A reference grammar of Chinese sentences with exercises 0816509654
This book is intended to serve as a general guide to the structure of Chinese sentences. It is designed as a supplementa
188 42 4MB
английский Pages [375] Year 1986
Table of contents :
Preface
Pronounciation Guide
Abbreviations and Symbols
Chapter 1, BASIC CLAUSE PATTERNS
1.1 Brief Theoretical Background
1.2 Basic Clause Patterns
1.3 The Noun Phrase
1.3.1 Omission of Subject NP and Object NP
1.3.2 Constituents of Noun Phrases
1.3.2.1 Determiners
1.3.2.2 Quantifiers
1.3.2.2.1 Kinds of Quantifiers
(1) Definite Quantifiers
(2) Indefinite Quantifiers
1.3.2.2.2 Measure Markers
(1) Individual Measure Markers
(2) Group Measure Markers
(3) Standard Measure Markers
(4) Temporary Measure Markers
1.3.2.3 Adjective Modifiers
1.3.2.4 Nominal Modifiers
1.4 Noun Substitutes
1.4.1 Types of Pronouns
1.4.1.1 Personal Pronouns
1.4.1.2 Reflexive Pronouns
1.4.1.3 Indefinite Pronouns
1.4.1.4 Interrogative Pronouns
1.4.2 Other Substitute'Forms
1.5 The Predicate (Verb Phrase)
1.5.1 Types of Predicates
1.5.1.1 Predicates with Intransitive Verbs
(1) Verbs of Motion, Accompanied by a Directional Complement (DC)
(2) Verbs of Direction, Accompanied by a Directional Complement (DC)
(3) Verbs of Existence, Appearance, Disappearance, or Static Behavior
1.5.1.2 Predicates with Transitive Verbs
(1) Verbs of Action
(2) Causative Verbs
(3) The verb you has/have, possess
1'5.1.3 Predicates with Indirect and Direct Objects
1.5.1.4 Predicates with Adjectives
(1) Simple Adjectives
(2) Reduplicated Adjectives
a. Monosyllabic Reduplication
b. Disyllabic Reduplication
c. The Second Syllable Reduplication
1.5.1.5 Predicates with Nominals
1.5.2 Other Elements in Predicates
Exercises
Chapter 2, NEGATION OF BASIC SENTENCES
The Negative Adverb bu
(1) Sentence with an Intransitive Verb
(2) Sentence with a Transitive Verb and One Object
(3) Sentence with a Transitive Verb and Two Objects
(4) Sentence with Adjectival Predicate
(5) Sentence with Nominal Predicate
(6) Scope of Negation
a. Modal, Adverb or Prepositional Phrase Following bu
b. Modal, Adverb or Prepositional Phrase Preceding bu
2.2 The Negative Adverb mei(you)
2.2.1 Verbal Predicate with Possessive you
2,2.2 Verbal Predicate with Existential you
2.2.3 The Predicate Containing Aspect Markers
Exercises
Chapter 3, QUESTION FORMS OF BASIC SENTENCES
3.1 Yes/No Question (Y/NQ)
3.1.1 Yes/No Question with Interrogative Particle (iPt) ma
3.1,2 Yes/No Questions with Tags
3.1.2.1 Tag Questions with shi bushi Yes or No
3.1.2.1.1 Tags with Predicate Verbs or Predicate Adjectives
3.1.2.1.2 Tags with Predicate Nominals
3.1.2.2 Other Tags
3.1.2.2.1 Dui budui ’Right or Not right'
3.1.2.2.2 Hao buhao/Xing buxing 'OK or Not OK'
3.2 Information Question (IQ)
3.2.1 Shei 'who, whom’
(1) As Subject
(2) As Object
(3) As Complement
(4) Shede ’whose' as Possessive Modifier
3,2.2 Shenme 'what'
(1) As Subject
(2) As Object
(3) As Complement
(4) As Modifier of a Noun
3,2.3 Nei ‘which’
(1) Standing before Subject
(2) Standing before Object
(3) Standing before Complement
3.2.4 Nar/Nali ’where’
3.2.5 Zenme/Zenmeyang ’how’
3.2.6 Weishenme ’why, for what'
3.2.7 J1, DuSshao or Duo ’how many, how much’
(1) Ji with Obligatory Measure Marker
