive constructions. Tres guerrilleros fueron muertos por los soldados. (Three guerrillas were killed by the soldiers.) Muerto is also used in an active sense, but this is, again, exclusively R3. José ha muerto seis perdices. (José has killed three partridges.) 18.2.3 Bienquerer and malquerer (both R3), rarely used these days, give rise to bienquisto and malquisto (both R3). El director es bienquisto de todos los padres. (The director/headteacher is held in high esteem by all the parents.) Es un profesor malquisto de sus alumnos. (He’s a teacher disliked by his pupils.) 18.2.4 The feminine form, as a noun, of the past participle of poner requires attention when it is followed by another noun. It is not always easily translated. Here is a selection: puesta en cultivo (growing, cultivation) puesta al día (bringing up to date) puesta en escena (theatrical production) puesta en marcha (setting in motion) puesta en órbita (placing in orbit) puesta a punto (tuning, final preparation) puesta en servicio (application, putting into service) puesta del sol (sundown, sunset) la puesta en cultivo de los cereales (cereal growing) La puesta al día del diccionario es necesaria. (It is necessary to bring the dictionary up to date.) la puesta a punto del carro (the tuning of a car) la puesta en servicio de una máquina (the putting into service of a machine)

18.3 18.3.1 The past participle of some verbs can take on an active meaning, besides their usual passive meaning with the verb haber. aburrido (boring), agradecido (grateful), atrevido (daring), bebido (drunk), callado (quiet), cansado (tiring), confiado (confident), desconfiado (mistrustful), descreído (disbelieving), distraído (absent-minded), divertido (entertaining), entendido (competent), fingido (hypocritical), leído (cultured), medido (A; measured, moderate), porfiado (stubborn), presumido (presumptuous), pesado (boring, hard/ hectic [M]), precavido (cautious), reñido (tight, competitive), resuelto (determined), resentido (resentful), sentido (moving), sufrido (patient, long-suffering) Examples of both passive and active usage follow below. Me ha aburrido la película. (The movie bored me.) Ha sido una película aburrida. (It has been a boring movie.) Me lo ha agradecido con efusión. (He thanked me for it most warmly.) Estoy muy agradecido por tu ayuda. (I am very grateful for your help.) Ha sufrido mucho con el calor. (She has suffered a lot with the heat.) Mi padre es un hombre poco sufrido. (My father complains very easily.)

19 Past participles used as nouns / Participios de pasado con función de sustantivos Below is a passage illustrating the use of past participles as nouns. A pregnant woman is apparently kidnapped by a well-known individual, who is doubtless harmless and gives up his victim for a packet of cigarettes. Al inspector Cuervo le acompañaba una pareja de uniformados; decían que el evadido era muy peligroso. Otro detenido había confesado su escondrijo (hiding-place). El comisario, un licenciado en psicología muy precavido, que conocía muy bien el perfil psicológico del imputado, había obligado a su subordinado Cuervo a tomar precauciones. Sabían que tenía una secuestrada: una embarazada, por más señas. —Cuervo, reconozca terreno mientras llega el Grupo de Operaciones Especiales. No se arriesgue y deje actuar a los capacitados —había dicho el comisario, como si fuera un rezagado (behind the times), un fósil, a muchos años luz de aquellos “polis” (cops) armados hasta los dientes. Al llegar los expertos, hallaron a Cuervo con sus dos policías y una joven. Ante el estupor de los recién llegados con cascos, chalecos y visores nocturnos, Cuervo dijo: —Esta señora es la liberada. El implicado, El Chino, es un viejo conocido; fuma como una locomotora, y como me imaginaba que tendría el “mono” (would have withdrawal symptoms) por falta de tabaco, he ido a hablar con él y he intercambiado a la afectada por un paquete de cigarrillos. The past participle used as a noun is a very common and vigorous practice, not only in Spanish but also in French and Italian. English has few equivalents to this phenomenon. The English equivalent is frequently higher in register (e.g. the accused). Translation of such nouns deriving from past participles is often very difficult and even cumbersome. Two strategies offer themselves: either a general noun (the retired) or, for example, a demonstrative pronoun (los afectados > those affected). A few words correspond to an English word: el detenido (the detainee). The nouns in many of these cases are often found in the plural, and there is no reason why the feminine form should not be used also. Here is an extensive list, although by no means complete, since a great number of verbs and their past participles lend themselves to the creation of nouns in this way. abonado(s) (subscriber[s]), accidentado(s) (the injured [in an accident]), acusado(s) (the accused), afectado(s) (someone/people who has/have been affected), afiliado(s) (member[s]), aprobado(s) (successful candidate[s]), arrepentido(s) (someone who has/ those who have repented), atendido(s) (someone who has/those who have been treated, patient[s]), capacitado[s] (trained/skilled person[s]), concentrados (those present/who have gathered [for a special purpose]), condenado(s) (person(s) condemned/convicted), congregados (people who meet/have met [usually for a specific purpose]), conocido(s) (acquaintance(s)), consultado(s) (the one/those consulted), contagiado(s) (someone/ people infected by a contagious disease), convidado(s) (guest[s], convocado(s) (the one who has been/those who were/have been called [for a special meeting]), damnificado(s) (victim[s] [especially of a disaster]), desaparecido(s) (someone who has/those who have disappeared), descartado(s) (player[s] dropped from a team, reject[s]), desconocido(s) (unknown person[s]), detenido(s) (person[s] arrested, detainee[s]), desplazado(s) (displaced 126

Past participles used as nouns

127

person[s]), embarazada(s) (pregnant woman/ women), encapuchado(s) (hooded person[s] [especially a criminal]), encarcelado(s) (prisoner[s]), encargado(s) (official[s], person[s] responsible), encuestado(s) (the one/those questioned [for a survey]), entrevistado(s) (those who were/have been interviewed), evadido(s) (fugitive[s]), excluido(s) (the one who was/those excluded), exiliado(s) (exile[s]), herido(s) (the wounded), implicado(s) (person[s] implicated), imputado(s) (accused), infectado(s) (person[s] infected), infiltrado(s) (infiltrator[s]), inscrito(s) (those who were/have been registered), interesado(s) (interested party/parties), investigado(s) (person[s] questioned), invitado(s) (guest[s]), jubilado(s) (the retired), licenciado(s) (graduate[s]), marginado(s) (those who were/have been excluded), matriculado(s) (the person[s] registered/enrolled), nacionalizado(s) (naturalized person[s]), naufragado(s) (shipwrecked person[s]), necesitado(s) (needy person[s]), olvidado(s) (forgotten person[s]), parado(s) (unemployed), perjudicado(s) (person[s] having suffered loss or damage), privilegiado(s) (the privileged), procesado(s) (defendant[s]), querellado(s) (defendant(s)), refugiado(s) (refugee[s]), rescatado(s) rescued (person[s]), reunidos (those assembled), rezagado(s) (straggler[s]), secuestrado(s) (kidnapped person[s]), sondeado(s) (person[s] questioned/canvassed), sublevado(s) (rebels), uniformado(s) (someone/people in uniform) Clearly, if these past participles/nouns were in the singular, the translation might be “the one who was/had been/has been,” and so on. What is certain is that English cannot accommodate this phenomenon very easily. Este sector es uno de los más afectados por la crisis. (This sector is one of the worst affected by the crisis.) Se publicó la lista de los aprobados y los supensos. (The list of the successful and failed candidates was published.) La mayoría de los atendidos presentan síntomas alarmantes. (Most of the patients show alarming symptoms.) los contagiados del SIDA (those infected with AIDS) Vamos a ver quiénes serán los descartados de la selección nacional. (Let’s see who will be dropped from the national team.) El banco fue atracado por cuatro encapuchados. (The bank was raided by four hooded men.)

20 Ablative absolute / Ablativo absoluto The passage below narrates, using a series of ablative absolutes, events from the Western USA. John has just accomplished a clean-up, killing a few bandits. The real winners are the native Americans who, waiting for their chance, have bought up all the casinos and hotels in Las Vegas. Colgado el revólver, John se pavoneaba (strutted) por las calles; aun muertos los bandidos, no se relajaba; si bien terminada la aventura, miraba desconfiado a los forasteros (allá, tocando los tambores, los indios acechaban [were lying in wait] en la montaña); extinguida la banda, todos dormían tranquilos. Oídas las noticias, Arizona suspiró aliviada, hasta aquel sábado en que, llegado que hubo a la cantina, John fue tiroteado (shot at) desde el mostrador e, iniciado el tiroteo, todos escaparon atemorizados. Abatido el atacante, los que habían huido como conejos, le felicitaron efusivamente (y los indios esperaban). . . Terminado el incidente, la vida continuó normalmente en Corralito City: golpizas (punches [M]), tiros en la calle y, claro, recién llegados los vaqueros, las chicas lucían sus galas, más peleas y más balaceras (shoot-outs) [M] y peleas. Y un día, unidos los ahorros, los indios compraron todos los casinos y hoteles de Las Vegas.

20.1 Use of the ablative absolute 20.1.1 The ablative absolute is as uncommon a structure in English as it is common in Spanish. (It is not uncommon in French or Italian.) It derives from the Latin construction, formed by a past participle as the nucleus which has no grammatical connection with the main clause, so it is really a subordinate clause of circumstance. It contains a temporal sense of something that has already happened. The ablative absolute is made up of any transitive verb when accompanying a noun. The English equivalent would be When. . . or As soon as. . . The ablative absolute is particularly prevalent in the written style and would therefore be classed as R3, although there are exceptions with una vez, as indicated in the examples below in 20.1.4. When the structure involves a noun, the latter usually, but not always, follows the past participle which agrees with it. The main clause is separated from the noun by a comma. Terminadas las vacaciones, se reanudaron los cursos. (As soon as the vacation was over, the classes began again.) Oídas las noticias, se marchó. (After hearing the news, he left.) Entregado el paquete, se fue. (As soon as she handed in the package, she left.) Llegadas las cartas, todos quisieron leerlas. (When the letters had arrived, everyone wanted to read them.) Acabada la misa, todos salieron. (As soon as the mass was over, they all went out.) 20.1.2 A personal subject pronoun can precede the past participle and here the verb is often intransitive. Yo muerto, no tendréis nada. (When I’m dead, you’ll have nothing.) Ella desaparecida, alerté al padre. (As soon as she had disappeared, I alerted the father.)

128

Ablative absolute

129

20.1.3 Adjectives can function like past participles. Seco el tabaco, lió un cigarillo. (Once the tobacco was dry, he rolled a cigarette.) 20.1.4 The past participle can be left understood, and here the construction is R2. The construction often involves una vez. Una vez dentro, lo registraremos todo. (Once inside, we’ll search everywhere.) Una vez fuera, echamos a correr. (Once outside, we started to run.) 20.1.5 The value of the ablative absolute may be strengthened by the inclusion of adverbs or prepositions. Después de terminadas las vacaciones, se reanudaron los cursos. (When the vacation was over, the classes began again.) Después de vendida la casa, nos arrepentimos. (After the house was sold, we regretted it.) Hasta acabada la semana, no podremos ir a verte. (Until the week is over, we’ll not be able to come to see you.) 20.1.6 Although the ablative absolute is often related to time, it can be connected to manner. Hundidas las manos en los bolsillos, la miraba sonriendo. (With his hands stuffed in his pockets, he looked at her with a smile.) 20.1.7 It may also suggest concession. Aun muerto su perseguidor, no se atrevía a salir de su escondite. (Although his pursuer had died, he dared not leave his hiding-place.) Seguía descansando, si bien terminadas las vacaciones. (He continued to relax, although the vacation was over.) 20.1.8 It may also be conditional. Quitados los árboles, el parque no valdría nada. (If you took the trees away, the park would be worth nothing.) 20.1.9 Although, generally, the noun follows the past participle, it is possible for it to precede it. For example, the construction in Section 20.1.6, above, may be reworded thus: Iba, las manos hundidas en los bolsillos, a lo largo del paseo. (With her hands stuffed in her pockets, she walked along the paseo.) 20.1.10 A very special use of the ablative absolute involves the past participle preceding the preterit. Such a construction is emphatically R3, and would be found largely in literary texts. Llegado que hubimos al pueblo, oímos una enorme explosion. (As soon as we had arrived in the town, we heard an enormous explosion.) Dejado que hubo el seminario por el cuartel, se distinguió entre todo el ejército. (As soon as he left the seminary for the barracks, he distinguished himself within the army.) 20.1.11 If the preterit verb is ser or estar, there is agreement. Llegado que fue el día. . ./Llegados que fueron los días. . . (When the day[s] arrived. . .) Llegada que fue la fiesta. . . /Llegadas que fueron las fiestas. . . (When the party/parties took place. . .)

21 Verb + infinitive when “that” is used in English / Verbo + infinitivo cuando se usa “that” en inglés Below is a passage illustrating the use of a verb + infinitive or verb + perfect infinitive. The passage involves a conversation between a police officer and a suspect in a criminal case. Note that the suspect uses the construction verb + que + finite verb, whereas the police officer resorts to a verb + infinitive or verb + perfect infinitive. The suspect’s language is less formal than that of the officer. The suspect’s alibi lies in the eyes of his girlfriend. He claims he was gazing into them at the time of the felony. —¿Recuerda haber dicho la verdad? —Sí, recuerdo que dije siempre la verdad cuando me preguntó un agente. —¿Confesó a la policía haber estado en el lugar del homicidio a las 20,30 horas del día de autos? —Dije que estuve a esa hora cerca de la esquina de las calles Rúa Oscura y Macías Picavea. —¿Niega haber intervenido en los hechos? —Niego que yo haya hecho nada de eso que usted dice. —¿Declara no haber visto nada insólito en aquel lugar? —Declaro que no vi nada raro, que no veía nada. —Pero creo recordar haber afirmado usted que estuvo a las 20,30 horas en la esquina calle Macías Picavea, por tanto, no puede negar haber sido testigo de los hechos. —No, señor, yo afirmé que estuve con mi novia en la esquina de la calle Rúa Oscura, a la vuelta de la esquina que usted dice, y allí yo sólo veía los ojos de mi Lupita. In a written and elegant style (R3), and this is extremely common, a verb, particularly related to the imagination or intellectual judgment, is followed by an infinitive or a perfect infinitive, when the subjects are identical. When the direct complement (i.e. the infinitive or perfect infinitive) is replaced by que (that) and a subordinate clause, the register is standard R2 and is more associated with the spoken language, although this construction would not be out of place in writing. However, as a general rule, it would be safe to assert that there is a clear distinction between the registers: verb + infinitive/perfect infinitive = R3 verb + que + subordinate clause = R2 Below is a list of the verbs which function in these two ways. Verb

R3

R2

afirmar anunciar

Afirma haber visto el accidente Anunció haber publicado una novela Aseguró haber escrito la carta

Afirma que ha visto. . . Anunció que había publicado. . . Aseguró que había escrito. . .

asegurar

130

Verb + infinitive when “that” is used in English

confesar creer

Confiesa no tener razón Si crees estar enfermo. . .

decir declarar demostrar denunciar

jurar

Dicen tener armas atómicas Declararon no ser culpables de. . . Demostré ser un profesional Denunció haber sido víctima de una agresión Se figuraba haber inventado una nueva computadora (A, C, M) Nos imaginamos estar a cien metros de la cumbre Juro no hacerlo de nuevo

lamentar

Lamento haberte ofendido

manifestar

Manifestó querer quedarse mucho tiempo Negué haber cometido el error

figurarse imaginarse

negar pensar recordar sentir

Pienso ir mañana No recordaba haber perdido el collar Siento haberte ofendido

temer

Temo no expresarme bien

131

Confiesa que no tiene razón Si crees que estás enfermo. . . Dicen que tienen. . . Declararon que no eran. . . Demostré que era un. . . Denunció que había sido víctima de una. . . Se figuraba que había inventado. . . Nos imaginamos que estábamos a cien. . . Juro que no lo haré de nuevo Lamento que te haya ofendido* Manifestó que quería quedarse. . . Negué que hubiera cometido el error** Pienso que iré mañana No recordaba que había perdido. . . Siento que te haya ofendido*** Temo que no me exprese bien

* It is unlikely that a subordinate clause applying to the same person would be used here. If it is used, a subjunctive mood would be required, as shown. ** In all probability, an imperfect subjunctive would be used here, as shown. *** It is unlikely that a subordinate clause applying to the same person would be used here. If it is used, the subjunctive mood would be required, as shown.

Verbs like prometer may be used with both the infinitive and que + indicative, with little change in register, although the infinitive is preferred since it is easier and slightly more elegant. Prometió venir mañana/Prometió que vendría. . . Promete venir mañana/Promete que vendrá. . .

22 Pluperfect tense and past anterior / Pretérito pluscuamperfecto de indicativo (antecopretérito [A, M]) y pretérito anterior (antepretérito [A, M]) The passage below contains examples of both the pluperfect tense and the past anterior. The poor mother, a nuclear scientist, is running round in circles, combining her domestic and conjugal duties with overseeing the operations of a nuclear plant. Aquel sábado había tenido una mañana muy atareada porque me habían llamado muy temprano desde mi trabajo, pidiéndome que pasara por la central, debido a que habían surgido problemas. Apenas hube colgado el teléfono cuando llamó mi hijo para decirme que había decidido venir a pasar el fin de semana con mi nuera y el niño, para que viera lo mucho que había crecido el pequeño; tal como lo dijera parecía que el niño ya no iba a caber por la puerta de la casa. En cuanto hube acabado de limpiar toda la casa, finalicé de cocinar el bizcocho preferido de mi hijo y después que hube llamado para retrasar la hora de la peluquería, salí corriendo hacia el garaje, pensando en los nervios que tendrían mis subordinados de la central nuclear, mas cuando había abierto la puerta del coche, hube de volver al dormitorio para dar un beso a mi marido, que, el pobre, estaba muy cansado porque se había quedado hasta muy tarde la noche anterior viendo un partido de fútbol.

22.1 Pluperfect tense 22.1.1 The imperfect of haber (see Chapter 23 for the imperfect tense) with the past participle forms the pluperfect tense. The pluperfect represents an action, event or thought as not only past, but occurring before another action, event or thought which is also in the past. Usage of the formula in Spanish, past tense (usually the preterit tense, but conceivably the imperfect tense) + pluperfect tense is thus the same in English, as shown in the examples below. Le dije que había venido. (I told her that he had come.) Cuando llegué, ya habían comido. (When I arrived, they had already eaten.) Le di al taxista la dirección que me había recomendado mi hermana. (I gave the taxi driver the address my sister had recommended to me.) Cuando llamaste, yo ya había salido. (When you called, I had already gone out.) Ayer, a estas horas, ya me había acostado. (This time yesterday I had already gone to bed.) Yo les decía todos los días que mi madre había escrito diez novelas. (I would say to them every day that my mother had written ten novels.) 22.1.2 Sometimes, in the higher, written register (R3), particularly (but not exclusively) in newspaper style, the imperfect subjunctive, notably in the -ara form, replaces the pluperfect tense. This imperfect subjunctive remains limited to subordinate clauses of a circumstantial nature. 132

Pluperfect tense and past anterior

133

Pronto alcanzaron las barricadas que los días anteriores levantaran los obreros de Madrid. (They soon reached the barricades that the Madrid workers had erected during the previous days.) Le aseguró que todo se haría conforme a lo que él dijera por la mañana. (He assured her that everything would be done according to what he had said in the morning.) No consiguió crear la obra, tal como la soñara. (She did not succeed in creating the work as she had dreamt it.) El que fuera Presidente del Gobierno ha declarado que. . . (The person who had been the President of the government has declared. . .) The -ase form of the imperfect subjunctive seems to be less acceptable in this usage. El que fuese presidente del gobierno 22.1.3 The imperfect subjunctive is often used in this way after desde que and después (de) que. Desde que llegara a ese país. . . (Since she had arrived in that country. . .) Desde que el equipo ganase. . . (As soon as the team had won. . .) Después de que hablaran del asunto. . . (After they had spoken about the subject. . .) • Three remarks follow from this usage. • Such a construction is less common in the Americas, if it is used at all. • It is an R3 construction and would rarely be heard in speech. • The imperfect subjunctive form -se is not normally used in this way, and if it is used, it is rejected by purists. 22.1.4 As with the perfect tense, the repetition of the past participle of the pluperfect tense involving a pronoun normally excludes the repetition of the pronoun. The repetition of the auxiliary verb is not necessary either. . . .proyecto. Lo había concebido semanas antes y luego puesto en práctica (. . .plan. She had conceived it weeks before and then put it into practice.) Me dijo que lo [el libro] había escrito y luego corregido y aumentado. (She told me she had written it and then corrected and expanded it.)

22.2 Past anterior See the opening passage above at the beginning of this chapter (opposite page) on the pluperfect tense to see how the past anterior fits into the pluperfect tense. 22.2.1 A literary, and even archaic form (and therefore R3), rarely used in speech, the past anterior is composed of the preterit of haber + past participle. It expresses what took place immediately before another past event, the latter being expressed by the preterit, not by the imperfect, since the past anterior never denotes anything continuous or customary. It is always preceded by one of the following conjunctions: apenas (hardly), cuando (when), así que/desde que/tan pronto como/en cuanto/ después (de) que/luego que/ no bien/al momento que (as soon as), ya que (now that). The past anterior performs the same function as the pluperfect tense, as demonstrated in the following examples. Apenas hubo pronunciado estas palabras cuando se oyó un ruido ensordecedor. (She had hardly uttered these words when they heard a deafening noise.) Cuando la madre hubo concluido su relación, yo tomé la palabra. (When the mother had concluded her tale, I spoke.) Luego que los convidados se hubieron sentado, empezó el banquete. (Hardly had the guests sat down than the banquet began.) Así que hubo salido al balcón el Presidente, la turba se calló. (As soon as the President had appeared on the balcony the crowd went quiet.)

134

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

22.2.2 However, when a customary occurrence is to be expressed after these conjunctions, the pluperfect tense is used, and this is, of course, standard R2. En cuanto había acabado una página, yo se la llevaba. (As soon as I had finished a page, I would take it to her.) No bien habíamos matado a un antílope que los buitres aparecían. (No sooner had we killed an antelope than the vultures would appear.) 22.2.3 A further construction formed by the past participle + que + verb in the preterit (haber, ser, estar, tener, ver) is characteristic of literary language, classified as R3. If the preterit verb is ser or estar, the participle agrees with the subject in both gender and number. Llegado que hubimos al pueblo. . . (When we had arrived at the town. . .) Dejado que hubo el seminario por el cuartel (When he had left the seminary for the barracks. . .) Llegado que fue el día/Llegados que fueron los días. . . (When the day[s] had come/gone).) Llegada que fue la fiesta/Llegadas que fueron las fiestas. . . (When the party/parties had taken place. . .)

23 Imperfect tense / Pretérito imperfecto de indicativo (copretérito [A, M]) Below is a passage relating the accident that befalls a dog out for a walk with its owner, who falls to the ground. The dog has been run over by a car and is killed. The incident itself and the events preceding the accident are in the imperfect tense. Estaba distraída por un cartel cuando oí la frenada del coche y los gritos. Yo no me podía imaginar que fuera por él, ya que un momento antes lo tenía a mi lado. Mientras me volvía para ver lo ocurrido me dio un vuelco el corazón (my heart missed a beat) y noté que alguien me sujetaba. Todo me daba vueltas. (Everthing was going round in my mind.) Yo deseaba incorporarme mientras alguien me decía: “Calma, señora. Es mejor que no mire. Manténgase un momento ahí.” Estaba deshecha (distressed), no podía llorar y me imaginaba lo peor. Se me agolpaban en la mente imágenes de momentos alegres y tristes (Pictures of . . . were rushing through my mind), de enfermedades y recuperaciones . . . Él era mi alegría, vivíamos el uno para el otro. Solía despertarme cariñosamente todas las mañanas. Recordaba la primera vez que lo vi: estaba guapísimo, pequeño y de pelo cobrizo; era un cachorrillo (puppy) que apenas tenía tres días. No se mantenía sobre sus patitas. Aprendió conmigo los primeros ladridos. Sí, ahora se podría/podía decir que soy su viuda.

23.1 Characteristics of the imperfect tense The imperfect tense is best studied in conjunction with the preterit (see Chapter 24), since they are frequently linked to each other. Spanish has two past tenses of simple form: the imperfect (pretérito imperfecto, or copretérito as it is known in A, C and M) and the preterit (pretérito simple). In regular verbs, the imperfect tense is obtained by adding the following endings to the stem: 1st conjugation: -aba, -abas, -aba, -ábamos, -abais, -aban 2nd and 3rd conjugations: -ía, -ías, -ía, -íamos, -íais, -ían The imperfect tense of model verbs is set out below. S

Pl

compraba comprabas compraba comprábamos comprabais compraban

vendía vendías vendía vendíamos vendíais vendían

vivía vivías vivía vivíamos vivíais vivían

The first and third persons singular of these conjugations are the same, so to avoid ambiguity, it may sometimes be necessary to use the pronouns yo, Ud., él and ella, although context would usually make this clear. The formation of the imperfect tense is different in only three irregular verbs. This makes the learning of the imperfect quite easy. The three awkward verbs are set out below. 135

136

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Ser Ir Ver

era iba veía

eras ibas veías

era iba veía

éramos íbamos veíamos

erais ibais veíais

eran iban veían

The fundamental value of the imperfect tense is to express continuance, as of an action prolonged either in itself or by successive repetition. It conveys what was habitual, customary, and describes qualities of persons or things, and the place or condition in which they were, in the past. It often refers to something unfinished, and therefore imperfect. Yo compraba corresponds to the English I was buying, used to buy, would buy and bought. In this sense, it is much simpler than the several English equivalents, which makes life difficult for Spanish-speakers learning English.

23.2 Uses of the imperfect tense 23.2.1 To convey repeated and habitual past actions. Yo iba siempre al mismo supermercado. (I always went to the same supermarket). Los cuates (M) se divertían cada día en la alberca (M). (The friends had fun every day in the swimming pool.) Fumaba una cajetilla diaria. (She smoked a packet a day.) 23.2.2 To describe an action that was in progress. Leía el periódico cuando. . . (She was reading the newspaper when. . .) Salía del colegio cuando. . . (I was coming out of school when. . .) Estábamos en la playa cuando. . . (We were on the beach when. . .) Planeaban visitar España. (They planned to visit Spain.) 23.2.3 To describe physical, mental or emotional states in the past. Estaba agotada. (She was exhausted.) Los mellizos tenían once años. (The twins were eleven years old.) Adorábamos la ópera. (We adored opera.) Hacía sol todos los días. (It was sunny every day.) Sabían leer. (They could read.) 23.2.4 To refer to the time in the past. Era la una. (It was one o’clock.) Eran las cuatro y media. (It was half-past four.) 23.2.5 In R1 language, it may replace the conditional. Si me tocara la lotería, me compraba una casa. (If I won the lottery, I’d buy a house.) Si yo tuviera dinero, te lo daba. (If I had money, I’d give it to you.) Debían ahorcarlos. (They ought to have hanged them.) 23.2.6 With a certain degree of unreality, particularly in children’s games. Yo era el bueno y vosotros me atacabais. (I’m the good guy and you attack me.) 23.2.7 It can convey an element of courtesy, with the idea that a negative is forthcoming, and in this sense is close to the English. Venía a ver a Don José. (I was coming to see Don José.) 23.2.8 When used with vez, particularly in conjunction with primera and última, the imperfect is used instead of the pluperfect, as in English. Fue la primera/última vez que la veía allí. (It was the first/last time I’d seen her there.) Fue la primera/última vez que venía a la reunión. (It was the first/last time she had come to the meeting.) 23.2.9 In newspaper style, the imperfect tense is quite frequently used in a narrative to convey a series of events. In this way, attention is drawn to the (series of) events evoked, and the narrative is invested with a dramatic dimension. One could expect the preterit here.

Imperfect tense

137

Below is a passage taken from the newspaper El Mundo (August 2006), but with abundant deletions for brevity’s sake, to illustrate this feature (which is also characteristic of French). . . .ayer la policía germana capturaba a uno de los sospechosos (suspects). En una espectacular operación policía, las autoridades arrestaban a un joven libanés. . . La fiscal general (attorney general) confirmaba ayer que el detenido. . . También Juan Martínez [not real name], de lo Criminal, expresaba sospechas fundadas de que en Alemania. . . Ayer, en la estación ferroviaria de Kiel, Yusuf Rauf [not real name] también portaba una maleta. . . Ayer mismo, se producían dos falsas alarmas. . . No obstante, Deutsche Bahn (ferrocarriles alemanes) anunciaban ayer que reforzarían las medidas de seguridad. . . A second passage, also taken from El Mundo (August 2007), illustrates further how widespread this practice is. El martes, un accidente entre dos vehículos en Silleda, Pontevedra, dejaba un saldo de cuatro muertos, dos de ellos menores y todos ellos miembros de la misma familia. En el accidente más grave registrado ayer, dos mujeres y un bebé morían en Málaga, mientras que dos jóvenes perdían la vida y otras cuatro personas resultaban heridas en la localidad pontevedresa de Lalín. 23.2.10 There are certain verbs with no English equivalent when they are used in the imperfect tense (and in the present tense; Section 15.3.6). Among these are acostumbrar, soler, llevar and hacer. They are used in the following way: acostumbrar hacer algo (to be accustomed to doing something) soler hacer algo (to be accustomed to doing something [less used in M]) llevar tanto tiempo haciendo algo ([to] have been doing something for so much time) hacer tanto tiempo (time ago) Acostumbraba desayunar huevos con jamón. (I usually had ham and eggs for breakfast.) Solía1 estudiar sobre todo por la mañana. (I usually studied in the morning.) Estos melones solían ser muy ricos. (These melons used to be very good.) Solían venir aquí los martes. (They used to/would come on Tuesdays.) Yo llevaba diez años en León cuando. . . (I had been in León for ten years when. . .) Llevaban tres días trabajando cuando. . . (They had been working for three days when. . .) Llevaba dos días sin fumar. (I had not smoked for two days.) Hacía seis meses que había llegado. (He had arrived six months before.) Habían salido para Brasil hacía un mes. (They had left for Brazil a month before.) Hacía seis meses que habían sido capturados. (They had been captured six months before.) 23.2.11 The imperfect tense alone and the imperfect tense + gerund have exactly the same meaning, with the difference that the imperfect + gerund concentrates on the progressive act more than the use of the imperfect alone. It is merely a question of focus. Yo estaba leyendo el periódico cuando entró mi hermano. (I was reading the newspaper when my brother walked in.) Yo leía el periódico cuando. . . (I was reading the newspaper when. . .)

1

Contrary to expectation, the verb soler may be used with the perfect tense. Históricamente, a la Real Sociedad (San Sebastián soccer team) no le han solido ir muy bien este tipo de partidos. (Historically, Real Sociedad hasn’t usually adapted well to this type of game.)

24 Preterit tense / Pretérito simple Below is a humorous passage illustrating the use of the preterit, in a Mexican context. The person arrested fails to understand the reason for his arrest, and it all becomes clear when the police realize that the mayor’s wife was not kidnapped by a gangster, but rather that she made off with him. Nunca creí que pudiera suceder algo semejante: los de la (policía) judicial (M) saltaron las bardas (M; fence) del jardín del restaurante, mientras todos nos levantamos despavoridos (frightened) cuando vimos todo aquel armamento. —Basta ya. ¡Se acabó! ¡Todo el mundo al suelo! —dijo el jefe, que tenía la cara de ser un cuate (M; guy) muy abusado (M; smart), con ganas de ameritarse (M; get promotion). En un momento catearon (M; explored) todo; después no pudimos hacer nada mientras nos revisaron los bolsillos y nos cachearon (frisked us). Yo ya me vi habitando en una cárcel con fuerte sobrepoblación penal y tuve un ataque de pánico. Durante un momento deseé que, por lo menos, me dejaran como preso preventivo, de ésos a los que ponen un brazalete de monitoreo (M; electronic tag), aunque siempre fui alérgico a las pulseras. “Yo no hice nada, señor juez,” pensé decir ante el juez, pero no hubo lugar, porque igual que vinieron, se fueron. Luego supimos que todo se suscitó porque en principio se dijo que la esposa del alcalde había sido secuestrada por un pandillero (gangster), pero más tarde supimos que se había escapado con él. The preterit tense, or past definite, in Spanish, as in English, is used to described single, completed actions in the past that do not have a temporal relation with the present. These actions may be single or multiple, and it does not matter how long they may have lasted – if the action has ended, the preterit is used. It corresponds therefore to the English I spoke/ran/did/went, and so on (hablé, corrí, hice, fui). It needs to be distinguished from the imperfect and perfect tenses, a distinction which will be dealt with in Chapter 25.

24.1 Formation of the preterit tense The following endings are added to the stem. 1st conjugation: -é, -aste, -ó, -amos, -asteis, -aron 2nd and 3rd conjugations: -í, -iste, ió, -imos, -isteis, -ieron The preterit tense of three model verbs is set out below. S

Pl

138

compré compraste compró compramos comprasteis compraron

vendí vendiste vendió vendimos vendisteis vendieron

viví viviste vivió vivimos vivisteis vivieron

Preterit tense

139

This has been easy up to now. However, there are a number of irregular verbs, the stems of which are entirely different from the stems of the infinitive. The one compensation is that the preterit of ser and ir are the same, so a few minutes are saved here. Let us now consider the main irregular verbs. dar (di) decir (dij) estar (estuv) haber (hub) hacer (hic) ir (fu) poder (pud) querer (quis) saber (sup) ser (fu) tener (tuv) venir (vin)

di dije estuve hube hice fui pude quise supe fui tuve vine

diste dijiste estuviste hubiste hiciste fuiste pudiste quisiste supiste fuiste tuviste viniste

dio dijo estuvo hubo hizo1 fue pudo quiso supo fue tuvo vino

dimos dijimos estuvimos hubimos hicimos fuimos pudimos quisimos supimos fuimos tuvimos vinimos

disteis dijisteis estuvisteis hubisteis hicisteis fuisteis pudisteis quisisteis supisteis fuisteis tuvisteis vinisteis

dieron dijeron estuvieron hubieron hicieron fueron pudieron quisieron supieron fueron tuvieron vinieron

1

Hizo, where the c is logically changed into a z, preserves the sound. Otherwise a retained c would produce a k sound.

Fui a Nueva York la semana pasada. (I went to New York last week.) Regresaron de Inglaterra en junio. (They came back from England in June.) ¿Cuándo aprendiste a nadar? (When did you learn to swim?) Julio César vivió cincuenta y siete años y murió en el año 44 antes de Cristo. (Julius Caesar lived for fifty-seven years and died in 44 BC.) Cervantes, como Shakespeare, nació en el siglo dieciséis, y murieron el mismo año. (Cervantes, like Shakespeare, was born in the sixteenth century, and they died in the same year.) A series of sequential actions is also conveyed by the preterit. Regresé a las diez, me acosté en seguida y me levanté muy temprano. (I returned at ten o’clock, went to bed straightaway and got up very early.)

24.2 Uses of the preterit tense 24.2.1 The preterit of creer, deber and poder are sometimes used instead of the conditional perfect (see Chapter 29). Nunca creí que pudiese llevar a bien esa empresa. (I would have never believed she could have done a good job with that company.) No le conviene su marido. No debió casarse con él. (Her husband doesn’t suit her. She should not have married him.) Debiste hacerlo. (You ought to have done it.) Su hermana no ha tenido más que dos hijos, pero pudo tener más. (His sister only had two children, but she could have had more.) Pudiste decírmelo. (You could have told me.) 24.2.2 Since Spanish does not accommodate compound tenses as well as English (or French and Italian, for that matter), the preterit may be used after conjunctions, or in a subordinate clause, when one would logically expect the pluperfect. Después que habló, todos salieron. (After she had spoken, everyone went out.) Abrió con impaciencia el paquete que su madre le trajo. (He opened the package impatiently that his mother had brought him.)

140

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

24.2.3 Another use of the preterit, with acabarse, could appear to contradict the foregoing comments. It is frequently employed when referring to the immediate past, or even the present or future. It has a strong negative connotation. No hablemos más. ¡Se acabó! (Let’s not talk about this anymore. That’s it!) Le dices que no quieres, y ¡se acabó! (You tell him you don’t want to, and that’s that!) Te dije que no vas y ¡se acabó! (I’ve told you you’re not going, and that’s that!) ¿Por qué insistes? Lo haré mañana y ¡se acabó! (Why do you insist? I’ll do it tomorrow, and that’s all there is to it!)

25 Contrasts between the imperfect, preterit and perfect tenses / Contrastes entre el imperfecto, el pretérito y el pretérito perfecto 25.1 Differences between the preterit and the imperfect 25.1.1 Whereas the imperfect tense relates to events that have no clear ending, or take place over an unspecified period of time, the preterit refers to a very sharply defined action or event, as demonstrated in the following example. Leía el periódico cuando entró mi hermana. (I was reading the paper when my sister walked in.) The imperfect is continuous time, while the preterit cuts across this continuum. Put another way, when we express two past actions, occurring at the same time, the shorter action is conveyed by the preterit, while the longer one is in the imperfect. This explanation may be better understood by a simple diagram. Past Present Leía el periódico (longer action) cuando entró mi hermana (shorter or single action) Some other examples follow below. Mientras escribía la carta dieron las once. (While I was writing the letter, the clock struck eleven.) Mientras se abría la puerta, dejé caer/se me cayó la pluma (M)/el bolígrafo. (While the door was opening I dropped the pen.) However, the preterit may replace the imperfect in certain circumstances, especially with a conjunction and the verb estar, and there is no change in meaning. Compare the following pairs of sentences. Cuando yo estaba en Madrid, me encontré a tu amigo. (When I was in Madrid, I met your friend.) Cuando yo estuve en Madrid, me encontré a tu amigo. (When I was in Madrid. . .) Ayer estaba en San Cristóbal de Las Casas. (Yesterday I was in San Cristóbal de Las Casas.) Ayer, estuve en San Cristóbal de Las Casas. The first sentence in each pair suggests that there is unfinished business and that something else needs to be added, while the second simply makes a statement of fact. It can be argued that, if there is a precise point in time, the preterit is preferred. Estuve en Uruguay en junio cuando recibí el mensaje. (I was in Uruguay in June when I received the message.) 25.1.2 Words associated with the preterit are: ayer, la semana pasada, el año pasado, anoche, una vez, de repente, de súbito, súbitamente (at specific points in time). Words associated with 141

142

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

the imperfect are: mientras, todos los días, cada año, con frecuencia, frecuentemente, a menudo, de niño, de joven (in other words, habitual or general features in the past). 25.1.3 Of course, the words set out in Section 25.1.2 do not automatically trigger the imperfect or the preterit, as can be seen from the following examples. Ayer jugué béisbol (A, C, M)/al béisbol. (Yesterday I played baseball.) Ayer jugaba fútbol cuando llovió. (Yesterday I was playing football when it rained.) De niño tocaba la guitarra. (As a child I used to play the guitar.) De niño empecé a tocar la guitarra. (As a child I began to play the guitar.) 25.1.4 In historical narration, the distinction is not always so clear. The preterit can apply to actions or events of some duration, but it still evokes something accidental or temporary. César escribió la historia de sus conquistas. (Caesar wrote the history of his conquests.) Los aztecas conquistaron toda Mesoamérica. (The Aztecs conquered all of Mesoamerica.) If the preterit tenses in the examples above were changed to the imperfect, the sentences and their meaning would be incomplete without some complementary clause, as in the following phrases. César escribía. . . cuando estalló una guerra. (Caesar was writing. . . when a war erupted.) Los aztecas conquistaban. . . cuando llegaron los españoles. (The Aztecs were conquering. . . when the Spaniards arrived.) 25.1.5 In narrations, the preterit tells the occurrences which provide the thread of the story, while the imperfect describes the scenes in which they occurred, as shown in the following narrative. El sol brillaba en un cielo sin nubes. Soplaba una brisa muy agradable y las olas chapoteaban (lapped) dulcemente sobre el agua. El barco se deslizaba (glided) silenciosamente por entre las rocas, el grito (chirping) de las gaviotas nos embelesaba (captivated) y disfrutábamos de la tranquilidad del ambiente. De súbito, se oyó una explosión ensordecedora (deafening), y apareció en el cielo un cohete que produjo un destello azul. Nos quedamos atónitas (stunned). Nos entró una sensación de asombro. 25.1.6 There is a particular problem with the preterit and imperfect tenses of the verb ser, since both these tenses often correspond to the English was/were. However, the same principle obtains over the sense of continuity evoked by the imperfect as opposed to the singleness of event suggested by the preterit, however long that event may be. Consider the following cases. Fue capitán del ejército durante/por veinte años. (He was an army captain for twenty years.) Fueron profesores durante los años noventa. (They were teachers during the nineties.) Era ajedrecista de la más alta categoría. (She was a chess player of the highest order.) Eran hermanos muy unidos. (They were very close as brothers/brother[s] and sister[s].) The difference becomes even clearer if we contrast the two following cases: Cicerón era un orador elocuente. (Cicero was an eloquent orator.) Cicerón fue cónsul. (Cicero was a consul.) In the first case, Cicero’s eloquence was an integral part of his personality, which points to continuity and therefore requires the imperfect, while the fact that he was a consul is of a temporary or accidental nature. 25.1.7 In some cases, either tense may be used. Fue/Era el año noventa cuando estalló la guerra. (It was in 1990 that the war broke out.) Fue/Era mi mujer la que me dijo que mucha gente había acudido a la conferencia. (It was my wife who told me that many people had attended the lecture.) It is likely that the preterit would be used in the last example, since a specific point in

Contrasts between the imperfect, preterit and perfect tenses

143

time is referred to. However, one could not exclude the imperfect. It would depend on the previous circumstances.

25.2 Differences between the preterit and the perfect 25.2.1 The following comments are complicated by usage in Spanish America and the Iberian Peninsula. Remarks are limited initially to Spain, but Spanish American – and, notably, Argentinian, Colombian and Mexican usage – will be treated subsequently. If the occurrence took place within a space of time not yet expired (this day, month, year, etc), or if it is in any way connected with the present, the perfect tense is employed. But if distance in time intervenes, the preterit may well be used. Compare the following two examples. He escrito dos cartas esta mañana. (I wrote two letters this morning.) Escribí dos cartas ayer. (I wrote two letters yesterday.) He escrito could not easily be used in the second case. However, escribí could be used in the first case if the point at which the person speaks is the evening, and not, say, midday or two o’clock in the afternoon. It is all a question of the relation between the time of speech and the time referred to. Compare two further examples related to getting up in the morning. ¿Has dormido bien? (Have you slept well?/Did you sleep well?) ¿Dormiste bien anoche? (Did you sleep well last night?) The first would be used first thing in the morning, but in the evening one would probably use the second. Here are some further examples to illustrate the differences. No he ido a España este año (includes the present time). (I haven’t been to Spain this year.) No fui a España este año (excludes the present time). (I didn’t go to Spain this year.) Le escribí a mi padre el martes (excludes the present time). (I wrote to my father on Tuesday.) Le he escrito a mi padre varias veces (includes the present time). (I’ve written to my father a few times.) Colombia ha producido muchos autores eminentes (includes the present time). (Colombia has produced many eminent writers.) México no produjo muchos autores eminentes en el siglo dieciocho (excludes the present time). (Mexico did not produce many eminent writers in the eighteenth century.) 25.2.2 The perfect and the preterit are used with no distinction in such statements as: Lo hice/ Lo he hecho hace cinco minutos. (I did it five minutes ago.) Interestingly enough, the English perfect could not be used here. 25.2.3 Both the perfect and the preterit may be used for the same sentence, but the shade of meaning highlights the psychological reaction of the speaker. Hace tres años que ha muerto mi padre. (My father died three years ago.) Hace tres años que murió mi padre. (My father died three years ago.) In the first case, the death of the father is still exerting an emotional effect on the speaker, while in the second the death is considered more an event.

25.3 Preterit and perfect in Argentina, Colombia and Mexico 25.3.1 In Argentina, Colombia and Mexico, and indeed all Spanish-American countries, the perfect is used much less than in Spain. In the two examples quoted in Section 25.2.2, only the preterit would be used, since the preterit in these countries or areas is much closer to the present moment than in much of Spain, and can have a specific relation to it.

144

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

¿Dormiste bien? (after just getting up) (Did you sleep well?) Lo hice hace cinco minutos. (I did it five minutes ago.) Me lavé los dientes (just now). (I’ve cleaned my teeth.) Viste la película? (Have you seen/did you see the movie?) Votaron al presidente (today). (They’ve voted for the president.) Subió el precio. (The price has gone up.) Of course, the last example could mean The price went up (i.e. weeks ago). 25.3.2 Three adverbs, ya, aún and todavía, also require attention. The use of ya reveals a clear difference between Spanish American and Iberian Spanish. Spanish American ¿Ya volaste en el nuevo Airbus? Más de 70 mil personas ya visitaron el edificio del Palacio de los Congresos.

Iberian ¿Ya has volado en el. . .? Más de 70 mil personas ya han visitado el. . .

However, the use of aún and todavía in Spanish America and Spain corresponds closely, for in pretty well all cases these two adverbs attract similarly the perfect or pluperfect tense, and not the preterit. They involve actions or thoughts impinging on the present moment when the perfect tense is used, and this is especially true of negative sentences. El presidente aún no ha decidido sobre la economía. (The president still has not decided about the economy.) Todavía no ha llegado el momento. (The moment has not yet arrived.) Similarly with the pluperfect tense: Aún había dicho nada cuando llegué. (She still hadn’t said anything when I arrived.) Todavía no habían escrito la carta cuando me habló mi esposa. (They still hadn’t written the letter when my wife spoke to me.) Hasta ahora/entonces also involves the perfect or pluperfect tense in nearly all cases. Hasta ahora no ha trabajado. (He hasn’t worked until now.) Hasta entonces no habíamos manejado el carro. (Up till then we hadn’t driven the car.) It should be clear from these examples that this usage corresponds to English usage. It should be added that in Argentina and parts of the Iberian Peninsula, the preterit would not sound out of place with aún and todavía, although the perfect is more common. El presidente aún no decidió sobre. . . Todavía no llegó el momento. 25.3.3 Finally, another excellent illustration of the different use of the two tenses in Argentina, Colombia and Mexico, and Spain, would be in a conversation immediately following a goal or the award of a penalty, for example. In the Spanish-American countries, a disputed goal or penalty could give rise to: No fue gol/penaltí. (It wasn’t a goal/penalty.) But in Iberian Spanish, a perfect tense would be resorted to: No ha sido gol/penaltí. (It wasn’t a goal/penalty.)

26 Future tense / Futuro Below is a short passage illustrating the use of the future tense. It is a dialogue between an older (first statement) and younger brother (second statement). Notice the subjunctive underlined at the very end. The present or future tense would not be possible here. (See Chapter 55, on the subjunctive mood, and Section 26.1.15.) —¿Vas a ir mañana al fútbol o estudiarás toda la tarde? Te lo pregunto porque yo me quedaré en casa hasta bastante tarde, y después sacaré a pasear al perro e iré a dar una vuelta. No volveremos muy tarde. Te prometo que no beberemos mucho, no te pediremos dinero prestado (we’ll not borrow money from you), ni te pondremos en ridículo ante tus amigos, y luego te dejaré conducir mi coche nuevo para volver a casa. ¡Ah! ¡Además, te invitaremos! Te pagaremos una copa. —Mira, para ti yo seré siempre el hermano pequeño. Supongo no creerás toda tu vida que seguiré tragándome tus mentiras. Te diré que intentes convencer a otro para que os traiga a casa mañana cuando estéis borrachos.

26.1 Use of the future tense 26.1.1 The future tense, which in English uses will and shall, is formed in Spanish by adding the following endings to the full infinitive of the verb: -é, -ás, -á, -emos, -éis, -án S

Pl

compraré comprarás comprará compraremos compraréis comprarán

venderé venderás venderá venderemos venderéis venderán

viviré vivirás vivirá viviremos viviréis vivirán

As a point of interest, note that these endings are related to the present tense of the verb haber. Once the Latin inflexion system had died out, it was replaced by the infinitive of the verb and haber, so that compraré originally meant I have/am to buy. (These comments also apply to the future tense in French, Italian and Portuguese.) 26.1.2 In this manner the futures of all regular verbs are formed, and nearly all irregular verbs. Rather than deal with the future of irregular verbs in the section on irregular verbs, it seems helpful to treat them here, since they are so few in number. caber decir haber hacer poder poner

cabré diré habré haré podré pondré

cabrás dirás habrás harás podrás pondrás

cabrá dirá habrá hará podrá pondrá

cabremos diremos habremos haremos podremos pondremos

cabréis diréis habréis haréis podréis pondréis

cabrán dirán habrán harán podrán pondrán 145

146

A Reference Grammar of Spanish querer saber salir tener valer venir

querré sabré saldré tendré valdré vendré

querrás sabrás saldrás tendrás valdrás vendrás

querrá sabrá saldrá tendrá valdrá vendrá

querremos sabremos saldremos tendremos valdremos vendremos

querréis sabréis saldréis tendréis valdréis vendréis

querrán sabrán saldrán tendrán valdrán vendrán

26.1.3 The use of the future is practically the same as in English. It refers logically to a future event that has not taken place. Le diré a mi madre que. . . (I’ll tell my mother that. . .) Será necesario ir mañana. (It will be necessary to go tomorrow.) Pasaremos un mes en México. (We’ll spend a month in Mexico.) ¿Cuándo iremos al parque? (When will we go to the park?) Saldremos la semana próxima. (We’ll leave next week.) 26.1.4 It is interesting to note that the future tense is increasingly less used in Spanish – a phenomenon also reflected in both French and Italian. It is frequently replaced by the construction ir + infinitive, which is similar to the English. Voy a tomar el camión (M). (I’m going to/I’ll catch the bus.) Vamos a ver la película mañana. (We’re going to/We’ll see the movie tomorrow.) ¿Vas a ver a tu hermana después? (Are you going to/Will you see your sister tomorrow?) 26.1.5 The future is also replaced by the present tense, and this is happening increasingly, although the phenomenon has existed from the nineteenth century. It is particularly common in short, emphatic declarations, and in brief requests for instructions. Voy a su casa luego. (I’ll go to her house straightaway.) Salimos mañana. (We set off tomorrow.) No pago la cuenta. (I’m not paying the bill.) No emprendo ningún proyecto semejante. (I’ll not undertake any such project.) Si abres la boca te pego un tiro. (If you open your mouth I’ll shoot you.) ¿Dónde pongo la tarjeta? (Where do I put the card?) ¿Me llevo los libros o no? (Shall I take the books or not?) ¿Que digo a su padre? (What do/will I say to her father?) ¿Qué hago? (What shall I do?) 26.1.6 The future can also express probability or conjecture. Ahora serán las cinco. (It’s probably five o’clock now.) ¿Qué hora será? (What could the time be?) En este momento, mi padre estará en casa. (My father’s probably at home now.) Hoy hace mucho frío. El termómetro estará a doce o trece bajo cero. (It’s very cold today. The temperature’s probably about twelve or thirteen below zero.) Ud. recordará que. . . (You’ll doubtless remember that. . .) 26.1.7 In certain exclamations, it has the value of the imperative. Irás al colegio, lo quieras o no. (You’ll go to school, whether you like it or not.) Escribirás la carta ahora. (You’ll write the letter now.) 26.1.8 Embedded in Hispanic culture, as indeed it is in the culture of the English-speaking world, this imperative use of the future is associated with the ten commandments. No tendrás a otro Dios que a mí. . . No te harás esculturas. . . No te postrarás ante ellas, no las servirás. . . No matarás. . . No robarás. (Thou shalt have no other God but me. . . Thou shalt not make any graven images. . . Thou shalt not lie down before them, nor serve them. . . Thou shalt not kill. . . Thou shalt not steal. . .)

Future tense

147

26.1.9 In exclamations, the future can refer to negative features in another person or oneself, and is often accompanied by rising intonation. ¡Será sinvergüenza. . .! (What a rogue/shamefaced person [he is]!) ¡Tendrá cara. . .! (What a cheeky so-and-so!) ¡Seré tonto. . .! ( I am really dumb!) 26.1.10 In official language, the future may be understood as a command or obligation. Los estudiantes se presentarán en el plazo de diez días. (The students must present themselves within ten days.) Los soldados entregarán sus armas en seguida. (The soldiers must hand in their weapons immediately.) 26.1.11 In newspapers inviting job applications, the future is commonly used to refer to qualifications and so on. The English style is similar. Los candidatos tendrán licenciatura y su edad será comprendida entre los 25 y los 40 años. (The candidates will have a degree and their age will range from 25 to 40 years.) 26.1.12 Accompanied by rising intonation, the future can convey a courteous request. ¿Me acompañarás a almorzar? (Will you have lunch with me?) ¿Me regalarás este bolso? (Would you give me this purse/handbag as a present?) 26.1.13 When the conjunction si has the meaning of whether, expressing or implying an alternative, the future is admissible, alongside the present tense. No sé si viene/vendrá esta tarde. (I don’t know if she’s coming this afternoon.) However, all too frequently in Colombian and Mexican Spanish, and only here, a subjunctive occurs, especially with the negative of saber, and this is more logical, since it expresses much doubt. No sé si venga. (I don’t know if she’s coming.) The subjunctive use in C and M does not exclude the use of the present or future tenses in this case. If there were a difference between the future and present tenses, it could be that the future suggests an event much further into the future, although, here again, one could easily use the present all over the Spanish-speaking world. No sé si nos visitan el año que viene. 26.1.14 The future combines with the subjunctive (see Section 26.1.15) with all conjunctions except si, as in Section 26.1.13. Después (de) que termines la comida, arreglaré el coche. (When you finish eating, I’ll fix the car.) Tan pronto como llegues, mandaremos el email. (As soon as you arrive, we’ll send the email.) 26.1.15 Note that when a future is implied – for example, after a conjunction (cuando, tan pronto, como, etc.) – the subjunctive is used. This usage differs quite markedly from the English, which uses the present tense, and from the French and Italian, which have recourse to the future. Compare the Spanish: Cuando yo venda la casa, iré a Italia. (When I sell the house, I’ll go to Italy.) with the French: Quand je vendrai la maison j’irai en Italie. and with the Italian: Quando venderò la casa andrò in Italia. The Spanish subjunctive, implying doubt, seems the most logical of these constructions. (See Section 55.4.6 on the subjunctive.)

27 Future perfect tense / Futuro perfecto Here is a brief humorous piece illustrating the use of the future perfect. It is all a question of conjecture and the world of spies. Habréis leído algo parecido a esto en las novelas de aventuras: —¡Claro que no he traído mi carné de espía! No sé si habré llegado yo o habrá llegado usted antes al coche. Ignoro si nuestro jefe habrá llamado por teléfono antes del mediodía. No discutiremos por tonterías. . . —¿Nos habrán disparado con rifle o con pistola? —¡Abra usted la puerta y salte o nos freirán a balazos! Quien no lo haya leído, no se habrá perdido nada extraordinario.

27.1 Uses of the future perfect 27.1.1 The future perfect suggests a degree of conjecture or possibility. This is a relatively easy concept since it corresponds well to the English equivalent. It refers to an action regarded as completed at the time of speaking. Habrán llegado a la estación. (They will have arrived at the station.) Habré perdido mi cartera en la calle. (I probably lost/will have lost my wallet in the street.) Antes de la semana próxima habrás terminado la faena. (Before next week you will have finished the job.) ¿Qué habrá pasado? (What has/could have happened?) Tenga en cuenta que yo estaré en Oaxaca, adonde habré llegado el día anterior. (Bear in mind that I’ll be in Oaxaca, where I’ll arrive the day before.) 27.1.2 The future perfect is also combined with the subjunctive mood. This is the case with the future as well (see Section 26.1.4). Cuando tú vengas, yo ya habré limpiado la casa. (When you come, I’ll already have cleaned the house.)

148

28 Conditional tense / Condicional simple Below is a passage narrating the thoughts of a milkmaid who muses on the possibility of becoming a little richer and attracting the young country lads. The conditional tense reflects what she would do or would like to do. But she dwells on the risks involved and concludes that selling her milk on the Internet would be the best option. Me dirigía al mercado con mi cántaro de leche a la cabeza cuando comencé a hacerme ilusiones. Si vendiera la leche, con el dinero me compraría un par de cabras, dos crías; y cuando se hicieran grandes, las ordeñaría y obtendría mucha leche, con lo que podría comprar una ternera, que me costaría poco dinero y, al hacerse grande, me proporcionaría leche, con la que haría muchos quesos. Luego, vendrían los mozos a verme y me dirían cosas así: “¿Querrías ir al baile conmigo? ¿Te importaría venir al cine esta noche?” Pensando que me podría caer, que se derramaría toda la leche, perdería todo y luego se reirían de mí; he pensado que sería mejor vender la leche a través de Internet, y que un camión la recogiera de mi casa todos los días.

28.1 Formation of the conditional tense 28.1.1 This tense corresponds to the English would, so it has a future idea, in both form and usage. Its endings are added to the full infinitive, just as with the future tense. The formation of the conditional should not be difficult. Once, the conditional was called the potencial by the RAE (1931), which regarded it as another mood, like the subjunctive or the imperative. But, in more recent times (from 1973), it has been called the condicional. It generally involves two tenses, but not always. Here are the forms of the conditional: -ía, -ías, -ía, -íamos, -íais, -ían compraría vendería viviría S comprarías venderías vivirías compraría vendería viviría compraríamos venderíamos viviríamos Pl compraríais venderíais viviríais comprarían venderían vivirían 28.1.2 Below is the conditional tense of twelve irregular verbs. This follows the pattern of the future of these irregular verbs. Infinitive

Future

Conditional

caber decir haber hacer poder poner

cabré diré habré haré podré pondré

cabría diría habría haría podría pondría

149

150

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

querer saber salir tener valer venir

querré sabré saldré tendré valdré vendré

querría sabría saldría tendría valdría vendría

28.2 Uses of the conditional 28.2.1 The conditional always depends upon a past tense, expressed or understood. Its primary value is to convey a future idea or event from a past time. It bears the same relationship to a past tense as the future does to the present tense. It is helpful to see the future alongside the conditional. Compare the three pairs of sentences below. Te aseguro que lo haré. (I assure you that I’ll do it.) Te aseguraba que lo haría. (I assured you that I would do it.) Voy a preguntarle si llegará pronto. (I’ll ask her if she’ll arrive soon.) Iba a preguntarle si vendría. (I was going to ask her if she would come.)

28.2.2

28.2.3

28.2.4

28.2.5

28.2.6

Te digo que regresaré mañana. (I tell you I’ll return tomorrow.) Te dije que regresaría mañana. (I told you I would return tomorrow.) In this manner, the conditional is extended to apply as a future after any past tense, whether indicative or subjunctive (see Chapter 55 on the subjunctive). Era seguro que tendría razón. (It was certain that he would be right.) Pensé que tal vez la encontraría por aquí. (I thought that perhaps I’d find her here.) Just as the future can express possibility or probability within the perspective of the present tense, so the conditional can express conjecture or hypothesis within the perspective of the past. Serían las tres de la tarde (cuando acabó de llover). (It was probably about three in the afternoon [when it stopped raining].) En aquel entonces, tendría unos siete años. (He was probably about seven at that time.) Sería muy inteligente, pero la suspendieron. (She was doubtless very intelligent but they failed her [in the exam].) The conditional may be used as a form of courtesy. ¿Le importaría darme fuego? (Do you have a light?) ¿Iríamos juntos al cine? (Could we go to the movies together?) The conditional is extended to apply as a future after any past tense, whether indicative or subjunctive, or after an infinitive or gerund applied to a past time. He estado pensando que lo encontraría por aquí. (I’ve been thinking I would meet him around here.) Suponiendo que llegaría a las seis, me dirigí inmediatamente a la estación. (Supposing she would arrive at six, I made my way to the station.) Era natural creer que lo haría después de haberlo prometido. (It was natural to believe that he would do it after having promised.) The second and third examples here could more easily be in the subjunctive: llegara/ ase, hiciera/iese. The conditional may be replaced by the imperfect tense. Si me diera tiempo, tomaba el coche ahora mismo y me iba a la sierra. (If you gave me time, I’d take the car right now and I’d go to the mountains.)

Conditional tense

28.2.7

28.2.8

28.2.9

28.2.10

151

Debíamos acercarnos callandito y agarrarlo por sorpresa. (We ought to approach him quietly and catch him by surprise.) In R3 usage, the conditional tense may be replaced by the -ra form (much les common, and even rare, is the -se form) of the imperfect subjunctive. ¡Nadie lo creyera! (No one would believe it!) El ideal fuera que todo el mundo hablara de una solución inmediata. (The ideal would be for everyone to speak of an immediate solution.) Tenía un bigote perfectamente rematado que honrara a cualquier peluquero. (He had a perfectly shaped moustache which would do credit to any barber.) However, in certain verbs, this usage is very common, particularly querer, deber, poder and the auxiliary haber. In fact, the imperfect subjunctive of querer nearly always replaces the conditional. Quisiera una barra de chocolate. (I’d like a bar of chocolate.) ¿Quisieras ir al cine? (Would you like to go to the movies?) Quisiera volver a casa ahorita. (I’d like to go home now.) The other three verbs are frequently used in this way. Me preguntó dónde pudiera comprar una camisa. (She asked me where she could buy a shirt.) Debieras hacer más ejercicio. (You ought to do more exercise.) In R3 style, in what is called the potencial de narración, and this would apply therefore to literature, it is quite frequent to come across the conditional instead of the simple preterit. Such a narrative of events could contain the following conditionals. Realizó estudios superiores de Derecho en la Universidad de. . . Luego, se doctoraría en ambas disciplinas. En 1946, ganaría, también por oposición, la cátedra de Historia del Arte. (She pursued advanced studies in law at the University of. . . Then she received her doctorate in both disciplines. In 1946, also in a competitive examination, she was awarded the Chair of History of Art.) Such a nicety of style is acceptable in moderation, but an excessive use would cloy, and would therefore attract some form of censure. The conditional cannot be used if the meaning of the leading verb in the main clause requires a subjunctive (see Chapter 55 on the subjunctive). Temíamos todos que se precipitase [not precipitaría] al abismo. (We all feared he would fall into the abyss.) Yo quería que viniera [not vendría] más tarde. (I wanted her to come later.)

29 Conditional perfect tense / Condicional perfecto (antepospretérito [M]) The passage below narrates an incident in the life of a person who, having forgotten his keys and failing to realize that the security guard was not at his post, found it much easier to give a tip to a thief and invite him to break into another building. The passage contains a range of verbs in the conditional perfect tense, with some alternatives (beginning with de, or completely replaced by the imperfect subjunctive [creyera]). Nunca lo habría imaginado, pero sucedió. Debería haber traído las llaves de mi casa, y lo habría hecho, de haber sabido que nuestro guardia de seguridad no estaría en su puesto. Seguro que el guardia no habría faltado al trabajo de no tener un problema grave. La cuestión era que yo estaba en la calle a las tres de la madrugada, y habría pasado el resto de la noche al sereno (out in the open), a no ser por un caco (thief) que estaba intentando abrir nuestro portal con una llave maestra (master key). De haber avisado a la policía me habría pasado toda la noche en la comisaría declarando, y el ladrón, tras unas horas en el calabozo (dungeon), habría salido a la calle antes que yo; tras esta consideración, opté por dejarle abrir la puerta, darle una propina y rogarle que robara en otro portal. Entiendo que usted nunca lo creyera de mí. Debería haberlo denunciado, pero estaba muy cansado.

29.1 Uses of the conditional perfect 29.1.1 This tense conveys an idea or an event related to the future in the past. It corresponds to the English would have done/spoken/walked, and so on = habría hecho/hablado/caminado [M]/andado). It has an important and permanent complication in that it often involves the use of the subjunctive (see Chapter 55). As in the example above, the conditional perfect is formed by the conditional of the verb haber, followed by the past participle of the main verb. In other words, its formation is the auxiliary or helping verb haber + past participle. habría/habrías/habría/habríamos/habríais/habrían comprado (I would have bought, etc.) habría/habrías/habría/habríamos/habríais/habrían vendido (I would have sold, etc.) habría/habrías/habría/habríamos/habríais/habrían vivido (I would have lived, etc.) 29.1.2 Besides this temporal function, the conditional perfect is also used to suggest supposition and hypothesis, with the idea of must have or probably. Ya habría llegado cuando salimos. (She must have arrived when we left.) Habría escrito la carta antes. (He must have written the letter before.) Según la policía cuatro pandilleros (M) habrían cometido el delito. (According to the police, four delinquents must have committed the offense.) 29.1.3 The conditional perfect corresponds to the preterit use of deber de, as in the following examples. Debió de acabar el trabajo ayer. (She must have finished the work yesterday.) Debí de perder el conocimiento. (I must have lost consciousness.) Debió de hacer frío. (It must have been cold.) 152

Conditional perfect tense

29.1.4

29.1.5

29.1.6

29.1.7

153

There is some uncertainty among many Spanish speakers whether deber should be followed by de in this construction. However, the consensus among grammarians is that the construction should be deber de. The imperfect, conditional or preterit tenses of deber and poder with a perfect infinitive correspond to the English ought to have and could have respectively, and there is little difference in emphasis. Debíamos haber escrito la carta./Deberíamos haber escrito la carta./Debimos haber escrito la carta. (We ought to have written the letter.) Podían haber ido ahí a pie./ Podrían haber ido ahí a pie./Pudieron haber ido ahí a pie. (They could have walked there.) The conditional perfect may also be replaced by an infinitive preceded by the preposition de, if the sentence is affirmative, and by de no/a no if it is negative. The construction is common enough, since it avoids the heavy conditional perfect. It usually involves the imperfect subjunctive in the second clause. De haberme avisado a tiempo, yo hubiera/habría venido antes. (If she had let me know in time, I would have come earlier.) Nunca habría sido escritor de no ser por aquel accidente. (I would never have been a writer had it not been for that accident.) De no ser posible regresar, yo hubiera buscado un empleo. (If it had not been possible to come/go back, I would have looked for a job.) Habría comprado una casa a no tener aquella enfermedad. (He would have bought a house had it not been for that illness.) Particularly in R1 speech, the imperfect tense may replace the conditional in the past. Si me hubiera dicho cosa tal, le daba una paliza. (If he had said that to me, I would have given him a good hiding.) Si me tocara la lotería, me compraba un coche. (If I won the lottery, I’d buy a car.) Yo que tú, lo dejaba plantado. (If I’d been you, I would have stood him up [not gone to the rendez-vous].) The conditional in the past is, on occasions, replaced by the -ra form of the imperfect subjunctive, as illustrated by the following: Nunca lo creyera. (I would never have believed it.)

30 Progressive tense or gerund / Progresivo o gerundio Below is a humorous passage illustrating the use of the gerund. It is quite clear that the sergeant is always right, since he can recognize the gerund! —¡Circulando, que es gerundio! —gritó el sargento, levantándose de un salto, luego mirando al sol con los ojos entornados (half-closed eyes/squinting), calculando la longitud de la sombra de los árboles. Impostando (projecting) la voz, dijo— ¡Son las dos! ¡Andando! (walking pace) Alguien a su lado, mirando al reloj, se atreve a decir: —Mi sargento, las manecillas de mi reloj están marcando las dos y media. —¿Y quién tiene razón, el reloj o tu sargento? —¡Usted siempre, mi sargento! —¡Pues sujetándose (tightening up) las botas, y bajando rápido hacia el río! ¡Manteniéndonos unidos no nos perderemos! A lo lejos, entre la niebla, se veían verdeando (turning green) los pinos de Balsaín.

30.1 Formation of the gerund The place of the present participle, as part of the verb, has been taken by a form adopted almost unchanged from the Latin and called the gerund. In regular -ar verbs, this is formed by adding -ando to the stem; and in regular -er and -ir verbs, by the addition of -iendo. comprar > comprando (to buy > buying) vender > vendiendo (to sell > selling) vivir > viviendo (to live > living) This is also the case in most of the irregular verbs. dar > dando, estar > estando, haber > habiendo, hacer > haciendo, querer > queriendo, salir > saliendo, ser > siendo, tener > teniendo, ver > viendo Some irregular verbs are slightly different. caer > cayendo, construir > construyendo, dormir > durmiendo, ir > yendo, oír > oyendo, traer > trayendo The gerund is invariable in form, and has the same function as the verb from which it is derived; it is always subordinate to some other verb, and relates to either past, present or future, according to the connection in which it employed. Its leading use is in parenthetic or explanatory clauses.

30.2 Uses of the gerund 30.2.1 The gerund can have several values which sometimes fuse with each other: manner, intention, time (simultaneity), cause, condition and concession. These values are expressed as follows: 154

Progressive tense or gerund

155

• Manner (main value of the gerund): Me lo preguntó riendo. (He asked me, laughing.) El acróbata, perdiendo el equilibrio, se estrelló al suelo. (Losing his balance, the acrobat crashed to the ground.) Empujando el carro Juan y Pedro, logró arrancar. (By pushing the car, Juan and Pedro got the car going.) • Intention: Se distribuyó entre el personal una octavilla incitándolo a la huelga. (A leaflet was distributed among the workers, calling for a strike.) Hágame una nota resumiendo las ventajas de su proyecto. (Do me a note summing up the advantages of the project.) La perra se acercó, no sé si ofreciéndome o buscando compañía. (The dog [bitch] approached me, either offering or looking for company.) • Time: Entrando, dio los buenos días a todos. (As he went in he greeted everyone.) Trabajando en su jardín, vio una culebra. (While working in his garden he saw a snake.) This construction is very similar to al + infinitive (see Section 12.1.12): Al entrar, dio. . ./ Al trabajar en su jardín. . . • Cause: El acróbata, perdiendo el equilibrio, se estrelló al suelo. (The acrobat, losing his balance, crashed to the ground.) La mujer, dándose cuenta de que no lograría nada, renunció. (Realizing she would not succeed, the woman gave up.) A primera vista, no estando acostumbrado, es difícil distinguir un “zorro” de una “comadreja”. (At first, if you’ re not used to it, it’s difficult to distinguish a “fox” from a“weasel”.) • Condition: Dando a uno, descontentaba a otro. (Giving to the one upset the other.) No haciéndole caso, acabará por aburrirse y marcharse. (If we don’t pay any attention to her, she’ll get bored and go away.) • Concession: Teniendo sólo veinticinco años, estaba completamente calvo. (Although he was only twenty-five, he was completely bald.) Acabó por aceptar, protestando. (He ended up accepting, but protesting.) Here, the gerund may be strengthened by the additon of aun: Aun protestando, acabó por aceptar. (Even protesting, he still ended up accepting.) 30.2.2 The distinctive feature of the gerund is that it can be combined with different tenses, as in the following examples. ¿Qué está haciendo Papá? Está leyendo el periódico. (What’s Pa/Dad doing? He’s reading the newspaper.) Está tocando el violín. (She’s playing the violin.) ¿De qué están/estáis hablando? (What are you talking about?) ¿Qué has estado haciendo hoy? (What have you been doing today?) Han estado jugando toda la tarde. (They’ve been playing all afternoon.) He estado cocinando esta mañana. (I’ve been cooking this morning.) Estaba yo escribiendo cuando entró. (I was writing when she came in.) Mañana a estas horas estaremos viajando. (At this time tomorrow we’ll be traveling.) 30.2.3 The preterit of estar (estuve, etc.) is also used in this way. Estuve cocinando toda la mañana. (I was cooking all morning.)

156

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Estuvieron platicando (M) hasta las dos de la madrugada. (They were talking until two in the morning.) Note the difference in the two pairs of sentences below between the gerund when preceded by the preterit and by the imperfect. In the first case, the event is terminated, while continuity is suggested in the second. María estuvo trabajando allí dos años. (Mary was working there for two years.) Estaba trabajando allí cuando la conocí. (She was working there when I met her.)

30.2.4

30.2.5

30.2.6

30.2.7

30.2.8

Estuvimos lavando la ropa todo el día. (We were washing clothes all day.) Estábamos lavando la ropa cuando llegó. (We were washing clothes when she arrived.) There is also a perfect of the gerund, made up of the past participle and the gerund of the auxiliary verb haber. habiendo comprado (having bought) habiendo leído (having read) habiendo vivido (having lived) habiendo visto (having seen) Habiendo comprado la fruta, regresé a casa. (Having bought the fruit, I returned home.) Habiendo vivido en Phoenix diez años, decidimos. . . (Having lived in Phoenix for ten years, we decided. . .) Habiendo ido al mercadillo cuatro veces, estaba cansado. (Having been to the market four times, I was tired.) The gerund combines with the preterit of the verb ser, suggesting starting to or continuing to. Cada vez fue necesitando más dinero. (He started to need more and more money.) Tras mi divorcio, fui rehaciendo mi vida. (After my divorce, I got on with rebuilding my life.) The gerund of ser combines with the verb estar and the past participle to create a passive form. Las obras están siendo ejecutadas por el municipio. (The works are being carried out by the city/town council.) Las causas del accidente están siendo investigadas. (The causes of the accident are being investigated.) El terreno está siendo despejado para hacer un estadio. (The land is being cleared to erect a stadium.) When the gerund governs one or more personal pronouns (see Section 56.6.5), the pronoun(s) is/are added enclitically to it to form one word. This entails the placing of a written accent over the correct vowel to keep the stress in the same place. encontrándola (meeting her) dándomelo (giving it to me) encontrándose fuera sin llave (being outside without a key) volviéndome para ver mejor (turning round to see better) pidiéndome libros que. . . (asking me for books that. . .) However, if the gerund is governed by estar, ir, andar or venir, the pronouns may either precede the verb or be joined to the gerund. Compare the following pairs of sentences. Le estoy escribiendo ahorita (M). Estoy escribiéndole ahorita. (I’m writing to him/her now.) Me estaba rasurando (M) cuando. . . Estaba rasurándome cuando. . . (I was shaving when. . .) Ella se va americanizando. Ella va americanizándose. (She’s becoming Americanized.)

Progressive tense or gerund

30.2.9 30.2.10

30.2.11

30.2.12

30.2.13

30.2.14

30.2.15

157

Note the addition of the written accent on the present participle when a pronoun is placed at the end, in order to indicate the preservation of the appropriate stress. With haber, however, the pronoun is used enclitically, and is always attached to haber. Habiéndome dado cuenta de que. . . (Having realized that. . .) In clauses where it could be difficult to ascertain which of several pronouns is the subject of the gerund, the appropriate personal pronoun is inserted immediately after the gerund. Compare the two following sentences. Me la encontré regresando yo del teatro. (I met her coming back [when I came back] from the theater.) Me la encontré regresando del teatro. (I met her coming back [when she came back] from the theater.) Further examples follow below. Tenía miedo de que mi hermano, no estando yo presente, cometiera un disparate. (I was frightened that my brother, if I were not present, would do something stupid.) Veo a los niños jugando en el jardín. (I see the children playing in the yard/garden.) Hallé (M) a mi hermana escribiendo una carta. (I found my sister writing a letter.) The gerund also serves to describe the action of a verb it accompanies. The principal verbs here are: acabar, andar, comenzar, continuar, empezar, ir, pasar, seguir, terminar, venir, as shown in the following examples. No se atrevió a salir porque la policía lo andaba buscando. (He didn’t dare go out because the police were looking for him.) Los niños andaban jugando por las calles. (The children went around playing in the streets.) Empezamos/comenzamos escribiendo dos cartas y hemos acabado/terminado escribiendo diez. (We began by writing two letters and ended up writing ten.) Empezó siendo sargento y acabó/ terminó siendo capitán. (He started out as a sergeant and ended up as captain.) Los chicos venían/vinieron corriendo. (The children came running up.) El camino iba bajando al mar. (The path went (on) down to the sea.) Continuó/Siguió hablando. (He went on talking.) Pasé la noche trabajando. (I spent the night working.) In many cases, it is the infinitive that is governed by a preposition, and not the gerund, as in English. No soy capaz de distinguir entre estos colores. (I am not capable of distinguishing between these colors.) No tardará en venir. (She’ll not be long in coming.) La dificultad consiste en encontrarlo en casa. (The difficulty consists in finding him at home.) Después de comer, salimos a la terraza. (After eating, we went out onto the terrace.) Antes de ir a la estación. . . (Before going to the station. . .) After verbs of seeing and hearing, the infinitive is more usual than the gerund. La vimos bailar. (We saw her dance/dancing.) Los vi venir. (I saw them come/coming.) La oímos tocar el piano. (We heard her play[ing] the piano.) The gerund may be preceded by an adverb, often with hablar, as with to speak in English. políticamente hablando (politically speaking) estrictamente hablando (strictly speaking) militarmente hablando (militarily speaking) científicamente hablando (scientifically speaking) Certain gerunds which belong to verbs of the -ar conjugation may assume a diminutive ending, -ito, to take on an affectionate tone, particularly with children, or even

158

30.2.16

30.2.17 30.2.18

30.2.19

30.2.20

A Reference Grammar of Spanish a superlative value. The most common ones, and this excludes the Americas, are: andandito,callandito, tirandito and volandito. Vamos andandito a la plaza. (Let’s wander off to the square.) Se acercó callandito. (She approached nice and quiet.) “¿Cómo estáis?” “Vamos tirandito.” (“How are you doing?” “Getting by/managing.”) Vamos volandito. (Let’s go there nice and quick.) Interestingly enough, the diminutive gerund callandito is very close to the diminutive of the past participle calladito, the first stressing movement and the second stressing a state or condition. Some -er verbs are also used in this way (e.g. corriendito). Vete corriendito a la tienda de golosinas. (Run along to the candy/sweet shop.) The gerund may be preceded by the preposition en, although this usage is disappearing and is largely confined to writing and would be classed as R3. It suggests as soon as. En diciendo esto, se ruborizó. (As soon as she said this, she blushed.) En liquidando todo esto, nos vamos a vivir a Buenos Aires. (Once we clear all this, we’re going to live in Buenos Aires.) In R1 usage, en + gerund can express a condition. Iré sola, en no queriendo tú acompañarme. (I’ll go alone if you don’t want to accompany me.) Again in R1 usage, the preposition de used before a gerund can translate the idea of effort. ¡Así va el que la lleva de sudando! (Carrying that certainly makes you sweat!) The subject of the gerund can be the direct object of the main verb. Vi a una chica robando una cartera. (I saw a girl stealing a billfold/wallet.) Oímos a un grupo de jóvenes cantando una copla. (We heard a group of young people singing a focksong/ballad.) Me acordaba de mi madre cocinando en el patio. (I would remember my mother cooking in the yard.) Velázquez pintó a una mujer guisando huevos. (Velázquez painted a woman cooking eggs.) Murillo pintó a un niño comiendo un racimo de uvas. (Murillo painted a child eating a bunch of grapes.) In order for this construction to be possible, the gerund must express an action, a transformation or a change in the process of taking place, and not a quality or state. This is why objects of verbs of perception are accompanied by the gerund. Such verbs are: acordarse de, contemplar, distinguir, hallar, mirar, notar, observar, oír, recordar, sentir and ver. This group includes verbs of representation: describir, dibujar, grabar, pintar, representar and retratar. What is incorrect, if not impossible in Spanish, is linking to a direct object a gerund which, instead of expressing an action or process, expresses a state or a quality. The sentence: Me mandó una carta que contenía necedades should not have the alternative: una carta conteniendo necedades, although this may appear in R1 usage. (See Section 30.2.21 on R1 and R2 usage.) It is possible to use an independent clause where the verb is in the gerund form with its own subject, and here the subject occurs after the gerund. No queriendo su padre prestarle su coche, robó uno. (Since her father would not lend her his car, she stole one.) Subiendo los precios, los ancianos vivían en la miseria. (With the prices going up, old people were living in poverty.) The true present participle, ending in -ante, -ente or –iente, derived from the Latin participle -an(t)s, -antis, -en(t)s, -entis, is no longer in use in Spanish as part of the verb. Some of these participles are now employed as adjectives (often called verbal adjectives), others only as nouns, and one or two as prepositions and adverbs.

Progressive tense or gerund

159

Here is a list of some of the adjectives, with their corresponding verbs and translations. Verb

Adjective

Translation

andar arder balbuciar bastar brillar causar circular colgar complacer consistir convenir crujir diferir distar durar equivaler fascinar fulgurar hervir influir obedecer palpitar participar penetrar permanecer perseverar sonreír sorprender valer

andante ardiente balbuciente bastante (adverb) brillante causante circulante colgante complaciente consistente conveniente crujiente diferente distante durante (preposition) equivalente fascinante fulgurante hirviente influyente obedeciente palpitante participante penetrante permanente perseverante sonriente sorprendente valiente

andante ardent, burning stammering enough brilliant causing, causative circulating hanging indulgent, wanting to please consisting suitable, convenient crunchy different distant during equivalent fascinating flashing (of light) boiling influential obedient palpitating participating penetrating permanent persevering smiling surprising courageous

There are two gerunds that operate like adjectives while retaining their form of present participle. bosque ardiendo (with ardiente) (burning forest), agua hirviendo (with hirviente) (boiling water) Here is a list of some of what have become verbal nouns. Verb

Verbal noun

Translation

asistir

asistente

escribir estudiar habitar oír presidir residir romper servir

escribiente estudiante habitante oyente presidente residente rompiente sirviente

helper, assistant, someone present amanuensis student inhabitant listener president resident breaker (on shore) servant

160

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

30.2.21 There is considerable discussion among grammarians over the use of the gerund, notably in its relation to the main verb. Below is a list of examples where the purist would class certain usages as R1 and others as R2. (See Section 30.2.18 above for an explanation of this classification.) R1

R2

Llegó el Presidente, iniciándose el acto de inmediato. una caja conteniendo muchas cartas Vi un árbol floreciendo en el campo. Estando en la base llegó la orden de partir.

Llegó el Presidente, y se inició el acto de inmediato. una caja que contenía muchas cartas Vi un árbol que florecía en el campo. Cuando estábamos en la base, llegó la orden de partir. Se cayó del trapecio y se rompió una pierna. Se abrogó la ley y quedaron en libertad los presos. Se firmó el acuerdo y todos quedaron contentos.

Se cayó del trapecio, rompiéndose una pierna.* Se abrogó (repealed) la ley, quedando en libertad los presos. Se firmó el acuerdo, quedando todos contentos.

* One could argue, quite legitimately, that the subject of rompiéndose is the same as that of se cayó, and that the sentence could be classed as R2. If the subject of rompiéndose were pierna, the usage would be R1.

31 Imperative mood / Modo imperativo Below are two small pieces, the first Mexican, the second Iberian, illustrating the second person singular use of the imperative, and the second person plural respectively. The first dialogue is between two brothers, the younger of whom requires encouragement to hand over a ball. The second passage centers on a military man, Don Federico García, who has illusions of grandeur, imagining himself to be Napoleon. Notice in the second passage, the doctor uses a very formal second person plural -ad. Hermano mayor (HM): Hermano pequeño (HP): HM: HP:

Oye, ¡Dame la pelota! ¡No me hables así! ¡Hazme caso y dámela! No te la doy si me sigues hablando así, pídemela por favor, y chance te la dé (perhaps I’ll give it to you). HM: ¡Que me la des, te digo! HP: ¡Ya te dije que no me hables así! No quiero y no te la daré. HM: ¡No esperes que te ayude con tu tarea! HP: ¡No me asustes! HM: ¡Que me dejes jugar con la pelota! HP: ¡Déjame en paz! ¡Entiende que no te la voy a dar! HM: Y tú, ¡obedece a tu hermano mayor! HP: ¡Deja de fregar (annoy )! ¡Ve a molestar a alguien mas! HM: ¡No seas tan respondón (mouthy/cheeky)! ¡Cuida tu lengua o se te va a caer! Y regresaron abrazados a casa, amigos como siempre. —¡Soldados, formad filas! ¡Vengan los generales (Have the generals come) a mi tienda! ¡Dad a cada hombre cien cartuchos! ¡Atención, Murat, avanza con tus dragones por la derecha! ¡Marchad a son de los tambores! ¡Tocad a degüello! (Play the trumpets as loud as you can!) —Ponedle la camisa de fuerza e inyectadle un tranquilizante; y si no se calma sometedle a una ducha de agua fría a presión. Este Napoleón cada vez está peor; cuando terminéis encerradlo en su cuarto. —Doctor, no llame usted Napoleón a don Federico García. —Calla. El Emperador no saldrá de su cuarto hasta que no me ascienda a General Jefe del Cuerpo de Sanidad Militar. Así que, por ahora, cerrad bien la puerta y marchad a casa.

31.1 Forms of the imperative 31.1.1 The imperative in Spanish conveys the idea of direct orders or commands. ¡Habla! (Speak!) ¡Come! (Eat!) ¡Abre! (Open!) are the imperative forms of the verbs hablar, comer and abrir. This form corresponds to the second person singular form of the verb (tú). There also exists a second person plural. The imperative forms of the three model verbs are as follows: 161

162

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Verb

Singular

Plural

Translation

comprar vender abrir

¡Compra! ¡Vende! ¡Abre!

¡Comprad! ¡Vended! ¡Abrid!

(Buy!) (Sell!) (Open!)

¡Compra pan! (Buy bread!) ¡Vende la casa! (Sell the house!) ¡Abre la puerta! (Open the door!) ¡Corred! (Run!) ¡Leed! (Read!) The imperative, less used than in the past because of its possible abruptness, is nevertheless used to express firmness, impatience, irritation or anger. 31.1.2 Four essential remarks must be made here. 31.1.2.1 The second person plural imperative form corresponding to vosotros is used less and less, and it could be argued that it is rapidly disappearing. It sounds odd, awkward and is associated with very formal language. One has the suspicion that many young Spanish-speakers are no longer aware of the way it is used. One only hears it occasionally. Furthermore, in Spanish America, it does not exist. Mexicans regard it as archaic, and an object of fun or even derision. They replace it completely by the Uds. form. (See below, and Section 56.8.14, on personal pronouns.) 31.1.2.2 Negative forms of the imperative, both singular and plural, are really taken from the subjunctive. These negative or subjunctive forms will be treated below. 31.1.2.3 The imperative forms may seem too sharp or aggressive to many Spanish-speakers, with the result that other forms of order or request are often resorted to (see below). 31.1.2.4 The polite Ud. and Uds. forms are also derived from the subjunctive. (See Chapter 55.) Hence: Verb

Singular

Plural

Translation

comprar vender abrir

¡Compre pan! ¡Venda la casa! ¡Abra la puerta!

¡Compren pan! ¡Vendan la casa! ¡Abran la puerta!

Buy bread! Sell the house! Open the door!

The question of whether you would use the Ud. form of the imperative could lead to much debate. You would need to know a person quite well to issue orders, and knowing a person well would doubtless exclude the use of the Ud. form. You should merely be able to recognize it. The plural form Uds., as seen below, replaces the vosotros form in Argentina, Colombia and Mexico, indeed in all Spanish-American countries, as well as in much of Southern Spain and the Canary Islands. 31.1.3 A number of irregular verbs have only an abbreviated form for the imperative corresponding to tú. Their second person plural form is regular, and, of course, becoming archaic. Verb

Singular

Plural

Tranlation

decir estar* hacer ir

¡Di! ¡Está! ¡Haz! ¡Ve!

¡Decid! ¡Estad! ¡Haced! ¡Id!

Say! Be! Do/make! Go!

Imperative mood

leer poner salir: ser tener venir ver

163

¡Lee! ¡Pon! ¡Sal! ¡Sé! ¡Ten! ¡Ven! ¡Ve!

¡Leed! ¡Poned! ¡Salid! ¡Sed! ¡Tened! ¡Venid! ¡Ved!

Read! Put! Go out! Be! Have! Come! See!

*The second person singular is only used with the reflexive: Estate tranquilo (with concomitant removal of the written accent). This also applies to all Spanish-American countries.

31.1.4 The Argentinian, Colombian and Southern Mexican voseo form for the imperative of the verbs in Section 31.1.3, above, is as follows: decir > decí, estar > está (same as elsewhere), hacer > hacé, ir (does not have a voseo form, and andá is used in its place, probably some strange residue from the Italian andare [to go], although this is far from the Italian second person imperative of andare) leer > leé, poner > poné, salir > salí, ser > sé (same as elsewhere), tener > tené, venir > vení, ver > ve (same as elsewhere) As pointed out in Section 15.1.2 on the present tense, the imperative form of the three standard types of verb in Argentina, Colombia and parts of Southern Mexico is as follows: ¡Comprá! (Buy!), ¡Bebé! (Drink!), ¡Viví! (Live!) Si tenés dudas, volvé a escribirme. (If you have any doubts, write me again.) Traé tu foto y llevátela. (Bring your photo [for development] and take it away with you.) Despertate, corré, que son casi las 9. (Wake up, hurry, for it’s nearly 9 o’clock.) ¡Sentate y parate/levantate! (Sit down and stand up!) Dejame ver. (Let me see.) Contale a Pat. (Tell Pat.) Viví en Nordelta (Buenos Aires) y pagalo en diez años. (Live in Nordelta and pay over ten years.) Note that the tonic accent shifts to the last syllable, and when a pronoun is added enclitically, a written accent is not applied to the penultimate syllable. The third person imperative in Argentina is the same as in the rest of the Spanishspeaking world, as may be seen by the stop sign appearing at crossroads: Pare (Stop). (For more information on the use of pronouns with the voseo form, see Section 56.3.) 31.1.5 The imperative plural forms of vosotros need merely to be recognized, for they are seldom used these days, except in lofty speech. But how, then, does a person addressing a group of children, students or pupils, with whom (s)he would normally use the vosotros form, give an order? Probably not, for example, ¡Salid! or ¡Hablad!, although this is theoretically possible and could be used, and may even be used on occasions. The teacher would resort to a subterfuge like ¡Salimos! or ¡Salgamos! Traditionalists, such as priests, could invite the congregation to pray with: Rezad, hermanos, para los más necesitados. (Pray, brothers, for the most needy.) Or they might exhort with: Decía el capellán: arrepentíos de vuestros pecados, proteged a los desvalidos, velad por la grey del Señor, y rezad un rosario cada atardecer. (The chaplain would say: repent of your sins, protect the weak, watch over the Lord’s flock, and say the rosary every evening.) 31.1.6 The Ud. and Uds. forms of the irregular verbs above (Section 31.1.3) are as follows: ¡Diga!/¡Digan!, ¡Esté!/¡Estén!/, ¡Haga!/¡Hagan!, ¡Vaya!/¡Vayan!, ¡Lea!/ ¡Lean!, ¡Ponga!/¡Pongan!, ¡Salga!/¡Salgan!, ¡Sea!/ ¡Sean!, ¡Tenga!/¡Tengan!, ¡Venga!/¡Vengan!, ¡Vea!/¡Vean!

164

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

31.2 How to soften the possible aggressive nature of the imperative As mentioned earlier, the possible aggressive character of the imperative is often mitigated by a gentler form of speech. The infinitive is sometimes used in speech and, frequently, in commercial labeling. When used in speech, purists seem to condemn it as though it were a lazy way of talking. Llamarme esta tarde (instead of Llámame). (Call me this afternoon.) Escribirme cuando puedas (instead of Escríbeme). (Write me when you can.) Mandarnos la factura ahora (instead of Mándenos). (Send us the bill now.) No decírselo (instead of No se lo digas). (Don’t tell her/him.) Mantenerse fuera del alcance de los niños. (Keep out of the reach of children [on a medicine bottle].) No fumar (instead of No fumen [in a lift, for instance]). (Don’t smoke.) Empujar (instead of Empuje[n] [on a door]). (Push.) Tirar (instead of tire[n] [on a door]). (Pull.) Other forms of avoiding the imperative in common use are as follows. (Tú) Me lo envías hoy. (Send it to me today [i.e. the indicative with a slight rising intonation].) (Ud.) Me pone otra copa. (Give me another wine glass [e.g. to a waiter and with rising intonation].)

31.3 Uses of the imperative 31.3.1 Spanish American uses the Uds. form of the imperative (also much of Southern Spain and the Canary islands). As noted above, the plural form vosotros does not exist in A, C or M, or indeed in any other Spanish-American country, where it is replaced by Uds. Thus, both to people unknown or to friends, Mexicans, for example, would say: Escriban una carta. (Write a letter.) Manejen el carro. (Drive the car.) Abran la ventana. (Open the window.) Hablen español. (Speak Spanish.) Such usage sounds disconcerting to a Spaniard when it is regularly observed by a SpanishAmerican speaker towards a Spaniard whom the former knows well. For a Spaniard, Uds. implies persons you do not know, or hold in great respect or esteem. It is a feature that many non-Spanish-American-speakers have some difficulty in accommodating, at least from the emotional point of view. 31.3.2 The imperative is also used, as in English, in the first person plural. ¡Hablemos francés! (Let us speak French!) ¡Corramos hasta la barrera! (Let’s run to the gate!) ¡Vivamos hasta los cien años! (Let’s live till we are a hundred!) The subjunctive form is used here. 31.3.3 The negative form of the imperative, the negative subjunctive, requires particular attention. Here are the forms: No hables. (Do not speak.) No hable (Ud.). (Do not speak.) No hablemos. (Let us not speak.) No habléis. (not in A, C, M) (Do not speak.) No hablen. (Do not speak.) Similarly for -er and -ir verbs:

Imperative mood

31.3.4

31.3.5

31.3.6

31.3.7

165

Comer: No comas/coma/comamos/comáis/coman. (Don’t eat, etc.) Abrir: No abras/abra/abramos/abráis/abran. (Don’t open, etc.) In certain cases, no is replaced by another negative: ni, nada, nunca, jamás, tampoco. En martes, ni te cases ni te embarques, dice el refrán, pero la gente dice también: en martes ni tu hijo cases ni tu cerdo mates. (On Tuesdays, don’t marry or go anywhere, as the saying goes, but people also say: on Tuesdays, don’t marry your son or kill your pig.) Ábreme. Nada temas, soy tu amigo. (Open up. You have nothing to fear, I am your friend.) Nunca salgas sola. (Never go out alone.) The importance of knowledge of the subjunctive forms is highlighted here. As far as this chapter is concerned, it is useful to learn the negative forms of the subjunctive of some irregular verbs. decir: No digas/diga/digamos/digáis/digan. (Don’t say, etc.) hacer: No hagas/haga/hagamos/hagáis/hagan. (Don’t do, etc.) ir: No vayas/vaya/ vayamos1/vayáis/vayan. (Don’t go, etc.) poner: No pongas/ponga/pongamos/ pongáis/pongan. (Don’t put, etc.) salir: No salgas/salga/salgamos/salgáis/salgan. (Do not go out, etc.) tener: No tengas/tenga/tengamos/tengáis/tengan. (Do not have, etc.) venir: No vengas/venga/vengamos/vengáis/vengan. (Do not come, etc.) Pronouns are added enclitically to the imperative when the imperative is affirmative. (See Section 56.6 on Pronouns for word order.) Págame mañana. (Pay me tomorrow.) Ábrela en seguida. (Open it straightaway.) Dímelo. (Tell me [it].) Déjame trabajar. (Let me work.) Cuídate. (Take care [of yourself].) Dámelas. (Give them to me.) Escríbela. (Write it.) Escríbanles. (Write [to] them.) The same applies to the reflexive form in the third person. Siéntense y cállense. (Sit down and keep quiet.) Rómpase en caso de incendio. (Break [glass] in the event of a fire. [i.e. Let the glass be broken].) When the -nos of the first person plural is added, the -s is dropped. Sentémonos. (Let’s sit down.) Vámonos. (Let’s go.) In these two examples, note the written accent over the appropriate vowel to keep the correct stress in sound. Similarly, when the pronoun -os is added to a vosotros imperative, the -d is lost. ¡Sentaos y callaos! (Sit down and keep quiet!) ¡Lavaos! (Wash yourselves!) Exceptionally, this is not the case with irse > idos (go away). Furthermore, in much of Southern Spain, the Canary Islands and Spanish-American countries, the question does not arise: ¡Siéntense y cállense! ¡Lávense! However, in Spain, the infinitive is starting to creep in: ¡Sentaros y callaros! Lavaros! – a usage condemned by purists. The negative infinitive, which has the value of the negative imperative, is commonly used on notices and in commercials/adverts. No pisar el césped. (Do not walk on the grass.) 1

Vayamos is much less used than the straightforward indicative vamos, as Mexicans, or copycat cowboys, would say in Western films: ¡Vamos, muchachos!

166

31.3.8

31.3.9

31.3.10

31.3.11

31.3.12

31.3.13

A Reference Grammar of Spanish No fumar en el ascensor. (Do not smoke in the elevator/lift.) No derrochar energía. (Do not waste energy.) No aparcar. (Do not park.) No tocar, peligro de muerte. (Do not touch, danger of death.) No fijar carteles. (Stick no bills.) When pronouns are used with the subjunctive in its negative form, they precede the verb. ¡No lo estropees! (Don’t damage it!) ¡No me digas! (You don’t say!) ¡No lo hagáis! (Don’t do it!) ¡No la vendas! (Don’t sell it!) ¡No la abras! (Don’t open it!) ¡No me hables! (Don’t speak to me!) ¡No la escriban! (Don’t write it!) ¡No se lo dé! (Don’t give it to him!) ¡No lo pongas allí! (Don’t put it there!) Frequently, the straightforward subjunctive occurs, as in the case where qué precedes the verb. ¡Qué te diviertas! (Have a good time!) ¡Qué lo/la (A/M) pases bien! (Enjoy yourselves!) ¡Qué se alivie! (May you get better!) ¡Qué tengas suerte! (Good luck!) In speech it is common to hear an infinitive preceded by a. ¡A pasarla (A, M) bien! (Have a good time!) ¡A pasarlo bien! (Have a good time!) ¡A dormir bien! (Sleep well!) ¡A comer! (Food’s ready! It’s on the table!) ¡A comer bien! (Have a good meal!) ¡A disfrutar! (Enjoy yourselves!) ¡A formar! ¡Firmes! Media vuelta a la derecha! ¡De frente, marchen! (Fall in! Attention! Right turn! Ahead, quick march!) “Ud. a callar, señora.” “¿A callar yo? ¿Qué modales son ésos?” (“You keep quiet, madam.” “Me, keep quiet? What manners are these?”) The imperative has a kind of future form with tener, and, rarely, with haber, and here there is an archaic resonance. Tenme preparado el desayuno. (Get my breakfast ready.) Tenedme barrida la alcoba (R3). (Have my room ready.) Habed aderezado la comida para cuando yo vuelva. (Have my meal ready for when I come back.) The preposition sin is often used when followed by an infinitive to express dissuasion. Entren en orden. Sin empujarse. (Go in in an orderly way. Don’t push each other.) Uno tras otro, sin atropellar niños, que hay sitio para todos. (One after the other, without pushing, children; there’s room for everyone.) Deja el césped así. Sin regar. (Leave the lawn like that. No watering.) Some adverbs of place often replace the imperative, both in a literal and in a figurative sense. The main ones are: abajo, adelante, adentro, arriba, atrás, fuera. ¡Abajo la corrupción/el Presidente! (Down with corruption/the president!) ¡Adelante con su exposición! (Go on with your explanation!) ¡Adelante, pase! (Come in!)

Imperative mood

167

Todos los prisioneros, ¡adentro! (All prisoners, in!) ¡Arriba! Es la hora, ¡despierta, dormilón! (Up! It’s time, wake up, sleepy head!) ¡Manos arriba! ¡Atrás! ¡Atrás, o disparo! (Hands up! Get back, or I’ll shoot!) ¡Fuera, a la calle! (Out you go, out!) 31.3.14 Note that in Spain it is quite possible to hear the following solecisms of colloquial usage (and therefore R1, and not to be copied). R1 is followed by R2 in the following examples: R1

R2

No hablad/no llorad Me lo repita Me dés una aspirina Me dé una aspirina Oyes, Juan, ves por el periódico

No habléis/no lloréis Repítamelo Dame una aspirina Deme una aspirina Oye, Juan, ve por el periódico

31.3.15 The imperative forms are logically different in the classical, Iberian and Latin-American versions of the Bible, as seen in Jesus’ reaction on learning of the death of Mary’s brother. Quitad la piedra. (John 11: 39) Soltadle. (John, 44) Dad al César lo que es del César. (Matthew 22: 21) Acordaos de la mujer de Lot. (Luke 17: 32) In a Latin-American version, one would read: Quiten, Suelten, Den, Acuérdense.

32 Irregular verbs / Verbos irregulares The following passage narrates an episode in the life of Juan Fernández. He is lost in a fog and gropes his way forward, only to be confronted by a friend. He ends up in a drunken stupor. The piece includes a variety of tenses of irregular verbs. La niebla cayó de improviso sobre el bulevar solitario. Ya no me cupo (I had no doubt [from caber]) duda de que la noche iba a ser tal como había predicho el informe meteorológico. Anduve a ciegas (I groped forward) y hube de adelantar las manos con cierto temor, que fue aumentando por momentos. Yo, Juan Fernández, que me yergo (I brace myself up [from erguir]) sobre la dificultad, que me asgo (cling to) al mínimo indicio racional, estaba aterrorizado. Y así, leyendo las difusas luces que divisaba al fondo, pude avanzar hasta que, envuelto en su resplandor, quedé anonadado (stunned): no reconocía el lugar, oí hablar en mi idioma pero con acento extraño. Un brazo cayó sobre mi hombro y un tipo afable me dijo: —Hombre, Manolo, cuánto tiempo sin verte —y me dio un abrazo. Luego, mirándome directamente, comentó:— Tienes mala cara (You don’t look well). Te llevaré con tu mujer. Yo, que soy soltero, no supe responder sino beber el vaso de ginebra (gin) que me ofrecía y correr hacia la niebla otra vez; y en ella estoy perdido, sin atreverme a salir, pues no sé quien soy, por más que el médico me deslumbre los ojos (dazzled me) con su linterna, diga que huelo a ginebra (I smell of gin), y que el efecto combinado del humo de tabaco que hay en este bar y el alcohol, es catastrófico. Irregular verbs have the habit of worrying foreign students of the Spanish language, for they seem to herald a long list of tiresome tenses to be learnt, when it would have been so much simpler and kinder if these verbs or their users, even grammarians, had made an effort towards conformity to the standard types we already know. Spanish irregular verbs are unquestionably more complicated than English ones, which are really relatively easy. There do seem to be a lot of them too. Nonetheless, many of them are quite rare, so that approximately fifty need to be learnt, and others are compounds from shorter irregular verbs conjugated like them. Componer, disponer, exponer, imponer, posponer and suponer, among a number of other similar compound verbs from poner, are conjugated like poner; while ver leads us to prever and entrever. In this way, it may be argued that many Spanish irregular verbs are far from unique, for many may be grouped together. (Reference is made to a complete list of verb tables in Appendix I, page 490. The tables include both regular and irregular verbs of all types.)

32.1 Types of irregular verbs Basically, there are six types of irregular verbs in Spanish. They are explored below. 32.1.1 There is a group of verbs which, however and from whichever angle they are considered, are unique in themselves, although these may take re- as a prefix to indicate repetition (e.g. caer, hacer, ir). This group constitutes a small number, but includes decir, which is not only irregular in the general sense, but also in the sense of radical changing (see 168

Irregular verbs

32.1.2

32.1.3

32.1.4 32.1.5 32.1.6

169

Section 32.1.2 below). Decir also has some compound tenses, which are listed below (see page 170). (The conditional tense is not shown since it follows on logically from the future, as with all verbs, irregular or regular.) These irregular verbs form the subject of the present chapter, but exclude the two verbs ser and estar, which receive treatment by themselves, since they both mean to be and can cause considerable confusion. These two verbs are considered in Chapter 35. A second, very substantial group, treated in Chapter 33, is composed of what are termed radical changing verbs, where the vowel of the stem changes: contar > cuento, pedir > pido. These vowel changes also involve verbs with prefixes. It is highly debatable whether this group really constitutes a verbal irregularity. Spanish-speakers call these verbs irregular, as do French scholars, but this is not the case in the English-speaking world. However, for our purposes, they are to be treated as “irregular,” but with reservations. A third group, dealt with in Chapter 34, analyzes the orthographical changes that are necessary to conform to the sound of the infinitive: conocer > conozco. These verbs also attract some prefixes. A fourth group involves the change of an i to a y (e.g. huir > huyo), and these will be found towards the end of Chapter 34. These verbs also attract some prefixes. A fifth group involves those verbs which attract a large number of prefixes, like poner, referred to at the beginning of this chapter. They are also treated in Chapter 34. There are some subgroups involving not only an orthographical change c to zc, as with conocer > conozco, but also c to j: conducir > conduzco > conduje, the treatment of which also appears in Chapter 34 (Section 34.1.7). Some of these verbs also have prefixes. It should not be forgotten that the second person singular of irregular verbs, as they function in Argentina and some other parts of Spanish-speaking America (see the use of the voseo in Section 56.3 on pronouns), constitutes an element in itself and is treated at the relevant stages.

32.2 Forms of irregular verbs The forms of these verbs seem to have no affiliation with any other verb. Some of them have only slight irregularities, like leer, have a prefix like re- (e.g. recaer) or another prefix like cor- (e.g. roer > corroer). Included here are the verbs with a very restricted number of prefixes, except for decir. Only the irregularities appear here, as with many of the other verbs, both in this chapter and the succeeding ones. For example: andar Preterit: anduve, anduviste. . . Imperfect subjunctive: anduviera/anduviese, anduvieras/anduvieses. . . Likewise: desandar It is not unusual to come across the forms: andé, andaste, andó, etc. These are quite common in R1 speech, notably in Iberian Spanish, and can be heard in Castile also. According to Seco’s Diccionario de dudas, they are even more common in Catalonia and Galicia. The same author argues that these “regular” forms were in full use in the Middle Ages, and even quotes more modern authors like Pardo Bazán and Cela, among others. Understandably, children “regularize” this verb as well. There is some attested use of these “regular” forms in Spanish America, Colombia and Mexico being good examples. It seems wiser simply to make this observation and use the irregular forms (anduve, etc). As far as the regularization of other irregular verbs is concerned, see Chapter 1 on register (page 3).

170

A Reference Grammar of Spanish asir caber

caer

Likewise: dar

decir

Likewise:

delinquir erguir

errar

haber

hacer

Present indicative: asgo, ases, ase. . . Present subjunctive: asga, asgas, asga. . . Present indicative: quepo, cabes, cabe. . . Preterit: cupe, cupiste, cupo. . . Present subjunctive: quepa, quepas, quepa. . . Imperfect subjunctive: cupiera/cupiese, cupieras/cupieses, cupiera/cupiese. . . (Note that the imperative is not used.) Present indicative: caigo, caes, cae. . . Preterit: caí, caiste, cayó, caímos, caísteis, cayeron. Present subjunctive: caiga, caigas, caiga. . . Imperfect subjunctive: cayera/cayese, cayeras/cayeses. . . decaer, recaer Present indicative: doy, das, da, damos, dais, dan. Preterit: di, diste, dio, dimos, disteis, dieron. Present subjunctive: dé, des, dé, demos, deis, den Imperfect subjunctive: diera/ diese, dieras/dieses, diera/diese. . . Imperative: da, dé, demos, dad, den. Present indicative: digo, dices, dice, decimos, decís, dicen. Preterit: dije, dijiste, dijo, dijimos, dijisteis, dijeron. Future: diré, dirás, dirá. . . Present subjunctive: diga, digas, diga. . . Imperfect subjunctive: dijera/ dijese, dijeras/dijeses, dijera/dijese. . . Imperative: di, decid, past part: dicho bendecir: but regular Future: bendeciré, bendecirás. . . in Imperative: bendice, bendecid. Past participle: bendecido/bendito (e.g. agua bendita, el bendito San Antonio; see Chapter 18) maldecir: conjugated like bendecir, but the past participle is different and is a doublet: maldecido is used in compound tenses (he maldecido, has maldecido. . .), and maldito is used exclusively as an adjective (el maldito dinero, maldita sea mi suerte) contradecir: but second person imperative: contradice desdecir: Future: desdeciré/desdecirás. . . Imperative: desdice predecir: Future: predeciré, predecirás, predecirá. . . Imperative: predice, prediga, predecid, predigan. Present indicative: delinco, delinques, delinque. . . Present subjunctive: delinca, delincas. . . (This verb is most frequently found in the infinitive.) Present indicative: yergo, yergues, yergue, erguimos, erguís, yerguen. Preterit: erguí, erguiste, irguió, erguimos, erguisteis, irguieron. Present subjunctive: yerga, yergas, yerga, irgamos, irgáis, yergan. Imperfect subjunctive: irguiera/irguiese, irguieras/irguieses, irguiera/ irguiese. . . Imperative: yergue, yerga, erguid, yergan. Present indicative: yerro, yerras, yerra, erramos, erráis, yerran. Present subjunctive: yerre, yerres, yerre, erremos, erréis, yerren. Imperative: yerra, yerre, erremos, errad, yerren. Present indicative: he, has, ha, hemos, habéis, han. Preterit: hube, hubiste, hubo. . . Present subjunctive: haya, hayas, haya. . . Imperfect subjunctive: hubiera/hubiese, hubieras/hubieses, hubiera/hubiera. . . (No imperative; has an impersonal hay = there is/are) Present indicative: hago, haces, hace. . . Preterit: hice, hiciste, hizo, hicimos. . . Future: haré, harás, hará. . . Conditional: haría, harías, haría. . . Present subjunctive: haga, hagas, haga. . . Imperfect

Irregular verbs

Likewise: ir1

leer Likewise: oír

Likewise: oler poseer Likewise: reunir roer

Likewise: saber

salir Likewise: valer Likewise: ver Likewise: 1

171 subjunctive: hiciera/hiciese, hicieras/hicieses. . . Imperative: haz, haced. . . Past participle: hecho deshacer,rehacer, satisfacer. In the case of the latter, the only difference is that the h of hacer is replaced by f. Present indicative: voy, vas, va, vamos vais, van. Imperfect: iba, ibas, iba, íbamos, ibais, iban. Preterit: fui, fuiste, fue, fuimos, fuisteis, fueron. Present subjunctive: vaya, vayas, vaya. . . Imperfect subjunctive: fuera/ fuese/fueras/fueses, fuera/fuese. . . Imperative: ve, id Preterit: leí, leíste, leyó, leímos, leísteis, leyeron. Imperfect subjunctive: leyera/leyese, leyeras/leyeses, leyera/leyese. . . releer, poseer (see below), creer Present indicative: oigo, oyes, oye, oímos, oís, oyen. Preterit: oí, oíste, oyó, oímos, oísteis, oyeron. Present subjunctive: oiga, oigas, oiga. . . Imperfect subjunctive: oyera/oyese, oyeras/oyeses, oyera/oyese. . . desoír Present indicative: huelo, hueles, huele, olemos, oléis, huelen. Present subjunctive: huela, huelas, huela, olamos, oláis, huelan. Preterit: poseí, poseíste, poseyó, poseímos, poseísteis, poseyeron. Imperfect subjunctive: poseyera/poseyese, poseyeras/poseyeses. . . proveer: but Past participle: provisto (more common than proveído) and desposeer Present indicative: reúno, reúnes. . . Present subjunctive: reúna, reúnas. . . Present indicative: roo/roigo/royo (the last two are little used), roes, roe. . . Present subjunctive: roa/roiga/roya (the last two are little used), roas, roa. . . Preterit: roí, roíste, royó, roímos, roísteis, royeron. Imperfect subjunctive: royera/royese, royeras/royeses, royera/royese. . . corroer Present indicative: sé, sabes, sabe. . . Preterit: supe, supiste, supo. . . Future: sabré, sabrás, sabrá. . . Present subjunctive: sepa, sepas, sepa. . . Imperfect subjunctive: supiera/supiese, supieras/supieses, supiera/ supiese. . . Present indicative: salgo, sales, sale. . . Future: saldré, saldrás, saldrá. . . Present subjunctive: salga, salgas, salga. . . Imperative: sal sobresalir Present indicative: valgo, vales, vale. . . Future: valdré, valdrás, valdrá. . . Present subjunctive: valga, valgas, valga. . . equivaler, prevaler Preterit: vi, viste, vio, vimos, visteis, vieron. Imperfect subjunctive: viera/viese, vieras/vieses, viera/viese. . . prever, entrever

This verb is filled with alarming irregularities. An explanation seems to be required here. The verb ir, in Spanish (like the Italian andare and the French aller), signifying to go, derives from two verbs, the classical Latin ire and the Vulgar Latin vadere. The high usage of the concept, at all levels of society, must have subjected it to excessive verbal strain. Note that prohibir (and cohibir) are conjugated in the present tense with the written accent on the first i. Without this written accent, the tonic accent would fall on the o, since the h is silent. prohíbo, prohíbes, prohíbe, prohibimos, prohibís, prohiben Likewise the present subjunctive: prohíba, prohíbas. . . prohíban

172

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Anduve todo el día en el bosque. (I walked in the wood the whole day.) Me cupo la suerte de recibir un premio. (As luck would have it, I received a prize.) La maceta cayó por el balcón a la calle. (The flowerpot fell over the balcony into the street.) Alicia nos ha dicho que está contenta con su trabajo. (Alicia told us she’s happy with her work.) Le dijeron la verdad a la policía. (They told the police the truth.) Estos chicos empiezan a delinquir muy jóvenes. (Those boys start offending very young.) ¿Qué has hecho hoy? (What have you done today?) Ya he satisfecho la sed. (I’ve finally quenched my thirst.) Satisfice mis dudas rápidamente. (I cleared up my doubts quickly.) Fueron a Buenos Aires ayer. (They went to Buenos Aires yesterday.) Oí el canto del gallo. (I heard the cock crow.) Desoyó mis consejos y ahora está con el brazo escayolado. (She ignored my advice and now she has an arm in plaster.) Huele a comida. (That smells like food.) No era necesario que leyera el libro. (It wasn’t necessary for me to read the book.) ¡Ojalá yo supiera la respuesta! (Would that I knew the answer!) ¡Válgame el cielo!/¡Qué Dios me valga! (Heaven/God help/protect me!)

32.3 Further forms of irregular verbs Note also the following forms in Argentina, and other parts of Central and South America. The constant feature here is the second person singular of the indicative and imperative moods. Verb

Present 2nd person singular

Imperative 2nd person singular

andar andás andá asir asís así caber cabés – caer caés caé corroer corroés corroé decir decís decí delinquir delinqués delinqué haber has – hacer hacés hacé ir vas –2 2 Andá/andate replace the second person singular imperative of ir. leer leés leé oír oís oí oler olés olé reunir reunés reuné roer roés roé saber sabés sabé salir salís salí valer valés valé ver ves ve

Irregular verbs

173

The voseo imperative of ver is the same as the second person imperative in the rest of Spain and Hispano-America. Vos vas a cuidarte bien, vos lo sabés. (You’ll look after yourself, you know that.) No cabés en el auto. (There’s no room for you in the car.) Andá a Rosario mañana. (Go to Rosario tomorrow.) Leé este libro. (Read this book.) Hacé tu laburo/trabajo. (Do your work.)

33 Radical changing verbs / Verbos con cambio vocálico (diptongación y verbos del tipo “pedir”, e>i) Below is a passage illustrating the way in which the main vowel of the verb is diphthongized when conjugated in the present tense, both indicative and subjunctive moods. Note that some verbs like pedir also change their main vowel, but this is not diphthongization. —Te lo cuento preocupado; no te miento: últimamente duermo mal y aunque me acuesto cansado no puedo conciliar el sueño, me siento nervioso; así que, si digo algo ofensivo, te recomiendo no me lo tomes en cuenta; además, te ruego que me corrijas si hago algo mal. —Cariño, no te pierdas en disquisiciones (irrelevancies). No me pidas a estas alturas (at this time) que te comprenda. Recuerdo que me pareciste tonto desde el primer momento, aunque eso no ha impedido que te quiera. De paso, te recomiendo que no riegues las flores de plástico, te pido que no lleves el paraguas abierto por el comedor aunque llueva en el jardín y que no vuelvas a meter al gato en el microondas.

33.1 Forms of radical changing verbs There is another very large group of verbs which Spanish-speakers call “irregular,” but which English-speakers refer to as “radical/stem changing” verbs. The French are tormented by this group, frequently calling them “régulièrement irréguliers!” By far the most helpful of these designations is the English one, for most of the verbs in question follow a set pattern, and once the pattern is learnt, you have an easy and accurate access to a wide range of verbs. However, within these sets of radical/stem changing verbs, some diverge on occasions from the pattern. The special feature of most of these radical changing verbs is that the root vowel of the infinitive changes to a diphthong, in the indicative, for instance. (This feature is not unique to Spanish, although it is far more widespread in this language. Both French and Italian have elements of diphthongization if we consider the present tenses of the French venir: je viens, tu viens, il vient. . . and the Italian venire: vengo, vieni, viene. . .) The vowel change explains why well-informed Spanish-speakers refer to this phenomenon as diptongación (diphthongization). It should be added that the term “diphthongization” does not cover all radical changing verbs, since one group simply changes the e to an i, as in pedir > pido, whereas “radical changing” does cover them all. It is not clear how these vowel changes came about. One can only surmise that the tonic or heavy stress on the vowel in Vulgar Latin did not allow that vowel to remain as a single sound, so it developed into an elongated and modified sound. The following sections illustrate the changes that take place when the infinitive of the verb is conjugated in the present indicative tense. To be noted is that in the first, second and third person singular and third person plural, o for example, converts to ue in verbs of the -ar type, but the o remains the same in the first and second person plurals. The 174

Radical changing verbs

175

same applies to the present subjunctive. Below follows the full list of the various kinds of radical changing verbs that function in a similar manner. 33.1.1 -ar verbs changing from o to ue Example: contar Present indicative: cuento, cuentas, cuenta, contamos, contáis, cuentan Present subjunctive: cuente, cuentes, cuente, contemos, contéis, cuenten Imperative: cuenta, cuente, contemos, contad, cuenten The pronouns of the imperative remain the same throughout these lists. The following verbs function similarly, but this list and the succeeding ones do not include rarely used verbs. acordar, acostar, almorzar, apostar,1 aprobar, asolar,2 avergonzar, colar, colgar, comprobar, concordar, consolar, costar, demostrar, desaprobar, descolgar, descontar, desollar, despoblar, discordar, encontrar, esforzar, holgar, hollar, mostrar, poblar, probar, recordar, recostar, reforzar, renovar,3 repoblar, reprobar, resonar, revolcar, rodar, rogar, sobrevolar, soldar, soltar, sonar, soñar, tostar, trocar, volar, volcar There is one -ar verb, jugar, that seems to fit into no pattern, since its root vowel is a u. But, it follows the paradigm of those set out above. Present indicative: juego, juegas, juega. . . Present subjunctive: juegue, juegues, juegue, juguemos, juguéis, jueguen Imperative: juega, juegue, jugamos, jugad, jueguen Cuenta el número de motos. (Count the number of motorbikes.) ¿Queréis que os cuente la película que vi ayer? (Do you want me to tell you the story of the film I saw yesterday?) Acuesta al niño en la cuna. (Put the baby to sleep in the cot.) Encuentro el libro un poco aburrido. (I find the book a bit boring.) No sueltes el agua del baño. (Don’t throw the bath water away.) La avioneta sobrevuela la zona. (The small airplane flies over the area.) ¡Cuidado! ¡La cafetera se vuelca! (Careful! The coffee pot’s tipping over!) With voseo, these radical changing verbs function thus in the second person singular of the indicative and the second person singular of the imperative: contás/contá, soltás/ soltá, and so on. (The tonic accent falls on the last syllable: the o remains the same.) 33.1.2 -er verbs changing from o to ue Example: volver Present indicative: vuelvo, vuelves, vuelve, volvemos, volvéis, vuelven Present subjunctive: vuelva, vuelvas, vuelva, volvamos, volváis, vuelvan Imperative: vuelve, vuelva, volvamos, volved, vuelvan Likewise: absolver, demoler, desenvolver, devolver, disolver, doler, envolver, llover, mover, promover, remover, resolver, soler, volver Poder falls into this category but has other irregularities: Present indicative: puedo, puedes, puede, podemos, podéis, pueden 1

Apostar in the sense of to bet functions like contar, but in the sense of to put/place (e.g. a sentry), it functions regularly. 2 Asolar in the sense of to devastate functions like contar, but in the sense of to ruin (e.g. a crop ruined by the sun, heat, drought), it functions regularly. However, current practice suggests that they are both used regularly. 3 One would expect innovar to function like renovar, but this is not the case, notwithstanding their shared etymology. There is some uncertainty here.

176

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Preterit: pude, pudiste, pudo, pudimos, pudisteis, pudieron Future: podré, podrás, podrá, podremos, podréis, podrán Present subjunctive: pueda, puedas, pueda, podamos, podáis, puedan Imperfect subjunctive: pudieras/pudieses, pudiera/pudiese, pudiéramos/pudiésemos, pudierais/pudieseis, pudieran/pudiesen It is debatable whether the imperative form is used but here it is: puede, pueda, podamos, poded, pueda The voseo forms are Present indicative: podés Imperative: podé (rarely used) ¿Me devuelves el libro, por favor? (Will you give me back the book, please?) Le duele la cabeza. (He has a headache.) Suelo levantarme a las siete. (I usually get up at seven.) Vuelve/Vuelva mañana. (Come back tomorrow.) ¿Puedes abrir la puerta? (Can you open the door?) The voseo forms are: Present indicative: devolvés Imperative: devolvé 33.1.3 -ar verbs changing from e to ie Example: acertar Present indicative: acierto, aciertas, acierta, acertamos, acertáis, aciertan Present subjunctive: acierte, aciertes, acierte, acertemos, acertéis, acierten Imperative: acierta, acierte, acertemos, acertad, acierten Likewise: abnegarse (R3), acrecentar, adestrar, aferrar, apretar, arrendar, asentar, aserrar, aspaventar, atentar, aterrar, atravesar, aventar, calentar, cegar, cerrar, cimentar, comenzar, concertar, confesar, denegar, dentar, desalentar, desplegar, desasosegar, desconcertar, desenterrar, deshelar, desmembrar, despegar, despertar, desterrar, empedrar, empezar, encerrar, encomendar, enmendar, ensangrentar, enterrar, escarmentar, gobernar, hacendar, helar, herrar, incensar, invernar, manifestar, mentar, merendar, negar, pegar, plegar, quebrar, recomendar, regar, remendar, replegar, resquebrar, restregar, retemblar, reventar, salpimentar, segar, sembrar, sentar, serrar, sosegar, soterrar, temblar, tentar, tropezar The voseo forms are: Present indicative: acertás Imperative: acertá Ana acierta los cinco números del premio. (Ana has the five numbers of the prize right.) Mira cómo empiedran el paseo. (See how they are paving the promenade.) Esa caja encierra una sorpresa. (That box contains a surprise.) Niega haberlo hecho. (She denies having done it.) Me recomienda descanso y tranquilidad. (He recommends me to rest and be quiet.) ¡Oye! Revientas los pantalones si te agachas. (Hey! You’ll burst your pants if you crouch down.) Me tiemblan las piernas. (My legs are trembling.) Siempre tropieza al bajar la escalera. (She always trips going down the stairs.) No quiero que sierres la madera. (I don’t want you to saw the wood.) 33.1.4 -ir verbs changing from e to ie There are two types, explored below, the first of which is much more common than the other. Example: sentir

Radical changing verbs

177

Present indicative: siento, sientes, siente, sentimos, sentís, sienten Preterit: sentí, sentiste, sintió, sentimos, sentisteis, sintieron Present subjunctive: sienta, sientas, sienta, sintamos, sintáis, sientan Imperfect subjunctive: sintiera/sintiese, sintieras/sintieses, sintiera/sintiese sintiéramos/sintiésemos, sintierais/sintieseis, sintieran/sintiesen Imperative: siente, sienta, sintamos, sentid, sientan Gerund: sintiendo The voseo forms are Present indicative: sentís Imperative: sentí Likewise: adherir, advertir, arrepentirse, asentir, conferir, consentir, controvertir, convertir, diferir, digerir, disentir, divertir, inferir, ingerir, invertir, mentir, pervertir, preferir, presentir, reconvertir, referir, requerir, revertir, subvertir, sugerir, transferir, zaherir (R3) Te advierto que se está acabando mi paciencia. (I warn you I’m running out of patience.) El perro advirtió la presencia del ladrón. (The dog warned of the burglar’s presence.) Difiero mucho de sus planteamientos. (I do not agree with a lot of his ideas.) ¿Estás sugiriendo que vayamos ahora? (Are you suggesting we go now?) El padre quería que sus niños se divirtieran toda la tarde. (The father wanted his children to enjoy themselves all afternoon.) The second type has only a few verbs. Example: discernir Present indicative: discierno, disciernes, discierne, discernimos, discernís, disciernen Present subjunctive: discierna, disciernas, discierna, discernamos, discernáis, disciernan Imperative: discierne, discierna, discernamos, discernid, disciernan The voseo forms are: Present indicative: discernís Imperative: discerní Likewise: cernir, hendir La sequía se cierne sobre todos los pueblos en verano. (The drought hovers over all the towns in summer.) Discierne lo verdadero de lo falso. (She can distinguish the true from the false.) 33.1.5 -er verbs changing from e to ie Example: defender Present indicative: defiendo, defiendes, defiende, defendemos, defendéis, defienden Present subjunctive: defienda, defiendas, defienda, defendamos, defendáis, defiendan Imperative: defiende, defienda, defendamos, defended, defiendan The voseo forms are: Present indicative: defendés Imperative: defendé Likewise: ascender, atender, cerner, condescender, contender, entender, extender, perder, querer, tender, transcender, verter Although querer falls largely into this category, it has its own additional particular tenses. Preterit: quise, quisiste, quiso, quisimos, quisisteis, quisieron Future: querré, querrás, querrá, querremos, querréis, querrán

178

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Present Subjunctive: quiera, quieras, quiera, queramos, queráis, quieran Imperfect subjunctive: quisiera/quisiese, quisieras/quisieses, quisiera/quisiese, quisiéramos/quisiésemos, quisierais/quisieseis, quisieran/quisiesen The voseo forms are: Present indicative: querés Imperative: queré Se defienden del frío con ropas de lana. (They protect themselves from the cold with woollen clothes.) El capitán gritó a las tropas: “Defiendan a la ciudad!” (The captain shouted to the troops: “Defend the city!”) Pierde el metro casi todos los días. (He misses the subway nearly every day.) Condesciende a mis ruegos. (He deigns to listen to my pleas.) 33.1.6 -ir verbs changing from e to i Example: pedir Present indicative: pido, pides, pide, pedimos, pedís, piden Preterit: pedí, pediste, pidió, pedimos, pedisteis, pidieron Present Subjunctive: pida, pidas, pida, pidamos, pidáis, pidan Imperfect Subjunctive: pidiera/pidiese, pidieras/pidieses, pidiera/pidiese, pidiéramos/ pidiésemos, pidierais/pidieseis, pidieran/pidiesen Gerund: pidiendo Imperative: pide, pida, pidamos, pedid, pidan The voseo forms are: Present indicative: pedís Imperative: pedí Likewise: competir, concebir, conseguir, derretir, despedir, gemir, impedir, investir, medir, perseguir, preconcebir, proseguir, rendir, repetir, resentirse, revestir, seguir, servir Me pidieron doscientos pesos. (They asked me for two hundred pesos.) Esta planta pide sol. (This plant needs sun.) ¿Por qué me impidió salir? (Why did she prevent me from going out?) Siguiendo el camino, y midiendo la distancia, se puso en marcha. (Following the path and measuring the distance, she set off.) 33.1.7 -ir verbs changing from e to i, as above, but with an orthographical change (e.g. g to j) (See Chapter 34.) Example: regir Present indicative: rijo, riges, rige, regimos, regís, rigen Present Subjunctive: rija, rijas, rija,rijamos, rijáis, rijan, Imperative: rige, rija, rijamos, regid, rijan The voseo forms are: Present indicative: regís Imperative: regí Likewise: colegir (R3), corregir, elegir Rijo la empresa con métodos modernos. (I manage the company with modern methods.) Hace falta que corrijas todas las faltas. (You need to correct all the errors.) Elijamos al mejor candidato. (Let’s choose the best candidate.)

