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A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1830 [Paperback ed.]
 0521681936, 9780521681933

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AHistot手。量主二

Earl? r Modern

Sout\1ea_-?t:一A?Ja, Barbara_ Watson A'nd?ya

LeonardY. Andaya

A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1830 Barbara Watson Andaya and Leonard Y. Andaya University of Hawai

'i

at Miinoa, Honolulu

图画CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 嗡个四

CAMBRIDGE PRESS UNIVERSITY

Universi可Printing House, Cambridge

Cambridge University Press It

is

CB2

8BS, United

Kingdom

CONTENTS

part of the Universi可of Cambridge.

furthers the University’s mission

education, learning and research

by disseminating knowledge

in the pursuit of

at the highest international levels

of excellence.

www.cambridge.org Information on this

www.cambridge.org/9780521681933

List of maps

Acknowledgements

。Cambridge University Press 2015

Note on This publication

is

in cop严ight. Subject to statut。可exception

and to由e provisions of relevant

Introduction: conceptualizing an early of Southeast Asia

Kingdom by TJ

catalogue record for this publication

International Ltd.

is

Padstow Cornwall

available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

Framing a

modern" period history of early modern Southeast Asia

Chapter

I:

A history of early modern Southeast Asia,



Barbara Watson Andaya and Leonard Y. Andaya.

cm

distinctiveness of “Southeast Asia"

adaptations to出e physical environment

Valued imported goods: ceramics and

Andaya, Leonard Y叮author.

II.

1.

Southeast Asia-

1i1i1Aq,,“7“叮3句3叮3句3

247170159

text且es

The trading context Environmental considerations and early

Title.

DS514.3.A53 2014 959飞02-dc23

Southeast Asia and the geographic environment

Valuable products from a unique environment

Human

ISBN 978-0-521-88992-6 (Hardback) - ISBN 978-0-521-68193-3 (Paperback) I.

250

唱EA

Environmental factors conducive to maritime connections 1400-1830

Includes index.

History.

"early

Geography and the

Andaya, Barbara Watson, au由or

pages

modern history

Southeast Asia as a region

published 2015

The



x-mum…m

and measuγements

Abbreviations

permission of Cambridge University Press.

Printed in the United

spelliηg

collective licensing agreements,

no reproduction of any part may take place without the written

First

lX

List of讯ustγαtions title:

polities

Conclusion

2014000264

Antecedents of early modern

ISBN 978-0-521-88992-6 Hardback

Chapter

ISBN 978-0-521-68193-3 Paperback

Formation of mandala polities

2:

societies,

c.

900-1400

Persons of prowess Cambridge Universi时Press has no responsibility

for the persistence or accuracy

of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,

and does not guarantee accurate or appropriate

that

any content on such websites

is,

or will remain,

The mandala

polity as family

Localization

句,中FHJQj1i气unu--F31-

444556678

Antecedents to the early modern period

Mainland Southeast

Asia: Pagan,

Island Southeast Asia: Srivijaya

Angkor, Sukho白白,A严1tthaya, Dai Viet

and Majapahit

Conclusion



VI

CONTENTS(?"气VII

CONTENTS

Chapter

3:

The beginning of the

early

modern

era,

1400-1511

A transitional period in the historical record Noteworthy features of the period Expanding trade and encounters with India and China

and ph过osophical domains Technological changes and agricultural expansion Religious

in island Southeast Asia

Developments

82

86

Developments

197

in island Southeast Asia

197

202

87

The Western Archipelago The Central Archipelago The Northern Archipelago

91

The Eastern Archipelago

210

87

95 99

Developments

in

206

216

mainland Southeast Asia

216

Mainland

The飞tv estern

The Western Archipelago

100

The Central Mainland

220

The Central Archipelago

104

The Eastern Mainland

228

The Northern Archipelago

107

The Eastern Archipelago Developments in mainland Southeast Asia

233

Conclusion

110 113

Chapter

The Western Mainland The Central Mainland

113

Noteworthy

The Eastern Mainland

122

117

128

Conclusion

New boundaries and changing regimes,

6:

Chapter

Acceleration of change, 1511-1600

4:

Noteworthy features of the period Portuguese and Spanish involvement in Southeast Asia

134 134

domains

140

Chinese trade and the worlds beyond the center

147

in island Southeast Asia

151

Expanding

religious

Developments

The Western Archipelago

151

The Central Archipelago

154

The Northern Archipelago

159

The Eastern Archipelago

164

Economic development and its impact on Cultural, ethnic and religious boundary-making

240

Charismatic leadership in a time of upheaval

247

relationships

The The The The

Central Archipelago

253

Northern Archipelago

258

Eastern Archipelago

262

264

The Western Mainland The Central Mainland The Eastern Mainland

269 275 279

Conclusion

167

Noteworthy

The Central Mainland The Eastern Mainland Conclusion

7:

Early

modern Southeast

5:

Expanding global links and their impact on Southeast Asia, 1600-1690s

Noteworthy Features of the Period

New and old

actors

and mob过ity of human labor Changes to the physical environment Slavery

Asia: the last phase, 1780s-1830s

282

features of the period

286

172

Increased centralization on the mainland

286

176

Contrasts and similarities between island and mainland Southeast Asia

290

179

Demarcating

political

and

cultural boundaries

Developments in island Southeast Asia

Chapter

264

Developments in mainland Southeast Asia

The Western Mainland

mainland Southeast Asia

251

in Island Southeast Asia

Western Archipelago

Chapter

in

244

251

167

Developments

236 240

features of the period

Developments 130

1690s-1780s

182 187 187 192 195

The The The The

293 298

Western Archipelago

298

Central Archipelago

301

Northern Archipelago

306

Eastern Archipelago

310

Developments

in

mainland Southeast Asia

The Western Mainland

314 314

VIII惠、CONTENTS

The Central Mainland The Eastern Mainland

the early modern period Conclusion: Southeast Asia and world and Southeast Asia Features of the early modern the early

modern

Glossary

Further Readings

Index

325 332

Conclusion

From

319

to the colonial

334

ILLUSTRATIONS

337 341

344

Monsoon winds

18

Figure 1.2

Hunting birds of paradise

22

Figure 1.3



28

Figure 2.1

Bhairava from Candi Singasari, East Java

56

Fi思ire 2.2

Popa Medaw

62

Figure 2.3

Buddhist monks in front of Angkor Wat, Cambodia

66

Figure 2.4

69

Figure 3.1

Walking Buddha, from Sukhothai Tree of life, Coromandel Coast, India

Figure 3.2

Ceramic

Figure 3.3

Fi丘eenth-century bowl from northern Thailand

Fi思ire 3.4

Examination

Fi思ire 4.1

A Topass man

Fi思ire 4.2

Vigan Cathedral, Philippines

144

Figure 4.3

Chinese in seventeenth-century Banten

148

Figure 4.4

Women and the market in Melaka

154

Fi凯ire 4.5

Sultan Trenggana and J aka Tingkir

157

Figure 4.6

The Reclining Buddha (Pegu)

168

Figure 5.1

VOC seapower: attack on Makassar, June

Figure 5.2

An

Figure 5.3

Sama Bajau

Figure 5.4

Wat Chaiwatthanaram, Ayutthaya

Figure 6.1

Japanese print of an eighteenth-century

Figure 6.2

A Manipuri

Figure 6.3

Bahnar tomb house

278

Figure 7.1

Ilanun warrior

282

Fi思ire 7.2

Ronggeng dancer

347

Figure

354

1.1

ship cloth from South Sumatra

jar,

fi丘eenth-century

stele

121

125

from Dai Viet

and

136

his wife

185

1660

211

ancestor from eastern Indonesia

212

voe

236 265

297

“The attack of the stockades at

Figure 7.4

“View of the city of Bangkok" “View of the

223 ship

(Cassay) horseman

Figure 7.3

Figure 7.5

88

96

Vietnam

Thu Bon

Pagoda Point on the Rangoon

(Faifo) River south of

River"

318 322

Da Nang

,,

327

IX

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

MAPS 1

Southeast Asia and

its

neighbors



Antecedents of early modern

societies,

c.

4 Zones in early modern Southeast Asia 5

Early

modern Southeast

Asia,

1400-1511

6 Acceleration of change, 1511-1600 7 Southeast Asia,



600- l 830s

12

Undertaking such a major and complex task as writing the history of an entire region was only possible because of the unstinting and generous assistance of so many friends and

42

colleagues.

83

would

82

questions and requests

xiv

2 Southeast Asia and the geographic environment

900一1400

With

a sincere apology to

anyone

whom we

acknowledge the following individuals

like to

for help,

and

have inadvertently omitted,

who

we

generously responded to our

assisted in locating pictures

and supplying

infor-

Stephen Acabado, Jaap Anten, Michael Aung-

130

mation

182

Thwin, Bryce Beemer, Anne Blackburn, Peter Borschberg, Francine Brinkgreve, Michael

for captions: Patricio Abinales,

Charney, Steven Collins, Helen Creese, George Dutton, Caroline Hau,

Thomas Hudak,

Michael Feener, Volker Grabowsky, Hans H注gerdal, Ken Hall, Liam Kelley, Mar斗ke Klokke,

Keng

We

Koh, Michael Laffan, Sun Laichun, Christian Lammerts, Paul

Victor Lieberman, Li Tana, John Miksic, Linda Newson, Lance Nolde, Liesbeth

Laηr,

Ouwe-

hand, Victor Paz, Maurizio Peleggi, Rohayati Paseng, Anthony Reid, Merle Ricklefs, Jan

Henk

Bronwen Solyom, Miriam Stark, David Stuart-Fox, Akiko Sugiyama, Heather Sutherland, Saw Tun, Paul Tacon, Michele Thompson, James Warren, Graham Watson, and Kathryn Wellen. Our special thanks go to Ken Breazeale, Raquel Reyes, Bruce Lockhart (twice), and to two anon严nous

van Rosmalen, Marie-Odette

readers,

Scalliet,

Schulte Nordholt,

read earlier drafts of the manuscript and offered valuable criticisms and

who

suggestions for improvement.

The

errors

and oversights出at remain

are of course our

responsib山ty.

We would also like to express our gratitude to the following institutions for providing facilities

and

financial support to complete the writing of this history: National University

of Singapore (NUS), Asia Research Institute at

NUS,

Universiti Sains Malaysia, the Royal

Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies (KITLV), and our institution, the University of

Hawai'i

at

home

Manoa.

At Cambridge University Press Marigold Acland was an enthusiastic supporter of the and following her retirement Lucy Rhymer has sustained this interest

original conception,

and together with Claire

Wood has

offered constructive advice.

XI

NOTE ON SPELLING AND MEASUREMENTS

ABBREVIATIONS

We

AH

Anno

BCE BEFEO

Before the

Bulletin d主cole Franraise d'Extreme Orient

BKI

Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde

CE

Common Era

have tried to maintain consistency in spelling place names and individuals, since

variation can o丘en be confusing to students. readily recognizable

To accommodate recent names, we have used transcriptions that are commonly

and acceptable

changes in the spelling of place used in the secondary

literature

We have used the form we believe is most

and

to the majority of scholars.

at first

mention included the indigenous equivalent in mention. Unless otherwise noted, for

H斗rah,

Muslim lunar calendar

that

began

in

622

CE

Common Era

Company

EiC

English East India

dates we have used Before the Common Era (BCE) and the Common Era (CE), instead of BC and AD. American weights and measures have been used with metric equivalents in

JMBRAS

Journal of the Malayan (Malaysian) Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society

JSEAS

Journal of Southeast Asian Studies

brackets.

JSS

Journal of the Siam Society

brackets. Foreign

words are

italicized

only

at first

KITLV

now the

Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde,

Royal

Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies

MB RAS

Malayan (Malaysian) Branch of the Royal

MEP

Missions Etrangeres de Paris (French Foreign Missions)

voc

(Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie) Dutch East India

Asiatic Society

Company

XIII

Introduction: conceptualizing an early modern history of Southeast Asia

乡 ,,

、/



寸 二二, 0、

HADHRAMAUT



C工〉

IND/AN



OCEAN

?史?





er





Map

1:

Modem

Southeast Asia and

its

neighbors

Land over I

1000阳l0

500 250



500

000

1500

750

2000 km

1000 miles

AUSTRALIA

A HISTORY OF EARLY如1.0DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830



INTRODUCTION China had maintained an

Southeast Asia as a region

and

interactive relationship for centuries, despite linguistic, religious

cultural differences. Indeed, in 1959 the

introduced his short history of Southeast Asia It

now

is

nearly seventy years since “Southeast Asia"

geographic area worthy of academic study. During

ongoing debate about the extent to which the

much

modern

was

(Myanmar [Burma],

of the

new

began

to speak of“Southeast Asia,'’while the strategic interests of the region’s

states

encouraged greater collaboration, notably through the Association of Southeast

states of Southeast

Asia comprise a

and most recently East Timor [Timor Leste/

many

Timor

Lorosae]). This contemporary configuration, however, has taken

evolve,

and the occasional nineteenth-century mention of “Southeast Asia" even included

“Hindustan" and China. Although the term appeared

World War

rather arbitrary

the identification of “southeast”Asia

as a theater of Allied military action incorporated places

Asia, such as Sri

still

now

considered part of South

Lanka and the Maldives, while excluding the Philippines and

until

1945 even the Indonesian archipelago east of Sumatra.

By出e

1950s,

was therefore was

when

little

field,

there

agreement about regional boundaries. Some authorities argued that

it

“Monsoon Asia" encompassing not only the

countries of Southeast Asia, but southern China, eastern India area,出ey said, displayed significant ethnic cultural features that arose as local societies

and

all

made up

ten nations that officially

the eleventh

member

(following

and

Sri

Lanka. This entire

lin伊istic similarities as well as

shared

responded to the seasonal changes in

rainfall

its

new nation-

ASEAN had expanded to incorporate

the region, and

Timor

Leste's application to

independence from Indonesia in 2002)

is

become

currently

under review. If

anything, this long-standing historical debate on what constitutes “Southeast Asia"

has highlighted the

difficulties

of writing a regional history. In the

borders by which Southeast Asia islands of the Pacific colonialists

frequently imposed an

by

ties

Ocean

is

differentiated

are of relatively recent origin.

place, the national

India,

and the

Determined by European

artificial

division between communities that have long been linked

of family, history, and culture. As this study will show, the contemporary political if

applied retroactively to the early

boundaries of modern nation-states did not mobile, and

when

exist,

when

modern

period,

is

when

the

populations could be highly

ethnic identities were fluid and evolving. Second, even

concept of “Southeast Asia"

when

the

accepted in principle, generalizations are di伍cult because

differing religious beliefs, political systems,

the linguistic and ethnic diversity that

To

first

from China, Bangladesh,

through Western-style agreements or by diplomatic collusion, these borders

landscape can be misleading

Southeast Asian studies was developing as an academic

better to think in terms of a larger

Indonesian state - as a regional hallmark.2 In the early 1960s even Coedes

Asian Nations (ASEAN), founded in 1967. By 1999

years to

more frequently during the first half

of the twentieth century, there was no effort to standardize what were

geographic borders. During the Second

motto

of this time there has been an

Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos) and “island" ( the Philip-

pines, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia

diversity”一the

conceptualized as a

first

coherent region or are simply located in a residual area between China and India. Today Southeast Asia as it is generally defined includes eleven countries, categorized as“main- land"

Vietnamese scholar Le Thanh Khoi had

by invoking “unity in

is

a considerable degree this diversity

and

historical experiences further complicate

said to be the defining feature of the region.

was

a response to differences in the geographic

and temperature associated with the cycle of the monsoon winds. Other scholars, favoring different criteria, proposed their own regional boundaries. In 1944 George Coedes,

environment. Though virtually the entire region

regarded as the doyen of early Southeast Asian studies, wrote a history of the region

by highlands dissected by

before the fi丘eenth century without attempting to delineate

characterized by extensive plains areas through which flow long river systems, creating

Rather, he identified commonalities

Far East,”where

elite

among what he termed

cultures were shaped

by contact with

its

“the

physical boundaries.

Hinduized

India. In the

states of the

mainland

this

focus thus excluded northern Vietnam, which Coedes viewed as Sinicized, while the Philippines and the eastern Indonesian archipelago were considered too distant to have

been affected by Hindu

Ten

years later D. G. E. Hall’s pioneering History of South- East Asia, which stretched from early times to the twentieth century, included Vietnam and all of Indonesia but also omitted the Philippines, which he deemed to lie飞utside the

main stream of

ideas.

historical developments."1

However, in reversing

edition of 1964 recognized the long-standing maritime links its



this view, his

second

between the Philippines and neighbors and provided further evidence that the countries lying between India and

D. G. E. Hall,

A History of South-East Asia (London:

Macmillan, 1955),

Southeast Asia

within the tropics,“mainland"

river valleys, the

lowlands of mainland Southeast Asia are

conditions that are highly suited to the cultivation of rice through irrigation. This higher- yielding“wet-rice" agriculture encouraged the demographic growth that enabled lowland polities to

extend their

political

and

consists of thousands of islands, for irrigation

Though

and

more accessible and less named “island" Southeast Asia

cultural au出ority into

populated upland areas. By contrast, the appropriately

some minuscule, some ve巧extensive, but

areas suitable

agricultural expansion are limited, with the notable exception of Java.

the seas are important highways of communication,

areas are seasonally isolated

by rough

seas

some

islands

and adverse winds and ocean

and

Le Thanh Khoi,

L’histoire

coastal

currents. Efforts

to extend control over territ。可and populations thus faced significant obstacles.



3.

is

lies

an extension of the Asian continent. Bordered to the north and northeast

de l'Asie de Sud-Est (Paris: Universi可Press of France, 1959), 8





A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

INTRODUCTION

These physical variations were compounded by historical experiences and the influence of different belief systems. While the form of Buddhism now termed "Theravada" became

dominant on most of the mainland, Vietnam was the exception, being more influenced by the religious and intellectual traditions of China, including those associated with Confu-

Mahayana Buddhism.

cian teachings, Daoist ideas, and

major

In the island areas, however, the

were Islam and Christianity ( the

religious streams

fai出in the Philippines, East Timor, Bali retaining a localized

becoming the majority

latter

and parts of the eastern Indonesian archipelago), with

form of Hinduism. From the early sixteenth century to the early

nineteenth century the extent of European influence in island Southeast Asia also repre- sents a

marked

contrast with

relatively

its

In responding to these issues,

we

low

and economic developments.

continue to surface, whether

we

on the mainland.

to diverging histories,

On

the Southeast Asian land and seascapes limited the growth of large empires, allowing for

the proliferation of numerous small and largely independent polities. The仕ag且ity oflife in a tropical environment

and generally low populations meant a high value was placed on

human

men and women. Combined

resources, both

most notably

with socio-cultural traditions and

economic patterns that encouraged male-female complementarity, the

relative

autonomy

of women helped lessen the gap in gender status. Finally, while the unique flora and fauna

found

in Southeast Asia’s seas

and

forests

were a magnet to international

traders, the

athwart the busiest maritime east-west trade routes enabled local

region’s location

become active and dynamic that可pi命the early modern world. inhabitants to

recognize that basic differences between mainland

and island Southeast Asia have contributed to political

profile

of incoming religious teachings, notably Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity. The nature of

participants in the increasing connectivities

in regard

the other hand, regional connectivities

are speaking of language links

between central Vietnam

The

“early

modern" period

and northern Sumatra, trading relationships between southern Myanmar and the Malay world, or the activities of Makassarese mercenaries in Siam. Even that outsiders have long seen regional similarities especially

when compared with

Although the

political

non-existent until

modern

ent.

northern Thailand, and

the

among

now

is

the fact

Southeast Asian societies,

demarcate Southeast Asia were largely

times, the highlands reaching

India and China. Nevertheless,

striking

Arab world, China, and the Hindu Indian subcontin-

boundaries that

Myanmar

more

from Vietnam across Laos,

did act as a buffer against control from centers in

mountain paths and

river systems facilitated migration

The

division of

human

experience into a chronological sequence as a tool for organizing

information and interpretations about the past has been a particular feature of Western historiography, but the use of the term “early is

a twentieth-century

phenomenon.

Its first

modern"

to characterize a period of history

application in 1926

by a historian of Europe

represented an effort to bridge the long time gap in European history between the

Renaissance and the Modern. Although European historians this

new

periodization,

it

initially

found

little

use for

was more readily accepted by Americans, possibly because the

from southwest China into upland Southeast Asia. Connected by overland trade routes, the communities in these border areas were part of a shared cultural world that resisted

year 1970, which saw the publication of Eugene

incorporation into larger political entities. For the island world, the seas created border-

Europe, 1460-1559 and the launch of the Cambridge Studies of Ear抄Modern History,

zones of a somewhat different kind. In the distant past the Pacific was peopled by groups moving out from island Southeast Asia, but the preva过ing wind system and

can thus be said to mark the formal inauguration of “early modern" as a historical period.

like

extensive stretches of open sea

routes that

century or

made

societies

Foundations of

Rice’s

regional similarities that outsiders observed were the result of several factors,

dates, the period

is

generally perceived as beginning around the mid-fifteenth century

ending in a transitional phase

from 1780

to

“modern" history. influenced historiography in other world areas, and the

and

growing trend to adopt a similar periodization. Accordingly,

and extensive

and mountain products. In turn, deep respect for

was

hill

on rice-growing and

fishing, while the

areas provided a livelihood for collectors of forest

dependency on the natural environment fostered a the forces of nature and the protective influences of the ancestors, which this

reflected in indigenous cosmologies

and was incorporated into

local understandings

and

around 1830 that marks the move into

foremost of which was the geographic environment. Despite differences in mainland- island topography, Southeast Asia’s tropical climate and widespread access to rivers, lakes, vast forested lands

h均Modern

deeply entrenched in European historiography, and although not bounded by precise

earlier,

seas helped shape lifestyles that relied heavily

The

from the eighteenth

To

but sustained interaction between Southeast Asia and Oceania did not extend beyond the eastern Indonesian archipelago and the coasts of western New Guinea.

The

1500-c. 1800 - coincided with the early history of the United States.

the

with their Pacific cousins.

regular voyages to northern Australia

c.

The newly designated timeframe was then intended only for European and American studies, and even among European scholars was regarded merely as a transition丘om the medieval to the modern period. Since that time, however,“early modern" has become

impeded the creation and maintenance of regular maritime

would have linked Southeast Asian

south, Indonesian ships

time frame -

The general acceptance of an“early modern" period

substitute “early

Tokugawa

Europe and America has

last fi丘y

years have witnessed a

it

is

not

uncommon

to

modern"

for

modern China" for Ming and early Qing China,“early modern India" for the Mughal period. 0丘en such

Japan, or even "early

have been applied without serious reflection about the “early

in

modern"

features identified in

term’s applicab且ity or

European history are relevant

labels

whether

to other contexts.

It is



A HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400一1830

INTRODUCTION

therefore pleasing to note that recent years have seen the emergence of

scholarship which addresses questions such as the

the concept "early modern,'’whether such a period can be identified features

in

different

regions,

and the degree

more thoughtful

meaning of modernity, the to

rulers.

validity of

by addressing

specific

world

hist。可.

which there are shared global

government and

in these exchanges are scholars of

They have been

characteristics that can

at the forefront

world systems and the growing

of proposing and debating

spiritual

pushed scholars

field of

a“golden

modern"

on the manner and the extent

to

world historians there

is

a general consensus that

after the

which the changes thus

from the

factor in linking

all

The

parts of the globe.

early

modern period

is

Second World War, and the periodization they developed has exercised is

presented. The可pical textbook

a far-

came to

political

and

model or“charter"

territorial

for their successors; a "precolonial" period,

characterized by the crystallization of many polities into fewer and larger units (fifteenth-

consequently distin-

early nineteenth centuries); the colonial period (mid-nineteenth-mid-twentieth centur-

of goods and people. In contrast to the global networks that began to

develop in the nineteenth centu町,early

generation of regional historians of Southeast Asia

critical

expanding communications and trade patterns. At the same time, international commerce remained polycentric, with overlapping but distinct economic regions connected through

movement

first

the great“classical”states (roughly seventh-early且丘eenth centuries), seen as providing a

guished by an unprecedented increase in cross-cultural encounters that resulted from

the

age,'’from

be conceptualized in terms of a cultural, geographic, and “prehistory" section, followed by

late fourteenth

century the growth of long-distance trade, especially via sea passages, became a

beneficial

advancement. However, they were st山inclined to look back to which time a steady downward trend had made local societies

reaching influence on the ways the region’s past

introduced have transformed the mental attitudes (mentalite) of different societies.

Among

tutelage.

local but

civilizing

Similar views were held by the

attention to

developments. Social science interest in the public sphere has also

to reflect

and economic development under European

The attainment of independence would mean not only political freedom and economic progress, but a cultural confidence based on a renewed awareness of past achievements.

and technological

more

period represented merely a transition between past glories and the

vulnerable to European imperialism.

A useful distinction, for instance, has been

the interlinked ideas of “modernization”一the material

transformations of culture contact - and “modernity,”which gives

and

“early

be globally applicable, and in discussing the terminology best

suited to the changes so evident in this period.

made between intellectual

best, this

During the early decades of the twentieth century an emerging cohort of Western-educated historians rejected the idea that colonialism had introduced

characteristics.

Prominent

At

reconstitution of good government

modern commerce did not constitute a compre- demands opened up new pathways

and the era of independent nation-states (mid-twentieth centu巧to the

ies);

Wh过e

it

is

still

present).

possible to use "pre-colonial" to describe the entire period before a

country’s colonization,

contemporary historians of Southeast Asia generally avoid apply- lies between the “classical”and “colonial" because this

ing this term to the period that

undue emphasis on European dominance in the nineteenth centu巧. The search an acceptable way of categorizing the centuries that roughly correspond to the European“early modern" period helps explain the acceptance of the same term in places

hensive world system.3 Nonetheless, global economic

for

for the transmission of goods and ideas (technological and philosophical), flora, fauna, and pathogens. Across the world the same demands encouraged sh的s in resource use,

Southeast Asian historiography. This acceptance has been encouraged because the increas-

readjustments in social hierarchy, and increasing mob过ity of populations, both forced and voluntary. Although the impact of these developments was most pronounced at the major

nodes of global exchange, their ramifications touched an ever-increasing number of peoples and societies and thus drew

This discussion

undergone of五cials

is

them

into the ambit of “world history."

highly relevant to Southeast Asia because periodization here has

signi且cant changes. In the nineteenth century, for instance, colonial scholar-

saw only two

significant epochs: the indigenous classical civilizations

by great monuments such

as

Angkor

in

Cambodia and Borobodur

ing availab山ty of sources from the late fourteenth century enables us to track historical

developments in Southeast Asia in a way出at

in Java),

and

their

can discuss the changes and continuities出at have provided a framework for global

approaches to

As Asia

this period.

world regions, the adoption of “early modern" by historians of Southeast a relatively recent development. The term appeared first in 1993 in the title of a

in other

is

enlightened administrations of the colonial states, together with the independ- ent but st过l progressive Siam. From this viewpoint, the intervening centuries seemed be

volume edited by Anthony Reid, Southeast Asia

characterized by constant wars, dynastic upheaval, and interpolity squabbling, with a 仕agmented historical narrative punctuated by the occasional emergence

though

to

of powerful



Charles H. Parker, Global Interactions in the Early Press, 2010), 69, 106.

Modern

Age, 1400-1800 (Cambridge University

not possible for earlier periods. The

unequal distribution of material st山means that some areas and some topics are better documented than others. Nonetheless, to a far greater extent than in previous 出口es we

(symbolized

“heirs,”the

is

tion,

its

“boundaries or

second volume of



in the

Early Modern Era. In the introduc-

Reid argues that the early modern period marked a watershed for Southeast Asia,

Anthony

Reid’s

dominant features”remained

blurred.4 That

same year出e

Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680 appeared,

Reid, ed., Southeast Asia in the University Press, 1993).

Ear抄Modern

Era: Trade, Power,

and

Belief (Ithaca: Cornell



INTRODUCTION

A HISTORY OF EARLY岛1.0DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 clearly defining a specific time

early this

modern

period.

The

frame for an“age of commerce”that formed part of an

explicit focus

on commerce

is

crucial to his contention that in

period the inclusion of Southeast Asian trade into the global economic network

produced“transformations in urbanism, commercial organization, religious systems and values,

and

state structures."5 In

1999 Victor Lieberman embarked on a major project to

It is

background that we accepted the challenge of writing

against this historiographical

a history of Southeast Asia in the early

modern

fifteenth to the early nineteenth century.

the global

and

era,

Because Southeast Asians were active players in

phenomenon of expanding commerce,

casualties of the changes that可pi命the period.

identi马r what constituted“early moder旷in terms of world history. He identified common- alities across“Eurasia”(including Vietnam, Thailand, and Java) and Europe between the

Asia, but the region also displays a character of

fourteenth/凶eenth centuries and about 1800 that he regarded as sufficient reason to justi命

arbitrated

the use of“early a

modern" to define a specific historical period.6 This research culminated in

monumental two-volume work of impressive

Parallels.7

Here Lieberman refined

his

scholarship, appropriately entitled Strange

arguments

to depict a coherent period extending

between about 1450 and 1850 in which Southeast Asia’s major polities displayed patterns of territorial consolidation, administrative centralization,

and

cultural integration that could

In the

meantime

there has been a steady stream of publications

offer detailed explanations

and interpretations of demographic

by other scholars shifts,

that

environmental

change, religious interactions, and gender relationships as they occurred in local areas implicated in global developments. This growing corpus of material has to propose certain features that characterize

expansion of international commerce and maritime

new

possible

traffic,

most commonly

cite the

a rise in population, a

more

technologies, the growth of regional centers,

the rise of urban commercial classes, religious revival,

more pronounced incidence of peasant

it

an early modern period in Southeast Asia in a

global context. In distinguishing this period, world historians

intensified use of land, the di旺usion of

made

unrest.

and missionary movements, and

of these features certainly varies in different cultural contexts, there can be that the expansion of international exchanges



Although the applicab让ity and impact little

doubt

and the transformations they generated

local societies

As

this

were both beneficiaries

book will show, many features

associated with early modernity in other parts of the world can be tracked in Southeast its own. The idea that modernity is not by particular cultures or nations and that its manifestations will differ according

to particular locations,

scholars

be they

spatial or temporal,

working on non-Western

opens up intriguing questions for

societies. Historical

evidence suggests that Southeast

Asian societies were remarkably accepting of new ideas and that the desire to be

“up-to-

date" appears to have been culturally and historically characteristic from early times. The means by which “modernity" was displayed could differ over time and between cultures,

and were typically eclectic.

be usefully compared with those of Japan, Russia, France, China, and South Asia.

which we have dated from the early

A Vietnamese ruler who saw the imperial court in China as the

apogee of culture could also look to European traders to supply the technology; by the same token, a Malay ideas

requested

German

beyond

lay

Muslim king might

from newly arrived Arab teachers even

as

latest military

eagerly listen to reformist

he sported a Dutch-style jacket and

porcelain ornaments for his children. In other words, the world that

familiar environments did

not鸣ni命threats or danger but o旺ered novel

opportunities and the possibility of widening social interactions.



legion of Southeast

Asian myths in which a beautiful princess, symbolic of the country, takes as her husband a foreign prince, reveals a deep-seated

and recurring desire to create and strengthen

cultural links. In a similar vein, legends

trans-

from all over the region describe cultural heroes who

knowledge and return loaded with honors to gain the hand of the community’s most beautiful woman, herself imbued with unusual qualities. travel to distant lands in search of

These

stories provide useful

metaphors by which

managed connections with

to consider the

ways in which

While new ideas

brought the world together in ways never before experienced. Significantly, no one area

Southeast Asian societies

dominated these developments, but by the early nineteenth century fundamental changes

and technologies were usually welcomed, a remarkable capacity to localize incoming influences meant that the ancestral past st山retained its authority and its relevance to

in

Europe and America - the centralization of nation-states, increasing

industrialization,

advances in science and military technology, developing theories about human hierarchies - meant that an earlier multi-centered world gradually became one in which

human action.

West occupied a hegemonic position. The contrast with the previous mark the divide between “early modern" and “modern" history.

ous agency and self-confidence.

the

centuries helps

Because of this cultural

a wider world.

ability to adapt, a句ust,

and

integrate, the history of

modern period can be written largely in terms of indigen- From the late eighteen由centu巧,however, traditional strategies of selective innovation became increasingly more difficult as the global connec- tions to which Southeast Asia had been so open hastened the pace of change. In numerous Southeast Asia during the early

cumulative effects of social and economic inequities and greater state demands posed a heavy burden for ordinary people, but it was in relations with Europeans societies the



Anthony

Reid, Southeast Asia in the

Haven: Yale University 6



Age of Commerce 1450一168αvol.

II:

Expansion and

Crisis

(New

Press, 1993), 2.

Victor Lieberman,“Introduction,”in Victor Lieberman, ed. Beyond Binary Histories: Imagining Eurasia to c. 1830 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999), 14. Victor Lieberman, Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-183αVol. I. Integration on the Mainland (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003) and Vol. II, Mainland Mirrors: Europe, Japan, China, South Asia, and the Islands (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009).

that cross-cultural tensions were like several other

world

areas,

most painfully manifested. By the 1830s Southeast

was faced by the

relentless

Asia,

and uncompromising pressures

of European-dominated global imperialism and the tightening restraints由at brought the early

modern period

to

an end.



10

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400一1830

INTRODUCTIO by noteworthy developments that we believe to be regionally

Framing a history of early modern Southeast Asia Bearing these issues in mind, our History of Early

provide signposts to the reader,

Modern Southeast Asia

by a short description of the focuses

on the

varied nature of Southeast Asian experiences as local societies were caught up in the

complex forces of change associated with the early modern world. Throughout the book we emphasize three major and interwoven themes: first, the various ways in which Southeast

evolved in relation to their specific environments;

Asia’s diverse societies

second, the nature of the far-reaching economic, political, and cultural changes that characterize the early

modern

period;

and

third, the

dynamics of

which Southeast Asians responded to such changes by

selecting

“localization"

through

and adapting incoming

influences.

We have organized the material in a way that we feel reflects significant connectivities in Southeast Asia during the early

modern

period, particularly the growing links with the

outside world. In approaching “Southeast Asia" as a region, in

we remain aware

of the ways

which geographic and environmental influences have contributed to differing historical and relationships, and especially to the distinction between “island”and

trajectories

“mainland." This distinction

is

accentuated by the nature of contemporary sources.

On

European and indigenous material tends to focus on of which became the core of modern nation-states. These centers

the mainland, for instance, both political centers, several

and the founder-figures viewed

as

privileged position in later histories.

fundamental to the national story thus gained a

By

contrast, sources

disparate. Despite the wealth of detail available for

interaction between different可pes of polities

from the island world are more

some places, notably Java,

and communities

is

not easily connected to

the evolution of present-day nations. Conscious of these di旺erences

graphic problems they present,

we have

the complex

and the

historio-

nonetheless worked to construct a history that

developments across the entire region. Accordingly, while recognizing the impo口ance of major centers of power, we also draw attention to developments in gives attention to

lesser-known

localities

and

to the peoples

who were

distanced from mainstream cultures.

Though most of

these societies left no written accounts of their own past, they were nonetheless integrally involved in the changing cultural, economic, and political patterns that characterize this period.

We believe that this

generalizations, usually based

on better-documented areas, can obscure the

make

attention

is

the study of Southeast Asia so fascinating. Ultimately

coherent narrative that

is

faithful to local

necessa町because regional

we have

diversities that

tried to provide a

concerns while relating these events to larger

regional and international circumstances.

Chapters 1 and 2 are intended to provide a general background and a context for understanding the historical environment in which early modern Southeast Asia developed.

The following

five chapters are

based on the centuries of the

organized chronologically.

Though roughly

Common Era, the beginning and end points are demarcated

during that particular time.

we begin with

significant. In

order to

a brief overview of the chapter, followed

specific global circumstances that affected Southeast Asia

We then turn to discuss the general features that may continue

through the entire period but are particularly evident during the timeframe covered by the chapter.

The body of each chapter connects

detailed historical narrative

areas connected

Southeast Asia

these regional generalizations to a

by approaching Southeast Asia

by longstanding economic and

is

in terms

cultural interaction.

of “zones”-

The

more

extended

history of island

thus discussed in relation to four zones - the Western Archipelago, the

Central Archipelago, the Northern Archipelago, and the Eastern Archipelago - while the

mainland

is

divided into the Western Mainland, the Central Mainland, and the Eastern

Mainland. This form of organization should enable students and teachers to focus on any particular zone

and read



connected account from the beginning to the end of the early

modern period. We also feel that this strategy will help give a more comprehensive and thus more accurate depiction of the diverse historical developments of the region. Maps of and the illustrations are intended to support more extended definitions of unfamiliar terms, with

the various zones

the text, while a glossary

provides

a final section providing

suggestions for further reading. In the conclusion “early

modern period"

distinctive feature

a global system of reflects

we have brought

is

together the themes that

as a specific

economic and cross-cultural exchange. The

not merely Southeast

but also attests local willingness to

and

their regional implications.

this

facilitate

field

now sees

as“early

modern."

vitality of this interaction

many products found nowhere

such exchanges. The story of early

it

will contribute

not merely to Southeast

of world history, and that

greater appreciation of the region’s global

consensus

into

book is thus a record of transcultural encounters

We hope that

Asian studies but to the burgeoning

became integrated

geographical location at the crossroads of

Asia’s singular

modern Southeast Asia presented in

distinguish the

time-span in Southeast Asia history. The most

the degree to which Southeast Asian societies

Asian trade and the physical environment that yielded so else,

we believe

engagement

it

w山encourage a

in a period that a scholarly

11

Southeast Asia and the geographic

environment 理

跚 ..



..



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7:盟



..



要2

A‘.

,.

.・. I!

...

'."

‘’

睡1



..

1‘



.・



.・・





Arabian Sea

HADHRAMAUT

C二〉 噜=・





500 250

1500

1000

500

750

1000 miles

Land over 1000 metres

Map

2:

Southeast Asia and the geographic environment

?飞?

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14



MODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…830

A RISTO盯OF EARLY

SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT jack-仕uit,

ments, for

In?!eogra

way

has been fundamental in shaping the

it

evolved. Environmental influences

and economic adaptation contributed

regional history has

on patterns of human settlement, and

to the variation in cultures

lifestyles,

ethnicities that

or customs like chewing a betel quid (a mild stimulant, combining the

leaf of the betel vine, the

nut of the areca palm and lime). Early travel accounts

convey something of

typically tried to

by emphasiz-

this difference to their readership

ing and often exaggerating the exotic sights they witnessed themselves or that others



helped distinguish Southeast Asia in the eyes of early travelers. Although distanced from

had described.

powerful centers in China and India, the

Battuta (1304-68?) that even ordinary Javanese had access to elephants, which were

region’s

unique location between these two great

neighbors encouraged a continuing extension of economic and cultural connections that

became

increasingly important as global

commerce expanded. Equipped with an

acute

in fact

as beasts of

rides

commercial opportunities by tapping the biodiversity of the

plausible. In

and

seas that sur-

rounded them in exchange for prestige items from overseas. Local societies made use of a web of land and sea routes by which imported and locally produced goods circulated within Southeast Asia

itself.

This heritage of cooperation and resourcefulness suppo口ed

the far-reaching trade networks that were to affirm the region’s global significance in the early

modern

period.

As

this

limited the expansion of

chapter will show, the geography of Southeast Asia also

more

centralized polities (a term referring to an organized

settlement of varying size and complexity) while encouraging the cultural and ethnic diversity出at

is

seen as a regional hallmark.

it

reports

misinformation

is

the claim by the

Moroccan Ibn

normally associated with royalty:“[The Javanese] ride them and use them

knowledge of their own environment, Southeast Asians were able to take advantage of new forests

clear case of

burden







Eve巧one

home and

to go

who

has a shop

to carry goods."1

ties

up

his elephant beside

and

Other accounts, however, are more

remarking on the independence of local women, for instance, Chinese

often contrasted

Southeast Asian practices with the

more

hierarchical

gender relations promoted in China. While these commentaries are frequently the translator

Ma Huan

(c.

1380-1460),

He (1371-1433)

to the Southern

approving:“It

their

affairs are

it

is

managed by

custom

who accompanied

Ocean

[in

their wives;

Xian,

the Chinese admiral

in the early fifteenth century, i.e.

critical,

Zheng

was quite

the Thai polity of Ayutthaya] that

both the king of the country and the

all

common

they have matters which require thought and deliberation - punishments light and heavy, all trading transactions great and small - they all follow the people,

if

decisions of their wives, [for] the mental capacity of the wives certainly exceeds that

of the men."2

等Geog呐创出e distinct1

Noting that women and men were rarely distinguished in terms of dress and were o丘en bare『chested, early Chinese observers also

Scholars

who have

tried to relate the “Southeast Asia"

descriptions furnished

encountered major

by

early travelers

difficulties.

from China,

shown on modern maps

to

India, Arabia, or Persia have

Place-names are hard to veri命,material was o丘en copied

from other authors, and claims of personal experience cannot be confirmed.

On the other

hand, historians have argued that Southeast Asia had long assumed a separate

if

vaguely

defined identity in the eyes of outsiders. In referring to this region, early Indian sources like the epic

Ramayana

(the story of

Rama) and

the Jatakas, tales of the Buddha’s former

commented on

Asia’s

high

rainfall,

high humidity, and high temperatures are unusually uniform for an

area that covers a land

square kilometers).

and sea area of over

the

Yunnan

plateau, pop吐ated

by many

different ethnic groups

more

frequently to denote the

Muslim

areas

Some Arab, Persian, and Turkish writers, aware that their own seaborne journeys beyond India were determined by the annual monsoon cycle, adopted variants of the phrase “below the winds" which Malays o丘en used when referring of Southeast Asia as well as Java

to

itself.

maritime Southeast Asia.

was perceived as“different,”whether

(o丘en simply a sarong tied

around the

in terms of

taxed. Di伍culties in maintaining control

a Vietnamese military victory

waist), unfamiliar

dressed

food such as sago or

lived outside the

to invade

meant

and

that their resources were severely

encouraged an eventual withdrawal following

and the defeat of a Chinese

fleet.

In the words of one

emperor,“The government of our present d严1asty, out of affection for the

we know

how people

out丘om

hold the land they called 叮iaozhi" (modern northern Vietnam) for a thousand years



In combination, these sources thus convey an impression that the region as Southeast Asia

who

mainland Southeast Asia. Although the Chinese were able

(111 BCE-c. 900 CE), geographical distance

thirteenth century the term 吁awa" occurs

also played a role

radiating

control of any powerful center, helped to separate China proper from the northern

Southern Ocean. Toponyms in Arab writings are

from the

square miles ( thirteen million

Combined with climatic similarity, topography The great sweep of mountains and hills

frontiers of

difficult to identi马几but

five million

in setting the region apart.

speak of voyages to Suvarnabhumi, the Land of Gold; and in the seventh century a Chinese account mentions ?N anhai,”an inclusive term referring to the countries of the

lives,

the tropical climate as a

distinguishing feature of the countries around the Southern Ocean. Indeed, Southeast



army and

for

H. A. R. Gibb, trans. The Travels of Ibn Battuta A.D. 1325-1354. Translated wi由revisions and notes from the Arabic text edited by C. Defremery and B. R. San思丘ne忧i, with annotations by C. F. Beckingham. Vol. IV (London: The Ha挝uyt Society, 1994), 883. Ma Huan,ηng-yai Sheng-Zan.“The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores”[1433), J. V. G. M山s, trans.

and

ed.

(Cambridge University Press

for the

Hakluyt Society, 1970), 104.

A HISTORY OF EARLY岛'.lODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

16

the weal of poor humanity,

deemed

in this pestilential climate for the

The obstacles

that the terrain

it

advisable that our troops should

SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONM no longer be kept

purpose of guarding such an unprofitable

because the timing of any sailing venture was determined by seasonal winds and ocean

territory."3

currents.

posed to outside invasion became more evident in the late

when the Mongols, having established the new Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) in China, attempted on three separate occasions to reassert and extend Chinese authority over the Vietnamese. Because their food and supply lines were strained their forces, suffering

from the heat and humidity, were decimated by

Mongol

by smaller Vietnamese

but

tropical fevers,

major

in the late thirteenth century

were

moved, but military access from centers of power in Bengal or the Indus-Gangetic plain would have been possible only by moving forces through Manipur, Assam, and Rakhine (Arakan). The hilly terrain, heavy monsoon rainfall, and the prevalence of malaria in this border zone was a further deterrent. A丘er into the Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) River Valley

the failure of a seventeenth-century campaign against Assam, a Mughal scribe, referring to "raging forests, frightful valleys and deadly forests" remarked that“in all the past ages no

To

made

exit

a considerable extent the

region against



its

...

Every army

outside, not only because of distance but

and W.W. Rockhill, trans. Chau Ju-Kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade Twe伊h and Thirteenth Centur邸,entitled Chu-fan-chi (St. Petersburg: Imperial Academy of

New York:

celebrating the dispatch of many ships, raids

on

several port towns,

sea. It

has also been suggested that Rajendra Chola instituted

rolled heavily

and the

2nd

rev.

edn. ( Calcutta

some

soldiers could not eat for

commander from

a severe lashing

and confiscation of a third of his property.

静也

程等 Environrn创al factors conducive to maritime connections Hostile seaborne invasions of Southeast Asia were rare,

and

for the

most part the oceans

operated as a highway for international commerce. Various archaeological finds, especially beads, supply evidence of trading connections

Ocean by

at least the fifth

century BCE. By the

ceramics discovered in several variety of artifacts

sites

from overseas

grate Southeast Asia into

from Southeast Asia across the Indian first

and second centuries CE, Chinese

point to expanded links with East Asia as well. The

testifies to

the maritime connections that helped inte-

Roman coins of Oc Eo on the Mekong

an international trade network. These even include

River Delta in southern Vietnam.

As we

will see in the following chapter, these

seaborne

were conduits for cultural and religious influences

as well, and images of the Buddha and Hindu gods dating to fourth- and fifth-century India, frequently facing the sea, have been found in caves and other sites located along coastal areas of Thailand, Cambodia,

links

the

Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra.



major reason

for these far-reaching connections

Paragon Reprint, 1966), 45

Ci毗nG.H. L盹“Th Cited in Edward Gait, A History of Assam, 1926), 147.

Though

unearthed in the entrepot (meaning a major exchange center)

surrounding seas also protected the Southeast Asian

unwelcome incursions from

Sciences, 1911; reprinted :

of this country

Friedrich Hirth in the



skirt

venture are unclear,

a labyrinth of

to the Chittagong Hills (in present- day Bangladesh), formed another natural impediment to the extension of control by Indian rulers. There were certainly well-traveled mountain paths along which traders

that entered

factor.

to save the

hand of conquest on the from the realm of life."5

an

perished in the Java expedition, and the treasure that was brought back was not su伍cient

subject to China."4

foreign king could lay the

in

many days."6 A丘er they landed in Java the commander became embroiled in local politics, and a丘er four months, deterred by the heat, he set sail for home. Three thousand men

From his perspective the whole enterprise was a disaster, since “we have not seen the gain of a foot of territory, or a single person added to those Myanmar,

this

thought that trading rivalry with the southeast Sumatran polity of Srivijaya was a

and the sea very rough, so that the ships

cost of the previous thirty years.

India and

campaign recorded

if so it was short-lived, especially as Tamil power waned in the twelfth century. Mongol efforts to mount a seaborne invasion of Java in 1292 were similarly frustrated. The fleet, car巧ing around five thousand men, did not follow the favored coastal route and therefore took several months to reach Java. According to reports, "The wind was strong

A memorial presented to the emperor by one mentioned Myanmar when he assessed the military

modern thickly wooded ranges extending from Yunnan down

in a

but

several

In the west, in the border region between

1024-5

The reasons behind

kind of direct rule over several areas in north Sumatra and the northern Malay Peninsula,

mounting a campaign during the hot season. official specifically

Straits area in

notes that places along the coasts of the Melaka Straits were“surrounded”and “protected"

towns in upper Myanmar. In 1287 they came within striking distance of Pagan (Bagan), Myanmar’s capital, but were deterred from pressing由is advantage by the loss of thousands of men and the difficulties of high-ranking Yuan

who attempted to

the capture of elephants and treasures, and the defeat of Srivijaya, the inscription also

equally unsuccessful. Apparently attracted by the possibility of reaching India, their forces

pushed through Yunnan and captured

it is

by the moat of the deep

Myanmar

Melaka

inscription in a southern Indian temple.

boats.

conquer northern

efforts to

seas could thus frustrate the ambitions of powerful rulers

instance, attacked the

Mongol armies were ineffective against Vietnamese tactics of ambush and strategic retreat. The final Mongol defeat came when a support fleet, lured upriver, was overtaken in a surprise attack

The

extend their authority into the region. The Tamil ruler Rajendra Chola (1012-44 CE), for

thirteenth century,

and

17

and Simla: Thacker, Spink and Co,



W. P. Groeneveldt, Historical Notes on Indonesia and Malaya Compiled from Chinese Sources (Jakarta: C. V. Bahratara, 1960. Reprint of 1880 article), 25-7. Cited in

18



A HISTORY

OF山…ODERN SOUTH…A队14…830

SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT of the highly desired spices (cloves, nutmeg, and mace), and then towards the Melaka Straits.

A丘er these winds

weaken between August and October, the

more. As long as shipping depended on

movement

of

all

Southeast

Asia’s

sail,

maritime

the

cycle begins

monsoons determined

traffic (see

Map

once

the pattern of

2).

