A history of Nepali literature

Citation preview

A History of Nepali Literature

Kumar Pradhan // .

Sahitya Akademi

A History of NepaJi Literature Kumar Pradhan

I

, p7Jb / q t?Lt

II 6 ~ /

Sahitya Akademi Rabindra Bhavan, 3S, Ferozeshah Road, New Delhi-110001 Rabindra Sarobar Stadium, Block V·B, Calcutta-700029 29, Eldams Road, Teynampet, Madras-600018 172, Mumbai Marathi Grantha Sangrahalaya Marg, Dadar, Bombay-400014

@ Kumar Pradhan 1984 First Edition 1984

Cloth·bound Rs. 40/Popalar Rs. 25/-

Published by the Sahitya Akademi and printed at Bharti Printers, K-16, Naveen Shahdara, Delhi-110032

Preface

This history is not a scholarly conspectus, it only gives a rapid account of a few major tendencies which have gone into the making of the Nepali literature. Nepali is a language spoken by the people who are also called Gorkhas or 'Gurkhas', well-known for their valour. Many books have been written in English about their life, manners and customs, but almost nothing about their literature. That the history of Nepali language can be traced back at least from the early part of the thirteenth century A. D .. as evinced by a number of epigraphs; that prose writing in Nepali began earlier than in many other modern Indo-Aryan languages; that constraints stunted in general the growth of Nepali literature; yet that its achievements in different genres are no mean- are facts little known to many. This history is mainly for the non-Nepali readers and, for their benefit, Nepali literature has been taken as a whole, as is the general custom followed by the Nepali historians. The position of Nepali, a language variously called till recent times, is indeed peculiar. Like other modern Indo-Aryan speeches it took its birth and grew in the Indian sub-continent long before India and Nepal took their present political shape. These two countries are divided politically but not geographically, and there are also elements like religion, culture and language which bring them closer. It is true that Nepal was independent before 1947

A HISTORY OP NEPALI LITERATURE

and that makes the case of Nepali different from that of the languages shared by India with other countries of the sub-continent. Besides ties of religion and culture, India and Nepal have open borders and free movement of people from both sides brings them still closer. And it becomes difficult for a historian to make categorical distinction between writers of Nepal and India. The total exclusion of the writers of Nepal would have impaired this work, rather the writing of this history would not have been possible at all. Yet Indian Nepalis are Indians, born and brought up in India for generations and possess a distinct characteristic of their own. Nepali is described as Riishtrabhiishii in Nepal, where many speeches and dialects are in vogue. But in the context of India it is the language of a distinct group, like Bengali of the Bengal is, Gujarati of the Gujaratis or Dogri of the Dogras. Hundreds and thousands of Indian Nepalis refer to their language as Jiitiyabhiishii, the language of ajiiti, a race, an ethnic group, in the great ocean of humanity, that is India. While the writers of Nepal hail especially from the upper castes and Newars, regarded as the autochthones of the Nepal valley, most of the Nepali writers of India belong to Mongoloid groups who originally spoke various Tibeto-Burman dialects but adopted Nepali as their first language in course of time. Lastly, Nepali literature of India bears a distinct imprint of the soil. In the poems, stories and other writings, one can find their own concern as Indians, whether the writer is from Darjeeling, Dehradun, Sikkim, Assam, Manipur or Nagaland. Though more emphasis is laid on the works written by Indians, especially since 1947, a few works of the writers of Nepal of the period have also been mentioned for the sake of a truer and broader perspective. While doing so, much had to be condensed or left out. A history cannot be totally original and it also derives from a number of works on litterateurs and literary subjects written by others. This history is part of a series and within the prescribed size and scope, it is impossible to give full coverage to all the works and writers, and some names may have been left out and some errors crept in. Yet in the given framework of the book I have tried to be fair in my appraisal and some of the views contained in it differ from those of others. And I beg the jtidulience of the reader for errors of omission and commission.

PREFACB

1 am quite aware of the treason I may have committed against the beauty of the original lines of many poetical passages which 1 have rendered into English. It is not for nothing that the Italian is said to have a pun 1radut1ore-1raditore (translatortraitor). I beseech the forgiveness of the poets I may have offended thus. I acknowledge my gratitude to Mr Wangchu Lama of the Darjeeling Forest Office who typed the whole manuscript of the work out of fraternal affection for me; so do I thank Mr. Gajendra Sharma and Mr B.B. Gurung for typing the Index. My thanks are also due to my daughter Indu who has taken great pains in searching books and journals and in checking the typescript and the manuscript with her mother. To my friends on the staff of the Sahitya Akademi who do not permit me to take their names here, I can only say that more than formal acknowledgement 1 shall always cherish a memory, a memory of their deep involvement in this work as their owo and their affection for me as someone close to them for ages. I thank Mr Rammurti Agrawal of the Bharti Printers for his patience, precision and promptness io printing the book well.