34 Verbs with orthographical changes / Verbos con cambios ortográficos Below is a small piece illustrating the type of orthographical changes that take place in Spanish. These changes particularly concern verb endings, although it could be argued that verbs with orthographical changes would include radical changing verbs, and the passage contains a number of these that are not highlighted. Como nunca supe orientarme sin brújula, despliego el mapa delante de mí. Ahí se yerguen (rise up) los Picos de Europa. Ya huelo (smell) a tomillo (thyme) y espliego (lavender); no quepo de alegría dentro de mí. ¿No oyes las aguas despeñándose y huyendo allá abajo? Pero, cuidado, te ruego no te acerques tanto al borde y nos busquemos una desgracia; ríe si quieres, quizá no agradezcas el consejo, pero sé que es fácil despeñarse por estos contornos. Corrijamos nuestro rumbo, averigüemos cual es el sendero más cómodo y escojámoslo, pues no conozco bien estos parajes. Siento que los pies me escuecen tras la caminata, ya colgué en mi mochila un par de botas usadas previendo tal eventualidad. A medida que va creciendo la pendiente quizá te parezca que crece la dificultad para respirar, pero, claro, no te atraques (don’t stuff yourself) a chocolate porque seguramente almorcemos tras el primer recodo. Regresaremos antes de que anochezca.

34.1 Forms of verbs with orthographical changes An irregular verb is, strictly speaking, one which, in its inflections, varies in any way from that of the model of its conjugation, in other words, from the infinitive. If this definition were rigorously adhered to, the number of irregular verbs would rise in a spectacular manner; but in the greater number, the deviations are so uniform as to constitute a kind of secondary regularity, and may be grouped into several classes. The majority of the deviations are purely related to spelling (ortografía, as it is known in Spanish), and spelling modifications merely serve to preserve the sound of the stem as presented in the infinitive. The following changes according to tense, mood or subject of the verb are necessary to observe uniformity of pronunciation. They appear notably in the first person singular of the indicative (corregir > corrijo), the first person singular of the preterit (buscar > busqué) and the present subjunctive (buscar > busque). This comment is, however, just for general guidance. The main spelling changes follow below. 34.1.1 -car: c before e > que Example: buscar Preterit: busqué, buscaste, buscó. . . Present subjunctive: busque, busques, busque. . . Imperative: busca, busque, busquemos, buscad, busquen The voseo form is: Imperative: buscá Likewise: acercar, achacar, ahorcar, apalancarse, aparcar, aplicar, arrancar, atacar, atracar, bancar (A), calcar, cascar, centuplicar, checar (M), colocar, comunicar, dedicar, 179

180

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

desembarcar, desembocar, dislocar, dulcificar, duplicar, educar, embarcar, empacar (M), enfocar, estocar, explicar, fabricar, falsificar, hincar, implicar, indicar, intoxicar (to poison), invocar, justificar, lubrificar, marcar, mascar, masificar, masticar, mistificar, multiplicar, neviscar, notificar, obcecar (R3), ofuscar (R3), pacificar, panificar, pecar, pescar, petrificar, picar, placar, planificar, plastificar, platicar (M), purificar, rascar, recalcar, replicar, retocar, revocar, revolcar, roncar, sacar, secar, significar, sofocar, solidificar, sonsacar, surcar, testificar, tocar, trifulcarse, trincar, triplicar, trocar, ubicar, volcar Me acerqué a la pared. (I approached the wall.) ¿Quieres que yo duplique el documento? (Do you want me to duplicate the document?) ¿Cómo quieres que se les eduque a los niños? (How do you want the children to be educated?) Hace falta que recalques la necesidad de una campaña publicitaria. (You must stress the need for a publicity campaign.) 34.1.2 -gar: g before e > gue Example: apagar Preterit: apagué, apagaste, apagó. . . Present subjunctive: apague, apagues, apague. . . Imperative: apaga, apague, apaguemos, apagad, apaguen The voseo form is: apagá Likewise: abnegarse (R3), agregar, ahogar, alargar, alegar, amargar, anegar, azogar, bogar (R3), cargar, castigar, cegar, colgar, denegar, desahogar, desasosegar, descargar, despegar, desplegar, encargar, enjuagar, enjugar, entregar, fregar, halagar, hurgar, indagar, irrigar, jugar, juzgar, legar, llagar, llegar, madrugar, mangar (R1), naufragar, negar, otorgar, pagar, pegar, pingar, plegar, prolongar, prorrogar, purgar, regar, renegar, rogar, sesgar, sosegar, sufragar, tragar Casi me ahogué en el río. (I nearly drowned in the river.) Hace falta que le entregues el dinero. (You must hand him the money.) Pliegue la servilleta antes de guardarla. (Fold the napkin before putting it away.) Te pido que tragues estas pastillas. (I ask you to swallow these pills.) 34.1.3 -gua: -gu before e > güe Example: averiguar Preterit: averigüé, averiguaste, averiguó. . . Present subjunctive: averigüe, averigües, averigüe. . . Imperative: averigua, averigüe, averigüemos, averiguad, averigüen The voseo form is: Imperative: averiguá Likewise: amortiguar, apaciguar, atestiguar, santiguar Fui a la estación y averigüé la hora del tren. (I went to the station and found out the time of the train.) Hace falta que atestigües en el juicio. (You must testify in the case.) 34.1.4 -ger: g before o or a > j Example: escoger Present indicative: escojo, escoges, escoge. . . Present subjunctive: escoja, escojas, escoja. . . Imperative: escoge, escoja, escojamos, escoged, escojan The voseo form is: Imperative: escogé

Verbs with orthographical changes

181

Likewise: coger, proteger, emerger Escojan los libros que quieran. (Choose the books you want.) Te pido que protejas a los niños. (I ask that you to protect the children.) 34.1.5 -gir: g before o or a > j Example: corregir Present indicative: corrijo, corriges, corrige. . . Present subjunctive: corrija, corrijas, corrija. . . Imperative: corrige, corrija, corrijamos, corregid, corrijan The voseo form is: Imperative: corrigé Likewise: elegir, rugir, mugir, sumergir Elijan la película que quieran. (Choose the film you want.) Que el viento muja, no me importa. (Let the wind roar, I don’t mind.) 34.1.6 -cer: c before o or a> zc Example: conocer Present indicative: conozco, conoces, conoce. . . Present subjunctive: conozca, conozcas, conozca. . . Imperative: conoce, conozca, conozcamos, conoced, conozcan The voseo form is: conocé Likewise: abastecer, ablandecer, aborrecer, acaecer, acontecer, acrecer, agradecer, amanecer, anochecer, aparecer, atardecer, blanquecer, carecer, cocer, compadecer, comparecer, complacer, convalecer, crecer, decrecer, desconocer, desvanecer, embellecer, emblandecer, embobecer, embravecer, embrutecer, empobrecer, enaltecer, enardecer, encarecer, endurecer, enflaquecer, enfurecer, engrandecer, enloquecer, enmohecer, enmudecer, ennegrecer, ennoblecer, enorgullecer, enrarecer, enriquecer, enrojecer, ensombrecer, ensordecer, entorpecer, entristecer, entumecer, envanecer, envejecer, envilecer, esclarecer, escocer, establecer, estremecer, fallecer, favorecer, florecer, fortalecer, guarecer, humedecer, languidecer, merecer, nacer, obedecer, ofrecer, oscurecer, padecer, palidecer, parecer, perecer, pertenecer, placer, prevalecer, reaparecer, reconocer, recrudecer, rejuvenecer, resplandecer, robustecer, vencer, verdecer Espero a que amanezca antes de ponerme en marcha. (I’ll wait for sun-up before setting off.) No me gusta que favorezcas a este estudiante. (I don’t like your favoring this student.) ¡Ojalá florezcan las plantas este mes! (Would that the plants come into flower this month!) Me temo que padezca. (I fear he’s suffering.) 34.1.7 -cir: c before o or a > zc Traducir and similar verbs also have a change in the preterit and imperfect subjunctive. (i.e. c > j). Example: traducir Present indicative: traduzco, traduces, traduce. . . Present subjunctive: traduzca, traduzcas, traduzca. . . Preterit: traduje, tradujiste, tradujo. . . Imperfect subjunctive: tradujera/tradujese, tradujeras/tradujeses, tradujera/ tradujese. . . Imperative: traduce, traduzca, traduzcamos, traducid, traduzcan The voseo form is: Present indicative: traducís

182

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Imperative: traducí Likewise: aducir, conducir, coproducir, deducir, deslucir, inducir, introducir, lucir, producir, reconducir, reducir, reproducir, seducir Traduzco el chino al ingles. (I translate Chinese into English.) Quiero que esta fábrica produzca más tarjetas de crédito. (I want this factory to produce more credit cards.) Quería que yo condujera el coche. (She wanted me to drive the car.) 34.1.8 -zar: z before e > c Example: almorzar Preterit: almorcé, almorzaste, almorzó. . . Present subjunctive: almuerce, almuerces, almuerce, almorcemos, almorcéis, almuercen Imperative: almuerza, almuerce, almorcemos, almorzad, almuercen The voseo form is: Present indicative: almorcés Imperative: almorcé Likewise (note that, since this list is unusually long, only the main and most common verbs are given here): abalanzarse, abrazar, acorazar, actualizar, adelgazar, aderezar, afianzar, agonizar, alcanzar, alunizar, alzar, amenazar, amerizar, amordazar, analizar, aplazar, armonizar, atemorizar, atenazar, aterrizar, autorizar, avanzar, avergonzar, avezar, barnizar, bautizar, bostezar, calzar, canalizar, canonizar, capitalizar, caracterizar, castellanizar, cauterizar, centralizar, cicatrizar, civilizar, climatizar, colectivizar, colonizar, comercializar, contabilizar, cotizar, cristianizar, cruzar, culpabilizar, chapuzar, danzar, democratizar, desamortizar, desautorizar, descentralizar, decuartizar, desdramatizar, desertizar, desestabilizar, deshumanizar, deslizar, desnacionalizar, desorganizar, despedazar, despenalizar, desperezarse, despersonalizar, desplazar, desratizar, destrozar, disfrazar, divinizar, dramatizar, economizar, embozar, embrazar, emplazar, encabezar, encauzar, encolerizar, enderezar, endulzar, enfervorizar, engarzar, enjaezar, enlazar, ensalzar, entronizar, enzarzar, erizar, erotizar, esbozar, escandalizar, esclavizar, escolarizar, españolizar, especializar, estabilizar, esterilizar, estigmatizar, estilizar, eternizar, evangelizar, exteriorizar, familiarizar, fecundizar, finalizar, fraternizar, galvanizar, garantizar, generalizar, globalizar, gozar, granizar, hechizar, hipnotizar, hispanizar, horrorizar, hospitalizar, humanizar, idealizar, indemnizar, independizar, individualizar, industrializar, informatizar, inmortalizar, inmovilizar, inmunizar, insonorizar, intranquilizar, ironizar, izar, lanzar, latinizar, legalizar, liberalizar, liofilizar, localizar, magnetizar, martirizar, materializar, matizar, mecanizar, mediatizar, memorizar, mentalizar, militarizar, minimizar, modernizar, monopolizar, moralizar, motorizar, movilizar, nacionalizar, neutralizar, normalizar, nuclearizar, obstaculizar, optimizar, organizar, paralizar, pasterizar, patentizar, penalizar, personalizar, polarizar, polemizar, popularizar, pormenorizar, preconizar, presurizar, privatizar, profetizar, profundizar, protagonizar, psicoanalizar, pulverizar, puntualizar, racionalizar, radicalizar, ralentizar, realizar, realzar, reemplazar, regularizar, relanzar, relativizar, remozar, rentabilizar, reorganizar, responsabilizar, retozar, revalorizar, revigorizar, revitalizar, rezar, ridiculizar, rivalizar, rozar, ruborizar, satirizar, sensibilizar, señalizar, simbolizar, sincronizar, sintetizar, sintonizar, sistematizar, socializar, sodomizar, sollozar, sovietizar, suavizar, sublimizar, tamizar, tapizar, temporizar,

Verbs with orthographical changes

183

teorizar, tiranizar, tranquilizar, traumatizar, trazar, trivializar, uniformizar, universalizar, urbanizar, utilizar, valorizar, vaporizar, vigorizar, visualizar, vocalizar, vulcanizar, vulgarizar Abracé a mi esposa cuando llegó. (I embraced my wife when she arrived.) Almorcé a las dos. (I had lunch at two.) Espera a que cacen al ladrón con las manos en la masa. (Wait until they catch the thief redhanded.) Le digo al carpintero que refuerce la puerta con una plancha metálica. (I’m telling the carpenter to reinforce the door with a metal bar.) Es necesario que empieces en seguida. (You must start straightaway.) Hace falta que localicen cuanto antes al niño perdido. (You/they must locate the missing child as soon as possible.)

34.2 Irregular verbs Below follows a wide range of irregular verbs, some very common and therefore in great use, and others less common. Some of these verbs are only slightly irregular, often related to stem or orthographical changes. It is an interesting, and therefore revealing fact that some of these irregular forms are often avoided, possibly because they cause uncertainty. Such verbs are aislar and bruñir. Of course, some of them, like venir, are used frequently in all tenses. In each case, the head verb provides the model for a number of verbs. 34.2.1 actuar Present indicative: actúo, actúas, actúa, actuamos, actuáis, actúan Present subjunctive: actúe, actúes, actúe, actuemos, actuéis, actúen Imperative: actúa, actúe, actuemos, actuad, actúen The voseo forms are: Present indicative: actuás Present imperative: actuá Likewise: acentuar, atenuar, continuar, deshabituar, desvirtuar (R3), devaluar, efectuar, evacuar, evaluar, exceptuar, extenuar, fluctuar, graduar, habituar, infatuar, insinuar, menstruar, perpetuar, puntuar, revaluar, situar, tatuar, valuar Tienes que fijarte en las palabras que se acentúen. (You have to pay attention to the words which have an accent.) Juan continúa trabajando en la misma fábrica. (Juan is still working in the same factory.) El valor del dólar fluctúa. (The value of the dollar is fluctuating.) 34.2.2 adquirir Present indicative: adquiero, adquieres, adquiere, adquirimos, adquirís, adquieren Present subjunctive: adquiera, adquieras, adquiera, adquiramos, adquiráis, adquieran Imperative: adquiere, adquieras, adquiramos, adquirid, adquieran The voseo forms are: Present indicative: adquirís Imperative: adquirí Likewise: inquirir, readquirir Tu vecino adquiere nuestra casa. (Your neighbor is buying our house.) Es posible que los delincuentes inquieran los datos de las casas que roban. (It is possible the delinquents check out the information on the houses they rob.)

184

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

34.2.3 aislar Present indicative: aíslo, aíslas, aísla, aislamos, aisláis, aíslan Present subjunctive: aísle, aísles, aísle, aislemos, aisléis, aíslen Imperative: aísla, aísle, aislemos, aislad, aíslen The voseo forms are: Present indicative: aislás Imperative: aislá Likewise: ahijar, airar, rehilar, sobrehilar Tu hermano se aísla demasiado. (Your brother isolates himself too much.) Mi padre aísla los cables. (My father isolates the cables.) Mi madre quiere que yo ahíje a un niño. (My mother wants me to adopt a child.) 34.2.4 ansiar Present indicative: ansío, ansías, ansía, ansiamos, ansiáis, ansían Present subjunctive: ansíe, ansíes, ansíe, ansiemos, ansiéis, ansíen Imperative: ansía, ansíe, ansiemos, ansiad, ansíen The voseo forms are: Present indicative: ansiás Imperative: ansiá Likewise: aliar, ampliar, ataviar, auxiliar, aviar, cariar, cinematografiar, confiar, contrariar, criar, chirriar, desafiar, descarriar, desconfiar, desliar, desvariar, enfriar, enviar, espiar, expatriar, expiar, extasiarse (R3), extraviar, fiar, fotografiar, gloriarse, guiar, hastiar, historiar, liar, paliar (R3), piar, porfiar, radiografiar, repatriar, resfriar, rociar, vaciar, variar There are some verbs with the ending -iar which do not follow this so-called irregular pattern. Paradoxically enough, although the verbs listed below are regular, they are less plentiful than the verbs immediately above. afiliar, asediar, cambiar, conciliar, escanciar (R3), estudiar, fastidiar, incordiar, irradiar, lidiar, limpiar, reconciliar, rabiar (R1), radiar, remediar, sitiar In these verbs, the tonic accent falls on the vowel before the final diphthong (i.e. cambia). In other words, the diphthong of the infinitive, in ampliar, for instance, which is lost in various parts of its conjugation, is retained in verbs such as afiliar. It should be added that some uncertainty can surround some of the verbs. For example, vaciar in literary language gives vacío, while one can hear vacio in the spoken language, although this is not standard usage. In the following examples we first look at the avoidance of diphthongs with the inclusion of an í, and then at their retention by carrying the tonic accent back to the previous vowel. ¿Necesites que amplíe este plano? (Do you need me to expand this plan?) Los pájaros pían en primavera. (Birds cheep in the springtime.) El médico radiografía toda la zona lesionada. (The doctor x-rays the whole damaged area.) El camarero escancia el vino. (The waiter holds the bottle up high to pour out the wine.) El ejército asedia/sitia la ciudadela. (The army lays siege to the citadel.) Lidia con sus hermanos por la herencia. (She struggles with her brother[s] [and sisters] over the inheritance.) 34.2.5 aunar Present indicative: aúno, aúnas, aúna, aunamos, aunáis, aúnan Present subjunctive: aúno, aúnas, aúna, aunamos, aunáis, aúnan Imperative: aúna, aúne, aunemos, aunad, aúnen

Verbs with orthographical changes

185

The voseo forms are: Present indicative: aunás Imperative: auná Likewise: aullar, aupar, embaular El perro aúlla toda la noche. (The dog howls all night.) Cada vez que hay un desfile, el padre aúpa al hijo. (Each time there’s a march past, the father lifts up his son.) 34.2.6 ceñir Present indicative: ciño, ciñes, ciñe, ceñimos, ceñís, ciñen Present subjunctive: ciña, ciñas, ciña, ciñamos, ciñáis, ciñan Imperative: ciña, ciña, ciñamos, ceñid, ciñan Imperfect subjunctive: ciñera/ciñese, ciñeras/ciñeses, ciñera/ciñese, ciñéramos/ ciñésemos, ciñerais/ciñeseis, ciñeran/ciñesen Preterit: ceñí, ceñiste, ciñó, ceñimos, ceñisteis, ciñeron The voseo forms are: Present indicative: ceñís Imperative: ceñí Likewise: constreñir, desteñir, estreñir, reñir, reteñir, teñir La madre ciñó al niño con sus brazos. (The mother gathered the child up in her arms.) Sus hermanos siempre riñen. (Her brothers are always quarreling.) El recuerdo de su propia vida tiñe todas las páginas del libro. (The memory of her own life tinges the pages of the book.) 34.2.7 distinguir Present indicative: distingo, distingues, distingue, distinguimos, distinguís, distinguen Present subjunctive: distinga, distingas, distinga, distingamos, distingáis, distingan Imperative: distingue, distinga, distingamos, distinguid, distingan The voseo forms are: Present indicative: distingués Imperative: distingué Likewise: extinguir Me temo que su vida se extinga día a día. (I fear his life is ebbing away day by day.) 34.2.8 dormir Present indicative: duermo, duermes, duerme, dormimos, dormís, duermen Present subjunctive: duerma, duermas, duerma, durmamos, durmáis, duerman Imperfect subjunctive: durmiera/durmiese, durmieras/durmieses, durmiera/ durmiese, durmiéramos/durmiésemos, durmierais/durmieseis, durmieran/ durmiesen Preterit: dormí, dormiste, durmió, dormimos, dormisteis, durmieron Imperative: duerme, duerma, durmamos, dormid, duerman The voseo forms are: Present indicative: dormís Imperative: dormí One verb, morir, functions in the same way, save that the past participle is muerto. Duermo la siesta todos los días. (I take a siesta every day.) Durmieron toda la noche fuera. (They slept out all night.) Nos pidió que durmiéramos en la tienda. (He asked us to sleep in the tent.) Murió a los noventa años. (He died at ninety.)

186

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

34.2.9 freír Present indicative: frío, fríes, fríe, freímos, freís, fríen Present subjunctive: fría, frías, fría, fríamos, friáis, frían Imperfect subjunctive: friera/friese, frieras/frieses, friera/friese, friéramos/friésemos, frierais/frieseis, frieran/friesen Imperative: fríe, fría, fríamos, freíd, frían Past participle: frito Preterit: freí, freíste, frió, freímos, freísteis, frieron The voseo forms are: Present indicative: freís Imperative: freí Likewise: refreír, reír, sofreír, sonreír (past participles of reír > reído, sonreír > sonreído) He frito los huevos con aceite. (I’ve fried the eggs in oil.) Frieron las patatas con el fuego fuerte. (They fried the potatoes with a strong flame.) 34.2.10 huir Present indicative: huyo, huyes, huye, huimos, huís, huyen Present subjunctive: huya, huyas, huya, huyamos, huyáis, huyan Imperfect subjunctive: huyera/huyese, huyeras/huyeses, huyera/huyese, huyéramos/ huyésemos, huyerais/ huyeseis, huyeran/huyesen Imperative: huye, huya, huyamos, huid, huyan Preterit: huí, huiste, huyó, huimos, huisteis, huyeron The voseo forms are: Present indicative: huís Imperative: huí Likewise: afluir, argüir, atribuir, concluir, confluir, constituir, construir, contribuir, derruir, destituir, destruir, diluir, disminuir, distribuir, excluir, fluir, incluir, influir, inmiscuirse, instituir, instruir, intuir, obstruir, prostituir, recluir, reconstituir, reconstruir, redistribuir, refluir, rehuir, restituir, retribuir, sustituir El dinero afluye al mercado. (Money flows into the market.) El público afluyó al estadio. (The crowds flooded to the stadium.) De su experiencia concluyes el radical escepticismo de todas las personas. (From her experience you conclude everyone’s radical scepticism.) Se inmiscuyó en todos mis planes. (She meddled in all my plans.) 34.2.11 mover Present indicative: muevo, mueves, mueve, movemos, movéis, mueven Present subjunctive: mueva, muevas, mueva, movamos, mováis, muevan Imperative: mueve, mueva, movamos, moved, muevan The voseo forms are: Present indicative: movés Imperative: mové Likewise: condolerse, conmover, demoler, doler, llover, moler, morder, promover, remoler, remorder, remover El motor mueve la máquina. (The engine moves the machine.) Siempre me conmuevo con sus historias. (I am always moved by her stories.) Remueve el agua para que se disuelva la sustancia. (Stir the water so that the substance can dissolve.) 34.2.12 mullir Preterit: mullí, mulliste, mulló, mullimos, mullisteis, mulleron

Verbs with orthographical changes

187

Imperfect subjunctive: mullera/mullese, mulleras/mulleses, mullera/mullese, mulléramos/mullésemos, mullerais/mulleseis, mulleran/mullesen Gerund: mullendo The voseo forms are: Present indicative: mullís Imperative: mullí Likewise: bruñir, bullir, engullir, escabullirse, gruñir, rebullir, tañer, zambullir Bruñó las medallas. (He burnished/polished the medals.) Su hija se zambulló en la piscina de cabeza. (His daughter dived into the pool.) El cura tañó las campanas el día de los difuntos. (The priest rang the bells on All Souls’ Day.) 34.2.13 poner Present indicative: pongo, pones, pone, ponemos, ponéis, ponen Present subjunctive: ponga, pongas, ponga, pongamos, pongáis, pongan Imperfect subjunctive: pusiera/pusiese, pusieras/pusieses, pusiera/pusiese, pusiéramos/ pusiésemos, pusierais/pusieseis, pusieran/pusiesen Imperative: pon, ponga, pongamos, poned, pongan Future: pondré, pondrás, pondrá, pondremos, pondréis, pondrán Past Participle: puesto The voseo forms are: Present indicative: ponés Imperative: poné Likewise: anteponer, componer, deponer, descomponer, disponer, exponer, imponer, indisponer, interponer, oponer, posponer, predisponer, presuponer, proponer, recomponer, reponer, sobreponer, superponer, transponer, yuxtaponer En la película, antepusieron la escena del beso a la del crimen. (In the film, they put the kiss scene before that of the crime.) ¿Dónde has puesto el dinero? (Where have you put the money?) El profesor les propuso varios problemas de matemáticas. (The teacher gave them several math problems.) Se opondrá con firmeza a la propuesta de la directiva. (She’ll oppose the management’s proposal with firmness.) Me opongo a la sugerencia. (I oppose the suggestion.) Hace falta que pospongas la salida. (You have to delay the departure.) 34.2.14 surgir Present indicative: surjo, surges, surge, surgimos, surgís, surgen Present subjunctive: surja, surjas, surja, surjamos, surjáis, surjan The voseo forms are: Present indicative: surgés Imperative: surgé Likewise: afligir, convergir, dirigir, erigir, exigir, fingir, infligir, infringir, mugir, refulgir (R3), restringir, resurgir, rugir, sumergir, teledirigir, transigir, ungir, urgir Me extraña que surjan tantos manantiales en aquella montaña. (I’m surprised that so many springs come out from that mountain.) Dirijo mis poemas a mis paisanos. (I address my poems to my countrymen.) Si quieres alcanzar tu meta, hace falta que transijas. (If you want to reach your goal, you have to compromise.) 34.2.15 tener Present indicative: tengo, tienes, tiene, tenemos, tenéis, tienen Present subjunctive: tenga, tengas, tenga, tengamos, tengáis, tengan

188

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Imperfect subjunctive: tuviera/tuviese, tuvieras/tuvieses, tuviera/tuviese, tuviéramos/ tuviésemos, tuvierais/tuvieseis, tuvieran/tuviesen Imperative: ten, tenga, tengamos, tened, tengan Preterit: tuve, tuviste, tuvo, tuvimos, tuvisteis, tuvieron Future: tendré, tendrás, tendrá, tendremos, tendréis, tendrán The voseo forms are: Present indicative: tenés Imperative: tené Likewise: abstenerse, atenerse, contener, detener, entretener, mantener, obtener, retener, sostener En ese asunto, me atengo a lo que ha dicho Juan. (In this business, I accept what Juan says.) Era necesario que los policías detuvieran a los maleantes. (The policemen had to arrest the criminals.) Pedro obtuvo una beca que no esperaba. (Pedro obtained a grant he wasn’t expecting.) La médico me recomendó que me abstuviera de fumar. (The physician recommended that I stop smoking.) 34.2.16 traer Present indicative: traigo, traes, trae, traemos, traéis, traen Present subjunctive: traiga, traigas, traiga, traigamos, traigáis, traigan Imperfect subjunctive: trajera/trajese, trajeras/trajeses, trajera/trajese, trajéramos/ trajésemos, trajerais/trajeseis, trajeran/trajesen Preterit: traje, trajiste, trajo, trajimos, trajisteis, trajeron Gerund: trayendo The voseo forms are: Present indicative: traés Imperative: traé Likewise: abstraer, atraer, contraer, detraer (R3), distraer, extraer, retraer (R3), retrotraer (R3), sustraer Atrajo a los compañeros a su bando. (She attracted the companions to her band.) Yo temía que mi padre contrajera la malaria en un viaje al Amazonas. (I was frightened lest my father contracted malaria on a trip to the Amazon.) Prefiero que el dentista no extraiga la muela. (I prefer the dentist not to extract the tooth.) 34.2.17 venir Present indicative: vengo, vienes, viene, venimos, venís, vienen Present subjunctive: venga, vengas, venga, vengamos, vengáis, vengan Imperfect subjunctive: viniera/viniese, vinieras/vinieses, viniera/viniese, viniéramos/ viniésemos, vinierais/vinieseis, vinieran/viniesen Imperative: ven, venga, vengamos. venid, vengan Preterit: vine, viniste, vino, vinimos, vinisteis, vinieron Future: vendré, vendrás, vendrá, vendremos, vendréis, vendrán Gerund: viniendo The voseo forms are: Present indicative: venís Imperative: vení Likewise: avenir, contravenir, convenir, desavenir (R3), devenir (R3), intervenir, prevenir, provenir, reconvenir (R3), sobrevenir, subvenir Contravinimos las órdenes nada más salir del cuartel. (We disobeyed orders as soon as we left the barracks.)

Verbs with orthographical changes

189

Era inevitable que su padre le reconviniese por su mala conducta. (It was inevitable that his father should upbraid him for his bad behavior.) Sobrevino una explosión tras el silencio. (An explosion suddenly occurred after the silence.) Me temo que intervenga la policía. (I’m afraid the police will intervene.) Prefiero que vengas ahora. (I prefer you to come now.) 34.2.18 yacer (R3) Present indicative: yazco, yaces, yace, yacemos, yacéis, yacen Present subjunctive: yazca, yazcas, yazca, yazcamos, yazcáis, yazcan Imperative: yace, yazca, yazcamos, yaced, yazcan The voseo forms are: Present indicative: yacés Imperative: yacé Likewise: subyacer (R3) Sus restos yacen en el cementerio civil de Madrid. (Her remains lie in the civil cemetery in Madrid.) Sus padres yacen en este sepulcro. (His parents lie in this sepulchre.) Tras su apariencia tosca subyacía una gran sensibilidad. (Behind his rough outer appearance lay a great sensitivity.) In reality, the only part of this verb in regular, but restricted use, is in the following expression found on tombstones: Aquí yace el Rey de España. (Here lies the King of Spain.) 34.2.19 zurcir Present indicative: zurzo, zurces, zurce, zurcimos, zurcís, zurcen Present subjunctive: zurza, zurzas, zurza, zurzamos, zurzáis, zurzan Imperative: zurce, zurza, zurzamos, zurcid, zurzan The voseo forms are: Present indicative: zurcés Imperative: zurcé Likewise: desuncir, esparcir, fruncir, resarcir (R3), uncir Se me enganchó la chaqueta y quiero que la modista me la zurza. (My jacket got snagged and I want the dressmaker to mend it for me.) ¡Ojalá no frunza tanto el ceño! (Would that she did not frown so much!) Antes de que unzas los bueyes a la carreta, toma el desayuno. (Before tying [yoking] the oxen to the cart, have your breakfast.)

35 Uses and contrasts of “ser” and “estar” / Usos y contrastes de “ser” y “estar” Below is a passage illustrating some of the differences in usage between ser and estar. A visitor who intends to sell an insurance policy comes away, having bought a rocking chair unintentionally and forgetting to sell the policy. Era rubicundo y bastante joven, estaba algo rellenito y quizá fuera algo más alto que yo. Al abrir la puerta me invitó a entrar, suponiendo que yo sería el vendedor a quien estaba esperando. —No, no está Manuel. Yo soy su hermano, él no estará en casa hasta y media (until half past the hour). Estoy aquí por casualidad: esta mañana estaba con fiebre y no he ido a trabajar. Manuel me dijo que estaría usted aquí a las tres, y que al no poder estar él hasta las tres y media, le estuviera atendiendo hasta que llegara. —Quizá estuviese usted haciendo algo importante. Si quiere, me estoy aquí en el porche, sentado en esta preciosa mecedora mientras viene. Estoy hecho polvo (I am worn out). Siempre he estado deseando sentarme en una mecedora. . . Aquella frase fue mi perdición. Al cabo de una hora los dos hermanos estaban a la puerta despidiéndome. Yo les había comprado la mecedora de principios del siglo veinte, y no les había vendido la póliza del seguro, que había sido el motivo de mi visita. Mi mujer estuvo un mes sin hablarme cuando aparecí con la mecedora y la puse en la salita de estar.

35.1 Basic distinctions between “ser” and “estar” As in Italian (essere, stare) there are in Spanish two verbs, ser and estar, corresponding to the English verb to be. They are not used interchangeably and can lend themselves to confusion. However, each one has distinct provinces. In form, they are quite irregular, although estar does not appear too irregular in the present tense. The present tense of both verbs appears below. Ser: Yo soy, tú eres, él/ella/Ud. es, nosotros/as somos, vosotros/as sois, ellos/ellas/Uds. son Estar: Yo estoy, tú estás, él/ella/Ud. está, nosotros/as estamos, vosotros/as estáis, ellos/ ellas/Uds. están (For the remainder of the tenses of ser and estar, see Section 35.8) The fundamental distinction is that ser expresses an inherent or essential quality. Indeed, its Latin etymology (esse) suggests essence; estar, on the other hand, suggests an external or accidental quality or condition. The following pairs of examples will help to illustrate this feature. La caja es redonda. (The box is round.) La caja está vacía. (The box is empty.) La sopa es rica. (The soup is nice.) La sopa está fría. (The soup is cold.) Son inteligentes. (They are intelligent.) Están bien educados. (They are well educated.) 190

Uses and contrasts of “ser” and “estar”

191

Es terca. (She’s stubborn.) Está indecisa. (She’s undecided.) In the first example, an essential characteristic of the box is that it is round, hence the use of ser; that the box is empty entails the use of estar because, at some later time, it could be full. In the second, the soup is nice, and the suggestion is that it is a type of soup that is always nice, hence the use of ser, whereas the fact that the soup is cold is a temporary state of affairs, which leads to the use of estar – after all, it could be hot. In the third example, the people are innately intelligent, always have been and always will be, unless, unpredictably, they become unbalanced. Ser is the appropriate verb here. The welleducated people could have been poorly educated, but may have been born awash with money so are well educated. The contingent nature of their education is characterized by estar. In the last pair, one of the girl’s permanent features is that she is stubborn, as implied by ser; notwithstanding her stubbornness, she could be undecided at a particular moment, which explains the use of estar.

35.2 “Ser” and “estar” + adjective It can happen, unfortunately, that the same adjective may be used with both verbs, according to the idea in the mind of the speaker or writer. Here, the distinction is usually clearly marked, but not always. It is comforting to note that many Spanish-speakers do sometimes hesitate over ser or estar, which explains why a good all-Spanish dictionary will offer guidance on frequent occasions. The following pairs of examples illustrate the difference of meaning of an adjective, according to the use of ser or estar. Es pálida. (She’s pale [her complexion is naturally pale].) Está pálida. (She’s pale [because of sickness or fear].) Estas manzanas son agrias. (These apples are sharp [that’s their characteristic].) Estas manzanas están agrias. (These apples are sharp [they aren’t usually sharp].) La mujer es amable. (The woman is pleasant [she always is].) La mujer está amable. (The woman is pleasant [today].) El hombre es loco. (The man is mad [needs medical attention].) El hombre está loco. (The man is mad [furious or has some crazy idea].) Tu hermano es bueno. (Your brother is good [agreeable person].) Tu hermano está bueno. (Your brother is in good health.) Mi hijo es malo. (My son is bad [naughty and always is].) Mi hijo está malo. (My son is unwell.) Mi tensión es alta. (My blood pressure is high [generally].) Mi tensión está alta. (My blood pressure is high [at the moment].) In relation to the final example, note that one would almost always hear: Su temperatura está alta. The distinction between ser and estar with the following three adjectives is somewhat fine, but exists nevertheless. To some extent, when these adjectives are used with ser, they can be viewed almost as nouns. Consider the following pairs of examples. Mi hermano es casado. (My brother is married [a married person, civil state].) Mi hermano está casado. (My brother is married.) Mi madre es jubilada. (My mother is retired [a pensioner].) Mi padre está jubilado. (My father is retired [in a retired state].)

192

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Mi tío es soltero. (My uncle is an unmarried person.) Mi tía está soltera. (My aunt is not married.) It follows from the pairs of sentences with casado and jubilado that one can only say the following: Mi hija está casada con un argentino. (My daughter is married to an Argentinian.) Están casados desde hace dos años. (They have been married for two years.) Estoy jubilada desde hace diez años. (I have been retired for ten years.) It also follows from the distinctions made above that, whereas in English (or French, for that matter) one could use the same verb, to be (or être) with adjectives that implied different features, ser could not be used for both adjectives or past participles at the same time, anymore than estar could be. The examples below illustrate this point. La carne era buena y estaba bien guisada. (The meat was good and was well cooked.) La sala era grande y estaba desierta. (The room was big and deserted.) La chica era alta y estaba mal vestida. (The girl was tall and badly dressed.) The following lists highlight the different uses. 35.2.1 Ser With adjectives classifying the subject into a category, as in nationality/religion: Mi esposa es venezolana. (My wife is Venezuelan.) Aquel señor es argentino. (That gentleman is Argentinian.) El león es carnívoro. (The lion is a carnivore.) When the adjective is an inherent property of the subject: El carbón es negro. (Coal is black [i.e. all coal].) El hielo es frío. (Ice is cold [(i.e. all ice].) When the adjective is a possible physical or moral property of the subject, even though this may not be “inherent” or “permanent,” and is liable to change: Juanito es alto. (Juanito is tall.) El vecino es rico. (The neighbor is rich.) La mujer es joven. (The woman is young.) El cuento es triste. (The tale is sad.) Where the adjective expresses a measurement, quantity or comparison: Los jitomates (M) son caros. (Tomatoes are expensive but: Los jitomates están caros (i.e. at the moment)].) La calle es estrecha/angosta (A, C, M). (The street is narrow.) Juana es distinta de su hermana. (Juana is different from her sister.) Where the subject is a proposition or its equivalent: Este problema es difícil. (This problem is difficult.) Mandar la carta es fácil. (Sending the letter is easy.) 35.2.2 Estar When referring to sickness, even it is permanent: Está enferma desde niña. (She’s been sick since childhood.) Estos árboles están enfermos. (These trees are damaged.) (But when enfermo is a noun, ser is used: Los drogadictos son enfermos. [Drug addicts are sick people.]) When suddenness or irony are implied: ¡Qué alta estás! (How tall you are! [Are you wearing very high heels?]) Hoy la nieve está blanquísima. (The snow is very white today [more than usual].) An appreciation of clothes, well fitting or otherwise: El abrigo te está corto. (Your coat is short on you.) Estos pantalones no me están bien. (These pants don’t fit me.)

Uses and contrasts of “ser” and “estar”

193

When referring to a profession or job: Estuvo de maestra en el pueblo. (She was an elementary/primary school teacher in the village.) Está de párroco. (He’s a parish priest.) Note the use of de in the above two examples. When referring to temperature: Hoy estamos a cero grados. (Today it’s zero degrees.) When referring to the price of things: El jamón está a cincuenta pesos. (The price of ham is fifty pesos.) When referring to time: Hoy estamos a quince. (Today is the fifteenth.) Estamos a 2 de enero. (It’s 2 January.) Other adjectives which vary in meaning, or nuance, according to the use of ser and estar are as follows: atento, ciego, cierto, claro, delicado, feliz, feo, grave, guapo, hermoso, húmedo, joven, libre, listo, moreno, mudo, nervioso, seguro, soltero, sordo, triste, viejo, viudo Many of these adjectives would be used with estar if they suggested a metaphoric meaning. For example: ¿Estás ciego/sordo/mudo, o qué? (Are you blind/deaf/dumb, or what?) El problema está en que (but es que) no sabemos. (The problem is that we do not know.) But: El resultado del partido fue claro (not estuvo). • With respect to ciego, sordo and mudo, ser would be used if the notion of permanency were suggested. For a Spanish-speaker, these three adjectives approach the value of a noun, as though one were to say: Es una persona ciega/sorda/muda. • Similarly: Es invitado a la ceremonia, differs from: Está invitado a la ceremonia, since the first invitado implies a noun, while the second points to a past participle, although, of course, nearly all participles in Spanish may be used as nouns. • Soltero and viudo function like casado (see Section 35.2 above). • A book can be triste and would therefore attract ser, while a person could be triste with either ser or estar, depending on a permanent characteristic or a temporary state. • A girl could be permanently hermosa, guapa or linda (A, C, M), with lovely features, or fea with unattractive features, and here ser would be used, while the use of estar here could suggest well or badly dressed, or dirty on a particular occasion. • A person está feliz over an exam result, but a happily married couple son felices. • The weather could be feo or húmedo with ser referring to climate, and temporarily bad or wet when estar is used. • Atento with ser would suggest full of care for others, but with estar, it would imply attentive (to what someone is saying). • Delicado and grave could be used with ser for a situation or someone’s characteristics. The use of estar here would refer to health, for example. • Nervioso with ser implies a nervous person while this adjective with estar points to the agitated state of a person. • Joven and viejo are often used with ser: Es joven/vieja. However, if these adjectives suggested variability or possibility of change, estar would be used. Para sus 50 años, está todavía joven. Están demasiado jóvenes/viejos para viajar. Está vieja con sus harapos mugrientos (grimy rags).

194

A Reference Grammar of Spanish • Cierto is normally used with ser, but estar could not be excluded, although it does not apply to people. Thus: Es/Está cierto que no van a venir. • One would need segura in the statement: Estoy segura de que. . ., and cierta could not be used here. Claro is normally used with estar, not ser, in the expression: Está claro que. . . For all the identical uses of these adjectives with ser and estar, it is quite clear that ser suggests permanency or essence, while estar relates to something passing.

35.3 Uses of “ser” and “estar” according to prepositions Ser and estar are used according to a following preposition (en and de, for instance), and here possibility of change has an effect. Las flores en el jardín están bonitas. (The flowers in the garden are attractive.) Las flores del jardín son bonitas. (The garden flowers are attractive.) In other words, the flowers that are in the garden at the moment (first sentence), but will no longer be seen at a later date, and probably will not return next year, attract the verb estar. The flowers one always associates with the garden (i.e. del jardín) leads to the use of ser, since the association suggests some kind of permanency.

35.4 Further differences between “ser” and “estar” There are some examples of contrast between ser and estar which are difficult to appreciate. However, if one looks behind the implications of the use of each verb in the following pairs of examples, one will understand the differences: Ser

Estar

Somos todos libres en este país. (We are all free in this country.) Todos mis estudiantes son listos. (All my students are intelligent.) Esta muchacha es muy viva. (This girl is very lively/intelligent.)

¿Estás libre para salir hoy? (Are you free to go out today) ¿Están (M)/estáis listos? (Are you ready?) Esta muchacha está viva. (This girl is alive.) Esta costumbre está todavía viva. (This custom is still alive.) Estoy segura de que vendrán hoy. (I’m sure they’ll come today.) Estoy feliz con mi nuevo trabajo. (I’m happy with my new job.) Está despierta. (She’s awake [not sleeping].) No sale estos días, está débil. (He doesn’t go out these days; he’s weak.) Está muy delicada, ha pasado tres bronquitis. (She’s very delicate, after three bouts of bronquitis.) La madre está orgullosa del triunfo de su hijo.

No es seguro que puedan hacerlo. (It’s not certain they can do it.) Desde que le tocó la lotería, es feliz. (Since winning the lottery he’s been happy.) Es una chica despierta. (She’s a smart girl.) Es un alumno muy débil. (He’s a very timid pupil.) Es un poeta muy delicado. (He’s a very sensitive poet.)

Es muy orgullosa; no hace caso a los consejos ajenos.

Uses and contrasts of “ser” and “estar”

(She’s very proud; she doesn’t pay any attention to the advice of others.)

195

(The mother is proud of her son’s success.)*

*In the first case, orgulloso suggests a negative quality, while in the second case it suggests a legitimate and positive quality.

Es negro. (He’s black [skin color].) Ella es católica. (She’s a Catholic.) Sólo se preocupa de lo suyo, es (un) interesado. (He’s only interested in himself, he’s selfish.) Sofía es alegre. (Sofía is a happy person.)

Ismael es muy considerado con los vecinos; nunca los molesta. (Ismael is very considerate with his neighbors; he never troubles them.) La versión/traducción es inglesa. (The version/translation is English.)

Estoy negra con mi nuevo trabajo. (I’m fed up/annoyed with my new job.) No está católica (R1). (She’s not well.) Nadie está interesado por la casa. (No one is interested in the house.) Sofía está alegre; acaba de recibir un regalito. (Sofía is happy (i.e. today), she’s just received a nice little present.) Según la policía, el chico está bien considerado en el vecindario. (According to the police, the boy is highly regarded in the neighborhood.) La versión/traducción está en inglés. (The version/translation is in English.)

Although feliz may be used with both ser and estar, depending on the meaning, it would be unusual for contento to be used with ser. It is almost always used with estar. Está muy contenta con el nuevo empleado/con su nuevo coche. (She’s very happy with the new worker/with her new car.)

35.5 Use of “ser” and “estar” in isolation Ser implies existence or identity. todo lo que es (all that is) ¿Quién es? (Who’s that/there?) Estar implies location or state of health. ¿Está Pedro? (Is Peter there?) ¿Cómo estás? (How are you?)

35.6 “Ser” and “estar” with prepositions 35.6.1 Estar is used in the following prepositional phrases, where it can be seen that the circumstances are temporary. Está con (la) gripe. (She’s got the flu.) Estoy sin dinero. (I’m without money.) El cuarto está a oscuras. (The room is in darkness.) Hoy está de mal/ buen humor. (Today he’s in a bad/good mood.) Mi abuela está de luto. (My grandmother is in mourning.) 35.6.2 Idioms with ser with prepositions: When denoting origin, or referring to substance, or belonging, ser de is used. Somos de Chihuahua. (We’re from Chihuahua.) Esta mesa es de madera. (This table is made of wood.)

196

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

La perfección no es de este mundo. (Perfection is not of this world.) ¿Qué ha sido de ella? (What’s happened to her?) ¿Qué será de mí? (What’ll happen to me?) 35.6.3 Idioms with estar with prepositions estar para/a punto de (to be on the point of/about to) estar para (to be in the mood for) No estoy para bromas. (I’m not in the mood for joking.) Yo estaba para/a punto de salir. (I was about to go out.) estar por (to be inclined to/be in favor of/[impersonal] remains to be) Estoy por llamarlo. (I’m inclined to phone him.) Estoy por la paz. (I’m in favor of peace.) Su mejor novela está por escribir. (Her best novel remains to be written.) estar en que (to believe) Estoy en que no se da cuenta. (I believe he doesn’t realize.) Other idiomatic expressions used with estar, where ser is not possible, are listed below. estar a/bajo las órdenes de alguien (to be under someone’s orders) estar con ánimo de viajar (to feel like traveling) estar de regreso/vuelta (to be back/have returned) estar en casa (to be home) estar algo por suceder (to be about to happen [something]) Estarse (i.e. used as a reflexive) has the meaning of to remain or keep. Estate quieto. (Keep quiet.) Se estuvo en la cama por miedo al frío. (She remained in bed, frightened of the cold.) estar de más (to be unnecessary/in excess) Los familiares estaban de más en aquella reunión. (The relations did not need to be at the meeting.) estar de sobra (to be unnecessary/in excess) Estos vestidos/estas palabras están de sobra. (These clothes/words are not necessary.)

35.7 “Ser” and “estar” as nouns Both ser and estar may be used as nouns, the latter in conjunction with an adverb. el ser humano (human being) el bienestar del hombre (man’s well-being) Tengo un malestar en el estómago. (My stomach feels uneasy.)

35.8 The various tenses of “ser” and “estar” Some of the tenses of ser and estar reappear in the treatment of tenses in different chapters (e.g. Chapter 24 on the preterit). However, it seems useful to list them all together here. The present tense appears at the beginning of this chapter. 35.8.1 Ser Past participle: sido > he/había/habré/habría sido, etc., has/habías/habrás/habrías, etc. Preterit: fui, fuiste, fue, fuimos, fuisteis, fueron Imperfect: era, eras, era, éramos, erais, eran Future: seré, serás, será, seremos, seréis, serán Imperative: sé, sea (Ud.), seamos, sed, sean (Uds.) Present subjunctive: sea, seas, sea, seamos, seáis, sean

Uses and contrasts of “ser” and “estar”

197

Imperfect subjunctive: fuera/fuese, fueras/fueses, fuera/fuese, fuéramos/fuésemos, fuerais/fueseis, fueran/fuesen 35.8.2 Estar Past participle: estado > he/había/habré/habría estado, etc. Preterit: estuve, estuviste, estuvo, estuvimos, estuvisteis, estuvieron Imperfect: estaba, estabas, estaba, estábamos, estabais, estaban Future: estaré, estarás, estará, estaremos, estaréis, estarán Imperative: esté, esté (Ud.), estemos, estad, estén (Uds.) Present subjunctive: esté, estés, esté, estemos, estéis, estén Imperfect subjunctive: estuviera/estuviese, estuvieras/estuvieses, estuviera/estuviese, estuviéramos/estuviésemos, estuvierais/estuvieseis, estuvieran/estuviesen

35.9 Further refinements on the distinctions and contrasts between with “ser” and “estar” 35.9.1 With nouns, pronouns and infinitives 35.9.1.1 Ser The following examples always use ser. Soy doctor (M)/médico. (I’m a physician/doctor.) ¿Quién es el jefe? (Who’s the boss?) No es nada. (It’s nothing.) Ver es creer. (Seeing is believing.) Durante la guerra mi padre fue capitán. (During the war my father was a captain [not the imperfect era].) 35.9.1.2 Estar The following are idiomatic usages of estar. Estás hecho un hombre. (You’ve turned into a man [big fellow].) Estoy hecha una sopa. (I’m soaked to the skin.) Están hechos polvo. (They’re exhausted.) Estoy hecha añicos. (I’m exhausted.) 35.9.2 With adverbs of place 35.9.2.1 Ser With subjects representing an event: La charla es en la otra aula. (The talk is in the other lecture theater.) La caja, ¿dónde es? (Where’s the check-out?) (In the last example estar is not possible. The following example illustrates the difference in usage in the one sentence.) Aquí es donde está el barco actualmente. (This is where the boat is at the moment.) Reorganization of a sentence for stress: Donde te vi fue en la Calle Mayor. (It was in the Main/High Street that I saw you) Fue en Denver donde (not que!) nos conocimos. (It was in Denver that we met [i.e. for the first time].) 35.9.2.2 Estar Designating place (very common use): El Museo de Arqueología está en la Ciudad de México. (The Museum of Archeology is in Mexico City.) ¿Dónde estás? (Where are you?) El libro está en el estante. (The book is on the shelf.) La misma idea está en su novela. (The same idea is in her novel.)

198

A Reference Grammar of Spanish In the last example, although idea is used metaphorically, it still calls for estar. Note the difference between ser and estar in the following examples when the adverbs lejos/cerca and adjectives cercano/lejano are used. Mi país es lejano/distante (adjective). (My country is far away.) Mi ciudad está lejos (adverb). (My town is far away.) Mi departamento (M) es cercano a la plaza (adjective). (My apartment is near the square.) El Zócalo está cerca del Ayuntamiento (adverb). (The main square [in Mexico City] is near the City/Town Hall.) There is some uncertainty over whether cerca and lejos may be used with ser. It is probably wiser to avoid this usage. Note that estar is always used with bien and mal. No está mal. (It’s not bad.) Está bien. (It’s okay.) In both these cases, estar is used when speaking of the appreciation of something.

35.10 “Ser” and “estar” with the gerund 35.10.1 Ser Fue amaneciendo y decidimos salir tempranito. (It was starting to get light and we decided to set out a bit early.) Note that fui llegando, fue llegando (I was/you were arriving, etc. are forms of ir llegando.) 35.10.2 Estar Estar is always used in the formation of progressive tenses. Estaba leyendo el periódico cuando. . . (I was reading the newspaper when. . .) Aquella tarde estuve leyendo un libro. (That afternoon I was reading a book.)

35.11 Miscellaneous uses of “ser” 35.11.1 Ser may be followed by an infinitive. Zambullirse en este lago es correr un gran riesgo. (Diving in this lake is running a big risk.) Comprar ese auto es despilfarrar el dinero. (Buying that car is a waste of money.) 35.11.2 Ser + de + infinitive + finite verb (an R3 construction). This construction is periphrastic and suggests necessity. Es de suponer que vengan esta tarde. (It is to be supposed that they will come this afternoon.) Es de creer que ha cumplido diez años. (It is to be believed that he’s now ten.) Es de temer que lleguen/arriben (A) tarde. (It is to be feared they will arrive late.) This construction may entail a noun subject, in which case es may change to son. Son de temer nuevas subidas de precio. (New price rises are to be feared.) Son de esperar más tormentas en Salta. (More storms are to be expected in Salta [Argentina].) 35.11.3 Ser + adjective + infinitive. This is a particularly common construction. Es necesario/indispensable/imprescindible/obligatorio/urgente/mejor/deseable/ importante/suficiente/posible/preferible/útil/inútil/arriesgado ir hoy. (It is necessary, etc. to go today.) 35.11.4 Ser + adjective + que + finite verb. This is an equally common construction and often involves the subjunctive. es evidente/obvio/falso/patente/visible/mejor/deseable/importante/posible/suficiente/ preferible/necesario/urgente/indispensable/obligatorio

Uses and contrasts of “ser” and “estar”

35.11.5

35.11.6

35.11.7

35.11.8

199

Es evidente que tienen razón. (It’s obvious they’re right.) Es falso que hayan fracasado. (It’s wrong that they have failed.) Es mejor que vayamos mañana. (It’s better that we go tomorrow.) Es indispensable que trabajes duro. (It is indispensable that you work hard.) Es is used with uno, and this creates uncertainty in agreement. Fue uno de los que supo/supieron entenderlo. (He was one of those who could understand him.) Es may also be used with adverbial and prepositional constructions, such as: es así como, es entonces cuando, es aquí donde, es por esto que. Es así como volvimos a casa. (That’s how we came home.) Fue entonces cuando nos dimos cuenta del error. (It was then we realized the error.) Es aquí donde se cayó. (It’s here that she fell.) Es por esto que no puedo salir. (It’s for that reason I can’t come out.) In the first three cases, que may not replace como, entonces, donde, although one does see it on occasions. It is considered a Gallicism and is to be discouraged. The expression un sí es no es has the meaning of somewhat. Aumentaba un sí es no es la rapidez de los pasos. (She increased somewhat the rhythm of her strides.) con un sonido un sí es no es extraño (with a somewhat strange sound) The sí of this expression may be found without its tilde > si. The very common expression o sea means that is to say, or put another way in Spanish > es decir. Hay veinte personas, o sea, yo creo que a lo menos hay veinte. (There are twenty people, that is, I think there are at least twenty.) Habla varios idiomas, o sea, es políglota. (She speaks several languages, that is, she’s a polyglot.) (Note that the passive voice with ser and estar could be included in this chapter, but it is treated separately in Chapter 39.)

36 Verbs used as substitutes for “ser” and “estar” (including “hay”) / Verbos utilizados como sustitutos de “ser” y “estar” (incluyendo “hay”) Below is a passage illustrating the various ways in which ser and estar may be replaced by a series of other verbs. The piece narrates the wanderings of a seriously deranged woman, who ends up in a hotel rather than back in the psychiatric hospital. Sí, a la vuelta se alzaba el obelisco y allá enfrente continuaba el Gran Hotel. Últimamente andaba algo pachucha (unwell), se encontraba cansada y a veces experimentaba cierto aturdimiento (bewilderment). Tras permanecer un momento contemplando la fachada que se elevaba ante ella, avanzó decidida. La gente se mostraba muy atenta, todos le sonreían y le iban dejando paso con presteza; debía resultar deslumbrante porque al entrar en el vestíbulo atrajo todas las miradas e incluso el recepcionista, según ella pudo apreciar, quedó fascinado por su presencia. Mientras seguía en el centro del vestíbulo, un guardia de seguridad se acercó con una manta y le dijo: —Tápese, señora. ¿Cómo se le ocurre a usted salir en camisón (nightgown) y descalza (nothing on your feet) a la calle? El recepcionista iba diciendo por teléfono: —Si, una señora, que al parecer no se halla en sus cabales (in her right mind). . . Claro. . . el hospital psiquiátrico se ubica aquí al lado.

36.1 Verbs used as substitutes Since ser and estar are such ubiquitous verbs, it is in no way surprising that Spanishspeakers have recourse to a wide range of verbs to express the concepts these two verbs convey. In a sense, we are delving into the area of synonyms, but it is worthwhile observing how other verbs come naturally to a Spanish-speaker, in Spain, the Canary Islands and the Americas, when the basic idea is contained in the verbs ser and estar. Below is listed a series of verbs that are frequently substituted for ser and estar. Naturally enough, these verbs do have other meanings which do not appear here. Some comments are made on the nuances of many of these verbs. These comments are accompanied by examples. It could, of course, be argued that one or two verbs from this list, like permanecer, are not, strictly speaking, true synonyms, but it seems appropriate to include them here. 36.1.1 Alzarse (to appear, to rise up [of an object]) En medio de la plaza se alza una estatua a la memoria de Verdi. (In the center of the square stands a statue to the memory of Verdi.) En la lejanía se alzaba un molino de harina. (In the distance a flour mill could be seen.) 36.1.2 Andar (to be) often suggests a moral quality, state of mind or physical appearance. He visto a Pedro en la Gran Vía, que andaba muy preocupado. (I have seen Pedro in the Gran Vía [Main/High Street]. He was/looked very worried.) Martina, la pobre, andaba muy sucia, con las alpargatas rotas. (Martina, poor girl, looked dirty, with broken rope sandals.) 200

Verbs used as substitutes for “ser” and “estar”

36.1.3

36.1.4

36.1.5

36.1.6 36.1.7

36.1.8

36.1.9

36.1.10

36.1.11

36.1.12

201

El practicante le dijo luego que no era nada y que dentro de diez días andaría buena. (The nurse then told her that it was nothing serious and that in ten days she would be fine.) Anda pachucha desde que le contagiaron aquel virus. (She’s not been well since they infected her with that virus.) Continuar (to continue) is often the equivalent of to be still. Juan continúa en la editorial. (Juan is still working at the publishing house.) Continuamos trabajando en la fábrica. (We are still working at the factory.) Encontrarse (to be, to be situated, to feel) is often used for being in a place or for health. It is very similar to hallarse (R3), but belongs to a lower register (in Spain). However, hallarse is much more common in A, C and M (R2; see hallarse in Section 36.1.7 below). Una casilla de madera se encontraba ubicada en el barrio X. (A wooden hut was situated in district X.)1 “¿Está Juan?” “No, no se encuentra aquí.” (“Is Juan there?” “No, he’s not [here].”) No me encuentro bien esta mañana. (I’m not/don’t feel well this morning.) Existir (to exist) is very similar in usage to the English to exist. En ese museo existen verdaderas joyas arqueológicas. (In that museum there are/exist real archeological treasures.) En mi casa existen cucarachas. (There are cockroaches in my house.) Existe una hoja de reclamaciones (in hotel). (We have a complaints book.) Experimentar (to feel, to experience) suggests a passing sensation or thought. Experimentó frío y calor al ver aquella escena. (She went hot and cold on witnessing that scene.) Hallarse (to be, to be situated) is very similar to encontrarse (see Section 36.1.4 above). Se hallaba en la pachanga (M). (She was at the party.) Me hallo cansada. (I feel tired ) Roberto se halla entre los diez mejores. (Roberto stands among the best ten.) Me hallaba a gusto en aquella casa. (I felt at home in that house.) Ir (to be) is often used with the gerund, suggesting that something is (slowly) taking place. La economía se ha ido recuperando. (The economy has been slowly recovering.) Iba mojado como un pez, pero no sentía el frío. (I was drenched to the skin, but did not feel the cold.) Como el tren iba retrasado, fuimos a la cantina. (Since the train was late, we went to the buffet.) Va amaneciendo. (It is getting light./ Dawn is breaking.) Levantarse (to rise up, to appear) is very similar to alzarse. Se levantaba ante ellos la magnífica figura de un caballo. (There rose up before them the magnificent form of a horse.) El campanario se levanta sobre el pueblo. (The belfry rises above the town.) Mostrarse (to be, to appear) is often related to behavior. La dependienta se muestra muy amable con todos los clientes. (The salesgirl is very nice to all the clients.) Se mostró muy atenta con nosotros. (She looked after us very well.) Se mostraron muy contentos. (They were/seemed very happy.) permanecer (to remain) El muchacho permanecía inmóvil. (The boy was/stood motionless.) El cielo permanece cubierto. (The sky is/remains cloudy.) Quedar(se) (to be, to remain) often refers to a state, and can indicate suddenness or sharpness of experience. 1

This example could be just Iberian, but it is Argentinian, and could certainly be Mexican or Colombian, since ubicado is most common there.

202

36.1.13

36.1.14

36.1.15

36.1.16

36.1.17

36.1.18

36.1.19

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Se quedó fascinada/atónita ante aquel espectáculo. (She was fascinated/stunned by that spectacle.) Me quedé pasmada/lela al oír sus palabras. (I was amazed/speechless on hearing his words.) Quedan dos semanas para las vacaciones. (There are two weeks before the vacation.) Ayer me quedé helada en su casa. (I was frozen in her house yesterday.) Se quedó huérfana/sorda a los seis años. (She was orphaned/deaf at the age of six.) Cuando se fue, me quedé muy sola. (When he left, I felt all alone.) Resultar (to be, to turn out, to prove) often suggests a consequence of something else. Se aburría tanto que le resultaba un pasatiempo escribirme unas líneas. (He was so bored that writing me a few lines was a pastime for him.) No lo vas a creer. Sentado resulta más alto que de pie. (You’re not going to believe this. But, he’s taller when sitting than when standing.) A causa de los baches y charcos, el camino resultó penoso de recorrer. (Because of the potholes and puddles, the path was difficult to negotiate.) Seguir (often translated in this context by to be still. . . when followed by the gerund) is similar to continuar, but much more common. Abundant examples are provided here since seguir is so pervasive in Spanish. No llovía, sin embargo el cielo seguía cubierto. (It wasn’t raining, but the sky was still cloudy.) Yo estoy mejor por fin. La que sigue mala es mi cuñada. (I am finally better. The one who is still sick is my sister-in-law.) La jefa sigue enfadada porque ayer y anteayer llegué con retraso a la oficina. (My boss is still angry because both yesterday and the day before I arrived late at the office.) Mi padre sigue siendo el presidente de nuestra compañía. (My father is still the president of our company.) A sus cincuenta años, la condesa seguía siendo una niña. (Even at fifty, the countess was still a child.) Mi hermana sigue deprimida. (My sister is still depressed.) sentirse (to feel) Juana se siente algo mareada. (Juana feels/is a bit queazy/ sick.) Este chico se sentía más importante que los demás. (This boy felt more important than the others.) (estar) sito (R3) [to be] situated) Es propietario de un negocio sito en la calle Velázquez. (He is the owner of a store/shop situated in Velázquez Street.) Diríjase a la agencia postal sita en la calle principal. (Go to the post office situated in the main street.) (estar) situado [to be] situated El nuevo hospital está situado en las afueras de esta localidad. (The new hospital is situated on the outskirts of this town.) surgir (to appear, to loom up) La agujas de la catedral surgían majestuosas del conjunto. (The cathedral spires were majestic/rose majestically over the surrounding area.) Surgió una grave cuestión política cuando abdicó el rey. (There arose a grave political question when the king abdicated.) ubicarse (to be located; much more common in A, C, M]) El colegio se ubica en un barrio residencial. (The school/college is in a residential district.) Nos ubicamos en un lugar privilegiado. (We got really good seats.) La catedral se ubica al norte de la ciudad. (The cathedral lies to the north of the city.)

Verbs used as substitutes for “ser” and “estar”

203

36.1.20 venir (to be still. . .; often used with the gerund) Lo venía diciendo yo desde hace mucho tiempo. (I’d been saying this for ages.) Viene utilizando nuestros servicios desde hace muchos años. (She’s been using our services for years.) El Manzanares (river near Madrid) venía casi seco; parecía un charco de agua. (The Manzanares was nearly dry; it seemed just a puddle.) La empresa viene desarrollando una gran actividad. (The company is still involved in great activity.) Hace un par de días que el nombre del presidente se viene mencionando en los periódicos. (The president’s name has been mentioned [and continues to be so] for a couple of days in the newspapers.) Venía cansada. (She was tired [when she arrived].) 36.1.21 Verse (to be; sometimes suggests the idea of “imagining”) Él se ve en la cumbre de su carrera. (He is at the height of his career.) La prensa no se verá afectada por esta declaración. (The press will not be affected by this statement.) Espera no verse sorprendida por el resultado del examen. (She hopes not to be surprised by the exam result.)

36.2 Hay (there is/there are) Below is a passage relating the activities of two thieves, one a Catalan. The narrator finally realizes that ladies’ purses/handbags rarely contain money these days. However, they do contain credit cards. Thwarted time and again, one of the thieves, the narrator, decides to study for a master’s degree in information technology applied by banks. He ends up with a lucrative job in a bank which allows him to pursue a similar activity. The passage illustrates the use of hay, and its variants. Note how the Catalan does not observe the more standard había in the second sentence. —¿Hay mucho ahí? —pregunté a mi socio (partner) El Catalán. —Habían doce euros y unos céntimos —contestó desanimado (disappointed). Yo pensé: “¡Ay de mí! ¡No hay derecho! Los tiempos cambian y hay mucha gente sin efectivo (cash) en el bolso. Como sigamos así, hay/habrá que cambiar de negocio. Cada vez hay más tarjetas de crédito. De cada diez carteras que pillamos (steal), no hay más de seis que tengan dinero contante y sonante (cash). Hay días que te trinca (capture) la poli y no has hecho ni treinta euros. Ya hay compañeros que nos ven como a dinosaurios; especialmente los que manipulan tarjetas. Ahí sí que hay negocio”. Por eso dije al Catalán: —Hemos de repartir el botín (booty), y desde mañana estudiaré un máster sobre aplicaciones informáticas bancarias, —y añadí—: ¿Crees que habrá un curso así? Él respondió sorprendido: —Creo que sí lo hay. Nos separamos algo apesadumbrados (with a somewhat heavy heart). Había que cambiar de vida. Hoy, sentado en mi despacho del Banco Rapaz, lo recuerdo con nostalgia. En mi vida ha habido días más emocionantes que los de ahora, pero nunca hubo tanto dinero en mi cuenta. (Hay could be treated under impersonal verbs in Chapter 44, but it is equally suitable to deal with it here.) Spanish-speakers do not necessarily view the use of hay as a substitute for ser and estar, since, etymologically and morphologically, they are poles apart. Hay is included in this chapter for English-speakers, for all three verbs suggest to be in English. 36.2.1 Hay derives from the verb haber, which has practically lost its original meaning of possession, connected as it is to the French verb avoir, and the Italian avere which both retain the

204

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

notion of possession. One of its principal values is that of an auxiliary verb (he hablado = I spoke/have spoken) in forming compound tenses. It has one other wide acceptation, namely when it is used impersonally. Only the third person singular is used impersonally in the singular (but see later in this chapter, Section 36.2.4), and it is used in all tenses and moods, and this includes the gerund and the infinitive in periphrastic expressions. hay (there is/are) había (there was/were) ha habido (there has/have been) hubo (there was/were) habrá (there will be) habría (there would be) haya there may be haya habido (there may have been) hubiera/hubiese (there would be) habiendo (there being) 36.2.2 One irregularity is that the present indicative is not ha but hay. This peculiar form is a combination of ha and the now obsolete y (there), which crops up in the French il y a (there is/are). Hay is used in the following way in the different tenses and moods. 36.2.2.1 Present indicative Hay un árbol cerca del río. (There is a tree near the river.) Hay muchos autos en la calle. (There are many cars in the street.) Hay un estudiante en el auditorio. (There is a student in the lecture hall.) Hay centenares de espectadores. (There are hundred of spectators.) Hay sólo un invitado. (There is only one guest.) 36.2.2.2 Perfect indicative Ha habido un accidente en autopista. (There’s been an accident on the express way/ motorway.) Ha habido inundaciones en la costa. (There have been floods along the coast.) 36.2.2.3 Preterit Hubo un serio problema. (There was a serious problem.) Hubo manifestaciones en el pueblo. (There were demonstrations in the town.) 36.2.2.4 Imperfect indicative Había un taxi en la puerta. (There was a taxi at the door.) Había niños jugando en el patio. (There were children playing in the yard.) 36.2.2.5 Future indicative Mañana no habrá función. (There will be no performance tomorrow.) La semana próxima habrá tres partidos. (Next week there will be three games.) 36.2.2.6 Conditional indicative Habría un atasco si todo el mundo acudiera. (There would be a traffic jam if everyone attended.) Habría árboles sin esta contaminación. (There would be trees without this pollution.) 36.2.2.7 Present subjunctive No creo que haya tiempo. (I don’t believe there’s time.) No es justo que haya diez jugadores jugando contra once. (It’s not right that there should be ten players playing against eleven.) 36.2.2.8 Perfect subjunctive Es imposible que haya habido un niño fumando. (A child could not have been smoking there.) No admito la idea de que no haya habido jueces en el tribunal. (I don’t accept the idea that there were no judges in the court.) 36.2.2.9 Imperfect subjunctive Si hubiera/ese una dificultad la zanjaría. (If there were a difficulty, I’d solve it.) Si hubiera/ese posibilidades de ir mañana, las consideraría. (If there were possibilities of going tomorrow I’d consider them.)

Verbs used as substitutes for “ser” and “estar”

205

36.2.2.10 Past participle Este accidente no es sino uno más de los habidos en el mes de agosto. (This accident is just one more of those occurring in August.) The use of hay reverting to its infinitive form haber may be used periphrastically with both singular and plural nouns. Puede haber otro problema. (There could be another problem.) Puede haber otras opciones. (There could be other choices.) Durante el partido va a haber violencia. (During the game there will be violence.) Debe de haber varios obstáculos. (There must be several obstacles.) Solía haber demasiados pasajeros en el autobús. (There were usually too many passengers on the bus.) 36.2.3 Hay (and its variants) may also be used in conjunction with pronouns which precede it or, in the case of the infinitive, are attached to it enclitically. Hubo un problema > Lo hubo. No habrá función > No la habrá. Había varios autos > Los había. Me preguntó si había niños en la calle. Contesté: —Sí, los había. ¿Hay preguntas? Sí, puede haberlas. 36.2.4 There may be confusion or hesitation over the plural and singular with hay and its variants. It is manifestly clear from all the examples related to hay and its variants, that only the singular third person form has been referred to and used as examples. However, apart from much of Spain (e.g. Castile, but not including Catalonia) and many of the countries of the Americas, this is not the case. Purists recommend hay as only associated with a singular verb, just as il y a is in French. Yet the tense variations of hay are increasingly attracting a plural form, even in untutored speech in Castile. Whether this derives from the Italian ci sono (from singular c’è) is purely speculative, but it is a possibility. The stronger case is that many Spanish-American speakers, and the linguistically unaware in Spain, and especially in Catalonia, no longer see (or perhaps sense) that nouns involved with había, for instance, are its complement or direct object, notwithstanding the fact that nouns cannot be the subject of había. One cannot therefore suppose that variations of hay, había, habrá, habría, and so on can ever have a plural form > habían, habrán, habrían. Indeed, in the present tense, this is the case. Only hay exists for singular and plural, as seen in the above examples. Doubtless influenced by other verbs, such as estar, ocurrir and existir, all of which are used personally with a subject, many Spanish-speakers use the variants of hay as though it had a subject, which entails, quite frequently, for instance, the use of había in a plural form > habían (there were), or habrá > habrán. Consequently, they put the various components of hay into the plural to agree with the following noun(s). The complement of hay has been transformed into its subject. This is especially true of Argentina, Colombia, Mexico, Peru and Venezuela. The following examples, all found in the written form, notably in newspapers, serve to illustrate this shift in usage, which does not meet with approval from grammarians but is rapidly gaining ground. Hubieron muchos factores que se opusieron a la realización del proyecto. (Expreso, Peru) (There were many factors opposed to the realization of the plan.) Entre ellos habían dos niñas embarazadas. (Caretas, Peru) (There were two pregnant girls among them.) Dice el ministro que van a haber reuniones con diferentes cancilleres. (Universal, Venezuela) (The minister says that there will be meetings with several embassy officials)

206

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Hubieron aumentos de hasta el 200 por ciento en un mes. (La Nueva Provincia, Argentina) (There were increases of up to 200 percent in a month.) Ya han habido experiencias positivas en tal sentido. (La Nueva Provincia) (There have already been positive experiments in this direction.) Aparentemente no habrán testigos. (La Nación, Argentina) (Apparently there will be no witnesses.) It should be added that these plural forms in speech are also perfectly normal for many Argentinian and Mexican speakers of Spanish. Furthermore, an auxiliary verb like poder may be found in the plural in many parts of Spanish America, although this is not the case in Spain, except in Catalonia. Pueden haber varias soluciones. (There may be several solutions.) The more accepted form here would be puede. Podrían haber varias soluciones. (There could be several solutions.) The more accepted form here would be podría. 36.2.5 Hay followed by que and then followed by an infinitive, denotes necessity or obligation, as shown in the examples below. Hay que ser prudente en carretera. (I/You/We etc. have to be careful on the road.) Hay que ir mañana. (I/You/We etc. have to go tomorrow.) 36.2.6 When a noun or equivalent word intervenes between haber and que, the idea of obligation is modified. Hay muchos monumentos que visitar. (There are lots of monuments to visit.) Hay más de una dificultad que vencer. (There is more than one difficulty to get over.)

36.3 Verbs used for temperature and personal feelings

36.3.1

36.3.2

36.3.3

36.3.4

36.3.5

For temperature and for personal feelings like hunger, a number of verbs are used, including ser and estar. The verb to be in English covers most of these. Hacer (for weather) Hace buen tiempo. (It’s nice weather.) Hacía un tiempo magnífico. (It was magnificent weather.) Tener (for personal reaction to the weather) Tengo frío/calor. (I am cold/hot.) Tenía un frío/calor espantoso. (I was frightfully cold/hot.) Tenía los pies helados. (My feet were frozen.) Estar (of things, when referring to heat, cold) Esta comida está fría. (This meal is cold.) La cama estaba muy fría. (The bed was very cold.) Ser (referring to cold, hot in a metaphorical sense) Es muy fría. (She’s very cold [indifferent].) Es muy caliente. ([S]he’s very hot [sexually].) Tener is also used in the following expressions where to be would appear in English. Tengo hambre/sed/prisa. (I’m hungry/thirsty/in a hurry.) Tenía una hambre/una sed/una prisa de miedo. (I was frightfully hungry/thirsty/I was in a frightful hurry.) When these nouns are qualified, by an adjective for instance, the indefinite article occurs. In most of these examples, a noun is used, which means that mucho/a is resorted to, and not muy. Tengo mucho calor/mucho frío. (I am very hot/very cold.) Tengo mucha hambre/mucha sed. (I am very hungry/very thirsty.)

37 Transitive and intransitive verbs / Verbos transitivos e intransitivos 37.1 Transitive verbs Below is a humorous piece of Spanish illustrating the use of transitive verbs. The passage describes a housewife caught between divorce and murdering the dog. Todos los días compro el periódico; eso no significa que lo lea porque debo trasportar a mis hijos al colegio, preparar la comida, tomar lecciones de francés, limpiar la vajilla (dishes), en fin, realizar mil y una tareas que a veces me abruman (overwhelm). Para aliviar la tensión que me produce la rutina, troto todos los días varios kilómetros, aunque a veces, mientras lo hago, me asaltan miedos absurdos, como que alguien me persigue. Cuando se lo cuento a mi marido, se burla de mí diciéndome ya no estoy para que me persiga nadie (no one would be interested enough in me to run after me). Con este ambiente, no logro reducir mis preocupaciones, especialmente cuando al regresar a casa habré de realizar una tarea ingrata que me produce náuseas, ya que todos los días paseo a nuestro perrito Chuchi. Este animal es la mascota de mis hijos pero, aunque es de ellos, lo cuido yo. Es un chucho (mongrel) obeso, y el veterinario ha prescrito que debe andar cuatro kilómetros diarios que se niega a hacer, si no es conmigo. Ya no sé si asesinar al perro o divorciarme de mi familia. A transitive verb has a subject – an actor who or which acts directly upon some person or thing – and an object – someone or something that suffers the action of the subject. The object must be expressed or the verb ceases to be transitive. This comment applies to both Spanish and English. Thus in Veo la casa (I see the house), veo is a transitive verb because it has an object (i.e. casa). Examples of other verbs used transitively (and there are innumerable verbs that may be used in this way) follow. Lee el periódico. (She reads the newspaper.) Veo la película. (I see the movie.) Maneja el carro. (She drives the car.) Visito la ciudad. (I visit the town.) Prepara la cena. (He prepares the meal.) Toman el avión. (They catch the airplane.)

37.2 Intransitive verbs Below is a humorous Spanish passage illustrating the use of intransitive verbs. The unsuspecting mother ought to know how old her children are. Había amanecido (dawned) un hermoso día. Brillaba un sol espléndido. Habían florecido ya las rosas y el aroma se extendía por todo el parque. Los niños jugaban riendo sin parar. Cuando ella apareció, creo que palidecí (went pale) visiblemente.

207

208

A Reference Grammar of Spanish —Me alegro de haberte encontrado. Hacía muchos años que no os veía. Los mellizos (twins) parecen muy mayores, han crecido mucho. Ahí están: subiendo, bajando, corriendo. . ., ya no lloran ni tosen, como antes. ¡Da gusto verlos! ¿Cuántos años tienen ya? —Tú sabrás, para eso eres su madre. Cuando te fuiste te llevaste todo lo que había en nuestra casa, ¡hasta sus partidas de nacimiento! (birth certificates) If the verb does not have a direct object, it is used intransitively. Corro/ando todos los días. (I run/walk every day.) Voy a Roma. (I go/am going to Rome.) Venimos aquí a menudo. (We come here often.) El niño nada en un río. (The child swims in a river.) El sol brilla. (The sun shines.) El pasto (A, C, M)/la hierba crece. (The grass grows.) As seen in the first four examples, an intransitive verb may be further extended by means of adverbial expressions of manner, time or place, but this does not amount to supplying the verb with an object.

37.3 Use of transitive and intransitive In English, most verbs may be used either transitively or intransitively. However, in Spanish, they rarely oscillate from one class to the other. If we take the use of a transitive verb in English: The man opens the door, we discover that the verb to open may be used intransitively: The door opens. The Spanish equivalent abrir is often only used transitively: El hombre abre la puerta. It cannot be used in an intransitive way unless it becomes reflexive (see Chapter 38) or refers to a repeated or customary action (see Section 37.3.2 below). 37.3.1 Before further analysis, one would do well to consider how the two Spanish verbs bajar and subir may be used transitively and intransitively. By comparing the transitive and intransitive uses of bajar and subir, the differences stand out more clearly. The transitive precedes the intransitive for each verb in the list below. Baja las escaleras. (She goes down the stairs.) Bajan de la montaña. (They go down the mountain.) Baja/Bajá (A) los libros, por favor. (Bring down the books, please.) Los precios bajan/suben. (Prices are going down/up.) El niño sube las escaleras de dos en dos. (The child goes up the stairs two by two.) Sube al primer piso. (She goes up to the first floor.) Subió los sillones con una polea. (She sent up the armchairs with a pulley.) La temperatura sube. (The temperature’s going up.) In the first example of transitive verbs, bajar has an object (i.e. escaleras), whereas in the first case of intransitive verbs, the noun montaña is not the object of bajan since it is preceded by a preposition, and produces an adverbial expression of place. In the second cases, libros are the complement or direct object of baja, while the sentence: Los precios bajan/suben has no direct object and stands by itself to convey a full meaning. It becomes obvious that a transitive verb requires an object to provide a proper meaning to the sentence, while this is not the case for intransitive verbs. Indeed, intransitive verbs do not take an object at all – if they do, they cease to be intransitive verbs and become transitive. 37.3.2 Returning to the case of abrir (and here we include cerrar), it may be used intransitively when something occurs habitually.

Transitive and intransitive verbs

37.3.3

37.3.4

37.3.5

37.3.6

209

Las tiendas abren a las nueve. (The stores/shops open at nine o’clock.) Las tiendas cierran a las siete. (The stores/shops close at seven.) It should be noted that the reflexive form cannot be excluded here. At the same time, one could only say: La puerta cierra bien (i.e. non-reflexive). Compare the intransitive application here to the following reflexive use (see also Chapter 38 on reflexive verbs for a fuller treatment). ¡Cuidado! La puerta se cierra/abre. (Careful! The door is closing/opening.) Se could not be omitted here, since it is something precise, imminent and active. The concept of habitual occurrence also affects the verb parar. Los autobuses siempre paran aquí. (The buses always stop here.) The reflexive form cannot be used here, but: El carro se paró inmediatamente. (The car stopped immediately [i.e. on one occasion].) It would be abnormal if, in the first case, se preceded paran, and if in the second case se were not used. Exclusion and inclusion of se in the respective examples are unavoidable. In Spanish, a few transitive verbs, whose objects are not very essential to the meaning, may be used intransitively, as shown in the pairs of examples below. Merece el trofeo. (She deserves the trophy.) El alumno está intentando merecer. (The pupil tries to be deserving.) Ella va a cantar una copla. (She’s going to sing a couplet.) Ella va a cantar. (She’s going to sing.) Vi que escribía una carta. (I saw she was writing a letter.) Vi que escribía. (I saw her writing.) Quiero beber agua/comer una golosina. (I want to drink water/eat a candy.) Quiero beber/comer. (I want to drink.) El camino nos condujo a la fuente. (The path led us to the fountain.) El camino conducía a la fuente. (The path led to the fountain.) Certain intransitive verbs may take what is called a cognate object – that is, one that is allied to, or related in meaning to, the verb. Vive una vida miserable. (She lives a wretched life.) Lloró lágrimas de gozo. (She wept tears of joy.) Durmió el sueño de los justos. (He slept the sleep of the just.) Corrió la carrera de su vida. (She ran the race of her life.) Hablaron palabras de gratitud. (They spoke words of gratitude.) In a general way, verbs are seldom used interchangeably from transitive to intransitive, and vice versa. Resort must be had to one of the expedients listed below, or another verb must be selected. El capitán hizo estallar/explotar la bomba. (The captain exploded the bomb.) (Detonar or explosionar would suit transitively here.) Dejé caer el libro. (I dropped the book.) (Se me cayó el libro would suit here.) El centinela lo/le hizo parar. (The sentry stopped him.) (Parar could be used here.) Inevitably, there are some intransitive verbs that are used transitively. Strictly speaking, this usage is “incorrect,” but the function of this book is not only to prescribe good usage but also to observe tendencies. The “incorrect” usage would therefore appear as R1, the “correct” as R2. In the examples below, R1 precedes R2. La policía incautó un arsenal de armas./La policía se incautó de. . . (The police confiscated. . .) Cesaron al director de TVE./Destituyeron al director. . . (They dismissed. . .) Urgieron a los obreros a abandonar la empresa./Instaron a los obreros a. . .) (They urged the workers to. . .)

210

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Me quedo tu libro./Me quedo con tu libro. (I’ll keep your book.) 37.3.7 Some transitive verbs are used intransitively. The two examples below are strikingly common, so that grammarians are losing ground here as well. Again, R1 precedes R2 in the examples. Los jugadores entrenan dos veces a la semana./Los jugadores se entrenan. . . (The players train. . .) He suspendido en matemáticas./Me suspendieron en. . . (I failed in math[s]). It should be stated in conclusion that only transitive verbs may be used passively. This applies to English as well. An intransitive verb like andar or dormir cannot be used passively any more than to sleep can in English. (See Chapter 39 for the passive voice.) Interestingly enough, although to walk is commonly used intransitively, it could be used transitively in to walk a dog or to walk a child to school. Andar could not be used in this way. Pasear would be used in the case of the dog, and acompañar in the case of the child. 37.3.8 Pegar presents an unusual case. When pegar means to hit, to strike, it is transitive. El boxeador le pegó dos bofetadas. (The boxer punched him twice.) Pegar is used here with the direct object bofetadas. The direct object – in this case, bofetadas – is often omitted, but is understood, so that the equivalent of The boxer hit him is El boxeador le pegó, and here le is an indirect object, so that pegar is used intransitively. Many Spanish-speakers would not use lo (direct object) here instead of le. However, in certain parts of Spain, it is normal for lo (him) or la (her) to replace le, doubtless on analogy with golpear. Nos dijo que su padre lo/la pegaba. (She told us that her father hit her.) Here we have a form of loísmo or laísmo, but this would not be the case in Spanish America.

38 Reflexive verbs / Verbos reflexivos Below is a humorous piece of Spanish illustrating the use of reflexive verbs. Alejandro, who has developed the skillful art of sleeping, acts as a guinea pig (cobaya) for scientists conducting research into the problems of sleeplessness. He ends up exhausted through an excess of sleep. Alejandro se regodea (takes delight) vagueando (lazing around) en la cama hasta las diez, después, la rutina: levantarse, ducharse/darse un regaderazo (M), afeitarse/rasurarse (M), vestirse y apresurarse para tomar el autobús/camión (M); luego, tras colocarse las gafas/(los lentes (M) los anteojos (A)) oscuras y situarse en un asiento frente a su compañero Carlos, se dispone a dormir mecido por el traqueteo (rattling) del vehículo. Carlos se admira a sí mismo, es locuaz, egocéntrico, se oye cuando habla. Mientras el autobús se desplaza (moves) por la irregular carretera, Alejandro cabecea (sways) en su sueño, como si asintiera. Carlos, que se sumerge en su monólogo, nunca se ha apercibido de las siestas de su compañero o se lo reserva muy bien. Cuando Alejandro llega al trabajo, se introduce en una cabina donde hay una cama, se acuesta y, a continuación, se coloca electrodos en diversas partes del cuerpo, meciéndose (rocking) como un bebé para dormirse otra vez. No se considera desgraciado en su trabajo como cobaya del Instituto de Trastornos del Sueño, aunque dormir tanto puede llegar a ser agotador, puesto que se entrena constantemente.

38.1 Characteristics of reflexive verbs 38.1.1 A transitive verb is called reflexive or pronominal when its action returns upon the actor – in other words, when the subject and object are identical. A reflexive verb is a kind of transitive verb because it does have a direct object. Although reflexive verbs exist in English, it is possible in most cases not to use them. For example, we would much more easily say I washed this morning than I washed myself this morning. However, in Spanish, this is not the case. If we said Lavé esta mañana, a Spanish-speaker would wonder what you were washing – the car, your clothes, sheets, etc. If you wanted to say that you were actually washing yourself, you would need to use a reflexive pronoun with the verb lavar. So, the me of me lavé is vital if you want to be clear about what is being washed, in this case, you. Whatever the form of the subject, and whether expressed or not, the object is always a pronoun, always expressed, and agrees in person and number with the verb. (See Chapter 56 for pronouns.) The usual position of the pronominal object or pronoun object is immediately before the verb or the auxiliary verb, or attached enclitically to the infinitive. The following pattern of the verb bañarse (to have a swim; but in M to have a shower) will serve for all tenses and combinations. yo me baño, tú te bañas, vos te bañás (A), él/ella/Ud. se baña, nosotros/as nos bañamos, vosotros/as os bañáis, ellos/ellas/Uds. se bañan It should be borne in mind that Uds. in A, C and M, as in all Spanish America, is used to cover vosotros/as as well as the Uds. of Spain.

211

212

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

38.1.2 Of course, bañar is also used non-reflexively, to mean to give a bath to or to give a shower to (M). Here are just a few very common verbs used reflexively and non-reflexively. The nonreflexive precedes the reflexive form in each case. abrir (to open)/abrirse (to open), aburrir (to bore)/aburrirse (to get bored), acercar (to bring closer)/acercarse (to get closer), acostar (to put to bed)/acostarse (to go to bed), afeitar (not in M); to shave [someone])/afeitarse (to shave [yourself]), alegrar (to make happy)/alegrarse (to cheer up), arreglar (to arrange, to fix)/arreglarse (to get ready), avergonzar (to put to shame)/avergonzarse (to be ashamed), cansar (to tire)/ cansarse (to get tired), cerrar (to close/shut)/cerrarse (to close/shut), creer (to believe)/creerse (to believe), desgarrar (to tear)/desgarrarse (to tear/get torn), despertar (to wake [someone] up)/despertarse (to wake up), enfadar (to make angry)/enfadarse (to get angry), enojar (A, C, M; to make angry)/ enojarse (to get angry), estremecer (to shake)/ estremecerse (to tremble), fundir (to melt)/ fundirse (to melt), hender (to split)/ henderse (to split), lavar (to wash)/lavarse (to wash [yourself]), levantar (to lift up)/levantarse (to get up), mojar (to wet)/mojarse (to get wet), pasear (to take for a walk)/pasearse (to go for a walk), pensar (to think)/pensarse (to think [hard]), perder (to lose)/ perderse (to lose/miss), rasurar (M; to shave [someone])/rasurarse (to shave [yourself]), secar (to dry)/secarse (to dry), sentar (to seat)/sentarse (to sit [down]) A great number of verbs may be used reflexively in this way, and it would serve little purpose to attempt a comprehensive list. Here are some examples of usage. Acerca la silla, por favour. (Bring the chair closer, please.) Me acerco a la ventana. (I move closer to the window.) No creo en Dios. (I don’t believe in God.) ¡No me lo creo! (I just can’t believe that!) Su actitud enoja (A, C, M) a todo el mundo. (Her attitude makes everyone angry.) Se enoja al enterarse de lo ocurrido. (Enojar[se] is R3 in Iberian Spanish.) (She gets angry when she learns what has happened.) Pensó en sus vacaciones. (She thought about her vacation.) Se lo pensó bien. (She gave it a lot of thought.) Perdí la pelota. (I lost the ball.) ¡No te pierdas la oportunidad/el tren! (Don’t miss the opportunity/train!) Voy a pasear al perrito. (I’m going to take the dog for a walk.) Se están paseando. (They’re out for a walk.) María acostó al niño. (María put the child to bed). Me acuesto a las once. (I go to bed at eleven.) Quería sentarse. (She wanted to sit down.) María sentó a la niña en la silla. (Maria sat the girl down on the seat.) Esos zapatos lastiman (A, C, M) los pies. (Those shoes hurt my feet.) ¡Me lastimé (la pierna)! (Lastimar[se] is R3 in Iberian Spanish.) (I’ve hurt myself/[my leg]!) 38.1.3 If two verbs, both with a reflexive use, occur close together in the same sentence, the second reflexive is not necessary, particularly if an idea recurs. La vida de la familia se debilita y desestabiliza. (The life of the family is weakening and becoming unstable.) But if there is some separation, the reflexive is repeated. El agua se pone en una olla. Después se hierve, y tras dos minutos se añade un poco de sal. 38.1.4 One of the most common and idiomatic uses of Spanish reflexive verbs, as with many idiomatic uses, does not have a direct equivalent in English. The reflexive may be used in the singular or plural form. The reflexive can only be rendered in a passive way in English,

Reflexive verbs

213

unless one chooses to change the English construction completely. This construction is called in Spanish pasiva refleja (passive reflexive). Se venden periódicos aquí. (Newspapers are sold here./They sell newspapers here.) Se venden carros (M) en un supermercado. (Cars are sold in a supermarket./They sell. . .) Se alquila un piso. (Apartment for rent.) Se renta un departamento (A, C, M). (Apartment for rent.) Se busca una secretaria. (Secretary wanted [to work].) Se plantea el siguiente problema. (The following problem arises.) Se reduce la deuda a mil dólares. (The debt is reduced to a thousand dollars.) 38.1.5 In the construction se compran carros or se venden pisos, one frequently comes across a lack of agreement – that is se vende pisos or se repara televisores. There is some discussion over the grammatical legitimacy of this construction. It is probably best to avoid it, although it is extremely common. However, for Argentina, the following observation should be made: recourse to the singular verb seems to occur in Argentina with regular consistency and appears to attract universal approval. Alternation between se venden cuadros and se vende cuadros appears as normal. Further examples where the singular occurs, and where one might expect the plural, follow below. Un proyecto en el que se señala las características que deberá tener el cuerpo de inspectores municipales. (La Nueva Provincia) Considero que a la ciudadanía se le va a entregar casitas. (La Nueva Provincia) . . .animales, entre los que se incluye los chimpancés, los gorilas. . . (La Nación) 38.1.6 Complications arise when the reflexive pronouns (see Chapter 56 on Pronouns) are no longer the direct object but the indirect object. Consider the following two pairs of examples. Me lavo. (I wash [myself].) Me lavo las manos. (I wash my hands.) Me corto. (I cut myself.) Me corto el dedo. (I cut my finger.) In these cases, me in me lavé is a direct object, but in me lavo las manos it is an indirect object, since the direct object becomes las manos. Similarly, in the second sentence, el dedo is the direct object and me is the indirect object. Note also that in this type of construction, a possessive adjective is not used, but the definite article. (See Section 57.4 for usage with pronouns and parts of the body.) This is not the case in English. Fortunately, pronouns preceding verbs in the perfect tense have no repercussions on the past participle, as they do in French and Italian, largely because the perfect tense in Spanish is only conjugated with haber, and not with ser or estar. Se ha vendido la casa. (The house has been sold.) Se han comprado los boletos (M)/las entradas. (The tickets have been bought.) 38.1.7 When two verbs are involved, the se may or may not be repeated. En esta tienda se compran y (se) venden relojes. (Watches are bought and sold in this store/shop.) Similarly, the omission or inclusion of the se when referring to persons is possible. Me lavo y (me) rasuro cada mañana. (I wash and shave every morning.) In both these cases, the inclusion of the second se is more common.

38.2 Reflexive verbs as reciprocal verbs 38.2.1 Reflexive verbs can often be referred to as reciprocal verbs when several actors or subjects act upon each other. In these cases, the subject is always plural.

214

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Se engañan. (They deceive themselves/each other.) Nos felicitamos. (We congratulate ourselves/each other.) Se miran. (They look at themselves/each other.) Se ven en el espejo. (They see themselves/each other in the mirror.) Se ayudan los siniestrados. (The victims help each other.) 38.2.2 Sometimes, a reinforcing expression is used to make the meaning clear. Se detestan mutuamente. (They loathe each other.) Los políticos no se entienden entre sí. (Politicians don’t understand each other.) Los soldados se ayudan unos a otros. (The soldiers help each other.) Se odian una a otra. (They hate each other.) 38.2.3 There are some Spanish verbs that may only be used in the reflexive form, or are rarely used in a non-reflexive form, and have no genuine reflexive interpretation. abstenerse de (to abstain from), arrepentirse de (to repent of), atreverse a (to dare to), ausentarse (to absent yourself), dignarse (to deign to), jactarse de (to boast of), quejarse de (to complain of), vanagloriarse (to boast) Se arrepienten de su error. (They repent of their error.) Se atrevió a subir a la cumbre. (She dared to climb up to the top.) Se digna concedernos una entrevista. (She deigns to give us an interview.) Nos quejamos de nuestra mala suerte. (We complain[ed] of our bad luck.)

38.3 Reflexive verbs with parts of the body (See Section 57.4 for a fuller treatment of this subject.) Where parts of the human body are concerned, the reflexive pronoun is very common. It has repercussions on other parts of the sentence as well. Consider the following sentences. Me puse la chaqueta/chamarra (M)/campera (A). (I put on my jacket.) Te quitaste los zapatos. (You took your shoes off.) Se rompió el brazo. (He broke his arm.) Se hizo daño en el tobillo. (She hurt her ankle.) Se lastimaron la cabeza (M). (They hurt their heads.) Note two features here. One is the use of the reflexive and the second is the use of the definite article before the direct object: la chaqueta, los zapatos, and so on. The possessive adjectives corresponding to my, your. . . (mi, tu, su, etc.) are not possible here. The reflexive does the work of the possessive adjective.

38.4 Variations on the place of the reflexive pronoun When the subject is a pronoun, it is often omitted, unless emphasis is required. The reflexive pronoun usually tells us what the subject is. As with all pronouns (see Section 56.6.6), the reflexive object can be attached to the infinitive or precede one or two auxiliary verbs coming before the infinitive. The meaning is the same. It may be added in passing that these three usages are equally common in Italian, and in old French. Me quiero lavar./Quiero lavarme. (I want to wash.) ¿Te quieres acostar?/¿Quieres acostarte? (Do you want to go to bed?) ¿Querés acostarte?/¿Te querés acostar?(A) Nos vamos a rasurar./Vamos a rasurarnos. (M) (We are going to have a shave.) Te puedo ir a visitar./Puedo irte a visitar./Puedo ir a visitarte. (I can come to visit you.) Similarly, the reflexive is either attached to the gerund or placed before the verb estar.

Reflexive verbs

215

Bear in mind that a written accent needs to be placed over the appropriate vowel when the reflexive, or any pronoun, is added to the gerund. Estoy lavándome./ Me estoy lavando. (I am washing [myself].) Está rasurándose./Se está rasurando. (He’s shaving [himself].) Están paseándose./Se están paseando. (They are out for a walk.)

38.5 Impersonal uses of the reflexive 38.5.1 An important characteristic of the Spanish reflexive se is its impersonal use. It has no equivalent in English, or in French or Italian for that matter. Neither is it easy to explain or translate. The closest we can get is by stating that se used in this way is an independent speech element of impersonal character, referred to in Spanish as the pasiva refleja, touched on earlier in this chapter (Section 38.1.4). Furthermore, the se here is not the subject of the sentence, even though it appears at the beginning of, or near to the beginning of, the sentence. Such a complicated explanation is regrettable, but there seems no simple way of dealing with this question. To take one simple example, Se la llama is the equivalent of Es llamada (She is called). The la may be replaced by las, lo or los, depending on gender and number. These pronouns are direct objects of a transitive verb. A seemingly inextricable problem arises when the pronoun accompanying the se in this construction is felt by many Spanishspeakers to be an indirect object, so that we end up with two possibilities: the pronoun or noun accompanying the se is both a direct and an indirect object. Thus the English sentence He was seen could be Se lo vio or Se le vio. Similarly, She was seen could be either Se la vio or Se le vio. The problem deepens when the distinctive a + noun precedes the verb. A la chica se la llama María. (The girl is called Maria. They call her Maria [which is not necessarily her real name].) This may also be construed as: A la chica se le llama María. The construction Ella se llama María is quite different, since here the verb is pronominal or a pure reflexive: Her name is Maria. A further example, not with a proper noun, but with the letters b and v, illustrates this problem just as clearly. A la “b” se la llama la b alta o grande, y a la “v” se la llama v chiquita o corta. (The b is called b alta or b grande, and the v is called v chiquita or corta.) This may be construed as: A la “b” se le llama la b alta o grande, y a la “v” se le llama v chiquita o corta. In Spain, the sentence of the type: Se le (indirect pronoun) ve preocupada seems to be preferred to the Se la (direct object) ve preocupada which is the dominant construction in Spanish America. Seco’s Diccionaro de dudas (p. 180) indicates that this latter construction is common in all Spanish America. This use of se is unique, which is why many examples will be the most helpful method of illustrating the feature. Se las/les ayudó a las víctimas. (The injured were helped.) Se lo/le vio al hombre. (The man was seen.) No se lo/le/los/les ve. (You can’t see him/her/them.) Se la/le detuvo a la mujer. (The woman was stopped/arrested.) Se los/les aconsejó comprarlo. (They were advised to buy it.) Se les pidió ayuda. (They were asked for help.) Se nos reclamó una compensación. (They claimed compensation from us.) Se los/las/les puso una multa. (They were fined.)

216

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Se nos entregó una carta. (A letter was delivered to us.) Se la/le ve guapa. (She is good-looking.) Se le/la ve preocupada/triste. (She looks worried/sad.) Se los/las/les avisará a los accionistas. (The shareholders will be informed.) Se los/les reconoció esta posibilidad a los jóvenes. (This possibility was admitted to the young people.) El atacante, al que no se ha identificado. . . (The aggressor, who has not been identified. . .) Cuando está contenta, se le nota. (You can see when she’s happy.) An important point to make about the examples above can be illustrated with the second example. If we had said Se vio el hombre (en el espejo), we would mean that the man saw himself in the mirror. To suggest that the man was seen by someone else, the reflexive se precedes lo/le. In all the sentences above, there is a direct or an indirect object: lo/la/le, os, nos, los/las/les. Finally, for a Spanish-speaker, it is an elegant way of avoiding what could be a heavy or cumbersome passive. 38.5.2 This use of the impersonal passive reflexive se generates complicated structures, as shown in the following sentence. Al conde, un pícaro italiano que supo ganarse el favor de la nobleza europea del siglo XVII, se le atribuye una extraña profecía. (A strange prophecy is attributed to the count, an Italian rake who was able to gain the favor of the European nobility in the seventeenth century.) This construction, involving the initial use of the preposition a, leads to the very common use of se, albeit more in written form, in the following way. (It is as much a question of word order as anything else.) A todos los miembros se les pidió que contribuyeran más dinero. (All the members were asked to contribute more money.) A muchas alumnas se les animó a trabajar más duro. (Many pupils/students were encouraged to work harder.) Al autor se le alabó por su nueva novela. (The author was praised for his new novel.) 38.5.3 The impersonal se is also used with intransitive verbs. Cuando se tiene treinta años. (When you are thirty years old.) Cuando se es viejo. (When you are/one is old.) Si se muere. (If you/one dies.) Se vive mal aquí. (You don’t live well here.) 38.5.4 The impersonal se is also commonly used with verbs such as permitir, prohibir and poder. No se permite fumar aquí. (No smoking here.) No se puede pisar el césped. (You cannot walk on the grass./Please do not. . .) Se prohíbe fijar carteles. (You can’t stick posters [here]./Stick no bills.)

38.6 Different meaning (sometimes) when the verb is used reflexively Many verbs have a slightly different meaning (but not always) when used reflexively. Non-reflexive

Reflexive

aparecer (to appear [used most commonly] Apareció a la puerta/en el parque. (She appeared at the door/in the park.) cambiar (to change) Cambio esta ropa por otra. (I’m going to

aparecerse (to appear [as of a ghost]) La Virgen se les apareció a los pastorcillos. (The Virgin appeared to the shepherds.) cambiarse (Me cambio (de ropa). (I’m going to change clothes [put other clothes on].)

Reflexive verbs

change these clothes for others [in the clothes shop].) bajar (to go down) bajar las escaleras/de la montaña (to go down the stairs/the mountain) casar (to marry [someone to another] Los casó el alcalde. (The mayor married them.) (See Section 38.8 below.) desayunar (to have breakfast) ¿Has desayunado? (Have you had breakfast?)

enfermar (to fall sick) Enfermó del corazón. (She fell sick with heart trouble.) entrenar (to train [used transitively but see entrenarse opposite]) Este técnico entrena al equipo. (This manager trains the team.) hacer (to do, to make) Hago un pastel/la cama. (I make a cake/the bed.)

parar (to stop [used transitively and intransitively] El portero paró el penalty. (The goalkeeper stopped the penalty.) El tren para aquí todos los días. (The train stops here every day. [Se is not possible here.]) regresar (to return, to give back [more common in M and second meaning only in M]) Regresaron a casa. (They returned home.) Me regresó el paquete. (She returned the packet to me.) saltar (to jump) Saltaron de alegría. (They jumped for joy.) Saltó de la ventana. (She jumped out of the window.)

subir (to go up, to rise) Subimos la montaña. (We went up the mountain.) Los precios suben. (Prices are going up.)

217

bajarse (to get off) Bájate del tren en Zaragoza. (Get off the train in Saragossa.) casarse (to get married) Se casó con una colombiana. (He married a Colombian [woman].) desayunarse (to have breakfast) ¿Ya te desayunaste? (Have you had breakfast already? [old-fashioned in Spain now, but used frequently in Colombia]) enfermarse (to fall sick [M]) Se enfermó del estomágo. (She fell ill with stomach troubles.) entrenarse (to train [but increasingly used non-reflexively in this meaning] Esa atleta (se) entrena todos los días. (That athlete trains every day. [This non-reflexive use is not always accepted].) hacerse (to get used to) Diego se hizo al frío. (Diego got used to the cold.) No me hago a vivir sola. (I can’t get used to living alone.) pararse (to stop, to stand up [A, C, M] [used intransitively]) Se paró a hablar con la vecina. (He stopped to speak to the neighbour.) Se pararon (A, C, M)/levantaron los alumnos. (The pupils stood up.) Regresarse (to return [M]) ¿Cuándo se regresaron? (When did you/they come back?)

saltarse (to jump) [often suggests something unexpected or unlawful]) Se saltó el semáforo. (She jumped the [stop] lights.) Mi padre es un peligro público conduciendo: se salta todas las normas a la torera. (My father is a public danger behind the wheel: he ignores all the regulations in cavalier fashion.) subirse (to get on) Se subió al avión. (She got on the airplane.) Me subí al windsurf. (I got on the windsurf board.)

218

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

38.7 The reflexive used as an intensifier The reflexive is also used as an intensifier. The following examples illustrate how the reflexive pronoun gives a stronger, though essentially similar, meaning. Non-reflexive

Reflexive

caer (to fall) La maceta cayó por el balcón. (The flowerpot fell over the balcony. Caerse is possible here, as in Se cayó la lámpara. (The lamp fell over.) comer (to eat) He comido bien. (I’ve had a good meal.)

caerse (to fall [often used of a person]) Se cayó del árbol. (She fell from the tree.) Se cayó de espaldas. (She fell over backwards.) Se me cayó el libro. (I dropped the book.) comerse (to eat up) Se comió todas las papas (A, C, M)/ patatas. (He ate all the potatoes.) dormirse (to go to sleep) Me dormí en seguida. (I fell asleep immediately.) encontrarse (to come across, to meet unexpectedly) Me le encontré sin darme cuenta. (I bumped into him/her without realizing.) Se encontró un billete de diez dólares en la calle. (He found a ten dollar bill in the street.) irse (to go away) Se fueron a Brasil. (They went to Brazil) leerse (to read [can suggest great interest] Me leí cuatro novelas en una semana. (I read four novels in a week.) llevarse (to take away) Me lo llevé a España. (I took it to Spain.) El ladrón se llevó todas las joyas. (The thief went off with all the jewels.)

dormir (to sleep) ¿Dormiste bien? (Did you sleep well?) encontrar (to find, to meet) No encuentro al chico. (I can’t find the boy.) La encontré en la estación. (I met her at the station [i.e. I had been planning to meet her].)

ir (to go) Voy a Palenque. (I’m going to Palenque.) leer (to read) Leí el libro. (I read the book.) llevar (to carry, to wear, to take, to bring) Llevaba una maleta. (She was carrying a suitcase.) Llevaba una falda escocesa. (He was wearing a kilt.) Quédate/Quedate (A) allí y te lo llevo. (Wait there and I’ll bring it to you.) marchar (to march, to work [of mechanism] Los soldados marcharon todo el día. (The soldiers marched all day.) Mi reloj marcha bien. (My watch is working well.) morir (to die) (Se) murió su padre el año pasado. (His father died last year.) El hombre murió a manos de un ladrón. (The man died at the hands of a thief.) ocurrir (to happen) Ocurrió el accidente ayer. (The accident happened yesterday.)

marcharse (to go away) Se marcharon. (They went off [less used in M.])

morirse (to be dying) Se moría cuando llegó el doctor (M). (He was dying when the physician arrived.) However, you can say morir and morirse de frío/hambre. ocurrirse (to occur [to someone]) Se me ocurrió decirle que. . . (It occurred to me to say to her that. . .)

Reflexive verbs

pasar (to pass, to happen) Los años pasaron. (The years passed.) ¿Qué pasó? (What happened?)

quedar (to remain, to be left, to agree) Quedan diez minutos/dos bollos. (Ten minutes/buns remain.) Hemos quedado el lunes a las siete. (We have agreed on Monday at seven.) Quedamos en vernos a la una. (We agreed to meet at one.)

salir (to go out, to turn out [correctly or otherwise]) Salió del edificio a las dos. (She left the building at two.) Este cálculo no me sale. (I can’t solve this calculation.) traer (to bring) Juan ha traído el lápiz. (Juan has brought the pencil.) tomar (to take, to drink) ¿Qué vas a tomar? (What’ll you have?) venir (to come) Vino a California hace dos años. (She came to California two years ago.)

219

pasarse (to pass, to spend, to pass by [often with the idea of a person doing something]) Me pasé toda la tarde leyendo. (I spent all afternoon reading.) Se me pasó la oportunidad. (I missed the opportunity.) quedarse (to remain [with this meaning merely a stronger form of quedar].) Se quedó en casa. (He remained at home.) Often replaces, and is stronger than, estar: Me quedé embelesado con ella. (I was bewitched by her.) Se quedaron impresionados por las cataratas. (They were impressed by the cataracts.) salirse (to go out [merely a stronger form of salir, and suggesting a determined feeling] Se enfadó y se salió del café. (She got angry and marched out of the café.) Se salió a mitad de la película. (She went out in the middle of the film [probably in anger or discontentedness].) traerse (to bring [implies insistence]) Dijeron que no, pero se trajo las tazas. (They said not to, but still he brought the cups.) tomarse (to drink [probably quickly]) Se tomó cuatro cañas. (He drank/knocked back four glasses of beer.) venirse (to come [often with a purpose]) Se vino a Guanajuato para montar una empresa. (He came to Guanajuato to set up a company.)

38.8 Further comments on the reflexive 38.8.1 In Spain, Argentina, Colombia and Mexico, some less linguistically aware speakers confuse recordar and acordarse. Since both mean to remember, recordar is sometimes used reflexively on analogy with acordarse. Recordarse de is considered colloquial and substandard, in both Iberian and American Spanish. Such usage is to be discouraged. Thus, only: No me acuerdo de/No recuerdo su nombre. (I can’t remember her name.) 38.8.2 A further frequent “error” is the non-reflexive use of recuperar in the sense of to recover (from an illness or injury). El futbolista recupera bien de su lesión. (The soccer player is recovering well from his injury.) Se is preferred by far in this construction. 38.8.3 On the other hand, clasificar may be used both intransitively and pronominally. El Perú (se) clasificó para el Mundial. (Peru classified for the World Championships.) 38.8.4 In all Spanish-speaking countries, casar(se) (referred to above, Section 38.6), is used reflexively with the meaning of to marry (someone)/to get married to.

220

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

However, on occasions, in Spain, casar is used non-reflexively, but almost exclusively in writing, with the meaning of to get married to. Such usage has an archaic resonance: Casó con la chica. At the same time, casar may be used intransitively in a metaphoric sense, and here it is normal (R2). Los muebles no casan bien con la alfombra. (The furniture does not fit in well with the carpet.) La camisa casa bien con el pantalón. (The shirt fits the pants/trousers nicely.) 38.8.5 Incautar (to confiscate) is used transitively, but such usage is considered incorrect, substandard. Incautarse de is grammatically more acceptable. This “incorrect” use of incautar doubtless derives from the transitive verbs confiscar or decomisar, an effect of contamination. La policía incautó (R1)/se incautó de (R2) un arsenal de armas. (The police confiscated an arsenal of weapons.) 38.8.6 It is well worth noting how the use of se with a personal pronoun leads to a greater intimacy or strength of feeling. Compare the following sentences (and their word order) which all mean: My mother died last year. Note that the sense of loss is intensified as we move from the first sentence to the last. Mi madre murió el año pasado./Murió mi madre. . . Mi madre se murió el año pasado./Se murió mi madre. . . Mi madre se me murió el año pasado./Se me murió mi madre. . . (For an analysis of word order, see Chapter 74.)

39 Passive voice / Voz pasiva Below is a passage illustrating the use of the passive voice, with both ser and estar. The passage deals with a small dialogue between Rosa and Carola, in which both friends speak of their budding attraction for the opposite sex. Carola suspects Rosa of a subterfuge for gaining the affection of the boyfriends of the other girls in their class. —Carola, ¿tú has sido amada alguna vez? —Sí, Rosa. Yo fui amada, soy amada y seré amada siempre por mi perrito. —Ya, yo te podría contar que era amada por un loro, pero no es eso. El tema de tu perro será discutido más tarde. Yo te pregunto que si fuiste amada alguna vez por alguien. —¡Ah, bueno! No, pero pronto estará resuelto el problema; cuando cumplamos diez años le diré a Daniel que sea mi novio. Ya están preparados los planes; todo está pensado. —Daniel será conquistado por la más guapa de la clase. Yo seguiré con mi encuesta con preguntas como “si se ha encontrado el amor”, si “ha sido buscado entre los compañeros”, si “cuando se encuentra, se anuncia el compromiso”. . . —Pues yo por mi parte diré a todas mis amigas que has sido transformada por los celos; la encuesta es una disculpa para acercarte a nuestros novios.

39.1 Different uses of voice Voice indicates the relationship between the agent, the action indicated by the verb and the object. One distinguishes between the active voice: (Velázquez pintó muchos retratos. (Velázquez painted many portraits.) the passive voice: Muchos retratos fueron pintados por Velázquez. (Many portraits were painted by Velázquez.) and the pronominal voice: Velázquez se pintó (a sí mismo) una vez. (Velázquez painted himself once.) Two important remarks should be made here. 39.1.1 In the passive voice, the past participle always agrees with the subject, in gender and number (see the second example above). It is frequently argued that the passive voice is less used than the pronominal voice or the reflexive form. It must be admitted that the reflexive form comes more easily to the Spanish-speaker, and that it is lighter and more flexible than the passive form. Compare the three following sets of statements. Tres personas son detenidas./Se (les) detiene a tres personas. (Three persons are arrested.) El maleante ha sido acusado./Se le ha acusado al maleante. (The criminal has been accused.) Las cartas fueron mandadas./Se mandaron las cartas. (The letters were sent.) 39.1.2 Although the meaning is exactly the same in the two sentences of each pair in Section 39.1.1, with no difference of emphasis or nuance, a Spanish-speaker would choose more easily the reflexive or pronominal form, perhaps because there is no need for agreement, 221

222

A Reference Grammar of Spanish or simply because it feels less clumsy and awkward. Of course, the passive use is much more straightforward for an English-speaking person, who can identify with it more readily, for the obvious reason. Notwithstanding a Spanish-speaker’s preference for the pronominal form, it is as well to recognize how the passive voice functions, and the circumstances in which it is articulated.

39.2 “Ser” and “estar” in the passive voice It is necessary to distinguish between the uses of ser and estar when the passive voice is employed. Such distinctions are not always easily recognizable, since the same verb to be would apply in English. Broadly speaking, when ser is used, an action is highlighted, while estar implies stress on a state. The sentence: La puerta es cerrada por el portero relates specifically to an action. Once the door has been closed, one could say: La puerta está cerrada, and this points to a state. However understandable this distinction may be, there are difficulties. Although, theoretically, it should be simple enough to separate a sentence expressing an action in the passive from a sentence expressing the result of an action, the distinction is not always apparent. Unfortunately, the complement of an agent can be implied, and not expressed: Esta mujer es admirada (por todos). (This woman is admired by all.) A sentence expressing a state can include a complement of manner. El río está bordeado de árboles. (The river is lined by trees.) It requires some reflection on the meaning of the sentence before a choice is made between ser and estar, in the context of the passive. The same sentence will have a quite different meaning, according to whether it includes ser or estar. Una barrera fue colocada delante de la entrada. (A barrier was placed in front of the entrance [i.e. someone placed. . .].) Una barrera estuvo colocada delante de la entrada. (A barrier was placed. . . [i.e. the barrier had already been placed there and has been in place for some time].) Certain verbs denoting an action may be used with either ser or estar, and there is no difference. Era/Estaba acompañada por sus padres. (She was accompanied by her parents). El hombre es seguido por el perro. (The man is followed by the dog.) Es esperado esta noche en Miami. (He is expected to arrive in Miami tonight.)

39.3 Compound expressions with “ser” In compound expressions, the verb used is ser. Mi perro ha sido vacunado por el veterinario. (My dog has been vaccinated by the vet.) Las tripulaciones han sido formadas en México. (The crews have been trained in Mexico.) El estafador ha sido denunciado. (The swindler has been reported.) Los barcos están siendo pintados. (The boats are being painted.) El caso está siendo investigado. (The case is being investigated.) Los árboles estaban siendo talados cuando. . . (The trees were being cut down when. . .)

39.4 Past participles with “estar” Many past participles with estar are the equivalent of English present participles. Ser could not be used here since a state is referred to. acostado (lying down), acurrucado (huddling [together]), agachado (bending over [of body]), agachapado (crouching), agarrado (a) (clinging [to], arrimado (a) (leaning [on]),

Passive voice

223

arrodillado (kneeling), colgado (hanging), dormido (sleeping), echado (lying down), inclinado (leaning), repantigado (lolling about), sentado (sitting), tendido (lying down), tumbado (lying down) Estaba acostada/dormida cuando entré. (She was lying down/sleeping when I walked in.) Pasa todo su tiempo acostado/dormido/repantigado/sentado/tumbado. (He spends all his time lying down/sleeping/lolling about/sitting/lying down.) El pantalón estaba colgado de la silla. (The pants were hanging from a chair.)

39.5 Further comparison of “ser” and “estar” in the passive voice Here are some further examples illustrating the difference between an action (ser) and a state which is the result of an action (estar). Contrast the following pairs of sentences: Esta novela fue escrita por Unamuno. (This novel was written by Unamuno.) Aquí está escrito que. . . (It is written here that. . .) Los chicos fueron divididos en cuatro grupos. (The children were divided into four groups.) El libro estaba dividido en diez capítulos. (The book was divided into ten chapters.) Esa niña fue muy distraída. (That girl was absent-minded.) Estaba distraído, no podía aplicarme. (I was distracted, I couldn’t concentrate.) ¿Es Ud. casado o soltero? (Are you married or single?) [implies legal or social status].) No estoy casado todavía. (I’m not married yet [but may be one day].) El carro fue arreglado por el mecánico. (The car was repaired by the mechanic.) El carro estaba arreglado. (The car was repaired [in a state of repair].) 39.5.1 Ser Many past participles are used as adjectives: La película era muy aburrida. (The movie was very boring.) El joven es muy atrevido. (The youth is very daring.) Also in this category are the following: callado (quiet, reserved), cansado (tiring, tiresome), confiado (trusting), desconfiado (distrustful), descreído (disbelieving), disimulado (cunning), divertido/entretenido (entertaining), osado (daring), pesado (boring, dull), sufrido (long-suffering) 39.5.2 Estar Este pan está vendido. (This bread is sold [has been sold].) El vaso está roto. (The glass is broken.) La ventana estaba abierta/cerrada. (The window was open/closed.) When associated with a reflexive or transitive verb: Está levantada. (She’s up.) Estamos aburridos. (We’re bored.) Está muerta. (She’s dead.) Está callado. (He’s quiet [now, but he could be noisy].)

39.6 English/Spanish equivalents The Spanish passive cannot be used as a straightforward equivalent to the English passive in the following circumstances. 39.6.1 When the subject of the passive verb is logically an indirect object or a prepositional object. Un japonés me enseñó el chino. (I was taught Japanese by a Chinese person.) Mi padre me dio un carro. (I was given a car by my father.) Me prestaron cien pesos. (I was loaned one hundred pesos.)

224

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Le facilitaron la lista de los inscritos. (He was provided with the list of those who had registered.) Me pidió/pidieron un libro. (I was asked for a book.) Me reprochó/reprocharon/Se me reprochó el error. (I was reproached with the error.) Me compró/compraron/Se me compró un libro. (I was bought a book.) El rey durmió en esta cama. (This bed was slept in by the king.) Un joven me habló. (I was spoken to by a young person.) 39.6.2 When the passive subject has no article. Se vende(n) pianos aquí. (Pianos are sold here.) 39.6.3 Where the past participle has a different meaning as an adjective with ser. La clase aburrió a los estudiantes. (The students were bored by the class.) (ser aburrido = to be boring) 39.6.4 In the present or imperfect tenses where the verb denotes a single action. Ahora la profesora cierra/abre la puerta. (Now the door is shut/opened by the teacher.)

39.7 The meaning of the passive voice can be expressed in at least two other ways, with some variation in register. Compare and contrast the three following sentences, which have no difference in meaning. Fue rescatado./Lo rescataron./Se lo/le rescató. (He was rescued.) The most common is the second (R2), while the first and the third are found less frequently, the third being particularly characteristic of the written style (R3).

40 Defective verbs / Verbos defectivos Below is a passage illustrating the use of what is left of some defective verbs. Note particularly that the residue of some defective verbs is the past participle (e.g. despavorido < despavorir, desabrido < desabrir, compungido < compungir). Note also that two verbs, used in a legal context, adir (to accept) and usucapir (to acquire), are hardly ever used, and even then only in the infinitive. The verb abarse also requires some comment. A linguistic fossil, it is only used in the infinitive and the singular and plural imperative. Its meaning is really apartarse (to move away), but here it means to be astonished. The tale narrates the accidental death of Germán, who is overwhelmed by his accession to a valuable inheritance bequeathed by a distant uncle. —¡Ábate! (Be astonished!/Let that amaze you!) como suele decir mi abuela. Es algo que no te atañe, pero a partir de mañana puedo adir la herencia de un tío lejano. —Germán balbucía, blandiendo una carta desvaída que llevaba en la mano. Yo le notaba más despavorido que contento; había perdido el color y estaba muy agitado. Se me antojaba muy nervioso, como cuando se le carió una muela y se le ocurrió exigir, desabrido, al farmacéutico que le despachara un antibiótico. Tan embebido estaba en su cambio de fortuna que no pudo ni adir ni usucapir su propiedad (he could not inherit/succeed to his property). Nadie puede garantir el mañana. Germán yacía en la calzada, se le acabaron las preocupaciones, dejó de estar compungido: mirando su carta, atravesó la calle con el semáforo en rojo, y un camionero, embebido en sus fantasías, no tuvo tiempo de frenar.

40.1 Characteristics of defective verbs Verbs are termed “defective” when they are employed only in certain tenses or with certain persons. This restricted use may be to avoid cacophony, or it may result from the meaning, or implied meaning, of the respective verbs. The latter class comprises impersonal verbs, which are dealt with in Chapter 44. In some ways, one hesitates to include defective verbs in the present volume since, generally speaking they are hardly ever used, and even then, only extremely limited parts of them. In numerous cases they are classed as R3. Some parts of some verbs are, of course, standard R2, like soler. What is certain is that since these verbs are defective and can vary even in usage and form, no two Spanishspeakers necessarily agree, particularly on the form. Blandir is a good case in point. Some argue that its paradigm resembles that of abolir set out below, but others would argue for a third person singular, for instance: Blande la espada.

40.2 Forms of defective verbs Of the following seven verbs, the only forms in regular use are those in which the inflectional endings begin with i, including, however, the forms deriving from the future stem. 225

226

A Reference Grammar of Spanish abolir (to abolish) aguerrir (to toughen, to harden [used metaphorically] arrecirse (to grow numb) aterir(se) (to get/grow numb) The following paradigm will serve as a model:

Present indicative Present subjunctive Imperfect Preterit Imperfect subjunctive Future Conditional

despavorir (to take fright) embaír (to impose upon) garantir (to guarantee)







abolimos

abolís















abolía abolí aboliera/ ese* aboliré aboliría

-ías -iste -ieras

-ía -ió -iera

-íamos -imos -iéramos

-íais -isteis -ierais

-ían -ieron -ieran

-ás -ías

-á -iría

-emos -íamos

-eis -íais

-án ían

*abolieses, aboliese, etc.

In reality, of the seven verbs listed above, only abolir and aterir(se) seem to have any currency at all. Embaír, aguerrir, arrecirse, despavorir and garantir as infinitives do not figure in any way in some all-Spanish dictionaries, where only the past participles aguerrido and despavorido appear. Garantir has been totally supplanted by garantizar. Needless to add, the first two, abolir and aterir(se), provoke much hesitation in Spanishspeakers. We are really in the area of a group of verbs that are either obsolete, or are in the process of becoming so.

40.3 Usage of defective verbs Other verbs that do not fit the pattern above need considerable comment. They are listed below, and followed by remarks with examples of usage. antojarse (to long for, to have a whim for), balbucir (to stammer), blandir (to brandish), cocer (to bake, to cook, to boil), concernir (to concern), nacer (to be born), pacer (to graze), placer (to please), soler (to be used to), yacer (to lie) 40.3.1 Antojarse is confined to the third person singular and plural (but almost always in the singular) of the various tenses. In these forms it is common enough. Se me antojó ir a Brasil. (I suddenly felt like going to Brazil.) Se me antoja que tu marido no cambiará. (I get the feeling your husband won’t change.) Se nos antojó que no durarán mucho tiempo juntos. (We had the hunch that they would not stay together long.) 40.3.2 Balbucir is not used in the first person singular or the present subjunctive, since zc is involved, and would sound cacophonous. It is almost always replaced by balbucear. It may at least be used in the infinitive without sounding strange. Apenas pude balbucir “Adiós” antes de partir. (I could hardly stammer out a “Goodbye” before leaving.) 40.3.3 Blandir does in fact conjugate like abolir. However, its use seems to be restricted to the infinitive, the imperfect and the present participle. Se le vio blandir la espada. (He was seen to brandish the sword.) El atracador blandía amenazadoramente la navaja. (The mugger was brandishing the switchblade/flick-knife menacingly.)