Equally important were the ocean currents, which follow the direction of the prevailing

monsoon and can add

the coasts of China at

1.5 to 2

knots to a

vessel’s

speed. Ships could leave

and Japan during the northeast monsoon and make

a timely landfall

various points such as the coast of central Vietnam, the Gulf of Siam, north coast

Java, or the

Melaka

would embark on

Straits.

their

Meanwhile, ships originating

homeward voyage

across the

in India

Bay of Bengal.

and further west

When

the south-

west winds were in force, the reverse pattern would apply. Since winds and water Fi♂ue

and the also

Monsoon winds. The northeast monsoon was dominant between January-April southwest monsoon丘om July-November. The circulation oflocal land and sea breezes

1.1.

determined the pattern of sailing within the region.

circulation helped determine the pattern of early maritime voyaging, seaborne travel to

and from the region was

timed to coincide with the onset of the monsoons. In Arab writer could thus speak of "the season of travel to

carefully

the early thirteenth century an

Jawa,”while the arrival of the northeast to leave for the

was Southeast that reached

Asia’s

position at the center of a“single ocean" linked by a

from the coasts of eastern Africa and western Asia

wind system

to the Indian subcontinent

and China.

The

favorable location of Southeast Asia between the great markets of the early world

Nanyang

monsoon was

the signal for Chinese shipping

(“Southern Ocean,”i.e. Southeast Asian) destinations.

Venetian Marco Polo (1254一1324), succinctly.“In that sea there are but

who

traveled to

China

two winds that blow, the one that

ant from the tenth century,

went overland across the steppes of Central

and the Southern Song dynasty (1127-1279) encouraged maritime

of the transpenins吐ar routes through the

Some cargoes were also shipped via one Myanmar-Thai isthmus and the neck of the

northern Malay Peninsula. Goods were unloaded from ships on one coast and transferred to various types of land

Around the Straits

and

river transport to waiting vessels

on the opposite

coast.

a丘h century CE, navigators began using the all-sea route through the Melaka

between Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula because

lessened and expanding maritime knowledge

piratical attacks

meant sailing conditions

appear to have

at the

southern end

carries

them

outward and the other that brings them homeward; and the one of these winds blows all winter, and the other all the summer."7

was not fully appreciated until the third century CE. Previously the Malay Peninsula was 由ought to constitute a barrier between the oceans surrounding India and China that could not be circumnavigated, and the “silk road" connecting China to the Mediterranean Asia.

The

in 1275, put the matter

Southeast

Asia’s

location at the meeting of the

when

monsoons had become more import-

invasions by various tribal groups prevented China’s

easy access to traditional land routes across central Asia.

the

first

Southern Song emperor,“Overseas trade

enormous

profits.

to attract private

highway

is

The Northern Song (960-1127) trade. In the

words of

a business that can produce

The court ... should therefore follow the old and successful policy traders and develop commercial exchange."8 The value of the ocean China and India was further strengthened

after the disruption of

the overland caravan trade across Central Asia following the

Mongol conquest of

Baghdad

in connecting

in 1268.

CE the Chinese pilgrim Faxian returned all the

Increasing use of what has been termed the “maritime silk road" from the thirteenth

way from Sri Lanka to China by sea, and a few years later a Kashmiri prince went to China

century onwards also helps explain the greater frequency with which references to

using the same

Southeast Asian ports and shipping occur in Chinese sources.

of the Straits were less treacherous. In 413

itinera巧・

Understanding the regularity of the monsoon winds (from the Arabic mausim, mean- ing“season") was fundamental to the exploitation of the

Melaka Straits route. Eve町year from around November and December, the strong monsoon winds blow from the north- east across the South China Sea, gradually retreating through January and February. There

ary,

move in a clockwise direction to eastern Indonesia, the homeland

to the

Melaka

itiner-

Straits,

was

protected from major hurricanes and typhoons by the Spratley and Paracel Island



follows a transitional period of about five weeks before the start of the southwest monsoon winds that develop in the Indian Ocean and grow in strength from May and June. During

the transition, the winds

which followed the coastline of present-day Vietnam

The most favored



Michael Laffan,“Finding Java: Muslim Nomenclature oflnsular Southeast Asia仕om Srivijaya to Snouck Hurgronje,'’in Eric Tagliacozzo, ed. Southeast Asia and the Middle East: Islam, Movement and the Long Duree (Singapore: NUS Press, 2009), 34; Hen可Yule and Henri Cordier, The Travels of Marco Polo (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1993; reprint of 1929 edition) 1: 264-5. Cited in David C. Ka吨,East Asia Bφre the West (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012), 111

20

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 chains. In the twel丘h century a system of seaports

SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT

around Vietnam’s Halong Bay,

subsumed under the general name of Van Don, provided outlets for silk, ceramics, and Red River Delta. There is also mention of other ports along the coast of the Gulf of Siam that served as major transshipment and

Valuable products from a unique environment

exchange points for maritime trade, including one that the Chinese called Xian, a port or group of ports thought to have provided the basis from which the city of A yutthaya

topographical, and climatic environment, which gave rise to the region’s great biodiver-

developed in the fourteenth century. Seven Tamil inscriptions dating to the mid-ninth

Almost

other crafts produced in villages in the

to late thirteenth centuries discovered along the coast of

Myanmar, Thailand,

the Malay

Southeast

and

sity

Asia’s attraction to early traders

of Southeast Asia

all

and fauna

flora

and

a vast range of forest

is

is

can be explained by

its

unique geological,

anywhere

sea products unavailable

else in the world.

located within the tropical zone, but the variety of

enhanced because

it lies

at the

its

convergence of two continents, Asia

Peninsula, and northern Sumatra refer to Tamil merchant guilds or corporations.

and

In con且rming the connections with south India, the remains of temples also suggest

the Asian continent,

the presence of settled Tamil communities and indicate the continuing connections

western Malay-Indonesian archipelago (including Sumatra, Java, and Borneo), forming

between trade and the movement of religious

invaluable

the

many

eventually submerged as sea levels rose. Until six to eight thousand years ago the

ideas. Archaeological

in locating other sites that developed along these

work

is

expanding sea routes, for

are

not mentioned in written sources. For example, ceramic remains show that between the eleventh and fourteenth centu巧Kota Cina, on Sumatra’s northeast coast, functioned

an important exchange port

as



large

much

interior provides tangible evidence of site

known

as

on the Banten from

frequented by Chinese and Tamil traders.

Hindu-Buddhist ceremonial complex

how

at

Padang Lawas

in the north

far this influence extended. In

Banten Girang (upriver Banten), about River, has similarly yielded impressive

Sumatran

west Java

amounts of Chinese pottery dating

this period.

Chinese interest in Southeast Asia was sustained and extended under the Yuan dynasty,

Wang Dayuan (c.

prompting one traveler,

tion of Island Barbarians,

which provides

1311-50), to compile the valuable Brief Descr伊- far

more information on

areas to the east of the

Sunda

Mainland Southeast Asia and the Malay Peninsula are an extension of and up to around 7,500 years ago were joined to the islands of the

shelf

and

now underwater

a biogeographical region

known

as Sundaland,

much

of which was

Sahul shelf provided another land bridge that linked Indonesia’s

easternmost islands to

New

Guinea and Australia, forming

a large continent that

was

separated from the Sunda shelf by marine troughs around 3 to 4.5 miles (5,000 to 7,000

meters) deep.

As



six miles (ten kilometers) inland

Australia.

and fauna of the Sunda and Sahul shelves are marked by the Wallace Line, a boundary between Borneo

a result of this separation, the flora

quite distinct, with the division

and Sulawesi drawn by the

British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) separat-

ing two ecozones.

The

nutmeg

once grew only in the Banda group, the

trees that

clove trees

largest carnivorous lizard, “birds

on the small volcanic

named

for the island

and Tidore, the

islands of Ternate

Komodo dragon

on which



the world’s

was discovered), and the

it

of paradise" with their magnificent plumage, are just a few examples of plant and

Malay Peninsula than any other source and a伍rms growing maritime connections with the Philippines, Maluku, and Timor. Increasing Chinese traffic along the maritime routes

animal

passing through Southeast Asia

compendiums that give Ocean" ( the Indian Ocean and

very distant past Palawan and the Sulu islands were apparently joined to Borneo, the rest

maritime Southeast Asia west of Borneo) as well as the “Eastern Ocean" (modern Philippines, Borneo, and eastern Indonesia).

ocean trenches. This separation resulted in a long period of independent evolution that

is

evident in other nautical

detailed directions for those sailing to the “Western



similar pattern of

narrative of his journey

growing fam过iarity

is

evident in Arab accounts. Ibn Battuta's

from India to China did not become widely known

until long after

unique to the eastern part of the Indonesian archipelago

life

(see Figure 1.2).

Similar effects of separate development can be seen in the Philippines. Although in the

of the Philippine archipelago

is

separated from Indonesia and the Asian continent by deep

why such a high proportion of flora and fauna is endemic to the Philippines. One example is the tiny and now endangered Philippine tarsier, the world’s smallest primate, explains

with

its

extraordinary night vision

made

possible because of

enormous eyes

relative to its

the author’s death (about 1368), but his decision to include an account of Java and

body weight. The impression such unusual animals made on outsiders

G沪to Those Who Contemplate the Marvels of Traveling is a telling comment on new networks fostered by international trade. So valuable was knowledge

sketches of a seventeenth-century Jesuit priest-apothecary in Manila. Struck by the

Sumatra

in his

of maritime itineraries that they were often jealously safeguarded. From the early four- teenth century Gujarati traders from northwestern India became more active in Southeast Asia, but they sought to dissuade their rivals

from using the

the west coast of Sumatra and then led to Java via the here could not be navigated.

tarsi er’s“lion-like face

and

large

round red eyes

like those of

is

evident in the

an owl,”he made a sketch

of a female with a baby tied to her body by vines for the interest of his European colleagues.



profitable route that followed

Sunda

Straits,

claiming the waters



Cited in R.



Reyes,“Botany

Georg Josef Camel

and Zoology

in the Late Seventeenth-century Philippines: the

SJ (1661-1706),”Archives of Natural History 36, 2

(October 2009), 271.

Work of

21

22

' A HISTO盯OF EAR…ODERN SOUTHEAST A队叫…830

SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT a

magnet

to international trade.



prime example

is

the sandalwood tree, found in the

southern arc of the Indonesian archipelago (Nusatenggara, or Lesser Sundas). Partially parasitic,

able to survive in relatively poor soil

it is

drawing moisture and nutrition from

and through a hot dry season only by growing nearby. In Timor, said

specific host trees

the fourteenth-century traveler斗\Tang Dayuan, there was nothing to

wood, but there were twelve

different localities

where

it

buy except sandal-

could be purchased.

As one would expect, the botanical complexity that characterizes Southeast Asia was more pronounced in places where rainfall is plentiful. The rainforests that

considerably

and high precipitation were

flourish in areas of high humidity, high temperatures,

Figure 1

1.2.

dominated by giant

Hunting birds of

paradise. Males of the greater bird of paradise sp配ies gathered in lo的

in tropical lowlands. In turn, these trees

orchids,

and fungi; indeed, the

supported an array of climbing vines,

ferns,

more than forty thousand

forests of Southeast Asia contain

indigenous species of flowering plants. In Peninsular Malaysia alone there are over eight

feathers to attract watching females

thousand, including two thousand

Hunters hid under a canopy ofleaves and fired blunt arrows so由at they did not damage the beautiful plumage. Because the legs and wings were removed from the carcasses prior to sale, Europeans initially

Fed by constant sunlight and heavy

came

all帆The Mala Archipelago (New York: Harpe r Alfi时Russe

and Brothers, 1869),

provided

many

trees, eight

hundred

rainfall,

orchids,

Southeast

and two hundred palms.

Asia’s

dense tropical jungles

of the plant and animal products for which the region became justly

renowned. In lowland areas further from the equator where the annual rainfall declines and there is

to

land and simply floated in the heavens where they subsisted on dew. They were thus called “birds of the gods”or“birds of paradise." l

with most belonging to the very large dipterocaψfamily found

trees with exposed branches where they could dance and display their

believed these birds never



trees,



marked dry

were able to

season, the可pical forest cover

tolerate

extended periods without

was semi-deciduous. The dominant rainfall,

the most famous being the teak,

another dipterocarp, which was particularly favored for

common

were

in the rainforest,

plentiful,

trees

its

durab让ity.

Bamboos,

less

and grasslands ( often created by human and

intervention) provided a hospitable environment for elephants, deer, wild pigs,

water buffalo. Mangroves lined river deltas and coasts sheltered from wave action as

frontispiece.

Courtesy of the John M. Echols Collection on Southeast Asia of

well as silted river deltas, frequently extending deep inland.

When waterlogged sediment

accumulated, mangroves were replaced by freshwater swamp forests - home to import- ant sources of nutrition such as the sago palm - and tidal creeks as the water receded. At

Cornell University Library.

higher elevations tropical evergreen forests were dominated by conifers but above

The

biodiversity that

is

a feature of all Southeast Asia also reflects differences in the

climate and the physical environment. cycle,

but there

is still

The

entire region

is

subject to the

monsoon wind

considerable variation in the arrival and duration of rain-bearing

currents. In the mainland, for instance, the northeast

monsoon

air

brings rains to southern

Vietnam and Thailand, but in the same period interior Myanmar, central Thailand, and Cambodia experience a marked dry season, and the rains only arrive with areas of

the southwest

no

monsoon (June-October).

In the western Indonesian archipelago there

truly dry period, but in certain sectors of eastern Indonesia

there

is

and the western Philippines

may be no rainfall at all for five to six months of the year. In its adaptation to the dry

environment of Timor and neighboring islands, one species of native deer will even drink seawater and eat seaweed. A similar adaptation of indigenous vegetation to different conditions has resulted in

many rare species, so that otherwise remote areas could become

elevations of 5,000 feet (1,500 meters),

where the temperature was even

cooler, the trees

became gnarled and stunted. Because wet clouds and fog carried abundant moisture, these upper rich bird

At

montane

forests

were characterized by a diversity of

ferns, mosses,

and



life.

all altitudes,

Southeast Asian forests yielded a cornucopia of trees and plants that

supplied the woods, resins, and rattans that were valued for their timber, aromatic, and

dye

qualities,

now

central

and

especially for their medicinal properties. In the

and southern Vietnam,

the sweet smelling aloes (also in the

heartwood of certain

known

Ma Huan

Cham areas

of what

mentioned an incense believed

as gaharu, or eaglewood), a

trees in response to a parasitic

mold.

is

to be

dark resin that forms

He

reported that this

was“produced only on one large mountain in由is country and comes仕om no other place in the world; it is very expensive, being exchanged for [its own weight]

A HISTORY OF EARLY

24

in silver."10

MODERN SOUTHEAST

The high demand

color association wi出blood

most plants and

for

their use as medicinal ingredients.

ASIA, 1400-1830

Sappanwood,

combined with

its

trees,

SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT

however, was generated by

for example, yielded a reddish dye, but the

coagulant properties

made

it

much used in

Chinese treatment of wounds, hemorrhages, and menstrual problems. In 1387 A严1tthaya shipped as much as 10,000 kati ( one kati equals

1.3 lbs

or 0.6 kg) to China. Knowledge of the

medicinal qualities of herbs and trees was especially well-tabulated in Vietnam, where the

honors even in China. In the fourteenth century knowledge of herbal medicines was even sent to the

expertise of local physicians received high

monk renowned

a Buddhist

Ming

court as part of the customa町tribute. Here, for the benefit of Chinese physicians,

he compiled a

treatise entitled

local plants

lists

The Miraculous Effecti附

[i.e.

suited

the Vietnamese]."11

from

saline springs

salt,

most

readily available

from seawater

and saltwater ponds. The value of salt

and

indicated not merely by

in trade, but also in

ritual offering to the spirits.

far

from the

coast,

prominence Access to

salt

in coastal areas but also

as a prese凹ative, as

ingredient in certain food preparations its

an

essential

for general health in a tropical climate

was a major concern

its

is

frequent inclusion as a

for interior groups located

and communities that controlled the deposits of rock

across the highlands of

to southern

magnet

Borneo

to later

as Puradvipa,“the land of diamonds,”the presence of

European

traders.

From

reputation as a source of gold, and

modern northeast Thailand and Laos almost

it

has been suggested that Indian texts used

that

its

to denote the mainland,

Indian owner was working in a local gold mine.13 The insatiable appetite for gold local production,

Luzon highlands, Mindanao, and the Visayas. Though gold was most valued, the highly mineralized belt that stretches from Yunnan to Sumatra yielded other metals and ores; panning for tin in tributary rivers and streams was well established

inevitably gained a

and copper was mined

in the north of

modern Thailand. Used

the

Malay Peninsula the

sieve

and then casting

The

interpreter

it

Ma

the spirits of these

salt wells to

beliefs required that certain rituals

the weeping of a

should be followed, for

domains were jealous伊ardians and did not easily permit human

coral reefs are

Southeast

Asia’s

warm and

provide habitats for unusual creatures

fish, invertebrates,

fields

of underwater seagrass

herbivorous marine

like the large

and

over 30 percent of the world’s

Asian waters, while

in Southeast

generally shallow

ideally suited to the evolution of

and underwater vegetation were

found

in a

into blocks.

sea, too, yielded its treasures, since

waters, coral reefs,

visit to

Huan mentioned teams of men“washing”tin

seaweeds. Six of the world’s seven sea turtle species and

(northern Thailand) thus attributes the presence of nearby

as alloys in the

manufacture of bronze, both metals were prized by Indian traders, and during his

deep

Such

and when

the Spanish arrived in the Philippines in the sixteenth century mines were being worked in

remarkable marine biodiversity, including innumerable句pes of

Salt."



and Suvarnadvipa (Island of Gold) to indicate the islands. It is thus possible that a ring found in North Sumatra dated to the tenth centu叩with a Sanskrit inscription“In the darkness, I have chosen to work" meant Suvarnabhumi (Land of Gold)

salt scattered

from these underground deposits was obtained through excavating the water of which was thought to have supernatural origins; a text from Nan

legendary “Mistress

which was

ancient times Southeast Asia had also acquired a

privileged position. Salt wells,

figure

various areas, including the

Less remarkable to early travelers but of extraordinary importance to local societies were the natural sources of

Yunnan. Although diamonds did not

in the trade to China because they were not then used as a gemstone, the Javanese referred

both domestically and overseas was a powerful incentive to

and animals used in且ve hundred “southern remedies" uniquely

cure people of the south

“to

for his

thriving ruby trade with China via southwest

mammal,

the

There are also significant iron deposits across the uplands, and archeological excavations

dugong (now endangered). Sperm whales migrated annually from the Indian Ocean through the islands of eastern Indonesia and into the Pacific. Their intestines produced

show evidence of mining,

the rare resinous excretion

entry.

smelting, and forging in early times, although as maritime trade have been more feasible to obtain metal tools ( essential for forest clearance) and similar items through exchanges with coastal settlements.

expanded

it

may

Beneath the earth lay other treasures that assumed a special place in the regional trade network. The geology of the more northerly areas of Myanmar, for instance, created conditions出at produced precious stones, especially sapphires and distinctive deep red rubies,“the flesh and blood of Mother Earth."12 The value attached to these rare gems is suggested by early descriptions of surveillance of workers and by the discovery of swords and weapons at ancient mining sites, and by the late thirteenth century there was a







Cited in

Hoang Bao Chau, Pho Due Thuc and Huu Ngoc,“Overview of Vietnamese The Gioi Publishers, 1993), 17.

ambergris

(“gray

amber'

would thereby

be infused with the maritime mastery and longevity of these revered sea-creatures. Internationally, however, ambergris gained a specialized market as incense and as an ingredient in medications.

account出at

The high

prices

quality ambergris,

Traditional 14

it

could

command are attested

refers to the “extraordinarily expensive

carcasses of dead whales or floating

Ma Hua川ng-yai Sh付Zan, 81. Medicine,'’Vietnamese Traditional Medicine (Hanoi: Cited in Ted Theme

call

eastern Indonesia was used to caulk boats, perhaps with the idea出at they

13 :0

we

it

was

said,

on由e ocean

or







washed up on

might only be found once

in

one Chinese

dragon spittle”found in the shore.14

The

best

in a decade.

Heddy Surachman,“South Asia and the Tapanuli Area (North-west Sumatra): Ninth-Fourteenth Centuries CE," in Pierre-Yves Man伊in, ed. Ear伊Interactions between South and Southeast Asia (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2011), 166. Pei Hsin, Hsing-ch口a-sheng-lan: the Overall Survey of the Star Ra卢,J.V.G.M山s, trans叮Roderick Ptak, Cited in Daniel Perret and

ed. (Otto HarrassowitzVerlag, 1996), 61.

26

6 A RISTO…F EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST A队14…切 Chinese

lists

SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT

of products from the Southern Seas indicate the great value placed on

other marine items such as edible seaweeds, corals, and tortoiseshell, which were used for

many purposes:

in food, divination, medicines,

evil spirits. In later years, as

and even

as

household protection against

foreign cuisines developed or tastes changed, additional

products were harvested from Southeast Asian waters, such as the famed sea slugs

from the Pigafetta

from the

relatively

remote area to the attention of foreign traders. In his

much

Barbarians,

Bri吃f Description of Island

Wang Da严1an stressed the superiority of the pearls from Sulu because of their

white color and their round shape. For the Chinese, pearls symbolized wealth, beauty, and supernatural power, and the Southern Seas therefore held out a particular lure that

continued to attract traders, despite the alien surroundings. In the words of a ninth- century Tang poet,“In the southern land many birds sing;/Of towns and cities half are unwalled./The country markets are thronged by wild

/Poisonous mists

rise from gleam through the night-rain./And none passes but the lonely seeker of pearls./Y ear by year on his way to the South Sea."15 This image of the lone Chinese “seeker of pearls”embarking on an annual voyage to negotiate with “barbarians"

the

is

damp

sands;/Strange

tribes; ...

fires

a reminder of the value placed

Because certain species of plant,

on the products of Southeast Asian seas and jungles. marine, and animal life were o丘en confined to particular

ecological niches, an apparently isolated or inaccessible region could

become

(c.

and

sea environments

from indiscriminate

1480-c. 1534), the chronicler of the

moon“otherwise

ment, as

tripang,

without appropriate propitiation. Such cultural restrictions also served to

first

exploitation.

Antonio

circumnavigation of the world, thus

noted that in Timor the cutting of sandalwood was restricted to certain phases of the

from Indonesian teripang) found in eastern Indonesia. In the maritime environ- on the land, a reputation for providing goods of high quality could bring even a



forest

protect the forest

spirits.

would not be good,'’and it was always necessary to request permission Similarly, a later Chinese observer said that the search for honey in Java it

was only undertaken seasonally“and then not

to excess,”for it“would fail

were too

collected."16

会在H…ada内ti…问忡叫n忧…nt The complexity of the Southeast Asian environment was mirrored in its human popula- tions, still apparent today in more than a thousand separate languages (and many more dialects) that have been identified. There were undoubtedly numerous others in earlier times, with as

many

as

two hundred

in the Philippines alone.

early history are frustratingly sparse, the

movement

Although the sources

for

of products and goods meant that

seemingly remote communities could be involved in exchange networks that linked the

deep interior to settlements on the coast and beyond.

Maritime linkages within the region were

the principal

and Indian Oceans,

facilitated

because Southeast Asian waters,

by the arc of islands stretching

source of a favored product in world trade.

though fed by

It would be wrong, however, to assume that these products were not valued by local people themselves. Bezoar stones are a concretion found in the intestinal tracts of various

from Sumatra and Java around

mammals,

advantage of seasonal currents and local land and sea breezes to develop a network of sea

birds, reptiles,

and sea

creatures.

Borneo became especially famous

for this

the Pacific

internal basins connected

routes.

own

possible to sa诅from the

their

invulnerability warriors o丘en

wore a number into

battle.

In

many

Southeast Asian

societies certain可pes of feathers, like those of the hornbill or the so-called “bird of

an essential accoutrement for a warrior’s headdress since they would render him impervious to the enemy’s arrows and spears. To a far greater extent paradise,”were considered

example, the location of trees containing the rare aromatic aloeswood might only be revealed to the collector in a dream a丘er he had made certain offerings to the tree spirit. Gathering the much-valued honey and wax from the hives of wild bees found high in the branches of very tall trees was similarly surrounded by ritual, for these giant trees

between

15

Edward H.

Schafer,

guardian

spirits

who would have no mercy on

individuals

who

The Golden Peaches of Samarkand (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of

California Press, 1963), 244.

is

divided into smaller

where

skillful sailors

for example, a strong stream flowing in itself,

so that

it

took

from the was quite

Malay Peninsula to Java, or from northern Borneo to Sulawesi, or for traders from the Cham region of central Vietnam to reach Java or ports in northern Sumatra. The distribution of the well-known Dong Son drums, made in northern Vietnam sometime between 600 and 300 BCE but found throughout the region from Maluku to Thailand,

own

straits,

South China Sea forced water to circulate within the region

than purchasers from overseas, Southeast Asians themselves also appreciated the ritual knowledge and practical skills required to obtain and deliver these valued items. For

possessed their

to the Philippines. This area

by channels, passages, and

During the northeast monsoon,

product, particularly those produced from the porcupine. In Southeast Asia, as in Europe, bezoar stones were valued as a talisman against all kinds of dangers, and to ensure

are enclosed

testimony to a continuing use of sailing routes that can be tracked to very

is

ancient times. Speakers of Austronesian languages, five

the Pacific

and

six

it is

believed, spread out

from Taiwan

thousand years ago, moving by boat through the Philippines, out

and down

into the Malay-Indonesian archipelago.

As

to

a result, with the

exception of tiny pockets of Austroasiatic languages in the Malay Peninsula and

Papuan-type languages in some of the eastern Indonesian islands and western

took 16

Antonio Pigafetta, The First Voyage around the World 1519-1522: an Account of Magellan's Expedition, Theodore J. Cachey Jr., ed. (University of Toronto Press, 2007), 118: Claudine Salmon,“Wang Dahai and his View of the Insular Countries (1791)," in Ding Choo Ming and Ooi Kee k吨,Chinese Studies of the Malay World. A Comparative Approach (Singapore: Eastern Universities Press, 2003), 53.

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400一1830

SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC HNVIRONMEN1 Though

foreign traders

had only limited knowledge of

local

exchange networks, they

were always heavily dependent on the ingenuity and resourcefulness of those involved in harvesting local products and delivering them to local ports and collecting points. Crews of ships following the maritime routes linking China and India were especially aware of the sea people, the communities

who

islands at the northern entrance ( the

of the Melaka

Sama

eastern Indonesia (the

The

birds s严nbolize the upperworld, the fish the underworld, and the ship with all its passengers is universe.

the fertile world of human beings. On the top deck two figures represent a

Guinea, the hundreds of identified languages in island Southeast Asia all belong to the Austronesian linguistic family. Their descendants display many features in common,

symbolism attached

to boats

the importance of the sea in local cosmologies

and seafaring

(see Figure 1.3).

While

this

is

and the

understandable

economies based on fishing and maritime trade, it can also be located among interior and agricultural societies - a legacy of the sea voyages associated with in

the ancient

When

Austronesian past.

the Spanish

centu巧,they recorded that the Tagalog in central Flores



first

arrived in the Philippines in the sixteenth

word for village, barangay,

also meant“boat,”and

one of the islands of eastern Indonesia), Dutch colonial

officials

encountered villages with names that mean“sa止”“rudder,”or“great oar." In the fourteenth centu町,Wang Dayuan出us marveled at the boat-building and navigational skills of sailors from the island of Madura, off the northern Javanese coast, who went “in the roughest sea with only their wooden oars and have never been wrecked."17

the

around the

Orang Laut)

and the northern and

from Sulawesi to the Lesser Sundas

in

history of several coastal polities in island

Sama Bajau

developing international entrepots. They were simultaneously absolutely delivery of tortoiseshell, corals, seaweeds, shells,

fleets

was

to

vital for the

and other marine products

to the

market. Impressed by the extent to which the seas were the natural habitat of these groups, a Chinese commentator recorded that“they can dive in water without closing their eyes."18

Equally valuable as collectors of Southeast Asian products were the small bands of

today termed Orang Asli

descriptions of these groups are rare,

New



sea

patrol the seas, protect the coastlines, and thus act as a van凯1ard in establishing and

forest dwellers

and Suku Terasing plant

and animal



[“isolated tribes”]

life

[“original

in Indonesia),

modern Malaysia

people"] in

whose unparalleled knowledge of

supplied an essential link in the economic chain. Early eyewitness

and we

are

dependent on

of the complex rituals that were required before the

humans

is

Bajau).

for a baby. Liefkes Collection 819,

Leiden, the Netherlands.

The

Southeast Asia shows that a principal role of Orang Laut and

nomadic

Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde,

more widespread

islands stretching

and his consort. Cloths like this could be used as mats on which a bride might sit, as a p山ow cover during a circumcision, or as a blanket ruler

but one of the

and the

on the

Moken) and the southern entrance

Straits, along the southern islands of the Philippines

eastern coasts of Borneo,

Figure 1.3. A ship cloth from South Sumatra. This ceremonial cotton cloth ( tampan pasisir, here shown on 由e reverse side) from South Sumatra, dated to the nineteenth centu町, depicts a traditional view of the

lived completely or partially

to enter their

domain, or would reveal the

spirits

later sources for

accounts

of the forest would allow

secret locations of valued trees

catch a glimpse of the experience and

and

Only occasionally do we camphor tree, which was largely confined to northwestern Borneo, the Malay Peninsula, and northwest Sumatra. While its aromatic timber and

plants.

skills

necessary to

exploit jungle resources like the

sweet-smelling resin solidified

were highly valued, the highest prices were paid when the camphor as crystals in the fissures of older trees. A thirteenth-century account by the oil

Inspector of Foreign Trade in Fuji钮,Zhao Rugua, offers a remarkably convincing account from Borneo, where bands of men collected camphor from "the depths of the hills and the

remotest valleys."19

It

was then shipped

to China, India,

and Persia

as

an ingredient in

perfumes, incense, and medicines.

Over the centuries the foreign traders who came to Southeast Asia as buyers for its natural resources gained the knowledge necessa巧to negotiate a successful exchange. Chinese and Indian merchants were able to distinguish various grades of products such as incense, wax, tortoiseshell, and kingfisher feathers, and knew the best places where each

was produced. They were also well aware of the preferences of different communities and 17

W. W.

Rockh山,“Notes on the Relations and Trade of China with the Eastern Archipelago and the Coasts of the Indian Ocean during the Fourteenth Century," T'oungPao, Second Series 16, 2 (1915),

254.

18

19

Chau Ju-Kua on Chau Ju-Kua on

the Chinese the Chinese

and Arab Trade, and Arab Trade,

32, fn. 2

193.

29

30

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

goods brought from

comes from Chinese

lists,

SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC

clientele,

anxious to acquire both rare and utilitarian

The most

detailed information about such imports

were therefore welcomed by an eager distant lands.

ASIA, 1400-1830

which widened considerably during the thirteenth and four-

teenth centuries to include different可pes of beads, combs, iron cauldrons, lacquerware,

bronze drums, and fabrics of various kinds. However, as in the past, these

dominated by ceramics, which have become are not perishable

and can be dated

vital historiographical tools

lists

Vietnam and interior Sumatra, preferred green wares. A bowl dated to the Yuan dynasty (thirteenth-fourteenth centuries), which was unearthed in Singapore, was decorated with the Chinese characters for compass directions and may have been used as a navigational guide, or perhaps for geomancy. status in the Islamic world.



are

because they

to particular periods.

ENVIRONJ』t ENT

Other places, such

as

second imported product of great value in Southeast Asia was

text过es, particularly

those from the Indian subcontinent. Indian traders, like their Chinese counterparts, were alert to

market trends in Southeast Asia, for the cloth they brought had long been one of

most versatile and valued exchange products, not merely for practical use but because of its important place in ritual. Production by Southeast Asian women, however, still

the

'Val叫rnported good…

continued, although the effects of the tropical climate

mean

that there are few early

were not

examples. Because certain rituals required specific indigenous designs, they Despite the obvious

demand for Chinese ceramics, it is worth remembering that Southeast

women) because of the areas in modern Myanmar,

Asia has a long tradition of earthenware production (mostly by

widespread availab山ty of suitable

clay,

and that

certain

Thailand, Cambodia, and north and central Vietnam ( the latter associated with the

Cham

displaced by foreign textiles, while cheap local cloth could serve utilitarian purposes. In

some

cases there

from abaca,

was even an overseas market. For example, cloth that was probably made

fiber

obtained from a species of banana native to the Philippines,

is

frequently

mentioned in Chinese trading records.

own ceramic traditions. Nonetheless, the range and sheer numbers of the bowls, dishes, vases, and jars exported from kilns in

cloth enjoyed great prestige because of

southeast China

during由e Song and Yuan dynasties (960一1368) are extraordinary. Ongoing marine archaeology has salvaged several sunken vessels from this period in Southeast Asian waters, and although they carried items ranging from bronze且gur: from India to Middle Eastern glassware, Chinese mirrors, and local foodstu俗,the

description of

overwhelming bulk of the cargo consisted of diverse fine and coarse stoneware ceramics from various parts of China, many of which were of very high quality.

dated to around 1340 that was produced in Gujarat (India) but found in the Toraja area of central Sulawesi is an example of the cotton cloth painted with female fi思ires that were

rather than the Vietnamese) developed their



primary reason for the success of

Southeast Asians attached to

was the symbolic and ritual value imported ceramics, which could be used as ceremonial this trade

containers, to adorn sacred buildings, or as a gong-like musical instrument. For many groups these beautiful items - delicate bluish-white plates, smooth, lustrous white jars, translucent green dishes - from distant China became heirlooms that gave extraordinary status to the owner and could be infused with their own

powers. Some of this comes through in Zhao Rugua’s description of forest dwellers from the island of Palawan in the Philippines:“If thrown a porcelain bowl,

and shouting

they will stop and pick

it

up and go away leaping

for joy户。

A second reason is the attention that Chinese producers gave to local requirements, for the small ceramic jars, cups, and figurines uncovered in excavations of burial sites seem to have been produced primarily for markets in the Nanyang. Aesthetic preferences were also taken into account. For example, the Bri吃f Description of Island Barbarians notes that

people in Java and the Malay Peninsula favored blue and white porcelain, a possible indication of new influences among the elite, since this style and coloration e时oyed high 2°

Chau Ju-Kua on

the Chinese

and Arab Trade, 161-2

Nonetheless, though local text过es maintained a place in indigenous culture, impo口ed

(c.

Cambodia

its

quality, variety, colors,

in the late thirteenth centu町,the

and

designs. In his

Chinese envoy Zhou Daguan

1270一1350) noted that Indian cloth was preferred to that produced by Khmer, Thai,

and Vietnamese weavers. The designs of text过es arriving in Southeast Asia also indicate that Indian producers were anxious to tap this expanding market. A ceremonial banner

made

specifically to please

unseen

clients in the far-off

of this cloth at such a distance from

Indonesian islands. The discovery

place of origin provides further evidence that by

its

the fourteenth century Southeast Asia was well integrated into a global trading network that stretched

from the Middle East and the Mediterranean

to China.

The trading context The expanding role which Southeast Asia came to play in world commerce during the early modern period was not only attributable to the benefits of a unique environment and a favorable geographic location. The exchange of goods always required sustained cooper- ation,

whether

it

was between

coastal

communities and

timber for boat building, forest dwellers

who brought

interior peoples

rattans

who

delivered

and resins丘om the jungles

to lowland middlemen, or between Southeast Asian suppliers and foreign traders. Much of this trust was attained through the ties of marriage and kinship. Innumerable legends丘om

Southeast Asian societies record the arrival of a young

man丘om some

marriage to a local woman, and his adoption by her family as a son.

distant place, his

When he returned to

31

HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400一1830



32

trade the following year, he

environment where

trust

would be welcomed

as a relative

SOUTHEAST山AND THE GEOGRAPHIC…RONMENT tS

and incorporated

into an

between kinfolk was considered the strongest basis for commer-

cial transactions.

as the “stitched

Intermarriage was also a significant factor in strengthening connections with China,

and kinship

alliances benefited

both Chinese merchants and members of the Southeast

Asian trading communities that had grown up in southern ports larly,

Chinese

like

Guangzhou. Simi-

men who settled abroad typically took local women as their wives, while the

family relationships established by visiting traders through temporary“marriages" could

be regenerated

when they returned. That these relationships were based on real affection is

suggested by Wang Da严1an, who mentions the annual reunions that took place between women who paddled the small ferry boats in Cham ports in central and southern Vietnam and their "husbands" on incoming vessels. He notes that tears were shed when it came time for the couple to separate.“If it happens that one gets to this country when his luck is

woman, for the sake of her old affection for him, will give him food and when she leaves she will speed his parting with many presents, for nothing

bad, then the

clothing and

can shake their faithfulness.”Such liaisons were particularly useful because so prominent in the marketplace both as sellers

century Chinese observer, for instance,

women come

The use of square pivoting sails set in the stern and bow of a vessel enabled seamen to sail into the wind and to take advantage of sh的ing land and sea breezes. A technique known

when

and buyers. According

trading junks arrived in

women were

Timor

the

aboard to trade."21

planks,

and mortua町sites

as well as the cargoes of sunken ships indicate a long trading relationship with other areas in Southeast Asia, as well as with China. Found in 1989 southeast of Manila, the Laguna copperplate inscrip- tion, which concerns the acquittal of a debt, is dated to 900 CE and is written in a

easily transferred to

characteristic vessel

was

built of

passed through holes,

fiber

long distance trading vessels. Evidence from excavations and from

shipwrecks dated to the tenth century indicate that“stitched plank" ships were at least

33 yards (30 meters) in length, rigged with multiple

large,

and considered to be

sails

very seaworthy, capable of making extended sea voyages and carrying sizeable cargoes.

The

best preserved vessel of this type

from the end of the tenth centu巧is the “Cirebon

shipwreck" which was found in deep water o旺the north Java coast.

It

carried an estimated

165 tons (150 metric tonnes) of iron cargo and over 250,000 pieces of Chinese ceramics.

Remains of ships dating from the fourteenth centu巧demonstrate the development of a hybrid vessel that incorporated features associated with both Chinese and Southeast Asian ships. Despite the preponderance of Chinese ware, Southeast Asians were also able to take

when

cargoes of ceramics from

his travels in the Indian

Ocean, for instance, Ibn

advantage of niche requirements and to以is马r markets

Battuta recorded that he was given four martabans,“which are big vessels ginger, pepper, citrus fruit,

voyages产2 These large

and mangoes,

jars,

named

for

all

salted with

what

is

Martaban (Mottama),

demonstrated that by the twelfth century trade between China and the Philippine islands was flourishing. Although written sources for the pre-Spanish period are very limited, imports of trade wares show that the lowland polities developing along Philippine

were

circulation, for all

ship.

They must have had

even though large Chinese and Thai

filled

major supply center oil,

in

wine, and other

a long history of production jars also entered the

called “martaban." Local production of potte巧also

with

used in preparing for sea a

lower Myanmar, became an absolute necessity for storing water,

commodities on board

coasts

The

supplemented by dowels or“lugs”inserted into the seams of planks. This method was

combination of Old Malay, Old Javanese, and Sanskrit. The place-names it lists are all located on rivers with access to the South China Sea. Other archaeological finds have

were linked to a wide-ranging cultural and economic network. The site of present-day Manila dates back to at least the eleventh centu巧,and finds of Song and Yuan dynasty ceramics in graves here and elsewhere in the Philippines dynasty point to ongoing trade

considered句rpically Southeast Asian

which were held together by vegetable

China were in short supply. During

In the Philippines, excavations of settlements

is

(although the Vikings used similar methods).

wooden

to a fi丘eenth- “all

plank or lashed-lug tradition"

and

market, they

expanded when the Ming

dynasty came to power in China in 1368 and imposed a prohibition on overseas trade. This led to a marked increase in the export of Vietnamese and Thai ceramics, with some cargoes reaching as far as the

Red

Sea.

Connections with Chinese po仕ers played a pa时in

the development of Southeast Asian techniques, but ceramics like the miniature figurines

and animals and the

distinctive green-glazed

ware produced

in

Thai kilns are immediately

connections. Excavations below the Santa

identifiable, displaying decorative motifs

richest sites, a

life.

China. By the same token, although Vietnamese ware undoubtedly reflects Chinese influences, here too styles and shape developed their own unique qualities. Motifs include

relationships that fostered local initiatives

h山nan

Ana church in Manila have yielded one of the mother and her child buried with over seventy pieces of porcelain and

glazed wares that testi命to their high status in Against this background, the cross-cultural

figures, fish, ships,

and

and other features that are distinct丘om those

in

village scenes, while the prevalence of the lotus design

many vessels were made for Buddhist temples and monasteries. Though the

叫fa?il阳

suggests出at

sion

products of Southeast Asian kilns could be sent to more distant locations, the most

°1

maritime trade, for instance, encouraged a burgeoning shipbuilding industry that

drew on the strength of indigenous boat-building 21

skills,

well adapted to local conditions.

Rockh山,“Notes on the Relations and Trade of China with the Eastern Archipelago,'’85, 259.

attractive

22

markets were in the region

Gibb, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, 887

itself,

and the cargo of



Chinese shipwreck,

33

34

A HISTORY OF

tS

EAR口MODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫3

tentatively dated to

CE

1305-70, carrying Thai, Vietnamese, and Chinese ceramics (as well

lumps of iron and some elephant

as

SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT

tusks),

was apparently destined

for

Borneo or

Sulawesi.

medium, low-unit currency was increased by melting down Chinese picis, adding lead and tin, recasting smaller coins and thus doubling or tripling the amount. The older gold coinage did not disappear but

Underpinning these widening commercial connections was the development of cross- cultural communications that established accepted market equivalents for buying and selling in societies

where coinage was not the

common medium

of exchange. In trading

directly with suppliers,

it

was now primarily

as a high-status item for

ceremonial

such as wedding exchanges.

gi丘s

The

some

history of moneta巧usage in Southeast Asian trading networks

cases,

such as Myanmar, coinage that was in use in

earlier

is

thus diverse. In

times appears to have

goods could be simply placed in the vicinity of collecting groups, and the exchange could take place through mutual agreement but without direct bargain-

dropped out of circulation, and in Cambodia the Khmer never developed a coinage with a standard value. Religious and cultural contacts could also shape developments and

much cloth for many tortoiseshells, for example); in others, rice, cakes of salt, or cloth could be given a

introduce changes. Close connections with China meant that copper cash and paper

ing. In established

so

markets exchange could be in terms of equivalencies (so

value in terms of gold or silver weights. Currency of various types also circulated, including both imported and locally made coins of silver and gold as well as alloys of

and

Around

Ocean the most favored monetary unit was the small cowηr shell, which originated in the Maldives. The use of these shells was widespread because they were difficult to counterfeit and were easily portable, being strung together in set amounts (e.g. forty or fifty). More importantly, cowries were acceptable through a large tin

lead.

the Indian

currency were well established in northern Vietnam, while in the early fourteenth centu叩 the

first locally

thirteenth tion,

produced Islamic coins appeared

centu町Europe

is

said to have

in north Sumatra.

During the "long"

been transformed by the process of monetiza-

much of the non-Western world the evolution of a money economy extended very long period of time. Prior to the fifteenth century there are no known

but in

over a

Southeast Asian societies that could be considered truly monetized.

trading area that reached from Africa to the coasts of

Myanmar and Siam, and as far inland as Yunnan. They were most frequently used for small transactions, but even large amounts like betrothal gifts or fines could be calculated in terms of their value in cowries.

棒En讪ronmental

co

For example, a cloth used to cover a pedestal might cost 60,000 cowries, while acquiring a plot ofland could require as many as 84,120,000. Cowries were still in use in Siam and the

The

Lao areas

nineteenth century, which brought improved medical conditions and a decline in raiding

in the seventeenth century

and even

later,

although coinage was already

available.

In

effect there

was a growing demand

for small denominations as ordinary people became accustomed to the use of money for a range of different dealings. In island Southeast Asia Java provides an illustrative example of these changes because the large

number of coins found here coincides with numerous

inscriptions regarding matters such as debt-settlement, property transfer, taxes, and trade. By the mid-fourteenth centu叮 there is increasing mention of a new coinage - low-denomination copper coins called picis

were used for smaller transactions and strung together through a hole in the center. Imported from China, picis gradually began to displace older gold and silver coins, probably because they were more useful in markets and as payment 出at

for individual taxes.

The large caches found in

archaeological excavations demonstrate that they were circulat- ing widely in east Java, and inscriptions sometimes refer to amounts of up to two million

when the Chinese restricted the export of copper cash, and as they began to use paper currency, the Javanese started to cast their own coins, even picis.

In times of shortage,

copying the square holes and Chinese characters associated with decorated with Hindu deities and in one case, the Islamic

been strung around the neck

as amulets.

As

Some

that were

confession of faith,

may have

a result of local

picis.

demand

for

an exchange

was always

closely linked to the environ-

ment and to the ability of leaders and communities to marshal and

much of Southeast Asia trade continued to operate through barter, but in those areas

where currencies were in

location of early Southeast Asian polities

interstate conflict, Southeast Asia’s population,

was ve巧low

in

human resources. Until the

probably about six million in 1400,

comparison with neighboring China (estimated between llO and 130

million in 1500) and India (then around 100 million). Various factors helped to limit the

and semi-nomadic agriculture, which favors small demographic growth was mortality families), but the prima巧reason resulting from tropical diseases such as malaria and water-borne infections, or what the Chinese termed “pestilential" and “miasmic" vapors. On the other hand, when the survival

and birth

rate (such as warfare

for restrained

physical environment provided favorable conditions that could feed a substantial popula- tion,

such losses could be replenished and demographic advantages maintained.

Although

it is

estimated that there

Thailand, and over a hundred in

still

are over seventy living languages in

modern

Myanmar and Vietnam, the mainland environment was

more populous and more centralized units than was the case in island Southeast Asia.23 The polities located in what is today Myanmar, Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam developed in broad and fertile always

more conducive

to the incorporation of different groups into

lowland areas through which coursed long navigable

rivers,

Chao Phraya, and the great Mekong, which the Portuguese 23

See www.ethnologue.com, accessed January 24, 2013.

notably the Irrawaddy, the later called "the prince

of

35

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

36

waters.”24

SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT

Flowing in a southerly or southeasterly direction, these rivers and their tribu-

taries facilitated contact

among communities

living along their

banks and gave access

to

overland and maritime trade routes, which became especially important as seaborne trade developed. More importantly, the well-watered so山of the lowlands were eminently suited to wet-rice agriculture,

both rain-fed and irrigated by man-built canals or via weirs on

tributary rivers. In these conditions

it

was possible

to

grow more than one crop

a year,

producing surpluses that could support larger populations. Supplementing the diet of expanding communities was fish from the waterways and the reservoirs that were neces- sary for irrigating the rice paddies. Stable

and sedentary communities

cultivation enabled rulers to extract tax, marshal armies,

essential to wet-rice

and organize corvee (forced

or

required labor) to construct roads, canals, irrigation works, royal buildings, and temples. As small chiefdoms expanded into larger kingdoms, religious networks buttressed royal au由ority and greater social cohesion emerged around a lowland ethnic group that dominated a particular river basin. In mainland Southeast Asia, where the dominant physical pattern was of mountain ranges separating a river valley, the natural boundaries contributed to this settlement pattern.

mudflows. In Java the most well-known volcano periodically erupting since prehistoric times, while

erupted forty-eight times since the violent eruptions, like those of

is Mount Merapi, which has been Mount Mayon in the Philippines has

recorded observation in 1616. Extraordinarily

first

Mount Tambora

(1815) and the volcanic island of

Krakatau (1883) caused severe climatic change around the globe. The physical destruction

and

loss of life that resulted

from volcanic explosions were always interpreted

as a sign of

supernatural anger, or一like other natural disasters and unusual events, such as an eclipse or a

comet -

as a

warning of great changes

could cause extensive

fatalities

to

come. In the short term these eruptions

through rapid lava flows and

lethal gases,

the surrounding landscape unusable because of the ash cover or

mud

however, the physical breakdown and weathering of lava rocks resulted

made and

the lower

mountain

slopes

and surrounding lowlands

ideal for

and could render flows.

Over

time,

in fertile soil that

human

settlement

sedentary agriculture.

Although limited areas of rich volcanic Asia, only in Java and the

much

soil

can be found throughout island Southeast

smaller island of Bali were they sufficiently extensive to

support populations similar to those of the mainland plains. Evidence of organized forest

Nevertheless, the extent of lowland authority in mainland Southeast Asia was always constrained by the physical landscape because in many upland areas inaccessible moun-

clearance for agricultural purposes in Central and Eastern Java dates from about

tainous terrain and forests prevented lowland centers from projecting their sustained fashion. A number of prestigious upland centers also developed in

Brantas Rivers provided conditions eminently suited for irrigated rice cultivation. As in

valleys suited to the

growing of wet rice, and

at

power

in

any

intermontane

times marshalled forces that could

mount a

considerable challenge to lowland ambitions. In general, upland communities were less to the kind of control that could be exerted over sedentary populations on the

amenable

prima巧reason being the mobility derived from their reliance on shifting cultivation,。丘en termed swidden, or“slash and burn." In this form of agriculture, trees were felled and burned to clear the land, with the ashes providing nutrients plains, a

for the

planting of rain-dependent hillside

depleted and

it

rice.

would be necessary to

A丘er several harvests the soil fertility

would be

clear another forest site before eventually returning

to the original site years later. Dry-rice

farming could not support the large

settled

populations可pical of the higher-yielding wet-rice areas, and it entailed periodic move- ment that made ties with a larger center tenuous and in need of constant reaffirmation.

The influence of the geographic environment on the nature of more evident in the aptly named“island" Southeast Asia, where

early polities

is

even

1500 years ago, and the volcanic the mainland,

and more

it

was

soils

and extensive watersheds of the Solo and the

grow two or more crops a year, which resulted in larger more complex social stratification, labor hierarchies, and the development of systems of government. Even

possible to

settled populations that in turn led to

specialization, religious

Wang Da川an was

in the fourteenth century the experienced Chinese traveler

by the density of

Java's inhabitants,

Dipanagara boasted that气here the soil ofJava."25 fertile soil

and

cultivation of

the

Nowhere

is

and

wet

rice,

hundred years

later the

famed prince

nothing on earth that does not grow luxuriantly on

else in island

Southeast Asia can

ideal climate, although there

Minangkabau

five

impressed

we find this combination of

were certainly smaller areas favorable to the

such as the interior plateaus and highland valleys occupied by

in central Sumatra, the southwestern areas of the island of

Luzon

in

the Philippines, and the hinterland of Makassar in southwest Sulawesi.