KUMAR PRADHAN

New Delhi, 8 March, 1984.

Contents

Preface Pronunciation Chart

1. Introduction

v XIII

1

Appellations of Nepali, 3; Khas-Kura, 5; Parbatiya or Parbate, 6; Gorkhlllt, 7; NepaJI, J0.

2. Folk Literature

12

Anthologies, 13; Folk tales, 14; Folk songs, 15 ; Children's songs, 18; Riddles, 20; Idioms, 21; Proverbs, 22.

3. The Beginnings

24

Old prose works, 25; Preminidhi Panta, 26; Bhanudatta, 27; Others, 27; Poetry, 29; Pre-Bhanubhakta poets, 29.

4. Bhlinubhakta and His Contemporaries Basanta Sarma, 33; Raghunllth Bhatta, 34; Bhanubhakta, 36.

33

A HISTORY OF Nl!PAU LITl!RATURI!

5. The Development of Nepali Prose

44

Motiram BhaHa, 45; Chirailjivi Sarm!I, 46; Jayaprithvibahadur Sirilha, 47; Gangiipras!ld Pradhan, 47; Pahalmansingh Swar, 49; Girisballabh Josi, 50; Sambhuprasad I;>hungel, 50.

6. Three Strean1s of Poets after Bhanubhakta

52

Classical Tradition, 53; Folk rhythms, 57; Josmani Saints; Jflandil, 62.

7. Early Plays and Playwrights

66

Saktiballabh Aryiil, 66; Motiram Bhatia, 67; Pahalmansingh Swar, 68; Playwrights of Darjeeling and Assam, 69.

8. Stirrings of a New Age

73

Early Journals, 73; Benares and Darjeeling, 74; Makaiko Kheti Affair, 76; Dehradun, 78; Assam, 79; Nepali Sahitya Sammelan, 79; Journals, 80; Grammars and lexicons, 81.

9. The Great Trio

82

Lekhnath Pauc;lyal, 82; Lakshmiprasad Devkota, 89; Balkrishi:ia Sam, 97.

10. Poetry-Tradition and New Sensibilities Dhara1_1idhar Koirahi, 106; Mahananda Sipkota, 107 ; Piirasma1_1i Pradhan, 107; SiddhicharaQ Sreshtha, 108; Miidhavprasad Ghimire, 109; Bhav!lni Bhikshu, l 11 ; Oopalprasad Rimal, 112; TulsT Bahiidur Cbhetri, 113; Poets of Assam, 114; Virendra Subba, 115; Agam Singh Girl, 118; Okiuyama Gwynn, 124; Mohan Koirala, 126; Ayamik or Dimensional Movement, 127; Haribhakta Katuwal, 131; N~w Indian Poets, 133,

106

CONTENTS

11.~

Prose Fiction

143

The Short Story Early works, 143; Guru Prasld Mainall, 147; Push· kar Sam5er, 148, Bhavani Bhikshu, 149; Bishweswar Prasad Koirala, 150; RupnariyaQ SinhA, 151; Siva Kumar Rai, I 52; Indra Sundas, 154; Others, 154; Indra Bahadur RA!, 156; Other Indian Nepali short story writers, and anthologies, I 61. · The Novel Early works, 166; Novels of adventure, 167; Rudraraj Pir:iQe and reformist novels, 169; RupnarayaQ Sinha and Romanticism, 171; Lain Singh Bangdel and Realism, 172; Others, 173; Regional life in the novel. 177; Psychological novels, 179; Existential concerns, 180; Metaphysical novels, 182; Others, 183.

12. The Drama

185

Gopalprasad Rimal, 185; Other Important Play. wrights of Nepal, 187; Indian Nepali Playwrights, 189.

13 . Essay and Criticism Essay

Essays in old journals, 194; in Siiradd, 196; A few major essayists of Nepal, 196; Essayists of India: Parasmai:ii Pradhan, 198; Ramkrishna Sarma, 198 ; Achchhi Rai 'Rasik', 198 ; Others, 199. Criticism

Early reviews, 203; Suryavikram Ji'lavalt, 204; Baburam Acharya, 205; Ramkrish Qa Sarma, 206; Yadunath Khanal, 207; A few important critics of Nepal, 207; Critics of India, 211.