Defective verbs

227

40.3.4 Cocer is conjugated like mover > ue, but there is serious hesitation over such forms as cuezco, cuezca. (cuezo, cueces, etc. and cueza, cuezas, etc., i.e. not like conocer: conozco, conoces, etc. and conozca, conozcas, etc.) 40.3.5 Concernir is little used except in the third person (where it is not uncommon), and only then impersonally. Este trabajo te concierne a ti. (This work concerns you.) En lo que concierne a su pedido. . . (With reference to your order. . .) 40.3.6 Nacer is not usually employed in the first person singular of the present tense, or in the imperative. Needless to add, this is related to its meaning. Su hijo nació el día de San Antonio. (Their son was born on Saint Anthony’s day.) La fuente nace en una hondonada. (The spring comes out of a hollow.) 40.3.7 Pacer is conjugated like agradecer > ezco, but only seems to be used in restricted forms, like the imperfect, which is why it is often replaced by pastar. Las ovejas pacían en la ladera de la montaña. (The sheep grazed/were grazing on the hillside.) Las vacas pacían en paz. (The cows were grazing peacefully.) 40.3.8 Placer is rarely used nowadays. It is sometimes found in very recondite, antiquated literary texts, but even here there are only certain forms. Preterit indicative: plació, placieron Imperfect subjunctive: placiera/iese, etc. Old forms: plugo, pluguiera/ese Interestingly enough, complacer (to please) and complacerse en (to take pleasure in) are used a great deal more, and have very common currency in the modern language. Me complace mucho tomar un poco el sol en verano. (I really do like to have a little sun in the summer.) El Banco se complace en comunicar a su amable clientela que. . . (The Bank takes pleasure in informing our esteemed customers that. . .) 40.3.9 Soler, by virtue of its meaning, is largely restricted to the present tense and the imperfect, but is used in all persons and is almost always followed by the infinitive. Suelo venir aquí los martes. (I usually come here on Tuesdays.) Estos melones solían ser buenos. (These melons used to be good.) Solíamos comer a las tres. (We used to eat at three.) There is some hesitation over whether this verb is used in the perfect tense. Seco’s Diccionario de dudas cites the perfect tense (He solido, etc.), and examples of this use are to be found. Ha solido trabajar hasta las tres de la madrugada. (He has been accustomed to work until three in the morning.) Sometimes the infinitive is understood: “¿Vas mucho al cine?” “No suelo”. 40.3.10 Yacer is rarely used outside cemeteries, where it has the meaning of to rest. It is only used in the third person. Sus restos yacen en el cementerio civil de Madrid. (His remains lie in the civil cemetery outside Madrid.) Aquí yace/yacen. . . (Here lies/lieth/lie. . .) Aquí yacía/yacían. . . (Here lay) At the same time, the expression which comes readily to mind for a Spanish-speaker is: Yacían juntos. (They lay together.) Interestingly enough, the noun yacente/yaciente (the former is more common) is not unusual with the sense of reclining/recumbent statue, as one would find in a church or graveyard.

41 The modal auxiliary verbs “deber” and “poder” / Los verbos auxiliares modales “deber” y “poder” Below is a passage illustrating the use of deber and poder as auxiliary verbs. It is all to do with ought to and being able to with respect to the need to give up smoking. Rodríguez is struggling to give up, while his boss could easily be inveigled into starting again. —Rodríguez, debo decirle y, puedo ordenarle, que aquí no se fuma. Además, me debe dar cien euros, que debería pagarme antes de quemarlos en tabaco. —Jefe, no puedo evitarlo. Sufro a más no poder. No puedo aguantar más. Usted tiene poder, persuasión y fuerza de voluntad además de un gran sentido del deber. También debió de sufrir mucho cuando dejó el tabaco, así que debe de comprender mi nerviosismo. Por mi parte, pudiera ser que un día deje de fumar. No, seguro, estoy seguro que podré dejar de fumar. Por cierto, jefe, ¿puedo salir a la calle para echar un pito (to smoke a cigarette)? —Debí haberlo despedido (I ought to have dismissed you) hace un año. Habría podido hacerlo (I could have done it) sin remordimientos por ser usted un fumador empedernido (inveterate). Puede ser que un día me arrepienta de no haberlo hecho. . . Pero, bueno, Rodríguez. . ., deme un cigarrillo y salgamos un momento. . . ¡Luego dicen que querer es poder! ¡Tendré que despedirme yo mismo! También puedo no despedirme. . .

41.1 Preliminary remarks English has a relatively large number of auxiliary verbs (will, would, may, might, shall, should, must, ought) and verbal expressions (to be to: We were to arrive at nine; to have to: We had to go). Their main function is to express intentions or opinions (commands, possibilities, etc.). There is no straightforward match between these and their Spanish equivalents, which (as in French and Italian) have a rather smaller number of auxiliary verbs (e.g. deber, poder, querer) and verbal expressions (tener que hacer algo, haber de hacer algo). The major differences between Spanish and English are as follows. 41.1.1 Spanish auxiliaries may normally be used in all tenses (e.g. puedo, he podido, había podido, pude, podré, habré podido, habría podido, hubiera/ese podido), while English auxiliaries have a maximum of two (may, might), and sometimes only one (must). 41.1.2 In English, the perfect auxiliary have is used only with the dependent infinitive (He may have done it), whereas in Spanish, haber is used either with the dependent infinitive (Podría haberlo hecho = I/[s]he could have done it) or with the modal auxiliary (Habría podido hacerlo = I/[s]he could. . .). There is a good deal of overlap in the values of modal auxiliaries in both Spanish and English; as in the English: It will be six o’clock or It must be six o’clock; and the Spanish: Debes hacerlo or Tienes que hacerlo. Also, an auxiliary may have several modal functions: English can is associated with ability and possibility; Spanish deber with obligation and influence. 228

The modal auxiliary verbs “deber” and “poder”

229

41.2 The uses of “deber” (This verb is conjugated regularly throughout, not forgetting the voseo form = debés.) 41.2.1 Its primary meaning, which it still has before a noun, is to owe. Me debes cien pesos. (You owe me a hundred pesos.) Debe su puesto a mi intervención. (She owes her job to my intervention.) El mal estado del alimento se debe al calor. (The poor state of the food is due to the heat.) 41.2.2 The infinitive is used as a noun, meaning duty. los derechos y deberes de los obreros (the workers’ rights and duties) Era mi deber ayudarlo. (It was my duty to help him.) 41.2.3 Placed as an auxiliary verb before an infinitive, deber has two values, as explored below. 41.2.3.1 It expresses the ideas of duty, commitment, obligation or undefined necessity, which are conveyed in English by the defective auxiliaries ought, should, must. Debes cumplir lo prometido. (You must carry out your promise.) Deben salir mañana. (They must leave tomorrow.) Este hecho debe tomarse en consideración. (This fact must be taken into consideration.) 41.2.3.2 It expresses a supposition or speculation based on circumstantial evidence, and here it corresponds to must. Debe tener ideas muy extrañas. (She must have strange ideas.) Debe haber viajado mucho. (He must have traveled a lot.) 41.2.3.3 Much ink has been expended over the need for the insertion of de between deber and the following infinitive, as in the following examples. Debe de andar por los cinco años. (She must be about five.) Los vecinos deben de haber salido. (The neighbors must have gone out.) It was once considered “incorrect” to use deber + infinitive to suggest probability in favor of deber + de + infinitive, but both uses are now deemed acceptable for this meaning. However, there is still a lingering preference among the well-informed for de when suggesting supposition, and this is supported by the RAE. What seems “incorrect” is the use of deber + de + infinitive with the implication of obligation, although Seco’s Diccionario de dudas quotes authoritative authors who resort to it. There is sometimes a fine line in nuance between certain compound constructions, notably between haber debido+infinitive and debe haber + past participle, for example. 41.2.4 When deber expresses inference or conjecture, and is preceded by a negative, it is rendered in English by cannot or ought not, not must not. Este bosque no debe ser interminable; debemos encontrar una salida. (This forest cannot be endless; we must find an exit.) No debe ser difícil encontrar una solución. (It ought not to be difficult to find a solution.)

41.3 The various moods and tenses of “deber” (We are indebted to the Ramsey volume for much of this section, although nearly all the examples have been changed to meet contemporary requirements.) As the manner in which deber is to be translated in English varies considerably according to whether it expresses a past, present or future obligation or probability, the various moods and tenses will be illustrated separately. 41.3.1 Present indicative (debo, debes/debés (A), debe, debemos, debéis, deben) • Indicating obligation: El tren debe llegar pronto. (The train ought to arrive soon.) Mi hijo debe pasar más tiempo en Perú. (My son must spend more time in Peru.)

230

41.3.2

41.3.3

41.3.4

41.3.5

A Reference Grammar of Spanish • Indicating inference: Debe (de) hacer buen tiempo hoy. (It must be good weather today.) Debes (de) estar muy cansada. (You must be very tired.) Imperfect indicative (debía, debías, debía, debíamos, debíais, debían) • Indicating obligation: Debían venir hoy. (They were to come today.) Fuimos al sitio donde debía construirse el puente. (We went to the spot where the bridge was to be built.) • Indicating inference: Debía (de) ser guapísima/muy linda (A, C, M) en aquella época. (She must have been really beautiful during that period.) El profesor era inteligente, pero no debía de saber enseñar. (The teacher was intelligent, but he could not have known how to teach.) Se dirigió al edificio donde debía (de) encontrarse el chico. (He made his way to the building where the boy was likely to be.) Preterit (debí, debiste, debió, debimos, debisteis, debieron) • Indicating obligation: En aquel momento debí esconderme. (At that moment I had to hide.) Los niños armaron tanto jaleo que debimos intervener. (The children made such a ruckus/ din that we had to intervene.) El ladrón les robó el dinero y debieron regresar en seguida. (The thief stole their money so they had to return immediately.) • Indicating inference: Estos años debieron (de) ser para él de intenso trabajo. (These must have been years of intense work for him.) Perfect indicative (he debido, has debido, etc.) (It is very unlikely that this tense would be used in this way in Spanish America, since the perfect is often replaced there by the preterit.) • Indicating obligation. La patria ha debido inspirar a varios pintores. (The motherland has had to inspire many authors.) Ha debido recabar mucho material para escribir aquella novella. (She had to collect a lot of material to write that novel.) • Indicating inference: Esa señora ha debido (de) ser muy guapa durante su juventud. (That lady must have been very good-looking during her youth.) When any tense of deber is followed by a past infinitive (i.e. past participle preceded by the infinitive haber), it can only logically express a conjecture about the past. Obligation or duty here is not possible, because no one now can be under any obligation to have done anything yesterday. • Indicating inference: Deben (de) haber llegado hoy. (They must have arrived today.) Mi amiga pensaba que su padre debía (de) haber solucionado la cuestión. (My friend thought that her father must have solved the question.) Pluperfect indicative (había debido, habías debido, etc.) (Expresses an obligation that had existed before a past event; it does not express conjecture.) Mi hermana me dijo que había debido volver antes de lo previsto. (My sister told me she had been obliged to return sooner than expected.)

The modal auxiliary verbs “deber” and “poder”

231

Yo pensaba que habían debido sacar más dinero del banco. (I thought they had been forced to take more money out of the bank.) An inference under the same circumstances would be expressed by the imperfect followed by the past infinitive. Debían (de) haber salido más tarde. No han llegado todavía. (They must have left later. They still haven’t arrived.) 41.3.6 Future indicative (deberé, deberás, etc.) • Indicating obligation: Deberán invertir dinero si quieren salir a flote. (They will have to invest money if they want to survive.) Deberá trabajar mucho porque el listón es muy alto. (He’ll have to work hard, for the level is very high.) • Indicating inference: Ha llovido mucho. Deberá (de) haber inundaciones cerca del río. (It has rained a lot. There will probably be floods near the river.) 41.3.7 Future perfect (habré debido, habrás debido, etc.) (Expresses a future obligation to have done something; it does not express an inference.) Habremos debido limpiar la casa antes de que regresen. (We will have needed to clean the house before they return.) An inference under the same circumstances would be expressed by the future of deber followed by the past infinitive. Los chicos deberán haber ido a la piscina/pileta (A)/alberca (M) antes. (The boys will probably have gone to the swimming pool before.) 41.3.8 Future conditional (habría debido, habrías debido, etc.) The value of the future conditional of deber is further subdivided according to whether it expresses a future dating from a past time, or follows a conditional statement of implied negation.) • As a “past” future: Me avisó de que deberíamos desayunar más temprano. (He informed us that we would have to have breakfast earlier.) Les dijo que deberían ponerse en marcha antes de la salida del sol. (He told them they would have to set out before sun-up/sunrise.) • Expressing inference: Me di cuenta de que el conflicto debería (de) provocar estragos. (I realized that the conflict would most likely lead to havoc.) The most frequent and common use of the future conditional is the expression of a straightforward obligation or duty (ought to). Deberías lavarte las manos. (You ought to wash your hands.) Deberían jugar más rápido. (They ought to play faster.) Similarly, debería haber + past participle/habría debido + infinitive = ought to have. Debería haber mandado la carta. (I ought to have sent the letter.) Deberíamos haberla mandado. (We ought to have sent it.) The above construction is R2, while the one below is R3. Habría debido mandar la carta ayer. (I ought to have sent the letter yesterday.) The meaning of this construction resembles very closely that of tener que haber + past participle. Yo tenía que haberla mandado. (I ought to have sent it.)

41.4 The different forms of the subjunctive with “deber” and their uses 41.4.1 Present (deba, debas, deba, debamos, debáis, deban) • Indicating obligation:

232

41.4.2

41.4.3

41.4.4

41.4.5

41.4.6

41.4.7 41.4.8 41.4.9

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Lamento que debas irte. (I am sorry you have to go.) No veo nada que no deba leer. (I can’t see anything she mustn’t read.) • Indicating inference: No creo que deba trabajar. (I don’t believe she ought to work.) Es de suponer que deban volver. (It is to be supposed that they’ll be back.) Perfect (haya debido, hayas debido, etc.) • Indicating obligation: Es lástima que haya debido venderlo. (It’s a pity she has had to sell it.) • Indicating inference: ¿Tú crees que haya debido de leer Guerra y paz. (Do you think she must have read War and Peace?) Imperfect (debiera/debiese, debieras/debieses, etc.) • Indicating obligation: En realidad, la preocupación debiera/ese ser mía. (In reality, the worry should be mine.) No sabía si debiera venir. (C, M; common usage of no saber si + subjunctive) (I didn’t know if he ought to come.) • Indicating inference: No creía que Juan debiera viajar solo. (I didn’t believe that Juan should travel alone.) Pluperfect (hubiera/hubiese debido, hubieras/hubieses debido, etc.) • Indicating obligation: Yo no estaba seguro que hubiera/ese debido escribir la carta. (I wasn’t sure that she ought to have written the letter.) Infinitive Sabía que podría tomar el camión sin deber pagar el boleto (M). (I knew I could catch the bus without having to pay for the ticket.) Se dio cuenta de deber cumplir con la promesa. (She realized she would have to carry out her promise.) Past infinitive Siento haber debido despedirlo. (I regretted having been obliged to dismiss him.) Me dio pena haber debido pagar tanto dinero. (It hurt me to have had to pay so much money.) Past participle (with idea of due) Se consagró con la diligencia debida a su trabajo. (He devoted himself with due diligence to his work.) Gerund Debiendo levantarme de madrugada, me acosté a las ocho. (Having to get up early, I went to bed at eight o’clock.) Compound gerund Habiendo debido una pequeña cantidad de dinero al banco, le pedí prestada cierta suma a mi padre. (Having owed the bank a small quantity of money, I borrowed a certain sum from my father.)

41.5 The uses of “poder” Poder is an irregular verb, but is also of the radical changing variety (see Chapter 33). 41.5.1 As with deber, the uses of poder are varied, as witnessed by the different forms below. The following six sentences have the same meaning, except for their register. Pude haber escrito la carta./Podía haber escrito la carta./Podría haber escrito la carta./ Habría podido escribir la carta./Hubiera podido escribir la carta./Hubiese podido escribir la carta. The last three are R3, while the first three are the most common. 41.5.2 The infinitive is used as a noun meaning power. Tienes poder para convencer a los demás. (You have the power to convince the others.)

The modal auxiliary verbs “deber” and “poder”

233

41.5.3 Poder is a true auxiliary, as it either applies to a following infinitive or relates to a foregoing infinitive that does not need to be repeated. It has the following values. 41.5.3.1 It corresponds to the English to be able, and expresses physical power or ability, often translated by the defective verb can. El chico puede nadar mil metros. (The boy can swim one thousand meters.) Ya puede ir solo al colegio. (He can now go to school alone.) In the first example, saber is used more convincingly if mil metros is removed, since saber suggests to know how to; poder underlines the physical power to accomplish an act. 41.5.3.2 By extension of the above, it can mean may, to express permissibility. Los niños pueden salir al patio ahora. (The children may go into the schoolyard now.) ¿Se puede comer aquí? (May I eat here?) 41.5.3.3 It expresses the possibility of an occurrence, and this can involve the subjunctive. ¡Cuidado! Puedes caerte. (Careful!, You could fall.) Puede ser verdad. (It may be true.) Se puede que vengan esta tarde. (They may come this afternoon.) 41.5.4 When the negative is used with poder, there can be two meanings, depending on the position of no. No puedo solicitar el puesto. (I cannot apply for the job.) Puedo no solicitar el puesto. (I may not apply for the job [i.e I don’t have to].) 41.5.5 Poder may be used before a noun or pronoun, without relating to a previous infinitive, in which case, hacer (to do) is understood. Usually the sentence is negative. No puedo con esta carga. (I can’t manage this load [It’s too heavy].) No puedo con él. (I can’t deal with him [He’s too difficult].) Estoy agotado; no puedo más. (I am exhausted; I can do no more.) 41.5.6 Poder can be used without a following infinitive with the meaning of to defeat. Tú puedes a Ricardo. (You can beat Ricardo.) Carmen ya puede a sus amigas. (Carmen can now beat her friends.) 41.5.7 Poder suggests moral obligation. No podemos portarnos así con ella. (We cannot behave like this towards her.) ¿Puedes seguir mintiendo? (Can you go on lying?) 41.5.8 The three idiomatic uses: no poder (por) menos de, hasta/a más no poder, no poder ver. No pude (por) menos de expresarle mi disgusto. (I couldn’t help expressing my displeasure to him.) Disfrutamos a más no poder. (We enjoyed ourselves enormously.) No las puedo ni ver. (I can’t stand them.) 41.5.9 Puede ser has the meaning of perhaps, possibly. Puede ser que nos hayan olvidado. (It is possible they have forgotten us.) An R1 form of this expression is the present subjunctive: pueda ser. Pueda ser que me equivoque. (It is possible that I make a mistake.) The only subjunctive form that has found its way into acceptable and even literary style is pudiera ser, which has the same value as podría ser (see Section 41.5.10 below). Pudiera ser que Antonio, con sus preguntas, lo pusiera en aprietos. (It could be that, with his questions, Antonio caused him difficulties.) 41.5.10 Puede may be used by itself with the same value as puede ser. Puede que nos hayan olvidado. (They may have forgotten us.) Puede ser may be used with its variants: podía ser, podría ser, podrá ser, and so on. Podría ser que llegaran más tarde. (It could be they arrive later.)

234

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

However, this is not the case with the variants of puede, although the Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa does not seem to baulk at it. Podría que unos diez tipos se soñaran con la película esa. (It could be that some ten guys would dream of that movie.) 41.5.11 Poder does not always translate can, notably where perception occurs. Se veía a lo lejos una espiral de humo. (You could see a spiral of smoke in the distance.) Le entró arena en los ojos y no veía nada. (Sand went into his eyes and he could see nothing.) Oí el canto del gallo. (I could hear the cock crowing.) No sé qué me pasa. No oigo nada. (I don’t know what’s happening to me. I can’t hear anything.) Sintió el roce de la seda en sus manos. (He could feel the rubbing of the silk on his hands.) No lo sentí entrar. (I couldn’t hear him come in.)

41.6 The various moods and tenses of “poder” (expressing possibility or ability) 41.6.1 Present indicative (puedo, puedes/podés [A], puede, podemos, podéis [not Spanish America], pueden) Ya puedo irme de casa, porque soy mayor de edad. (I can now leave home, for I am old enough.) Con este título puede ejercer la carrera. (With this degree she can pursue her career.) ¿Podés (A) jugar tenis esta tarde? (Can you play tennis this afternoon?) 41.6.2 Followed by a past infinitive La familia Morales todavía no puede haber regresado a casa. (The Morales family cannot yet have returned home.) La familia Morales puede no haber regresado a casa. (The Morales family may not have returned home.) 41.6.3 Perfect indicative (he podido, has podido, etc.) La familia Morales todavía no ha podido regresar a casa. (The Morales family still has not been able to return home.) Aún no ha podido venir tu padre. (Your father still has not been able to come.) 41.6.4 Imperfect indicative (podía, podías, etc.) Pregunté si podía componer el carro. (I asked him if he could repair the car.) No podía hablar. Me quedé lelo. (I couldn’t speak. I was speechless.) 41.6.5 Followed by a past infinitive No podían haber arreglado el problema; era demasiado complicado. (They could not have sorted out the problem; it was too complicated.) El tenista podía haber ganado el trofeo; tenía mucha fuerza de voluntad. (The tennis player could have won the trophy; he had a lot of willpower.) 41.6.6 Preterit (pude, pudiste, pudo, pudimos, pudisteis, pudieron) Al día siguiente, pude levantarme. (On the following day, I was able to get up.) 41.6.7 Pluperfect indicative (había podido, habías podido, etc.) Hicimos todo lo que habíamos podido hacer para arreglar el coche. (We did all we had been able to do to repair the car.) El carro no arrancaba, lo que nos sorprendió porque yo había podido cambiar la batería. (The car would not start, which surprised us for I had been able to change the battery.) 41.6.8 Future indicative (podré, podrás, etc.) Si salimos ahora, podremos alcanzar Bariloche antes de las dos. (If we leave now, we’ll be able to reach Bariloche before two.) 41.6.9 Future perfect indicative (habré podido, habrás podido, etc.)

The modal auxiliary verbs “deber” and “poder”

41.6.10

41.6.11

41.6.12

41.6.13

41.6.14

41.6.15

41.6.16

41.6.17

41.6.18

41.6.19

41.6.20

235

Si vuelven más tarde, habré podido preparar la cena. (If they come back later, I’ll have been able to get the evening meal ready.) ¿Habrás podido terminar tu lectura antes de las nueve? (Will you have been able to finish your reading before nine?) Conditional (podría, podrías. etc.) Aunque fueras más fuerte de lo que piensas, no podrías levantar este peso. (Even if you were stronger than you think you are, you could not lift this weight.) Followed by past infinitive Los estudiantes podrían haber acudido al museo con transporte. (The students would have been able to go to the museum with transportation.) Podríamos haber visto la película con un poco de suerte. (We would have been able to see the film with a bit of luck.) Perfect conditional (habría podido, habrías podido etc.) (The first example here has the same meaning as the last example in Section 41.6.11 above.) Habríamos podido ver la película con un poco de suerte. (We would have been able to. . .) Present subjunctive (pueda, puedas, pueda, podamos, podáis, puedan) Temo que Juana no pueda llegar a tiempo. (I am afraid that Juana won’t arrive in time.) No creemos que puedas leer Los hermanos Karamazov en una noche. (We don’t think you can read The Brothers Karamazov in one night.) Perfect subjunctive (haya podido, hayas podido, etc.) Lamento que no hayan podido salir ilesos del accidente. (I am sorry they haven’t been able to come out of the accident unharmed.) Imperfect subjunctive (pudiera/ese, pudieras/eses, etc.) Colocaron la barrera de suerte que los niños no pudieran salir. (They placed the gate so that the children could not get out.) Me preocupaba mucho que no pudieran/pudiesen contactarme (A, C, M)/contactar conmigo con su celular (A, C, M)/móvil. (I was very worried that they could not contact me with their cellphone/mobile.) Imperfect subjunctive for conditional Si vinieras más pronto, pudiéramos ir juntos al cine (instead of podríamos). If you came earlier, we could go to the movies together.) Pluperfect subjunctive (hubiera/ese podido, hubieras/hubieses podido, etc.) Los policías no creían que los presos hubieran podido escaparse así. (The police didn’t believe the prisoners could have escaped like that.) A menos que hubiese podido cruzar a nado el río, debe de estar muerto. (Unless he could have swum across the river, he must be dead.) Infinitive Para poder resistir la riada, el dique debía de ser muy fuerte. (To be able to withstand the flood, the dyke must have been very strong.) Sin poder usar la computadora, cómo lo calculas? (Without being able to use the computer, how do you calculate it?) Past infinitive (haber podido) No haber podido reclamar sus derechos animó a los obreros a ponerse en huelga. (Not being able to demand their rights incited/encouraged the workers to go on strike.) Se puso muy contenta de haber podido ganar el torneo. (She was very happy to have won the trophy.) Gerund (pudiendo) Pudiendo aplazar la cita para el día siguiente, fui al teatro. (Being able to put off the appointment till the following day, I went to the theater.)

236

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Llevé el coche al garaje, no pudiendo arreglarlo con mi padre. (I took the car to the garage, not being able to repair it with my father.) 41.6.21 Compound gerund (habiendo podido) Habiendo podido consultar al médico el día anterior, fui a Rosario (Argentina). (Having been able to consult the physician/doctor the previous day, I went to Rosario.)

42 Ellipsis of verbs in main and subordinate clauses / Elipsis de verbos en oraciones principales y subordinadas The passage below narrates a hunt after a hare. It illustrates in natural elliptical style the conversation between Germán and Juan, accompanied by the former’s grandfather (who makes no contribution to the dialogue.) —¡A buen seguro que la pilla (catches) el galgo canela (cinnamon colour)! —comentaba Juan—. A buena fe que es un buen cazador; seguro que va para campeón y me imagino que el otro también. ¿Que está cansado ya? Imposible que lo esté, tras una carrera tan corta. Cierto que se retrasa ahora, pero, ¿a que al siguiente quiebro (swerve) agarra a la liebre? ¿Verdad, abuelo? Apuesto que la cosa resultará fácil. ¿A que sí, abuelo? Germán ¿qué dice el abuelo ahora? —¡Ojalá dijera otra cosa! El abuelo ha dicho: “Quiá” —contestó Germán, mientras el viejo sobre su caballo bayo (bay) observaba la carrera de los galgos tras la liebre entre los rastrojos (stubble) cerca de Medina del Campo. —¿Y qué significa “quiá”? —preguntó Juan. —Significa “que no” o “que lo duda”, aunque, por el tono, creo que dice que no tienes ni idea de nada, como casi todos los jovencitos de la ciudad —contestó Germán.

42.1 Ellipsis of the verb in a main clause In several expressions, the verb of the main clause is understood through ellipsis. These expressions usually imply the exclusion of verbs such as asegurar or creer. Such expressions are often R3. ¡A buena fe que no es pobre! (Honestly/I can assure you he isn’t poor!) ¡A buen seguro que miente! (Without doubt he’s lying.) Such adjectives as cierto, imposible and seguro may be used without the verb ser in the following way, and although they are used elliptically, this usage may be regarded as R2. Cierto que tiene razón. (He’s right, to be sure.) ¡Imposible que haya desaparecido! (Impossible for him to have disappeared!) Seguro que le dieron el regalo. (It’s certain that they gave him the present.) In a dialogue, the main verb can also be entirely omitted. As in the expressions above, que is used, and here it is not preceded by anything, since the main verb (shown in brackets) is understood. Again, the register is R2. ¿(Dices) Que estás cansada? Pues, échate. (You’re tired? Well, go and lie down.) ¡(Te pido) Que no digas nada! (Don’t say anything!) ¿(Dice) Que vienen mañana? (They’re coming tomorrow?) The verb apostar (to bet) is understood in the following sentence: (Apuesto) ¡A que no te zambulles! (I bet you won’t dive in!) 237

238

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

42.2 Ellipsis of the verb in a subordinate clause After verbs such as creer, pensar, juzgar and estimar, the verbs ser, estar and resultar, for instance, can be excluded and understood. Cree que la cosa resulta fácil. Cree la cosa fácil. (She thinks it[’s] easy.) Juzga que el coche es caro./Juzga el coche caro. (She thinks the car is expensive.) ¿Este libro? Juzgo que es demasiado difícil./¿Este libro? Lo estimo demasiado difícil. (This book? I judge it [to be] too difficult.) In the spoken language, and therefore R1, a verb can be omitted (shown in brackets in the examples below) when it has already been used by an interlocutor – in other words, where the second person picks up where the first person leaves the sentence. The same person can also speak elliptically. A different tense can be used or implied by the same person or the second speaker. “He estado/Estuve A, C, M) en Salta”. “¡Jolín!/¡Qué bárbaro! Yo creía que (habías estado) Buenos Aires”. (“I’ve been to Salta.” “Geez! I thought you were in Buenos Aires.”) “He ido a Chile en avión”. “Yo creía que en auto.” (“I’ve been to Chile by airplane.” “I thought you went by car.”) “Se calienta la casa con gas”. “Yo pensaba que (se calentara) con electricidad”. (“The house is heated by gas.” “I thought it was heated with electricity.”) ¿Cómo les fue la comida? Espero y deseo que (les fue) todo bien. (How did your meal go? I hope and wish that it went well.) Juan fue a Nueva York. Me imagino que (fue) su hija también. (Juan went to New York. I imagine that his daughter went as well.) “Jugó un gran papel”. “Yo diría que (fue) decisivo”. (“She played an important role.” “I’d say it was decisive.”)

42.3 Use of “que” Que is also used elliptically to introduce a wish, as in Let/I hope that/Oh that. . ., and is followed by the subjunctive (see Chapter 55 for the subjunctive). Que se siente todo el mundo. (Would everyone please take a seat.) Que suene la música, por favor. (Let the music start, please.) ¡Que lo pases bien!/¡Que la pases bien (M)! (Enjoy it!)

42.4 Use of “ojalá” Ojalá (from the Arabic Inshallah = May God will it that. . .) (que) (Would that. . .) is similarly used elliptically, and with the subjunctive, in both the present and the imperfect. ¡Ojalá se vayan pronto! (I hope they go soon!) ¡Ojalá que gane nuestro caballo! (Would that our horse wins!) ¡Ojalá pudiera comprarme un carro! (Oh, that I could buy myself a car!)

42.5 Use of “que” + “no”/“sí” Que + no/sí can be used as an intensifier, with an elliptical value. Le he dicho bien claro que no. (I told him quite clearly that he couldn’t/that I wasn’t in agreement, etc.) Esto sí que es vivir bien. (That really is living well.)

Ellipsis of verbs in main and subordinate clauses

239

42.6 Use of porque “sí” The elliptical use of porque sí is shown in the following example. He dicho/Dije que te pongas esta camisa porque sí. (I’ve told you to put this shirt on, and that’s that/because I say so.)

42.7 Elliptical effect of verb + infinitive When that, or an implied that, is used in English, a verb + infinitive often suffices in Spanish. In most cases, this is an elegant construction, associated with the written style and falling into the R3 category. This is not strictly ellipsis, but it has an elliptical effect. The construction often involves verbs such as decir, asegurar, anunciar, pensar, and creer. The subject of both the auxiliary verb and the infinitive has to be identical. Dijo ser dentista. (She said [that] she was a dentist.) Dicen estar a doscientos kilómetros de Buenos Aires. (They say[that] they are two hundred kilometers from Buenos Aires) Dice querer conseguir el trofeo. (She says [that] she wants to win the trophy) Demostró ser un gran profesional. (He showed [that] he was a great professional.) Siempre cree/piensa tener razón. (She always thinks [that] she is right.) Si crees estar enfermo, consulta al medico. (If you believe [that] you’re sick, consult the physician/doctor.) Denunciaron haber sido víctimas de una agresión. (They reported [that] they had been attacked/mugged.) Of course, one could say and write: Dijo que era dentista./Dicen que están a doscientos kilómetros de Buenos Aires./Demostró que era un gran profesional. In all the cases here, the same or a different person can be the subject. The elliptical construction may be modified in the following manner: Se dijo convencido de que mi hermano era el mejor alumno. (He said [that] he was convinced that my brother was the best pupil.) Se vio elegido presidente. (He saw himself elected president.) (See Chapter 21 for a development of this feature.)

42.8 Propositions with “que” A proposition beginning with que acts as the subject, and this usually entails the subjunctive. This construction has the value of the fact that, and is seen as the shortened form of el hecho de que. Que vengan mañana me molesta. (That they should come tomorrow is awkward for me.) Que haya mentido Pedro me da vergüenza. (The fact that Pedro lied makes me feel ashamed.) Que aprobara todos los exámenes nos encantó. (The fact that he passed all his exams delighted us.)

43 Uses of “dar,” “ir,” “llevar,” “tener,” “traer” and “venir” / Usos de “dar”, “ir”, “llevar”, “tener”, “traer” and “venir” Below is a passage illustrating some of the idiomatic uses of the verbs dar, ir, llevar, tener, traer and venir. The passage narrates a father’s disclosure to his son that, while still encouraging him to marry Petronila, he is actually going to marry her himself. —Bueno, hijo, traigo a cuento algo que venimos dando vueltas (we’ve been going round in circles) mucho tiempo. ¿Cuántos años llevamos sin tu madre? Yo creía que me darías la alegría de una boda. No es que me diera envidia ver a mis compañeros con nietos, pero tenías edad suficiente para traer una mujer a esta casa; por esa razón acordamos que te buscaras una chica seria que llevara (look after) la casa y se llevara bien contigo. ¿Pero cuántos años te lleva Petronila? ¿Doce? Yo daba por sentado (I took it for granted) que era mucha la diferencia. Sí, ya sé que tiene la vida resuelta, tiene buen empleo, y aunque parece que va de lista por la vida, conociéndola, pronto sabes que te llevarás bien con ella. Pero tú, tras los primeros días, dejaste de mimarla (show affection to her). ¡Mira que te lo venía diciendo: llévala a bailar más! Pero tú dabas por sentado que ya estaba todo hecho, y no es cierto: hay que traerlas y llevarlas. Así, que yo me llevé un chasco cuando ella me lo dijo abiertamente: nuestra amistad había venido a ser amor. Y el amor, a veces, viene con una dosis de dolor, que es el que me produce comunicarte que ella y yo nos queremos, y que puedes ir buscando otra casa para vivir, aunque en ésta siempre serás recibido, como el buen hijo que eres. This collection of very common verbs illustrates their idiomatic uses, which, generally speaking, do not correspond to those of their English counterparts. It may be argued that this does not fall into the precinct of grammar, but in fact most of these constructions involve grammatical difficulties. The illustrations do not contain examples which an English-speaker would expect to find, and where there is a clear correspondence between English and Spanish, as in: El hombre me da el libro. (The man gives me the book.)

43.1 Dar Doy por terminado el trabajo. (I accept the work as finished.) Me doy por satisfecho. (I am now satisfied.) Esta tierra da buenos frutos. (This soil yields good fruit.) Me da mucha alegría saber que estáis bien. (I am very happy to know that you are well.) Me dio pena verlos tan tristes. (I was grieved to see them so sad.) “¿Qué programa dan hoy?” “Han dado un documental.” (“What program are they showing today?” “They’ve shown a documentary.”) Me dio vergüenza pedírselo otra vez. (I was embarrassed to ask her again.) Me da que vendrán. (I’ve a hunch they’ll come.) Di una vuelta/un paseo por el bosque. (I went for a walk in the wood.) 240

Uses of “dar,” “ir,” “llevar,” “tener,” “traer” and “venir”

241

Los niños se divirtieron dando saltos/brincos en el jardín. (The children enjoyed themselves jumping around in the yard/garden.) El jaleo me dio miedo/rabia. (The ruckus/din made me frightened/angry.) ¡Qué envidia me da tu ordenador/computadora (A, C, M)! (How envious I am of your computer!) Daba por sentado que me ayudarían. (I took it for granted that they would help me.) Di en el blanco. (I hit the bull’s eye./I got it right.) La ventana daba al río. (The window overlooked the river.) Pedro ha dado en el error. (Pedro made the error.) Ya he dado con la solución/el pendiente. (I’ve already found the solution/earring.) Resbalé y di de culo en el suelo. (I slipped and fell on my ass/arse on the ground.) Me dieron de comer/cenar/beber. (They gave me lunch/an evening meal/a drink.) Dio en la explicación del problema. (He understood the explanation of the problem.) Don Quijote dio en creerse un caballero andante. (Don Quixote started to think he was a knight errant.) Al chico le dio por jugar (al) fútbol todo el día. (The boy started to play soccer all day.) Me da igual/lo mismo ir al cine o al teatro. (Going to the movies or the theater is all the same to me.) El hospital me dio de alta. (The hospital discharged me.) No los dieron de alta en la Seguridad Social. (They didn’t register them at the Social Security.) Le dieron de baja en el club por no pagar la cuota. (They canceled her club membership because she didn’t pay her subscription.)

43.2 Darse Se dio a cuidar a los huérfanos. (She gave herself up to looking after the orphans.) Se dieron de puñetazos/de bofetadas. (They punched each other.) Se las daba de millonario y no tenía ni un euro. (He thought he was a millionaire, and he didn’t have a cent.) Se dio de narices contra la farola. (He banged into the lamppost.)

43.3 Ir(se) Me voy esta tarde. (I’m going away this afternoon.) Espero que todo te vaya bien. (I hope everything is [going] well with you.) ¿Cómo te fue? (How did it go?/How did you get on?) Va calado el coche. (The car has stalled.) La cantidad va en detrimento de la calidad. (Quantity is to the detriment of quality.) ¿De qué va la película? (What was the film like?) Va de listo/rico. (He puts on a show of being intelligent/rich.) El carro va muy bien. (The car runs very well.) La empresa va mejor. (The company is improving.) En lo que va de año, la economía. . . (As far as this year goes, the economy. . .) Ese traje no te va. (That dress does not suit you.) Las hermanas iban de gala. (The sisters went dressed in real style.) Me va la natación. (Swimming suits me/I like swimming.) Va amaneciendo/anocheciendo. (It’s getting light/dark.) “No puedo abrir.” “Ya voy.” (“I can’t open the door.” “I’m coming.”)

242

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Si te quedas en casa, iré por ti. (If you stay at home, I’ll come and get you.) The last two examples of ir are translated by come. When you go to where someone is, the verb ir is used. Venir is used in these circumstances only when a person comes to see you, and you are speaking to that person. “¿Vienes a mi casa esta tarde?” “Voy a tu casa”. (See the first example of venir, in Section 43.10, below.)

43.4 Llevar Este bombón lleva licor. (This candy contains a liqueur.) El pescado no lleva mantequilla/manteca (A). (The fish has no butter in it.) Llevaba un pantalón muy elegante. (He was wearing stylish pants.) Los hijos llevaban la tienda. (The children looked after the store/shop.) Llevó la enfermedad con mucha paciencia. (She bore her illness with much patience.) Me llevó mil pesos por arreglar la máquina. (He charged me a thousand pesos to repair the machine.) Llevo diez años sin visitar París. (I haven’t visited Paris for ten years.) Llevaba diez años sin visitar París. (I hadn’t visited Paris for ten years.) La máquina casi le llevó el brazo. (The machine almost took his arm off.) Llevas muy bien el ritmo. (You are standing the pace very well.) Mi hermana me lleva tres años. (My sister is three years older than me.) Lleva dos años trabajando en la empresa. (She has been working for the company for three years.) Llevamos así desde junio. (It’s/We’ve been like this since June.) Llevo leídos siete capítulos. (I’ve read seven chapters so far.) Los cuatro discursos que llevaba pronunciados desde su llegada. (The four speeches he had given after his arrival.) Llevo ya cinco apartamentos y no me gusta ninguno. (I’ve seen five apartments so far and I don’t like a single one.) Quédate allí y te lo llevo. (Stay there and I’ll bring it to you.) Note that the final example uses llevo, not traigo. (See the first example of traer in Section 43.8, below.)

43.5 Llevarse El Gobierno se llevó delante el proyecto de ley. (The government carried the bill through.) Se llevó un gran susto/una gran sorpresa/decepción. (She had a great fright/surprise/ disappointment.) Tenía ganas de ver la película, pero cuando la vio, se llevó un gran chasco. (He was longing to see the film, but when he saw it, he was bitterly disappointed.) Seis y cinco son once y (me) llevo uno. (Six and five are eleven, carry one.) Me llevo bien/mal con la familia de mi mujer. (I get on/don’t get on well with my wife’s family.) Los ladrones nos entraron a robar, llevándose el dinero y las joyas. (The thieves burgled our house, and went off with the money and the jewelry.) El poeta se llevó el Premio Nobel. (The poet walked off with the Nobel Prize.) Los dos hermanos se llevan cinco años. (The two brothers are five years apart in age.) Nos llevaba dos días/diez kilómetros de ventaja. (She was two days/ten kilometers ahead of us.)

Uses of “dar,” “ir,” “llevar,” “tener,” “traer” and “venir”

243

43.6 Tener Mi mujer me tiene de secretario. (My wife has me as secretary.) Jaime tiene un cariño especial a su tía. (Jaime is especially fond of his aunt.) Ten/Tené (A) la bicicleta un momento. (Hold the bicycle a moment.) Cuánto tiempo tiene el bebé? (How old is the baby?) [suggesting a few months, for example].) ¿Cuántos años tiene tu hermano? (How old is your brother?) El auto ya tiene diez años. (The car is now ten years old.) La maestra lo tiene atemorizado. (The teacher has him terrified.) Tengo asegurada mi pensión. (I have my pension guaranteed.) Tenemos las plazas aseguradas. (We have the seats for certain.) Tiene la computadora descompuesta (M)/el ordenador averiado. (Her computer is not working.) (Note the agreement of the past participle with the noun in these last three cases.) Ya lo tengo pensado. (I have already thought about it [and am still thinking about it].) Tengo hambre/sed/ calor/frío/prisa. (I am hungry/thirsty/hot/cold/in a hurry.) Me tiene sin cuidado. (I am not interested in it./I don’t care about it.)

43.7 Tenerse Te tienes en demasiada consideración. (You hold yourself in too high esteem.) Tente, chico, que te vas a caer. (Hold on little one/young man, you’re going to fall.)

43.8 Traer Me quedo aquí y me lo traes. (I’ll stay here and you bring it to me.) (See last example of llevar in Section 43.4, above.) Me trae sin cuidado. (I don’t care about it.) La suciedad puede traer muchas enfermedades. (Dirt can bring many illnesses.) Ese asunto me trae loca. (That business is driving me mad.) Hoy trae un sombrero de ala ancha. (Today, she’s wearing a wide-brimmed hat.) Tomás trae un enfado de mucho cuidado. (Tomás is really very angry.) Esta revista trae reportajes muy interesantes. (This magazine has very interesting articles/ features.) Traigo a la memoria las vivencias del pasado. (I recall past experiences.) A mí los chismes me traen al fresco. (I am not concerned with gossip.) Esta oferta no nos trae cuenta. (This offer does not attract us.) Los hijos traen consigo alegrías y preocupaciones. (Children bring with them both joys and worries.) Este proyecto me trae de cabeza. (This plan worries me a great deal.) La física trae a la niña de cabeza. (Physics troubles the girl terribly.) Este asunto me la trae floja (R1). (I don’t give a damn about his business.) Las matemáticas me la traen floja, sólo estudio literatura. (I don’t care about math[s], I only study literature.)

244

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

43.9 Traerse No sé qué se trae entre manos, pero seguro que no es nada bueno. (I don’t know what’s going on, but I bet it’s nothing good.) Me gustaría saber qué se trae con tantas visitas. (I’d like to know what’s going on with so many visits.)

43.10 Venir Me quedo aquí y tú vienes más tarde. (I’ll stay here and you can come later.) Me vienen mareos al levantarme. (I have dizzy spells when I get up.) El traje te viene ancho/muy justo/bien/mal. (Your dress is too big/very tight-fitting/right/suits you well/does not suit you.) La nómina de este mes viene con los atrasos. (This month’s pay includes arrears/back-pay.) ¿A qué vienen estas palabras groseras? (What are these vulgar words for?) El martes no me viene bien. (Tuesday doesn’t suit me.) Jesús pertenece a una famila venida a menos. (Jesús belongs to a family that has come down in the world.) Este dinero me viene como anillo al dedo. (This money comes just at the right time.) Me vino una gripe. (I caught flu.) Me vinieron ganas de reír. (I felt like laughing.) El edificio/proyecto se vino abajo. (The building/project collapsed.) Mis ilusiones se vinieron abajo. (My hopes were dashed.)

43.11 “Venir” + gerund Aquí vienen sucediendo cosas muy raras. (There are funny things going on here.) Lo venía diciendo yo desde hace mucho tiempo. (I’d been saying it for ages.) Viene utilizando nuestros servicios desde hace dos años. (He has been using our services for two years.) Desde diciembre pasado los expertos venían hablando del. . . (Since last December, the experts had been talking of. . .) Los problemas con los buques de la compañía vienen generándose desde el pasado jueves. (The problems with the company’s boats have been growing since last Thursday.)

43.12 “Venir” + past participle Estas heladas vienen motivadas por el viento del norte. (These frosts have been/are being caused by the north wind.) La hoja de ruta viene marcada por nuevos proyectos. (The road map is being marked out by new plans.) Los retrasos vienen motivados porque la compañía sólo dispone de un ferry. (The delays have been caused because the company only has one ferry.)

43.13 “Venir” + infinitive Con el tiempo, vino a ser millonario. (With time, he became a millionaire.) Esto viene a confirmar mis sospechas. (This just confirms my suspicions.)

44 Impersonal verbs / Verbos impersonales Below is a passage showing the use of impersonal verbs. A grandmother clearly does not want her carpets ruined after the appalling weather her grandson has endured in Chile. —Abuela, —telefoneaba yo desde Barajas—, estoy en Madrid procedente de una escalada horrorosa en Chile; nos ha lloviznado, llovido a cántaros, relampagueado, tronado, granizado, vamos. . . un horror. Cuando parecía que iba a escampar, otra vez comenzaba a chispear, granizar o nevar. Parecía que se habían puesto todos los elementos en contra nuestra. Desde que amanecía hasta que atardecía, desde que clareaba hasta que oscurecía, helaba constantemente; no hemos tenido ni un día ni una noche sin diluviar. —Bueno, hijo, pues si pasas a verme, deja el paraguas, el impermeable y las botas junto a la puerta. No me vayas a mojar las alfombras.

44.1 Uses of impersonal verbs (For the impersonal uses of haber: [hay, había, etc.] see Chapter 36.) Impersonal verbs have neither subject nor object. Whatever they represent as being or as going on, nothing is suggested as taking any active part in it. There is no perfect example of such a verb in English, but Spanish, like Italian, has many that are either always or occasionally used. The English pronoun it is a mere form of expression due to the habit of our language, but it does not represent the actor. Interestingly enough, the English it corresponds to the French il. The verbs in question here are frequently associated with weather or natural phenomena, as demonstrated by the witticism of a young Spanish-speaker, alive to the ambiguity (weather and tense) of the noun tiempo: —Jaimito, conjúgame el verbo “saber” en todos los tiempos. —Sí, señor. Sé que hiela. Sé que nieva. Sé que truena. Sé que ventisca. . . 44.1.1 Below is a list of impersonal verbs describing weather. alborear (R3; to begin to get light, to dawn), amanecer (to dawn, to get light), anochecer (to begin to get dark), atardecer (to get dark [because it is late afternoon]), chispear (to drizzle, to spit and spot), clarear (to clear, to get light), diluviar (to deluge), escampar (to clear up), escarchar (to become frosty), granizar (to hail), hacer (to be [often used with nouns when describing the weather, and has other idiomatic uses]), hacerse de noche (to get dark), helar (to freeze), llover (to rain), lloviznar (to drizzle), nevar (to snow), oscurecer(se) (to get dark), relampaguear (to be lightning [very difficult to translate]), tronar (to thunder), ventear (R3; to be windy), ventiscar/ventisquear (to snow; also suggests turbulent and swirling wind = blizzard) Ya alborea el día. (The day is starting to break.) Alboreaba un día de primavera. (It was just getting light on a spring morning.) En invierno amanece tarde. (In winter it gets light later.) Me gusta el verano mediterráneo porque anochece muy tarde. (I like Mediterranean summers because it stays light for a long time.) 245

246

44.1.2

44.1.3

44.1.4

44.1.5

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Ha estado diluviando toda la noche. (It’s been pouring down all night.) Esperaremos a que escampe. (We’ll wait until it clears up.) Te digo que no va a escampar en toda la noche. (I tell you it won’t clear up all night.) El cielo clarea. (The clouds are clearing.) Ya clarea el día. (It’s starting to get light.) Esta noche ha escarchado. (It was frosty/freezing last night.) Vuelve antes de que se haga de noche. (Come back before it gets dark.) En esta época del año, es normal que hiele. (At this time of year, it’s normal to have frosts.) Este invierno ha nevado poco. (It hasn’t snowed much this winter.) Oscurece muy pronto en invierno. (It gets dark very early in winter.) Relampaguea pero no llueve. (There’s lightning but it doesn’t rain.) Tronó anoche. (There was thunder last night.) Ayer estuvo ventiscando todo el día. (It was snowing and blowing a gale all day yesterday.) Some of the verbs listed above may be used metaphorically and, in this case, may take a subject, and can become “personalized.” Los cañones tronaban toda la noche. (The guns thundered all night.) Sus ojos relampagueaban de furia. (Her eyes flashed with fury.) Tuvo mucha suerte. Le llovieron los contratos. (She was very lucky. Contracts rained down on her.) Llovieron desgracias sobre la familia. (Misfortunes cascaded down on the family.) Amanecer and anochecer are occasionally used in elevated style (R3), and may be found in literary texts, with the meaning of to arrive or to be present at daybreak/nightfall or to be in a situation at dawn. La barca amaneció en alta mar. (The boat ended up on the high seas at dawn.) La ciudad amaneció cubierta de nieve. (The city woke up to a covering of snow.) Salí de San Sebastián a las tres de la tarde y anochecí en Madrid. (I left San Sebastian at three in the afternoon and arrived in Madrid when it was getting dark.) Amanecer may be used to suggest to turn up unexpectedly, and here it is R1. Chico, ayer tomé el avión, y hoy he amanecido aquí en Acapulco. (Man, yesterday I caught the plane and ended up today in Acapulco.) Perdí mi cartera en Palenque y amaneció en una comisaría de Oaxaca. (I lost my wallet in Palenque and it turned up in a police station in Oaxaca.) In Mexico, however, amanecer can signify to wake up, but with some other detail, and here it is standard R2. No se encontraba bien ayer, pero amaneció mejor. (She wasn’t well yesterday, but was better when she woke up this morning.) ¿Cómo amaneciste? (How did things go this morning/when you got up?). In Colombia, in R1 speech, the following use of amanecer is common enough: ¿Cómo amaneces? (How are you, this morning?) Some verbs are used in the infinitive with verbs of perception like oír and ver, but this usage omits an equivalent of it, which one would find in English. ¿Oíste tronar anoche? (Did you hear it thunder last night?) Vi relampaguear todo el día de ayer. (I saw the lightning all day yesterday.) Me encanta ver nevar. (I love seeing it snow.) No me gusta ver granizar. (I don’t like seeing it hail.) Estoy harta de ver llover estos días. (I am fed up with seeing it rain lately.) The infinitives, gerunds and auxiliaries of impersonal verbs communicate their impersonal effect to whatever verbs they depend on. The same is true of verbs of occasional impersonal use.

Impersonal verbs

44.1.6

44.1.7

44.1.8

44.1.9

247

Parece que va a llover. (It looks as though it’s going to rain.) Empieza a nevar. (It’s beginning to snow.) Acaba de tronar a lo lejos. (It’s just been thundering in the distance.) Seguía lloviendo/diluviendo. (It continued raining/ deluging.) Puede llover esta tarde. (It might rain this afternoon.) Debió de nevar anoche. (It must have snowed last night.) Tiene que llover. (It has to rain [i.e. it has been dry for a long time].) Amanecer, anochecer and atardecer are also used as nouns. Saldremos al amanecer. (We’ll leave at sun-up/sunrise.) el amanecer de la cultura occidental (the dawn of Western culture) Al anochecer llegamos a Chihuahua. (We arrived in Chihuahua in the evening.) Iré a verte al atardecer. (I’ll come to see you late afternoon.) Hacer is used with respect to weather. This is in keeping with its general use in Romance languages (French: faire, Italian: fare). Hace (mucho) calor. (It is [very] hot.) Hace (mucho) frío. (It is [very] cold.) Hace (mucho) sol. (It is [very] sunny.) Hace un tiempo agradable. (It is pleasant weather.) Hacer may be used in all tenses when speaking of the weather. Hacía mucho sol. (It was very sunny.) Hacía mucho viento. (It was very windy.) Note that in these expressions mucho is used, not muy, since calor, frío, and so on, are nouns. One should note the differences between hacer and tener, when referring to the weather. Whereas hacer is used to refer to the condition of the weather, tener is used for a person’s reaction to it. Compare the following pairs of examples. Hace calor. (It is hot.) Tengo calor. (I am hot.) Hace frío. (It is cold.) Tengo frío. (I am cold.) Estar is used in this context, but for things. Esta cama está fría. (This bed is cold.) La sopa está muy caliente. (The soup is very hot.) Furthermore, estar caliente does not mean to be hot, unless used figuratively about the opposite sex. There is a further cluster of verbs that sometimes stand freely, and in certain cases do not have a true equivalent in English. In other cases, they do have an equivalent. Some of the most common are listed below. acaecer (R3; to happen), acontecer (to happen), apetecer (to attract, to appeal [to]), competer (to be the responsibility of), constar (to be evident), convenir (to suit), corresponder (to fall to), encantar (to please, to delight), gustar (to please), importar (to be important), parecer (to seem, to appear), pasar (to happen), precisar (to be necessary), tocar (to fall to), urgir (to be urgent) Rumorear, used reflexively, may also be included here. Acaeció que el ministro dimitió. (It happened that the minister resigned.) Aconteció que el rey brindó un regalo a todos los invitados. (It came about that the king offered a gift to all the guests.) Nos encantó visitar la Argentina. (We were delighted to visit Argentina.) Me gustaba tomar la yerba mate con los amigos. (I loved to have maté [aromatic beverage used chiefly in South America and especially in Paraguay] with my friends.)

248

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

¿ Te apetece ir al cine? (Do you feel like going to the movies?) Esto compete a nuestra oficina. (This is the precinct of our office.) No sé si nos conviene/convenga (C, M). (I don’t know if that suits us.) Urge que vayas a casa. (It is urgent that you go home.) No les importa a los niños pasar la noche aquí. (The children don’t mind spending the night here.) Me consta que tiene dinero. (It is clear to me he has money.) A mí me correspondió ir de vacaciones en septiembre. (It fell to me to go on vacation in September.) Se rumorea que van a destituir al director. (Rumor has it that they are going to dismiss the manager.) Nearly all these verbs take an indirect object (le and les, not lo/los, la/las), and this includes a further group which suggest the idea of attraction or pleasure: agradar, agradecer, alucinar, apasionar, cautivar, complacer, entusiasmar, fascinar, interesar, molar (R1), seducir One would therefore say and write of a male and female, in both singular and plural: Le(s) agrada el perro de Pilar. (He/She/They like[s] Pilar’s dog.) Further examples follow below. Le(s) agradecí. (I thanked him/her/them.) El libro le(s) interesa/encanta/gusta. (The book interests/delights/pleases him/her/them.) Les fascinan/seducen las joyas. (The jewels fascinate/attract them [males or females].) Le(s) apasiona Palenque. (He/She/They adore Palenque.) Su belleza le cautivó. (Her beauty captivated him.) Les mola su moto. (They think his motorbike is great.) It is possible to say, and even probable that one would say: Se lo agradecí. (I thanked him/ her/them for it.) In Iberian Spanish, one could hear quite frequently: El libro lo/los/la/las agrada/interesa/encanta/entusiasma. This would constitute a loísmo or laísmo (see Chapter 79), foreign to a cultured person, or to a Spanish-American speaker, for that matter. One would very rarely hear, if at all, this loísmo/laísmo construction with gustar. Paradoxically enough, the verb atraer, which expresses the essence of attraction, does not take the indirect object in these constructions. La pintura de Goya la/lo atrae. (Goya’s painting attracts her/him.) El peligro los/las atraía. (Danger attracted them.) Of course, some of these verbs, like encantar and gustar, may be used in other ways, with a personalized subject. Les encanto a mis estudiantes. (My students adore me.) Le gusto a mi novia. (My girl friend likes me.) There are many cases where in English a verb would be used impersonally, governing an infinitive, while in Spanish the infinitive is the subject of the verb. Me costó un ojo de la cara aprobar el examen. (It took blood, sweat and tears to get through the exam.) Nos tocó jugar a nosotros. (It was our turn to play.) 44.1.10 Apart from its use with weather (see Section 44.1.1 and 44.1.6), hacer may be followed by a measure of time, and has the value of ago or since. (See also Section 72.7 for expressions related to time.) It is used in the present tense and the imperfect, and even the future. Hace dos años que estoy en México. (I’ve been in Mexico for two years.) Hace más de un año que no oigo hablar de ella. (I haven’t heard anything of her for more than a year.) Llegué hace cinco años. (I arrived five years ago.)

Impersonal verbs

44.1.11

44.1.12

44.1.13

44.1.14

44.1.15

44.1.16

44.1.17

249

Hace cinco años que lo vi. (It’s five years since I saw him.) Hacía diez meses que había llegado. (He had arrived ten months before.) Mañana hará un año entero que llegó. (Tomorrow will be a full year since he arrived.) The use of ha (ago; from haber) is confined to literary style (R3), but is common enough in Catalonia in R2. cien años ha (a hundred years ago) dos semanas ha (two weeks ago) Algunos meses ha estuve yo en Spain. (I was in Spain a few months ago.) The verbs ser and estar are used impersonally with great frequency, followed by nouns or adjectives. Es lástima/Es una pena/Es una maravilla. (It’s a pity/It’s sad/It’s a marvel.) Es de día. (It’s daytime.) Está/Es claro que lo saben. (It’s clear that they know.) Es imposible arreglar el carro aquí. (It’s impossible to repair the car here.) Estaba muy oscuro cuando salimos. (It was very dark when we left.) Está cubierto/nublado. (It is cloudy.) The reflexive pronoun se is used in an impersonal way. (See Section 38.5.1 for a fuller treatment of this feature.) Se vive bien en Madrid. (You live well in Madrid.) Cuando se está enfermo se pasa mal. (When you’re ill, you have a bad time.) Se aplaudió a los jugadores. (The players were applauded.) Note also the impersonal and reflexive use of tratarse: Boca Juniors ha fichado a un nuevo jugador; se trata de un goleador nato. (Boca Juniors have signed on a new player; he’s a born goal-scorer.) ¿El Sáhara/Sahara (Spanish America)? Se trata de un viaje largo. (The Sahara? You’re talking about a long journey.) Se trata de que lo aprendáis. (It’s a question of your learning it.) Verbs are used impersonally in the third person plural when no one in particular is referred to. Llaman a la puerta. (Someone’s knocking at the door.) ¿Cuándo te operan? (When are you having the operation?) The use of uno/una is sometimes considered impersonal, but, syntactically, this cannot be the case since the indefinite pronoun performs the function of a subject. Uno lo pasa bien aquí. (You have a good time here.) Una se encuentra a gusto aquí. (You [f] feel fine here.) The following verbs may also be used impersonally: hacerse, bastar, sobrar. Se me hace tarde. (It’s getting late for me.) Se le hace muy difícil. (It’s getting very difficult for him/her.) Basta con eso. (That’s enough.) Sobra con veinte dólares./Veinte dólares y sobra. (There’s more than enough with twenty dollars.) Examples of other verbs that are used impersonally, at least from the syntactical point of view, follow below. Nos dio por reír. (We started to laugh.) Ya no me da tiempo. (It doesn’t give me time now.) Aquí huele muy bien. (It smells very nice here.) Aquí pone que se prohíbe fumar. (It says here that you can’t smoke.) Me duele en este brazo. (It hurts me in this arm.) Me pica en el hombro. (My shoulder stings/pricks.)

250

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

One should distinguish between me duele el brazo and me pica el hombro, and the verbs in the last two examples, which contain a preposition. In me duele el brazo and me pica el hombro there is a subject (brazo and hombro). 44.1.18 There is an impersonal expression, of active form, but of passive value, formed by the verb ser followed by de + infinitive. This is an R3 expression, but is not uncommon. Es de esperar que vengan hoy. (It is to be hoped they will come today.) Es de desear que se resuelva el dilema muy pronto. (It is to be desired that the dilemma [will] be resolved very soon.) 44.1.19 Two other expressions, in this context, both R3, are worth noting, although they are little used. In fact, the first, menester (itself a noun), involving ser + noun, is not always impersonal, since it always has a subject, expressed or understood. There is, naturally, no agreement with menester. Es menester que vengas mañana. (It is necessary [that] you come tomorrow.) Ya no son menester más pruebas. (More proofs are not necessary now.) Eran menester varias reparaciones. (Several repairs were necessary.) The second expression is haber menester (algo) (to need) which is not an impersonal phrase. It is occasionally found in old or legal documents. This expression is not followed by de and, unlike menester, there is agreement. No he menester tu ayuda. (I don’t need your help.) No hemos menester llegar hasta Petrarca para entender el amor cortés. (We do not need to go back as far as Petrarque to understand courtly love.) 44.1.20 The literary form (R3) he also requires comment. Contrary to popular belief, which views he as connected to the verb haber, it derives from the classical Arabic ha¯ = he aquí = (here is), passing through to the popular Arabic form he¯, and then on to he. It is used in a variety of forms. He aquí abajo la lista de los libros. (Here below is the list of books.) He aquí el motivo del descontento. (Here is the reason for the discontent.) Heme/le/la/nos/les/las/los aquí. (Here I am/he/she is/we/they are.) The more common usage is: Estoy aquí/Aquí estoy He aquí la razón de que. . . (Here is the reason why. . .) A not unusual feature of this expression lies in a biblical context, corresponding to the English Behold! Here is a small selection, among a large number, taken from the Nácar Colunga version of the Holy Bible. “He aquí que envío delante de ti mi ángel”. (Mark 1:2) (“Lo and behold I send my angel before you.”) “He aquí el/al Hombre”. (John 19:5) (“Behold the Man.”) Dijo María: “He aquí a la sierva del Señor”. (Luke 1:38) (Mary said: “Behold the handmaid/ servant of the Lord”.) “He aquí el/al Cordero de Dios”. (John 1:29, 36) (“Behold the Lamb of God.”) There does seem to be uncertainty over whether he aquí should be followed by the distinctive a as witnessed by the last three examples. It would appear that the distinctive a is preferable, and that it is more acceptable.

45 Verbs of perception + infinitive or gerund / Verbos de percepción + infinitivo o gerundio Below is a futuristic passage narrating the experience of an android, Andrés Treceno, as he contemplates the wonders of nature, which seem to conflict with human understanding and behavior. Of particular interest is the pervasive use of verbs of perception preceding infinitives and gerunds. A lo lejos se oía bramar (roar) al mar y se percibía la luna brillando sobre un fondo de mercurio que adivinaba ondular levemente. Se oía el viento ululando (to howl) entre las copas de los cercanos pinos. Andrés Treceño notó pasar junto a su cara una sombra huidiza, advirtió aletear (fluttering) un ave en la oscuridad, quizá el vuelo de una lechuza; captó una campana tañendo en una torre lejana, olía el olor del mar cercano expandiéndose a su alrededor. Contempló las estrellas parpadeando en el infinito, y notó toda la información grabándose en su memoria. Entre los significados y significantes de su amplísimo vocabulario faltaba algo, las piezas no encajaban (did not fit together). El androide ANDR-13, Andrés Treceno para los cercanos (friends), percibía a los humanos interactuando absurdamente, veía a hombres y mujeres obrando sin sentido, odio o amor, decían. . .

45.1 Use of verbs of perception A certain number of verbs, essentially those expressing feelings or sensations, are frequently followed by an infinitive which performs the function of a direct complement. This infinitive normally has a direct object, but not always, as in the case of an impersonal verb (see examples in Section 45.1.2 below). Other features to bear in mind are the possible use of the gerund, which can, in many instances, replace the infinitive or modify the word order. 45.1.1 The most common verbs in this category are: contemplar, entrever, espiar, oír, oler, sentir and ver. Yo contemplaba las águilas revolotear/revoloteando en el cielo. (I contemplated the eagles wheeling in the sky.) Entreví a los niños jugar/jugando en el patio. (I glimpsed the children playing in the yard.) Espiamos al ladrón entrar de hurtadillas. (We watched the thief creep in.) Oímos cantar a Pedro. (We hear[d] Pedro singing.) Mientras se afeitaba/rasuraba (M), se le oía tararear/silbar. (While he was shaving, we could hear him humming/whistling.) Pasaba el tiempo viendo caer la nieve para posarse sobre el césped. (He whiled away the time looking at the snow fall and settle on the lawn.) No lo sentí entrar. (I didn’t hear him come in./I wasn’t aware of him coming in.) 45.1.2 Below are some examples of verbs of sensation with impersonal verbs in the infinitive which can stand by itself. Oí llover a cántaros anoche. (I heard it come down in torrents last night.) Vi nevar a lo lejos. (I saw it snowing in the distance.)

251

252

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Vimos relampaguear detrás de la montaña. (We saw flashes of lightning behind the mountain.) This is also true of oír, which does not need to take a direct object. (Oí hablar en el pasillo. (I heard someone speaking in the corridor.) Oyó llamar/golpear a la puerta. (He heard someone knocking/banging on the door.) 45.1.3 Many of these verbs of perception may just as easily be followed by the gerund. Vi las hojas cayendo del árbol. (I saw the leaves falling from the tree.) Oímos a Pedro cantando. (We hear[d] Pedro singing.) Vimos una mariposa volando entre las flores. (We saw a butterfly flying among the flowers.) Oí el agua gorgoteando por los desagües. (I heard the water gurgling down the drains.) Vi el humo pasando por debajo de la puerta. (I saw the smoke filtering in beneath the door.) 45.1.4 With respect to word order, the direct object of the verb of perception may precede or follow the infinitive or the gerund. Oí cantar a Pedro./Oí a Pedro cantar./ Oí a Pedro cantando./Oí cantando a Pedro. (I heard Pedro sing[ing].) Contemplé (a) los vencejos volando/Contemplé volando (a) los vencejos. (I watched the swifts flying.) Vi entrar a mi hija./Vi a mi hija entrar./Vi entrando a mi hija./Vi a mi hija entrando. (I saw my daughter coming/come in.)

46 Periphrastic verb forms / Verbos con formas perifrásticas Below is a passage showing the use of periphrastic forms of verbs. The passage tells the tragicomic experience of a little boy whose reactions cause the dentist to cry. El dentista rompió a llorar. Era la primera vez que yo veía actuar de aquella forma tanto a paciente como a odontólogo. El niño ya iba corriendo como un gamo (buck) calle abajo; se había levantado de la silla y había echado a correr antes de que nos diéramos cuenta. Acabábamos de ver algo insólito (unusual): en la clínica suelen llorar los pacientes, nunca el dentista. Esto viene a confirmar que las cosas están cambiando vertiginosamente; ahora empiezo a creer lo del calentamiento global. El sanitario había dejado de gemir (groan); ahora hipaba (was hiccupping), el pobre. Menudo mordisco le había propinado el angelito. Claro, que según alcanzo a recordar, casi le arranca la quijada (jaw) al infante; insistía y volvía a insistir tirando con todas sus fuerzas, hasta que el niño, ¡Ñam! Creo que se llegó a comer medio dedo, y además, iba riéndose como un loco. ¡No me puedo imaginar a cuanto va a ascender la factura! Periphrastic verb forms are made up of two or more verbs which carry out the function of a single verbal nucleus. They are especially common in R1 language and are often restricted to the tenses in which they can be used. They are often connected to the idea of beginning and ending and frequency. A periphrastic verb form is made up of an auxiliary verb which is the conjugated verb and an infinitive, past participle or gerund. It could be argued that such modal auxiliary verbs as deber and poder should be included here, but they are treated in Chapter 41. Other verbs, such as estar and llevar, appear here, although they are treated elsewhere and in other contexts. To be noted also is that pronouns may often precede the auxiliary verb as well as being attached enclitically to the infinitive.

46.1 Verb + (nearly always) preposition + infinitive 46.1.1 acabar de (suggests that an action has just ended) Acaba de comprar una computadora (A, C, M)/un ordenador. (He’s just bought a computer.) Acababa de llegar a casa cuando. . . (I had just arrived home when. . .) Lo acabo de leer. (I’ve just read it.) 46.1.2 acabar por (to end up [doing something]) Acabó por confesarlo todo. (She ended up confessing everything.) Acabaron por negarse a ir. (They ended up refusing to go.) 46.1.3 acostumbrar (suggests habitual activity, like soler [see Section 46.1.19, below], and more common in M than in Spain) Acostumbro a dormir la siesta. (I usually have a siesta.) Me acostumbré a comer poco cuando estaba en el desierto. (I got used to eating little when I was in the desert.) 253

254

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

46.1.4 alcanzar a (suggests completing something successfully) He alcanzado a hablar con ella en tres ocasiones. (I’ve been able to talk to her on three occasions.) No alcancé a verlo. (I didn’t succeed in seeing him.) 46.1.5 comenzar a (R3; suggests the beginning of an action, the same as empezar a, meterse a, ponerse a and see Sections 46.1.10, 46.1.15, 46.1.16, below, apart from the register) Comenzó a hablar. (She began to speak.) Lo comencé a arreglar. (I began to repair it.) 46.1.6 concluir de (to conclude [doing something]) Cuando concluyó de hablar. . . (When she finished speaking. . .) 46.1.7 dejar de (suggests stopping doing something) Dejó de estudiar hace un año. (She stopped studying a year ago.) Deja de fumar, que te perjudica la salud. (Stop smoking; it damages your health.) Lo dejé de comer. (I stopped eating it.) 46.1.8 desear (suggests wishing to do something, like querer [see Section 46.1.17, below], but of a slightly higher register) Siempre he deseado hacer un viaje al trópico. (I’ve always wanted to travel to the tropics.) 46.1.9 echar a (denotes the beginning of an action) El motor que estaba calado echó a andar de nuevo. (The stalled engine started up again.) Echó a correr tras el autobús. (She began to run after the bus.) El niño se echó a llorar. (The child burst out crying.) 46.1.10 empezar a (like comenzar [see Section 46.1.5, above], apart from the register) Empezaron a construir una casa. (They began to build a house.) Empecé a estudiar a los cuarenta años. (I began studying at forty.) Empiezo a trabajar mañana. (I start working tomorrow.) Lo empezaron a escuchar. (They started listening to it.) 46.1.11 haber de (suggests obligation or supposition) Había de rentar/alquilar ese local. (I had to rent that building/those premises.) Hemos de trabajar duro. (We have to work hard.) 46.1.12 haber que (suggests obligation and stronger than haber de [see Section 46.1.11, above]) Hay que terminar este dibujo. (I/we/you/she, etc. have/has to finish this drawing.) Habrá que comer antes de salir. (We’ll have to eat before going out.) Pronouns may not precede any of the forms of haber in this context. 46.1.13 ir a (future idea) Voy a ir al cine. (I’m going to [go to] the movies.) Iba a comer a las tres. (I was going to eat at three.) Lo voy a estudiar. (I’m going to study it.) 46.1.14 llegar a (expresses the perfect completion of an action) Se esforzó por llegar a triunfar en el medio artístico. (She did everything possible in order to triumph in the artistic world.) Llegó a correrme. (She even chucked me out/fired me.) 46.1.15 meterse a (like empezar [see Section 46.1.10, above]) Se metió a arreglar la casa pero la dejó peor que estaba. (He set about clearing up the house but he left it worse than before.) 46.1.16 ponerse a (like empezar [see Section 46.1.10, above]) Irena se puso a servir la cena. (Irena began serving dinner.) Me puse a estudiar. (I set about studying.) 46.1.17 querer (suggests wishing to do something) Quiso comprar ese auto (A, C, M)/coche. (She wanted to buy that car.)

Periphrastic verb forms

255

Lo queríamos ver. (We wanted to see it.) 46.1.18 romper a (suggests the sudden start of an action) El niño rompió a llorar/reír. (The child burst into tears/out laughing.) 46.1.19 soler (suggests a habitual activity, less used in M) Suelo acostarme a la una. (I usually go to bed at one.) Solíamos levantarnos a las siete. (We used to get up at seven.) 46.1.20 terminar de (very similar to acabar de, although does not have the idea of to have just) Hemos terminado de hacer el trabajo. (We’ve finished doing the work.) No termina de convencerme. (I am not totally convinced.) ¡Termina de vestirte! (Finish dressing!) 46.1.21 terminar por (to end up [doing something]) Terminó por romper los platos. (He ended up smashing the plates.) 46.1.22 venir a (points to finality or duration) Vengo a comprar ese vestido. (I have come to buy that dress.) Vienen a tener la misma edad. (They are just about the same age.) Lo que dices viene a confirmar mis ideas. (What you say serves to confirm my ideas.) 46.1.23 volver a (suggests repetition) Volvió a insistir en trabajar ahí. (She insisted again on working there.) Antonio ha vuelto a quedarse sin gasolina/sin nafta (A). (Antonio has run out of gas/petrol again.) Lo volví a arreglar (I repaired it again.)

46.2 Verb + gerund 46.2.1 acabar (suggests ending up doing something) Acabó llorando. (She ended up crying.) Acabé dando un portazo. (I ended up slamming the door.) 46.2.2 andar (suggests duration or repetition) Anda diciendo cosas rarísimas. (He goes round saying the oddest things.) Siempre andaba pidiendo dinero. (He was always going round asking for money.) Anda explicándole a todo el mundo lo ocurrido. (All he does is tell everyone what happened.) 46.2.3 concluir (suggests ending by doing something) Concluyó su charla diciendo que. . . (She ended her talk with the words. . .) 46.2.4 estar (suggests duration or continuity) Estaba comiendo cuando entré. (She was eating when I walked in.) Estoy impartiendo clases en la universidad el lunes. (I give classes at the university on Mondays.) Note that the Spanish present continuous cannot refer to the future, as in English. Compare the following two sentences. Lo estoy haciendo. (I am doing it [now].) Lo voy a hacer mañana. (I’m doing it tomorrow.) Many purists disapprove of estar siendo + gerund, although it is also commonly found in the written form. Esta lectura está siendo/resultando muy aburrida. (This reading is really boring.) 46.2.5 ir (suggests progression or repetition) Me voy corriendo a la escuela. (I’m in a hurry to get to school.) Fue anocheciendo mientras caminábamos hacia la hacienda. (It was starting to get dark when we made our way to the ranch.) Fui ventilando la habitación mientras desayunábamos. (I went on airing the room while we had breakfast.)

256

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Vete sacando el coche del garaje, que ahora bajo. (You go on getting the car out of the garage, I’m coming down.) La lluvia va disminuyendo por momentos. (The rain is easing off at times.) El camino iba bajando a la playa. (The path went on down to the beach.) 46.2.6 llevar (suggests duration) Llevo un año estudiando en la Argentina. (I’ve been studying for a year in Argentina.) Llevaba tres meses trabajando cuando. . . (She had been working for three months when. . .) 46.2.7 terminar (very similar to acabar) Terminó diciendo que no. (He ended up saying no.) Terminaron marchándose. (They ended up going away.) 46.2.8 venir (suggests duration or repetition) Lo venía diciendo desde no sé cuanto tiempo. (I’d been saying it for I don’t know how long.) Aquí vienen sucediendo cosas muy raras. (Very funny things have been going on here.) Vengo observando un incremento en los precios. (I keep on noticing an increase in the prices.)

46.3 Verb + past participle (with agreement) 46.3.1 llevar (suggests something completed) Llevo leídos cinco capítulos. (I have read five chapters.) Llevaba ya vistas varias casas y no le gustaba ninguna. (She had already seen a number of houses but she didn’t like any of them.) Llevo publicados once libros sobre las lenguas romances/románicas. (I have published eleven books on Romance languages.)

47 Subordinate clauses related to time (with indicative mood) / Oraciones subordinadas referentes al tiempo (duración) (con modo indicativo) (Note that if a future idea is implied, the subjunctive mood is often used.) The passage below illustrates the use of conjunctions with the indicative mood in Spanish. The passage narrates an episode of a young driver who ignores all the rules related to safe driving, and even fails to distinguish between a policeman and his father, who is back at the police station. He is not even wearing his glasses. Apenas se había pasado el semáforo en rojo (had jumped the stoplight), allí estaba el policía haciéndole señales. Antes de parar, buscó el cinturón de seguridad, siempre lo llevaba desabrochado. Mientras bajaba la ventanilla dio una patada al bote de cerveza (kicked a beer can) debajo del asiento. —Como buscaba el teléfono —comenzó a disculparse Josete—, no he visto la luz roja, pero antes he advertido al niño que pasaba, y una vez esquivado, no merecía la pena parar. —Cuando vi la velocidad que traías —dijo el policía—, me asusté. Mientras yo agarraba al niño, me di cuenta que te saltarías el semáforo. No bien habías parado, aprecié que no llevabas puesto el cinturón y, que además, tenías el móvil en la mano. No sé si lo has pensado: cada vez que sacas el coche, tu padre no gana para pagar las multas. —Siempre que me regañas tienes razón, papá —contestó Josete bizqueando. —Apestas a cerveza (You stink of beer), y. . . ¡ponte las gafas para conducir! No soy tu papá; él se ha quedado de servicio en comisaría.

47.1 Constructing subordinate clauses related to time 47.1.1 To indicate simultaneous actions, the conjunctions cuando and si are used. Sale cuando hace buen tiempo. (She goes out when the weather is good.) Sale si hace buen tiempo. (She goes out if the weather is good.) Envíame una postal cuando llegues. (Send me a card when you arrive.) 47.1.2 The conjunction como indicates that the action has already started when the main clause is used. Como estaba durmiendo, llamaron a la puerta. (While I was sleeping, they knocked at the door.) 47.1.3 The conjunction mientras (que) (while) indicates the passing of time or simultaneity of events. Mientras estoy trabajando, ve a la compra. (While I’m working, do the shopping.) Mientras que llovía, me quedaba en casa. (While it rained, I stayed at home.) Although mientras que can indicate time, it more frequently suggests contrast or opposition. Yo los pinto de azul mientras que ella los pinta de naranja. (I paint them blue while [on the other hand] she paints them orange.) 257

258

47.1.4

47.1.5

47.1.6

47.1.7

47.1.8

47.1.9

47.1.10

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Purists prefer to separate mientras and mientras que, limiting the first to time and the second to contrast. The conjunctions conforme, a medida que and según indicate simultaneity of events. Conforme iba acercándome al pueblo, distinguía los tejados. (As I got closer to the town, I could make out the roofs.) A medida que pasa el tiempo, se vuelve más desagradable. (As time goes by he becomes more unpleasant.) Cuenta a los chicos según vayan entrando. (He counts the boys as they come in.) The conjunctive expressions cada vez que and siempre que indicate repetition. Cada vez que tomaba la bicicleta, se caía. (Each time she took the bicycle, she fell off.) Siempre que habla, dice tonterías. (Whenever he speaks, he says dumb things.) The idea of simultaneity can also be expressed by the gerund. Entrando, dio los buenos días a todo el mundo. (He greeted everyone as he walked in.) Ellipsis of the verb in subordinate clauses may take place when introduced by cuando (during the period of). The verbs ser, estar, suceder and ocurrir, for instance, may be omitted. Cuando (era) joven, vivía en el campo. (When I was young, I lived in the country.) Cuando la revolución, yo no vivía aquí. (During the revolution, I didn’t live here.) No fue cuando los moros, sino mucho antes, cuando los romanos. (It wasn’t during the time of the Arabs, but much earlier, during the Roman era.) Cuando and como occur in subordinate clauses when they refer to a previous event. Cuando ha comido, se marcha. (When she’s eaten, she leaves.) Como ha dormido bien, puede jugar. (Now that he has slept well, he can play.) It is likely that in A, C and M, the preterit would be used in the two examples above. With después (de) que, the preterit would doubtless be used everywhere. Después (de) que lo comió todo, se fue. (After he ate up everything, he left.) The conjunctions or conjunctive expressions luego que, así como, en cuanto, en seguida que, tan pronto como, apenas, no bien (R3) indicate that one action immediately succeeds another. Luego que terminó de hablar, se puso a beber. (As soon as she stopped speaking, she began to drink.) Así como estuvo compuesto su carro (M)/arreglado su coche, se fue de vacaciones. (As soon as his car was repaired, he went on vacation.) En cuanto los vio, empezó a gritar. (As soon as he saw them, he started to shout.) Tan pronto como lo había comido todo, se acostó. (As soon as he had eaten everything, he went to bed.) The conjunction desde que is equivalent to the English since and is used for a whole period, implying simultaneity. Desde que está aquí, no tenemos ni un minuto de tranquilidad. (Since he’s been here, we haven’t had a moment’s peace.) Most of the above conjunctions are followed by the indicative when a specific action has taken place and is therefore real. However, if the action has not taken place and some uncertainty is suggested, the subjunctive is almost always used (see Section 55.4.6 for this feature). Whereas the above conjunctions in Section 47.1.1, above, may be used with an indicative or a subjunctive, antes (de) que and primero que are always followed by the subjunctive. Antes de que llegue, dime lo que tienes que decirme. (Before she arrives, tell me what you have to say.) Primero que lo digas, déjame adivinar. (Before you tell me, let me guess.)

Subordinate clauses related to time

259

47.1.11 If a future is implied, either as a correlative of the present tense or a past tense, the subjunctive (present or imperfect) occurs with a whole range of conjunctions. Three examples will suffice here, since Chapter 55 provides much more detail. Mientras estés en Colombia, escríbeme. (While you are in Colombia, write me.) Creía yo que, mientras él estuviese en el cine, estaríamos tranquilos. (I thought that while he was at the movies, we would have some peace.) Le prometí mandarle una postal en cuanto llegara a París. (I promised that I would write him as soon as I arrived in Paris.) 47.1.12 The clearest example of contrast between the real (indicative mood) and the unrealized action (subjunctive mood) may be seen in the use of the conjunction hasta que. No abandonó el cuarto hasta que se hubo/había dormido el nene (indicative). (She didn’t leave the room until the infant had gone to sleep.) Seguiré pidiéndotelo hasta que me lo des (subjunctive). (I’ll go on asking you for it until you give it to me.) 47.1.13 In an elevated style (R3), the indicative may be used where one might expect the subjunctive. Cuando Napoleón morirá, toda Europa se alegrará. (When Napoleon dies, all Europe will rejoice.) This is a stylistic device that could easily be employed by a historian, with some justification, since the event has indeed happened.

48 Subordinate clauses related to concession (with indicative mood) / Oraciones subordinadas concesivas (con modo indicativo) The passage below narrates a curious bank raid. The robber cannot convince anyone that he is serious, because he does not seem menacing enough. If he can’t have the key to the safe, he will take the billfolds/wallets of the bank staff. The attractive blonde is loving every bit of it. The passage illustrates the use of certain concessionary conjunctions and concessionary expressions. —A pesar de que es duro, todavía tengo mi corazoncito, y aunque me ven haciendo esto, yo también quiero a mi mamá, pero si no ha vuelto usted del lavabo en tres minutos, todos pagarán las consecuencias. Soy bueno pero no tonto, y eso que a alguno se lo pueda parecer. Y tú. . ., sí tú: deja de gimotear (moaning) aunque te cuesta. A pesar de lo mayor que eres, tienes pocas agallas (you have no courage). Si no tienes pañuelo para limpiarte, pide uno a tu compañero. ¿Cuándo van a darse cuenta de que esto es un atraco? Me estoy cansando ya. . ., y eso que les amenacé con la pistola desde el principio. Con estar mirando que no le dé un infarto a ninguno, me va a dar a mí, por tantas consideraciones: Si no aparece la llave de la caja fuerte del banco, me llevaré sus carteras. Con lo arriesgado que es, no me voy a ir sin dinero. ¿No les parece? —Oiga, —levantó la rubia despampanante (stunning blonde) la mano— ¿me podría firmar un autógrafo a pesar de todo (lo que ha pasado)? ¡Qué emocionante! ¡Ya verá cuando se lo cuente a mis amigas!

48.1 Conjunctive expressions in the indicative One distinguishes between concession based on real facts or events and that based on hypotheses. (Clauses related to hypothetical events lead to the subjunctive which is dealt with in Chapter 55.) The main conjunctions and conjunctive expressions used here in the indicative are aunque, si bien, a pesar de que and aun bien que. Aunque está enferma, sale cada día. (Although she is sick, she goes out every day.) Si bien me lo ha prometido, no ha cumplido. (Although he promised me [to do it], he didn’t fulfill his promise.) A pesar de que va mejorando, no sale todavía. (Despite improving, she is still not going out.) To this list should be added y eso que, which is more associated with the spoken language than with the written, although it cannot be excluded from the latter. This expression often intensifies the incongruence between cause and effect. Acusa a muchos, y eso que no tiene pruebas. (He accuses many people, despite the fact that he has no proof.)

260

Subordinate clauses related to concession

261

Ya no tiene dinero, y eso que estamos a principios de enero. (She has no money already, and yet we’re at the beginning of January.) As in English, si may also be used in a concessive manner, based on a real fact. Si no es muy inteligente, es muy servicial. (If he’s not very intelligent, [at least] he’s very helpful.) Si no ha venido esta tarde, es que tiene otros compromisos. (If he hasn’t come this afternoon, it’s because he has other commitments.)

48.2 Conjunctive expressions using the infinitive In certain conjunctive expressions, the infinitive may be used and the subject is not necessarily the same. Compare the following examples. A pesar de estar muy enferma, sale todos los días. (Despite being very ill, she goes out very day.) A pesar de ser rico Juan, fue Pedro quien pagó. (In spite of the fact that Juan is rich, it was Pedro who paid.) Note also the use of lo in these expressions. A pesar de lo rico que es, es muy tacaño. (In spite of how rich he is, he is miserly.) Con lo rico que es, es muy tacaño. (In spite of how rich he is . . .)

49 Subordinate clauses related to condition (with indicative mood) / Oraciones subordinadas condicionales (con modo indicativo) The humorous passage below relates an episode in the life of Juan, whose joys are centered on wine. Doubtless inebriated, he is knocked over by an automobile, ends up in the morgue, benefits from an impromptu collection, slips out of the morgue by the back door and invests the collected money in further wine. The passage illustrates the use of conjunctions and conjunctive expressions leading to the indicative mood. Como soy amigo de Juan, no puedo criticarlo, pero sé que él, teniendo poco dinero, antes se queda sin comer que sin beber, y de estar sin blanca (without a penny/dime), prefiere pasar hambre que pedir prestado. Teniendo (dinero) en la cartera, es generoso con todo el mundo. Da a todos, porque dice que dando a uno solamente, se descontenta a otros. Su sobrino asegura que de estar en sus manos lo internaría en una residencia; a decir verdad yo nunca lo he creído, porque este chico es un poco tarambana (dumb/stupid). A juzgar por las apariencias Juan estaba muerto tras pasar el coche por encima de él, y si estaba vivo, no lo aparentaba; por eso los conocidos han hecho una colecta para darle un entierro digno. Pero Juan es duro, y al recobrar el conocimiento le dije: —Yo que tú, no devolvía ni un chavo (dime) de la colecta. Y él, que no estando trompa (drunk), es listo como una ardilla (squirrel), ha dicho que en caso de haber fallecido, él no hubiera disfrutado del dinero, y que lo mejor sería saborearlo vivo. Hemos salido del tanatorio (morgue) por la puerta trasera y aquí estamos, paladeando un magnífico tinto. De seguir así tendremos dinero para bebernos un par de cosechas (vintages), y si nos pillan (catch), que nos quiten lo bailado (nobody can take away the good time we´ve had).

49.1 Forms of subordinate clauses related to condition 49.1.1 One distinguishes between condition based on real facts or events and that based on hypotheses. (When clauses relate to hypothetical events, they lead to the subjunctive, usually the imperfect, which is dealt with in Chapter 55.) The main conjunctions and conjunctive expressions used here in the indicative are: si, como, siempre que and suponiendo que. Si vienes mañana, lo haremos juntos. (If you come tomorrow, we’ll do it together.) Como es mi amiga, no la puedo criticar. (Since she’s my friend, I can’t criticize her.) Francisco siempre que va a la cocina acaba comiendo cualquier cosa. (Whenever Francisco goes to the kitchen he ends up eating something.) Condition can also be expressed with the gerund. Dando a uno descontentaba a otro. (Giving to one displeased another.) A condition is normally stated in the present indicative, while the conclusion is stated in the future, the present indicative or the imperative. Si haces esto, todos te lo reprocharán. (If you do this, everyone will reproach you.) 262

Subordinate clauses related to condition

263

Si haces esto, te doy/daré un caramelo. (If you do this, I’ll give you a candy/ sweet.) Si haces esto, no se lo digas a nadie. (If you do this, don’t tell anyone.) Note how, in the second example, the future (required in English) may be replaced by the present. 49.1.2

49.1.3 49.1.4

49.1.5

49.1.6

49.1.7

The infinitive may be used in a subordinate clause of condition when preceded by the preposition de or the expression (en) caso de. De tener dinero, compraría una casa. (If I had some money, I’d buy a house.) De no tener dinero, no iría de vacaciones. (If I didn’t have any money, I wouldn’t go on vacation.) De seguir así las cosas, todo terminará mal. (If things go on like this, everything will turn out badly.) De estar la decisión en nuestras manos, no vacilaríamos. (If it were our decision, we’d not hesitate.) (En) caso de llegar temprano, te pido que llames. (If you arrive early, please call me.) (En) caso de no poder venir en camión, iré por Uds. en carro. (If you can’t come by bus, I’ll come for you in the car.) Ellipsis of the verb ser allows spoken R1 expressions such as: De Juan, yo le diría la verdad. (If I were Juan, I’d tell her the truth.) Of the old expression a + infinitive with the value of condition, there remain some common expressions, such as a juzgar por, a decir verdad. A juzgar por lo que dices, no lo pasaste bien. (Judging from what you say, you didn’t have a good time.) A decir verdad, no creo ni una palabra de lo que dices. (Frankly, I don’t believe a word of what you say.) The imperfect indicative (and not subjunctive) is used after the conjunction si, which does not always express a hypothesis. It can introduce the idea of time, or even cause. Si estaba enfermo, no salía. (If he was ill, he did not go out.) Si no cocinaba mi madre, yo comía mal. (If my mother didn’t cook, I would eat badly.) When indirect questions are involved, the imperfect indicative is used. Me preguntó si estaba mi hermana en casa. (She asked me if my sister was at home.) Sus padres se preguntaron si el hijo hacía sus deberes. (His parents wondered if their son was doing his homework.) Following on from Section 49.1.6, above (indirect questions), the imperfect of the indicative is used after si when the subordinate clause depends on a verb used declaratively. Le decía que si no tenía valor, era inútil insistir. (I told him that if he wasn’t brave enough, it was pointless insisting.) Manifestaba que si no cerraba la casa entrarían los ladrones. (He stated that if he didn’t lock up the house, thieves would get in.)

50 Subordinate clauses related to consequence (with indicative mood) / Oraciones subordinadas consecutivas (con modo indicativo) The passage below relates the blissful experience of a person who takes a wine bath to cure a skin rash. From abstention to a drunken stupor, it was sublime. The passage involves the use of conjunctions and conjunctive expressions leading to consequence (awash inside and outside with wine). Estoy que (The fact is) ya no puedo más, creo que voy a perder la conciencia. Todo empezó cuando me brotó una erupción (I came out in a rash) en el cuerpo y alguien me indicó que se curaría con vinoterapia, de tal modo que decidí someterme a un baño en vino de Ribera del Duero, que tiene bastante tanino (tannin). Yo, que siempre fui abstemio hasta tal punto que nunca había probado el vino, era bastante remiso (sluggish) a bañarme en tinto (red wine), de modo que me negué a aceptar la terapia; pero mi enfermedad fue a más (got worse), de tal manera que llegó a ser un tormento, y decidí someterme a la prueba. Conque aquí estoy, sumergido en una bañera llena de vino tinto. Al principio, fue una tediosa espera: una hora. . ., dos horas. . . Dado que me aburría, opté por matar mi aburrimiento, probando un poco el vino, ¡estaba bonísimo! Un sorbo, y otro. . . y seguí bebiendo hasta hartarme. Estoy contento, pero vislumbro entre nieblas que si no me rescata alguien, pereceré ahogado en esta bañera, lleno de vino por dentro y por fuera; pero muy contento. . .

50.1 Forms of subordinate clauses related to consequence 50.1.1 One distinguishes between consequence based on real facts or events and those based on hypotheses. (When clauses relate to hypothetical events, suggesting intention, they lead to the subjunctive, which is dealt with in Chapter 55.) The main conjunctions and conjunctive expressions used here in the indicative, and leading to a result, are: conque, de (tal) modo que, de (tal) manera que, de (tal) suerte que, tan. . .como, tanto que, hasta tal punto que and demasiado. . .para Conque ya lo sabes. (So now you know.) ¡Conque fuiste tú! (So it was you!) Se puso el abrigo de (tal) modo que no tenía frío. (He put his overcoat on, so that he wasn’t cold.) La profesora alzó la voz de (tal) manera que todos la oyeron. (The teacher raised her voice so that everyone could hear her.) Llovió a cántaros de (tal) suerte que hubo inundaciones. (It poured down with the result that there were floods.) Resultaba tan aburrida la película que se salió. (The movie turned out to be so boring that she left.)

264

Subordinate clauses related to consequence

265

Chillaron los niños tanto, hasta tal punto que tuve que salir. (The children screamed so much, to the point that I had to go out.) 50.1.2 When used with estar, the conjunction que also introduces the notion of consequence. Está que no sabe lo que dice. (The fact is he doesn’t know what he’s saying.) Estoy que no puedo hablar. (I’m in such a state I can’t speak.) 50.1.3 The use of the infinitive occurs after hasta (el punto de) or demasiado/bastante . . .para if the subjects are the same. Gritó hasta enronquecer(se). (She shouted until she was hoarse.) Siguió bebiendo hasta emborracharse. (She went on drinking until she got drunk.) Gasta demasiado para ir de vacaciones. (He spends too much to go on vacation.) Tengo bastante dinero para comprarme una bicicleta. (I have enough money to buy a bicycle.) 50.1.4 The expression ser + (como) para is used to convey the notion of “It’s enough to. . .” Es como para morirse de risa. (It’s enough to make you die laughing.) No es para tanto. (It’s not that important/no big deal.)

51 Subordinate clauses related to manner (with indicative mood) / Oraciones subordinadas de modo (con modo indicativo) The following passage narrates the escapade of Carmen and Tere(sa), who, alone on a mountain excursion in the snow, get lost and find that their cellphone has no coverage. Here are various constructions leading to subordinate clauses of manner. —Mira, Carmen, nos sacarán en la tele, aparte de aparecer en todos los periódicos —había dicho Tere poco antes de escaparse hacia la sierra, para añadir—: Con llamar por teléfono, nos vendrán a buscar. Salieron del cole sin llamar la atención, subieron en un tren hacia la sierra y bajaron en Cercedilla [in the sierra de Guadarrama, Spain], luego tomando un camino, se adentraron en una zona desierta y agreste (wild) antes de que comenzara a nevar. Los primeros copos (flakes), fuera de desanimarlas, fueron un aliciente (stimulation) para seguir avanzando, hasta que cayó la niebla y el paisaje comenzó a oscurecer. Tere, pisando un canto rodado (round pebble), cayó estrepitosamente (noisily) sin que Carmen pudiera hacer nada, excepto amortiguar ligeramente su caída. Ahora, además de estar perdidas, se daban cuenta de que no habían tenido en cuenta el tiempo ni el terreno, ya que, salvo emitir un pitido, el teléfono no funcionaba, porque entre aquellas rocas no había cobertura (coverage/signal).

51.1 Forms of subordinate clauses related to manner 51.1.1 One distinguishes between manner based on real facts or events and those based on hypotheses. (When clauses relate to hypothetical events, suggesting intention, they lead to the subjunctive, which is dealt with in Chapter 55.) Clauses related to addition and exception seem to attract only the indicative. Before dealing with the conjunctions, it is worthwhile pointing out that manner can be expressed through the gerund. Me lo preguntó riendo. (He asked me as he laughed.) El atleta, perdiendo el equilibrio, se cayó al suelo. (Losing his balance, the athlete fell to the ground.) Tirando de la puerta, lograron entrar. (Pulling at the door, they succeeded in getting in.) 51.1.2 In clauses related to manner, sin can be followed by the infinitive. Entraron sin llamar/ sin hacer ruido. (They went in without knocking/making a noise.) 51.1.3 Con (also reinforced by sólo), followed by the infinitive, is the equivalent of a complement of manner. Con abrir una lata, tendremos para cenar. (Opening a tin will give us an evening meal.) Con (sólo) pagar una prima de veinte euros, en caso de accidente, recibirás mil. (Only paying a premium of twenty euros, you’ll receive a thousand if you have an accident.) Con (sólo) decirle tú la verdad, quedará satisfecho. (He’ll be satisfied merely if you tell him the truth.) 51.1.4 Clauses related to addition 266

Subordinate clauses related to manner

267

51.1.4.1 The main conjunctive expressions here are sin contar con que and aparte de que. Se mostró displicente, sin contar con que no me ofreció nada. (She was displeased, in addition to not offering me anything.) Se les paga bien aparte de que tienen mejor horario. (They are well paid, as well as having a better schedule.) 51.1.4.2 Aparte de and además de may also be used with the infinitive. Aparte de ser muy amable, es bondadoso. (Besides being nice, he’s kind.) Aparte de llover, ha nevado. (Besides raining, it has snowed.) Además de mentir, no es honrado. (Besides lying, he’s not honest.) Además de ser caro, este artículo es malo. (Besides being dear, this article is bad.) 51.1.5 In clauses related to exception, the main conjunctive expressions are: salvo que, fuera de que and aparte de que. No hay ninguna novedad salvo que han telefoneado. (There’s no news apart from their phoning.) Lo pasé bien fuera/aparte de que hubo muchas tormentas. (I had a good time apart from the fact that there were many storms.)

52 Verbs concerning unrealized or unfinished actions / Verbos referentes a acciones no realizadas o inacabadas In the following passage, the narrator, priding herself on being punctual, despite her failure to be punctual, misses her first date with Alfonso, whom she accuses of being late. So there is no date and the narrator doubtless still has no partner, after another ten years. The passage includes a range of expressions referring to actions that, ironically, never quite come to fruition, hence the persistent loneliness of the narrator. Faltaba poco para terminar de maquillarme cuando sonó el teléfono. Al acudir apresuradamente a contestar casi me caigo, al tropezar en la alfombra del salón, y por poco termino en el suelo. “Voy a llegar tarde”, decía para mis adentros (I said to myself), “y me quedan los ojos por hacer. . . Siempre ocurre lo mismo: falta un minuto para la hora de mi primera cita con Alfonso, el único hombre que me ha hecho tilín (whom I have felt a liking for) en toda mi vida y sigo sin ser puntual, y por si fuera poco, suena el teléfono”. Son misterios sin resolver, sigo sin comprender lo que pasó, él llamaba para disculparse porque se retrasaría unos minutos ya que tenía mucho trabajo atrasado. Yo se lo recriminé, alardeé de puntual (I boasted about my punctuality) y, quizá, usé un tono algo irónico. Ahora, diez años más tarde, Alfonso está casado con otra, y yo sigo siendo tan poco puntual.

52.1 Forms of verbs concerning unrealized actions 52.1.1 The idea rendered by the English adverb almost is frequently conveyed in Spanish by por poco or casi. These expressions are often followed by the present indicative, even if the narrative or speech is in the past. Iba corriendo y por poco me caigo al bajar las escaleras. (I was running and almost fell going down the stairs.) Por poco me toca la lotería. (I almost won the lottery.) Por poco nos descubren. (They almost found us [out].) Un alfiler medio escondido. Casi me pincho. (A half-hidden pin. I almost jabbed myself.) Casi tropiezo/resbalé. (I almost fell over/slipped.) 52.1.2 An unrealized act is rendered by estar, ser, quedar or seguir + sin + infinitive. Mi tarea está sin terminar. (My work is unfinished/still not finished.) La cena está sin hacer. (The dinner is still not prepared.) Son misterios sin resolver. (They are unresolved mysteries.) Los campos quedan sin cultivar. (The fields are still not cultivated.) Mi pregunta quedó sin contestar. (My question remained unanswered.) Sigo sin recibir contestación alguna. (I still haven’t received any answer.) Seguía sin entender la explicación. (I still didn’t understand the explanation.) The preposition por stresses more than sin that the task is yet to be carried out. Quedan por empapelar las paredes. (The walls still have to be papered.) 52.1.3 Faltar has two uses in this context. 268

Verbs concerning unrealized or unfinished actions

269

52.1.3.1 The first refers to time, and takes the subjunctive after para que. Falta un mes para que empiecen las clases. (It’s still a month before the classes begin.) Faltaban tres semanas para que regresaran a Guanajuato. (There were another three weeks before they came back to Guanajuato.) 52.1.3.2 The second use involves faltar + poco para que, also referring to time, but the suggestion here is that an event is about to happen, implied by poco. The subjunctive is required here also. Falta poco para que empiecen las vacaciones. (The vacation/holidays is/are about to begin.) Faltó poco para que fuera gol. (It was very nearly a goal.) 52.1.4 Note the difference between the two uses of tener que in the examples below. Tiene mucho trabajo que hacer. (She has a lot of work to do.) Tiene que hacer mucho trabajo. (She must do a lot of work.) 52.1.5 The idea of a half-realized action is conveyed by a medio + infinitive. Estaba la tarea a medio terminar. (The job was only half done.) Estaba a medio vestir cuando fui por ella. (She was half dressed when I went to see her.)

53 Complex verbal expressions / Expresiones complejas de tipo verbal The following passage tells of a conversation between five youths who have been out for the night. Their concern is how they will deal with their parents when they return in the morning. The passage contains a number of complex expressions, particularly with verbs ending in -selas, explored in more detail in Section 53.5, below. —¿Qué, nos las piramos (we’re clearing off) ya, o al señorito se le antoja (has the fanciful idea of) quedarse otro rato, durmiéndola (sleeping it off [after a binge])? —oyó decir a Jonás. Félix entreabrió los ojos y lo vio en un banco compartiendo un porro (joint) con los otros tres compañeros. Habían amanecido (They had woken up) en el parque tras una noche de borrachera. Pensó que aquel muchacho lo traía frito (was getting on his nerves); era un pesado. Como Jonás le llevaba un año de edad (was a year older than him), debía pensar que era el jefe de la pandilla, y que se las sabía todas (was a wise guy/smart alec), pero a aquel Jonás le faltaba un palmo (quite a few inches) de estatura y le sobraba estupidez para ser el jefe. —Oye, listo —dijo por fin Félix, incorporándose un poco sobre el césped, que le había servido de cama—, como sigas así tendrás que vértelas conmigo (you’ll have to deal with me). —Bueno, bueno. . . —terció Antón—, es muy pronto para dárselas de valientes (to look tough). No vale la pena. . . Debemos de ir pensando dónde hemos pasado la noche estudiando para cuando nos pregunten nuestros viejos (parents); porque si no, nos las vamos a ver y desear (we’ll have a tough time). —¡Bah! A mí ni me preguntan, yo me las apaño solo (I’ll get by by myself). Es como si no tuviera padres —dijo Jonás encogiéndose de hombros. Los otros, ni tan siquiera contestaron. It often happens that a simple verb in English has only a “complex” paraphrase equivalent with an essentially different syntax in Spanish, and vice versa. Some very common and useful verbal ideas fall into this category, and a selection of these is given in the following sections.

53.1 Complex expressions in Spanish corresponding to a single verb in English Here is a list, with examples of some, but by no means all, of the main expressions. dar cuerda a (un reloj) (to wind up [a watch]), dar de alta a (to discharge), dar de baja a (to dismiss), dar la bienvenida a (to welcome), dejar plantado (to stand up), echar/achacar la culpa (to blame), echar de menos a/echar en falta a (to miss), hacer caso a/de (to notice), hacer hincapié en (to insist on), hacer la competencia a (to compete with), pasar por alto a (to ignore), pedir prestado a (to borrow), pegar/echar la bronca a (to reprimand), poner en entredicho/poner en tela de juicio (to question) Le pedí prestados dos libros. (I borrowed two books from her.) Me hicieron la competencia. (They competed with me.) El hospital me dio de alta. (The hospital discharged me.) Lo dieron de baja en el club. (They canceled his club membership.) 270

Complex verbal expressions

271

Echo de menos/en falta a la familia. (I miss my family.)

53.2 A single verb in Spanish corresponding to a complex expression in English amanecer (to be in a place at daybreak), ambicionar (to have the ambition of/to), cartearse (to exchange correspondence), concienciar/concientizar (A, C, M) (to make [someone] aware), delinquir (to commit an offense), despedirse de (to take leave of), destacar(se) (to stand out), diagnosticar (to diagnose; but see example below), dificultar algo (to make something difficult), distar de (to be a long distance from), entrevistarse con (to interview), entusiasmar (to fill with enthusiasm), estrenar (to wear/show for the first time), golear (to score many goals [against]), guardarse de (to take care not to), historiar (to write the history of), holgar (R3; to be unnecessary), ilusionar (to make excited), incendiar (to set fire to), incumplir (to fail to keep [i.e. a promise]), independizarse (to become independent), ironizar (to be ironic about), limitarse a (to limit/restrict oneself), llevar x años a (to be x years older than), meterse de (to take on a job as), obstaculizar (to be an obstacle to), peligrar (to be in danger), pernoctar (R3; to stay the night/overnight), posibilitar (to make possible), prestigiar (to make prestigious), profundizar en (to go deeply into), regatear (to haggle over), responsabilizar de (to make [someone] responsible for) repercutir en (to have repercussions on) se trata de (it is a question of) sincerizarse con (to tell [someone] the truth) soler hacer algo (to be accustomed to do something) trasnochar (R1; to stay up all night, to go to bed very late) volver a hacer algo (to do something again) Tomó el tren en Córdoba y amaneció en Madrid. (He caught the train in Cordoba and arrived in Madrid at sunup.) Me despedí de ella en el aeropuerto. (I took leave of her at the airport.) Destacan tres posibilidades. (Three possibilities stand out.) Un árbol se destacaba en la cumbre. (A tree stood out on the summit.) Mi casa dista diez kilómetros de la tuya. (My house is at a distance of ten kilometers from yours.) Le diagnosticaron un cáncer. (They diagnosed her/him as having cancer.) Guárdate de participar en ese negocio. (Take care not to get involved in that deal.) Se limitó a decir que. . . (She only said that. . .) Mi hermana me lleva dos años. (My sister is two years older than me.) Huelga decir que no apoyaremos el proyecto. (It’s unnecessary to say that we’ll not support the project.) El sillón obstaculiza la entrada de la habitación. (The armchair is blocking the entrance to the room.) Peligran nuestras vacaciones con la devaluación de la moneda. (Our holidays are in danger with the devaluationof the currency.)

53.3 Complex expressions in Spanish corresponding to complex expressions in English dar la vuelta a algo (to go round something), dar vueltas a una idea (to think over an idea), dejar constancia de algo (to place something on record, to give evidence of), echarse a perder (to get ruined/spoiled), hacer entrar/poner/meter en razón (to make [someone] see reason), ir/ salir al encuentro de alguien (to meet someone [coming in the opposite direction, with the intention of doing/saying something]), llevarse bien/mal con (to

272

A Reference Grammar of Spanish get on well/badly with), ni decir tiene que. . . (it goes without saying that. . .), no poder menos de hacer . . . (not to be able to avoid doing. . .), pasar revista a (to go through [i.e. a document], to review [i.e troops]), pasarse sin algo (to do without something), sacar adelante (to bring up [a child], to produce, to turn out [a student], to go on [with a business]), salir adelante (to make progress, to get on), salir al paso de alguien (to meet someone [and prevent that person from going any further, so that you can talk to the person]), tener algo en cuenta (to take something into account), tener a bien hacer algo (to be kind enough to do something), tener afición a algo (to be enthusiastic about something), tener/traer frito a alguien (to annoy someone) Trabajó mucho para sacar adelante la empresa. (He worked hard to make the business prosper.) Le pedí que tuviera a bien venir hoy. (I asked her to be good enough to come today.) Este niño me trae frita. (This child makes me sick.) Hacía un sol magnífico, ni decir tiene que disfrutamos un montón. (It was wonderfully sunny, it goes without saying that we had a splendid time.) No puedo pasarme sin (ver) la televisión. (I can’t do without [watching] television.) Voy/Salgo al encuentro de mi padre para decírselo. (I’ll go and meet my father to tell him.) Cuando salía el responsable de la huelga, el director le salió al paso y le pidió explicaciones. (When the person responsible for the strike was coming out, the director met him and asked for an explanation.) Se me ha echado a perder la chaqueta. (My jacket has gotten spoilt.) No pudo menos de sonreír. (She couldn’t help smiling.) El presidente pasó revista a las tropas. (The president reviewed the troops.) Dimos la vuelta al pueblo/a la plaza. (We went round the town/ the square.)

53.4 Spanish verbs which take an infinitive as their subject, together with other verbs which are not easily accommodated in English 53.4.1 antojarse a (to occur to [someone] (suggests a capricious reaction) Se le antojó ir a Brasil. (He took it into his head to go to Brazil.) 53.4.2 bastar (to be sufficient) Bastan cinco. (Five’s enough.) Basta (con) decir que sí. (It’s good enough just to say yes.) 53.4.3 caber (to be contained) ¿Quepo aquí? (Is there room enough for me here?) Al ministro le caben dos posibilidades. (The minister has two possibilities available to him.) Cabe recordar que. . . (It is sensible/helpful/useful to remember that. . .) 53.4.4 Escasear (to be in short supply) Este verano ha escaseado el agua por la sequía. (Water has been in short supply this summer because of the drought.) 53.4.5 faltar (to be lacking) Faltan diez minutos para llegar al aeropuerto. (We’ll be at the airport in ten minutes.) Aquí falta un tenedor. (There’s a fork missing here.) Faltan veinte minutos para que llegue mi tío. (My uncle will be here in twenty minutes.) 53.4.6 importar (to be important, to matter) Importa saberlo. (It’s important to know it.) Me importa que venga. (It’s important for me that he comes.) ¿Le importa si fumo? (Do you mind if I smoke?) 53.4.7 menudear (to be frequent/numerous, to do frequently) En verano menudean las excursiones. (There are lots of excursions in the summer.) 53.4.8 quedar (to be remaining, to be left) Le quedan a ella pocos amigos. (She has few friends left.)

Complex verbal expressions

273

53.4.9 sobrar (to be left [over]) Me sobran dos kilos de papas. (I’ve two kilos of potatoes left [over].) 53.4.10 urgir (R3; to be urgent/imperative) Me urge saber la verdad. (It is imperative I know the truth.) 53.4.11 valer (to be worth) Su libro le valió un premio. (Her book brought her a prize.) No vale la pena. (It’s not worth it.)

53.5 Reflexive verbs + “la” or “las”

53.5.1 53.5.2 53.5.3

53.5.4 53.5.5

53.5.6 53.5.7 53.5.8 53.5.9

53.5.10

53.5.11 53.5.12

There are some verbal expressions in Spanish which involve a reflexive verb + la or las. They have little in common apart from this. They are grouped together here since they do all fall into a complex verbal category, and they are not easily analyzed or explained, since they are highly idiomatic. Many of these expressions are colloquial. apañárselas (to manage, to get by) No te preocupes, me las apañaré. (Don’t worry. I’ll manage it [by myself].) arreglárselas (to manage, to get by) Me las arreglo solo en la cocina. (I get by on my own in the kitchen.) dárselas de rico/listo (to consider yourself rich/clever[unjustifiably]) Va dándoselas de rico y no tiene ni un peso. (He pretends to be rich and he hasn’t a dime.) Se las da de lista, pero no sabe francamente nada. (She takes on airs of being clever, but frankly she knows nothing.) entendérselas (to deal with) Vete tranquila. Yo me las (R1) entiendo con los gatos estos días. (Go off with no worries, I’ll deal with the cats for these few days.) echárselas de (R1; to make show of) Se las echa de héroe. (He thinks he’s a hero./He’s playing the hero.) Mi vecino se las echa de valiente. (My neighbor puts on a show of being tough.) habérselas con (R1; to deal with [in a difficult situation]) Como vuelva por aquí, tendrá que habérselas conmigo. (If she comes here again, she’ll have to deal with me.) pegársela a alguien (to cheat, to double-cross) Se la pegó a su esposa. (He cheated on his wife.) pirárselas (R1; to go away, to clear off) Me las piro, adiós. (I’m off, goodbye.) sabérselas todas (R1; to be street-wise [not necessarily pejorative]) Este chico se las sabe todas. (This kid’s the smartest on the block.) No podrás engañarla, se las sabe todas. (You can’t fool her, she knows all the tricks.) traérselas (R1; to be difficult [of things or people]) Este examen se las trae. (This examination is difficult.) Este crío se las trae. (This kid is a terror.) vérselas con alguien (to [have to] deal with) Tendrás que vértelas conmigo. (You’ll have to deal with me/answer to me.) vérselas y deseárselas (R1; to do your utmost) Daniel se las ve y se las desea para aprobar. (Daniel is killing himself to get through the exam.)

54 Verbs of movement in English and Spanish / Verbos indicando movimiento en inglés y español Below is a passage narrating the exploits Superman is capable of, although today is a rest day. Note how the concept of movement is expressed in this piece, sometimes quite differently from the English. Avanzó a gran velocidad atravesando el cielo (He sped across the sky) hasta plantarse retador (defiant) sobre un tejado de Metrópolis. Allá abajo la gente cruzaba la calle tranquilamente frente al Daily Planet, y los niños corrían tras la pelota en el patio del colegio. Un avión en lo alto surcaba (was flying through) el azul sin problemas. Todo estaba tranquilo; no tendría que detener al avión en su caída, ni volar apresuradamente a través de campo y ciudad (race across town and country), para reparar los raíles de un tren circulando a toda velocidad (speeding along), a punto de precipitarse en el vacío. De repente notó con sus superpoderes que alguien se acercaba a hurtadillas (creeping up to him). Era su amada (Lois Lane) que decía: —Anoche volviste a casa cojeando (hobbled back home). Deja de soñar que eres Superman. Te quiero como lo que eres: como un abejorro (bumblebee) normal.

54.1 Differences between verbs of movement in English and Spanish 54.1.1 An important difference between the Spanish and English verbal systems concerns the way in which expressions of movement are analyzed and treated in the two languages. In Spanish, the direction of movement is often indicated by the verb itself, and the manner of movement by a phrase, either a gerund or an adverbial expression, whereas in English the verb conveys the manner of the movement, and an adverb or preposition expresses direction. This feature is shared by other Romance languages such as Italian and French, and with these languages it is an important characteristic. The French refer neatly to this feature by way of explanation as a chassé croisé, a dance term meaning set to partners where a partner, say A, in two sets of partners, crosses over diagonally to join partner B of the other set. For example: She ran (manner) across the road (direction). Cruzó la calle (direction) corriendo (manner). Cruzó corresponds to across and corriendo corresponds to ran. 54.1.2 The chief direction verbs in Spanish are: atravesar (to go across), avanzar hacia (to go towards), bajar (to go down), cruzar (to go across), dar la vuelta a (to go round), entrar en (to go in [to]), pasar por debajo (to go under), pasar por encima (to go over), regresar (to go back), salir de (to go out of), seguir (to go on), subir (to go up), volver (to go back) Avanzó a gatas hacia la pared. (She crawled towards the wall.) Los niños aprenden a andar a gatas muy pronto. (Children learn to crawl very quickly/early.) Volvió cojeando a la cocina. (He hobbled back to the kitchen.) 274

Verbs of movement in English and Spanish

275

Entró volando. (She burst in.) Cruzamos el río nadando/a nado. (We swam across the river.) Bajé de puntillas la escalera. (I crept downstairs.) Regresamos en bicicleta. (We cycled back.) Pasaron por encima del muro. (They climbed over the wall.) Todos se metieron atropelladamente en el coche. (They all piled into the car.) El ladrón entró/salió a hurtadillas. (The thief sneaked in/out.) El cazador se acercó furtivamente al conejo. (The hunter crept towards the rabbit.) Salieron a escondidas/secretamente. (They crept out.) Huyeron a toda prisa del edificio. (They rushed out of the building.) 54.1.3 Spanish does, however, have some adverbs expressing direction. Anduvieron calle abajo. (They walked down the street.) Anduvieron campo a través. (They walked across the fields.) Corrieron escaleras arriba. (They ran up the stairs.) 54.1.4 Spanish also has some manner verbs. El niño ya gatea. (The infant is now crawling.) De pequeño le gustaba salir por la buhardilla y gatear por los tejados. (As a child he liked climbing out of the attic and crawling across the roofs.) Los manifestantes irrumpieron en el ayuntamiento. (The demonstrators burst into city hall/the town hall.) Pasearon a lo largo del río. (They walked along the river.) El ladrón se escabulló (R1) por una puerta trasera. (The thief slipped away by a back door.) El carterista se escurrió entre la multitud. (The pickpocket slipped away through the crowd.)

Part IV

55 Subjunctive mood / Modo subjuntivo Below is a humorous piece of Spanish illustrating the use of the present subjunctive. The author foresees his own burial and encourages his friends not to mourn him. Cuando regresemos de mi propio entierro quiero que entremos en el bar de la esquina, donde tantas veces hemos cantado, para que nos pongan unos vinos y cantemos unas canciones en mi recuerdo. Yo os digo ahora que no estéis tristes, que otros lloren si lo desean, porque deseo que seáis felices, tanto cuanto yo lo sea. Luego, cuando volváis a casa, tras haber rezado por mí, os concedo permiso para que podáis contar anécdotas y os riáis de mis tonterías, que, quizá, sean muchas, porque yo, seguramente, ría con vosotros desde la otra orilla.

55.1 Forms of the subjunctive The subjunctive may have all but disappeared in English, although we still use it on occasions (If I were you), and it is slowly slipping away in French, where, of the imperfect subjunctive, for example, only the third person singular (parlât, rendît) is used, and even here sparingly. However, it is still very much a mood to be reckoned with in Spanish, in both Spain and Spanish America. So it is a very necessary tool for correct expression in Spanish. This is very similar to the case with Italian, in fact. Before embarking on the subjunctive in Spanish, it is instructive to see how complicated it is to express the subjunctive in English. It is comforting to learn that in Spanish the rules are logical, whereas in English they are not. Here are some examples in English (the subjunctive is shown in italics). I want him to go. I wish he would go. It is necessary that he go. I am happy that he does it tomorrow. Whereas the indicative relates to clear knowledge and certainty, the subjunctive is linked to doubt, commands, uncertainty, desire, aspiration, risk and danger. The indicative appears in both main and subordinate clauses, but the subjunctive appears most frequently in subordinate clauses. Indeed, the term “subjunctive” (deriving from the Latin subiunctivus) implies yoked/joined/added to or dependent on (i.e. on the main clause). Consider the following two examples. Te he dicho que voy al cine. (I [have] told you I’m going to the movies.) Te he dicho que vayas al cine. (I [have] told you to go to the movies.) In the first sentence, we have a main clause (he dicho) and a subordinate clause (voy), both in the indicative. The subordinate clause is what amounts to a statement of fact. However, in the second case, we have a main clause in the indicative (he dicho) and then a subjunctive (vayas) which is determined by a command. The following pairs of examples will make this difference clearer. (a) Pienso que viene mi hermano. (I think that my brother is coming.) (b) No pienso que venga mi hermano. (I don’t think my brother is coming.) (a) Es seguro que arregla el problema. (It is certain that he’s dealing with the problem.) (b) No es seguro que arregle el problema. (It’s not certain he’s dealing with the problem.) 279

280

A Reference Grammar of Spanish In example (a) of each pair, the probability is that the brother is coming and that the problem is being solved. However, in examples (b), it is far from certain that the brother is coming or that the problem is being solved, hence the use of the subjunctive in these cases. Once this essential difference between (a) and (b) is grasped, we are well on the way to understanding the most important feature of the subjunctive. Here are the forms of the present subjunctive of the three model verbs (comprar, vender and vivir) introduced by que. comprar: Ella quiere que yo compre/tú compres/él/ella/Ud. compre/nosotros/as compremos/vosotros/as compréis/ellos/ellas/Uds. compren más papas. vender: Ella quiere que yo venda/tú vendas/él/ella/Ud. venda/nosotros/as vendamos/ vosotros/as vendáis/ellos/ellas/Uds.vendan el carro. vivir: Ella quiere que yo viva/tú vivas/él/ella/Ud. viva/nosotros/as vivamos/vosotros/as viváis/ellos/ellas/Uds. vivan en México. The voseo form of the subjunctive for these three verbs is: hablés, vendás, vivás. But those who use the voseo form tend to use the tú form of the present subjunctive: hables, vendas, vivas. This applies even more to the irregular verbs, and it does not seem advantageous to dwell on them in tabulated form (see Fontanella de Weinberg, El español de la Argentina, p. 93). Irregular verbs offer difficulties, but they generally follow the irregularity of the present indicative, as shown below. dar (to give) decir (to say) estar (to be) haber (to have) hacer (to make) ir (to go) querer (to want) salir (to go out) ser (to be) tener (to have) venir (to come)

dé diga esté haya haga vaya quiera salga sea tenga venga

des digas estés hayas hagas vayas quieras salgas seas tengas vengas

dé diga esté haya haga vaya quiera salga sea tenga venga

demos digamos estemos hayamos hagamos vayamos queramos salgamos seamos tengamos vengamos

deis digáis estéis hayáis hagáis vayáis queráis salgáis seáis tengáis vengáis

den digan estén hayan hagan vayan quieran salgan sean tengan vengan

Radical changing verbs are conjugated as follows: volver (u>ue) (to return) vuelva vuelvas vuelva volvamos volváis vuelvan cerrar (e>ie) (to shut) cierre cierres cierre cerremos cerréis cierren pedir (e>i) (to ask for) pida pidas pida pidamos pidáis pidan

55.2 How to use the subjunctive It should be stressed that in the Spanish of all registers and regions, all the tenses of the subjunctive are actively used today. In the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive, the -ra form is commoner than the -se form, especially in R1, and even more so in Spanish America. However, there are many other possibilities replacing subjunctive constructions, and these are often preferred in the lower registers. There are various uses of the subjunctive, and it is important not to think that it has one characteristic meaning or application. Having said that, one should bear in mind that, as stated above, the subjunctive is largely confined to subordinate clauses introduced by the relative pronoun que, and it is strongly associated with many contexts in

Subjunctive mood

281

which the speaker is not committed to the truth of that clause. It is also helpful to point out from the beginning that there are contexts in which the subjunctive is obligatory (just as a plural verb must correspond to a plural noun), and contexts in which the speaker has a choice between the indicative and the subjunctive moods. When the subjunctive mood is automatically required, it has no distinctive meaning; but when there is a choice between moods, there is usually a difference in meaning between the indicative and the subjunctive, and this is sometimes difficult to grasp. In the following sections, the uses of the subjunctive are grouped according to the meaning or syntax of the contexts in which they are found. The possibility of choice between the indicative and the subjunctive is often pointed out and explained. Alternative Spanish constructions are also given, and are of two kinds: an optional alternative more commonly used in R1, and an obligatory alternative required by certain conditions. The chief kind of obligatory alternative is the use of the infinitive when the subject of the main verb and the subject of the complement are identical – for example, with querer. Quiero que lo haga could never be construed as: I want to do it (where yo is the subject of quiero and also of haga); this notion must be rendered by Quiero hacerlo or Lo quiero hacer. Quiero que lo haga could only mean: I want you/him/her to do it.

55.3 Sequence of tenses in subjunctive constructions The basic sequence of tense patterns is provided in the table below. Main clause

Subordinate clause

present/future perfect imperfect/pluperfect/preterit/ conditional/conditional perfect

present/perfect subjunctive imperfect/pluperfect subjunctive

Nos pide que se lo digamos. (present indicative + present subjunctive) (She asks us to tell her.) Me gustaría que lo hicieras. (conditional + imperfect subjunctive) (I’d like you to do it.) Me alegro de que hayas llegado temprano. (present indicative + perfect subjunctive) (I am glad you’ve arrived early.) No había pensado que fuera tan difícil. (pluperfect indicative + imperfect subjunctive) (I hadn’t thought it was so difficult.) Negó que lo hubieran hecho. (preterit + pluperfect subjunctive) (He denied that they had done it.) This sequence of tenses may sometimes be broken if there is a shift in the point of view in the course of the sentence (the same thing may happen in English in parallel structures). Compare the following two sentences: Le reclamaron que se retire de la escena política. (They called on him to withdraw from the political scene.) Le reclamaron que se retirase de. . . In the first case, the demand flows over onto the present moment, while in the second, the suggestion is that the action is completed. The following sentences work in the same way. Se le pidió al presidente que busque una solución. (The president was asked to find a solution [he hasn’t found it yet].)

282

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Se le pidió al presidente que buscara una solución. (The president was asked . . . [he may have found one].)