Areas of high population were therefore exceptional in maritime Southeast Asia. Even in Java

much

land remained heavily forested, especially in the eastern part of the island

present-day Indonesia comprises an estimated seventeen thousand and the Philippines seven thousand islands. Lying along geological fault lines and shi丘ing tectonic plates, the volcanic arc that extends from southern Myanmar through Sumatra and Java into eastern Indonesia and up to the

where widespread areas covered with teak trees were home

Philippines

Some, like Tidore and Ternate in eastern Indonesia, are simply the peaks of volcanic

24

is

characterized by high seismic activity, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and

Lu V臼de Cam6盹s, 丁he Lu邱ads, Landeg University Press, 1997), 222

Wl阮trans.

ar

am

as

Kalang

(literally

the other islands are divided into separate geographic

mountain chains, with only limited places

25

to the

nomadic peoples known

encircled or fenced), well-known for their timber-cutting skills.

domains by

suitable for intensive

Cited in Peter Carey, The Power of Prophecy: Prince D伊anagara and the 1785-1855 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2007), 87.

Most of

hilly terrain

and

and productive farming.

End of an Old Order

in Java,

37

38

A HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400一1830 mountains are

rising

among由e

from the

sea floor.

At the other end of the spectrum Borneo and Sumatra

world’s largest islands

but the height and luxuriant foliage of great jungle

trees created a false impression, since the soil itself

the coastal lowlands were covered with

When

it

was impossible

to

SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT

swamp

forest

maintain permanent

not particularly

is

growing in

fields

of wet

fertile

and much

of

rice,

swidden farming and

from由e Americas

basic carbohydrate in

until the sixteenth century).

many environments

naturally in a range of different

soils,

The

pith of the sago

palm was

unsuitable for rice cultivation, since

it

the

grew

including the low-lying marshy areas that fringe

many coastlines. In some of the drier islands of eastern Indonesia such as in Savu and Rote human existence was only sustained by the life-giving sap of the lontar palm. The calorie from such food supplies could not support large populations, and the contrast is evident when we compare areas that developed wet-rice cultivation with those that relied yield

primarily on d巧rice. In the early fifteenth centu巧the population of the intensively farmed plains of northern Vietnam was estimated at around 5.2 million, in contrast to the 1.57 million inhabitants in the

much larger but more sparsely settled islands of Luzon and

the Visayas in the Philippines.

and

interior raiding,

arrow

thick, water-logged peat.

dry rice formed the basis of food production, supplemented by root crops ( corn did not arrive

reputation as fighters and head-hunters.

fired

The

by

“the

differences

Ma Huan

Downstream communities

mentioned that one king had been

its

and culture than with upriver suzerainty;

common with

each other in terms of

interior societies. Occasionally a strategically

would become dominant, and surrounding po口s would acknow- one such center was Srivijaya in southeast Sumatra, which was

recognized as a regional entrepot from the seventh to the fourteenth centuries. But

because coastal areas were also in competition, selling similar products and ηring to attract international trade,

common maxim requires

some

any claims

to overlordship

were readily challenged. The

and the lands divide"

that in island Southeast Asia “the seas unite

qualification since sea travel

are thus deceptive, for people living

on

also

was dictated by seasonal winds. Modern maps

islands that appear close

because of prevailing high seas or adverse currents. the geography of island Southeast Asia thus

might rarely interact

To a greater extent than the mainland,

promoted

was not conducive to the creation of large and unified

movement along the Solo and Brantas Rivers and a settled growing community did lead to a greater degree of cultural coherence. In however, the rivers that tumbled down from highland areas or meandered

by a poisoned

between lowland and upland peoples were often accentuated because

located coastal center

ledge

killed

tattooed-face king" from an upland Batak area.26

coastal communities linked by the sea had more in lifestyles

often lived in fear of

a multi-centered

environment that

polities.

In Java the relatively easy

sawah (wet

rice)

other islands,

through

lightly inhabited thick jungles

and swamp

forests

divisions that fostered the

development of different ethnolinguistic communities. In the eastern Indonesian island of Alor (approximately 50 to 60 miles [80 to 100 kilometers] in size), for instance, as many as twenty languages have been identified. The physically fragmented environment that characterizes many parts of island Southeast Asia rendered consolidation of scattered communities into a unified center extremely difficult. Indeed, such consolidation was in most cases unnecessary, since economic n mosr links

and intercom-

munity connections could be achieved through indirect and voluntary relationships. Because trade was a necessity for most communities, even groups far from major maritime routes were linked to neighboring islands through boat travel. People

living in the interior

could use short land passages and waterways to reach a major river that functioned as an ?rt町by which they were connec

downstream ports with forest products and agricultural surpluses, and in exchange they acquired goods that traders brought to the coastal center. While prestige items were always valued, interior societies were especially concerned to obtain utilitarian but none- theless valuable items, like metal tools, salt, cheap text过es, and ceramics. For the most part, traditions emphasizing

mutual respect acknowledged and affirmed the value of the complementary and mutually beneficial“upstream-downstream/ interior一lowland" rela- tionship. Sometimes, however, disputes

violence. In northern



CONCLUSION

formed natural geographic This chapter has ar思1ed that an appreciation of geography and the environment must be at the forefront

of any historical examination of Southeast Asia. Across the entire region,

monsoon winds determined agricultural cycles and the movement of international traders to the source of highly valued Southeast Asian products

the regularity of the annual

or to specific entrepots that served as distribution points for these goods.

even the most distant and isolated communities came to be linked to the wider global

economy. Rain-bearing monsoons were

later

termed the Batak had a formidable

also a blessing to agricultural societies, particu-

lady those reliant on irrigation for wet-rice cultivation. In the mainland the annual floods of the so山,and in Cambodia由ey created large temporary lakes出at were a major source of fish for the community - that

accompanied these rains replenished也e

important developments that determined the

fert过i句r

rise

of powerful

In mainland Southeast Asia a noteworthy physical feature

polities. is

the mountainous terrain

and hilly ranges stretching from what is now southwest China, northeastern

India, eastern

Bangladesh, and the interior uplands of Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, and

Cambodia. These highlands presented an impediment to expansion by power缸i neighbors from the north, while providing a vast area of cultural interconnections among highland

0丘en over the terms of trade) could lead to

Sumatra the people

As networks

were created for the smooth flow of goods from producers to buyers in coastal markets,

26

Ma Huan,

Ying-yai Sheng-Zan, 116.

39

40

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

populations出at helped distinguish them from the dominant lowland

polities.

Another

geographic element that was typical of the mainland was the presence of major

rivers

Chao Phraya, Mekong) and north-southeast

(Red)

flowing in a north-south (Irrawaddy, direction.

Not only were these

rivers a

major artery of communication, but they

also

supplied irrigation water for wet-rice agriculture in their extensive lowland watersheds.

Wet-rice agriculture demanded a sedentary population to regulate water孔ows, protect the crops from pests and disease, and bring in the harvest. Settled villages located

on accessible

lowlands could be easily taxed and organized for milita巧service and corvee labor. With 让rigation

it

was possible

to

more land was brought

grow

at least

two and sometimes three crops a

this

complex societies

non-farming groups, such as

that included

population base supported the development of more artisans, artists,

personnel, as well as由e governmental apparatus that centered therefore,

as

into production, the increase in food surpluses encouraged

demographic growth. In turn,

The mainland,

and

year,

saw a greater tendency towards

on the

ruler

and religious

and his

court.

unified, centralizing polities than

did the islands. In maritime Southeast Asia, a defining environmental feature tation, nicely

of “the seas of the Orient/ Scattered

among

was

its

physical fragmen”

captured by the sixteenth南century Portu凯1ese poet

Cam6es when he spokes wi由islands beyond number."27 Although some are

the world’s largest (notably Borneo and Sumatra), outside Java

and

Bali only

limited areas in the other islands provide an environment suitable for the development of extensive wet-rice agriculture. that

formed

in the

many

More common were

smaller ethnolinguistic communities

eco- niches found in the extensive forested

terrains in the larger islands, or in small

and more remote islands

and mountainous

scattered throughout the

archipelago’s various seas.

The geographic fragmentation of

the islands was to

some

extent vitiated by the

networks of exchange that linked producers or collectors from the deep forested interiors, the rugged highlands or inaccessible islands to the secondary and primary ports that were strategically placed for local, regional,

and international

trade.

In

this

way many commu-

Southeast Asia were able to retain their distinctive identities and independ- ence from ambitious neighbors, while st山benefiting from the flow of goods and ideas nities in island

仕om the outside world. Although this characteristic is often associated with the islands, scholarship on mainland Southeast Asia has shown that the major lowland polities were also

deep

composed of numerous smaller regions with

the gradual agglomeration of populations under a

mainland and on

Java,

own history and

a strong sense of their

loyalties to their local lords. In the early

modern period

it

possible to see

is

dominant overlord,

especially

on

the

but the appearance of consolidation and centralization belied

the persistence of smaller unities that arose and were maintained because of spec凶c geographical environments. 27

Camoes, The Lusiads, 223.

Antecedents of early

??

modern C.

TIMELINE Antecedents of early modern

societies,

c.

900-1400

900-1400

7th-11th century

societies,

90。一1400

c.

Period of the 气lassical Rise

and dominance of

Foundation of Angkor

states’,in

Southeast Asia

Srivijaya in southeast

in

Sumatra

modern Cambodia

Buddhist Borobodur and Hindu Prambanan temples built Central Java

960…1276

Tang dynasty

in

China

Song dynasty

in

China

Ly dynasty founds Dai Viet in

Vietnam

Gradual movement of Tai-speakers into Southeast Asia o

。工hyZ可〉

’n



肉d

sea

Chola attack on Srivijaya

・归川,川uwmw

GO的VO

w机MW问阳

A n da m a n

ikamm陀恼

mtmu咄叫咱 NhnHU吓

bRM

uf ’同,HHBU

Sea O 申l

v--



a nH

CJU 川U 白UW川u

cur’

po

n怡

nHQU



Mid-11thζentury

cehb

LnVAM -dHnH

vd

Rise of

Pagan

modern Myanmar

in

:i

FE-

Tran dynasty succeeds the Ly 。ρ

.:::,:,

Mid田13th century

Rise of Lan Earliest

Na

in

Rise

200



Map

100

3:

400 200

Sang

in

in

A N 800 km

400 miles

Antecedents of ear忖modern

societies,

c.

90。一1400

Southeast Asia at

northeast Sumatra in

Java

modern Laos

Desawarnana cou付epic composed

600 300

in

settlement

and dominance of Majapahit

Rise of Lan



the north of modern Thailand

known Muslim

Samudera-Pasai

CE

Dai Viet







in

in

Majapahit

in

44

' A HISTO…川剧Y MODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…切

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,

T:pre世 and

physical environment helped to delineate Southeast Asia as a region and

contributed to Asia’s global

trade

its

and

ethnic

ecological diversity.

also

It

showed

entire world, these

across ever greater

by the

rise

1025,

it

many places一India,

and elsewhere - while opening opportunities

of South India as a

Southeast

new commercial hub

China, the Ryukyu

for Southeast Asians

linking Southeast Asia to

Vietnam



is

dominated popular memory. Since a group’s history was often traced to the union between this great ancestor and a nature spirit who had magically emerged from a mountain, a tree, a lake, a waterfall, or a cave, the sense of shared identity was closely society and thus

connected to a specific

locali町.

raphies served to anchor the

The myths

communal past,

then more formally “Dai

Dai Co

Viet,,

Viet,“the

Great Viet

State,, in

the tenth century and

from the mid-eleventh century), the Song dynasty was

The late arrival of the monsoon rains, poor harvests,可phoons, and especially earthquakes and volcanic eruptions could all be interpreted as signs of supernatural anger. Certain crimes, such as incest, had cosmological significance that could bring reprisals for the entire

continuous exchange of envoys and missions to and from other areas of Southeast Asia.

society. In sixteenth-century Philippines a

Cultivating China’s favor was especially important for those rulers

beings, a brother

whose revenues came

primarily仕om

trade; between 960 and 1178 Srivijaya sent thirty-three missions to the Chinese court. However, although written accounts le丘by Chinese observers have been

invaluable in reconstructing regional histories,

ences related by Southeast Asians

who

we can only

speculate about the experi-

traveled to important Buddhist centers in India

N alanda or by the many envoys who were received in the imperial

As subsequent chapters

will

show, Southeast

Asia’s

wider world accelerated the processes of change in time, pre-existing concerns related to

increased interaction with

many

community

aspects of local

life.

At



the

identity, ethnic hierarchies,

interpolity relationships, access to supernatural assistance, the nature of leadership,

and control of manpower remained relevant throughout the early modern period. It is therefore necessary to give some attention to the preceding“classical age” 900-1400), so called because the kingdoms that flourished at this time established

cultural

models

to

which

their successors aspired. Accordingly, this chapter will begin

by considering some of the socio-cultural features that shaped the evolution of early polities before turning to examine how these features played out in different parts of the region. As later history unfolds it should then be possible to identi命those developments that represent a continuation or elaboration of earlier developments, and others

that signi马r

new

period in Southeast Asia.

directions

and thus help

to

mark

off an“early modern"

and

sister,

Spanish soldier was told that the

first

human

were only able to marry and thereby populate the earth a丘er

they had received permission from the fish of the sea, the birds of the air, and the spirit of the earthquake. Constant propitiation was necessary to gain the approval of non-human powers or to assuage their wrath, o丘en through special rituals that involved

all

members of the

community. If such rituals were successful, the favor of non-human powers would result in bountiful food supplies, healthy children, long-lived adults, and benevolent leaders.

Community coherence was

Chinese court.

(c.

while prominent features such as rivers and

with China also expanded. While direct Chinese influence was

cultural inspiration.

particularly concerned to strengthen trade relations across the region. This led to a

same

associated with supernaturally infused topog-

and the surrounding environment was simultaneously maintained by beliefs that powerful forces in the heavens, in the earth, and beneath the oceans could both punish and reward.

called

such as Bodhgaya and

members of the

all

against Srivijaya in

mounted

in Southeast Asia primar且y for the expedition

Asia’s links

was sustained by legendary accounts ultimately linking

mountains could also demarcate territorial boundaries. The interaction between community

was a source of artistic and

greatest in

identity that

in a sense of local

powers, such founder-figures were credited with introducing the cultural foundations of the

A丘ica and the Arab lands, and although the powerful southern Indian Chola dynasty

remembered

communities scattered across Southeast Asia were grounded

networks brought Southeast Asians into direct contact

themselves to travel to distant destinations. Connections across the Bay of Bengal were fostered

early

group to a distant ancestor. Honored as exceptional individuals possessed of extraordinary

with traders, envoys, and religious figures from Islands, Arabia, Persia,

move

The

an economic integration that would eventually

distances. Signaling the beginnings of

encompass the

to

等Fo叫on of mandala polities

that Southeast

connections can be tracked from very early times as expanding networks of

and communication allowed people, goods, and ideas

900-1400

C.

which served as“markers,, of

also related to lan伊age, appearance, housing,

and customs,

and of differences丘equently invoked

to establish a

identity

hierarchy in which one group could claim superiority to others. The village lists compiled when

Vietnam was under the control of China’s Tang d严1asty (618-907 CE), for example, did not include upland communities, who were considered to lie beyond the state. Al由ough many were probably originally lowlanders authori町,their less settled

who moved int。由highlands to escape expanding state

and culturally“barbarian”ways were unfavorably compared to出e

sedentary lowlanders whose

economy depended on

irrigated rice. In a similar fashion, old

Javanese texts refer to“imp田e,, people who remained outside mainstream society because由町 、at what is considered unclean,”while Chinese visitors to Java spoke of“ugly" individuals wi由

tousled hair and bare feet



Stuart Robson, trans. 139;

who consumed “snakes, ants, and all kinds of insects and worms."1

Desawarnana (Nagarakrtagama) by Mpu Prapanca

Ma Huan,ηng-yai Sheng-Zan.“The

trans.

and

(Leiden:

KITLV

Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores”[1433), ed. (Cambridge University Press for the Hakluyt Society, 1970), 93.

J.

Press, 1995),

V. G. M且ls,

45

46

MODERN SOUTHEAST

A HISTORY OF EARLY

ASIA, 1400一1830

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,

should be stressed, however, that any discussion of “ethnic”relationships during this early period raises problems, since shifts in identity markers changed over time and the It

sources frequently refer to groups that cannot be identified today.

We

also

know

that

the boundaries between such groups were highly porous, and that individuals could often be accepted into another community by adopting their language, dress, religious practices, and customs. This kind of movement has been tracked in many Southeast Asian societies, especially

when

it

was economically or

particular group. Nonetheless,

it is

clear that

of peoples in terms of linguistic and

dominance of

socially

advantageous to declare

affiliation with a

by the early modern period the categorization was well established, and that the

lifestyle differences

certain groups, such as the

Khmer

in

Cambodia, or the Burman

in

Myanmar, formed the basis for the development of larger polities. The historiography of the classical period has been dominated by studies of these larger polities - Angkor in Cambodia, Pagan (Bagan) in Myanmar, Sukhothai in Thailand, Dai Viet in Vietnam, Srivijaya in Sumatra, Majapahit in Java - with their impressive royal capitals and complex systems of administration reminiscent of India or China. Yet though their influence was long lasting, they were vastly outnumbered by smaller foci of authority ranging from prestigious centers that emulated the larger

groups where leadership was in the hands of elders. Local in such places were retained through distinctions in language, culture, and

The

result

was a dynamic political environment, where weaker

attach themselves to

new leaders who

acknowledged the leadership of one settlement, or powerful overlord dominated several lesser but

own

and

that

mimicked the

internal rivalries or competition for control of trading paths or a riverine tract they could easily dissolve into internecine conflict. Their relationship

meant

might end at出is

point, or be renegotiated with a

new leader at the helm of a different configuration. Larger polities could similarly readjust to changing circumstances and royal policies be shaped in accordance with geographical

were always ready

to

The

could cover widespread areas where a

still

signi且cant tributaries, each with

The

di旺usion of

power

it

in this ever-

changing kaleidoscope of relationships meant that the formation of large centralized

state

was not easi忖accomplished.

An

component of mandala polities was the preeminent lord, whose demonstration of extraordinary prowess became the impetus for rearrangement of loyal- ties and the redrawing of mandala borders. In societies where leadership was gained through personal achievement and where revered elders provided communal stability and indispensable

continuity, the ve叩idea of a dynastic line status over

Ambon

accomplishment was novel.

includes a revealing episode in

about the benefits of having a



and hereditary kingship that privileged birth seventeenth-century text from the island of

which four lineage heads express opposing views

Their solution

raj a.

in the

villages

it

subservient but potentially restless clients.

affiliations

come together in federations and at times develop into a hierarchy cultural and political features of more centralized polities. However,

rulers

displayed special spiritual or physical prowess.

extent of influence wielded by a center could be restricted to a few districts that jointly

spokesperson; his position rotates

smaller polities might

900-1400

smaller centers were highly sensitive to sh的s in power that could affect their security.

polities to village-based

behavior, and o丘en by a geographic environment that was not amenable to centralized territorial control or to the maintenance of lasting alliances. Groups of

C.

among

is

to install a ruler

the lineages

and

real

who merely acts

as a

decision-making remains

hands of the community’s oldest members.

The expansion and contraction of individual polities in accordance with the waxing and waning of individual centers and the prestige of their rulers had other implications, for

myths

new

detailing a society’s past

allegiances.

The processes of

new realities and reshaping communal memories made it possible for were constantly adjusted to

reflect

smaller domains to attach their histories to those of prestigious centers while simultan-

eously retaining accounts that detailed their restive rulers or chiefs

own networks

own specific origins. On the other hand, since

could easily disavow their tributary status and

of followers, even

powerful rulers

fall

back on

were necessarily engaged

their

in continual

asser-

negotiation to maintain their circles of loyalty. Marriage alliances were a primary source of

tions regarding the extent of their suzerainty, but regardless of such claims their authority inevitably declined with distance as the

cementing mandala relationships by extending the kinship network and the reciprocal obligations that this involved, including favors bestowed on the bride’s family. In ninth-

realities.

Rulers might

make grandiose

influence of one overlord or local

leader faded

away

to

merge or

cen阳d

intersect with that of a rival neighbor. In this multi-

world, where boundaries between polities were rarely stable, av01d envisaging well-defined, fixed territorial

we should

thus

domains.

0.

W.

Wolters, an eminent historian of the region, found

it

useful to think of inter-

polity relationships in terms of the Sanskrit

mandala (“circle"), a word that first occurs in Southeast Asia in a seventh-century Sumatran inscription. Used in Indian manuals of government, a mandala was conceptualized as a series of concentric circles where a great ruler, claiming divine and universal authority, counter potential 飞八T

rivals

by bu且ding up

olters depicts the Southeast

was able to maintain hegemony and

a system of alliances with

surrounding kings.

Asia landscape as one dotted with mandala

polities,

where

centu巧Cambodia,

for example,

Jayavarman

women from

different parts of the country.

male

were made court

relatives

officials.

vow

802-c. 834) married at least seven

They were

all

awarded

Another strategy was

the center to participate in ritual oath-taking.

subservient chiefs to

II (r.

One

to

elite titles

and

their

summon vassal lords

to

widespread custom required lords and

some fermented liquid into consuming the meat of solemn vows would incur dire

allegiance while drinking water or

which royal weapons had been dipped, and in

some

slaughtered animals. Those accused of flouting these

supernatural punishment. Royal

commands could

also

cases

be reinforced by丘ightening

curses threatening divine retribution for any infringement. In Java, for instance, those

who ignored the provisions of a land grant would be bitten by poisonous snakes, attacked

47

48

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,

devoured by crocodiles, or smashed on jagged rocks.“During a shower of rain, on the battle field may their heads be cleaved." may由ey be struck by lightning

by

tigers,







Death would be inevitable, their torments would continue in

hell,

and they

In combination with marriage alliances

center and

its

periphery, as long as obligations to

ties

between

an overlord were not onerous and



as

long as the reciprocal responsibilities inherent in kinship relations ( whether real or symbolic) were maintained. A“son”or“younger brother" should immediately respond to requests

favors

from

his “father" or older sibling, but in return

he could also expect

special

and assistance when needed. Particular emphasis was given to correct treatment of

women exchanged in marriage alliances. The cultural weight attached to the maintenance of family honor

is

repeatedly demonstrated in indigenous accounts that attribute

declar-

ations of war to the perceived ill-treatment of a princess sent as a sign of submission or seal

an

alliance.

Tensions could and did arise

when a powerful and ambitious

smaller mandala). In such cases the use of armed force to a recalcitrant vassal, but

it

compel

invariably le丘legacies of resentment

to

ruler sought

economic resources, and political

overlord. In the

words of an old

rivalry

battles

he

fights.”3

in west Java, purporting to present

the

The dominance of certain ethnic groups encouraged ambitious on shared religious and cultural features as a means of

composed of multiple communities, each with

woman) owed much

assumption of authority by a

man

(and

to the perception of what elements defined a true

leader destined for greatness. Such a person

must stand out above

possessing a reputation for invulnerability, great

his or her fellows

by

wisdom, extraordinary courage, and

exceptional feats, frequently in battle but also spiritual achievements. Throughout the early

modern period we

see the repeated

drew on the symbols and

emergence of individuals whose

ideas associated with religion,

and the

status as leaders

belief that they could tap

supernatural and godlike powers. Legitimacy could be further demonstrated by possession of an object infused with special potency, such as a magic dagger or a charmed cloth. The cultural weight attached to the association

between leadership and sacred objects occurs

crossbow rules the realm."5 The traditions of the Bugis and Makassar people from the southwestern peninsula of Sulawesi supply another example. Legends describe how

cohesion and garnering allegiance. This trend, however, confronted

reality of a region

occasionally a

justified the

competition

rulers to place greater stress instilling social

understanding of what

accounts refer to struggles to gain possession of a magic crossbow, the trigger of which was made from a claw of the Golden Turtle Deity, for “he who is able to hold this

words of a twel丘h-century r吐er,“Obedience on the part of the people/is the key for a safe and prosperous land,/with that the king will reign in peace/will enjoy the food he eats/will

win the

societies the

tributary

and encouraged

among ambitious leaders - helped to promote at all levels owed their loyalty to a single

from Sunda

those perceived to posse

extraordinary qualities and renowned for remarkable achievements.4 In Southeast Asian

accounts of Vietnamese history written during the Jin dynasty (260-425 CE). These

where subjects

text

“prowess,”i.e.

allegiance might subdue

During the early modern period a number of factors - population growth, the notion of an ideal polity as one

were ruled by persons of

repeatedly in Southeast Asian histories, with perhaps the earliest example coming from

center of

lords to seek out an alternative patron.

for

polities



impose greater authority over more substantial vassals (themselves the

to

等Pers…f pr… Mandala

and the presentation of titles and honors, oaths

of loyalty and threats of punishment were usually sufficient to maintain

900-1400

would



never be reborn.

C.

its

the

own history and sense

The diversity of customs, beliefs, and lifestyle in Southeast Asia remained a major impediment to centralizing efforts that could not be easily overcome by even the most powerful rulers. It is not surprising that those rulers who were able to create and of identity.

maintain a strong center and bring numerous groups under their sway were

eulogized

in the chronicles.

come across an item identified with the deity, such as a rusty plowshare, a petrified mango seed, or an unusually shaped stone, which is regarded as a sign of divine favor. These sacrally charged items become the palladia of the community and the person who holds them is entitled to be leader. Through their possession of special objects, supported by perceptions that they were endowed with extraordinary spiritual and/or physical power, these men or women of prowess accumulated faithful followers. As community

ancestors

surrounded their birth -

their following grew, stories proliferated about the events that

meteors, great storms, earthquakes - their amazing feats as a child and their incredible

achievements as leader.

The

idea that

some

individuals were innately superior to their fellows

importance in shaping views of kingship, since Southeast Asian administrative or bureaucratic institutions, but on a to

leader’s

polities

was of enormous

were not based on

personal standing and ab过ity

marshal a sizeable number of loyal supporters. Because of the concern to demonstrate and statecra丘that evolved in India ( where rulers were also

“prowess,”views of religion

preoccupied with questions of authority and social organization) were particularly



V eerdonk, 1222-1486," BK! 157, 1 (2001), 106-8. Cited in Ann Kumar and John H McGlynn, eds. Illuminations: the Writing Traditions of Indonesia (Jakarta: The Lontar Foundation, 1996), 109.

Jan van der

AD 3



The phrase

is

taken仕om O. W. Wolters,

History, Culture,

and Region

in

Southeast Asian Perspectives

Program, 1999), 18. Keith Taylor, The Birth of Vietnam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), (Ithaca: Cornell Southeast Asia



25.

49

50

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,

Asian leaders. In Buddhist societies the concept of karma referred to the consequences of one's actions that determined

attractive to early Southeast

(Sanskrit) or

how

kamma

(Pali)

favorably or unfavorably one

valuable tool in statecra丘because

over the

justified a ruler’s

in the next

life.

This concept was

monkhood,

the sangha. Buddhist teachings could also supply guidance and

precedents for political action, with tales of the Buddha’s former lives demonstrating, instance, the value of a marriage alliance in bringing

could be averted through diplomacy.



ruler’s

about peace or showing how

religious credentials

through the copying and distribution of the Tipitaka

(literally,

Theravada Buddhism, discussed below) and other sacred

were

strengthened

three baskets, the canon of

texts,

clothing, fly whisks,

slippers, gongs,

and

and betel-boxes to weapons, sacred

horse’s bridles

introducing“Allah" into their royal honorifics.

The most convincing evidence that even a person of humble origins was the recipient of supernatural favor and merited claims to kingship was victory in warfare. Indigenous texts and chronicles, generated from royal

capitals and可pically

resources could maintain an

needed

to

overcome powerful

army with rivals.

sponsored by

the requisite horses, elephants, and

Rulers

who

and diplomatic connections with both India and China were also able to gain access to new types of weaponry such as incendiaries and bombards (rudimentary cannon, o丘en

wholesale importation of communities from other areas and their resettlement in the

items

manuscripts, god,

lands of their victors enhanced the

ruler’s

homage while simultaneously expanding

the

prestige

by adding

slave-lists

discovery of a white elephant was a public confirmation of the

the context of war-captives.

ruler’s

vast merit and

ruler’s

is

found

in

who

paid

him

and the

found on stone first

mention of

an eleventh-century Cham inscription from central Vietnam in

Buddha had been born as a unique

snow-white elephant, Chaddanta. While any addition to the storehouse of sacred could only increase the

his

“Syam" (Siam)

to those

number of subjects who could be taxed and

organized for warfare or labor. In mainland Southeast Asia the

or copper-plate inscriptions o丘en include non-indigenous names,

the

manpower

enjoyed the benefits of expanding trade

such as dwarfs and albinos, were also seen to be imbued with special powers and hence o丘en maintained in the royal court. For Buddhist rulers the

life

devote

possession

human beings,

superiority over lesser rulers, since in a previous

rulers,

And indeed, only a king with access to major

considerable attention to great feats in battle.

made of wood). As many scholars have emphasized, however, the main priority in warfare remained the capture of people rather than the taking of life or occupation of land. The

sacred

the latter two associated with the Hindu



Islamic mytholo部r, like Alexander the Great (Iskandar Zul-karnain), and occasionally

and

the dedication of

of magically charged objects, critical to royal legitimacy, could include a range of

from umbrellas, golden

for

war

images, the construction of temples, together with donations of property, goods, slaves for their upkeep - all of which contributed to his good kamma. The

Vishnu). Unusual



high status ( a result of his good deeds

and invoked moral authority to legitimize political control and author-

in past existences) ity

it

would be reborn

900-1400

C,

legitimacy and power, any loss ( especially

if seized

items

by a rival

The mandala

polity as fam过y

or an enemy)

would signi命the opposite. The ongoing need for leaders to provide proof of great merit or supernatural favor was

necessary because leadership was inherently strongest ruler could be

fragile.

Popular acceptance of even

the

undermined by some unforeseen

Entwined with the notion that the leader of a mandala polity was a person of prowess was an entrenched belief that the interaction between those in authority and the people under

them should resemble

relationships within a family.

The model of the

ruler as a strict but

event, since natural disasters or catastrophes such as an epidemic or a prolonged drought were regarded as signs of

benevolent parent whose “children”should render willing obedience obviously functioned

cosmic displeasure

and an indication that divine favor had been with- drawn. Leaders might thus seek to enhance their position by themselves pointing to

best in smaller polities

religious

omens or predictions indicating that their rise to power was predestined. Inscrip- produced during the reign of Kyanzittha of Pagan 1084一1113 CE) thus invoked a ( prophecy foretelling his rebirth as a king, which was attributed to the Buddha. In a region

was

tions

Although the concept of inherited rule was gradually incorporated into political traditions,

at royal failings

where physical distance and geographic obstacles limited the reach of even the most powerful polities, the prestigious language and symbols associated with religious teachings provided one of the most effective means of emphasizing a ruler’s special standing and affirming royal authority.

Some Buddhist

kings assumed

titles

such as dhammaraja,

the

King who would preserve the Buddha’s teachings, and aspired to be a righteous “wheel-turning monarch" or cakkavatti (Sanskrit, cakravartin) who turned the wheel Just

(cakka) that was the symbol of universal dominion. titles

Muslim

rulers also elevated

their

and genealogies, claiming descent from great heroes who had been incorporated into

where

chiefly families

genuinely connected through blood far

this

more

links.

and

their followers

In Southeast

difficult for a ruler to ensure allegiance

by no means eliminated the succession disputes

numbers of royal progeny. The

were more

Asia’s larger polities,

by appealing

likely to

however,

be it

to family loyalties.

that arose because of the large

liaisons of individual rulers are difficult to quanti命,but

the women’s quarters町pically included hundreds, even thousands, of residents, any of

whom Even

might

in

attract royal favor

and bear a

child

who

could have claims to the throne.

Vietnam, where the dynastic principle promoted by the Chinese model was

stronger than elsewhere in Southeast Asia, rival families vied for

much

power and competed

to

control access to the emperor through their female kin. In this situation an ambitious

born from one of a ruler’s many women, could well resent rendering obeisance to a half-brother whose birth status might be no higher or even lower than his own. It was prince,

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

much

quite possible for a rival claimant to demonstrate as

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,

or more“prowess”as

the

become

stakes were so high, the center itself could

a hotbed of family intrigue

strengthen the

who emerged

victorious reaffirmed deep- rooted indigenous traditions

patriarchal

form of

idealization

is

common

in

many

societies (Britain’s

kinship as a justification for the ruler-subject relationship

Queen

is

While

Victoria,

female

own

pronouncements that describe

individuals

owed

to parental care.

When

Asian rulers employed the vocabulary of kinship, referring to their subjects

and distant

vassals as

younger brothers,

assumed a mutual recognition of the

it

was

far

nurse.

Even when the

traces descent

through both male and

between

villagers

and

nobility,

and of

were recruited or abducted or given by their families to serve as elite

households. Royal genealogies demonstrate the complex

ties

created

when elite children were breast-fed by the same wet-

allegiance of subjects

was exacted by compulsion and

Though

historical sources o丘en

model

for political authority “cities,”or“emperors,”

(great king of kings),

“raj as”(kings),“maharajadiraja"

these terms tend to

it

responsibilities that lay at the heart of diplomatic

mask

their labor

mention飞mpires" and

exploited, the idea of the parent-directed family as the persisted.

as children for

which

bilateral kinship,

that the tentacles of real or fictive genealogical ties could reach deep

adoption, and the sibling

ruler

Southeast

more than customa町protocol,

meant

servants or concubines in

and mother of his people,”occasionally meting out punishment but always acting with their welfare in mind. 6 This metaphor carried a heavy cultural weight because all

and thus endorsed the

interests

household head.

kinship networks that connected high-ranking families through marriage, concubinage,

as“the father

of the reciprocal obligations that

lines,

ordinary women who

of

womb-

a good

male

to further

ruler as a metaphorical

into society. Legends o丘en speak of marriages

for

especially noticeable. The

as loving their subjects“like their

children" are可pical of region-wide formulaic

power of the

This perception of the polity as family was given practical application because the

that

example, was called “mother of her people"), in Southeast Asia the vocabulary

Burmese chronicles depicting kings

were intended

widespread pattern of

Simultaneously, however, a leader should also exhibit the qualities of a parent.

expand and

web of kinship on which power rested. Although male-female relationships were generally conceptualized as complementary, we need to remember

that these exchanges

viewed “prowess" as an inherent quality of leadership.

this

active participants in the marriage strategies intended to

900-1400

in Southeast Asia

as

contenders competed for power, and “disloyalty" was most o丘en encountered from a disaffected royal relative. In demonstrating his capacity to overcome challengers, the individual

and were

riches,

designated successor to the throne, and thus gain greater popular acceptance. Because the

C.

and ?purohitas"

(chief priests),

the kinship dynamics through which Southeast Asian polities

operated.

relations.

Imported models of statecra丘with

mandala relationships, but they did not also wield political power.

give birth, older

Asian view that females could

among

certainly

shaped命 -

early

modern period we encounter queens and regents, or

a special debt because she

women commanded

at large,

efface the Southeast

direct authority as

mother was owed

mediators in restoring amity

community

male leaders

Throughout the

mention of women who exercised royal kin. Since a

their preference for



Localization

frequent

indirectly

had risked her own

as

life to



key feature in the development of Southeast Asian

polities was“localization," or the

process of selecting and modi马ring foreign concepts to

great respect in palace politics

indigenous society. This process was particularly relevant

hostile princes.

the relationship between

and were frequently As emblematic “mothers" for the

legendary queens could often be credited with establishing

features of traditional cultures. Describing the early history of the Malays, the classic known as Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) refers to

only one female ruler,

human

society

key

concentrated on maintaining

text

supernatural deities and powerful

Wan Sri Benian,

who governed the island of Bintan (near Singapore). However, she is described as a“great raja" who not only introduced the nobat, the ceremonial drumming by which a ruler was

life,

venerated a variety of nature and spirit

of the

soil

depended. The

and the cosmos. Indigenous

belief systems

were

gaining prosperity, and avoiding calamity by placating spirits.

Although early Southeast Asian communities

among由e most important was the food on which humans and animals

territorial deities,

because the earth produced the

fertilization

make them compatible with in regard to new ideas about

of the “female"

soil

by

life-giving

rain仕om由e“male" sky

installed, but allegedly visited the distant country of Sham (Syria) and took a Muslim title long before Islam was adopted by later male rulers.7 The constant circulation of well-born daughters among ruling houses attests to the belief effectively

represented the sexual union由at ensured the community’s continued well-being. Spirits

formed and maintained through blood

and support. Certain people endowed with divine

that allegiances were



Pe

Maung Tin and

Press, 1960), 20-4. 7

relationships. Elite

women

most

enjoyed

status and

of departed kin and legendary founder-figures or ancestors (who might sometimes enter the bodies of particular animals, like the tiger) could also be approached for assistance

C. C. Brown,“Sejarah

Melayu or Malay Annals,”JMB扎4.S

25, 2

and

3 (1952), 28.

and possessing sacred

o问ects

and esoteric knowledge of specialized rituals communicated with the supernatural on

community or of individuals. The ceremonies over which such specialists officiated o丘en focused on a stone or rock,仕equently near a large tree, both of which were manifestations of the divinized fertile forces of the soil. This location became a ritual behalf of the

G. H. Luce, The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma (Rangoon

qualities

University

52

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

much

quite possible for a rival claimant to demonstrate as

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,

or more“prowess”as the

stakes were so high, the center itself could

become

strengthen the

a hotbed of family intrigue as

contenders competed for power, and “disloyalty" was most o丘en encountered from disaffected royal relative. In demonstrating his capacity to

overcome



form of idealization

is

common

many

in

example, was called “mother of her

people”),

societies (Britain’s

patriarchal

that

and mother of his

acting with their welfare in mind.6 This

of the reciprocal obligations that

all

individuals

female

owed

ordinary

meant

women who

were recruited or abducted or given by

adoption, and the sibling

ruler

nurse.

When

ties

created

assumed

far

and of

more than customa巧protocol,

for

when elite children were breast-fed by the same wet- model mention “empires" and

exploited, the idea of the parent-directed family as the

Southeast

persisted.

Though

historical sources often

these terms tend to

was

nobility,

Even when the allegiance of subjects was exacted by compulsion and

and

it

and

their families to serve as

servants or concubines in elite households. Royal genealogies demonstrate the complex

“raj as”(kings),“maharajadiraja"

younger brothers,

through both male and

kinship networks that connected high-ranking families through marriage, concubinage,

Asian rulers employed the vocabulary of kinship, referring to their subjects as children distant vassals as

traces descent

own womb-

a heavy cultural weight because

to parental care.

lines,

which

bilateral kinship,

that the tentacles of real or fictive genealogical ties could reach deep

into society. Legends often speak of marriages between villagers

meting out punishment but always

metaphor carried

and thus endorsed the

interests

household head.

The

pronouncements that describe a good

people,”occasionally

ruler as a metaphorical

This perception of the polity as family was given practical application because the

Victoria, for

especially noticeable.

as loving their subjects“like their

children" are typical of region-wide formulaic as“the father

is

were intended to further male

power of the

widespread pattern of

in Southeast Asia the vocabulary of

kinship as a justification for the ruler-subject relationship

Burmese chronicles depicting kings

Queen

expand and

web of kinship on which power rested. Although male-female relationship were generally conceptualized as complementary, we need to remember

that these exchanges

Simultaneously, however, a leader should also exhibit the qualities of a parent. While this

active participants in the marriage strategies intended to

900-1400

in Southeast Asia

challengers, the

individual who emerged victorious reaffirmed deep-rooted indigenous traditions viewed “prowess" as an inherent quality of leadership.

and were

riches,

designated successor to the throne, and thus gain greater popular acceptance. Because the

C.

it

a mutual recognition of the responsibilities that lay at the heart of diplomatic

mask

(great king of kings),

their labor

for political authority “cities,”or“emperors,”

and "purohitas”(chief

priests),

the kinship dynamics through which Southeast Asian politie

operated.

relations.

Imported models of

mandala

statecraft

with their preference for male leaders certainly shaped

relationships, but they did not efface the Southeast

also wield political

power. Throughout the early modern period

mention of women who exercised royal kin. Since a give birth, older

women commanded

at large,

among

we encounter

输@

£‘

IL

O C a za o n

frequent as



to

process of selecting and modi马ring foreign concepts to

great respect in palace politics

and were frequently As emblematic “mothers" for the

indigenous society. This process was particularly relevant

hostile princes.

the relationship between

direct authority as

mother was owed a

mediators in restoring amity

community

Asian view that females could

queens and regents, or indirectly

special debt because she

had risked her own

life

legendary queens could o丘en be credited with establishing key

key feature in the development of Southeast Asian

human

concentrated on maintaining

society

life,

features of traditional cultures. Describing the early history of the Malays, the classic text

supernatural deities and powerful

known as Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) refers to only one female ruler, Wan Sri Benian, who governed the island of Bintan (near Singapore). However, she is described as a飞reat

venerated a variety of nature and

raj a”who

depended. The

installed,

drumming by which a ruler was count巧of Sham (Syria) and took a Muslim title

not only introduced the nobat, the ceremonial but allegedly visited the distant

long before Islam was adopted by later male rulers.7 The constant circulation of well-born daughters among ruling houses attests to the belief that allegiances were most effectively

formed and maintained through blood



Pe

Maung Tin and G.

relationships. Elite

women

enjoyed status and

C. C. Brown,“Sejarah

of the

soil

were

spirits.

Although early Southeast Asian communities

among

territorial deities,

the most important was the

soil

by

life-giving rain

humans and animals from the

“male" sky

of departed kin and legendary founder-figures or ancestors (who might sometimes enter the bodies of particular animals, like the tiger) could also be approached for assistance

and support. Certain people endowed with divine qualities and possessing sacred objects and esoteric knowledge of specialized rituals communicated with the supernatural on

community or of

officiated often focused

manifestations of the divinized

3 (1952), 28.

belief systems

gaining prosperity, and avoiding calamity by placating

of the “female"

Melayu or Malay Annals," JMB扎4.S

and

and the cosmos. Indigenous

represented the sexual union由at ensured the community’s continued well-being. Spirits

behalf of the

25, 2

make them compatible with in regard to new ideas about

because the earth produced the food on which

fertilization

H. Luce, The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma (Rangoon University

Press, 1960), 20-4. 7

spirit

polities was“localization,”or the

on

individuals.

The ceremonies over which such

specialists

a stone or rock,仕equently near a large tree, both of which were fertile forces

of the

so且.

This location became a ritual

53

54

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 as guardians of community welfare. center where protective deities were venerated conducted through trance, Communication with these supernatural beings was typically

drums, and it was not uncommon for older 。丘en induced by the music of gongs and women and transvestites (who represented the merging of male and female into one) to be among recognized spirit practitioners. Spirit propitiation could also require included

blood

sacrifices of

Taking root

animals and

times humans.

at

in these indigenous beliefs

political expression that

came

and

practices, the

new forms

of religious and

result of

widening global

were a direct

to Southeast Asia

connections and were most evident in population hubs located in

and

in

fertile agric吐tural areas

busy ports along the major sea routes. As we have seen, these interactions were

longstanding. Remains

of ceramics, beads, coins,

and other items show

that centuries of

influences. Between trade with India preceded the spread of religious and philosophical

centu可CE

the third and fi丘h statues,

and epigraphy begin

tions to the interior - a

inscriptions written in Sanskrit, Indian-inspired temples,

to appear,可pically in coastal locations with riverine conn饵’

common

route for those

engaged in maritime

trade. Exempli马ring

what one scholar has called the “local genius,'’Southeast Asian societies encountered religious beliefs and political difficulty in amalgamating indigenous features with the models that reached the region from India and China.8 little

in the Ideas associated with what we now call Hinduism were brought to Southeast Asia deities early centuries of the Common Era by Indian traders. The mixture of sky and earth

that evolved in the interaction between Brahmanic and indigenous Indian beliefs was that especially appealing to Southeast Asian rulers. While they recognized many features were reminiscent of their indigenous deities, they were also ready to accept the new and

From Mahayana Buddhism emerged “Tantric,”because specific

it

and Hindu

of early Buddhist

beginning of the

Buddhism

Common

Era.

in this early period,

it

described in Indian texts from around the

Although there

is

was Mahayana that held out the greatest appeal because

of the concept of bodhisattvas, enlightened beings

nibbana in spiritual

Pali),

and even

evidence of several different forms of

who have postponed nirvana

meaning the dissolution of the

(Sanskrit,

sentient being) in order to provide

practical assistance to others to attain this ultimate objective.

H. G. Quaritch Wales, Prehistory and Religion 109-27.

in South-East

Asia (London: Bernard Quaritch, 1957),

ideas were thus adapted

A number

and absorbed into the Southeast

and evolving system of

and protective and healing requirements. In

Southeast Asia, Tantric polities

(salvationist)

Buddhism appealed

and acquiring the loyalty of their

to rulers as a

subjects.

where a 1347 inscription commemorates



plex,

where images,

statuary,

belief that

way of strengthening

their

An early example comes from Sumatra,

Malay/Minangkabau

Tantric Siva-Buddhist deity Bhairava. Further north

the

is

ruler’s initiation

Padang Lawas

and temples dating from the eleventh

religious

as the

com-

to the fourteenth

centuries have also been identified as Tantric Buddhist. In mainland Southeast Asia, too,

Tantric

Buddhism

is

evident in votive tablets found in present-day Thailand in the Khorat

plateau areas dating from the

Khmer period



eleventh to twel丘h centuries).

Ongoing local

adaptations of techniques and beliefs associated with esoteric forms of Hindu-Buddhism

continued to be a dynamic element in Southeast early

By

modern

Asia’s religious

landscape throughout the

period.

the eighth

and ninth centuries

great

monuments

like the

Bakong

in

and the Mahayana Buddhist Borobodur in

Cambodia,

dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva, t创的to the growth of more complex polities linked to a wider Indic world in which Sanskrit was the language of power. Simultaneously, however, such monuments reflect the local environment from which they had developed. Although the presence of Indian

and

religious scholars

was certainly a

central Java,

critical factor in transferring

many

aspects of Indian culture, Southeast Asians themselves were actively engaged in the localization process, evident in the hospitable reception extended to religious specialists in the fourth century

one Chinese observer had remarked that“出e

Dunsun [probably on the Malay Peninsula] practice [the Brahmans’J doctrine and give them their daughters in marriage; consequently many of the Brahmans do not go

people of

away.呻Hindu and Buddhist legends were linked geography”could be created by

incoming

beliefs,

and the phallic

to familiar localities

conferring Sanskrit honorifics

由at were already viewed as inhabited

by powerful

spirits.

rivers

In the fusion of local

sacred stones and rocks could represent both the

linga that in

and a“sacred

on mountains or earth’s

potent

and

fertility

Hindu thought manifested the creative energy of sexual union

between Shiva and his divine Shakti. As a focus of worship, linga were placed on a square stone (in Sanskrit, yoni, invoking the universal womb), or sometimes simply on the soil itself,



of which were

flexible

from overseas. Even

is

and the use of

all

responded to both soteriological

Southeast Asian rulers could aspire to a status that reached beyond their specific locality. The major Hindu gods, Shiva and Vishnu, were particularly revered, and many Southeast

Mahayana form of Buddhism, which

and sacred knowledge,

Asian indigenous religious base to create a

traders, artisans,

the

special techniques, such as meditation

to explicate profane

900-1400

sometimes termed

thought to contribute to a quicker path to Buddhism’s ultimate goal of nibbana.

complex cosmology associated with the powerful sky deities so prominent in Hindu new rituals. More elaborate and refined than indigenous belief systems, the gods of the which religion were universal rather than locally grounded and thus created a model by

Asian rulers adopted names that linked them directly to one of these powerful deities. Another Indian religion that reached Southeast Asian shores at about the same time was

on

relied

words or numbers

a separate esoteric path,

C.



emblematic of female regenerative power.

Paul Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula bφre AD 1500 (Kuala L山npur: University of Malaya Press, 1961), 17.

56

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,

C.

900-1400

images date from the sixth and seventh centuries, and recent finds include two bronze figures considered to

be of Chinese

origin.

Buddhist influences from China are most pronounced in Vietnam, which was a vassal of China between 111

BCE and around 939 CE. Although Buddhism did initially come by

sea仕om

India, Vietnam’s cultural universe continued to

after the

gaining of independence in the tenth centu叩.

elite

be oriented northwards, even

The educated Sino- Vietnamese

thus absorbed the Chinese view that Confucian teachings should provide the ethical

basis of

government. As in China, however, those versed in Confucian scholarship could

simultaneously be followers of Buddhism and the Chinese indigenous religion, Daoism.