194

A HISTORY OF NEPALI LITERATURE

14. Miscellaneous Works and Journals

215

History, 215; Biography, 217; Autobiography, 218; Travelogue, 220; Translation, 221; Journals, 223; Literary Organisations, 224.

Conclusion

226

Select Bibliography

229

Index

232

Pronunciation Chart

Vowels (ar) as in . (arr) as 1n . (l) as ID I I (() as in u ("1) as in . jj (a;) as ID n (...:) as in e (11.) as ID . ai (~) as 1n . (aft) as1n 0 au (ar'\) as in am ( ·) as1n ab(:) as in

a a

(~) ananta (atklfl) atma (lftr) iti J§var (~4 AFTER BHANUBHAICTA

SS

Achiirya (1845-1911), the only son of Bhiioubhakta. Rambah iidur's Vedanta Gitsiir (The Substance of the Songs of Vedanta, c. 1878) Haridiis' Dhruvacharitra (Life of Dhruva), Prah/adcharitra (Life of Prahlad) and Bliramargit (Songs of • Bee, c. 1879), Balsid_d ha Mahasirilha Thapa's Sri Jniincharitra (Life of Sri J1'ii n, I 874) and Mindahiidur Rana's works (1883) bad preceded Motiriim. Haridayiilsiogh Hamal (1846-1912), the author of Sri Rambiilvi/as (The Pranks of the Child Ram), Birbahadur Malla, the author of Ekada$a Skandha (The Eleventh Canto), Tirthaprasiid Acharya of Vichitrarotna Bhatit;liigtlr (The Store of Strange Jewels), Devariij Liimichhiine of S/okapaiichasikii (printed at Prayag Press, Allahbad, I 887), Bhuvanprasiid I)bungel of Upavanvinod (Pleasures of Garden, 1883), Harihar Liimcchane of Sudtlmii Chiiritra (Life of Sudama, 1889), Ramiikiinta Baral of Adbhut Riimiiya(la (1892), and a host of other minor poets followed the traditional style. A friend of Motiram, Gopioiith Lohani (1873-1917) published Nrigacharitra (1882), Na/a Damayanti (1898), Dhruvacharitra (1889) and Satya1•iidi Harischandra Katha. His short poems distinguish him by his success in expressing the pangs of love, though his language is not very refined. Kadiiroiith Khatiwa could have found a wider audience as they were carried from place to place by giiine minstrels to the tune of their siiraiigi. As noted earlier, the authorship of Samudralahariko Sawiii is ascribed to Basanta Sanna, the reputed contemporary of Bhanubhakta. Probably Narabahadur Rana's Jaiigbahiidurko Sawiii (The Sawai of Jung Bab~dur, 1876) sung by giiines in villages and fairs received the patronage of Jung Babadur. Prior to it, Lalhahadur Aumisi bad described the Nepal-Tibet war in Bhofko Laraiko SaK·iii (1855). Tulchao Ale, a Magar soldier of the British Indian army, who fought the battle of Manipur, did similarly compose Mat;ripurko Laraiko Sawiii (1893). Among such descriptions of battle scenes we can cite Niigii Hillko Sawiii (The Sawai of the Naga Hill) by Gajbir Rana. a Marar, and Nawalsingh Gbarti's Germ011ko Loraiko SaK·iii (The Sawai of German war) pubhisbed in 1913 and 1918. Other descriptive sawiiis are Dhaobir Bhai:ihungel on the theme. The Rana autocracy read a double entendre in it that the mention of black-headed and red-headed termites was only a metaphorical allusion to the headgear of the two topmost Ranas. The book was proscribed and its authors penalised. The condition in India was but slightly better. Comments on the economic insecurity of the people under the Ranas in Gorkhii/i earned the following observation from the British envoy to Nepal: 'It seems certain that artificially introduced dissatisfaction with their condition, such as the Gorkhiili sets itself to bring about, can neither lead to any beneficial change in the form of government nor to improvement in material prosperity.' For the British 'the supply of Gurkha recruits unt inted with Indian advanced sentiment' had to be preserved, and the envoy added, 'our interests in this matter coincide with those of the Nepal Government.' Here 'this matter' referred to articles in Nepali journals. Consequently, the press where the matter was printed was asked to submit a security.bond and the paper itself was banned in 1922. Chondrikii, the first literary journal to come out from Kurseong at Darjeeling in 1918, was edited by Piirasmar;ii Pradhan.