55.4 Uses of the subjunctive The use of the subjunctive falls into 17 broad categories. The earlier categories are treated more in the context of the present subjunctive, for the sake of clearer understanding, while the latter ones are treated in the context of the present and perfect subjunctives, and the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives. Some final comments are made on the future subjunctive, now archaic. The categories are as follows: 1. Influence or causation a. Command or order b. Request c. Proposal and suggestion d. Permission, prohibition and hindrance 2. Emotion a. After expressions of emotion and feeling b. After verbs expressing imagining and wishing 3. Doubt a. After expressions of denial and doubt or stating a negative idea b. After expressions of possibility, probability, risk, danger and chance 4. After certain impersonal verbs and expressions 5. When ser and estar are used impersonally and are followed by an adjective, adverb or noun 6. After conjunctive expressions 7. Noun clauses 8. Impersonal expressions of passive value composed of ser + de + infinitive + que 9. After certain relative and imprecise pronouns; similarly, after a relative pronoun when the preceding clause is negative, restrictive or interrogative 10. After indefinite expressions formed by adding quiera to relatives pronouns and adverbs ([what]ever) 11. Following the construction por (muy) . . . que (however) 12. Perfect subjunctive 13. Imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives 14. Imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives with conditional sentences 15. Temporal clauses 16. Use of the subjunctive or the infinitive after a main clause 17. Future imperfect subjunctive 55.4.1 Influence or causation The principal use of the subjunctive is after verbs expressing an action calculated to cause a person or thing to act. The force of the governing verb varies from an authoritative command to a simple request or wish. This also applies to verbs of opposite effect, which involve preventing or hindering someone or something from doing something. All these verbs fall into the general category of influence. 55.4.1.1 Command or order (see also Chapter 31 on the imperative) El oficial ordena que montemos guardia en el camión/que subamos al camión. (The officer orders us to be on guard in the truck/lorry/to get into the truck/lorry.) Mi madre me dice que regrese/vuelva/vaya temprano. (My mother tells me to return/go early.)

Subjunctive mood

283

El ayuntamiento dispone que no se circule por el centro de la ciudad. (City hall/the town hall decrees that no one should drive downtown/through the center of the town.) Other verbs functioning in a similar way are: decidir, declarar, decretar, establecer, exigir, forzar, hacer, insistir, mandar, necesitar, obligar, precisar, presionar, reclamar, recomendar, resolver (R3), urgir (to be pressing/ urgent), velar (to see to it that) Some of these verbs take a preposition: Insisten en que vaya mañana. (They insist I go tomorrow.) Me obligaron a que leyera el libro. (They forced me to read the book.) Lo presionaron para que confesara. (They pressed him to confess.) La madre velaba por que el niño durmiera bien. (The mother saw to it that the child slept well.) Some of the above verbs (mandar, ordenar, recomendar) may take an infinitive instead of a subjunctive. There is no rule for this alternative. It is a question of usage. The possibility of an infinitive also occurs in other categories (see later in this chapter). El capitán manda fusilar a los prisioneros. (The captain orders the prisoners to be shot.) Manda llamar al médico/al doctor (M). (Send for the physician.) Le ordena salir inmediatamente del restaurante. (He/She orders her/him to leave the restaurant immediately.) Te recomiendo acostarte temprano. (I recommend you go to bed early.) In R3 language, certain expressions are close to the idea of an order in the sense of = may or let. Sirva este aforismo de Anna Freud para subrayar. . . (May this aphorism of Anna Freud’s serve to underline. . .) Entiéndase que no se trata de un insulto. (Let it be understood that it is not a question of an insult.) The first of these examples could be rephrased thus and carry the same weight: Que este aforismo de Anna Freud sirva para subrayar. . . If one were looking for a difference between the use of the infinitive and the subjunctive, it could be said broadly that the infinitive is easier to manipulate, but is not necessarily more typical of the spoken language or even of written language. These comments also apply to the verbs in Section 55.4.1.3 and 55.4.1.4, below. (See Section 55.4.16 for some examples offering an analysis of some of the verbs in this unit, with reference to the infinitive or the subjunctive.) There are some cases where the infinitive would certainly not be used. For instance, in the case of: Le pido/digo que venga conmigo (I ask/tell her/him to come with me), venir could not replace venga, as would be the case in French (demander/dire à quelqu’un de venir) and Italian (chiedere/dire a qualcuno di venire), and in English for that matter. 55.4.1.2 Request Te pido que te acuestes a las nueve/que lo pagues ahora mismo/ahorita (M)/que no hagas ruido. (I ask you to go to bed at nine/to pay for it right now/not to make a noise.) Le suplico que me dé un poco de comida. (I beg you to give me a little food.) La dirección del hotel ruega a los señores turistas (que) no malgasten el agua. (The hotel management requests that clients should not waste water.) Other verbs functioning in a similar way are: abogar (R3), conseguir, emplazar, lograr, motivar, necesitar, preferir, suplicar Some of these verbs take a preposition. Está abogando por que le den sus derechos de autor. (She’s pleading that they should give him his royalties.) Los diputados emplazaron al gobierno a que renunciase al proyecto. (The representatives/members of Parliament called upon the government to abandon the plan.)

284

A Reference Grammar of Spanish If the subject is the same for the main verb and the complement, an infinitive is used. El empleado pide hablar con el patrón. (The employee asks to see the boss.) Consigo ocultar mis propósitos. (I succeed in hiding my intentions.) Logran batir el récord. (They succeed in beating the record.) Prefiero comer temprano. (I prefer to eat early.) Rogar may take an infinitive when the subjects are different. The following examples are very common. Se ruega no fumar./Se ruega a los señores clientes dejar el cuarto/la habitación antes de las once. 55.4.1.3 Proposal and suggestion Juan nos propone que vayamos todos al cine. (Juan suggests we all go to the movies.) Te aconsejo que vuelvas/regreses antes (second verb more common in M). (I advise you to return earlier.) ¿Por qué sugieres que compremos fruta? (Why do you suggest we buy fruit?) El comité presiona para que acuda todo el mundo a la reunión. (The committee presses for everyone to attend the meeting.) Other verbs functioning in a similar way are: agradecer, animar, ayudar, bastar, conminar (R3), convencer, disuadir (R3), intentar, invitar, llevar, lograr, persuadir (R3), pretender (R3), tratar (más), valer (que) Some of these verbs take a preposition. Me animaron a que me presentara al concurso. (They encouraged me to enter the competition.) Nos ayudaron a que arregláramos el coche. (They helped us to repair the car.) Lo conminaron a que abandonara la sala. (They ordered him to leave the room.) A ver si lo convences para que nos dé las llaves. (See if you can persuade him to give us the keys.) Included here is the common expression: ser partidario de que: Soy partidario de que se reduzca la jornada laboral. (I am of the opinion that the working day should be reduced.) The following verbs may take a following infinitive if the subjects are different: aconsejar, agradecer, animar, impulsar, inducir, invitar, proponer and sugerir (see also Section 55.4.1.1, above). Le aconsejo no continuar el viaje. (I advise him/her not to continue the journey.) Te agradezco comprar el billete/boleto (M). (I thank you for buying the ticket.) Mi mamá (M)/madre me anima a participar en el concurso. (My mother encourages me to take part in the competition.) Nos invitan a cenar en el restaurante. (They invite us to dine in the restaurant.) 55.4.1.4 Permission, prohibition and hindrance El profesor permite que entreguemos los deberes la semana próxima. (The professor/ teacher lets us hand in the homework next week.) El médico me prohíbe que beba vino. (The physician/doctor forbids me to drink wine.) Este carro (M)/coche nos impide que salgamos del estacionamiento (M)/aparcamiento. (This car prevents us from getting out of the parking lot/car park.) Other verbs functioning in a similar way are: aprobar, consentir, controlar (to check), dejar, desaprobar, favorecer (to favor), oponerse, propiciar (to favor) Some verbs take a preposition. Me opuse a que votasen esta ley. (I opposed their voting in this law.) The following verbs may also be followed by an infinitive if the subjects are different (see also Section 55.4.1.1): dejar, impedir, permitir, prohibir. Mi padre me deja ver la televisión. (My father lets me watch television.) El médico no le permite fumar. (The physician/doctor does not let him smoke.)

Subjunctive mood

285

55.4.2 Emotion 55.4.2.1 After expressions of emotion and feeling Me alegro de que los otros chicos puedan venir. (I am happy that the other boys can come.) Confío en que apruebe sus exámenes. (I trust that [s]he will get through her/his exams.) Me extraña que no lleguen. (It surprises me that they are not arriving.) (Me) temo que Pilar no llegue a tiempo. (I fear that Pilar won’t arrive in time.) Siento que estés obligada a irte ahora. (I’m sorry you have to leave now.) Other verbs functioning in a similar way are: (estar) acostumbrado, admirar, aguantar, celebrar (R3), criticar, doler, encantar, esperar, gustar, impactar, impresionar, lamentar, molestar, reprochar, satisfacer, sentir, soportar, sufrir, tener/dar miedo, tener pánico, tolerar, tener a bien que (R3) Some of these verbs take a preposition. Estoy acostumbrada a que vuelvan tarde. (I am used to them returning late.) Celebro que todo vaya bien. (I am glad all is going well.) Espero a que me manden un email. (I’m waiting for them to send me an email.) Criticó que no viniera. (He criticized the fact that I didn’t come.) Confiar en and esperar frequently, but by no means always, take the indicative when the complement is in the future. In such circumstances, there is a choice of indicative and subjunctive – a choice difficult to appreciate with English in mind. Confío en/Espero que haya tenido/tenga éxito. (I trust/hope she has succeeded.) Confío en/Espero que tendrá éxito. (I trust/hope she’ll be successful [I’m sure she will be].) Temer(se) takes the indicative when the fear is only conventional or an expression of polite talk. If it is a genuine emotion, the subjunctive would be required. (Me) temo que vaya a caer. (I fear [real] he’s going to fall.) (Me) temo que Ud. no tiene razón. (I fear you are wrong [polite].) If the subject is the same in the main clause and the complement verb, an infinitive is used. Me encanta ir a la ópera. (I am delighted to be going to the opera.) No me gusta nadar después de comer. (I don’t like swimming after eating.) Siento fastidiarte. (I am sorry to upset you.) Me da miedo entrar solo. (I am frightened to go in alone.) 55.4.2.2 After verbs expressing imagining and wishing Me figuro que lleguen tarde. (I imagine they will arrive late.) Me imagino que sepas/sepáis/sepan (A, C, M familiar form) el camino. (I imagine you know the way.) These two verbs may be followed by the indicative, depending on the degree of speculation involved. Me figuro que no llegarán tarde. (I imagine they’ll not arrive late.) Se imaginaba que no nos íbamos a dar cuenta. (She imagined we wouldn’t realize.) It is likely, however, that they would be followed by the subjunctive if they were in the negative: Me imagino que llega hoy, but: No me imagino que llegue hoy. Other verbs functioning in a similar way are: aguardar, comprender, desear, entender, especular, esperar, presumir, prever, querer. Some of these verbs can take a preposition. Especulaba con que tuvieran éxito. (She speculated that they would be successful.) Aguardemos a que regresen. (Let’s wait for them to come back.) ¡Ojalá (que). . .! (Oh, that/I wish that. . .) is a very common expression, from the Arabic Inshallah! (If Allah wills it!), and may be used in a variety of tenses. ¡Ojalá (que) se vayan pronto! (I wish they’d go soon!) ¡Ojalá (que) hayan llegado. (I do hope they have arrived.)

286

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

¡Ojalá (que) llegaran/llegasen temprano! (Oh, that they would arrive early!) If the subject is the same for the verb of both the main clause and the complement, an infinitive is used. In the following examples, the subjunctive would not be used. Deseo/espero/quiero ir. (I want/hope/wish to go.) Preveo/tengo previsto salir esta noche (I plan to go out tonight.) 55.4.3 Doubt 55.4.3.1 After expressions of denial and doubt or stating a negative idea When the main or leading verb expresses denial, uncertainty, doubt or disbelief about the action of another person or thing, the verb expressing that action is in the subjunctive. Niego que mi amigo/cuate (M) sea culpable. (I deny that my friend is guilty.) Dudo que tenga razón. (I doubt [s]he is right.) Apenas puedo creer que diga tal cosa. (I can hardly believe that [s]he would say such a thing.) No creo que siga viviendo en Nueva York. (I don’t believe [s]he still lives in New York.) ¿Puede ser verdad que intente engañarnos? (Can it be true that [s]he is trying to trick us?) No es cierto/seguro que regresen hoy. (It’s not certain they’ll return today.) Other verbs functioning in a similar way are: no aceptar, no admitir, no decir, descartar, desmentir, no querer decir, rechazar, no ser, no significar, no suponer, no ver, no es verdad Note also the negative implied in sin que. El chico salió sin que lo vieran. (The boy went out without their seeing him.) Certain expressions may be followed by si and the indicative. Es dudoso/Dudo si puede venir. (It is doubtful/I doubt if [s]he can come.) Ignoro si es correcta la respuesta. (I don’t know if the reply is right.) No es seguro si el camión (M) llegará a tiempo. (It is not certain whether the bus will arrive on time.) One important point of usage in both Colombia and Mexico is when the future is implied with a degree of uncertainty. No sé si tengan razón is standard usage and very common. In Iberian Spanish this would be: No sé si tienen razón. 55.4.3.2 After expressions of possibility, probability, risk, danger and chance The following are expressions taking the subjunctive (followed by some examples of usage). acaso/quizá(s)/tal vez (perhaps), chance1 de que (A, C, M) [not in Spain], el peligro de que (the danger that), el riesgo de que (the risk that), es posible que (it is possible that), es probable que (it is probable that), pareciera que (it would appear that), posiblemente (possibly), probablemente (probably), (se) puede que (perhaps), puede ser que (perhaps), que yo recuerde (as far as I remember), que yo sepa (as far as I know), suerte que (chance that), often used with hay); (possible/chance that) Quizá(s) venga mañana. (Perhaps [s]he’ll come tomorrow.) Tal vez vaya en enero. (Perhaps I’ll/[s]he’ll go in January.) Posiblemente esté enferma, no sé. (She’s possibly sick/ill, I don’t know.) Probablemente tus amigos vayan al cine. (Your pals/friends are probably going to the movies.) Se puede que tu mamá (M)/madre tenga prisa. (Your mother may be in a hurry.) Se corre el riesgo de que pierdan el tren si salen tarde. (They risk missing the train if they leave late.) If the expressions occur after the verb, the indicative is normally used. Vienen esta tarde, posiblemente/quizá(s)/tal vez/probablemente. Both the indicative and the subjunctive are used with quizá(s) and tal vez, when they 1

Chance is masculine in C and M and feminine in A.

Subjunctive mood

287

are used before the verb. The choice depends on the remoteness of the possibility. This choice is difficult to assess for an English-speaker, and it could be argued legitimately that there is little difference. Quizá(s)/Tal vez viene/venga. (Perhaps she’s coming.) Quizá(s)/Tal vez ha/haya venido. (Perhaps she’s come.) 55.4.4 After certain impersonal verbs and expressions Conviene que Ud. se lo avise. (It is wise/sensible that you warn him about it.) Importa que tomen (A, M)/cojan el tren de las cinco. (It is important they catch the five o’clock train.) Basta que yo diga una cosa para que ella me lleve la contraria. (I only have to say one thing for her to say the opposite.) Other verbs functioning in a similar way are: hacer falta, precisar, ser una pena When the subject of the main verb is not properly defined, an infinitive may be used. Basta (con) meter la comida en el horno. (You only have to put the meal in the oven.) No me conviene firmar el contrato. (It does not suit me to sign the contract.) Importa inflar las ruedas. (It is important to pump up the tires.) 55.4.5 When ser and estar are used impersonally and are followed by an adjective, adverb or noun Es necesario/preciso que estemos listos. (It is important that we be ready.) Es inútil que trabajes tanto. (It is pointless working so hard.) Es rarísimo que llegue tan tarde. (It’s very rare for her/him to arrive so late.) Es dudoso que venga/tenga cuarenta años. (It’s doubtful that [s]he will come/is forty years old.) Other adjectives and expressions that function in the same way are: Es absurdo/bueno/extraño/imperativo/importante/inaudito/increíble/inevitable/justo/ lógico/mejor/ natural/normal/(una) lástima/pendiente/previsible/previsto Es (una) lástima que no vengas. (It’s a pity you can’t come.) Es increíble que corra los cien metros en diez segundos. (It’s incredible she can run the hundred meters in ten seconds.) Está previsto que salga el tren a las tres. (The train is due to leave at three o’clock.) Estoy pendiente de que me convoquen mañana. (I’m expecting them to call me tomorrow.) These expressions may be followed by an infinitive if there is no properly defined subject. Es mejor telefonear ahorita (M)/ahora. (It’s better to phone now.) Es imperativo consultar al doctor (M) mañana. (It is imperative to consult the physician/ doctor tomorrow.) No es lógico ponerte sandalias si llueve. (It’s not logical to put on sandals if it’s raining.) The expression es una lástima is often used in Peninsular Spanish without the indefinite article: es lástima. This is not the case in Spanish America. 55.4.6 After conjunctive expressions The subjunctive follows many conjunctions and conjunctive expressions. They involve supposition, purpose and concession. a (la) condición (de) que (on condition that), a fin de que (in order that), a no ser que/a menos que (unless), como (if), como si (as if), con tal (de) que (provided that), de manera/ modo que (so that), en caso de que (in case), excepto que (except), ni que (not even that), para que/por que (in order that), salvo que (except), siempre que (whenever), supuesto que (supposing that), aun cuando (even if), sin que (without), aunque (although), bien que (although) Cierran las ventanas a fin de que no se oigan los ruidos de la calle. (They close the windows so that you can’t hear the noise from the street.)

288

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Alza la voz de manera que todos te oigan bien. (Speak more loudly so that everyone can hear you well.) Deja el libro aquí de manera/de modo que yo pueda leerlo. (Leave the book here so that I can read it.) Llévame a la estación para que yo compre un periódico. (Take me to the station so that I can buy a newspaper.) Cierro la puerta por que nadie escuche de lo que hablamos. (I close the door so that no one can hear what we are saying.) En caso de que no pueda acudir, te aviso. (In case I can’t come, I’ll let you know.) Iremos a la montaña, salvo que llueva mucho. (We’ll go to the mountains unless it rains a lot.) When the subject of the main and subordinate clauses is the same, an infinitive is used in the subordinate clause. A fin de terminar pronto el equipaje, lo meto todo en una maleta. (In order to finish packing soon, I’ll put it all in one suitcase.) Me quedo aquí para concluir el asunto. (I’ll stay here to complete the deal.) When meaning even if, aunque is followed by the subjunctive, but when it means although, implying certainty, it is followed by the indicative. Aunque pague el viaje. . . (Even if [s]he pays for the journey. . .) Aunque paga el viaje. . . (Although [s]he pays for the journey. . .) Como does not always take the subjunctive. When it means as, since or how, it is followed by the indicative. ¿Cómo lo haces? (How do you do it?) Como llueve, es mejor no salir. (As it’s raining, it’s best not to go out.) Included here would be such expressions as: a cambio de que (in exchange for) and (en el) supuesto (de) que (with the suggestion that). Te dejo mi moto a cambio de que cuides de mi perro. (I’ll leave my motorbike in exchange for you looking after my dog.) En el supuesto de que hayan perdido el tren, ¿por qué no han llamado? (Assuming that they missed the train, why haven’t they called us?) 55.4.7 Noun clauses The subjunctive is used in noun clauses which correpond to uses described in the preceding sections, notably when connected to verbs (although not only to verbs, e.g. adjectives > deseoso, satisfecho). Frequently, the use of the preposition de is needed. el deseo de que lo haga (the wish that [s]he do it), la necesidad de que salgamos ahora (the need that we go out now), la esperanza de que lea el libro (the hope that [s]he’ll read the book), la duda de que lo sepa (the doubt whether [s]he knows), la posibilidad de que no haya agua (the possibility that there is no water), la incertidumbre de que apruebe el examen (the uncertainty whether [s]he’ll pass the exam), la satisfacción de que haya aprobado el examen (the satisfaction that he has passed the examination) Other nouns that follow this pattern are: el consejo, la exigencia, la imposibilidad, la insistencia, el miedo, la orden, el peligro, la posibilidad, la propuesta, el riesgo, la recomendación, la sugerencia, el temor El hecho de que apruebe/haya aprobado los exámenes no quiere decir que sea inteligente. (The fact that she passes all her examinations does not mean she’s intelligent.) Tengo derecho a que se me escuche. (I have a right to be heard.) Es hora de que nos acostemos. (It’s about time we went to bed.) ¡Ya era hora de que llamases! (It was high time you called!) No veía la hora de que se fuera. (I couldn’t wait for her to go.)

Subjunctive mood

289

55.4.8 Impersonal expressions of passive value composed of ser + de + infinitive + que These constructions are of a slightly higher register (R3). Es de esperar que llegue el tren a tiempo. (It is to be hoped the train will arrive on time.) Es de temer(se) que los gastos excedan a los ingresos. (It is to be feared that expenses will exceed income.) Es de desear que llueva después de una sequía tan prolongada. (It is to be hoped that it will rain after such a prolonged drought.) Es de presumir que mamá venga ahora. (One presumes that Ma/Mum will come now.) 55.4.9 After certain relative and imprecise pronouns: similarly after a relative pronoun when the preceding clause is negative, restrictive or interrogative This involves time, place or manner when this is definitely not known. Similarly, the subjunctive is used after a relative pronoun when the clause preceding it is negative, restrictive or interrogative. The real question here is uncertainty. Numerous examples are provided here for clarification of what is a difficult area. Me hace falta un guía que hable portugués. (I need a guide who speaks Portuguese.)2 2 Note here that if one said: Me hace falta el guía. . ., the rest of the sentence would be que habla portugués. The indicative habla reflects the certainty of the existence of a specific guide: el guía as opposed to un guía (i.e. any guide that speaks Portuguese or even one who may not exist).

No tardaremos en encontrar alguien que conozca el camino. (It’ll not be long before we find someone who knows the way.) El profesor ha prometido un regalo al primero que termine correctamente el ejercicio. (The professor/teacher has promised a present to the first one who finishes the exercise correctly.) Si quieres un televisor que sea de alta definición, elige éste. (If you want a television set which is of high definition, choose this one.) Me quedaré aqui hasta que regresen mis papás (A, C, M)/padres. (I’ll stay here until my parents come back.) Iremos al teatro después de que comáis/coman (A, C, M). (We’ll go to the theater after you have eaten.) Tuerce para la derecha cuando llegues al semáforo. (Turn to the left when you get to the stoplights/traffic lights.) ¿Me puedes llamar cuando regreses a casa? (Can you call me when you get home?) Haré el trabajo cuando quieras. (I’ll do the work whenever you want.) Yo podría organizar la fiesta como quieras. (I could organize the party as you like.) No conozco a nadie que sea capaz de. . . (I know no one capable of. . .) No hallo (M)/encuentro ningún plomero (M)/fontanero que pueda arreglar esta llave (M)/este grifo. (I can’t find a single plumber who can repair this faucet/tap.) The expression independientemente de lo que may be appropriately dealt with here. Independientemente de lo que hayas hecho/de lo que pienses/de lo que crea yo . . .(Independently of what you have done/of what you think/of what I believe. . .) A very common alternative to the subjunctive in the subordinate clause is the use of al + infinitive. Tuerce para la derecha al llegar al semáforo. (Turn left when you reach the stoplights/traffic lights.) Al terminar mi trabajo iré contigo. (When I finish my work I’ll come with you.) Note also the idiomatic use of al when the subject is different in the main and subordinate clauses. You would logically expect the subjunctive to be used here. Al llegar yo (i.e. Cuando llegue yo) podrás tocar el piano. (When I arrive, you can play the piano.)

290

55.4.10

55.4.11

55.4.12

55.4.13

A Reference Grammar of Spanish ¿Puedes darme (M)/echarme una mano al volver yo (i.e. cuando vuelva yo) esta tarde? (Can you give me a hand when I come back this afternoon?) After indefinite expressions formed by adding quiera to relative pronouns and adverbs ([what] ever) Quienquiera que sea (whoever [s]he/you may be), dondequiera que se encuentre Ud. (wherever you are), cuandoquiera que vuelvan (whenever they return), comoquiera que trabajes (however you work), cualquiera disculpa que ofrezca (whatever excuse he offers) There are a number of other corresponding expressions or constructions which may be appropriately mentioned here. digas lo que digas (whatever you say), dijera lo que dijera (whatever [s]he/you said), venga de donde venga (wherever you/[s]he come[s] from), viniera de donde viniera (wherever she came from), sea como sea/fuere3 (be that as it may), sea lo que sea que desee (whatever it is that you wish), quien lo haga tendrá que. . . (whoever does it will have to. . .), gane quien gane (whoever wins), haya la crisis que haya (whatever crisis there is), hable de lo que hable (whatever I/you/[s]he speaks about), le guste o no (whether you/[s]he likes it or not), lo crean o no los lectores/lo crean los lectores o no (whether the readers believe it or not), sea cual sea el resultado (whatever the result may be) Las mujeres nos vamos a manifestar, haya elecciones al día siguiente o no las haya. (We women are going to demonstrate, whether there are elections the following day or not.) Following the construction por (muy). . . que (however) In this construction, an adjective or adverb comes before que. por (muy) listos que sean (however smart/intelligent they are), por (muy) atrevida que sea (however daring she is), por mucho que insistas (however much you insist) Perfect subjunctive The perfect subjunctive follows a main verb in the present or future tense. It represents an action which is completed. It is less used than the present or the imperfect subjunctive. It is made up of the present subjunctive of haber and the past participle of the verb in question. Es un milagro que no se haya roto la pierna. (It’s a miracle [s]he hasn’t broken his/her leg.) Cuando lo hayas leído, devuélveme el libro. (When you’ve read it, return the book to me.) It happens that the perfect subjunctive is occasionally used when preceded by a superlative. Most grammarians feel uneasy over this construction, and see in it an intrusion from the French, where it is standard practice. However, it has gained a certain amount of currency, to the extent that some Spanish-speakers now regard it as a normal alternative to the perfect indicative. It is difficult to know whether such a construction is to be recommended, so it is probably best avoided. Es una de las mejores películas que yo haya visto. (It’s one of the best movies I have seen.) Es una de las mejores decisiones que yo haya tomado. (It’s one of the best decisiones I’ve taken.) Imperfect subjunctive and pluperfect subjunctive Below is a passage illustrating the use of the imperfect subjunctive in a piece of continuous prose. The story relates the unhappy event of a person inveigled into believing he would win the lottery; but the deception leads to a crime committed against the person guilty of deceit. 3 Fuere is a residue of the future subjunctive touched on in Section 54.4.17, below. This expression is a set phrase.

Subjunctive mood

291

De niño me dijeron que no delinquiera (commit offenses), pero me lo dijesen o no me lo dijesen (whether they told me or not), yo nunca hice caso de los consejos, me dieran la razón o me contradijeran (whether they said I was right or wrong); siempre hice mi santa voluntad. No es de extrañar que teniendo por ley mi propia voluntad diera con mis huesos en presidio, y me condenasen a la horca, pero aunque (even if) no me colgaran, seguramente estuviera igualmente arrepentido de mi vida anterior. Si tuviera otra oportunidad, estoy seguro que la aprovecharía. Si hubiese sido (If I had been) más decidido aquel día, no hubiera tenido que arrepentirme hoy (I would not have had to repent today). Aquel individuo me vendió el número de la lotería, diciéndome que era el número de la suerte. No es que me deseara suerte, sino que me dijo que era el que se llevaría el premio. Y le creí. Eso es todo. Yo nunca pensé que me engañara o que estuviera hablando en broma, ni tampoco que ésta fuera una forma normal de vender. Yo compré el número como si no cupiera (as if there were not [from caber]) otra posibilidad sino que me tocara el premio (but that I should win the prize [but that the prize should come to me]). ¿Qué extraño es que yo le degollara (should have slit his throat) cuando supe que mi número no era el agraciado? Ahora, en la cárcel, ya he aprendido lo que es el márketing. Seguramente ahora no volviera a matar al vendedor de lotería aunque me dijera que me iba a tocar el primer premio si no tocara. We have already seen the main cases where the subjunctive mood is required in the present and perfect tenses. As far as the imperfect subjunctive is concerned, we only have to consider which tenses to use – a present or imperfect subjunctive is possible. For example, para que is followed by the present or the imperfect subjunctive, depending on whether the reference is to the present or the past. Consider the following cases. Me da la carta para que la eche al buzón. ([S]he gives me the letter so that I’ll mail/post it.) Me dio la carta para que la echara al buzón. ([S]he gave me the letter so that I would mail/ post it.) In the first case, eche is the present subjunctive because the main verb da is in the present tense. In the second case, echara is the imperfect subjunctive because the main verb dio is in the past or preterit tense. Before we consider all the endings of the imperfect subjunctive, it should be pointed out that there are basically two forms, -ara and -ase. Take, for instance, the verb hablar. Era necesario que la madre hablara/hablase con su hijo. 55.4.1.13.1 Forms of the imperfect subjunctive with regular verbs hablar: hablara/hablase, hablaras/hablases, hablara/hablase, habláramos/ hablásemos, hablarais/hablaseis, hablaran/hablasen vender: vendiera/iese, vendieras/ieses, vendiera/iese, vendiéramos/vendiésemos, vendierais/vendieseis, vendieran/vendiesen vivir: viviera/viviese, vivieras/vivieses, viviera/viviese, viviéramos/viviésemos/ vivierais/vivieseis, vivieran/viviesen 55.4.13.2 Forms of the pluperfect subjunctive with regular verbs hablar: hubiera/hubiese hablado, hubieras/hubieses. . ., hubiera/hubiese. . ., hubiéramos/hubiésemos. . ., hubierais/hubieseis. . ., hubieran/hubiesen. . . vender/vivir: hubiera/hubiese vendido/vivido, etc. The two forms of the imperfect subjunctive are used after a main verb in the present or imperfect tense refering to an action that is wholly past. The -ase form is little used now in Peninsular Spanish, while in A, C and M it is rarely used, if at all. It is largely associated with the written language.

292

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Hay/había gente que duda/dudaba que el mismo autor escribiera/escribiese todos estos libros. (There are/were people who doubt[ed] whether the same author wrote all these books.) No creo/creía que fuera/fuese culpable. (I don’t/didn’t think he was guilty.) A mi me extraña/extrañaba que viviera/viviese treinta años en Los Ángeles. (I am/was surprised [s]he lived in Los Angeles for thirty years.) Siento/Sentía que se enfadara/enfadase. (I am/was sorry she got angry.) As noted above, the imperfect subjunctive forms -ra and -se have equivalent values. However, the -ra form may replace the pluperfect tense, notably in journalistic style, and this is quite frequent, while the -se form is not used in this context (and if it is used, purists find it unacceptable). El que fuera (había sido) presidente del gobierno ha declarado que. . . (He who had been the president of the government has stated that. . .) Desde que el equipo ganara (había ganado) el trofeo. . .(Immediately after the team had won the trophy. . .) There are occasions when an imperfect tense could be followed by a subjunctive in the present tense. In other words, the sequence of tenses may be broken. Take the two following cases. Negó (past) que existiera/exista (universal principle) una relación directa entre la comida y la salud. (She denied there was a direct relationship between food and health.) Se le pidió (past) al presidente que buscara/busque una solución. (The president was asked to find a solution [he hasn’t done it yet].) 55.4.13.3 Some imperfect subjunctive forms of irregular verbs It is helpful to remember that the imperfect subjunctive -ara form comes from the root of the third person plural of the preterit: dieron > diera, dijeron > dijera. dar (to give) decir(to say) estar (to be)

diera diese dijera dijese estuviera estuviese

haber (to have) hubiese

hubiera hubieses

hacer (to make) hiciera hiciese ir (to go) fuera fuese querer (to wish) quisiera quisiese ser (to be) fuera fuese tener (to have) tuviera tuviese

dieras dieses dijeras dijeses estuvieras

diera diese dijera dijese estuviera

diéramos diésemos dijéramos dijésemos estuviéramos estuvieses estuviese estuviésemos hubieras hubiera hubiéramos hubiese hubiése- hubieseis mos hicieras hiciera hiciéramos hicieses hiciera hiciésemos fueras fuera fuéramos fueses fuese fuésemos quisieras quisiera quisiéramos quisieses quisiese quisiésemos fueras fuera fuéramos fueses fuese fuésemos tuvieras tuviera tuviéramos tuvieses tuviese tuviésemos

dierais dieseis dijerais dijeseis estuvierais

dieran diesen dijeran dijesen estuvieran

estuvieseis estuviesen hubierais hubiesen

hubieran

hicierais hicieseis fuerais fueseis quisierais quisieseis fuerais fueseis tuvierais tuvieseis

hicieran hiciesen fueran fuesen quisieran quisiesen fueran fuesen tuvieran tuviesen

Subjunctive mood

293

The imperfect subjunctive of querer (only the -ra form, not the -se form) is used much more than the conditional of querer with a conditional value. Yo quisiera ir al teatro. (I’d like to go to the theater.). The same remark applies to the regular verb deber. Yo debiera (not debería) terminar mi dibujo. (I ought to finish my drawing.) 15.4.13.4 Imperfect of two radical changing verbs dormir: durmiera/durmiese, durmieras/durmieses, durmiera/durmiese, durmiéramos/durmiésemos, durmierais/durmieseis, durmieran/durmiesen pedir: pidiera/pidiese, pidieras/pidieses, pidiera/pidiese, pidiéramos/pidiésemos, pidierais/pidieseis, pidieran/pidiesen 55.4.14 Imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives with conditional sentences The imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive (but never the present subjunctive) is used after si when the condition is improbable or impossible. Por si (in case) is also used in this way. It should be pointed out that por si is followed by the indicative in the present tense. Por si viene, lo haré. (In case she comes, I’ll do it.) However, frequently in C and M one would come across: Por si venga. . . The pluperfect subjunctive is largely confined to si clauses, involving the imperfect subjunctive of the verb haber and a past participle. The pattern is: • si + imperfect subjunctive, with the conditional in the second non-si clause • si + pluperfect subjunctive, with pluperfect subjunctive or conditional in the past in the second non-si clause Si tuvieras/tuvieses un millón de dólares, ¿qué harías? (If you had a million dollars, what would you do?) Si tu padre pagara/pagase el viaje, ¿vendrías conmigo? (If your father paid for the journey would you come with me?) Si yo viniera mañana, se lo diría. (If I were to come tomorrow, I’d tell her/him.) Por si hiciera frío me llevé el abrigo. (In case it was cold I took my coat.) Si yo lo hubiera/hubiese sabido, no habría/hubiera/hubiese ido. (If I had known, I would not have gone.) Si ella hubiera/hubiese tenido bastante dinero, se habría/ hubiera/hubiese comprado una casa. (If she had had enough money she would have bought a house.) Si hubiéramos/hubiésemos ido a México habríamos/hubiéramos/ hubiésemos podido visitar a nuestros amigos/cuates (M). (If we had gone to Mexico we could have visited our friends.) In Iberian R1 speech, but not higher up the register scale, the imperfect indicative may be used in the non-si clause, instead of the imperfect subjunctive, pluperfect subjunctive or conditional in the past. This construction is not shared by A, C or M. Si me hubiera dicho tal cosa, le daba una paliza. (If she had said such a thing to me, I would have given her a hiding.) Si hubiera venido ayer, te lo decía. (If he had come yesterday, I would have told you.) Since the subjunctive is used in all temporal clauses referring to the future, an imperfect subjunctive is used in the following cases. But the imperfect subjunctive is not used with a si clause when it is something habitually occurring in the past that is referred to, rather than the future. (See the last two examples below.) Prometió llamarnos cuando llegara/hubiera llegado a casa. ([S]he promised to call us when she [had] arrived home.) Me comprometí a ayudarlos mientras estuviera en Chihuahua. (I promised to help them while I was in Chihuahua.) Les dijo que les ofrecería una cena cuando estuvieran en San Cristóbol de las Casas. ([S]he told them that [s]he would offer them an evening meal when they were in. . .)

294

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Yo jugaba todo el día si mi madre se quedaba en casa. (I played all day long if my mother was at home.) Si mi marido trabajaba en el jardín, yo lo/le ayudaba. (If my husband worked in the garden I would help him.) 55.4.15 Temporal clauses After the following conjunctive expressions of time, the subjunctive is required when uncertainty is implied (this often implies a future idea). a las pocas horas de que (a few hours after), a los pocos días de que (a few days after), a medida que/mientras que (while), (esperar/aguardar) a que ([to wait] until), antes de que (before), cuando (when), desde que (since), después (de) que (after), en cuanto (as far as), hasta que (until), luego (de) que (as soon as), no bien (R3; as soon as), nomás que (M, but not in Spain, A or C; as soon as/only/just), siempre que (whenever), tras (de) que (R3; after), una vez que (once) ya que (as soon as) Hay que volver a casa antes de que llueva. (We ought to go home before it rains.) Te llamaré después (de) que mi mamá haga la compra. (I’ll call you after mom/mum has done the shopping.) Cuando llegues, prepara la comida. (When you arrive, get the meal ready.) Luego que termine el trabajo iré al cine. (When I finish work I’ll go to the movies.) Nomás lo hagas y te las verás conmigo. (You just do it and you’ll have to deal with me.) Nomás se te ocurra hacerlo y tendrás problemas con la justicia. (You only have to do it and the law will be after you.) Nomás llegue a casa te hablo. (As soon as I get home I’ll speak to you.) It must be emphasized that when the conjunctive expressions of time refer to the future, and therefore imply uncertainty, the subjunctive is necessary, as seen in the above examples. However when most of these expressions refer specifically to the past, and the event has actually occurred, or to repeated actions, an indicative is required. Mientras que ella leía el periódico, yo cocinaba. (While she read the newspaper, I cooked.) A medida que pasaba el tiempo, se volvía más desagradable. (As time passed he became more and more unpleasant.) Estábamos en el departamento (A, C, M)/apartamento cuando sonó un disparo. (We were in the apartment when a shot was heard.) No se fue hasta que llegó su padre. (She didn’t go until her father had arrived.) Antes de que is always followed by the subjunctive. Antes de que viniera/venga, hice/ haré las camas. (Before he came/comes, I made/I’ll make the beds.) Desde que requires special comment, since it is followed by the imperfect subjunctive, which is the norm these days in R3, notwithstanding the certainty implied. This also applies to Colombia, but not to Mexico. In any case, such a practice is condemned by purists. They would prefer the preterit (aprendió/casó) in the examples set out below with desde que. The same goes for Mexican speakers of Spanish, for whom the subjunctive is aberrant in these cases. However, nearly all Spanish newspapers, including El País, have adopted the subjunctive in these circumstances. Whatever view is taken on this, the -se form of the imperfect subjunctive is not acceptable here. Desde que aprendiera a escribir, compuso cuentecitos/cuentitos (M). (As soon as he learnt to write, he made up short stories.) Desde que se casara, empezó a cocinar. (As soon as he married he began to cook.) But these constructions would not exclude: Desde que aprendió (i.e. preterit) a escribir. . . or se casó. There is considerable discussion over the use of después (de) que and luego que, again corresponding to newspaper style, and it seems wiser not to use the imperfect subjunctive

Subjunctive mood

295

here. However, with reference to the future, the subjunctive is normal (see Section 55.4.15, above). If the subject is the same for the main and subordinate clause, the verb in the subordinate clause is in the infinitive. Escribe la carta antes de/después de desayunar. (Write the letter before/after having your breakfast.) Tendrás que crecer mucho hasta ser como yo. (You’ll have to grow a lot until you’re like me.) Hasta que is sometimes followed (and not only in speech) by no, but this construction does not meet with universal approval. However, it is perfectly acceptable in Mexico, and is gaining ground elsewhere. This feature is especially apparent when the main clause is in the negative. Seco’s Diccionario de dudas quotes a considerable number of “literary” authors who have recourse to it, as witnessed by the following examples. Me ponía a gritar y no me callaba hasta que mi madre no me llevaba a dormir con ella. (Galdós) (I would start to shout and would not be silenced until my mother took me to sleep with her.) Bajé hacia los faroles, que no se encenderían hasta que la guerra no acabase. (García Hortelano) (I went down to the lamps that would not be lit until the war ended.) Hasta que is usually followed by an indicative in the past. Compare the two examples below, the first implying certainty, and the second uncertainty. Me quedé en casa hasta que llegó mi amigo/cuate (M). Le dije que me quedaría en casa hasta que regresara. (I told her/him that I would remain till [s]he came back [(S)he hasn’t come back yet].) 55.4.16 Use of the subjunctive or the infinitive after a main clause In the following examples, the verbs after the main clause may be used in their subjunctive form or as an infinitive. Spanish-speakers do have preferences, but these may vary from person to person. The examples below indicate some of the verbs where a subjunctive or an infinitive may be used with no significant difference to the meaning. Factors such as the written, as opposed to the spoken, language, may affect the choice, or even the tense, of the main clause. It may legitimately be argued that the use of the infinitive is the general choice for a Spanish-speaker since it is easier, while the subjunctive corresponds more to the written form. To try to compare Peninsular and American Spanish usage here would be going too far. Some of the following comparisions have already been made at different points in this chapter, but it seems helpful to group them all together here: aconsejar: Me aconseja que vaya al cine./Me aconseja ir al cine. animar: Los animo a que trabajen./Los animo a trabajar. dejar: Lo dejo que termine su trabajo./Lo dejo terminar su trabajo. impedir: El carro mal estacionado me impidió que saliese./El carro mal estacionado me impidió salir. impulsar: El motivo que lo impulsó a que robase la cartera./El motivo que lo impulsó a robar la cartera. inducir: Su actitud nos indujo a que rechazásemos su idea./Su actitud nos indujo a rechazar su idea. invitar: Nos invitaron a que cenáramos con ellos./Nos invitaron a cenar con ellos. mandar: El maestro nos mandó que saliéramos al patio./El maestro nos mandó salir al patio. ordenar: El capitán nos ordenó que regresáramos./El capitán nos ordenó regresar. permitir: El médico le permitió que fumase./El médico le permitió fumar. prohibir: Mi mamá me ha prohibido que beba vino./Mi mamá me ha prohibido beber vino.

296

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

proponer: Su amiga nos propuso que fuéramos al cine./Su amiga nos propuso ir al cine. recomendar: El doctor (M) me recomendó que descansase./El doctor me recomendó descansar. sugerir: La psicóloga le ha sugerido que cambie de trabajo./La psicóloga le ha sugerido cambiar de trabajo. 55.4.17 Future imperfect subjunctive The future subjunctive and future imperfect subjunctive require some comment. These are archaic or obselete forms, little used by anyone these days, including in the very highest registers. It is sufficient to devote a short section to them, since no foreigner will be called upon to use them, although they could, in some cases, require recognition. Few Spanish-speakers, in Spain or the Americas – and this most certainly and emphatically includes A, C and M – would know how to manage them, or need to manage them. They are found in some occasional legal and administrative documents, more frequently in biblical language, and in some set phrases (frases hechas) or sayings (refranes) that have been retained in the language. sea lo que fuere (be that as it may) Adonde fueres, haz lo que vieres. (Wherever you are, do what you will [see].) Here are its possible, but hypothetical, uses. • It could replace the present subjunctive: El que tuviere. . . > El que tenga. . . • It could replace the imperfect subjunctive: Si yo tuviere. . . > Si yo tuviera. . . • It could replace the present indicative: Si alguien dijere. . . > Si alguien dice. . . • It could replace the pluperfect subjunctive: Si lo hubiere perdido. . . > Si lo hubiera perdido. . . The following are the forms of the future subjunctive. hablar: hablare, hablares, hablare, habláremos, hablareis, hablaren vender: vendiere, vendieres, vendiere, vendiéremos, vendiereis, vendieren vivir: viviere, vivieres, viviere, viviéremos, viviereis, vivieren The following are the forms of the future imperfect subjunctive. hubiere hablado/vendido/vivido, hubieres hablado/vendido/vivido, etc. Even more hypothetical would be the use of these two tenses with irregular verbs. It serves little purpose to devote time and space to them. Below is a text forming part of the Spanish Constitution, read out by the present king of Spain to Las Cortes, the Spanish equivalent of the House of Representatives/House of Commons. The tone clearly conveys a sense of history and tradition, reinforced at every turn by recourse to the future subjunctive, the use of the second person imperative sabed, the inversion of verb and subject (Será castigado quien tomare. . .) and the verb adir (asumir/aceptar), a legal term no longer a candidate for inclusion in modern dictionaries, save that of the Real Academia Española. Vos would not be out of place here, save that the king is addressing more than one person. Don Juan Carlos I, Rey de España, a todos los que la presente (Constitución) vieren y entendieren, Sabed: Que las Cortes han aprobado. . .la siguiente Constitución: [Fórmula previa al Preámbulo de la Constitución Española] Los herederos pagarán las deudas, si las hubiere, antes de adir la herencia. Será castigado quien tomare aquello que no le perteneciere. Quien confesare su delito, y se entregare a la justicia, será tratado con magnanimidad. Sea como fuere, dijeran lo que dijeren, siempre estarás en mi corazón. Serán perseguidos y sometidos a juicio el que ultrajare a la bandera u otros signos de la nación.

Subjunctive mood

297

Quien no cumpliere el reglamento será reprendido, y si persistiere en su conducta, será retirado de su cargo la primera vez, y si no se corrigiere, será retirado de su cargo.

Although it has an archaic resonance, the future subjunctive is still very common in modern Iberian versions of the Bible (here from the Nácar Colunga version). Si, pues, el Hijo os librare. . . (John 8: 36) Si alguno guardare mi palabra. . . (John 8: 51) Quien guardare mi palabra. . . (John 8: 52) . . .y, yo, si fuere levantado de la tierra. . . (John 12: 32) Latin American forms would be: librara, guardara, fuera.

Part V

56 Personal pronouns / Pronombres personales Below is a passage narrating a conversation between an engaged couple and a priest. The couple are Argentinian, which explains the use of vos and the corresponding verb. The passage shows the use of personal pronouns. The couple want photographs taken in the church, although they are getting married at city hall. The priest says the only person who can give permission is already in the church: el Jefe. —¿Deseabais algo? Hoy me he olvidado la agenda y no recuerdo si había quedado con vosotros; no me acuerdo si os he citado o no —les dijo el cura que salía en aquel momento de la iglesia—. ¡Ah, perdón! Quizá no les conozca (a ustedes). . ., creo que no son de esta parroquia (parish). . . Bueno. . . ustedes dirán (lo que desean). . . —Buenos días; no nos conoce usted. Mi prometida (fiancée) y yo somos argentinos. Vivimos a dos cuadras de acá (two blocks from here). Nos queremos casar el lunes en el ayuntamiento y sería lindo nos tomaran unas fotos en su altar mayor para la familia de allá, —luego, dirigiéndose hacia ella, trasluciendo (revealing) un acento influido por años viviendo en Madrid—. Vos decí (A) algo, si vos consentí (A). Vos sos (A) la novia (fiancée), hablá (A). —No, el consentimiento lo dan ustedes en la boda. Aquí no. Yo no tendría inconveniente en dejarles hacer la foto, pero es engaño a la familia que no cuadra (does not fit) con el lugar. —Si usted nos negara permiso, nosotros recurriremos a su superior —terció él. —Mi Jefe está ahí dentro. Entren a rezarle, a ver si le convencen más que a mí. (More information on the use of the pronouns me/te/se/nos/os as reflexives, particularly se used as a pasiva refleja, is to be found in Chapter 38 on reflexive verbs.)

56.1 Personal pronoun as subject 56.1.1 The following personal pronouns are regularly used as the subject of a sentence. Yo compro una casa. (I buy a house.) Tú compras una casa. (You buy a house.) Vos comprás una casa. (You buy a house.) Él/Ella/Ud. compra. . . (He/She/You buy[s]. . .) Nosotros/as compramos. . . (We [m/f] buy. . .) Vosotros/as compráis. . . (You [m/f] buy. . .) Ellos/Ellas/Uds. compran. . . (They [m/f]/You buy. . . 56.1.1.1 The yo/tú/vos/ nosotros/as/vosotros/as forms are not used very frequently, since the verb endings make it clear who is being referred to. However, ambiguity could arise with both Ud. and Uds. if only the verb forms were used and the pronouns were omitted. Of course, the context would normally make things clear. However, Debe salir mañana could mean You must leave tomorrow or (S)He must leave tomorrow. Recourse to the subject pronouns Ud., él or ella would make things much clearer, if it were necessary. Ambiguity is a much greater possibility with the Uds. of Andalusian, Canary Island and SpanishAmerican Spanish, since the verb form it requires covers Uds., ellos and ellas, and 301

302

A Reference Grammar of Spanish replaces the Iberian vosotros/as. (Of course, there is no risk of ambiguity with vosotros/ as.) The corollary to this is that the direct object pronouns los and las also lend themselves to a degree of ambiguity, because they may also refer to plural you or them. Speaking to friends, ¿Los visitan mañana? means Are you visiting them tomorrow?, Are they visiting you tomorrow?, or even Are they visiting them tomorrow? Iberian Spanish is much less ambiguous, since the vosotros/as form of the verb makes the statement very clear: ¿Los/les visitáis mañana? (Are you visiting them tomorrow?) Finally, compare the following two sentences, both of which have the meaning: Children, I’ll wait for you at home. A Uds., niños, los espero en casa (most of the Spanish-speaking world). A vosotros, niños, os espero en casa (Central and Northern Spain). 56.1.1.2 If there is a mixture of males and females, the masculine forms are used (i.e. nosotros, vosotros, ellos). The female forms (nosotras, vosotras, ellas) would only be used if females alone were referred to. The vosotros/as forms are not used in Spanish America and are replaced entirely by Uds. This is also true of Spanish spoken in the United States. This feature could be disconcerting for a Spanish-speaker from Spain, who would normally use the more friendly, intimate form vosotros/as. One of the present authors, who has experienced innumerable years of Iberian, Argentinian and Mexican Spanish, still has some problems accommodating the Uds. form within an intimate or family situation. Conversely, Argentinian, Colombian and Mexican speakers of Spanish find the vosotros/as forms antiquated and quaint, but curiously attractive. The younger SpanishAmerican generation would doubtless have difficulty using the corresponding verb form: platicáis (habláis) (you speak), corréis (you run), pedís (you ask for), and so on, while forms of the preterit or imperfect subjunctive would doubtless be a mystery to them: hablasteis (you spoke), hablarais/hablaseis (you should speak). 56.1.1.3 The tú form is the familiar mode of address when you are speaking to someone you know (well), while the passage from the Ud./Uds. forms to this familiar tú, and vosotros/as forms, is much easier in Spain and Spanish America than in France, for example, where the vous form, instead of tu, still holds considerable sway. In this sense, Spain, the Canary Islands and Spanish America are similar to Italy (lei > tu). The passage from Ud. to tú requires little time, as does the passage from Uds. to vosotros/as in Spain. 56.1.1.4 When the third person forms él/ella, ellos/ellas function as a subject, they can only refer to persons, so that when things are referred to, no explicit personal pronoun is used. He leído tus últimos informes. Son claros y ofrecen numerosos datos. (I have read your last reports. They are clear and provide much information.) However, if the thing or object is in any way qualified by an adjective, or they occur in apposition, then the subject pronoun would be used. Compramos un sofá enorme: ocupaba él solito toda la habitación. (We bought an enormous sofa: it occupied the whole room by itself.)

56.2 Personal pronoun as direct object 56.2.1 The following personal pronouns as direct objects are all in common use. Note that these direct (and indirect) objects precede the verb, apart from with the infinitive, the positive imperative and the gerund. Ella me ve. (She sees me.) Ella te ve. (She sees you [s].) Ella lo/le ve. (She sees him/you/it [m].) Ella la ve. (She sees her/it [f].) Ella nos ve. (She sees us.) Ella os ve (She sees you [pl]; not in A, C, M.)

Personal pronouns

303

Ella los/les ve. (She sees them/you [m/mf].) Ella las ve. (She sees them/you [f].) 56.2.2 The following comments are to be borne in mind. • You cannot separate the direct object pronoun from the verb. In other words, you cannot put me/te, and so on, in any other part of the sentence. • As with the subject pronoun tú, te refers to a person whom you are addressing and you know (well). • Lo and le are both used for him and male you (whom you do not know well), but the use of lo is much more extensive, and is used over much of Southern Spain, the Canary Islands and the whole of Spanish America. Castilla La Vieja and Northern Spain generally, together with the traditional literature of much of Spain, still adhere to the use of le for him as direct object, and you as direct object for a person you do not know. If you read much Spanish literature of the traditional kind, you will find le comes more readily than lo. In a recent survey recorded in Seco’s Diccionario de dudas, by far the higher percentage of Spanish authors use the le form as opposed to the lo form. However, this problem should not be exaggerated, for both are acceptable, although you will rarely, if at all, hear le for him or male you as direct object anywhere in the Canary Islands or Spanish America. Lo is used for objects – that is, things that are masculine. Le is not possible here. • The remarks on le and lo also apply to the plurals les and los, although los is more common (even in Spain) than les, with the meaning of you/them as plural direct object. • La refers to a female person (her) and to objects that are feminine. It is also used when addressing a female you do not know well. • Nos covers both males and females. There is no distinctive female form. • Os also covers both males and females, with no distinctive female form. Os is not used in Spanish America, in the Canary Islands or in much of Southern Spain, and is replaced by los or las, the corresponding direct object pronoun forms of the subject pronouns ellos/ellas/Uds. • Los and las are used for masculine and feminine objects. • In careful style, the pronoun is repeated with each verb if more than one verb is involved. La compré y la llevé a mi casa. (I bought it and took it home.) Lo cocinamos y lo comimos. (We cooked it and ate it.) But if the two ideas conveyed by the verbs are very closely connected, the pronoun may be omitted: Los (los ojos) abría y cerraba alternativamente (He opened and closed them in turn). In colloquial language (R1), the second pronoun, as in the first two examples above, may be omitted. (For discussion of the confusion over le/la/lo and les/las/los, see Chapter 79 on Laísmos, Leísmos and Loísmos.) Here are some further examples, with all the combinations. Ellos me esperan. (They are waiting for me.) Ellos te esperan. (They are waiting for you [one person whom you know well].) Ellos le esperan. (They are waiting for you [one male person whom the speaker does not know well]./They are waiting for him [only in certain parts of Northern and Central Spain].) Ellos lo esperan. (They are waiting for him [in all Spanish America, Canary Islands and much of Southern Spain.]) Ellos la esperan. (They are waiting for her.) Ellos la esperan. (They are waiting for you [one female person whom the speaker does not know well].)

304

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Ellos lo esperan. (They are waiting for you [one male person whom the speaker does not know well; over much of Southern Spain, Canary Islands and all of Spanish America].) Ellos lo esperan. (They are waiting for it [masculine noun, e.g. un tren].) Ellos la esperan. (They are waiting for it [feminine noun, e.g. la comida].) Ellos nos esperan. (They are waiting for us.) Ellos os esperan. (They are waiting for you [more than one person whom the speaker knows well; in Spain, but not in much of Southern Spain, Canary Islands or Spanish America].) Ellos les esperan. (They are waiting for them [male persons, or male(s) and female(s) in Central and Northern Spain].) Ellos los esperan. (They are waiting for them [male persons, or male and female persons; in much of Southern Spain, Canary Islands and all Spanish America; also used everywhere for masculine objects, e.g. los trenes.) Ellos los esperan. (They are waiting for you [male persons, or male and female persons whom the speaker may or may not know well; in much of Southern Spain, Canary Islands and all of Spanish America].) Ellos las esperan. (They are waiting for them [female persons or feminine objects].) Ellos las esperan. (They are waiting for you [female persons whom the speaker does not know well (in Spain), or knows or does not know well (in Southern Spain, Canary Islands and Spanish America].) 56.2.3 Further remarks on second person pronouns The traditional labels “familiar” and “polite” do not adequately capture the political and social circumstances in which pronouns are used today. Since the death of Franco and the beginning of the democratization process, tú and vosotros/as have ousted Ud. and Uds. to a very large extent, except in very formal circumstances. It is unthinkable to use anything but tú and vosotros/as (vosotros/as not in A, C, M) in the following circumstances: • addressing children and animals, God • among relatives, friends of whatever age, workmates, soldiers of the same rank (but not across the ranks), colleagues in the same profession. However, in some country areas and small towns of Mexico, you may come across the use of Ud(s). by children when addressing their parents. This usage is fading and need not trouble you. You just need to be able to recognize it. 56.2.4 Tú is always used in the sense of one or you (general) It is normal to use tú and vosotros/as (vosotros/as not in A, C, M) in the following circumstances: • among young people (i.e. students), whatever the circumstances • among people of different ages in almost any informal situation, as at a party • wherever it is desirable to establish a friendly atmosphere, even in semi-formal situations, as in a bank, restaurant, shop • in public speeches, especially politicians (and particularly on the left) to their audiences.1 • in commercials/advertisements where someone is trying to sell you something (this is standard procedure now, and perhaps a cunning psychological device?) • when a person addresses a stranger who is indulging in an activity the person disapproves of. If someone touches a car, for example, possibly with some evil intention, you might hear the owner call out: 1

It would be unusual for politicians of the Spanish Partido Popular to use vosotros. It must be added here that the erstwhile president of Mexico, Vicente Fox Quesada (2000–6), frequently used tú/te instead of Vds. in appealing to each individual in his audience. Such a technique does not exist in peninsular Spanish.

Personal pronouns

305

¡Oye! Tú, el de la chaqueta/chamarra (M). ¿Qué haces allí? (Hey! You in the jacket. What are you doing?) ¡Quítate de allí! (Clear off!/Beat it!) This is a practice not to be imitated in early incursions into Spanish-speaking countries. 56.2.5 As far as addressing priests is concerned, Ud. is the norm, although tú cannot be totally excluded. It is not going too far to say that Ud. and (in Spain) Uds. are used only: • in very formal, public situations (a ceremony, for example) • when writing to strangers (booking a hotel room, for example) • to old people not known to the speaker • wherever it is desired to show respect. Compared to usage of tu and vous in France, where there was a temporary flowering of the tu form following the social upheavals of 1968 (which has now withered away), the tú and vosotros/as forms have taken on a new vigor. Most of the foregoing comments on Uds. as used in Spain do not, of course, apply to much of Southern Spain, the Canary Islands or the Spanish-American countries where vosotros/as does not obtain. A word of caution: when visiting a Spanish-speaking country in your early days, you should not automatically embark on the tú form, when a person uses tú to you and is much older than you. Just wait and see how the conversation or relationship unfolds. Here are some examples of usage of tú and vosotros/as. El pueblo español os recibe satisfecho y consciente de la alta significación que este acto encierra. (The Spanish nation takes pleasure in welcoming you and is aware of the great importance invested in this ceremony. [speech of King Juan Carlos to visiting diplomats]) ¿Has probado el nuevo turbo? (in a commercial/advert) (Have you tried the new turbo?) ¡Cómprate un Mercedes! (in a commercial) (Buy a Mercedes!) Cuando pases por la biblioteca ¿me recoges los libros? (When you go to the library, could you collect my books?) Oiga, Señor, ¿sabe dónde está el Paseo de la Castellana? (Excuse me, sir, do you know where. . .?)

56.3 Remarks on the use of vos and corresponding pronouns 56.3.1 In a large part of South America, including Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and the area which goes from Chiapas in Southern Mexico to Colombia (although here it is sporadic), vos is used instead of tú. It can exist side by side with tú in Colombia (in and around Cali, for instance), Ecuador and Chile. As has been pointed out in Chapter 15 on the present tense, the corresponding verb forms are: tomás (you take), comés (you eat), vivís (you live), hacés (you do) and te referís a (you refer to). In some parts of Central America, Mexico and elsewhere, it is considered uncultured. Some Mexicans, for example, have the obscure idea that vos is some deformed version of vosotros. Such an attitude is not the case in Argentina, where one certainly comes across it in Argentinian literature and civilization, and it is used at all levels of literacy and society, in written and oral contexts. It is explicitly recognized as “legítimo” by the Academia Argentina de Letras. The voseo consists in the use of vos as a second person singular pronoun instead of tú and ti(go). It is used as subject. Puede que vos tengás razón. (You may be right.) Vos elegís como gastar tu dinero. (You choose how to spend your money.) Vos te arrepentirás de esto. (You will regret this.) The corresponding reflexive form is te, as seen in the third example above. It is used

306

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

disjunctively with con: Cada vez que sale con vos está feliz. (Each time she goes out with you, she’s happy.) And with the adverb como: Es por lo menos tan inteligente como vos. (She’s at least as intelligent as you.) Some tuteo forms (te, tu, tuyo) correspond to vos. Te amo a vos. (I love you.) No cierres tus ojos. (Don’t close your eyes.) Me pongo adelante tuyo. (I stand in front of you.) 56.3.2 In this context should be mentioned another colorful lingering feature of Spanish of bygone eras. Vuestra merced (your grace) + verb in the third person is still used in parts of Colombia. Interestingly enough, vuestra merced derives from old Castilian, which finally leads to Usted/Ud. 56.3.3 In the Iberian Peninsula, where there is uncertainty about the appropriateness of tú or Ud., vos may be used without a following verb, notably in the context of someone of a lower social class addressing someone of a higher class. Profesor: “¿Cómo estás?” Conserje: “Bien ¿y vos?” This use has a certain archaic tone.

56.4 Personal pronoun as indirect object 56.4.1 The following personal pronouns as indirect objects are all in common use. Ella me enseña el libro. (She shows the book to me.) Ella te enseña el libro. (She shows the book to you [s].) Ella le enseña el libro. (She shows the book to him/her/you [s].) Ella nos enseña el libro. (She shows the book to us.) Ella os enseña el libro. (She shows the book to you [pl].) Ella les enseña el libro. (She shows the book to them/you [pl].) 56.4.2 Le, as an indirect object, covers (to/for) him, her and the non-familiar form for you. Os is used as the familiar plural form for you. It is not used in some parts of Southern Spain, the Canary Islands or Spanish America, where it is replaced by les. The one felicitous result in these indirect forms is that they are much simpler than the direct forms. To be added here is the increasing Argentinian use of le, not only for the indirect singular third person pronoun, but also for the corresponding plural (instead of les). Such a use is convincingly attested to by Fontanella de Weinberg (EL español de La Argentina), who offers the following examples, among others. El Estado tendría que hacer un monumento dedicado a los ciudadanos a los que le mete la mano en el bolsillo. (The State ought to build a monument to the citizens whose pockets it is always digging into.) Tengo que pensar en mis tres hijos. Al menos nunca podrán decir que sus padres no le dieron la oportunidad de estudiar. (I must think of my three children. At least they will never be able to say their parents didn’t give them the chance to study.) This practice is far from finding universal approval, so it is wise simply to observe its existence.

56.5 Pronouns with prepositions (disjunctive pronouns) 56.5.1 Pronouns used after prepositions are as follows: para mí, para ti, para él, para ella, para ello, para Ud., para sí, para nosotros/as, para vosotros/as, para Uds., para ellos, para ellas

Personal pronouns

307

56.5.2 These pronouns are used after a range of prepositions, such as a, ante, contra, de, dentro, hacia, por, sin, tras (see Chapter 62 on prepositions for the full range). Hablaron de mí. (They spoke of me.) Lo hago por ti. (I do it for you.) Voy por él. (I am going [to get] him.) Se dirigió hacia ella. (He made his way towards her.) Puedes ir sin mí. (You can go without me.) El detective fue tras ella. (The detective went after her.) When used with con (with), the pronoun is modified and is attached to con in the following three cases. ¿Quieres ir conmigo? (Do you want to go with me?) Voy contigo. (I am going with you.) Mi hermana está enfadada consigo ([misma].) (My sister is angry with herself.) When there are two disjunctive pronouns linked by y and preceded by a preposition, the second takes the subject form. Prometió el regalo a él y yo/tú. (He promised the present to him and me/you.) But if a second preposition intervenes, then mí/ti are used. Prometió el regalo a él y a mí/ti. (He promised the present to him and to me.) Lo que hablemos será entre tú y yo. (What we’ll talk about will be between you and me/you.) Elige entre yo y los demás. (Choose between me and the others.) 56.5.3 After a preposition, choice between yo (subject), mí (object), tú (subject) and ti (object) varies. As we have seen, the object form is used in most cases (para mí, detrás de ti), but the subject form occurs after como (as, like), salvo (save), excepto (except) and según (according to). En fin, que según tú, el caso está concluido. (So, according to you, the case is closed.) Todos han sido suspendidos salvo tú. (Everyone was failed except you.) Habla chino como yo. (She speaks Chinese like me.) Excepto tú, todos han aprobado. (Apart from you, everyone has passed.) 56.5.4 There is a choice when two pronouns follow a preposition. The subject form tends to be used in these cases, although the preposition may be repeated, in which case the disjunctive pronoun is used, but this is not the case with entre and según. según tú y yo (according to you and me), según tú y según yo (according to you and me), para ella y yo (for her and me), para ella y para mí (for her and for me), delante de ti y yo (before you and me), detrás de ella y detrás de mí (behind her and me) 56.5.5 Disjunctive pronouns are logically used after compound prepositions: cerca de, debajo de, delante de, dentro de, detrás de, en contra de, encima de, enfrente de, lejos de cerca de mí/él/ella, debajo de mí/él/ella, delante de mí/él/ella Since cerca, debajo, delante, and so on, are adverbs, usage is considered incorrect if they precede a possessive pronoun. Such expressions are colloquial and quite widespread, and are very much R1. cerca mío (near me), debajo tuyo (under you), delante suyo (in front of you/him/her), enfrente suyo (opposite them) In Argentina, some of these expressions are considered normal, and are used at all levels of discourse. Furthermore, in Argentina, the adverb adelante + possessive pronoun is also admitted in educated circles: adelante mío/tuyo/suyo, but finds little favor elsewhere.

308

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

56.6 Order of pronouns (when there is more than one) 56.6.1 The most common order is as follows: se/te/os/me/nos/le/les/lo/la/los/las. Te lo dije ayer. (I told you yesterday.) Nos los mandaron el año pasado. (They sent them to us last year.) Me lo comunicó en seguida. (She communicated it to me immediately.) Se lo dije ayer. (I told her/him/them yesterday.) Se la dimos. (We gave it to her/him/them.) Se las dieron. (They gave them to you/her/them.) Se me escapa la fecha. (The date escapes me.) The most important feature in this list is that le and les become se when combined with another pronoun in this group. 56.6.2 With the impersonal use of se, the personal pronoun may be indirect or direct. Usually, the indirect form of the pronoun occurs in the Iberian Peninsula, while the direct form is normally found in A, C and M. Se le vió ayer. (He was seen yesterday.) Se les vió ayer. (They were seen yesterday.) Examples in A, C and M are: Se lo/la ve todos los días. (You see him/her every day.) Se los ve todos los días. (You see them every day.) (For a full discussion of the variety in direct and indirect objects with se, see Chapter 38 on reflexive verbs.) 56.6.3 In Se lo dije ayer the pronoun lo is necessary, as also in, for example: Se lo pregunté ayer. (I asked him/her yesterday [about it].) Three pronouns may occur before the same verb, although this is not very common. Llevar, used reflexively, illustrates this: Te me lo llevaste. (You brought it to me.) 56.6.4 Pronouns precede all finite verbs except the affirmative imperative, where the pronoun is attached enclitically to the end of the verb. With pronouns attached to the verb, a written accent is placed over the appropriate vowel to retain the stress. ¿Me entiendes? (Do you understand me?) Lo haré mañana. (I’ll do it tomorrow.) La escribiré esta tarde. (I’ll write it this afternoon.) ¡No me digas! (You don’t say!) ¡No la escribas! (Don’t write it!) But: ¡Escríbela! (Write it!) ¡Escríbesela! (Write it to her/him/them!) ¡Mándasela! (Send it to him/her/them!) ¡Dámelos! (Give me them!) 56.6.5 Pronouns are attached enclitically to the infinitive and the present participle, but never to the past participle, as happens in Italian. viéndolo/la (seeing it/him/her/you), dándolo (giving it), al abrirla (on opening it), para entenderlo/le (to understand him) 56.6.6 Pronouns may also precede an auxiliary verb, as well as being attached to the infinitive. Notice the written accent in the second example of the first four cases below. Te lo voy a explicar./Voy a explicártelo. (I am going to explain it to you.)

Personal pronouns

56.6.7

56.6.8

56.6.9

56.6.10

309

Lo siguió leyendo. /Siguió leyéndolo. (She continued to read it.) No te las puedo dar. /No puedo dártelas. (I can’t give them to you.) Se los quiero mandar. /Quiero mandárselos hoy. (I want to send them to him/her/them/you today.) Los suelen traer. /Suelen traerlos por la tarde. (They usually bring them in the afternoon.) Whether one places the pronoun before the auxiliary verb or attaches it to the following infinitive is a question of personal choice. Pronouns must precede the auxiliary verb in compound tenses. Me lo he imaginado. (I imagined it.) ¿Se habrá terminado la película? (Has the movie finished? [It probably has]) ¡Ojalá se lo hayan concedido! (Would that they have given it to them!) But this is not so with the infinitive or gerund. Por haberlo terminado, recibirás un premio. (Because you’ve finished it, you’ll receive a prize.) Se fue, habiéndonos dicho lo que quería. (He left, having told us what he wanted.) As far as the gerund is concerned, when used reflexively, the pronoun usually precedes estar. ¿Te estás durmiendo/lavando? (Are you going to sleep/dropping off?/Are you washing?) However, Estás durmiéndote? is not impossible. When the compound infinitive forms part of a periphrastic expression, the pronouns may be attached enclitically to the auxiliary verb haber or precede the initial part of the periphrastic expression. Tenías que habérmelo dicho./Me lo tenías que haber dicho. (You ought to have told me.) But with impersonal verbs like convenir or importar, the pronouns must be attached to the auxiliary. Convenía habérselo dicho. (It would have been sensible to tell him.) Importa habérselo mandado. (It is important to have sent it to him.) The impersonal use of deber with haber offers two choices, although the first is by far the most normal. ¿Hubo plazas? Debió de haberlas. /Las debió de haber. (Were there any places? There must have been some.) If there were two auxiliary verbs, a pronoun could easily precede the first. Lo espero poder hacer. (I hope to be able to do it.) Te puedo ir a visitar. (I can come to visit you.) If an impersonal verb is used with an infinitive, the pronoun is attached to the infinitive and would never precede the impersonal verb. Hay que pedírselo. (You must ask her for it.) Importa preguntárselo. (It is important to ask her [for it].) Conviene dárselos ahora. (It is wise to give them to him/her/them now.) It is not usual either for pronouns to precede verbs expressing belief, fear, desire, preference, denial, affirmation or knowing, when they are followed by an infinitive. They are attached to the infinitive or to the perfect infinitive. Such verbs are: afirmar, creer, desear, negar, pensar, preferir, temer Prefería ignorarte. (He preferred to ignore you.) Piensa/Cree haberlo guardado. (She thinks/believes she has kept it.) Deseo irme. (I want to leave.) Negó saberlo/haberlo hecho. (He denied knowing it/ having done it.) Afirmó haberlo visto. (She insisted she had seen him.)

310

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

56.7 Redundant pronouns

56.7.1

56.7.2

56.7.3

56.7.4

An apparently unnecessary, additional pronoun is frequently used in Spanish as a support to a noun. It could be argued that the addition of the pronoun lends extra weight to the noun, but such an argument is not easily sustained. This addition seems to form a natural part of the language. The occurrence of redundant pronouns is explored below. When an object is expressed by a noun or a disjunctive pronoun, a pronoun is needed in Spanish in the following cases. 56.7.1.1 Direct: When a direct or indirect object is placed before the verb. Esta operación la dirigió el presidente del gobierno. (This operation was led by the president of the government.) La rapidez de reflejos se la enseñó la montaña. (The mountain taught him speed of reflex.) Esta pregunta se la hice a mi madre. (I asked my mother this question.) (Here there is a double repetititon: Esta pregunta for la, and se for madre.) Al niño se le pidió que regresara. (The child was asked to go back.) There is little difference between the construction of these sentences and the one more easily recognized by an English-speaker. El presidente del gobierno dirigió la operación. La montaña le enseñó la rapidez de reflejos. Hice esta pregunta a mi madre. Se pidió al niño que regresara. 56.7.1.2 Indirect: A Juan no le gustó la comida. (John didn’t like the meal.) A mí me encanta la ópera. (I love opera.) A ella le interesa el Siglo de Oro. (She is interested in the Golden Age.) Very often, when an indirect object is a person or animal, a pronoun is added. Le di el collar a la chica. (I gave the necklace to the girl.) Le robó el coche al hombre. (He stole the car from the man.) Se lo vendió a mi amigo. (She sold it to my friend.) Se lo enseñó al alumno. (He showed it to the pupil.) Le dio el hueso al perrito. (She gave the bone to the dog.) Se lo envié al banco. (I sent it to the bank.) When emphasis is needed, repetition also occurs. Se lo di a ella, no a él. (I gave it to her, not to him.) Te llamaron a ti (y no a tu hermano). (They called you [and not your brother].) Dásela a ella. (Give it to her.) ¡Ya lo que creo que vendrá! (I bet she’ll come!) ¡Vaya si las (not les) castigo a las niñas! (We’ll see if I’ll punish the girls!) So strong is this tendency towards repetition – and this is particularly true of the spoken language – that it would not feel correct for a Spanish-speaker to omit the Le, for example, from Le dije a mi madre que. . . Such a phenomenon is so deeply rooted in Spanish that a noun may be repeated twice – that is, by a pronoun and a relative pronoun – and this also applies to the written language. Este es un libro que no lo podría haber escrito hace diez años. (This is a book that I could not have written ten years ago.) Of course, the pronoun lo could have been omitted with no change in meaning. A double repetition could occur in the following case: Es a él a quien se le debe castigar. (He’s the one who ought to be punished.) A él, a quien and le are all referring to the same person.

Personal pronouns

311

56.7.5 There is a large range of verbs which often, but not always, involve the repetition of a noun by a pronoun. These verbs are what Spanish-speakers would call “verbos de afección” (verbs of feeling [both physical and emotional]). It also concerns verbs related to speech or comment, or other verbs suggesting “giving,” “taking away from,” “hiding,” “stealing,” and so on. The following is a helpful list. afirmar, arrebatar, cansar, comentar, confirmar, dar, decir, declarar, dejar, demostrar, divertir, encantar, enseñar, entregar, enviar, esconder, escribir, exigir, fastidiar, gustar, interesar, mandar, manifestar, molestar, ofrecer, pedir, pedir prestado, preguntar, presentar, prometer, quitar, reclamar, robar, solicitar There are also some verbs of a more impersonal nature to be included here: convenir, parecer, resultar. Le pareció bien al jefe nuestro plan. (Our plan appealed to the boss.) No le conviene al niño comer tantos dulces. (The child ought not to eat so many candies/ sweets.) La película les resultó aburridísima a los tres chicos. (The movie turned out to be terribly boring for the three boys.) In addition, there are what amount to compound expressions, such as: Educación quiere ponerle fecha a la reforma del Nivel Medio. (The Department of Education wishes to place a date on the reform of High School/Secondary Education.) Le resta credibilidad a su obra. (It takes away the credibility from his work.) Le prendió fuego a la casa. (She set fire to the house.) Repetition of noun/pronoun is not so common with some verbs, such as ver and saludar. Vi a Juan./Saludé a María. (I saw Juan./I greeted María.) It is possible, however, with these verbs. Lo vi a Juan/La saludé a María. Such a construction is notably common in Argentina, as with the following. Al pasar la madre cerca del baño, la vio a Mariana tomando comprimidos. (When the mother went past the bathroom, she saw Mariana taking tablets.)

56.8 Miscellaneous features of pronouns 56.8.1 When combined with the pronoun or noun todo, the pronouns lo/los/les/las are used to reinforce the meaning, although todo may be used without them. (Lo) entiendo/veo todo. (I understand/see all of it.) (Los/les) veo a todos. (I see all of them.) Las conozco a todas. (I know them all.) 56.8.2 Note the idiomatic meaning of “yo que tú/Ud.”: Yo que tú/Ud., iría la semana próxima. (If I were you, I’d go next week.) 56.8.3 Note also that, whereas in English it is necessary in the following type of sentence, lo would never be used in the corresponding Spanish sentence. Creo necesario ir al dentista. (I think it necessary to go to the dentist.) Pensaba importante escribir la carta. (She thought it important to write the letter.) Consideraron fundamental comprar la casa. (They considered it fundamental to buy the house.) 56.8.4 The pronoun yo may be construed as a noun. Unamuno estaba obsesionado por su yo más íntimo. (Unamuno was obsessed by his most intimate self.) 56.8.5 The pronouns los/las may correspond to the English some, any. “¿Hay boletos (M)/pasajes (A) para el avión?” “Sí, los hay.” (“Are there any tickets for the airplane?” “Yes, there are some.”)

312

56.8.6

56.8.7

56.8.8

56.8.9

56.8.10

56.8.11

A Reference Grammar of Spanish “¿Plazas hay en el garaje?” “No las hay.” (“Are there any places in the garage?” “There aren’t any.”) The pronouns may be omitted here with no change in meaning: Sí, hay./No hay. The neuter form lo (not to be confused with lo = him/it) serves to recall an adjective, a noun taken in an indeterminate sense with an adjectival value, or an entire phrase or statement. It is then often equivalent to the English so or it. Que no quieres ir, lo comprendo. (You don’t want to go, I understand it.) “¿Eran guapas?” “Sí, lo eran.” (“Were they good-looking?” “Yes, they were.”) Está enferma, pero no lo parece. (She’s sick, but she doesn’t look it.) El alcalde, pues supe después que lo era. . . (The mayor, for afterwards I learnt that he was one. . .) “¿Es una gran ciudad?” “No, no lo es.” (“Is it a big city?” “No, it’s not.”) Ello has a similar value to that of lo, although it is not used in the same way. It corresponds to it, only as representing a subject referred to, or the substance of something said, and never a visible and tangible thing. It therefore refers to statements or adjectives, but not to nouns. It is seldom expressed as subject. ¿Qué es ello? (What’s that?) No creo en ello. (I don’t believe in it.) No hemos recibido noticia de ello. (We haven’t been told about it.) An R3 literary device, very often found in the classical version of the Bible (Nácar Colunga), involves the enclitic attachment of the pronoun to the verb, and not preceding it. This is an archaism sometimes still chosen by writers for a special effect. It is most frequently found in the present, imperfect or preterit tenses. It is not used in negative sentences. It occurs usually at the beginning of a clause, or after a pause. Como si adivinara mi pensamiento, díjome al punto. . . (As if he were guessing my thought, he suddenly said to me. . .) Dígolo porque creo en la justicia. (I say so because I believe in justice.) Acompañábale una numerosa y brillante comitiva. (He was accompanied by a brilliant and numerous retinue.) Díjole: Muy bien, siervo mío. ([Christ] said to him:. . .) (Luke 19: 17) Respondiéronle los judíos:. . . (The Jews replied to him:. . .) (John 10: 33) A pronoun may be intensified by mismo (self). The subject forms of all the pronouns are intensified by the addition of the appropriate form of mismo, which varies like all adjectives with the ending -o. yo mismo/misma (I myself), tú mismo/misma (you yourself), él mismo/ella misma (he himself/she herself), Ud. mismo/misma (you yourself), nosotros mismos/nosotras mismas (we ourselves), vosotros mismos/vosotras mismas (you yourselves), ellos/ellas/Uds. mismos/mismas (they themselves/you yourselves) Mismo may also be applied to nouns. el rey mismo (the king himself) Su madre misma lo ha dicho. (Her mother herself said it.) Hay que castigar a los culpables mismos. (We must punish the culprits themselves.) A pronoun may be followed by a noun which limits or defines it. The definite article intervenes between pronoun and noun. Yo, el rey, lo mando. (I, the king, command it.) Nosotros, los argentinos, no somos arrogantes. (We, the Argentinians, are not arrogant.) Uds. los abogados cobran una fortuna. (You lawyers earn a fortune.) In Spanish there is a close correlation between the verb ser and the pronoun, whereas in English the third person singular of the verb to be is used.

Personal pronouns

56.8.12

56.8.13 56.8.14

56.8.15

313

“¿Quién llama?” “Soy yo./Somos nosotros.” (“Who’s there?” “It’s me/us.”) Eres tú el culpable. (It’s you who’s the guilty person.) Son ellos quienes pagaron la cena. (It’s they who paid for the meal./[Preferably] They paid for the meal.) The object pronouns nos/les/las/los may be qualified in the following way: A algunos/muchos/pocos/todos nos interesa el cine contemporáneo. (Some/Many/Few/All of us are interested in contemporary movies.) A algunos/pocos/muchos/todos les interesa la novela de la posguerra. (Some/Many/Few/ All of them are interested in the postwar novel.) Note the very common Mexican expression which dispenses with the pronoun lo: Ya he terminado la chamba. ¿Cómo ves? (I’ve finished the job. What do you think?) Some main pronoun differences between the “classical” (Iberian/Nácar, Colunga) version of the Bible and La Biblia Latinoamericana (by Ricciaro, Ediciones Paulinas) are explored below. 56.8.14.1 Vosotros, os and vuestros are permanent features of standard, Iberian Spanish. Uds. is not used here at all, or Ud. for that matter. Os lo dije y no lo creéis. . . pero vosotros no creéis. . . Muchas obras os he mostrado. (John 10: 25) In Latin-American versions, os is replaced by les, and vosotros by Uds. 56.8.14.2 The third person masculine direct object is normally le. The parable of the vineyard owner in Luke 20 contains the following. Pero los viñadores le (the servant) azotaron y le despidieron. . . le (second servant) azotaron. . . le despacharon. . . le echaron fuera después de haberle herido. In the Ricciaro version, one reads lo instead of le. The “classical” versions are still used in some SpanishAmerican countries, Colombia for instance. Throughout this chapter are a number of analyses of the seventeen Spanish variants corresponding to the English all-purpose you. For clarity, it is helpful to bring them together here in one category. 56.8.15.1 Subject pronouns Tú (second person singular) Used in informal situations. Vos (second person singular) Used in parts of Central America, Colombia and Argentina; occurs alongside tú; has its own peculiar verb forms Ud. (verb in third person singular) Used in a formal situation Vosotros/as (second person plural) Used in informal situations in Spain; less in Canary Islands and not in Spanish America Uds. (verb in third person plural) Used in Spain in formal situations, but in Canary Islands and all Spanish America replaces vosotros/as 56.8.15.2 Object pronouns Te (second person singular) Used in informal situations Le (third person singular, m) Corresponds to Ud.; used in formal situations; used in Spain; replaced by lo in parts of Andalucía, Canary Islands and all Spanish America, (however, le cannot be excluded in Spanish America – parts of Mexico, for instance) La (third person singular, f) Corresponds to Ud. Lo (third person singular, m) Corresponds to Ud.; used particularly in parts of Andalusia, Canary Islands and all Spanish America (but this does not entirely exclude the

314

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Os (second person plural) Les (third person plural)

Las (third person plural, f) Los (third person plural)

use of le in parts of Spanish America – regions of Mexico, for instance) Only in Spain Corresponds to Uds.; used more than los in Spain, and not used so much in Canary Islands and Spanish America; certainly used in Mexico Corresponds to Uds.; used in Spain, Canary Islands and all Spanish America Corresponds to Uds.; used in Spain, Canary Islands and all Spanish America; used much more than les in Canary Islands and Spanish America

56.8.15.3 Indirect pronouns (to/for) Te Le Os Les

Te doy el libro (corresponds to tú) Le doy el libro (corresponds to Ud. and covers males and females) Os doy el libro (corresponds to vosotros/as) Les doy el libro (corresponds to Uds. and covers males and females)

56.8.15.4 Indirect pronoun with a direct pronoun Se

Se lo doy (corresponds to a Ud. and a Uds.)

56.8.15.5 You as disjunctive pronoun Contigo Consigo

With you (corresponds to tú): Llevabas la maleta contigo With you (corresponds to Ud. and Uds.): Llevaba(n) las maletas consigo

56.8.15.6 With other prepositions Para/por/a, etc. ti/Ud./ Para vosotros/as/Uds.

56.9 Differences in usage in Spain and Spanish America The following humorous passage illustrates the use of Ud. and tú, and also the ambiguity that may arise over the differing use of Uds. in Spanish America and vosotros in Spain. (Yo) paseaba por la calle cuando, de repente, una señora me preguntó de sopetón: —Disculpe, ¿es usted el señor Pérez? Anonadado (stunned), contesté afirmativamente, y algo repuesto, logré decir: —¿Cómo sabe usted quién soy? —pensé que deseaba fregarme (mock me). —Se parece (usted) mucho, no. . . es usted igualito a alguien muy querido, con quien platico siempre de su cuate (twin), desaparecido en España hace muchos años. —¡Es Ud. mi tabla de salvación (last resort)! —contesté—. ¿Podría llevarme (Ud.) ante él? —Oye, Juan, ¿conoces (tú) al señor? —preguntó la señora al llegar junto a un hombre. —A usted, así, de repente. . . no lo conozco —dijo, mirándome incrédulo. —Pues, según la señora, usted y yo somos gemelos. —Ciertamente, era igualito que yo. —¡Híjole! Pues aunque algo fodongo (ragged) y güilo (skinny), pues sí, tú eres mero yo. —Pues entonces ¿me permite Ud. tutearte? —terció conmovida la señora.

Personal pronouns

315

—¡Claro que sí! Pero, ¿quién es usted? —contesté con cierto malestar al usar la señora Ud. y te en la misma frase. —¿No me reconoces? ¡Soy tu madre! Y ustedes dos son mis hijos. Ahora, yo, más que anonadado, estaba impactado. ¡Una mamá que nos habla de ustedes a sus propios hijos! Me parecía estar soñando. —Es imposible que usted sea mi mamá, y tú mi hermano, si ella nos sigue hablando de ustedes a ti y a mí, —aseguré. —¿Ignoras que ahora estás en México y no en España? —dijo él. No, no me preocupaba donde estábamos, sino la pregunta: “¿Me permite Ud. tutearte?” Aquello me desubicaba. ¡No sólo decirnos a los dos Uds., en lugar de vosotros, sino también decirme Ud. y tú dentro de la misma frase! No acabo de entenderlo.

57 Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns, and usage with parts of the body and clothes / Adjetivos y pronombres posesivos, y uso con partes del cuerpo y ropa Below is a passage telling of the first encounter in a restaurant between a young man and a waitress. She stains his jacket, and this marks the beginning of a marriage. The passage shows the use of possessive adjectives and pronouns, and the combination of indirect objects and definite articles, as in the first sentence. La camarera me había manchado la chaqueta (had stained my jacket). ¡Mi magnífica americana, recién estrenada! Imagínate que te manchan la tuya nada más llegar al restaurante; supongo que no podrías contener tu mal genio, y gritarías a la empleada tal como pensé hacer yo, pero ella, con su carita encantadora, me dijo apesadumbrada (with a heavy heart): —Mil perdones. ¿Me permite su americana para limpiarla? —Estaba ruborizada y le temblaba levemente la voz. Sus ojos de color melado (honey-colored), grandes y profundos, suplicaban mi perdón, más allá de sus primeras disculpas—. Es responsabilidad nuestra —siguió diciendo—, y especialmente mía, así que procuraré dejar su americana como nueva. Allí empezó todo. A veces creo que aquella joven pagó muy cara su inexperiencia como camarera. Veinte años más tarde sigue limpiando desde mi americana hasta mis bolsillos; aunque ahora todo lo mío es suyo y todo lo suyo es mío. ¿Verdad, amor mío? Nuestro matrimonio ha sido muy feliz, como espero que sea el tuyo, amigo mío. To express possession, Spanish has two categories of adjectives, and one category of pronouns. Possessive adjectives precede the noun to determine who or what possesses a person or an object; and possessive pronouns replace nouns. There are two forms of possessive adjectives. One is unaccentuated (átono in Spanish), and the other accented or tonic (tónico).

57.1 Unaccentuated possessive adjectives 57.1.1 Below are the unaccentuated forms which are apocopated (apocopadas). s: mi (my), tu (your), su (her/his/its/your), nuestro/a (our), vuestro/a (your) p: mis, tus, sus (your/their/its), nuestros/as (our), vuestros/as (your) Vuestro/vuestra etc. are rarely heard in parts of Southern Spain, Canary Islands, and Spanish America, corresponding as they do to vosotros/as. This feature is to be borne in mind for the rest of this chapter. 57.1.2 Mi, tu and su distinguish number only, but nuestro and vuestro distinguish both number and gender. Since vuestro and its variants are not used in Spanish America, su and sus replace them. These possessive adjectives agree with the thing possessed, not the possessor. This can be confusing at the beginning. mi libro (my book), mis libros (my books), mi casa (my house), mis casas (my houses) tu cuaderno (your exercise book), tus cuadernos, tu silla (your chair), tus sillas 316

Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns

317

su peso (your/his/her/its/their weight), sus pesos nuestro hijo (our son), nuestros hijos (our sons/children), nuestra hija (our daughter) nuestras hijas vuestro hijo (your son), vuestros hijos (your sons. . ./children), vuestra hija (your daughter), vuestras hijas Emphatic moments can give tonic forms: Ésta es mi casa, but: ¡Mi (tonic) madre! has no special tonic form. It is the same as the unstressed (átono) form, but it can be stressed in speech, like any other speech form. Possessive forms allow for insertion of adjectives or adverbs between them and the noun: mi pequeña hija/mi entonces marido (my small daughter/my then husband). 57.1.3 One has to distinguish between these possessive forms and the forms of the first and second person personal pronouns. The latter are always tonic and bear an accent. Siempre hablan bien de mi madre. (They always speak well of my mother.) Siempre hablan bien de mí, madre. (They always speak well of me, mother.) ¿Dónde está tu radio? (Where’s your radio?) ¿Dónde estás tú? (Where are you?) 57.1.4 The possessive adjective is not recommended when a reflexive idea is suggested. The formula is: reflexive pronoun + verb + (in)definite article + noun. Se puso las medias/los calcetines. (She put on her stockings/socks.) Me puse la camisa/el pantalón/la falda. (I put my shirt/pants[trousers]/skirt on.) Ponte una chaqueta, que hace frío. (Put a jacket on, it’s cold.) However, it is perfectly possible to say, for emphasis: Ponte tu chaqueta./Me puse mi camisa. It should be added here that the possessive adjective with parts of the body is not common. 57.1.5 The apocopated, unaccentuated forms are only compatible with demonstrative adjectives, the adjective/indefinite pronoun otro, mucho and its variants, and numbers. Estos tus ojos me fascinan. (Your eyes fascinate me.) Mis otros dos hijos están fuera. (My other two sons are away.) Sus muchas cualidades incluyen la modestia y la prudencia. (Her many qualities include modesty and carefulness.) Cuenta entre sus otros talentos la música y el chino. (He counts among his other talents music and Chinese.) Mis cinco mejores compositores son Puccini, Chaikovski. . . (My five best composers are. . .)

57.2 Accentuated possessive adjectives 57.2.1 Here are the accentuated forms. mío/míos/mía/mías (my/mine), tuyo/tuyos/tuya/tuyas (your/yours), suyo/suyos/suya/suyas (her/his/its/yours/theirs), nuestro/nuestros/nuestra/nuestras (our/ours), vuestro/vuestros/ vuestra/vuestras (your/yours) La policía me preguntó si el auto era mío. (The police asked me if the car was mine.) Y lo único que quiero es una casa que sea mía. (The only thing I want is a house I can call mine.) Esa televisión es nuestra. (That television set is ours.) La chamarra (M)/ campera (A) esa es suya. (That jacket is his/hers/yours.) Los libros son suyos. (The books are his/hers/yours/theirs.) 57.2.2 To avoid ambiguity with suyos, the preposition de + disjunctive pronoun is used, although frequently (but not always) the context makes this unnecessary.

318

57.2.3

57.2.4

57.2.5 57.2.6

57.2.7

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Estos libros son de ellos. (These books are theirs.) Estos boletos son tuyos, no de ellas. (These tickets are yours, not theirs [f].) Señor(a) ¿este anillo es de Ud.? (Excuse me, is this ring yours?) Oigan, chicas, ¿estos trajes de baño son de Uds.? (Excuse me, are these swimming costumes yours?) The tonic forms may receive emphasis in the following manner: (in)definite article + noun + mío/mía, etc. (i.e. following the noun), and are used similarly to the demonstrative adjectives este, estos, and so on ¡Fíjate! En la cabeza del desfile iba un primo mío. (Just imagine! At the head of the procession there was my cousin.) Un calcetín mío se perdió. (One of my socks got lost.) La casa mía me costó una fortuna. (My house cost me a fortune.) Dos camisas nuestras se perdieron. (Two of our shirts were lost.) La computadora tuya funciona muy bien. (Your computer works very well.) Hay que respetar el derecho mío. (My right is to be respected.) según el parecer nuestro (according to our opinion) This use is most notable when it has a strong emotional flavor, and in direct address. Hija de mi corazón. . . Hija mía. . . (My dear daughter. . . Daughter of mine. . .) Hijita mía (My little daughter) Hijo mío, ¿qué hago sin tí? (Oh, my son, what am I to do without you?) ¡Madre mía!/¡Dios mío! (Geez!/Heavens above!) It is also used in the epistolary formal address: Muy señora mía (Dear Madam). Possessive adjectives in their tonic form may be accompanied by a quantifying adverb. Esta casa es más mía que tuya. (This house is more mine than yours.) Ese gesto es muy mío. (That gesture is very much mine.) Possessive adjectives accompany nouns in R2 discourse, but it is quite possible in R1 language to hear adverbs combined with them. Such a practice is not to be recommended, but it is a feature of the Spanish language in lax, colloquial style, and must be recognized as such. The following expressions are frequent in Southern Spain, Canary Islands, and much of Spanish America: delante mío/mía, cerca nuestro/nuestra, cerca vuestro/vuestra, detrás tuyo/tuya, encima suyo/suya instead of: delante de mí, cerca de nosotros, cerca de vosotros, detrás de tí, encima de él/ella/ellos/ellas/Ud./Uds. In Argentina, an acceptable part of the language at all levels that is entirely shunned elsewhere is the use of adelante with the full form of the possessive adjective: adelante mío/ tuyo/suyo.

57.3 Possessive pronouns 57.3.1 Possessive pronouns are the tonic forms indicating possession preceded by definite articles. They also have a neuter form with lo. el mío, los míos, la mía, las mías (mine) el tuyo, los tuyos, la tuya, las tuyas (yours) el suyo, los suyos, la suya, las suyas1 (his/hers/its/yours/theirs) el nuestro, los nuestros, la nuestra, las nuestras (ours) el vuestro/los vuestros/la vuestra, las vuestras (yours) 1

El suyo, etc. corresponds to both singular and plural yours = de Ud. and de Uds.

Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns

319

The neuter form is: lo mío, lo tuyo, lo suyo, lo nuestro, lo vuestro, lo suyo 57.3.2 As with vosotros/as and all its variants, vuestro, etc. is not used in parts of Southern Spain, Canary Islands and Spanish America. Nuestro carro está aquí. ¿Dónde está el suyo? (i.e. de Uds. in A, C, M) (Our car’s here. Where’s yours/his/ hers/theirs?) Nuestras servilletas están en el cajón. ¿Dónde están las vuestras (Spain)/las suyas (A, C, M)? (Our napkins are in the drawer. Where are yours?) 57.3.3 The tonic forms, when used with ser, are not used with the definite article. El tenedor es mío. (The fork is mine.) La corbata es tuya. (The tie is yours.) La casa es nuestra. (The house is ours.) Los documentos son suyos. (The documents are yours/ hers/ his/theirs.) 57.3.4 With other verbs, however, the definite article is included. Aquí está todo el equipaje. Te doy el tuyo. Me das el mío. (Here’s all the baggage. Here is yours. Please give me mine.) Saca los libros de la cartera. ¿Puedo leer el tuyo? (Take the books out of the briefcase. May I read yours?) Los dos autos están en el garage (M). Puedes usar el nuestro, si quieres. (The two cars are in the garage. You can use ours if you wish.) 57.3.5 This is also true when the possessive pronoun is used with a preposition. ¿No puedes abrir la puerta con tu llave? Intenta con la mía. (You can’t open the door with your key? Try with mine.) Su casa está lejos. Está a diez kilómetros de la nuestra. (Her house is a long way away. It’s ten kilometers from ours.) A common R1 expression salirse con la suya (to get your own way) fits into this category. Manolo se salió con la suya sin reparar en el daño que hacía. (Manolo got away with it/ got his own way, unaware of the trouble he was causing.) Here are some more examples of lo mío, etc. No te preocupes de lo mío. (Don’t worry about my affairs [i.e. what concerns me].) Lo mío para mí solo, y lo de los demás, para repartir. (What’s mine is mine, and the rest can be shared among us all.) Siempre se interesa por lo suyo. ([S]he’s only ever interested in her/his own affairs.) 57.3.6 The absolute forms of possessive pronouns are used where, in English, of or from, for example, would be used. This construction involves a noun. a pesar mío (in spite of me) Salieron en busca suya. (They went in search of you/him/her/them.) No recibí carta suya. (I didn’t receive a letter from you/him/her/them.) Fui al encuentro suyo. (I went to meet you/her/him/them.) en mi alrededor (around me) The expressions en contra mía/suya/vuestra, and so on, are quite frequently used, and are, for some, not grammatically sound. However, contra here is precisely a feminine noun (counter), as in blow or argument. It is not considered here as a preposition. The expressions en contra mío/tuyo/suyo and so on, are therefore not correct, although not uncommon. The expressions en mi/tu/su contra, and so on, would remove any doubt. 57.3.7 The masculine plural possessive pronouns, los míos/tuyos/suyos/nuestros/vuestros, are used independently to signify a group of people, a party or a family who are being referred to. Al senador le aconsejaron los suyos que dejara la política. (The senator’s friends/ colleagues/family advised him to leave politics.)

320

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Si los vuestros no os votan, ¿quién os va a votar? (If your party/colleagues don’t vote for you, who will?)

57.4 Usage with parts of the body and the possessive adjective

57.4.1

57.4.2

57.4.3

57.4.4

57.4.5

57.4.6

57.4.7 57.4.8

(See also Section 7.1.27 for more treatment of this topic, notably in the context of the definite article.) In speaking of the parts of the body, for both humans and animals, Spanish usage differs considerably from English. Spanish uses the possessive adjective much less than English does, and prefers the definite and indefinite articles. This comment also applies to clothes on the person. When you do something to any part of your body (hand, foot, head, etc.), the appropriate definite or indefinite article is used. Abrió los ojos. (She opened her eyes.) Alzó la cabeza. (She raised her head.) Metí la mano en el bolsillo. (I put my hand in my pocket.) Recibió un golpe en el pecho. (He received a blow in the chest.) When a part of another person’s body is acted upon, the verb takes that person as an indirect object, and the parts of her/his body or clothing as the direct object. Me manchó la falda. (He stained my skirt.) El doctor le limpió la herida. (The doctor cleaned her wound.) Su madre le quitó la chaqueta. (His mother took his jacket off.) Mi padre me puso el cinturón. (My father put the belt on me.) Salvaron la vida a cuatro personas. (They saved the lives of four people.) Mamá, ¿me puedes limpiar la cara? (Mom, can you clean my face?) Me robaron la cartera. (They stole my billfold/wallet.) When a part of the body is qualified by an adjective, the possessive adjective is used. Se ha cortado su pelo largo. (He has cut his long hair/had his long hair cut.) Le han cortado su pelo largo. (He had his long hair cut.) El perro lamió su pata sangrienta. (The dog licked his bloody paw.) Alargué mis manos sucias. (I stretched out my dirty hands.) When the part of the body in question is the subject of the sentence or clause, possession is expressed, as in English, with a possessive adjective. Sus ojos brillaban como chispas. (Her eyes shone like sparks.) Sus pestañas eran larguísimas. (Her eyelashes were very long.) Sus piernas eran muy cortas. (His legs were very short.) Me gusta su cara porque es tan expresiva. (I like her face because it is so expressive.) Frequently, in these constructions, tener or another verb is used instead, and we revert to the definite article. Tenía el pelo castaño/rubio. (His hair was chestnut-colored/fair.) Este animal tiene el cuerpo cubierto de pelo. (This animal’s body is covered in hair.) Se le posó una avispa en las narices. (A wasp settled on his nose.) El niño tiene las orejas de soplillo. (The boy’s ears stand out from his head.) When a reflexive verb is used, the definite article occurs. Se lavó la cara/las manos. (She washed her face/hands.) Me quité los lentes (M)/anteojos (A). (I took my glasses off.) Se hizo daño en el brazo. (He hurt his arm.) When the part in question is modified by a relative clause, an indefinite article is used. Tiene una nariz que parece una remolacha. (His nose looks like a beet[root].) When the part referred to is expressed by the plural, or a general term, the definite article

Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns

321

may be omitted. Tiene ojos azules, facciones delgadas y pelo moreno. (She has blue eyes, fine features and dark hair.) 57.4.9 When the subject is plural, and the parts of the body suggest a plural idea (i.e. each person has one head, but collectively there are several), the part of the body is in the singular, since it could otherwise suggest, as the two cases below demonstrate, that a person has several faces. Se lavaron la cara. (They washed their faces.) Todos los niños salieron con la cabeza cubierta. (All the children went out with their heads covered up.) 57.4.10 A person is sometimes singled out by naming some marked bodily or other characteristic, preceded by de, where in English with is used. el soldado de la barba (the soldier with the beard) el escritor del estilo difícil (the writer with the difficult style) ¡Hola! amigo, el de la chaqueta roja. (Hi, my friend, you with the red jacket!) 57.4.11 Special attention needs to be given to the use of the definite and indefinite articles with verbs like romper(se) used in conjunction with parts of the body. For example, one may say: Se rompió el brazo/la pierna or Se rompió un brazo/una pierna. In other words, the definite article or indefinite article may be used here since we are referring to one, or one of two. If the reference to a part of the body is very specific and even unique, only the definite article is used. Se rompió el anular (ring finger)/el índice (index finger)/el meñique (little finger)/el dedo gordo del pie (big toe)/el radio (radius)/el femur. But if the reference is not specific or unique, the indefinite article is used: Se rompió un dedo/un dedo del pie/un hueso. Other verbs, or verbal expressions, that function in a similar way are: cascar(se) (to crack [used of a bone]), hacer(se) añicos (to smash, to shatter), hacer(se) daño (to hurt), joder(se) (R1, to fuck up [to be used with care]), lastimar(se) (to hurt [more common in M]), lesionar(se) (to hurt [often used of sportspersons]), quebrar (R3, but R2 in M; to break) Verbs of the following type, all meaning to crush, to smash, also function similarly: apachurrar (M), aplastar, despachurrar, espachurrar, machacar, machucar (M), partir Me hice añicos el pie/el brazo/la cabeza/un dedo. Me hice daño en el tobillo (ankle)/la espalda (back). Se lastimó la pierna/un dedo. Me casqué un hueso/la tibia (tibia/shinbone). El portero (goalkeeper) se jodió un dedo/la rodilla. El delantero (attacker [in soccer]) se lesionó la rodilla en una caída. Paquito se quebró el brazo al saltar la tapia (garden wall). El martillazo me lastimó/despachurró/apachurró un dedo/la mano. Me partí la pierna/una pierna esquiando. Of course, other verbs that do not in any way suggest damage to the body may be used similarly. acariciar (to caress), apapachar (M) (to caress), palpar (to feel, to touch), pulsar (to touch, to press), rozar (to touch lightly, to graze), tocar (to touch) Su madre le acarició/apapachó la cara/el pelo. El niño me rozó en la herida y me hizo mucho daño. Me tocó un dedo/la mano con el bastón.

58 Relative pronouns / Pronombres relativos Below is a passage showing some of the basic uses of relative pronouns in Spanish. It is a humorous piece on the theft of a ham sandwich from a police chief, involving the entire police force and, apart from dismissal, leading to the loss of all pension rights. El que sepa algo debe confesar, debe decir lo que sepa y quienes han participado en el hecho. El inspector, cuyo mal talante (bad disposition) todos conocen, está decidido a encontrar la verdad. Ya ha interrogado a los compañeros, quienes no tenían coartada (alibi), y están bajo sospecha. Yo ayudaré a los de mi despacho todo cuanto pueda, pero no puedo comprometerme más de lo que sea prudente. No vaya a figurar también yo como otro sospechoso, cuya pensión pueda peligrar, teniendo en cuenta que esa pensión es todo cuanto tengo para mi pervivencia en el futuro. El inspector jefe ya ha interrogado a casi todos los que estaban a esa hora en la oficina. He visto, a través de la ventana con visión unidireccional cómo sudaban cuantos han pasado por el interrogatorio. Sólo faltamos tú y yo. Y aún no ha aparecido quien le ha robado el bocadillo de jamón al inspector jefe.

58.1 Use of relative pronouns 58.1.1 A relative pronoun connects two parts of a sentence which have something in common. It belongs logically to the second of the two and relates back to a person or thing mentioned in the first, which is called the antecedent – that is, the thing that comes before. 58.1.2 The most commonly used relative pronoun in Spanish is que, which is a splendidly all-purpose pronoun, applicable alike as subject or object to persons or things of either gender or number. Que follows close after its antecedent, so that, although it is invariable in form, we are never at a loss to see what it refers to. Here is the complete list of relative pronouns. que (refers to persons and things; used with a preposition) (who, whom, which, that) quien/quienes (refers to persons as subject or with a preposition) (who, whom) lo que (refers to a proposition or an idea previously referred to) (that which, which) el/la cual, los/las cuales (for persons and things, little used now) (which, who[m]) lo cual (refers to a proposition or an idea previously referred to, always used with a preposition, always preceded by the definite article, (little used now) (which) cuyo/a/os/as (indicates possession) (whose, of which/whom) del/de la/de los/de las que (indicates possession) (whose, of which/whom) donde (refers to place [without movement]) (where) a donde/adonde (refers to place [with movement]) (where, to where) Note that when quien, que, donde and adonde form a question or imply a question, they bear an accent. (Examples follow below at the appropriate points.) 58.1.3 Uses of que Que is used as subject and object. La mujer que plantó aquel árbol es. . . (The woman who planted that tree is. . .) La hierba que crece en el jardín. . . (The grass that is growing in the yard/garden. . .) 322

Relative pronouns

323

El árbol que plantaron los hombres es. . . (The tree that the men planted is. . .) Los trabajadores que hemos contratado son. . . (The workers whom we have taken on are. . .) El pasto (A, C, M) que corta el hombre es largo. (The grass that the man cuts is long.) In the first two cases, que relates to the subject of the clause, while in the last three, it relates to the object. The position of los hombres in the third sentence is deceptive, for it is still the subject of the clause. This inversion of subject and object is very commonly associated with the use of que and is a characteristic of Spanish – and French and Italian for that matter. Whereas in English, the relative pronouns that, which, who and whom are frequently omitted (The man I saw), this is not the case in Spanish. 58.1.4 Que used with prepositions When que is used with a preposition alone, it is considered of a lower register (R1) than when it is preceded by the definite article. Pintó un retrato en el que (R2) la figura principal. . ./en que. . . (R1) (She painted a portrait in which the main figure. . .) Leyó una novela en la que (R2) se ve una dama. . ./en que. . . (R1) (She read a novel in which a lady could be seen. . .) Tenían lugar reuniones populares en las que (R2) se debatía la cuestión. . ./ en que. . . (R1) (Meetings would take place in which the question. . . was debated.) La mesa en la que (R2) puse la charola (M)/la bandeja/en que. . . (R1) (The table on which I put the tray. . .) When time (día, noche, mañana, tarde, vez, hora, momento) is referred to with a preposition, there are three possibilities, which are to some extent governed by register. The most normal and usual in all the cases below is en que. el día en el que (R2) llegaron/el día en que (R2) llegaron/el día que (R1) llegaron (the day they arrived) la tarde en la que (R2) fuimos a la piscina/alberca (M)/pileta (A)/la tarde en que (R2) fuimos. . ./la tarde que (R1) fuimos. . . (the afternoon we went to the swimming pool) el momento en el que (R2) salió/el momento en que (R2) salió/el momento que (R1) salió (the moment he went out) la hora en la que (R2) oímos la explosión/la hora en que. . . (R2)/la hora que (R1) (the time we heard the explosion) la primera vez en la que (R2) encontró una culebra/la primera vez en que. . . (R2)/la primera vez que. . . (R1) (the first time that she found a snake) Note the idiomatic expression: Yo que tú/Juan. . . (If I were you/Juan. . .) Also the Spanish for the reason why: la razón por la que/por la cual lo hizo (the reason why he did it) 58.1.5 Uses of quien 58.1.5.1 Quien refers to persons, and is the equivalent, according to the case, of que, el que, la que, los que, las que or el cual, la cual, los cuales, las cuales (these last four are much less used) or la persona que. Quien can only be used in these linguistic contexts. This is why the alternatives are added, where possible, to the examples of quien. Entró Juana quien/que acaba de regresar de Italia y de quien/de la que se decía que no pararía mucho en casa. (Juana, who had just returned from Italy, came in. It was said of her that she wouldn’t stay long at home.) La señora de quien/de la que te hablé. . . (The lady of whom I spoke to you. . .) El ingeniero con quien/el que trabajaba. . . (The engineer with whom I worked. . .) Las personas a quienes/a las que visité. . . (The people I visited. . .) Vi a su padre, quien/el cual estaba sentado en un sillón. (I saw her father, who was sitting in an armchair.)

324

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Vi a su madre quien/la cual cosía. (I saw her mother, who was sewing.) ¿Quién ha hecho los pasteles? (Who made the cakes?) 58.1.5.2 Quien may be used without an antecedent, and corresponds to el/la que, and so on. Quien/El que no paga no entra. (He who doesn’t pay doesn’t come in.) Quienes/Los que lo conocen lo aprecian. (Those who know him appreciate him.) 58.1.5.3 Likewise, quien often introduces a saying or proverb (refrán). Quien no aventura no gana. (Nothing ventured nothing gained.) Quien paga manda. (He who pays the piper calls the tune.) These two last examples illustrate how widespread this construction is. There are innumerable sayings that start with Quien. . . 58.1.5.4 When involving an antecedent with haber, quien cannot easily be replaced. Hay quien cree que esto es fácil. (There are people who think this is easy.) No hay quien pueda con ella. (No one can deal with her.) Todavía habrá quien diga que no lo intentamos. (There’ll still be people who say we don’t try.) 58.1.5.5 Quien may also entail the use of the double subjunctive, and here again there would be no replacement. Venga quien venga, lo investigaremos. (Whoever comes, we’ll check it out.) No me interesa, lo diga quien lo diga. (It doesn’t interest me, whoever says it.) But in such expressions as the following, quien may not be replaced. A quien pueda interesar . . . (To whom it may concern [letter of recommendation]) 58.1.5.6 A variant of the previous point above involves the necessary repetition of a pronoun with a preposition. Es a Pedro a quien/al que veo. (It’s Pedro [whom] I see.) No es a tí a quien me refiero. (It’s not you to whom I refer.) A quien le gusta es a ella. (The one he likes is her/she.) De ella es de quien me quejo. (The one I’m complaining about is her.) Es con Antonio con quien estoy hablando, no contigo. (It’s Antonio I’m talking to, not you.) 58.1.5.7 Quien does admit of qualification – todo, for example. Contrast the above with the following. Todo el que invierta dinero cobrará un cinco por ciento de interés. (Anyone who invests money will receive 5 percent interest.) 58.1.5.8 Quien may be replaced by que/el que or el cual/la cual, and so on, in the following sentence. Vi a su madre que cosía (la cual is just possible here). (I saw his mother who was sewing.) However, it is very important to note that quien may not be replaced in the following formula by que: ser + noun/pronoun + relative pronoun (i.e. quien/el que). Yo soy quien/el que pedí el dinero (pidió is acceptable here). (I’m the one who asked for the money.) Eres tú quien lo hiciste (hizo is acceptable here). (It’s you who did it.) Es Pedro quien/el que salió el primero. (It’s Pedro who went out first.) Fue ella quien lavó la ropa. (It was she who washed the clothes.) 58.1.5.9 Quien may be followed by an infinitive. No sé a quién dirigirme. (I don’t know who to talk to.) Buscaba con quién hablar. (I looked for someone to talk to.) In a general way, quien has the connotation of a higher register than the other relative pronouns it corresponds to. 58.1.6 Uses of lo que Lo que is used as a relative pronoun when it refers to an idea or a statement that is expressed by the previous clause. Its closest equivalent in English is that which, although this does not always fit the Spanish. It has the same value as lo cual.

Relative pronouns

325

Dijo que no iría, lo que me enojó (M)/enfadó. (He said he wouldn’t come, which angered me.) Pasó todo su tiempo estudiando, lo que la ayudó a aprobar sus exámenes. (She spent all her time studying, which helped her to get through her examinations.) Lo que no acabo de entender es su negativa a mandar la tarjeta. (What I fail to understand is her refusal to send the card.) Lo que is also used when it follows a neuter pronoun, or a noun used without article (or even with), or with the indefinite article. The meaning falls halfway between reference to a group of words or an idea and specific nouns. Es esto lo que lo/le preocupa. (It is this that concerns him.) Eran los gritos que daban los niños lo que le impedía trabajar. (It was the shouts made by the children that prevented him from working.) Son la lluvia y el trueno lo que me quita el sueño. (It’s the rain and thunder that keeps me awake.) In all these cases, que alone would not suffice. 58.1.7 Uses of el/la cual, los/las cuales (quien/quienes/que preferred these days) Vi a su hijo, el cual jugaba en el patio.) (I saw her son who was playing in the yard.) Llamé a todas las mujeres, las cuales veían la televisión. (I called all the women, who were watching television.) dos chicos con los cuales pasé charlando un par de horas (que is not possible here) (two boys with whom I spent a couple of hours chatting) el motivo por el cual lo hizo (the reason why he did it) These forms are also used in “absolute expressions,” and here they cannot be easily replaced. Tendrá que superar una última prueba, superada la cual, el premio estará asegurado. (She must overcome one more test, and, once overcome, the prize will be assured.) Cuál may be used by itself when followed by a preposition, and then corresponds to which. ¿Cuál de los dos libros prefieres? (Which of the two books do you prefer?) Dime cuál te gusta más. (Tell me which one you like most.) Cual may also be used in conjunction with tal. Me lo dijo así, tal cual. (He said it to me just like that.) Tal cual te sientes tú, así me siento yo. (I’ll sit just like you.) 58.1.8 Uses of lo cual Very similar, in usage and register, to lo que, lo cual refers to a preceding idea or group of words. No me dijo nada, lo cual equivalía a una aceptación. (She said nothing to me, which amounted to an acceptance.) Se retrasa el examen, lo cual a mí me beneficia. (The examination is delayed, which benefits me.) Although lo que may replace lo cual in the two cases above, it cannot replace it in the two following examples. en vista de lo cual, decidimos. . . (in view of which, we decided. . .) por todo lo cual, considero. . . (for all of which, I consider. . .) después de lo cual, calló (after which, she kept quiet) Lo cual is used in “absolute expressions,” and here it cannot easily be replaced. Dicho lo cual, el orador se levantó y se fue. (Having said that, the speaker got up and left.) Hecho lo cual, salió por la puerta trasera. (Having done which, he went out by the back door.) 58.1.9 Cuyo and its variants agree in number and gender with the person or thing possessed. It is the equivalent of del/de la/de los/de las que + definite article. La chica aquella cuyo padre nos invitó a cenar. (That girl whose father invited us to have an evening meal.)

326

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

El libro cuyas páginas están rotas. (The book the pages of which are torn.) Cuyo may also be preceded by a preposition, an R3 literary construction. El autor de cuya obra os voy a hablar es Pablo Neruda. (The author about whose work I’m going to speak to you is Pablo Neruda.) Ardían muchos leños, con cuyo calor pude secar mi ropa. (Many logs were burning, the warmth of which enabled me to dry my clothes.) Con las rentas que le producía el edificio, en cuya primera planta vivía. . . (With the income generated by the building, on the first floor of which he lived. . .) Cuyo may be replaced by the following R3 construction, which is common enough in the written mode. El presidente, al que le cambiaron la imagen, dijo. . . (i.e. cuya imagen) (The president, whose image they had changed, said. . .) When cuyo is followed by two nouns or a noun in the plural, the singular form is used. Dos de los muertos, cuya identidad y fotos fueron publicadas. . . (Two of the dead, whose identity and photos were published. . .) In R1 speech, and even in writing, particularly in newspapers, cuyo can remain cuyo when it immediately precedes a feminine noun beginning with a stressed a. This construction is clearly on analogy with el área. en cuyo área se consumió el secuestro (in the area in which the kidnapping took place) 58.1.10 Uses of del/de la/de los/de las que If the antecedent represents a thing and is preceded by the definite article, one uses de que. However, if the indefinite article is used, del que, etc. or even del cual, etc. are preferred. Es Ud. testigo del insulto de que soy objeto. (You are a witness to the insult of which I am the object.) Guardó un traje del que se había ataviado para la ocasión. (She kept a dress in which she had arrayed herself for the occasion.) De repente, sufrió un desmayo, del que tardó en reponerse. (Suddenly, she had a fainting fit, from which she took time to recover.) Lo encerraron en una cárcel de la que difícilmente se podía huir. (They locked him up in a prison from which he could not easily escape.) Te olvidas de unos detalles de los que nunca se habló en esta casa. (You forget some details of which we never speak in this house.) 58.1.11 Uses of donde (without movement) Allí es donde vivo. (That’s where I live.) Encontró un café donde podría sentarse de cara al mar. (He found a café where he could sit facing the sea.) Llegaron a la plaza donde se erguía un alto rascacielos. (They arrived in a square where a tall skyscraper rose up.) In the second example, donde may be replaced by en (el) que/en el cual; and in the third example, donde may be replaced by en (la) que and en la cual. 58.1.12 Uses of donde (with movement: adonde/por donde) Volveremos al balneario adonde fuimos el año pasado (al que could be used here). (We’ll go back to the spa where we went last year.) Nos llevó por una callejuela por donde nunca había pasado (por la que could be used here). (She took us through an alleyway where I had never been before.) No sé de donde salió. (I don’t know where he came out from.) Le pregunté por dónde se había escapado el ladrón. (I asked her where the thief had escaped from.) De donde may be used with an abstract concept. De donde concluyo que estás enojado (A, C, M)/enfadado. (Whence I conclude that you are angry.) (De lo cual may be used here.)

59 Interrogative pronouns and adverbs / Pronombres y adverbios interrogativos Here is a passage about the uncertainties of married life. The husband is criticized for his paunch and his bald head. The use of interrogative pronouns and adverbs is illustrated. ¿Qué es la vida, sino un cúmulo de sorpresas? ¿Quién se lo podía imaginar aquel día? Yo, inocente de mí, pregunté anhelante (anxious): “¿Me quieres?” Ella me contestó: “¿Y tú a mí?” ¿Cómo no quedar sorprendido? ¿Cuál sería la razón para que me contestara con otra pregunta? ¿Quién sabe lo que pasa por sus cabezas? ¡Ah. . . mujeres. . .! Ya casado, me fui acostumbrando. Yo decía: “¿Qué deseas, amor mío?” o “¿Dónde vamos a cenar hoy?” Las respuestas podían ser de este tenor (type): “¿Dónde has estado?” “¿Con quién has vuelto del trabajo?” “¿Por qué no me has llamado en toda la mañana?” Poco a poco, fue cediendo el interrogatorio. Yo estaba convencido de que había ganado su confianza, hasta que ayer capté su mirada evaluadora, como diciendo: “¿Dónde, o con quién va a ir éste, con ese enorme estómago y su hermosa calva (bald head)?” ¿Verdad que es decepcionante (disappointing)?

59.1 Forming the interrogative 59.1.1 A question is regularly formed in Spanish by placing the verb before its subject: ¿Hablo yo? (Do I speak?) ¿Hablas tú?/¿Hablás (A) tú? (Do you speak?) ¿Habla él/ella/ Ud.? (Does [s]he/do you speak?) ¿Hablamos nosotros/as? (Do we speak?) ¿Habláis vosotros/as? (Do you speak?) ¿Hablan ellos/ellas/Uds.? (Do they/you speak?) ¿Habla Ud. español? (Do you speak Spanish?) ¿Vas al cine? (Do you go to the movies?) ¿Hablás quechua? (Do you speak Quechua?) If the subject is a pronoun, it is frequently omitted. ¿Hablaron chino? (Did they speak Chinese?) ¿Hablarán en japonés? (Will they speak in Japanese?) ¿Siguieron hablando en francés? (Did they go on speaking in French?) ¿Querían hablar árabe? (Did they want to speak Arabic?) 59.1.2 It is to be noticed that Spanish-speakers have the clever idea of warning you of a question in the making by requiring an upside-down question mark at the beginning of the sentence, as well as at the end. This also holds for exclamation points/marks. ¡Híjole! (M)/¡Jolín!/¡Jolines! (only in Spain) (Geez!/Heavens above!) ¡Dios mío! (Geez!/Heavens above!) My God! is stronger in English than ¡Dios mío! The same goes for the English Jesus!, which is much stronger than ¡Jesús!, commonly used when someone sneezes (Bless you!). 59.1.3 As a point of interest, this practice corresponds to the English of a few centuries ago, while the introduction of do as part of a question – a veritable headache for foreign 327

328

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

learners of English – is comparatively modern. No construction like do exists in Spanish. The same goes for the other Romance languages. When an interrogative word is used, it begins the sentence, just as in English. ¿Quién quiere cenar ahora? (Who wants to eat now?) ¿Qué dices? (What do you say?) ¿Por qué canta ahora? (Why is she singing now?) 59.1.4 In the absence of an interrogative word, the verb may come first, although in speech the subject could very easily precede the verb. When the subject comes before the verb, there is a rise in intonation at the end of the sentence. ¿Viene la chica ahora?/¿La chica viene ahora? (Is the girl coming now?) ¿El mecánico arregla el carro?/¿Arregla el carro el mecánico?/¿Arregla el mecánico el carro? (Is the mechanic repairing the car?) ¿La profesora corrige los deberes?/¿Corrige los deberes la profesora?/¿Corrige la profesora los deberes? (Does the teacher correct the homework?) Notice the flexibility of the word order in the last two sets of examples. In ¿Arregla el carro el mecánico?, for instance, subject and object can vary in position without too much change in meaning or emphasis. However, if carro or deberes are qualified in any way, and that part of the sentence lengthened, these two words would probably come after the subject (see Chapter 74 on word order). ¿Arregla el mecánico el carro descompuesto? ¿Corrige la profesora los deberes difíciles? 59.1.5 Fortunately for English-speakers, and unfortunately for Spanish-speakers learning English, the all-purpose ¿verdad? covers approximately two hundred English possibilities. Fueron (A, C, M)/Fuisteis al teatro, ¿verdad? (You went to the theater, didn’t you?) Es tarde ¿verdad? (It’s late, isn’t it?) Son colombianos, ¿verdad? (They are Colombians, aren’t they?)

59.2 Interrogative pronouns and adverbs 59.2.1 The forms of interrogative and relative pronouns are the same. The interrogative usage passes imperceptibly into one where there is no trace of a question at all, as witnessed by the following examples, where the same words occur in the same order in four sentences, shading off from a clear question to no question at all. ¿Quién ha ganado el (premio) gordo (Spain and C)/el grande (A)/el premio mayor (M)? (Who has won the jackpot?) Queremos saber quién ha ganado el gordo. (We want to know who has won the jackpot.) No sabemos quién ha ganado el gordo. (We don’t know who has won the jackpot.) El diario de hoy nos dirá quien ha ganado el gordo. (Today’s newspaper will tell us who has won the jackpot.) The first example is called a direct question, the second and third indirect questions. In all these three examples, the interrogative use is distinguished by an accent over the e > é. This not only applies to pronouns but also to certain adverbs that are used as both interrogative and relative adverbs. This distinction is often ignored by Spanish-speakers, who do not or cannot differentiate between the question and straightforward affirmative forms. The next sections illustrate the difference between interrogatives and relatives for both pronouns and adverbs. 59.2.1.1 Pronouns Interrogative: ¿quién? (who?), ¿cuál? (which?), ¿qué? (what?), ¿cúyo? (whose?), ¿cuánto? (how much?) Relative: quien (who), cual (which), que (that), cuyo (whose), cuanto (as much)

Interrogative pronouns and adverbs

59.2.2

59.2.3

59.2.4

59.2.5

59.2.6

59.2.7

59.2.8

59.2.9

329

The above pronouns, with the exception of the invariable qué/que, vary like adjectives with the same terminations, and conform to the same laws of agreement. 59.2.1.2 Adverbs Interrogative: ¿cuándo? (when), ¿dónde? (where?), ¿cómo? (how?), ¿por qué? (why?) Relative: cuando (when), donde (where), como (as), porque (because) Quién is only used as a noun and is restricted to persons. ¿Quién llama? (Who’s calling/knocking at the door?) ¿A quiénes diste los regalos? (To whom [pl] did you give the gifts?) Qué may precede nouns representing either persons or things. Used alone, it always has a neuter value, but it can be subject or object. ¿Qué coche prefieres? (Which car do you prefer?) ¿Qué escritores se leen hoy? (Which writers are read today?) ¿Qué animales hay en el bosque? (What animals are in the wood?) ¿Qué pasa? (What’s happening?) ¿Qué hiciste? (What have you done/did you do?) Cuál (pl = cuáles) (which) applies to persons or things, and may be used alone to refer to either. It queries a certain one or ones of a number indicated or understood, and usually points to a distinction between things or persons. ¿Cuál color prefieres? (Which color do you prefer?) ¿Cuál de estas dos pulseras te gusta más? (Which of these two bracelets do you prefer?) ¿Cuál requieres, éste o aquél? (Which one do you require, this one or that one?) Cuál takes the place of qué before the verb ser, except when a definition is asked for. ¿Cuál es la fecha de su email? (What is the date of his email?) ¿Cuáles son sus responsabilidades? (What are his responsibilities?) ¿Cuál será el resultado? (What will be the result?) ¿Qué es escatología? (What’s scatology/eschatology?) ¿Qué es el queso de que hablas? (What’s the cheese you are talking about?) Cuál may be resolved into qué tal, although there is a difference in meaning. Cuál points to identity or choice between things, while qué tal suggests quality (What is it like?) ¿Cuál es la casa donde vives? (Which is the house where you live?) ¿Qué tal es la casa donde vives? (What’s the house like where you live?) Cuánto (varies like adjectives in o) is equivalent in the singular to how much and in the plural to how many. ¿Cuánto dinero recibiste? (How much money did you receive?) ¿Cuánta mantequilla/manteca (A) quieres/querés (A)? (How much butter do you want?) ¿Cuántas películas viste? (How many movies did you see?) Cúyo (varies like adjectives ending in o) has the value of English whose. Its interrogative use, which is the case under discussion here, is now rare and archaic, and is almost entirely limited to cases where it is followed by ser. It is replaced by de quién, or a different form is given to the enquiry by using cuál or qué. ¿De quién es este sombrero?/¿Cúyo es este sombrero? (Whose hat is this?) ¿De quién es aquella linda casa?/¿Cúya es aquella linda casa? (Whose lovely house is that?) ¿Cuál/Qué cuadro ha ganado el premio? (Which painting [i.e. whose] has won the prize?) ¿Cuál/Qué novela prefieres? (Which novel [i.e. whose] do you prefer?) Qué and cuánto are also used in exclamations. These are but an extension of the interrogative use, and differ only in punctuation, and the fact that they do not ask for information. The two kinds of sentences pass into each so imperceptibly that it is sometimes difficult to separate them.