Vietnam continued Bhairava from Candi Singasari, East Java. Bhairava (“terrible" or“frightening") could represent both the demonic form of Shiva and Mahakala (“出e great black one”), the Tantric Buddhist protector deity. Infused with power and ferocity, this naked Bhairava from

Fi伊re

2.1.

thirteenth-century Java also resembles statues of guardian

found

in

fi思ires

crown and

the base, the chain of severed heads,

and his jackal mount (sni伍ng blood from the his dagger, skull-bowl,

dagger) reflect the “demonic"

image叩and Tantric

rituals

practitioners gained access to

extraordinary spiritual and physical powers. Courtesy of Rijksmuseum

voor

V olkenkunde, Leiden,

selective localization of

incoming

the

was always apparent. Female

beliefs

and Daoist

priests appealed in times of drought, while

behavior and good government were adjusted to

By

fit

displaced

(“the

Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism

in

deities of rain,

whom Buddhist monks

Confucian teachings about ethical

existing priorities.

the end of the fourteenth century the Buddhist practices which

modern

much

of the region covered by present-

which only came into

common

use

among academics

the school of Buddhism that transmitted

and

liturgy. In

its

about 250

in the twentieth centu巧,refers to

teachings through the use of the Pali language

BCE Buddhism was brought仕om

India to Sri

Lanka, where the Theravada traditions developed, claiming to follow the original teach- ings of the

Buddha more

faithfully.

early as the fi丘h century,

may

Myanmar,

In

inscriptions written in Pali appear as

though other forms of Buddhism using

Pali as a scriptural

have come to Southeast Asia from India in the early centuries CE. The

primary source of Theravada influences was the island of Sri Lanka, renowned for



monasteries and for sin世ar pattern can be noted in regard to early

frequently depicted

Buddhism. For instance, a on the merit-making Buddhist votive tablets found along the

of peninsular Thailand

is

Jambhala, the bodhisattva of wealth,

who was

its

sacred relics - a bodhi tree, originally a

figure

under which the Buddha had received enlightenment,

coasts

the revered

especially

favored by merchants and seafarers. In Southeast Asian society where maritime trade was of immense importance, this bodhisattva would have had great appeal and would

have reinforced and been amalgamated with local deities associated with the sea. The most popular bodhisattva, however, was the compassionate Avalokitesvara, and one of the earliest images, a seventh-century statue found in Cambodia, shows him with life- giving water flowing from his hands. Unlike Hindu teachings that derived from India,

Buddhist influences also came to Southeast Asia from China. Chinese Buddhist pilgrims passed through the Melaka Straits en route to India, and the port of Srivijaya enjoyed a high reputation as a place for Buddhist scholarship. In Cambodia numerous Buddhist

scholars

Doctrine of the Elders") had essentially

day Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and southern Vietnam. The word "Theravada,”

language

Netherlands. Inv. 1403-1680.

re矶山rly circulated. Nonetheless, the

thunder, lightning, and clouds were recast as “Lady Buddhas" to

in texts, rituals,

by which

environment through which envoys, Confu-

to operate in a Sinicized

and Buddhist and Daoist monks

have subsumed under the term Theravada

temple complexes. The

skulls that decorate his

cian scholars,

life

Tooth

Relic.

These bodily

relics

and the

his

its

great

branch丘om出e ve巧tree

alms bowl, his collarbone, and

objects associated

with出e Buddha’s

created a field of transcultural Buddhist devotion in which Sri Lanka occupied a special

place. Central to the perception of Sri

that the

Buddha himself had

Lanka

as the

home of pure Buddhism was

the belief

visited the island three times, leaving his footprint

on出e

sacred mountain, Sri Pada. In the eleventh centu可deepening links with mainland South- east Asia

assumed particular importance

creation of a nities

as the spread of Theravada traditions fostered the

common Buddhist world that linked monasteries, monks, and their commu-

through a network reaching from

Thailand, and the

Mekong

Sri

Lanka

to present-day

Myanmar, northern

Delta.

Despite the role of royal patronage and exchanges of religious missions with Sri Lanka, the

prima巧reason

for the success of

Theravada teachings was the appeal to ordinary

57

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400一1830

who understood

people,

the conception of

kamma more

easily

than that of attaining

nibbana. The idea of kamma provided followers of Buddhism with an immediate explan- ation for their current condition, a clear exposition of the path necessa巧for a better rebirth,

and a belief that could

and

also seen as a source of protection for individuals

through performing good deeds, observing proper Direct channels to Buddhist

Buddhism was

co-exist comfortably with spirit veneration.

power were

their families as they acquired merit

rituals,

and supporting the monkhood.

available in the chanting of prayers, the wearing

of protective amulets, and the propitiation of

Buddha images. The wealthy should

give

generously through sponsoring the recopying of the Tipitaka or endowing a monaste町,

but a poor person could also gain merit through small acts of devotion. Murals

on the temples of Pagan, for instance, show individuals grass, or

simply opening a gate for

monks

no overarching

Since there was

religious authority that

As the font of the Theravada form of Buddhism,

much

offering a cup of water, a bundle of

leaving to receive alms.

regarding dogma, the great strength of Buddhism was

respect

Sri

its

pronounced on matters

ab过ity to

independent

entities adjusting to the

be regarded as

lent to the Sanskrit mlecc仰,or outsiders.

adapt to local contexts.

Lanka was always regarded with latter

great

operated ve巧

needs and special circumstances of

their

Some achieved particular fame because they housed a sacred relic, Buddha image. The development of localized Buddhism saw the rise of

Muslim communities

in Southeast Asia

the tenth centu巧. Apparently

comes from

coming from

a ship wrecked off the coast of Java in

Sriv加ya,

it

carried

numerous

Java

and Sumatra, points

to increasing tra面c

between the Middle East and Southeast Asia.

Muslim environment the landscape itself could be reconfigured to reflect the immediacy of what was for many a new faith. During his travels, for instance, the Moroccan Ibn Battuta made a pilgrimage to Sri Lanka, where Muslims (and later some local Christians) believed the

and legends

architecture, while popular beliefs

of

rock formation

at the

peak of the revered

was the footprint not of the Buddha but of Adam, the Battuta's visit in the fourteenth century

around four hundred

years,

pilgrims

first

visiting this site for

collection of orally transmitted stories

Islamic date

canon, around the ninth century the Earth Goddess became a popular figure in India,

stopped

where she was credited with having helped defeat the forces of Mara, the

presence.

unknown

evil one.

in India

stories attached to the

As

this

and

Sri

Earth Goddess

evidence of a settled Muslim community in Southeast Asia comes from

AH 608

Pasai’s links

earliest

is

carved with the

Marco Polo (1254-1324) account refers to a Muslim

(1211 CE). In 1292 the Venetian traveler

at the settlement

The

his fall

and written

throughout the Islamic world.

northern Sumatra, where the gravestone of a local ruler found in Aceh

witnessed Buddha’s enlightenment. Although this story does not appear in the Pali

earliest

Pada mountain

man. By the time of Ibn

had been

who

The

Sri

and accounts of Adam’s expulsion from Paradise and

Lanka were part of a vast

texts that circulated

Muslim

community origins were linked to Buddhist mythology. For example, the female figure most commonly encountered in Theravada Buddhist societies is that of the Earth Goddess

Lanka was added: from Rakhine to Cambodia the

letters,

and glassware originating in Cairo and other distant Islamic centers. From the twel丘h century the frequent mention in Arabic writings of “Jawa,”a vague reference generally to

to earth in Sri

legend traveled to Southeast Asia a significant detail largely

artifacts

intended for Muslim buyers, such as prayer beads, small plates to duplicate Arabic

or a revered

and

are evident as

Islam entered Southeast Asia, again through trading connections. Tangible evidence of

particular communities.

distinctive styles of sculpture

community reinforcement

Similar patterns of religious adaptation and

In this expanding

and veneration among Southeast Asian monasteries, but the

as

like those

identi马ring a member of the Buddhist community. Animist upland outside this community were described as milakkha, a Pali equiva- remained who groups

to

of Samudra-Pasai, where his brief

gravestone found in this area bears the date

with the wider Muslim world are evident in the

AH 615 (1297 CE), and names adopted by

thirteenth-century kings, which replicate those used in Egypt and Syria.



late

few decades

relate

how she achieved her victory over Mara by wringing a flood of water from her hair

later Ibn Battuta also provided a description of the same area, commenting on the wealth

(itself

emblematic of fertility). Accounts of the Buddha’s actual appearance in the neigh-

of the court and the lavish reception he received.

borhood over the course of his

final lifetime also

encouraged a reconceptualization of the

landscape, so that unusual depressions in rock formations could be read as“footprints,”

evidence that the

transformed into

Buddha himself had walked sites

the earth in this vicinity, and were

of worship and p过grimage. The

chronicle from northern Thailand, thus describes

how

Buddha

Travels the World, a

the Buddha’s visit leads to the

establishment of numerous towns and monasteries. Another history from a丘eenth-

century Chiang

Mai

records that the

and Mon Khmer and once occupied much of modern

Buddha

people (who spoke a language related to

instructed the forest-dwellers

Thailand and Myanmar) to support their parents, respect their elders, and honor refrain

his

The Mons, overcome with joy, paid homage to the Buddha and agreed to from taking life, stealing, adultery, lying, and drinking alcohol, precepts that came

teachings.

He

observed that the people

M由e

noted由at the coastal Muslims belonged to the Syafi'i were school of Islamic law, which was followed in much of southern India and the Middle East.

interior

still“pagan,”but

Although Malay texts of the period,

like the history of Pasai, prefer to see the

adoption

Muslim

influence

of Islam as a result of direct connections with Mecca,

was arriving in Southeast Asia from a range of China, Gujarat, Bengal, and southern India. (mystical Islam),

religious practices. In the

evident that

A number of scholars have ar思1ed that Sufism

which had already taken root

because the goal of direct

it is

di旺erent places - Egypt, Arabia, Persia,

communion with

in India, also appealed in Southeast Asia

the divine resonated with

Muslim communities

that

grew up

many

in ports along

existing

maritime

routes, Sufi brotherhoods (tarikat) provided services for merchants由at ranged仕om accommodation to facilities for money transfers. Nor was this traffic丘om the west simply

60

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,

A HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 one-way, for Southeast Asians were also traveling to the Islamic heartlands.

A fourteenth-

centu巧Arab source makes reference to one飞reat and famous" teacher of Sufism who was himself仕om“Jawa,”and whose very name invoked the “fragrant scents" of distant lands.10

Threading through local conditions.

The

Malay Peninsula,

is

this early

date

partially illegible, but at the latest

punishments for sexual crimes, lettering,

and

evidence are recurring indications of Islam’s adaptation to

on the famed Terengganu Stone, found on the

refers to the

east coast of the

can be read as 1387 CE. Listing

written in Arabic script rather than Indian-derived

it is

Supreme God

Dewata Mulia Raya, using the more

as

familiar

Sanskrit term of dewata or deity rather than the Arabic “Allah." In a graphic demonstra- tion of the relative gender equality said to typi命Southeast Asian societies, a 1375 Spanish

map

of the world depicts Sumatra as an island over which a female ruler presides,

surrounded by mosques. Already, however, we can see that distinctions are being made

between those who have embraced Islam and those

Sumatran “lover

coastal port of

Samudera

who have not. During his visit

in 1345 Ibn Battuta described the

Muslim

to the

ruler, a

of theologians,”as constantly involved in expeditions“for the Faith" against interior

Such

polities,

C.

900-1400

however, were never as powerful as implied in written sources or conveyed

by architectural remains. The core of authority was always concentrated in and around the capital, beyond which was a mosaic of communities that varied greatly in size, language, lifestyles, and belief systems. Allegiance to a personally known leader or patron and loyalty to a particular

amorphous

group remained more meaningful than

polity built

around

affiliation

with a larger and more

a prestigious but distant ruler. Extensive territorial

easily fragment and revert to their component parts when a center made or when some charismatic individual emerged and attracted demands unacceptable sufl且dent following to form a new competing center. A successful ruler was one who

domains could

acquired prestige through the arrogation of religious symbols, the accumulation of wealth and followers, and the repeated demonstration of superior status, thus maintaining

mandala coherence. As the following section shows, such rulers and the royal centers over which they presided played a fundamental role in producing the cultural traditions and the narrative of a glorious past that was inherited by the early modern successors to the “classical states." Since the sto巧differs somewhat between mainland and island

we

Southeast Asia,

will discuss

them

in separate sections.

“heathens.”11

会在

Mainland Southeast Asia: Pagan, Angkor, Sukhothai, A严1tthaya, Dai Viet

A叫ents to the叫

Let us turn

In considering the antecedents to the early

ment was

modern period

it is

evident that the environ-

a key element in shaping the societies associated with early

dominant

centers.

On the mainland and Java these centers developed in areas that favored wet-rice agricul- ture,

where surplus food enabled population growth with

increased resources, political power,

and

all

cultural prestige.

that this implied in terms of

Other

polities like Srivijaya in

first

to consider

Myanmar, where

early urbanized walled settlements dated to

CE

developed along four main river systems一出e Sittang, Salween, Kaladan (which flows through Rakhine into the Bay of Bengal), and Irrawaddy. It is commonly believed that in this ve巧early period a people known as the P严L who spoke a

the

first

millennium

language related to Burmese, occupied the principal settlements in central Myanmar, while the area further south was pop吐ated by Mons. It is likely, however, that a variety of

and that population movement

southeast Sumatra flourished because of their favorable location along maritime trade

peoples settled along the Irrawaddy and

routes even though they

scholarly attention has been focused

contributed to the sharing of certain cultural attributes. Nonetheless, there is general agreement that by the eleventh centu叩the Mons were the dominant group in the south, a

the shifting cultivators

region that

region are largely

the Indian Ocean. References to the

tions

and

had

little

or

no

access to an agricultural hinterland. While

on these dominant centers, details of the lives of and semi-nomadic communities who populated so much of the unrecorded and their pasts are o丘en overlooked. Furthermore, inscrip- produced from literate court centers were primarily concerned and therefore convey an impression of strong central authority. From

later chronicles

to glori命the regime

this perspective, great polities are characterized battle,

1°

11

who

oversee increased prosperity, and

Cited in Michael

by prestigious

who command

rulers

who are successful in

a large

and

loyal populace.

F. Laffan and R. Michael Feener,“Sufi Scents Across the Indian Ocean: Y emem Hagiography and the Earliest Hist。可of Southeast Asian Islam,'’Archipel 70 (2005): 185-208 H. A. R. Gibb, trans. The Travels of Ibn Battuta A.D. 1325-1354. Translated with revisions and notes from the Arabic text edited by C. Defremery and B. R. Sanguinetti, with annotations by C. F. Beckingham. Vol. IV (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1994), 274.

became known

areas formerly

its

tributaries

as“the country of the

under the P归and

Mons"

(Ramafni.adesa), with access to

Pyu disappear, and the Burmans come

to

dominate

establish their center at Pagan, said to have developed

own tutelary spirit or nat. Located on from Mount Popa, an extinct volcano venerated

from the union of nineteen

villages,

each with

the Irrawaddy River, Pagan

was not

far

its

Medaw, the “mother of Popa”(see Figure 2.2). The surrounding plains, which extend for some 250 miles (400 kilometers), were o丘en termed the “dry zone”because the rain shadow created by the Rakhine Mountains means that the annual rainfall is less than 31 inches (80 cm) a year. Yet this as the

area

home

of powerful spirits such as Popa

became a major producer of rice since the extensive fertile plains could be irrigated by

digging channels connected to tributaries of the Irrawaddy River.

Due

to the long dry

61

A HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES, numbers of

Mon

and

P严1. In this

with differences in language, dress,

C.

900-1400

environment, where people were directly confronted

and customs,

it is

not surprising to see indications of

ethnic categorization. Inscriptions thus differentiate between “Burman”and “Mon”music, and there are references to“Mr Rakhine,"“Mr Shan,'’and “Mr Chin,”as well as to tonsu

(meaning

h过l

person, probably Karen peoples).

key element in Pagan kingship, since any leader was thought to have position because of great merit accumulated in previous lives. In Pagan

Buddhism was acquired his



around three thousand temples, stupas, and monasteries have survived the centuries to bear witness to the

city’s

wealth and prestige as a center of Buddhist learning. The concept

of the Buddhist world-conqueror and ideal ruler, the cakkavatti, was also a Figure 2.2. Popa Medaw. This powerful Burmese spirit (nat), Popa Medaw (“the mother of Mount

known as Mei on Mount Popa where

Popa,'’sometimes

Wunna)

lives

she met her mythical Indian husband and fa由ered two sons, known as the

Taungbyon brothers a丘er出e town that

honors them. Unlike her

sons,

Popa Medaw is not included in the pantheon of thirty-seven nats but is revered because of her ability to assist in all religious endeavors. In contrast to Buddha images, the Burmese make no great effort to preserve nat statues, which are replaced when age begins to take a toll. Photograph by 飞Nagaung, summer 1987, from

Wikimedia

Commons

(http://en.

wikipedia.org/wiki/File:

Brother_Nats.jpg).

means of

enhancing existing views of power and justi马ri吨expansion of territorial control. The Ananda temple, built in the eleventh century by king Kyanzittha, houses four gigantic standing Buddhas and was meant to represent an

ascetic’s

mountain. Perhaps intended as his funerary temple, Kyanz让tha,

who

it

cave on a mythological Indian

also includes a kneeling

image of

claimed to be a bodhisattva, a cakkavatti, and a reincarnation of Vishnu.

Simultaneously, however, in an inscription placed in the Shwezigon Pagoda, he presents

himself as a ruler

who may

e时oy“the splendor of

consoles and cares for his subjects.“The nasal

course of benefits, by compassion which

is

who

royalty,'’but

mucus of those who

even as water, the king

also, parent-like,

are sick at heart,

shall

wash away

by a

... All

the people shall be comfortable like children resting in their mother’s bosoms; so shall the

king keep watch and reward them with benefits."12

Although Theravada was the dominant form of Buddhism, many temples also display Mahayana and Hindu images and decorations, while everywhere India-derived

merged with indigenous ideas. Images of Pagan’s nats (spirits of trees, rivers, mountains, ancestors, and individuals who have met a tragic death) were o丘en placed near Buddhist stupas as guardians and protectors. Officially acknowledged by religious beliefs

King Anawrahta, the most feared were the "Thirty-seven Nats,'’whose supernatural power and inclusion in this special pantheon stemmed from their violent end,。丘en at

associated with the

Though always denoted by the auspicious and constant number names of those included might not necessarily tally with official lists because nats who had greater relevance at particular times were propitiated in place of others deemed to be less important. The great Shwezigon Pagoda, where the Thirty- seven Nats were enshrined, contained a hair of the Buddha taken in one of King Anawrahta’s victories, as well as a tooth and a frontal bone obtained from Sri Lanka, and thus stands as a prime example of the amalgamation of Buddhism and indigenous

that closer connections with these

beliefs.

scriptures

During the height of its power the mandala of Pagan incorporated numerous satellite settlements to encompass most of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin River valleys, and claimed

season, the landscape

growing

was only lightly forested and the

plains, particularly the well-watered

soil

more

Kyaukse River

easily turned.

district,

These

rice-

produced a food

surplus that supported a sizeable population.

The

rise

of Pagan

associated with the reign of King

Anawrahta (1044-77 CE), expansion led to growing contact with both the P严1 and areas to the is

whose

territorial

south,

where archeological surveys show that a rich material culture thought to be Mons had developed during the first millennium CE. It is believed

two groups resulted in Pagan’s acquisition of Buddhist and the importation of Buddhist monks, artists, and skilled craftsmen. While benefiting from these religious and cultural links, Pagan also inherited traditions had that

developed in the Upper

Myanmar

region.

Though dominated by

ethnic Burmans,

the hands of rulers. “thirty-seven,”the

it

developed into a multi-ethnic polity of around one to two million people, including large

12

Cited in

N ai Pan Hla,“The Major Role of the Mons in Southeast Asia,”JSS 79,



(1991), 19.

64

MODERN SOUTHEAST

A HISTORY OF EARLY

ASIA, 1400-1830

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,

suzerainty over an area reaching from the borders of present-day China

Although no

locally

produced coinage

occasionally gold ingots as a

is

known from Pagan,

medium

down to the coast.

the use of silver, copper and

of exchange, in addition to the cowry

shells

(imported from the Maldives) for smaller transactions, points to a vigorous trading network. In the

Mien"

its

century Marco Polo specifically noted that the “King of

Pagan) was“very powerful in lands, treasure, and people.”Pagan’s

(i.e.

enforce

late thirteenth

horses and elephants trained for warfare

fermented

mated

some alcoholic Pagan army sent

rice or

that the

including

and o丘en readied

combat by being fed stimulant) were an important component. Polo esti- into China numbered around forty thousand men, (

many horsemen and two thousand

that contained at least twelve soldiers.13 In the (“bearer

ab且ity to

authority over an extensive area was largely due to a formidable army, in which

of the burden")

their service to the ruler,

first

for

wooden tower mid-fourteenth century the term ahmudan elephants, each carrying a

appears in the sources to distinguish those people

who owed

and they formed a substantial proportion of Pagan’s army.

other centers had generated their

own

circles

of glory”whose conquests stretched across a vast area.

generations of his sons, grandsons, and great grandsons.”15

An even more formidable reputation was attached to Angkor, the Khmer kingdom that dominated much of mainland Southeast Asia from the ninth through the thirteenth century.

formal establishment

Its

records that a ruler

known

science”to preside over a

60 kilometers northeast of

One of these was the upland by a branch of the ve可large Tai-speaking

of authority.

modern Thais and Lao as well as many highland peoples. The term Burmese rendering of“Syam," has been used to refer generically to those northern

versed in magical as Jayavarman invited a Brahman ceremony conducted on Mount Kulen (about 37 miles or

modern Siem Reap town). 16 This

Tai peoples who mostly lived west of the Salween River. Located around a lake in the middle of

centu可it was described as飞ne large paddy-field."14

It

and by the nineteenth

became known

ritual established the inde-

pendence of the country termed “Kambujadesa" under the rule of a cakravartin. Although inscriptions assign aspects of the divine to various rulers, mention of the installation of the devaraja

(“king

of the

gods”) refers

not to the king himself but to a sacred object, probably

a linga or statue representing the god Shiva, which was placed in the most important

Not long afterwards the capital moved just north of the Tonle Sap (飞reatLake”) and was called Angkor (仕om the Sanskrit, meaning “holy city’'). The fert过ity of this region was central to the

growth and longevity of Angkor, since annual flooding regenerated surrounding

and provided a natural environment

for wet-rice cultivation

a later inscription

“well

lake increases ten- fold in depth

Kengtung was well-suited

when

generally dated to 802 CE,

is

“Shan,”a

fertile valley,

Under him Pagan had enjoyed own welfare and that of the

great prosperity that advanced "the welfare of the religion, his

fam过y that includes



900…1400

temple as the protector of the realm.

Pagan’s supremacy was not unchallenged, for in the highlands beyond the Irrawaddy valley

settlement of Kengtung (Kyaingtong), developed

“full

C,

as a center for

for wet-rice cultivation.

soil

During the rainy season the

and extends westward almost to Battambang some 25 miles

(40 kilometers) away. Located about 5 miles (8 kilometers)

from the lake during the dry

Angkor becomes a lakeshore settlement in the rainy season. The flooded Tonle Sap thus creates ideal conditions for the breeding of fish and is st山one of the world’s largest season,

Buddhism, with one wat (monastery, temple) even said to contain six strands of the Buddha’s hair. Shan hill groups were renowned as able mountaineers and skilled r1ders of small but

freshwater fisheries.

hardy hill-bred ponies, and Shan raids into the lowlands became increasingly common. Over time Pagan faced internal problems as the state’s economic and administrative

they were built for ritual purposes and intended primarily to symbolize the lake surrounding

power was weakened by the drain of resources away from the center through continuous donations of land and manpower to Buddhist temples. Although the city was able to

inscriptions

Some kings built very large reservoirs (baray) near their temples, but the

do not indicate that they were used

for irrigation. Scholars believe instead that

Mount Meru, the home of the gods, in Hindu-Buddhist cosmology, which was represented by the temples themselves. Wet-rice cultivation more likely relied on the excess water to irrigate

bunded fields, while rain

withstand attacks by Mongol forces in the 1280s, raiding by the upland Shan continued.

may also have been collected in small tanks and reservoirs. These

systems of water control

Pagan was soon eclipsed by new centers of power - Ava, located to the north in ethnically Burman area around modern Mandalay, and the Mon-dominated polity in

made it possible to harvest at least two and sometimes more crops a year. Wi由ready access to fish and a rice surplus, Angkor was able to increase its population and build up a sedentary community that could be organized for taxation, co凹优labor, and armies. The economy grew in other ways, for Angkor’s territorial expansion strengthened links between local markets and larger trade networks, marked by the proliferation of temples

south, later

known

as

Pegu

after its

major

center. Despite

eclipse, Pagan’s reputation as the source of Burmese culture, a

tration,

and a

site

the

the

decline and subsequent model of effective adminis-

its

of great spiritual potency survived unscathed, exercising a far-reaching

influence over the evolution of subsequent states. Glass Palace Chronicle, was completed in 1831,

When a new history of Myanmar, Anawrahta was

still

the

extolled as a king

R叫t邸,Tl川avels of Marco Polo (阳Y忧V出ng p邸,阳), 196. Younghusband, The Trans-Salwin Shan State of Kiang Tung, David K. Wyatt, Books: Chiang Mai, 2005; Reprint of 1888 edition), 18.

Aldo ?: 1"

G.

J.

eds.

(Silkworm

available during the yearly flooding,

built

which was diverted

along trade routes. Forest clearance and rice cultivation also developed in provincial

centers.



15

Pe

16

Cited in

tenth-century inscription le丘by an

official in the far south, for

Maung Tin and Luce, The Glass Palace Chronicle, 99-100 Hermann Kulke, The Devariija Cult (Southeast Asia Program,

1978), 15.

example, lays

Cornell University: Ithaca,

65

66

'A HISTO盯OF EARL

ODERN SOOTHE川山,14…伽

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES, Normally the

reliefs

here Suryavarman

is

decorating temple walls were reserved for depicting the gods, but

shown

presiding over a ritual on a mountain top where he accepts

One whole gallery is devoted to his

the loyalty of his retainers.

Su巧avarman stands on an elephant facing the god Indra, links between king and divinity are quite clear.

known

Equally well

Jayavarman VII

(r.

900-1400

C.

is

military procession,

also riding

where

an elephant. The

the Bayon, built seventy-five years later by the Buddhist ruler

1181-c. 1220), in the middle of his

symbolizing the sacred mountain, the Bayon

is

city,

Angkor Thom. Though

also

covered with 凶y-four towers, each carved

with four faces looking out in the cardinal directions. As representations of the bodhisat- tva of compassion, Avalokitesvara, they

may also have invoked the face of Jayavarman VII

himself. Offering a unique picture of twel丘h-century

display familiar scenes

from everyday

woman giving birth.

scenes including a

Cambodia,

reliefs

on the outer walls

such as cock且ghts, markets, and household

life,

For Khmers, however, the temple was primarily a

Zhou

stage for rituals associated with kingship that ensured the fertility of the land.

Buddhist monks in front of Angkor Wat, Cambodia. Angkor Wat, the world’s largest religious structure, was built during the reign of Su叮avarman 11 (c. 1113-50), and is part of a complex of monuments也at extends over 24.8 km (15.4 miles). It was intended as a funerary temple for the deceased ruler, and would have contained his statue in the form of Vishnu. The reliefs along the terraces illustrate important scenes from the Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana; and the walls are covered with carvings of apsaras, heavenly divinities. A丘er the fourteenth centu叮 Angkor Wat became a Buddhist temple, and its image appears on the Cambodian flag. Photograph by Sam Garza, 22 December 2006 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Buddhist_monks_in一 Figure

2.3.

front_of_the_Angkor_飞八Tat.jpg).

down

difficult to obtain, in a forested

hollow, he

us that“in a place

tells

made

is





where water was

neighboring countries until the

first

devaraja

power

rice, livestock, forest

Angkor

status of

in

cult. It its

in

coins were cast in 1516. Transactions such as the

made through

currency

history

is

primarily due to the prominence of the

own



wide swath of mainland Southeast Asian lands. Since each

royal sanctua町,hundreds of temples dot the region

between Mount

clea由apparent. For instance, the

Khmer

statues of

Hindu gods

or Buddhist

at

this

time

Malay Peninsula.

time

Khmer

when London was

Chao Phraya River

captured

in

to

may

a ci可of only

from the borders of

modern Thailand, and and inscriptions

incorporated people from conquered areas. Military innovations included the missile

weapon

Cham

initially

developed by China, which appears on Angkor

ballista, a

Wat

reliefs

mercenaries firing from platforms attached to the back of elephants. The

importance of a strong army in defending the count巧against outside enemies, countering internal challenges, J ayavarman

VII,

and ensuring the

who came

the devastation of

to

ruler’s

power

Angkor by Cham

wellbeing,

a丘er a

reliefs

clearly illustrated in the career of

attacks.

During this period, continued interaction with between upland and lowland

is

period of internal disruption and following

lifestyles

Cham and Tai peoples and the contrasts

must have reinforced a sense of being “Khmer."

“Syam-kuk" (Siam people). Over a hundred years

depicting由e army of Suryavarman

soldiers, distinguished

by

II

thus label a unit of unruly

their distinctive sarongs, headdresses, later,

and long

tridents, as

when Zhou Da事ian

visited

Angkor, he commented on the hierarchies由at had been created between the animist 18

76.

is

major settlement

Reliefs depicting military processions

marked deviation from Indian tradition. A prime example of this type of localization is the magnificent Angkor Wat, dedicated to Vishnu and constructed by King Suryavarman II (r. 1113-c. 1150 CE) (see Figure 2.3). Cited in Charles Higham, The Civilization of Angkor (Berkeley, CA: University of California, 2004),

its

territory reached

Angkor Wat

17

intensity of these beliefs

around 1200, and

bodhisattvas placed inside the temples are believed to be portraits of actual rulers or their close relatives, a

was told that Angkor’s

praising the victories of kings attest to the strength of Angkor’s army, which o丘en

Kulen and the Tonle Sap, and despite obvious Indian influences the imprint of indigenous beliefs is

The

as 750,000 people at a

around 35,000 inhabitants. By

showing

products, manufactured goods, and labor.

Khmer

power

noteworthy, however, that Cambodia

provided the rationale and legitimation for the expansion of Angkorian

heyday through

king built his

many

its

lands in southern Dai Viet to the

purchase of land or payment of fines and taxes were also

The

Angkor reached the peak of

to the

was

1296,

an inscription extolling the achievements of Jayavarman VII, who "took the earth wife and gave her his gl。可for a necklace.”18

down

rivers, as

never developed a currency during this period, instead using coinage from China and

equivalents in

or serpent, was a symbol of water and the earth).

Cham

by three

Khmer capital in

in

the

a reservoir fed

for the benefit of others."17 It



visited the

prosperity was due to the nightly union between the ruler and a naga princess ( the naga,

have supported as

the boundaries of the rice fields and

proper thing to do

Daguan, the Chinese envoy who

Cited in

M.

L. Finot,“Notes d’epigraphie. L’inscription Sanskrite

de Say Fong,'’BEFEO 3 (1903), 30.

68捕、A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

and semi- nomadic upland groups ( which he said were generally known as “Zhuang”) and the lowland, sedentary Khmer. People from upland areas were o丘en sold as slaves and were“so despised that

if

there

is

a quarrel between

two

city dwellers,

them to be called Zhuang for hatred to enter into the marrow By the time of Zhou Daguan’s visit, the nature of the Angkorian

it

only takes one of

of his bones.”19

changes由at point to economic and edifices

came

to

political decline: the building

an end, inscriptions became

reservoirs ceased.

less

common, and the

While the reasons are not completely

could no longer exert authority over Agricultural production

state

its

periphery, and

clear, its

it is

had undergone

of great religious

construction of large evident that Angkor

territories steadily retracted.

may have been adversely affected by alterations in the water table

caused by deforestation and erosion, intensi马ring the impact of unusually dry seasons.

Zhou Daguan claimed that during his visit “not a drop of rain" fell between the tenth lunar month and the third of the following year (28 October 1296 to 22 April 1297). If rice- growing could no longer be sustained at previous levels, then Angkor could not have supported the same population as in earlier times. The puzzling destruction or defacement of hundreds of Buddhist images may even point to some kind of religious upheaval. There were also more direct challenges. The absence of mountain barriers that had allowed the Khmer population to expand westwards now worked to Angkor’s disadvantage, for its heartland was exposed to repeated raiding by Tai-speaking groups from various parts of

what

is

now

Angkor’s

first

more than four centuries after the construction of Zhou Daguan was still impressed by Angkor’s vibrant economy,

central Thailand. Yet

temples,

the status attached to Buddhism,

Today, the image of Angkor

and the

Wat on

ritual

and panoply associated with the

ruler.

the flag of eve町Cambodian regime since independ-

ence affirms the unique place of Angkor in the country’s

hist。可・

Figure 2.4. Walking Buddha,丘om Sukhothai. Sukhothai developed a distinctive style of Buddhist sculpture, representing the

Buddha

with an oval face, broad shoulders, smooth long limbs, and a clinging monk’s robe. Here

Buddha

is

depicted walking ( one of four postures prescribed for meditational exercises in ancient Theravada

Buddhist

texts)

with his le丘hand in

The expansion of Tai-speaking peoples coincided with and contributed to the contrac- tion of Khmer power, although the slow percolation of the Tai from the Sino-Vietnamese border region was probably underway by the beginning of the second millennium. As they

the gesture of reassurance and encouragement. The influence of Sri Lanka is seen in the flame-like ushnisha on the head, symbolizing

moved southwards由ey absorbed the numerous Mon-Khmer communities already living in the watershed of the Chao Phraya River, typically through a symbiotic relationship that

wisdom and enlightenment. Courtesy of Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.

incorporated a recognition of the links of earlier inhabitants to the land and the powers of the spirits they venerated.

By

the early fourteenth centu叩Tai peoples dominated the

along the central

Mekong

flowed.

ment of Tai groups

standing or“walking"

early

into this region

is

arguably the most significant factor in shaping the

modem history of mainland Southeast Asia.

Pagan and Angkor) was among the numerous independent Tai

inscriptions

and a distinctive

to

polities that developed

in

eclipsed by the fi丘eenth century,

style

Buddha

Ram Kamhaeng (c. premodem Thai, emphasizes

number of inhabitants

in the

19

Zhou Da伊an, A Record

of Cambodia. The Land and its People. Translated with an introduction and notes by Peter Harris (Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2007), 59.

and

Chao Phraya

body of significant

first

known

most famous

inscription written

the fert山ty of the land, the vitality of trade, and the large

kingdom.

all

Ram Kamhaeng justifies his

rule

by references

to

promotion of Buddhism, his development of a Tai and benevolent government. Even a commoner can he or she has to do is to ring the bell that hangs outside

especially his paternal

approach him with problems;

le丘a

(see Fi思ire 2.4). Attributed to Sukhothai’s

his royal descent, his kingly valor, his script,

it

of Buddhist architecture and sculpture, such as the丘ee-

1279-98), long thought to be the

ruler

Sukhothai (which Thai nationalists of the twentieth century saw as their equivalent

River and the central plains through which the

Though Sukhothai was

entire stretch of this major river, over 225 miles (365 kilometers) in length, and had established their settlements (muang) in areas previously subject to Angkor. The move-

70惯、A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

the palace gate.“So the people of Muang Sukhothai praise

him

the lands of the Tai, in knowledge and wisdom, in bravery

energy, there was

no one

possessed large states and

to equal him.

He was

...

Among men who live in

and courage,

in strength and

able to subdue a throng of enemies

many elephants.”Nonetheless, he

st过l

who

acknowledges the favor

he has received from the powerful deity of a nearby mountain.“Whatever lord

may rule

kingdom of Sukhothai, if he makes obeisance properly, with the right offerings this kingdom ... will thrive." If obeisance was not made or offerings were unsatisfactory, the spirit of the h过l would no longer provide protection and Sukhothai would be lost.20 this

Indeed, the Sukhothai heritage was not forgotten, for in the early nineteenth century,

and

its

its

court traditions were

iconic place in Thailand’s history

still

honored

was assured

located on the Shweli

to legend one of

rulers

its

degree of independence

the direct authority of provincial officers in

Mao it

Mekong

much

and

closer to the sea than Sukhothai,

Xian in

it

was

developed in a coastal zone ( termed

Chinese sources) where collecting centers were already established.

earlier

Flourishing

that

it

muang

also arose

among

the hills and river valleys that extend through

northern Thailand and from the Khorat plateau across present-day Laos. Mon-speakers

were spread over

much

of this area, although they were gradually outnumbered by Tai

migrants moving from the

Yunnan

region.

intermontane valleys were suitable for

rice cultivation

small independent mua吨,each under routes

and resources could lead

Surrounded by highlands, the long narrow

its

own

neighboring h山tribes. Yet the number of to

between upland

in a region stretching across southern

persistently defied outside

A fourteenth-century Chinese account entitled the

“Hundred Barbarians" acknowledges the

common identity

of these upland communities

but notes that their customs

not worship ancestors

...

at least three regional centers

muang of Nan

“are not uniform." While some were Buddhist, others and had no Buddhist monks or priests产1

Cited in David K. Wya仗,“Contextual Arguments for the Au由enticity of the

“did

211

Ram Khamhaeng

Chamberlain, ed., The Ramkhamhaeng Controversy: Selected Papers; foreword by H. R.H. Princess Galyani Vadhana (Bangkok: Society, 1991), 446-9. Inscription," in

James

Southeast Asian societies, local chronicles highlight the

known

as

Mangrai

(r.

1259-1317). Through a

network of alliances and superior military resources he was able to take control of the area

around Chiang Mai

(“New City"),

the foot of the sacred

of a

mandala which

which became

his capital.

Located on the Ping River

Doi Suthep mountain, Chiang Mai gradually emerged later

became known

Chinese sources, however, refer to

as

Lan Na

(“‘[land

at

as the leader

O句a million rice且elds"). hundred wives’,,each of

this area as “the [land of] eight

whom ruled a v山age, indicative not only of the high position attributed to women but also to the kinship

networks that drew Lan

Na together. Wi由access to

a corridor of trade

and

Yunnan that are now part of China, including the impo口ant polity of Sipsongpanna. The collaborative relationships among the northern muang were so effective that they were collectively able to repel a Mongol attack in 1292. In the history of Chiang Mai Mangrai is honored for respecting pre-existing Mon culture and for developing a humane code of laws that stressed the mutual relationship Tai-speaking areas in

between rulers and people.“A citizens

and the

city

citizens respect出e

without citizens lords.”22

is

not a city

...

the lords love the

Though patronage of Theravada Buddhism

could be found in most muang, Chiang Mai was particularly renowned for supporting

amalgamated into the

local landscape,

and

Buddhism was

stories of the Buddha’s travels

also

through the

F.

Cited in Christian Daniels,“The Formation of Tai Polities between the 13th and 16th Centuries: the Role of Technological Transfer,”The Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko 58 (2000), 53, 72, 76.

to the southeast;

Mon stronghold with links to the Mon polity in

meditative or“forest-dwelling" traditions introduced from Sri Lanka. 2°

of

communication that linked the coastal areas around the Bay of Bengal to southwest China,

Myanmar, northern Thailand and northern Laos

efforts to conceptualize a unified polity.

many

Yunnan highlands lying

Lan Na flourished economically. At the height of its power the Lan Na network extended over much of northwestern Laos, as far west as Kengtung in modern Myanmar, and into

rivalries to control trade

mutually beneficial connections with the

muang

status.

Although

collaboration. Their populations, largely Tai but

also including other ethnic groups, established

in so

of conflict,

and encouraged the development of

to internecine conflict, the relationships

muang were more可pically marked by

Yunnan

lord.

according

River were geographically buffered from the

power; the northeast, especially around Chiang Saen; the

deeds of a heroic founder-king, in this case

important to note that

China-

in marriage.

a丘er several years

former

its

Chinese advance. Early sources indicate that there were

Lower Burma. As

it is

part of the

Mong Mao came under was a brief revival of Mong

Tai polities further south in the mountainous extension of the

views as a direct successor to Sukhothai. This kingdom, the most enduring of

be discussed in the following chapter, but

muang) Mao,

1399

Yunnan. There

was overrun by Ming forces and never regained

founding of Ayutthaya, which chronicles date to 1351, and which national historiography polities, will

now

(i.e.

King Anawrahta

energy in the early fi丘eenth centu巧,but in the 1440s,

and, in the southwest, Chiang Mai, once a

the Tai

to

muang leaders could exercise, and in

prominence. In terms of the

all

Irrawaddy and

However, Chinese determination to control frontier areas in the northwest limited the

west of the upper reaches of the

Thailand the most important event was the

the Shan polity of Mong

had even given a daughter

when no less a person than the future King Rama IV (Mongkut) discovered the famed Ram Kamhaeng inscription. South of Sukhothai, in the lower Chao Phraya, a number of other muang came to later hist。可of

is

River, a tributary of the

Myanmar boundary. Mong Mao lay at the peripheηof the Pagan mandala, but

in

1833

飞、飞

Frequently mentioned in Chinese sources

22

Aroonrut Wichienkeeo and Gehan Wijeyawardene, trans. and ed., The Laws of King Mangra1 (Mangrayathammasart), (Canberra: Department of Anthropology, Research School of Pacific Studies, 1986), 21.

72





HISTO…F EARLY MODERN SO盯HE川山,14…830

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY如’ODERN SOCIETIES,

northern mountains - sometimes accompanied by the semi-legendary paragon of Buddhist kingship, Ashoka of the Indian Mauryan dynasty (r. 304一232 BCE) - established a conceptual

map出at

reinforced connections

and enabled communities

to envisage

themselves as part of a wider and interactive Buddhist world.

brought together the Lao

narrow

basin, the

plateau (r.

Hom Khao

(“a

chronicles extol the exploits of a leader

new kingdom

known as Fa N伊m

which he

in 1353

revered image the Phra Bang,“Royal

Buddha

was

Image,”with the palms of

in the gesture of dispelling fear,

was brought

now came under

Cambodia. The center of the Lao mandala

to

ati且rmed

Luang (Lord) Phra Bang. Later chronicles

extol

to

when

hands

its



raised

Lan Sang from

the protective

image, which had reputedly been cast in Sri Lanka, and subsequently gave capital,

called Lan

million elephants under a white parasol飞an implicit reference

military might under a single ruler. Court sponsorship of Buddhism

and facing forward

River

rugged northern mountains, and the drier Khorat

said to have established a

is

Sang, which

Mekong

scattered through the fertile plains of the

river valleys of the

(now in Thailand). Lao

1353-7日,who

Sang

muang

power of this

name to the

its

Fa Ngum’s reign

as a time of

extensive territorial conquests, administrative innovations, codification of law,

and

sup-

port for Buddhism - deeds时pically associated with a founder figure. In explaining why this great ancestor

was deposed and

exiled in 1375, local accounts invoke a familiar

justification for court opposition to a ruler

by

citing

of women. Nonetheless, the prestige of Lan Sang was

and

heir could obtain wives

from the royal

Fa Ngum’s immorality and abuse

still suti且cient

to ensure that his son

families of other powerful Tai

muang, such as

Lan Na, and Sipsongpanna. In

a region

where

rarely be enforced, the chronicles claim that

under Fa

Ngum an arrangement was reached

A严1tthaya,

territorial

boundaries could

regarding control over populations. Towards the east, people living in houses built on

would owe

allegiance to the

Vietnamese

style,

Lao king, while those with homes on the ground

(in the

now

northern Vietnam was shaped by

however,

its

history, for the

development of what

proximity to China. Even more

was出e geographic environment. The

inscription

Asia.

is

from the

Cham

area

is

the

first

known



Cham were

fourth-century

Malayo-Polynesian Ian思路ge,

text in a

included in the great Austronesian family found throughout insular Southeast

Cham

affinities

with the island world are evident in the accounts of fam过y bonds

forged through marriage, and in the nineteenth centu巧Stamford Raffles remarked on the “priests”who st山guarded the

tomb of a Cham

who had come to

princess

Cham

bride in the fourteenth century. Further south beyond the tropical

Java as a royal

territory

was

swamps and

low-lying coastal areas,

it

enter the Vietnamese consciousness as a potential area for expansion until

Vietnam the overriding concern was

relations with the

Cham and most

much later. For of

all

is

influential,

highlands, where rice was grown on

The collapse in 907 CE of China’s Tang d严iasty, overlord of the Viet lands, opened 出e way for powerful Vietnamese families (among them regional overlords known collectively as the “Twelve Warlords”) to establish their

own domains

all

course of the Red River. Fighting between rival leaders continued through

along the

much

of

the tenth century, for only occasionally was one leader able to assert his dominance, the

most famous being Dinh Bo Linh

(r.

with the

fully negotiating relations

968-79). Proclaiming independence and success-

new Song dynasty

revered in Vietnamese historiography as出e

Dai Co Viet (Great Viet

State). It

was not

China (960-1279), he

in

emperor of the country he

first

until the early eleventh century,

the country was effectively united under the

is

called

however, that

Ly dynasty (1009-1225) and renamed

Dai Viet.

An important development under the new regime came in capital

was moved to由e newly named Thang Long

1010,

(“Soaring

when

the Vietnamese

Dragon”the

later

Its

topographical features evoke those of a coiled dragon or a crouching

covered by mountains and

rivers, the site is vast

and

exposed. Eve巧由ing there flourishes and prospers.

country of the飞Tiet."23 The

flat

tiger.

Hanoi).

Red River was swampy, subject to tidal flooding, and with a much lower population density. As a whole, this northern region was distin- guished from the central area of modern Vietnam, which was occupied by the Cham and the lower delta of the

Here the spurs of mountain ranges, dissected by river valleys, stretched the sea, and in places the coastal plain was only around 30 miles (50 kilometers)

claimed, for the dragon

simple matter.



Favorably

and the land elevated and

It is

well-

indeed the best place in the

name of the new capital symbolized the au出ority由e Ly commands the earthly realm, while its ascent conveys由e

idea of mastery over the heavens. Translating these claims into reality, however,

and on the banks of mountain river valleys, were inhabited by a mixture of Tai, and other peoples. The majority of the Viet population occupied the extensive and fertile watershed of the Red River (named for its reddish-brown heavily silt-laden water), which could support a significant population and had been the focus of Chinese adminis-

down to

with their

overlord China.

Viet,

related peoples.

more

did not begin to

hillsides

By contrast,



zone around the delta of the Mekong River, populated by Khmers. Less hospitable

to settlement because of mangrove

now

tration.

900-1400

A royal edict makes the reasons clear: Thang Long“is situated at the heart of our land ...

This reference to distinctive house styles provides yet another context for considering

modern

primarily seafarers and involved in international maritime trade.

st且ts

modeled on China) would be under the authority of Vietnam.

the antecedents of Southeast Asia’s early

wide. Because land suitable for large-scale rice cultivation was so limited, the

which

The mid-fourteenth century saw the emergence of another Tai polity, Lan

C.

primaηr concern was to regain control over

good portion of the population had

fled

human

was not a

resources, since a

during the years of fighting. Ly raids into the

highlands resulted in the capture and resettlement of tens of thousands of Tai people.

Another concern was the restoration of the economy. Trade continued

23

Cited in

Ta Ngoc Lien,“Ly Cong Uan Hanoi 2004), 23.

Publishers,

(974一1028),”m Far-sighted Sovereigns in

to flow

to出e

Vietnam (The Gio1

73

74

' A HISTO盯OF EAR口MODERN SOOTHE川山

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,

network of harbors centered on the port of Van Don, but the

rulers of

Dai Viet were

primarily concerned to extend their agricultural base around the capital of

Though independence had been

gained, centuries of close association with China

meant由at the ruling Sino-Vietnamese culture

elite

maintained a strong attachment to Chinese

and the fundamentals of Confucian teachings. This was

出e Song dynasty had reasserted the requirement that

master Confucian learning rulers

a significant factor because

aspiring

all

government

officials

select administrators

included questions relating to Buddhist and Daoist

new Buddhist

teachings as well as those of Confucius. Thousands of constructed, often

on

sites

bamboo

small

and texts from this period recording stories of and the protection they offered against enemies suggest that Dai Viet society

retained a distinct character that Chinese visitors themselves recognized.

where nature

spirits

temples were

(invoked as protectors of Buddhism)

Island Southeast Asia: Srivijaya and Majapahit Although early Chinese and Arab sources

most important was found

scattered

cults dedicated to local spirits and deified ances- and the temple network contributed to greater coher- Sometime around the eleventh century Vietnamese Buddhist monks

began adapting Chinese characters

nom

amount of powder and shot, which powder from the elements. But victory also

necessitated appeal to supernatural powers, local spirits

tors also received royal patronage, state.

Another innovation was the use of leather cartridge boxes with

sections filled with the required

lessened reloading time while protecting the

had previously been venerated. Popular ence of the Ly

to write their

own

language in a form

known

as chu

or“southern script" in order to provide greater access to religious texts in Chinese.

Sri世jaya, a

name

refer to

numerous

in the Indonesian province of South Sumatra.

mention

in

Arab

writings,

Based on inscriptions, Chinese

and archaeological

finds,

River in the vicinity of the

claimed suzerainty over

modern

much

city of

of Sumatra and pa口s of the Malay Peninsula, Java, and

of loyalty that resembled ceremonies in other Southeast Asian societies, while revering

Although the extent is

to

from a

specifically local

environment.

which a “Vietnamese”identity was emerging during

debated, the Dai Viet association with Chinese culture

superiority in relation to their

Khmer and

may have

Tai neighbors? Gaining power after prolonged

feuding between powerful families, the Tran dynasty (1225-1400) tended to emphasize the Chinese

model of government, and the examinations now placed primary emphasis on

cities"

paid tribute to

its

ruler,

Arab writers also represented as“the uncontested master of the Straits



of

Melaka].”25

Unlike the mainland areas previously described, southeast Sumatra was not suited to

this period

reinforced a sense of

texts,

generally accepted that

Palembang. At the height of its power Srivijaya

whom

“godly beings" that arose

it is

between the seventh and eleventh centuries the center of Srivijaya was located on the Musi

western Borneo. Chinese records noted that“fourteen

and

ports in the island world, the

that appears in three seventh-century inscriptions

Nonetheless, the court continued to observe “non-Chinese" rituals such as the blood oath

spirits, ancestors,

900-1400

they wished to gain a position in the bureaucracy. Yet Ly

were also drawn to Mahayana Buddhism, and the examinations that were periodic-

conducted to

ally

if

Thang Long.

Cham king.

death of the

C.

agriculture.

Swamp

grown along

forests cover

river banks,

it is

much

of the coastal zone and although rice could be

likely that sago

was

a staple food. In this lightly populated

army of twenty thousand men mentioned in one inscription was undoubtedly exaggerated, but even if accurate it would not compare with the much larger forces that region an

sponsored Thien (Sanskrit Dhyana, Chan in China, Zen in Japan) meditation school as Truc Lam (Bamboo Grove), and a Buddhist text, Thien叼en Tap Anh

could be raised by polities with an extensive agricultural base. Nonetheless, Sriv与aya became the most important trading po此on the maritime route between India and China. The center was located about 50 miles (80 kilometers) from the coast on the broad and

(Compendium of Outstanding

navigable

knowledge of the Chinese

classics.