STIRRINGS OF A NEW AGE

77

It lived for about two years but in this brief span the paper published a large number of articles and poems. Like others Chandrikii also emphasized the importance of the language, education and social reform. It praised Gorkhiili for its boldness and the courage that it bad given to the Nepali speakers in general. But Chand·ikii itself never published any article which can be deemed bold. Unlike Gangaprasi!.d's Gorkhe Khtibar Kiigat, the new monthly was published in a language which regarded Benares as its ideal. Chandrikii was highly critical of Gailgiiprasad's language in its very first editorial and the elder editor, while welcoming a new addition to the store of the Nepali language, described the language adopted by Parasmat;ii as 'KasT-bhashe boli' or a dialect based on the speech of Benares. Apart from the burgeoning intelligentsia which looked upto the writers based at Benares as the ideal, the songs and saw4is written by people of Darjeeling were also published from the holy city. Soon Darjeeling gave up its own regional slant in the written form of the language. Among the contributors to Chandriktl the majority of the names were from Nepal and Benares. Though the periodical mostly carried articles on innocuous themes, a reformist zeal was not lacking. Reflecting the mood of the time it published in its issue of October 1918 a poem by Dharai;iidbar which, so to say, summed up the message that all Nepali journals were giving at the time. The poem 'Udbodhan' (Awakening) gave the clarion call beginning with the lines: Jiiga jiiga aba jiigana jiiga, liiga unnati vishe aba liiga Ghora nida abatii parityciga, bho bhayo ati sutyau aba jiiga

Awake, awake, now you wake, waking up the path of progress take. Deep slumber now forsake, it's enough you slept long, now awake. The sense of this awakening was mirrored by various social organisation of the time i:i India. Needless to say, the establishment of any organisation was banned in Nepal. It is a wellknown fact that Lakshimprasad Devkota, the great poet was fined by the Rana Government when he as a young student, with forty-five others, had appealed to the Government for the

78

A HISTORY OF NEPALI LITERATURE

opening of a library in 1930. Organisations were founded at Darjeeling and other places in India by Indian Nepalis. The Gorkha Samiti was revived at Darjeeling immediately after the First World War. As its name sounded like that of a terrorist organisation of Bengal, Anu§ilan Samiti, it had to rename itself Gorkha Association under the pressure of the British Government. Its aim was to promote socio-cultural interests of the Indian Nepalis. The Gorkha Library was opened at Kurseong in 1918 with the object of bringing about an upliftment of the educationally backward Nep:ili community. Dal Bahadur Giri, who had been earlier associated with the Gorkha Association, opened a branch of the Indian National Congress at Darjeeling. The Non-cooperation Movement spread to the tea plantations of the hills like a wild fire under the leadership of Giri, and his compatriots like Bhaktabir Lama, popularly called 'Asahayogi Lama', a sobriquet he earned for propagating asahayog or non-cooperation. Darjeeling itself was an e:>tcluded area and it was deprived of any representation at the provincial legislative body. When the Montagu-Chelmsford Report also did not contain any provision for the popular representatation of the e:>tcluded area, the Hillmen's Association, founded in 1919, took up the cause of the hill people of Darjeeling. One mendicant named Swami Visuddhiinanda, described in police reports as a disciple of Gandhiji, had close connection with the Asso. ciation. The Gorkha Association was started in Calcutta in 1926 under the presidentship of Agam Singh Giri, the elder brother of Dal Bahadur Giri. He himself was involved in the Noncooperation Movement. The British Government watched the activities of the Association closely as such organisations and people then tried to win over Gurkha soldiers to their cause. It is difficult to say whether this awakening was reflected in any unpublished literary work. Dal Bahadur Giri is said to have written a drama on the subject of the National Movement but the manuscript has not been located so far. There is definite evidence that the translation of D.L. Roy's Bengali drama Sivoji begun by Mahiinanda Siipkota had to be stopped midway. A new organisation, All India Gurkha League, was founded at Dehradun by Thakur Cbandan Singh in 1921. The League was anti-British and a large number of retired Gurkha soldiers