330

A Reference Grammar of Spanish 59.2.9.1 The use of qué in exclamations with the meaning of What (a)! occurs before an adverb or an adjective. It corresponds to the English How! ¡Qué bien/bueno (A, C, M)! (How splendid!) ¡Qué lujo! (What luxury!) ¡Qué suerte! (What luck!) ¡Qué vista encantadora! (What a lovely sight!) ¡Qué bien habla! (How well she speaks!) ¡Qué feliz eres tú! (How happy you are!) 59.2.9.2 Greater emphasis or vivacity is imparted by the interpolation of más (more), or tan (so) between an adjective and a noun preceded by qué. ¡Qué programa más malo! (What a bad program!) ¡Qué partido más aburrido! (What a boring game!) ¡Qué lugar tan lindo! (What a lovely spot!) 59.2.9.3 Cuánto, when used in exclamations, is shortened to cuán. It can also appear in indirect exclamations. The usage of cuán is R3. Cuánto is inflected regularly. ¡Cuán listo es este niño! (How smart this child is!) ¡Cuán cerca está el río de aquí! (How close the river is to here!) ¡No sabes cuán fácil me resultó el examen! (You can’t imagine how easy the exam was for me!) ¡Cuánto tiempo hace que no te veo! (How long it is since I’ve seen you!) ¡Cuántos habrá que no se han enterado! (How many there are who don’t know!) ¡Cuánto te quiero! (How much I love you!) ¡No sabes cuánto lo lamento! (You can’t know how much I regret it!)

Part VI

60 Adjectives / Adjetivos Below is a passage illustrating the use of adjectives, how they agree with nouns, how they are apocopated, how they may occur in a very flexible order in a Spanish sentence, and how they change their meaning according to where they are located with respect to the noun. The topic narrates the life of a prosperous man, whose acquaintances in a local club include a cross section of idiosyncratic men in a small provincial town. Él se consideraba un gran hombre porque, aunque era hijo de un hombre simple y de una simple sirvienta, había logrado un éxito notable y tenía un chalet y una casa lujosos, de grandes proporciones, un buen coche, un mal caballo, bonito, sí, pero era un peligroso rocín (horse) de mala entraña (malicious), color castaño oscuro. Por otro lado, había dado una carrera técnica a cada hijo, claro, todo gracias al gran capital que había aportado al matrimonio su habladora mujer, un poco tontiloca (silly) y con apariencias de ballena hembra (female whale). Era un hombre satisfecho, que había sabido escalar a las más altas cotas de la sociedad en su pequeña villa provinciana, donde se juntaba en el casino con las fuerzas vivas (group of influential people): el alcalde semianalfabeto (semiliterate), un bigotudo (with a big moustache) y taciturno (moody) sargento de la guardia civil, un jovencísimo médico, recién casado, que estaba como pez fuera del agua en aquel apartado lugar y, por fin, un cura que por ciertos indicios era de ésos de la teología de la liberación y con indicios ciertos de ser algo místico. Adjectives in Spanish, like the definite and indefinite articles, vary in form to indicate gender and number, taking the gender and number of the nouns to which they relate. This is called “agreeing” with the noun. There are a few rare exceptions. Adjectives form their plurals in both genders in the same way as nouns.

60.1 Distinction of gender This depends on the following principles. 60.1.1 The greater number of adjectives end in -o in the masculine, and -a in the feminine singular, and they both take -s in the plural, and this applies to most nationalities. argentino/argentina/argentinos/argentinas (Argentinian) colombiano/colombiana/ colombianos/colombianas (Colombian) fresco/fresca/ frescos/frescas (fresh, cool) blanco/blanca/blancos/blancas (white), negro/negra/negros/negras (black) 60.1.2 Those which do not end in -o in the masculine singular have the same ending for both genders, and the plurals are the same for both genders. cortés/corteses (courteous, polite), dulce/dulces (sweet), suave/suaves (soft, gentle, smooth), útil/útiles (useful), belga/belgas (Belgian), azteca/aztecas (Aztec), maya/mayas (Mayan), inca/incas (Inca) 60.1.3 Adjectives ending in consonants, and signifying nationality or origin, add -a in the feminine. inglés/inglesa (English), francés/francesa (French), alemán/alemana (German), escocés/ escocesa (Scottish), holandés/holandesa (Dutch), andaluz/ andaluza (Andalusian), español/española (Spanish), portugués/portuguesa (Portuguese) 333

334

60.1.4

60.1.5

60.1.6

60.1.7

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Notice that, again, the feminine form does not take a written accent, when the masculine does. It also disappears in the plural of both masculine and feminine forms. ingleses/as, alemanes/as, daneses/as, holandeses/as, franceses/as, escoceses/as, andaluces/zas, portugueses/as Those ending in -án or -ón add -a to the feminine. holgazán/holgazana (lazy), preguntón/preguntona (inquisitive), respondón/respondona (nervy, cheeky) The written accent disappears in the feminine form. In the plural, it also disappears. holgazanes/holgazanas, preguntones/preguntonas, respondones/ respondonas Those ending in -or with no comparative value (see Section 60.1.5, below) add -a to the feminine. emprendedor/emprendedora (enterprising), hablador/habladora (talkative) The plural forms are: emprendedores/emprendedoras, habladores/habladoras Words ending in -or that do have a comparative value are the same in both genders. exterior/exteriores (exterior), peor/peores (worse), inferior/inferiores (inferior/lower), posterior/posteriores (later, following), mayor/mayores (bigger), menor/ menores (smaller), superior/superiores (superior, uppity), mejor/mejores (better), ulterior/ ulteriores (further, ulterior) There are few exceptions to these rules, but here are two, the first slightly abstruse, and doubtless unnecessary for a foreign speaker, and the second common enough. un triángulo isósceles/dos triángulos isósceles (one isosceles triangle/two isosceles triangles) una entrada gratis/dos entradas gratis (one free entry/two free entries) Since gratis in the second example is R1, a more acceptable adjective could be gratuito, which conforms to all the rules above. Theoretically, the adjective agrees in number and gender with the noun(s) it qualifies. Difficulties can arise when two nouns are qualified by the same adjective. There is clearly a choice here, although linguistic sensitivity may play a part. For example, in the following sentence: Poseía un palacio y una avioneta lujosos (She possessed a luxurious palace and private plane), a careful writer or speaker would probably prefer palacio after avioneta: Poseía una avioneta y un palacio lujosos (although this is debatable) since the masculine plural adjective corresponds much more closely to palacio than to avioneta. What could constitute an anomaly would be lujosas at the end of the sentence, although this cannot be excluded. At the same time, if the adjective were an attribute, and separated by one or several words from the nouns (in the case below, eran and muy), lujosos would conform to regular usage. Su palacio y su avioneta eran muy lujosos. (Her palace and private plane were very luxurious.) This point may be too fine, so that all three of the following are possible, with the same meaning. ciudades y pueblos destruidos/pueblos y ciudades destruidas/pueblos y ciudades destruidos (destroyed cities and towns) If there is a semantic proximity between the two nouns, so that a sense of unity ensues, a singular adjective is quite possible. Habla con una coherencia y claridad extraordinaria. (She speaks with an extraordinary coherence and clarity.) It is possible to keep the adjective in the singular when it qualifies two nouns, especially when the two nouns form a coherent unit. Estudio lengua y literatura española. (I study Spanish language and literature.) However, españolas is also perfectly acceptable here. If two nouns are preceded by an adjective, it is normal for the adjective to agree with the first noun: su extremada hermosura y talento (her extreme beauty and talent.)

Adjectives

335

Conversely: un peligroso conflicto y hostilidad (a dangerous conflict and hostility) los mismos Antonio y hermanos (the self-same Antonio and his brother[s] [and sister(s)]) las referidas madre e hija (the mother and daughter alluded to) 60.1.8 When the noun qualified by an adjective is a title, agreement is made with the person referred to. Su Excelencia, Su Majestad, Usía (archaism for Vuestra Señoría = Your Lordship), Su Alteza Su Excelencia es muy generoso. (Your/His Excellency is most generous [speaking to/of a man].) Su Majestad es muy generosa. (Your/Her Majesty is most generous [speaking to/of a woman].) Su Alteza está disgustado. (Your/His Highness is displeased [speaking to/of a man].) Su Alteza está disgustada. (Your/Her Highness is displeased [speaking to/of a woman].) But if the adjective follows the noun closely, it would doubtless agree for male or female: Su Majestad Católica (Your/His//Her Catholic Majesty) Again, with usted (and let us not forget that this word is a contraction of vuestra merced), agreement is made with the sex of the person in question. (Interestingly enough, the Italian lei [third person formal you] is always feminine.) Ud. es muy generoso/a. (You are very. . .) For adjectives related to dimensions and numbers, current usage fluctuates. There exists the possibility of making the adjective agree with the feminine noun when the adjective is not separated from it by a verb. Es una presa de tres kilómetros de larga y de cuatrocientos metros de alta. (It is a dam three kilometers long and four hundred meters high.) But the adjectives in these cases are often considered as nouns, so that alto, largo and ancho remain in the masculine form. Esta pared mide tres metros de alto. (This wall measures three meters in height.) Este río mide mil kilómetros de largo. (This river measures a thousand kilometers in length.) El mueble tiene dos metros de alto por tres de ancho. (The piece of furniture is two meters high and three meters wide.) 60.1.9 Adjectives of nationality are used to represent the language or native of the country in question. In the latter case, they are considered as nouns. However, as both adjectives and nouns, the initial letter is lower case. Hablo inglés/portugués/español. (I speak English/Portuguese/Spanish.) Este señor es italiano. (This gentleman is Italian.) La venezolana habla francés. (The Venezuelan lady speaks French.)

60.2 Apocopation (shortened form of adjectives) 60.2.1 Adjectives assume a shortened form when standing immediately before certain nouns. This shortened form is called apocopation. The adjectives are: bueno (good), grande (big, great), malo (bad, naughty), primero (first), santo (holy, saint), tercero (third). Bueno, malo, primero and tercero lose the final -o when immediately preceding any masculine singular noun. Tienes un buen carro (C, M). (You have a good car.) Hace buen tiempo. (It’s good weather.) Éste es un mal vino. (This is a bad wine.) Hace mal tiempo. (It’s bad weather.) estar de buen/mal humor (to be in a good/bad mood) el primer hombre (the first man) el tercer carro/coche (the third car) 60.2.2 The names of saints also assume a shortened form.

336

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

San Pedro (Saint Peter), San Pablo (Saint Paul), San Juan (de la Cruz) (Saint John [of the Cross]), San Agustín/Andrés/Antonio/Barnabé (Barnabus)/Bartolomé (Bartholomew)/ Bernardo/Casimiro (patron Saint of Poland)/Ignacio/Jerónimo (Jerome)/Jorge (George), Juan Bautista (John the Baptist)/Lucas/Marcos/Mateo/Miguel Exceptions are as follows. El Santo Cristo (Sacred Christ), Santo Tomás (Saint Thomas), Santo Domingo (Saint Dominic), un santo varón (holy man) Santiago (Saint James) is a contraction of San Jaime, the patron saint of Spain, deriving from Sanctus Jacobus. The feminine form does not suffer a contraction. Santa Teresa de Ávila, Santa Mónica, Santa Bárbara, Santa Catalina de Siena The contraction also affects names of cities and towns, following on from saints. San Antonio/Cristóbal/Fernando/ Francisco/Petersburgo As with female saints, the feminine form of adjectives remains the same: una buena comida (a good meal), una mala carretera (a bad road), la primera página (the first page), la tercera palabra (the third word). 60.2.3 Grande drops the final -de when it precedes a noun, masculine or feminine: un gran amigo/general (a great friend/general) una gran casa/ciudad (a big house/city) una gran victoria (a great victory) However, grande becomes grandes before a plural noun: los grandes almacenes (the department stores), los grandes bancos (the big banks), las grandes actrices del cine (the great movie actresses). If grande is preceded by the adverb más, it is not shortened: la más grande oportunidad (the greatest opportunity), el más grande acontecimiento (the greatest event).

60.3 Position of adjectives (See also Section 74.4 on word order for more extensive treatment of this subject.) As far as the position of Spanish adjectives is concerned, they often follow the noun, but this is far from clear. For all general purposes, it may be safely stated that the adjective does follow the noun, at least in speech. For our immediate purposes here, the adjective follows the noun when it denotes a physical quality (color, size, shape, strength) or nationality, or when nationality is referred to. café negro/americano (black/ weak coffee) un hombre de raza blanca (a man of white race) Es una mujer alta. (She’s a tall woman.) un hombre/vino fuerte (a strong man/wine) There are many adjectives of an intermediate character which may be used either way, the Spanish-speaker being guided in their location by her/his own ideas on meaning, style, stress, and so on. (For the different values or meanings of certain adjectives when placed before or after the noun, see Section 60.8, below.)

60.4 Invariable adjectives 60.4.1 A small number of adjectives are invariable. In other words, they do not change according to gender or number. The reason is largely because they are not really adjectives, but nouns (e.g. El naranja es una mezcla de rojo y amarillo) or some other part of speech. (Reference is made here to Chapters 9 and 10 on gender and number, to see how nouns

Adjectives

337

may vary when used in conjunction with another noun.) The following is a short list of adjectives that are invariable. escarlata (scarlet), fetén (R1; marvelous, very good [only in Spain]), hembra (female [used of animals]), hirviendo (boiling), macho (male [used of animals]), malva (mauve), modelo (model [suggesting perfection]), naranja (orange), rosa (pink), tabú (taboo), violeta (violet) un color escarlata (a scarlet color) los elefantes/las ballenas hembra (the female elephants/whales) la ballena macho (the male whale) una solución modelo (a model solution [i.e. for this book]) tonos rosa (pink tones) Llevaba cintas rosa. (She wore red ribbons.) Me gusta este vestido naranja. (I like this orange-colored shirt.) With colors, there are often four possibilities. Llevaba un sombrero rosa/de color de rosa/color de rosa/color rosa. (She wore a pink-colored hat.) There is some uncertainty here. For example, soluciones modelos is perfectly acceptable. (See Section 10.7 on compound nouns.) 60.4.2 Points on the compass (puntos del horizonte): norte, sur, este, oeste, and their variants: noroeste, noreste, sureste/sudeste, suroeste/sudoeste, are really nouns and not adjectives, so they do not agree with the noun they qualify. La zona este del edificio está en obras. (The eastern side of the building is being refurbished.) las laderas norte de la montaña (the northern slopes of the mountain) el Cono Sur (the Southern Cone [of South America]) la región noroeste (the northwestern region) los vientos sudeste (the southeastern winds) 60.4.3 Although cada is an adjective, it is invariable. Cada chica recibió un regalo. (Each girl received a present.) Cada seis meses voy a. . . (Every six months I go to. . .) The same goes for extra. Se han jugado treinta minutos extra por la prórroga. (They played thirty minutes extra [extra time].) Mandaron a quinientos soldados extra. (They sent five hundred extra troops.) Hay que pagar por las horas extra. (I/You/We, etc. have to pay for the extra hours.) 60.4.4 An abundant number of adjectives may be used as adverbs. Below is a quite a full list. The usage is generally R2, and accepted in most circumstances: Huele (from oler) muy rico/fantástico/feo. (It smells very nice/great/awful.) Trabaja duro. (She works hard.) hablar alto/bajo/claro/fuerte/quedo (R3; to speak loudly/ softly/clearly/loudly/softly) ver claro (to see clearly) hilar delgado/fino (to be precise, to split hairs) cenar fuerte (to have a big evening meal) pegar fuerte (to hit hard) jugar limpio/sucio/alegre (to play clean/dirty/in a happy spirit) El viento sopla fuerte. (The wind is blowing hard.) pisar fuerte (to insist, to be obstinate) Yo digo las cosas fuerte. (I really mean what I say.) Lo paso fatal. (I’m having a terrible time.) Hay que apuntar muy alto. (You have to aim really high.)

338

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

El río corría tranquilo. (The river flowed gently.) Ella lo pasa tranquilo. (She’s having a quiet time.) Los pájaros vuelan muy alto. (The birds are flying high.) Viste elegante. (She dresses elegantly.) Salta ligero. (She jumps with an easy spring.) Viajo siempre ligero. (I always travel light.) Comemos ligero esta noche. (We’ll have a light meal tonight.) Siga recto. (Go straight on.) Siga todo derecho por esta calle. (Go straight on down this street.) El ejercicio lo has hecho regular. Tienes que mejorar. (You’ve done the exercise just about okay. You need to improve.) Lo pasamos estupendo. (We had a great time.) No intentes convencerle para que cambie; todo lo hace igual. (Don’t try to persuade him to change; he does everything the same.) El marido salió raudo (R3) a buscar al médico. (The husband rushed out to find the doctor.) La digestión va más lenta. (Digestion is slow.) Habla rápido (instead of rápidamente). (He speaks quick[ly].) Las golondrinas vuelan rápidas. (Swallows fly quickly.) El tope (M) obliga a la gente a manejar lento (instead of lentamente). (The speed bump forces people to drive slow[ly].) In colloquial Spanish, igual can mean (quite regularly) probably. “¿Viene Juan mañana?” “Sí, igual.” (“Is Juan coming tomorrow?” “Yes, probably.”) As may be observed in the later examples, one can come across the feminine forms rápida and lenta used as adverbs, notably in speech. It could be argued, of course, that in the case quoted, rápidas retains its value as an adjective. Certainly, in nearly all of the cases above, the masculine form is the norm. 60.4.5 The case of alerta provides considerable and inconclusive discussion, and even confusion. This term is both adjective and adverb. As an adjective it means vigilant, watchful, while as an adverb it signifies with vigilance and care. The reality is more complicated than this. As an adjective, it is often used with no variation in gender or number. los siempre alerta fusiles rifeños (the ever-watchful rifles of the inhabitants of the Rif [district of Morocco]) Estas estudiantes no son alerta. (These [f] students are not alert [bright].) El gobierno mantenía alerta a todos los organismos. (The government keeps all the organs of government vigilant.) It is also found with variation in form: o for masculine and a for feminine, but this use is contested. Con oído alerto los escuché. (With an alert ear I listened to them.) Ya están los centinelas alerto. (Now the sentries are alert.) Las chicas estaban alerta. (The girls were alert.) Sometimes the variation may just apply to number. Algunos, los más alertas, avanzaban a través del bosque. (Some, the most alert, advanced through the woods.) As an adverb, it is, of course, invariable. Andaban alerta por las calles oscuras. (They walked carefully through the dark streets.) Vive alerta, esperando las noticias. (She lives watchfully, waiting for the news.) Alerta is also a noun, construed as both masculine and feminine. Un débil eco cantaba, como un alerta de campana. (A weak echo could be heard, like an alarm bell.)

Adjectives

339

La intención del autor es dar la alerta al gran público. (The author’s intention is to sound the alert for the public at large.) However, one only ever comes across dar la alerta and la alerta roja (high alert). 60.4.6 Derecho, barato and caro provide interesting cases. Derecho may be used in the same circumstances as both adverb and adjective, with an adverbial value. La mujer fue derecho/derecha a su casa. (The woman went straight to her house.) Me las vendió baratas. (He sold them cheaply to me.) Sale barato cuando sabes arreglártelas. (It turns out cheap when you know what you’re doing.) Me costaron muy caras. (They cost me a lot.) No vayas a la carnicería de la esquina: venden caro. (Don’t go to the butcher’s on the corner: it’s dear.) In these cases, barato and caro have an absolute value and are therefore used adverbially. Primero may be used both adjectivally and adverbially. Me bajo en la primera parada. (I get off at the first stop.) Primero la muerte que la derrota. (Death before defeat.) Primero estar en casa que en malas compañías. (Better to be at home than to keep bad company.)

60.5 Adjectives deriving from gerunds and their use (For details, see Chapter 30 on the progressive tense.)

60.6 Adjectives used as nouns There are many adjectives in Spanish that may be used as nouns. Here is a short list that, by its very nature, cannot be in any way exhaustive. In principle, almost any adjective applying to a person may be converted into a noun, with a corresponding change in ending for gender or number. The translation into English often, but by no means always, involves a word such as person. anciano/a (old person), beato/a (sanctimonious person), cómico, enfermo, fanático, feo, gracioso (witty person), grueso (biggest part of), idiota, joven, listo, malo (the Evil One/ Devil), orgulloso (proud person), pequeño, pobre, psiquiátrico (mental hospital), rebelde, religioso (monk), revolucionario, rico, tonto, viejo Some common adjectives do not lend themselves to this principle: bonito, flojo, fuerte, guapo, hermoso, inteligente, lindo, tímido. For adjectives used as nouns, where the noun is lost, see Section 9.6 on gender.

60.7 Invariability of two adjectives together When two adjectives are together they become invariable. This is especially true of colors. una falda azul pálido (a pale blue skirt) ojos azul oscuro (dark blue eyes) una chaqueta marrón oscuro (a dark brown jacket) una corbata azul claro (a light blue tie) There seems to be no corresponding two adjectives functioning like the above for the English bright + color + noun (e.g. bright red shirt) The closest seems to be: una camisa de un rojo intenso/vivo, which converts the color rojo into a noun, and here the preposition de is necessary.

340

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

60.8 Variability of the meaning of adjectives according to position There are some adjectives which have a different meaning, according to whether they precede or follow the noun. Generally speaking, the following adjectives are invested with a greater weight or strength than when they precede the noun. (A fuller treatment of this question appears in Section 74.4.5 on word order.) The following three examples are among the most commonly found adjectives varying in meaning. pobre: un barrio pobre (a poor district), ¡Pobre hombre! (Poor [unfortunate] man!) simple: un simple soldado (a rookie, private soldier), un soldado simple (a foolish/ unintelligent soldier) único: Es hija única. (She’s the only daughter/child.)/el único problema (the only problem)

60.9 Location of two or more adjectives When two adjectives relate to one noun, each is located independently, according to its own value; one may come before, one after, both before or both after. Generally speaking, two adjectives qualifying a noun would come after, but this is by no means a hard-and-fast rule. un artista pobre y desgraciado (a poor, unfortunate artist) Tiene una capa negra y larga. (She has a long, black cape.) una nación libre e independiente (a free and independent nation) Tiene una casa pequeña y bonita. (He has a small, attractive house.) When adjectives precede the noun (particularly two), it is often a question of style and balance, and here we enter a more literary mode. una persistente e inaguantable amenaza (a persistent and unbearable menace) una fuerte y crónica inflación (steep and chronic inflation) To this second example may be added a further adjective: una fuerte, crónica e incesante inflación (steep, chronic and unending inflation). There is no reason why the adjectives in these examples should not follow the noun: una amenaza persistente e inaguantable, or: una persistente amenaza inaguantable, which may be considered of a higher register.

60.10 Nouns functioning like adjectives It should be remembered that, contrary to English, Spanish nouns do not function like adjectives. That is the tradition. However, there is an ever-increasing number of nouns attached to nouns which produce compound nouns. The second noun in these cases does function like an adjective. (See Section 9.11 on compound nouns.) To deal with the extremely common practice of two adjoining nouns in English, the traditional way in Spanish, as with all Romance languages, is to place the equivalent of of (de) between the two nouns. una bufanda de lana (a woollen scarf) una casa de madera (a wooden house) una estatua de bronce (a bronze statue) una escalera de mármol (a marble staircase)

60.11 “Lo” + adjective 60.11.1 A very common feature of Spanish is the use of lo with an adjective, for which there is no equivalent in English. This construction has to be translated by a variety of phrases, such

Adjectives

341

as what is, the characteristic feature, the most important point, and so on. In fact, it conveys the idea of a noun. Here is a collection of adjectives used with lo. Lo barato es caro. (What is cheap turns out to be expensive.) Lo americano está de moda. (American styles are in fashion.) Lo absurdo no tiene por qué ser feo. (The absurd does not have to be ugly.) Lo mío para mí solo, y lo de los demás, para repartir. (What’s mine is mine, and what belongs to the rest you can share out.) Lo importante es que venga hoy. (The important point is that he come today.) Lo curioso es que los mexicanos no usan esta palabra. (The funny thing is that Mexicans don’t use this word.) Lo bueno dura poco. (What is good doesn’t last long.) Other adjectives used in a similar fashion are as follows. Lo bueno/malo/mejor/correcto/ normal/necesario/imposible es que. . . (The good/bad/best/correct/normal/necessary/impossible thing is that. . .) 60.11.2 This construction lo + adjective is not limited to a neuter idea. The adjective may agree, as in the following cases. No te puedes imaginar lo fuertes que son. (You can’t imagine how strong they are.) Le dije lo antipática que era. (I told her how unpleasant she was.) Me extraña lo lista que es esa chica. (I am surprised [by] how smart that girl is.) Describí lo grandes que eran aquellos edificios. (I described how big the buildings were.)

60.12 “El”/“La” + adjective Adjectives may also be used with the definite article in the following way, and here again, the English needs to add something, usually one. Me gusta el color rojo, pero no el verde. (I like the red color, but not the green one.) Quiero el grande. (I want the big one.) Necesitamos el mediano. (We need the medium-sized one.) Prefiero el chico (M)/ pequeño. (I prefer the little one.) He escrito varias versiones del libro; aquí tienes la original y queda por terminar la definitiva. (I’ve written several versions of the book; here’s the original and the definitive one has yet to be finished.)

60.13 Compound adjectives There exists a series of compound adjectives made up of noun + adjective or adjective + adjective. Sometimes, the final vowel disappears. carilargo (R1; unhappy/long-faced), cariancho (R1; broad-faced), agridulce (bitter sweet), rojiblanco (red and white), piernitendido (with legs stretched out) There are more complex constructions also. cabizbajo (downhearted), narigudo (sharp-nosed), larguirucho (lanky), pelirrojo (red-haired)

61 Adverbs / Adverbios Below is a passage illustrating the use of adverbs, adverbial phrases, conversion of adverbs into adjectives, and the loss of -mente when there are two (or more) adverbs directly linked to each other. This piece describes how three students enter a café and spray their student friends with jets of water, as a practical joke played on new students. Era de noche, una noche muy cerrada, la niebla envolvía todo. Eran tres, se habían acercado subrepticiamente a la cafetería abierta de par en par; jóvenes, atléticos con el pelo arreglado muy corto; grandes bultos se adivinaban difusamente bajo sus largas gabardinas; el más alto me miró de hito en hito y yo desvié pronto la mirada para apartarme rauda (swiftly) de su paso. Por un momento quedé suspensa, atónita; había temido enormemente que me dispararan a bocajarro. Vi luego como entraban astuta y sigilosamente en el local para apostarse estratégicamente y sacar con rapidez sus armas para comenzar a disparar a mansalva (at close range). Yo contemplaba el resultado a través de los cristales del escaparate: sus carabinas de agua estaban a punto (primed), y sus chorros (jets of water) empapaban sin distinción; todos saltaban frenéticamente, y corrían furiosa y locamente por escapar de la ducha. El rector había prohibido recientemente las novatadas (hazings/ practical jokes). Yo me deslicé rápida(mente) hacia mi alojamiento. No me apetecía nada una ducha nocturna y, menos todavía, perder mi beca (grant). Adverbs are invariable words that are placed not only near or next to a verb, but also near or next to an adjective or another adverb, so as to modify the meaning. There is a whole variety of adverbs related to circumstances or opinion. They can appear in a simple or compound form, and when they appear as the latter, they are called adverbial expressions. (They are sometimes replaced by adjectives: see Section 60.4.4.)

61.1 Forming adverbs 61.1.1 Adverbs in Spanish, as in English, are formed in different ways. However, the most common way for creating an adverb in Spanish is by adding -mente to the feminine form of the adjective. Rápidamente (quickly), perfectamente (perfectly), lentamente (slowly), públicamente (publicly), solamente (only) Corre rápidamente/ lentamente. (She runs quickly/slowly.) Habla perfectamente el alemán. (He speaks German perfectly.) Come solamente verduras. (She only eats vegetables.) Anuncia públicamente que. . . (He announces publicly that. . .) It is obvious from these examples that, in Spanish, there are almost as many adverbs as there are adjectives. 61.1.2 Adjectives which have no distinctive feminine form add -mente in the usual way. felizmente (happily), constantemente (constantly), útilmente (usefully), amablemente (pleasantly) 342

Adverbs

61.1.3

61.1.4

61.1.5

61.1.6

343

Regresa felizmente a casa. (She returns home happily.) Hay que trabajar constantemente. (You have to work constantly.) Adverbs formed with -mente are pronounced as two words, each part retaining its accent, both written and spoken. sólidamente (solidly), cortésmente (courteously), poéticamente (poetically), originalmente (originally) When two or more of these adverbs occur in immediate succession, the last receives the ending -mente, the others assuming the form they would have if -mente were to be added. This takes place when more than one adverb of the -mente type modifies the same verb. This usage may not only involve the insertion of y, but also, for example, pero, or even a longer phrase, as seen in the fourth example below. Escribe clara, concisa y elegantemente. (She writes clearly, concisely and elegantly.) Siente tan apasionada y ardientemente la misericordia de Dios. (She feels so passionately and ardently God’s mercy.) Ocurre gradual pero insensiblemente. (It happens gradually but imperceptibly.) La destrucción de Guernica fue negada públicamente, que no privadamente, por Franco para evitar. . . (The destruction of Guernica was denied publicly, if not privately, by Franco to avoid. . .) But, it is possible to say and write: Escribe concisamente y elegantemente. Compare also the following two sentences. Hablaba lentamente, claramente. (She spoke slowly, clearly.) Hablaba lenta, lentamente. (She spoke slowly, slowly.) The comma in the first case can involve the full form of clara since the two terms lentamente and claramente, are different in meaning, while the two terms in the second sentence are essentially the same. The adverb recientemente is shortened to recién before past participles used adjectivally. Llegó recientemente. (She arrived recently.) los recién casados (the newlyweds) un recién nacido (a newborn child) pan recién cocido (freshly baked bread) con la cara lavada y recién peinada (with a freshly washed face and recently combed hair) In Argentina, recién frequently replaces recientemente. Recién hablé con ella. (I recently spoke with her.) ¿Qué aconsejas a los deportistas que recién se inician? (What do you advise sportspersons who have recently started their careers?) Often Spanish adverbs can be clumsy with the ending -mente, unlike the lighter English ly, and there is always the possibility of avoiding this clumsiness. For instance, a noun preceded by con is often a suitable alternative. anticipadamente > con anticipación (in advance), industriosamente > con industria (industriously), orgullosamente > con orgullo (proudly), prudentemente > con prudencia (prudently) Efectué el pago con anticipación. (I paid in advance.) El chico anuncia con orgullo que ha ganado el premio. (The boy proudly announces that he has won the prize.) Es importante manejar con prudencia. (It’s important to drive carefully.) For the same reason, Spanish can prefer an adverbial expression to an adverb in -mente. verdaderamente > de verdad, seguramente > de seguro/a buen seguro, verdaderamente > de veras, horriblemente > de miedo

344

A Reference Grammar of Spanish ¿De verdad que no sabías nada? (You really knew nothing?) Vendrá de seguro/a buen seguro. (She’ll surely come.) De seguro este episodio producirá efectos perdurables. (This episode will certainly produce long-lasting effects.) Estas medidas tranquilizarán a buen seguro el público. (These measures will certainly allay public fears.) Es tonto de veras. (He’s really dumb.) Lo pasé de miedo. (I had a frightful time.)

61.2 Adverbial expressions 61.2.1 A further variety may be obtained by a phrase composed of de (una) manera, de (una) forma or de (un) modo: de (una) manera uniforme (in a uniform manner), de (una) manera amistosa (in a friendly manner), de (un) modo elegante (in an elegant way), de (una) forma brusca (in a rough way) The inclusión of the indefinite article before these nouns makes the expression more formal. 61.2.2 Adjectives not ending in -o or which have a distinct feminine form cannot take -mente. de (una) manera preguntona (inquisitively), de (una) forma holgazana (in an idle way) 61.2.3 Adverbs of time ahora/ahorita (M) (now), a menudo (often), antes (before), antaño (formerly), a tiempo (on time), aún (yet/still), a veces (sometimes), ayer (yesterday), después (afterwards), de día (by day), de noche (by/at night), de nuevo (again), entretanto (meanwhile), entonces (then), en seguida (immediately), hoy (today), jamás (never), justo cuando (just when), luego (soon), luego luego (M) (straightaway), mañana (tomorrow), mientras (meanwhile), nunca (never), nomás (M, not in A or C) (just/only), otra vez (again), pasado mañana (day after tomorrow), por fin (at last), pronto (soon), raras veces (seldom), siempre (always), tarde (late), temprano (early), todavía (still/ yet), ya (already/now/soon) No está lloviendo ahorita. (It’s not raining now.) Nos visitan a menudo. (They often visit us.) Llegué pronto a la cita. (I arrived early at the rendez-vous.) Luego luego me contestó que. . . (He immediately answered that. . .) años antes (years before) meses después (months afterwards) Prefiero manejar de día, no de noche. (I prefer to drive in the day, not at night-time.) Si te animas, nomás avísame con tiempo. (If you feel like it, just let me know in time.) 61.2.4 Adverbs of place acá (here), a la derecha (to the right), a lo largo de (along), a la izquierda (to the left), a través (across), abajo (down), adelante (in front), adentro (inside/within), afuera (outside), ahí (there), allá (there), allí (there), alrededor (around), aquí (here), arriba (up), atrás (behind, “ago”), calle abajo (down the street), calle adelante (up the street), calle arriba (up the street), campo a través (across country), cerca (near), cuesta arriba (up the hill), delante (in front), dentro (inside/ within), donde (where), dondequiera (wherever), debajo (below), detrás (behind), en medio (in the middle), encima (on top), enfrente (opposite), en otra parte (elsewhere), fuera (outside), lejos (faraway), por por todas partes (everywhere), río abajo (downriver), siglos atrás (centuries ago), tierra adentro (inland) El batallón siguió adelante. (The battalion advanced.)

Adverbs

345

Anduvieron calle abajo. (They walked down the street.) Fueron cuesta arriba. (They went up the hill.) Caminaron campo a través. (They walked across country.) Mucha gente esperó a lo largo de la avenida. (Many people waited along the avenue.) Fue hacia allá hace un rato. (He went over there some time ago.) 61.2.4.1 Aquí and acá indicate what is near a person; the former is more precise and the latter less so. In A, C and M, and all Spanish America for that matter, acá is often preferred to aquí, when precision is required. In Iberian Spanish, acá is used much more with a verb of movement. or when a comparison is needed. Estoy aquí en el patio. (I’m here in the courtyard.) Estoy acá (A, C, M) en Buenos Aires. (I’m here in Buenos Aires.) Ven acá/aquí. (Come here.) Trae acá lo que llevas en la mano. (Bring here what you have in your hand.) Acá is often used with más with the meaning of more this way. Está más acá/allá. (It’s more this way/that way.) 61.2.4.2 Ahí indicates what is at a certain distance, not too far away. Te espero ahí, en el café de enfrente. (I’ll wait for you there, in the café opposite.) Ahí viene mi padre. (Here’s my father coming.) 61.2.4.3 Note how donde is used with the verb ser. Es aquí donde nací. (It’s here that I was born.) Que would not replace donde here, anymore than it would replace cuando in the following sentence. Fue entonces cuando ocurrió el accidente. (It was then that the accident happened.) 61.2.4.4 There exists considerable variation over the use of dentro and adentro, and fuera and afuera. The variation largely depends on Spanish American and Iberian usage. Compare the following pairs of sentences. Vamos a cenar fuera (Iberian). (Let’s go and eat outside.) Vamos a cenar afuera (Spanish American). Los perros están fuera (Iberian). (The dogs are outside.) Los perros están afuera (Spanish American). Los niños están dentro de la casa (Iberian). (The children are inside the house.) Los niños están adentro de la casa (Spanish American). It should be added that since dentro and adentro, and fuera and afuera are so close to each other, much discussion and uncertainty arise from this issue. However, the examples hold good. 61.2.4.5 Abajo and debajo, and delante and adelante also reveal differences in usage, largely between Iberian Spanish and that of Spanish America. In Iberian Spanish, debajo de is frequently replaced in colloquial Spanish American by abajo de. Compare the two following sentences. El puente peatonal se incendió cuando el avión pasó por abajo de él (Spanish American). (The footbridge caught fire when the airplane went under it.) Pasé por debajo del puente. (I went under the bridge.) Similarly, the colloquial Spanish American abajo mío/tuyo/suyo, etc. meets little favor with speakers of Iberian Spanish, who prefer debajo de mí/ti/él, etc. Compare the two following sentences, which illustrate the difference between delante de and adelante de. La mujer se puso adelante del auto para evitar que avanzara (Clarín). (The woman placed herself in front of the car in order to stop it moving forward.) Estoy delante de vosotros en la cola. (I am in front of you in the line/queue.)

346

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

The Argentinian preference for adelante de contrasts with delante de of Iberian Spanish, heard more commonly also in Colombia and Mexico. 61.2.5 Certain adverbs in colloquial usage are used in a way that meets with serious and logical disapproval that it is important to recognize. The following adverbs are repeated from the list above. abajo, adelante, adentro, alrededor, arriba, atrás, cerca, debajo, delante, detrás, encima, enfrente, lejos In R1 language, these adverbs may be followed by a possessive pronoun, and even agree, on occasions, if the gender varies, thus compounding the solecism. However, such a construction with agreement has little to recommend it. alrededor tuyo/a (around you), arriba suyo/a (above him/her), cerca mío/a (near me), encima mío/a (on top of me), enfrente mío/a (opposite me) In more formal, standard language (R2), the following are recommended: alrededor de mí, encima de mí, cerca de mí/él, enfrente de ella/nosotros. However, even in cultured circles, the combination of the above adverbs of place and possessive pronoun are acceptable in Argentina, while Argentinian Spanish is also comfortable with adelante mío (in front of me), an expression not found in Iberian Spanish, or elsewhere in the Americas for that matter. 61.2.6 Adverbs of degree or quantity (See also Chapter 73 on comparative and superlatives for a fuller treatment of some of these adverbs.) a lo menos (at least), a lo sumo (at most), además (besides), algo (somewhat), a medias (by halves), apenas (hardly), bastante (enough), casi (almost), cuanto (as much), demasiado (too much), harto (enough), más (more), más bien (rather), mejor (better), menos (less), medio (half), mucho (much), muy (very), peor (worse), poco (not very), sobremanera (R3; (excessively), tanto (so much) Es algo difícil. (It’s somewhat difficult.) Apenas duerme. (She hardly sleeps.) Está casi terminado. (It’s almost finished.) Me fastidia sobremanera. (She annoys me intensely.) Se quedaron medio atónitos ante la sorpresa. (They were half-stunned by the surprise.) Pagamos a medias. (We paid half each.) Me lo comí a medias. (I ate half of it.) Note that a medio is used before an infinitive (a past participle is not possible here). Estaba la tarea a medio terminar. (The task was half-finished.) El pequeño estaba a medio vestir cuando lo fui a buscar. (The child was half-dressed when I went to fetch him.) Although medio as an adverb is invariable, it is not unusual to find agreement in Argentina. Such an agreement must inevitably attract censure, and would be inconceivable in Iberian Spanish. Está media loca. (She’s half mad.) Estaba sólo media casada. (She was only half married.) 61.2.7 Other adverbs adrede (on purpose), aposta (deliberately), asimismo (likewise), así (thus), aun (even), como (as), contrariamente (in opposition), consecuentemente (consequently), en consecuencia (consequently), chance (M; possibly), etcétera (etcetera), incluso (even), justo (precisely), justamente (precisely), no obstante (however), por consiguiente (consequently), por tanto (therefore), sólo (only), sin embargo (however), siquiera (even), viceversa (viceversa)

Adverbs

61.2.8

61.2.9

61.2.10

61.2.11

347

Chance is not used as an adverb in A and C, although, as in M, it is used as a noun in these two countries. Sólo has the same meaning as solamente. Así quedó el otro coche. (That’s how the other car ended up.) Me llamo así porque así me pusieron. (That’s what I’m called because that’s the name they gave me.) Estaba muy animada, incluso habladora. (She was very enthusiastic, even talkative.) “Te insultó sin darse cuenta”. “Yo creo que lo hizo adrede”. (“He insulted you without realizing.” “I think he did it deliberately.”) ¿Lo rompiste aposta? (Did you break it on purpose?) Chance y vendrá. ([S]he’ll probably come.) Adverbial expressions without the article and in the plural (except de pie) a ciegas (blindly), a escondidas (secretly), a gatas (on all fours), a medias (by halves), a solas (alone, privately), de oídas (by hearsay), de pie (standing), de rodillas (on your knees), en ayunas (fasting), en cueros (R1; naked) No había luz y fui a ciegas a mi recámara (M)/habitación. (There was no light, so I couldn’t see when I went to my room.) Me dijo a escondidas que. . . (She told me in secret that. . .) Los niños aprenden a andar a gatas muy pronto. (Children learn to crawl very quickly.) Todo lo arregla a medias. (He only does things by halves.) Marta pasó toda la noche a solas. (Marta spent all night alone.) More adverbial phrases a bocajarro (point blank), a gusto (at ease), a más no poder (with all your might), a más tardar (at the latest), a regañadientes (reluctantly), a sus anchas (at your ease), a veces (at times), con respecto a/de (with respect to), cuanto antes (as soon as possible), de cuando en cuando (occasionally), de improviso (unexpectedly), de par en par (wide open [door]), de vez en cuando (occasionally), en cuanto a (with respect to), en lo que se refiere a (with respect to), gota a gota (drop by drop), poco a poco (little by little), respecto a (with respect to), sin ton ni son (with no reason) Disfrutamos a más no poder. (We enjoyed ourselves enormously.) Regresaremos el lunes a más tardar. (We’ll be back by Monday at the latest.) En tu casa me siento a mis anchas. (I feel really at home in your house.) Mándamelo cuanto antes. (Send it to me as soon as possible.) La puerta estaba abierta de par en par. (The door was wide open.) Voy al teatro de vez en cuando. (I go to the theater on occasions.) Estuve a gusto en tu casa. (I felt comfortable in your house.) Lo hice sin ton ni son. (I did it for no reason.) Le dispararon dos tiros a bocajarro. (They shot him twice at close range.) Me dieron la noticia a bocajarro. (They gave me the news just like that.) En cuanto a su actuación. . . (As far as her performance is concerned. . .) En cuanto a hacerlo ahora. . . (As far as doing it now. . .) Con respecto a/de su obra. . . (With respect to his work. . .) Many of these adverbial phrases are restricted to certain verbs. Lo miró de hito en hito. (She stared at him.) Le hizo la pregunta a quemarropa. (He suddenly shot the question at her.) Many of these adverbial expressions may be further extended by the addition of other adverbs. Entró muy de golpe. (He suddenly came in.) Lo toma demasiado a la ligera. (She takes it too lightly.) The preposition a may be joined to a following word (some of these appear above).

348

61.2.12

61.2.13

61.2.14

61.2.15

A Reference Grammar of Spanish abajo (down), acaso (perhaps), adelante (forwards), ahora (now), anoche (last night), apenas (scarcely), arriba (up), atrás (backwards) Espérame abajo. (Wait for me downstairs.) Acaso hayan muerto ya. (Perhaps they have already died.) El batallón siguió adelante. (The battalion went forward.) Apenas se le oye. (You can hardly hear him/her.) Tus papás (M) están arriba. (Your parents are upstairs.) Anoche la (M)/lo pasamos muy bien. (We had a good time last night.) Preposition + Definite Article + another word al contado (in cash), a la ligera (lightly), al momento (instantly), al raso (in the open air), en el acto (instantly), por lo pronto (for the time being), por lo regular (usually), por lo tanto (consequently) ¿Quieres pagar al contado? (Do you want to pay cash?) Llamamos al mesero (M)/camarero y vino al momento. (We called the waiter and he came straightaway.) Tuvimos que pasar la noche al raso. (We had to spend the night in the open air.) El conductor del vehículo falleció en el acto. (The vehicle’s driver died at the wheel.) Without the article and in the singular de buena gana (willingly), de buen grado (willingly), de balde (gratis, free), de inmediato (immediately), de mala gana (unwillingly), de nuevo (again), en resumen (in short), en seguida (at once), por consiguiente (consequently), por supuesto (of course), por fin (finally), por último (at last) Yo no hago ese trabajo de balde. (I won’t do that work for nothing.) De mala gana iría allí. (I won’t go there willingly.) De buena gana me iría de vacaciones. (I’d willingly go on vacation.) Cuando lo veas de nuevo, dile que llame. (When you see him again, tell him to give me a call.) “¿Puedo sentarme?” “Por supuesto” (“May I sit down?” “Of course.”) Y ya, por último les hablaré de. . . (And then, finally, I’ll speak to them about. . .) Adverbs of manner The adverbs of manner are much more numerous than all the others. Most of them are adverbial phrases, or adverbs formed from adjectives by the addition of -mente (see Section 61.1, above, for the latter). a codazos (with your elbows), a gritos (shouting), a patadas (kicking), a puñaladas (with a dagger), a puñetazos (punching, with your fists), a sabiendas (wittingly), a tientas (groping, tentatively), al por mayor (wholesale), al por menor (retail), bien (well), de antemano (beforehand), de improviso (unnexpectedly), de propósito (on purpose), mal (badly) vender al por mayor/menor (to sell wholesale/retail) Yo sabía de antemano que. . . (I knew beforehand that. . .) Toca mal el piano. (She plays the piano badly.) Reventó la puerta a patadas. (He kicked the door down.) Pidieron ayuda a gritos. (They shouted for help.) Mató al policía a puñaladas. (He stabbed the policeman to death.) Se abrió camino a codazos. (She elbowed her way through.) Terminaron la discusión a puñetazos. (The discussion ended in a brawl.) Adverbs involving doubt acaso/quizá(s)/tal vez (perhaps), apenas (scarcely), difícilmente (hardly, improbably), posiblemente (possibly) Acaso/quizá(s)/taz vez venga hoy. (Perhaps she’ll come today.) Los distingo difícilmente. (I can hardly make them out.)

Adverbs

349

61.2.16 Adverbs involving affirmation and negation ¡Así es! (That’s it!), ciertamente (certainly), ¡Claro! (That’s right!), de acuerdo (O.K.), desde luego (of course), ¡Eso no! ( Not that!), ¡Eso sí! (That’s it!), jamás/nunca (never), nada (not at all), ni. . . ni (neither. . . nor), por supuesto (of course), por cierto (certainly), realmente (really), sin duda (undoubtedly), seguro (certainly), tampoco (neither) “¿Puedes venir?” “Por supuesto.” (“Can you come?” “Of course.”) No conozco a su madre. A su padre tampoco. (I don’t know her mother, or her father.) 61.2.17 Like adjectives, adverbs may have a superlative form. But, since -mente + -ísimo produces a very heavy, indeed clumsy, form, it is not very frequent. Llegó rapidísimamente. (She arrived very quickly.) Respondió habilísimamente. (He answered most skilfully.) On the other hand, pésimo, already a superlative form, gives pésimamente, which is easier to handle. Jugaron pésimamente y perdieron siete cero. (They played terribly and lost seven nil.) 61.2.18 A reduced number of other adverbs have a superlative form, and these tend to occur in colloquial usage. cerca > cerquísima, despacio > despacísimo, lejos > lejísimos, mal > malísimo, mucho > muchísimo, poco > poquísimo, pronto > prontísimo, tarde > tardísimo 61.2.19 Some adverbs have an augmentative form: abajo > abajote, arriba > arribota, lejos > lejotes. Some also have a diminutive form: cerca > cerquita, deprisa > deprisita, despacio > despacito, enseguida > enseguidita, pronto > prontito. 61.2.20 When an adjective is invariable, the adverb can change in the superlative form as though the adjective were variable: amable > amabilísimamente, reciente > recentísimamente. 61.2.21 Some compound adverbs may be written in two ways. de prisa/deprisa, en frente/enfrente, en seguida/enseguida, entre tanto/entretanto 61.2.22 English and Spanish differ greatly in the ways in which they convey manner and direction of movement. English tends to use a verb to express manner, and a preposition to express direction; in Spanish, the verb normally expresses direction, while a gerund or other adverbial phrase expresses manner. Avanzó a gatas hacia la pared. (She crawled towards the wall.) Cruzó el río a nado. (She swam across the river.) Bajé de puntillas la escalera. (I tiptoed down the stairs.) Pasaron por encima del muro. (They climbed over the wall.) Avanzó a ciegas. (He went blindly forward.) (See Chapter 54 for a fuller treatment of verbs + adverbs expressing movement.) 61.2.23 Lo, with the value of how, may be used with an adverb, just as it is used with adjectives. No te puedes imaginar lo fácilmente que encontró la solución. (You can’t imagine how easily she found the solution.) No saben lo bien que le viene que Uds. estén allá. (You don’t know how well it turns out for her that you are there.)

Part VII

62 Prepositions / Preposiciones This chapter covers the basic prepositions. For compound prepositions, see Chapter 63. The passage below constitutes a small dialogue between Pedro, a Mexican police officer and his superior. Pedro’s shady drug dealings do not seem to offend his boss, but he certainly offends him by apparently insulting the boss’s mother. The passage contains typical uses of some prepositions, and some compound prepositions, as well as considerable Mexican terms. Oiga, mi comandante, —decía tembloroso el policía Pedro Gómez a su jefe—, ya sé que en mi trabajo me salté (I disobeyed) sus órdenes, que acepté mordidas (bribes) por parte de los (comerciantes) ambulantes y que trancé (cheated) con la mariguana decomisada ayer. Jefe, ¡no me corra! (Don’t fire me!) Fíjese señor comandante que lo hice porque ya no me alcanza la lana (I haven’t got enough cash). Todo subió cien por ciento: desde el huevo hasta el papel de baño. No se me enoje. (Don’t get angry with me.) Haga de mí lo que quiera, pero no me deje morir de hambre. ¡Acuérdese que somos compadres! No sé lo que le hayan dicho, pero yo nunca le menté (offended) su madre. Yo seguiré siendo su mayor y mas fiel servidor, y también su tapadera (cover). ¡Se lo juro sobre la tumba de mi madrecita santa que está en el cielo (in heaven)! Pues yo deseaba platicar con usted para felicitarlo tras el aseguramiento (confiscation) de la droga y la destrucción de los plantíos (crops); por ser usted un hombre muy dedicado a sus labores. . . Pero, según entiendo, usted habló de mi madre, a la que tan sólo por edad usted debería respetar; yo tolero todo, pero insultar a mi madrecita santa ¡no se lo permito a nadie!. . . ¡Váyase de mi vista. . . y cuando salga, cierre la puerta, por fuera! Competent and accurate handling of prepositions is as sure a mark as any of a speaker’s ease in a foreign language. The main problem for an English-speaker speaking Spanish is knowing when to use the same preposition as in English, when to use a different one, or whether to use one at all. The simplest use of prepositions is to express the relations of things, or words with syntactic independence, to each other, with respect to time, place, aim, means, manner, possession, quantity, measurement, cause, purpose, accompaniment, support, opposition, concession, exception and reference. Such prepositions in English are against, for, in, out, before, under, over. They extend, however, to many other relations, and especially to the relations between adjectives or verbs and the nouns or pronouns to which they apply. They are unaccented words, except for según, and are invariable. They have no meaning by themselves, except in colloquial expressions such as: “Estoy enojado (A, M)/enfadado.” “¿Por?” (“I’m angry.” “Because?”) There are two sorts of prepositions in Spanish: simple and compound. The simple prepositions are: a (at, to, in), ante (before), bajo (under), con (with), contra (against), de (of, from), desde (from, since), durante (during), en (in, into, at, on), entre (between, among), excepto (except), hacia (towards, about, for), hasta (until, to, up to), mediante (by means of, through), para 353

354

A Reference Grammar of Spanish (for; see Chapter 66), por (for, by; see Chapter 66), salvo (except, save), según (according to), sin (without), sobre (on, about, over), tras (after, behind)

62.1 Uses of “a” This preposition indicates movement. 62.1.1 a with the meanings to, at, in Vamos a Nueva York. (We are going to New York.) Llegamos a Los Ángeles. (We arrived in Los Angeles.) Se sentó a la mesa/puerta. (She sat at the table/door.) Mi bolígrafo ha caído al suelo. (My pen has fallen to the floor.) Se subió al camión (M). (She got on the bus.) La portera se asomó a la ventana. (The concierge appeared at the window.) Haré un viaje a Asia. (I’ll go on a trip to Asia.) He hecho una salida al campo. (I’ve been out to the country.) El barco hacía rumbo a África. (The boat was sailing towards Africa.) 62.1.1.1 When movement is expressed with donde, a often precedes it as a suffix. Voy al pueblito adonde voy cada año. (I’m going to the village where I go every year.) But a need not be a suffix. Vino a donde yo estaba. (She came to where I was.) In the interrogative form, adónde is used in standard Spanish, but dónde occurs in colloquial language. ¿Adónde vas?/¿Dónde vas? (Where are you going?) 62.1.1.2 Movement with a can imply intention. ¿Á qué vienes? (What do you want?/What are you here for?) Vengo a pedirte un DVD. (I’ve come to ask you for a DVD.) 62.1.1.3 Similarly, a + infinitive can suggest an idea of finality. Se paró a contemplar el paisaje. (She stopped to contemplate the countryside.) Se quedó/sentó a comer. (He remained/sat down to eat.) No te detengas a mirar los escaparates/aparadores (M)/las vidrieras (A). (Don’t stop to look at the shop windows.) In the final example, para could be used. If the idea is intention, para (what for?) would be used. ¿Para qué fuiste a Rosario? (What did you go to Rosario for?) 62.1.2 a in time expressions: a las tres de la tarde (at three in the afternoon), al mediodía (at midday), al día siguiente (on the following day), a la noche/mañana/tarde (tonight/tomorrow morning/this afternoon/evening), a principios de semana/mes/año (at the beginning of the week/ month/year). a inicios de semana/mes/año (at the beginning of the week/month/year), a mediados de semana/mes/año (in the middle of the week/month/year), a mitad de año (halfway through the year), a media mañana/tarde/semana (mid-morning/afternoon/ week), a finales/fines de semana/mes/año (towards the end of the week/month/year), a últimos de mes/año (towards the end of the month/year), a los diecinueve años (at nineteen years of age), a los cinco minutos (five minutes later), a los cinco minutos de llegar/haber llegado (five minutes after arriving/having arrived), al poco rato (a little later), estudiar y ver la televisión a la par (to study at the same time as watching television), al año de salir (a year after leaving), a los tres días de la reunión (three days after the meeting), al mismo tiempo (at the same time), a tiempo (in time), a primera vista (at first sight), a corto/medio/largo plazo (in the short/medium/long term), trabajar a tiempo completo/parcial (to work full-/part-time), llegar a deshora/destiempo (to arrive at the wrong time) 62.1.3 a expressing rate

Prepositions

62.1.4

62.1.5

62.1.6

62.1.7

355

día a día (day by day), paso a paso (step by step), uno a uno/de uno en uno (one by one), a docenas/millares (by the dozen/thousand), tres veces a la semana (three times a week), a diario (daily), a razón de dos por persona (at the rate of two per person), ¿A cuánto se vende el carro? (How much is the car [being sold for]?), a cuarenta pesos el kilo (at forty pesos per kilo), Lo vende al litro (She sells it by the liter), vender al por menor/mayor (to sell retail/wholesale), a cuarenta kilómetros por hora (at forty kilometers an hour), Tenemos libros a granel (We have tons of books [often suggests disorder]), La cosecha ha sido a granel (There’s been an abundant crop), a menudo (often), a veces (at times), un empate a cero/un gol (zero zero/nil nil/one-all draw) a expressing manner a la mexicana/a lo mexicano/al estilo mexicano (a lo + is of a higher register than a la + (in Mexican style), a mi manera/modo (in my way), a la manera1 de Goya (in the style of Goya), pagar al contado (to pay cash), a mi costa/a toda costa (at my cost/at all costs), al revés/a la inversa (the opposite way/vice versa), tomar algo a la ligera (to take something lightly), Canta a la perfección (She sings perfectly), a la moda/de moda (in fashion), a mi juicio/entender/parecer/modo de ver2 (in my opinion), a la larga (in the long run) a expressing position caer al agua/suelo (to fall into the water/to the ground), al aire libre (in the open air), Suben a bordo de un barco (They board a boat), a medio de camino (halfway [there]), a mitad de camino (halfway [there]), al contacto con (in contact with), a la derecha (on the right), a la izquierda (on the left), al otro lado (on the other side), a lo lejos (in the distance), a la mesa (at the table), al sol (in the sun), a la sombra (in the shade), estar al teléfono (to be on the telephone),3 llevar a cuestas (to carry on your back), jugar a domicilio (to play at home [in sport]), a escala internacional/nacional (on an international/national scale), Se miró al espejo/en el espejo (She looked at herself in the mirror), al fondo del pozo/jardín (at the bottom of the well/yard/garden),4 estudiar a fondo (to study in depth), Llevaba el conejo al hombro (He carried the rabbit over his shoulder), Sacaron al torero a hombros por la puerta grande (They carried the bullfighter on their shoulders through the main gate [suggests honor]), a la intemperie (in the open air [often suggests bad weather]), a la luz de nuestros informes/del día (in the light of our information/of day), a nivel literario/ internacional (on a literary/international level), a orillas del río/mar (on the riverbank/ seashore), tocar una melodía al piano/en el piano (to play a melody on the piano), Dormimos al raso (We slept in the open air), varios kilómetros a la redonda (several kilometers around), Estuvimos a diez kilómetros del pueblito (A, C, M) (We were ten kilometers from the village; a is necessary here) a expressing instrument hecho a mano/máquina (hand-/machine-made), un cuadro al óleo (an oil painting), un dibujo a pluma/lápiz (a drawing in pen/pencil) Verbs, nouns and adjectives indicating perception are often followed by a. These include: aroma, oler/olor, fragancia, saber/sabor, hedor, apestar (R1), perfume, sonar, tocar. Este líquido tiene un aroma a flores (This liquid has a smell of flowers/smells of flowers). Huele a comida. (Smells like food.) 1

Notice that manera/modo (also forma) does not always take a), as in the following: de una manera/de un modo elegante/de una forma elegante (in an elegant way) De manera elegante, etc. is of a lower register than de una manera elegante, etc. 2 But: en mi opinión (in my opinion). 3 But: llamar por teléfono (to phone). 4 But: en el fondo (fundamentally, basically).

356

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

¡Qué olor a comida hay por aquí! (What a smell of food there is round here!) Me gusta esta fragancia a mimosa (also de). (I like this fragrance of mimosa). Esta pasta sabe a queso. (This pasta tastes of/like cheese.) Esta pasta dentífrica tiene sabor a menta. (This toothpaste tastes of/like mint.) Este hedor a vómitos me da náuseas. (This reek of vomit makes me feel sick.) La carne apesta a carroña. (The meat reeks of carrion.) Esta excusa sonó a cuento. (This excuse sounded like a tall story [i.e. untrue].) El soldado tocó a rebato. (The soldier sounded the alarm.) Un perfume a rosas is just possible, but un perfume de rosas is more normal. 62.1.8 Adverbial idioms with a There are many adverbial idioms of manner in Spanish formed on the pattern a + singular or plural noun, and a + feminine plural adjective or noun. Some of the most common are listed below. estar a sus anchas (to be at ease), tomar a pecho (to take to heart), *Lo/Le mataron a balazos (They shot him dead),5 a duras penas (with great difficulty), a caballo (on horseback), saber a punto fijo (to know for certain), Llueve a cántaros (It’s pouring with rain), Lo convencí a fuerza de argumentos (I convinced him with arguments), avanzar a ciegas (to go forward blindly), a regañadientes (reluctantly), a ciencia cierta (for sure), a la corta o a la larga (sooner or later), a solas (alone), *Se abrió paso a empujones (He pushed his way through), *Avanzó a tientas (He groped his way forwards), a escondidas (covertly, stealthily), a todo meter (with great intensity), *Entró a hurtadillas (He crept in), a trechos (occasionally), a oscuras (in the dark), a trompicones (in fits and starts), estar a la altura de las circunstancias (to rise to the occasion), a brazo partido (fearlessly, wildly), a favor de/en favor de (in favor of), al otro lado de (on the other side of), al lado de (at the side of), a raíz de (immediately after), a partir de (starting from), junto a (next to), saber a ciencia cierta (to know for certain), estar al corriente (to be well informed), *Lo metieron a empellones (They pushed him through), Lo criticó a sus espaldas (He criticized him behind his back), Hay que hacerlo a la fuerza (I/You, etc. have to do it whether I/you, etc. like it or not), *avanzar a gatas (to crawl forwards), vivir a lo grande (to live in great style), Estoy a gusto aquí (I am happy here), El delegado lo hizo a instancias (R3) del diputado (The delegate did it at the representative’s request), un ataque a mano armada (an armed attack), hacerlo a medias (to do it partly), a lo mejor (perhaps), llorar a moco tendido (to cry your eyes out), a los ojos de Pedro (in Pedro’s eyes [i.e. point of view]), *Lo echaron a patadas/puntapiés (They kicked him out), Fui a pie (I went on foot), dormir a pierna suelta (to sleep soundly), saber a punto fijo (to know for certain), *Lo derribaron a puñetazos (They punched him to the ground), Me hizo la pregunta a quemarropa (He asked me point-blank), Cumplió mis órdenes a rajatabla (He carried out my orders completely), Me atacó a sabiendas de que no podía defenderme (He attacked me with the full knowledge that I could not defend myself), *Se enfrentaron a tiros (They shot at each other), a todo correr (at full speed), a todo gas (R1; top speed), a todo meter (with great intensity), a tontas y a locas (haphazardly), a trancas y barrancas (with great difficulty), a trechos (occasionally), a troche y moche (anyhow, helter-skelter), a trompicones (in fits and starts), un comunista a ultranza (a committed 5

Notice here (and in other phrases in this list marked with an asterisk) that the English and the Spanish are quite different. We see an inversion of the verb and the adverbial expression. The Spanish verb corresponds to the English adverbial expression, while the Spanish adverbial expression corresponds to the English verb. This marks a real difference between the two languages. (See Chapter 54 on verbs of movement for a full treatment of this topic.)

Prepositions

357

communist), luchar a ultranza (to fight to the end), a vista de pájaro (with a bird’s-eye view), Protestó a voz en grito (She protested at the top of her voice), jugar al fútbol (only in Iberian Spanish; jugar futbol in A, C, M) (to play soccer), jugar al ajedrez/a las damas (to play chess/checkers/draughts), Se reía a carcajadas (She was laughing aloud), *La sangre le manó de la herida a borbotones (The blood flooded from his wound) 62.1.9 Other complex prepositional expressions with a Conforme a lo convenido. . . (Following what is agreed. . .) Al contrario de su hermano. . . (In contrast to her brother. . .) Salieron a pesar de la lluvia. (They went out despite the rain.) Con respecto a sus estudios. . . (With respect to her studies. . .) Respecto al viaje. . . (With respect to the trip. . .) En cuanto a Guatemala. . . (As for Guatemala. . .) A causa de las tormentas. . . (Because of the storms. . .) No están a la altura de las circunstancias. (They are not up to the task.) Usaba un palo a guisa de bastón. (R3; He used a stick as a walking stick.) A raíz de sus declaraciones, hubo una gran polémica. (Because of his statements, there was a big polemic.) Te doy un consejo a título de amigo. (I give you advice as a friend.) Junto al árbol había una tumba. (Next to the tree there was a grave.) The use of a with the following nouns invites censure from grammarians. cocina a gas/camisa a rayas (gas cooker/striped shirt), avión a reacción/aparato a pilas (jet plane/battery-driven apparatus), vehículos a motor (engine-driven vehicles), pantalón a cuadros/tapiz a franjas (checked pants/tapestry/carpet with fringe) Consensual opinion pleads for de in these cases (e.g. camisa de rayas), although avión a reacción seems to have won the day, together with olla a presión (pressure cooker). 62.1.9.1 Remarks on the construction: noun + a + infinitive The following expressions with a have caused much ink to flow: tarea a realizar (task to be carried out), tengo un asunto urgente a ventilar (I have an urgent matter to discuss), el problema a resolver (a problem that needs to be solved). This formula was once denounced as a gallicism, but has refused to go away. The fact is that it simplifies what would still be a clumsy way of expressing oneself: Es una tarea que hay que realizar. Much more flexible but little used is: una tarea que realizar. Por is also a possibility, but meets with little favor: tarea por realizar. Seco’s Diccionario de dudas seems to admit (only grudgingly) the formula, to which he brings support in the way in which Spanish-speakers deal with figures: A deducir: 200 euros (To be deducted: 200 euros). While suggesting that Spanish writers try to avoid the formula, Seco refers to the RAE which tolerates such administrative or banking locutions as: total a pagar, efectos a cobrar (money to collect), cantidades a deducir, asuntos a tratar. Yet this pattern is not followed with: terreno para vender (land for sale), piso/departamento para alquilar/rentar (apartment to let), and so on. This is unquestionably an unresolved issue still entailing much linguistic polemic. 62.1.10 Note the use of a + disjunctive pronoun, in a metaphoric sense, said in response to “Gracias”. “Gracias”. “A ti/a Ud.” (“Thank you.” “It’s a pleasure.”)

62.2 Uses of “ante” (see also Section 63.2.5 on “delante de”) Ante suggests the idea of face to face. Is also used figuratively. Se arrodilla ante el altar. (She kneels before the altar.)

358

A Reference Grammar of Spanish ante el tribunal (before the court) Comparece ante el capitán/juez. (He appears before the captain/the judge.) ante las circunstancias (in the circumstances) anteanoche/anteayer (the day before yesterday/yesterday; these two are in fact adverbs) ante el miedo que manifestaba el hombre (seeing the fear shown by the man) ante la amenaza de guerra (faced with the threat of war)

62.3 Uses of “bajo” In its literal meaning, it is often replaced by debajo de (see Section 63.2.3), but in its figurative meaning it is very common. dos grados bajo cero (menos dos grados in M) (two degrees below zero) bajo la lluvia (in the rain) bajo el puente (under the bridge) Colocó las zapatillas bajo la cama. (She placed the slippers/sneakers/trainers under the bed.) bajo el mando de (under the command of) bajo sus órdenes (at your command) bajo ningún pretexto (on no account) bajo el rey Felipe Segundo (under King Philip II) bajo ciertas condiciones (under certain conditions) bajo el dominio colonial/británico/la dominación musulmana (under colonial/British/ Muslim rule) bajo la batuta de (under the baton of [a conductor ) bajo fianza (on bail) bajo palabra (on one’s word) bajo pena de muerte (under pain of death) bajo ningún pretexto (on no account) bajo la recomendación de (on the recommendation of) bajo la protección de (under protection of)

62.4 Uses of “con” 62.4.1 In association: café con leche (white coffee) una cartera con dinero (a billfold/wallet with money) Paso las vacaciones con la familia. (I spend the vacation with my family.) Juego con el otro equipo. (I play with the other team.) una tarta con fresas (a strawberry tart) Vino con mi padre. (She came with my father.) 62.4.2 Concession: Con ser tan antiguo lo postergaron. (Because he was so old, they passed him over/did not promote him.) Con llorar no se arregla nada. (Crying won’t get you anywhere.) 62.4.3 Instrument: Abrí la lata con un destornillador/desarmador (M). (I opened the tin with a screwdriver.) Se defendió con un puñal. (He defended himself with a dagger.) 62.4.4 Cause: Está contenta con el resultado/Ud. (She is happy with the result/you.) Me cansé con tanto escribir. (I got tired of writing so much.)

Prepositions

359

una mujer con muy mal humor (a woman in a really bad mood) 62.4.5 Expressing manner: Con with a noun is sometimes chosen instead of adverbs ending in -mente, in order to avoid a heavy or clumsy expression. con cabeza desnuda (bareheaded), con voz ronca (in a hoarse voice, hoarsely), con claridad (claramente) (clearly), con agrado (agradablemente) (pleasantly), con desagrado (desagradablemente) (with displeasure), con locura (locamente) (madly), con sequedad (secamente) (dryly), Trabaja con celo (celosamente). (She works zealously.) 62.4.6 With relation: Habla con ella. (Speak to her.) Se puso de acuerdo con el enemigo. (He came to an agreement with the enemy.) 62.4.7 With contents: un barco con víveres (a boat with supplies) una granja con todas sus dependencias (a farm with all its outhouses) un bote con mermelada (a jar of jam/marmalade) In the final example, Un bote de mermelada could mean a marmalade jar with nothing in it. Furthermore, un bote con mermelada could mean a jar that had been bought containing, for example, sauce and is now used for marmalade. 62.4.8 With complex prepositional expressions: con arreglo a la ley (in accordance with the law) con miras al futuro (with a view to the future) con motivo/objeto de escaparse (with the intention of escaping) con ocasión de su coronación (on the occasion of her coronation) con relación a (in relation to; also en relación con) (con) respecto a (with regard to) El barco salió (con) rumbo a Los Ángeles. (The boat set sail for Los Angeles.) un acuerdo con vistas a las próximas elecciones (an agreement with a view to the next elections)

62.5 Uses of “contra” (see also Section 63.2.15 on “en contra de”) Contra used literally and figuratively: Dejó la escalera contra la pared. (He left the ladder against the wall.) una campaña contra el cáncer (a campaign against cancer) Recibe un regalo contra entrega de bono. (He receives a present for handing in the voucher.) la lucha contra el enemigo (the struggle against the enemy) Las posibilidades son uno contra diez (not una contra). (The possibilities are one in ten.)

62.6 Uses of “de” 62.6.1 Indicating possession and belonging (corresponding to the English genitive [’s, s’]): el dinero de tu madre (your mother’s money) Esta casa es de mis papás (M). (This house is my parents’.) una calle de Oaxaca (a street in Oaxaca) el coche del director (the director’s car) la venta del piso/departamento (A, C, M) (the sale of the apartment) 62.6.2 Indicating direction or distance from: de Córdoba a Sevilla (from Cordoba to Seville) Vienen de Guanajuato. (They come from Guanajuato.)

360

62.6.3

62.6.4

62.6.5

62.6.6

62.6.7

62.6.8

62.6.9

A Reference Grammar of Spanish empezar de cero (to start from zero) Estamos a cien kilómetros de Puebla. (We are a hundred kilometers from Puebla.) pasar de puerta en puerta (to go from door to door) Expressing direction to: el camino del pueblo (the way to the town) el tren de Salamanca6 (the train to Salamanca) el camión (M)/autocar procedente de Acapulco (the bus from Acapulco) más acá de Mendoza (this side of Mendoza) más allá de Ciudad Juárez (beyond Ciudad Juárez) In expressions of time: de mañana en ocho días (in a week’s time [eight days from tomorrow]) de. . .en > de año en año (from. . . to > from year to year) de vez/cuando en cuando/de vez en vez (from time to time) de momento (at the moment) Origin: Es de Chihuahua. (She’s from Chihuahua.) Soy de Buenos Aires. (I’m from Buenos Aires.) (Estar is not used in this context). Material from which something is made: una estatua de/en bronce/mármol (a bronze/marble statue) una joya de oro (a gold jewel) flores de papel (paper flowers) un vestido de seda (a silk dress) Note also the cognate use of de with the verb hacer. De is not to be omitted here. Su dedicación hace de ella una gran actriz. (Her dedication makes her a great actress.) El paisaje hace de México un país muy atractivo. (The countryside makes Mexico a very attractive country.) El político hizo de este mundo un sitio mejor. (The politician made this world a better place.) Hicieron de ella una santa. (They made her a saint.) De is often used when preceded by a past participle. La casa está rodeada de árboles. (The house is surrounded by trees.) La mesa está cubierta de un mantel. (The table is covered with a tablecloth.) Estuvo manchado de sangre (He was stained in blood.) Es admirada de todos. (She is admired by all.) Estuvo acompañada de Ana. (She was accompanied by Ana.) El nombre es/está/va precedido de un adjetivo. (The noun is preceded by an adjective.) El adjetivo está seguido de un nombre. (The adjective is followed by a noun.) Por would replace de with difficulty in the last two examples, since it suggests a much stronger and more concrete action. (See Section 66.3.1 on por.) Por could easily replace de in: Es admirada de todos and Estuvo acompañada de Ana. De is used to express cause. Temblaba de miedo. (She was trembling with fear.) Lloró de risa. (She cried with laughter.) Su mamá murió de cáncer. (Her mother died from cancer.) Murió de tristeza. (She died from sadness.) 6 The de in this example may be ambiguous. To make sure you don’t get on the wrong train and go the wrong way, use procedente de for origin, as in the third example. After all, de can indicate from. Desde is also more clear-cut than de (see Section 62.7, below, on desde).

Prepositions

62.6.10 62.6.11

62.6.12

62.6.13

62.6.14

62 6.15

62.6.16 62.6.17

62.6.18

361

Lloramos de alegría. (We wept for joy.) Rabia de impaciencia. (He’s angry with impatience.) Se estremeció de frío. (She shivered with cold.) Balaba la oveja de hambre. (The sheep bleated from hunger.) De expresses concern > about. No sé nada de eso. (I know nothing of that.) Introducing a description or specifying phrase: el chico del pelo largo (the boy with long hair), la casa de al lado (the house next door), sordo del oído izquierdo (deaf in his left ear), colombiano de nacimiento (Colombian by birth), peluquero de profesión (hairdresser by profession), un instrumento de percusión/ cuerda/viento (a percussion/string/woodwind instrument) To indicate type, purpose or content: un buque de vapor (a steamship), una máquina de escribir (a typewriter), una máquina de coser/afeitar (a sewing machina/electric razor/shaver) De also links nouns in apposition. la ciudad de Buenos Aires/México (the city of Buenos Aires/Mexico City), el bribón de mi hermano (my rogue of a brother), un pícaro de tendero (a rogue of a storekeeper), el bueno de Juan/del viejo (good old Juan/the good old fellow), ese idiota de don Jorge (that don Jorge idiot), ¡Pobre de mí! (Woe is me!), ¡Infelices de Uds.! (Woe is you!), ¡Ay de mí! (Woe is me!) De is used for movement away from, pulling and hanging. Vi dos lámparas que colgaban del techo. (I saw two lamps hanging from the ceiling.) Se ahorcó de una rama. (He hanged himself from a branch.) asirse de una cuerda (to hang on to a rope) El agricultor tiraba de un carro. (The farmer was pulling a cart.) De in expressions of time: de antemano (beforehand), de día (by day), de inmediato (immediately), de joven (as a youth), de niño (as a child), de noche (by night), (muy) de mañana ([early] in the morning), (muy) de madrugada ([very] early in the morning), de hoy en adelante (from now on), embarazada de tres meses (three months pregnant) De in expressions of position: estar de pie (to be standing), estar de rodillas/de hinojos (R3) (to be kneeling) De in expressions of price and measurement: un timbre (M) de quince pesos (a fifteen peso stamp) El precio del carro es de veinte mil dólares. (The price of the car is twenty thousand dollars.) El aumento es del diez por ciento. (The increase is 10 percent.) El peso es de cinco kilos. (The weight is five kilos.) Había más de diez chicos. (There were more than ten boys.) La distancia es de cien kilómetros. (The distance is one hundred kilometers.) Tengo más de diez cuadros. (I have more than ten paintings.) De with professions or suggesting a social function (here followed by a noun): Hace de mesero (M)/camarero. (He works as a waiter.) trabajar de camarero (to work as a waiter) Ejerce de gerente. (He works as a manager.) Está de contable en la empresa. (She’s an accountant in the firm.) Actuaron de padrinos mis hermanos. (My brothers acted as godfathers.) aprobado de cirujano (certificated surgeon) asistir de oyente (to sit in on a class [but not officially enrolled, for example])

362

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

colocarse de criado (to find a job as a servant) disfrazarse de chino (to disguise yourself as a Chinese person) hacer de espía (to act as a spy) embarcarse de pasajero (to board as a passenger [not as personnel]) entrar de ayudante (to start as an assistant) graduarse de licenciado (to graduate with a degree) ofrececerse de acompañante (to offer to be a companion) ordenarse de sacerdote (to be ordained [as a priest]) poner a una persona de gobernador (to appoint a person as governor) recibirse de doctor (to graduate as a doctor, less used in Iberian Spanish) servir de mayordomo (to serve as a butler) Iban vestidos de paisano. (They were dressed in plain clothes.) 62.6.19 The notion of family can be expressed with de. la señora/viuda de Rodríguez (Mrs Rodríguez/the Rodríguez widow), la familia de Sánchez (the Sánchez family), los hijos de Valera (the Valera children) 62.6.20 The notion of quality or defect is often conveyed by verb + de + adjective. alardear/preciarse de valiente (to boast of being courageous) culpar de goloso (to be guilty of eating/liking too many candies) dárselas/echárselas de guapo/a (to presume to be good-looking) El joven presume de rico/guapo. (The youth thinks he’s rich/good-looking [and probably isn’t.) Lo tacharon de poco honrado. (They labeled him as dishonest.) 62.6.21 De in expressions of manner: de todas formas/maneras/de todos modos (in any case) de/en cierto modo/de cierta manera (in a certain way)7 La conozco de vista/nombre. (I know her by sight/name) tirarse de cabeza/pie (al agua) (to dive/jump [into the water ) marcar de penalti/de cabeza (to score from a penalty/header) Se alimentó de frutas. (He fed on fruit.) aprender de memoria (to learn by heart) dar de baja (to dismiss/discharge [often has a negative connotation ) El hospital dio de alta al enfermo. (The hospital discharged the patient.) dar de bofetadas (to slap [in the face]) encogerse de hombros (to shrug your shoulders) estar de regreso/vuelta (to be back [i.e. to have returned]) herido de gravedad (seriously injured/wounded) hincarse de rodillas (to kneel) ir de caza/de pesca/de vacaciones (to go hunting/fishing/on vacation) irrumpir de golpe (to burst in) llamar/tratar de tú a otro (to use tú to someone) pintar de azul/blanco (to paint blue/white) poner de relieve/manifiesto (to stress/highlight) quedar de pie (to remain standing) tenderse de espaldas/de bruces (to lie down on your back/face down) Además de hacerte mal, engorda. (Besides doing you harm it makes you fatter.) Luis tiene alrededor de treinta años. (Luis is about thirty years old.) 7

Note also that como is used in the following way, and not de: la manera como lo hice (the way [in which] I did it).

Prepositions

363

En vez de ayudar, estorba. (Instead of helping, he gets in the way.) 62.6.22 De is used with the way in which one is dressed. vestido de luto/paisano/militar/marinero (dressed in mourning/civilian clothes/military/ naval uniform), ir de militar/de paisano/de uniforme/de etiqueta/de gala (to go dressed in military uniform/in civilian clothes/in uniform/formal dress/full dress) 62.6.23 De indicates what an object is used for. botas de esquiar/montar (skiing/riding boots), botas de caminar (walking boots) 62.6.24 De can introduce a notion of interest or of a given subject. No entiendo de física. (I don’t understand physics.) Escribió de economía política. (He wrote on political economy.) Se examinó de matemáticas. (He took a math[s] exam.) El inculpado protestó de su inocencia. (The accused protested his innocence.) 62.6.25 Generally speaking, de is not used when referring to something uncountable, as in French or Italian (du pain, del pane = some bread). Thus: Quiero pan/vino/mantequilla. (I want bread/wine/butter.) But when the complement is specified, de + definite article is used = of the. Quiero del pan que acabas de hacer. (I want [some of] the bread you’ve just made.) Dame del vino que trajiste de Mendoza. (Give me [some of] the wine you brought from Mendoza.) 62.6.26 De is used with the meaning of on the subject of, concerning. ¿Qué ha sido de él/es de él? (What has happened/is happening to him?) ¿Qué hay de tu padre? (Any news about your father?) No sabemos nada de los hombres prehistóricos. (We know nothing of prehistoric man.) Sé de alguien que nos ayudará. (I know of someone who will help us.) apiadarse de un pobre (to take pity on a poor person) El padre cuidó de los niños. (The father looked after the children.) No me fío de nadie. (I don’t trust anyone.) Desconfío de la pandilla. (I distrust the gang.) Sospecho del criado. (I suspect the servant.) 62.6.27 Adjective + de + noun: un chico pequeño de boca pero recio de voz (a child with a small mouth but a powerful voice) 62.6.28 Other complex expressions and idioms with de: Yo no hago ese trabajo de balde. (I don’t do that work for free.)8 de buenas a primeras (suddenly) de costumbre (usually) La molestó pero obró de buena fe. (He troubled her, but he acted in good faith.) Lo hizo de buena/mala gana. (She did it [un]willingly.) Entró de golpe. (He burst in.) Nos ayudará de buen grado. (She’ll help us willingly.) Me miró de hito en hito. (She stared at me.) Llegó de improviso. (He arrived unexpectedly.) de un lado. . .de otro (on the one hand. . .on the other) Es de lejos el mejor futbolista. (He’s by far the best soccer player.) La falda esa está de moda. (That skirt is in fashion.) Lo hizo de nuevo. (She did it again.) Lo sé de oídas. (I learnt about it by hearsay.) Su novia toca el piano de oído. (His girlfriend plays the piano by ear.) De ordinario, no voy al cine. (Usually, I don’t go to the movies.) 8

Note that en balde = useless. See Section 62.9.6.

364

62.6.29

62.6.30

62.6.31

62.6.32

A Reference Grammar of Spanish La puerta estaba abierta de par en par. (The door was wide open.) Tu ayuda me vino de perilla. (R1; Your help came just at the right time.) El perro apareció de pronto/repente. (The dog suddenly appeared.) Me lo dieron de regalo. (They gave it to me as a present.) Tengo tiempo de sobra. (I have more than enough time.) El crío se bebió la leche de un tirón. (The baby drank the milk all in one go.) Lo bebió de un trago. (She gulped it down.) De trecho en trecho descansamos. (We occasionally rest.) ¿De veras?/¿De verdad? (Really?) Estaba de viaje/de visita cuando. . . (He was traveling/visiting when. . .) Uncertain grammatical uses of de (see also Chapter 80 on dequeísmo): Me extraño de que no lo sepa. (I’m surprised he doesn’t know.)9 Estoy seguro de que vendrá (I am sure she will come.) Me di cuenta de que tenía razón. (I realized she was right.) Omission of de in these examples invites censure. De + infinitive = to be + infinitive: un libro grato de leer (a book that is pleasant to read), un problema fácil de resolver (a problem that is easy to solve), un rompe-cabezas difícil de solucionar (a puzzle that is difficult to solve), asqueroso de ver (loathsome to behold), breve/largo de contar (brief/long to tell), bueno de comer (good to eat), grato de recordar (pleasing to remember) In superlative constructions: Es el edificio más alto del mundo. (It’s the tallest building in the world.) el chico más listo de la clase (the smartest boy in the class) For the uncertainty surrounding salir de in conjunction with entrar en, see Section 62.9.2. With the meaning of as, when one is spelling out a word or name the hearer cannot follow. This happens frequently on the telephone. Morales: M de Madrid, o de olla, r de rey, a de arpa, l de largo, e de este, s de silla.

62.7 Uses of “desde” 62.7.1 Desde has the basic meaning of from, as does de, but desde is much more clear-cut and less ambiguous. It is used in expressions of time and position and may also be used figuratively. 62.7.2 Desde in expressions of time: Estudio desde las cinco hasta las diez. (I study from five to ten.) No lo hago desde tres meses/desde muy antiguo. (I haven’t done it for three months for ages/for a very long time.) 62.7.3 Desde in expressions of position: Desde la torre de la catedral se ve toda la ciudad. (From the cathedral tower/spire you can see the whole city.) Habla a los senadores desde la tribuna. (She speaks to the senators from the platform). desde la montaña hasta el valle (from the mountain to the valley) Vienen desde Bolivia para asistir a la boda. (They’ve come from Bolivia to attend the wedding.) 62.7.4 Desde in figurative usage: desde el más rico hasta el más pobre (from the richest to the poorest), desde el primero hasta el último (from the first to the last), desde mi punto de vista (from my point of view. 9

But: Me extraña que. . . (It surprises me that. . .)

Prepositions

365

Note that desde. . .hasta is preferred to desde. . .a since it is much clearer. Similarly, desde is much clearer than de when from is referred to (see examples in Section 62.7.3, above).

62.8 Uses of “durante” Durante la cena, platicamos (M). (During the dinner, we’ll chat.) Ha conducido este coche durante los últimos diez años. (She has driven this car for the past ten years.) La policía nos avisó durante la noche. (The police informed us during the night.)

62.9 Uses of “en” 62.9.1 Position = on (See also Section 63.1.9 on encima de and Section 62.18 on sobre: en la mesa/ el tejado (on the table/roof). 62.9.2 Position = in: en la caja (in the box), en coche/tren/autobús/camión (M)/moto/barco/avión/bicicleta (in a car/on a train/bus/motorbike/boat/airplane/bicycle), en el coche del presidente,10 en la cárcel/en prisión (in prison), en casa (at home), en la estación (at the station), en Monterrey (in Monterrey), en todas partes (everywhere), poner en órbita (to place in orbit), El tren entró en el túnel. (The train went into the tunnel.) In the final example, this use of entrar en, when combined with salir, causes difficulty with preposition. Since entrar is followed by en and salir by de, the following sentence may be considered technically illogical. Entraban y salían en el edificio. (They entered and came out of the building.) Similiarly, the following may be regarded as grammatically unsustainable. Entraban y salían de las casas. (They entered and came out of the houses.) A similar problem arises with llegar a and salir/partir de (desde). Catorce vuelos semanales llegan y parten del aeropuerto de Ezeiza (Buenos Aires). (Fourteen weekly flights arrive and depart from the airport of Ezeiza.) Probably, salen would be used in other Spanishspeaking countries. However, since the inclusion of the two prepositions en and de may be considered maladroit or ponderous (Entraban en el edificio y salían de él), the exclusion of one or other of these prepositions is admitted. There is always the possibility of the exclusion of both. Las golondrinas entraban y salían, chillando como locas. (The swallows went in and came out, screaming like mad.) 62.9.3 En used metaphorically: el gobierno en el poder (the government in power) en estado de crisis (in a state of crisis) en paro (unemployed) Los obreros se pusieron en huelga. (The workers went on strike.) El enfermo estuvo en estado crítico. (The patient was in a critical state.) By comparison with English, no article is used after en if the noun has a generic sense. In a recipe, for example, one would be likely to see the instruction: dejarlo en frigorífico, but when in a specific situation in the kitchen one would doubtless say: Déjalo en el frigorífico. In recent years, there has been a strong tendency to omit the article in a large number of common expressions, as demonstrated below. en ambiente desértico/doméstico/escolar/hospitalario/rural (in a desert/domestic/school/ hospital/rural environment) 10

Note that if the noun is qualified, as here, the article is required.

366

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

pagar en caja/taquilla (to pay at the cashier’s desk/box office) trabajar en laboratorio/estudio (to work in a laboratory/studio) consultar algo en Internet (to consult something on the Internet) preguntar en Información (to ask at the information desk) Entérese en recepción. (Ask at reception.) estar en tercera ronda/primera división (to be in the third round [of a competition]/in the first division) escribir en lengua castellana (to write in the Spanish language/in Castilian) en primera/segunda lectura (on a first/second reading) estar/entrar en coma (to be/go into a coma) estar en estado de confusión (to be in a state of confusion) correr en pista (to run on the track) La película todavía está en cartelera (The movie is still in the listings [i.e. being shown].) estar en primera página (to be on the first page) estar en portada (to be on the cover [of a magazine/book]) estar en reunión/conferencia de prensa (to be in a meeting/at a press conference) En teoría,11 es muy fácil. (In theory, it’s very easy.) A whole range of grammatical terms should also be included here: en plural/singular/ subjuntivo/indicativo/pretérito/femenino/masculino/tercera persona/condicional/futuro/ sentido concreto/sentido figurado/sentido propio (literal)/itálica/negrita/negrilla (bold) 62.9.4 En in expressions of measurement: aumentar/disminuir en un diez por ciento (to increase/decrease by 10 percent), firme en mal estado en cinco kilómetros (bad road surface for five kilometers.) 62.9.5 En corresponding to from, with nouns indicating receptacles: fumar en pipa (to smoke a pipe), beber café en una taza (to drink coffee from a cup), comer en un plato (to eat from a plate) 62.9.6 Common idioms and expressions involving en: en antena (on the air), en beneficio de (for the benefit of), en ausencia de (in the absence of), en presencia de (in the presence of), en cabeza de la liga (at the top of the league), en balde (in vain), en calidad de colega (as a colleague), en carnes (vivas) (naked), en busca de (in search of), en cueros (vivos) (naked), en cambio (on the other hand), en concreto (in fact/precisely), en carretera (on the [main] road), en respuesta/contestación de (in reply to), en todo caso (in any case), en consecuencia (consequently: but: por consiguiente), en consecuencia (in consequence), en cuclillas (squatting), estar en condiciones de (to be in a position to), en correo aparte (under separate cover), emisión en diferido (recorded broadcast), emisión en directo (live broadcast), en cuanto a algo/hacer algo (as for something/doing something), en el radio (A, C, M)/la radio (on the radio), en derredor de (around), en especial (especially), en virtud de (by virtue of), en esto. . . (whereupon. . .), en lo que va de año (as far as this year is concerned, licenciado en filosofía y letras (bachelor of arts), en resumen (in short), en función de (in terms of), tomar en serio (to take seriously), el presidente en funciones (the acting president), en honor de (in honor of), en lugar/vez de elegir. . . (instead of choosing. . .), en nombre de la Iglesia Católica (in the name of the Catholic Church), en mi opinión (in my opinion: a mi juicio/entender), en parte (in part), en pie de guerra (on a war footing), Salieron en plan de reyes (They went out like royalty), Fue el primero/segundo en hacerlo (He was the first/second to do it), Arguyó en pro de la ley (She argued for the law), en razón de (by reason of), en recuerdo de (in memory of), en relación con 11

However, one says. en la práctica, and one can say en la teoría.

Prepositions

367

(in relation to),12 frenar en seco (to brake sharply), en seguida (immediately), ver en (la) televisión (to see on television),13 en torno a (concerning/with regard to), Los niños entraron en tropel (The children fought their way in), Lo hizo en vano (She did it in vain), un programa en vivo (a live broadcast), hablar en voz alta/baja (to speak in a high/low voice), en favor de (in favor of )14 En is used with the meaning of in with respect to time, but this usage is contested in Spain. In A, C and M it is normal. Volveré en diez minutes. (I’ll be back in ten minutes.) Serán las diez en cinco minutes. (It’ll be ten o’clock in five minutes.) Iberian Spanish would prefer: Volveré dentro de. . ./Serán las diez dentro de. . . In Argentina, the expression estar en hora is used for airplane timetables = on time. Elsewhere, estar a tiempo is used. En is also used in A, C and M with the idea of during. Por or a would be used in Spain: en la mañana/tarde/noche (in the morning/afternoon/evening).

62.10 Uses of “entre” La azucarera (M)/el azucarero está entre la sal y el aceite. (The sugar bowl is between the salt and the oil.) Se escondió entre la maleza. (She hid in the undergrowth.) Me deslizé entre varios coches. (I slipped between several cars.) No hay diferencia de sueldo entre tú y yo. (There’s no difference in salary between you and me.) Repartimos el premio entre los asistentes. (We shared the prize between those present.)

62.11 Uses of “excepto” Como de todo, excepto pescado. (I eat anything, except fish.) Invitaron a todo el mundo excepto a su padre. (They invited everyone except his father.)

62.12 Uses of “hacia” hacia Monterrey (towards Monterrey) hacia la izquierda (towards the left) Se lanzó hacia la salida. (She raced towards the exit.) Miré hacia el otro lado. (I looked towards the other side.) Llegamos hacia las diez de la mañana. (We’ll arrive at about ten in the morning.) su amor hacia su hija (the love for his daughter) hacia octubre (about October)

62.13 Uses of “hasta” 62.13.1 Literal: Inés paseó hasta la playa. (Inés went for a walk as far as the beach.) Llego hasta donde estás. (I’ll go to where you are.) 62.13.2 Time: Esperamos hasta las diez. (We’ll wait until ten.) 12

Also: con relación a. Also: ver por la television. 14 Also: a favor de. 13

368

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Sólo puedo gastarme hasta cien euros. (I can only spend up to a hundred euros.) ¡Hasta luego! (See you soon!) Hasta entonces (up till then) No lo habrá terminado hasta mañana. (She won’t have finished it till tomorrow.) 62.13.3 When the main verb is accompanied by a negation, hasta is frequently followed by no. This is a contested, but common, usage in Spain. It is, of course, perfectly normal and preferable for many, to omit it. Ninguno se marchó hasta que no se acabó el vino. (No one left until the wine was finished.) No saldré hasta que no llegue. (I’ll not go out until he arrives.) 62.13.4 Hasta also has the meaning of only or not before in Mexico and Colombia. Hasta las tres iré. (I’ll not go before three.) Llegó hasta ayer. (She only arrived yesterday.) Hasta ayer lo compré. (I only bought it yesterday.)

62.14 Uses of “mediante” Conseguí la beca mediante la ayuda de su padre. (I received the grant with his father’s help.) los resultados obtenidos mediante este proceso (the results obtained through this process)

62.15 Uses of “salvo” It is always followed by a subject personal pronoun: yo, tú, él, ella, Ud, etc. Salvo tú, todos los demás están comiendo. (Excepting you, everyone is eating.) Ésta es la cantidad, salvo error. (That’s the quantity, if I’m not mistaken.)

62.16 Uses of “según” The pronoun usage is the same as for salvo (see Section 62.15, above). Según tú, yo soy el peor estudiante de la clase. (According to you, I’m the worst student in the class.) según las normas de la empresa (according to the company’s rules) según la Secretaría de Economía (M) (according to the Treasury) Según often involves a conditional or conditional in the past. Compare the following two sentences. Según la alcaldesa, habrían matado a diez hombres. (According to the mayor[ess], they killed ten men.) Según la alcaldesa, mataron a diez hombres. (According to the mayor[ess]. . .) The first sentence suggests uncertainty over the number or the fact, while the second suggests certainty.

62.17 Uses of “sin” Lo harás sin mí/mi ayuda. (You’ll do it without me/my help.) Estoy sin trabajo. (I am without work.) Abren la puerta sin la llave. (They open the door without the key.) Voy de vacaciones sin la familia. (I go on vacation without the family.) Lo dije sin pensar. (I said it without thinking.) ¡Sin problema! (No problem!)

Prepositions

369

Sigo sin recibir respuesta. (I still haven’t received a reply.) He estado un mes sin fumar. (I haven’t smoked for a month.) Notice the very common idiomatic use of sin + infinitive in the last two sentences, and the translations.

62.18 Uses of “sobre” 62.18.1 Has the basic meaning of on top of and here is similar to en. It and is also similar in usage to encima de (see Section 63.2.8). It also means over. Hay un libro sobre la mesa. (There’s a book on the table.) las manos sobre las rodillas (with hands on knees) posarse sobre la luna (to land on the moon) Los aviones vuelan sobre la ciudad. (The airplanes fly over the city.) el puente sobre el río (the bridge over the river) un libro sobre Carlos Fuentes (a book on Carlos Fuentes) sobre las cinco de la tarde (about five in the afternoon) Saco ocho sobre diez. (I get eight out of ten [in marks].) un grado sobre cero (one degree above zero) mil metros sobre el nivel del mar (a thousand meters above sea level) La catedral se alzaba sobre la ciudad. (The cathedral rose above the town.) 62.18.2 Superiority: José destaca sobre los demás. (José stands out above the others.) 62.18.3 Guarantee: Presta sobre alhajas. (He loans [money] for jewels.) Pidió un crédito sobre la hipoteca de la casa. (She asked for credit on the house mortgage.) 62.18.4 Over and above: Pagaré un millón sobre lo acordado. (I’ll pay a million over and above the agreed sum.) 62.18.5 Accumulation or repetition: crueldades sobre crueldades (cruelty upon cruelty), sobre la ruina, la enfermedad (illness on top of ruin) 62.18.6 Influence: El dueño no tenía poder sobre nosotros. (The boss had no power over us.) 62.18.7 Violent movement: Los atracadores dispararon sobre mí. (The gangters/bandits/robbers shot at me.) 62.18.8 Indicating support of part of the body: El perrito andaba sobre dos patas. (The doggy walked on two legs.)

62.19 Uses of “tras” 62.19.1 In the literal use, tras is similar to detrás de (see Section 63.2.7) although less frequent. In the metaphorical use, it is used as much as después de, although the meanings are often slightly different. Tras can suggest repetition or continuity. Ví una película tras otra. (I saw one movie after another.) Fumaba un cigarro tras otro. (He would smoke one cigarette after another.) 62.19.2 With the meaning behind, here use is the same as detrás de, but less frequent. Se esconden tras la puerta. (They hide behind the door.) Se protegen de los disparos tras los camiones. (They seek protection from the shots behind the trucks.) 62.19.3 With the meaning on the other side of, it is like detrás de, but of a higher register. Vi un magnífico sol tras las montañas. (I saw a magnificent sun on the other side of the mountains.)

370

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

62.19.4 With the meaning in search of, it is like en busca de. El detective iba tras la mujer. (The detective trailed the woman.) 62.19.5 With the meaning besides, the register is R1 and often has an ironic connotation. Tras que hace frío, abre la ventana. (On top of being cold, he goes and opens the window.)

62.20 There are two prepositions, pro and vía, which also require comment. 62.20.1 Pro is of restricted use, with the meaning of on behalf of. asociación pro derechos humanos (association for human rights), la agencia pro amnistía (the pro-amnesty agency), cupón pro ciegos (coupons for blind people) 62.20.2 Vía has the English meaning of via. Eso se consigue vía sindicatos. (That can be obtained via labor/trades unions.) Este autobús va a Salta vía Mendoza. (This bus goes to Salta via Mendoza.) El partido se transmite vía satélite. (The game is broadcast via satellite.)

62.21 Prepositions are usually repeated, and in the examples below, the repetition is more normal than no repetition. Hasta aquel lugar es hasta adonde tienes que ir. (The place you have to go to is as far as that place.) De eso es de lo que quería hablarte. (That’s what I wanted to talk to you about.) De lo que no estoy seguro es de que surjan problemas. (What I’m not sure about is whether problems will arise.) Por que no sabe es por que no estuvo allá. (The reason she doesn’t know is because she wasn’t there.) Es por esto por lo que no quería ir contigo. (It’s for this reason that I didn’t want to go with you.)

63 Compound prepositions / Preposiciones compuestas Below is a passage narrated by a prisoner who clearly derives some enjoyment from his incarcerated state. The piece illustrates the uses of compound propositions. Tenía ganas de volver. Pensándolo bien, he pasado alrededor de treinta años en este lugar. Realmente no tengo otro hogar. Estaba ansioso por llegar aquí, junto a los míos, lejos del tumulto, cerca de los lugares donde he hecho mi vida. Fuera de aquí, un paisaje familiar: a través de la ventana se ve el río, delante de él se perfilan hileras de álamos (rows of poplar trees), y por encima de todo, un cielo de purísimo azul, difícil de encontrar lejos de aquí. Detrás de mí he dejado ya muchos años de una vida azarosa (hazardous), que a pesar de todo no ha sido mala. Esta prisión es estupenda; está dentro de los parámetros de excelencia carcelaria, y, a pesar de lo que opina la gente, muchas personas solitarias querrían estar encerradas entre estos muros. Espero pasar aquí mis últimos años, con techo y comida pagados, en vez de andar por ahí, malviviendo.

63.1 Forming compound prepositions Compound prepositions are usually made up of an adverb and a preposition. a través de (across, through), acerca de (about, concerning), adelante de (A) (in front of), antes de/que (before [in time]), cerca de (near), debajo de (under, beneath), delante de (in front of), dentro de (within), después de (after), detrás de (behind), encima de (on top of, above), enfrente de (opposite), frente a (opposite, off), fuera de (outside of), junto a (close to), lejos de (far from)

63.2 Uses of compound prepositions 63.2.1 Acerca de Escribe libros acerca de los insectos. (She writes books on insects.) Habló media hora acerca de este asunto. (He spoke half an hour on this topic.) 63.2.2 Antes de/que antes de las cuatro (before four o’clock) Lo hizo antes que yo. (She did it before me.) La tienda de muebles está antes de la avenida. (The furniture store is before the avenue.) 63.2.3 Debajo de Used more than bajo with the literal meaning. debajo de la mesa (under the table) ¿Qué escondes debajo del abrigo? (What are you hiding under your coat? 63.2.4 Cerca de (also used figuratively) El edificio está cerca del río. (The building is near the river.) Los concursantes ganaron cerca de dos millones de euros. (The competitors won about two million euros.) Estuve cerca de conseguir un gol. (I was close to scoring a goal.) 371

372

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

63.2.5 Delante de (used literally) Estoy delante de Uds. en la cola. (I’m in front of you in the line/queue). Delante de la casa hay un jardín. (In front of the house there is a yard/garden.) Lo tienes delante de ti. (You’ve got it in front of you.) Adelante de is preferred in Argentina, but this usage is not accepted elsewhere. La mujer se puso adelante del auto. (The woman placed herself in front of the car.) 63.2.6 Dentro de (also used of time and is preferred to en here) El dinero está dentro de la caja. (The money is in[side] the box.) Guarda mucho rencor dentro de sí. (He keeps a real grudge within him.) Terminaré este trabajo dentro de un año. (I’ll finish this work within a year.) This Iberian use of dentro de contrasts with the widespread, colloquial Spanish-American usage adentro de and causes some uncertainty and confusion. Compare the following pairs of sentences, the first of which in each case is less acceptable to purists. Lo encontraron calcinado adentro de su automóvil. (They found him burnt to a cinder in his car.) Lo encontraron calcinado dentro de su coche. (They found him. . .) Los perros están adentro de la casa. (The dogs are in the house.) Los perros están dentro de la casa. (The dogs are. . .) There arises similarly confusion and uncertainty between fuera de and afuera de (see Section 63.2.10, below). 63.2.7 Detrás de (see Section 62.19 on tras) Detrás del chalé tienen un huerto pequeño. (They have a small vegetable garden behind the chalet.) Lleva el precio detrás de la etiqueta. (It’s got the price behind the label.) 63.2.8 Encima de (used literally and figuratively = as well as; used with por to express movement) Coloca estos libros encima de la mesa. (Put these books on the table.) Llevaba una americana encima de la camisa. (He wore a jacket over his shirt.) Saltó por encima del muro. (He jumped over the wall.) Encima de llegar tarde, te burlas. (Not only do you arrive late, you’re also making fun.) Encima de ser tonto, es desobediente. (Apart from being dumb, he’s disobedient.) 63.2.9 Enfrente de/frente a In its basic meaning of opposite, frente a is of a slightly higher register than enfrente de, which cannot be used in the last example below. El cine está enfrente del supermercado. (The movie theater is opposite the supermarket.) El carro paró frente a la casa. (The car stopped opposite the house.) Hubo un accidente frente a Veracruz. (There was an accident off Veracruz [out at sea].) 63.2.10 Fuera de (also used figuratively) Los leones están fuera de las jaulas. (The lions are outside the cages.) El preso estuvo fuera de control. (The prisoner was out of control.) Un coche nuevo está fuera de mis posibilidades. (A new car is beyond my possibilities.) No pagues los impuestos fuera de plazo. (Don’t pay your taxes after the time limit.) fuera de control/peligro/lógica/razón (out of control/danger, beyond logic/reason) As with dentro de and adentro de, Spanish American in colloquial usage generally opts for the afuera de instead of fuera de. Purists do not accept this Spanish-American usage, but it is very common. Compare the two pairs of sentences below. Los perros están afuera de la casa. (The dogs are outside the house.) Los perros están fuera de la casa. (The dogs are. . .) Los niños juegan afuera del edificio. (The children play outside the building.) Los niños juegan fuera del edificio. (The children play. . .)

Compound prepositions

373

63.2.11 Junto a Se sentó junto a la ventana. (She sat down near the window.) Pasó las vacaciones junto a la familia. (She spent her vacation with her family.) Be careful not to confuse junto a (next to) with junto (together). Junto a is an adverb and therefore does not agree with the noun, while junto is an adjective and does agree: Fuimos juntos. (We went together.) 63.2.12 Lejos de (also used figuratively) La casa estaba lejos del pueblo. (The house was far from the town.) Colóquense lejos del edificio incendiado. (Move away from the burning building.) Lejos de asustarse, se envalentonó. (Far from being afraid, he became daring.) 63.2.13 Después de Después de is similar in use to tras, but tras is of a slightly higher register. Entrarás después de mí. (You’ll go in after me.) Los corredores africanos llegaron dos segundos después de los chinos. (The African runners arrived two seconds after the Chinese.) Su despacho está después de la cafetería. (Her office is after the café.) Las novelas más leídas, después de las policíacas, son las sentimentales. (After thrillers, the most read novels are love stories.) 63.2.14 A través de (corresponds to through in most senses) La vi a través de la persiana. (I saw her through the blind.) La luz entraba a través de una claraboya. (The light entered through a skylight.) Me enteré a través de un amigo. (I learnt about it through a friend.) Se puede hacer la transacción a través del banco. (The transaction can be done through the bank.) It is also used for across when this implies a vague distance from one side of something to another. Corrió a través de los campos/del bosque. (She ran across the fields/through the wood.) (For fuller treatment of this feature, see Chapter 54 on verbs of movement.) 63.2.15 En contra de (against, used literally and figuratively) El carro caminaba en contra del tránsito. (The car was going against the traffic.) Juan no puede jugar; va en contra de las reglas. (Juan can’t play; it goes against the rules.) Bear in mind that contra can also be a noun.

63.3 Other compound prepositions a causa de (on account of), a pesar de (in spite of), además de (besides, in addition to), alrededor de (around [also used figuratively]), conforme a (according to), contrario a (contrary to), en cuanto a (as for), en vez de (instead of), respecto a/con respecto a/de (with respect to) Las pruebas fueron largas, además de difíciles. (The tests were long, besides being difficult.) Los alumnos se sentaron alrededor del professor. (The pupils sat around the teacher.) Luis tiene alrededor de treinta años. (Luis is about thirty years old.) La decisión es conforme a la ley. (The decision conforms to the law.) una opinión contraria a la mía (an opinion contrary to mine) A pesar de nuestras diferencias, nos llevamos muy bien. (In spite of our differences, we get on very well.) Con respecto a/de la inmigración, hay que ser más tolerante. (With respect to immigration, we have to be more tolerant.) Pilar se fue a causa de tus críticas. (Pilar left on account of your criticism.)

374

A Reference Grammar of Spanish En vez de darme el dinero, me dio un puñetazo. (Instead of giving me the money, he punched me.) En cuanto al viaje, estoy dispuesto a. . . (As for the trip, I’m ready to. . .) En cuanto a emprender el viaje. . . (As for undertaking the journey. . .)

63.4 Accumulation of prepositions Prepositional phrases may sometimes be used rather like nouns, and be preceded by other prepositions. Such usage is largely confined to R1, and to Iberian Spanish. For example, the third example below including vino would not be heard in Mexico. No es de por aquí. (He’s not from round here.) Estará la casa arreglada para dentro de dos meses. (The house will be sorted out within two months.) Fui a por el vino. (I went to get the wine.) No se meta Ud. por en medio. (Don’t meddle in this.) la casa de al lado (the house next door)

64 Personal or distinctive “a” / Uso de la preposición “a” con el complemento directo Below is a passage illustrating the use of the personal or distinctive “a.” An elderly man goes to a dance and bumps into Diana, who is advancing seriously into old age. They return to the residential home for old people and the person narrating is presented as a triumphant catch by Diana. The personal “a” recurs time and again, indicating contact and social intercourse between people. Vi a Diana. Venía sorteando (avoiding/weaving between) a las parejas que bailaban. —Hola, ¿a quién buscas? —pregunté a la recién llegada con recelo. Antes de responder, miró a los concurrentes desafiante (defiant), y me dio dos sonoros besos, aunque nos habíamos visto media hora antes. —No busco a nadie en particular. He acompañado a Juanita y Teresa, y como a Juanita no le gusta el novio de Teresa, y a Teresa no le gusta el novio de Juanita, se ha disuelto el grupo y a mí me han abandonado —dijo Diana un poco mustia (downcast), para añadir a continuación—: El caso es que a mí me gusta cualquiera de los dos. Yo observaba a mis amigos bailando, y me sorprendí al oír a mi propia voz diciendo: —¿Quieres acompañar a un hombre aburrido? Ella, sin decir palabra, se agarró a mí, y comenzó a bailar como una posesa (one possessed). ¡Era capaz de agotar a cualquiera! Cuando ambos volvimos a la Residencia de la Tercera Edad “Tita”, donde nos alojamos desde hace veinte años, me exhibió como un trofeo ante sus añosas (old/elderly) y decrépitas amigas.

64.1 Personal “a” when used for persons In English, the distinction between a noun as subject and a noun as object is shown by its location in the sentence. In John reads the book, John is the subject and book is the object. John comes before book. In Latin, this was shown by what we call case endings; that is to say, the endings of words changed according to their relationship with each other, and word order was not so important. In Spanish (and much more than in French or English, but similar to Italian), location may have as little effect on the meaning as in Latin. Many Spanish-speakers can therefore find themselves in considerable difficulty when distinguishing between subject and object, and do not always succeed as clearly as we do in English or French. The only device in Spanish for distinguishing a noun as direct object when referring to persons is by placing the preposition a before it. But, as the preposition a is regularly used for the indirect object (Le doy el libro a Juan = I give the book to Juan), most Spanish-speakers end up not knowing whether the preposition a involves a direct or an indirect object. In other words, they often fail to see the difference between Veo a Juan (I see Juan) and Le doy el libro a Juan. They think erroneously that Juan in Veo a Juan is an indirect object. The situation is further complicated because they do not have a suitable adjectival equivalent for what we call the personal “a.” French- or Italian-speakers do not have an equivalent expression either. Spanish-speakers refer to this construction as the preposition a with a complemento directo. The expression “personal a” in English therefore helps us over a very difficult hurdle. Below are its main uses. 375

376

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

64.2 Personal “a” when used with nouns 64.2.1 The personal or distinctive a applies primarily to nouns representing determinate, known persons. Busco a la chica. (I am looking for the girl.) Quiere visitar a mi hija. (He wants to visit my daughter.) Lleva a sus hijos a la estación. (She takes her children/sons to the station.) 64.2.2 If the personal noun is collective, the personal a is often, but not always, used. Ana mima a su familia. (Ana spoils her family.) Llaman a la policía. (They call the police.) El músico dirigió a la orquesta. (The musician conducted the orchestra.) Dispersaron a la multitud. (They dispersed the crowd.) Echaron a la gente del parque. (They removed the people from the park.) When the collective noun represents institutions of persons, the distinctive a is used. Such nouns are: colegio, comité, comunidad, consejo, empresa, gobierno, institución. El político critica al gobierno. (The politician criticizes the government.) Multaron a la empresa por realizar vertidos tóxicos. (They fined the company for pouring away toxic waste.) Convocamos a la comunidad de vecinos. (We called the residents’ association to a meeting.) 64.2.3 The application of the personal a extends to authors, painters, and so on (i.e. all those in the public domain). Leo a Cervantes con frecuencia. (I read Cervantes regularly.) Imita a Diego Rivera. (He copies Diego Rivera.) El público aplaude a la estrella (The audience applauds the star.) La empresa despide a cinco obreros. (The company dismisses five workers.) But if a work of an artist is referred to, the distinctive a would not be used. Compré el/un Picasso en la subasta. (I bought the/a Picasso at the auction.) 64.2.4 When the direct object noun represents an animal, regarded as intelligent or rational, and especially if it belongs to a family, the personal a is required. An affective relationship between speaker and animal is suggested. Llaman al perrito. (They call the dog.) Dejé a Pluto en la perrera. (I left Pluto in the kennels.) Acaricia al gato. (She strokes the cat.) Note how the personal a is included in the first sentence below and excluded in the second. Clearly, the horse is part of the family in the the first sentence, but this is not the case in the second. Suelta al caballo para que corra./Suelta el caballo para que corra. (He releases the horse so that he can run.) 64.2.5 The personal a is also needed before proper names of persons. Envío a Diego en su lugar. (I’ll send Diego in her place.) Admira a Andrés. (She admires Andrés.) 64.2.6 The personal a is used before all the tonic forms of personal pronouns: mí, ti, vos, sí, ella, usted, nosotros/as, vosotros/as, ustedes, ellos/as. ¿Dices que me vio a mí en el cine? (Did you say she saw me at the movies?) No creo que a Uds. los escuchen. (I don’t think they’re listening to you.) A mí me gusta mucho. (I like it very much.) 64.2.7 It is also used before demonstrative and possessive pronouns when referring to persons. Vi a ése hablando con el jefe. (I saw that guy talking to the boss.)

Personal or distinctive “a”

377

A ella no le gusta mi novio y yo no soporto al suyo. (She doesn’t like my boyfriend and I can’t stand hers.) A mí me gusta mucho. (I like her a lot.) 64.2.8 A is used when a repetition occurs. Los veo a todos. (I see them all.) Me acogieron como a un rey. (They welcomed me like a king.) Me saludaron al igual que al presidente. (They greeted me like the president.) 64.2.9 A is used before the relative pronouns quien, el que, la que and their plurals. Ese es el hombre a quien/al que golpearon. (That’s the man they hit.) los niños a quienes veo (the children whom I see) 64.2.10 A is used before the interrogative personal pronoun quién or cual when this latter refers to persons. ¿A quién buscas? (Who [m] are you looking for?) ¿A quiénes visteis en la fiesta? (Whom did you see at the party?) ¿A cuál de los dos encontraste llorando? (Which of the two did you find crying?)

64.3 Use and non-use of personal “a” In all cases, the employment of the personal a before a direct object denoting a person depends largely on how the speaker views the person. In other words, if the speaker knows the person referred to, (s)he will use the personal a, but if the person alluded to is not known, the a is not always used. Compare the following pairs of examples. Busco al doctor. (I am looking for the physician/doctor.) Busco un doctor. (I am looking for a physician/doctor.) Estoy esperando al cliente. (I’m waiting for the client.) Estoy esperando un cliente. (I’m waiting for a client.) It is, of course, conceivable that in all these cases a is used, but the further away the object is, figuratively speaking, the less likely it is that the personal a is used. We are now in an “affective” area where choice, or avoidance, of the a is largely determined by a psychological or emotional response to a person or persons. Thus, the following verbs and their synonyms are frequently followed by a, even if the subject person involved is not “psychologically” close to the object person: acompañar, admirar, afectar, alabar, amar, empujar, engañar, golpear, maltratar, matar, odiar, perjudicar, saludar. Acompañó a una anciana hasta su casa. (She accompanied an old woman to her home.) Admiro a los políticos que saben defender sus opiniones. (I admire politicians who can defend their opinions.) Engañar al jefe es imposible. (It’s impossible to deceive the boss.) 64.3.2 Similarly, verbs of perception can entail a even if the object person is undefined: escuchar, mirar, observar, oír, ver. Estaba mirando a una señora cuando sentí que me llamaba. (I was looking at a woman when I felt that she was calling me.) Observé a algunos niños que jugaban (al) fútbol. (I observed some children who were playing soccer.) Oí a una mujer cantar ópera. (I heard a woman singing opera.) 64.3.2 When the direct object is personified, the personal a is frequently, but not always, used. Particularly common here is the use of patria, nación and pueblo, especially the latter, which contains a suggestion of human beings. Estos soldados honran a la patria. (These soldiers honor the nation.) Juraron defender a la nación. (They swore to defend the nation.)

378

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Las nuevas medidas pretenden contentar al pueblo. (The new measures aim to satisfy the people.) Las aves saludan a la aurora. (The birds salute the dawn.) Once, towns and countries were preceded by a, but this is no longer the case. Nunca he visitado Nápoles. (I’ve never visited Naples.) Admiro la Argentina (I admire Argentina.) But if inhabitants were implied, a could easily be used. Admiro a la Argentina. (I admire Argentina [i.e. Argentinians].) Es capaz de engañar a media Italia. (She’s capable of swindling half of Italy.) Juntos, ayudemos a Perú. (Let us help Peru together [a stricken country].)

64.4 Personal “a” used with direct and indirect objects 64.4.1 When both subject and object denote things, the object takes the personal a. Otherwise, confusion and ambiguity would arise. We are now in the realm of word order (see Chapter 74). Compare the two pairs of sentences below. El silencio (subject) sigue al ruido (object)./Al ruido (object) sigue el silencio (subject). (Silence follows the noise.) El ruido (subject) sigue al silencio (object)./Al silencio (object) sigue el ruido (subject). (Noise follows the silence.) Compare likewise the following pairs of sentences. (From the four sentences above, you can work out the subject and object in each sentence below.) El yate alcanzará al vapor./Al vapor alcanzará el yate. (The yacht will overtake the steamer.) El vapor alcanzará al yate./Al yate alcanzará el vapor. (The steamer will overtake the yacht.) 64.4.2 When one of the terms is a person, which is usually the case, danger of ambiguity does not arise, because the person as object is accompanied by a. Compare these two sentences. Por fin venció el joven (subject) su pasión (object) por el juego. (The young man finally overcame his passion for gambling.) Por fin venció al joven (object) su pasión (subject) por el juego. (The passion for gambling finally overcame the young man.) 64.4.3 Verbs of naming, calling, considering, and so on, which may take two direct objects, differentiate one of these objects by the personal a in the following way. ¿Llaman música a este jaleo? (Do they call this ruckus music?) Consideramos pura pérdida de tiempo a la lectura de estas revistas. (We consider reading these magazines a pure waste of time.) The true object, or thing asserted – in the first case, jaleo, and in the second case, lectura – is preceded by the personal a. 64.4.4 The personal a is always used before the following indefinite pronouns when they function as direct objects, even though they may suggest uncertainty over the person referred to: nadie, alguien, alguno, ninguno. ¿Vas a invitar a alguien? (Are you going to invite someone?) No veo a nadie. (I can’t see anyone.) No ví a ninguna persona. (I saw nobody.) 64.4.5 To return to the confusion generated by the personal a, personal pronouns are a special case in point. Again, it is difficult even for educated Spanish-speakers who are not language-conscious to know whether the following examples include pronouns (le, les)

Personal or distinctive “a”

379

as indirect objects or direct objects, largely because, in order to stress the pronoun, a disjunctive form of the pronoun is used before the verb. A él le interesa el libro. (The book interests him.) A ella le encanta la ópera. (She loves opera.) A ellas les atrae la idea de. . . (They are attracted by the idea of. . .) A Spanish-speaker would sense a strong tendency to put the pronoun in an indirect mode when the distinctive a precedes the noun or pronoun. Al chico le expulsaron. (They expelled the boy.) Most Spanish-speakers, however, save in Central and Northern Spain, would say and write: lo expulsaron. It may be argued that le is the correct form in the first case and that lo is not even possible in the first case. Confusion or ambiguity occurs when two persons are involved with mandar. Te mando a Juan. (I send Juan to you./I send you to Juan.) Only the context will make this statement clear. 64.4.6 This issue is further complicated by the following two examples based on the reflexive se (pasiva refleja). (See the use of reflexives in Section 38.5.1.) Se vio el hombre en el espejo. (The man saw himself in the mirror.) Se le vio al hombre en el espejo. (The man was seen in the mirror.) Here, the reflexive se dispels any ambiguity over who is seeing whom.

64.5 Optional use of the personal “a” 64.5.1 When the verb has a direct and an indirect object, the direct object does not necessarily take the personal a. Recomendó al gobernador su hijo, Don José. (He recommended his son, Don José, to the governor.) Presentaré mi hermana a la señora de Vargas. (I’ll introduce my sister to Sra. Vargas.) El soldado entregó su prisionero al capitán. (The soldier handed over his prisoner to the captain.) In these three cases, hijo, hermana and prisionero are the direct objects of their respective verbs, but they are not preceded by a. However, they could have been, as can be seen in the following example. Presentó a su novio a sus padres. (She introduced her boyfriend to her parents.) But, the a is obligatory if a proper noun is involved. Presentó a Juan a sus padres. (She introduced Juan to her parents.) 64.5.2 The presence or absence of a can often change the meaning of the sentence. Compare the following pairs of sentences. En este país no se respeta nada a la justicia (institution). (In this country, justice is not respected.) En este país no se respeta nada la justicia (virtue). (In this country. . .) Admiro a la Iglesia (institution). (I admire the Church.) Admiro la iglesia (building). (I admire the church.) 64.5.3 When a verb is usually identified with a person, the use of a with things can easily occur. El tabaco perjudica (a) la salud. (Tobacco harms health.) La humedad afectó (a) los cimientos del edificio. (The dampness affected the building’s foundations.) 64.5.4 When nouns are used in an abstract way, or related to imagery, a may be used. Esperaba (a) la muerte con serenidad. (She awaited death serenely.) Consideraba (a) la caridad la virtud suprema. (She considered charity the highest virtue.)

380

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

64.6 When personal “a” is not used 64.6.1 The personal a is not used when the object is an insignificant animal or an inanimate object. El gato agarró (M)/cogió (not in M) un ratón. (The cat caught a mouse.) El niño persiguió una mariposa. (The child chased a butterfly.) Como la carne. (I eat the meat.) 64.6.2 The personal a is omitted when it would conflict with another a which has a true prepositional value. El general convocó los oficiales a una conferencia. (The general called the officers to a conference.) Compare the following two sentences. Abandonaron al hombre. (They abandoned the man.) Abandonaron el hombre a sus remordimientos. (They abandoned the man to his remorse.) 64.6.3 With the impersonal use of haber, a is not used. Hay alguien en la puerta. (There is someone at the door.) Sólo había dos estudiantes en el aula. (There were only two students in the lecture room.) The situation is similar with tener. Tiene dos hijos. (She has two children/sons.) Tiene una tía actriz. (She has an actress aunt.) But if the object suggests a transitory feature, a would be used. Tiene a un hijo enfermo. (He has a sick son.) Tengo a la hija en la cama. (My daughter’s in bed [sick].) If birth is entailed, a would be used. Tuvo a un hijo a los veinte años. (She had a child at twenty.) If, however, the characteristic of the person is permanent, a would not be used. Tiene un hijo invidente. (She has a blind child.)

65 Prepositional constructions with verbs, nouns, adjectives and gerunds / Construcciones preposicionales con verbos, sustantivos, adjetivos y gerundios Below is a passage relating the circumstances of conjugal violence. Fortunately, the husband aggressor slips on water flowing from an aquarium and probably kills himself. The poor wife escapes by a hair’s breadth. The passage illustrates the use of verbs followed by infinitives, sometimes with an intervening preposition. Me gustaría hablar para su periódico en otras circunstancias. En más de una ocasión ella tuvo que gritar pidiendo auxilio y mi mujer llegó a ir a su casa para intentar socorrerla de las agresiones. Ella procuró complacerle en todo durante el tiempo que vivieron juntos hasta que decidieron separarse. Yo le oí golpearla varias veces, incluso después de llegar a dividir los bienes. Pero lo de hoy ha sido atroz. Ella, a través de la ventana, me suplicó llamar a la policía, porque su “ex” ya estaba a punto de derribar la puerta. Él no había cesado de suplicar que lo dejara pasar, jurando que no iba a golpearla, que solo deseaba hablar. Pero después, ya ve. . . Ella no podía defenderse, el tipo rompió todo, ahí ve las lámparas por el suelo, muebles rotos, el acuario volcado (aquarium knocked over) y el agua derramada. . . Ella no cesaba de esquivarlo, y él llegó a perder un zapato. . . Mire, ahí está. . . Cuando llegué ya era tarde, él estaba levantando el cuchillo sobre ella cuando pisó en este charco, la lámpara dio un fogonazo (sent out a flash), y el sujeto cayó fulminado (thunderstruck). La pobre llegó a librarse por segundos. This is one of the most complex areas of Spanish grammar. The following sections outline some general principles and draw attention to the numerous differences between Spanish and English.