Chinese Buddhism was integrated with the Tran-

known

Figures in the [Vietnamese]

compiled by royal decree. Warfare

may

also

Zen Garden) was probably

have fostered

this sense

of identity by

contributing to self-perceptions of superiority, especially after the repulse of attacks

by

China’s

Mongol (Yuan) dynasty

recurring conflict with

overrun by

Cham and

in 1285

and 1287. Added

to these invasions were

upland Tai groups, and several times Thang Long was

Cham

armies during the dynasty’s waning decades in the late 1300s. In this situation the ideal of the ruler as parent-like, stressed in Chinese advice for kings, seems to

have had special significance. In the words of one Tran ruler of

my

people. If the people are in distress,



am bound

“I

am the father and mother

to help them."24

By

the

late

fourteenth centu町,however, the Vietnamese had gained a military advantage, in part through a时pe of handgun acquired from the Chinese that in 1390 was responsible for the 24

Ta抖or, The Birth of Vietnam, 207.

Musi River which provided easy access to the sea. Upstream, it led to the Barisan

mountain range along the spine of Sumatra, where better suited to rice cultivation. to

fertile

and well-watered plateaus were

The Musi and its tributaries were also linked by land paths

form a network of exchange settlements, some well-populated. The gold and

forest

products一rattans, resins, aromatic woods - from the Sumatran interior, together with other Southeast Asian goods, were brought to Srivijaya and found a ready market

among

moving through the Melaka Straits. In the Straits themselves the boat-dwelling sea people ( Orang Laut) delivered tropical ocean products, patrolled the maritime lanes, traders

served as p过ots for incoming ships, and formed the major part of Srivijaya's

25

fleet.

Cited in 0. W. Wolters, h均Indonesian Commerce: a Study of the Or也ins of Srivijaya (I由aca: Cornell University Press, 1967), 239; George Coed缸,The Indianized States of Sou仇east Asia, Walter F. Vella, ed.;

Susan Brown Cowing,

trans. (Honolulu:

East-West Center Press, 1968), 131.

76

6 A HISTO…FEAR…ODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫3

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,

For several centuries Srivijaya enjoyed a reputation as a place where a merchant could rely

on justice,

correct commercial behavior,

and all the facilities that promoted trade at an

entrepot. Prosperity attracted religious scholars

ments.

A number

Hindu

of Buddhist and

and helped support

sanctuaries have been found in the Musi

watershed, and the Chinese pilgrim Yijing (635-713 CE) spent

and Buddhism while en route

studying Sanskrit

religious establish-

some time

He was

to India.

in Srivijaya

increased trade passing through the Straits had stimulated the rise of rival ports. In the late eleventh century the center of

which became known

come under

monks

as

power

in southeast

Malayu. By the

Sumatra sh的ed northwards

late thirteenth century,

the overlordship of Singasari in east Java.

to Jambi,

however, Malayu had

A hundred years later the Chinese

noted that the former Srivijaya was now“a ruined country卢7

so impressed by the

strength of Buddhist learning and the presence of around a thousand

900-1400

C.

The weakness of

this

once powerful polity provided further oppo口unities for harbor

autonomy and attract traders directly to their ports. Extensive and numerous examples of Hindu statua巧indicate that Tamil

that he even

chiefs to assert their

advised his fellow pilgrims to stay here for a year or two before continuing their voyage.

deposits of potsherds

Religious links with China were particularly important in ensuring the favor of successive

and Chinese trading settlements were developing along the Sumatran coasts. Older exchange centers on the Malay Peninsula and around the Gulf of Siam also continued

Chinese emperors, and tribute

gifts

included not only exotic goods but also Buddhist texts.

draw

and Malay legends of

on the

island of Singapore are

In 1003 the Song emperor accorded the Srivijaya ruler the singular honor of granting a

to

name

supported by significant finds of ceramics and other items dating to the fourteenth

in Srivijaya to wish the

Chinese traders

had

by Heaven") and a bell

(“Temple of Longevity conferred

emperor a long life. Sriv斗ayan missions

who moved between

a vested interest in maintaining

their

good

homeland and relations

to a Buddhist temple built to

China were o丘en led by

and who would have

Srivijaya,

between the two countries.

On behalf

of the Srivijayan ruler, for instance, several Chinese merchants sponsored the restoration of an imperial sanctua巧and a Daoist temple in Guangdong.

employed Chinese accompanied the

and

as interpreters

translators,

and

The

ruler of Srivijaya also

to write the letters in Chinese that

renown as an entrepot explains its ab过ity to sustain a preeminent position in the Straits of Melaka for around four centuries. Nonetheless, references to military exped- itions suggest that overlordship was not easily maintained in an area where populations were highly mobile and geographically

was

inaccessible.

fear of supernatural retribution for

What

anyone

could induce obedience, how-

guilty of derhaka, a Sanskrit

found repeatedly in Srivijayan inscriptions meaning“treason to the that

most people would not be

tions

would have increased

ruler."

word

The ve町fact

able to read or understand the language of these impreca-

their

potency as magical signs,时,when read aloud,

pronouncements imbued with supernatural powers. Their

as royal

effectiveness as a deterrent to

opposition was strengthened by specifically identi马ring occupational groups, from wash-

ermen

to merchants, sea captains

and sons of princes.

"If you are not faithful to

me, and if

who

you behave

like a traitor,”threatens

contact with

my enemies, or if you spy for the enemy, you will be killed by the curse."26

Beyond

one

inscription,“plotting with those

Srivijaya' s spiritual reach in southeast

Malay Peninsula, such royal curses had impedes

historical reconstruction,

it

little

Sumatra and across the

significance.

seems that from the

Though

late tenth

challenged by the Javanese, and then in 1025 was attacked by the Srivijaya could

centu巧. Although the

J.

no longer maintain

its

Straits

are in

to由e

the lack of sources

century Sriv加ya was

Cho la

of South India.



Malay author writing

seventeenth century put the case simply:“According to the account

in the early

we have received, the

Palembang which has been mentioned was the same as the Palembang of today. Formerly it was a ve巧great city, the like of which was not to be found in the whole

city of

country of Andelas [S旧natra]产8

Around thirty inscriptions have been found along the upper reaches of the Batang Hari ( the main river in the modern Indonesian province of Jambi) and in the Minangkabau highlands of central Sumatra. They celebrate the achievements of a king, with one statue depicting him as the ferocious Tantric Shiva-Buddhist deity Bhairava standing skulls.

interior.

on a corpse surrounded by

We know little of this king’s Minangkabau subjects, who occupied the fertile valleys

and gold-bearing areas of the volcanic

interior,

accumulating a corpus of intri伊ing evidence.

but ongoing work by archaeologists



AD (Masa Baru:

is

fourteenth-century law code recently

discovered in Kerinci (a highland society located in an upland valley on the mountain

range along Sumatra’s central spine)

may have originated from this interior Minangkabau

Minangkabau area was another group of interior inhabitants, the Batak, who built a society based on religio-political foundations supported by the wealth generated by international trade in camphor and benzoin from their native forests. Finally, we turn to central Java, where rich volcanic soils and moderate rainfall could

cou此North of

the

support a large rice-growing population. Surrounded by mountains, including the impres- sive

and st出active Mount Merapi,

central Java

was an

ideal site for the

development of an

early polity, Mataram. It is not surprising that由e most impressive monuments, statua巧, and inscriptions in island Southeast Asia are found in this area, or出at it was

former supremacy as a regional entrepot because

G. de Casparis, ed. and trans., Selected Inscriptions from the 7th to the 9th Century II: 36-46.

Bandung, 1956), Vol.

of Sri世jaya disappeared from Malay memo巧,the legends

of a great port in southeast Sumatra were retained.

27

26

name

a thriving port

Meanwhile, there were other developments in the Sumatran

tribute missions.

Srivijaya's

ever,

traders,

Cited in 0.

W.

Wolters, The Fall of Srivijaya in Malay His归ry (I由aca: Cornell University Press,

1970), 71. 28

Brown,“S写jarah Melayu,'’25

78





ODERN SOUTH觅A川队1400-

HISTO…F觅ARL

demographically so dominant. Java

A tenth century Arab chronicler almost certainly refers to

when he remarks出at“there

An

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,

are

no uninhabited places

in this country产9

water management. Inscriptions from the ninth and tenth centuries mention around four sizes,

which were administered by a council

landholders. Their relationship to the central authority officials

may

have been appointed from the local

is

elite,

unclear,

and although

required. Several

from

Javanese kings do not appear

to

right to

also required to supply corvee labor

when

hundred temples on the Dieng Plateau (near modern Yogyakarta)

dating

from the seventh

monument

who were

of

irrigation

have been directly involved in water management. However, they did have the exact land taxes

villagers,

to the thirteenth centuries, the eighth to ninth-century Buddhist

of Borobodur, and the nearby

Hindu complex of Prambanan

are striking

testimony to the ability of Javanese rulers to organize substantial labor for these projects.

Although Indian religion and architectural and

monuments were products

these

evidence of repeated volcanic eruptions in central Java from prehistoric times, the shift in

artistic influences are clearly evident,

of local designers and artisans, and they represent



and was well underway



hundred years later, presumably as

(“Bitter

Maja

was hardly

Fruit"),

which was established around 1293 about 35 miles (56 kilometers) midway between central Java and the coast,

accidental, for

it

controlled the Brantas river valley in east Java, which linked

like the可pically

at

Hindu gods and Buddhist

bodhisattvas

times highlight features that are unique to the region,

Southeast Asian outrigger ships depicted on the Borobodur

reliefs. Early

Javanese inscriptions have yielded information regarding land grants, revenue collection, elite hierarchies, local

markets, and foreign commerce, with mention of trading

commu-

tages of an agrarian base with access to maritime commerce. This access was so important

that

one Old Javanese to

sell, its

is

not to

till

the land, but

purpose

is

merchants

who buy and

sell

is

costly

also frequented

by

a vast

amount of shipping, and by

goods from which they reap great

profit.

Indeed the

The merchants of Zayton (now Quangzhou) and Manzi (meaning generally southern China) draw annually great returns

treasure of this Island

from

is

so great as to be past telling ...

Despite the combined evidence from literary sources, inscriptions, temples, outlines. Historians

and

it

transporting cloves, nutmeg, and to ports along Java’s

Majapahit that for

The commercial

mace from

statua町,

findings, Java’s early history can only be reconstructed in broad

have been particularly puzzled by the

has been assumed that

Cited in G. R. Tibbetts,

some

disaster

move from

central to east Java,

must have occurred. Although

there

Hen巧Yule and Henri

the code of

who

and traders in

the spice islands in the Eastern Archipelago

many years

the Chinese believed spices were actually

and

vitality of these ports

their attraction for foreign

of rice available.

sites

in Java.

merchants was

Production increased as areas

forest clearance

The urban

grown

and by constructing

located at

some

irriga-

distance from the

coast apparently operated as collection points for loading rice surpluses, which were then sent downriver

and along canals

1349 account,“The that there

is

As Wang Dayuan remarked in his and producing rice in such abundance

to the coastal ports.

fields are fertile, the

land level

a surplus to export to other countries产2

Malay texts

all

speak with respect of

ceaseless coming and going”of people丘om Majapahit’s economic importance, where overseas territories brought “beeswax, sandalwood, massoi bark used for medicine and in [

cosmetics], cinnamon, cloves,



Study of the Arabic Texts con阳的ing Material on South-East Asia (Leiden:

Cordier, The Travels of Marco Polo reprint of 1929 edition), Vol. II: 272.

(New York: Dover

and nutmeg

obtained from animals such as deer and

...

ambergris and

civets] piled

musk an aromatic secretion [

high in heaps.”There was no doubt

is

Br山,1979), 33. 30

buy

north coast. Indeed, spices were so abundant in the markets of

tion canals linked to the Brantas River.

31

29

is

sea, to

“a

this country."30

and archaeological

on land and on the

significant role as shippers

under wet- rice cultivation were extended by

all

trade

Coastal Javanese (a designation that included people from the island of Madura,

were well known as seafarers) played a

heightened because of the large amount

other kinds of spices. This island

“to

prosperity and wealth, to car巧out trade; this

thirteenth century

wealth, producing black pepper, nutmegs, spikenard, galingale, cubebs, cloves, and

duty of the

text adjusts Indian caste allocation to assert that the

sudra ( the lowest caste)

nities that include various

Indian groups as well as Mon, Cham, and Khmer. In the Marco Polo spoke of Java in glowing terms.“The island is of surpassing

combined the advan-

the agricultural interior to the ports near Surabaya. Majapahit thus

near village shrines and suggest that Hindu-Buddhist temples were built in places where

and

new opportunitie

southwest of modern Surabaya. This location,

and

artistic styles,

a result of

commerce and wet-rice agriculture. A succession of thriving kingdoms then developed in east Java, their economies based on international trade and rice exports. The most long lasting and prestigious of these was Majapahit afforded by the expansion of maritime

behavior of a sudra, thus say the scriptures."31

Javanese

the

Brantas River was a gradual process that began around the middle of the ninth century

convergence oflndian and Javanese traditions. Scattered yoni and linga stones, represent-

reflect

movement towards

Merapi. The mapping of temple construction indicates that

ing the forces of fertility resulting from the conjoining of male and female, are o丘en found ancestors were already venerated. Depictions of

Mount

population eastwards was probably not caused by a cataclysmic explosion of

essential element in the expansion of rice cultivation was the village-based system of

hundred settlements ( wanua) of various

C. 90。一1400

Publications, Inc., 1993,

Sharada Rani, ed., Slokantara. An Old Javanese Didactic Text (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1957),”,llS. We are grate创to Dr. Helen Creese for clarifying and contextualizing this reference

32

Rockh血,“Notes on the Relations and Trade of China with the Eastern Archipelago and the Coasts of the Indian Ocean during the Fourteenth Century,”T'oungPao, Second Series 16, 2 {1915),

W. W. 237.

79

80





RISTO…F EARLY MODERN SO川EAST山,140叫3

ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY岛10DERN SOCIETIES,

in认Tang Da严ian’s mind that the Javanese were“the foremost of the Barbarians of Eastern

Seas.”33

International exchanges were facilitated by the use of local

the

and archaeologists have even unearthed clay coin containers, including some in the shape of pigs (emblematic of prosperity) which are thought to indicate a pattern of household savings. Evidence of workshops and specialized occupations suggest a range of activities that supported a vibrant economy.

Desawarnana is

is

(Description of the Country).

Hayam Wuruk (r.

the ruler

celebrated in a long court

king’s

grandmother,

Within the narrative are

The primary focus of the poet,

CONCLUSION

Mpu Prapanca, religious

The physical environment of Southeast Asia fostered the development of distinct com- munities characterized by shared lifestyles, customs, and beliefs, a common language, a sense of belonging to a distinctive geographic space, and a social order maintained ties of kinship. At the dawn of the early modern period much of this polycentered and ethnically diverse world can be conceptualized in terms of overlapping mandala, where rulers might claim suzerainty over an extensive domain but where vaguely defined

through

borders expanded or contracted in keeping with the prestige of the center.

Among many

and court ceremonies dedicated

to deceased relatives,

who

societies, such as those in the Northern and Eastern Archipelagoes or the highland areas

was a Buddhist nun.

of the mainland, polities of almost equal strength co-existed. While individual mandala

towards the end of her

life

significant details about the eclecticism of Javanese religious

Terraced temples on mountain

beliefs.

written in 1365, the

1350-89) and his family, their royal p地rimages to

sanctuaries around the country,

notably the

poem

900-1400

and Chinese

coins,

Majapahit’s golden age

C.

Hindu

sites

where ancestors were

still

venerated were

polities

and

might come together

in a loose federation, such alliances could easily dissolve

times erupt into warfare.

at

and Buddhism enjoyed high status. The king Shiva and Buddha, King of the Mountain, a world conqueror,

From early times Southeast Asia’s far-flung trading networks had brought a continuous flow of new ideas and technologies into the region, but cultural priorities remained

whose very birth was marked by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that destroyed evildoers. Although a few royal gravestones bearing Javanese dates (the earliest from

constant even as ambitious rulers looked for greater status and material advantages.

A leader should be an

1368 CE) display Islamic phrases, the text makes no mention of Islam and for Ibn Battuta

favor he or she received

Java was

warfare, and acknowledged prestige. The possession and accumulation of sacred objects,

dedicated to the worship of

himself

飞气Te

is

described as

still“a

gods,

country of infidels.”34

will return to

Majapahit in the following chapter, but

at this

point

we need to stress

that the Desawarnana’s portrayal of “Java”as a coherent society with

economic and diplomatic network

is

attracted not because of M勾apahit’s

powerηand

and

sea the

an extensive

was one with the land of Java." Beyond the core area of Java, Madura, and the Malay lands and islands of the Indonesian archipelago are described as submis- “it

all “seek

refuge" under Majapahit, pay homage,

and render tribute. In a pragmatic recognition of the limits of Majapahit authority, the Desawarnana simply depicts the more powerful mainland polities of Ayutthaya, Cambodia, the Cham areas, and

33

Annam

A.H.

kingdom, success

in

animals, and people legitimized and enhanced royal authority, while the ongoing

acquisition of subjects asserted a

ruler’s

superiority

and augmented revenues and human should resemble

that of parent to child. Combining the discipline of a father with the softness of a mother,

its “puri马rin

ments were placed under Javanese surveillance so that the country“conformed with all the customs of Java." The island of Madura was included in this cultural circle because in

who

could tap supernatural power, and the

resources.

strength, but because of

punishment. In 1343, for example, the Desawarnana records that the “evil and base" king of Bali was“completely crushed" by Javanese armies. All Buddhist establish-

sive vassals

who

in the prosperity of the

also depicted in spiritual terms. Vassal lords are

will incur

Bali,

was demonstrated

economic

its many experts in sacred texts. Nevertheless, in referring to attacks by land poem also makes clear that disobedient vassals or rival kings, such as Srivijaya,

former times

texts,

extraordinary person

(Dai Viet) as “always friends.”35

Hill,“Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai,”JMBRAS 33, 2 (1960), 161; Rockhill,“Notes

Trade of China with the Eastern Archipelago,'’236 34 35 给Gibb, trans., The Travels of Ibn Battuta, 880. Robson,

trans.,

on the

Relations and

Desawarnana,另一4, 59, 82, 85

But the relationship of ruler to

subject, or leader to follower,

be able to administer stern but impartial justice while remaining constantly alert to the welfare of his or her children. Mandala interactions can thus be best understood in familial terms, where each polity occupied a specific ?kinship" position a ruler should

based on resources and strengths, and related to other

polities as a

younger

to

an elder

sibling or a child to a parent, while acknowledging the obligations associated with each status.

At the pinnacle was the father/mother

figure, the

modern period many

lord,

whose mediating

As we move

into the

features associated with the classical period" remain,

though

hand assured the harmony and prosperity of the entire early

dominant

family/polity. ?

出ey are modified as a result of the unprecedented and cumulative economic, religio时, and political changes that characterize the early modern era in Southeast Asian history.

81

The beginning of the early modern era, 1400-1511 Map



(top):

Zones

modern Southeast Asia

in early

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750

CH

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5 (bottom): Early

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1400-1511

,avu0

.})Rote

""'

84

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODF.RN ERA, 1400-1511

TIMELINE The beginning of the c.

1293一ι1527

early

modern



era, 1400一1511

Majapahit kingdom

in

Java

Ming dynasty

1364-1527

Ava dynasty

stimulated commercial traveled seaborne

Peninsula, First

which became renowned

mentioned in Chinese sources

serves as a in

in

China

signals a

cultural interaction along well-

routes.

Emblematic of

marker

as a center for regional

in 1403, Melaka' s

this invigorated

and international commerce.

emergence on the

polities

modern

for the beginning of Southeast Asia’s early

time of transition from the period dominated by the

which new

Myanmar

and fostered

acti飞rity

and overland trade

was the prosperous town of Melaka, on the west coast of the Malay

maritime activity

Foundation of Ayutthaya

1368-1644

…阳t……

and

rulers,

own

period.

“classical”states to

though always conscious of their

were intent on marking out their

historical scene It

also

one

in

illustrious predecessors,

spheres of authority. Across the region flourishing

maritime commerce brought not merely increased wealth, but new religious ideas and First

mention of Melaka

in

Chinese sources

technologies that enabled

many

polities to

expand

their territ。可and for

some

the

opportunity to develop more elaborate bureaucratic structures.

Ming voyages to Southeast

Asia, India,

and east Africa

Because of

location at the crossroads of international trade, Southeast Asia was

its

inevitably affected

1407-28

Ming occupation of Dai Viet

New Le dynasty established

by the

ripple effects of world developments,

most notably the consoli-

Ming dynasty in China. In 1369, a decade after his accession in 1358, the first Ming emperor made clear his policies towards the Nanyang, the ?Southern Ocean,,一a term dation of the

by Le Loi

in

Dai Viet

generally used to

Melaka adopts Islam

announce

by the Chinese

his

to refer to Southeast Asia -

vict。可over the Mongols and

regime in China. Less directly

but no

felt,

by sending a

series

of missions

to proclaim the establishment of a

less signi且cant,

was the

rise

new

of powerful Islamic

empires in Central Asia and India. The prestige of Islam steadily rose as the Ottoman

Mraul←U becomes capital

city

Turks extended their conquests into the Balkans, Greece, and Europe. In 1453 Ottoman armies captured Constantinople, the heavily fortified capital of “Rum" (the name Arabs

of Rakhine (Arakan)

Sacking of Angkor by Ayutthaya;

Khmer capital

movest[

Phnom Penh Conquest of Constantinople

gave to the Byzantine Empire). The

fall

of Constantinople also meant出at the

and the Mongols controlled the land and maritime trade routes (”Rum”)

by Ottoman

Turks

affected decisions

made

in far-off Europe,

where the

Ottoman

to Asia. This in turn

rulers of Spain

and Portugal were

determined to gain access to the rare products of eastern lands, especially spices. To avoid

Cham

polity of Vijaya destroyed

confrontation, the two countries concluded the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 under papal

by Dai Viet

authority, giving jurisdiction of

Treaty of Tordesillas signed between Portugal and

Spain

all

newly encountered lands

east of a line

drawn through

the Atlantic to Portugal and west of the line to Spain. Most of Southeast Asia was placed in the Portuguese zone, though Spain was eventually able to claim the Philippine islands.

1511

Portuguese conquest of Melaka

Because the 700-year occupation of the Iberian Peninsula by the Moors (Muslims仕om northwest Africa) had only

finally

ended

in 1492, the Spanish

and the Portu伊ese brought

with them fiercely hostile attitudes toward Islam. The most dramatic manifestation of this

combination of economic ambition and religious antipathy came with Melaka's conquest Asia’s most famous port was the

by the Portuguese in 1511. The defeat of Southeast

harbinger of far-reaching developments由at were to affect the entire region.

We

first

consider the sources available for reconstructing the history of what can be

regarded as a transitional period, and then turn to the notable features出at characterize the beginning of the early

modern

period: increased trade,

new

religious influences,

and

85

86

A HISTORY OF EARLY如'IODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511

innovations in agriculture and military technology. Yet despite these regional Southeast

Asia’s cultural

misleading. Although in

and ethnic

some

diversity

areas this

more

adverse aspects of change cut

was

means

features,

that broad generalizations can be

a period of rising opportunity, in others the

The chapter

deeply.

therefore continues with



chronological narrative structured in terms of seven sub- regions or zones (Western,

and Eastern Mainland; and Western, Central, Northern, and Eastern Archipel- The changing dynamics of these complex zones and their interaction with the wider world infuses the history of early modern Southeast Asia with a unique character.

The Suma Oriental ( Compendium of the East), compiled by Tome Pires, the Portuguese apothecary who lived in Melaka for three years immediately a丘er the Portuguese conquest in 1511, provides considerable historical material gained

documents appear in unexpected

from

places, like the letters

local informants.

Sometime

exchanged between the court of

Ryukyu (Okinawa) and several Southeast Asian rulers. Archaeological excavations continue

Central,

to reveal

ago).

there are few written sources. Certainly

new

evidence regarding trade links, which

unanswered, but

we

are

is

especially valuable for places

where

many questions will probably remain permanently now in a much better position to look beyond major centers and

consider developments in localities that had previously barely entered the historical record.

A transitional period in the historical record 毒害Noteworthy By

the fourteenth centu巧the construction of great religious

monuments on

those associated with Angkor, Pagan, or central Java had ended, and the stone inscriptions that have

endured over time and have provided the basis

history gradually decrease in number. Although literacy

for reconstructing so

was always confined

much

to an

elite

minority, royal capitals and religious institutions continued to produce written material,

no longer on durable material such surfaces -

wooden

as stone or copperplate but

life

on perishable

dates

from 1697. Manuscript and the discovery

on bark paper

is

is

unknown.

collections

were

also vulnerable to fire, civil disruption, and

supplying the products that attracted this trade, and to foster environments that facilitated

in Kerinci (Sumatra) of a fourteenth-century law code written

muang

to this story of loss -

- but for most of Southeast Asia the

detailed

were composed

at a later date, or

which they have been subject

Finally,

it is

fifteenth

have survived only in

for reconstructing the history of

copies,

to interpolations or reinterpretation

not until the early sixteenth century that

European accounts, which are

we can

begin to

tap

especially important for the island areas and

many

places

where written material

is

otherwise

Despite these historiographical caveats, sources such as law codes, dynastic lists, literary

political

texts,

and royal chronicles provide a much

developments than was hitherto

the original composition, and the

available.

Muslim

fuller picture

Sometimes these

texts

of cultural and

give出e date

of

made



practice of dating gravestones has

The annals of the Ming dyn- contain a wealth of information found nowhere else, while accounts

significant contribution to establishing local chronologies. asty, the

commercial exchange. Because predominantly interior agricultural communities were actively involved in

maritime commerce,

it

Ming Shi-lu,

of Chinese travelers and envoys provide valuable details about specific

localities.

also

would be misleading to categorize Southeast

Asian polities in terms of an“agricultural" and“trade-based”dichotomy. Indeed, control of the coasts

became the

objective of any ambitious ruler, since this

able advantages over rivals

The claim by Tome

who had

it

or no access to出e sea.

spoken

in

Melaka

is

does convey the idea of the multi-cultural, cosmopolitan

atmosphere可pical of Southeast

Asia’s

investors in overseas trade along the Straits

would mean consider-

Pires that eighty-four distinct languages were

obvious hyperbole, but

and the

little

port towns. Wealthy Hindus were st诅出1portant

Burmese

coast, the

Gulf of Siam, northern Sumatra,

of Melaka, but by the fi丘eenth century Indian shipping was primarily in the

hands of Muslims from Gujarat, Bengal, and south

non-existent.

works, religious

marked

ence because of their ab让ity to attract local and overseas traders, to sustain the networks

century has yielded very few written sources. Even chronicles purporting to describe

to

the early fi丘eenth centu巧,however, historians have discerned a

of new centers of authority along the major maritime routes. Such places rose to promin-

production in the northern Tai

and the degree

From

this technique

thus extremely rare. There are certainly exceptions

itself

ture.

feature of in agricul-

in a tropical climate. Despite Vietnam’s long legacy of

the fi丘eenth and early sixteenth centuries have been seen as a“golden age”of textual

events at the time

As the previous chapters have shown, international trade had long been a Southeast Asian economies, even when the population was primarily involved

expansion of seaborne commerce throughout the region and the consequent emergence

woodblock-printed books, for instance, the oldest surviving example of warfare,

vegetal

Expanding trade and encounters with India and China

of pounded bark, and other plant

boards, palm-leaves, paper

material - with a limited

made

features of the period

the scale of

India.

Marco

Polo’s report

from

1292 shows that several ports in northern Sumatra, including Pasai, had already accepted

and they flourished because of patronage by Muslim traders, who were naturally drawn to places where they could find a mosque and a sympathetic religious milieu. Links

Islam,

with the wider Muslim world are evident Pasai kings,

which

tombstones, which

M由e names

replicate those in vo思1e in

adopted by thirteenth-century

Egypt and

point to the arrival of religious fi凯ires

Syria,

and by inscriptions on

from places such

Bengal and their marriages with well-born Pasai women. Such

women

as Gujarat

and

are celebrated for

88

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, I400-15ll

ASIA, 1400-1830

Indian merchants

commanded

which they sold or bartered

One

owned

considerable resources and even

but the vast majority were small traders

on commission.

either for themselves or

of the great strengths of Indian traders was their appreciation of the preferences of

different areas in Southeast Asia, so that they could service sub-regional text且es in silks for

highest demand. For example, although there was always

which G时arat was cheap cotton

looking for carried

ships themselves,

who made an annual trip carrying a bale of cloth,

most buyers were

particularly famous, in Southeast Asia

cloth, usually with printed designs.

markets with the

a clientele for the fine

For their pa时,Indian ships

back cargoes of Southeast Asian products that were o丘en transshipped to the and Europe. Spices and aromatic woods were the most important, and tin -

Middle East Figure

3.1.

Tree of life, Coromandel

Coast, India. This textile has been

carbon dated to 1670-95, and was found in the Toraja area of central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Although the idea of the tree as the source of abundance and fertility has old roots in India, designs were modi且ed in the

scarce in India - to

Far better documented

au出ority in the

Singapore. Previously in the Roger

women governed Across the

and

their benevolence,

and

it

Pasai, although the extent of their authority

Straits,

Melaka adopted Islam around 1430 and

appears that is

its

at least three



hub

and international commerce drew Indian traders away from rival Muslim Some indication of the extent of the Indian presence in Melaka is provided by Tome Pires, who commented on the “great Kling (Hindu) merchants with trade on a large scale and many junks" and noted that every year around five thousand Gujarati arrived.1

for regional ports.

Nonetheless, while Indian ships

now rarely sailed beyond Java, and did not conduct direct

trade with eastern Indonesia, the cargoes they brought - beads, gems, religious objects, jewelry, and, above



all,

textiles

- were distributed

all

over the region (see Figure

The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, 2 (London, 1944) vol. I: 42, 45; vol. II: 255.

vols.

Armando

3.1).

Some

Cortesao,

ed.

several

copper

from Southeast Asia (and the exotic

gifts

against private involvement in maritime

the reign

name

campaigns

in

an

effort to

extend

rather di旺erent. Believing that uncontrolled trade

contributed to instab山ty along the coast, the

its

Y ongle (“Perpetual

new emperor encouraged

had

tribute missions

they brought) but issued repeated prohibitions

commerce. His son, who succeeded

Happiness”),

embraced

this policy

in

1402 with

but was even more

concerned with asserting Chinese prestige and power. Between 1405 and 1433 Yongle and his successor dispatched several naval expeditions to出e“Western Ocean’飞which

from the Melaka

Straits to A仕ica, as well as

encompas付出e

established trade routes, the fleets were

of

development into

to

the growing Chinese presence. In the late thirteenth century

Ming dynasty (1368-1644) were

stretched

unclear.

was added

Melaka indicate that

N anyang, the southern ocean. The strategies adopted by the founder of the

“Eastern Ocean”,which

their virtue, their compassion,

is

Yuan (Mongol) dynasty had launched

the

Hollander Collection.

it

to

lacuna.

tree

Asian Civilisations Museum,

who came

convey some sense of the experience of Indian traders themselves remains a frustrating

European

was often applied to families, communities, and the larger polity.

staple of Bay of Bengal trade because

these commercial ventures were highly profitable, the lack of detailed accounts that could

seventeenth centu叩to conform with tastes. Textiles showing a with meandering branches sprouting fantastic oversize flowers, fruit, and leaves, often with birds and small mammals, were ve可popular as hangings in Southeast Asia, where the metaphor of the fertile tree由at also provided shade and protection

was another

produce bronze. Though the numbers of Indians

whom was

the

seas

lesser-known missions to the

from the Philippines

commanded

to

Timor. Following

by court eunuchs, the most famous

Muslim Zheng He (1371-1433), who

led the seven expeditions

to由e

ve町large ships that carried thousands of soldiers

Comprising岳的to a hundred many horses, these well-armed armadas represented

west.

and

a formidable display of power.

were taken back to China to pay homage to也e A number of Southeast Asian Emperor, their compliance no doubt obtained because the threat of force was always present. In 1407, in southeast Sumatra, the local Chinese leader of “Old Port" ( the former rulers

Srivijaya)

was captured

for alleged treason;

around

five

thousand people were

killed

and

The effects of this determination to assert Chinese suzerainty were experienced even more directly in Dai Viet, which was invaded in 1407 and occupied for twenty years. The Chinese were eventually forced to withdraw, but Ming Emperors

ten ships burnt.

continued to assert their overlord status by sending envoys to Southeast Asia to of且dally invest or“enfeo旺”rulers. The upland polities of the mainland also felt由e effects of

89

90

(愧

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA,

Ming ambitions when (i.e.

140。一1830

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511

military expeditions were sent to extend control over

non-Han

non- "Chinese”) peoples in Yunnan.

There

is

another side to

many

this sto巧,for the

thousands of

men who

traveled or

fought beyond China’s borders would have brought back stories of strange lands and exotic environments. Chinese particularly fascinated

who

described the countries of the Southern Ocean were

by the brightly colored parrots and

[and, they believed, understand]

human

lorikeets

which could

became

speech,'’and these

“imitate

a favored gi丘for

Chinese emperors.2 Such accounts would have reaffirmed perceptions of Southeast Asia a region of

party of soldiers logs,

On

economic opportunity.

around 10

an island off the coast of Melaka, for

as

instance, a

whom Zheng He had sent to collect aromatic wood brought back six great feet (3 meters) in

diameter and 100

black markings and a scent that was“clear and

feet (30

strong,'’such

meters) long.

wood

飞机th its fine

(possibly referring to

Religious

The driving

and philosophical domains force behind the expanding global networks of the fifteenth century

was the

increase in maritime trade.Yet other fields of communication incorporated Southeast Asians into overlapping religious

traders

and envoys, but

and ph过osophical worlds

also

maintained

that intersected with the

specific connections.

movement of

Vietnam was distinguished

from the Theravada Buddhist world of the rest of mainland Southeast Asia by its inclusion in the Sinicized domain, while the spread of Islam introduced new networks that were part of another religious and cultural environment. Southeast Asians were active pa口icipants in these domains, and elites eagerly embraced teachings that provided reaffirmation of their

More important for common people was the belief that the spiritual forces now available would work in combination with ancient deities to伊arantee greater protec-

superior status.

hardly surprising that private trade between

and prosperity. In a continuing process of selective adaptation, ideas considered useful were adjusted so that they melded more easily wi由indigenous beliefs and practices. Yet at

Southeast Asia and southern Chinese ports continued to flourish, despite imperial prohib-

times this inclusion in a larger international religious or philosophical cultural sphere could

Aquilaria malaccensis, which produces the aromatic aloeswood) was“very scarce

indeed产With

these inducements

itions that forbade ordinary

is

it

Chinese from sailing overseas. Wh过e some Chinese traders

spent only a short time away from home, others settled along Southeast coastlines

and became

actively involved as

middlemen

in local trade networks.

responsible for bringing in Chinese copper cash - picis - which were

lower-value transactions. In a also adopted.

number of

They were

much in demand for

instances Chinese weights

would

that

encouraged them to take up residence in the hope

follow.

The members of these small from the southeastern coastal included Chinese Muslims and in Fujian from the 1360s. Some

but growing overseas Chinese communities mostly came provinces of

Guangdong and

other refugees

who had

Fujian,

and would have

fled reprisals following uprisings

Chinese became so acculturated that they were appointed

not simply as interpreters for tribute missions to B均ing, but as

official

envoys and royal

representatives.

These individuals were o丘en the products of intermarriage between

Chinese

and

settlers

local

women, and

in

play important roles as cultural brokers.

many

Southeast Asian societies they came

The woman who, with imperial

to

blessing, sue-

ceeded as ruler of “Old Port" in southeast Sumatra was probably the offspring of such union.

The

respect in

which she was held

is

indicated

rewards, punishments, degradations and promotions

by the remark

all

generate tensions



that“in every case

depended on her

decision."4

by introducing

conflicting interpretations of "correct" transmission

which

ruler’s

localization

Although China continued to receive envoys from Southeast Asian

from the mainland, geographical proximi可and





Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores" [1433}, J. V. G. M且ls, trans and ed. (Cambridge University Press for the Hakluyt Society, 1970), 92 Fei Hsin, Hsing-ch口a-sheng-lan: the Overall Survey of the Star Ra卢,J. V. G. Mills, ed. Roderick Ptak, trans. (Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1996), 56.

Ma Huan,

Ying-yai Sheng-Zan, 100.

meant出at only

Dai Viet was ever integrated into the Chinese cultural sphere to any degree. As a result, the concerns of its elite were closely linked to trends in China. The in且uence of the Chinese model

was pa此ic吐缸ly influential in the fifteenth century because a renewed emphasis on Confucian ethics as the basis for the administration was central to the policies of the Ming d严iasty. In 1415 Emperor Yongle commissioned a complete compendium of the great Confucian classics which was distributed all

for examination candidates to master. Scholarly writings stressed that

individuals were involved in prescribed relationships with their families, their communi町,

and heaven itself, and must act in accordance with certain principles so that harmony would prevail. The emperor himself should provide the exemplary model by honoring his the state,

ancestors

and reigning in accordance with the traditions of sage-kings. In Dai Viet these views

were presented in

full

force during the short-lived

Ming occupation

(1407-28).

To



much

had been the case in the Buddhist-oriented courts before 1400, Confucian were perceived as the foundations for government a丘er independence was regained.

greater degree than ethics

Ming

place in a larger Sinic civilization,由e‘‘domain of mani岳st

Ma Huan,盯ng-yai Sheng-Zan,“The

courts, partic由rly

historical connections

In 1435 a group of court writers, proudly recording



and

was acceptable. Furthermore, in emphasizing a upl的the moral standard of his or her people, these and example responsib且ity to set an larger domains also established expectations that were not necessarily easy to meet. the degree to

and measures were

So important was the commercial contribution of Chinese traders

several Southeast Asian rulers actively

that others

Asia’s extensive

tion

ambassador to China had been accorded the same rank as



recognition of白白count町’s

civili二lt)

his counte叩art

from Korea."

eds. (Columbia Sources of Vietnamese Tradition, George Dutton, Jayne Werner, and John K. Whitmore, University Press, 2012), 138-9.

f:'、91

92



A HISTORY OF

EAR…ODERN SOUTHEAST A队14…830

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511

In reaching accommodation with Daoism and Buddhism, Confucianism in China under the Song dynasty had also extended the idea of harmony to include the relationship between these “three teachings." In the words of a fourteenth-century Buddhist monk, “although the Three Teachings are different, in the arguments they put forward, they are

One."6

There were other reasons for concern with the demarcation of time. Although Gautama

Buddha himself had warned that his teachings would eventually disappear, the most influential prophecy came from the a丘h-century Indian scholar Buddhaghosa, who said that the Buddhist doctrine and legacy would last only five thousand years, steadily

It was thus quite possible for a Confucian scholar to be a devout Buddhist as well, and Yongle himself commissioned the printing of Buddhist texts as well as sponsoring the

declining in thousand-year stages. At the end of this time the future Buddha, the

construction of several mosques. Despite the growing dominance of Confucian scholar-

would begin anew. While this became the standard view in Theravada Buddhism, it was believed that in the meantime the inevitable deterioration of the religion could be delayed by maintaining the purity of Buddhist practices. Meritorious acts, especially by rulers,

was no fundamental difference between the great sages and Buddhist or Daoist teachers was of great importance in shaping the eclectic nature of ship, the idea that there

popular

belief,

many life Daoist

and

in permitting the incorporation of local deities. Nonetheless, although

cycle ceremonies

rituals,

the educated

promoted by Confucianism were influenced by Buddhist and elite of Dai Viet, like their Chinese counterparts, o丘en looked

disdainfully at popular practices

There were other grounds their

which credited monks and

for official unease, for

priests with magical powers.

become a seedbed for discontent and rebellion. The philosophical and religious ideas that entered Southeast Asia also introduced new methods of reckoning time and of considering its implications for human existence. The goal of spreading Chinese culture, for example, led the

first

Ming emperor

to distribute

states to indicate auspicious days for

ranging丘om marriage to harvesting. By contrast, the Theravada Buddhist societies of Sri Lanka and mainland Southeast Asia were part of a different calendrical system derived from ancient Hindu traditions that began in 638 CE and combined solar and lunar cycles. Initially developed in Myanmar, this system spread to Khmer areas and activities

to the Tai polity of Ayutthaya,

where

it

was adopted

in the fourteenth centu巧. For

ordinary people出is calendar also helped identi马r key events in the Buddha’s as the

day he preached

his first sermon),

and

to calibrate

them with the

life

(such

agricultural cycle,

while the festivals that began and ended the three months of the rainy season marked a period of retreat for monks. An individual’s horoscope, determined by the relative



or Sanskrit Maitreya),

could ensure that

would appear and the

cycle of creation

Buddhism would endure. King Anawrahta of Pagan was

and decline

said to have

a reminder of the Buddha, usually a reliquary) to

built five cetiya (a structure serving as

enshrine sacred tooth relics and thus gain sufficient merit to ensure that the religion would last for a “臼11 five

thousand years."8

dhamma (dharma in Sanskrit), the them remained a continuing preoccupation.

Despite such measures, the predicted decline of the

Buddhist and Daoist sanctuaries had

own networks of allegiance and sources of revenue, and therefore had the potential to

hundreds of Chinese lunar calendars to tributary

Mette问,a

Buddha’s teachings, and the need to preserve

In an inscription dated to 1357, for example, the ruler of Sukhothai, enshrining a relic from Sri Lanka, had warned that“ninety-nine years from the year this relic is enshrined, the Tipitaka (the Buddhist

perform meritorious

Canon)

had urged“all good people”to 9 st出survived. This prediction and the

will disappear,'’and

acts while the

dhamma

associated i时unctions are significant, for “ninety-nine years" coincided with 1456 CE,

and anxiety would have been heightened the 1420s a group of around for可senior monks

the end of the second Buddhist millennium, as this

time approached. Sometime in

from the major Theravada communities of mainland Southeast Asia set out for Sri Lanka, believed to be the only place where an unsullied form of the religion was maintained. Here

more studying Pali and the proper method of intoning the sacred held on a special liturgy. In 1426 Sri Lankan monks officiated at a re-ordination ceremony ra丘on the Kalyani (“auspicious") River (north of modern Colombo), where the Buddha - himself was said to have bathed. These monks then returned home to reordain others a they spent a year or

pattern of events that occurred several times in different pa口s of the mainland Southeast

position of planets at the time of birth, was a guide to action and could predict the future.

Asian world.

By the same token,

This purification of the sangha, the revision and recopying of scriptures, the dedication of Buddha images, and the construction of pagodas and replicas of the Mahabodhi temple

it

constructed, a king

founded

“in

the w缸ing (i.e.



was extremely important

came

to record the exact time

to power, or a city

was

bu过t.

Ayutthaya, for instance was

712, a Year of the Tiger, second of the decade,

moon of the :fi丘h month, at three nalika and nine

Friday 4

March

when a temple was

on

Friday, the sixth day of

bat after the break of dawn"

1351, shortly a丘er nine in the morning).7

Cited in Timothy Brook,“Rethinking Syncretism: the Unity of the Three Teachings and their Joint in Late-imperial China," Journal of Chinese Rel也ions 21 (1993), 17.

Worship 7

Richard Cushman, trans. and David K. Wyatt, ed. The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya (Bangkok: The

Siam

Society, 2000), 10

in India,

where Buddha gained enlightenment,

all reflect

the concern,。丘en explicitly

expressed in inscriptions or colophons to manuscripts, to preserve the Buddha’s teaching. In 1477 the ruler of Lan Na convened a great council of monks to revise出e Tipitaka. Even





Pe

Maung

Tin and G. H. Luce, The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma (Rangoon

University Press, 1960), 92. A. B. Griswold and Prasert na Nagara, Epigraphical Society, 1992), 453-7.

and

Historical Studies (Bangkok: Historical

93

94

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY岛10DERN ERA, 1400-151

the labor of temple slaves could help in this great endeavor, and an inscription of 1489 near the

Lan Na

capital of Chiang

also their children

Mai notes

and grandchildren,

that everybody in a

donated group of people“and

are to be in the service of the

monastery [with the generations] following each other

Buddha image of this

end of the Religion [after its] five thousand years.”10 At the same time, protective deities were regularly incorporated into monastic enclosures and propitiation of these powerful spirits continued. Failure to until the

demands - sometimes for blood sacrifices一could result in catastrophe for the community. The persistence of such practices could lead to questions among those

between Muslim and tions,

and condemned

infidels,

such as eating dogs and drinking wine.

Malay Peninsula, acknowledges that although the ka_卢r (infidel, i.e.

non-Muslim)

habits."12 In Java,

number about

were not averse to using Islam to

to food restrictions

and the preservation of life.

The most important a伍rmation of Southeast the

religious

ummah. Although Islam had been

and was

the

Muslim communi町,

present in the region for about two hundred years

well established in north Sumatra, the turning point

Melaka accepted Islam. Because of

its

came when

the ruler of

importance as an entrepot, Melaka became

for the appeal of the Islamic faith during this period. Rulers

may have wished to

Muslim trade or been impressed by the example of powerful sultanates like Ottoman Turkey, or by the support Islam gave to kingship as“God’s shadow on ea口h." attract

Local

elites

increased

followed their example and the status accorded the

its

influence

among

Muslim

new

religion

would have

ordinary people. Formulaic inscriptions from graves

still

Tome

Pires

alter a single

commented

whom

support in conflicts with their non-Muslim

rally

Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai (Story of the Kings of Pasai) recounts

on the

coast, but

had

war with the

Sumatra there are occasional

thus“ka缸”) polity of Majapahit. In

lived

town

he estimated to

lords of the north coast ports were frequently at

had previously

one of hi

that the

accorded great respect. Yet some Muslim ruler

references to conflict with the “infidel" Batak of the interior, while the

the Gayo,

restric-

how

Malay

text,

the

another group,

fled inland a丘er they refused to

accept Islam.

the

primary dissemination point of Islam, which followed the maritime trade routes from the Melaka Straits to northern Java and into eastern Indonesia. Several reasons have been

advanced

enemies, for the

Hindu-Buddhist (and

development during the a丘eenth century was

inclusion in the expanding global

Asia’s

fifty

thousand, were

food

adopted Islam and gave up

ruler

along the north coast were Muslim, but pre- Islamic ascetics,

entire

ensure that the Buddha’s teachings were maintained, particularly in regard

local indifference to Islamic

A text from Patani, on the east coast of the

worshipping idols and eating pork,“apart from that he did not

satis命their

who sought to

11

in

Technological changes and agricultural expansion Although adaptation and adoption of new technologies in Southeast Asia was certainly not a

new development,

the expansion of trade opportunities and cross-cultural

commu-

nication encouraged innovation in a variety of fields. Ceramics from Southeast Asian kilns

continued to

command

a wide market,

shortage of Chinese porcelain

and potters were well-placed

to

respond to the

when the Ming banned private maritime commerce in

1436.

men and the chastity, virtue, and compassion

Thai production increased as green-glazed dishes were refined to become high-quality

of specific teachings at this time, since Islam was reaching Southeast Asia from different areas - China, India, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula,

celadon readily accepted in place of Chinese ware. The declining ava过ab过ity of the popular

and Turkey. Some scholars have suggested也at Islam spread rapidly because of the role of mystical Islam or Sufism. Traders were often members of Sufi brotherhoods or tarikat in which teachings transmitted from a revered leader in the past were accompanied by rituals

producers benefited from the transference of techniques during the

north Sumatra refer to the piety of Muslim of

Muslim women, but

little is

known

intended to bring the believer in closer communication with God. Practices such repetitive recitation of verses

as

from the Qur'an or trance-inducing music and chanting

Chinese “blue-and-white”porcelain also created

China. Archaeological include large

sites

amounts

white designs (see Figure

3.2).

Eventually finding

at

Although Islamic influence was growing, this was clearly a period of religious transi- tion, and Southeast Asia was caught up in debates that gained in intensity with the

originating in central Thailand, Vietnam,

suit the local situation?

account of Melaka dates from 866

AH

An Arab

sailor-author, whose

attest the far-flung

11

12

or 1462 CE, was highly critical of marriages

Cited in

Hans Penth,“On Rice and Rice

Fields in old Lanna,'’JSS 91 (2003), 98.

to this period

in the

its

way

eigh由year of Ta Ho"

reach of Southeast

to Turkey, the缸1est

example

“brushed at leisure by a lady artisan of the Bui clan (i.e.

1450).13 Shards of ceramic

and Myanmar found仕om Japan

Asia’s

to

West Asia

indigenous ceramic trade.

Cited in G. R. Tibbetts, A Study of仇e Arabic Texts containing Material on South-East Asia (Br山. Leiden and London, 1979), 206. A. Teeuw and D. K. Wyatt, eds. Hikayat Patani. The Story of Patani. 2 vols. (The Hague: Nijho伍1970), vol.

13 1°

Nam-sach Province

imported from

of Dai Viet ceramics由at frequently display distinctive blue-and-

may be a vase inscribed with the words

should Islam be adjusted to

Ming occupation and

and cargoes salvaged from sunken ships dating

of the rituals associated with indigenous belief systems.

far

opportunities for Dai Viet, where

the availability of cobalt (the source of the blue coloring used in ceramics)

may have held out considerable appeal to ordinary people because they resembled aspects

expansion of the global Muslim community. How, for instance, did one identi马r a Muslim? Why should one fast? Who determines “correct" behavior and beliefs? How

new

I:

75.

Cited in John

S.