STIRRINGS OF A NEW AGE

79

became its members. It had its branches at Darjeeling and Dibrugarh. The League was in contact with a number of great national leaders. In 1926 Chandan Singh brought out Gorkha Samsdr as the periodical of the League. Various prose- writings in the paper propagated the socio-political causes of the Nepali speakers and then played a valued role. Two years later Chandan Singh brought out another periodical Taru~ Gorkhii, the very first editorial of which wrote, 'There can be no improvement in the condition of the people without political reforms.' These two periodicals had wide circulation. They were critical of the Rana and the British regimes and they were forced to close down. MaQisingh Gurung, who was connected with Gorkhiili at Benares and had actually edited the paper for sometime, brought out the first Nepali journal from Assam. Gorkhii Sevak was born at Shillong in 1935. A writer of strong and simple prose, Ma1.1i· singh touched upon many subjects, the most important being the socio-economic backwardness of the Indian Nepalis. Chandra Samser, the Rana Prime Minister who referred to the 'altered times' was not a liberal. In order to pacify the educated and enlightened people of Nepal he had condescended to open a college (1919) and fund Gorkha Bhasha Pracharioi Samiti (1924) later renamed Gorkha Bhasha Prakasini Samiti and finally Nepali Bhasha Prakasint Samiti. The Samiti had to work under many constraints and freedom of expression was never encouraged. It had also to work as a Censor Board and examine books to · be published from Nepal. Yet the Samiti brought out many important and valuable books. Meanwhile a literary organisation had been established at Darjeeling. The arrival of Dhara1.1idhar Koirala and particularly Siiryavikram Jnavali as teachers of Nepali at Darjeeling in 1919 and 1923 from Benares and their association with men like Parasma1.1i Pradhan soon gave birth to NepiHI Sahitya Sammelan. Founded in 1924, this Sammelan has passed through many vicissitudes by now. The Sammelan served a useful purpose by getting more than twenty books written, translated and published by reputed firms for the benefit of school children. Among its early literary publications are Naivedya, an anthology of Dhara1.1idhar's poems. Badhii/ikshii of Bhinubhakta, Man Lahari, a poetical work with

80

A HISTORY OF

N~PALI

LITERATURE

social reform as its theme written in folk metre by Mahananda Siipko\a, the biography of Bhanubhakta by Motiram Bhalla, a number of historical accounts of kings of fNepal and Nepali heroes by Siiryavikram Jnavalt; and Karhii Kusum (1938), an anthology of original Nepali short stories. The Nepali Siihitya Somme/an Parrikii was a journal of high standard. The publication of a literary monthly Saradii from Kathmandu in 1934 was an important event; it gave birth to a host of renowned litterateurs of future and survived for about two decades. Another important journal of the period was an illustrated monthly Udaya, edited by Kiisibahadur Sreshtha and published from Benares since 1936; it also produced a number of new writers. If the objective of AdarJa, edited by Seshmal)i Pradhan from Kalimpong in Darjeeling since 1930 and of Udyog from Nepal since 1935 was to create an interest in economic enterprises, Nebula (1935), signifying Nepalis, Bhutiyas and Lapches (Lepchas) published from Kalimpong with K.D. Pradhan as the editor, was brought out to highlight the problems and propagate the political demands of the three hill communities of the Darjeeling district. They published few articles of literary value but play.:d a role in rous ing the consciousness of the general public. Khoji, the second literary journal to be published from Darjeeling, was started in 1940. It was published by Gorkha Dukkha Niviirak Sammelan, a social organisation founded in 1932 with its branches in many towns and cities of India. A renowned novelist and short story writer, Rupnjrayai:ia Sinha, was its chief editor. Khoji did not produce any poet of repute but unlike its predecessor Chandrikii it produced mostly articles written by local talent and its prose had the distinct charm of the Nepali language of Darjeeling. These periodicals in the course of the first five decades of Nepali journalism occupy an important place in the history of Nepali literature. Except Gorkh4patra which became the official daily of the Nepal Government no other journal survives to this day. The coordinated policy of the Nepal and the British Indian Governments to discourage free expression in Nepali, the financial stringency from which the papers suffered in the absence of any subsidy or wealthy pat.rons and also their limited circulation