65.1 Verbs with no preposition before an infinitive 65.1.1 Infinitive as subject of the verb If the infinitive is the subject of the verb, no intervening preposition is used. Aburrir is such a verb. Me aburre pasar tanto tiempo allí. (I’m bored spending so much time there.) In this case, pasar is the subject of aburre. Literally, the English translation could be: To spend so much time there bores me, and to spend (i.e. pasar) appears more clearly as the subject. The following verbs operate similarly. The formula is: gustar a alguien hacer algo (someone likes to do something). In other words, the main verb is used in an impersonal way, and the person experiencing the event is counted as an indirect object. The occasional example is provided. agradar (to please), alegrar (to gladden), antojarse (to feel like), Se me antojó ir a Brasil (I felt like going to Brazil), apasionar (to thrill), apetecer (to appeal), atraer (to attract), bastar (to be enough), caber (to fit, to be appropriate), Cabe destacar que. . . (It should be pointed out that. . .), convenir (to suit, to be fitting for), corresponder (to be your job 381

382

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

[to], Te corresponde a ti escribir la carta (It’s your job to write the letter), costar (to cost [in effort]), Cuesta esta cuesta (This hill is tough [i.e. costs a lot]), encantar (to delight), entusiasmar (to fill with enthusiasm), extrañar (to surprise), estudiar (to consider), Estudiaban demandar a los médicos que le atendieran (They were considering asking the physicians to treat him), fascinar (to fascinate), fastidiar (to annoy), gustar (to please), Me gustaría estudiar el italiano (I’d like to study Italian),1 hacer falta (a) (to be lacking, to need), Hace falta apuntarse (We need to sign on), importar (to matter, to be important), ¿Te importa cerrar la ventana? (Do you mind closing the window?), incumbir (R3; to be incumbent [on]), interesar (to interest), merecer/valer la pena (to be worthwhile), molestar (to trouble, to annoy), ocurrirse (a) (to occur [to someone]), Se me ocurrió comprar un auto (I had the idea of buying a car), quedar (to remain [for someone]), tocar (to fall to, to be your turn), Te toca pagar (It’s your turn to pay) 65.1.2 Infinitive as direct object When the following infinitive has the same function as a direct object noun, there is no intervening preposition. The formula is: verb + infinitive. Aceptó acompañarme (She accepted to accompany me). Compare with: Aceptó el regalo (She accepted the gift [i.e. direct object].) In nearly all of the following cases, accompanied by occasional examples, the finite verb can take an infinitive or a noun, as with the example above. aceptar (to undertake), acordar (to agree), anhelar (R3; to long for [but: el anhelo por/en]), ansiar (to long to), añorar (to yearn for), aparentar (to pretend to), conseguir (to manage, to succeed), Conseguí el permiso del director (I obtained the director’s permission), Consiguió ocultar sus propósitos (She succeeded in hiding her plans), desear (to desire, want to [but: el deseo de/deseoso de]), escoger (to choose), evitar (to avoid), intentar (to try [but: el intento de/por/para]), jurar (to swear), lamentar (to regret), lograr (to succeed, to obtain), Lograron la victoria (They obtained the victory), Logramos alcanzar la cima (We succeeded in reaching the summit), necesitar (to need [but: la necesidad de]), parecer (to appear), pedir (to ask [for]), Pidieron treinta pesos (They asked for thirty pesos), Pidieron hablar con el director (They asked to speak with the boss), planear (to plan), preferir (to prefer), pretender (to want, to try, to claim), prever/tener previsto (to foresee), probar (R3; to try [only infinitive has this meaning]), procurar (to try), prometer (to promise), proponerse (to propose), proyectar (to plan [but: el proyecto de hacer algo]), querer (to want, to wish), Quiero ir al cine (I want to go to the movies), Quiero un caballo (I want a horse), resolver (to resolve [but: resolverse a/para hacer algo; estar resuelto a hacer algo]), saber (to know), Sé hablar japonés (I can speak Japanese), sentir (to feel, to regret), Lo siento (I’m sorry), Siento haberla hecho llorar (I regret having made her cry), solicitar (to request), temer (to fear) 65.1.3 Verbs of ordering A number of verbs of ordering take an infinitive without a preposition as an alternative to the que + subjunctive construction (see Chapter 55 on the subjunctive; there is little difference between the two constructions). This list does not include decir or pedir, as it would do in French or Italian (although dire [in French and Italian], and the French demander and Italian chiedere do take the preposition = de). The formula is: verb + a alguien + infinitive. Le aconsejé ir mañana. (I advised him to go tomorrow). The following verbs follow the same pattern. consentir (to allow), dejar (to let), hacer (to make), impedir (to prevent), mandar (to order), Mandé llamar al fontanero/plomero (A, C, M) (I[’ve] sent for the plumber; but: mandar 1

Gustar de can be used with a person as subject, but this is R3. Nunca ha gustado de vivir en pueblos pequeños. (He has never liked living in a small town.)

Prepositional constructions with verbs, nouns, adjectives and gerunds

65.1.4

65.1.5

65.1.6

65.1.7

65.1.8

65.1.9

65.1.10

383

a alguien a hacer algo [to send someone to do something]), ordenar (to order), permitir (to allow), prohibir (to forbid), sugerir (to suggest) Verbs of perception (oír and ver) Oí cantar a María. (I heard María singing.) Oí cantar una canción. (I heard a song [being] sung.) Oí cantar una canción a María. (I heard María sing[ing] a song.) Vi entrar al chico. (I saw the boy come in.) Verbs of saying Several verbs of saying may take an infinitive with no intervening preposition, as an alternative to the que + clause construction. However, this is only possible if the subject remains the same, and is more characteristic of the written registers. The formula is: verb + infinitive or perfect infinitive. Confirmó haber visto al ladrón./Confirmó que había visto. . . (He confirmed he had seen the thief.) The following verbs fall into this category. afirmar (to affirm), asegurar (to assure), Aseguraron no saber nada de lo sucedido (They maintained they knew nothing of what had happened), confesar (to confess), creer (to believe), denunciar (to report), Denunció ser víctima de malos tratos (She reported she was the victim of abuse), decir (to say), Destruyen lo que dicen defender (They destroy what they claim to defend), declarar (to declare), demostrar (to demonstrate), dignarse (to deign [to]), dudar (to doubt), manifestar (to state), negar (to deny), osar (R3; to dare [to]), pensar (to think), reconocer (to recognize), rehuir (R3; to avoid [doing something]), rehusar (R3; to refuse) A before an infinitive As with the use of a in isolation, there is often the notion of metaphorical movement towards a goal; a tends to be used with verbs which carry a “positive” meaning. The formulae are: verb + a + infinitive or verb + a + object + a + infinitive. Acerté a cambiar la rueda. (I succeeded in changing the wheel.) Me animaron a participar en el concurso. (They encouraged me to take part in the competition.) Attainment and figurative motion with a acertar (to manage, to succeed), alcanzar (to manage, to succeed), aprender (to learn), apresurarse (to hurry; also: apresurarse por/apresuramiento a/por), arriesgarse (to risk, to dare), aspirar (to aspire), atinar (to manage, to succeed), atreverse (to dare), buscar (to seek, to strive [to]), decidirse (to decide; also: estar decidido a hacer algo; decidir hacer algo/la decisión de hacer algo), llegar (to succeed), matarse (to kill yourself [doing something]), precipitarse (to hurry; also: precipitarse en), rebajarse (to stoop), tender (to tend) Verbs of beginning with a comenzar (to begin), meterse (to start), echar(se) a (to start), El niño echó a correr (The child started to run), El niño rompió a llorar (The child burst out crying), empezar (to begin), lanzarse (to rush), La niña se echó a llorar (The girl burst out crying), ponerse (to start), pasar (to go on [to do something]), Pasó a leer el periódico (She went on to read the newspaper), principiar (R3; to begin), romper (to burst out), Verbs of agreement with a acceder (R3; to accede), avenirse (R3; to agree), Se avinieron a pactar con la dirección (They agreed to make a pact with the management) Encouragement, help or other influence with a acostumbrar(se) (to accustom [oneself]), animar (to encourage), autorizar (to authorize), ayudar (to help), Nos ayudaron a pintar la casa (They helped us paint the house),

384

65.1.11

65.1.12

65.1.13

65.1.14

65.1.15

A Reference Grammar of Spanish brindarse (to offer [to do something]; also brindarse para), comprometerse (to undertake; also: comprometerse para), condenar (to condemn), consagrarse (to devote [oneself]), contribuir (to contribute), convidar (R3; to invite), dedicarse (to devote [oneself]), determinar (to determine; also: determinar para), disponerse (to prepare), emplazar (to summon, to call upon), empujar (to push; also: empujar para), enseñar (to teach), entregarse (to devote [oneself]), estar listo (to be ready), exhortar (R3; to exhort; also: exhortar para), forzar (to force), habituar(se) (to accustom [oneself]), impulsar (to impel), incitar (to incite, to encourage [not always negative]), inclinar (to incline), inducir (to induce), instar (to urge), invitar (to invite; also: invitación a/para), La obligué a hacer sus deberes (I made her do her homework), llevar, (to lead), mentalizarse (to decide), mover (to move), obligar (to force, to make; but: la obligación de hacer algo), Me invitaron a ir a la fiesta (They invited me to go to the party), ofrecerse (to offer; also: ofrecerse para), persuadir (R3; to persuade), prepararse (to prepare; also: estar preparado a/para), prestarse (to lend oneself; also: prestarse para), proceder (R3; to proceed), tentar (to tempt) With verbs of motion with a Fui a verla. (I went to see her.) Salió a recibirme. (She came out to greet me.) Se sentó a comer. (He sat down to eat.) Vengo a decirte que. . . (I’ve come to tell you that. . .) A for por or para A may be used for por and para in the following types of constructions. (These constructions were once subject to censure, but they are now incorporated into the Spanish language at all levels.) una cuestión a resolver (a question to be solved) una cuenta a pagar (an account to be paid) In both these cases, para and por may be used, but they are ousted now by a. A + infinitive as imperative ¡A comer! (Food!), ¡A ver! (Let’s see!), ¡A dormir! (Bedtime!), ¡A pasarlo/pasarla (M) bien! (Have good time!) A before a noun When the indirect object is rendered by a preposition other than to in English, Spanish a can correspond to English from or for. The formula is: verb + a + noun. Compré un libro a mi amigo. (I bought a book from my friend.) Les escondí el dinero. (I hid the money from them.) Le pedí cien dólares. (I asked her for one hundred dollars.) Les pidió prestados cien pesos. (He borrowed a hundred pesos from them.) Me encargaron un proyecto. (They entrusted a project to me.) Le timaron la cartera en el mercado. (They stole his wallet in the market.) In the first example above, the a could mean for, so the context would clarify the matter. The verbs below follow the same formula. arrebatar (to snatch), confiscar (to confiscate), disimular (to hide), encargar (to entrust), escamotear (to whisk away), exigir (to demand), ganar (to win), hurtar (to steal), ocultar (to hide), pedir (to ask for), pedir prestado (to borrow), quitar (to take away), reclamar (to claim), restar (to take away), robar (to steal), sacar (to take out), solicitar (to ask for), sonsacar (to extract), sustraer (to subtract), timar (to steal, to swindle) A may also be translated by other prepositions in English, or none at all. imponer (to impose [on]), inculcar (to inculcate [into]), infundir (to instil [into]), producir (to make an impression [on]), regatear (to keep short of), reprochar (to reproach [with])

Prepositional constructions with verbs, nouns, adjectives and gerunds

385

Su padre no le regateaba dinero (His father did not keep him short of money.) La película me produjo una muy fuerte impression. (The film made a big impression on me.) Les impusieron una fuerte multa. (They gave them a heavy fine.) Le reprochó su mala conducta. (He reproached her with her bad behavior.) 65.1.16 Noun + a + noun Numerous nouns representing actions or attitudes require a before a noun which functions as the direct object of the corresponding verb. This construction needs to be separated from the construction de + definite article, which has a quite different and usually active meaning, where the second noun corresponds to the subject of the verb. See the variations in the first two examples below, in relation to the third. el apoyo al primer ministro (the support of [given to] the prime minister Apoyaron al primer ministro. (They supported the prime minister.) el apoyo del primer ministro (the support of [given by] the prime minister.) This can be seen also in the following. el amor al hijo (love for the son), el amor del hijo (the son’s love), la adoración a la Virgen (adoration of the Virgin [by someone else]), la adoración de la Virgen (adoration of the Virgin [of her son, for example]) Further examples of this construction follow below. su afición al/por dinero (his love of money; also: estar aficionado a), la agresión a/contra la patria (aggression against the motherland), el aislamiento al régimen (the isolation of the regime), el amor a la verdad (love of truth), el asalto a la Ciudad de México (the assault on Mexico City), un ataque al gobierno (an attack on the government), un atentado a la seguridad nacional (an attack against national security), el atraco al banco (the bank raid), una ayuda a los habitantes (help for the inhabitants), el boicot al país africano (the boycott of the African country), un comentario a la novela (a commentary on the novel), Hizo muchas críticas al periódico (She made many criticisms of the newspaper), el culto al ejercicio físico (the cult of physical exercise), el desprecio al presidente (scorn for the president), su denuncia a los responsables (her denunciation of those responsible), la entrevista al/con el ministro (the interview with the minister), la explotación a los inmigrantes (the exploitation of the immigrants), un interrogatorio al culpable (an interrogation of the guilty person), el juicio a los terroristas (the judgment of the terrorists), maltrato a animales (mistreatment of animals), mi odio a los dictadores (my hatred of dictators), una operación al paciente/al ojo (an operation on the patient/eye),2 la opresión a la tribu (the oppression of the tribe), el pisoteo a las libertades civiles (the trampling on civil liberties), el rechazo a los republicanos (the rejection of the republicans), el reconocimiento al autor (the recognition of the author), su renuncia a la ideología (her renunciation of the ideology), un repaso a/de la lección (a review of the lesson), una repulsa a la idea (a rejection of the idea), el respeto a la ley (the respect for the law), el robo a una bolsa (the theft of a purse/handbag), el sabotaje a una empresa (the sabotage of a firm), mi temor a/de la muerte (my fear of death), el trato a los presos (the treatment of the prisoners), un veto al proyecto (a veto for the project), una violación a los derechos humanos (a violation of human rights) 65.1.17 A with verbs of smell and taste oler a algo (to smell of something), saber a algo (to taste of something), tener gusto a algo (to taste of something) Note also here the use of sonar. Este producto suena a farmacia. (This product seems to suggest/come from a pharmacy.) 2

Note: Le operaron (d)el ojo.

386

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

65.2 “De” before an infinitive or noun De may be thought of as the opposite of a. It tends to be associated with a metaphorical movement away from something. The formula is: verb + de + infinitive. 65.2.1 Cessation abstenerse de (to abstain from), acabar de (to have just), dejar (to stop), desistir (to desist), despedirse (to take leave [of]), parar (to stop), terminar (to finish) Note that acabar de has the meaning of to have just when used in the present tense and to had just when used with the imperfect tense. Acabo de llegar. (I have just arrived.) Acababa de llegar. (I had just arrived.) Cuando acabó de vestirse. . . (When she had finished dressing. . .) In the negative, no acabar de means to fail to. Estudio mucho pero no acabo de entenderlo. (I study a lot but fail to understand it.) Dejé de estudiar a los veinte años. (I stopped studying at twenty.) Me despedí de mi esposa en el aeropuerto. (I took leave of my wife at the airport). 65.2.2 De with “negative” idea A number of verbs have unfavorable or negative meanings. The formula is: verb + de + infinitive/noun/pronoun, or verb + de + perfect infinitive. acusar (to accuse), mofarse (R3; to make fun), burlarse (to make fun [of]),3 privar (to deprive), privarse (to deprive [oneself]), cuidarse bien (to take care not to), culpar (to blame), disuadir (R3; to dissuade), excusarse (to apologize; also: excusarse por), quejarse (to complain), desconfiar (to distrust; but: desconfianza en algo/alguien), recelar (R3; to suspect), renegar (to forsake), desesperarse (to despair [i.e. faith]), desinterarse (to lose interest; also: desinterés por algo), guardarse (to take care not to), resarcirse (to make up [for]), librarse (to escape), vengarse (to take revenge), zafarse (to wriggle out [of]) El director lo acusó de robar/de haber robado la cartera. (The principal/headteacher accused him of stealing/having stolen the billfold/wallet.) El director lo acusó del robo. (The principal/headteacher accused him of the theft.) Habla en serio, no te burles de mí. (Speak seriously, don’t make fun of me.) But note the following: negarse a (to refuse [to do something]), negativa a (refusal to), renunciar a (to renounce), renuncia a (renunciation of), resistirse a (to resist [doing something]), resistencia a (resistance to) 65.2.3 De and causation The formula is: verb + de + infinitive/noun/pronoun, or verb + de + perfect infinitive. aburrirse (to be, to get bored; also: aburrirse con), admirarse (to wonder [at]), alegrarse (to be gladdened [by]; also: alegrarse por/con), arrepentirse (to repent), asombrarse (to be amazed), asustarse (to be frightened; also: asustarse por/con), avergonzarse (to be ashamed), cansarse (to tire; also: cansarse con alguien), enamorarse (to fall in love), escandalizarse (to be scandalized), estar contento (to be happy; also: estar contento con), espantarse (to be scared), estar descontento (to be unhappy; also: estar descontento con), extrañarse (to be surprised), fatigarse (to get tired), gloriarse (to be proud), hartarse (to be fed up; also: estar harto), jactarse (to boast), maravillarse (to marvel), preciarse (to pride oneself [on]), preocuparse (to worry [about]; also: preocuparse con/por), reírse (to laugh [at]), sonreírse (to smile [at]), sorprenderse (to be surprised), ufanarse (R3; to be proud; also: ufanarse con) Se arrepintió de beber tanto/de haber bebido tanto/del error. (She repented for drinking so much/of the error.) 3

Note: burlar (R3; to deceive).

Prepositional constructions with verbs, nouns, adjectives and gerunds

65.2.4

65.2.5

65.2.6

65.2.7

387

Me avergüenzo de no saber leer/de haber cometido el error/de mis acciones. (I feel ashamed of not being able to read/for making the error/of my actions.) De with advantage aprovecharse (to take advantage), beneficiarse (to benefit [from]), disfrutar (to enjoy); also with no preposition), gozar (to enjoy; also with no preposition), incautarse (to confiscate) Se aprovechó de mi ignorancia para engañarme. (She took advantage of my ignorance to deceive me.) La aduana se incautó del alijo de drogas. (Customs confiscated the cache of drugs.) De with instrument (de is often the equivalent of English with) apercibirse (R3) (to realize, to notice), pertrecharse (R3) (to equip oneself), colmar (to fill, to overwhelm), saciarse (to be satisfied/to have one’s fill), concienciar/concientizar (to make aware [someone]), vestir (to dress), vivir (to live [on]), encargarse (to take charge), henchirse (to swell), mentalizarse (to realize, to take into consideration). Se apercibieron de la presencia de los mosquitos demasiado tarde. (They noticed the presence of mosquitoes too late.) Lo concienciaron del problema. (They made him aware of the problem.) Me encargué de pintar la habitación. (I dealt with the painting of the room.) (Also: encargar algo a alguien) De with verbs of change Quieren cambiar de casa (They want to change houses.) No he mudado de opinión (I haven’t changed my opinion.) Las dos paredes varían de color. (The two walls vary in color.) Other uses of de el deber de hacer algo (the duty to do something) tener ganas de hacer algo (to want to do something) Ya es hora de salir. (It’s now time to go.) la voluntad de hacer algo (the will to do something) digno de algo/hacer algo (worthy of something/doing something) seguro de algo/hacer algo (sure of something/doing something) susceptible de hacer algo (capable of doing something)

65.3 “Por” before an infinitive or noun (See also the following Section 66.3). 65.3.1 Although many of the uses of por can be related to the basic meanings of the preposition, it is sometimes difficult for English-speakers to perceive the connection. The formula is: adjective/noun/verb + por + noun/verb: Se apura por poca cosa. (She worries over the slightest thing.) Le di las gracias por el regalo. (I thanked her for the gift.) apurarse (to worry, to hurry [M]; also: apurarse en), dar las gracias (to thank), enfadarse (to get angry), enojarse (to get angry [much more common in A, C, M than in Spain]), estar loco (to be mad [about]), felicitar (to congratulate), interesarse (to be interested), preocuparse (to worry), protestar (to protest; also: una protesta por), ser curioso (to be curious [about]), tener la obsesión de (to be obsessed by), apasionarse (to be passionate), indignarse (to be indignant; also: indignación por), irritarse (to get angry; also: irritarse con/contra) Se interesaba por el cine. (She was interested in the movies.) mi interés por la novela (my interest in the novel) Todas las secretarias se apasionan por Jaime. (All the secretaries are passionate about Jaime.) Estoy loco por esa chica. (I’m mad about that girl.)

388

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

65.3.2 Por (by) With verbs of beginning and ending), por + infinitive or gerund alone may be used. acabar (to finish, to end), comenzar (to begin), empezar (to begin), terminar (to finish) Acabé por leerlo./Acabé leyéndolo. (I ended up reading it.) 65.3.3 Por (in favor of) abogar (R3; to plead), apostar (to bet [on]), brindar (to drink), decidirse (to decide; but: la decisión de), optar (to opt), votar (to vote; also: votar a) Abogan por la construcción de más viviendas. (They plead for the building of more houses.) Nuestra empresa apostó por el mercado exterior. (Our firm bet on the overseas market.) 65.3.4 Por with verbs and nouns suggesting effort The formula is: verb/noun + por + infinitive/noun. afanarse (to strive; also: afanarse en), tener ilusión (to look forward; also: tener ilusión para), luchar (to struggle; also: luchar por la paz, lucha por el poder), apurarse (to hurry; also: en), matarse (to kill oneself [to do something]), entrarse una comezón (itch), entusiasmarse (to get enthusiastic; also: entusiasmarse con; entusiasmo para), morirse (to be dying [to]), hacer lo posible (to do one’s utmost), hacer (to try; haré por verlo), darse/ tener prisa (to hurry), esforzarse (to try; also: esforzarse en; esfuerzo en/para), pugnar (to fight), rabiar (to be dying [to]), reventar (to be bursting [to]), suspirar (to long [to]), esmerarse (to take pains; also: esmerarse en; esmero en) Se apuró por terminar la tarea. (She hastened to finish the task.) mil cosas por hacer (a thousand things to do/to be done) Me entró una comezón por comerme toda la tableta de chocolate. (I had an urge to eat the whole chocolate bar.) Me entusiasmé por esa novela. (I felt enthusiastic about that novel.) Tenía mucha ilusión por el viaje. (I was very much looking forward to the trip.) su afán por/de estudiar (her desire for studying)

65.4 Para 65.4.1 Para before an infinitive or noun (see also Section 66.2) dar permiso (to give permission), estar facultado (to be empowered), estar pronto/presto (R3; to be ready/quick), tener la habilidad (to have the capacity), habilitar a alguien (to empower someone), imposibilitar a alguien (to make it impossible for someone), prepararse (to prepare oneself; also: preparado), ser hábil (to be competent), tener dificultad (to have difficulty), tener facilidad (to have a gift), tener la capacidad (to have talent; also: la (in) capacidad; ser capaz para/de), tener la libertad (to be free [to]; also: tener libertad de), tener voluntad (to have the will) Dudo de su aptitud para enseñar/para la enseñanza. (I doubt his ability to teach/for teaching.) Mis padres me autorizaron para aprender a conducir un coche. (My parents authorized me to learn to drive a car.) Me di cuenta de su impotencia para ganar el partido. (I realized his inability to win the match.) la autorización para comprar un departamento (A, C, M)/piso (the authorization to buy an apartment) Mi papá me dio permiso para ir al cine. (My father gave me permission to go to the movies.) 65.4.2 Para with sufficiency: bastar (to suffice), faltar (to be lacking) Bastan cien pesos para hacerlo. (A hundred pesos are enough to do it.)

Prepositional constructions with verbs, nouns, adjectives and gerunds

389

Me falta un dólar para comprarlo. (I need one dollar to buy it.) Le faltan dos días para acabarlo. (He needs two days to finish it.) 65.4.3 Para with persuasion: convencer (to convince, to persuade) Lo convencí para que estudiara. (I persuaded him to study.)

65.5 “En” before an infinitive or noun 65.5.1 En corresponding to English in, into, on apoyarse (to lean on [also used figuratively]), coincidir (to coincide), complacerse (to take pleasure), concentrarse (to concentrate), consentir (to consent), creer (to believe), darse prisa (to hurry), deleitarse (to delight), ejercitarse (to practice), embarcarse (to get involved, to board [boat/bus]), empeñarse (to insist; also: empeño en), entrar (to enter), entretenerse (to pass the time [doing something]), esperar (to hope, to believe), estar interesado (to be interested), hacer bien (to do well), incidir (to fall on, to have an effect), incurrir (to incur, to commit), influir (to influence; also: influir sobre), ingresar (to go into, to be admitted to [hospital]/to enlist [army]), insistir (to insist), interesarse (to be interested; also: interesarse por), participar (to participate), penetrar (to penetrate), perseverar (to persevere), persistir (to persist), recrearse (to enjoy onself), ser el primero/segundo/último (to be the first/second/last [in doing something]), ser lento (to be slow), ser unánime (to be unanimous), tener interés (to have an interest; also: tener interés por), tener prisa (to hurry) Me apoyé en el bastón. (I leaned on the stick.) Haces bien en evitar la hora pico. (You do well to avoid the rush hour.) Coincidimos en no decir nada. (We agreed to say nothing.) Hemos coincidido en lo fundamental. (We have agreed on the fundamentals.) Incurrió en varios errores. (She committed several errors.) Fue la primera en examinarse. (She was the first to take the examination.) Somos unánimes en rechazar la sugerencia. (We are unanimous in rejecting the suggestion.) 65.5.2 En with verbs of persistence obstinarse (to persist; also: obstinación en), perseverar (to persevere), persistir (to persist; also: persistencia en) Carlos se obstinaba en acelerar la marcha de los acontecimientos. (Carlos insisted on increasing the pace of events.) 65.5.3 En with verbs of hesitation: dudar (to hesitate, to doubt), vacilar (to hesitate; also: vacilación en/para) Dudo en salir. (I hesitate about going out.) 65.5.4 En with verbs of noticing: fijarse (to notice), reparar (R3; to notice) ¿Te fijaste en su expresión? (Did you notice her expression?) No reparé en que la silla estaba rota. (I didn’t notice the chair was broken.) Consiente en la venta del apartamento. (She consents to the sale of the apartment.) 65.5.5 En followed by the gerund: continuar (to continue), llevar (to spend time [doing something], seguir (to continue) In an R3 construction, en is followed by the gerund, suggesting “as soon as”: En viéndola, se lo dije. (As soon as I saw her, I told her.) En viéndola, se lo diré. (As soon as I see her, I’ll tell her.) En bajando las escaleras, me resbalé con una piel de plátano. (As soon as I went down the stairs, I slipped on a banana skin.)

390

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

65.6 No preposition in Spanish; preposition in English The formula in Spanish is: verb + noun. In English it is: verb + preposition + noun. acordar (to agree on), agilizar (to speed up), agradecer (to thank for; but: estar agradecido por), aguardar (to wait for; but: aguardar a que + subjunctive), ambicionar algo/hacer algo (to have the ambition for/to), aprobar (to approve), aprovechar (to take advantage of; but: aprovecharse de, with the same meaning), buscar (to look for), callar (to keep [something] quiet), comentar (to comment on; but: hacer un comentario a), compadecer (to sympathize with; but compadecerse de [to take pity on]), compensar (to compensate for), contratar (to offer a contract), costear (to pay for), desaprobar (to disapprove of), discriminar (to discriminate against), equivocar (to make a mistake over; but: equivocarse de, with the same meaning), escuchar (to listen to), esperar (to wait for; but: esperar a que + subjunctive; esperar que + indicative or subjunctive [to hope]), flexibilizar (to make flexible), historiar (to write a history of), impactar (to have an impact on), incendiar (to set fire to), intervenir (to operate on), ironizar (to be ironic about), llorar (to weep over), mirar (to look at), operar (to operate on), padecer (to suffer from), pagar (to pay for), pedir (to ask for), pisar (to tread on), pisotear (to trample on), presidir (to preside over), profundizar (to go deeply into; also: profundizar en), recorrer una ciudad (to go round [visit] a city), subscribir (to subscribe to; but: subscribirse, with the same meaning), velar (to watch over; also: velar por), votar (to vote for [something]; but: votar a alguien) Los sindicatos acordaron huelgas para el mes siguiente. (The labor/trades unions agreed on strikes for the following month.) Aproveché la oportunidad para volver en su coche. (I took advantage of the opportunity to go back in their car.) Aprobaron la ley/su comportamiento. (They approved of the law/his behavior.) Le agradecí el regalo. (I thanked her for the gift.) Los gitanos protestan porque en algunas escuelas los discriminan. (The gypsies are protesting because in some schools they are being discriminated against.) Equivocamos la fecha. (We made a mistake over the date, but also: Nos equivocamos de la fecha.) Hay que flexibilizar su actitud. (He has to make his attitude more flexible.) historiar una ciudad (to write the history of a city) La administración tiene que agilizar los trámites. (The administration has to speed up the process.) El pueblo pisotea los derechos de los inmigrantes. (The town is trampling on the immigrants’ rights.)

65.7 Preposition in Spanish, no preposition in English Spanish verbs taking a preposition before a following infinitive or noun but correspond to English verbs which take no preposition. The formula is: verb + preposition + noun or infinitive. abusar de (to abuse), acordarse de (to remember; also: recordar, with the same meaning), amenazar con (to threaten), anteponerse a (to precede), anticiparse a (to anticipate; also: anticipar, with the same meaning), apoderarse de (to take hold), apropiarse de (to appropriate), asemejarse a (to resemble), asirse a (to seize), asistir a (to attend), carecer de (to lack), cargar con (to take charge), casarse con (to marry), condescender en (to condescend), contactar con (to contact; but: contactar in A, C, M), contestar (a) una carta

Prepositional constructions with verbs, nouns, adjectives and gerunds

391

(to answer a letter; also: contestar [to contest]), contravenir a (to contravene), cumplir con (to fulfil; but: su cumplimiento de la orden), disponer de (to have available), dudar de (to doubt), encaramarse a (to climb), ensayarse a/para (to practice), enterarse de (to find out about), entrevistarse con (to interview; but: una entrevista a/con), excederse en (to overdo, to exceed), fiarse de (to trust), jugar al tenis (to play tennis; but: jugar tenis [A, C, M]), juntarse con (to join), necesitar de (to need; also: necesitar/la necesidad de), negarse a (to refuse [to]; also: la negativa), obsequiar con (to give), olvidarse de (to forget; also: Olvidé las llaves/Se me olvidaron las llaves), parecerse a (to resemble), percatarse de (to notice), posesionarse de (to take possession), precisar de (to require), presumir de (to think highly [of oneself]), protestar de (to protest), renunciar a (to renounce; also: la renuncia a), resistirse a (to refuse [to do something]; also: resistir la tentación/las olas), rivalizar con (to rival), servirse de (to use), sobrevivir a (to survive), unirse a (to join) Tu padre abusa del tabaco. (Your father abuses tobacco.) El acusado abusó de varios niños. (The accused abused several children.) El verbo se antepone al sujeto. (The verb precedes the subject.) Asistimos a la conferencia. (We attended the lecture.) Cumplí con la promesa. (I fulfilled my promise.) Su idea carece de lógica. (Her idea lacks logic.) Debo cargar con la responsabilidad. (I must take responsibility.)

66 The prepositions “para” and “por” / Las preposiciones “para” y “por” Below is a small passage illustrating the points at which para and por coincide and diverge in usage. The main feature here is that por, like para, may be used with the idea of intention, which is not always apparent for an English-speaker. The narrative is about a shortcut, a torn skirt and a rock concert. Fui por el atajo (shortcut) para/por llegar antes y tomar el primer autobús que pasara, porque me interesaba llegar pronto por/para estar la primera, cuando abrieran la taquilla del concierto de rock. Un momento antes, por/para salir pronto del trabajo, sin que se diera cuenta mi jefe, tuve que salir por la puerta trasera (rear door) por/para sortear el control de la puerta principal; para ello, hube de saltar una valla de alambre espinoso (barred-wire fence), desgarrándome la falda. Desde ese momento, por/para taparme el desgarrón que me había hecho, tuve que llevar el bolso junto a mi trasero todo el tiempo. Después, en el concierto, me até en la cintura un chal (shawl), que me dejó una amiga, para que/porque no se me viera el desaguisado (mess).

66.1 Distinguishing between “para” and “por” The two Spanish prepositions para and por cause a great deal of confusion, partly because they can sometimes be translated by the same English preposition for, and also because they can overlap in meaning. They are largely treated apart from the other prepositions, since by comparing and contrasting them, it is hoped that one can distinguish between them more clearly. It should be pointed out here that, as opposed to ser and estar, grammars of the Spanish language destined for Spanish-speakers do not consider para and por together, since they perform different functions, just as for and by do in English. A Spanish-speaker needs little or no instruction on their different uses. The first most important feature that separates the two prepositions is that para indicates direction or purpose, while por may indicate purpose, but also indicates cause or an act performed on behalf of, or through, an agent. The following three pairs of contrastive examples will illustrate this point. Mi hermana tiene un e-mail para mí. (My sister has an e-mail for me [and is waiting to give it to me, for example].) Mi hermana escribe un e-mail por mí. (My sister writes an e-mail for me [on my behalf or because I do not do it myself].) Vamos para las montañas. (Let’s head towards the mountains.) Vamos por la montañas. (Let’s go through the mountains/go for a walk in the mountains.) Dale el dinero para el carro. (Give him the money for the car [so that he can buy it].) Dale el dinero por el carro. (Give him the money for the car [in exchange for, to buy it].) Two further examples containing both prepositions in the same sentence will make the difference even clearer. Mi hermano hizo la tarea por mí para la maestra. (My brother did my homework for me for the teacher.) 392

The prepositions “para” and “por”

393

El jugador vive por y para el fútbol. (The player lives through and for soccer.) In the first sentence, por suggests on behalf of, while para suggests destination. In the second sentence, which is not easily translatable, por suggests that the player has his whole being through the game, while para suggests an aim, or end, in view.

66.2 Uses of “para” 66.2.1 Purpose Mi prima estudia para (ser) ingeniero. (My cousin is studying to be an engineer.) Llamo para felicitarte. (I call to congratulate you.) Por can be used on occasions instead of para to indicate purpose. No puedo hacer nada por evitarlo. (I can do nothing to avoid it.) 66.2.2 Destination Tengo un mensaje para ti. (I’ve got a message for you.) Saca un billete para Santander. (He’s buying a ticket for Santander.) 66.2.3 Going towards a place. La veo cuando voy para la facultad. (I see her on my way to the university.) 66.2.4 Changing direction: Tuerces para la derecha cuando. . . (Go to the right when. . .) 66.2.5 Indicating a point in time (usually in the future). Te dejo mi departamento (A, C, M) para las vacaciones. (I’ll leave my apartment for you for the vacation.) 66.2.6 Indicating limit of date, month, etc. Acaban las obras para Semana Santa. (The [road] works will be finished by Holy Week.) 66.2.7 Expressing opinions Para mí, todo el mundo se equivoca. (As far as I’m concerned, everyone’s wrong.) Para ella, no hay nada interesante. (For her, there’s nothing interesting.) 66.2.8 Indicating as or with the status of. Nuestra candidata no salió para alcaldesa. (Our candidate did not get the mayor’s post.) 66.2.9 Suggesting some undisclosed thought (with the reflexive disjunctive pronoun) Aquel lugar es ideal, pensó el conde para sí. (That’s an ideal spot, the count thought to himself.) “No me atrevo”, dije para mí. (“I dare not,” I said to myself.) 66.2.10 Suggesting comparison or contrast. No hace demasiado calor para ser agosto. (It’s not hot enough to be August.) 66.2.11 Corresponding to in order to Trabaja mucho para ascender a jefa. (She works a lot to become the boss.) Estudio bastante para ir a la Universidad. (I study quite a lot to go to university.) 66.2.12 Suggesting sufficiency or necessity El agua es necesaria para la vida. (Water is necessary for life.) Esta casa es demasiado grande para mí. (This house is too big for me.) No tengo suficiente dinero (como) para comprártelo. (I haven’t enough money to buy it for you.) 66.2.13 Used with verbs like quedar, faltar and restar, indicating time left to do something or distance to be covered Faltan dos horas/diez kilómetros para llegar al pueblo. (There are two hours/six miles left to reach the town.) Quedan/restan dos semanas para las vacaciones.1 (There are two weeks before the vacation.) 66.2.14 Indicating mood or opportunity to do something (usually this has a negative idea) No estoy para bromas. (I’m not in the mood for joking.) La oficina está para pocos gastos. (The office is not keen on spending money.) 1

Quedar is used much more than restar in this context.

394

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

66.2.15 Other uses Es para volverse loco. (It’s enough to send/drive you mad.) No es para creerlo. (It’s really unbelievable.) 66.2.16 Para is also used in conjunction with con meaning towards. Es muy simpático para con todo el mundo. (He’s very nice with everyone.) No estuviste muy amable para con tu abuelo. (You weren’t very friendly towards grandpa.) 66.2.17 Used for inclination animoso para ayudar (enthusiastic in helping) apto para la pintura (skilled in painting) (in)capaz para un cargo ([in]competent for a post) (in)hábil para una actividad ([in]competent for an activity) habilitar para una actividad (to make fit for an activity) inútil para árbitro (useless as a referee) propio para el caso (fit for purpose) inhabilitar para. . . (to make unfit for. . .) El niño tiene aptitudes para el dibujo. (The child has an aptitude for drawing.) Es un hombre hábil para negociar. (He’s a man skilled in negotiating.)

66.3 Uses of “por” 66.3.1 In passive statements when a person is the agent El teatro fue construido por un buen arquitecto. (The theater was built by a good architect.) Las Américas fueron invadidas por Cristóbal Colón. (The Americas were invaded by Christopher Columbus.) 66.3 2 Indicating passing through or across Vamos a Madrid por Ávila. (We go to Madrid via Avila.) Miro por la ventana. (I look out of the window.) Me paseo por la calle. (I walk down the street.) El sol se filtraba por las hojas. (The sun filtered through the leaves.) 66.3.3 Indicating a vague idea with respect to place Los soldados se esconden por algún pueblo de Zamora. (The soldiers hide in some village in [the province of] Zamora.) ¿Pasamos por aquí, verdad? (We go this way, don’t we?) ¿Hay un banco por aquí? (Is there a bank [around] here?) “¿Dónde está tu hermano?” “Está por allá.” (“Where’s your brother?” “He’s [over] there [somewhere].) Hay mucho gitano por ese barrio. (There are lots of gypsies in this district.) 66.3.4 Indicating approximate time. Vuelvo por Semana Santa. (I’ll be back for Holy Week. [para could be used here.]) 66.3.5 Indicating a specific point of time in the day Los jefes se reúnen por la mañana/tarde/noche (a/en also used in A, C, M). (The leaders meet in the morning/afternoon/at night.) 66.3.6 Indicating frequency or speed with respect to time Corre a ciento cincuenta kilómetros por hora. (She’s traveling/racing at a hundred miles an hour.) Hace dieta dos veces por semana (also: dos veces a la semana). (She diets twice a week.) 66.3.7 Indicating cause. ¿Por qué lo haces? (Why do you do it?) 66.3.8 Indicating on behalf of, for the sake of Voy al supermercado por ti. (I go to the supermarket for you.)

The prepositions “para” and “por”

66.3.9

66.3.10 66.3.11

66.3.12 66.3.13

66.3.14

66.3.15

395

Celebran una misa por su alma. (They say mass for his soul.) Firma por su esposa. (He signs for his wife.) A good number of verbs are included here: abogar por el acusado (to plead for the accused), declararse por Don Carlos (to declare yourself for Don Carlos), intervenir por un reo (to intervene for a prisoner), luchar por sus ideas (to struggle for your ideas), mediar por un inculpado (to mediate for a defendant), optar por un modo de. . . (to opt for a way of. . .), orar por el alma del difunto (to pray for the soul of the deceased), padecer por alguien (to suffer for someone), pedir2 por alguno (to ask for someone [i.e. on behalf of]), pelear por la patria (to fight for the homeland/country), pugnar por la verdad (to struggle for the truth), resolverse por tal partido (to decide on a party), rezar por los difuntos (to pray for the dead), rogar por los pecadores (to plead for the sinners), sacrificarse por el hijo (to sacrifice yourself for the son/child), solicitar un favor por un deudo (to request a favor for a debt), temer por sus hijos (to fear for your children), velar por el bien público (to watch over the public good) Pregunté por Juan. (I asked to see Juan.) Suggesting by means of Me enteré por la prensa. (I learnt of it through the newspapers.) Me llamó por teléfono. (She phoned me.) Lo pago por el banco. (I pay it through the bank.) Indicating cause. Detuvieron al alcalde por el asesinato de su mujer. (They arrested the mayor for the murder of his wife.) Used frequently before an abstract noun Lo hice por placer. (I did it for pleasure.) Le dio todo su dinero por amor. (He gave her all his money out of love.) Les pagué las vacaciones por cariño. (I paid for their vacation out of affection.) Lo hizo por inadvertencia. (She did it by mistake.) No escribí la carta por descuido. (I didn’t write the letter due to an oversight.) No contestó por dignidad. (She didn’t answer out of dignity.) Visitaba al enfermo por compasión. (I would visit the sick person out of compassion.) Lo acompañé por amistad. (I accompanied him out of friendship.) No felicitó al ganador por despecho. (He didn’t congratulate the winner out of spite.) Indicating intensification and followed by an infinitive. Gritaba por gritar. (He shouted for shouting’s sake.) Indicating rate Se vende por docenas. (It’s sold by the dozen.) La tasa es del ocho por ciento. (The rate is 8 percent.) Indicating manner and means Es mexicano por adopción. (He’s Mexican by adoption.) por aire/carretera/ferrocarril/mar/tierra (by air/road/railroad/sea/land) La informaron por carta. (They informed her by letter.) Les mandé el dinero por correo. (I sent them the money by mail.) Lo oímos por la radio/televisión. (We heard it on the radio/television.) La conocí por su sombrero. (I recognized her by her hat.) Lo informó por escrito. (She informed him in writing.) Used in adverbial idioms of manner por cierto (certainly), por un lado/una parte (on the one hand), por consiguiente (in consequence), por otro lado/otra parte (on the other hand), por el contrario (on the 2

If you wanted to ask to see someone, you would use preguntar.

396

66.3.16

66.3.17

66.3.18

66.3.19

A Reference Grammar of Spanish contrary), por lo tanto (therefore), por desgracia (unfortunately), por último (at last), por fortuna (fortunately), por fin (at last), por lo general/por regla general (generally), por lo visto (apparently), por separado (separately), por supuesto (of course) Por desgracia murió antes de acabar la novela. (Unfortunately she died before finishing the novel.) El jefe nos fue entrevistando a todos por separado. (The boss went on interviewing us separately.) ¡Por fin/último ha llegado! (She has finally arrived!) Por un lado no tengo el dinero, y ¡por otro no quiero dártelo! (On the one hand I haven’t the money, and on the other I don’t want to give it to you!) Por with other prepositions usually suggesting movement Corrieron por entre los árboles. (They ran among the trees.) Pasó por detrás de la silla. (He went round the back of the chair.) El avión voló por debajo del puente. (The airplane flew under the bridge.) Saltó por encima del muro. (She jumped over the wall.) Me preguntó por mediación de su amigo. (She asked me via a friend.) Salí a por el periódico. (I went out to get the newspaper.) This last example is colloquial, but the construction is very common. The alternative, perhaps more acceptable, is: Salí por el periódico, which is what a Mexican would say. As seen in the passage at the beginning of this chapter with examples for para, por can express intention or goal. esforzarse por (to try) matarse a trabajar por conseguir algo (to kill yourself working to get something) esfuerzo por (an attempt to) hablar por sí/otro (to speak for yourself/another) rabiar por (to rage about) suplicar por obtener algo (to plead to obtain something) instar por obtener algo (to press to obtain something) Llevaba las alpargatas colgadas al cuello por no desgastarlas. (He carried his [rope] sandals round his neck so as not to wear them out.) Lo dije por cumplir. (I said so to fulfil my promise.) Por with an infinitive can give the idea of because. Con cántaro, el tilde es obligatorio por tratarse de una palabra esdrújula. (With cántaro, the accent is compulsory because it bears a stress on the antepenultimate syllable.) Por indicates concern, worry or commitment to. afanarse por (to strive to) impaciente por tu llegada (impatient for your arrival) afán por el trabajo (eagerness for work) indiferencia por el cine (indifference to movies) anhelar por (to yearn for) anhelo por una mejor vida (thirst for a better life) interesarse por el arte (to be interested in art) ansiar por (to long for) ansia por una licenciatura (longing for a degree) ansioso por (desirous of) loco por una chica (mad about a girl) morir por querer un Ferrari (to be dying for a Ferrari) preguntar por el camino (to ask the way) apasionarse por (to be enthusiastic for)

The prepositions “para” and “por”

66.3.20

66.3.21

66.3.22

66.3.23

66.3.24

397

preocuparse por el porvenir (to be worried about the future) Noté su inquietud por la suerte de su hija. (I noticed her worry over the fate of her daughter.) Se desvivía por poseer un auto. (She did all she could to possess a car.) Por is related to the idea of searching. Voy por el periódico. (I’m going for the newspaper.) Envió al niño por una barra de pan. (She sent the boy for a stick of bread/baguette.) Cuando le necesitemos, mandaremos por Ud. (When we need you, we’ll send for you.) Bajó por una botella de vino. (He went down for a bottle of wine.) Por may be used in an elliptical fashion, with the exclusion of ser. Lo contrataron por trabajador y sobrio. (They took him on because he was hard-working and sober.) Había desechado el piano por anticuado y desgastado. (He’d thrown away the piano because it was antiquated and worn out.) Quería comprarlo por nuevo y barato. (I wanted to buy it because it was new and cheap.) Por may be used before the neuter lo. Lo termina todo pronto por lo trabajador que es. (He finishes it all quickly because he is so hard-working.) No me fío de estas chicas por lo traviesas que son. (I don’t trust those girls because they are so mischievous.) No voy a llegar por lo lento que va el colectivo. (I won’t arrive on time because the bus is going so slowly.) Por can also introduce the idea of equivalence or exchange, and this may be considered as the English as. darse por vencido (to accept defeat) recibir por esposa (to take as wife) declarar por enemigo (to declare as an/your enemy) reclamar por bien (to claim as your own) escoger por mujer (to choose as a wife) reconocer a alguien por amigo (to recognize someone as friend) ofrecerse por ayudante (to offer yourself as a helper) señalarse por discreto (to stand out as discreet) presentarse por candidato (to offer yourself as a candidate) tener por criado (to have as a maid) tenerse por inteligente (to think you’re intelligent) prometer por esposa (to promise as a wife) tomar por ofensa (to take as an offense) proponer por árbitro (to offer as a referee) quedar por cobarde (to remain a coward) Eligieron por diputado al más tonto y al más canalla. (They elected as representative/ member of parliament the dumbest and most roguish of people.) Lo procesaron por vago y estafador. (They took him to court for vagrancy and swindling.) Por is also used with verbs involving exchange of one thing for another. cambiar por otra cosa (to exchange for something else) sustituir a una cosa por otra (to replace one thing with something else) pagar por una persona (to pay for a person) trocar por (to exchange for) responder por otro (to answer for another) venderse por dinero (to be sold for money)

398

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

No era él el culpable; ha pagado por otro. (He wasn’t guilty, he’s ended up paying for someone else.) Tengo una hambre de miedo; podría comer por cuatro. (I’m terribly hungry, I could eat a horse.) Es una ganga, lo compré por diez dólares. (It’s a bargain, I bought it for ten dollars.) 66.3.25 Por is used with a variety of verbs. Tengo una novela por terminar. (I have a novel to finish.) Me quedan varias cosas por comprar. (I’ve got a few things to buy.) Empezaré por exponer el nuevo plan. (I’ll begin by developing the new plan.) Acabarán por despedirte. (They’ll end up dismissing you.) Votaron por los demócratas. (They voted for the democrats.) Me he decidido por el coche blanco. (I’ve decided on the white car.)

Part VIII

67 Demonstrative adjectives / Adjetivos demostrativos 67.1 Characteristics of demonstrative adjectives A demonstrative adjective denotes, or belongs to, a class of determiners to point out the individual referent or referents intended, such as this and those. 67.1.1 There are three demonstrative adjectives in Spanish. They correspond to the English this, these, that and those. They agree with the noun to which they relate, in the same manner as adjectives.

s

p

m

f

Neuter

Translation

este ese aquel estos esos aquellos

esta esa aquella estas esas aquellas

esto eso aquello none none none

this that (near you) that (further away) these those (near you) those (further away)

67.1.2 Este denotes what is close by or associated with the speaker. Ese relates to the thing that is close to the person addressed and not far from the speaker or addressee. Aquel is far or remote from both. They frequently precede the nouns to which they belong, but they can follow the noun. este timbre (M)/sello que tengo aquí (this stamp I have here) Esta recámara (M)/habitación está sucia. (This [bed]room is dirty.) Estos sobres no tienen timbres (M)/sellos. (These envelopes don’t have stamps.) Estas papas (A, C, M)/patatas están buenas. (These potatoes are nice.) Ese coche allí es de mi papá (A, C, M)/padre. (That car there is my father’s.) Esa casa enfrente se vende. (That house opposite us is for sale.) Esos árboles están en flor. (Those trees are in blossom.) Esas chicas viven muy cerca. (Those girls live close by.) Aquel parque al otro lado del pueblo. (That park on the other side of the town.) Aquella película que vamos a ver. (That movie we are going to see.) Aquellos barcos que salen hoy. (Those boats that leave today.) Aquellas montañas que escalamos. (Those mountains we climb.) 67.1.3 With reference to time, este refers logically to the present, and ese to a period relatively near, while aquel applies to a remote period. en este momento (at this moment), durante ese año (during that year), Aquella época en que Cortés. . . (That period when Cortés )

401

402

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

67.2 Demonstrative adjectives after the noun The adjectival este, ese and aquel and their variants may come after the noun. In these cases, they frequently, but not always, suggest a pejorative or ironic touch. La carretera esa es muy peligrosa. (That road is very dangerous.) El chico aquel nunca estudia. (That boy never studies.) La lavadora esta funciona fatal, es un cacharro. (This washing machine is hopeless, it’s a piece of junk.) la taimada esa (that sly woman) There is only one comment on irregularities with demonstrative adjectives. Since the definite article el has such strong associations with the masculine gender, and apocopation occurs before feminine nouns beginning with stressed a, with such indefinite pronouns as uno, alguno and ninguno (un alma, algún hada, ningún arma), it is little wonder that esta agua, esa hacha and aquella águila end up in R1 language as este agua, ese hacha and aquel águila. It must be argued that euphony plays a major part in this solecism.

68 Demonstrative pronouns / Pronombres demostrativos 68.1 Characteristics of demonstrative pronouns 68.1.1 As opposed to demonstrative adjectives (see Chapter 67), este, ese, aquel, and so on (this, that, that one, etc.), which apply to nouns, demonstrative pronouns actually replace nouns, and they agree in gender and number with the noun or nouns they replace. éste, ésta, éstos, éstas (this one, these [ones]) ése, ésa, ésos, ésas (that one, those [ones]; closer to the speaker than aquél, etc.) aquél, aquélla, aquéllos, aquéllas (that one, those [ones]; further from the speaker than ése, etc.) 68.1.2 Éste, ése, ésa, aquél, aquélla, and so on, are often used in comparisons, as in the following examples. Este muchacho es más abusado (M)/listo que ése. (This boy is cleverer than that one.) Estas novelas son más fáciles que aquéllas. (These novels are easier than those.) 68.1.3 As pronouns, the above forms may or may not have a written accent. There is no strict rule on this feature. It is argued that accents on pronouns avoid ambiguity. However, ambiguity is extremely rare. The RAE considers omission of the written accent permissible, but the Spanish newspaper El País, for instance, does not allow it. Furthermore, careful writers do seem to censure its absence. So it seems wiser to use it. Éste (este coche) es más caro que aquél. (This one is more expensive than that one.) Ése es un autor de primera categoría. (That is a first-class author.) Aquélla es una época fabulosa. (That is a fabulous period.) Prefiero aquéllas en el escaparate. (I prefer those in the store window.) Cases of ambiguity can, of course, occur. Compare the following two sentences, the first containing a demonstrative adjective (aquellos), and the second a demonstrative pronoun (aquéllos). ¿Por qué compraron aquellos libros usados? (Why did they buy those second-hand books?) ¿Por qué compraron aquéllos libros usados? (Why did those people buy second-hand books?) 68.1.4 Éste and aquél (the latter and the former) A further difference between éste and its variants, and aquél and its variants, is that éste has the value of the latter, while aquél has the value of the former. Hubo una lucha entre los aztecas y los españoles. Éstos tenían cañones en tanto aquéllos. . . ( There was a struggle between the Aztecs and the Spaniards. The latter had cannons, while the former. . .) 68.1.5 Just as el + noun + ese (the demonstrative adjective following the noun preceded by the definitive article) can be pejorative, so the use of ése can imply contempt. ¿Quién es ése? (Who’s that [guy/character]?) ¿Qué cuenta ésa? (What’s that dame/broad saying?) 68.1.6 The neuter pronoun forms, esto, eso and aquello are also used, but only absolutely – that is to say, they are never found associated with nouns. They do not refer to anything specific, persons or things. They apply to statements and abstract ideas. ¿Has leído esto? (Have you read this?) 403

404

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Eso es. (That’s it.) Eso me parece increíble. (That seems incredible to me.) Aquello del vecino que perdió. . . (That business of the neighbor who lost. . .) ¿Puedes solucionar aquello de tu padre? (Can you sort out your father’s trouble/business?) Eso may be substituted for aquello in the last two examples.

68.2 Uses of the pronouns “el”/“la”/“los”/“las” 68.2.1 El, in its several forms, when used as a pronoun, does not accompany a noun, but serves to avoid the repetition of one; it is equivalent to the English that, those, the one, the ones, referring to something already mentioned or understood. Compré mi computadora (A, C, M) y la que tiene mi hija. (I bought my computer and the one my daughter has/my daughter’s.) Me gusta mi ordenador y el que compraste. (I like my computer and the one you bought.) Rompí la pluma (M) mía y la de mi cuate (M)/amigo. (I broke my pen and that of my friend/ my friend’s.) Están muy bonitas las plantas en el jardín y las de al lado. (The plants in the yard/garden and those at the side are very attractive.) 68.2.2 When a relative pronoun follows, el, los, la and las are used instead of the personal pronouns él, los, la and las. El que habló ayer es colombiano. (The one who spoke yesterday is Colombian.) La que nos encontramos es muy rica. (The one we met is very rich.) Los que murieron eran canadienses. (Those who died were Canadians.) Las que te ayudaron son muy majas. (Those who helped you are very nice.) 68.2.3 But when the relative following is governed by a preposition, aquél is more usual as an antecedent than el, when referring to persons. Aquélla a quien he dado el regalo. . . (The person/She to whom I gave the present. . .) Aquéllos con quienes discutiste. . . (Those with whom you had an argument. . .)

69 Indefinite pronouns / Pronombres indefinidos Below is a passage relating the instructions given by a group leader before a hike in the mountains. The real problem is what to do when faced by a bear. One of the group suggests that the leader sacrifice himself, since he would be a tasty meal for the bear, tubby as he is. The passage illustrates the use of indefinite pronouns. Ya estamos todos juntos, alguno se había retrasado, pero ya está el grupo completo, no falta ninguno. Ahora iremos por un camino que es algo peligroso. Nadie puede salir del sendero: a la derecha hay un precipicio con un riachuelo allá abajo, y a la izquierda una pared. Formaremos dos grupos, el uno vendrá conmigo, el otro con el monitor. ¿Alguien quiere preguntar alguna cosa? ¿Nadie? Uno nunca está seguro de que lo han entendido. Repito: Los unos conmigo, los demás con Jorge, el monitor. Antes de partir, el que quiera puede quedarse en el autobús y esperarnos con el conductor hasta que regresemos todos. Es una caminata (hike) que cualquiera puede hacer. Hay osos salvajes, pero creo que no encontraremos ninguno. Pero si apareciera un oso, quien esté más cerca, que se deje atrapar, así no nos perseguirá a todos. Alguien se tiene que sacrificar, al fin y al cabo. —¿No podría sacrificarse usted, que está más rellenito (tubby)? —dijo uno atrás.

69.1 Use of indefinite pronouns 69.1.1 There are a number of words of a miscellaneous nature that are called indefinite pronouns. They are, to some extent, of a hybrid character, since some of them may be used in more than one way. The following words, which never designate any particular person or thing, are regarded as indefinite pronouns, since there is nothing precise about them. alguien (somebody, anybody), alguno (some, any), algo (something, anything), nadie (nobody, not anybody), ninguno (none, not any), nada (nothing, not anything) Alguien, algo and their opposites, nadie and nada, are invariable in form, have no plural and are only used absolutely – that is, they stand alone and do not qualify nouns whereas alguno and ninguno can do so. 69.1.2 Alguien applies only to persons. It may be preceded by any preposition, and since it denotes a person, it requires the personal a (see Section 64.4.4) when it is a direct object. Alguien viene/llama a la puerta. (Someone’s coming to/knocking at the door.) ¿Vas de vacaciones con alguien? (Are you going on vacation with someone?) ¿Busca Ud. a alguien? (Are you looking for someone?) ¿Ves a alguien? (Can you see someone/anybody?) 69.1.3 Algo applies only to things. It may be used before an adjective, just like something or anything in English. ¿Estás buscando algo? (Are you looking for something?) Ven algo en la televisión. (They watch something on television.) Algo sucedió en aquel lugar. (Something happened in that place.) Sirve algo de vino pero muy poco. (Serve a drop of wine, but not much.) 405

406

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Tocaba algo el piano. (She played the piano a little.) 69.1.4 An adjective following algo is often preceded by de. Tiene algo de tonto. (He’s got something dumb about him.) Tiene algo de morriña. (She’s a bit homesick.) 69.1.5 Algo is used as an adverb before adjectives or other adverbs in the sense of somewhat, rather. La casa es algo oscura. (The house is somewhat dark.) Este modelo es algo pequeño. (This model is somewhat small.) 69.1.6 Algo así is also commonly used to mean something like that, = approximately. Tardarán cinco horas o algo así. (They’ll be five hours or thereabouts.) 69.1.7 Alguno is used either alone or as an adjective, and applies to persons and things. When referring to persons, it acts similarly to alguien. However, alguien is more vague than alguno when the latter is used as a pronoun. Alguno denotes someone already referred to. It varies like an adjective ending in -o. Before a masculine noun, it becomes algún. When it comes after a verb in the negative, it follows the noun. Yo quiero salir, pero alguno prefiere quedarse en casa. (I want to go out, but someone [of us] prefers to stay at home.) Sólo quedaban algunos chicos. (Only a few boys remained.) Compró algunas sillas. (She bought a few chairs.) Déjame alguna camisa. (Leave me a shirt [one shirt or another].) Puede ayudarte algún vecino. (Some neighbor can help you.) No hay taxi alguno. (There isn’t a single taxi.) No hay motivo alguno para que te enfades. (There is no reason for you to get angry.) 69.1.8 Alguno, when referring to things, has the meaning of some, any or a few. It is omitted on occasions when in English some, for example, is used. Voy a vender algunas de mis gallinas. (I’m going to sell some of my chickens.) Quieren comprar algunos timbres (M)/sellos. (They want to buy a few stamps.) Yo también quiero comprar algunos. (I want to buy some as well.) “¿Tienes golosinas?” “Sí, tengo.” (“Have you got any candies/sweets?” “Yes, I have some/I do.”)

69.2 Indefinite negative pronouns 69.2.1 Nadie, ninguno and nada are, of course, negatives. When they come before the verb, they do not require no, but when they come after, they do require no before the verb. (See Section 71.1 on negative sentences). These negative pronouns are singular. Ninguno becomes ningún before a masculine noun. Nadie sabe la verdad. (No one knows the truth.) Nadie viene hoy. (No one comes today.) No viene nadie hoy. (No one is coming today.) No contesta nadie. (No one answers.) Ninguno de nuestros amigos viene./No viene ninguno de nuestros amigos. (None of our friends are coming.) Nada le satisface./No le satisface nada. (Nothing satisfies him.) No veo ningún problema. (I can see no problem.) 69.2.2 When nadie or ninguno are objects of a verb, or when ninguno is an adjective describing a person, the personal a is used (see Section 64.4.4). No veo a nadie. (I can’t see anyone.) No hallamos (M)/encontramos a nadie. (We can find no one.)

Indefinite pronouns

407

No veo a ninguno de nuestros amigos. (I see none of our friends.) 69.2.3 Nadie and nada can stand by themselves, like no one and nothing in English. “¿Quién llama?” “Nadie.” (“Who’s calling?” “No one.”) “¿Qué cuentas?” “Nada.” (“What have you got to say?” “Nothing.”) Nada is also used as a noun, meaning nothing. Le fascinaba la nada. (Nothingness fascinated him.) Sartre’s L’Être et le néant is translated as El ser y la nada. 69.2.4 After the prepositions sin (without) and antes de (before), the negative forms nadie and nada are used. sin ver a nadie (without seeing anyone), sin decir nada (without saying anything), antes de hacer nada (before doing anything) 69.2.5 Nada is also employed as an adverb with the meaning of not at all, by no means. Lo que dice no me convence nada. (What she says doesn’t convince me at all.) No es nada evidente. (It’s not at all obvious.) 69.2.6 To this group of negative pronouns explored above may be added the following indefinite pronouns which are, perhaps, a little less imprecise. cuanto (all that which), uno(s) (one, somebody, some), los/las demás (the rest), varios (several), otros (others), se (indefinite reflexive; see also Section 38.5.1 on reflexive verbs) 69.2.7 Cuanto is used less and less, and may be seen in the higher, written register. No repetiré cuanto me dijo. (I’ll not repeat what he said to me.) Te daré todo cuanto quieras. (I’ll give you all that you want.) Hice cuanto pude. (I did what I could.) Cuantos lo conocieron lo admiraron. (All/Those who knew him admired him.) Cuanto may also be followed by de. todo cuanto de bueno tenías (all the good things you had), cuanto de aprovechable quedaba (anything profitable that remained) 69.2.8 Los/Las demás Después saludó a los demás. (Afterwards he greeted the rest.) Los demás del equipo se quedaron. (The remainder of the team stayed behind.) Demás may be used as an adjective, in which case it appears less as an indefinite pronoun. Las demás amigas regresaron a casa. (The remaining friends returned home.) Demás may also be preceded by lo, and here it has a neuter value. No quería hablar de lo demás. (I didn’t want to talk about the rest.) No me interesaba lo demás. (I wasn’t interested in the rest.) 69.2.9 Otros Unos dijeron que sí, otros que no. (Some said yes, others said no.) No sé si vienen/vengan otros (C, M). (I don’t know if others are coming.) Llegaron otras cuatro. (Four more [females] arrived.) 69.2.10 Todo(s) Todo me disgusta. (I don’t like anything [of it].) Volvieron todos. (Everyone came back.) Todas estuvieron de acuerdo. (Everyone [females] was in agreement.) 69.2.11 The indefinite pronoun uno, with the meaning of one or you, is quite common, although it is nowhere near as common as the French on, which is all-pervasive. De estar uno borracho, no debe conducir. (If you’re drunk, you mustn’t drive.) No puede uno estar en todo. (You can’t be everywhere.) Uno no sabe qué decir. (You don’t know what to say.) In the final example, una could also be used by a female. Uno is not normally repeated if a series of verbs occur. Uno va a su oficinita por la mañana, da los buenos días, se sienta, fuma un par de pitillos, contesta un poco al

408

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

teléfono, etc. (You go to the office in the morning, greet everyone, sit down, smoke a couple of cigarettes, answer the phone, etc.) Uno may also be used as an indefinite direct or indirect object. Siempre le han de venir a uno con impertinencias. (They always come up and say unpleasant things to you.) Si le dicen a una que es una tonta, no está contenta. (If they say to you that you’re dumb, you’re not pleased.) Uno is often replaced by tú with this indefinite meaning. Tú entras, te dan un regalo, te hacen todos los favores del mundo. . . (You go in, they give you a present, they shower you with pleasantries. . .) Sabe Ud., cuando te vas a esos almacenes, no te atienden. (You know, when you go to those department stores, they don’t pay any attention to you.) 69.2.12 Se (see also Section 38.5.1 on reflexive pronouns and Section 56.6.2 on personal pronouns) is used very commonly as an indefinite pronoun and has no true equivalent in English. Recourse is often had to the passive to deal with se. Se llamó al medico. (The doctor was called.) Se felicitó a los actores. (The actors were congratulated.) Se va a enviar un hombre a la luna. (A man is going to be sent to the moon.) Se is also used impersonally with intransitive verbs, or verbs used intransitively. En los pueblos, se discurre, se comenta, y se quiere vivir y trabajar. (In small towns, people discuss and comment on things, and they want to live their lives and work.)

69.3 Further treatment of pronouns There are some pronouns that have a general, non-specific reference to other people or things, and have a variety of forms. m: el que (he/the one who), los que (those/the ones who) f: la que (she/the one who), las que (those/the ones who) “¿Qué pan quieres?” “El que tiene miel.” (“Which bread do you want?” “The one which has honey.”) “¿Qué tren tomas?” “El que sale a las tres.” (“Which train will you catch?” “The one that leaves at three.”) El que llega primero recibirá el premio. (The one who arrives first will get the prize.) “¡Qué bonita falda!” “¿Cuál?” “La que está cerca de la ventana.” (“What a lovely skirt!” “Which one?” “The one near the window.”) “¿Quiénes son tus hijas? ¿Las que están paradas?” (A, C, M) “No, las que están sentadas.” (“Who are your daughters? Those standing up?” “No, those sitting down.”) “¿Qué sombreros compran?” “Los que están en el mercado.” (“Which hats are they buying?” “Those that are in the market.”) “¡Qué maravillosas casas!” “¿Cuáles?” “Las que están detrás del bosque.” (“What marvelous houses!” “Which ones?” “The ones behind the wood.”)

69.4 Use of the subjunctive when the person is unspecified 69.4.1 If there is a degree of uncertainty in the person or object referred to, it is quite likely that the subjunctive may be used. Los que aprueben el examen tendrán caramelos. (Those who pass the exam will get some candies/sweets.)

Indefinite pronouns

409

Las que terminen el trabajo a las cinco podrán regresar temprano. (Those finishing work at five can go home early.) 69.4.2 Quien is a substitute for el que/la que, and quienes for los que/las que, but only with respect to persons. Quien respeta a los mayores es muy cortés. (The one who respects older people is very courteous.) 69.4.3 When speaking of people or things where possessions are referred to, el de/la de/los de/ las de are used. La de la blusa roja está como un tren. (The girl with the red blouse is gorgeous.) Los de la camiseta blanca tienen el mejor equipo. (Those with the white jerseys/shirts have the best team.) El carro de Jorge es más pequeño que el de Adriana. (Jorge’s car is smaller than Adriana’s.)

69.5 Use of “cualquier” 69.5.1 Cualquiera and its plural cualesquiera (little used now) have the idea of any when used as a pronoun or adjective. As a pronoun, they are often followed by de. Cualquier is used before a noun, but cualquiera is used if it is not followed directly by a noun. cualquier día (any day at all), cualesquier estudios (any studies at all), un día/defecto/ hombre cualquiera (any day/defect/man), cualquiera de los barcos (whichever/any one of the boats), cualquiera puede hacerlo (anyone can do it), ¿Se puede elegir cualquiera? (Can you choose any one?) 69.5.2 Cualquier/cualesquier are often followed by the subjunctive, given the uncertainty involved. Si ves cualquier incidente/hombre que te resulte sospechoso. . . (If you notice any incident/man which/who looks suspicious. . .) Cualesquiera que hayan sido sus motivos. . . ( Whatever her reasons may have been. . .) 69.5.3 It can often suggest something of little value or quality, and corresponds to the English any old. No me compré una camisa cualquiera. (I didn’t buy any old shirt.) No eres un músico cualquiera. (You’re not any old musician.)

Part IX

70 Conjunctions / Conjunciones Below is a passage about a man caught up in a sting in a market. Wanting to help an old woman who has apparently been robbed of her money, the man ends up at the police station, subject to a fine piece of trickery. The old woman and her accomplice make off with a hundred euros. The passage includes the use of a number of conjunctions. —Señor comisario, aunque me vea con esta cara, no soy mala persona, digo esto porque puedo demostrarlo con testigos, ya que yo no soy malo, sino feo tan sólo: Yo iba paseando por el mercadillo cuando oí gritar a una viejecita que le habían robado la cartera. Su aspecto daba lástima. Un individuo bien trajeado (well-dressed) pidió ayuda y poniendo diez euros en una gorra me la dio a mí con objeto de hacer una colecta entre los presentes, que eran muchos. Yo, conmovido, puse un billete, y, conforme con lo encomendado, pasé la gorra con lo que conseguí recaudar (collect) cien euros, que dimos encantados a la viejecita. Pero cual sería mi sorpresa: mientras me iba a casa, vi a la viejecita y al trajeado repartiéndose el dinero amigablemente, así que, furioso, amenacé denunciarlo a la policía. El tipo gritó: “Al ladrón, al ladrón”, mientras me cogía el brazo y me metía esa cochambrosa (filthy) cartera en el bolsillo, y aquí estoy, detenido sin arte ni parte (having had nothing to do with it). Conjunctions, as the name reveals, have the function of joining either two words or two groups of words in the same clause, or two clauses of the same or different nature. When they relate words or groups of words in the same clause, they are called coordinating conjunctions; when they relate two clauses, the conjunctions are called subordinate.

70.1 Coordinating conjunctions

70.1.1

70.1.2 70.1.3 70.1.4

ahora (ahora bien) (now, well now), pero (but), antes (antes bien) (rather), pues (so, therefore), ni (. . .ni) (neither [. . .nor]), sino (but), o (u) (or), y (e) (and), o sea (. . .o sea) (either[. . .or]), ya. . .ya (now. . .then) Ahora bien No sé si vendrán, ahora bien, me llamaron esta tarde. (I don’t know if they’ll come, however, they called me this afternoon.) Pero Me llamo Francisco, pero me llaman Paco. (My name is Francisco but they call me Paco.) Ni. . .ni El niño ni come ni duerme. (The child neither eats nor sleeps.) Y Era hija y nieta y bisnieta y tataranieta de médicos. (She was the daughter and granddaughter and great-granddaughter and great-great-granddaughter of doctors.) Padre e hijo fueron a la fiesta. (Father and son went to the party.) María e Isabel han llegado. (María and Isabel have arrived.) E replaces y before i and hi but not including diphthongs (limón y hielo) or questions (¿Y Hipolito/Isaac?). 413

414

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

70.1.5 O

70.1.6

70.1.7

70.1.8

70.1.9

70.1.10

Las papas o patatas, es igual. (Papas [potatoes] or patatas [potatoes], it’s the same.) Lo haces o te vas. (You do it or you go.) Haga bueno o haga malo, iremos. (Whether the weather is good or not, we go.) uno ó dos, seis ó siete (has an accent here to avoid confusion with “zero”) (one or two, six or seven) siete u ocho (o changes to u before another o) (seven or eight) Sino No sólo te lo ruego, sino te lo ordeno. (Not only do I ask you but I order you.) No te pregunto lo que hiciste sino lo que vas a hacer. (I am not asking you what you did, but what you are going to do.) Sino replaces pero here since it is preceded by a negative. Pues No paraba de preguntar “¿Qué dicen?” pues era sorda. (She kept on saying “What are they saying?” since she was deaf.) O sea . . .(o sea) O sea los que vienen de lejos. . . o sea los que son muy jóvenes. (Either those who have come from afar. . .or those who are very young.) Antes (antes bien) No me dieron la razón. Antes bien, criticaron durante mi propuesta. (They didn’t say I was right. Rather, they criticized my suggestion harshly.) Ya. . .ya Ya sea a las cinco, ya sea a las siete, la reunión se celebrará. (Whether at five or seven, the meeting will take place.)

70.2 Subordinate conjunctions There are two types of subordinate conjunctions: those consisting of just one word, and these are genuine conjunctions; and those consisting of conjunctive expressions which are formed by two or more words (see Section 70.3, below). The following are single subordinate conjunctions in the strict sense of the word. aunque (although), mientras (while), como (as), porque (because), conforme (while, as), que (that), cuando (when), si (if) No aprueba el examen aunque ha trabajado como un condenado. (He fails the examination although he has worked like a slave.) No pensaba decírselo. Pero, como lo habéis adivinado. . . estoy esperando un niño. (I was not intending to tell you. But as you have guessed it, I am expecting.) Recojan los abrigos conforme vayan saliendo. (Collect your coats as you go out.) Yo dormía tranquilamente cuando oí una explosión. (I was sleeping peacefully when I heard an explosion.) Mi apellido es Salas. Es un nombre capicúa porque se lee igual de izquierda a derecha que al revés. (My name is Salas. It’s a palindrome because it reads the same from left to right and the other way round.) Leeré el libro si me los traes. (I’ll read the book if you bring it to me.) In literary style, it is possible to use luego to introduce a consequence or conclusion. Pienso luego existo. (Descartes) (I think therefore I am.)

Conjunctions

415

70.3 Conjunctive expressions Of these conjunctive phrases it is often difficult to decide whether to call them conjunctions or relative adverbs. The following are the most usual. It should be borne in mind that a good percentage of them determine as standard the use of the subjunctive; some of them must be followed by the subjunctive (understandably the most awkward area); while only a small number would not normally be associated with the subjunctive mood (see Chapter 55 on the subjunctive). An asterisk signals the standard and required use of the subjunctive in all circumstances. a condición (de) que* (on condition that), en caso (de) que* (in case), a fin de que* (so that), en tanto que (while), a medida que (according/as), en vez de que (instead of), a menos que* (unless), excepto que (excepting), a no ser que* (unless), hasta que (until), ahora que (now that), luego que (after), antes (de) que* (before), mientras que (while), así que (so that [result]), no obstante que (notwithstanding), a pesar de que (despite), para que* (in order that), bien que (although), por + adjective + que* (however), con motivo que* (so that), porque (because, in order that), con tal que* (so that), tanto más que (the more since), pues/puesto que (since), dado que (given that), según que (according/as), de manera/modo/suerte que (so that), siempre que (whenever), sin que* (without), desde que (since), supuesto que* (supposing that), después (de) que (after), tanto que (so that), como si* (as if), ya que (since, given that) Te daré cien pesos a condición (de) que me los devuelvas mañana. (I’ll give you a hundred pesos on the condition that you return them to me tomorrow.) A medida que subía el sol, subía la temperatura. (As the sun came up the temperature went up.) Llegué a casa antes de que lloviera. (I arrived home before it rained.) Gritaba como si estuviera loca. (She shouted as if she were mad.) Regresó sin que me diera cuenta. (She came back without my realizing it.) Nuestra madre nos dió un magnífico desayuno de manera/modo/suerte que no tuviéramos hambre todo el día (subjunctive). (Our mother gave us a magnificent breakfast so that we should not be hungry all day.) El coche cayó en la cuneta de manera/modo/suerte que volvimos en el autobús (indicative). (The car fell into a ditch, so that we returned by bus.) Puesto que son colombianos, es lógico pensar que hablan español. (Since they’re Colombian, it is logical to think they speak Spanish.) Sencillo no es, ya que Einstein no logró resolverlo. (It’s certainly not easy, since Einstein couldn’t solve it.)

71 Negative sentences / Frases negativas Below is a passage illustrating some of the uses of negation in Spanish. It relates the story of brothers (and sisters), or friends, who jam a saucepan onto the head of Miguelito, a small boy who, playing at Roman soldiers, may have thought a saucepan would replace a helmet. Juro que no veía nada. Jamás me habría imaginado aquello. ¡Y todo por una película de romanos que ni siquiera habíamos visto! Hoy día todavía no acabo de entender lo que ocurrió: “Como Miguelito nunca protestaba ni lloraba”, y era el menor, terminé con una cacerola encajada (jammed) en la cabeza y no podía quitármela por mucho que tiraba de ella. No me lo quería imaginar, pero al no oír nada, deduje que mis primos se habrían escondido tras haberme “disfrazado” (disguised). Allí no quedaba ninguno cuando llegaron mis padres con mis tíos, sin que yo pudiera localizar a ninguno en mi oscuridad. En un momento me zarandearon (shook), levantaron, bajaron y tiraron. . ., tiraron de la cazuela hasta que yo, asustado, no pude aguantar y comencé a llorar sin parar. Me dieron jabón por la nuca (back of my neck), me untaron (smeared) de vaselina. . ., hicieron lo inimaginable. “¿Llamamos a un fontanero?” “¡En absoluto!” tronó mi papá, mientras que al tirar del artefacto, que no salía, estaba a punto de asfixiarme. . . Al final, nadie tiene ni idea, nunca hemos sabido cómo, la cacerola se desatascó (was released) y quedé libre. No he querido nunca saber nada de romanos ni me he puesto jamás un casco (helmet) en la cabeza. ¡Ni por nada del mundo!

71.1 Negating the Spanish verb 71.1.1 The Spanish verb is negated by placing no in front of it. No veo la luna. (I can’t see the moon) No va al partido. (He’s not going to the game.) No entienden el italiano. (They don’t understand Italian.) A word or group of words may intervene between no and the verb. No todos piensan como tú. (Not everyone thinks like you.) 7.1.1.2 Other words which form a negative sentence are: nadie (no one), nada (nothing), ninguno (none), nunca (never), jamás (never) When these words follow the verb, no precedes the verb. No ve a nadie. (She doesn’t see anyone.) No encontramos a nadie. (We didn’t meet anyone.) No esperan nada de ti. (They don’t expect anything from you.) No veo nada aquí. (I can’t see anything here.) No pasa nada. (It’s O.K./Don’t worry.) No muestra ningún interés. (She shows no interest.) No voy nunca a Argentina. (I never go to Argentina.) No nos visita jamás. (She never visits us.) 71.1.3 If nadie, nada, ninguno, nunca and jamás precede the verb, no is not used. Generally speaking, nadie, etc. preceding the verb lends more emphasis than with the combination no. . .nadie. See the last two contrastive examples below. 416

Negative sentences

417

Nadie lo sabe. (Nobody knows it.) Nadie sale a encontrarnos. (No one comes out to meet us.) Nada le satisface. (Nothing satisfies him.) Nada me falta. (I need nothing [nothing is lacking to me].) Ninguna persona quiere ayudarnos. (No one wants to help us.) Nunca viene. (He never comes.) Nunca me llama. (He never calls me.) Jamás trabajo de noche. (I never work at night.) Nunca te dije eso./No te dije nunca eso. (I never told you that.)

71.2 Uses of “ni. . .ni” and “no. . .ni. . .ni” 71.2.1 Ni. . .ni. . .is the equivalent of neither. . .nor. . .or not. . .either. . .or. No tengo ni pasteles ni caramelos. (I haven’t got cakes or candies.) No es necesario cambiar ni las toallas ni las sábanas. (It is not necessary to change the towels or sheets.) No lo encontré ni en el departamento (A, C, M)/piso ni en el jardín. (I couldn’t find it either in the apartment or in the yard/garden.) No bebo ni fumo. (I neither drink nor smoke.) Nunca riñes ni protestas. (You never quarrel or protest.) No lo saben ni Celia ni Pablo. (Neither Celia nor Pablo know it.) Nadie ha visto ni ha nombrado al traidor. (No one has seen or named the traitor.) 71.2.2 No is followed by ni in the following way when used with tener. No tengo ni idea. (I have no idea/I haven’t a clue.) It also occurs in the idiomatic ¡ni hablar! used to reject a suggestion. “¿Vienes al cine?” “Ni hablar”. (“Are you coming to the movies?” “Nothing doing.”) Ni may take on the meaning of not even. No encuentro ni rastro. (I can’t find even a trace of it.) The verb in the following construction takes a plural form, whereas in English both plural and singular are possible. Ni Pedro ni Juan me resultan simpáticos. (Neither Pedro nor Juan appeal[s] to me.) Ni la naranja ni el limón se cultivan en esta zona. (Neither orange nor lemon is/are grown in this area.) The first ni in the following sentence may be omitted with no change of meaning. No he visto ni a Juan ni a Pedro. (I have seen neither Juan nor Pedro.) No he visto a Pedro ni a Juan. (I haven’t seen Pedro or Juan.) 71.2.3 Ni takes the place of o (or), after all negatives or clauses embodying a negative or restrictive idea. Apenas podía respirar ni moverse. (He could hardly breathe or move.) Salió sin decirme nada ni cerrar la puerta. (She went out without saying anything to me or closing the door.)

71.3 Uses of “sino”, “no sólo” and “tampoco” 71.3.1 Sino combines with no (but), and no sólo (not only. . .but also). Hoy no es mi cumpleaños sino mi santo. (Today is not my birthday but my saint’s day.) No sólo era buen cocinero sino también un fantástico anfitrión. (He wasn’t only a good cook but also a fantastic host.)

418

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

71.3.2 Tampoco is often the equivalent of either. Tampoco negates something in addition to a previous negation. Pepa no ha comido, Juan tampoco. (Pepa hasn’t eaten, Juan hasn’t either.) “No he visto ninguna película.” “¿Y la última de Cantinflas?” “Tampoco.” (“I haven’t seen a single movie.” “And the last one by Cantinflas?” “Not that one either.”)

71.4 “Ni siquiera” (not even) strengthens the negation of “ni” No lo/le conozco (ni) siquiera de vista. (I don’t know him, not even by sight.) Se lo entregué y (ni) siquiera me dio las gracias. (I gave it to him and he didn’t even thank me.) La niña no sabe (ni) siquiera sumar. (The child doesn’t even know how to add up.) All three sentences that follow have the same meaning. Ni siquiera he terminado mi trabajo./No he terminado ni siquiera mi trabajo./Ni he terminado mi trabajo. (I haven’t even finished my work.)

71.5 Order with “no” With the exception of object personal pronouns, no word intervenes between the verb and the negative. Su proyecto no me parece rentable. (Her plan doesn’t seem viable to me.) No se lo he conseguido todavía. (I haven’t obtained it for him/her yet.) Parecen distintos pero no lo son. (They look different but they aren’t.)

71.6 “No” with negation and repetition 71.6.1 No neutralizes any adjectives, adverbs or proposition of negative value, and is itself neutralized by repetition. detalles no importantes (see Section 71.8, below) (unimportant details) No le fue permitido no asistir. (He was not allowed not to go.) No podemos no admitir su razonamiento. (We cannot but admit his reasoning.) 71.6.2 There can be more than one set of negatives in a Spanish sentence. In the first example below there are three, and four in the second. Ella no me ha dicho nunca nada. (She has never told me anything.) No toleraba nunca ninguna intervención de nadie. (He tolerated no intervention from anyone.) The positive forms anything (algo) and anyone (alguien) in English are not possible in these Spanish sentences. 71.6.3 When alguno occurs after the noun, it has a negative connotation. No he visto a persona alguna en la calle. (I haven’t seen anyone in the street.) No tengo idea alguna sobre el asunto. (I have no idea on the affair.) No le interesa sugerencia alguna. (He’s not interested in any suggestion.)

71.7 Miscellaneous features In some verbal expressions, no does not give an exactly opposite meaning. Consider the following two pairs of sentences. Acabo de entender por qué lo hizo. (I have just understood why he did it.) No acabo de entender por qué lo hizo. (I fail to understand why he did it.)

Negative sentences

419

Dejé de fumar. (I stopped smoking.) No dejé de seguir estudiando. (I didn’t fail to go on studying.)

71.8 Negative prefixes 71.8.1 Often an adjective or noun can be negated by using a negative prefix -in or -des. cómodo (suitable), incómodo (unsuitable), conocido (known), desconocido (unknown) If such a ready-made word does not exist, a variety of negatives – no, nada and poco – can be used. Sometimes, in the case of no, this can have a euphemistic effect. los no creyentes (los infieles) (the unbelievers [non-believers]), los no violentos (partidarios de la paz) (those who are non violent [peace supporters]), el profesorado no universitario (non-university [trained] teachers), el personal no docente (non-teaching staff/personnel), fuerzas no identificadas (unidentified forces), los aparatos no tripulados (unmanned flights/rockets/planes), ciudadanos no votantes (non-voting citizens), un no fumador (a non-smoker), sistema/zona de no fumadores (a non-smoking area/system), código de no discriminación (code of non-discrimination), los no residentes (non-residents), un profesor poco divertido (a dull teacher), un coche poco rápido (a slow car), nombres no contables (uncountable nouns) The use of nada + adjective means in no way, by no means. una costumbre nada frecuente (a rare custom), un empleo nada lucrativo (a poorly paid job), una idea nada convincente (an unconvincing idea), las nada comunes dotes artísticas de Bergman (the by no means usual artistic talents of Bergman) 71.8.2 Sin + infinitive is also used. una cuestión sin resolver (an unresolved question) misterios sin aclarar (unclarified mysteries) La cena está sin hacer. (The evening meal remains to be prepared.) 71.8.3 Spanish has a number of other expressions which have the value of a negative and often, but not always, require no before the verb. No dijo palabra. (She didn’t say a word.) sin decir nada a nadie (without saying anything to anyone) antes de hacer ningún gesto (before making a single gesture) Es imposible contestar nada. (It’s impossible to answer anything.) En mi vida he visto tantas arañas. (I have never seen so many spiders in my life.) En toda la noche he podido dormir. (I haven’t slept all night.) En todo el año ha hecho tanto frío como hoy. (In the whole year, it has never been so cold as today.) No veo ni gota. (R1; I can’t see a thing.) No entiende ni gota de inglés. (R1; He doesn’t understand any English at all.) 71.8.4 Signs forbidding certain activities can appear thus: ¡Basura no! (Do not deposit trash/rubbish here!) ¡Carteles no! (Do not fix posters here!/Stick no bills!) ¡Perros no! (No dogs allowed!) ¡Bicicletas no! (No cycling!)

71.9 Order with “no” and compound verbal forms 71.9.1 In the case of compound verbal forms with ser, estar and haber, no precedes the auxiliary. No he querido ir. (I haven’t wanted to go.)

420

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

No están dispuestos a aceptar la oferta. (They aren’t ready to accept the offer.) El regalo no fue aceptado. (The present was not accepted.) 71.9.2 The use of en absoluto has the value of absolutely not. “¿Ha desaparecido el peligro?” “En absoluto.” (“Has the danger disappeared?” “Certainly not.”) No me molesta en absoluto. (It doesn’t trouble me at all.) 71.9.3 The negative of hay que > no hay que (hacer) is ambiguous. It can mean both I/you, etc. must not (do something) and I/you, etc. do not have to (do something). Contrast the following sentence. No hay que gritar. (You must not shout.) No hay que escribir la carta ahora, la puedes escribir mañana. (You don’t have to write the letter now, you can write it tomorrow.) The same occurs with tener que > no tener que. El alumno sabe que no tiene salir. (The pupil knows he must not go out.) No tengo que trabajar hoy porque trabajé mucho ayer. (I don’t need to work today because I worked hard yesterday.) 71.9.4 Miscellaneous uses of no 71.9.4.1 No anticipates an affirmative answer to a question. ¿Viste la película, no? (You saw the movie, didn’t you?) ¿Fuiste con ellas, no? (You went with them, didn’t you?) 71.9.4.2 No suggests a need for permission. Mamá, puedo ir el domingo de excursión, ¿no? (Ma/Mom/Mum, I can go on the trip on Sunday, can’t I?) 71.9.4.3 No may be used as a noun. Pedí permiso pero me dieron un “no” rotundo. (I asked for permission but received a categorical “no”.) This use of no has a plural form. Te llamo a salir a cenar esta noche y yo no admito noes. (I’ll call you to go out for a meal tonight and I won’t take no for an answer.) 71.9.4.4 Cómo combines with no to suggest affirmation or acceptance. “¿Salimos esta noche al teatro?” “¿Cómo no?” (“Will we go to the theater this evening?” “Why not?”) 71.9.4.5 No combines with más to indicate only. Quiero un café, no más (M). (I only want a coffee.) 71.9.4.6 No is often used as a kind of balancing of two statements. Antonio quiere jugar (al) tenis, pero los demás no. (Antonio wants to play tennis, but the others don’t want to.) Como chocolate, sí, pero caramelos no. (I do eat chocolate, but not candies/toffees.)

72 Numbers,1 measurements, time and dimensions / Números, medidas, tiempo (duración) y dimensiones Below is a passage relating the mythical story of Cipriano, who, from looking after a flock of sheep, comes to rule over a vast territory. Note how temperatures, square kilometers, the size, weight and age of a person are referred to. Note also the use of ordinal numbers and Roman numerals. En el Capítulo Decimocuarto, Artículo Noveno, Apartado Cuarto, del Códice de Aurelio XXIV, se hace referencia a un tal Cipriano, que llegó a reinar en las Tierras Altas y Bajas de Patones. Las referencias quizá estén a años luz (light years) de la realidad. Era este hombre, de gran estatura para su época, equivalente a 1,97 metros, o sea, un metro con noventa y siete centímetros, y de un peso aproximado, en arrobas (25 lb.), de 98 kilogramos. Vivió en el primer tercio del siglo XV, y se sabe de él que hasta la edad de veintiún años anduvo por aquellas montañas pastoreando (tending/looking after) un rebaño (flock) paterno de no menos de seiscientas cabezas de ganado ovino. La vida al aire libre entre aquellas peñas, las altas temperaturas del verano, que alcanzaban los 37 °C (treinta y siete grados centígrados), y los fríos inviernos, a veces con 20 °C (veinte grados centígrados) bajo cero durante la madrugada, templaron el carácter de este personaje, que más tarde conquistaría y dominaría, durante más de tres lustros, un vasto territorio de más de 100.000 km2 (cien mil kilómetros cuadrados), cero más o cero menos (more or less).

72.1 Cardinal numbers 72.1.1 Note the figures/letters in bold in the list below. cero un(o), una dos tres cuatro cinco seis siete ocho nueve diez once doce trece catorce

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

quince dieciséis diecisiete dieciocho diecinueve veinte veintún/uno/una veintidós veintitrés veinticuatro veinticinco veintiséis veintisiete veintiocho veintinueve

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

treinta 30 treinta y un/uno/una 31 cuarenta 40 cincuenta 50 sesenta 60 setenta 70 ochenta 80 noventa 90 cien/ciento 100 ciento dos 102 doscientos/as 200 trescientos/as 300 cuatrocientos/as 400 quinientos/as 500 seiscientos/as 600

1 Not to be confused with Chapter 10, on number (singular and plural).

421

422

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

setecientos/as 700 dos mil 2000 ochocientos/as 800 ochenta mil 80 000 novecientos/as 900 ciento sesenta mil 160 000 mil 1000 un millón 1 000 000 mil cincuenta 1050 un billón (americano) 1 000 000 000 mil quinientos veinte 1520 un billón (mexicano) 1 000 000 000 000 72.1.2 General notes on cardinal numbers 72.1.2.1 Thousands are separated by a space. This practice has only recently been crystallized. Decimals are separated by a comma. Corre los cien metros en nueve coma nueve (9,9). (She ran the 100 meters in 9.9.) Although the 100 meters is a single event, and one would have expected the singular el here, as in French (le cent mètres), note that a plural is used. 72.1.2.2 Millions are written as follows, to avoid a confusing series of zeros: 50 millones/500 millones/500.000 millones. For clarification’s sake, the billón americano or británico is one thousand million, as indicated above, while the billón mexicano, also indicated above, is one million million, following the French system. The latter holds good for the whole of the Hispanic world. 72.1.2.3 Figures are used for large quantities, again to avoid confusion, grouping the figures in threes, moving from the right: 10 584 343 is easier and clearer than diez millones quinientos ochenta cuatro mil trescientos cuarenta y tres. Once four figures are superseded, figures and spaces are used instead of words and letters. For security reasons – and this is the same in many languages – the full form in letters as well as figures is used for documents like checks, contracts, bills of exchange, and so on: Páguese al portador de este cheque la cantidad de veinticinco mil trescientos treinta y ocho euros. (Pay the bearer of this check the sum of twenty-five thousand three hundred and thirty-eight euros.) Páguese al portador de este cheque la cantidad de mil doscientos treinta y cuatro euros con veinticinco céntimos. (Pay the bearer of this check the sum of one thousand two hundred and thirty-four euros and twenty-five cents.) 72.1.2.4 Cardinal numbers are nouns, singular and masculine. Aquí tienes que escribir un nueve. (You have to write a nine here.) Ha salido premiado el doscientos dos. (Two hundred and two has won the prize.) 72.1.2.5 Once, from dieciséis to veintinueve, the numbers were frequently written thus: diez y seis, veinte y nueve. This practice has recently faded. 72.1.2.6 Uno becomes un before a masculine noun. Tengo un coche. (I have a car.) Uno becomes una before a feminine noun. Tengo una casa. (I have a house.) In composite numbers, un(o)/una function similarly. Hay veinte y una casas. (There are twenty-one houses.) Cien o doscientos invitados llegaron. (A hundred or two hundred guests came.) 72.1.3 The cardinal numbers are all invariable except for uno (see Section 72.1.2.6, above) and ciento. Ciento drops the final -o when it comes before a masculine or feminine noun. Asistieron alrededor de cien personas. (Around a hundred people attended.) 72.1.4 As in English, and strange as it may appear for both languages (as well as French and Italian), cero is followed by a plural for recording temperatures (see Section 72.9, below) or currency, for example.

Numbers, measurements, time and dimensions

72.1.5

72.1.6 72.1.7

72.1.8

72.1.9

72.1.10

423

Son cero grados. (It’s zero degrees.) 0,5 millones de pesos (half a million pesos) When figures are separated by o (or), the o bears an accent, in order to avoid confusion with a zero. The first example here could mean erroneously 506, and the second 10012 if ó was not used with: 5 ó 6, 10 ó 12. With 7 u 8 there is no such problem since o changes to u before ocho. (See Section 2.6 on pronunciation and spelling.) Veo treinta y tres árboles. (I can see thirty-three trees.) Acuden cien mujeres/hombres. (One hundred women/men come.) Tengo quinientos euros. (I have five hundred euros.) Llegan seiscientos espectadores. (Six hundred spectators arrive.) Hay mil soldados. (There are a thousand soldiers.) Veo a dos mil soldados. (I see two thousand soldiers.) Hay cien mil en el estadio. (There are one hundred thousand in the stadium.) Percentages. Sube la inflación en un diez por ciento. (Inflation goes up by 10 percent.) When uno follows a noun it retains its full form. “¿Cuántos libros tienes?” “Sólo uno.” (“How many books have you got?” “Only one.”) En cuanto a chicas, hay cuarenta y una. (As far as girls are concerned, there are forty-one.) Millón and billón are considered as nouns. Hay un millón de kilómetros desde aquí hasta. . . (There are a million kilometers from here to. . .) Hay millones de mosquitos. (There are millions of mosquitos.) Nuestro déficit es de dos billones de dólares (note the de here). (Our deficit is two billion dollars.) Note also the use of número par/impar (even/odd number). Los números pares son divisibles por dos, los impares no. (Even numbers are divisible by two but odd numbers are not.) Si viene tu hermana somos impares. (If your sister comes, we are an odd number.) These two terms are also nouns. Los impares están a la izquierda de la calle y los pares. . . (The odd numbers are on the left side of the street and the even numbers. . .) Par also has the meaning of couple/pair, when referring to things: un par de huevos/ zapatos/gemelos (a couple of eggs/a pair of shoes/twins). But it can suggest slightly more than two. Tengo que hacerle un par de preguntas. (I must ask her a couple of/few questions.) When referring to persons, pareja is used. Pasaba por la calle una pareja de policías. (Two policemen walked down the street.) Uses of cada uno/a, los/las dos, ambos/ambas, sendos/sendas (R3) All of these may be translated by each one, but they have their own peculiarities. Ambos/as are of a slightly higher register than los/las dos. Cada uno/a de los pilotos voló/volaron correctamente. (Each of the pilots flew correctly.) Los/las dos vinieron a las tres. (Both came at three o’clock.) Ambos torearon bien. (Both performed well at bullfighting.) Ambas son buenas cocineras. (Both are good chefs.) Sendos/sendas do not really correspond to ambos/ambas, since they are not used in the same part of the sentence. Sendos/sendas often follow a preposition, are of a much higher register and are usually found in writing. Las cinco excursionistas iban con sendas mochilas. (The five campers each traveled with a backpack.) Llegaron las dos/tres/cuatro/cinco con sendos bolsos. (The two/three, etc. [girls] arrived, each one with a purse/handbag.)

424

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Los dos forajidos llegaron con sendas pistolas. (The two outlaws arrived, each with a pistol.)

72.2 Telephone numbers With respect to telephone numbers in writing, if there is an uneven number of digits, the first set for the local regional dialing code consists of three digits (see in bold in the example) and the remainder of a series of two digits. For example, in Spain, a Madrid number could read from abroad: (00 34) 91 754 92 81. There are various ways of reading these figures out aloud, but by far the simplest, and certainly one of the most common ways, is merely to treat each digit individually. The figure above would therefore read: cero cero tres cuatro nueve uno siete cinco cuatro nueve dos ocho uno. An alternative could be to read off the local/regional dialing code 754 as setecientos cincuenta y cuatro and the rest as noventa y dos ochenta y uno. A number for Mexico City from outside the country would read: 00 52 55 57 68 53, and the likelihood in Mexico would be to read the figures off in twos, apart from the initial cero cero.

72.3 Ordinal numbers Considerable uncertainty exists over ordinal numbers, since once you go over ten, and reach, say, twelve, these become unmanageable (often ending up as questions on quiz shows). For all normal purposes, cardinal numbers are used instead of the ordinal numbers when you reach twelve. Ordinal numbers are: primero/a (first), segundo/a (second), tercero/a (third), cuarto, (fourth), quinto (fifth), sexto (sixth), sé(p)timo (seventh), octavo (eighth), noveno (ninth), décimo (tenth), undécimo (eleventh), decimotercero (thirteenth), decimocuarto (fourteenth), decimoquinto (fifteenth), decimosexto (sixteenth), decimosé(p)timo (seventeenth), decimoctavo (eighteenth), decimonoveno (nineteenth), vigésimo (twentieth), centésimo (hundredth), milésimo (thousandth), último/a (last) The above are really adjectives. They therefore all have four forms, in principle, although it would be exceedingly rare for segundo, tercero, cuarto, and so on, to be put in the plural. Primero and último are logically the only ordinal numbers to be used regularly in the four forms, although in sport the member of a team would say: Hemos quedado segundos/terceros/novenos. (We were second/third/ninth.) Primero and tercero lose the -o before a masculine noun. Note that séptimo and decimoséptimo may be written and pronounced without the p, although this is not the case in Mexico. In the décimos (teens), there are two spoken tonic accents, one on the e and one on the penultimate syllable, except for decimoséptimo, which has a written accent on the antepenultimate syllable. All the ordinal numbers agree in number and gender. el primer libro (the first book), la primera página (the first page), los primeros coches (the first cars), las primeras casas (the first houses), soy el primero/la primera (I am the first), por primera vez (for the first time), el primer niño (the first child), el tercer chico (the third boy), la tercera palabra (the third word), la niña trece (the thirteenth girl), la niña catorce (the fourteenth girl), la niña veinte/vigésima (the twentieth girl), la niña treinta y una (the thirty-first girl), la niña cuarenta (the fortieth girl), la centésima niña (the hundredth girl), el centésimo niño (the hundredth boy), la milésima mujer (the thousandth woman), el milésimo espectador (the thousandth spectator), la última plaza (the last place), el último cuchillo (the last knife), las últimas chamacas (M; the

Numbers, measurements, time and dimensions

425

last girls), los últimos chamacos (M; the last boys/kids), por última vez (for the last time)

72.4 Miscellaneous features of ordinal numbers 72.4.1 Ordinals, although adjectives, may be substantivized. Vivo en el sexto. (I live on the sixth floor.) Que pase el primero. (Let the first one come in.) 72.4.2 Cardinals can replace ordinals, in the elevator/lift, for instance. Voy al seis/siete. (I’m going up to the sixth/seventh [floor]). However, it would be unusual to hear al uno in this context. As noted above, once ordinal numbers reach twelve, they are generally replaced by cardinals, largely to avoid heavy and cumbersome terms. It is thus much more frequent to hear: el cincuenta aniversario than quincuagésimo aniversario (50th anniversary), while el quingentésimo aniversario (500th anniversary) would defeat most Spanish-speakers, who would not hesitate over el quinientos aniversario. One could find the following, however, in relation to lists, editions of books, and so on, and notably in elevated language. la niña décimotercera/decimocuarta (the thirteenth/fourteenth girl), la chica trigésimoprimera/cuadragésimoprimera/quincuagésimoprimera (the thirty-first/fortyfirst/fifty-first girl), vigésimonovena edición (twenty-ninth edition), septuagésima sexta edición (seventy-sixth edition) 72.4.3 In R1 language, in A, C and M, one hears quite commonly the apocopated form of primera before feminine nouns. An archaism in Spain, it has survived vigorously in Spanish-speaking countries in the Americas, but meets rebuttal in cultured circles: la primer casa/página/vez (the first house/page/time). 72.4.4 Cardinals used instead of ordinals normally come after the noun: el piso seis, el tomo veinte. 72.4.5 When a series of kings or popes are referred to, ordinals are used up to ten: Jorge tercero, Felipe segundo, Isabel segunda, Pablo sexto, Alfonso décimo. These may be contrasted with the cardinals. Benedicto dieciséis, Pío once, Alfonso trece, Luis dieciséis/dieciocho, Juan veinitrés With the ancient dynasties of Egypt, the same duality occurs: la cuarta Dinastía, la veinticinco Dinastía/la Dinastía veinticinco. There are some series where order is indicated systematically by cardinal numbers: el año veinte antes de Cristo, el día dos de diciembre, la página nueve, el kilómetro seis Only with 1 (uno = one) can one find the cardinal form. El día uno de febrero. (The first of February.) 72.4.6 Word order is flexible with the ordinals primero and último. When the ordinal precedes the number, the register is higher: los tres primeros libros, los primeros tres libros (R3), los tres últimos libros, los últimos tres libros (R3). With otro, the word order is fixed: los otros quince chicos, las otras diez chicas. This is also the case with enésima: por la enésima vez/por enésima vez (for the nth time). 72.4.7 It is not uncommon to see certain ordinal numbers come after the noun. This is especially so in literary writings: capítulo primero (R3; first chapter), capítulo tercero (third chapter.) Below is a short humorous piece illustrating some of the terms used to indicate time. Clearly, the boss did not adjust the hour on his clock for what Europeans call “winter time.” —Suárez, nunca llega usted a tiempo, siempre llega tarde. Son las diez menos cuarto, o un cuarto para las diez, como dice mi cuñado el mejicano. Todos los lunes se le pegan las

426

A Reference Grammar of Spanish sábanas (you oversleep). Hay que llegar a la hora en punto. Es la undécima vez que se retrasa, y hemos de entregar el trabajo a tiempo, ni antes ni después; tenemos un plazo fijo de entrega; no tenemos ni un lustro, ni una quincena: tenemos una semana, así que dentro de un rato me entregará el vigésimo capítulo terminado. ¡Ah! Y se queda después a recuperar el tiempo perdido. —Bueno, jefe, lo que usted mande, pero recuerde que la noche del pasado sábado se cambió la hora, y lleva usted el reloj adelantado. Hemos pasado al horario de invierno.

72.5 Days, weeks, months and seasons 72.5.1 In civil life, the week starts on Monday, but from the religious and traditional point of view, it starts on Sunday. All days of the week are masculine and are written in lower case. lunes (Monday), martes (Tuesday), miércoles (Wednesday), jueves (Thursday), viernes (Friday), sábado (Saturday/Sabbath), domingo (Sunday) When you are referring to a specific day coming soon, say “this Thursday,” the singular definite article is used with no preposition: el jueves (próximo) ([next] Thursday). When you are referring to Thursdays in general, the plural definite article is used: Los viernes voy al teatro. (On Fridays I go to the theater.) 72.5.2 Months of the year are all masculine and are written in lower case. enero (January), febrero (February), marzo (March), abril (April), mayo (May), junio (June), julio (July), agosto (August), se(p)tiembre (September), octubre (October), noviembre (November), diciembre (December) Se(p)tiembre has two spellings. Certainly, many speakers from Argentina and Spain do not pronounce the p. This is not the case in Colombia and Mexico, however, where the omission of the p is considered odd. 72.5.3 Seasons of the year are all masculine, save the first, and are written in lower case. primavera (Spring), verano (Summer), otoño (Fall/Autumn), invierno (Winter) En is used for in with reference to months and seasons. En enero cae mucha lluvia. (It rains a lot in January.) Las cigüeñas vuelven a España en primavera. (The storks come back to Spain in Spring.)

72.6 Time 72.6.1 Time and the clock a las cero horas (at zero hours) a las diez de la noche (at ten o’clock at night) Acaban de dar las siete. (Seven o’clock has just struck.) al cuarto para las cinco (M; at [a] quarter to five) al veinte para las diez (M; at twenty to ten) Llegué al cinco para las once. (M; I arrived at five to eleven.) Falta un cuarto para las tres. (M; It’s quarter to three.) El tiempo pasa despacio. (Time passes slowly.) El tiempo pasa lentamente. (Time passes slowly.) El tiempo pasa rápidamente. (Time goes quickly.) Son las cinco de la tarde. (It is five o’clock in the afternoon.) Es la una de la tarde. (It’s one o’clock in the afternoon.) Es mediodía. (It’s midday.) Es la una y tres minutos. (It’s three minutes past one.) Es la una y media. (It’s half past one.)

Numbers, measurements, time and dimensions

427

Es medianoche. (It’s midnight.) Es la una y cuarto. (It’s a quarter past one.) Están dando las cinco. (Five o’clock is ringing./It’s striking five o’clock.) hora (f) exacta (exact time) hora (f) punta (commute/rush hour) hora (f) pico (A, C, M; commute/rush hour) horario (m) (schedule, timetable) huso (m) horario (time zone) llegar a deshora (to come unexpectedly) Mi reloj no anda. (My watch isn’t working.) ¿Qué hora es? (What’s the time?) Es cuarto para las tres. (M; It’s a quarter to three.) Son las cinco en punto. (It’s exactly five o’clock.) Son las seis de la tarde. (It’s six o’clock in the afternoon/evening.) Son las ocho y cuarto. (It’s quarter past eight.) Son las dos de la madrugada. (It’s two o’clock in the morning.) Son las seis de la mañana. (It’s six o’clock in the morning.) Son las cinco menos cuatro minutos. (It’s four minutes to five.) Son (las) veinte para las nueve. (M; It’s twenty to nine.) [The las is less common than its exclusion in this expression.] una hora fija (a fixed time) El avión llega a tiempo. (The airplane arrives on time.) El avión llegó en hora. (A; The airplane arrived on time.) pasadas las diez de la noche (after ten o’clock at night) Vuelvo dentro de media hora. (I’ll be back in half an hour.) Vuelvo dentro de una media hora. (I’ll be back in about half an hour.) Note the difference between Mexico, and Argentina, Colombia and Spain with respect to times to the hour. It should be added here that the concept of to (para) as opposed to minus (menos) with reference to time is starting to creep into Spain via television and radio. Spanish-speakers do not have am and pm for official times. They use the twenty-fourhour timetable, for traveling purposes, for instance. El tren sale a las quince horas. (The train leaves at three o’clock/pm.) 72.6.2 The verb dar is used when speaking of the striking of the hour. Dieron las tres. (Three o’clock struck.) Han dado las cinco. (Five o’clock has struck.) Spanish-speakers differentiate between early morning (madrugada) and later morning (mañana). Volvemos a las dos de la madrugada. (We return at two in the morning.) Mañana could be used in the last example, but in the following two examples, madrugada could not replace mañana. Salgo a las once de la mañana. (I leave at eleven in the morning.) Trabajo por la mañana. (I work in the morning.) 72.6.3 Conversely, Spanish-speakers cannot differentiate, as English-speakers can, between afternoon and evening. Tarde covers both. It stretches from about afternoon mealtime (2/3/4 o’clock) to dusk. But, of course, dusk and mealtime can vary considerably in many Spanish-speaking countries, between winter and summer; and Spaniards, for example, have the reputation of not keeping time when it comes to the midday meal, a misnomer in Spain. The actual time stated eliminates all confusion if por la tarde is not good enough. ¿Nos vemos a las seis de la tarde? (We’ll see each at six this evening?) The usual time greetings are:

428

A Reference Grammar of Spanish ¡Buenos días!/¡Buen día! (Good morning/day!), ¡Buenas tardes! (Good afternoon/evening!), ¡Buenas noches! (Good evening/night!) ¡Buenos días! is restricted to a greeting in the morning, while ¡Buenas noches! applies to both meeting someone and taking leave of him/her in the late evening or at night. One frequently hears in Spain ¡(Muy) buenas!, which applies to the morning, afternoon and evening. This would not be usual in the Americas.

72.7 Division of time 72.7.1 The division of time in the immediate future is expressed by próximo and que viene. The present time is represented by actual (which does not mean actual), presente or corriente, while the past is referred to as pasado. el siglo pasado (the last century), el año pasado (last year), el mes pasado (last month), el jueves próximo (next Thursday), el año próximo (next year), el lunes de la semana que viene (Monday of next week), la semana próxima (next week), la próxima vez (next time): La reunión se celebrará a finales del mes corriente. (The meeting will take place at the end of the current month.), El cinco de diciembre del corriente se producirá el próximo eclipse. (On the fifth of December of the current year, the next eclipse will appear.) 72.7.2 Próximo can come before the noun with no difference in meaning: la próxima semana, el próximo mes. However, the reverse is not true of vez. One can only say: La próxima vez que venga el jefe se lo decimos. (The next time the boss comes, we’ll tell him.) 72.7.3 Quince días/quincena are used for a fortnight. There seems little logic in this, for, as in French and Italian, one day is counted twice. Spanish-speakers do insist, however, that the system is logical. A similar mathematical but confusing operation takes place for a week, which, of course, is una semana, but also ocho días, again as in French and Italian. de hoy en quince días (a fortnight from today/in a fortnight’s time), de hoy en ocho días (a week from today/in a week’s time), de mañana en ocho días (a week from tomorrow), Llegará dentro de ocho días. (She’ll arrive in a week’s time.) 72.7.4 Expressions for the beginning, middle and end of any indefinite period of time are the following: a primeros/mediados/finales/fines/últimos de mes/año (at the beginning/middle/end of the month/year), a inicios de mes/año (at the beginning of the month/year) 72.7.5 Nouns expressing time in its various aspects 72.7.5.1 Tiempo is time in its widest and most general sense, but not with specific reference to the clock. It is used in philosophy and science. Este trabajo me llevará poco tiempo. (This work won’t take me long.) Todavía tengo tiempo de arreglarme. (I’ve still got time to get ready.) No llegará a tiempo. (She’ll not arrive in time.) Ha llegado ya el tiempo de la cosecha. (The time for harvest has now arrived.) Según los científicos, el tiempo es infinito. (According to scientists, time is infinite.) Note that tiempo for time and tiempo for weather are not to be mixed up. If one ever needs to separate the two phenomena, one could say tiempo duración (time) and el tiempo que hace (weather). 72.7.5.2 Ahora means both now (i.e. at the present moment) and nowadays. Ahora no llueve. (It’s not raining now.) Ahora mismo no hay nadie en casa. (There’s no one at home right at this moment.) Ahora la gente se divierte de otro modo. (People enjoy themselves differently today.) In Colombia and Mexico, ahorita almost entirely replaces ahora in the sense of the present moment, while ahora applies there to nowadays.

Numbers, measurements, time and dimensions

429

72.7.5.3 Decenio and década both mean decade (i.e. a period of ten years), but they are not always used in the same way. Década is often used thus: en la década de los setenta/ ochenta (in the seventies/eighties), whereas decenio applies to any period of ten years: en el último decenio (in the last decade/ten years) 72.7.5.4 Época is used much than epoch and is closer to the English era. en la época de los Reyes Católicos (during the period of the Catholic Monarchs) Fue una época de grandes convulsiones. (It was a period of great upheavals.) Era is less used than época in a general sense, but there are instances where era is used and época cannot be used. la era cristiana/industrial (the Christian/industrial era) Estamos viviendo la era de la informática. (We are living the computing era.) La geología distingue cinco eras. (Geology distinguishes five eras.) 72.7.5.5 Lustro (R3; period of five years). Las fiestas de este pueblo sólo se celebran una vez cada lustro. (This town’s fiestas are celebrated only once every five years.) 72.7.5.6 Milenio (millennium). El segundo milenio de la era cristiana concluyó hace diez años. (The second millennium AD concluded ten years ago.) 72.7.5.7 Plazo is a period of time generally agreed upon or appointed. el plazo de entrega (the delivery time), acortar/alargar un plazo (to shorten/lengthen the period), a corto/largo plazo (in the short/long term), comprar a plazos (to buy in installments/on credit), Hay que dármelo dentro de un plazo de tres días. (You have to give it to me within three days.) 72.7.5.8 Rato is an undetermined, generally short space of time, equivalent to the English while. al cabo de un rato (after a while) después de un buen rato (after a good while) Pasé un rato ideal allí. (I had a splendid time there.) Lo esperamos un rato. (We waited for him for a while.) Cuando tenga un rato te llamo. (When I’m free I’ll call you.) 72.7.5.9 Vez is a point of time considered as one of a series. Esta vez te perdono. (This time I’ll forgive you.) Es muy simpático, pero, a veces, dice unas bobadas increíbles. (She’s very nice, but, sometimes, she says the dumbest of things.) Es la primera vez que te veo aquí. (It’s the first time I’ve seen you here.) Note the present tense in the last example. Similarly, the imperfect is used with fue. Fue la primera vez que la veía allí. (It was the first time I’d seen her there.) 72.7.5.10 The expressions for BC and AD are: a. (de) C./antes de Cristo, d. (de) C./después de Cristo

72.8 Expressing dimensions, weights, and so on 72.8.1 Even though the metric system is gradually being accepted in the English-speaking world, the imperial system is entrenched in the minds of many English-speakers. The Spanishspeaking world uses the metric system exclusively, at least officially, although older units of measurement survive locally (see Section 72.8.9, below). It is important to realize that, although Spanish equivalents of English measurements do exist (i.e. milla, yarda, pie), they are hardly ever understood by the man in the street. It could be argued that English measurements should be converted to the metric system. For instance: 1 inch (pulgada) = 2.54 cm, 1 yard (yarda) = 0.9144 m, and so on, but this finally becomes comical, so that it is much wiser to adapt to the metric system, with respect to length, weight, area and

430

72.8.2

72.8.3

72.8.4

72.8.5 72.8.6

A Reference Grammar of Spanish volume. Furthermore, unless one considers the extremely technical areas of measurements (and this is not the present case), conversion is not necessary. Thus: Corrió cien metros para coger el autobús would be: He ran a hundred yards to catch the bus; but: Corrió los cien metros (event) would be: He ran the hundred meters. In other words, approximate distances, weights, and so on, are sufficient to be make oneself understood. The only English term recognized by well-informed Spanish-speakers is milla, which has some currency in the Spanish-speaking world as a nautical mile: milla náutica/marina. The principal nouns and adjectives used with reference to length, height, depth, and so on, are as follows. The noun precedes the adjective. la altura (height), alto (high/tall), la longitud/largura (length), largo (long), la anchura (width/breadth), ancho (wide/broad), la profundidad (depth), profundo (deep), el espesor (thickness), grueso (thick) The adjective espeso exists, but it is less used than grueso when referring to thickness of materials, walls, wood, and so on. It is largely used for liquids, shrubs or a wooded area. The nouns are used in the following way. un hombre de un metro noventa centímetros (a man six feet tall) Esta fachada mide treinta metros de altura./Esta fachada mide treinta metros de alto. (This facade is thirty meters high/one hundred feet high.) El muro mide veinte metros de longitud./El muro mide veinte metros de largo. (The wall is twenty meters long/sixty feet long.) La calle tiene diez metros de anchura./La calle tiene diez metros de ancho. (The street is ten meters wide/thirty feet wide.) El pozo tiene veinticinco metros de profundidad. (The well is twenty-five meters deep/eighty feet deep.) A meter is just over three feet. The last example could be translated as approximately eighty feet deep. Another way of expressing measurements is as follows. una torre de cincuenta metros de altura/una torre de cincuenta metros de alto/una torre alta de cincuenta metros (a tower fifty meters high) un muro de trescientos metros de longitud/un muro de trescientos metros de largo/un muro largo de trescientos metros (a wall three hundred meters long) un foso de tres metros de anchura/un foso de tres metros de ancho (a ditch three meters wide) un pozo de veinticinco metros de profundidad/un pozo profundo de veinticinco metros (a well twenty-five meters deep) un muro de un metro de espesor/un muro grueso de un metro (a one meter thick wall) After the verb ser, numerals denoting dimensions, weights and prices are preceded by the preposition de El tamaño de este hombre es de dos metros. (The size of this man is two meters.) La distancia es de treinta kilómetros. (The distance is thirty kilometers.) El precio de este coche es de cuarenta mil dólares. (The price of this car is forty thousand dollars.) With respect to speed: Mi coche hace cien kilómetros por hora. (My car does a hundred kilometers an hour.) Weight The three main measurements are: gramos, kilos and toneladas (tons). Area The only two commonly used area measurements are: metro cuadrado (square meter) and hectárea (hectare = 2 acres approximately.) The size of a house is measured, and partly

Numbers, measurements, time and dimensions

431

valued, in terms of its metros cuadrados. La casa tiene 200 metros cuadrados de construcción, y 300 de terreno. (The house is 200 meters square, and the land area is 300 meters.) 72.8.7 Volume The normal measurement of volume is the litro (liter = 13⁄4 pints), but it is simpler to make this up to 2 pints and then subtract a small sum. Bebió dos litros de cerveza. (She drank two liters/four pints/three and a half pints of beer.) With respect to gas/petrol consumption: Mi coche hace once litros a los cien (km). (My car does twenty-five miles to the gallon.) Mi coche hace seis litros a los cien. (My car goes fifty miles to the gallon.) 72.8.8 Other common statements of measurement are: ¿Cuánto mides? (How tall are you) Qué número calzas? (What size shoe do you take?) Mi talla es la treinta y cinco. (My size is thirty-five.) 72.8.9 Some traditional measurements are still used in some rural communities. The most common of these are arroba and cuadra. The arroba (about 11 kilos) is also used for capacity. It is now enjoying a resurgence of popularity, since it forms part of e-mail addresses: @ = (at). The cuadra, a measure of length, is used in much of Spanish America, with reference to distance. It is used with the meaning of block of houses, and in the use of distance, is very common (and really means the side of the block.) La tienda está a tres cuadras. (The shop is three blocks from here.) Four other terms to be found in past literary texts are: fanega (55 liters/1⁄2 acre), legua (league/3 miles), quintal (45 kilos), vara (1 yard approximately)

72.9 Temperature Spanish-speakers do not use Fahrenheit with freezing point (punto de congelación del agua) at 32 degrees and boiling point (punto de ebullición del agua) at 212 degrees. The Centigrade (centígrado) freezing point is cero/0, while boiling point is cien grados. Body temperature is 36.5 grados. Once 37 grados are reached, discomfort would be felt, while 39/40 grados would suggest a serious condition, delirium, and so on. Pleasant working temperature in the environment would be between 21 and 25 grados. Beyond 40 grados, difficulty would be experienced in the environment, while 45 grados would be dangerous for old and sick people. The formula for referring to centigrade temperatures is as follows. Son diez/treinta grados. (It’s ten/thirty degrees.) Son cero grados. (It’s zero degrees.) Son cinco bajo cero. (It’s five below zero.) Vamos a dos/tres bajo cero. (It’s going down to minus two/three degrees.) In Mexico alone, below zero is often recorded thus: Son menos cinco/diez, although the formula cinco bajo cero is also used. The weather forecast in Mexico would be: Vamos a estar menos dos/tres, etc. (It is probable that the menos formula comes from the French, although Italian uses it as well: Il est moins deux/trois [French]; Sono meno due/tre [Italian].)

72.10 Age 72.10.1 Age is expressed with the verb tener + cardinal number + years. ¿Cuántos años tienes? (How old are you?) Tengo quince años. (I am fifteen years old.) Note also the very common use of cumplir. Ha cumplido diez años. (He is/has reached ten.)

432

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

72.10.2 Tiempo is also used of very small children in Spain, Colombia and Argentina, (not in Mexico) when their age is measured in months, weeks or days. ¿Cuánto tiempo tiene el niño/el bebé? (How old is the child/baby?) 72.10.3 Not only is a birthday celebrated in Spanish-speaking countries, but also the day of the saint after whom the person is named, although this practice has faded recently, and is only applied to the names of very important saints, as with San José, or San Ignacio in the Basque country. This could lead, of course, to two sets of presents, as with the celebration of Christmas Day and the sixth of January, the Reyes Magos (Epiphany, i.e. the Three Kings). ¡Feliz cumpleaños! (Happy birthday!) Hoy es mi cumpleaños. (Today is my birthday). El tres de marzo es el santo de José. (José’s Saint’s day is March 3rd.)

72.11 Collective numbers 72.11.1 There are a number of nouns in Spanish that correspond to the English about. una decena (about ten), una quincena (about fifteen), una veintena (about twenty), una treintena (about thirty), una cuarenta (about forty), una centena (about a hundred), un millar (about a thousand) Una centuria (R3) means a century or 100 soldiers in a Roman legion. Una decuria (R3) is a group of ten Roman soldiers. 72.11.2 Collective nouns are not greatly used between thirty and a hundred, although cincuentena exists, for example. Docena (dozen) is less used than decena, but survives in la docena del fraile (baker’s dozen, i.e. 13). Considerable uncertainty exists over the use of a singular or plural verb with these collective nouns. There are many examples for both forms of the verb, but usage seems to outweigh grammatical logic. In other words, veintena, while yet a singular noun, is more easily followed by the plural. Apenas si quedaban una veintena de personas. (Hardly twenty people remained.) Es la primera vez que se reúne(n) un número de especialistas. (It’s the first time that a number of specialists have gathered.) (See Section 6.1.34 on agreement and Section 10.14 on number for more information on this point.)

72.12 Fractions 72.12.1 Increasingly abandoned in the interests of percentages, fractions appear as follows. la mitad (half), el tercio/la tercera parte (third), el cuarto/la cuarta parte (quarter), la quinta parte (fifth), la sexta parte (sixth), la décima parte (tenth), la centésima parte (hundredth), los dos tercios/las dos terceras partes (two-thirds), los tres cuartos/las tres cuartas partes (three-quarters), las dos quintas partes (two-fifths), las tres séptimas partes (three-sevenths), las dos centésimas partes (two-hundredths), las nueve milésimas partes (nine thousandths) 72.12.2 The same uncertainty as in Section 72.11.2, above (see also Chapter 10 on number), exists with la mitad, and so on with respect to plural and singular verbs. Un tercio de los hombres dijeron/dijo que no. (A third of the men said no.) La mitad de los habitantes se opusieron/se opuso al proyecto. (Half the inhabitants opposed the plan.) 72.12.3 Doblar, duplicar, triplicar, cuadruplicar, centuplicar for doubling, trebling, and so on, are used in the following way. Ha doblado las apuestas. (He has doubled the bets/stakes.)

Numbers, measurements, time and dimensions

433

Mi padre me dobla la edad. (My father is double/twice my age.) Duplicamos el capital con esta inversión. (We doubled the capital with this investment.) Hay que duplicar estos documentos. (We must duplicate these documents.) Queremos triplicar las ventas este año. (We want to treble sales this year.) Hemos cuadruplicado el número de afiliados. (We have quadrupled the number of members.) Consiguió centuplicar el capital. (He succeeded in increasing the capital a hundredfold.) Note also the use of que with doble, triple. Ha ganado el doble que tú. (He has earned twice as much as you.) Come el doble que yo. (She eats twice as much as me.) el triple de bueno (three times as good) el triple de veces (three times as many) Corre el triple de rápido que yo. (She runs three times as fast as me.) 72.12.4 Percentages (porcentajes) Up to 10 percent, percentages are recorded in letters or figures and are preceded by the definite article. El 3%/el tres por ciento (3%) Beyond 10 percent, the norm is numbers. El 84% de la población votó. (84% of the population voted.) But the indefinite article could be used in the following. El precio de la gasolina subió un veinte por ciento. (The price of gas/petrol went up by 20 percent.) The symbol % is read por ciento, but in the case of 100%, one may say cien por cien, cien por ciento and ciento por ciento. It must be added that practice does vary here. In Spain, the first expression is the norm, while in Argentina and Mexico, for example, the second is the most common. As in English, the percentage symbol % is not used with words (i.e. el tres %).

72.13. Currency The Argentinian, Colombian and Mexican unit of currency is the peso. Ten pesos would be diez pesos or $10. Decimals would be: $2.50 (2 pesos and 50 centavos). In order to distinguish the dollar sign from the peso sign, the dollar $ sign would be preceded by US (D). Thus: US(D)$20 (20 dollars). Spain has the euro. The UK has the libra (esterlina). Few Spanish-speakers say libra esterlina, (unless it is in order to distinguish currency from weight), but it would not sound odd to use it.

72.14. Mathematical Expressions and Signs Here are the basic mathematical expressions and signs: + más : dividido por/entre – menos x (multiplicado) por 2 al cuadrado % por ciento Note the division sign is different from the Anglo-American ÷. Note also the following terms. la adición (addition) Sobran cinco. (There’s five left over.) Quedan diez. (The remainder is ten.) Suma y sigue. (Add and carry.). la resta (subtraction) sumar (to add) restar (to subtract) la su(b)tracción (subtraction)

434

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Tres más dos son cinco. 3 + 2 = 5 Nueve dividido por/entre tres son tres. 9 : 3 = 3 Cuatro multiplicado por seis son veinticuatro. 4 x 6 = 24 Dieciséis son cuatro al cuadrado. 16 = 42 La tasa es del cinco por ciento. The rate is 5%.