Guy, Oriental Trade Ceramics

(Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990), 49.

in South-east Asia:

Ninth

to Sixteenth

Centuries

95

96

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511

ASIA, 1400-1830

traditions. In the

1990s a locally built boat was found in Kerala in southwest India that

has attracted interest because

known

far

it

employed the lugs可pical of Southeast Asia but not so was intended

in India. This particular boat

demonstrating that Indian traders

which they operated. Those engaged

Myanmar and Ayutthaya,

in coastal trade

for instance,

for travel

on inland waterways,

ships to adapt to the environment in

had developed

from Bengal along the coasts of

were di旺erent from the wide-bottomed deep-

water vessels that sailed across the open seas from the southeastern Coromandel Coast to the

Malay

areas.

The spread of gunpowder technology and Figure 3.2. Ceramic jar,且丘eenth- century Vietnam. This tall, slender jar with cobalt decoration of lion-like mythical creatures, peony scrolls, and lotus-petal panels

was made

at a kiln

Red River Delta of northern

in the

Vietnam. During the

and sixteenth centuries the ceramic products of kilns in this area, made with fine white local clay, were traded to markets ranging from Japan to West Asia. This jar was recovered in Indonesia, demonstrating the regional pieces.

demands

fi丘eenth

for these beautiful

Courtesy of Freer Galle叮of

Art, Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, DC. Friends of Asian Arts and Smithsonian Collections Acquisition Program, Flgg2.12.

development

in early

creative innovations

promoted by

Around

evident in ship-building.

cross-cultural

communication

thirty shipwrecks dating

are similarly

from the pre-1600 period

have been found in Southeast Asian waters, and the kind of timber used in construction can reveal their place of origin. Those built of fir, for instance, come from China, while

made from

hardwood would have been built along the coasts of Java, southern Borneo, and southern Myanmar and Thailand, where teak or ironwood was

those

tropical

available. Regardless of

where they were

built, these ships

have attracted attention

because they combine features associated with Southeast Asia such as V-shaped

hulls

and wooden dowels with those more characteristic of Chinese vessels, notably square iron nails and transverse bulkheads across the hull. Since no ships displaying these hybrid features have been dated prior to 1371,

avoided

official

Ming

it is

likely that

some Chinese merchants

prohibitions against shipbuilding in their

own

country by com-

missioning or overseeing construction in Southeast Asia. Unfortunately, there is no way of knowing at present whether similar technology transfers occurred in coastal areas of India, for archaeological exploration has not yielded suf且cient data to

come

to

any且rm

conclusions about the interaction between Indian and Southeast Asian ship-building

Asia, although close

the norm, and

another significant

is

combat in enclosed spaces weaponry - spears, swords,

rather than in open fields was st过1 - poison darts, and bows and arrows, together with the tactical maneuvering of elephants was far more effective than firearms. Loading and firing was time-consuming, the range traditional

was limited and unpredictable, and tropical humidity could render weapons and gunpow晴 der ineffective. Nonetheless, there can be no doubt that the thunderous noise emitted by this firepower did invoke the idea of powerful supernatural forces, and in fourteenth- century China there

is

already mention of ceremonies dedicated to the

God of Cannon.

In

Southeast Asia a similar process can be seen in the rituals performed prior to a battle,

which invoked the assistance of the protective especially large

spirits often believed to

cannon. Honored with high-ranking

titles,

animate firearms,

such cannon were revered even

when rust and corrosion meant they failed to function. According to later evidence they were even deliberately upended with their barrels upright, resembling and probably intended to represent the sacred and protective linga.

Although there

The

modern Southeast

use in warfare

its

is

a long tradition of metal-working in Southeast Asia, the manufacture

of firearms requires skilled knowledge and a complex division of labor that was only slowly acquired. Large

cannon were

initially

imported from India, the Middle East, and

four- China, and a later Burmese chronicler mentions Indian mercenaries from the late teenth century who were equipped with firearms, probably referring to a rocket-type

device about a foot long (30 centimeters) that could kilometer).

fire

around half a mile (one

A Burmese-Chinese dictionary dating to由e same period also includes terms

cannon and handguns. In mainland Southeast Asia the military value of由is new technology was graphically demonstrated as出e Ming d严iasty pushed into southwestern for

Yunnan, since the noise and smoke of gunpowder was highly

e旺ective against the

elephants used by Tai polities. But this technology could easily be transferred and by the late fourteenth century Tai groups in Yunnan, previously armed only with elephants, spears,

and crossbows, had learned how

from Chinese captives and Parallel

to

make

rockets, small cannon,

and handguns

deserters.

developments can be seen in Dai

Viet.

During由e Ming invasion

in 1407,

Chinese troops eq山pped with handguns and cannon as well as conventional weapons

overwhelmed Vietnamese

forces,

and according to出e Ming

Shi-lu‘'Their gallbladder

97

98

MODERN SOUTHEAST

A HISTORY OF EARLY cracked

[i.e.

ASIA, 1400-1830

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511

they were completely demoralized]."14 Thousands of Vietnamese died

in

establish [pepper] gardens."17

From Sumatra

cultivation spread to western Java

and the

by the capture and adaptation of Ming weapons and by skills acquired from prisoners and defectors. As a result, the Vietnamese were highly successful in adopting and modi马ring firearm technology. Indeed, Vietnamese captives were even taken back to China to pass on techniques that would

Malay Peninsula. Pepper differed from most forest and sea products because

increase the shooting range of handguns

went to China, where pepper was used not only

these battles, but the balance was gradually redressed

Ming

elephant units. A丘er the

Ming withdrawal

strengthen their arsenal. Military

and Tome

and improve

in 1428,

Dai Viet

to specialists in且ring

titles refer

Pires speaks of “countless musketeers

During也e

igniting devices, as well as to train rulers continued to

handguns and cannon,

Growers therefore had

needed careful tending, and required

to plan for the future while organizing

them

family labor to train the vines around stakes and keep

it

was even used

to

was impressed by the defenses, which consisted of stockades made of of numerous cannon large and small and cases crammed with

and

agriculture, specific

it is

department to oversee wet-rice

fields.

Tai areas the rise of significant mandala polities like Lan

contrast, the Portuguese

and

it is

were chronically short of cannon

for ships and

not surprising that the three thousand cannon captured in Melaka

were considered a great fighting using primarily

Yet although gunpowder technology

prize.

destructive than before,

most

battles

were

st过l

largely

made

supplies

Europe, was hair.

Indeed,

salaries.

warfare more

determined by hand-to-hand

bows and arrows, spears, and poisoned darts. it is more difficult to track innovations

In the absence of written sources,

production and agriculture, despite the long-term significance of knowledge

in domestic transfer. For

Cambodia became well known for silk production, but in the late Zhou Daguan said categorically that the Khmer had no knowledge of

A yutthaya

included a

with agricultural production, and there were renewed efforts to increase land under cultivation

fortified cities,

Most

In Dai Viet rulers were always concerned

gunpowder."16 Melaka's gun founders were said to equal the Germans - high praise indeed, since at that time German foundries were supplying cannon to most European

By

pay

noteworthy that the early administration of

“huge, thick trees full

armies.

free of weeds.

as a preservative, but as in

thought to prolong youth, restore sexual prowess, and maintain glossy black

pepper was so valuable in China that

was

In mainland Southeast Asia a major development was the expansion of wet-rice

fi丘eenth

in 1511

several years to mature.

and small bombards."15

centu町Southeast Asian mastery of gunpowder technology expanded considerably, and an Italian who participated in the Portuguese attack on

Melaka

cultivated rather than being collected in the wild,

it

by repairing damaged dikes and extending the

irrigation techniques

existing system. In the northern

Na

is

attributed to the spread of

which raised food production, stimulated population growth, and

fostered sedentary settlements.

The

cultivation of rain-dependent dry rice through swid-

den farming by no means disappeared, but associated with upland groups.

its

more mobile

As the northern Tai put

work swiddens/The Tai work paddy

it,“The

was increasingly

lifestyle

Lawa



a highland people]

fields.”18

Developments in island Southeast Asia

instance, in later times

thirteenth century this technology,

referring to

adding that migrants from

some

place in the

plant mulberry trees

and

“Xian”(a

Chao Phraya

forerunner of Ayutthaya, in

valley, possibly

raise silkworms.

On

this case

near the coast) had begun

the other hand, specialists are

to

fairly

confident that ceramic production in northern Thailand incorporated new可pes of designs and techniques from connections with Chinese kilns. In agriculture the increased cultivation of piper

nigrum (black pepper), a native of India,

is

a clear demonstration of

Southeast Asian ab过ity to respond to rising world demand. Since pepper requires certain

and so过conditions, experimentation would have been necessary to determine the best locations, and the first plantings were probably in north Sumatra, where Ma Huan, climatic

who 14

travelled with

Zheng He, remarked

that,“householders over against the mountains

Cited in Sun Laichen,“Chinese Borderless Histories,

Gunpowder Technology and Dai Viet: c. 1390-1497:’in Viet Nam Nhung Tuyet Tran and Anthony Reid eds. (Madison: University of Wisconsin

Press, 2006), 79 15

The Sur

16

A. Bausani, ed. and trans, Lettera de Giovanni da Empoli (Jakarta and Media ed Estremo Oriente Centro Italiano di Cultura, 1970), 136.

The uneven

Instituto Italiano peril

of foreign influences and local adaptations to specific ecologies the entire island world. Instead,

it is

more

make it

useful to think in

terms of sub-regions or zones where the geography and maritime links helped shape historical

developments. The

first

of these zones, which

we w山term

the Western

Archipelago, consists of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, as well as the northwest and

southwest coasts of Borneo. The second zone, the Central Archipelago,

is

dominated by

southern Borneo and

to the islands which was linked by the Java Sea to of Madura, Bali, and Lombok. A third zone, the Northern Archipelago, includes present- day Philippines and the northern and northeastern coasts of Borneo. A final zone encompasses the complex Eastern Archipelago. It stretches from the island of Sumbawa

the island of Java,

and southeastern Borneo in the west, eastward to the coastal areas of western New Guinea, northward to Mindanao and the islands of Maluku, and southward to the Lesser Sunda Islands (Nusatenggara).

17 18

Rome:

effects

difficult to generalize across

Ma Huan,

Ying-yai sheng-lan, 118; Fei Hsin, Hsing-ch a-sheng-lan, 57. Cited in Cholthira Satyawadhna,“A Comparative Study of Structure and Contradiction in the Austro-Asiatic System of the Thai-Yunnan Periphery,'’in Gehan Wijeyewardene, ed. Ethnic Groups across National Boundaries in Mainland Southeast Asia (Singapore: SEAS, 1990), 75.

99

100

(?,\

A HISTORY OF EARLY The飞句T estern In 1365,

when

MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA,

Archipelago

the author of the Javanese text

Desawarnana

(Description of the Countη)

under the “protection" of the kingdom of Majapahit, the "lands of the Malays" (bhumi Malayu) were clearly distinguished from his own country, the “lands of

listed places

the Javanese" (bhumi Jawa).

The connections

that helped create a“Malay world" (in

its

broadest sense extending as far as the Philippines) were possible because the maritime

environment was so amenable to might appear

as

human

interaction.

The Malay Peninsula and Sumatra

two separate land masses, but the

Straits

of Melaka has

functioned almost like an inland lake, and although western Borneo

is

historically

400 miles ( 640

kilometers) from the Peninsula, the intervening waters are so calm and easily traversed

them the Mar de Damas, the Ladies’Sea. The kingdom of Sri时jaya, located in the Palembang area of southeast Sumatra, had once

that the Portuguese called

claimed authority over

much

of the Western Archipelago zone, but by the end of the fourteenth century attacks丘om Java - and centuries earlier from the Chola kingdom in southern India - had undermined its dominance. Nonetheless, the Srivijaya heritage survived with the rise of Melaka, which enters historical sources at the beginning of the t泊eenth century. According to

Malay

oral traditions recorded in the text best

known

as

Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) and in the Suma Oriental by Tome Pires, the founder of the

new Melaka dynasty was a refugee prince from Palembang. In 1403 the Ming Emperor sent an emissary to identi命some polity in the Melaka

Straits that

could operate under

his

patronage and思iarantee safe passage for Chinese shipping. Reports about Melaka were obviously favorable, for two years later a

delegation

full

was dispatched, carrying a

special

composed by the Emperor himself. This inscription, engraved on pure white stone, was to be placed on present-day Bukit Cina, designated as Melaka’s State Mountain.

inscription

It

carried the assurance that the Emperor’s

increasing prosperity, while your the

first

own

ancestors

would

many descendants enjoy great fortune and respect."19 As

in India),

Melaka was

clearly favored

above competing entrepots in the

region.

In addition, this open display of Chinese patronage and protection dissuaded harassment by

kingdom of Ayutthaya. Advanta- geous connections with China were strengthened through the Ming expeditionary voyage, rivals,

notably Majapahit in east Java and the mainland

and by

Melaka’s acceptance of a tributary relationship with the imperial court, which

allowed for the dispatch of missions that offered tribute, but were also involved in trading transactions. In 1411 the

Melaka

ruler, his wife

and son, and more than

five

hundred

after 1435,

Melaka

rulers

made

four

more visits to China - more than any of its neighbors - helping to confirm its special status in

Chinese eyes.

A primary reason now bear

Straits that

gullet







sea people, to the

for Melaka’s regional its

preeminence was

its

strategic location

on the

name, which a thirteenth-century Chinese writer compared

through which the foreigners' sea and land

The new

pass.”21

port also resembled Srivijaya in

its

traffic in either direction

authority over the

Orang

to“a

must

La时,the

whose home waters were among the many tiny islands that dot both entrances The head of the Orang Laut enjoyed high status in the court hierarchy and

Straits.

his followers

became

a vital

pilots or hostile raiders

element in Melaka' s commercial success, acting as friendly

according to their overlord’s direction, and delivering sea products

such as tortoises, tripang, coral, mother-of-pearl, and edible seaweeds for the China trade.

Reading back from

later material,

it

appears that relationships between different Orang

Laut communities were governed by age-old understandings of a demarcated seascape.

Each group identified with certain islands sacred to

their ancestors,

and with

specific sea

areas from which products were harvested. For the most part Orang Laut communities collected only in waters

acknowledged by other groups

although reciprocal arrangements

as their specific area of usufruct,

could allow for harvesting resources in the

domain of

another group. In a mutual与beneficial relationship, Melaka rulers strengthened their

ties

with Orang Laut leaders by presenting them with titles, valued goods, and sometimes royal women in return for their loyalty and faithful service. Legends recall ancient ties of kinship, [nobles]

and according to a Portuguese chronicler “all the nobles who are now卢dalgos in Melaka" were descended from marriages between migrants from Palembang

and the daughters of Orang Laut or indigenous leaders from forest-dwelling communities.

“watch over your ever-

of just four places to receive this imperial blessing (the others were Japan, Brunei,

and Cochin

Ming withdrew from overseas expeditions

Before the

1400-1511【阳、101

The

22

existence of Chinese, Arab, Malay,

means

that

we know more

and European sources, meager though they

this period. Successive rulers exploited its

trade facilities, an ordered administration,

advantageous location by developing excellent

and



maritime code of law, and

it

became

regular stapling port for the increasing maritime tra伍c passing through the Straits.

monsoon so that for the

actual

are,

about Melaka than any other place in Southeast Asia during a

The

cycle allowed for re伊lar arrival and departures from both the east and the west,

incoming merchants could

refit their vessels

winds to change. Because so

number of inhabitants

in

and discharge cargoes while waiting

many traders were

Melaka

fluctuated,

and

resident only pa此of the year,由e at the

beginning of the sixteenth

century the Portuguese estimated that the total population could range from forty

attendants “showing his gratitude for imperial favors,'’came to China to offer thanks. This

was one of the largest delegations from Southeast Asia recorded in

official

Ming sources.20

21

Rockh山,eds., Chau Ju-Kua on the Chinese and Arab Trade (St Petersburg, Amsterdam, 1966), 60. Joao de Barros and Diogo do Couto, Da Asia de Joiio de Barros e de Diogo do Couto: dos卢itos que os portugueses fizeram no descobrimento dos mares e terras do Oriente. Decada Segunda, Parte Segunda F.

Hirth and

W. W.

1914, reprinted

22

::

M咐灿Geo川ade, trans. (2005) http:/ Fei Hsin, Hsing-ch口a-sheng-lan, 55

and

fn.

116

(Lisbon; San Carlos, 1973), 7-9.

102

C斗、,\

A E王ISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 thousand to

THE BEGINNING OF THE

times as many. In this cosmopolitan environment traders could

five

negotiate sales with their counterparts

from

Asia. Listing the range of products that

all

over Asia and other areas of Southeast

Melaka could supply, from

textiles of silk

muslin to spices and rare jungle products, Pires could only remark that

this

is

a place

"where you find what you want and sometimes more than you are looking In 1410 ten pairs of a

Emperor

new European

and

for.”23

invention, spectacles, were even sent to the Ming

as tribute. stab过ity

regional prestige,

its

smaller polities throughout the Western Archipelago and even beyond emulated Mela-

governing

style,

The suzerainty

that

administrative practices and other aspects such as music and

Melaka

rulers claimed over

Sumatra was reinforced by

honorific

titles,

much

strategic alliances

Melaka

warfare. In this context, the decision of the

highly significant.

and asserting authority over

The Malay word

of the Malay Peninsula and

through marriage and ruler to adopt Islam

daulat, taken

evolved into a central element in

dress. east

at times direct

around 1430 was

from the Arabic dawla, used in Malay expressions of royal power,

ruler,

superior to the

Melaka

Muslim, however, Sultan Mansur refuses to Other sources

when

she asks

and ministers

are laid out in the

Sejarah Melayu, where Qur’anic verses and Arabic and Persian quotations are para-

phrased to liken kings and their people to trees and their roots, and kings and ministers to

fire

their

and wood. Some contemporary observers were impressed by the newly

converted mood, and

Ma Huan commented

count叩and

that“the king of the

the

Those coming

today.”26

Muslim world meant

that the

Malay language

absorbed an extensive vocabulary from Arabic and Persian relating to practical as spiritual matters. For example, the title “syahbandar" “lord" (syah)

and

“port" (bandar),

to denote the

center of Islamic learning, and

numerous

translated into

Malay and

combines the Persian words

and was used throughout the Indonesian

and even adopted by Europeans

major port

official.

for

archipelago

Melaka became a major

The

status of Malay, already

commerce, was reinforced through

apogee of the

23

its

Sultan

Mansur Syah

(1459一77),

Melaka reached

to trade

The Suma Oriental of Tome

as a

Pires, vol.

I:

ve町great

228.

blood as a betrothal

gi丘.

during this time, and Sultan Mansur

his predecessors."27 Indeed, while the

Melaka administration. According last ruler,

and

Sultan

Mahmud Syah

to boast that

(r.

it

the destruction of the great

of

rivalries

number

prompted the

may well have

that

could become equivalent to

it

was the

ruler’s

among neighboring Portuguese when they

aroused resentment

hubris, said

The

some Muslims, which

led to

actions of the victorious p。此uguese -

mosque, the burning and looting of the

city,

and the slaughter

of Muslims, men, women, and children" - injected economic

with a degree of religious host山ty that Southeast Asians had never previously

experienced.

29

In contrast to Melaka, the societies that inhabited the

in

and was

ruler frequently

1488一1528), to claim that“the world needed his port”

a“prince of Sumatra" lent forces to assist the

and

24

city ... so that princes

from

Ma Huan,盯ng-yai Sheng-Zan,

all

110.

countries

it is

later years

Ayutthaya, he had nothing but praise for the

Melaka's unexpected and humiliating defeat.

“an infinite

Ryukyu

to Pires, this extraordinary success even

Melaka was of such importance

attacked in July 1511,

not

of a powerful mountain-

were especially appreciative of his suppo此In

complained about impediments to trade in

Western Archipelago’s inland

and highlands have le丘almost no records of their own and are barely mentioned

contemporary sources.

products for

It is clear,

however, that出ey were never isolated from outside

on connections with interior groups to the international market. In modern times the Minangkabau from the

influences, since

all

coastal ports relied

Sumatran highlands have been differentiated仕om

their

deliver

central

Malay-speaking neighbors

because of their matrilineal traditions and the custom of merantau, the deep-rooted

25

C. C. Brown,ζ‘Sejarah Mela严1 or

(1953): 59

the

power. In the words of the Sejarah Melayu,“from below the wind to above

wind Melaka became famous

for his son’s

all

26

fifth ruler,

bow to the demands

recalled that the sultan granted privileges to foreigners,

its use as the

regional language of Islam.

During the reign of the

if

religious texts in Persian and Arabic were

diffused following the trade routes.

well-established as a lingua franca for

as well

Emperor of

飞better king than

jungles

Increasing connections to a wider

Java and the

Muslim merchants

people of the count巧all follow the Muslim religion, fasting, doing penance, and

chanting liturgies."24

as the

himself remarked that“life has never been as affluent in preceding generations as

Straits polities, for

their subjects

The King of

attest to Melaka’s great prosperity

of Shiva. Those guilty of derhaka ( treason against the ruler) would be“struck”by the

dependent relationship between rulers and

Mansur

both present him with a daughter in marriage. As a good

rulers,

Mecca.28 Such overweening pride

daulat and suffer agonizing deaths. Islamic-based formulations of the mutually

text depicts Sultan

studying with Muslim scholars, resisting invaders,

recalcitrant vassals.

apparently replacing the Sanskrit-derived term shakti, associated with the divine energy

ruler’s

The

ERA, 1400-1511

China, two monarchs subtly acknowledged by this Malay court document as equal

helped promote a court culture that became

intimately linked to evolving ideas of being Malay. Because of

coast

to present themselves before [the sultan.]"25

dwelling spirit princess

Melaka' s wealth and dynastic

ka’s

came

epitome of the successful Malay

EAR…ODERN

27

28 """

from Sultan Mansur of Melaka to King of R归均认Feb 7, 1468. Ryukyuan Relations with Korea and South Seas Countries: an Annotated Translation of Docun Kobata and岛1itsu凯1岛1atsuda, trans. (Kyoto: Atsushi Kobata, 1969), 111 The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires, vol. II: 249. The Sun Albuquerque, Caesar of the East: Selected Texts by Afonso de Albuquerque and his Son. T. F. Earle and John Villiers, ed. and trans., including an introduction and notes (Warminster, UK: Aris and Letter

Phillips, 1990),

89

tS时

104' AH…盯OF山…ODERN SOUTHE川山,14…830 cultural expectation that

the past, the

young men should

Minangkabau were regarded

separate culture.

Minangkabau

T…阳NNING

and knowledge. In part of the wider Malay world rather than a

travel in search of fortune

as

traders occupied a significant niche as

major

suppliers of

gold mined in the uplands and pepper grown both in the interior and in the coastal

By

the early sixteenth century one of three rulers in the

areas.

Minangkabau uplands had

converted to Islam, a notable consequence of this involvement in international

The Batak were another interior group who gained in prominence as

trade.

camphor and benzoin were

so rare that in

China they were worth

etian traveler

and kept the

was told that they

ate

human

skulls of their captured

flesh,

ideas to reach into

as

were continually

is

much

as gold. Over

a fifteenth-century Ven- at

enemies as treasure. Although

of ritual practices helped deter intruders, the Batak case

which interlocking

and

war with each other,

this misrepresentation

a telling reminder of the ways

agriculture (sawah) that flourished because of Majapahit’s fertile soils to water.

resins,

in

and international networks enabled foreign goods and remote islands, jungles, and uplands throughout Southeast Asia. local, regional,

we

also

know

little

about the Western Archipelago’s forest

Later evidence suggests that each group lived

by natural landmarks such lated over generations

and

meant

that

all

dwellers.

collected in a recognized area bounded

as a jungle stream or a

mountain

ridge.

Knowledge accumu-

groups had an intimate understanding of their own

environment. They possessed not merely the

skills

required to locate rare trees and

rattans, but also the ritual expertise necessary to ensure that collection

and

Although some trade had been diverted

strong trading connections local markets.

extraction

also careful to foster relations

to

obtain the forest products so necessa町to attract foreign traders to their ports.

in

role in the spice

sent a total of

Zheng

He fleet,“is rich and prolific - there is nothing which they do not have. This certainly is so because the country is situated in a place where all trade comes through." He was especially taken by the parrots and parakeets which when trained “are able to speak words and to sing tunes."30 Impressed with this prosperity, as a place

where no one had

to



Malay chronicle depicted Majapahit

worry about food, and where people spent

their days

playing music, dancing, and watching entertainment such as shadow puppet plays.“These

went on day and night in the land of Majapahit

and

fro in

Eve巧where there were people going to

...

numbers past counting."31

Sources relating to western Java, the homeland of the Sundanese people, are even

more

limited.

An

inscription dated 1333 refers to a polity called Pajajaran (near

modern

Bogor), and several other inscriptions from the fifteenth century have been found in this

The occurrence of

area.

location,

different

toponyms suggests由at the main settlement moved

perhaps because of the dependency on shi丘ing dry

rice cultivation. It also

seems that trade conducted in the two ports of Kelapa (modern-day Jakarta) and Banten

was a substantial prop to the economy. Very evident that Vietnamese and Thai

demand. Significant finds from (at this

little

Ming

artisans

their kilns

show

Chinese porcelain仕om the fi丘eenth restrictions

on the ceramic

trade, but

were able to take advantage of market that the upriver site of Banten Girang

point an outpost of Pajajaran), st山operated as an important collection and

distribution point.

The Central Archipelago

In the 1690s the

As the previous chapter demonstrated, toward the end of the thirteenth century Javanese sovereignty in the Central Archipelago was affirmed by the rise of Majapahit in east Java, and the extension of its cultural and political dominance to the neighboring lands of Bali, Madura, and southern Borneo. Yet despite Java’s status in the history of island Southeast Asia, for the period covered in this chapter

many questions remain unanswered. While the

a revealing picture of Majapahit society in the mid-

fourteenth centu町,our knowledge of subsequent developments

is

limited and uneven

been gleaned from a few inscriptions, Portu伊ese

accounts,

Javanese chronicles written a hundred years or so later, notably the Babad Tanah Jawi and the Pararaton, and from continuing archaeological excavations. The revenues that helped establish this pre-eminence

major

seventy tribute missions.“This count巧J’wrote a Chinese observer accompanying a

it is

in quality. Information has

ready acce

centu巧point to

Ming China, and between 1368 and 1526

with

century has been unearthed here because of

Desawarnana (1365) provides

fi丘eenth

coastal po口s continued to play a

indigenous people of the forests were indispensable

seeking

its

and indicate that imported luxury items found keen buyers

The northeastern

would not offend the domain’s powerful spirits. As possessors of these unique abilities, the allies for coastal rulers

and

to Melaka, deposits of Chinese, Thai,

and Vietnamese potsherds or potte町fragments dating from the

Despite their importance as suppliers of jungle products such as rattans, aromatic

woods, and

MODERN ERA

market because of their maritime connections to the Eastern Archipelago. Majapahit was

suppliers of resins

obtained from the camphor and benzoin trees located in the forests around Lake Toba, the Batak heartland in north central Sumatra. Believed to cure or prevent a host of illnesses, time, however, the Batak developed a fearsome reputation,

OF THE EARLY

were derived primarily from the economic base of wet-rice

buildings in the lived.

Dutch described

Bogor area of west

inscriptions, statues,

Java, but there

is little

remnants of a to

show how

once more widely spread. regional connections

it

It

was

lifestyle

and traditions

does appear, however, that while west Java maintained strong also developing

an identity distinct from the

Chinese sources refer to rivalry in Java between an“eastern" and

poem written in Old Sundanese,

rest of Java.

a “western”king,

and



describing a hero’s travels, also points to an awareness of

di他rence.“I crossed the river Ci-Singgarung/Having reached the

31

and other

We have no way of knowing, for instance, if the non-Muslim Badui (today known as

Kanekes) in the mountainous regions to the south have prese凹ed a

3°

fort,

people actually

Fei Hsin, Hsing-ch口a-sheng-lan, 48.

A.H.H山,“Hikayat R时a-Raja Pasai,”]MB扎4.S 33, 2 (1960), 161.

end of Sunda/I crossed

106

6 A 阳TO盯OF EARL

ODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…830

the river Ci-Pamah/and districts

came

into the Javanese area/I

of Majapahit/and the plain of the

The gaps

wandered through the

various

area.”32

explanations for the demise of Majapahit reveal deep-seated beliefs that dynasties could at the

fall

turn of the Javanese century and that extraordinary events such as an

earthquake or a widespread epidemic were auguries of imminent and calamitous events.

may

Composed over

never be

filled,

but surviving evidence does highlight a major



hundred years

later,

the Pararaton thus locates Majapahit’s downfall

development -也e spread of Islam. Historians have debated the chronology of Islam’s initial arrival in Java, but through the fi丘eenth century trading connections with Melaka

in the

and with Muslims from China,

to the ascendancy of

According to Javanese chronicles, following

Babad Tanah

and declared

India,

and the Islamic heartlands led

Demak. The

Islamic interests in the coastal ports, notably

later

Jawi,

a collection of texts dealing with the history of Java, attributes the spread of Islam to nine

saintly Sufi fi事ires,由e

Wali Sanga

(Nine飞句Tali, a

wali being a friend of God), several of

whom had connections with Melaka.

Qur’an

is

undeniable.

its

Hindu-Buddhist

A number of gravestones

culture, although

capital. Several are

lion associated with Majapahit



displaying quotations from the

and pious formulae, including the syahadat, the confession of

found near the ancient

Shaka year 1400

(a calendric

1478), attributing this to the attacks

it

to be

an Islamic

system derived from India, here equivalent to

by Muslim armies from the

state.

One

this defeat the

wood

with a roof in the multi-tiered

faith,

have been

decorated with the distinctive sunburst medal-

and thus suggest

that

members of

the royal family had

assumption that Majapahit’s defeat occurred the previous year represents a cultural rationalization. Authorities believe that the

Hindu-Buddhist court (then located

Kediri) experienced not a cataclysmic collapse in

possibly because of loss of control over the coastal ports,

by Muslim

Demak

and that

its

eventual conquest

only came in 1527.

Demak began to flourish in the late fifteenth century, and various

decorated with Arabic writing indicates that as trade restrictions eased Chinese kilns were

emphasize continuities with the past, and a

new demand. The growing influence of Islam in the wealthy and cosmopolitan ports accentuated the contrast between the culture of the inland courts

was the

and

marked by

“a

Muslim advance, in east Java the melding of Hindu-Javanese beliefs with ancient fertility cults and ancestor veneration is apparent in the construction of

frightening

sound of thunder,”which emerged丘om the Majapahit palace and

dozens of sanctuaries,

defeat several of the

well placed to respond to a

that of the north coast.

Despite signs of a

altars, bathing places, and hermitages. The mountains of the remote Tengger highlands and especially the great volcanic Mount Bromo (named for the Hindu god Brahma) were regarded with special reverence, and the extension of Majapahit’s

au出ority into this area has been confirmed by the recent archaeological discovery of the

By

this time,

Mount Bromo

however,

rifts

dated to the late fi丘eenth and early sixteenth

had developed within

Majapahit’s ruling

Admittedly inconclusive, evidence nonetheless points to internal warfare and regarding succession, and unclear

when the royal center moved to Kediri sometime a丘er

the former Majapahit dynasty was

if

still

Although written references do not appear

1486

who would

said to

site

J.

Noorduyn and

2006), 230

A. Teeuw, ed. and trans., Three Old Sundanese

Poems

(Leiden:

KITLV Press,

of this

hit’s

Demak’s founder

of Majapahit and his mother a Chinese princess. Demak’s inception was

sign of greatness looking like a streak of lightning

new Muslim

late fi丘eenth



ali

center.33

new regime was

and accompanied by the

According to the Babad Tanah

fell

near the

Jawi, a仕er Majapahit’s

Sanga held a joint meeting in Demak. Furthermore, although the

century witnessed a

greatness survived well

royal genealogies

new supremacy

beyond

Java,

and in

and origin myths continued

of coastal

memories of Majapa-

states,

distant areas of island Southeast Asia

to invoke

its

name and

incorporate

its

heroes into local histories.

The Northern Archipelago

Later

history of the islands

in Southeast Asia,

geography played a fundamental role in shaping the

Northern Archipelago. From early times demographic growth in these

was constrained because arable land was

limited,

ture could not support large populations. Islands

33

32

last ruler

later chronicle claims that

have been signaled by a volcanic eruption, and the transition to a

As elsewhere

tumultuous events of出is

put the world to rights following a period of chaos.

Javanese accounts regarding the role of Islam in Majapahit’s defeat. But these accounts

it is

period probably contributed to the development of the Javanese idea of a savior king (erucakra)

sources indicate that

occurred under the leadership of a foreign Muslim Chinese, which parallels legendary

elite.

disputes

in control.

until later, the

at

Shaka 1400 but a gradual decline,

this

century.

Demak

found not only in Java but in several places in the Indonesian archipelago.

adopted Islam. Trading links to Melaka and other areas of Muslim Asia fostered Islam’s spread along the north coast,。丘en termed pasisir (literally, beach). Some members of the pasisir Islamic elite were of Chinese descent, and the discovery of a part of a ceramic bowl

remains of a temple facing

in

of the wali, Sunan Kal斗aga, supervised the

construction of Demak’s great mosque, built of style

Demak.

coastal port of

Nine Walis met

CE

Although an inscription supplied the foundation date of Shaka 1401 (CE 1478), the

Further inland the Majapahit court retained

Muslim presence

THE山Y MODERN ER川400→511

knowledge of Central Archipelago history during the fourteenth and

in our

a丘eenth centuries

Demak

THE BEGINNING OF

Cited in Somarsaid Moertono, State

Program

198), 56.

and

and

fishing

and forested

Statecra卢in Old Java (I由aca,

and swidden

agricul-

interior uplands

were

NY: Cornell Southeast Asia



107

108

6 A HISTO盯OF山川ODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫 settled

by small communities that shared many

separation fostered distinct identities based

on

THE BEG川ING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA

cultural features even as their physical

differences in language

and customs.

Despite the dearth of written sources, archaeological finds and judicious use of material enable us to early

sixteenth centu巧polities in Sulu

type entrepot. later

The power base of their

leaders rested

arrival in the Philippines in the sixteenth centu叮

on

alliances of personal

and kinship

ties that

A trader from A严1tthaya who

arrived in

Cebu

In combination, the local market for foreign luxury goods jungle, h血,and sea products

and

between leaders,

allies,

scarcity of labor

and the competition between Philippine

and

allies.

to the ability of leaders to attract followers

In出is regard leaders close to the coasts enjoyed certain advantages, since

their

resources were enhanced because of greater oppo时unities offered by the expansion international trade. Prestige commodities (sometimes

and ceramics, interior

cloth,

produced

locally),

forest products, notably

into

chiefs also

encouraged

The

inter-

necine raiding both by sea and by land, with captives contributing to a chiefs prestige by

augmenting

his retinue



especially his

women), adding

oarsmen, and providing potential victims

to his agricultural laborers

to be sacrificed

when he

died. Fi丘eenth-

and and

sixteenth-century mortuary sites display signs of violence not found previously, including decapitation

and evidence of wounding by metal weapons. The appearance of

objects

symbolically associated with successful warriors, such as weapons, animal tooth necklaces,

and trophy heads, support the ar伊ment that competitive raiding was on the rise. In other words, increased international trade brought greater wealth and hence raised the ambi-

as chiefs vied to increase their

own

standing over

tions of these chiefs.

numbers of followers.

Excavations of mortuary late

for

aromatic woods, resins, timber, honey, and wax. Exchanges

networks of patronage and trade partners and thus to enhance their ever larger

and the overseas demand

as gi丘s to local leaders or bartered for

between coastal and interior groups steadily increased

仕om the

such as potte叩

metal implements, and decorative ornaments, were carried

communities where they were presented

of

wa

cemented the upland-lowland exchanges and relationship

only partially related to territorially defined domains. These alliance networks could

and composition, according

slaves

followers that were central to early Philippine polities.

were

fluctuate in size

buy gold and

to

probably not unusual.

make general comments about the social and economic basis of these

communities prior to the Spanish

and Manila had become smaller versions of the Melaka-

sites

The expansion of trade have pointed to growing engagement with foreign

trade

fourteenth century. Imported porcelain and other status goods interred with

high-ranking individuals indicate increased social stratification as leaders and

elites gained

access to luxury commodities. Philippine chiefs strengthened their position by investing

ideas

and practices into indigenous

(native to India) enabled

from the fourteenth and consumption but

more complex

weapons stimulated

Beginning in 1373, a

series of tributary missions from

women

to

The introduction of silk thread and cotton produce fabric由at was more pliable than abaca or

fi丘eenth centuries as

for export to

new

culture.

barkcloth. In the central Philippines, spindle whorls are

valued goods in bridewealth alliances, which in turn encouraged the growth of larger and political systems.

also helped the peoples of the Philippines to incorporate

China

as well.

more numerous

women wove

The demand

in graves dating

not merely for domestic

imported iron tools and

for

local metal smiths to develop a local iron industry. In a sin世ar

Ming court Luzon was honored with a visit by a Chinese imperial envoy in 1405,

fashion the market for high quality ceramics brought from outside encouraged the growth

and in 1417 three Sulu leaders, including the widow of a previous chief ( described as "r时er

described in later years were probably introduced through trading contacts with the

of the Sulu

accompanied by more than three hundred retainers, arrived in China with gi丘s of pearls, spices, and tortoiseshells for the Emperor. According to Chinese

Malay-Indonesian archipelago or the

records, the reception they received was“at a level equal to those accorded to the king of

during this period was the spread of Islamic teachings in northern Borneo, the Sulu

the country of Melaka.'’All three were installed as rulers of their individual domains and

archipelago,

when one died before leaving China the Emperor personally composed a poem to place on

northwest coast, through

his tomb.34 Boats

which was well situated on the maritime routes to China place the Chinese and where “traders are treated in high regard." One Chinese source was quite仕ank:“Ifhe [a Chinese man] is drunk, they [由e people] help him back to the house where he lodges

“Li.i-song"

(Luzon, identified as Manila) and nearby polities are mentioned in

records. Like Melaka,

aborigines”),

from the Philippines were commonly seen in South China ports, while term meaning people from Luzon, including both Manila and other

Lu<r6es ( a Portuguese

were regular

arrivals in Melaka. They were known for bringing supplies of gold, presumably from mines in the Cordillera mountain chain in central Luzon. Philippine

areas)

chiefs actively sought to

make

their ports attractive to foreign traders

and by

the early

of decorated earthenware for local distribution.

The most

significant

sg/msl/entry/2440, accessed October 15, 2012.

which the Spanish

areas of central Vietnam.

and Mindanao. The prima巧gateway was出e port of Brunei, on its

connections with Melaka. Brunei

is

Borneo’s

generally equated with a

called “Boni"

and由ey treat him politely like an old friend户5 In the early fifteenth centu巧, Boni appears to have been an independent state of some consequence. Envoys were for the night

for the state

Geoff Wade, trans., Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an Open Access Resource (Singapore: Asia Research Institute and the Singapore E-Press, National University of Singapore), http://epress.nus.edu.

scripts

development in the southern areas of the Northern Archipelago

exchanged with China and, 34

Cham

The indigenous

3s

like

Melaka

in 1405,

its

ruler received

an imperial inscription

mountain. In a special ceremony he was presented with

Hi此h and Rockhill,

Chau Ju-Kua,

155丘;Fei Hsin, Hsing-ch

a-sheng-lan, 95.

a variety of gifts,

110



A HISTORY OF EARLY including silk vassal,

textiles,

he made

With an

MODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…830

and invested as king. Responding

a personal visit three years later to

extensive hinterland

and

own

its

in the

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511

mode expected of a grateful

pay homage

at the

Chinese

populations of sea people,

of the year, the environmental conditions that prevail here were ideally suited for

sandalwood, with the best quality trees found on the island of Timor.

court.

Boni’s successor

that

moved



Brunei was well equipped to service international commerce. Trade operated in tandem with the preva且ing wind system so that Brunei was frequented by Chinese ships moving

instrumental in the spread of Islam into what

is

now the

as

one geo-cultural

unit.

The

increasing influence

of Islam strengthened longstanding cultural and commercial connections between

the

southern Philippines and their Muslim trading partners in Borneo and Sulawesi, and helped distinguish Sulu and Mindanao from the central and northern Philippines, where Islam had not yet penetrated.

at night.

There

The

natives always cover their bodies with short shirts.

Ugly In contrast to the

is

profit [there].

the fragrance of sandalwood growing in water.

cannot be eas由looked

in appearance, they

Western Archipelago,

large

at.36

emporia did not develop on the islands that

produced these rare and valuable products because of limited anchorage for large ships, a shortage of drinking water, and frequently inadequate food supplies. Until the arrival of Europeans in the early sixteenth century, spices and sandalwood were carried to the ports of east Java and Melaka on small boats manned by people from the island of Banda, Malays, Javanese, as well as Chinese based on Java.

With

the rapid development of arms

technology, sulphur became a major trade commodity because

The Eastern Archipelago

this aspect

Ocean ..

down

Exposing themselves to danger, the merchants seek

The growth of these trade-based religious networks was facilitated because the Sulu and Sulawesi seas acted as a highway linking the Sulu archipelago, northern Borneo, northern and southwest Sulawesi, and Mindanao

in the Southeastern

is

hot during the day and cools

It is

southern Philippines.

was

Chinese observer in the early fifteenth centu巧to compose a poem: Chi-li [Timor]

between the northern Philippine Islands and the Sulu archipelago. As an important exchange point with close links to Melaka, Brunei hosted Muslim merchants who were

It

it

was an

essential ingredi-

this

producing♂mpowder. The island of Flores in the Eastern Lesser Sundas was a major source of sulphur, collected from the craters of inactive volcanoes and shipped to

in international trade, distribution and

Melaka. Such trade links served as a conduit for the spread of Islamic ideas, for in the early

ent in

Beyond Java

hundreds of islands that make up the Eastern Archipelago. Though

lie

region yielded

some

collecting points

the

most coveted items

were distant from the major maritime routes. Climatic conditions were

generally unsuitable for rice cultivation,

together with sago from certain species

and root crops, notably varieties of taro and yams, of palm tree, comprised the staple carbohydrates.

For maritime travel a可pe of long-lasting hardtack made from sago flour was o丘en the most convenient form of nutrition. However, in some areas of eastern Indonesia even this

degree of food production was

difficult.

For example, the mountain peaks that form

Maluku islands of Ternate and Tidore are simply the tops of mountains rooted to the ocean floor and have little arable land. Food supplies, which relied heavily on controlling

the

tracts of sago

palms on the larger neighboring island of Halmahera, were never

to support large

sufficient

sixteenth century

Tome Pires

recorded that the Sultan of Ternate was nominally Muslim,

although most of his subjects had

little

knowledge of Islamic teachings.

communities in the Banda Islands were beginning to adopt some Muslim practices, there is evidence of burial (obligatory for Muslims) rather than cremation and an

coastal

since

absence of pig bones (pork

is

a forbidden food in Islam) in

A few places

are

mentioned

in the Javanese

number, have survived only from

where

commerce because they were the natural home of unique plants found nowhere else in the world. The Maluku archipelago was the only known source of the trees from which came the great spice triad of clove, nutmeg, and mace that fetched high prices on the international market. The forests of clove trees from five small northern Maluku islands off the west coast of Halmahera, including Ternate and Tidore, provided

through legendary kinship

in global

nutmeg

trees of the

Banda Islands

to the south of

Ambon

produced

a nut

covered by a red filament, the respective origins of nutmeg and mace. Further south, at由e fringe of the Indonesian archipelago, lies the island group later known as the Eastern Lesser Sundas and today as Nusatenggara Timor.

Though

arid

and inhospitable

sites.

with the

local texts, very limited in

earliest

dated to the seventeenth

indigenous conceptions of unity created lasting links

ive cultures

cloves; the

Desawarnana, but

later times,

interaction,

prominence

mortuary

Despite the importance of this unique zone, a chronological narrative that encompasses the entire Eastern Archipelago cannot be constructed on the basis of current knowledge.

areas of the Eastern Archipelago assumed

some

also appears that

century. Nevertheless, the connecting seas did operate as arenas of economic

numbers of people.

Despite these apparent disadvantages,

It

for

much

ties.

An

example of the ways

in

and

between

cultural distinct-

which individual

communities sought to establish mutually beneficial relationships can be fo山1d in north-

em

a‘'family" of four Maluku, where the early Portuguese recorded a local tradition of kingdoms - Ternate, Tidore,如ilolo, and Bacan - founded by individuals born of eggs "four" from the same sacred naga (serpent). Together these island kingdoms formed the pillars,

36

the

number four syi丑bolizing Maluku’s unity and completeness. The Maluku world

Cited in Roderick Ptak,“Some References to 1983), 38.

Timor

in

Old Chinese Records,”Ming Studies 17

(Fall

lll

112

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511

ASIA, 1400-1830

was dominated by the kingdoms of Ternate and Tidore, whose extensive maritime links that stretched from Sulawesi to the Birdshead in West New Guinea made them an

也3阳loprne川n rnai川叫叫“

important presence in the Eastern Archipelago.

The major competitors of these Maluku kingdoms were the Bugis and Makassar polities from the southwest peninsula of Sulawesi. This peninsula stands apart from the

As

general depiction of the Eastern Archipelago as a zone of fragmented geography and small populations. The lands inhabited by the Bugis and Makassar people contain areas

determining factor in shaping local

of

of the Irrawaddy River, the

and are served by one of the best ports in the Eastern Archipelago at Makassar. Blessed with abundant food supplies and access to the wealth of maritime trade, the Bugis and Makassarese came to play a dominant role in the affairs of the Eastern Archipelago and beyond. From around fertile plains well suited to

wet-rice agriculture,

1400 a general pattern of agricultural expansion and increased trade throughout lowland southwest Sulawesi fostered the development of several small polities that were alterna- tively at

war or

in alliance.

Although Makassar did not emerge

as a

major port

until the

sixteenth centu町,archaeological evidence, including extensive ceramic finds, points

to

contact with China and India from early times. Maritime connections with Java and Sumatra explain the adoption of an Indic script later used to record oral traditions and court chronicles. The foremost example of this oral heritage is the great Bugis epic La Galigo,

which

ancestors.

relates the ancient past

As an

through legendary

orally transmitted text,

it

stories attached to semi-divine

underwent changes over time and

therefore

poses a problem as a source for a precise historical period. It can nonetheless convey some understanding of how the past was perceived and does provide valuable data about

customs and

rituals,

especially those surrounding birth, marriage,

and

it

the divine position of male-female unity.

As guardians of

to the spirit world, the bissu presided over all

the regalia and as conduits

major ceremonies and continued

maintain a high position in Bugis society even a丘er the adoption of Islam in the

to

early

seventeenth century. Historians have found

region because of

Yet

if

its

it

difficult to

numerous

approach the Eastern Archipelago

islands, contrasting

the seas are viewed as a connecting

and

highway

as a coherent

environments, and diverse

cultures.

that allowed for the circulation of

how Ternate and Tidore exerted their influence over distant islands and to appreciate why Bugis and Makassar traders had such a prominent economic and cultural presence. Nonetheless, in many areas of the Eastern people, objects,

Archipelago the

ideas,

it is

easier to

understand

of the far-reaching changes that characterize the early modern period in island Southeast Asia were muted. It is therefore not surprising to note the effects

persistence of certain features considered characteristic of ancient Austronesian cultures, such as the strength of dualism (mountain-sea, sun-moon, man-woman, light-dark, right-left)

and the number four which

is

associated with wholeness.

helpful to approach the history of mainland Southeast

it is

Asia by thinking in terms of geographical zones, since environmental conditions were a

present-day

Myanmar, comprises

the

The Western Mainland, which covers highland areas, the central lowlands on either side societies.

downstream region along the

delta

and the

coasts,

and

Rakhine (Arakan) in the west. The Central Mainland can be identified with contemporary Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, but in the early modern period it refers to the watershed of the

River, the highlands occupied

Chao Phraya

by the northern

Tai, the Lao,

and various

other upland peoples, and the northern areas of the Malay Peninsula. The Eastern Mainland incorporates areas that are basically coterminous with present-day Vietnam:

Red River basin and surrounding uplands, the eastern half of the Annamite mountain chain, the coastal lowlands, and the Mekong Delta. In all these areas control over the the

major

rivers, particularly

the

more navigable reaches near the

direct access to the agricultural

riverine control

lowlands and thus

coast, gave ambitious rulers

to rice surpluses.

At the same time,

provided a gateway to the sea and to the maritime trade which was a

source of wealth and advanced technology, but which was also a channel for

new cultural

influences.

The飞V estern Mainland

death. For

describes the prominent role of the bissu, the “transgender" ritual leaders who, in seeking the intercession of the gods to assure the fertility of the land, embody instance,

in island Southeast Asia,

Shaped

like a

horse-shoe, the highlands that surround the elongated basin of the great

Irrawaddy River were occupied by tribal peoples who lived by swidden or

“slash

and burn"

agriculture and wet-rice cultivation. Sedentary populations developed in some intermon- tane river valleys where communities cultivated irrigated rice, adopted Buddhism, and

established

more

hierarchical socio-political structures, although physical distance

com-

bined with long-standing rivalries undermined any efforts towards unity under a single overlord. Larger groups such as the Chin, the Karen,

and the Kachin

are occasionally

mentioned, but their histories remain impressionistic and ethnic designations problem- atic. Somewhat more detailed are sources dealing with the various Tai-speaking upland groups, collectively referred to as“Shan," and including other peoples that

name, who lived in scattered settlements interspersed

who no longer bear

in the valleys

between the

north-south mountain chains. Rakhine, which was separated from

Myanmar

proper by the high

by

range,

was more

plains.