STIRRINGS OP A NEW AGE

81

did not create a congenial atmosphere for the longevity of these periodicals. Like bubbles of foam they appeared and disappeared, yet even in their evanescence they inspired and gave birth to a great number of writers and poets, indicated a new path and roused a new consciousness. The language also gained an orderliness in spelling and grammar quite early in the period. The first dacade of this century saw the publication of important works like Jayaprithvlbahiidur's Prakrit Vyakaran (1911), Vi§vamaQi Acharya Dikshit's GorkhlJ Vyiikarar:r Bodh (1912) and Chandrikii (1912) by Guru Hemraj, the royal preceptor of Nepal. An Englishman named Monet brought out his Gorkhali Manual in 1918. Earlier in 1892 the second edition of Major Brown's Manual of Khas Gurkhali or Parbatiya was brought out from Lucknow. Khas Gurkhali Grammar of M.E. Dopping-Hepenstal and Subedar Kushal Singh Burllthoki was published from Calcutta in 1899. The most popular compendium Madhya Chandrikii by Somnlith Sigdel appeared in 1920 and the year also witnessed the publication of ParasmaQi Pradhan's Nepali Vyilkarar:r from Darjeeling. These two books served as text-books in India and Nepal. G.A. Grierson also gave some grammatical rules in his Linguistic Survey of India, Vol. IX, Part I V, which dealt with Nepali. Among the major lexical works the most famous is that of Professor Ralph Lilley Turner's A Comparative and Etymological Dictionary of the Nepali language, containing twenty-six thousand words, and published from London in 1931. Nepali Bhiishll Prakasil).i Samiti, besides bringing out books on Nepali composition, also published Pushkar Samier's English-Nepali Dictionary in two volumes in 1936 and 1938. Gopal Pa1;u;le's Raclianii Darpar:r (1937) and Rachanii Keiar ( 1941) and Chakrapiil).i Chiilise's pocket dictionary Bagali Kosh (1941) and Paryiiyaviichi Kosh (1941) proved to be of great help to the students of Nepali. By now a number of lexical works giving Nepali equivalents of many foreign and indigenous Tibeto-Burman dialects have appeared. Birsingh Chhetri's Gorkha-Chinese Dictionary, published from Burma in 1906 seems to be the first work of its kind.

9 The Great Trio

A new age in Nepali literature begins with Lekhniith PauQyiil (1884-1965), Lakshmtpraslid Devkota (1909-1959) and Balkrishi;ia Sam (1902-1981), who have left their impress on different genres : Lekhnath and Devkota on poetry, Balkrishi;ia on drama. Lekhnath marks the end of an era and the beginning of another. Educated at the Sanskrit school at Kathmandu and later at Behares, Lekhnllth hardly came under the influence of western literature. Influenced by the works of Bhanubhakta and Motiriim he started composing verses early in life. The verse solutions in Sanskrit and Nepali to the quiz -verse were the beginning of his literary career. Such compositions gave him an opportunity to gain mastery over his craft. Many of his early poems were published in journals like Sundari and Miidhavi since 1905 and his erotic and amorous poems were included in the a!lthology Siik1isindhu. The principal source of Lekhnath's inspiration was Sanskrit literature. He followed the norms laid down in Sanskrit prosody, but gave a new diction and direction to Nepali poetry. His first significant work Varshiivichiir (Thoughts on the Rains) was published in Miidhavi in 1909. In the description of the rainy season the poet uses metaphors and similes to depict a picture of the society, to reinterpret Hindu culture, to express a

THB ORBAT TRIO

83

spiritual awakening and an ethical concern. His novel use of mythological sources in the portrayal of nature's beauty, the use of a genuine yet somewhat ornamental language, simple yet grave stanzas, shows his poetic skill. In his later major works we find these traits more developed and refined. Vars/idvichiir grew in the form of Rituvichar (1916), which came out in 1934. Rituvichiir written in Anushtup metre, influenced by Kalidas' Ritusarhhar, is replete with rich imagery.. Describing winter, Lekhnath says: NagTchako rukho o1ch) he is a nature poet with his own imagery. His awareness of the unhappy happenings in the world, and his desire for peace and peaceful coexistence make the theme of 'Silpa-S3dhana' (The Pursuit of Art) where a sculptor goes on striking his chisel and hammer unconcerned with outside events. Like Bhikshu, Kedarman Vyathit was also much impressed by Chhayavad in Hindi. That the newness in Nepali poetry was still running parallel with traditional mode of writing may be seen in other poets. The metrical rhythm of Nepali poetry for long depended almost exclusively on classical vtlrTJik metres. Various miltrik metres, the scansion of \'lhich is based on the syllabic units in each line, also· came into wider vogue. The new kind of poetry that Siiradii had begun to publish since 1934 soon influenced Nepali poets of India too. TulsI Bahiidur Chbetri, popularly known as TulsI 'Apatan', was born at Dibrugarh in Assam in 1920 and was educated through the medium of Bengali and Assamese but love for bis language drew him to the study o~ the Nepali literature. Employed as a teacher in Sikkim he founded a literary organisation, Apatan Sahitya Parishad, in 1947, with the help of the energetic youth of Sikkim. The name 'Apatan' itself was derived from the first letters of their names. In this group Agam Singh Tamang, who died young, was a promising poet; two Hindi-speaking members, Sivanath Misra and Riimdattalal Thakur also composed many fine poems in Nepali. Almost all of their poems were metrical compositions in viirTJik as well as matrik. The early poems of TulsI 'Apatan' and his friends were collected and published in 1950 as lndrakil Pushpaiija/i (Flower Offering from Indrakil). Indraktl is popularly regarded as the ancient Sanskrit name of Sikkim. Tulsi Babadur Chhetri, who later became the head of the Nepali Department at Darjeeling Government College and now heads the Nepali Department of the North Bengal University, has obtained his doctorate degree in Nepali literature from Tribhuvan University of Nepal. He is the first Indian to do Ph.D . in Nepali literature. Quite proficiel!t in the use of both 'liirr:iik and miitrik metres, Dr Chhetri's poems are published in many periodicals. His regard and . love for Gandhiji find expression in Biipu-