(2) Duoshao with Optional Measure Marker
(3) Duo with no Measure Marker
3.3 Alternative Question (AQ)
3.3.1 Alternative Possibilities Between an Affirmative and a Negative Predicate
(1) Verbal SP
(2) Adjective SP
(3) Nominal SP
3.3.2 Alternative Possibilities Between Two Objects or Two Complements (Nominals)
(1) Vt Sentence
(2) Nominal Sentence
3.3.3 Alternative Possibilities Between Two Verbs
3.3.4 Alternative Possibilities Between Two Subjects
(1) Verbal Sentence
(2) Adjective Sentence
(3) Nominal Sentence
3.4 Rhetorical Question
3.4.1 Bushi Form
3.4.2 Nar Form
Exercises
Chapter 4, TIME, ASPECT, AND CHANGE OF STATUS
4.1 Time
4.1.1 Time Words
4.1.2 The Function of Time Words
4.2 Aspect
4.2.1 Inceptive Aspect qilai
4.2.2 The Durative (Progressive) Aspect
(1) Co.occurrence of zAi, .zhe and ne
(2) Zai with ne, Focusing on the Continuation of the Process of an Action
(3) Zhe with ne, Focusing on the Durativity of the State
4.2.3 The Successive Aspect xiaqu
4.2.4 The Perfective Aspect le
4.2.5 The Experiential Perfective Aspect guo
4.2.6 The Experiential Perfective Aspect guo Combined with the Perfective Aspect le
Exercises
4.3 Change of Status: The Final Particle (Pt) le
4.3.1 Implications of the Change of Status le
4.3.2 Prospective Change of Status
Exercises
4.4 The Final Particle le and the Perfective Aspect le
Exercises
4.5 Time Words, Aspects, and Final Particles
4.6 Negation
4.6.1 Inceptive Aspect qilai
4.6.2 Progressive Aspects
4.6.3 The Durative Aspect zhe
4.6.4 The Successive Aspect xiaqu
4.6.5 The Perfective Aspect le
4.6.6 The Experiential Perfective Aspect guo
4.6.7 The Negative Adverb mei(you) and the Suspension of Action
Exercises
4.7 Question Forms
Exercises
Chapter 5, COMPLEX NOUN PHRASES
5.1 Components of the Noun Phrase
5.2 Modifiers with the Marker of Modification de
5.3 Limiting Adjectives
5.4 Adjectives as Modifiers
5.4.1 Use of Modifier Marker de
5.4.2 Semantic Classes of Adjectives
5.5 Nominal Modifiers
5.5.1 Pronouns and Nouns
5.5.2 Compound Nouns
5.6 Clause Modifiers (Relative Clauses)
5.6.1 Deletion and Ordering in Relative Clauses
5.6.2 Placement of Adverbs within Relative Clauses
5.6.3 Noun Modified by Adjective and Relative Clause
5.6.4 Noun Modified by Relative Clause and Nominal Modifier
5.7 Restrictive Modifiers vs. Nonrestrictive Modifiers
5.7.1 Restrictive Modifiers
5.7.2 Nonrestrictive Modifier
5.7.3 Distinction between Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clause Modifiers
Exercises
Chapter 6, ADVERBIAL CONSTRUCTIONS
6.1 Adverbs and Adverbial Constructions
6.2 Intensifiers (Int)
6.3 Adverbs of Scope
6.4 Adverbs of Time
6.4.1 Relative Time Adverbs
6.4.2 Time.Point Adverbs
6.4.3 Time.Duration Adverbs
6.5 Adverbs of Place
6.6 Prepositional Phrases as Adverbial Modifiers
6.6.1 Spatial or Temporal Relationships
6.6.1.1 Zai ’at, on, in'
6.6.1.2 Cong ’from, since’
6.6.1.3 Dao ’to, toward, till, until’
6.6.2 Conditions
6.6.2.1 Gen ’with’
6.6.2.2 Gei ’for, to’
6.6.2.3 T1 ’for, in place of’
6.6.2.4 Yong 1 with, using’
6.6.2.5 Dui ’to, toward; facing'
6.6.2.6 Wei (followed by zhe or le ’for, for the sake of’
6.6.3 Distance
6.7 Comparison
6.7.1 Contrastive Comparison
6.7.1.1 Comparative Degree in Adjectives