Located in a low-lying and flood-prone delta dissected by

accessible

from Bengal,

particularly

sea,

Y oma mountain

than丘om

many

the Irrawaddy

rivers

and many

small offshore islands, Rakhine was not an easy region to control, or a desirable conquest. However, a new chapter in its history began in 1430 when the royal astrologers advised the

ll3

114 {盹

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

new settlement further inland. The

ruler to establish a

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511

site selected,

Mrauk U, was located

about 45 miles (70 kilometers) up the Kaladan River in the center of a

fertile plain suitable

The literary name given to Rakhine in the chronicles,“Dhanawati,”in means “rich in grain.”37 Mountain chains and uplands provided natural defenses from

for rice cultivation. fact

from the coast gave protection from seasonal cyclones but pro且t from the expanding maritime trade. This favorable

attack, while the distance

permitted

Mrauk



to

its

Buddhist rulers adopted Islamic-style

titles

and minted coinage modeled

British later

dry season and

after that

termed “Upper Burma,”was more favored for

its fertile soils

downstream region

human settlement and

(akriy), in part

because

benefited from an extensive irrigation system.

it

had

The

a long

ability to

number of people ensured Upper Myanmar’s demographic dominance. location, Ava could monitor traffic along the river systems that watered the

feed a growing

Because of its

rich agricultural

Kyaukse

area,

succession of able leaders.

where

By

irrigation

works were repaired and extended under a

the fourteenth century the cotton plant, presumably

introduced from India, was being widely cultivated in the dry zone because it required less water than rice and it eventually became an important trade item with China. Ava is

noted for the expansion of writing in the Burmese language

which had frequently been used religious texts,

(at the

expense of Mon,

in Pagan), including poetry, chronicles,

law codes, and

some of which were composed by high-born women. Economic and

diplomatic relations with China were sustained and the Buddhist connections with

Lanka contributed to

was by no means

Ava’s reputation as a center for

all-powerful.

The

Myanm町、“Great Chronicle" (Mahayazawingyi) ridge of the

Yoma

range was established as their

the east belonging to the

Burmese and those

Mon polity of Ramaiiiiadesa to

on the

also treated

common

Rakhine

as

an

in

equal. The

border, with trees leaning

modern Shan

apart,

spanning the

The

China, including the imperial court. military capacity

emerged

as

one of the

allied

and amber. Carried over land on mules and the small

hardy Shan ponies, these luxury items found a ready market

Mit’s

Mohnyin borders of modern

and the periodically

and enabled its

it

among wealthy

buyers in

Mong

exchange strengthened

silver received in

Though the an“aboriginal woman,”Mong Mit

to incorporate additional peoples.

female leader as

fi丘eenth century’s strongest

upland

polities.

38

A similar movement towards territorial growth occurred in Mohnyin/Mogaung, which Mong Mit by expanding at the expense of their old overlord Ava and

challenged their rival

Manipur and Assam (in modern India). Because made mountain paths into Yunnan increasingly unsafe, the Ming

by launching expeditions as recurring conflicts

far as

dynasty sought to assert control over these border areas, but with

little

success.

Both

Mong Mit and Mohnyin/Mogaung continued to extend their control across much of the uplands and down to the plains, and Chinese sources speak in awe of Shan armies consisting of thousands of men and as many as a hundred elephants. The Mogaung/ Mohnyin region

also benefited

formerly powerful

Mong Mao

from the

flight

of leading families and followers from the

a丘er its final defeat

by Ming

forces.

Faced with the constant threat of Shan raiding, Ava was unable to maintain the profitable overland trade links with China. Settlements in the

waterways and roadways meet" were

much

upland Shan areas “where

frequented by Chinese, for here, noted an

and things of the barbarian lands are all produced.”39 Some Chinese traders became permanent settlers, and along the commercial routes of the upper Mekong their acculturation through marriage to local women was described imperial envoy,“the utensils

in

Ming records

as“getting

on the

houses of upland communities).40 southern

Mon count可of

participation in

bamboo house"

stilted

Ava was

(a reference to the pole-

also unable to assert authority over the

Ramaiiiiadesa (see below), and thus benefit by greater

maritime trade. As a

result,

it

was more dependent than

its

predecessor

to

frontier with

came from the uplands,

especially from

China where neither the suzerainty

38

of

Gems, Chinese Silver and the Rise of Shan Principalities in Northern Burma, c. 1450一1527,”in Geoff Wade and Sun Laichen, eds., Southeast Asia in the Fifteenthαntury: the China Factor (Singapore/Hong Kong: NUS Press/Hong Kong University Press, 2010), 181. Cited in Sun Laichen,“Shan

Cited in Christian Daniels, Rol,巳of Technologicalτransfer,'丁,The

Jacques Leider, '‘Arakan’S Ascent during the Mrauk U Period,”in Recalling Local Pasts: Autonomous History in Southeast As仰,Sunait Chutintaranond and Chris Baker, eds. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, (

2002), 67.

State)

able to dominate surrounding settlements because of their

profitable trade in rubies, jade,

39罗

37

between southwest China and Myanmar. However, other

(in the

to the west to Rakhine.

serious challenge to Ava's ambitions

inaccessible areas

Sri

Buddhist learning. Nonetheless, Ava

ruler of the ethnically

the south was seen as an equal, a“soul mate,”and an agreement in 1454 described

more

Mit

Chinese scathingly dismissed

agriculture than the Irrawaddy’s

the

Mong

Myanmar and Yunnan) were

confluence of the Irrawaddy and a major tributary, with inscriptions giving the date as 1364. As the history of Pagan shows, this area, which the Burmese called upstream (anya)

A more

centers, like

and Mogaung (about 50 miles or 80 kilometers

There were other important developments in the Irrawaddy Valley. A丘er the decline of Pagan in the late thirteenth centu町,Burmans established a new center at Ava at the

also

in the frontier region

site

of Bengal.

and the

Mao

still

remained the Rakhine capital for another three centuries until 1785, when it was con- quered by the Burmese. In the fi丘eenth century, however, the greatest influence on Rakhin的style of government came from the prestigious Muslim sultanate of Bengal,

and

Ava nor the Ming court could be imposed in any kind of lasting basis over persistently nominal Shan vassals. In 1448 Ming armies had destroyed the powerful polity of Mong

Memoirs of the Research Departmεntof thεTO)卢O Bunko 58

1丁. 4°

Cited in Sun Laichen,飞1ing-Sou出east Asian Overland Interactions 1368-1644”(PhD由esis, University of Michigan, 2000), 211.

(2000),

MODERN SOUTHEAST

116”、A HISTORY OF EARLY Pagan on expanding

much

ASIA, 1400-1830

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511

Here too there were problems, because so ground was held by tax-free religious estates and thus yielded no

cultivable

revenue for royal

agricultural base.

its

coffers.

Continuing Shan raids and a decline in available agricultural land ( due to donations to monastic establishments and possibly increasing desiccation) encouraged Burmans to migrate southwards to Prome (Pyay) and Taungoo. These two Burman settlements formally rendered allegiance to Ava, but their leaders governed as sovereign lords. They may have resembled Ava in ethnic composition, administration, and support for Bud-

dhism, but long-standing

1503 Ava

lost the rich

in 1527 the capital

rivalries

and animosities eventually

a confederation of

Shan

open

Myanmar to

rice-growing Kyaukse plains of Upper

was taken by

led to

polities

warfare. In

Taungoo, and

under the leadership

of

Mohnyin. In the fi丘eenth century the

downstream

polity of Ramaiiiiadesa

formidable challenge to the upstream region since stretched

down

the peninsula with a

from the expanding Indian Ocean because

it

it

number of competing trade.

was able

all

Martaban enjoyed an Asia-wide



as the capital of Ramaiiiiadesa,

reputation

and gave

ships.

its

The

name

to

the entire southern region. It

Burmans by

areas.

The Mons of

by their

hairstyles

to a sense of difference

between the

upriver

Khmer

and

dress,

to live “misdirected lives”by trading or acting like

laymen would be expelled from their monastery.41 During his visit to Pegu in 1505, an Italian traveler remarked on“the go and come,”the “good houses"

He was

“extremely powerful”ruler.

wealth; the king

and

palaces,

and the

particularly impressed

was so covered with gold and

many ships that army commanded by the

by the

visible display of royal

precious stones that“by a light at night, he

much that he appears to be a sun.”42 Yet though Pegu emerged as a genuine rival to the Upper Myanmar polities, the generally swampy and malarial lands limited rice cultivation and therefore population growth. One of Dhammazedi’s own inscriptions even shines so

acknowledged that the rainy season was“beyond doubt







excessive.”43

Between the

and sixteenth centuries the Mons organized several campaigns against their Upper Myanmar rivals, but were unable to extend their supremacy northwards, where rice fourteenth

surpluses supported a substantial population

and thus

far larger armies.

The Central Mainland The Chao Phraya Basin, bounded by mountains and uplands, forms a natural geographic unit in the Central Mainland that is only easily accessible from the southeast and south. By the fourteenth century this region

had become the domain of Tai-speaking peoples

from the present-day Sino- Vietnamese border region and other Austro-Asiatic-speaking peoples. The early

riverine systems

into areas inhabited

by the

Ayutthaya,

Mon

rather than to Tibeto-Burman or the Tai

most durable of the n山口erous Tai muang, is known only through various accounts recorded in later Thai chronicles and European repo口s. On

and by the lack of tattoos common among

the basis of these sources, historians believe that

the southern region were distinguished from the

their language (related to

linguistic family),

monks who continued

moving down the

was not only geography that contributed

and downriver

“sinful"

that

as“martabans”)

over Southeast Asia for storing water, especially on

town of Pegu eventually emerged

mount

ports well placed to benefit

produced the large black or brown earthenware vessels (known

that were transported

to

incorporated a long coastline

Those

history of

the

an enterprising individual named

Burman men. Because Upper Myanmar lords were preoccupied with Shan raiding, Pegu was generally free from Burman incursions, reaching the apogee of its political and cultural prestige under the only known female ruler, Shin Saw Bu (r. 1453-72), and her successor King Dhammazedi (r. 1472-92). The revenues that came from international

U Thong (reputed to be出e son of a Chinese merchant and a Tai-speaking mother) established the kingdom of A归tthaya around 1351 by negotiating advantageous mar-

trade supported the construction of great pagodas, the

ment’s success

and the Shwemawdaw

U Thong is

of the White

right to the throne.

equal to her

in the

town of Pe伊itself.

Elephant,'’a clear association

She

is

Shwedagon at the port of Yangon Shin Saw Bu assumed the title“Mistress

with Buddhist iconography, to proclaim her

even said to have g过ded the spire of the Shwedagon with gold

own weight.

also be distraction

Yet for Dhammazedi, himself a former monk, this wealth could from a meritorious path. Concerned about the material preoccupations

of the sangha and the predicted decline of Buddhism, he sent

monks仕om Pegu

to join

riages由at gained

him

the support of the ruling families of two nearby muang.

Composed two hundred

of merit),

years later, chronicles from A归tthaya note that the settle-

had been predicted by the Buddha himself. As a classic “founder-figu贱” depicted not merely as a man of superhuman g的s, but as a phumibun (a man

whose settlement

is

destined for success, since

new

Buddha. In more pragmatic terms, the

it is

located near a footprint of the

settlement benefited from

its

location at the

confluence of several major rivers. These not only watered the wet-rice growing plains but gave easy access to the coast

and thus

U Thong (ruling as King Ramathibodi

I,

facilitated participation in

1351一69) succeeded in

maritime commerce.

making Ayutthaya

into a

other Buddhist leaders from mainland Southeast Asia in a mission to Sri Lanka, where

they were re-ordained. In Pegu a royal proclamation composed in 1479 to honor this event also included a “if

you

warning to monks accused of worldly activities.“Sirs,”the

are really

imbued with

faith,

you

will

inscription ran,

endeavor to give up your gold,

silver,

such other treasure, corn, elephants, horses, oxen, buffaloes, male and female

41

42

and

slaves.”

43

The Kalyani Inscriptions Erected by King Dhammaceti at Pegu in 1476 AD. Text and translation (Rangoon: Government Printing, Burma 1892), 102. John Winter Jones, ed. The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema, AD 1503-1508 (H也luyt Socie句,London 1863; reprinted, 1963), 215 The Kalyani Inscr伊tions, 64.

n7

118

A HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511

major regional entrepot, primarily because of links to the Chinese trading communities around the Gulf of Siam. A严1tthaya exported resins and aromatic woods to China and, like several

as

other Southeast Asian ports, supplied the ruler of Ryukyu with products such

sappanwood and pepper, which were then

an imperial

Ayutthaya was

rescript,

to

China was dispatched

in 13 71.

on to China as

regarded favorably by the

Chinese

role as a distribution center for

sent

textiles

Ming

first official

mission

see the potential

for

chronicles even mention that canals were dredged

to provide ships with easier access to the city. Chinese visitors also appreciated the

hospitality they received

from

local

communities.

He's voyages thus wrote,“When (Siamese)

A soldier included in several of Zheng

women meet

our

men from

the Middle

Kingdom, they ve巧much like them: they are sure to serve wine and treat them respect and由ey sing with pleasure and [ask them] to stay for the night.”44 Effectively

with

including

The resettlement of captured populations solidified A归tthaya' s demographic dominance, and a fi丘eenth-century poem,“The Defeat of the Yuan," proudly celebrates the victories of King Trailok

northern uplands:“See

1448-88) over the forces of the

(r.

hands

their

tied, are pulled along the road

they are exhausted they are bartered by our

men

rival

of Lan

Na

in the

Lan Na, which was ultimately

and provided some

Trailok’s

by horses and when

muang

(with the notable

able to withstand



its

long reign gradually formalized

institutional continuity even

when

rulers

social

were weak. The

“Law of Civil Hierarchy,'’for example, used the quantified measure of "field power” (sakdina) to assign

all

subjects apart

from the

ruler a certain

number of sakdina

points

meant

were subject to greater scrutiny and thus

their activities

enhanced prestige of A严1tthayan kingship was

central element in the

monkhood

for eight

months, modeling his ordination

been further enhanced by the discovery of a white elephant ( the

momentous

event).

place for Ayutthaya's kings, including Trailok himself,

Buddha

was regarded

that

that

dominant

Lan Na

the territo叩adjoining

(Tanintharyi) in the south.

by the

Tai polity in the region,

fact that, as the Portu驴1ese

gifts

to the

A归tthaya

claim that Melaka Ayutthaya’s

ruler.

This deputation

and Java were among

dominance

its

in the Central

may have

Although

it

was always possible

for powerful ministers

and

military

their royal allies to

affairs.

become

45

A. B. Griswold

support relatively

Cornell University Press, 1976), 152.

is

contributed to the later Thai

muang alliances that had developed in

Divided into numerous river valleys where rice-growing could large settlements, the physical environment of the uplands encouraged

the rise of many small Tai polities.

The Ming court regarded these as

47

and northeast of modern Thailand

Laos were gradually drawn together under the umbrella of a

by languages more closely related

distinctive scripts,

In this region

46

muang, located

threatened Chinese intervention, and periodic inter-muang warfare, the peoples

distinguished

by

distant

troublesome vassals, and was quick to threaten overland trade routes were disrupted. Yet despite geographic segmen-

on the periphery of the Chinese Empire,

the

and Prasert Na Nagara,“A Siamese Historical Poem," in Southeast Asian History and Historiography: Essays presented to D. G. E. Hall, C. D. Cowan and O. W. Wolters, eds. (Ithaca:

and Tenasserim

the northern uplands.

Griswold and Griswold and

and by shared

to each other

common

culture

than to the Central Thai,

localized Buddhist practices.

Ayutthaya' s most obvious rival was the polity of Lan Na. Even the eulogy

earth praised His Fei Hsin, Hsing-ch 'a-sheng-lan, 43.

fifteenth

authority reaching from

Mainland, however, did not go unquestioned,

and it faced persistent challenges from the powerful

to Trailok’s victories

44

its

tributaries.

into

and of

protector.

commander Afonso de Albuquerque was some Chinese merchants to carry a letter

instituted through the “Law of Military

as minister of the south

and

a magnificent

preparing to attack Melaka in July 1511, he asked

demonstrations of loyalty and service. Another significant administrative change was

and the Kalahom

housed

importance as a center for maritime trade

inhabiting the uplands that stretch across the north

civil affairs,

later

in the north to the ports of Tavoy (Dawei)

Ayutthaya' s

tation,

and of

record of such a

were proliferating across the Central Mainland. By the end of the

century Ayutthaya was the

indicated

first

founding, Ayutthaya had been simply one of a number of Tai

In 1351, at the time of its

muang

and

as the kingdom’s guardian

punishment when

overarching ministries with separate jurisdictions: the Mahatthai as minister of the north

a丘er that of the

constructed inside the royal complex became a burial

One temple he

connected to the ruler were allocated the highest sakdina rank, and thus encouraged created two

Trailok’s

Buddha himself and marking an occasion that“brought bliss to the kingdom and the news caused all mankind to strew flowers [in celebration].”46 In 1471 his prestige would have

that established their place in the social order. Individuals associated with the court or

and Provincial Hierarchies,”which

located

the potential for challenges.

even entered the

attacks) was

series of adminis-

itself

Kalahom and Mahathai were

sponsorship of Buddhism and the great merit he accumulated through religious donations and support for the sangha, the community of ordained monks and nuns. In 1465 Trailok

and

not only due to military prowess, but also to internal consolidation.

reforms introduced during King

...

for liquor."45

A严1tthaya's assertion of authority over other powerful its

muang

how our men follow the enemy eveηrwhere to surround them!

The prisoners of war, with

hierarchies



standing

Sukhothai.

trative

minimized

employing the weapons and firepower acquired through international trade,

Ayutthaya mounted a succession of campaigns against other Tai muang,

exception of

A归tthaya

in

a recipient of

court because of its

and ceramics, and the

A yutthaya’s leaders were quick to

new commercial opportunities, and the

As

tribute.

center of resistance to a ruler, the fact that both the

and

Yuan" acknowledged that while “heaven and the arrogant foe (the ruler of Lan Na) swaggered."47 The

his “defeat of the

Majesty

...

Na Nagara,“A Na Nagara,“A

Siamese Historical Poem,”144. Siamese Historical Poem," 144

【吨ll9

120

酝飞?

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

name“Lan Na,”apparently first employed used over the following decades as the rivals to

region.

become Lan Na's

Chiang

in the fourteenth century,

muang

of Chiang

capital, the religious

Mai’s religious leadership

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511

ASIA, 1400一1830

and

Mai

became more widely

eclipsed

and

defeated

its

political leader of the northern Tai

was enhanced by royal support

for a compara-

and scholarly Buddhist order of Sri Lankan origin, which came to dominate other monastic orders and create a Buddhist network closely linked to the royal capital. tively ascetic

In 1477 Chiang

Mai gained even

greater

prominence during the lengthy reign of King

who convened a great assembly of monks to revise the Tipitaka. Originally written down in the sacred language of Pali over a period of time beginning in Tilokarat (1441一87),

the

first

centu巧BCE, these texts had spread from

Sri

Fi事ire 3.3. Fifteenth-century

fourteenth

Lanka into mainland Southeast Asia,

there

mammoth task of

eight

but in the process discrepant versions had developed. In sponsoring the

bowl

from northern Thailand. Between the

and sixteenth centuries

were kilns operating in at least locations in northern Thailand. Kiln construction, production

reviewing the Tipitaka in order to eliminate unacceptable accretions, Tilokarat - “renowned in all quarters" says one text,“as the Universal Monarch" - was registering

techniques,

his claim to leadership in the Tai

shapes, and glazes. This bowl comes from the Kalong area, where about a hundred kilns produced some of the most beautiful Thai ceramics, known for their fine clay and soft green glaze

Tilokarat’s

came during thousand

concern to sponsor

Buddhist world.48 this

extremely meritorious act

is

significant because

a period of concern about the religion’s survival for the specified

it

five

A revered jadeite statue known as the Emerald Buddha, believed to have

years.

been carved in ancient times under the direction of a great Buddhist

sage,

was taken from

and designs suggest links with China, although each northern kiln site had its own types of clay,

with abstract designs of birds or bats. Photograph courtesy of Pamela

more northerly muang and installed in Chiang Mai. The belief that it was endowed with supernatural powers and the prophecy that it would confer prosperity to those who possessed it, seemed to be fulfilled by Tilokarat’s m且ita巧victories. Facilitated by his

Watkins.



apparent that Luang Prabang was a句pical mandala polity governed by individuals

incorporation of Chinese-style cannon and firearms, these conquests extended Lan

it is

Na

who emerged as“men (and sometimes women) of prowess,”who could nonetheless be

control into the Shan areas. For a brief period he even controlled the polity of

Sipsongpanna

(literally “twelve districts,”now in

Yunnan), a region rich

in silver and

iron ore mines. In 1479 the Chinese court rewarded Tilokarat’s successful repulse of

Vietnamese attack by awarding him the of the

Mekong

title

“[pre-eminent] ruler in the

West"

(i.e.



west

Like Lan Na, the Tai federation of Lan Sang in the mountainous region of modern Laos shifting alliances

rice-cultivating intermontane plains.

between autonomous muang that developed

in the

By the end of the fourteenth centu巧the principali可

Luang Prabang had emerged as the leader of this Lao federation, its preeminence symbolized by possession of the famed standing Buddha image, Phra Bang. Lan Sang’s of

manpower thirty

strength at this time

thousand

invasion.

men and



is

suggested by a recorded claim that

hundred elephants

to assist

Although conflicting chronicle accounts make

it

was

able to offer

Dai Viet against

a Chinese

historical reconstruction

difficult,

by other individuals who

several

met

49""

N. A. Jayawickrarna, The Sheaf of Garlands of the Epochs of the Conquero九being a translation of the JinakalamalTpakaranam of Rata觅觅apanna Thera of Thailand (London: Pali Text Society, 1968), 134.

David K. Wyatt and Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, The Chiang Mai Chronicle (Bangkok: Silkworm Books, 1995), 100

and

own

followers.

As many

factional disputes within the

as fourteen elite

meant

violent deaths.

ruler

who managed

(1438-79), the

first

Lao ruler

to maintain his position in

Luang Prabang was Vangburi

to ass山ne a Buddhist title出at included a

Lao translation of

the Pali cakkavatti, the “universal [Buddhist] monarch." During his long reign, members of the royal family were appointed as regional governors, and ashes of his relatives were often housed in monasteries constructed along the banks of the Mekong. Luang Prabang

developed into an important center for Buddhist learning as the

movement

of monks,

images, and texts between monasteries helped to connect geographically distant Tai

muang. But Vangburi's perceived temerity in addressing the Dai Viet ruler as“younger brother" and “nephew" as an indication of his superior status was condemned by the Viet as "arrogance" and led directly to the invasion in 1479. Much of Lan Sang was overrun and, as noted earlier, Tilokarat of

48

attracted their

kings are listed for the fifteenth century,

One

River)卢

was comprised of

challenged

recognition of his years Buddhist

and his

tributaries' role in repulsing the

monks assumed

were close relations with

Lan Na eventually received Chinese commendation

in

Dai Viet army. In the following

leadership in Lan Sang’s reconstruction, but while there

A yutthaya and Chiang Mai monasteries, Buddhism in Lan Sang

HISTORY OF EARLY如tODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

122

THE BEGINNING OF THE

retained strong local connections. Indigenous traditions of spirit veneration were absorbed into Buddhist practices

from the

and the

earliest

known

inscription in Lao rather than Pali date

late fifteenth century.

now modern Cambodia, the great Khmer kingdom of enormous power. We know little of Khmer experiences during the

In the extended plains of what

Angkor once wielded

is

fourteenth and fi丘eenth centuries because the historical records for this period are

so

.EARLY

between the forested mountains to the west and the sea to the

Cham peoples, whose “upstream-downstream”economies

the

MODERN

more on

relied

pendent settlements located in the estuaries and upriver, and political control never coalesced under

one authority. Ruins of Hindu monuments and written

Cham

Lan Sang, was said

and Panduranga) emerged in different periods as significant mandala in their

because they had appropriated old Angkorian

Angkorian

sites

and used

lintels

and

The legacy of

Angkor’s influence was particularly evident in the court culture of its

founding had mounted periodic raids into Cambodia.

In

1431 following a major campaign Ayutthaya occupied a weakened Angkor, the culmin- ation of a long process of Tai expansion

prisoners taken back to

and Angkorian

Ayutthaya

were high

and performers. Khmer influence was evident

political contraction.

Among the

officials, religious figures, artisans,

and

in a symbolic transference

of authority, power-laden Angkorian statues were removed and reestablished in Ayutthaya.

The sacking of Angkor

move

in 1431

may

have been the catalyst in the Khmer decision

the royal capital southwards to

confluence of the

Mekong

Sea via a large tributary

Phnom

Penh. The

latter

was located

at the

River and the Tonle Sap, and had access to the South China

river.

Angkor

still

growing heartland and religious significance

ment of

this river port suggests that the

retained economic importance in the

rice-

as a revered p且grimage site, but the establish-

Khmer were

anxious to gain greater access

to

maritime commerce. The growing Chinese community opened up new commercial opportunities, while

from proximity

talk

Cham kingdom,

Phnom Penh attracted overland trade仕om the interior and benefited

to the rich rice-growing areas

into a cosmopolitan entrepot

and a potential

around the Tonle Sap. rival to

recover the extensive territory and the authority of

its

A yutthaya,

It

soon developed

but was never able

to

Angkorian predecessors.

allies

own

right.

or rivals and had never coalesced into a

even though contempora巧and modern historical records 0位en

about a single“Champa.” Viet’s

history of a

more

unified government, at the end of the

Tran faced growing opposition. Alternating droughts,

floods,

and

food shortages exacerbated discontent as an expanding peasant population eked out a living

on limited arable land. These problems were compounded by

the royal family

conflicts within

and intermittent warfare with the Cham, whose invasions even

trated as far as the capital

pe肘’

of Thang Long (Hanoi) and the various highland Tai polities

to the west.

A major change in the relationships

in the Eastern

Mainland occurred with the

Ming

imperial

dynasty, which revived Chinese ambitions to incorporate Dai Viet realm. In 1407 Dai Viet was defeated and occupied by Ming forces,

depicted

by Vietnamese chronicles

出e

was

installed, military

as a

time of unmitigated

rise

of

into the a period

A Chinese governor

disaster.

conscription introduced, and serious efforts undertaken to

make the

people more“ci世lized,”时,in other words, like the Chinese. Locally produced books expressing

any sense of a separate southern kingdom were deemed ?heterodox”;some

were confiscated and destroyed on the orders of the

Ming Emperor,

while other literary

and historical texts simply disappeared. Intense Viet opposition and a ten-year revolt led by

a frontier leader

named Le

Loi (said to be an upland

man丘om

the

Muong

group) culminated in the expulsion of the Chinese in 1428. This success attributable to the fact that the

knowledge, as well as from the battle in

Vietnamese were able

skills

to benefit

now

in part

of Chinese prisoners and captured weapons. In one

1426 three thousand Dai Viet soldiers reportedly killed

few weapons,

is

ethnic

from Chinese military at least出irty

Chinese soldiers, and captured another ten thousand. As Le Loi put

The Eastern Mainland

source

(identified as Indrapura, Amaravati, Vijaya, Kauthara,

Shan polities, they were alternatively

Notwithstanding Dai

in the artistic forms, dance, lan思iage, and

the style of kingship associated with the A严1tthayan court,

to

single

Cham polities

fourteenth century the

Ayutthaya, which since

Khmer

Like the

bricks taken from

ruins.

The

fragmented terrain in which they lived encouraged the development of numerous inde-

suggest that several

venerated remained sacred; some Theravada wats (temples) were surrounded by a moat

of

trade with

wet-rice agriculture.

meager, but Angkor’s cultural heritage was formidable. Fa Ngum, the legendary founder of to have taken a wife from Angkor and some chronicles claim that Buddhism was introduced when she asked her husband to bring Buddhist monks and scriptures from Cambodia. In Cambodia itself the places where Hindu gods were once

home

This was the

east.

commerce than on

groups living in the highlands and maritime

ERA, 1400-1511但、12

it,“In

thousand

the past

we had

up like clouds, armors shine against the sun, gunpowder is stored full. Comparing the past to出e present, [the change] strong is apparent.”so The victory over the Chinese marked a new chapter, [our] warships line

firearms p且e up,

The most populous

polity in the Eastern

Mainland was Dai

Viet,

where the construction

of dikes and irrigation canals had transformed the plains surrounding the Red River and its

tributaries into a rich rice-growing region.

centuries the Tran dynasty

beyond

their

domain

lay

During the thirteenth and had extended control over most of this area but to the south numerous smaller river valleys located on由e narrow strip

fourteenth

from weak to for in the

words of

a fi丘eenth-century text,“The soil

is

again the

soil

kingdom. The people are again the people of the Viet race. Coats and 5°

Cited in Sun,“Chinese

Gunpowder

Technology,'’l 15n. 89.

of the Southern

skirts

and customs

124

(r时h

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 are in agreement.

The moral and political order is

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA,

established as of old."51

With the return

of peace, increased rice production led to population expansion, particularly into

Men

released

were encouraged to

settle in

coastal areas.

was thus opened up

for

from army the lightly

more

1400-1511

the

service, including

non-Viet followers of Le Loi, inhabited areas of the lower Red River Delta which

intense rice cultivation.

Nevertheless, though the Chinese were expelled, their cultural influence was long- lasting because of the centuries of

an

occupation of the Viet lands. The new Le dynasty (1428-1789) founded by Le Loi continued to look to China for political and earlier

cultural models. While measures imposed by the Chinese during the Ming occupation to promote bureaucratic unity facilitated the ongoing Viet campaign to replicate the Chinese model, trends were strengthened during the long reign of the ruler generally known by his

posthumous

title,

Le Thanh Tong (1460-97). His

society in accordance with Confucian teachings

efforts to reshape the government and were unflagging.“Don’t say that a king

has nothing to do," he wrote,‘'Thousands of complicated problems constantly absorb him."52 Early in his reign he ordered officials of twelve provinces to produce detailed maps

showing the mountains and easy travel.

By

rivers,

including dangerous areas and those that allowed

for

1469, only four decades a丘er the expulsion of Chinese forces, a modified

Ming administration system was well in place and as a sign of Heaven’s Le Thanh Tong adopted a new title for his reign - Hong Duc (overflowing virtue).

version of the favor

As with other Confucian rulers, he believed that failings on his part had a direct bearing on the welfare of his subjects, and so he held himself to blame one year when no rains fell.

am the father and mother of the people ... If I do not dispense wide grace and generous forgiveness, then how can genuine blessings reach the people?”53 It was also his responsi- “I

bility to elevate the

moral condition of Vietnamese society through good government.

Reaching deep into the countryside, directives, execute orders

from the

village leaders

the court. In recognition of their services

members of rituals

and

were recruited

center, collect taxes,

and

and serve

seniority,

to

implement

o伍cial

as intermediaries wi由

on retirement they became

the village Council of Notables, which was responsible for overseeing

for the

all

management of communal lands. The Hong Duc Code, promulgated in

1483, systematized existing civil

and criminal law while affirming the

center’s legal

authority. This reduced the ability of local lords or powerful families to manipulate the judiciary.

The

Chinese-style examination system was reintroduced in a

and more Confucian form than under

earlier dynasties in

more

order to train and

systematic select loyal

Figure 3.4. Examination stele from Dai Viet. These eighty-two stone stele in the Temple of Literature, Hanoi, record the names of well over a thousand candidates who passed palace examinations held between the years 1442 and 1779. Although a considerable number of stele are no longer extant, those that have survived do provide some information about the participants and the administration and date of the examination. They also include a statement emphasizing the importance of education and the need to strengthen the country through training people of talent. Each stele is mounted on the back of a turtle, traditionally regarded as a symbol of strength. Authors' photograph.

。面cials for rites, civil

to

the bureaucracy

for the Chinese-style“Boards" (ministries dealing with

service,自nance, war, justice,

honor those

their

and

who had

names and

villages

and public works).

attained the highest honors in the imperial examinations, with

recorded on stone

the impact of Dai Viet authority,

stele (see Fi事ire 3.4).

and those who

52

53

N伊yen

?ac Vien, N伊归n Van Ho矶ar Hm

(Hanoi: Editions en lan思1es etrang二res, 1972-5), Cited in Stephen Yong,

《goc,咄,Anthologie de 1:

1428-1788,”Journal of Asian History 10 (1976), 16

205-6

la

littera阳陀E毗iamien

submit tribute

at

chiefs felt

predetermined

Although the adaptation of Chinese Confucianism was a significant factor in administrative consolidation, adjustments

this

were always necessa巧because the cultural

and physical environment of Dai Viet was very different仕om由at of China. For instance, though based on Chinese precedent, the

Hong Duc code made numerous modifications to

comply with existing Viet practices, especially most

cited

at the village level

and

in family

life.

The

examples concern由e position of women. Unlike China, a daughter in Dai Viet officiate at the ancestral cult in the absence

had some rights of inheritance and was able to Viet culture

Cited in Alexander Barton Woodside, Vietnam and the Chinese Model: a Comparative Study of Vietnamese and Chinese Government in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, 1988. Reprint of 1971 edition), 21.

failed to

Even upland

times were stripped of their position.

of sons. Indeed, Chinese visitors continued to 51

A Confucian temple was erected

comment on

and that of China. Even while deploring

the disparities between Dai

this deviation, the

Le d严1asty

itself

contributed to a strengthening of Vietnamese “difference" by actions such as the official recognition of local思1ardian spirits. Classical Chinese

was used for

all official

writings, but

Chinese ideograms were adapted to write the Vietnamese language in the demotic characters known as chu nom. This system, which allowed for the development of specifically

Vietnamese poetic meters, had been developed several centuries

earlier

125

126砸、A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

but came into more frequent use, and Le in both Chinese

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511 ?、127

ASIA, 1400-1830

Thanh Tong was himself known

for writings

and nom.

Similar styles of localization were far less evident in Dai Viet’s relations with non-Viet

and burned the Cham capital, which collapsed after a siege of only four days. According to Vietnamese chronicles, some sixty thousand people were killed, and another looted

thirty

Cham king and fifty members of his family,

thousand taken prisoner, including the

and

peoples. Ming“pacification”of Tai peoples living along the northeast and northwest

and the

borders between Dai Viet and China had initiated a pattern of punitive expeditions

Amaravati were incorporated into Dai Viet to become the province of Quang Nam, while to the south a stone marker denoted the border between Dai Viet and the independent but

was continued under Le Loi and under Viet

his successors.

By

the 1440s these areas were

need for a powerful army became words of Le Thanh Tong’s father,“whenever there is a state,

control. In a context of recurring warfare the

central to Le policies. In the

must be armaments and military provisions." He

there

that

effectively

military innovation, declaring that“only

also stressed the importance of

new implements

are prized."54

Le Thanh Tong’s major concern was the continuing conflicts with Cham peoples, who occupied the central and southern areas of contemporary Vietnam. Through a mutually advantageous relationship with their upland relatives, Cham settlements in low句ring river valleys

such as

exchanged

cloth, salt, iron,

resins, elephant tusks,

ebony that fed the China

and imported

prestige items for jungle products

rhinoceros horns, the aromatic eaglewood, cinnamon, and

Cham

The most prominent a丘eenth-century Cham polity, Vijaya (covering much of modern Quang-Nam, Quang- Ngai, and Binh Dinh provinces), was especially renowned for its brown- and green- trade.

potters were also famous.

glazed ceramics that were traded as far as Sulawesi. private trade in 1436 temporarily like their

prohibitions on

ended the flow of ceramics from China, Cham

counterparts in Dai Viet,

production to satis命the

When Ming

demand

Myanmar and

potters,

the central Tai regions, increased

in the thriving east-west trade.

Cham kilns is evident in a shipwreck in Philippine waters

The

activity of the

dated around the mid-fifteenth

Cham

territories

were dismembered. The two northern

domains of Kauthara (modern Nha Trang) and Panduranga (modern Phan Rang). Many Cham fled southwards and to the uplands, as well as to southern China, Cambodia, A严1tthaya, and places in the island world such as Melaka, Aceh, and Java.

vassal

The vict。可over the Cham marked the beginning of Le Thanh Tong’s efforts towards the goal of molding Dai Viet into a model Confucian state. Agriculture, not trade, should provide the society’s economic base, aside the roots (agriculture)

and Le Thanh Thong urged

the

Vietnamese were“a very weak people on the

sea; all their

Nonetheless, maritime trade continued to flourish and Le

kilns

were destroyed and

Cham

potters forcibly

moved

from China.

supplies

Specialist

ceramic villages and other

thousand

soldiers) the

Cham

were

difficult to

Cham

were sent

since the ( as

many

first

as

decades

the ancient port of Van

subdue. Despite the superior armaments

of the Vietnamese, even Chinese observers were impressed with military effectiveness

of

and harbors of this

The

exchanged women with their

Cham wives.

Le Thanh Tong was determined to end the periodic conflict between groups and the southward-moving Vietnamese, and to punish the Cham for their “arrogance." Being personally invested in the campaign, he led the large and well-armed

identity,

inhabitants of the regions

Viet force that marched towards

also

itself

shook with

“the

boom

how the

earth

:4 6

throughout

late fi丘eenth

century the

Mekong Delta to the island of Hainan

little

from

was

also

“barbarian" peoples.

in defense of earlier kings

who had

Cham counterparts, and in 1499 all Viet men were forbidden

Kauthara and Panduranga helped maintain a sense of Cham the Ming dynasty did not respond to Cham appeals for assistance and the

the southern areas of

annexed

in 1471

were gradually assimilated into the Viet

population. In 1479, in response to continued attacks from the west, Le

Thanh Thong

launched a campaign against Lan Sang, sacking Luang Prabang. This expansionism

of the thunder-cannon."56 In 1471 victorious Viet troops 57

Ci

craft centers located

in

Nonetheless, although the preservation of lan凯1age and customs in

Cham

describing

Dai Viet

from the decline

zone had become an important node in the

Fifteenth-century Confucian literati could say

factors. It is clear that

poem

land."57

many Cham

assertion of Viet superiority epitomized in the 1471 conquest of Vijaya

to take



on

to the north, enabling

evident in Viet discourses about “civilized" as distinguished

Cham weapons and their “poisoned barbs, knives, and spears. 55 In all likelihood, the Viet attack on the Cham polity of Vijaya in 1470一1 was not simply motivated by political

V加ya and composed

is

Thanh Tong exploited revenues

Don and the Ha Long Bay area. By the

coastal settlements, inlets,

of

two hundred

achievement

the Red River Delta were linked to a thriving commercial zone that had developed around

region.

on the

remark that

Pires to

merchants to garner a greater share of the ceramic market and benefit

and the southeastern coast of China. attacks

Tome

from maritime trade to strengthen his Confucian vision. A丘er the conquest

network of littoral communities stretching from the

The Vietnamese had been mounting

his subjects not t。“cast

insignificant (commerce).”The apparent

and pursue the

withdrawal from the ocean even struck Europeans, prompting

century, in which 75 percent of the cargo consisted of glazed ware from the Vijaya

their independence, but although very large armies

polities of Vijaya

Cited in Sun Laichen, Institute, National University of Singapore,

Cited in John K. Whitmore,

and State in Dai Viet, Circa 1450一1550,'’in Nola Cooke, Li Tana, and James A. Anderson, eds吁The Tongking Gulf through His归ry (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), 102, 107; Pires,

in Sur

Working Papers

Series

No. 11

(Sept. 2003), 20.

Suma

Oriental,

I:

114.

凶tS A日STORY OF EARL

ODERN SO川EAST山,140叫3

THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511 ?、129

was eventually repelled but appeared so aggressive that even Melaka complained to the Ming Emperor. Though admonished, the self-confidence of the Dai Viet court is suggested

accompanied the expansion of international commerce were always subject to modifica- tion in different physical and cultural environments, few communities, however remote,

compiled in 1485 that included as tributary countries not only th气Cham and Lao areas but Melaka, A严1tthaya, and Java.

remained untouched by the global interactions that were now gathering pace. The economic, political, and religious flows so closely connected with the expansion of trade

in a

list

The Mekong

southernmost area of the Eastern Mainland, represented a transition zone both geographically and culturally. As in other deltas of Southeast Asia, Delta, the

periodic flooding occurs during the rainy season so that boundaries between land and

water are never clearly defined. Shorelines could extend quite rapidly because of silting,

tidal

although the fringe of mangrove forests did help to bind coastal swamplands.

In

much earlier times an active trading port known as Oc Eo on the coast had been linked to interior centers

by an extensive canal system. In the

no

commercial past and the Mekong Delta was primarily the home of Khmer

signs of this

fishermen. Viet occupation was position

still

fifteenth centu町,however, there were

far in the future

and the

delta’s

formerly favored

on the maritime highway between A yutthaya and China was not to be resurrected

until the following centuries.

linked Southeast Asia to other cultures, but never

overwhelmed the capacity of

by Spain and Portugal, the foremost Catholic powers, imposed a stamp of “ownership”on as yet unvisited societies that lay at the other side of the world, including Southeast Asia. Four years later a Portuguese expedition led by Vasco da Calicut

on the west coast of

India, the culmination of a

Gama

The rise of Melaka at the turn of the fifteenth century and its conquest in 1511 provide bookends to a period of unprecedented growth in Southeast Asia’s maritime trade connections. Sea-oriented polities like Melaka derived their wealth and prestige from an

unceasing flow of goods and traders and the revenue thus generated. Some gained additional advantages primarily routes, while others, such as

from

their physical location

A yutthaya and

on major maritime

Majapahit, could also draw on a large

trade rice-

producing pop吐ation.飞'Yell-established patterns of“upstream-downstream”relationships connecting coastal ports to internal collecting centers were similarly strengthened during this

period of enhanced trade.

As this chapter has shown, competition for control of economic and human resources could lead to conflict when mandalas overlapped, and as rulers vied to assert their superior standing. However, in some cases, like Melaka,让was quite possible to maintain a mandala without a large army and with only occasional recourse to force because client polities saw

genuine advantages in attachment to the center. Other areas, as in the Northern and Eastern Archipelagoes, functioned as confederations that were occasionally competitors but were more generally linked cooperatively through kinship relations, economic ties, and shared cultures. In all areas, the status of powerful rulers

and high ranking chiefs was affirmed by indigenous attitudes towards leadership, buttressed by religious and philosophical teach- ings出at supported their preeminence and justified the extension of authority.

The major features

associated with this

in Southeast Asia over the next three

first

phase of the early modern period persisted years. Although the changes出at

hundred

1460-1524) arrived

at

rounded the Cape of Good

Hope. His return from India heralded the opening of a sea route by which Europeans could trade directly with Asia.

CONCLUSI

(c.

centu巧of explorat。可voyages

from Portugal along the African Atlantic coast that eventually

The conquest of Melaka

in 1511

darker side of Southeast Asia’s widening global connections.

毒I

local

and adapt from incoming influences. From the late fifteenth century, however, new chains of influence emanating from Europe implicated Southeast Asia in ways that could never have been foreseen. In 1494 the signing of the Treaty ofTordesillas societies to select

was



grim portent of the

Acceleration of change, 1511-1600

250

CH

500

750

1000 km

σ

IN A

250

500 miles

(!

川川 、m〉

Bay



Guanazh H血lI JV"!'\



TAIWAN

PACIFIC

of

Bengal



CE

A N 。



0 D 0

o>

Andaman Sea

。。 。。 。 。



Birdshead

INDIAN 0

CE

A N

0 巳之二:=:,

New Guinea



0 0





I)飞出f

气〉

如fap 6: Acceleration of change, 1511一1600

132

fτ?'l1

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

ACCELERATION OF CHANGE,

S川…ing

TIMELINE Acceleration of change, 1511-1600 Safavids

come to power

in Persia

Po时uguese capture Melaka

and Majapahit were st山revered, but

emerged

and the Arabian

Peninsula

as

On

Islam.

reaches thi

Philippines

in India

the

mainland sh的s were

Demak on Java



the past.

in

Establishment of Portuguese

Spanish establish their

first

Southeast Asia

rulers

Macau

settlement at Cebu

Removal of Chinese imperial

in

the

1540-1680

Philippine1

restrictions

on overseas travel

make Manila

their capital after seizing city from

in

in

Muslirm

mandalas of the land-

and

among

conflicts

ambitious

status,

now beginning to shape regional history to a far greater extent than China remained the unchallenged power

imprimatur was highly desired.

would no doubt have continued

Had the

in the East,

and the

Portu♂1ese not taken Melaka,

Malay

to dispatch envoys with local products, as they did

a white

elephant in acknowledgement of his tributary status. Chinese trade was an

Chinese market for

From

especially that it

silver,

fueled

felt

the effects of the voracious

by population growth and requirements

the latter part of the sixteenth century

much

for tax

payments

of the silver reaching China,

brought by Europeans from Mexico and Peru, came via Southeast Asia,

helped to stimulate greater monetization and furthered regional integration into

the global

economy.

emanating丘om the Muslim empires

that

domin-

assumed power in Persia, from 1526 the Mughals became dominant in India, and in

Ottomans of Turkey gained control over Egypt, Syria, and the Arabian Peninsula, including the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The transmission and translation of Muslim texts from Arabia, Persia, and India, the retellings of stories丘om Islam’s almost limitless

southern Dai Viet

storehouse,

and the

circulation of religious teachers

strengthened Southeast Asia’s connections with the larger as a

and

their disciples,

Muslim world. While serving

source of Islamic ideas, these lands also offered Southeast Asians an entree to global

Muslim trade networks, a vast market

for regional goods,

and on occasion even military

armaments when Muslim kingdoms were threatened by Europeans. Together with China, these three mighty Muslim empires form a backdrop to the personnel and

central Java

Dai Viet divided into three jurisdictions: Mac, Trinh, and

power and

rulers.

1517 the

Ayutthaya under Naresuan regains independence from Taungoo

End of 16th century

and Ceribon

ated the central lands of Islam in the sixteenth centu可. In 1501 the Safavid dynasty

Burmese control Lan Na Founding of Mataram

also evident in the shrinking

Equally significant are the influences

Spain and Portugal unified under one Crown

Nguyen family expandsεontrol

in

In 1555 the Thai ruler of Ayutthaya, in addition to the customa巧gi缸,even sent

where via Manila

Aceh

in 1508.

in specie.

conquest of Ayutthaya by Taungoo of Myanmar

Spanish

coast Java ports of Demak

important source of revenue, while Southeast Asia also

Galleon trade inaugurated linking China and Mexico First

places such as

Although the Ming dynasty did not respond to Melaka’s appeal for help

against the Portuguese,

Emperor’s

Frances Xavier proselytizes

and

Na and Lan Sang, while neighboring polities with access to seaborne

ongoing struggles

Global forces were

of Majapahit and expansion of Muslim

and

commerce, most notably Pegu and A严1tthaya, drew ever-increasing benefits from mari-

fueling

Fall

number of other

time trade. This prosperity, however, generated intense rivalry for

Mughals gain dominance

in 1511 political,

important hubs for both international commerce and the dissemination of

locked polities of Lan

Ferdinand Magellan leads a Spanish expedition that



Ban ten in west Java, and the north

north Sumatra,

seize Egypt, Syria,

Melaka

impact of increased international trade on the economic,

landscape of Southeast Asia in the sixteenth centu町. In the island areas the names

cultural

of Melaka

Ottoman Turks

global conne

period, this chapter begins with the Portuguese conquest of traces the

1511一1600 (吨133

Nguyen

religious,

economic, and political trajectories that helped shape Southeast Asian history

in this period.

Thousands of miles away from Southeast Asia, events in Europe were to have equally By the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 the great Catholic powers, Spain

far-reaching effects.

134嗒A HISTORY

OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTH…山,14…830

and Portugal, had agreed

to a division of the

ment with the Papacy, known

ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-160。如飞135

world beyond Europe. Through an

as the “Royal Patronage,”both

the Christian faith in newly discovered lands in return for the right to control the

of the Church within their jurisdictions.

and

forts

arrange-

Crowns undertook to spread

The Portuguese quickly moved

activities

to establish posts

along the maritime routes to the spice islands of eastern Indonesia, while

Spain,

more hesitantly, finally claimed the Philippine archipelago. Meanwhile, in what is now Germany, Martin Luther’s criticisms of Church practices and the sale of indulgences, made public in 1517, laid the ground for the birth of Protestantism and its consolidation in northern Europe.

and their capture of three of the most important ports in the Indian Ocean, the Portuguese had only limited success in controlling the spice trade. By mid-century, official Crown voyages were largely displaced by concessions granted to a Despite their naval superiority

few favored卢dalgos (nobles),

Crown monopoly nor

the concessionary voyages

manpower

proved capable of overcoming insufficient finance, ships, and

dominance in the spice trade. By the 1580s these successful private trade local

Responding to this profound challenge, the Catholic Church reaffirmed its fundamental doctrines and the primacy of the Pope, but a new mood of reform saw the founding of the

who were permitted to ply a specific trade route in return for

payments to the Crown. Neither the

efforts

to achieve

were overshadowed by the more

conducted by ordinary Portuguese: the casados (men married to

women), the lanrados (men-of-fortune serving

local lords as mercenaries),

and

the mestiros, sometimes referred to as the “black Portuguese" or Topasses ( offspring of

marriages between Portuguese fathers

and local women, or between mesti<;:os). Residing in

and the invigoration of other Catholic orders dedicated to the training of mission- aries who would restore the Church in Europe and assume the task of global evangelism. In

Asia and participating with Asian

Southeast Asia the missionary view of animism as "devil worship" and their condemnation

arrangements with rich Asian merchants and powerful rulers, they maintained the

of “heathen”ideas could rarely find accommodation with indigenous belief systems or

the

Portuguese presence

by competing successfully

bitter

including those that

spanned Southeast Asia.

Jesuits

well-established practices of

Buddhism

or the expanding faith of Islam. Car巧ing

memories of the “Reconquest" (Reconquista) of the Iberian Peninsula from centuries of domination by North African Muslims (the Moors), both Portuguese and Spanish viewed Islam not only as a sworn

enemy but as a monolithic force,

Asian Muslims as“Moors." As religious

affiliation in

evident in their reference

to

all

Southeast Asia became increasingly

merchants in established Asian networks, private

Portuguese were the primary beneficiaries of the spice trade.