.

114

A HISTORY Of NEPALI LITERATURE

Vandanii (Ador;ition of Bapu), published in 1952. A collection of his early poems, Samkalpa (Resolve), came out in 1954. The mastery of his craftmanship in versification is shown by his translation of Tagore's Saiichayitii where each poem rendered into Nepali retains the metre of the original Bengali. His poems also reveal his skill in the use of various figures of speech like yamak. A good example of such use is 'Prabhat' (Dawn) where each word starts with the syllable 'pa' and the poem has its own rhythmic charm. Apart from the depiction of scenic beauty in poems like 'Adrish!a Chhiirigu' (The Chhangu Lake Unvisited), many of his poems also show an acute social consciousness. Dr Chhetri's three plays Kamal (1953), Jamiinii Bad/yo (The Time has Changed, 1955) and Vljaya (Victory, 1957), are written with similar concern. Nahera Aja Malai (Don't Look at Me Today), published in 1976, contains a number of poems written in the style of free verse and also very short poems, described as 'mini-poems' in the style of Japanese haiku. In some of them one comes across a tone of bitterness and sarcasm, something which is not to be found in his earlier compositions. His reputation as a poet, however, resides in the traditional style. The metrical rhythm of Nepali poetry for long depended almost exclusively on classical viirQik metres. HariniirliyaQ Upadhyaya (1888-1942) of the Darrang District in Assam, started writing poems in 1910. His poems are both in folk and classical metres. Besides Gi1m4lii (1957), many of his poems are to be found in old journals like Gorkhii Samsar and TaruQ Gorkha, published from Shillong and Dehradun. HarinarayaQ was a playwright and had translated four Sanskrit plays into Nepali. Padampraslid I;>hungana (c. 1898-1943) of Shillong was also well versed in Sanskrit. Six of his ten major works are recorded to have been published. His R'11nayiiQa SikJha Padamprakils, RamiiyaQa Sap1aratna and other works are in Sanskrit metres. Pushpalal Upadhyaya, also of Assam, is a poet of classical tradition. A good blend of difficult Sanskrit words and pure Nepali words in his ponderous verse shows the influence of Lekhniith Pau.\~ ~~ ;\:.'r. •. :' : "~'J .\1.~;·1t: · ~ S'a!'-!~N l"'rom .1., :,.·: .

PROSE FICTION

145

Benares. Though poetic narratives were published in many of these journals, the credit for publishing short stories since 1902 goes to Gorkhiiparra. However, the stories that the Gorkhiipatra published then were not original. They were translations from Hindi, Bengali and Sanskrit. The sources of many of these stories were quoted, but other stories ' where such sources have not been given also seem to be translated as the place-names and the names of characters in them are not indigenous. The main object of publishing stories in this paper was to give pleasure to its readers and also to give some moral lessons. It is made apparent when stories are found to be given with a synoptic moral of the lesson and with titles suggestive of morals contained in them. A few well-known stories, for example, 'The Necklace' by Maupassant, and 'Daliah' by Tagore, were published in 1911 and 1913. But the publication of about eighty stories in it failed to give a new direction to the Nepali short story. The original stories in Nepali were mostly chosen for their narrative value than for any thing else. When the First World War broke out in 1914 · a number of publishers from Benares took the opportunity of bringing out books which could find a ready market in the camps of the Gorkha soldiers. Ratansfngh Gurungko Ourpostko Karha-(The Story of Ratnasingh Gurung at the Outpost) published from Benares in 1914 gave the story of a soldier but it was not an original work. The story was taken from an English magazine and rendered into Nepali by one Subedar Amarsingh Thiipii. The language used in it shows that the translator was from Dehradun. This story contained many elements of a true modem short story. GorkhiI/i, a weekly published from Benares in 1914, was frank in its criticism of the socio-political condition of the Nepalis of Nepal and India but its objective was to create a social awareness by publishing thoughtful essays rather than publishing literary pieces. Nor did Chandrikii, published from Darjeeling in 1918, give importance to prose fiction. It published only a translation of Jaldhar Sea's 'Vakilko Bhiigya' (A Pleader's Fate) from Bengali. Gorkhii Samsiir, published from Dehradun in 1926, however, brough out a few original stories. 'Viyog' (Separation) written under the pseudonym of 'Ishta' and