6.7.1.2 Comparative Degree in Verbal Predicates
6.7.1.3 Modification of Comparative Construction
(1) Addition of Certain Adverbs
(2) Complement of Quantity
6.7.1.4 Superlative Degree
6.7.2 Comparison of Similarity
6.7.2.1 General Similarity
6.7.2.2 Equivalent Similarity
6.8 Negation
6.9 Question Form
6.10 Adverbial Modifiers with the Marker de
6.10.1 Disyllabic Adjectives Used as Adverbial Modifiers
6.10.2 Reduplicated Adjectives
6.10.3 Idiomatic Phrases
Exercises
Chapter 7, COMPLEX PREDICATES, COMPLEMENTS
7.1 The Position and Functions of Complements
7.2 Resultative Complements (RC)
7.2.1 Verbal Predicate with RC
7.2.2 Adjectival Sentence with RC
7.2.3 Negation
7.2.4 Question Form with RC
Exercises
7.3 Directional Complements (DC)
7.3.1 Simple Directional Complements
7.3.2 The Simple Directional Complement with an Object
7.3.3 Compound.Directional Complement
7.3.4 Negation and Questions
Exercises
7.4 Potential Complements (PC)
7.4.1 Potential Result
7.4.2 The Potential Form and the Modal Auxiliary Verb
7.4.3 Potential Form Versus Actual Form
7.4.4 Question Form with PC
Exercises
7.5 Descriptive or Predicative Complement
7.5.1 Manner
(1) Sentence without Object
(2) Sentence Containing an Object
7.5.2 Extent
7.5.3 Negative Form
7.5.4 Question Form with DEC
(1) Information Question
(2) Alternative Question
(3) Yes/No Question with General Question Particle shi bushi
Exercises
7.6 Quantity Expression as Complement
7.6.1 Time.Duration Quantifiers as Complements (TDC)
7.6.1.1 TDC as Quantifier Complements
7.6.1.2 TDC with de
7.6.2 Time.Frequency Quantifiers as Complements (TFC)
7.6.3 Measurement Quantifiers as Complements (MQC)
7.6.4 Negation and Question
7.6.4.1 Negation
(1) Affirmative Form
(2) Negative Form with Adverb bu
(3) Negative Form with Adverb meiyou
7.6.4.2 Question
Exercises
Chapter 8, MODALITY
8.1 Modal Auxiliaries
8.1.1 Possibility
8.1.1.1 Neng, nenggou 'can, be able to'
8.1.1.2 Keyi 'may, be permitted, be allowed'
8.1.1.3 Hui ’can, know how to1
8.1.2 Obligation.Advisability
8.1.2.1 Yinggai ’ought to, should1
8.1.2.2 Yingdang 1 ought to, should’
8.1.3 Necessity
8.1.3.1 Dei ’must, have to’
8.1.3.2 Bidei ’must, have to'
8.1.3.3 Bixu 'must, have to'
8.1.4 Willingness or Volition
8.1.4.1 Yao ’want to'
8.1.4.2 Yuanyi ’wish to, be willing to'
8.1.4.3 Gan ’dare’
8.1.4.4 Ken 'be willing'
8.1.5 Certainty
8.1.6 Probability
8.1.6.1 Yexu 'perhaps, probably'
8.1.6.2 Dagai 'probably'
8.1.7 Negation
Exercises
8.2 Modal Final Particles (MPt)
8.2.1 Certainty: de
(1) Verbal
(2) Adjectival
8.2.2 Conclusion of Proposition: le
8.2.3 Modal Final Particle ne
8.2.3.1 Interrogative Modal Final Particle
8.2.3.2 Abbreviated Question Form
8.2.4 Modal Final Particle a
8.2.4.1 Adding a Mild Tone to Both IQ and AQ forms
8.2.4.2 Calling for Confirmation or Echoed Statement
8.2.4.3 Indicating an Exclamation or a Mild Command
8.2.5 Modal Final Particle ba
8.2.5.1 Suggestion or Probability
8.2.5.2 Mild Command or Request
8.2.6 Modal Final Particle ma
8.3 The Co-occurrence of Modal Morphemes
Exercises
Chapter 9, COORDINATE AND SUBORDINATE STRUCTURES
9.1 Coordination (Compound Structures; Conjoining)
9.1.1 Conjunctions
9.1.2 Clause.Coordinate Sentence (CCS)
9.1.2.1 CCS with Simple Coordinating Conjunction