72.15 Roman numerals Although English-speakers, whether in the USA, Canada, the UK or elsewhere, do not learn the system of Roman numerals in elementary/primary school, it forms part of the curriculum of Spanish-speaking children, whether in Spain, Argentina, Colombia or Mexico, and doubtless elsewhere in Spanish America. From the point of view of Englishspeakers, Roman numerals may not appear important, but for Spanish-speakers they are, and some attention should to paid to them. 72.15.1 Roman numerals are based on seven letters of the Latin alphabet: I = 1, V = 5, X = 10, L = 50, C = 100, D = 500, M = 1000 Although in old texts lower case was used, only upper case is used now. siglo V (fifth century), páginas XIX–XXIII (pages 19–23) The same letter is not repeated more than three times. Thus: CCCXXXIII = 333, but: CDXLIV = 444. A letter is never repeated if another letter has the same value. VV could not be written instead of X. When a letter is followed by another letter of the same or lower value, they are added together: VI = 6, XV = 15, XXVII = 27. When a letter is followed by a letter of a higher value, the value of the first is taken from that of the second, and precedes it: IV = 4, IX = 9, XL = 40, XC = 90, CD = 400, CM = 900. 72.15.2 Nowadays, Roman numerals are used in the following cases. 72.15.2.1 On monuments and memorial stones: MCMXCIX (1999). This practice is slowly fading, to be replaced by Arabic numbers. 72.15.2.2 To indicate centuries, and here Arabic numerals are not used: siglo XV (fifteenth century), siglo XXI (twenty-first century). 72.15.2.3 To indicate dynasties in certain civilizations: los faraones de la XVIII dinastía (the Pharoahs of the eighteenth dynasty). 72.15.2.4 To indicate series of popes, emperors or kings of the same name: Juan XXIII (John 23rd), Napoleón III (Napoleon 3rd), Carlos V (Charles 5th), Felipe II/IV (Phillip 2nd/4th), Isabel II (Elizabeth 2nd). Of course, in speech, one would say: Juan veintitrés, Napoleón tercero, Carlos quinto, Felipe segundo/cuarto, Isabel segunda. 72.15.2.5 To indicate enumeration of volumes, chapters, parts of books; the number follows the noun: tomo III (volume 3), libro II (book 2), capítulo IV (chapter 4), escena VI (scene 6). In these cases, Arabic numerals may be used: tomo 3, libro 2, capítulo 4, escena 6. 72.15.2.6 To denote conferences, competitions, festivals and championships: II Congreso Internacional de la Lengua Española (Second International Conference of the Spanish Language), XXIII Feria del Libro de Buenos Aires (23rd Buenos Aires Book Fair). If the number is too complex, Arabic figures are used: 78° Campeonato Mundial de Ajedrez (78th World Chess Championship). 72.15.2.7 If referring to pages in the prologue or introduction of a book, roman numerals are used to distinguish from the pages in the body of the book: El autor cita a Unamuno en la página XXII del prólogo. (The author quotes Unamuno on page 22 of the prologue.)

73 Comparative adjectives and adverbs, and superlative adjectives and adverbs / Adjetivos y adverbios comparativos, y adjetivos superlativos Below is a passage evoking the longings of a lover whose only regret, ironically, is his beloved’s name. The lover expresses himself in a series of superlatives, many of which are of a very literary character. Oh, bellísima mujer, cuya pulquérrima (most immaculate) imagen me acompaña día y noche, son tus ojos brillantísimos luceros (bright stars) que alumbran mis delirios, cuyos dulcísimos labios en amplísima sonrisa dejan vislumbrar albísimas (most white) perlas, y hacen nacer ferventísimos deseos de buscar tu perpetua compañía. Qué acérrima es tu ausencia, qué durísimos tus desaires (rebuffs) y qué crudelísimo tu olvido. En larguísimas noches te añoro (I long for you), en frigidísimos días peno, y lloro mi paupérrimo (most poverty-stricken) estado, que aleja de mí tus miradas. Toda hermosísima eres tú, menos tu nombre, Teodulfa, de tan hermosísimo significado cuan horrísono en los labios, y de ese modo libérrimamente lo confieso ante sapientísima audiencia, pues es salubérrimo (most healthy) decir la verdad entera, por descargar la conciencia.

73.1 Comparison of adjectives indicating inequality and equality 73.1.1 The comparison of adjectives is formed by using más (more) and menos (less) before the adjective. Que (than) is used after the adjective. Carlos es más rápido que tú. (Carlos is faster than you.) Este chico es más listo que su hermano. (This boy is smarter than his brother.) Son menos ruidosos que las muchachas. (They are less noisy than the girls.) Es un hotel menos tranquilo que el otro. (It’s a less quiet hotel than the other one.) negro/más negro/menos negro (black/blacker/less black) capaz/más capaz/menos capaz (capable/more capable/less capable) 73.1.2 Four adjectives, in addition to their regular comparatives (más bueno, más malo, más grande, más pequeño), have other, and, in two cases, preferred, forms. Positive > Comparative: bueno (good) > mejor (better), malo (bad) > peor (worse), grande (big, large) > mayor (bigger, larger), pequeño (small) > menor (littler, smaller) Esta novela es mejor que la otra. (This novel is better than the other one.) Isabel es peor estudiante que María. (Isabel is a worse student than María.) Tu niña es mayor que la mía. (Your girl (daughter) is bigger than mine.) Mi prima es menor que yo. (My cousin is smaller than me.) Más bueno and más malo are used much more than mejor and peor in the sense of kind and unkind respectively. Nunca he conocido a nadie más bueno que él. (I’ve never known anyone kinder than him.) Su padre es más bueno que el pan. (His father is very good/kind.) 435

436

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Enreda a todo el mundo. Es más malo que Judas. (He deceives everyone. He’s worse than Judas.) Este hombre es más malo que la quina. (This man is as foul as they come.) Más malo is also used with respect to taste or quality. Tomaría todos los remedios, hasta el más malo, sin protestar. (She would take all remedies, even the worst-tasting, without protesting.) 73.1.3 Comparison of adjectives (indicating equality) Tan (as/so) is used here, followed by como (as), as well as igual de. . .que, igual + noun + que and lo mismo que. Es tan abusado (M)/listo como su papá (M)/padre. (He’s as smart as his father.) Es tan caro como el caviar. (It’s as dear as caviar.) Juan es igual de listo que Pedro. (Juan is as smart as Pedro.) Lo escuchó con igual calma que su amigo. (She listened to him with the same calm as her friend.) Lo dijo a María lo mismo que a Victoria. (She said the same to María as to Victoria.) Tal como and tal cual (such as) are also used as comparisons, although the second is less common. Todo estaba tal como/tal cual se lo había dicho. (Everything was just as she had said.)

73.2 Comparison of adverbs indicating equality and inequality 73.2.1 As with adjectives, tan + como is used for equality. Habla español tan bien como su profesora. (She speaks Spanish as well as her teacher.) La niña escribe tan perfectamente como su hermana mayor. (The little girl writes as perfectly as her older sister.) 73.2.2 Más (more) and menos (less) are used for inequality, followed by que (than), as with comparisons of adjectives. Corre más rápidamente que yo. (She runs faster than me.) Lee más lentamente que su primo. (She reads more slowly than her cousin.) Lo arregla menos fácilmente que yo. (He sorts it out less easily then me.) Trabaja menos seriamente que su hijo. (She works less seriously than her son.)

73.3 Superlatives of adjectives 73.3.1 The superlative is usually expressed by placing the definite article with the comparative. Son los más inteligentes. (They are the most intelligent.) Este hotel es el más caro de la ciudad. (This hotel is the dearest in town.) Este es el peor jugador del equipo. (This is the worst player in the team.) El tiempo que hace es el mejor del año. (The weather is the best of the year.) 73.3.2 De follows a superlative in cases where English would use in. Texas es el segundo estado más extenso de Estados Unidos. (Texas is the second biggest state in the United States.) El Nilo es el río más largo del mundo. (The Nile is the longest river in the world.) 73.3.3 Frequently, menos is replaced by no + tan + adjective or adverb + como. No es tan alto como su hermana. (He’s not so tall as his sister.) No trabaja tan seriamente como yo. (He doesn’t work as seriously as me.) 73.3.4 Más de and menos de are used before quantities and numbers. Hay más de un millón de libros en aquella biblioteca. (There are more than a million books in that library.) ¿Por qué compras menos de dos kilos? (Why do you buy less than two kilos?)

Comparative adjectives and adverbs, and superlative adjectives and adverbs

437

However, when an actual comparison with another object is involved, there is no de. Recibí más llamadas que de costumbre. (I received more calls than usual.) When más is qualified by the adverb mucho, one would expect mucho to remain invariable. Mucho is, of course, an adjective as well, and it is used as an adjective in this case. Technically speaking, the use of mucho as an adjective here is indefensible but contamination with the following noun has won the day. Recibí muchas más llamadas que. . . (I received many more calls than. . .) Hay que darle mucha más importancia de lo que merece. (You must give him more importance than he deserves.)

73.4 Uses of “tanto” 73.4.1 Tanto. . .como (as much/many. . .as), with its three other forms (tanta/tantos/tantas. . .como), is used with equality of nouns. No tengo tanto pan como Jorge. (I haven’t got as much bread as Jorge.) No traes tantos discos como Elena. (You’re not bringing as many discs as Elena.) Hay tanta mantequilla como en casa. (There’s as much butter as at home.) Tiene tantas cucharas como yo. (He has as many spoons as me.) 73.4.2 (Tantos) cuantos can replace tantos como. Tráeme cuantos pasteles puedas./Tráeme tantos cuantos puedas./Tráeme tantos pasteles como puedas. (Bring me as many cakes as you can.) 74.4.3 Otros tantos/as has the meaning of just as many. Mi amigo se compró cuatro pasteles y yo otros tantos. (My friend bought four cakes and I bought just as many.) 73.4.4 The singular otro tanto may be used with the meaning of just as much. Dice otro tanto. (She says the same thing.) Cometió un error garrafal y su hermano hizo otro tanto. (She made an appalling error and her brother did the same thing.) Llegó muy tarde y su mujer otro tanto. (He arrived very late and so did his wife.) 73.4.5 As an adverbial expression, tanto como is used thus: Me gusta el chocolate tanto como me disgusta el café. (I like chocolate as much as I dislike coffee.) 73.4.6 Tanto and cuanto are apocopated before an adjective. Cuan sabroso me parece el chocolate tan insulso me parece el café. (Chocolate is as tasty to me as coffee is insipid.)

73.5 “Como” (like, as) Corre como un conejo. (She runs like a rabbit.) Lucha como un tigre. (He fights like a tiger.) Hazlo como lo quieras. (Do it as you wish.)

73.6 “Que” replaced by “de lo que” 73.6.1 When each member of the comparison contains a different verb, que is replaced by de lo que. Es menos fácil de lo que dice. (It’s less easy than he says.) Es más alta de lo que creía. (She’s taller than I thought.) El examen fue más fácil de lo que habíamos temido. (The examination was easier than we had feared.) Es más tonto de lo que parece. (He’s dumber than he looks.) 73.6.2 This is also true with nouns.

438

A Reference Grammar of Spanish Tiene menos dinero de lo que dice. (She has less money than she says.) Ha cometido más delitos de lo que piensas. (He’s committed more crimes than you think.) De lo que is also used when there is no following verb. Come más de lo conveniente. (She eats more than she should.) Trabaja más de lo necesario. (He works more than is necessary.) A similar construction obtains with persons and things. Hay más personas de las que caben aquí. (There are more people than there is room for here.) Poseía más vestidos de los que podía ponerse. (She owned more clothes than she could put on/wear.)

73.7 “Cuanto. . .tanto” 73.7.1 Cuanto. . .tanto followed by any comparative is used as a correlative to express ratio, corresponding to the English the. . .the. Cuanto más viejo es el vino, tanto mejor. (The older the wine the better it is.) Cuanto más largo es el día tanto más corta la noche. (The longer the day, the shorter the night.) 73.7.2 Tanto más/menos cuanto que corresponds to all the more/less. . .because. . . El delito es tanto más grave cuanto que acaba de salir de la cárcel. (The crime is all the more serious because he’s just come out of jail.) Estoy tanto menos satisfecho de su conducta cuanto que le di dinero. (I am all the less satisfied with her conduct because I gave her money.)

73.8 Superlatives of adverbs The superlatives of adverbs are formed in the same manner as for adjectives. Los mejores alumnos son los que hablan menos. (The best pupils are those who speak least.) Esa era la respuesta que menos esperaba oír. (That was the reply I was least expecting to hear.) Amo el mar cuando más alto suben las olas. (I love the sea when the waves rise up even more.)

73.9 Absolute superlative of adjectives 73.9.1 The absolute superlative of adjectives, when formed regularly, is made by adding -ísimo. It is then varied like any adjective ending in -o. This ending has an intensive value, equivalent to the English very or most. As with the common Italian -issimo, and the occasional -issime in French, this form derives from the Latin. El acero es durísimo. (Steel is very hard/tough.) El oro es purísimo. (Gold is very/most pure.) La casa es altísima. (The house is very tall.) Las flores son hermosísimas. (The flowers are really lovely.) Es una construcción feísima. (It’s a really ugly building.) 73.9.2 The following distinctions are to be observed in the formation of the absolute superlative of adjectives. 73.9.2.1 If the positive adjective ends in a consonant, it receives -ísimo without changing, unless the final consonant is z, which changes to c before i. hábil/hábilísimo (skillful/most skilful), feliz/felicísimo (happy/very happy), feroz/ferocísimo (fierce/most fierce) 73.9.2.2 A final vowel or diphthong is omitted before -ísimo. Of the adjectives ending in two vowels, only the last one is omitted.

Comparative adjectives and adverbs, and superlative adjectives and adverbs

73.9.3

73.9.4

73.9.5

73.9.6

439

importante/importantísimo (important/most important), limpio/limpísimo (clean/very clean), sucio/sucísimo (dirty/very dirty), amplio/amplísimo (wide/widest, full/fullest), pobre/pobrísimo (poor/very poor), sumario/sumarísimo (summary, brief/briefest). una recámara (M) amplísima (a very spacious bedroom) una mujer pobrísima (a very poor woman) Tiene manos limpísimas. (She has very clean hands.) un sumarísimo juicio (a most summary judgment) 73.9.2.3 If, after dropping the final -a or -o, the last remaining letter is c, it is changed to qu, and similarly g to gu, to preserve the hard sound. blanco/blanquísimo (white/very white), rico/riquísimo (rich/very rich), fresco/fresquísimo (fresh/very fresh), largo/larguísimo (long/very long) una piel blanquísima (a very white skin) un río larguísimo (a very long river) unas fresas fresquísimas (some very fresh strawberries) An unresolved issue In principle, the diphthongs ie and ue revert to their original vowels e and o in their superlative forms, since the stress is transferred to the ending. bueno/bonísimo (good/very good), cierto/certísimo (certain/most certain), ferviente/ ferventísimo (fervent/most fervent), fuerte/fortísimo (strong/very strong), nuevo/novísimo (new/very new), tierno/ternísimo (tender/most tender) There has been a major shift in contemporary practice here. Ciertísimo, tiernísimo, buenísimo, nuevísimo and fuertísimo have replaced the above, with the result that many Spanish-speakers no longer know which is the correct form, suffering some residual sense that the original form is correct and the new one is wrong. In any case, the so-called wrong form holds sway. There are many other examples of these doublets (dobletes). It should be added that the authors have never met with any form of the absolute superlative of viejo but viejísimo. This innovation was strenuously resisted by the members of the RAE and more conservative writers, but they have lost the battle. The same phenomenon of uncertainty as with 73.9.3. above occurs with some diminutives where the tonic accent is transferred to the penultimate syllable: caliente > calientito (M) although one normally hears in Spain calentito The following is a sample of adjectives reverting to the original Latin for their entire form. To provide an exhaustive list seems unnecessary since some of these superlatives are hardly ever used, except in arcane or very literary texts. acre/acérrimo (bitter/very bitter), antiguo/antiquísimo (ancient/very ancient), áspero/ aspérrimo (more commonly asperísimo) (harsh/very harsh), célebre/celebérrimo (most celebrated), cruel/crudelísimo (more commonly cruelísimo) (cruel/very cruel), fiel/ fidelísimo (faithful/very faithful), íntegro/integérrimo (more commonly integrísimo) (honest/very honest), libre/libérrimo (free/very free), mísero/misérrimo (poor, wretched, very poor/wretched), pobre/paupérrimo (more commonly pobrísimo) (poor/very poor), pulcro/pulquérrimo (clean/very clean), sabio/sapientísimo (wise/very wise), salubre/ salubérrimo (healthy/very healthy) Note that the adjective cursí (flashy, pretentiously elegant) takes an l in the superlative: cursílísimo.

73.10 Absolute superlative of adverbs 73.10.1 These are created by adding -mente to the superlative form of the adjective. They are not very common. One should at least be aware of their function. Here are two examples.

440

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

noblemente/nobilísimamente (nobly/most nobly), ricamente/riquísimamente (richly/very richly) 73.10.2 Since these forms are very cumbersome, they are generally replaced, for example, by muy, altamente, sumamente, extremamente, en extremo, en gran manera. Las pruebas resultaron altamente peligrosas. (The tests turned out to be highly dangerous.) El problema es sumamente difícil. (The problem is most difficult.) Se enoja en extremo por cualquier cosa. (She gets angry over the slightest thing.)

73.11 73.11.1 Many adjectives do not admit of comparisons. The principal ones are those that involve the idea of infinity and therefore express in themselves the idea of a superlative degree, or denote origin, material, shape or class. Such adjectives are: celestial, circular, inmortal, italiano, metálico, principal, supremo, triangular. Of course, italiano is only one example among hundreds related to adjectives of countries: mexicano, español, norteamericano, inglés, francés, and so on. 73.11.2 There are some “synthetic” superlatives which derive directly from the Latin. bueno, mejor, óptimo; malo, peor, pésimo; pequeño, menor, mínimo; grande, mayor, máximo; bajo, inferior, ínfimo El coche está en óptimas condiciones. (The car is in optimum condition.) Fue una película pésima. (It was an awful movie.) Este es el tamaño máximo. (This is the biggest size.) La temperatura máxima/mínima fue de 30/5 grados. (The maximum/minimum temperature was 30/5 degrees.) Es un producto ínfimo que no se puede vender. (It’s a very bad product that can’t be sold.)

73.12 Miscellaneous features 73.12.1 más and mayor are not normally combined, and thus: Mi hijo es mayor que el tuyo. (My son is older than yours.) It is not acceptable to place más before mayor in this case, although it is frequently heard. The combination tan and mayor is acceptable. Tu hijo es tan mayor como el mío. (You son is as old as mine.) Note how the distinctive “a” is carried over to the second noun in comparisons. Quiero a mi amigo como a mi hermana. (I like my friend as/in the same way as I like my sister.) No estimo a nadie más que a ti. (I appreciate no one more than you.) 73.12.2 The combination así. . .como can be used to deny what is affirmed in the first clause. Así can be omitted and understood. (Así) es turco como yo soy chino. (He’s as Turkish as I am Chinese.) 73.12.3 Cada vez más/menos conveys the idea of more and more/less and less: Está cada vez más triste. (She’s sadder and sadder.) Este libro es cada vez menos interesante. (This book is less and less interesting.) Trabaja cada vez más/menos. (She works more and more/less and less.) 73.12.4 The superlative can be followed by the subjunctive. The status of this construction is uncertain, and it has been suggested with some justification that it derives from the French, where it is standard. The subjunctive may occur when real uncertainty is felt. Compare the following examples. Es la casa más hermosa que conozco. (It’s the finest house I know.)

Comparative adjectives and adverbs, and superlative adjectives and adverbs

441

Es lo mejor que puedas hacer. (It’s the best you can do.) 73.12.5 The word order with más and menos is worthy of note. They often precede the verb as in the following sentences. Es el carro que más me interesa. (It’s the car that interests me the most.) Es el menú que menos me apetece. (It’s the menu that appeals to me the least.)

74 Word order / El orden de las palabras Below is a passage illustrating above all the use of adjectives and their proximity to nouns. It is to be noted that, whereas adjectives usually (but not always) follow nouns in speech, they can precede nouns in literary or elevated style – in other words, in written registers. This is a very marked difference. Notice also the inversion of verbs and subjects at the beginning of the second paragraph. The passage relates the wild experience of an American (recalling Hemingway) during the fiesta of the running of the bulls in Pamplona, Northern Spain. En mi lejana adolescencia leí The Sun Also Rises (Fiesta), de Ernest Hemingway, cuando vivía allá en un muy pequeño lugar de Kansas, que tenía una magnífica biblioteca. Desde entonces deseé venir a Pamplona y vivir los “sanfermines” tal como relata el citado autor; y aquí estoy. Llegué el pasado 6 de julio, víspera del Día Grande, y hoy, después de dos días de ardua diversión, aún nos quedan otros muchos días de abundante vino, carreras y risas; y agotamiento: nunca sospeché que se podía estar cansado de tanta diversión. Me duelen los pies de correr y danzar, me duelen todos los huesos porque faltan camas en la ciudad y hemos de dormir, mi viejo amigo Peter y yo, como muchos otros, en un banco de la calle si hay suerte, y si no, en el puro suelo, en cualquier rincón alejado del tremendo jolgorio (merrymaking) que, día y noche, se prolonga sin cesar. Cuando la mañana llega, con las luces primeras del alba, hay que lavarse en cualquier fuente y prepararse para correr delante de enormes toros por las calles de la ciudad, entre una ingente (enormous) multitud de mozos con rojos pañuelos al cuello. . .

74.1 Subject + verb + object Essentially, Spanish word order is like English word order in that the subject precedes the verb that precedes the object. Juan lee el libro. (Juan reads the book.) However, the flexibility of the Spanish language frequently means that this order is not respected. It can be affected by a whole range of considerations, such as the written word as opposed to the spoken word, the intention of an author in stressing an idea, length of sentences, question of balance, need to avoid clumsiness, short words as opposed to long words, use of punctuation, repetition – the list is endless. The first feature to notice in Spanish word order is that the verb does not necessarily follow the subject. Compare the following two sentences. El amigo se va. (The friend is leaving.) Se va el amigo. (The friend is leaving.) In these two sentences, the emphasis switches from El amigo in the first to Se va in the second, since both of these sets of words appear at the beginning of their respective sentences. Much of the complexity and variability of the Spanish sentence flows from this simple but important inversion. A further and more complicated example of this variability of order may be seen in the following three sentences, which have exactly the same meaning. Mi hermano vende su 442

Word order

443

bicicleta./Vende mi hermano su bicicleta./Vende su bicicleta mi hermano. (My brother sells his bicycle.)

74.2 Verb + subject There are a number of conditions when the subject comes after the verb. 74.2.1 Where the subject is much longer than the verb or verb phrase, and often when the verb is reflexive. This is designed to create a sense of balance. Durante mucho tiempo se oye un ruido ensordecedor. (You can hear a deafening noise over a long period of time.) Del latín vienen el español, el francés, el italiano y el portugués. (Portuguese, French, Italian and Spanish come from Latin.) Cada día se complica más la trama y se hacen más graves las acusaciones. (The conspiracy gets more complicated every day, and the accusations become more serious.) 74.2.2 Where the verb does not take a direct object. These verbs include: doler (to hurt), faltar (to be lacking), gustar (to please, to like), quedar (to remain), sobrar (to be over/in excess) Me duele la cabeza. (My head hurts [i.e. I have a headache].) Me duelen los dientes. (I’ve got a toothache [i.e. affecting more than one].) Faltan dos tenedores aquí. (We need two more forks here.) Me gusta este pan. (I like this bread.) Quedan doscientos metros hasta la cumbre. (There are another two hundred meters to the top.) Por lo visto sobran camas. (Apparently there are more beds than we need.) 74.2.3 When a plural subject is used without an article. This often occurs when the verb is intransitive or when the verb is reflexive. Corren conejos por todas partes. (Rabbits are running everywhere.) Llegan niños de muy lejos. (Children come from a long way away.) En el mercadillo se venden peras. (Pears are sold in the market.) Se pone la basura en el bote (M)/cubo. (The garbage is put/goes in the can.) 74.2.4 When a preposition such as a (especially the distinctive a) or de begins a sentence. Al hombre le vino la idea de salir enseguida. (The man had the idea of going out immediately.) A todos los chicos se les ocurrió jugar (al) fútbol. (All the boys had the thought/idea of playing football.) A mí no me gusta la música popular. (I don’t like pop music.) De su silencio se deduce que no vendrá. (We can deduce from his silence that he’s not coming.)

74.3 “Bien” and “mal” with verbs Whereas in English, the adverb can be separated very easily from the verb, such is not the case in Spanish, unless the adverb or adverbial phrase is a long one. Again, it is a question of balance. Compare the two sentences in each of the following pairs. Habla bien el chino. (She speaks Chinese well.) Habla el chino estupendamente bien. (She speaks Chinese marvelously well.) Escribe mal el inglés. (He writes English badly.) Escribe el inglés increíblemente mal. (He writes English incredibly badly.) In the first sentence, bien immediately follows the verb, but in the second, bien follows

444

A Reference Grammar of Spanish the object, since, accompanied by another long adverb, it would be cumbersome and would sound odd if it preceded the object. The same comments apply to the second set of sentences with mal.

74.4 Adjectives and nouns 74.4.1 Some adjectives have the same value and meaning before and after the noun. 74.4.1.1 Próximo and pasado La semana próxima and la próxima semana are both valid constructions, and this also applies to mes and año, although more normally you would see: el próximo 10 de octubre. La semana pasada and la pasada semana are also both valid, as with mes and año, but again, more normally you would see: el pasado 10 de abril/mes de abril. 74.4.1.2 Semejante and parecido No he visto (un) caso semejante./No he visto semejante caso. (I haven’t seen such a case.) No he visto (un) caso parecido./No he visto parecido caso. (I haven’t seen such a case.) 74.4.2 An adjective following a noun usually has a “distinctive” overtone, a nuance that is often conveyed by contrastive stress. “¿Cómo es tu casa?” “Es una casa pequeña”. (“What’s your house like?” “It’s a small house.”) Pequeña is emphasized with rising intonation at the end of the sentence. However, in the following sentence it may used before or after the noun with little difference of meaning or stress. Vivía en una pequeña casa cerca de la catedral. (He lived in a small house near the cathedral.) 74.4.3 Note the difference between the following two sentences. Las hojas secas caen. (The dry leaves fall.) Las secas hojas caen. (The dry leaves fall.) In the first sentence, it is a case of some of the dry leaves that fall, while in the second sentence, all the dry leaves fall. The distinctive feature of the leaves in the first sentence is that some of them are dry. Secas is invested with greater importance in the first sentence and therefore comes after hojas. 74.4.4 The difference in adjectives before or after the noun is by no means clear-cut. Largo, for instance, precedes the noun in the sentence below. Damos un largo paseo por el campo. (We are going for a long walk in the country.) Largo would sound odd after the noun. However, if muy were introduced to qualify largo, largo before or after the noun would be acceptable. Damos un muy largo paseo/un paseo muy largo por el campo. 74.4.5 There are some adjectives in Spanish that differ in meaning according to whether they precede or follow the noun. As a rule, the adjective after the noun receives more emphasis than if it were before the noun. Here is a short list. antiguo: costumbres antiguas (old customs), un antiguo presidente (a former president), cierto: indicios ciertos (sure/definite signs), ciertas personas (certain people), diferente: libros diferentes (different books), diferentes libros (several books), distinto: ideas distintas (distinct ideas), distintas ideas (various ideas), grande: una casa grande (a big house), un gran escritor (a great writer), ligero: una mesa ligera (a light table), de ligera importancia (of slight importance), medio: el hombre medio (the average man), la clase media (the middle class), el dedo medio (the middle finger), medio litro (half a liter), mismo: Roma misma/la misma Roma (Rome itself), su mismo pueblo/su pueblo mismo (his very village), el mismo sentido (the same meaning), nuevo: una canción nueva (a brand new song), Hemos comprado una nueva casa (We’ve bought a new/another house), pobre: un barrio pobre (a poor district), ¡Pobre mujer! (Poor woman!), propio: en

Word order

74.4.6

74.4.7

74.4.8

74.4.9

74.4.10

445

defensa propia (in self defense), Tiene casa propia/su propia casa (She has her own house), sus propias palabras (his very words), obra del Unamuno propio (a work of Unamuno himself), puro: la verdad pura (the unadulterated truth), de pura envidia (through sheer envy), simple: un corazón simple (a simple heart), un procedimiento simple (an easy procedure), una simple razón (a simple reason), único: su hija única (their only daughter), la única solución (the only solution) Two adjectives, which are really past participles, condenado and maldito, illustrate even more clearly the values of some qualifiers according to whether they precede or follow the noun. Es un hombre condenado. (He is a condemned man.) Me aprietan estos condenados zapatos. (These wretched shoes are too tight.) Este condenado catarro me tiene harta. (I am sick of this terrible cold.) Rimbaud y Verlaine, poetas malditos (Rimbaud and Verlaine, accursed poets) No quiero ver más malditas facturas por aquí. (I don’t want to see any more of those awful bills around here.) Este maldito ruido no me deja dormir. (This wretched noise won’t let me sleep.) Some adjectives are always distinctive and rarely, if ever, precede the noun. Such adjectives typically denote nationality, membership of a political or religious ideology, color, and so on. Es de nacionalidad mexicana. (He’s of Mexican nationality.) un carro (C, M)/coche francés (a French car) el partido socialista (the socialist party) la religión musulmana (the Muslim religion) Me gusta el vino tinto/blanco. (I like red/white wine.) una casa amarilla (a yellow house) un estudio literario (a literary study) una servilleta inútil (a useless napkin/serviette) ácido sulfúrico (sulphuric acid) Many adjectives are in a fixed position, before and after, with respect to the noun, since they make up a single and indivisible unit. It would be impossible to provide an exhaustive list, but here is a sample. un mero trámite (a mere formality), el libre albedrío (free will), la vía férrea (the railroad), viviendas sociales (social housing), el citado autor (the author quoted), el mencionado autor (the author mentioned), Madrid y Valencia, en dichas ciudades. . . (Madrid and Valencia, in these cities. . .), la carretera general (the highway), aerolíneas de bajo coste (low-budget airlines), ¡Feliz aniversario! (Happy anniversary! but ¡Que tengas un aniversario feliz!), la temporada alta/baja (high/low season [in tourism]), cuenta corriente (checking/current account), casa adosada (terraced house), la Casa Blanca (the White House), la Casa Rosada (government house in Buenos Aires), el Alcalde Mayor (Lord Mayor), La Plaza Mayor (main square), la hermana menor (younger sister) Mayor, menor, mejor and peor are usually placed before the noun. el mejor precio (the best price), el peor precio (the worst price) In these two cases, mejor and peor may follow the noun, but the register is higher. Negro and maldito are placed before the noun with a pejorative meaning (see also Section 74.4.5, above). la negra suerte (bad luck), ese maldito individuo (that foul character) Medio is placed before geographical or historical nouns. El Oriente Medio (Middle East, but in A, C, M, Medio Oriente), la Edad Media (Middle Ages)

446

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

74.5 Pronouns + verbs 74.5.1 Spanish pronouns precede the verb, except in the case of the imperative. For a full treatment of the topic, see Chapter 56 on pronouns and Chapter 31 on the imperative. Te doy el libro. (I give you the book.) Te lo doy. (I give it to you.) Se lo doy. (I give it to her/him.) Dámelo. (Give it to me.) The pronoun may precede the auxiliary verb or be attached to the following infinitive. There is little difference. Lo voy a arreglar./Voy a arreglarlo. Lo puedo ir a arreglar. (I’m going to repair it.) La volví a ver./Volví a verla. (I saw her again.) 74.5.2 Otros/as precedes the number. otros cuatro hombres (another four men), otras cinco mujeres (another five women), otros tantos árboles (just as many other trees), otras pocas chicas (a few other girls) 74.5.3 Otros always precedes tantos. Cometió otros tantos errors. (She made just as many other errors.) 74.5.4 Otros and muchos are interchangeable. Había otros muchos chicos./Había muchos otros chicos. (There were many other boys.)

74.6 Flexibility with numbers There is some flexibility with numerals when used with primero and ultimo. los dos primeros/últimos años, los primeros/últimos dos años (the first/last two years)

74.7 Dates The order of the definite article in dates is as follows. Hoy es el sábado 5 (cinco) de enero. (Today is Saturday the fifth of January.) Llegan el martes 4 (cuatro) de abril. (They arrive on Tuesday the fourth of April.)

74.8 Adjective + noun 74.8.1 One factor favoring the adjective preceding the noun is when adjective and noun make a familiar or set phrase. los altos Alpes (the high Alps), un ligero aumento en el coste de la vida (a slight rise in the cost of living), el presunto culpable (the alleged guilty person), las pequeñas y medianas empresas (small and medium-sized companies) 74.8.2 Another factor is when the adjective is an expected attribute. un lamentable accidente (a lamentable accident), con enormes dificultades (with enormous difficulty)

74.9 Two adjectives + noun and impersonal “se” 74.9.1 When there is more than one adjective, the most distinctive one is placed furthest away from the noun. This conforms to the idea of emphasis placed at the end of a sentence. la política contemporánea mexicana (contemporary Mexican politics), la situación militar africana (the African military situation), la literatura argentina actual (present Argentinian literature), la opinión política popular (popular political opinion)

Word order

447

74.9.2 When the sentence begins with the “impersonal” se. Se nos está acabando el lavavajillas. (Our dishwasher is wearing out.) Se alquilan bicicletas. (Bicycles for hire.) Se venden departamentos (A, C, M)/pisos. (Apartments for sale.) Se ha confirmado el terremoto. (The earthquake has been confirmed.)

74.10 Changing position of words with little difference in meaning Further examples follow on changing word order with little change in meaning, except for, possibly, a slight shift in emphasis. Note the great variety in the first example. Las maniobras militares terminaron sin incidencias./Terminaron las maniobras militares sin incidencias./Terminaron sin incidencias las maniobras militares./Sin incidencias terminaron las maniobras militares. (The military maneuvers ended without incident.) Intervinieron muchos factores en mi decisión./Muchos factores intervinieron en mi decisión./En mi decisión intervinieron muchos factores. (Many factors affected my decision.) Se ha inundado la bodega./La bodega se ha inundado. (The cellar/warehouse (M) has been flooded.) Han inundado el sótano las aguas./Las aguas han inundado el sótano. (The water has flooded the basement.) Me irrita la garganta el humo de la fábrica./El humo de la fábrica me irrita la garganta. (The factory smoke irritates my throat.) Le dijo el médico que debe guardar cama./El médico le dijo que debe guardar cama. (The physician/doctor told him that he must stay in bed.)

74.11 Word order with the reflexive “se” Further examples on variety in word order involving the reflexive and untranslatable se follow below. These three sentences that one would find in the written language have exactly the same meaning. A todos los chicos se les permite salir./Se les permite salir a todos los chicos./Se les permite a todos los chicos salir. (All the boys are allowed to go out.) If the noun chicos governs a subordinate clause, the result is the following (this is more the written language). A todos los chicos que tengan más de doce años se les permite salir./ Se les permite salir a todos los chicos que tengan más de doce años. (All the boys who are more than twelve years old are allowed to go out.)

74.12 Miscellaneous features 74.12.1 Mejor, más, menos and menor often precede the verb in the following way. El equipo que mejor fútbol juega. . . (The team that plays the best soccer. . .) El hombre que más vidas ha salvado. . . (The man who has saved most lives. . .) La película que menos me entusiasma es. . . (The film that I like least is. . .) El libro que menor interés tiene para. . . (The book that has the least interest for. . .) Of course, one could also say and write: El equipo que juega mejor al fútbol. . . El hombre que ha salvado más vidas. . . 74.12.2 Certain set phrases allow the following noun to be used in the middle or after the complete expression. Consider the following pairs of sentences. No tomaba en serio el tema./No tomaba el tema en serio. (She didn’t take the subject seriously.)

448

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Llevó a la práctica la teoría./Llevó la teoría a la práctica. (He put the theory into practice.) Pusieron en práctica la teoría./Pusieron la teoría en práctica. (They put the theory into practice.) Llevaron a cabo la tarea./Llevaron la tarea a cabo. (They performed the task.) El banco me puso al día la libreta./El banco me puso la libreta al día. (The bank brought my bank book up to date.) El mecánico puso a punto el motor./El mecánico puso el motor a punto. (The mechanic tuned the engine.) Traje a la mente aquella experiencia./Traje aquella experiencia a la mente. (I brought that experience to mind.) Hay que tomar en cuenta su actuación./Hay que tomar su actuación en cuenta. (You have to bear in mind his performance.) The important feature to remember in these sentences is that if the noun is qualified in any way, it will almost certainly come at the end, for the sake of balance. Llevaron a cabo la tarea que era difícil. Traje a la mente aquella experiencia agradable. Hay que tomar en cuenta su actuación extraordinaria. 74.12.3 Note how señor(a) is used to invest reference to a person with a courteous tone. ¿Está su señor esposo? (Is your husband there?) La señora condesa ha salido. (Madame the Countess has gone out.)

74.13 Repetition of a noun by a pronoun often causes inversion La rapidez de reflejos se la enseñó la montaña. (Mountains taught him speed of reflex.) La crisis la generaron los políticos. (The crisis was generated by the politicians.) La solución la encontraron los ingenieros. (The engineeers found the solution.)

74.14 Note the use of verbs of perception with a following infinitive. Oí decir a Juan que vendría. (I heard Juan say he would come.) Vi a Juan escribir una carta./Vi escribir una carta a Juan. (I saw Juan write a letter.) Escuché recitar un poema a Juan./Escuché recitar a Juan un poema. (I heard Juan recite a poem.)

74.15 Note the construction: “tener” + noun + past participle or “tener” + past participle + noun. Tengo la pensión asegurada./ Tengo asegurada la pensión. (My pension is assured.) Tienen la cocina arreglada./ Tienen arreglada la cocina. (Their kitchen is tidied up/sorted out/fixed up.) Tenemos las flores plantadas./ Tenemos plantadas las flores. (Our flowers are planted.)

74.16 Inversion in written dialogue This always occurs as follows. “No vino” dijo su madre. (“She didn’t come,” her mother said.) “¿Cómo se puede arreglar?” preguntó ella/su padre. (“How can it be repaired?” she/her father asked.)

Word order

449

74.17 There are numerous set phrases in Spanish which respect a particular order of words, just as there are in English. For instance, one usually writes and says in English: black and white, knife and fork, bits and pieces. Reversing black and white, knife and fork, and bits and pieces would seem odd. The following list of sentences and expressions illustrates some of the most common set phrases in Spanish. fotografías/televisión en blanco y negro un blanco y negro (milky coffee) No distinguir lo blanco de lo negro Con pan y vino se anda el camino. (We live on bread and wine.) La vida tiene sus risas y lágrimas, momentos buenos y malos Se defendió con uñas y dientes (tooth and nail), pero lo retuvieron tres días en la cárcel a pan y agua, atado de pies y manos (tied hands and feet). Añoraba aquel hotel donde pagó por adelantado habitación y desayuno que estaba regentado por padre e hijo, aficionados a leer novelas de capa y espada (adventure stories). Se llevaban como el perro y el gato. Fueron atacados por tierra y mar, y después por mar y aire. Aunque el cielo presentaba nubes y claros (bright intervals), se desataron rayos (flashes of lightning) y truenos (claps of thunder > thunder and lightning). Tuvieron que atrancar puertas y ventanas. (They had to batten down the hatches.) Se sucedían montes y llanos (highs and lows/peaks and troughs). Era para todos, altos y bajos (ups and downs [of life].) Es para pobres y ricos. Hay estrellas, sol y luna. Hombre y mujer fueron creados (biblical expression). Esposo y esposa, marido y mujer, chico y chica ¡Felices Pascuas y Próspero Año Nuevo! (Happy Christmas and a Prosperous New Year!) el Nuevo Mundo (The New World [i.e. the Americas]) ¡Feliz cumpleaños! (Happy birthday!)

75 Diminutives and augmentatives / Diminutivos y aumentativos Below is a passage describing a Spanish journalist’s journey along the Rio Grande (Río Bravo in M and C), from El Paso to Laredo. He is traveling with illegal immigrants. The passage contains several diminutives and augmentatives, some of which one would probably hear only in Mexico. Ayer partimos de El Paso hacia Laredo en autobús por las carreterucas menos transitadas, para evitar controles policiales. Juan El Coyote, un hombrón, morenote, que fuma pitillos sin parar, con bigotazo a lo Pancho Villa, permitió que viajásemos con él transportando ilegales a Los Estados (The States) a cambio de que salga chingón (M; amazing) en nuestra revista. Hasta Laredo nos cobrará, porque junta chavitos (M; saving cash) para comprar una casita con alberca (M; swimming pool) en Veracruz. —¡Ándele, manito! (Come on, bud) ¡No le dé lástima! (M; Don’t feel sorry for him!) —había dicho al chofer; después dirigiéndose a mí—. Lueguito (M; soon), llegaremos a un fortín cerca de un pueblito (M). No se bajen del bus. Allá habrá un cieguito al que diré muy quedito (M): “¿Qué onda güey?” (M; O.K?) Si él me dice: “Adiosito” (M; bye), nos iremos todo a lo derechito; si dice a su gordita Adelita: “Espere sólo tantito (M)”, y ella responde: “Ahoritita” (M; now), pernoctaremos en la cantina, donde tendremos un lonche de manitas de puerco (hog’s feet/ pig’s trotters) con tortitas. Mañana. . ., como diosito (M) nos vaya dejando.

75.1 Diminutives 75.1.1 One of the characteristic features of Spanish, especially in the spoken, colloquial language (R1), is its use of suffixes which can express a wide range of affective notions (size, affection, disapproval, irony, etc.). Since suffixes of this kind are often related to colloquial expression, it would be unwise to try to indicate too clearly which are characteristic of Spain or of the other countries in question, although some are very typical of Mexico, as indicated in the passage at the beginning of this chapter. It should be added that diminutives and augmentatives form such an integral part of the Spanish language that only some of them appear in dictionaries, since dictionaries would probably double in size if all were included. What is certain, as far as diminutives go, is that a diminutive form for a Spanish speaker comes as easily as, or more easily than, the use of a noun with pequeño or chico. This may depend somewhat on the context, but the following sentences, involving the noun + ito/ita, spring more readily to the tongue of a Spanishspeaker than a noun + pequeño Tengo una casita en el campo. ¿Tienes una bolsita de té? Tienen dos perritos. ¿Me das una tacita de café? Te mandaré una notita. Tengo varias cositas por hacer. 450

Diminutives and augmentatives / Diminutivos y aumentativos

451

75.1.2 Some suffixes are so firmly associated with certain nouns that they form words in their own right. Here is a small list. bocadillo (sandwich in the form of a roll), caballete (easel), camarín (dressing room [in theater]), cucharita (teaspoon), golpecito (tap [small blow]), hoyuelo (dimple), mesita (small/bedside table), panecillo (bread roll), platillo (saucer), ramita (twig), ventanilla (window [of ticket office, car/train]), zapatilla (slipper, sneaker/trainer) 75.1.3 The two main diminutive suffixes are: -ito/a and ecito/a. These are among the most common suffixes, especially in Spanish America, and therefore Argentina, Colombia and Mexico. Their predominant meaning is diminutive. However, this does not necessarily mean that the object is smaller, and frequently this is not the case. It is often simply an affectionate way of expressing yourself. Tengo rentado (M) un carrito/ alquilado un cochecito. (I’ve rented a [small] car.) Hernani es un pueblito (C, M)/ pueblecito en el País Vasco. (Hernani is a small village in the Basque Country.) Acabo de leer un cuentito (C, M)/cuentecito. (I’ve just read a short story/tale.) Tiró la piedrita (C, M)/piedrecita. (She threw the stone.) 75.1.4 As for a choice between -ito/a and -ecito/a, Colombian and Mexican speakers seem to choose the -ito/a form, as witnessed in the last three examples in Section 75.1.3, above. Note also the pervasive use in Mexico, all Central America and Colombia of ahorita (even ahoritita) with the meaning of now – ahora in Spain. It should be added that Peninsular ahora, with the meaning of at this moment, is not very common in Colombia and Mexico. Similarly, Mexicans seem to use prontito (soon) much more than pronto. This ubiquitous use of the -ito/a form is viewed by some Spaniards as too sentimental; conversely, Mexicans, for instance, may consider the Spaniards’ use of language aggressive or harsh-sounding. What is clear is that the Spanish of Mexico, especially in the north, is much more melodious than the Spanish of Castile. 75.1.5 The -ito and -ecito endings also indicate genuine affection, and are particularly associated with language used to, and by, children. Dale un besito a Papá. (Give Daddy a kiss.) ¡Oye, niño, déjalo al caballito! (Hey, leave the horse alone!) Le duele el dientecito al pequeño. (The child’s tooth is hurting.) Children’s stories include: Los tres cerditos (The Three Little Pigs), Pulgarcito (Tom Thumb), Caperucita Roja (Little Red Riding Hood), El patito feo (The Ugly Duckling) and Blancanieve y los siete enanitos (Snow White and the Seven Dwarves). 75.1.6 The suffixes -ito/a and -ecito/a can also have an intensifying effect. Hace un poco fresquito, ¿verdad? (It’s a bit chilly, isn’t it?) Allí tienes un café calentito.1 (There’s some nice hot coffee for you.) ¡Ay, el pobrecito! (Poor old thing!) 1

Interestingly enough, the diphthong ie disappears here in Mexico from caliente in calentito (see Chapter 73 on superlatives), although it is not unusual in Colombia to hear the retention of the diphthong. La sopa está calientica. (The soup is nice and hot.) In Colombia, -ecito may also be used to bring forward a moment in time. Nos veremos por la nochecita suggests late afternoon or early evening, as opposed to: Nos veremos por la noche, which suggests late evening or night.

75.1.7 The ending -ito/a not only expresses affection on the part of the speaker, but may also be used to elicit an affectionate reaction on the part of the hearer. ¿Nos acompaña abuelito? (Grandpa’s coming?) Te mando una notita. (I’ll send you a note.)

452

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

It might also be used to mitigate any impatience on the hearer’s part. Un momentito, por favor. (Just a moment, please.) Or to induce pity in the hearer. ¿Una limosnita, por favor? (Can you spare a dime?) 75.1.8 An alternative form for certain nouns ending in -ito/a is -illo/a. For example, there is a choice between cucharita and cucharilla, and between mesita and mesilla, to the point that there is often a discussion as to which is the correct form. Of course, both are valid, although usage depends on the region of Spain or elsewhere. 75.1.9 Affective suffixes are used most often with nouns and adjectives, although the use of -ito/a, and only this form, extends to past participles used adjectivally, to adverbs and even to gerunds. 75.1.9.1 Adverbs Hay que platicar (M)/hablar bajito. (You must speak really quietly.) Lo haré en seguidita. (I’ll do it right away.) Mi casa está cerquita. (My house is quite close by.) El colegio queda lejitos de aquí (C). (The school is quite far from here.) 75.1.9.2 Past participles Here, association with children is very common. El niño está dormidito. (The child is sound asleep.) La habitación está arregladita. (The room is nice and tidy.) Las niñas estaban sentaditas. (The girls were sitting nice and comfortably.) El bebé está acostadito. (The baby is tucked up in bed.) La madre la tiene bien vestidita/cuidadita/peinadita. (The mother has dressed her nicely/ looks after her well/combed her hair nicely.) Lo tengo bien comidito. (I’ve eaten it all up.) No hagas ruido, que papá está cansadito. (Don’t make a noise, Pop/Dad is a bit tired.) 75.1.9.3 Gerund La nena salió corriendito. (The little girl trotted out.) 75.1.10 The diminutive suffixes -illo/a and -ecillo/a may have a pejorative overtone. In Spanish America their use is almost exclusively pejorative. No me gusta este tonillo de superioridad/ironía. (I don’t like this tone of superiority/ irony.) Había en la tienda un hombrecillo que se quedaba callado. (In the shop was an insignificant little man who said nothing.) Me parece un poco complicadillo. (It seems a bit complicated/ awkward to me.) Es una novela fuertecilla. (That novel’s heavy-going.) The pejorative overtone is not always the case, as seen with panecillo, etc. in Section 75.1.2, above, and the following examples. Seguí un cursillo de español en Salamanca. (I followed a Spanish course in Salamanca.) Soplaba un airecillo/vientecillo muy agradable. (A pleasant, light breeze was blowing.) 75.1.11 The suffixes -uelo/a, -(e)juelo/a, -chuelo/a, -ete, -ecete and oleto are diminutive and may be pejorative, but it depends on the context and tone of voice or style of writing. In all the following examples, the suffixes do not suggest any pejorative meaning, save the last one, and even here there is a touch of affection. Por el pueblecito bajaba un riachuelo que a veces estaba seco. (A brook that was often dry came running down through the village.) Un arroyuelo corre junto a los árboles. (A stream runs past the trees.) Mis hijos suelen montar en los columpios de una plazoleta/plazuela cercana. (My children often get on the swings in a small square nearby.)

Diminutives and augmentatives / Diminutivos y aumentativos

453

Las modernas oficinas bancarias han sustituido a los antiguos palacetes del Paseo de la Castellana en Madrid. (The modern banking offices have replaced the old luxury villas of the Paseo de la Castellana in Madrid.) Tiene los dedos regordetes. (He’s got chubby fingers.) Esos chicos forman una banda de ladronzuelos. (Those boys make up a group of rascally thieves.) 75.1.12 Diminutives may also be appended to names of people, again with the purpose of introducing an affectionate tone. Marujita y Carmencita me visitaron. (Marujita and Carmencita visited me.) Carlitos Patiño es lingüista. (Carlitos Patiño is a linguist.) Acabo de ver a Juanito. (I’ve just seen Johnny.) 75.1.13 There are some diminutives that may be considered as characteristic of dialectical speech in Spain, and are typical especially of Aragón. Good examples are -ico and –ín. ratico, pobrín, tontina In Colombia, the diminutive -ico is very common and could not be classed there as dialectical. Cuentico = cuentecito, prontico = prontito, taburetico = taburete, zapatico = zapatilla

75.2 Augmentatives Generally speaking, augmentatives are less frequently used than diminutives, although they are quite numerous. 75.2.1 The suffix -ón/a has a number of values. It may simply be an augmentative, as in sillón (armchair) or hombretón (well-built man). As an augmentative, it takes on most frequently a pejorative overtone, since largeness or excess is often thought to be negative. solterón/ona (confirmed bachelor/unmarried woman), cabrón/ona (son of a bitch, bastard, bitch [care needed here]), dulzón (oversweet, sickly sweet, maudlin), Es un solterón empedernido. (He’s a confirmed bachelor set in his ways.) Esa tía es una cabrona que me las pagará. (That broad is a bitch who will pay for what she has done to me.) Es una bebida dulzona que no me gusta. (It’s a sickly drink I don’t like.) No me gustó el final de la película; fue muy dulzón. (I didn’t like the end of the movie; it was very mushy/schmalzy.) Me dio un patadón horrible. (He gave me a helluva kick.) 75.2.2 The suffix -ón can also form pejorative adjectives from nouns: cabezón (stubborn). It also forms pejorative nouns and adjectives from verbs. llorón (cry-baby), empollón (hardworking student, studious [not in M]) Antonio es un cabezón y no va a cambiar de idea. (Antonio is stubborn and won’t change his ideas.) Estas últimas noches el niño ha estado muy llorón. (These last few nights, the child has been crying.) Sólo han aprobado el examen los cuatro empollones. (Only the four hardworkers passed the examination.) 75.2.3 The ending -azo is similar to -ón, and conveys the idea of enormous or exaggerated, or something ill-considered. Some of the words are difficult to translate. acentazo (bad accent), ambientazo (wonderful atmosphere), asuntazo (terrific business), bigotazo (big moustache), carrazo (M; big car), cochazo (big car), dedazo (arbitrary choice [of someone]), espaldarazo (great support/recognition), exitazo (terrific success), manaza (big [clumsy] hand), plumazo (stroke of a pen)

454

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

El bigotazo le cubría la cara hasta las orejas. (His moustache covered his face right up to his ears.) Su último DVD fue un exitazo tremendo. (His last DVD was a tremendous hit.) Tiene unas manazas grandotas. (He has big, clumsy hands.) -azo can also have the meaning of a (big) blow, a colossal event or a sudden act or movement. accidentazo (bad accident), avionazo (M; air crash), bastonazo (blow with a stick), cabezazo (blow with the head), codazo (blow with the elbow), frenazo (sudden braking), golpazo (M; big blow, thump), golpetazo (a big blow), latigazo (blow with a whip), mazazo (blow with a cudgel), martillazo (blow with hammer), picazo (jab [against infection]), pistolazo (shootout), puñetazo (punch), trenazo (M; bad train crash) Dio un golpetazo en la pared con el puño. (He banged his fist on the wall.) Al carpintero se le escapó el mazo y se dio un mazazo en la mano. (The hammer slipped from the carpenter’s grasp and he banged his hand.) 75.2.4 The suffix -ote/a is pejorative as well as augmentative. brutote (rough/clumsy/dumb), cabezota (stubborn), francote (very easygoing), grandote (big and awkward), librote (dull book), palabrota (swear/dirty word) Ese hombre tiene costumbre de decir palabrotas. (That man often says swearwords.) María es una cabezota y no cambiará de idea. (María is stubborn and won’t change ideas.) Vino un tipo grandote. (A big guy came ambling up.) Amigote has the meaning of buddy/mate and is familiar rather than pejorative. Se fue por allí con los amigotes. (He went that way with his buddies.) 75.2.5 The endings -ucho/a, -acho/a, uco/a, -aco, -ezuelo and –astro are clearly pejorative. casucha (hovel/dump), cuartucho (squalid room), feúcho (very ugly), frailuco (stupid little monk), libraco (big tome), mujeruca (old woman), mujerzuela (slut), pajarraco (big, ugly bird), picachos (fierce-looking peaks), poetastro2 (hack poet), populacho (populace, common herd), reyezuelo (tin-pot king), ricacho (stinkingly rich), ventanuco (old, narrow window) 2

For a fuller list of nouns ending in -astro, related to family (hermanastro [stepbrother], hijastro [stepson], etc.), see Chapter 10 on number.

Vivía en un barrio de casuchas. (She lived in a slum district.) ¿Cómo pueden vivir en el cuartucho ese? (How can they live in that dump of a room?) Le han regalado un pajarraco que no para de chillar. (They have given him a wretched bird that squeals and squeals.) 75.2.6 Augmentatives are also used on occasions as adverbs: arribote, lejotes. They can suggest admiration, precisely by virtue of size: buenazo/a, grandón/grandona, grandote/a. 75.2.7 The above are just some of the ways in which Spanish-speakers manipulate verbs, nouns and adjectives to suit their emotional reactions to things and events. Some simple illustrations of the flexibility of these suffixes, going from small to large, are set out below. (This list includes some of the nouns from above, although only some translations are provided.) barquichuelo/barco/barcaza (barge) besito/beso/besazo (smacker [kiss]) botellín/botellita (M)/botella/botellón cabrito/cabra (goat)/cabrón carrito (C, M)/carro/carrazo (enormous car) casita (cottage)/caseta (hut)/ casucha (hovel/casa/casona (large country dwelling)/caserón cochecito/coche/ cochazo (enormous car) cucharita (teaspoon)/cuchara/cucharón (ladle) disgustillo (minor trouble)/disgusto (annoyance)/disgustón (most serious grief, disturbance/ upset)/disgustazo

Diminutives and augmentatives / Diminutivos y aumentativos

455

fortín (little fort)/fuerte/fortaleza (fortress) golpecito/golpe/golpazo/golpetazo hombrecillo/hombre/hombrón librito/libreta/libro/librote maletín (small/attaché case)/maleta/maletón manita/mano/manaza mujercita (dainty woman)/mujer/mujerona/mujeruca (big woman) pajarito/pájaro/pajarraco/pajaruco (big, ugly bird)/pajarón partidillo (unimportant game)/partido/partidazo (terrific game) sillín (saddle)/silla/sillón (armchair) tacita/taza/tazón (bowl/mug) torrecilla/torre/torreón (big tower/watchtower) ventanilla/ventana/ventanuco vientecillo/viento/ventarrón (strong wind)

75.3 First names Many first names in Spanish have a corresponding diminutive, rather like John > Johnny, or James >Jimmy. Adriana > Adrianita, Ana > Anita, Antonio > Toñín, Eva > Evita, Isabel > Isabelita, José > Joselito, Juana > Juanita, Luis > Luisito, Manuel > Manolito, Miguel > Miguelín/ Miguelito, Pablo > Pablito, Pedro > Pedrito/Pedrín, Ramón > Ramoncito, Raúl > Raulito, Rosa > Rosita, Susana > Susanita Neither the English language nor the French or Italian languages can match this flexibility in diminutives and augmentatives, although Italian has an equal number of diminutives like piazzetta (little square) or Pinocchio (Little Pine).

75.4 Mexican diminutives A few comments on diminutives as used in Mexico are needed here. As stated earlier in this chapter, the Mexicans use the suffix -ito with great frequency, to the extent that Peninsular speakers of Spanish may sometimes find it just too affectionate or warmhearted. Conversely, Mexicans can find the Spanish of Spain, and notably Castile, rough and abrupt, too harsh for the mellifluous tones of Mexican Spanish, and especially that of Northern Mexico. It is all a question of personal choice and taste. Un carrito may be a toy car in Mexico, when being bought for a child, but it can equally well reflect a Mexican’s love for his/her car, however big the engine size (la cilindrada). Agua is the standard term for water in the whole of the Spanish-speaking world, but Mexicans seem to prefer agüita, which is unusual in Spain. Similarly, frijoles (beans but judías in Spain) is often replaced by frijolitos, although this has nothing to do with size, but rather with their culinary importance. This variety of choice in suffixes contributes to an unparalleled richness in Spanish which, in turn, provides us with a treasure that is the cultural experience of the Spanish-speaking peoples.

Part X

76 Names of countries, regions, US states, continents, oceans, rivers, mountains, volcanoes / Nombres de países, regiones, estados de los EE.UU., continentes, océanos, ríos, montañas, volcanes 76.1 Gender There is no sure way of establishing any logical pattern for the gender of countries. About 60 percent of countries are feminine and the rest are masculine. The only helpful way of remembering gender associated with a country, or region, is to link the definite article with that country when it first appears. Note that countries, regions, towns, rivers, oceans, mountains, and so on, appear with upper-case letters, while inhabitants of countries, towns, and so on (gentilicios), have lower case (as in other Romance languages). It should be pointed out that (again in keeping with usage in these other cognate languages) names of inhabitants of towns, and even very small villages, are most common, as opposed to usage in English-speaking countries. Sometimes, the gentilicio seems to lack any correspondence with the town or village it describes. This is often due to a return to Latin etymological roots: regiomontano (of Monterrey) is of Latin provenance. Other factors sometimes come into play, as with San Sebastián in the Basque country, where donostiarra is directly connected to the Basque word. Unfortunately, in general discourse, the vast majority of countries do not take the definite article unless they are qualified by an adjective or an adjectival phrase, and this causes some difficulty in remembering the gender. However, this problem should not be exaggerated. Gender is given below with each country or region as it is listed.

76.2 Usage 76.2.1 Direction towards. Voy a México/Colombia/España. (I’m going to Mexico/ Colombia/Spain.) Direction away, or origin Vengo de Francia/España/Ecuador. (I come from France/Spain/Ecuador.) Soy de Venezuela/Alemania/Holanda. (I am from Venezuela/Germany/Holland.) Note the verb ser here, as with all references to origins, towns, regions, and so on. 76.2.2 Where countries are qualified, the definite article is included. en la Italia de hace cincuenta años (in the Italy of fifty years ago), en el Chile contemporáneo (in contemporary Chile) 76.2.3 There are a number of countries, both masculine and feminine, which may be preceded by the definite article. These are indicated in the list below with an asterisk. As a general rule, the higher the register, the more likely the definite article is used, but only when it is optional. One or two countries, such as El Salvador, have a definite article as part of 459

460

A Reference Grammar of Spanish their name and this article is to be used. As with names of towns (El Ferrol in Spain, for instance), the definite article does not combine with de or a in formal usage. la capital de El (del = R2/R1) Salvador (the capital of El Salvador), en el norte de (de el = R3/ R2) Japón (in the north of Japan), el Primer Ministro de (de el = R3/R2) Japón (the Prime Minister of Japan), Voy al (a El = R3/R2) Ferrol. (I am going to El Ferrol.)

76.3 Countries, regions, capitals and inhabitants Translations are not given here. Afganistán* (m), afgano, cap: Kabul; África del Sur/Sudáfrica/Suráfrica (f), sudafricano/ surafricano, caps: Pretoria, Ciudad de El Cabo; Bloemfontein; Albania (f), albanés, cap: Tirana; Alemania (f), alemán, cap: Berlín; Andorra (f), andorrano, cap: Andorra la Vieja; Angola (f), angoleño, cap: Luanda; Antigua y Barbados (f), antiguano, cap: Saint John; Arabia Saudí/Arabia Saudita (f), saudí/saudita, cap: Riad; Argelia (f), argelino, cap: Argel; Argentina* (f), argentino, cap: Buenos Aires; Armenia (f), armenio, cap: Ereván; Australia (f), australiano, cap: Canberra; Austria (f), austríaco/austriaco, cap: Viena; Azerbaiyán (m), azerbaiyano, cap: Bakú. Bahamas (fpl), bahameño, cap: Nassau; Bahréin (m), bahreini, cap: Manama; Bangladés (m), bangladesí, cap: Dacca; Bélgica (f), belga, cap: Bruselas; Benín (m), beninés, cap: Porto Novo; Bielorrusia (f), bielorruso, cap: Minsk; Birmania (f), birmano, cap: Rangún; Bolivia (f), boliviano, caps: Sucre y La Paz; Bosnia-Herzegovina (f), bosnio, bosnio-herzegovino, cap: Sarajevo; Botsuana (f), botsuano, cap: Gaborone; Brasil (m), brasileño (Spain and M)/ brasilero (used more in A and C, where brasileño is also used), cap: Brasilia; Bulgaria (f), búlgaro, cap: Sofía; Burkina Faso (m), burkinés, cap: Uagadugú; Burundi (m), burundés, cap: Bujumbura; Bután, butanés, cap: Timbu. Cabo Verde* (m), caboverdiano, cap: Praia; Camboya (m) (Cambodia), camboyano, cap: Phnom Penh; Camerún (m), camerunés, cap: Yaundé; Canadá* (m), canadiense, cap: Ottawa; Chad (m), chadiano, cap: Yamena; Chile (m), chileno, cap: Santiago de Chile; China (f), chino, cap: Pekín/Beijing (former preferred); Chipre (f), chipriota, cap: Nicosia; Ciudad del Vaticano (f), vaticano; Colombia (f), colombiano, cap: Santafé de Bogotá; Congo* (m), congoleño, cap: Brazzaville; Corea del Norte (f), norcoreano, cap: Pyongyang; Corea del Sur (f), surcoreano, cap: Seúl; Costa de Marfil (f) (Ivory Coast), marfileño, cap: Yamusukro; Costa Rica (f), costarricense, cap: San José; Croacia (f), croata, cap: Zagreb; Cuba (f), cubano, cap: La Habana. Dinamarca (f), danés, cap: Copenhague; Dominica (f), dominiqués, cap: Roseau. Ecuador* (m), ecuatoriano, cap: Quito; Egipto (m), egipcio, cap: El Cairo; El Salvador, salvadoreño, cap: San Salvador; Emiratos Árabes Unidos* (mpl), cap: Abu Dabi; Eritrea (f), eritreo, cap: Asmara; Escocia (f), escocés, cap: Edimburgo (see Reino Unido); Eslovaquia (f), eslovaco, cap: Bratislava; Eslovenia (f), eslovenio, cap: Liubliana; España (f), español, cap: Madrid; Estados Unidos de América* (mpl), estadounidense/ estadunidense (M), cap: Wáshington; Estonia (f), estonio, cap: Tallin (Estonia is one of the three Baltic states [Estados Bálticos]; see also Letonia and Lituania); Etiopía (f), etíope, cap: Adís Abeba. Filipinas (fpl), filipino, cap: Manila; Finlandia (f), finlandés, cap: Helsinki; Francia (f), francés, (note the use of franco in compounds: franco-belga, relaciones franco-argelinas), París.

Countries, regions, US states, continents, oceans, rivers, mountains, volcanoes

461

Gabón* (m), gabonés, cap: Libreville; Gales (m), galés, cap: Cardiff (see Reino Unido); Gambia (f), gambiano, cap: Banjul; Georgia (f), georgiano, cap: Tiflis; Ghana (f), ghanés, cap: Accra; Grecia (f), griego (the now obsolete greco survives vigorously in compounds: grecolatino, grecorromano), cap: Atenas; Groenlandia (f), danés, cap: Nuuk; Guadalupe (f), guadalupeño, cap: Basse-Terre; Guatemala (f), guatemalteco, cap: Ciudad de Guatemala; Guinea (f), guineano, cap: Conakry; Guinea-Bissau (f), guineano, cap: Bissau; Guinea Ecuatorial (f), ecuatoguineano, cap: Malabo; Guyana (f), guyanés, cap: Georgetown. Haití (m), haitiano, cap: Puerto Príncipe; Holanda (f) (see Países Bajos); Honduras (f), hondureño, cap: Tegucigalpa; Hungría (f), húngaro, cap: Budapest. India* (f), indio1 (hindú is widely used in R1 for the nationality, although it refers specifically to the religion), cap: Nueva Delhi; Indonesia (f), indonesio, cap: Yakarta; Inglaterra (f) inglés, cap: Londres (see Reino Unido); Irán (m), iraní, cap: Teherán; Iraq/Irak (m), iraquí, cap: Bagdad; Irlanda (f), irlandés, cap: Dublín; Islandia (f), islandés, cap: Reykiavik; Israel (m), israelí, cap: Jerusalén (contested by the UN); Italia (f), italiano, cap: Roma. 1

Indio in this context could be confused with indio related to the American continent. See below gentilicios connected with the American continent.

Jamaica (f), jamaicano, cap: Kingston; Japón* (m), japonés (also but restricted use: nipón), cap: Tokio; Jordania (f), jordano, cap: Ammán. Kasajistán (m), kasajo, cap: Astaná; Kenia/Kénya (m), keniano/keniata, cap: Nairobi; Kirguistán (m), kirguís/kirguiso, cap: Bishkek; Kuwait (m), kuwaiti, cap: Kuwait. Laos (m), laosiano, cap: Vientián; Lesoto (m), lesotense, cap: Masera; Letonia (f) (Latvia), letón, cap: Riga; Líbano* (m), libanés, cap: Beirut; Liberia (f), liberiano, cap: Monrovia; Libia (f), libio, cap: Trípoli; Liechtenstein (m), liechtensteiniano, cap: Vaduz; Lituania (f), lituano, cap: Vilna; Luxemburgo (m), luxemburgués, cap: Luxemburgo. Macedonia (f), macedonio, cap: Skopje; Madagascar (m), malgache, cap: Antananarivo; Malasia (f), malasio, cap: Kuala Lumpur; Malaui (m), malauí, cap: Lilongwe; Maldivas* (fpl), maldivo, cap: Malé; Mali/Malí (m), malí/maliense, cap: Bamako; Malta (f), maltés, cap: La Valeta; Marruecos (m), marroquí, cap: Rabat; Martinica (f), martiniqués, cap: Fort-de-France; Mauricio (m), mauriciano, cap: Port-Louis; Mauritania (f), mauritano, cap: Nuakchot; México (m) (still and often in Spain and also in C, Méjico; in nearly all of Spanish America, México is used, but the x is pronounced as a j (See Section 2.4.20 on pronunciation)), cap: México D.F.; Moldavia (f), moldavo, cap: Chisinau; Mónaco (m), monegasco, cap: Mónaco; Mongolia (f), mongol, cap: Ulán Bator; Mozambique (m), mozambiqueño, cap: Maputo. Namibia (f), namibio, cap: Windhock; Nepal (m), nepalés, cap: Katmandú; Nicaragua (f), nicaragüense, cap: Managua; Níger (m), nigerino, cap: Niamey; Nigeria (f), nigeriano, cap: Abuya; Noruega (f), noruego, cap: Oslo; Nueva Caledonia (f), neocaledoniano; Nueva Zelanda/Nueva Zelandia (f), neozelandés, cap: Wellington. Países Bajos* (mpl), neerlandés, cap: Ámsterdam (see also Holanda); Pakistán* (m), pakistaní, cap: Islamabad; Panamá (m), panameño, cap: Panamá; Papúa Nueva Guinea (f), papú, cap: Port Moresby; Paraguay (m), paraguayo, cap: Asunción; Perú* (m), peruano,

462

A Reference Grammar of Spanish cap: Lima; Polonia (f), polaco, cap: Varsovia; Portugal (m), portugués (luso is used in compounds in R3 language: luso-hispano), cap: Lisboa; Puerto Rico (m) (estado libre asociado a los EE.UU.), puertorriqueño, cap: San Juan. Qatar (m), catarí/qatarí, cap: Doha. Reino Unido* (m) de Gran Bretaña e Irlanda del Norte, británico (inglés frequently replaces británico for any inhabitant of the British Isles; anglosajón is used less for Anglo-Saxon [this has a historical resonance in English] than for countries or peoples of British descent, e.g. USA, Australia, los países anglosajones), cap: Londres; República Centroafricana* (f), centroafricano, cap: Bangui; República Checa/Chequia* (f), checo, cap: Praga; República Democrática del Congo* (f), congoleño, cap: Kinshasa; República Dominicana* (f), cap: Santo Domingo; Ruanda (m), ruandés, cap: Kigali; Rumania/Rumanía (f), rumano, cap: Bucarest; Rusia (f), ruso, cap: Moscú. Samoa (f), samoano, cap: Apia; San Marino (m), sanmarinense, cap: San Marino; Santa Lucía (f), santalucense, cap: Castries; Senegal* (m), senegalés, cap: Dakar; Serbia y Montenegro (f), serbio/montenegrino, cap: Belgrado; Seychelles* (fpl), seychellense, cap: Victoria; Sierra Leona (f), sierraleonés, cap: Freetown; Singapur (m), singapurense, cap: Singapur; Siria (f), sirio, cap: Damasco; Somalia (f), somalí, cap: Mogadiscio; Sri Lanka (m), esrilanqués, cap: Colombo; Suazilandia (f), suazi, cap: Mbabane; Sudán* (m), sudanés, cap: Jartum; Suecia (f), sueco, cap: Estocolmo; Suiza (f), suizo, cap: Berna; Surinam (m), surinamés, cap: Paramaribo. Tailandia (f), tailandés, cap: Bangkok; Tanzania (f), tanzano, cap: Dodoma; Tibet* (m), tibetano, cap: Llasa; Timor Oriental (m), timorense, cap: Dili; Togo* (m), togolés, cap: Lomé; Tonga (f), tongano, cap: Baku’alofa; Trinidad y Tobago (f), trinitense, cap: Puerto España; Túnez (m) (Tunisia), tunecino, cap: Túnez (m); Turkmenistán (m), turcomano/ turkmeno, cap: Asjabad; Turquía (f), turco (in Argentina, turco covers in R1 language all the Muslim countries, and is often a global synonym for árabe), cap: Ankara. Ucrania (f), ucraniano, cap: Kiev; Uganda (m), ugandés, cap: Kampala; Uruguay* (m), uruguayo, cap: Montevideo; Uzbekistán (m), uzbeko, cap: Tashkent. Venezuela (f), venezolano, cap: Caracas; Vietnam (m), vietnamita, cap: Hanói. Yemen* (m), yemení, cap: Saná; Yibuti (m) (Djibouti), yibutiano, cap: Yibuti. Zambia (f), zambiano, cap: Lusaka; Zimbabue (m), zimbabuense, cap: Harare.

76.4 Compass points The four compass points and their corresponding adjectives are: este: oriental oeste: occidental sur: meridional/austral/sureño norte: septentrional/norteño los países orientales, Europa Occidental, Argentina Meridional, África Austral (Southern Africa including South Africa, Mozambique, Angola, etc.), países sureños/ norteños (Southern/Northern countries), América Septentrional

Countries, regions, US states, continents, oceans, rivers, mountains, volcanoes

463

76.5 The Americas/Las Américas 76.5.1 América del Norte América Septentrional (R3; North America), Estados Unidos, EE.UU., el otro lado (used by Mexicans) 76.5.1.1 Adjectives and nouns: (norte)americano, gringo (R1), yanqui (R1), estadounidense, estadunidense (M), canadiense 76.5.1.2 Towns and regions (cited only if significantly different from the English or have some other detail, like a written accent): Carolina del Norte/del Sur, Columbia Británica, Dénver, Filadelfia, Florida (tonic accent on the i), Indianápolis, Kánsas, Los Ángeles, Luisiana, Nueva Brunswick, Nueva Escocia (Nova Scotia), Nuevo México, Nueva Orleáns, Nueva York (neoyorkino), Oregón, Tejas, Wáshington, Wiscónsin 76.5.2 América del Sur/América Central/Centroamérica Suramérica/Sudamérica (former preferred by purists), América Latina, Iberoamérica, Latinoamérica, Hispanoamérica, suramericano/sudamericano (former preferred by purists), hispano (South American, not used in M), hispanamericano, sudaca (South American person; R1, used pejoratively of South Americans by Spaniards). Latinoamérica/América Latina/latinoamericano refer to both Spanish-speaking and Portuguese-speaking America. Indio signifies Indian in both contexts of the American and Indian continents. Since indio has acquired a pejorative connotation for the American Indian, aborígene is sometimes used, as are the terms amerindio and indioamericano. In Spain, americano has the meaning of norteamericano. In the whole of Spanish America, norteamericano is used for North Americans, but América del Norte does really include Mexico, geographically speaking. Estadounidense is used in both Spain and Spanish America when referring to the United States. Estadunidense is often preferred by Mexicans. Gringo is not necessarily pejorative and refers also to the British. Argentinians use gringo for North Americans and all Europeans. 76.5.2.1 Adjectives, and other details, referring to Spanish American towns and regions, with their gentilicios Argentina: Buenos Aires: porteño (bonaerense refers to Gran Buenos Aires [Greater B.A.]); Patagonia: patagónico (note that one says and writes both en Patagonia and en la Patagonia; the second is of a higher register); (el) Chaco: chaqueño; Córdoba: cordobés; Jujuy: jujeño; Salta: salteño; Rosario: rosarino; Santa Fe: santafecino; Santiago del Estero: santiagueño; Tierra del Fuego: fueguino; note Las Malvinas (The Falkland Islands) Bolivia: La Paz: paceño; Potosí: potosino; Sucre: sucrense Brasil: Brasilia: brasiliense; Río de Janeiro: carioca/fluminense Colombia: Bogotá: bogotano; Medellín: medellinense; Cartagena: cartagenero; Barranquilla: barranquillero; Cali: caleño; Antioquía: antioqueño; Sucre: sucreño Costa Rica: San José: josefino Cuba: La Habana: habanero; Santiago: santiaguero Chile: Concepción: penquisto/pencón; Santiago: santiaguino; Valparaíso: porteño Ecuador: Quito: quiteño México: Acapulco: acapulqueño; Aguascalientes: hidrocálido; Benito Juárez: juareño; Campeche: campechano; Ciudad de México: mexiqueño/chilango (R1); Ciudad Victoria: victoriense; Chihuahua: chihuahuense; Cuernavaca: cuernavaquense; Durango: duranguense/durangueño; Guadalajara: guadalajarense; Guanajuato: guanajuatense; Jalapa: jalapeño; Jalisco: jalisquillo; León: leonés; Mérida: meridano (but merideño in Spain and Venezuela); Monterrey: regiomontano; Oaxaca: oaxaqueño; Palenque:

464

A Reference Grammar of Spanish palencano; Puebla: poblano; Salamanca: salmantino (as in Spain); Tampico: tampiqueño; Veracruz: jarocho/veracruzano; Yucatán: yucateco; Zacatecas: zacatecano. Capitalino is a person from the capital city, usually Mexico City. Mexiquense applies to the person from the State of Mexico City. Nicaragua: Managua: managüense Paraguay: Asunción: asunceno Perú: Callao: chalaco; El Cuzco (with or without the definite article): cuzqueño (also Cusco: cusqueño [spelt with an s almost exclusively in Peru]); Lima: limeño Uruguay: Montevideo: montevideano Venezuela: Caracas: caraqueño; Maracaibo: maracaibero

76.6 Spain 76.6.1 The country España > español/hispano (R3) Note the use of hispano in compounds: hispanoárabe; Hispanoamérica; and países de habla hispana (Spanish: speaking countries). Spain is sometimes referred to as la Península; especially when distinguishing the mainland from Las Baleares and Las Canarias. 76.6.2 Regions Andalucía: andaluz; Aragón: aragonés/maño/mañico (R1); (las) Islas Baleares: balear (often in speech, las Baleares); (las) Islas Canarias: canario/guanche (original inhabitants of the islands; also in speech, las Canarias or las Islas);2 Cantabria: cántabro (note: la Cordillera Cantábrica, el Mar Cantábrico); Castilla: castellano; Cataluña: catalán; Extremadura: extremeño; Galicia: gallego; el País Vasco, or simply Euskadi (preferred by the Basques) (Las Provincias Vascongadas is used for the Basque Provinces, while el vascuence (Basque language) has now been ousted in these provinces by euskera): vasco (note that vasco refers to the inhabitant and is also an adjective: los deportes de los vascos; los pescadores vascos protestan) 76.6.3 Towns Alcalá de Henares: complutense (also used of the University of Madrid, which was transferred from Alcalá); Ávila: abulense; Barcelona: barcelonés (often referred to in journalism as La Ciudad Condal, R3); Burgos: burgalés; Cádiz: gaditano; Córdoba: cordobés; Elche: ilicitano; Granada: granadino; Huelva: onubense; Huesca: oscense; Jaén: jaenés/jienense; La Coruña: coruñés (one sees A Coruña on all road signs in Galicia, this being the Galician spelling); Madrid: madrileño; Málaga: malagueño; Oviedo: ovetense; Salamanca: salmantino (as in Mexico/Venezuela); San Sebastián: donostiarra; Santander: santanderino (but in Colombia, santandereano); Santiago de Compostela: compostelano/santiagués (the Santiagos of Spanish America all have different adjectives, see Section 76.5.2.1, above); Sevilla: Sevillano/hispalense (R3); Tarragona: tarraconense; Valencia: valenciano; Valladolid: vallisoletano; Zaragoza: zaragozano 76.6.4 Islands Ibiza: ibicenco; Mallorca: mallorquín; Menorca: menorquín; Tenerife: tinerfeño

2

A literary reference to the Canaries is “las (Islas) Afortunadas,” which has a historic resonance. It should be added here that Las Canarias has nothing to do with canaries. The term drives from the Latin canis which refers to a peculiar type of dog (now extinct) that Spanish visitors found on the island.

Countries, regions, US states, continents, oceans, rivers, mountains, volcanoes

465

76.7 Towns in Europe 76.7.1 Towns with gentilicios Atenas: ateniense; Berlín: berlinés; Florencia: florentino; Lisboa: lisboeta; Londres: londinense; Milán: milanés; Moscú: moscovita; Nápoles: napolitano; París: parisiense/parisino (the second is much more common); Roma: romano; Venecia: veneciano; Viena: vienés 76.7.2 Other towns; regions, islands, etc., in Europe that are not covered above and do not have the same spelling as in English are listed below. Munich, for example, is the same in Spanish and English, so does not appear here. Amberes (Antwerp), Aquisgrán (Aachen/Aix-la-Chapelle), Aviñón (Avignon), Basilea (Basle), Baviera (Bavaria), Borgoña (Burgundy), Brujas (Bruges), Burdeos (Bordeaux), Cerdeña (Sardinia; not to be confused with Cerdaña, a valley in the Eastern Pyrenees), Colonia (Cologne), Córcega (Corsica), Cornualles (Cornwall), Cracovia (Cracow), Dresde (Dresden), Edimburgo (Edinburgh), Estrasburgo (Strasburg), Flandes (Flanders), Francfort (Frankfurt), Friburgo (Freiburg), Gante (Ghent), Gascuña (Gascony), Génova (Genoa), Gotinga (Göttingen), Islas Órcadas (Orkneys), La Haya (The Hague; La is the article, despite the normal rule that el precedes nouns beginning with stressed a or ha), Liorna (Livorno/Leghorn), Lovaina (Louvain/ Leuven), Madera (Madeira), Maguncia (Mainz), Marsella (Marseilles), Micenas (Mycenae), Nicosia (Nicosia; note the difference in stress: the tonic accent in Spanish falls on the o), Provenza (Provence), Rodas (Rhodes), Rosellón (Roussillon), Ruán (Rouen), Savoya (Savoie), Sajonia (Saxony), San Petersburgo (St Petersberg), el Sarre (The Saar), Tesalónica (Thessalonika), Tolosa (Toulouse), Turín (Turin), Versalles (Versailles), Zúrich (Zurich)

76.8 Cities, etc. in the Middle East Oriente Medio (m) means Middle East in Spain, but in Spanish America the two words are inverted: Medio Oriente. Antioquía (Antioch; not to be confused with Antioquia in Colombia), La Meca (Mecca), Estambul (Istanbul), El Cairo (Cairo) The term for shiite, one of the sects of Islam, is variable: chií/chiita/shií/shiita. The last two are unacceptable for purists who see the influence of English. Note the plural of the first two: chiíes/chiitas. Israelita sometimes replaces the term israelí, although it refers really to the Israelites of the Old Testament. Yidis and yiddish (the Hebrew language spoken by the Jews of Central Europe) appear, but the former is preferred. The hybrid forms: yidish/yidish, are to be avoided.

76.9 Cities, etc. in Africa Adís Abeba (Addis-Ababa), Alejandría (Alexandria), Argel (argelino) (Algiers), Johannesburgo (Johannesburg), el Sáhara (tonic accent on the second a in Spanish America) (Sahara), Tánger (Tangiers) África del Norte embraces Libya, Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. África del Sur refers to the country of South Africa, while África Austral refers to Southern Africa (Mozambique), Angola, South Africa)

76.10 Asia asiático Cantón, Shanghái

466

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

76.11 Other geographical terms related to places 76.11.1 Continents Antártica: antártico; Ártico: ártico; Asia: asiático; Europa: europeo 76.11.2 Names of rivers (all m) Amazonas, Éufrates, Ganges, Mekong, Misisipí, Misuri (Missouri), Nilo, Orinoco, Paraná, Rin (Rhone), Río Bravo (M; known elsewhere as Río Grande), Ródano (Rhone), Sena (Seine), Tajo (Tagus), Támesis (Thames), Tíber, Volga, Yangzté 76.11.3 Oceans and seas, etc. Atlántico, Canal de la Mancha (English Channel), (El) Caribe (Caribbean), Golfo de México, Golfo de Vizcaya (Bay of Biscay), Golfo Pérsico, Mar Adriático, Mar Amarillo (Yellow Sea), Mar Arábigo (Arabian Sea), Mar Báltico, Mar Cantábrico, Mar Caspio (Caspian Sea), Mar de Barents (Baring Sea), Mar de Bering (Bering Sea), Mar de las Antillas (Caribbean), Mar del Norte (North Sea), Mar Mediterráneo, Mar Meridional de China (South China Sea), Mar Muerto (Dead Sea), Mar Negro (Black Sea), Mar Rojo (Red Sea), Mar Tirreno (Tirrenean Sea), Océano Índico (Indian Ocean), Pacífico With respect to oceans, one frequently omits océano: en el Atlántico/Pacífico, although this is not the case with Índico: en el Océano Índico. There is a similar omission with Mediterráneo: en el Mediterráneo. The Atlantic is sometimes referred to in all the Spanish-speaking world, in R1 humorous style, as el charco (the pond): Cruzar el charco. In Argentina, charco also refers to the Río de la Plata (River Plate). To go to Uruguay is often cruzar el charco as well. 76.11.4 Mountains and volcanoes Alpes (mpl), Andes (colombianos/ecuatorianos/ peruanos), Apalaches (mpl), Apeninos, Cáucaso (Caucasus), Cordillera de los Atlas (North Africa), Éverest, Himalaya (m), Iztaccihautl (Mexico), Kilimanjaro, La Cordillera de los Andes, Las Montañas Rocosas/Rocallosas (A, M; Rockies), Los Andes, Parícutin (Mexico), Los Pirineos (Spain/France), Popocatépetl (Mexico), Sierra Madre Occidental (Mexico), Sierra Madre Oriental (Mexico), Sierra Nevada (Spain), El Teide (Canaries), Los Urales, (el) Vesubio (Vesuvius) 76.11.5 Lakes Lago Argentino, Lago Chapala (Mexico), Lago de Maracaibo (Venezuela), Lago Lemán (Switzerland), Como/Garda/Mayor (Maggiore)/Lugano (all Italy), Los Grandes Lagos (USA): Lago Erie/Hurón/Míchigan/Ontario/Superior 76.11.6 Waterfalls (cataratas [fpl]) Ángel (Venezuela), Iguaçú/Iguazú, Niágara, Victoria

77 Proper names / Nombres propios 77.1 Using proper names 77.1.1 Although there are Spanish equivalents for a number of English names (Peter = Pedro, John = Juan, Mary = María, Ana = Ana), the names of individuals are not translated from one language to another, for this would be meaningless. John Smith could be neatly translated as Juan Herrero, a name easily recognizable as Spanish, but this would not indicate John Smith. John Smith remains John Smith; likewise, Juan Herrero remains Juan Herrero. The names of famous or notorious historical personages often have a peculiar Spanish form. Although this does not apply to English names, Latin, Greek and Italian names are particularly affected. There are also special Spanish forms for modern Russian names, as well as historical ones. The English appears after the Spanish below only if the name is not entirely clear. 77.1.2 The ancient Greek world Alejandro (Magno) (Alexander [the Great], Aquiles (Achilles), Ariana (Ariadne), Aristófanes, Aristóteles, Arquímedes, Edipo (Oedipus), Esopo (Aesop), Esquilo (Aeschylus), Euclides, Eurípides, Homero, Ilíada, Odisea, Jenofonte (Xenophon), Leandro (Leander), Narciso, Pitágoras, Platón (Plato) 77.1.3 The ancient Roman world Adriano (Hadrian), Aníbal (Hannibal), Augusto, Cartago (Carthage), Catón (Cato), (Julio) César, Cicerón (Cicero), Escipión (Scipio), Horacio (Horace), Marco Antonio (Mark Antony), Marco Aurelio (Marcus Aurelius), Nerón (Nero), Ovidio (Ovid), Plinio (Pliny), Tito Livio (Livy) 77.1.4 The Bible 77.1.4.1 Old Testament: Adán (Adam), Baltasar (Belshazzar), Dalila (Delilah), Isaías, Jehová, Jonás, Josué (Joshua), Matusalén (Methuselah), Moisés, Nabucodonosor (Nebuchadnezzar), Noé (Noah), Rut (Ruth), Saba (Sheba), Saúl (Saul; note that the New Testament Saul, later Paul [Pablo], is Saulo) 77.1.4.2 New Testament: Andrés (Andrew), Herodes (Herod), Jesucristo/Jesús, Juan Bautista (John the Baptist), Judás, Lucas (Luke), Magdalena (Mary Magdalene), Marcos (Mark), el Mesías (the Messiah), Poncio Pilato (Pontius Pilate), Satanás (Satan), los doce apóstoles 77.1.4.3 Place names: Belén (Bethlehem), Jerusalén, Nazaret, Sión (Zion) 77.1.5 Italian names Some Italian painters’ names are preceded by el, thus corresponding to Italian usage: il Tintoretto/Caravaggio, etc. Ariosto, Botticelli, Boccaccio, el Canaletto, el Caravaggio, el Correggio, Galileo, Leonardo da Vinci, Maquiavelo (Machiavelli), Miguel Ángel (Michelangelo), Petrarca (Petrarch), Rafael, el Tasso, Ticiano/Tiziano (Titian), el Tintoretto 77.1.6 Other names of the medieval period and Renaissance Carlomagno (Charlemagne), Carlos Quinto (Charles V), Copérnico, Cristóbal Colón (Christopher Columbus), Durero (Dürer), Erasmo, El Greco, Lutero (Luther), Magallanes (Magellan), Mahoma (Mahomet), Tomás de Aquino

467

468

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

77.1.7 Russian names Borodín, Catalina la Grande, Chaikovski, Chejov (Chekov), Dostoievski, Lenin, Rasputín, Pedro el Grande, Soljenitsin, Stalin, Tolstoi, Turgueniev 77.1.8 Nicknames used instead of the full name 77.1.8.1 Male: Antonio > Toño, Alejandro > Jandro/Alex, Bartolomé > Bartolo, Daniel > Dani, Enrique > Quique, Felipe > Pipe, Francisco > Paco/Curro, Gabriel > Gabi, Gregorio > Goyo, Guillermo > Guille, Ignacio/Íñigo > Nacho/Iñaki, Ismael > Isma, Javier > Javi, Jesús > Chus, José > Pepe, Manuel > Manolo, Miguel > Migue, Narciso > Chicho, Rafael > Rafa, Ramón > Moncho, Santiago/Jaime/Diego. 77.1.8.2 Female: Antonia > Toñi, Asunción > Chon, Beatriz > Bea, Carmen > Carmina, Consuelo > Chelo, Cristina > Cris, Dolores > Lola, Guadalupe > Lupe, Francisca > Paqui, Inmaculada > Conchi, Isabel > Isa, Montserrat > Montse, Patricia > Patri, Pilar > Pili, Rosario > Charo, Teresa > Tere, Verónica > Vero

78 Foreign and indigenous words / Palabras extranjeras e indígenas 78.1 Considering foreign and indigenous terms It could be argued that the lexical aspects of a language should not be considered in a book on its grammatical functions. The first relates more to semantics, or the pursuit of meaning, while the second illustrates how a language is organized. However, it does seem appropriate to offer a chapter on what constitutes, after all, an integral part of any language. The grammar cannot operate meaningfully without the semantic values of the words it organizes. This chapter concentrates, therefore, and in varying lengths, on foreign and indigenous terms: Latinisms, Arabic terms, Anglicisms, Gallicisms, Italianisms, Palenquero, Náhuatl, Basque and Catalan. Generally speaking, noun borrowings from Latin, Arabic, French and Italian retain the original gender. The reasons for gender assignation for nouns (i.e. definite articles for masculine, feminine, neuter), taken from English, Guaraní, Palenquero, Nahuatl and Basque are not always clear, since the notion of gender of nouns does not exist in these languages. The terms of these different groups are not treated in the same way.

78.2 Latinisms As stated in the Introduction on the Spanish language, Vulgar Latin is the primary source in the creation and early development of Spanish. However, we are really only concerned here with learned Latinisms borrowed from Latin that have filtered through to modern Spanish, from the medieval and Renaissance periods onwards. A list of Latinisms in current usage, with examples of usage, follow. Here we use a division of R3 and R2 categories. Latinism

ad hoc a fortiori alma mater (f) et álii ex aequo in extremis mea culpa

Modern equivalent Spanish (where relevant or possible) R3 a propósito: un argumento ad hoc con mayor razón escuela/universidad de una persona y otros con igual mérito: tres ex aequo en caso extremo por mi culpa

Meaning in English

for the purpose, ad hoc with all the more reason, a fortiori alma mater et alia equals in an extreme case, in extremis mea culpa

469

470

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

factótum (mf) modus operandi (m) modus vivendi (m) motu proprio mutatis mutandi non plus ultra (m) pássim persona (non) grata (f)

modo de actuar, actuación arreglo entre dos o varias personas por propia iniciativa cambiando lo que haya que cambiar el no va más, el tope en lugares diversos persona (in)deseable

prima facie quid (m) sensu stricto sine qua non

a primera vista meollo, corazón en sentido estricto imprescindible, una condición sine qua non

ex voto (m)

ofrenda (hecha a Dios, etc.)

a posteriori a priori cápita, per cum laude, graduarse currículum (vitae) (m) déficit (m) exabrupto (m) errata (f)

etcétera ex cátedra/ex cátedra ex profeso grosso modo in extremis in flagrante (in fraganti also exists but this is contested) in vitro ipso facto líbido (f) memorándum (m) opus (mf) Opus Dei (m)

R2 (and R3) después: un juicio a posteriori antes: un juicio a priori por cabeza/individuo con alabanza/elogio carrera de la vida déficit brusquedad: contestar con un exabrupto error (en un texto), falta de ortografía (in Latin, errata is the plural form of erratum. the plural form in Spanish is erratas y lo(s) demás en tono magisterial: hablar ex cátedra expresamente de forma general en los últimos instantes Lo cogieron in flagrante

por el mismo hecho

opus 21 Opus Dei (Catholic organization)

factotum, handyman modus operandi compromise, modus vivendi on your own initiative, motu proprio mutatis mutandi absolute limit, ne plus ultra passim, here and there (un)desirable person, persona (non) grata prima facie center, essence (of a question) in the strict sense essential condition (note that sine qua non in English is used as a noun) votive offering after the event, a posteriori before the event, a priori per head, per capita with honors, cum laude curriculum (vitae), résumé, CV deficit abrupt remark, outburst erratum

and the rest/others, etcetera authoritatively, ex cathedra deliberately, expressly in a general way in extremis, as a last resort in flagrante delicto, red-handed

in vitro by the very fact, ipso facto libido memorandum opus

Foreign and indigenous words

quórum (m) rara avis (f) referéndum m réquiem m superávit m statu quo (m) tedéum (m) ultimátum (m) ultra (m) urbi et orbi

vice versa vía crucis (m)1

1

471

estado en que se hallan las cosas lanzar un ultimátum extremista a la ciudad y al mundo: El papa dio la bendición urbi et orbi al revés camino de la cruz, calvario

quorum rare bird/character, rara avis referendum requiem surplus status quo tedeum ultimatum extremist urbi et orbi

vice versa way of the Cross (a path laid out with stations of the Cross)

Note that vía crucis is masculine although vía is feminine.

78.3 Arabic terms Below is a passage illustrating the presence of Arabic terms that still occur in modern Spanish. The poetic quality of the piece corresponds well to the romantic context of the young man seeking the hand of the mayor’s daughter. Ojalá que ese azul del cielo se torne naranja, luego oscuro, y llueva, y que las aguas llenen las acequias, la alberca, el aljibe y lleguen generosas hasta la albufera; que se refleje en ellas tanto la alquería del pobre, con sus sandías, judías y berenjenas como la alcazaba del cadí o el alcázar del califa; que lleve a la medina el frescor. Que el agua volteada por la noria, riegue generosamente las tierras de Zoraida, la de ojos de gacela, que rodeada de azafatas, suspira por mí entre azucenas y jazmines, tal como yo suspiro por ella, y así movido el corazón de su padre el alcalde, con el alguacil a la zaga, venga a mi humilde tahona, con albricias y gran algazara, para concederme la mano de su hija, que cuantas veces he solicitado, él me ha denegado. One would have expected the Muslim presence in Spain, from the initial invasion by Ta ¯rik and his Berbers in 711 to the fall of Granada in 1492, a period of nearly 800 years, to leave a deep, indelible and wide imprint on the Spanish language. Yet this is not the case. It is more than surprising to discover the linguistic influence of the Arabs inversely proportional to the cultural hegemony they so enjoyed in the Iberian Peninsula. The stark fact is that, by virtue of the fierce enmity, fed by religious bigotry, that opposed large, if not all, sections, of the Muslim and Christian communities, Romance grammar and pronunciation remained inviolate, unmodified. Only in the lexical field do there appear any traces of the Arab presence, and even here we are reduced to some seven hundred words, many of which admittedly have a highly poetic resonance, and relate to natural phenomena, trees, plants, animals, names of towns and villages, and so on. Here is a representative list of Arab terms that still hold currency today, and are standard linguistic fare in modern Spain. Worthy of note are the prefixes: aj-, al- (definite article in Arabic), az-, ja/je/ju-, ta-, za-. acequia (f) (irrigation channel), ajedrez (m) (chess), ajuar (m) (trousseau), Alá (Allah, God), alacrán (m) (scorpion), alambique (m) (still [in chemistry]), alazán (m) (sorrel

472

A Reference Grammar of Spanish [horse]), albarda (f) (pack saddle), alberca (f) (reservoir, swimming pool [M]), albóndiga (f) (meatball), albricias (fpl) (good news), albufera (f) (lake [also name of lake near Valencia]), alcalde (m) (mayor), alcantarilla (f) (sewer), alcazaba (f) (small fortress), alcázar (m) (fortress), alcohol (m) (alcohol), alforja (f) (saddle bag), algarabía (f) (jubilation, excitement), algarrobo (m) (carob tree), algazara (f) (rejoicing, jubilation), álgebra (f) (algebra), alguacil (m) (police constable, bailiff), aljibe (m) (well, water tank), alquería (f) (farm), alubia (f) (haricot bean), azafata (f) (lady in attendance, air hostess), azafrán (m) (saffron), azahar (m) (orange/lemon blossom), azar (m) (chance), azogue (m) (mercury), azúcar (m) (sugar), azucena (f) (water lily), azul (blue), azulejo (m) (tile), berenjena (f) (egg plant, aubergine), burqa (m) (burka), cadí (m) (Muslim magistrate), califa (m) (caliph, Arab prince), fakir/faquir (m) (fakir), gacela (f) (gazelle), harén/harem (m) (harem), jabalí (m) (wild boar), jaeces (mpl) (harnessing [for horse]), jaque (m) (check [in chess]), jaqueca (f) (migraine, bad headache), jarabe (m) (syrup), jarcia(s) (fpl) (rigging [on boat]), jarra (f) (pitcher, jug), jazmín (m) (jasmin), jeque (m) (sheik), jeta (f) (R1; face, mug), jinete (m) (horse rider), judía (f) (bean), julepe (m) (card game), magahadín (m) (mujaheddin), medina (f) (old part of a town, market), naranja (f) (orange), nenúfar (m) (water lily), noria (f) (water/hydraulic wheel), sandía (f) (watermelon), tabique (m) (partition [wall]), tahona (f) (bakery, flour mill), tahúr (m) (gambler), tarea (f) (task, work), zafari (m) (safari), zafio (vulgar, coarse), zafra (f) (sugarcane harvest), ir a la zaga (to lag behind), zaguán (m) (porch, veranda), zahúrda (pigsty), zalema (f) (salaam, bowing), zanahoria (f) (carrot) Note also: ¡Ojalá. . .! from Inshallah! (Would that. . .!) ¡Ojalá regresara hoy! (Would that she would come back today!) One would have expected camello (camel) to have an Arabic root, but it derives from the Greek via the Latin. Numerous names of towns, regions, etc. in Spain have Arabic origins. Albacete, Albarracín, Alborraya, Alcalá de Henares, Alcañiz, Alcoy, Algeciras, Alicante, Almuñecar, Andalucía, Benicarló, Benicasim, Benidorm, Guadalajara Names of rivers and mountains in Spain also have Arabic origins. Guadarrama, Guadalquivir, Guadiana

78.4 Anglicisms Below is a passage, easily understood for an English-speaker, illustrating the invasive nature of the English language in Spanish. Estoy en Calpe saboreando un güisqui on the rocks a la puerta de mi pub preferido. Ya pasaron mis tiempos de hippy y, tras unos años como jefe de márquetin en una firma de walkie-talkies, ahora disfruto de mi retiro. Dentro veo al barman, que aburrido hace zápping en la tele buscando un wéstern; es un viejo rockero ahora fan del underground, que se esnifa junto con su novia, una chica sexy que pretende ser starlet pero no ha pasado de hacer un striptease y un par de spots publicitarios; todo esto lo sé off the record, porque ella trabaja para ganarse la vida como tour operator en un stand de su padre, lo otro es top secret. . . ¡Ah! ¡Tantos años pensando en español que a veces me olvido que soy inglés! Modern Spanish has numerous borrowings from English, and this also applies to American English filtering through into the language of both Spain and Spanish America. Although some of these borrowings may prove to be only fleeting additions to the Spanish lexicon, others appear to be firmly entrenched in the language, and are not necessarily to be avoided, despite the strictures of purists. Many writers, especially journalists, like to use Anglicisms, either to attract attention or to flaunt their knowledge, and this certainly

Foreign and indigenous words

473

applies to the realms of sport and technology. A number of Anglicisms do not correspond exactly in meaning to the original English words. There has been some coinage of pseudo-English words, especially those ending in -ing. Words ending in -ing are a source of uncertainty. Does one write cámping, camping, or campin, cásting, casting or castin, and so on? There is no real guidance here, since Seco’s Diccionario de dudas has cámping and standing. It could be argued that the influence of English is not restricted to single words, since in English nouns can be used freely as adjectives, and Spanish is increasingly following suit (for what amounts to compound nouns, see Chapter 9 on gender and Chapter 10 on number). Note also the gender and plural forms of nouns. There is some uncertainty over the plurals: -s or -es? The caption no equivalent in the table below is to be understood in the sense that the Anglicism would require a long and cumbersome paraphrase in Spanish. The following Anglicisms are all in common use. Anglicism

Meaning

Spanish equivalent

baby-sitter(s) (mf[pl]) bar(es) (m[pl]) barman(s)/barmen (m[pl]) best-seller(s) (m[pl]) bistec(s) (m[pl]) blue jeans (m) boicot(eo)(s) (m[pl]) boom(s) (m[pl]) budín(s)/(es) (m[pl]) bungalow(s) (m[pl]) (tonic accent on the o) bypass/baipás (m) cachar (almost exclusively in M) cadi(s) (m[pl]) cámper(s) (m[pl]) cámping(s)/camping(s)/ campin(s) (m[pl]) cástin(g)/castin (m) cáterin(g) (m)

babysitter bar barman best seller beefsteak jeans boycott boom pudding bungalow

canguro, niñera café camarero/mesero (C, M) no equivalent no equivalent vaqueros/tejanos no equivalent auge súbito (especie de) pastel chalé de un solo piso

bypass (medical) to catch (ball), to catch out (a person in flagrante delicto) caddy (in golf) camper van camping (site) casting catering

campus (m[pl]) celular(es) (m[pl]) (A, C, M) champú(s) (m[pl]) checar (M) chequear chequeo(s) (m[pl]) chip(s) (m[pl]) clóset(s) (m[pl]) club(s)/(es) (m[pl]) clown(s) (m[pl]) cóctel(s) (m[pl]) computadora (f) (A, M) computador (m) (C)

campus cellphone, mobile shampoo to check to check (medical) check-up chip closet club clown cocktail computer computer

no equivalent coger (Spain, C), agarrar (A, M), sorprender (also C) no equivalent no equivalent ir de acampada (to go camping) selección servicio de comidas envasadas listas para comer no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent averiguar, revisar averiguar, revisar reconocimiento médico no equivalent armario empotrado asociación, sociedad payaso no equivalent ordenador (Spain) ordenador (Spain)

474

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

cottage (m) derby/i (m) disyóquey(ies) (mf[pl]) dóping/doping/dopin/dopaje (m) email(s) (m[pl]) escáner(s) (m[pl]) escúter(s) (m[pl]) eslip/slip(s) (m[pl]) eslógan(es) (m[pl]) esnifar esnob(s) (m[pl]) espich(s) (m[pl]) establishment (m) estándar(es) (noun and adjective) estrés (m) fair-play (m) fan(s) (mf[pl]) fast food (m) fax(es) (m[pl]) ferry(ies) (m[pl]) fitness (m) flash(es) (m[pl]) flash-back(es) (m[pl]) flirteo (m) footing (m) (false Anglicism) fuel (oil) (m) folklore (m) fútbol/futbol (A, C, M) (m) gán(g)ster(s) (m[pl]) gay géiser(s) (m[pl]) glamour (m) glamorous goal average/golaveraje (m) güisqui (m) hall (m) hándicap(s) (m[pl]) hardware (m) hippy(ies) (m[pl]) (also: jipi) hólding(s) (m[pl]) hobby(ies) (m[pl]) hóckey (m) hooligan(s) (m[pl]) interviú(s) (mf[pl]); (f preferred)

cottage derby disc jockey doping

casa de campo no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent

email scanner scooter underpants slogan to sniff snob speech establishment standard

correo electrónico no equivalent no equivalent calzoncillos, calzones (M) lema publicitario/político no equivalent sometimes = presumido discurso, ponencia clase dirigente tipo, modelo, corriente

stress fair play fan fast food

tensión juego limpio seguidor, aficionado, hincha comida basura/chatarra/ porquerías no equivalent transbordador buen estado físico no equivalent

fax ferry fitness news flash, flash (photography) flashback flirting jogging fuel oil folklore soccer, football gangster gay geyser glamor glamorous goal average whisky hall handicap (in sport) hardware hippy holding hobby hockey hooligan interview

escena/secuencia retrospectiva coqueteo carrera a ritmo moderado gasóleo no equivalent no equivalent atracador, pistolero homosexual, lesbiana no equivalent encanto (sexual) atractivo, sexy diferencia de goles no equivalent vestíbulo, entrada no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent afición, pasatiempo no equivalent gamberro (not in A, C, M) entrevista

Foreign and indigenous words

jazz (m) jeep (m) jet-set (m) jóckey (mf) jogging (m) júnior(s) (m[pl]) kit(s) (m[pl]) laptop(s) (f[pl]) (used more in A, C, M) líder(es) (m[pl]) lífting/lifting/liftin (m) light

475

jazz jeep jet set jockey jogging junior (sport) kit laptop computer leader (especially politics)

no equivalent todo terreno no equivalent no equivalent carrera a ritmo moderado cadete equipo, ropa computadora/ordenador portátil firmly established but also: dirigente, jefe no equivalent muy liberal

face lift light (containing fewer calories, less damaging to health), watered down, especially politics) look manager (sport, arts)

imagen, aspecto representante

marketing

comercialización no equivalent no equivalent

míster(es) (m[pl]) móvil(es) (m[pl]) (Spain) musical (m) náilon (m) no-man’s-land (m) off the record Óscar(s) (m[pl]) overbooking (m)

master’s (degree) winner of a (female) beauty contest soccer manager/ trainer cellphone, mobile musical nylon no-man’s-land off the record Oscar overbooking

pack(s) (m[pl]) paperback(s) (m[pl]) pedigrí (m) penalti(s) (m[pl]) performance (m) (A, C, M) pic-nic (m)

pack (of tins, bottles) paperback pedigree penalty (sport) performance picnic

plumcake(s) (m[pl]) póney(s) (m[pl]) póster(s)/(es) (m[pl]) pub(s)/(es) (m[pl]) puzzle(s) (m[pl]) radar/radáres (m[pl]) ránking/ranking/rankin (m) récord(s) (m[pl]) reportar (A, C, M)

fruit cake pony poster (decorative) pub jigsaw puzzle (only) radar ranking (sport, etc.)

entrenador no equivalent opereta musical no equivalent tierra de nadie confidencialmente no equivalent sobreventa, sobrecontratación lote (m) libro en rústica linaje no equivalent actuación, rendimiento comida campestre, merienda no equivalent no equivalent cartel no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent lista

record to report

plusmarca, marca anunciar, avisar

look (m) mánager/manager (m; pl same as s) márketing/marketing/ márketin (m) máster(s) (m[pl]) mis(es) (f[pl])

476

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

revivir2 sándwich(s)(es) (m[pl])

to revive sandwich (sliced bread)

sénior(s) (m[pl]) (originally from Latin but revitalized through English) sexy sheriff (m) shock(s) (m[pl]) show(s) (m[pl]) showbiz (m) smog (m) software (m) spot(s) publicitario(s) (m[pl])

senior

spray(es)/sprai(es) (m[pl]) sprínter(es) (m)[pl]) stand(s) (m[pl]) stánding/standing/standin (m) status (m) stock(s), estock(s) (m[pl]) star(s) (f[pl]) striptease (m) suéter(s) (m[pl]) (M) suspense (m) tenis (m) tícket(s)/tique(s)/tíquet(s) (m[pl]) Plural takes an s tie-break (m) topless top-model(s) (f[pl]) top secret tour operator(s) (m[pl]) tráveling (m) underground (m) walkie-talkie(s) (m[pl]) walkman(s) (m[pl]) (the pl walkmen is not attested) wáter(es) (m[pl]) (also: váter) web (f) wéstern (m[pl]) (plural with s unclear) zápping (m) zoom (s) (m[pl])

sexy sheriff shock (medical; also general) (variety) show showbiz smog software slot, space (for commercial on TV) spray sprinter (exhibition) stand standing status stock (store goods) (film) star striptease sweater, pullover suspense tennis ticket

reanimar, reactivar emparedado, bocadillo (but like French baguette) no equivalent

erótico no equivalent choque, susto espectáculo farándula no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent pulverizador no equivalent pabellón categoría categoría, condición social existencias, depósito estrella no equivalent jérsey (Spain) tensión no equivalent billete/entrada, boleto (M), pasaje (A) (for travel)

tie breaker (tennis) topless top model top secret tour operator traveling (cinematography) underground (writer, literature) walkie-talkie walkman

no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent altamente secreto turoperador no equivalent clandestino no equivalent no equivalent

john, loo (worldwide) web western

inodoro, servicios red no equivalent

zapping zoom (lens)

no equivalent teleobjetivo

2 Revivir is also very common in C and M in the sense of to revive (an organization, committee, etc.). In Spain, only the meaning of to relive exists.

Foreign and indigenous words

477

78.5 Anglicisms in Mexico There are a number of English words which one finds much more in Mexico than in Spain, Argentina or Colombia. At the risk of offering Spanglish terms, here is a small list. Anglicism

Meaning

Spanish equivalent

bonches (de) chance (m) (M) lonche (m) nais pánel/panel (m) picop (m) ponchar rentar un carro (M)

lots (of) opportunity lunch nice, pleasant panel pickup to puncture to rent/hire a car

tip (m) tráiler (m) troca (f) van (f) (also A)

tip, information trailer (vehicle and film) truck van

muchos oportunidad, ocasión almuerzo, comida agradable, amable lista de jurados camión ligero pinchar (Spain) alquilar un coche (A, C, Spain) consejo, información remolque (for vehicle) camión furgoneta, vagoneta (M)

78.6 Anglicisms in Argentina There are also a number of English words one finds in Argentina that are not found elsewhere. Anglicism

Meaning

Spanish equivalent

country (m)

enclosed estate with checkpoint (home) delivery shopping mall

barrio cerrado

delivery (m) shopping (m)

entrega a domicilio centro comercial

Argentina also uses the term nafta for gasoline, the gender of which is feminine, and the origin of which is Arabic.

78.7 Gallicisms Given the proximity of France to Spain, French remained understandably the most active linguistic influence in Spain until the nineteenth century. A servile imitation of things French may be observed at various periods of Spanish history, from the use of mensaje, palafré, vergel and vianda in the Poema de mío Cid, to the overwhelming invasion of Gallicisms in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, just as France proved a magnetic cultural and linguistic force in England during the same period. The Bourbon dynasty and the dominant cultural and political influence of Gallic thought throughout Europe introduced into Spain not only a multitude of words, terms of dress, social usages, gastronomy and warfare, but also of phrases and idioms. This ascendancy was not without its critics, as witnessed by Unamuno and Pío Baroja, who railed continuously against this aping of the French. Here is a selection of Gallicisms, some deeply rooted in the language, some of more recent coinage, but all here to stay.

478

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Gallicism

Meaning

Spanish equivalent

affaire (m) (f in French) afiche (m) (f in French) edecán (mf) (in M, and other Central American countries, used for a person who provides information at conferences, congresses, exhibitions, etc.) amateur (m) argot (m) au pair (f) avant-garde ballet (m) belle-époque (f)

amorous adventure advertisement poster aide-de-camp, helper

caso, asunto, lío cartel no equivalent

aficionado jerga no equivalent vanguardia no equivalent no equivalent

bibelot (m) bizarro

amateur slang au pair avant-garde ballet belle-époque (late nineteenth century) ornament courageous

boîte (f) bouquet/buqué (m) boutique (f) bricolage/aje (m) bufé/buf(f)et (m) buganvilla (f) bulevar (m) buró (m) café (m) calambur (m) canapé (m) carné (m) casete/cassette (mf) chalé/chalet (m) champán/champaña (m) chándal (m)

public dance hall bouquet (aroma) boutique do-it-yourself buffet bougainvillaea boulevard bureau (desk) café (place and drink) play on words sofa identity card cassette chalet champagne track/jogging suit

chantaje (m) chantajista (mf) ¡Chapó!

blackmail blackmailer Well done!

chef (m) chic chiffonnier (m) chófer/chofer (A, C, M) (m) clac (f) (claque used more) claxon (m) coñac (m) confort (m) consomé (m) croqueta (f)

chef chic chest of drawers chauffeur claque (car) horn cognac comfort broth croquette

figurilla valiente (French bizarre = extraño, extravagante) sala de fiestas, discoteca aroma de vino tienda de modas no equivalent no equivalent avenida, alameda escritorio no equivalent juego de palabras sofá tarjeta de identidad no equivalent villa no equivalent no equivalent (French chandail = suéter, jersey) no equivalent no equivalent ¡Qué bien/bueno! ¡Estupendo! cocinero elegante cómoda conductor privado/personal no equivalent bocina no equivalent cómodidad, bienestar caldo de carne no equivalent

Foreign and indigenous words

cruasán (m) debacle (f) debut/debú (m) debutar decolar (A, C) decolaje (m) (A, C) élite (f) enfant terrible (mf) entente (f) entrecot (m) etiqueta (f) frac (m) guiñol (m) impasse (m) (f in French) maillot (amarillo) (m)

479

maquis (m) matiné (f) mayonesa (f) menú (m) merengue (m) minué (m) ordenador (m) pasteurizar paté(s) (m[pl]) plató (m) polizón (m)

croissant debacle debut to make one’s debut to take off (airplane) take-off elite enfant terrible understanding entrecote, rib steak etiquette morning coat puppet show impasse yellow jersey (worn by leader in the Tour de France maquis (French resistance) matinée mayonnaise menu merengue minuet computer to pasteurize paté (stage) set stowaway

popurrí (m) pose (f) restaurante (m) revancha (f) souvenir/suvenir (m) suite (f) vermú (m) volován (m)

pot-pourri pose restaurant revenge (in sport) souvenir suite (music) vermouth vol-au-vent

no equivalent desastre principio no equivalent despegar despegue clase intelectual/dirigente no equivalent entendimiento/acuerdo no equivalent reglas sociales no equivalent representación con títeres callejón sin salida no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent pasajero clandestino (French polisson = pillín, pícaro, niño travieso) no equivalent postura poco natural no equivalent desquite recuerdo no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent

An unusual addition in Argentina is the common use of remise (f) (chauffeured car [that one would find at an airport]). A French word no longer in use in France in this context originally meant precisely a luxury carriage that could be hired.

78.8 Italianisms Although Spanish cultural relations with Italy were of the closest during the Renaissance period, Italian has not bequeathed many popular terms to the Spanish language. Admittedly, Italy has left an imprint on musical terminology, understanding and appreciation in Spain, just as in the whole of Europe. Yet, apart from the language of music, and possibly architecture, few words have survived for the common man. Here is a small list, which excludes the technical aspects of Italian musical terms. The Italian speaks for itself.

480

A Reference Grammar of Spanish bel canto (m), confeti(s) (mpl), diletante(s) (m[pl]), diva(s) (f[pl]), dolce vita (f), espagueti(s) (mpl), fascismo (m), gueto(s) (m[pl]), graffiti(s) (mpl), libreto(s) (m[pl]), macarrones (mpl), paparazzi(s) (m[pl]), prima donna(s) (f[pl]), soprano(s) (mf[pl]), sottovoce (R3), tenor (m) There is considerable confusion over the singular and plural of most of the nouns in this list. Italian masculine plurals, nouns and adjectives, usually, but not always, end in -i, never in -s, a fact not apparent to most Spanish-speakers. This explains, for example, the use of the Spanish singular el with espagueti, which is plural in Italian, and los combining with espaguetis, although this latter form is absurd, according to Seco’s Diccionario de dudas, given what is already plural in Italian: spaghetti. The French have a similar difficulty. Paparazzo is the Italian singular, while paparazzi is the plural.

78.9 Terms commonly used in Colombian Spanish coming from the indigenous Creole language Palenquero As opposed to Argentinian Spanish, where there are almost no indigenous terms in daily use,3 at least in the Greater Buenos Aires area, Colombian Spanish has a rich vein of indigenous words, like Mexican Spanish (see Section 78.10, below). Palenquero

English equivalent

Spanish equivalent

ajiaco (m) aji (m) cabuja (f) canoa (f) china (f) ciénega (f) fique (m) guarapo (m)

spicy potato dish chilli twine, string canoe girl bog, swamp, marsh sisal herbal drink (with sugar cane or pineapple) guava hurricane pitcher, earthenware jug

no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent chica, muchacha marisma henequén no equivalent

guayaba (f) huracán (m) múcura (f)

no equivalent no equivalent jarra, jarro

78.10 Mexicanisms taken from Nahuatl As opposed to Spanish as spoken in Argentina, where there are almost no indigenous terms in use – at least in Greater Buenos Aires which accounts for over half of the 40 million Spanish-speakers – the presence of Nahuatl is strongly felt in Mexico. It must be admitted that some filtering of the Guaraní language affects the Spanish of the provinces of Corrientes and Misiones in the far north of Argentina, but that is all. However, in Mexico, the presence of many indigenous languages, among which Nahuatl, the tongue of the Aztecs and the Maya languages, spoken in the south of the country and in the Yucatan peninsula, is felt in everyday language. It would be impossible in a volume of this kind to list the flourishing Nahuatl terms in current use that refer to plants, trees, flora, fauna, birds, food, drink, dress and customs, for they would fill hundreds of pages. It should be added that the absorption of Nahuatl terms no longer takes place. 3 There are, of course, some nature terms like jacarandá (m) (jacaranda tree), deriving from Guaraní and which are common in most Western languages.

Foreign and indigenous words

481

Here is a very small selection of Nahuatl terms that are heard and read in everyday discourse. The Nahuatl ending -tl has been modified to –te, as it would appear in Spanish. Náhuatl

English equivalent

Spanish equivalent

aguacate (m) cacahuate (m) cacahuate (m) chamaco (m) chiche/i (m) (usually pl = chichis) chicle/chiclé (m) chilaquiles (mpl) chile (m) chilpayate (m) chipichipi (m) chipote (m) chocolate (m) coyote (m) cuate (m) escuincle (m) guacal/huacal (m) ¡Guácala! guacamole (m)

avocado pear peanut, monkey nut cocoa child, boy boob, tit

no equivalent cacahuete (Spain) cacao niño, muchacho melon(es), tetorra(s)

chewing gum corn tortilla in sauce chilli small child drizzle swelling from a blow chocolate coyote friend kid crate (for fruit) How disgusting! sauce (with avocado pear, onion, tomato) turkey sandal corn smut (edible fungus growing on young corn cobs) Geez/Wow! long blouse oilcloth, rubber hut, shack (often used affectionately for home) yam bean calabash, drinking bowl tomato (red) maize string, cord stone (for grinding corn) mescal (plant and drink) maize field mortar (receptacle) sauce uncultured person nopal, prickly pear ocelot (type of jaguar) disheveled (hair) brightly colored scarf (cotton, usually red)

no equivalent no equivalent chile niño llovizna persistente chichón chocolate no equivalent amigo niño caja ¡Qué asco! salsa

guajolote (m) guarache/huarache (m) huitlacoche (m)

¡(H)újule! huipil (m) hule (m) jacal (m) jícama (f) jícara (f) jitomate (m) maíz (m) mecate (m) metate (m) mezcal (m) milpa (f) molcajete (m) mole (m) naco (m) nopal (m) ocelote (m) pachón paliacate (m)

pavo sandalia no equivalent

¡Dios mío! camisa larga (de mujer) goma (rubber) choza, casucha no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent no equivalent cuerda piedra de moler no equivalent maizal mortero salsa persona inculta higo chumbo no equivalent desgreñado no equivalent

482

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

papalote (m) pepenar petate (m) popote (m) quetzal (m) sarape/zarape (m) talacha (f) tamal (m)

tambache (m) tequila (m) tianguis (m) tiliche (m) titipuchal (m)

kite (toy) to pick up matting straw quetzal (bird) (blanket-like) shawl puncture repair ground maize and sometimes meat or sweet filling wrapped in a banana or maize leaf pile, mass (of things) tequila market (square) thing(ummy) crowd, large number

tlacuache (m) tomate (m) zacate (m)

opossum tomato (green) grass, sponge, scourer

zapote (m) zopilote (m)

sapodilla tree vulture

cometa recoger del suelo estera paja no equivalent no equivalent reparación de un pinchazo no equivalent

montón no equivalent mercado/illo cachivache muchedumbre, gran cantidad zarigüeya no equivalent hierba (grass), esponja (sponge), estropajo (scourer) no equivalent buitre

78.11 Comments on the Spanish of Mexico as it developed from the Spanish of the Peninsula During the first century of the Spanish conquest of Mexico, linguistic innovations continued to arrive in New Spain, and these innovations were of both learned and popular origins. Since the territories of New Spain did not all maintain a similar contact with the mother country, innovations did not spread equally over the whole country. A strange, and often unfathomable, dialectic mosaic developed: in some regions, learned innovations were accepted and popular expressions were rejected; in other regions, all types of expressions, learned and popular, became common currency, while in others no expressions found favor. This mosaic engendered in some areas innovative tendencies, and in others, conservative constraints. It is certain, however, that, in a general way, the Spanish of Mexico remains conservative. This explains why Mexican Spanish has retained numerous terms and expressions that are now regarded as archaic in Peninsular Spanish. Such expressions would incluye the following. se me hace (me parece), ¿qué tanto? (¿cuánto?), muy noche (muy de noche), dizque (según parece/por lo visto), donde (si) se lo digas, te mato Recorded elsewhere in this book (section 72.4.3) is the apocopation of primera > primer before a feminine noun: la primer página/vez/casa, and so on. Such usage is an archaism in Spain, but common enough in colloquial language, not only in Mexico but also in Argentina and Colombia. Other noteworthy expressions of Mexican Spanish that developed differently from those of Peninsular Spanish are used sporadically in other Hispanic countries. For instance, the example of siempre below would apply to Colombia, but not to Argentina. Similarly, the Mexican use of hasta occurs in Colombia, but not in Argentina.

Foreign and indigenous words

483

78.11.1 Periphrastic use of the gerund Voy llegando. (Acabo de llegar.) Voy acabando. (Estoy a punto de acabar.) Vamos haciendo una cosa. (Hagamos una cosa.) 78.11.2 Use of the adverb “siempre” with the meaning of certainly Siempre no voy a ir al cine. (Seguro que no voy a ir al cine.) 78.11.3 The use of “hasta” with the negative meaning of not before, as opposed to until Viene hasta las dos. (No viene hasta las dos.) Hasta ayer lo compré. (Apenas ayer lo compré.) Será publicado hasta fines de año. (No será publicado antes de fines de año.) 78.11.4 An abundance of constructions with “andar” (rarely used in Spanish America with the idea of to walk, and replaced there by caminar) Se anda cambiando de casa. (Estamos cambiando/mudando de casa.) Anda todo el día sentada, sin hacer nada. (Pasa todo el día sentada, sin hacer nada.)

78.12 Comments on the presence of the Basque and Catalan languages in Castilian 78.12.1 Basque A philological conundrum, the Basque language reflects the uniqueness of the Basques’ need to preserve their fiercely defended national and cultural identity, resistant to Roman, Arab, Frank and Castilian attempts to smother their sovereignty. Their language has remained stubbornly apart from Castilian, and, strangely enough, if one contrasts the invasion of Nahuatl into Mexican Spanish, it has bequeathed, in the past, few words to the language of Castile, save la gabarra (barge), izquierdo (in Basque = esquerro), the name of the Basque flag, la ikurriña, the name of the Basque language, el euskera (also vascuence and vasco in Castilian), el xirimiri/chirimiri (drizzle), and possibly zurdo. However, in more recent years, given the growing prominence of Basque culture and constantly proclaimed desire for independence, a number of other words are now finding their way into the language of Castile. The following small list of terms are seen in the national press of Spain and used increasingly on television, as well as forming part of the normal idiom of Castilian speakers of Spanish in the Basque region. The list includes nouns that have received a gender, the notion of which, as noted above, does not exist in Basque.

Basque

English equivalent

Spanish equivalent

¡Agur! aitá (m) aitona (m) amá (f) amona (f) andereño (mf) ¡Eskerik asko! gela/guela (f) Ertzaintza (f) ikastola (f) ¡Kaixo! kale borroka (f) txapela (f)

goodbye father grandfather mother grandmother teacher (at an ikastola) Thank you! (ikastola) classroom Basque police force school (teaching in Basque) Hello! street disturbance beret

adiós padre abuelo madre abuela profesor(a) ¡Gracias! aula de una ikastola no equivalent colegio que enseña en euskera ¡Hola! disturbio callejero boina

484

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

txiki/chiqui zulo (m)

small small hideaway (for secret armaments, arms cache, etc.)

pequeño no equivalent

Below is also a wide range of place names possibly as difficult to pronounce for the foreign language learner as those deriving from the Nahuatl language. Arantztazu, Aretxabaleta, Arrigorriaga, Donostia (San Sebastián), Eskoriatxa, Euskadi (Basque Provinces), Gasteiz (Vitoria), Guipúzcoa (a province, in Basque = Gipuzkoa), Guizaburuaga (in Basque = Gizaburuaga), Iruña = Pamplona; not to be confused with Irún), Ormaiztegi According to El País, Basque names of places (and there are many of them) or persons ending in -ain, where in Basque the tonic accent falls on the i, are written with the accent on the a. Basque > Spanish: Andoaín > Andoáin, Azelaín > Azeláin, Beliarraín > Beliarráin, Ceraín > Ceráin, Muragaín > Muragáin, Orendaín > Orendáin, Induraín > Induráin (cyclist of world renown, having won the Tour de France five times) This transcription does not apply to the ending -aíno (vizcaíno). 78.12.2 Catalan It would be difficult to define with any certainty Catalan4 terms that have found their way into Castilian, since the two languages are closely bound to each other, both being rooted in Vulgar Latin. Catalan should not be considered as a mere dialect of Spanish. It remains a separate language, a legitimate heir to Latin, with a considerable corpus of medieval literature, as well as a vigorous contemporary literary production. Its presence within the language of Castile is hardly felt, although on television and radio, Catalan is constantly heard when representatives of the province offer and protect the principles and values of Catalonia’s citizens. Furthermore, Valencian is closely allied to Catalan, to the extent that discourse between the two knows no barrier. From the French border, indeed from within France itself (south of Perpignan, including the principality of Andorra), down to Crevillent (four hundred miles away, south of Alicante), a language and literature flourish over against those of Castile. Yet only Catalan and Valencian toponyms now impinge on the Castilian language, although references to Catalan wines or champagnes (Cava, Freixenet, Penedés, Paxarete, Raventós, Rías Baixas, Rovellats) are abundant enough. Here is a small list of place names found in the province of Catalonia and the Comunidad Valenciana. Alacant (Alicante), Burjassot, Castelldefels, Crevillent (Crevillente), El Vendrell, Figueres (Figueras), Girona (Gerona), La Seu d’Urgell, Lleida (Lérida), Puigcerdà 4

Oddly enough, and almost uniquely, the term capicúa (numerical palindrome [e.g. 2002]) comes from Catalan and is recognized as such (cap + i + cua = head and tail).