146

A HISTORY OF NEPALI LITERATURI!

'Deviko Bali' (A Sacrifice to the Goddess) by lahure, a pseudonym adopted by Silryavikram Jnavali, appeared in 1927 and 1928 respectively. The latter story, though written with a social message against the practice of animal sacrifice during Dussera festival, bas enough literary merit. An anomymous writer's three other stories, 'Vilap' (lamentation) which depicted the cruelty of a step-mother, 'Narbabadur Gurung' which describes the adventure of a hunter, and 'Hindu Devi' (Hindu Goddess) showed promise. Ramsingb Gorkba chose. the principal character of bis story, 'Euto Garib Siirktki Cbbori' (The Daughter of a Poor Cobbler), from a caste considered to be untouchable in a totally caste-ridden society and the writer's sympathies showed his advanced social awareness. In 1929 someone Jiving at Bhamo in Burma contributed a story 'Kararylko Phal' (The Result of a Rape). It is not only a description of series of events, but is also analytical of the mental conflicts. 'A nnapiirQli' by RupnarayaQ Sinha of Darjeeling, appeared in 1927. •It Jacked the matured craftsmanship of his latter stories, but it was new in style and the use of language. The publication of Shukutiko Sunts have been published in journals. T. Wangdi's 'Mero Chin Bhramat)' (My Journey to China) in Khoji (1940) is an example. Samudrawdri Samudrapllri (Beyond and this Side of the Sea, 1976), edited by Salone Karthak, is·a collection of reminiscences written by a few young writers. The travel, sponsored by the Sahitya Akademi, of a young essayist and short story writer, Kumar Ghising in 1979, has borne fruit in the shape of his Diinghll/i-Niilaptini (The Doon Valley and Nalapani, 1982). The book not only offers a glimpse of the life of Indian Nepalis in Dehradun but also relates the story of the battle of Nalapani, a nearby hilltop, where the Gorkhas (Nepalis) had fought the British during Anglo-Nepal War, 1814-15, with exceptional bravery, a bravery highly praised in many contemporay British records. Besides original works, literary works in European and Eastern languages have also been translated into Nepali. Early literary writings in Nepali began with translations of Sanskrit texts: besides Upanishads and scriptural texts, poetical and dramatic works in Sanskrit have been rendered into Nepali. A few works like Abhijiitina Sokuntalam of Kalidas have many translations. Besides literary works, Manusmriti, Kautilya's Artha!iistra, Asavaghosha's Buddhacharitra, the teachings of the Buddha in eight volumes by Bhikshu Amritananda, Banabhatta's Harsl1acharit and various works on Sanskrit rhetoric and prosody have been published in Nepali. Tulsidas' Rllmcharitamlinas, Vidyapati's poems and various works from other modem Indian languages have appeared in Nepali translation. Books from Bengali include Tagore's Gitaiijali, at least in three different translations by Sankardev Panta (1936), Tulsi Bahadur Chhetri and Okiuyama Gwynn, Gord and Naukhunainll, Padmapraald 114 (>huii1CI, Bhuvanprasid SS, 67, l)hungcl, Sambhuprasld SO, S4, 56, 51, 10, 16, 168, 19S Dikshil, Harihar Achllrya I 68, 195 Dikshit, Kamal 25, 197, 208 Dikshit, Klsinith Achlrya 45, 218 Oikshit, KedllrmaQi Achlrya 220 Dlkshil, Narendramaoi Achirya 196, 206 Dikshit, Rimmal)i Achlrya 21, SI, 74, 195, 219 Diksblt, Vidyldevl ISi, 187 Dlkshit, Visvamaoi Acharya 81 Doppina·Hepenstal, M.E. 81 Dube, Cbandrdvar 'Chandra' 142, 183, 213 Dukhun, Mohan 136, 137, 163, 183, 193 Dunne, James 69 Duwl