9.1.2.2 CCS with Adverbial Conjunction
9.1.2.3 CCS with Correlative Conjunctions
(1) Correlative Conj
(2) Adverbial Conj
9.1.3 Coordinate Structures
9.1.3 .1 Reduced Subject.Coordinate Sentence
9.1.3 .2 Reduced Predicate.Coordinate Sentence
9.1.3 .3 Reduced Object.Coordinate Sentence
Exercises
g,2 Subordinate Structures (Embedded Clauses)
9,2.1 Adjectival Clauses
9.2.2 Adverbial Clauses
(1) To Express Cause and Effect or Reason
(2) To Express a Contingent Condition or Supposition
(3) To Express Concession
(4) To Express a Temporal Status Related to the Main Clause
9.2.3 Noun Clause
9.2.3.1 Noun Clause as Subject
9.2.3.2 Noun Clause as Object
9.2.3.3 Noun Clause as Predicate Nominative (Complement)
9,3 Topic Sentences
9.3.1 Characteristics of the Topic Sentences
9.3.2 Insertion of the Possessive de in the Topic Sentence
9.3,3 Topic Sentence vs. Topicalized.Object Sentence
9.4 Serial Predicates
9.5 Telescopic Sentences
Exercises
Chapter 10, Special Sentence Types
10.1 Imperative Sentences
10.2 Existential Sentences
10.2.1 Verbs of Existence
10.2.2 The Verb you
10.2.3 The Verb shi
10.3 Impersonal Sentences
Exercises
Chapter 11, SYNTACTIC INVERSIONS
11.1 The Disposal Construction (the ba Construction)
11.1.1 Constraints on the ba Construction
(1) The Object
(2) The Verb
a. With the Perfective Aspect le
b. With Continuous Aspect .zhe
c. With Simple and Compound Directional Complements
d. With Resultative Complements
e. With Place Words as Adverbial Complements
f. With a Quantified Expression
g. With the Descriptive Complement
h. With Indirect Objects
i. With a Reduplicated Verb
j. With a Compound Verb
11,1,2 Favorable Conditions for ba Constructions
(1) With Verbs of Movement
(2) With Object plus Prepositional Phrase
(3) With Direct and Indirect Objects
11.1.3 Verbs That Cannot Employ the ba Construction
(1) Intransitive Verbs
(2) Verbs of Sensory Experience or Emotion
(3) Verbs of Existance
(4) Directional Verbs
11.1.4 Negation of the ba Construction
11.1.5 Auxiliary Verbs and ba Constructions
Exercises
11.2 Passive Sentences (the bei Construction)
11.2.1 Non.Marker Passive Sentence
(1) Active Voice
(2) Topicalized Active Sentences
(3) Topicalized Active Sentences with Passive Marker
11.2.2 Additional Conditions for the bei Construction
11.2.3 Verbs That Cannot Be Used in Passive Constructions
11.2.4 Passive Use Only for Unfavorable Situations
11.2.5 Negation
Exercises
11.3 Inversion of Indirect and Direct Objects
Exercises
11.4 Inversion of Subject and Place Adverb
Exercises
Chapter 12, STYLISTIC VARIATIONS AND MEANS OF FOCUS
12.1 Emphasizing Sentence Elements
12.1.1 Emphasizing the Subject
12.1.2 Emphasizing the Object
12.1.3 Emphasizing the Verb
12.2 Emphasizing the Truth Value of the Sentence
12.2.1 Use of Double Negatives
12.2.1.1 Bu.Aux.bu Construction
12.2.1.2 Bu/fei ... buxing/bucheng/buke Construction
12.2.1.3 Meiyou ... bu Construction
(1) Focus on Subject
(2) Focus on Object
(3) Focus on Frequency Adverbs
Exercises
12.2.2 Addition of shi
12.3 Focus
12.3.1 Topicalization of the Object
12.3.2 Topicalization of the Subject
12.3.3 Topicalization of the Verb
Exercises
Appendix I: Comparative Table of Major Romanizations
Appendix II: Selected Bibliography