79 Incorrect use of “la”/“le”/“lo” / Uso incorrecto de “la”/“le”/“lo” (laísmo/leísmo/loísmo) (See also Section 56.2.2 on Pronouns.)

79.1 Incorrect use of third person pronouns These three nouns point to what are considered “incorrect” uses of the third person pronouns la, le and lo. To a very large extent, but not in every case, their faulty usage resides in confusion over the direct and indirect objects.

79.2 Laísmo Laísmo is the defective use of la(s) as a feminine indirect object, instead of le(s). The pronouns la, las derive from the Latin accusative forms illam, illas. In consequence, la and las function in standard Spanish as direct objects. La/s encontré en la calle. (I met her/them/ found it/them in the street.) Thus, in cultured Spanish, the following sentence: Cuando Juana abrió la puerta, la dije que. . ., la is not acceptable, any more than Yo la di un beso a Josefina, or A María la duele la cabeza. In all three cases, “correct” Spanish le replaces la, since it corresponds to the dative case or indirect object. This phenomenon of laísmo is only found in Central and Northern Spain, and does not extend to Andalusia, which explains its absence from the Canary Islands and Spanish America. It is viewed with unmitigated condemnation by a consensus of grammarians, both Spanish and Spanish-American, and is therefore not to be imitated.

79.3 Laísmo with “se” Laísmo is also common with the pasiva refleja “se”: A esta chica se la llama María, where one would doubtless prefer: A esta chica se le llama María. Similarly, with inanimate objects: A la Tierra se la representa como una rana would be ousted by grammarians in favor of: A la Tierra se le representa como una rana. At the same time, this kind of construction with the pasiva refleja seems much more acceptable in A, C and M than in Spain.

79.4 Leísmo Leísmo is the improper use of le(s) as masculine direct objects, instead of lo(s), both for persons and things. The pronouns le, les derive from the Latin dative forms illi, illis, which correspond to the indirect object. Cultured Spanish would therefore prefer le and les only as indirect objects (but see immediately below): Conocí a un cirujano a quien le conté mi problema, and: Al despedirlos les di veinte pesos, reserving lo(s) for the masculine direct object: Lo conocí en Buenos Aires and; Los vi en el aeropuerto y les dije que. . . However, since many prestigious Spanish authors (e.g. of Central and Northern Spain), consistently 485

486

A Reference Grammar of Spanish use le instead of lo, the former has held its ground and, indeed, has succeeded in imposing itself on lo, to the point that it seems entirely acceptable. At the same time, recourse to the plural form les instead of los is less frequent, although examples do exist in literary texts: Casi nunca les vi con chicas. Nevertheless, when referring to inanimate objects, le(s) is not acceptable in any circumstances. Compare the first sentence, which would be refuted by well-tutored speakers of Spanish: Los informes me les mandas cuando puedas, to the following: Los informes me los mandas cuando puedas. Le is discouraged when it applies to females: Le consideran estúpida is to be reconstrued as: La consideran estúpida. Likewise, A Juana le llaman por teléfono is not accepted, and A Juana la llaman por teléfono is preferred by far. Leísmo is not a phenomenon to be found, except in scattered places, in Andalusia, the Canary Islands or Spanish America. Le is not used for animals. Instead of: Al perro le mataron, preference is given to: Al perro lo mataron.

79.5 Loísmo Loísmo is the “improper” use of lo(s) in replacing the masculine indirect objects le(s), with reference to both male persons and inanimate objects. The pronoun lo derives from the Latin accusative forms illum (ms), illud (neuter), and los from the masculine accusative plural illos. Standard, informed Spanish only admits lo(s) as masculine direct objects referring to male persons. Lo conocí en Bogotá. (I met him for the first time in Bogota. . .) Los vi en la plaza. (I saw them in the square.) Lo(s) used as indirect objects: Lo(s) dije que no se moviera(n) de aquí is not acceptable, and grammatical consensus requires: Le(s) dije que. . . For an English-speaker, le(s) used as an indirect object is perfectly understandable, but there are circumstances where the same speaker might expect lo(s), if (s)he is not sure if the object is direct or indirect. Pagar is an excellent case in point. Pagar referring to persons requires le(s) for both males and females when it means to pay someone (something), since le(s) is indirect, even if it does not initially appear so. Le pagué. (I paid him/her [i.e. I paid (something) to him/her].) Lo pagué is used “incorrectly” in parts of Spain to mean I paid him, but this is substandard Spanish (R1). In R2 Spanish, it can only mean I paid (for) it. Loísmo, together with leísmo and laísmo, developed in the Middle Ages, notably in Castile. Its presence in literary texts is very slight indeed, and now assumes a dialectical character. Nowadays, it may be found in rural areas, or in the less cultured classes in some cities. It is notable by its absence in the Canary Islands and Spanish America. At the same time, certain verbal expressions, like hacer añicos and hacer polvo (i.e. verb + noun), take a direct object, and should not be confused with other expressions like echar un vistazo (a), prender fuego (a), sacar brillo (a), which take an indirect object. Contrast the first three sentences with the last two. Eché un vistazo al periódico. Unos locos prendieron fuego a la casa. Si frotas bien, sacarás brillo a la madera. Tiró el jarrón y lo hizo añicos. La noticia de su muerte los ha hecho polvo.

80 Incorrect use of “de” and “que” / Uso incorrecto de “de” y “que” (dequeísmo, queísmo) 80.1 Dequeísmo Dequeísmo is the grammatically unacceptable use of the preposition de when it is not required. It is a linguistic phenomenon much more common in Spain than in A, C and M. Although this feature is considered “incorrect,” a unanimous view held by hispanists, it is worthwhile discussing it, since it recurs repeatedly, and needs to be recognized and differentiated from what is considered “correct” usage. Dequeísmo occurs in the following cases; nearly all these examples are taken from the Iberian Peninsula, for the obvious reason. 80.1.1 When de precedes a subordinate clause, and the main verb is in the third person and is depersonalized Grammatically unacceptable

Grammatically acceptable

Me alegra de que seáis felices. Es seguro de que nos quiere. Le preocupa de que aún no hayas llegado. Es posible de que nieve mañana.

Me alegra que seáis felices Es seguro que nos quiere Le preocupa que aún no hayas llegado. Es posible que nieve mañana.

80.1.2 Some of these verbs, when used reflexively, require de, and its absence is, conversely, considered “incorrect.”

Grammatically unacceptable

Grammatically acceptable

Me alegro que seáis felices. Me preocupo que no os falte nada.

Me alegro de que seáis felices. Me preocupo de que no os falte nada.

80.1.3 When the preposition de precedes a subordinate clause which is a direct object This phenomenon occurs especially with verbs of “thinking,” like pensar, creer, opinar, considerar; “speech,” like alertar, concluir, decir, comunicar, exponer, informar, platicar (M); “fear” like temer; and “perception,” like ver, oír. Grammatically unacceptable

Grammatically acceptable

La Cruz Roja alerta de que las carreteras de aquella zona. . . Pienso de que ganaremos el trofeo.

La Cruz Roja alerta que las carreteras de aquella zona. . . Pienso que ganaremos el trofeo.

487

488

A Reference Grammar of Spanish

Me dijeron de que iban a cambiar de casa. Temo de que no llegues a tiempo. He oído de que te casas. La policía concluyó de que los niños deben ir acompañados.

Me dijeron que iban a cambiar de casa. Temo que no llegues a tiempo. He oído que te casas. La policía concluyó que los niños deben ir acompañados.

80.1.4 When the preposition de, coupled with the verb ser or hay, precedes a subordinate clause Grammatically unacceptable

Grammatically acceptable

Mi intención es de que participemos todos. Su idea es de que vayamos al cine.

Mi intención es que participemos todos. Su idea es que vayamos al cine.

80.1.5 When the preposition de is inserted into certain connecting expressions Grammatically unacceptable

Grammatically acceptable

A no ser de que llegue antes de las dos. . . A medida de que subía el sol. . . Una vez de que había llegado. . .

A no ser que llegue antes de las dos. . . A medida que subía el sol. . . Una vez que había llegado. . .

80.1.6 When the preposition de is used instead of the preposition associated with a verb Grammatically unacceptable

Grammatically acceptable

Insistieron de que fuéramos con ellos. Me fijé de que llevaba corbata.

Insistieron en que fuéramos con ellos. Me fijé en que llevaba corbata.

Note that a number of verbs have two constructions, with the same meaning, and both eliciting grammatical approval. One takes the preposition de and the other the preposition a. These include advertir, avisar, cuidar, dudar and informar. advertir algo a alguien/advertir a alguien de algo avisar algo a alguien/avisar a alguien de algo cuidar algo, cuidar a alguien/cuidar de algo/alguien dudar algo/dudar de algo informar algo a alguien/informar a alguien de algo The first example of informar would be typical of Spanish America, while the second is preferred in Spain.

80.2 Queísmo Queísmo is the “incorrect” use of que in subordinate clauses, largely confined to Spain. It is probably due to a contamination of French, and is considered an unacceptable Gallicism. Grammatically unacceptable

Grammatically acceptable

Son estas flores que se ven. Es a mi hermano que lo digo.

Son estas flores las que se ven. Es a mi hermano a quien lo digo.

Incorrect use of “de” and “que”

Es con mi amigo que iré al cine. Es mi padre que viene. Es de este principio que se parte. No es allí que están mis padres. Es en este artículo que leí acerca de la lluvia de ceniza. Es por este camino que se va al cementerio. Fue entonces que yo corrí. Apenas había salido que la casa se vino abajo. Fue en 1957 que los rusos lanzaron el primer satélite artificial. Es a mediodía que su avión sale. Es hablando mucho que se equivoca. Es por esta razón que escribió su libro. Venga usted mañana que le presente al director.

489

Es con mi amigo con quien iré al cine. Es mi padre quien viene. De este principio se parte. No es allí donde están mis padres. Es en este artículo donde leí acerca de la lluvia de ceniza. Es por este camino por donde se va al cementerio. Fue entonces cuando yo corrí. Apenas había salido cuando la casa se vino abajo. Fue en 1957 cuando los rusos lanzaron el primer satélite artificial. Es a mediodía cuando su avión sale. Es hablando mucho como se equivoca. Es por esta razón por la que escribió su libro. Venga usted mañana para que le presente al director.

Appendix I: Verb tables / Tablas de verbos

Much information on verbs and their structures is found in Part III. However, here, in condensed form, are the three model verbs (-ar, -er, and -ir), followed by all the main irregular verbs, radical changing verbs, verbs with orthographical changes, and finally other verbs with certain irregularities or combinations of irregularities. All the verb tables include the voseo forms as they are found in Argentina, and parts of Colombia and Mexico.

The three model regular verbs

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Hablar (to speak)

Present hablo hablas (hablás) habla hablamos habláis hablan Perfect he hablado has hablado ha hablado hemos hablado habéis hablado han hablado

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

490

Imperfect hablaba hablabas hablaba hablábamos hablabais hablaban

Preterit hablé hablaste habló hablamos hablasteis hablaron

Future hablaré hablarás hablará hablaremos hablaréis hablarán

Pluperfect

Past anterior

había hablado habías hablado había hablado habíamos hablado habíais hablado habían hablado

hube hablado hubiste hablado hubo hablado hubimos hablado hubisteis hablado hubieron hablado

Future in the past habré hablado habrás hablado habrá hablado habremos hablado habréis hablado habrán hablado

Present hable hables (hablés) hable hablemos habléis hablen

Imperfect hablara/hablase hablaras/hablases hablara/hablase habláramos/hablásemos hablarais/hablaseis hablaran/hablasen

Conditional hablaría hablarías hablaría hablaríamos hablaríais hablarían Conditional in the past habría hablado habrías hablado habría hablado habríamos hablado habríais hablado habrían hablado Future hablare hablares hablare habláremos hablareis hablaren

Verb tables

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

491

Perfect haya hablado hayas hablado haya hablado hayamos hablado hayáis hablado hayan hablado

Imperative1 Infinitive habla (hablá), hable, hablemos, Simple Compound hablad, hablen hablar haber hablado

Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese hablado hubieras/hubieses hablado hubiera/hubiese hablado hubiéramos/hubiésemos hablado hubierais/hubieseis hablado hubieran/hubiesen hablado

Future perfect hubiere hablado hubieres hablado hubiere hablado hubiéremos hablado hubiereis hablado hubieren hablado

Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund hablado Simple Compound hablando habiendo hablado

1

The full pattern of the imperative is as follows: habla (tú), hablá (vos), hable (Ud.), hablemos (let us speak), hablad (vosotros, used less and less in Iberian Spanish, and not at all in Spanish America, hablen (Uds.)

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Comer (to eat) Present como comes (comés) come comemos coméis comen Perfect

Imperfect comía comías comía comíamos comíais comían

Preterit comí comiste comió comimos comisteis comieron

Future comeré comerás comerá comeremos comeréis comerán

Pluperfect

Past anterior

he comido has comido ha comido hemos comido habéis comido han comido

había comido habías comido había comido habíamos comido habíais comido habían comido

hube comido hubiste comido hubo comido hubimos comido hubisteis comido hubieron comido

Future in the past habré comido habrás comido habrá comido habremos comido habréis comido habrán comido

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Present coma comas (comás) coma comamos comáis coman

Imperfect comiera/comiese comieras/comieses comiera/comiese comiéramos/comiésemos comierais/comieseis comieran/comiesen

Conditional comería comerías comería comeríamos comeríais comerían Conditional in the past habría comido habrías comido habría comido habríamos comido habríais comido habrían comido Future comiere comieres comiere comiéremos comiereis comieren

Verb tables

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Perfect

Pluperfect

haya comido hayas comido haya comido hayamos comido hayáis comido hayan comido

hubiera/hubiese comido hubieras/hubieses comido hubiera/hubiese comido hubiéramos/hubiésemos comido hubierais/hubieseis comido hubieran/hubiesen comido

Imperative Infinitive come (comé), coma, Simple Compound comamos, comer haber comed, coman comido

Future perfect hubiere comido hubieres comido hubiere comido hubiéremos comido hubiereis comido hubieren comido

Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund comido Simple Compound comiendo habiendo comido

Indicative (simple tenses)

Vivir (to live)

Indicative (compound tenses)

492

Present vivo vives (vivís) vive vivimos vivís viven Perfect

Imperfect vivía vivías vivía vivíamos vivíais vivían Pluperfect

he vivido has vivido ha vivido hemos vivido habéis vivido han vivido

había vivido habías vivido había vivido habíamos vivido habíais vivido habían vivido

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Present viva vivas (vivás) viva vivamos viváis vivan

Preterit viví viviste vivió vivimos vivisteis vivieron Past anterior

Future viviré vivirás vivirá viviremos viviréis vivirán Future in the past habré vivido hube vivido hubiste vivido habrás vivido habrá vivido hubo vivido habremos hubimos vivido vivido habréis vivido hubisteis habrán vivido vivido hubieron vivido Imperfect viviera/viviese vivieras/vivieses viviera/viviese viviéramos/viviésemos vivierais/vivieseis vivieran/viviesen

Conditional viviría vivirías viviría viviríamos viviríais vivirían Conditional in the past habría vivido habrías vivido habría vivido habríamos vivido habríais vivido habrían vivido

Future viviere vivieres viviere viviéremos viviereis vivieren

Verb tables

493

Perfect haya vivido hayas vivido haya vivido hayamos vivido hayáis vivido hayan vivido

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Imperative vive (viví), viva, vivamos, vivid, vivan

Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese vivido hubieras/hubieses vivido hubiera/hubiese vivido hubiéramos/hubiésemos vivido hubierais/hubieseis vivido hubieran/hubiesen vivido Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Simple Compound vivido Simple vivir haber vivido viviendo

Future perfect hubiere vivido hubieres vivido hubiere vivido hubiéremos vivido hubiereis vivido hubieren vivido Gerund Compound habiendo vivido

IRREGULAR VERBS

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Andar (to walk) Present ando andas (andás) anda andamos andáis andan

Imperfect andaba andabas andaba andábamos andabais andaban

Preterit anduve anduviste anduvo anduvimos anduvisteis anduvieron

Future andaré andarás andará andaremos andaréis andarán

Conditional andaría andarías andaría andaríamos andaríais andarían

Perfect

Pluperfect

Past anterior

he andado has andado etc.

había andado habías andado etc.

hube andado hubiste andado etc.

Future in the past habré andado habrás andado etc.

Conditional in the past habría andado habrías andado etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative anda (andá), ande, andemos, andad, anden

Present ande andes ande andemos andéis anden Perfect haya andado hayas andado etc.

Infinitive Simple Compound andar haber andado

Imperfect anduviera/anduviese anduvieras/anduvieses anduviera/anduviese anduviéramos/anduviésemos anduvierais/anduvieses anduvieran/anduviesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese andado hubieras/hubieses andado etc.

Future anduviere anduvieres anduviere anduviéremos anduviereis anduvieren Future perfect hubiere andado hubieras andado etc.

Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund andado Simple Compound andando habiendo andado

Verb tables

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Asir (to grasp) Present asgo ases (asís) ase asimos asís asen Perfect

Imperfect asía asías asía asíamos asíais asían Pluperfect

Preterit así asiste asió asimos asisteis asieron Past anterior

he asido has asido etc.

había asido habías asido etc.

hube asido hubiste asido etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative ase (así), asga, asgamos, asid, asgan

Future asiré asirás asirá asiremos asiréis asirán Future in the past habré asido habrás asido etc.

Present asga asgas asga asgamos asgáis asgan Perfect haya asido hayas asido etc.

Imperfect asiera/asiese asieras/asieses asiera/asiese asiéramos/asiésemos asierais/asieseis asieran/asiesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese asido hubieras/hubieses asido etc. Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Simple Compound asido Simple asir haber asido asiendo

Conditional asiría asirías asiría asiríamos asiríais asirían Conditional in the past habría asido habrías asido etc.

Future asiere asieres asiere asiéremos asiereis asieren Future perfect hubiere asido hubieres asido etc. Gerund Compound habiendo asido

Indicative (simple tenses)

Caber (to fit, to have enough room)

Indicative (compound tenses)

494

Present

Imperfect

Preterit

Future

Conditional

quepo cabes (cabés) cabe cabemos cabéis caben

cabía cabías cabía cabíamos cabíais cabían

cupe cupiste cupo cupimos cupisteis cupieron

cabré cabrás cabrá cabremos cabréis cabrán

cabría cabrías cabría cabríamos cabríais cabrían

Perfect

Pluperfect

Past anterior

Future in the past

Conditional in the past

he cabido has cabido etc.

había cabido habías cabido etc.

hube cabido habré cabido habrás cabido hubiste etc. cabido etc.

habría cabido habrías cabido etc.

Verb tables

495

Present quepa quepas quepa quepamos quepáis quepan Perfect haya cabido hayas cabido etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Imperative not used

Infinitive Simple Compound caber haber cabido

Imperfect cupiera/cupiese cupieras/cupieses cupiera/cupiese cupiéramos/cupiésemos cupierais/cupieseis cupieran/cupiesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese cabido hubieras/hubieses cabido etc.

Future cupiere cupieres cupiere cupiéremos cupiereis cupieren Future perfect hubiere cabido hubieres cabido etc.

Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund cabido Simple Compound cabiendo habiendo cabido

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Caer (to fall) Present

Imperfect

Preterit

Future

Conditional

caigo caes (caés) cae caemos caéis caen

caía caías caía caíamos caíais caían

caí caíste cayó caímos caísteis cayeron

caeré caerás caerá caeremos caeréis caerán

caería caerías caería caeríamos caeríais caerían

Perfect

Pluperfect

Past anterior

Future in the past

Conditional in the past

he caído has caído etc.

había caído habías caído etc.

hube caído hubiste caído etc.

habré caído habrás caído etc.

habría caído habrías caído etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Present caiga caigas caiga caigamos caigáis caigan Perfect haya caído hayas caído etc.

Imperfect cayera/cayese cayeras/cayeses cayera/cayese cayéramos/cayésemos cayerais/cayeseis cayeran/cayesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese caído hubieras/hubieses caído etc.

Future cayere cayeres cayere cayéremos cayereis cayeren Future perfect hubiere caído hubieres caído etc.

Verb tables

Imperative cae (caé), caiga, caigamos, caed, caigan

Infinitive Simple Compound caer haber caído

Non-personal forms Past participle caído

Gerund Simple Compound cayendo habiendo caído

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Dar (to give) Present

Imperfect

Preterit

Future

Conditional

doy das (das) da damos dais dan

daba dabas daba dábamos dabais daban

di diste dio dimos disteis dieron

daré darás dará daremos daréis darán

daría darías daría daríamos daríais darían

Perfect

Pluperfect

Past anterior

Future in the past

Conditional in the past

he dado has dado etc.

había dado habías dado etc.

hube dado hubiste dado etc.

habré dado habrás dado etc.

habría dado habrías dado etc.

Present Subjunctive dé (simple tenses) des dé demos deis den Perfect Subjunctive haya dado (compound tenses) hayas dado etc. Imperative da (da), dé, demos, Infinitive dad, den Simple Compound dar

Imperfect Future diere diera/diese dieres dieras/dieses diere diera/diese diéremos diéremos/diésemos diereis diereis/dieseis dieren dieran/diesen Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere dado hubiera/hubiese dado hubieres dado hubieras/hubieses dado etc. etc. Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund dado Simple Compound

haber dado

dando

habiendo dado

Decir (to say, to tell)

Indicative (simple tenses)

496

Present

Imperfect

Preterit

Future

Conditional

digo dices (decís) dice decimos decís dicen

decía decías decía decíamos decíais decían

dije dijiste dijo dijimos dijisteis dijeron

diré dirás dirá diremos diréis dirán

diría dirías diría diríamos diríais dirían

Indicative (compound tenses)

Verb tables

497

Perfect

Pluperfect

he dicho has dicho etc.

había dicho habías dicho etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Imperative di (decí), diga, digamos, decid, digan

Past anterior hube dicho hubiste dicho etc.

Future in the past Conditional in the past habría dicho habré dicho habrías dicho habrás dicho etc. etc.

Present diga digas diga digamos digáis digan Perfect

Imperfect dijera/dijese dijeras/dijeses dijera/dijese dijéramos/dijésemos dijerais/dijeseis dijeran/dijesen Pluperfect

haya dicho hayas dicho etc.

hubiera/hubiese dicho hubieras/hubieses dicho etc.

Infinitive Simple Compound decir haber dicho

Non-personal forms Past participle dicho

Future dijere dijeres dijere dijéremos dijereis dijeren Future perfect hubiere dicho hubieres dicho etc.

Gerund Simple Compound diciendo habiendo dicho

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Errar (to err, to miss) Present yerro yerras (errás) yerra erramos erráis yerran Perfect he errado has errado etc.

Imperfect erraba errabas erraba errábamos errabais erraban

Preterit erré erraste erró erramos errasteis erraban

Future erraré errarás errará erraremos erraréis errarán

Conditional erraría errarías erraría erraríamos erraríais errarían

Pluperfect

Past anterior

Future in the past habré errado habrás errado etc.

Conditional in the past habría errado habrías errado etc.

había errado hube errado hubiste errado habías etc. errado etc.

Verb tables

Present Subjunctive (simple yerre tenses) yerres yerre erremos erréis yerren Perfect

Imperfect errara/errase erraras/errases errare/errase erráramos/errásemos errarais/erraseis erraran/errasen Pluperfect

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

hubiera/hubiese errado hubieras/hubieses errado etc.

Imperative yerra (errá), yerre, erremos, errad, yerren

haya errado hayas errado etc.

Infinitive Simple Compound errar haber errado

Future errare errares errare erráremos errareis erraren Future perfect hubiere errado hubieres errado, etc

Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund errado Simple Compound errando habiendo errado

Indicative (simple tenses)

Estar (to be)

Indicative (compound tenses)

498

Present estoy estás (estás) está estamos estáis estan Perfect he estado has estado etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Imperfect estaba estabas estaba estábamos estabais estaban Pluperfect

Preterit estuve estuviste estuvo estuvimos estuvisteis estuvieron Past anterior había estado hube estado habías estado hubiste estado etc. etc.

Present esté estés esté estemos estéis estén Perfect haya estado hayas estado etc.

Future estaré estarás estará estaremos estaréis estarán Future in the past habré estado habrás estado etc.

Conditional estaría estarías estaría estaríamos estaríais estarían Conditional in the past habría estado habrías estado etc.

Imperfect estuviera/estuviese estuvieras/estuvieses estuviera/estuviese estuviéramos/estuviésemos estuvierais/estuvieseis estuvieran/estuviesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese estado hubieras/hubieses estado etc.

Future estuviere estuvieres estuviere estuviéremos estuviereis estuvieren Future perfect hubiere estado hubieres estado etc.

Verb tables

Imperative está (está),2 esté, estemos, estad, estén

499

Infinitive Simple Compound estar haber estado

Non-personal forms Past participle estado

Gerund Simple Compound estando habiendo estado

2

The imperative of the second person singular of estar is only used in the reflexive form: Estate tranquilo.

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Haber (to have; used as an auxiliary) Present he has (has) ha (also hay) hemos habéis han Perfect

Future habré habrás habrá habremos habréis habrán Future in the past habré habido hube habido había habido he habido habías habido hubiste habido habrás habido has habido etc. etc. etc. etc. (an archaic (an archaic (an archaic (an archaic form no longer form no longer form no longer form no longer in use) in use) in use) in use)

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Imperative (The forms inherited from Latin are habe and habed but they do not exist in present language.)

Imperfect había habías había habíamos habíais habían Pluperfect

Present haya hayas haya hayamos hayáis hayan Perfect haya habido hayas habido etc. (an archaic form no longer in use)

Preterit hube hubiste hubo hubimos hubisteis hubieron Past anterior

Imperfect hubiera/hubiese hubieras/hubieses hubiera/hubiese hubiéramos/hubiésemos hubierais/hubieseis hubieran/hubiesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese habido hubieras/hubieses habido etc. (an archaic form no longer in use) Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Simple Compound habido haber haber habido

Conditional habría habrías habría habríamos habríais habrían Conditional in the past habría habido habrías habido etc. (an archaic form no longer in use)

Future hubiere hubieres hubiere hubiéremos hubiereis hubieren Future perfect hubiere habido hubieres habido etc. (an archaic form no longer in use) Gerund Simple Compound habiendo habiendo habido

Verb tables

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Hacer (to do, to make) Present hago haces (hacés) hace hacemos hacéis hacen Perfect

Imperfect hacía hacías hacía hacíamos hacíais hacían Pluperfect

Preterit hice hiciste hizo hicimos hicisteis hicieron Past anterior

he hecho has hecho etc.

había hecho habías hecho etc.

hube hecho hubiste hecho etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Present haga hagas haga hagamos hagáis hagan Perfect haya hecho hayas hecho etc.

Future haré harás hará haremos haréis harán Future in the past habré hecho habrás hecho etc.

Imperfect hiciera/hiciese hicieras/hicieses hiciera/hiciese hiciéramos/hiciésemos hicierais/hicieseis hicieran/hiciesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese hecho hubieras/hubieses hecho etc.

Conditional haría harías haría haríamos haríais harían Conditional in the past habría hecho habrías hecho etc.

Future hiciere hicieres hiciere hiciéremos hiciereis hicieren Future perfect hubiere hecho hubieres hecho etc.

Imperative Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Gerund haz (hacé), haga, hagamos, haced, Simple Compound hecho Simple Compound hagan hacer haber hecho haciendo habiendo hecho

Indicative (simple tenses)

Ir (to go, to come)

Indicative (compound tenses)

500

Present voy vas (vas) va vamos vais van Perfect

Imperfect iba ibas iba íbamos ibais iban Pluperfect

Preterit fui fuiste fue fuimos fuisteis fueron Past anterior

he ido has ido etc.

había ido habías ido etc.

hube ido hubiste ido etc.

Future iré irás irá iremos iréis irán Future in the past habré ido habrás ido etc.

Conditional iría irías iría iríamos iríais irían Conditional in the past habría ido habrías ido etc.

Verb tables

501

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative Ve (unique form for voseo; andá, imperative of andar, is used), vaya, vayamos, id, vayan

Present vaya vayas vaya vayamos vayáis vayan Perfect haya ido hayas ido etc.

Imperfect Future fuere fuera/fuese fueres fueras/fueses fuere fuera/fuese fuéremos fuéramos/fuésemos fuereis fuerais/fueseis fueren fueran/fuesen Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere ido hubiera/hubiese ido hubieres ido hubieras/hubieses ido etc. etc. Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Gerund Simple Compound ido Simple Compound ir haber ido yendo habiendo ido

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Leer (to read) Present leo lees (leés) lee leemos leéis leen Perfect

Imperfect leía leías leía leíamos leíais leían Pluperfect

he leído había leído has leído habías leído etc. etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative lee (leé), lea, leamos, leed, lean

Present lea leas lea leamos leáis lean Perfect haya leído hayas leído etc. Infinitive Simple Compound leer haber leído

Preterit leí leíste leyó leímos leísteis leyeron Past anterior hube leído hubiste leído etc.

Future leeré leerás leerá leeremos leeréis leerán Future in the past habré leído habrás leído etc.

Imperfect leyera/leyese leyeras/leyeses leyera/leyese leyéramos/leyésemos leyerais/leyeseis leyeran/leyesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese leído hubieras/hubieses leído etc. Non-personal forms Past participle Leído Simple leyendo

Conditional leería leerías leería leeríamos leeríais leerían Conditional in the past habría leído habrías leído etc.

Future leyere leyeres leyere leyéremos leyereis leyeren Future perfect hubiere leído hubieres leído etc. Gerund Compound habiendo leído

Verb tables

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Oír (to hear) Present oigo oyes (oís) oye oímos oís oyen Perfect

Imperfect oía oías oía oíamos oíais oían Pluperfect

he oído has oído etc.

había oído habías oído etc.

Present Subjunctive (simple oiga tenses) oigas oiga oigamos oigáis oigan Perfect Subjunctive haya oído (compound tenses) hayas oído etc. Imperative oye (oí), oiga, Infinitive oigamos, oíd, oigan Simple Compound oír haber oído

Preterit oí oíste oyó oímos oísteis oyeron Past anterior hube oído hubiste oído etc.

Future oiré oirás oirá oiremos oiréis oirán Future in the past habré oído habrás oído etc.

Imperfect oyera/oyese oyeras/oyeses oyera/oyese oyéramos/oyésemos oyerais/oyeseis oyeran/oyesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese oído hubieras/hubieses oído etc. Non-personal forms Past participle oído Simple oyendo

Conditional oiría oirías oiría oiríamos oiríais oirían Conditional in the past habría oído habrías oído etc.

Future oyere oyeres oyere oyéremos oyereis oyeren Future perfect hubiere oído hubieres oído etc. Gerund Compound habiendo oído

Indicative (simple tenses)

Oler (to smell)

Indicative (compound tenses)

502

Present huelo hueles (olés) huele olemos oléis huelen Perfect

Imperfect olía olías olía olíamos olíais olían Pluperfect

Preterit olí oliste olió olimos olisteis olieron Past anterior

he olido has olido etc.

había olido habías olido etc.

hube olido hubiste olido etc.

Future oleré olerás olerá oleremos oleréis olerán Future in the past habré olido habrás olido etc.

Conditional olería olerías olería oleríamos oleríais olerían Conditional in the past habría olido habrías olido etc.

Verb tables

503

Present Imperfect Future oliere oliera/oliese Subjunctive (simple huela olieres olieras/olieses tenses) huelas oliere oliera/oliese huela oliéremos oliéramos/oliésemos olamos oliéreis olierais/olieseis oláis olieren olieran/oliesen huelan Perfect Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere olido hubiera/hubiese olido Subjunctive haya olido hubieres olido hubieras/hubieses olido (compound tenses) hayas olido etc. etc. etc. Imperative Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Gerund huele (olé), huela, olamos, oled, Simple Compound olido Simple Compound huelan oler haber olido oliendo habiendo olido

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Poder (to be able [can]) Present puedo puedes (podés) puede podemos podéis pueden Perfect

Imperfect podía podías podía podíamos podíais podían

Preterit pude pudiste pudo pudimos pudisteis pudieron

Future podré podrás podrá podremos podréis podrán

Conditional podría podrías podría podríamos podríais podrían

Pluperfect

Past anterior

Future in the past habré podido habrás podido etc.

Conditional in the past habría podido habrías podido etc.

he podido había podido habías podido has etc. podido etc.

hube podido hubiste podido etc.

Present Imperfect Future pudiere pudiera/pudiese Subjunctive pueda pudieres pudieras/pudieses (simple tenses) puedas pudiere pudiera/pudiese pueda pudiéremos pudiéramos/pudiésemos podamos pudiereis pudierais/pudieseis podáis pudieren pudieran/pudiesen puedan Perfect Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere podido hubiera/hubiese podido haya podido Subjunctive hubieres podido hubieras/hubieses podido hayas podido (compound etc. etc. etc. tenses) Imperative Non-personal forms puede (podé), pueda, Infinitive Past participle Gerund podamos, poded, Simple Compound podido Simple Compound puedan (rarely used, poder haber pudiendo habiendo for the obvious reason) podido podido

Verb tables

Indicative (simple tenses)

Poner (to put, to place) Present pongo pones (ponés) pone ponemos ponéis ponen Perfect

Imperfect ponía ponías ponía poníamos poníais ponían

Preterit puse pusiste puso pusimos pusisteis pusieron

Pluperfect

Past anterior Future in the past hube puesto habré puesto habrás puesto hubiste etc. puesto etc.

Indicative (compound tenses)

había puesto he habías puesto puesto etc. has puesto etc. Present Subjunctive ponga (simple tenses) pongas ponga pongamos pongáis pongan Perfect haya puesto Subjunctive hayas puesto (compound etc. tenses) Imperative Infinitive pon (poné), ponga, Simple Compound pongamos, poner haber puesto poned, pongan

Future pondré pondrás pondrá pondremos pondréis pondrán

Conditional pondría pondrías pondría pondríamos pondríais pondrían Conditional in the past habría puesto habrías puesto etc.

Imperfect Future pusiere pusiera/pusiese pusieres pusieras/pusieses pusiere pusiera/pusiese pusiéremos pusiéramos/pusiésemos pusiereis pusierais/pusieseis pusieren pusieran/pusiesen Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere puesto hubiera/hubiese puesto hubieres puesto hubieras/hubieses puesto etc. etc. Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund puesto Simple Compound poniendo habiendo puesto

Pudrir/Podrir3 (to rot)

Indicative (simple tenses)

504

Present pudro pudres (pudrís) pudre pudrimos/ podrimos pudrís/ podrís pudren

Imperfect pudría/podría pudrías/podrías pudría/podría pudríamos/ podríamos pudríais/podríais pudrían/podrían

Preterit pudrí/podrí pudriste/ podriste pudrió/ podrió pudrimos/ podrimos pudristeis/ podristeis pudrieron/ podrieron

Future pudriré/podriré pudrirás/podrirás pudrirá/podrirá pudriremos/ podriremos pudriréis/ podriréis pudrirán/ podrirán

Conditional pudriría/ podriría pudrirías/ podrirías pudriría/ podriría pudriríamos/ podriríamos pudriríais/ podriríais pudrirían/ podrirían

Indicative (compound tenses)

Verb tables

505

Perfect

Pluperfect

Past anterior

he podrido has podrido etc.

había podrido habías podrido etc.

hube podrido hubiste podrido etc.

Future in the past habré podrido habrás podrido etc.

Conditional in the past habría podrido habrías podrido etc.

Present pudra pudras pudra pudramos pudráis pudran

Imperfect Future pudriere pudriera/pudriese Subjunctive pudrieres pudrieras/pudrieses (simple tenses) pudriere pudriera/pudriese pudriéremos pudriéramos/ pudriereis pudriésemos pudrieren pudrierais/pudrieseis pudrieran/pudriesen Perfect Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere podrido hubiera/hubiese haya podrido Subjunctive hubieres podrido podrido hayas podrido (compound etc. hubieras/hubieses etc. tenses) podrido etc. Imperative Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Gerund pudre (pudrí/podrí), pudra, pudramos, Simple Compound podrido Simple Compound pudrid/podrid, pudrir/ haber pudriendo habiendo pudran podrir podrido podrido 3

Dictionaries offer two verbs: pudrir and podrir. The RAE records the past participle as exclusively podrido (o highlighted in the table above), and makes no pronouncement on the possibility of “pudrido.” In reality, both verbs have the strange, rare particularity of representing the same idea. In standard Spanish American, in the infinitive and some conjugated forms, there is a clear alternative between u or o in the root of this verb; Iberian Spanish seems to admit only the u form (save for the past participle), while the u form is the generally preferred form in all conjugations in Spanish America.

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Querer (to wish, to want) Present quiero quieres (querés) quiere queremos queréis quieren Perfect

Imperfect quería querías quería queríamos queríais querían

Preterit quise quisiste quiso quisimos quisisteis quisieron

Future querré querrás querrá querremos querréis querrán

Pluperfect

Past anterior Future in the past

he querido has querido etc.

había querido habías querido etc.

hube querido habré querido habrás querido hubiste etc. querido etc.

Conditional querría querrías querría querríamos querríais querrían Conditional in the past habría querido habrías querido etc.

Verb tables

Present Subjunctive quiera quieras (simple quiera tenses) queramos queráis quieran Perfect Subjunctive haya querido (compound hayas querido etc. tenses) Imperative Infinitive quiere (queré), Simple Compound quiera, querer haber queramos, querido quered, quieran

Imperfect Future quisiere quisiera/quisiese quisieres quisieras/quisieses quisiere quisiera/quisiese quisiéremos quisiéramos/quisiésemos quisiereis quisierais/quisieseis quisieren quisieran/quisiesen Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere querido hubiera/hubiese querido hubieres querido hubieras/hubieras querido etc. etc. Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund querido Simple Compound queriendo habiendo querido

Indicative (simple tenses)

Reír (to laugh)

Indicative (compound tenses)

506

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Present río ríes (reís) ríe reímos reís ríen Perfect

Imperfect reía reías reía reíamos reíais reían Pluperfect

Preterit reí reíste rió reímos reísteis rieron Past anterior

he reído has reído etc.

había reído habías reído etc.

hube reído hubiste reído etc.

Present ría rías ría riamos riáis rían Perfect haya reído hayas reído etc.

Future reiré reirás reirá reiremos reiréis reirán Future in the past habré reído habrás reído etc.

Imperfect riera/riese rieras/rieses riera/riese riéramos/riésemos rierais/rieseis rieran/riesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese reído hubieras/hubieses reído etc.

Conditional reiría reirías reiría reiríamos reiríais reirían Conditional in the past habría reído habrías reído etc.

Future riere rieres riere riéremos riereis rieren Future perfect hubiere reído hubieres reído etc.

Verb tables

507

Imperative ríe (reí), ría, riamos, reíd, rían

Infinitive Simple Compound reír haber reído

Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund reído Simple Compound riendo habiendo reído

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative ( simple tenses)

Roer (to gnaw) Present roo/roigo/ royo roes (roés) roe roemos roéis roen Perfect

Imperfect roía roías roía roíamos roíais roían

Preterit roí roíste royó roímos roísteis royeron

Future roeré roerás roerá roeremos roeréis roerán

Conditional roería roerías roería roeríamos roeríais roerían

Pluperfect

Past anterior

he roído has roído etc.

había roído habías roído etc.

hube roído hubiste roído etc.

Future in the past habré roído habrás roído etc.

Conditional in the past habría roído habrías roído etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative roe (roé), roa/roiga/ roya, roamos/roigamos/ royamos, roed, roan/ roigan/royan

Present roa/roiga/roya roas/roigas/royas roa/roiga/roya roamos/roigamos/ royamos roáis/roigáis/royáis roan/roigan/royan Perfect

Imperfect royera/royese royeras/royeses royera/royese royéramos/royésemos royerais/royeseis royeran/royesen

Future royere royeres royere royéremos royereis royeren

Pluperfect

Future perfect hubiere roído hubieres roído, etc.

hubiera/hubiese roído hubieras/hubieses roído etc. Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Gerund Simple Compound roído Simple Compound roer haber roído royendo habiendo roído

haya roído hayas roído etc.

Verb tables

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Saber (to know) Present sé sabes (sabés) sabe sabemos sabéis saben Perfect

Imperfect sabía sabías sabía sabíamos sabíais sabían

Preterit supe supiste supo supimos supisteis supieron

Future sabré sabrás sabrá sabremos sabréis sabrán

Conditional sabría sabrías sabría sabríamos sabríais sabrían

Pluperfect

Past anterior

he sabido has sabido etc.

había sabido habías sabido etc.

hube sabido hubiste sabido etc.

Future in the past habré sabido habrás sabido etc.

Conditional in the past habría sabido habrías sabido etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Imperative sabe (sabé), sepa, sepamos, sabed, sepan

Present sepa sepas sepa sepamos sepáis sepan Perfect haya sabido hayas sabido etc.

Imperfect supiera/supiese supieras/supieses supiera/supiese supiéramos/supiésemos supierais/supieseis supieran/supiesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese sabido hubieras/hubieses sabido etc.

Future supiere supieres supiere supiéremos supiereis supieren Future perfect hubiere sabido hubieres sabido etc.

Infinitive Simple Compound saber haber sabido

Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund sabido Simple Compound sabiendo habiendo sabido

Salir (to go out)

Indicative (simple tenses)

508

Present salgo sales (salís) sale salimos salís salen

Imperfect salía salías salía salíamos salíais salían

Preterit salí saliste salió salimos salisteis salieron

Future saldré saldrás saldrá saldremos saldréis saldrán

Conditional saldría saldrías saldría saldríamos saldríais saldrían

509

Indicative (compound tenses)

Verb tables

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative sal (salí), salga, salgamos, salid, salgan

Perfect

Pluperfect

Past anterior Future in the past

Conditional in the past

he salido has salido etc.

había salido habías salido etc.

habré salido hube salido hubiste salido habrás salido etc. etc.

habría salido habrías salido etc.

Present salga salgas salga salgamos salgáis salgan Perfect haya salido hayas salido etc. Non-personal forms Infinitive Simple Compound salir haber salido

Imperfect saliera/saliese salieras/salieses saliera/saliese saliéramos/saliésemos salierais/salieseis salieran/saliesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese salido hubieras/hubieses salido etc. Past participle salido

Future saliere salieres saliere saliéremos saliereis salieren Future perfect hubiere salido hubieres salido etc.

Simple saliendo

Gerund Compound habiendo salido

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Ser (to be) Present soy eres (sos) es somos sois son Perfect

Imperfect era eras era éramos erais eran Pluperfect

he sido has sido etc.

había sido habías sido etc.

Present Subjunctive sea seas (simple sea tenses) seamos seáis sean Perfect Subjunctive haya sido (compound hayas sido etc. tenses)

Preterit fui fuiste fue fuimos fuisteis fueron Past anterior hube sido hubiste sido etc.

Future seré serás será seremos seréis serán Future in the past habré sido habrás sido etc.

Imperfect fuera/fuese fueras/fueses fuera/fuese fuéramos/fuésemos fuerais/fueseis fueran/fuesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese sido hubieras/hubieses sido etc.

Conditional sería serías sería seríamos seríais serían Conditional in the past habría sido habrías sido etc.

Future fuere fueres fuera fuéremos fuereis fueren Future perfect hubiere sido hubieres sido etc.

Verb tables

Imperative Infinitive sé (sé), sea, seamos, sed, Simple Compound sean ser haber sido

Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund sido Simple Compound siendo habiendo sido

Tener (to have) Present tengo tienes (tenés) tiene tenemos tenéis tienen Perfect

Imperfect tenía tenías tenía teníamos teníais tenían Pluperfect

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Preterit Future tendré tuve tendrás tuviste tendrá tuvo tendremos tuvimos tendréis tuvisteis tendrán tuvieron Past Future in the anterior past habré tenido hube había tenido he tenido habrás tenido tenido habías tenido has tenido etc. hubiste etc. etc. tenido etc. Present Imperfect tuviera/tuviese Subjunctive tenga tuvieras/tuvieses (simple tenses) tengas tuviera/tuviese tenga tuviéramos/tuviésemos tengamos tuvierais/tuvieseis tengáis tuvieran/tuviesen tengan Perfect Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese tenido haya tenido Subjunctive hubieras/hubieses tenido hayas tenido (compound etc. etc. tenses) Imperative Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle ten (tené), tenga, tengamos, tened, Simple Compound tenido Simple tenga tener haber tenido teniendo

Conditional tendría tendrías tendría tendríamos tendríais tendrían Conditional in the past habría tenido habrías tenido etc.

Future tuviere tuvieres tuviere tuviéremos tuviereis tuvieren Future perfect hubiere tenido hubieres tenido etc. Gerund Compound habiendo tenido

Traer (to bring)

Indicative (simple tenses)

510

Present traigo traes (traés) trae traemos traéis traen

Imperfect traía traías traía traíamos traíais traían

Preterit traje trajiste trajo trajimos trajisteis trajeron

Future traeré traerás traerá traeremos traeréis traerán

Conditional traería traerías traería traeríamos traeríais traerían

Indicative (compound tenses)

Verb tables

511

Perfect

Pluperfect

he traído has traído etc.

había traído hube traído hubiste traído habías etc. traído etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative trae (traé), traiga, traigamos, traed, traigan

Past anterior

Future in the past habré traído habrás traído etc.

Conditional in the past habría traído habrías traído etc.

Present traiga traigas traiga traigamos traigáis traigan Perfect haya traído hayas traído etc.

Imperfect Future trajere trajera/trajese trajeres trajeras/trajeses trajere trajera/trajese trajéremos trajéramos/trajésemos trajereis trajerais/trajeseis trajeren trajeran/trajesen Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere traído hubiera/hubiese traído hubieres traído hubieras/hubieses traído etc. etc. Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Gerund Simple Compound traído Simple Compound traer haber trayendo habiendo traído traído

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Valer (to be worth)

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Present valgo vales (valés) vale valemos valéis valen Perfect

Imperfect valía valías valía valíamos valíais valían Pluperfect

Preterit valí valiste valió valimos valisteis valieron Past anterior

he valido has valido etc.

había valido habías valido etc.

hube valido hubiste valido etc.

Present valga valgas valga valgamos valgáis valgan

Future valdré valdrás valdrá valdremos valdréis valdrán Future in the past habré valido habrás valido etc.

Imperfect valiera/valiese valieras/valieses valiera/valiese valiéramos/valiésemos valierais/valieseis valieran/valiesen

Conditional valdría valdrías valdría valdríamos valdríais valdrían Conditional in the past habría valido habrías valido etc.

Future valiere valieres valiere valiéremos valiereis valieren

Verb tables

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative vale (valé), valga, valgamos, valed, valgan

Perfect haya valido hayas valido etc. Infinitive Simple Compound valer haber valido

Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese valido hubieras/hubieses valido etc. Non-personal forms Past participle valido Simple valiendo

Future perfect hubiere valido hubieres valido etc. Gerund Compound habiendo valido

Indicative (simple tenses)

Venir (to come)

Indicative (compound tenses)

512

Present vengo vienes (venís) viene venimos venís vienen Perfect

Imperfect venía venías venía veníamos veníais venían Pluperfect

he venido has venido etc.

había venido hube venido hubiste venido habías etc. venido etc.

Present venga vengas venga vengamos vengáis vengan Perfect Subjunctive haya venido (compound tenses) hayas venido etc. Imperative Infinitive ven (vení), venga, vengamos, venid, Simple Compound vengan venir haber venido Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Preterit vine viniste vino vinimos vinisteis vinieron Past anterior

Future vendré vendrás vendrá vendremos vendréis vendrán Future in the past habré venido habrás venido etc.

Conditional vendría vendrías vendría vendríamos vendríais vendrían Conditional in the past habría venido habrías venido etc. Future viniere vinieres viniere viniéremos viniereis vinieren Future perfect hubiere venido hubieres venido etc.

Imperfect viniera/viniese vinieras/vinieses viniera/viniese viniéramos/viniésemos vinierais/vinieseis vinieran/viniesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese venido hubieras/hubieses venido etc. Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund venido Simple Compound viniendo habiendo venido

Verb tables

513

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Ver (to see) Present veo ves (ves) ve vemos veis ven Perfect

Imperfect veía veías veía veíamos veíais veían Pluperfect

he visto has visto etc.

había visto habías visto etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative ve (ve), vea, veamos, ved, vean

Preterit vi viste vio vimos visteis vieron Past anterior hube visto hubiste visto etc.

Present vea veas vea veamos veáis vean Perfect haya visto hayas visto etc.

Future veré verás verás veremos veréis verán Future in the past habré visto habrás visto etc.

Imperfect viera/viese vieras/vieses viera/viese viéramos/viésemos vierais/vieseis vieran/viesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese visto hubieras/hubieses visto etc. Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Simple Compound visto Simple ver haber visto viendo

Conditional vería verías vería veríamos veríais verían Conditional in the past habría visto habrías visto etc.

Future viere vieres viere viéremos viereis vieren Future perfect hubiere visto hubieres visto etc. Gerund Compound habiendo visto

Radical changing verbs

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Cerrar (e > ie) (to shut, to close) Present cierro cierras (cerrás) cierra cerramos cerráis cierran Perfect

Imperfect cerraba cerrabas cerraba cerrábamos cerrabais cerraban Pluperfect

he cerrado has cerrado etc.

había cerrado habías cerrado etc.

Preterit cerré cerraste cerró cerramos cerrasteis cerraron Past anterior hube cerrado hubiste cerrado etc.

Future cerraré cerrarás cerrará cerraremos cerraréis cerrarán Future in the past habré cerrado habrás cerrado etc.

Conditional cerraría cerrarías cerraría cerraríamos cerraríais cerrarían Conditional in the past habría cerrado habrías cerrado etc.

Verb tables

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Imperative cierra (cerrá), cierre, cerremos, cerrad, cierren

Present cierre cierres cierre cerremos cerréis cierren Perfect haya cerrado hayas cerrado etc.

Imperfect cerrara/cerrase cerraras/cerrases cerrara/cerrase cerráramos/cerrásemos cerrarais/cerraseis cerraran/cerrasen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese cerrado hubieras/hubieses cerrado etc.

Infinitive Simple Compound cerrar haber cerrado

Future cerrare cerrares cerrare cerráremos cerrareis cerraren Future perfect hubiere cerrado hubieres cerrado etc.

Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund cerrado Simple Compound cerrando habiendo cerrado

Indicative (simple tenses)

Contar (o > ue) (to tell, to relate) Present cuento cuentas (contás) cuenta contamos contáis cuentan Perfect

Imperfect contaba contabas contaba contábamos contabais contaban

Preterit conté contaste contó contamos contasteis contaron

Future contaré contarás contará contaremos contaréis contarán

Conditional contaría contarías contaría contaríamos contaríais contarían

Pluperfect

Past anterior

Future in the past habré contado habrás contado etc.

Conditional in the past habría contado habrías contado etc.

he contado había has contado contado habías etc. contado etc. Present cuente Subjunctive cuentes (simple cuente tenses) contemos contéis cuenten Perfect haya contado Subjunctive hayas contado (compound etc. tenses) Indicative (compound tenses)

514

hube contado hubiste contado etc.

Imperfect contara/contase contaras/contases contara/contase contáramos/contásemos contarais/contaseis contaran/contasen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese contado hubieras/hubieses contado etc.

Future contare contares contare contáremos contareis contaren Future perfect hubiere contado hubieres contado etc.

Verb tables

Imperative cuenta (contá), cuente, contemos, contad, cuenten

515

Infinitive Simple Compound contar haber contado

Non-personal forms Past participle contado Simple contando

Gerund Compound habiendo contado

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Pedir (e > i) (to ask, to ask for) Present pido pides (pedís) pide pedimos pedís piden Perfect

Imperfect pedía pedías pedía pedíamos pedíais pedían Pluperfect

he pedido has pedido etc.

había pedido habías pedido etc.

Preterit pedí pediste pidió pedimos pedisteis pidieron Past anterior hube pedido hubiste pedido etc.

Future pediré pedirás pedirá pediremos pediréis pedirán Future in the past habré pedido habrás pedido etc.

Conditional pediría pedirías pediría pediríamos pediríais pedirían Conditional in the past habría pedido habrías pedido etc. Future pidiere pidieres pidiere pidiéremos pidiereis pidieren Future perfect hubiere pedido hubieres pedido etc.

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Present pida pidas pida pidamos pidáis pidan Perfect haya pedido hayas pedido etc.

Imperfect pidiera/pidiese pidieras/pidieses pidiera/pidiese pidiéramos/pidiésemos pidierais/pidieseis pidieran/pidiesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese pedido hubieras/hubieses pedido etc.

Imperative pide (pedí), pida, pidamos, pedid, pidan

Infinitive Simple Compound pedir haber pedido

Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund pedido Simple Compound pidiendo habiendo pedido

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Verb tables

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Sentir (e > ie) (to feel) Present siento sientes (sentís) siente sentimos sentís sienten Perfect

Imperfect sentía sentías sentía sentíamos sentíais sentían

Preterit sentí sentiste sintió sentimos sentisteis sintieron

Future sentiré sentirás sentirá sentiremos sentiréis sentirán

Conditional sentiría sentirías sentiría sentiríamos sentiríais sentirían

Pluperfect

Past anterior

he sentido has sentido etc.

había sentido habías sentido etc.

hube sentido hubiste sentido etc.

Future in the past habré sentido habrás sentido etc.

Conditional in the past habría sentido habrías sentido etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative siente (sentí), sienta, sintamos, sentid, sientan

Present sienta sientas sienta sintamos sintáis sientan Perfect haya sentido hayas sentido etc.

Imperfect Future sintiere sintiera/sintiese sintieres sintieras/sintieses sintiere sintiera/sintiese sintiéremos sintiéramos/sintiésemos sintiereis sintierais/sintieseis sintieren sintieran/sintiesen Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere sentido hubiera/hubieses sentido hubieres sentido hubieras/hubieses sentido etc. etc. Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Gerund Simple Compound sentido Simple Compound sentir haber sentido sintiendo habiendo sentido

Verbs with orthographical changes Almorzar (-za > -ce) (to have lunch)

Indicative (simple tenses)

516

Present almuerzo almuerzas (almorzás) almuerza almorzamos almorzáis almuerzan

Imperfect almorzaba almorzabas almorzaba almorzábamos almorzabais almorzaban

Preterit almorcé almorzaste almorzó almorzamos almorzasteis almorzaron

Future almorzaré almorzarás almorzará almorzaremos almorzaréis almorzarán

Conditional almorzaría almorzarías almorzaría almorzaríamos almorzaríais almorzarían

Verb tables

517

Perfect

Pluperfect

Past Future in the past Conditional in anterior the past habría habré almorzado hube almorzado almorzado habrás almorzado habrías etc. hubiste almorzado almorzado etc. etc. Imperfect Future almorzare almorzara/almorzase almorzares almorzaras/almorzases almorzare almorzara/almorzase almorzáremos almorzáramos/ almorzareis almorzásemos almorzaren almorzarais/almorzaseis almorzaran/almorzasen Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere almorzado hubiera/hubiese hubieres almorzado almorzado etc. hubieras/hubieses almorzado etc.

Indicative (compound tenses)

había he almorzado almorzado habías has almorzado almorzado etc. etc. Present almuerce Subjunctive almuerces (simple almuerce tenses) almorcemos almorcéis almuercen

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Imperative almuerza (almorzá), almuerce, almorcemos, almorzad, almuercen

Perfect haya almorzado hayas almorzado etc.

Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Simple Compound almorzado almorzar haber almorzado

Gerund Simple Compound almorzando habiendo almorzado

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Averiguar (-gua > -güe) (to check, to find out) Present averiguo averiguas (averiguás) averigua averiguamos averiguáis averiguan Perfect

Imperfect averiguaba averiguabas averiguaba averiguábamos averiguabais averiguaban Pluperfect

Preterit averigüé averiguaste averiguó averiguamos averiguasteis averiguaron

Past anterior

Future averiguaré averiguarás averiguará averiguaremos averiguaréis averiguarán

Future in the past hube averiguado habré averiguado he averiguado había habrás averiguado hubiste has averiguado averiguado habías averiguado etc. averiguado etc. etc. etc.

Conditional averiguaría averiguarías averiguaría averiguaríamos averiguaríais averiguarían Conditional in the past habría averiguado habrías averiguado etc.

Verb tables

Present Imperfect Future averiguare averiguara/averiguase averigüe averiguares averiguaras/averiguases averigües averiguare averiguara/averiguase averigüe averiguáramos/averiguásemos averiguáremos averigüemos averiguareis averiguarais/averiguaseis averigüéis averiguaren averiguaran/averiguasen averigüen Perfect Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere averiguado hubiera/hubiese averiguado Subjunctive haya averiguado hubieras/hubieses averiguado hubieres averiguado (compound hayas averiguado etc. etc. etc. tenses) Imperative Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Gerund averigua (averiguá), Simple Compound averiguado Simple Compound averigüe, averiguar haber averiguando habiendo averigüemos, averiguado averiguado averiguad, averigüen Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Buscar (-ca > -que) (to look for)

Indicative (compound tenses)

518

Present busco buscas (buscás) busca buscamos buscáis buscan Perfect

Imperfect buscaba buscabas buscaba buscábamos buscabais buscaban

Preterit busqué buscaste buscó buscamos buscasteis buscaron

Pluperfect

he buscado has buscado etc.

había buscado habías buscado etc.

Past Future in the Conditional in the anterior past past habría buscado habré buscado hube habrías buscado habrás buscado buscado etc. etc. hubiste buscado etc. Imperfect Future buscare buscara/buscase buscares buscaras/buscases buscare buscara/buscase buscáremos buscáramos/buscásemos buscareis buscarais/buscaseis buscaren buscaran/buscasen Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere buscado hubiera/hubiese buscado hubieres buscado hubieras/hubieses buscado etc. etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Present busque busques busque busquemos busquéis busquen Perfect haya buscado hayas buscado etc.

Future buscaré buscarás buscará buscaremos buscaréis buscarán

Conditional buscaría buscarías buscaría buscaríamos buscaríais buscarían

Verb tables

Imperative busca (buscá), busque, busquemos, buscad, busquen

519

Infinitive Simple Compound buscar haber buscado

Non-personal forms Past participle buscado Simple buscando

Gerund Compound habiendo buscado

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Corregir (-gi > -ja/o) (to correct) Present corrijo corriges (corregís) corrige corregimos corregís corrigen Perfect

Imperfect corregía corregías corregía corregíamos corregíais corregían

Preterit corregí corregiste corrigió corregimos corregisteis corrigieron

Future corregiré corregirás corregirá corregiremos corregiréis corregirán

Pluperfect

Past anterior

Future in the past habré corregido habrás corregido etc.

he corregido había corregido habías corregido has etc. corregido etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Present corrija corrijas corrija corrijamos corrijáis corrijan Perfect haya corregido hayas corregido etc.

Imperative corrige (corregí), corrija, corrijamos, corregid, corrijan

hube corregido hubiste corregido etc.

Imperfect corrigiera/corrigiese corrigieras/corrigieses corrigiera/corrigiese corrigiéramos/corrigiésemos corrigierais/corrigieseis corrigieran/corrigiesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese corregido hubieras/hubieses corregido etc.

Infinitive Simple Compound corregir haber corregido

Conditional corregiría corregirías corregiría corregiríamos corregiríais corregirían Conditional in the past habría corregido habrías corregido etc. Future corrigiere corrigieres corrigiere corrigiéremos corrigiereis corrigieren Future perfect hubiere corregido hubieres corregido etc.

Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund corregido Simple Compound corrigiendo habiendo corregido

Verb tables

Indicative (simple tenses)

Distinguir(-gui>-go/a) (to distinguish) Present Imperfect Preterit distinguí distinguía distingo distinguiste distinguías distingues distinguió (distingués) distinguía distinguíamos distinguimos distingue distinguisteis distinguimos distinguíais distinguieron distinguían distinguís distinguen Perfect Pluperfect Past anterior

Future distinguiré distinguirás distinguirá distinguiremos distinguiréis distinguirán

Conditional distinguiría distinguirías distinguiría distinguiríamos distinguiríais distinguirían

Indicative (compound tenses)

Future in the Conditional in past the past habría hube distinguido habré había he distinguido distinguido hubiste distinguido distinguido habrías habrás distinguido habías has distinguido distinguido etc. distinguido distinguido etc. etc. etc. etc. Present Imperfect Future distinguiere distinguiera/distinguiese Subjunctive distinga distinguieres distinguieras/distinguieses distingas (simple distinguiere distinguiera/distinguiese distinga tenses) distinguiéremos distinguiéramos/distinguiésemos distingamos distinguiereis distinguierais/distinguieseis distingáis distinguieren distinguieran/distinguiesen distingan Perfect Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere distinguido hubiera/hubiese distinguido Subjunctive haya hubieres distinguido hubieras/hubieses distinguido (compound distinguido etc. etc. hayas tenses) distinguido etc. Imperative Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Gerund distingue (distingué), Simple Compound distinguido Simple Compound distinga, distinguir haber distinguiendo habiendo distingamos, distinguido distinguido distinguid, distingan

Escoger (-ge > -ja/o) (to choose)

Indicative (simple tenses)

520

Present escojo escoges (escogés) escoge escogemos escogéis escogen

Imperfect escogía escogías escogía escogíamos escogíais escogían

Preterit escogí escogiste escogió escogimos escogisteis escogieron

Future escogeré escogerás escogerá escogeremos escogeréis escogerán

Conditional escogería escogerías escogería escogeríamos escogeríais escogerían

521

Indicative (compound tenses)

Verb tables

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Perfect

Pluperfect

Past anterior

he escogido has escogido etc.

había escogido habías escogido etc.

hube escogido hubiste escogido etc.

Present escoja escojas escoja escojamos escojáis escojan Perfect haya escogido hayas escogido etc.

Imperative Infinitive escoge (escogé), escoja, escojamos, Simple Compound escoged, escojan escoger haber escogido

Future in the past habré escogido habrás escogido etc.

Imperfect escogiera/escogiese escogieras/escogieses escogiera/escogiese escogiéramos/escogiésemos escogierais/escogieseis escogieran/escogiesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese escogido hubieras/hubieses escogido etc.

Conditional in the past habría escogido habrías escogido etc. Future escogiere escogieres escogiere escogiéremos escogiereis escogieren Future perfect hubiere escogido hubieres escogido etc.

Non-personal forms Past participle Gerund escogido Simple Compound escogiendo habiendo escogido

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Pagar (-ga > -gue) (to pay [for]) Present pago pagas (pagás) paga pagamos pagáis pagan Perfect

Imperfect pagaba pagabas pagaba pagábamos pagabais pagaban Pluperfect

he pagado has pagado etc.

había pagado habías pagado etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Present pague pagues pague paguemos paguéis paguen

Preterit pagué pagaste pagó pagamos pagasteis pagaron Past anterior

Future pagaré pagarás pagará pagaremos pagaréis pagarán Future in the past hube pagado habré pagado habrás pagado hubiste etc. pagado etc.

Imperfect pagara/pagase pagaras/pagases pagara/pagase pagáramos/pagásemos pagarais/pagaseis pagaran/pagasen

Conditional pagaría pagarías pagaría pagaríamos pagaríais pagarían Conditional in the past habría pagado habrías pagado etc.

Future pagare pagares pagare pagáremos pagareis pagaren

Verb tables

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative paga (pagá), pague, paguemos, pagad, paguen

Perfect haya pagado hayas pagado etc.

Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere pagado hubiera/hubiese pagado hubieras/hubieses pagado hubieres pagado etc. etc. Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Gerund Simple Compound pagado Simple Compound pagar haber pagado pagando habiendo pagado

Indicative (simple tenses)

Traducir (-ci > -zca/zco; also uje/uji, etc.) (to translate) Present traduzco traduces (traducís) traduce traducimos traducís traducen Perfect

Imperfect traducía traducías traducía traducíamos traducíais traducían Pluperfect

Preterit traduje tradujiste tradujo tradujimos tradujisteis tradujeron

Future traduciré traducirás traducirá traduciremos traduciréis traducirán

Conditional traduciría traducirías traduciría traduciríamos traduciríais traducirían

Past Future in the past Conditional in anterior the past habré traducido habría traducido hube había he habrás traducido etc. habrías traducido traducido traducido traducido etc. hubiste habías has traducido traducido traducido etc. etc. etc. Present Imperfect Future tradujere tradujera/tradujese Subjunctive traduzca tradujeres tradujeras/tradujeses traduzcas (simple tradujere tradujera/tradujese traduzca tenses) tradujéremos tradujéramos/tradujésemos traduzcamos tradujereis tradujerais/tradujeseis traduzcáis tradujeren tradujeran/tradujesen traduzcan Perfect Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere traducido hubiera/hubiese traducido Subjunctive haya traducido hubieres traducido etc. hayas traducido etc. hubieras/hubieses traducido (compound etc. tenses) Imperative Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Gerund traduce (traducí), traduzca, Simple Compound traducido Simple Compound traduzcamos, traducir haber traduciendo habiendo traducid, traducido traducido traduzcan Indicative (compound tenses)

522

Verb tables

523

Verbs with certain irregularities or combinations of irregularities

Indicative (simple tenses)

Actuar (to act, to perform) Present actúo actúas (actuás) actúa actuamos actuáis actúan Perfect

Imperfect actuaba actuabas actuaba actuábamos actuabais actuaban

Preterit actué actuaste actuó actuamos actuasteis actuaron

Pluperfect

Past anterior

Future actuaré actuarás actuará actuaremos actuaréis actuarán

Future in the past habré actuado hube actuado hubiste actuado habrás actuado etc. etc.

había he actuado actuado habías has actuado actuado etc. etc. Present Imperfect actuara/actuase Subjunctive actúe actuaras/actuases actúes (simple actuara/actuase actúe tenses) actuáramos/actuásemos actuemos actuarais/actuaseis actuéis actuaran/actuesen actúen Perfect Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese actuado Subjunctive haya actuado hubieras/hubieses actuado (compound hayas actuado etc. etc. tenses) Imperative Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle actúa (actuá), Simple Compound actuado Simple actúe, actuar haber actuando actuemos, actuado actuad, actúen Indicative (compound tenses)

Conditional actuaría actuarías actuaría actuaríamos actuaríais actuarían Conditional in the past habría actuado habrías actuado etc.

Future actuare actuares actuare actuáremos actuareis actuaren Future perfect hubiere actuado hubieres actuado etc.

Gerund Compound habiendo actuado

Indicative (simple tenses)

Adquirir (to acquire) Present adquiero adquieres (adquirís) adquiere adquirimos adquirís adquieren

Imperfect adquiría adquirías adquiría adquiríamos adquiríais adquirían

Preterit adquirí adquiriste adquirió adquirimos adquiristeis adquirieron

Future adquiriré adquirirás adquirirá adquiriremos adquiriréis adquirirán

Conditional adquiriría adquirirías adquiriría adquiriríamos adquiriríais adquirirían

Indicative (compound tenses)

Verb tables

Perfect

Pluperfect

Past anterior

he adquirido has adquirido etc.

había adquirido habías adquirido etc.

hube adquirido hubiste adquirido etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative adquiere (adquirí), adquiera, adquiramos, adquirid, adquieran

Future in the past habré adquirido habrás adquirido etc.

Conditional in the past habría adquirido habrías adquirido etc.

Present adquiera adquieras adquiera adquiramos adquiráis adquieran Perfect haya adquirido hayas adquirido etc.

Imperfect Future adquiriere adquiriera/adquiriese adquirieres adquirieras/adquirieses adquiriere adquiriera/adquiriese adquiriéremos adquiriéramos/adquiriésemos adquiriereis adquirierais/adquirieseis adquirieren adquirieran/adquiriesen Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere adquirido hubiera/hubiese adquirido hubieres adquirido etc. hubieras/hubieses adquirido etc. Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Gerund Simple Compound adquirido Simple Compound adquirir haber adquiriendo habiendo adquirido adquirido

Indicative (simple tenses)

Aislar (to isolate, to insulate)

Indicative (compound tenses)

524

Present aíslo aíslas (aislás) aísla aislamos aisláis aíslan Perfect

Imperfect aislaba aislabas aislaba aislabámos aislabais aislaban Pluperfect

he aislado has aislado etc.

había aislado habías aislado etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Present aísle aísles aísle aislemos aisléis aíslen

Preterit aislé aislaste aisló aislamos aislasteis aislaron Past anterior

Future Conditional aislaría aislaré aislarías aislarás aislaría aislará aislaremos aislaríamos aislaríais aislaréis aislarían aislarán Future in Conditional in the past the past habría aislado habré hube aislado habrías aislado hubiste aislado aislado etc. habrás etc. aislado etc. Imperfect Future aislare aislara/aislase aislares aislaras/aislases aislare aislara/aislase aisláremos aisláramos/aislásemos aislareis aislarais/aislaseis aislaren aislaran/aislasen

Verb tables

525

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative aísla (aislá), aísle, aislemos, aislad, aíslen

Perfect haya aislado hayas aislado etc.

Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese aislado hubieras/hubieses aislado etc. Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Simple Compound aislado Simple aislar haber aislando aislado

Future perfect hubiere aislado hubieres aislado etc. Gerund Compound habiendo aislado

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Ceñir (to girdle, to surround, to fasten) Present ciño ciñes (ceñís) ciñe ceñimos ceñís ciñen Perfect

Imperfect ceñía ceñías ceñía ceñíamos ceñíais ceñían Pluperfect

Preterit ceñí ceñiste ciñó ceñimos ceñisteis ciñeron Past anterior

he ceñido has ceñido etc.

había ceñido habías ceñido etc.

hube ceñido hubiste ceñido etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative ciñe (ceñí), ciña, ciñamos, ceñid, ciñan

Present ciña ciñas ciña ciñamos ciñáis ciñan Perfect haya ceñido hayas ceñido etc.

Future ceñiré ceñirás ceñirá ceñiremos ceñiréis ceñirán Future in the past habré ceñido habrás ceñido etc.

Imperfect ciñera/ciñese ciñeras/ciñeses ciñera/ciñese ciñéramos/ciñésemos ciñerais/ciñeseis ciñeran/ciñesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese ceñido hubieras/hubieses ceñido etc. Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Simple Compound ceñido Simple ceñir haber ciñendo ceñido

Conditional ceñiría ceñirías ceñiría ceñiríamos ceñiríais ceñirían Conditional in the past habría ceñido habrías ceñido etc.

Future ciñere ciñeres ciñere ciñéremos ciñereis ciñeren Future perfect hubiere ceñido hubieres ceñido etc. Gerund Compound habiendo ceñido

Verb tables

Dormir (to sleep)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Present duermo duermes (dormís) duerme dormimos dormís duermen Perfect

Indicative (compound tenses)

he dormido has dormido etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Imperative duerme (dormí), duerma, durmamos, dormid, duerman

Imperfect dormía dormías dormía dormíamos dormíais dormían

Preterit dormí dormiste durmió dormimos dormisteis durmieron

Future dormiré dormirás dormirá dormiremos dormiréis dormirán

Pluperfect

Past anterior

había dormido habías dormido etc.

hube dormido hubiste dormido etc.

Future in the past habré dormido habrás dormido etc.

Present duerma duermas duerma durmamos durmáis duerman Perfect haya dormido hayas dormido etc.

Imperfect durmiera/durmiese durmieras/durmieses durmiera/durmiese durmiéramos/durmiésemos durmierais/durmieseis durmieran/durmiesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese dormido hubieras/hubieses dormido etc.

Conditional dormiría dormirías dormiría dormiríamos dormiríais dormirían Conditional in the past habría dormido habrías dormido etc. Future durmiere durmieres durmiere durmiéremos durmiereis durmieren Future perfect hubiere dormido hubieres dormido etc.

Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Gerund Simple Compound dormido Simple Compound dormir haber durmiendo habiendo dormido dormido

Enviar (to send)

Indicative (simple tenses)

526

Present envío envías (enviás) envía enviamos envíais envían

Imperfect enviaba enviabas enviaba enviábamos enviabais enviaban

Preterit envié enviaste envió enviamos enviasteis enviaron

Future enviaré enviarás enviará enviaremos enviaréis enviarán

Conditional enviaría enviarías enviaría enviaríamos enviaríais enviarían

Verb tables

527

Perfect

Pluperfect

Past anterior

Indicative (compound tenses)

había enviado he habías enviado enviado etc. has enviado etc. Present Subjunctive envíe (simple tenses) envíes envíe enviemos enviéis envíen Perfect haya enviado Subjunctive hayas enviado (compound etc. tenses) Imperative Infinitive envía (enviá), envíe, enviemos, enviad, envíen Simple Compound enviar haber enviado

hube enviado hubiste enviado etc.

Future in the past habré enviado habrás enviado etc.

Imperfect enviara/enviase enviaras/enviases enviara/enviase enviáramos/enviásemos enviarais/enviaseis enviaran/enviasen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese enviado hubieras/hubieses enviado etc. Non-personal forms Past participle enviado

Conditional in the past habría enviado habrías enviado etc. Future enviare enviares enviare enviáremos enviareis enviaren Future perfect hubiere enviado hubieres enviado etc. Gerund

Simple enviando

Compound habiendo enviado

Indicative (simple tenses)

Erguir (to stand up straight, to raise) Present yergo yergues (erguís) yergue erguimos erguís yerguen Perfect

Imperfect erguía erguías erguía erguíamos erguíais erguían

Future erguiré erguirás erguirá erguiremos erguiréis erguirán

Past Future in the anterior past habré erguido había erguido hube he erguido habrás erguido erguido has erguido habías etc. hubiste erguido etc. erguido etc. etc. Present Imperfect irguiera/irguiese Subjunctive yerga irguieras/irguieses yergas (simple iguiera/irguiese yerga tenses) irguiéramos/irguiésemos irgamos irguierais/irguieseis irgáis irguieran/irguiesen yergan Indicative (compound tenses)

Pluperfect

Preterit erguí erguiste irguió erguimos erguisteis irguieron

Conditional erguiría erguirías erguiría erguiríamos erguiríais erguirían Conditional in the past habría erguido habrías erguido etc.

Future irguiere irguieres irguiere irguiéremos irguiereis irguieren

Verb tables

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative yergue (erguí), yerga, irgamos, erguid, yergan

Perfect haya erguido hayas erguido etc.

Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese erguido hubieras/hubieses erguido etc. Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Simple Compound erguido Simple erguir haber irguiendo erguido

Future perfect hubiere erguido hubieres erguido etc. Gerund Compound habiendo erguido

Indicative (simple tenses)

Huir (to flee, to run away)

Indicative (compound tenses)

528

Present huyo huyes (huís) huye huimos huis huyen Perfect

Imperfect huía huías huía huíamos huíais huían Pluperfect

he huido has huido etc.

había huido habías huido etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative huye (huí), huya, huyamos, huid, huyan

Present huya huyas huya huyamos huyáis huyan Perfect haya huido hayas huido etc. Infinitive Simple Compound huir haber huido

Preterit huí huiste huyó huimos huisteis huyeron Past anterior hube huido hubiste huido etc.

Future huiré huirás huirá huiremos huiréis huirán Future in the past habré huido habrás huido etc.

Imperfect huyera/huyese huyeras/huyeses huyera/huyese huyéramos/huyésemos huyerais/huyeseis huyeran/huyesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese huido hubieras/hubieses huido etc. Non-personal forms Past participle huido Simple huyendo

Conditional huiría huirías huiría huiríamos huiríais huirían Conditional in the past habría huido habrías huido etc.

Future huyere huyeres huyere huyéremos huyereis huyeren Future perfect hubiere huido hubieres huido etc. Gerund Compound habiendo huido

Verb tables

529

Jugar (to play) Future Conditional jugaría jugaré jugarías jugarás jugaría jugará jugaríamos jugaremos jugaríais jugaréis jugarían jugarán Future in Conditional in the the past past habría jugado habré había jugado hube jugado he jugado habrías jugado habías jugado hubiste jugado jugado has jugado etc. habrás etc. etc. etc. jugado etc. Present Imperfect Future jugare jugara/jugase juegue Subjunctive jugares jugaras/jugases juegues (simple jugare jugara/jugase juegue tenses) jugáremos jugáramos/ juguemos jugareis jugásemos juguéis jugaren jugarais/jugaseis jueguen jugaran/jugasen Perfect Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere jugado hubiera/hubiese haya jugado Subjunctive hubieres jugado jugado hayas jugado (compound etc. hubieras/hubieses etc. tenses) jugado etc. Imperative Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Gerund juega (jugá), juegue, Simple Compound jugado Simple Compound juguemos, jugar haber jugado jugando habiendo jugado jugad, jueguen Indicative (simple tenses)

Imperfect jugaba jugabas jugaba jugábamos jugabais jugaban Pluperfect

Preterit jugué jugaste jugó jugamos jugasteis jugaron Past anterior

Indicative (compound tenses)

Present juego juegas (jugás) juega jugamos jugáis juegan Perfect

Indicative (simple tenses)

Mullir (to soften, to loosen) Present mullo mulles (mullís) mulle mullimos mullís mullen

Imperfect mullía mullías mullía mullíamos mullíais mullían

Preterit mullí mulliste mulló mullimos mullisteis mulleron

Future mulliré mullirás mullirá mulliremos mulliréis mullirán

Conditional mulliría mullirías mulliría mulliríamos mulliríais mullirían

Indicative (compound tenses)

Verb tables

Perfect

Pluperfect

Past anterior

he mullido has mullido etc.

había mullido habías mullido etc.

hube mullido hubiste mullido etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Present mulla mullas mulla mullamos mulláis mullan Perfect haya mullido hayas mullido etc.

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative Infinitive mulle (mullí), mulla, mullamos, Simple Compound mullid, mullan mullir haber mullido

Future in the past habré mullido habrás mullido etc.

Conditional in the past habría mullido habrías mullido etc.

Imperfect mullera/mullese mulleras/mulleses mullera/mullese mulléramos/mullésemos mullerais/mulleseis mulleran/mullesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese mullido hubieras/hubieses mullido etc. Non-personal forms Past participle mullido Simple mullendo

Future mullere mulleres mullere mulléremos mullereis mulleren Future perfect hubiere mullido hubieres mullido etc. Gerund Compound habiendo mullido

Indicative (simple tenses)

Rehusar (to refuse, to decline) Present rehúso rehúsas (rehusás) rehúsa rehusamos rehusáis rehúsan Perfect

Imperfect rehusaba rehusabas rehusaba rehusábamos rehusabais rehusaban

Preterit rehusé rehusaste rehusó rehusamos rehusasteis rehusaron

Pluperfect

Past anterior

había rehusado he rehusado habías rehusado etc. has rehusado etc. Present Subjunctive rehúse rehúses (simple rehúse tenses) rehusemos rehuséis rehúsen Indicative (compound tenses)

530

Future rehusaré rehusarás rehusará rehusaremos rehusaréis rehusarán

Conditional rehusaría rehusarías rehusaría rehusaríamos rehusaríais rehusarían

Future in the Conditional in the past past habría rehusado hube rehusado habré habrías rehusado rehusado hubiste etc. habrás rehusado rehusado etc. etc. Imperfect Future rehusare rehusara/rehusase rehusares rehusaras/rehusases rehusare rehusara/rehusase rehusáramos/rehusásemos rehusáremos rehusareis rehusarais/rehusaseis rehusaren rehusaran/rehusasen

Verb tables

531

Perfect Subjunctive haya rehusado (compound hayas rehusado etc. tenses) Imperative Infinitive rehúsa (rehusá), Simple Compound rehúse, rehusar haber rehusemos, rehusado rehusad, rehúsen

Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese rehusado hubieras/hubieses rehusado etc. Non-personal forms Past participle rehusado Simple rehusando

Future perfect hubiere rehusado hubieres rehusado etc. Gerund Compound habiendo rehusado

Indicative (compound tenses)

Indicative (simple tenses)

Tañer (to play, to ring) Present taño tañes (tañés) tañe tañemos tañéis tañen Perfect

Imperfect tañía tañías tañía tañíamos tañíais tañían Pluperfect

Preterit tañí tañiste tañó tañimos tañisteis tañeron Past anterior

he tañido has tañido etc.

había tañido habías tañido etc.

hube tañido hubiste tañido etc.

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Subjunctive (compound tenses)

Present taña tañas taña tañamos tañáis tañan Perfect haya tañido hayas tañido etc.

Imperative Infinitive tañe (tañé), taña, tañamos, Simple Compound tañed, tañan tañer haber tañido

Future tañeré tañerás tañerá tañeremos tañeréis tañerán Future in the past habré tañido habrás tañido etc.

Imperfect tañera/tañese tañeras/tañeses tañera/tañese tañéramos/tañesemos tañerais/tañeseis tañeran/tañesen Pluperfect hubiera/hubiese tañido hubieras/hubieses tañido etc. Non-personal forms Past participle tañido Simple tañendo

Conditional tañería tañerías tañería tañeríamos tañeríais tañerían Conditional in the past habría tañido habrías tañido etc.

Future tañere tañeres tañere tañéremos tañereis tañeren Future perfect hubiere tañido hubieres tañido etc. Gerund Compound habiendo tañido

Verb tables

Indicative (simple tenses)

Yacer (to lie)

Indicative (compound tenses)

532

Subjunctive (simple tenses)

Present yazco/ yazgo/yago yaces (yacés) yace yacemos yacéis yacen Perfect

Imperfect yacía yacías yacía yacíamos yacíais yacían

Preterit yací yaciste yació yacimos yacisteis yacieron

Pluperfect

Past anterior

he yacido había yacido has yacido habías yacido etc. etc.

Present yazca/yazga/yaga yazcas/yazgas/yagas yazca/yazga/yaga yazcamos/yazgamos/ yagamos yazcáis/yazgáis/yagáis yazcan/yazgan/yagan Perfect haya yacido hayas yacido etc.

Subjunctive (compound tenses) Imperative yace/yaz (yacé), yazca/ yazga/yaga, yazcamos/ yazgamos/yagamos, yaced, yazcan, yazgan, yagan

Future yaceré yacerás yacerá yaceremos yaceréis yacerán

Conditional yacería yacerías yacería yaceríamos yaceríais yacerían

Future in Conditional in the the past past habría yacido habré hube yacido habrías yacido hubiste yacido yacido etc. habrás etc. yacido etc. Imperfect Future yaciere yaciera/yaciese yacieres yacieras/yacieses yaciere yaciera/yaciese yaciéremos yaciéramos/yaciésemos yaciereis yacierais/yacieseis yacieren yacieran/yaciesen

Pluperfect Future perfect hubiere yacido hubiera/hubiese yacido hubieras/hubieses yacido hubieres yacido etc. etc. Non-personal forms Infinitive Past participle Gerund Simple Compound yacido Simple Compound yacer haber yaciendo habiendo yacido yacido

Appendix II: Glossary / Glosario

General accent/acento

Sign written over a letter, often a vowel in Spanish. e.g. café, corrió (ran), España (here over a consonant) (see tilde), averigüe (may check) (see dieresis). Accent is often confused with stress. Can often mean specific intonation associated with a speaker’s regional or social dialect.

accidence/accidente

The part of grammar concerned with changes in the form of words for the expression of tense, person, case, number, etc. e.g. El género es uno de los accidentes del nombre (noun). (Gender is one of the accidences of a noun.)

adjective/adjetivo

A word that defines a noun. It agrees with the noun it qualifies. e.g. una casa hermosa, nubes grises, un chico alto (a lovely house, grey clouds, a tall boy)

adjective, demonstrative/ adjetivo demostrativo

An adjective that points to something. e.g. este hombre, esa mujer, aquella casa, aquellas calles (this man, that woman, that house, those streets).

adverb/adverbio

A word or group of words that modify a verb, adjective or another adverb. e.g. Puedo hacerlo fácilmente. (I can do it easily.) Este pan es muy bueno. (This bread is very good.)

agent/agente

The person or thing performing the action indicated by the verb. e.g. El gato atacó al perro. (The cat attacked the dog.) Here the agent is the cat, as in the following example. El perro fue atacado por el gato. (The dog was attacked by the cat.)

agreement/concordancia

There are three kinds of agreement in Spanish: 1. Agreement in number. Adjectives, verbs and articles agree with the nouns and pronouns they relate to. e.g. La chica lista hace sus deberes. (The clever girl does her homework.) If a noun is masculine or feminine, the adjective should show the ending for the masculine or feminine form. 2. agreement. Adjectives agree Gender with the noun they qualify. e.g. Un chico alto, una chica guapa (a tall boy, a pretty girl). 3. Agreement of tense. A correspondence of tenses is required in Spanish. e.g. Yo quería que mi hermano 533

534

Glossary me ayudara. (I wanted my brother to help me.) Le he dicho que iré. (I have told him/her that I will go.) Le dije que iría. (I told her/him I would go.) (See Verbs.) antecedent/antecedente

A word or phrase to which a pronoun refers. The word or phrase always precedes the pronoun. e.g. El chico que vive en esta calle es un genio. (The boy who lives down the road is a genius.) Chico is the antecedent of que. When the antecedent is unclear or indeterminate, the following verb is very often in the subjunctive mood in Spanish.

apocopation/apócope

Shortening of some adjectives when they immediately precede a noun. e.g. un buen (from bueno) café, un mal (from malo) vino (good coffee, bad wine).

apposition/aposición

Two words placed side by side, so that the second word modifies the first. e.g. Madrid, capital de España (Madrid, capital of Spain). It may be said that capital is in apposition to Madrid.

article, definite/ artículo definido

A word which, when placed in front of a noun, shows its variations in gender and number. e.g. el padre, la madre, los padres, las madres. English equivalent is the easier, all-purpose the.

article, indefinite/ artículo indefinido

Determines a noun when placed in front of it, but is less precise than the definite article. e.g. un coche/ carro (M), una mesa, unos coches/carros (M), unas mesas. The English equivalents are a and some.

asterisk/asterisco

Orthographical sign in the form of a star, thus *, which refers to a note requiring the reader’s attention.

atonic/unstressed/átono

A vowel, syllable or word that does not bear any stress. These are usually short words. e.g. La palabra el es una palabra átona. (The word el is an unstressed word.)

augmentative/aumentativo

Letters added to the end of a noun, adjective or adverb to indicate an increase in size, or an unpleasant or frightening appearance. e.g. casona (large, stately house), picacho (large, towering peak), casucha (ugly, unpleasant house, hovel).

ceceo

Pronunciation of the Spanish s like the English th, when it precedes e and i, or like the Spanish z. Heard in some regions of Andalusia. (See Seseo.)

clause/oración

Words forming part of a sentence containing a finite verb.

clause, main/oración principal

A clause that can stand alone as a sentence. e.g. Bajé las escaleras. (I went down the stairs.)

clause, subordinate/ oración subordinada

A clause in a sentence that depends on a main clause to make sense. e.g. Fui al mercado antes de que llegara mi hermano. (I went to the market before my brother arrived.) Fui al mercado is the main clause, while

Glossary

535 antes de que llegara mi hermano is the subordinate clause.

comparison/comparación

Applies to adjectives and adverbs that are modified to convey greater or lesser intensity. e.g. mejor, peor, menos/más listo (better, worse, less intelligent/more intelligent).

complement/complemento

Word, phrase or clause that completes the meaning of a sentence. Un genio es el complemento de Ella es un genio. (A genius is the complement of She is a genius.) Él llegara/se temprano es el complemento de Esperé que llegara/se temprano. (He would be early is the complement of I hoped he would be early.)

conjugation/conjugación

Model followed by verb forms. In reality, a conjugation shows the variation of stems and endings of verbs that go with each grammatical person, and verb tense and mood. There are three regular conjugations in Spanish: hablar, comer, vivir. Unfortunately for non-native Spanish-speakers, there are numerous irregular verbs which include radical/stem changing verbs. Irregular verbs can confuse Spanish-speakers, especially children.

conjunction/conjunción

Any word or group of words, but not a relative pronoun, that connects words or phrases. e.g. Tomé el primer plato y el segundo, pero no el postre. (I had the first course and the second, but not the dessert.)

consonant/consonante

A speech sound or letter other than a vowel. e.g. b, c, d.

determiner/determinante

A word such as a number, article or personal pronoun that determines or limits the meaning of a noun phrase. e.g. El artículo, el adjetivo posesivo, el numeral y el demostrativo son determinantes. Also su in su gato negro.

dieresis/diéresis

Orthographical sign placed above u > ü in the syllables gui and gue. This produces a pronunciation of two distinct vowel sounds in sequence. e.g. A diphthong as in cigüeña = c-i-g-u-e-ñ-a, where normally there is only one vowel.

diminutive/diminutivo

Letters added to the end of a noun, adjective or adverb to indicate the meaning of small. It often conveys an affectionate tone. Mexicans and Colombians are fond of diminutives, even more than the Spaniards. e.g. golpecito (tap, small blow), mesilla/mesita (small/bedside table).

diphthong/diptongo

A vowel sound, produced by a sequence of two vowels occupying a single syllable. In the articulation of a diphthong, the tongue moves continuously from one position to another, as in the pronunciation of the English a in late or ai in aire, caigo.

536

Glossary enclitic/enclítico

Relates to a monosyllabic and unaccentuated word or form that is treated as a suffix of the preceding word. The Spanish adjective is more common than the English equivalent since many pronouns are attached to verbs under certain conditions. e.g. Los pronombres átonos pospuestos al verbo como en «Aconséjame» son partículas enclíticas. (Unaccentuated pronouns placed after the verb, as with “Aconséjame,” are enclitic particles.)

figure of speech/figura retórica o figura literaria del lenguaje

Expression of language, such as a metaphor, by which the literal meaning of the word is not used. e.g. En la frase Me ofreció el rubí de su boca, rubí es una metáfora que se emplea en vez de labios (In the sentence She offered me the ruby of her mouth, ruby is a metaphor used instead of lips.)

gender/género

What distinguishes nouns and pronouns. All nouns and pronouns have a gender, not just male and female human beings and animals. e.g. el chico, la chica, el sol, la luna, Lo/le veo, La veo (the boy, the girl, the sun, the moon, I see him, I see her). Agreement must be made between the noun and adjective or past participle, except when used to form the perfect tense, with haber.

interjection/interjección

Words that express an exclamation and denote any strong emotion. e.g. ¡Dios mío! ¡Bárbaro! (A), ¡Híjole! (M) (Wow! Jees! Gee!)

language, figurative/lenguaje figurado

Language that uses a figure of speech. e.g. Luchó como un león. (She fought like a lion.) Izar la bandera de la libertad. (To raise the standard of freedom.)

morpheme/morfema

Speech element having a meaning or grammatical function that cannot be divided into further such elements. e.g. morfema de número/tiempo (morpheme representing number/tense).

morphology/morfología

Study of the forms of words (nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.).

noun nombre/sustantivo

A word used to name a person, thing or concept. Nouns can be concrete: hombre, coche (man, car) or abstract: alegría, malestar (joy, uneasiness).

number, cardinal/número cardinal

A cardinal number enables us to count. Uno, dos, tres. . . (One, two, three. . .).

number, ordinal/número ordinal

A number indicating the order in which things appear. Primero, segundo, tercero. . . (First, second, third. . .).

orthography/ortografía

Correct way of spelling words and punctuating sentences. A more common term in English is “spelling,” but “ortografía” is the normal word in Spanish.

Glossary

537

personal “a”/preposición “a” con complemento directo de persona

Used before a direct object that is a well-known person or pet animal. e.g. Vi a Juana/a tu perro (I saw Juana/your dog). Causes great inconvenience to Spanish-speakers for they frequently think that it involves an indirect object, as in (Le) Doy el libro a Juan. (I give the book to Juan.)

phoneme/fonema

One of the set of speech sounds that serve to distinguish one word from another. e.g. Entre pato y paso sólo cambia un fonema. (Between pato and paso there is only one change of phoneme.)

phrase/frase

A meaningful group of words in a sentence that does not contain a finite verb. e.g. en el jardín, por la calle (in the garden, down the street). Not to be confused with the Spanish “frase” which means both sentence and phrase.

prefix/prefijo

Syllable(s) attached to the front of a word. e.g. antirracista, anticonstitucional.

preposition/preposición

A word that usually comes before a noun. It expresses the relation of things to each other in respect of time and place. e.g. con mi amigo, voy a México, a las seis, en la mesa, sobre la silla, bajo el árbol, viene de Arizona.

preposition, compound/ preposición compuesta

Juxtaposition of two or even more prepositions e.g. El jardín está detrás/delante de la casa. (The garden is behind/in front of the house.)

pronoun, demonstrative/ pronombre demostrativo

Pronoun that indicates something. Éste es bueno, aquélla es mala. (This one is good, that one is bad.) The written accent is not necessary, but careful writers prefer it.

pronoun, interrogative/ pronombre interrogativo

Pronoun involving a question. e.g. ¿Quién ha ganado el premio? (Who has won the prize?) Other interrogative pronouns are ¿Cuál? (which?), ¿qué? (what?), ¿cuyo? (whose), ¿cuánto? (how much?).

personal pronoun/pronombre personal

A word that replaces a noun. There are two kinds of personal pronouns; subject, and direct and indirect object pronouns. e.g. Yo, tú, vos, él, ella, Ud., nosotros/ as, vosotros/as, Uds. (I, you, he, we, etc.) are subject pronouns. Me, te, le, la, nos, os, les, las (me, you, him, her, us, you, them) are direct object pronouns, while me, te, le, nos, os, les (to me, you, him, her, us, you, them) are indirect object pronouns. e.g. Yo la veo. (I see her/it.) Yo os/les/los veo. (I see you.) Yo le doy el coche. (I give him/ her the car.)

pronoun, possessive/ pronombre posesivo

A pronoun indicating possession. e.g. el mío/la mía, el tuyo/la tuya, el suyo/la suya, el nuestro/la nuestra, el vuestro/la vuestra, el suyo/la suya (mine, yours, his/hers, ours, yours, theirs.) ¿Dónde está la mía? (Where’s mine?)

538

Glossary pronoun, relative/ pronombre relativo

Links a relative clause to what precedes it. e.g. Vi al chico que vino ayer. (I saw the boy who came yesterday.) Other relative pronouns are el que, quien, el cual.

quantifier/cuantificador

A word or phrase, such as algunos (some), todos (all) or ningún/ninguno (none), which expresses quantity.

question, direct/pregunta en estilo directo

A sentence asking a straight question. e.g. ¿Adónde vas? (Where are you going?)

question, indirect/pregunta en estilo indirecto

Question included in a subordinate clause. e.g. Me preguntó adónde iba. (She asked me where I was going.)

seseo

Pronunciation of the Spanish c as if it were an s when it precedes i and e. e.g. ciclo, cerrar (cycle, to close). The seseo also includes the z when it precedes all vowels. e.g. zapato. This pronunciation is characteristic of all Spanish America, the Canary Islands and much of Andalusia. It can lead to ambiguity (although this is rare) in such words as cazar and casar. The c before e and i is also pronounced as the English th in thick, in Central and Northern Spain. (See also ceceo.)

singular/plural/singular/plural

A singular noun refers to one object, while a plural noun refers to more than one. e.g. el árbol/los árboles (the tree/the trees).

stem/raíz

Root form of a word. e.g. compr is the stem of the verb comprar (to buy) or the nouns compra and comprador.

stress/stressed syllable/ acentuación/acento tónico

The syllable of a word spoken most forcibly or loudly. Stress is crucial to meaning in both English and Spanish. Compare hablo (I speak) and habló ((s)he spoke), and the different meanings of invalid in The invalid had an invalid ticket. Stress should not be confused with accent.

suffix/sufijo

Syllable(s) attached to the end of a word. These are often augmentatives and diminutives. e.g. jardincito, mesilla (little garden, small/bedside table). Many pronouns are suffixes used enclitically.

superlative/superlativo

Applies to adjectives and adverbs that are modified to the greatest or least intensity. e.g. Es la mejor/peor estudiante ((S)He is the best/worst student.)

syllable/sílaba

A combination or set of units of sound. It always contains a vowel. Voy contains one syllable: iba contains two syllables and íbamos contains three syllables.

tilde

The orthographic sign over the n > ñ that changes the sound. The n of pino has the English sound of n as in pine, while the ñ of niño has the English sound of ni as in pinion. Most Spanish-speakers refer to the ñ as a tilde (la ñ), although strictly speaking the tilde is the

Glossary

539 sign over the n. Tilde also refers to any written accent over a vowel. e.g. rompí (I broke), ganó (you/he/she/it won).

tonic/tónico

An accent on an emphatic syllable that makes it stand out from the other syllables in a word, but it does not necessarily have to be written. e.g. Hombre lleva el acento tónico sobre la o. (The tonic accent/stress on hombre falls on the o.)

palabra aguda

Denotes a word where the tonic accent falls on the last syllable. e.g. Correr lleva un acento agudo. (The tonic accent falls on the last syllable of correr.)

palabra grave/llana

Denotes a word where the tonic accent falls on the penultimate syllable. e.g. Tomate es una palabra grave/ llana. (The tonic accent falls on the penultimate syllable of tomate.)

palabra esdrújula

Denotes a word where the tonic accent falls on the antepenultimate syllable. e.g. La palabra pájaro es esdrújula. (The word pájaro has a tonic accent on its antepenultimate syllable.)

palabra sobresdrújula

Denotes a word where the tonic accent falls on the syllable preceding the antepenultimate syllable e.g. Tíramelo es una palabra sobresdrújula. (The tonic accent falls on the syllable preceding the antepenultimate syllable of tíramelo.)

triphthong/triptongo

Three vowels forming a single syllable. In the articulation of a triphthong, the vocal organs move from one position to a second, ending in a third, as in fire. Contains two weak vowels (i or u) and one strong (a, e or o). e.g. cambiáis, apreciéis (you change, you value/ appreciate). Hardly ever appears in the Canary Islands or Spanish America, since the second person plural form corresponding to vosotros is not used there.

vowel/vocal

Letter that represents a speech sound characterized by an absence of obstruction in its emission. A, e, i, o, u are vowels.

Verbs agreement/concordancia

Correspondence between masculine and feminine nouns and part of the verb, and between the plural of nouns and the correct form of the verb. e.g. Está sentada. (She is sitting down.) Los chicos juegan en la calle. (The boys are playing in the street.)

auxiliary verb/verbo auxiliar

Helps to form a compound tense or precedes an infinitive. In He leído el libro, He is the auxiliary verb. In Voy a ver una película, Voy is the auxiliary verb.

540

Glossary compound tense/tiempo compuesto

Tense made up of the verb haber and a past participle. e.g. He/había/habría andado/hablado/escrito (I have/had/ would have walked/spoken/written).

conditional/conditional in the past/condicional/pretérito pluscuamperfecto

Includes a condition and a result. e.g. Si me dieras el dinero, compraría el pan. (If you gave me the money, I’d buy the bread.) Si me hubieras dado el dinero, (yo) hubiera/habría comprado el pan (If you had given me the money, I would have bought the bread.)

continuous progressive/ tiempo continuo progresivo

A compound verb made up of the verb estar (to be), ir (to go), venir (to come), seguir (to continue/follow) or continuar (to continue) and a present participle. e.g. Estoy leyendo el libro. (I am reading the book.) Estaba preparando la comida. (I was preparing the meal.) El camino iba bajando hasta el mar. (The path went on down to the sea).

finite verb/verbo finito conjugado

The form of a verb which is not the infinitive. e.g. corre (he runs), leo (I read), hablamos (we speak).

future perfect/futuro perfecto

Tense that refers to a future event that will have happened before a given moment. e.g. Habremos llegado antes de que salga. (We shall have arrived before she leaves.)

future tense/tiempo futuro

Tense referring to the future. e.g. Iré. (I’ll go.)

gerund/gerundio

Spanish verb form ending in -ando, -iendo, -yendo, like -ing in English. e.g. andando (walking), corriendo (running), yendo (going), leyendo (reading).

historic present/presente histórico

Present tense used to invest a description or narration with a greater vividness. e.g. Yo caminaba tranquilamente en el bosque, y ¡fíjate! veo a mi gran amigo que me dice que. . . (I was wandering through the wood when – just imagine! – I see my great friend who tells me that. . .).

imperfect/pretérito imperfecto copretérito (A, M)

Tense indicating a continuous or repeated action in the past. e.g. Yo jugaba (al) fútbol. (I used to play/was playing/would play/played football).

infinitive/infinitivo

Part of a verb which does not change, and which you always find in dictionaries. e.g. vivir (to live), andar (to walk), ver (to see).

intransitive/intransitivo

A verb that does not have a direct object or complement. e.g. Ir (to go), venir (to come). (See transitive.)

irregular verb/verbo irregular

A verb that does not conform to a pattern. Very inconvenient for foreign learners and very young Spanish-speaking children. Ir and ser are such verbs. Interestingly and understandably enough, as in the case of English, many Spanish-speaking children try to “regularize” irregular verbs. e.g. They may say andé

Glossary

541 instead of anduve, or cabo instead of quepo (of course, this is not to be copied).

mood, imperative/modo imperativo

Part of the verb which conveys a command. e.g. ¡habla! (speak!), ¡vete! (go away!), ¡come! (eat!).

mood, indicative/modo indicativo

Part of a verb which makes a clear statement e.g. Está listo. (He’s ready.) Me gusta el chocolate. (I like chocolate.)

mood, subjunctive/modo subjuntivo

Part of a verb which indicates emotion, pleasure, fear, uncertainty, doubt. It is often, but not always, used in a subordinate clause. It has nearly disappeared in English (e.g. It is possible he be right), but is very common in all tenses in Spanish (and Italian, although it is becoming less common in French where the imperfect subjunctive is very infrequent). e.g. Es posible que tenga razón. (She may be right.) Era imposible que tuviera razón. (It was impossible for her to be right).

past anterior/pretérito anterior Tense made up of the preterit of haber and a past participle. e.g. Cuando hubo llegado, fuimos juntos al. . . (When she had arrived, we went to. . .together.) This tense is only used in elevated language, as with novels. The tense in common discourse is the pluperfect. past participle/participio de pasado

Part of the verb which, in conjunction with the verb haber, makes up the perfect or pluperfect tense. e.g. He andado/hablado. (I have walked/spoken.)

perfect tense/pretérito perfecto antepresente (A, M)

Compound tense made up of haber and a past participle. e.g. He visto. (I have seen.) It is much less used in Spanish America, where it is often replaced by the preterit.

pluperfect/pluscuamperfecto/ antecopretérito (A, M)

Tense formed by the imperfect of haber (había) and the past participle. e.g. Cuando habíamos hablado. (When we had spoken.)

present participle/gerundio simple

Name given to the -ing part of the verb in English and to the -ando, -iendo and -yendo parts of the verb in Spanish. e.g. hablando (speaking), comiendo (eating), leyendo (reading).

preterit/pretérito

Simple past tense. Refers to a specific action in the past. Almost entirely replaces the perfect tense in Spanish America. e.g. fui (I went), hablé (I spoke), llegaron (they arrived). British English spelling is preterite.

pronominal verb/verbo pronominal

A verb that is conjugated in all its forms with the pronouns me, te, se, nos, os. This means that the subject and the reflexive pronoun refer to the same person. e.g. Yo me veo en el espejo. (I see myself in the mirror.) Me rasuro (M)/Me afeito con la máquina. (I shave with an electric razor.)

542

Glossary regular verb/verbo regular

A verb that conforms to a pattern. Very convenient for foreign learners and Spanish-speaking children. Hablar, comer and vivir are regular verbs.

tense/tiempo

Part of the verb indicating the moment when an action or thought takes place. e.g. nado is the present tense of the verb nadar. Nadaba is the imperfect tense of the verb nadar.

transitive/transitivo

A verb that takes a direct object. e.g. Veo la puerta (I see the door.) (See intransitive.)

voice, active passive/voz activa pasiva

The active voice relates to the subject of the sentence performing the action. The sentence: El chico rompió la ventana (The boy broke the window) is in the active voice, whereas: La ventana fue rota por el chico (The window was broken by the boy) is in the passive voice. A verb in the active voice can be transitive or intransitive, but a verb in the passive voice can only be transitive.

Terms referring to the Latin language Latin terms still used by Spanish speakers in language appreciation and by the diccionario de la lengua Española of the Real Academia Española. Latin is still studied in Spain, although it has almost disappeared in Colombia, for instance. The asterisked terms below are those still in regular use, while the others are included as part of the complete list. *ablative absolute/ablativo absoluto

Grammatical construction in which a past participle stands by itself with, for example, a noun, and replaces a finite verb. e.g. Oídas las noticias, se fue. (When he heard the news, he left.) Entregado el paquete, regresó a casa. (After handing in the packet, (s)he returned home.) This type of construction is not uncommon, and is used more in writing than in speech.

ablative case/caso ablativo (has the same function as a preposition and a noun or pronoun)

Denotes a case of nouns or pronouns indicating the agent, instrument or manner of the action. e.g. El perro fue golpeado por el chico. (The dog was hit by the boy.) Chico is in the ablative case.

*accusative case/caso acusativo (has the same function as the direct object)

Denotes a case marked on nouns, pronouns and adjectives in inflected languages that is used to identify the direct object of a finite verb. e.g. Toco la mesa (I touch the table). Mesa is in the accusative case.

*dative case/caso dativo (has the Denotes a case marked on nouns and pronouns in same function as the indirect inflected languages to express the indirect object e.g. object) Le doy el libro a Marta. (I give the book to Marta.) Marta is in the dative case. Great confusion among Spanishspeakers arises from the use of the personal “a,” which encourages them to think that in the sentence Veo a Begoña (I see Begoña), Begoña is in the dative case. It is, of course, in the accusative case.

Glossary

543

genitive case/caso genitivo (has the same function as the possessive)

Denotes a case marked on nouns, pronouns and adjectives in inflected languages that is used to indicate a relation of possession or ownership. e.g. La casa de Juan (Juan’s house). Juan is in the genitive case.

nominative case/caso nominativo (has the same function as the subject)

Denotes a case marked on nouns, pronouns and adjectives in inflected languages that is used especially to identify the subject of a finite verb. e.g. La muchacha habla con su padre. (The girl speaks with her father). Muchacha is in the nominative case.

*vocative case/caso vocativo

Denotes a case marked on nouns and adjectives in inflected languages when the referent of the noun is being addressed. e.g. ¡Ay Dios! ¡Ayúdame! ¡Hijo mío! (Oh God, help me! Oh, my son!) Dios and Hijo are in the vocative case.

Bibliography / Bibliografía

Bilingual The Oxford Spanish Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York, 2000 (excellent coverage of Spanish American, but you need to be a little wary since Spanish American is so diffuse). HarperCollins Spanish Dictionary Spanish–English English–Spanish, HarperCollins, Glasgow, 2001 (every bit as good as the dictionary above). Larousse Gran Diccionario: Español/Francés, Français/Espagnol, Larousse, Barcelona, 2002 (very good dictionary, but not so comprehensive as the other three in this list; however, it is extremely helpful for those aspiring to two languages or more). Simon and Schuster’s International Spanish Dictionary: English/Spanish, Spanish/English, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1998 (again, as good as the two above).

Grammars Alarcos Llorach, Emilio, Gramática de la lengua española, Real Academia Española, Espasa, Madrid, 2003 (very comprehensive, but for Spanish-speakers, and not presented in tabular form, so finding what you want can be time-consuming). Balesdent R. and Marotte, N., Grammaire méthodique de l’espagnol moderne, Ophrys, Paris, 1976 (most helpful for the very advanced). Batchelor, R. E., A Student Grammar of Spanish, Cambridge University Press, 2006 (a basic grammar that covers a great deal of ground and has copious exercises with full answers). Bello, Andrés, Gramática de la lengua española, EDAF, Madrid, Mexico City and Buenos Aires, 1984. Butt, John, Spanish Grammar, Oxford University Press, 2000. and Benjamin, Carmen, A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish, Arnold, London, 2001 (very comprehensive). Coste J. and Baqué, Monique, Grammaire de l’espagnol moderne, SEDES, Paris, 1993 (numerous colorful illustrations, less advanced than Balesdent and Marotte and examples too literary and too long). Gómez Torrego, Leonardo, Gramática didáctica del español, Ediciones SM, Madrid, 2002 (up to date, excellent for the finer points of the language, with frequent and very helpful indications of what is “correct” and “incorrect”). Kattán-Ibarra, Juan and Pountain, Christopher J., Modern Spanish Grammar, Routledge, London, 1997. Maqueo, Ana María, Español para extranjeros, 3 vol., Limusa, Noriega Editores, Mexico City, 2002– 2003 (excellent work but very diffuse, presented from a Mexican point of view, and in this sense very useful, notably for North American speakers of English; it is not, however, an advanced grammar). Ramsey, M. M., Ramsey’s Spanish Grammar, Henry Holt, New York, 1962 (has worn extremely well given that it is over a hundred years old). di Tullio, Ángela, Manual de gramática del español, La isla de la luna, Buenos Aires, 2005.

544

Bibliography / Bibliografía

545

Usage Batchelor, R. E., Using Spanish Synonyms, 2nd edn., Cambridge University Press, 2006. and Pountain, C. J., Using Spanish, 2nd edn., Cambridge University Press, 2005 (has a concise section on Spanish grammar, but also includes a very large section on vocabulary and the way the language is used, including register, or levels of language).

Verbs Hollis, María Rosario, Spanish Verbs, Teach Yourself Books, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1994. Kendris, Christopher and Kendris, Theodore, 501 Spanish Verbs, Barron’s Educational Series, New York, 2000.

Other Alatorre, Antonio, Los 1000 años de la lengua española, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 2002 (excellent analysis of the Spanish language from pre-Roman Iberian to the language of today: of particular interest is the section on Cambios Gramaticales, pp. 327–35). Andonegui Cuenca, María de los Ángeles, Los usos del español, Edere, Mexico City, 1999. El País, Libro de estilo, Ediciones El País, Madrid, 1990. Fontanella de Weinberg, María Beatriz (coordinadora), El español de la Argentina y sus variedades regionales, Asociación Bernardino Rivadavia, Bahía Blanca, 2004 (indispensable for anyone interested in the development of Argentinian Spanish, which is markedly different from the other varieties). Moreno de Alba, José G., Nuevas minucias del lenguaje, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico City, 1996 (contains an excellent coverage of different topics, many of which are strictly related to Spanish grammar. It is worth listing some of these articles in the order in which they appear in the book, since they complement, or shed further light on, some of the chapters in the present volume: Acentuación de demostrativos, Algunos usos impropios de la preposición “A,” Bendeciré/ contradiré, Cien(to), Currículum (-O, -A, -Os), Debo (de) estudiar, Detrás nuestro/detrás de nosotros, El arte/las artes, El (de) ése, El/la tequila, El plural de los compuestos, Es entonces “que” (cuando)/fue allí “que” (donde), Gentilicios, Hispánico, ¿Irak o Iraq?, La nueva gramática académica, “(Le) Dije a Pedro”, Mayúsculas en nombres propios, (Me) Entreno todos los días, Notas sobre acentuación, “Para” por “hacia”, Población hispanohablante en los Estados Unidos, Primer(a)/tercer(a) vez, Sobre el uso del guión, Voy “a” por ella, Sobre formas lingüísticas sexistas, Sobre la preposición “A,” Sobre verbos defectivos, Vascuence, Veintiún(a) páginas). El español en América, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico City, 2001 (excellent coverage of a variety of topics). Salas, R., El español correcto, Editorial de Vecchi, Barcelona, 1968. Seco, Manuel, Diccionario de dudas y dificultades de la lengua española, 10th edition, Espasa, Madrid, 1998 (most helpful on so many points of detail; bestseller in Spain for many years – witness 10th edition).

Monolingual Diccionario panhispánico de dudas, Real Academia Española and Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española (with the collaboration of the Instituto Cervantes), Madrid, 2005 (splendid volume covering so many difficulties arising from the variability of Iberian and American Spanish). Diccionario Salamanca de la Lengua Española, Santillana, Salamanca, 1996 (one of the authors has found this particularly useful, as it has a multitude of current examples).

546

Bibliography / Bibliografía Gómez de Silva, Guido, Diccionario breve de mexicanismos, Academia Mexicana, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico City, 2001 (very rich source of Nahuatl expressions, but needs to be approached with care since it includes many items not in everyday use). Real Academia Española, Diccionario de la lengua española, 2 vols., Espasa Calpe, Madrid, 2003 (1984 copy used for present purposes; very comprehensive, with great attention to etymology).

General index / Índice general

This is a general index for grammatical structures. It does not contain all the lexical elements, as this would make it unmanageable. The subjunctive has a separate index (see page 551). a(n) 60 a 354 a + el > al 58 a + infinitive = imperative 166 a medida que 258 a medio + infinitive 105, 269 a no ser por 106 a pesar de que 261 abajo 344 acá 344 accumulation of prepositions 374 acostumbrar 115, 137 adelante 344 además de que 267 adentro 344 adjective as adverb 337 adjective as noun 339 adjectives used as nouns 68 adjectives, prefix + noun 88 adjectives/nouns, order of 44 adjectives + de + infinitive 107 adverbial expressions 344 adverbs as imperative 66 adverbs of affirmation/negation 349 adverbs of degree/quantity 346 adverbs of doubt 348 adverbs of manner 348 adverbs of time/place/degree 344, 346 afuera 344 age 431 agreement in number and verb 92 agreement of past participle (tener) 119 ahora (bien) 413 al + infinitive 105 alerta 338 algo 405 alguien 405 algún/alguno 38, 405 alphabet 11 antes 344 any 60

aparte de que 267 apocopation of compound numbers 40 aquí 344 aún 144 aunque 260 auxiliary verb + infinitive + pronoun 106 azúcar 76 biblical language 146, 167, 250, 313 bold 35 brackets 33 cardinal numbers 421 casi 268 changes in written accent 29 collective numbers 432 como 262, 329 complex Sp. expression > complex 271 expression in Engl. complex Sp. expression > single verb in Engl. 270 compound adjectives 341 compound nouns, gender of 77 compound nouns, plural of 87 con que 264 con sólo + infinitive 106 conditional as courteous request 150 conditional perfect tense 100 conditional perfect > imperfect 153 conditional replaced by imperfect 153 conditional replaced by subjunctive 153 conditional: potencial de narración 151 conjugation of verbs 98 conjunctive expressions 415 consonants 14 cruzar + gerund 274 cual 329 cuanto 329 currency 433 cuyo 329

547

548

Index dash 34 dates, word order of 446 days, weeks, months, seasons 426 de 359 de modo que 264 de suerte que 264 de tal manera que 264 de tanto + infinitive 105 de + el > del 58 de + infinitive 107 deber 228 definitive article + superlative 55 del/de la/de los/de las 326 demasiado 264 demonstrative adjective after noun 402 dentro 344 derecho 338 desde que 258 difference in usage between indef. article in Sp. and Engl. 62 difference in usage in def. article in Sp. and Engl. 57 differences between imperfect and preterit 141 differences between preterit and perfect 143 dimensions 429 diphthongs 13 donde 326 el 51 el/la cual, los cuales/las cuales el + adjective 241 él 51, 301 elision in speech 17 ella 301 ellos 301 ellas 301 estar + al + infinitive 105 estar + past participle 222 exclamation point/mark 34 faltar 269 family relations and titles 68 foreign names 28 foreign terms 469 Anglicisms 472 Arabic 471 Basque 483 Gallicisms 477 Italianisms 479 Latinisms 469 Nahuatl 480

325

Palenquero 480 fractions 432 fuera 344 full stop 30 functions of present tense 113 future and candidates’ qualifications 147 future as imperative 146 future combining with subjunctive 147 future expressing probability 146 future perfect suggesting conjecture 148 future tense replaced by present 146 future with Ten Commandments 146 gerund as adjective 158 gerund as diminutive 157 gerund expressing cause 155 gerund expressing concession 155 gerund expressing condition 155 gerund expressing intention 155 gerund expressing manner 155 gerund expressing time 155 gerund preceded by en 158 gerund versus infinitive 157 gerund + adverb 157 gerund + pronoun 156 hasta ahora 144 hasta que 259 hasta tal punto que 264 hay 203 hay, confusion over 205 hyphen 35 imperative of voseo 167 imperative, softening of 164 imperative + pronouns 165 imperfect subjunctive replacing pluperfect indicative 133 indefinite article with professions 62 indicative mood 98 infinitive after interrogation word 104 infinitive as direct object 103, 382 infinitive as subject 104 infinitive for orders 104 infinitive preceded by a 104 infinitive preceded by al 105 infinitive + direct object 106 infinitive + verb 103 infinitive + verbs of perception 103 interrogation point 34 invariability of two adjectives 339 invariable adjectives 336 inverted commas 32

Index

549

ir + infinitive = future 146 italics 35 jamás

416

la 51 la > el 51 las 51, 84 lo 56 lo + adjective 340 lo + adverb 349 lo cual 325 lo que 325 location of two or more adjectives 336 los 51, 84 los/las demás 407 lower case 36 nada 406, 416 nada más + infinitive 105 nadie 406, 416 names in ancient Greek world 467 names in Bible 467 names in Roman world 467 names of countries 460 names of regions 460 names of capitals 460 names of inhabitants 460 names of rivers 466 names of oceans/seas 466 names of mountains and volcanoes 466 names of lakes, waterfalls 466 names of towns, gender of 71 names of towns, plural of 87 names, Italian 467 names, medieval/Renaissance 467 names, Russian 467 negative prefixes 419 ni. . .ni 413, 417 ni siquiera 418 ningún/ninguno 38, 405, 416 no 416 no, miscellaneous uses of 420 no sólo 417 noun + a + infinitive 106 noun + a + noun 385 noun + ser + noun > plural verb 93 nouns functioning like adjectives 339 nouns in apposition 32, 56 nouns of varying gender 70 nouns only in plural 91 nunca 416

o. . .o/u 413 o sea. . .o sea 413 ojalá 238 ordinal numbers 424 orthographical changes with y and o otro 39 otros 407

17

parenthesis 33 pasiva refleja 215 percentages 433 perfect or preterit 117 period 30 pero 413 personal a used with alguno, alguien, nadie, ninguno 378 personal a used with animals 376 personal a used with direct/indirect object 378 personal a used with nouns 376 personal a used with personification 377 personal a used with persons 375 personal a used with proper names 376 personal a, optional use of 379 personal a, use and non-use of 377 personal a, when not to use 380 plural subject + noun > singular definite article 90 plurals, miscellaneous group of 91 por poco que 264 ¿por qué? 329 position of adjectives 336 pronoun + auxiliary verb + infinitive 106 pronouns and verbs, word order of 446 proper names 87, 453, 467 pues 414 puesta, uses of 125 que 322, 329 question mark 34 quien 323, 329 quotation marks 34 recientemente > recién 343 reflexive verbs + la/las 273 reflexive verbs and non-reflexive, different meaning 216 reflexive verbs as intensifier 218 reflexive verbs as reciprocal 213 Roman numerals 434 rules for written accents 26 rules with agreement of verbs 114

550

Index según 258 ser with imperfect and preterit 142 ser/estar + adjective 191 ser/estar + preposition 194 ser/estar in passive voice 222 si 262 si bien 260 sí 61 siempre que 258, 262 simple indicative or gerund 116 sinalefa 17 single verb in Sp. > complex expression in Engl. 272 sino 417 soccer teams, names of 71 some 60 Sp. plural = Engl. singular 88 Sp. singular = Engl. plural 90 spelling traps 17 SS 90 subject pronouns, yo, tú, etc. 301 subjunctive mood 100 subordinate conjunctions 414 suponiendo que 262 tampoco 417 tan(to) 40 tan. . .como 264 tanto que 264 telephone numbers 424 temperature 431 tener + past participle = insistence 119 the 51 time (clock) 426 time, periods of 427 todavía 144 todos 407 tonic accent different in Spain and A, C, M 28 traditional measurements 431 triphthongs 13 un(o/a) 40, 60 underlining 35 uno 407 unos/as 60 upper case 35 usage of names of countries 459 use of un/una for emphasis 63 uses of compound prepositions 371 uses of prepositions (from a to tras) 354 variants in Sp. of the Engl. you

313

verb + de + perfect indicative 108 verbs + no preposition + infinitive 381 verbs + variety of prepositions 382 verbs and nouns evoking animal sounds 110 verbs ending in -cuar/-guar 116 verbs ending in -iar 115 verbs of agreement 383 verbs of beginning 383 verbs of change 387 verbs of encouragement 383 verbs of hesitation 389 verbs of motion 384 verbs of noticing 389 verbs of ordering 382 verbs of perception 383 verbs of persistency 389 verbs of persuasion 383 verbs of saying 383 verbs of smell and taste 385 verbs of sufficiency 388 verbs used as nouns 110 ¿verdad? 328 vos 112, 305 voseo 112, 305 vowels 13 weights 429 words associated with imperfect 141 words associated with preterit 141 words common to Sp. and Engl. 20 words distinguished by a/o 78 word order, miscellaneous features 447 words with alternative accents or no accent 29 y/e 413 ya 144 ya. . .ya 414

Subjunctive index / Índice del subjuntivo

This index includes much vocabulary necessary for the handling of the subjunctive. All the entries pertain to Chapter 55. a (la) condición (de) que 287 a bien que, tener 285 a fin de que 287 a los pocos días de que 294 a medida que 294 a menos que 287 a no ser que 287 abogar 283 acaso 286 aconsejar 284, 295 acostumbrar, estar 285 admirar 285 agradecer 284 aguantar 285 aguardar 285 alegrarse 285 animar 284, 295 antes de que 294 aprobar 284 aun cuando 287 aunque 287 ayudar 284 bastar 284, 287 biblical language 297 bien que 287 causation 282 celebrar 285 chance 286 como 287 como si 287 comoquiera 290 comprender 285 con tal (de) que 287 confiar 285 conminar 284 conseguir 284 consentir 284 controlar 284 convencer 284

convenir 287 criticar 285 cualquiera 290 cuando 294 cuandoquiera 290 danger 386 de manera que 287 decidir 283 decir 282 declarar 283 decretar 283 dejar 284, 295 denial 282 desaprobar 284 desde que 294 desear 286, 288 después (de) que 294 disuadir 284 doler 285 dondequiera 290 doubt 282 dudar 286 dudoso 286 emotion 282 emplazar 283 en caso de que 287 en cuanto a 294 encantar 285 entender 283, 285 especular 285 esperar 286, 294 establecer 283 excepto que 287 exigir 283 extrañar 285 falta, hacer 289 favorecer 284 figurarse 285

551

552

Index forzar 283 future imperfect subjunctive 296 gustar

285

hacer 283 hasta que 294 hecho de que, el hindrance 284

no ser (verdad) 286 no ser cierto/seguro 286 no significar 286 no suponer 286 no ver 286 nomás 294 noun clauses 288

288

ignorar 286 imaginarse 285 impactar 285 impedir 284, 295 imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive 296 impersonal expressions of passive value 289 importar 287 impresionar 285 impulsar 284, 295 independientemente de que 289 inducir 284, 295 influence 282 insistir 283 intentar 284 invitar 284, 295 irregular verbs 280 lamentar 285 lástima 287 llevar 284 lograr 284 luego (de) que 294 mandar 283, 295 más vale que 284 mejor 290 miedo, dar/tener 285 mientras que 294 molestar 285 necesitar 283 negar 286 negation 282 ni que 287 no aceptar 286 no admitir 286 no bien 294 no creer 286 no decir 286 no descartar 286 no imaginar 286 no querer decir 286

obligar 283 ojalá 285 oponerse 284 ordenar 282, 295 order, to 282 pánico, tener 285 para/por que 287 pareciera que 286 pedir 281, 283 peligro de que 286 pena, ser una 287 permission 282 permitir 284, 295 persuadir 284 por muy. . .que 290 posible que, ser 286 posiblemente 286 possibility 282 precisar 283 preferir 283 presionar 283 presumir 285 pretender 284 prever 286 previsto, tener 286 probability 282 probable que, ser 286 probablemente 286 prohibir 284, 295 prohibition 282 propiciar 284 proponer 284, 296 proposal 282 puede ser que 286 querer 286 quienquiera 290 quizá(s) 286 rechazar 286 reclamar 283 recomendar 283, 296 relative and imprecise pronouns 289 reprochar 285

Index request 282 resolver 283 riesgo de que 286 risk 282 rogar 284 salvo que 287 sentir 285 sequence of tenses 281 ser absurdo/bueno/extraño/importante/ inaudito/increíble/inevitable/injusto/ lógico/mejor/natural/normal/lástima/ pendiente/previsible/previsto 287 ser bien/dudoso/inútil/necesario/preciso/ triste 287 servir 283 si + imperfect subjunctive 293 siempre que 287, 294 sin que 287 soportar 285 sufrir 285

553 sugerir 284, 296 suggestion 282 suplicar 283 supuesto que 287 tal vez 286 temer 285 temporal clauses 294 tolerar 285 tras (de) que 294 tratar 284 una vez que urgir 283

294

velar 283 voseo 280 whatever/whichever ya que

294

290