Because of their

skills

with伊ns and

recruited

by ambitious Southeast Asian

Ongoing

conflicts, especially

insatiable desire for

Through mutually beneficial

in well-established

artillery,

Portuguese

rulers unwilling to cede

Asian trade networks,

lan<;:ados

were eagerly

any advantage

to a rival.

between Ayutthaya and Myanmar, generated an almost

firepower and large cannon, and Portuguese mercenaries were

linked to the idea of loyalty to a particular polity or ethnic group, the vocabulary of religion

regarded as valuable additions to local forces. But the lan<;:ados were a mobile group,

was readily invoked to provide

moving regularly between service with foreign lords and the various Portuguese

spiritual justification for hostile activities.

ments within the Estado. Some, like the notorious Filipe de Brito e Nicote,

settle-

whom we w山

meet again in the following chapter, gained such power that they effectively governed as

Noteworthy

features of the period

independent kings.

Portuguese and Spanish involvement in Southeast Asia

termed Topasses or

A more

enduring legacy was the growth of the “black Portuguese" communi町,。丘en

Figure 4.1).

“hat

people" (so called because they wore European-style hats, see

The prominence of the

mesti<;:o

Portuguese, especially in the Eastern

The Portu伊ese defeat of Melaka in 1511 marks the beginning of European intervention in

Archipelago, can be traced to the policies advocated

the affairs of the region. Initially, the Portuguese

aimed to challenge Muslim domination of the spice trade by controlling the areas of actual production, as well as key nodes along the route by which spices were carried from Asia to Europe. They seized Goa in west coast

proposed that the

India (1510), Melaka (1511), and the island of

parentage,

Hormuz (1515), which commanded the Aden on the Red Sea in 1513. Goa

entrance to the Persian Gulf, but they failed to take

became the headquarters and administrative center

known as

as Estado

its first

territories

da India

governor.

The

(State of India), with “Es tad。”legally

for the Portuguese Asian Empire

Afonso de Albuquerque

referred to the listed

under formal Portuguese control, but the term

many other settlements established by private Cape of Good Hope to Macau in China.

also

came

cities,

(c.

1453-1515)

fortresses, and

to include informally

Portuguese individuals stretching from

the

by Afonso de Albuquerque, who

Crown should actively encourage marriage between Portuguese soldiers

women of good birth so that their offspring would provide manpower for Portugal's expanding empire in Asia and Africa. As a result of their mixed and

officials

and native



he argued, these individuals would

feel “Portu事1ese"

through a shared religion

and language, and would widespread mestic;:o

become loyal subjects of the Crown. Indeed, members of也is community did emerge as important cultural brokers and economic

mediators because of their family connections parents.

their fluency in the languages of

both

These kinship links o丘en enabled the black Portuguese to arrange favorable loan

terms from local financiers or gain special their

and

advantages仕om

local rulers. In

some

cases

personal intervention could be highly effective in resolving tensions出at arose

because of cruelty

and abusive or insulting behavior committed by the

“white"

Portuguese

币6 A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTH…山,140叫30

ACCELERATION OF small Spanish-sponsored fleet

command

under

of the Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan

A local chief on the island of Cebu was persuaded

(1480一1521) arrived in the Philippines.

by assurances that Spain would make him the preeminent

to accept baptism

the islands, together

Eight

with an image of the Santo N江10, the

made

Holy

that (in the

Ch且d.

It

wife,

firrr让y

who was

was nonetheless over

serious attempts to stake a claim to the islands

planted the Christian cross. This hesitation

Portuguese were

(or mard扩ker, referring to

descendants of freed slaves) and his wife was engraved in The Netherlands, based on sketches made by Johan Nieuhof during his travels as a VOC employee. Apart from trousers reaching to his ankles, the man’s clothing is said to be “in the Dutch fashion" and he wears a European-style hat, a Topass

was in part due to the knowledge that the

friar)

without a“legitimate or pious cause"

and as

"Filipinas" in

honor of Crown Prince Felipe

a fleet sailed

from the Spanish American colony of

Lopez de Legazpi

(c.

community or

ruler.

As time passed, continuing intermarriage meant that

and to lay the foundations for missionary work. Legazpi initially established the

main Spanish settlement on

the island of

Nino image given to the

Spanish colonization

raja’s

wife

by Magellan was interpreted

was part of a divine plan. However, Legazpi soon

control of Muslim

datu or chiefs,

was clearly a preferable

site for

it

as a sign that

realized that the

attracted considerable trade

Though under the

from China and Japan and

a Spanish capital. In 1571 Manila was seized仕om the

Muslims to become the center of the colonial administration.

which

New World

It

also

silver

became the

focal

was shipped仕om

Acapulco to Manila and exchanged for silk brought from Macau. For over two hundred

as

eighteenth

in the

economic advantages of Cebu were limited, whereas 365 miles/587 kilometers to the north

European-style hats and clothing. Their fierce loyalty to this cultural legacy ensured that the Portuguese heritage survived in Southeast Asia in the face of devastating attacks on

and

Cebu

Visayan archipelago in the central Philippines. Here the fortuitous (re)discovery of the

years participation in the galleon trade

in the seventeenth

in 1565

command

1502-72). His charge was to establish relations with the

was little in physical appearance to distinguish the black Portuguese from the indigenous inhabitants, but they proudly proclaimed themselves “Portuguese”in their adherence to Catholicism, some knowledge of the Portuguese language, and the wearing of

by the Dutch East India Company

and

Spain under the

was the thriving entrepot of Maynilad (Man且a) on the island of Luzon.

there

the formal Estado

New

Philippines ( while avoiding the Portu事1ese-occupied islands of the Eastern Archipelago)

point in the triangular “galleon trade,”by

against a local

and China, which

in 1543 registered Spain’s claim,

arose because of their cultural

Johan Nie吐10f, Voyages and Travels, into Brasil, and the East-Indies (London: A. and J. Churchill, 1704), 316C.

would

The naming of the archipelago

Santo

adaptab过ity.

it

by the Treaty of

a base for missionizing in Japan

promised a rich harvest in both conversion and commerce.

The pig in the background shows that he and his wife are not Muslim. Nieuhof believed that Topass meant“accommodator," and privilege.

years

Advocates for a more aggressive policy ar事1ed that the Philippines could

be valuable as a source of spices

of Miguel

f。此y

where Magellan had

be difficult to establish settlements in islands assigned to Portugal

Figure 4.1. A Topass man and his wife. This picture of a Topass man

presented

ensconced in the spice-producing areas of eastern Indonesia, and

words of an Au恕”tinian

Tordesillas.1

ruler in

with threats of retribution should he reject this grand opportunity.

hundred of his followers were also baptized as well as his

before Spain

CHANG川1叫00

Catholic Church, the sufficient

enabled the Spanish administration, as well as the

missiona町orders, and Church institutions in Manila, to obtain

revenues to fund their operations. These revenues, however, were never as great

viceroys.

had hoped because control of the galleon trade remained with the Mexican Even the annual subsidy that Mexico sent to Manila drew heavily仕om taxes

levied in

Acapulco on incoming and outgoing cargoes. Yet while the Spaniards

Legazpi

centuries.

reap the anticipated

By the last quarter of the sixteenth century the other Iberian power,由e Spanish, had also become a settled presence in Southeast Asia. However, in moving into the region由ey were far more undecided than the Portuguese. The initial foray came in 1521, when a



economic rewards

85’

Cited in T. Valentino Sitoy Day: Quezon City, 1985),

Jr.,

in the Philippines, they

A History of Christianity in

failed to

proved far more successful

the Phil伊pines: the Initial

Encounter (New

6叨

138点A HISTORY

OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST and

in converting inhabitants to Christianity

islands an“arsenal

and warehouse of the

ASIA, 1400-1830

ACCELERATION

in achieving their stated goal of making

the

faith."2

in

some

differences

and some

similarities. First, political

centraliza-

Although Goa was the administrative and religious hub of the Estado da India, it did not exercise direct control over Portuguese settlements. Operating essentially as independent entities in obtaining and dispensing revenues, governors and captains tion

was

limited.

of

these settlements were encouraged to reach local traders

and

economic and

rulers. In the Philippines, despite

political arrangements

the appearance of

with

centralization,

the

Spanish administration was hobbled by a lack of personnel - only five hundred Spaniards in the whole of the archipelago in 1582 - and a weak or non-existent presence outside

few



towns. Inaccessible areas, notably the Cordillera mountain range of northern Luzon, remained outside colonial control, and the Spanish were never able to establish fortified

contrast,

A second area of comparison concerns the effects on indigenous economies. In the people they termed

‘'Lm;:oes" (lit.,

early

in trade-oriented

towns

Melaka. By

like

pop吐ation densities in the scattered villages of the Philippines and island

to acute infections

through recurring exposure. The geographical separation between the

Eastern Archipelago islands provided

some protection from contagion, but

easily.

Manila was

first

in the

Spanish

compact settlements

Philippines the policy of bringing local populations together in

meant infections spread more

struck by a smallpox epidemic in

1574, and this was followed by outbreaks of "plagues" and “pestilence" that resulted in

many

deaths. In

combination with the military action that accompanied the Spanish

from exacting heavy labor requirements, and a generally the recurrence of contagious diseases led to a dramatic demographic

conquest, the fatalities resulting

low

rate of fertility,

decline.

Between 1565 and 1600 the population of the Philippines, excluding the Muslim

south, probably

fell

by around 36 percent.

In the fourth place, the

had commented on the regional trade carried out by those from Luzon but referring generally to Philippine

immunity

communities in the Eastern Archipelago never reached a level that produced resistance

themselves in the Muslim south. sixteenth century出e Portuguese

predated the European arrival, and contact with China and India where such diseases

were endemic led to a degree of

Portugal and Spain were technically united between 1580 and 1640, but despite sharin? a king their empires remained legally separate. The nature of their involvement

Southeast Asia displays

also

OF山NG川1叫00 '139

to

two Iberian nations

differed in the social legacy出ey bequeathed

Asia一the offspring of intermarriages or cohabitation between Europeans and native

women.

On

the one hand, the Portu思1ese actively encouraged miscegenation to create

loyal subjects for the

Estado, and as cultural brokers the mesti<;:o communities were a key

and in 1600 the Jesuit Pedro Chirino could still comment on the Filipino aptitude for commerce. Nevertheless, Filipino trade with the Muslim south and the rest of Southeast

element in maintaining a Portuguese presence throughout Asia.

Asia was already retracting because of increasingly restrictive measures imposed by

meant Southeast Asia as well]; neither are there any People of more different Complexions than of that Race, even from the Coal-black tQ a light Tawney."4 The Spanish, on the other

traders),

Spaniards, their heaηr demands for labor, life.

the

and growing Chinese dominance of commercial

These economic restraints fundamentally destabilized indigenous linkages

not

only

within the Northern Archipelago but with major ports like Melaka. In the spice islands of Maluku Portuguese attempts to establish a spice monopoly also caused political and economic disruption and led to wars with local communities, but never at a level that could throttle local commerce. With their strong local connections, individual Portuguese traders

and

mesti<;:os

Demographic

were

easily

shi缸,particularly the effects of warfare and the introduction of new pathogens, provide a third comparative topic. Apart from infections common in出 tropics such as malaria and dengue fever

was

seems that syph且is (which untreated

can

be

present in Southeast Asia prior to the sixteenth century. Yet although Pigafet钮, the chronicler of Magellan’s voyage, commented that“the disease of St. Job was found in all the islands e en ountered,”its association with Europeans is indicated by local references t。“the Portuguese disease."3 fatal)

especially smallpox,



?;:::;???汇出飞?:;?,::骂:工业::攻?:?s: ti??:::i:?峦:;;;:t ;7s:,g;o:??:?,t?;torld

scattered

all

hand, never adopted such a policy, although concubinage was absence of Iberian Philippines

women.

Soldiers

and

difficult to calculate

the

friars

who

local families,

common and

who

because of the stayed in the

in the count巧side

had fathered children with their “housekeeper."

number of Spanish mestizos

numerous. However, since

all

de espaflol, like castilas, were (“Indians,”a

fairer skin,

were never

individuals of Spanish descent enjoyed privileges, mestizos

exempt from the

tribute

payments required of

Spanish mestizos were part of a small

elite

who, despite

played the same brokering role as the Portuguese

“Indios"

social status

and

undoubted

their

mesti<;:os.

Perhaps the most noteworthy comparison between these Iberian powers concerns their

any commercially viable export crops in the Philippines, the Spaniards rationalized their continued presence by proclaiming that their primary intention was“the advance of our Holy Catholic Faith and the salvation of pursuit of Christian converts. In the absence of

Sp叫Aims and Filipino闷。nses,

(1519-臼22):即z



Accoun

it

It is

(mestizos de espafiol), since they were

term used for the native inhabitants). Set apart by their

influence, rarely

trader later

over India [by which he

lower-level administrators

sometimes married into high-ranking

was customary to find



Other contagious diseases,

is

administratively categorized with castilas (pure-blooded Spaniards) but they

absorbed into the vast network of Asian commerce.

it

remarked w可ly,“The breed of [ the Portuguese]

As an English

William Dampier, Voyages and Discoveries (London: Argonaut 1931, Reprinted from Voyages, vol.

II,

1729), 111.



Collection of

SOUTHEAST山,1400一1830 吟。舔A HISTO盯OF山川ODERN

ACCELERATION OF CHAN叩511-1600

the souls of the heathen产Despite periodic disagreements between religious and leaders, this declaration ensured that in the Philippines the Catholic monastic

exerted a significant influence.

The

secular

orders

commitment to con- and fewer resources than the

Portuguese also asserted their

verting local populations, but they expended far less energy

Spanish. Furthermore, Portuguese secular authorities were o丘en hostile to missionizing seeing

effi。此s,

private

and

army of

them

undermining or even threatening the economic

as

state trading ventures.

well-being

of

The view expressed by one Goa Viceroy that a veritable

were a drain on the Estado’s finances was widely shared by many

“lazy religious"

of his contemporaries.6

distance, the Raja of

home,"

to

The

religious

arrival of

coincided with a period

when

the spread of Islam

for

From the Malay perspective, Melaka may have come under infidel rule and its great mosque destroyed but other Muslim ports, notably Demak, Aceh, Banten, and Brunei quickly developed into major centers for the diffusion of Islamic teachings. They

legendary reminders of the connections that overcame physical separation. The J盯an创

was said

to have

named for al-Quds, the holy city of Jerusalem, and its foundation stone

been brought directly by Sunan Kudus, one of the nine

Another wali, the Javanese Sunan

Kalijaga,

was so

reach out and orient the roof of the renowned

towards the Ka’aba believed to be the

(literally “the Cube,”a

first

Stories transmitted

Muslim

spiritually

saintly

powerful that he was

to this

Demak mosque

so that

it

was

place of worship). to the sense that

local

fail to be impressed by accounts of the great Islamic empires of Safavid Persia, Mughal India, and especially Ottoman Turkey, which now

Mecca and Medina. By adopting

Islam, a Southeast

in the prestige of being a co- religionist with

some

of the

Asian

greatest

and of being incorporated into the larger family of the ummah. The Malay epic Hikayat Hang Tuah thus describes the ruler of Rum (i.e. Turkey) as an awe- rulers of the time

inspiring potentate, but yet one



Cited in

Emma Blair and James Alexander Robertson,

Arthur H. Clark, 1903-9) 6

Cited in

who relates to a Melaka delegation

Anthony

2:

(allegedly sent in

MA: Harvard

in

the faith,

also

period - generally composed

have been deployed to support the

written in honor of Aceh's Sultan Alauddin

him

“Perfect

the highest Sufi

Man" who

title

III

(r.

of "The Pole of the Universe"

has achieved union with God. This rulers with a justification

own influence by forcibly spreading the religion to ka_卢r (non-Muslim) however,

it

provided additional incentive to oppose the enemies of

both Portuguese and Spanish,

who

name

themselves waged wars in the

of

Christianity.

The

defeat of

Melaka and the

flight

movement of The encounter between Islam and animist

of Malay Muslims encouraged the

and then between Islam and Christianity, i时ected greater urgency into persisting

questions about the boundaries of faith.

A text from Java, which probably dates from this

transitional period, distinguishes adherents of Islam

Islamic conversion cision,

from those who follow

“Javanese

including lengthy warnings against idol-worship and heresy toge由er with

reminders that non-believers are the “enemies of

were appearance and

lifestyle

God户The most

obvious indicators of

- burial rather than cremation, circum-

observing the ritual of prayer, and abstaining from forbidden food such as pork.

While these provisions apply to localization

all

Muslims, there are numerous indications of the

through which the world religions were adapted to the Southeast Asian

environment. For instance, according to Pigafetta's local informants in Brunei,

Muslim

law required that before eating chicken wings the tips should be cut off and then



(Cleveland:

Southwest India

University Press, 1978), 21-3.

may

this

between kingship and divine authority provided

extending their

lands. Simultaneously,



Trade

have survived from

split

1481)

89-99.

R. Disney, Twil也ht of the Pepper Empire: Portuguese

Early Seventeenth Century (Cambridge,

association for



The Philippine Islands 1493-1898

A poem

1589-1604), for instance, accords

religion,”while

by traders and travelers similarly contributed

treatises that

and equates him with the

peoples,

Southeast Asian rulers could not

monarch could bask



position of the ruler.

able to

sacred building inside Mecca’s Grand Mosque,

The fame more pragmatic attrac-

efforts of

Islam along the archipelago’s trade routes.

Muslims were now part of the ummah, the world-wide Islamic community of believers.

controlled the ho忖cities of

were the

walis.

directed

world

us."7

Muslim missionaries themselves, and a Jesuit priest in Melaka resentfully remarked that they were so "solicitous and industrious that they come from Mecca and Cairo and Constantinople to these remote regions" to spread Islamic Added

c。“

now be located in a world where the geographical distance between Southeast Asia and the great centers of Islam had contracted, not merely through human movement but by

us, in this

Muslim traders preferred to conduct business in ports where they were assured of protection from a Muslim ruler and would be provided with a mosque to worship.

it

in island Southeast

both mother and father to

tions, since

within the Sufi or mystical tradition -

at a critical time,

was gathering pace

replies,“You are

We may never be able to repay your great love towards

Some of the few

Asia.

port of Kudus was

which Hang Tuah

and the hereafter.

domains

Europeans and of Christian missionizing came

Rum tells the Malays,“O sons, forget us not when you have returned

gained by association with these powerful kings was enhanced by

teachings.

Expanding

Expressing regret that his empire and Melaka are separated by such a great

as a parent.

in the

The Epic of Hang Tuah, Muhammad Haji Terjemahan Negara Malaysia, 2010), 513.

Salleh, trans.,

Rosema巧Robson,

ed.

(Kuala Lumpur: Institut

Cited in Donald F. Lach, Southeast Asia in the Eyes of Europe: the Sixteenth Century (Phoenix Books: The University of Chicago Press, 1968), 517. Cited in M. C. Ricklefs, Mystic Synthesis in Java: a History of Islamization卢om the Fourteenth to the h均Nineteenth Centuries (Norwalk CT: Eastbridge, 2006), 23-5.

'叩

叩毯A HISTO盯OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…830 down

ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-1600

the middle. Issues regarding trading practices were also addressed, and another

Javanese text from this period affirms that an honest merchant

on the extension of

who places no

conditions

go to heaven. Individuals with specialized knowledge of herbal medicines ( usually women) even came to use由e names of the Prophet’s daughter credit will

Fatimah and her husband Ali ( considered

Islam’s ideal couple) to refer to plants

used

in

the treatment of pregnancy, childbirth, and sexual inadequacies. This domestication of ideas about

way towards

Muslim behavior and explaining

friars as

himself to a tearful child,

on the “noble book" of Christian doctrine

scattered Portuguese

interconnected world where

more

new pa由s of

The archdiocese centered at reached from Africa to Japan and

religious pathways.

communities in eastern Indonesia were thus part of an

members of Catholic

claimed a Portuguese identity and perceived spiritual power.

at

from access to trade products. moving wherever they found communities that

times being recruited by rulers for their technical

The Spanish sphere of influence in Southeast Asia was

ore lin啦ed, but the Philippines was

drawn

芝驴and South America through who saw the

orders and even individual Portuguese

souls for the faith while profiting

Friars themselves could be highly mobile,

idea atthis far-flung

domain

is

into a Hispanic world that linked the islands

the galleon trade, and ultimately to Madrid. The

nicely captured in a

remark by one Spanish

chronicler,

and crown of Spain" extending across lands that reached from Europe "unto its setting" in the distant lands of Asia.10

?scepter

sun’s rising in

the

were well established, Christian missionaries in the Philippines and much of eastern Indonesia were successful because of several factors. Chiefs and rulers were attracted by

power associated with Christians, and by the o丘en explicit promise that Europeans would assist their co-religionists against traditional enemies. In the Philippines the earthly

whom

Magellan had baptized accordingly “thanked

God

for inspiring

him

to

become

a Christian, [for] now he would more easily conquer his enemies than before."11 For ordinary people Christianity's perceived capacity for healing was a major attraction. The sacraments, notably baptism, were regarded as a potent defense against illness, especially for children,

and

stories of Christ’s miracles

easily with traditional beliefs that healers

crosses, rosaries,

and

Christianity’s curative

powers

could tap supernatural resources. The

and holy images brought by Catholic missionaries became

“heretic”Dutch

11



Irving, Colonial Counterpoi时Music Oxford University Press, 2010), 22. Pigafetta, First Voyage around the World, 49.

Mary was

enemies

like the

deity

credited with particular

Muslims and

later the

were especially appealing in the Philippines because of the

(65 kilometers)

miles

south of Manila, the volcanic mountain Taal, said an Augustinian

friar,

periodically“spits forth crops." Rites of

and

new faith. Some 40

promises of protection were persuasive incentives to accept the

many and

very large rocks, which are glowing and destroy the

exorcism, performed in order to “accustom [ the natives] to place their

only God,”became a regular practice whenever there was any indication of

trust in the

unusual volcanic activity,

and



huge cross was

later erected at the

edge of the main

Nor can we overlook the visual, aural, and olfactory appeal of solemn processions, priestly robes, beautiful altar cloths, incense, and liturgical music. In late sixteenth- centu可Manila it was said that there were“many indigenous singers and ministriles crater.13

[church instrumentalists]

who

are skillful

quently the friars

is

noteworthy

in particular

Ancient

spirits

sacred objects

[and] perform grace.”14

new

[reli-

This native

were仕e

were o丘en praised by the

converts.

the other hand, the acceptance of Christian beliefs

transition.

...

because Filipinos themselves

most effective missionaries, and women

because of their piety and ab且ity to attract

On nity's

and have good voices

and dramas] in Spanish and in their language with great

gious plays

was not necessarily an easy

were condemned as malevolent agents of the Devil, a

were destroyed with impuni町,and

ritual

commu-

heads were reviled and

denounced and even killed as witches and sorcerers. The indigenous priests and priest- Philippines (babaylan in Visayan, catalonan in Tagalog), usually elderly

esses of the

women and transvestite men who symbolized male-female unity, were a particular target of Spanish persecution. Nor was it easy to explain new concepts and practices like the requirement for confession, the idea of penance, and salvation. Mis-

“original sin,"

sionaries also

found that the Christian

stress

on monogamy and virginity was

at

odds with

protective Bienvenido

(Quezon in

the Virgin

frequency of natural disasters - typhoons, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions -

12

Cited in D.R.

rituals,

victories over

were attributed to her watchful oversight. Ritual supplications to a

unknown

previously

and

involvement in Christian praxis

Rarely able to attract Southeast Asian followers in areas where Islam and Buddhism

the chief

in the storm-tossed

prominence in pre-Christian

communication based on

to gain

buoy

female

Timor, and included not only Melaka but the Portuguese settlement in Macau, established

competed

will serve as a

how Southeast Asians could accommodate themselves in this new

Portuguese Goa, the capital of the Estado da India,

The

which

In keeping with cultural ideas about maternal vigilance and perhaps reflecting

concern for her followers,

cross-cultural

10

and obligations of kinship. A Tagalog poet thus compares whose perilous journey in search of “God our father”must rely

about the responsibilities

seas.12

Like Islam, the introduction of Christianity into Southeast Asia opened up

melded

all

local interpretations of Islamic teachings goes a long

domain.

in 1557.

nature of misfortunes from disease to earthquake. The kinship termin- - a father-like God, his Son, the Holy Family, the ology inherent in Christian teachings - resonated with indigenous beliefs spiritual fathers, converts as their children amulets against

Ear抄Modern Manila (Oxford/New York:

13」

14

Lumbera, Tagalog Poetry 1570-1898: Tradition and Influences in i归Development Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1986), 39-41. Miguel Saderra Maso, The Eruption of Taal Volcano, January 3α1911 (Manila: Bureau of

L.

City:

Cited in Fr.

Printing, 191月,6-7.

Cited in Irving, Colonial Counterpoi肘,105

144

'1-.:过A

ACCELERATI…F CHANGE, 151叫

HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

and a Spanish assault on Brunei in 1571, undoubtedly fueled enmity and generated Muslim responses in kind. While the Spanish spoke of Islam as an“accursed Melaka,

and

doctrine,”evil

false,

the ruler of Brunei, highly insulted, responded

℃astilians [Spaniards] are

when they

die,

ka缸,men

developed, since traditional allegiances

by

never wielded accept both

translated catechisms devised for friars to impart Christian teachings attempted to deal

with such issues by posing questions“With what will native convert should respond,“He will

God punish

sinners?”to

which

ache forever."15 Denial of sacraments became a highly effective tool in forcing aspiring Christians to reg吐arize marriage arrangements, and adultery or co-habitation could be

punished through exclusion from communion, the imposition of penance, or even physical chastisement. Catholic friars

employed

fines

and other punishments

churchgoing and inculcate a sense of gu山,with threats of divine wrath

to enforce

In the long term, the European importation of conflicts

15

with Muslims had the most serious repercussions. The Portuguese attack on

Cited in Vicente

L. Rafael,

Contracting Colonialism: Translation and Christian Conversion in Tagalog

Society under Ear炒Spanish Rule

(Durham: Duke University

Press, 1988), 179

ruler.

Asia,

where Europeans

friars in his territories.

“false

in

Dai Viet an

named

“I-Ni-Khu’

However,

religion”indicates that here the missiona巧presence

1505 the Portuguese had also arrived in

Sri

Lanka, building a fort

Colombo and setting up a number of trade settlements. During the course of the

at

sixteenth

centu巧they assumed control over the coastal areas, and in return for military

assistance

were permitted to launch their missionary enterprise. In 1557 the only Catholic

ruler in Sri

that

Lankan history agreed to transfer to the Franciscans revenues丘om出e area

included the temple

replete

housing the sacred Tooth

with accounts of Portu伊ese atrocities

egregious act

Relic.

and

While

Sri

Lankan chronicles

cruelty towards Buddhists, the

was the seizure and public destruction in Goa of this revered

Sinhalese tradition

relic



are

most

although

says出at this was simply a duplicate). In the religious disruption that

of territory in Sri Lanka, scriptures were lost, many monks disrobed, and monasteries destroyed or abandoned. Against由is background followed Portugal’s steady arrogation

Southeast Asia

Sri

Christian

mainland Southeast

1533 refers to Christian preaching by an individual

Southeast Asia, but in

if Christians

memories of long-standing

with some Muslim

The Dai Viet rulers were presumably aware of the Portuguese advance in island

ing,

neglected their religious obligations.

allied

was already seen as threatening.

the

throw them into hell and there they will suffer and

st山

any kind of power, so that the ruler of Rakhine, for instance, was willing to

and the ban of this

(Ignatius),

In the Philippines

were

Islam entailed a choice not merely of belief but of cultural and political

Muslim teachers and Catholic

edict issued in

life.

only slowly

religious belief

change irrevocably led to a situation where adoption of either

This was less likely to apply in

afl且liation.

as part of village

this level of host山ty

and enmities rather than

had reverted to Islam because they had

religious

Christianity or

and where pre-nuptial sex was accepted

fire

some members opt for Christianity and others for Islam. Nonetheless, the divisions

introduced

virility

by asserting that

condemned by

frequently sought to insure immunity in the case of potential conflicts by

Elite families

having

where possession of many women was a public display of male

are

elements in determining intercommunal relations. Securing powerful patron-

verted" villages

cultural values in societies

who

remained a high priority, and Christian missionaries o丘en complained that“con-

age

erected Figure 4.2. Vigan Cathedral, Philippines. Vigan’s original church, a chapel made of wood, was in 1641, here built was church second 1627. A and 1619 of earthquakes in 1574 but was damaged in the and the present church was completed between 1790 and 1800. During the Spanish period most The Philippine churches were deliberately built low and squat because of the danger of earthquakes. Vigan bell tower, about h而nty-five meters high and topped by a bronze weathercock said to symbolize Authors' photograph St. Peter, stands separately from the church to avoid damage should it topple.

souls,

and that too because they eat pork."16 In eastern Indonesia, where

and Islam wereηring for followers,

Christianity

the decisive

who have no

and

in

appeared to be the only place where the Buddha’s teachings were flourish-

1597 an embassy was sent to Rakhine to obtain

monks to

restore ordination in

Lanka.

Indeed, in contrast to the Sri Lankan situation, in Southeast Asia the promotion of Buddhism through establishing monasteries and disseminating texts created and affirmed ties between the center and distant communities. The monaste巧in the Shan polity of 16

Cited in Blair

and Robertson, The Philippine Islands,

vol. IV:

160-1

146

..

?\.

MODERN SOUTHEAST

A HISTORY OF EARLY

Kengtung (Kyaingtong),

became the center of an

for example,

connections出at reached into the surrounding highlands.

h山people came down

mountain

home

Some

...

of

A chronicle recalls that “many

Sasana [Buddhist teachings] back to eve叩h山and

them came down

and

to study

disciples."17 Itinerant

and learn

correctly ... and returned

monks played

(1527-92) sought to base the administrative structure

from popular Buddhist tales.

common

(now

lan凯iage

muang

called “northern

Thai”)

further

that proliferated in the uplands of northern

muang

elite families

in

across the Upper

Networks of monasteries and circulating monks drew the region

together

indigenous cults with is

reflected in the

village

guardian

believed to

ceremonies, temple decorations like the floating banners, and artistic styles

the Daoist

Buddha images

(believed to impart wealth

and knowledge), were

like the rotund

typically northern

Although the spread of Theravada Buddhism was largely peaceful, here too we

instance, the ruler of

Lan Sang embarked on

by destroying

spirits

campaign did not

their shrines

last long, since



as incompatible

(r. c.

eliminate

with Buddhism. Having advanced into the Shan

to the teachings of lowland

motivations, royal promotion of a

monks. While

sacrifices that

were

hills,

considered

and

insisted that religious

life

should

it is

not possible to determine

precise

more standardized Buddhism appears

to be linked

extend control over upland peoples. For observing Buddhists in the

consumption of pickled

of

to wreak

1551-81) was similarly concerned to

rituals, especially chiefly funerals,

for

failure that followed

would be quick

spirits

he prohibited the drinking of alcohol and the animal

Shan

1527,

traditional ceremonies. The

and crop

tea leaves, apparently

common among

to

lowland

the Shan,

replaced alcoholic drinks, but in the upland areas there was greater resistance. One sixteenth-century text records Shan objections to prohibitions against the ritual drinking

of alcohol, claiming that“it

is our invariable custom, and we Shans only trust an oath taken on liquor and meat.”18 Continuing rivalries between Buddhist polities point to the

persistence of local loyalties reinforced

images and

relics,

by traditions associated with sacred

Cited in Daniel

B圳iist s

M.

No伽

sites, revered

and prestigious monasteries.

Cited in Michael

W.

Charney, Southeast Asian

Wa价re 1300-1900

and Textual

(Brill:

Transmission

Leiden, 2004),

construction of

beliefs that

spirits,

communal

and

combined

houses, or dinh, the focus of ceremonies for

and peasant rebellions o丘en coalesced around

One

monks

of the major cults originating

Transformed into a

Jade Emperor.

most eminent of Vietnam’s

Chinese trade

disciple of the

numerous female

or holy

men

at this

time

human

daughter of

Buddha, Lieu Hanh became

deities.

11.

and the worlds beyond the center

Although overland trade continued to prosper, particularly

mainland and Yunnan, the sixteenth century Indian ports in

saw

between the uplands of the

a continuing growth of seaborne

merchants and their cargoes of textiles were st山central to the

economy

traffic.

of

many

around the Bay of Bengal, and the arrival of the Europeans was an important factor

extending existing networks, but in regional terms the Chinese

behind this increased trade. Despite the imperial the southeastern

from Dai Viet to A严1tthaya

the

were the driving force

ban on overseas commerce, ships from

provinces of Guangxi, Fujian, and

“Southern Ocean,”following either

“认T estern

Guangdong continued

to sail to the

Seas Route,”which hugged the coast

and the Malay Peninsula, or the

“Eastern Seas Route,”which

went from Japan through the Philippines to the eastern Indonesian islands. long familiarity the

Given

this

men to persuade some Cebu people that he and his companions were Chinese traders seems almost laughable. The Filipino response was unequivocal; they knew what Chinese looked like, and such a blatant untruth could only mean these newcomers were thieves.19 attempt by one of Legazpi’s

We will return to consider the implications of expanding Chinese trade in the following chapter,

but this has

its

from 1567, when the Numerous small Chinese settlements,

roots in the sixteenth centu町,and especially

imperial prohibition against private typically

Viedlinger, Spreading the Dhamma:讥1riting, Orality

worship and in

in cult

on Lady Lieu Hanh, understood to be the Vietnamese-born

trade was

lifted.

based on linguistic and territorial affiliation, developed along the seaboard from

southern 17

social disruption, failed harvests, famine,

encoun-

to eliminate the worship

and banning

the epidemics, disease

vengeance. In Myanmar, Bayinnaung

customs regarded

Buddhist teachings. In

campaign

confirmed popular views that angry and insulted

regions, the

由e

rulers. In addition to multiple

Buddhist and Daoist teachings. The rejuvenation of spirit veneration

have supernatural powers.

about the boundaries of belief, for rulers or their agents did occasionally use

force to destroy local practices thought to be inimical to

efforts to

Thai.

marked by

many Vietnamese found comfort

pestilence,

focused

conform

its

Mahayana Buddhism

favorable towards

had been under the preceding Le

popular veneration. In a period

and chronicles in the distinctive northern script recorded a collective past. Certain religious

essential in

dynasty

on the Confucian model and

Buddhas and bodhisattvas, the legenda巧Immortals of Daoism also provided a focus for

Kengtung, Chiang Mai, Luang Prabang, and other Tai-speaking

guardian

more

Mac

that were

Thailand, southern Yunnan, and northwestern Laos. Marriages connected

ter questions

but court attitudes were

scholar-officials,

Western and

in the

Mainland with the situation in Dai Viet. The founder of the

Central

knowledge by providing interpretations of scriptural meaning

strengthened the links between the

area.

compare the expansion of Theravada Buddhism

and Daoism than they

shared heritage and a

Mekong

useful to

It is

transmit-

adjusted to local environments and interspersed with lessons



influential lineage with

a critical role in

to teach pupils

ting Buddhist

to take the

ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-1600才1

ASIA, 1400-1830

Vietnam

to the

Gulf of Siam and Melaka

Straits,

while Chinese quarters,

in

19

Juan

Gil,

2011), 20.

Los Chinos en Manila: Siglos

XVI-XVII

(Lisbon: Centro Scienti且coy Cultural de

Macau,

147

148便、A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

ACCELERATION

ASIA, 1400-1830

OF山N叩511-1600'咐

number of intermediaries, these goods were delivered to ports and exchange points located

“downstream”or along the coasts.

With the expansion of global networks, local knowledge of specific ecosystems and the location of valuable

the scarlet trees,

resinous substance secreted

notably the banyan.

pound

(2.2

Around 90,000

shipped to destinations in

..二?-伊、f穹

other furniture.

斗二,,

专制 回确扬扬?斤’,

珍授1句号何名;1 4汗m窃窃移现:注明:'11'.":织7兰、/

・11

Figure 4.3. Chinese in seventeenth-century Banten. This picture comes from a collection of records of the first Dutch voyages to A丘ica, India and the East Indies. Although the engravings were not

made from

life,出ey did draw on descriptions and sketches provided by early Dutch observers. The clothing of these Chinese men is depicted according to European conventions, but the engraver also included certain objects such as山fan and the umbrella, seen as distinctly Chinese. Connections

with trade are indicated by the sea and boat in the background, and by the man who carries scales used for weighing local produce. Izaak Commelin, Begin ende Voortgangh van de Vereen也hde Nederlantsche Geoctroyeerde Oost-Indische Compagnie (Amsterdam: Jan Jansz, p. 76 1646), vol.

the sixteenth

of Melaka, the

Straits

gained

them

o丘en cemented links between Chinese leaders and Asia’s social fabric is

elite families.

suggested in a

The

poem from

west Java, in which a Sundanese hero takes passage on a ship operated by men from China as well as Sulawesi, Sumatra, Bali, and the Malay Peninsula.

The revival of the China trade and the new markets opening up in Europe could not fa且 and sea-dwelling groups, the primary collectors of local products that

to affect the forest

helped affirm the place of Southeast Asia in the world market. In small and relatively egalitarian communities, the nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples who frequented the interior forests delivered products like honey, wax, aromatic woods, rattans, resins, rare animals and birds, and even limited quantities of tin, in exchange for a

salt,

iron, cloth,

and

few prestigious foreign goods. Through networks of exchange出at o丘en involved



to a

growing world demand. By the end of fine lacquer,“and出e

woods

we

in

England and

for honie.”20

among the sea people. Though

major passageway for vessels participating in the lucrative east-west

a valued position in the fleets of Straits polities.

The

sea-dwellers were

economically indispensable because they collected products such as edible seaweeds,

shark

fins,

and

tortoiseshell.

The bulk of these were destined

becoming aware of the value of maritime harvests such as pearls,

tropical

made from

waters

for China, but

Europeans (well acquainted with products such as spices) were also

in a cradle

ties

added

known were the Orang Laut of the Western Archipelago. Their intimate knowledge of the

rich cargoes of lacquerware, porcelain, iron goods, cannon, beads,

marriage

a single

communities were found in several areas of island Southeast Asia, the most well-

such

were attracting elite clientele.

absorption of Chinese into Southeast

were needed to produce

of expanding connections can be found

sometimes very large, could be found in every po此These overseas communities and the expanding junk traffic anchored vast Chinese networks that transported and distributed Because of these connections and the resources at their disposal, leaders of overseas Chinese communities were courted by local rulers, and

insects

countrie do as diligently search for this lacca as

seeke in the

A similar story

sixteenth-century

this period.

more

centu叩Pegu had gained a reputation as a source of

other countries

corals, pearls,

on shipwrecks from

Stick-lac refers to

Chinese and Japanese lacquerware was taken back to Europe, and

inhabitants of that

also

and other goods found

prime source.

which was processed into dry flakes (shellac) and eventually China and Japan. Here it was dissolved and used as a veneer

European appreciation for由is artistry

trade,

I,

or



scale insect that encrusts the h矿igs of host

Asian tree resins) to protect and enhance wooden cabinets, screens and

(cheaper than East

精f气::.;,?’

by a

kg) of lac resin,

/-、7如一词, 一飞

--4

of the

world trading systems was the expanding market

which mainland Southeast Asia was

for “stick-lac,”for

One example

products acquired even greater impo口ance.

connections that linked collectors to

At his birth

in 1553 the future

and some

Henri IV of France was placed

a single carapace of a hawksbill turtle, a species

and around coral

reefs like those of the

exotic items

West

Indies

found only in

and Southeast

Asia.

Although Southeast Asian rulers might require a portion of valued products, or impose a

monopoly over items such as bezoar stone or elephant tusks, forest and sea dwellers were beyond the reach of coastal and lowland centers because of their mob且ity and

largely

scattered settlements in fairly instance, refer to

inaccessible areas. Missionary

sources仕om Vietnam,

for

"savage people" in the “mountains bordering

who were subservient to their own“kings of ledged the sovereignty

fire

on the kingdom of Laos" and water" and “in no way”acknow-

of Viet rulers尸The willingness of such groups to enter a reciprocal

exchange relationship with outsiders

was always conditional on

correct treatment

and

Joh山 ::

Olga

Dro? and K. W. Taylor, eds., Views of Seve仰enth-Cer阳y Vi?tnam: Christoforo Borri on Cochinchma and Samuel Baron on Tonkin (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program, 2006), 34.

150

1400-1830 A HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, respect for their unique knowledge

more

infinitely

difficult since

and

skills. If this

respect were lacking, exchanges were

was virtually impossible to enforce control. In

it

who

Philippines the various highland groups in northern

ACCELERATION OF CHAN叩511一1600

the

inhabited the Cordillera mountain ranges

Luzon (whom the Spanish termed

“Y golotes,"

"Tinggues," and “Mandayas”

from indigenous words meaning roughly“mountain people,,) traditionally entered into peace pacts with lowland communities in order to facilitate movement of people and of trade in gold

from the highland mines and

lowland items such

as beads, blankets, earthenware,

typically expressed in kinship terms,

townspeople and

forest products,

call

them

which were exchanged

and animals. These

relationships were

whereby upland groups“become However,

siblings."22

it

was impossible

replicate these fam过y句pe connections because of their contempt for

for

relatives of the

for the Spanish

to

“in卢eles”(pagans)

belief

and behavior continued

outside teachings to their

to surface even as Southeast Asians themselves adapted

own environment. In the island world the arrival of Christianity

coincided with the expansion of Islam and led to inter-religious tensions that had not previously existed. Exacerbating these tensions was a fierce economic rivalry for access to the region’s valuable commodities. Because Christian and

Muslim

religious

and economic

motivations were so entwined, there were added incentives for ambitious rulers to tap religious rivalry for their

own economic

benefit. In

both mainland and island Southeast

Asia, the sixteenth century witnessed increased efforts

by major centers

to strengthen

connections to more remote communities in order to gain control over more people and thus to

more

period, to

resources. These general features inform the specific historical events in this

which we now

turn.

and the violence associated with colonial penetration. If

we

consider Southeast Asia

more

generally,

it is

evident that increased exchanges

with political and economic centers could lead to distinct advantages and were normally

welcomed by outlying an obvious

lure,

areas.

but connections to a prestigious court, access to places of

spiritual

potency, and the strengthening of personal networks also facilitated trading relationships

with the center, especially

when

from

a powerful center

increased deliveries.

mountain paths (often mere animal

forest or

well-traveled sea routes facilitated travel. accessible

On

tracks) or

the other hand, settlements that were more

were also more vulnerable to demands for labor

or

New commodities like black pepper could yield high profits, but since

vines required careful tending

and took seven years to mature they were primarily

suited

The accessib山ty that allowed these communities to supply an expanding market and benefit from the opportunities now offered exposed them to greater control by major centers. Warfare between large polities meant communities previously to sedentary populations.

existing at the

periphe可of

state interests

came under increasing pressure,

especially on

where advancing and retreating armies seized food supplies and impressed and porters. Behind the accolades celebrating royal achievements thus lies a

the mainland, soldiers

电3叫opme川叫叫ea叫a

Trading profits and the acquisition of desirable goods were

The Western Archipelago The Portuguese capture of the siege

Western Archipelago.

appeared well placed to control achieved by requiring

all

target of Portuguese

for Southeast Asia, particularly in

those areas that were

the

and Spanish ambitions. Questions about the boundaries of religious

new

Cited in

Mark Dizon,“Social and

Caraba川OU叫

Spiritual

Kin hip



E忖Ei ?hteenth『ce

t叩M

vessels visiting the ports of the Estado

da India to obtain passes

many

their goal of seaborne

Much

hegemony, the

of the city was destroyed, including

of the refugee Malays either accompanied

their sultan in

or fled to various ports throughout the archipelago, including the in the Straits, the north Sumatran kingdom of Aceh. Since the goal of site

spreading Christianity had helped justi命the attack on Melaka,出e Portuguese initially evicted all Muslim traders and rebuilt the city to accommodate numerous convents, churches, chapels, hermitages, and other religious establishments. Over the next hundred years the Christian population grew to 7,400 people, comprising about three hundred

Portuguese casados with their Asian wives and families, as well as the“black Portu事1ese.,, Although visiting priests railed against the vices and impiety of Melaka's Catholic popu-

symbol of an aggressive new Christian presence. Immediately a丘er the conquest of Melaka, a Portuguese expedition was sent to establish a post in the spice islands of eastern Indonesia, the home of the precious cloves, nutmeg, and mace. lation, the city

22

dominat-

maritime trade, which由ey believed could be

conquest of Melaka had major ramifications.

emerging power

In sum, then, the expanding global connections that characterize the sixteenth century

Asia’s

Although the Portu思1ese never accomplished

to

had far-reaching implications

a significant step towards Portugal’s goal of

(cartazes).

search of a

when Le Thanh Tong's expansionist policies led numerous Tai leaders in the frontier areas to seek the protection of the Lan Sang ruler.

was

network - Goa, Melaka, Hormuz, and Aden. By 1515 all these ports except Aden were in Portuguese hands. With the creation of the Estado da India, the Po口u凯1ese

as

relationships, as in the fifteenth century,

It

global trade

from the Shan

mandala

in 1511 following a month’s

ing the spice trade, which they planned to achieve by seizing the principal nodes of the

the great mosque, and

a reconfiguration of

Malay port of Melaka

and ferocious hand-to-hand fighting redirected political and economic developments

in the

darker past that occasionally finds mention in written records, such as the chronicles hills, which record the harrowing experiences of those who fled Bayinnaung's forces pressed relentlessly forward. Such developments could then lead

great

became



'151

ASIA, 1400-1830 A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

ACCE山ATION OF C

the Portuguese had anticipated, it remained Although Melaka never yielded the profits point along the maritime route to China. key and a a wealthy and cosmopolitan city and Chinese graves from this period Melaka authorities welcomed Chinese migration, stone masons, s??iths, and in carpenters, as la咿resident community wo灿1g suggest a

the words of one observer

Chinese

“all

other professions one requires to run a

usually co-habited with local

men who

women formed

city."L.-'

Children

of

the basis of the mixed

encouraging intermarriage baba or peranakan community. The deliberate policy of wide-ranging kinship links that between Portuguese men and local women created allowed white traders and their Eurasian offspring to be integrated into the

web

last ruler,

Sultan

Mahmud

(r.

fall

of Melaka represented the

end of

Ming Emperor

ordered the Portuguese to return Melaka to

its

island realm

no

and eventually

its

in the

upper reaches of the Johor River

southern end of the Malay

settled

Peninsula.

Lacking the revenues from a bustling entrepot, and subject to ongoing attacks by rivals,

J ohor’s

to

military action was

The refugee dynasty roamed throughout

Portuguese and local

Malay world

position as the leader of the

textiles.

In 1524, however, Pasai

came under the control of

neighbor Aceh, which had also benefited from the

had grown several of

China

to incorporate

all

which had strong

Sea.

The

fall

of Melaka.

By

links to

preserve of the wealthy. Because of the high

demand on

successive rulers sought to supplement Aceh’s production

its

northern

this time Aceh

use and was no longer



the international market,

by seizing control

The similarity of the goods brought to Srivijaya

and then Melaka had

of other

On

sides of the Straits of Melaka, Sultan

Alauddin Riayat Syah al-Kahar

(r. 1539-71) was dubbed "Emperor of all the Malays" by Portuguese chronicler. His reputation as a patron of Islam was strengthened by his correspondence with the ruler of Ottoman Turkey, Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent



Sulayman

2010), 121.

difficult.

In the past

successfully asserted overlord status, but despite in international trade passing

Acehnese

through the

Straits

Patani,

where Islam was only beginning

down

to put

roots,

The had been a

regained

its

China, and was a reliable market for

it

imported from southeast Sumatra. By the 1580s there was

a resident foreign

commu-

around three thousand people, most of whom were from South China. A nineteenth-century Thai chronicle even records that the three great cannon embody- nity of

ing the country’s protective forces were cast by a Chinese

woman and

man who

married a Malay

converted to Islam. Such liaisons provide perhaps the most important

explanation for the regional penetration of private Chinese trade. Throughout South-

whereby Chinese men commonly took

dominated domestic markets and were known traders acquired a sexual partner

while the

local wives,。丘en

basis, established relationships that served both parties well. Since

woman and

who

for their

on

commercial acumen, Chinese

could also act as an able and trusted assistant,

her family acquired access to capital and economic resources

(see Figure 4.4).

Cited in Ismail Haklu Goksoy,“Ottoman-Aceh Relations as in R.

Michael Feener, Patrick Daly, and Anthony Reid,

KITLV



women

black

and Diplomacy in

it

was well placed on the maritime route to good quality pepper grown domestically and also

regional importance because

received Alaud-

aromatic woods,

Cited in Peter Borschberg, The Singapore and Melaka Straits: Violence, Security the 17th Century (Singapore: NUS Press,

made the

principal transshipment terminus in earlier times. During the sixteenth centuηr

24 23

attacks against

the east coast of the Malay Peninsula there was far less contestation.

kingdom of

east Asia the practice

1520-66). Turkish sources mention the delight with which

meant that Acehnese

the markets along this maritime corridor

dominance, the unprecedented increase

temporary

(r.

hostilities

simultaneous existence of more than one entrepot extremely

Malay Peninsula.

din's gifts of exotic animals, parrots of brilliant colors, spices,

more than

Despite numerous attempts, Aceh was never able to breach Portuguese Melaka’s

formidable defenses. At the time, religious

pepper-producing areas in north and west Sumatra, and along the west coast of the

Having extended Acehnese control over both

far

prosperity.

pepper was a further stimulant to Acehnese

common

though the Portuguese actually feared the poisoned arrows of the Acehnese their unpredictable firearms.

was

markets around the Indian Ocean and the South

expansion. In China, for instance, pepper was in

Alauddin was thus able to

allowed lesser centers such as Portuguese Melaka and Johor to continue in relative

the port polities along the northeastern coast of Sumatra,

cultivation of black

infidel citadel at Melaka.24

augment his own considerable forces with Turkish weapons, soldiers, and military experts,

the

subject to serious challenge. Pasai, in northeastern Sumatra, had accepted Islam towards the end of the thirteenth century and was now favored by the stream of Muslim traders who had abandoned Melaka, including the Gujarati with their cargoes

of Indian

be deployed against the

Aceh

that can destroy

proved impossible to mount a unified Muslim assault on Melaka because of ongoing enmities between Aceh and Johor in their quest to become the sole power in the Straits.

taken.

at the

castles" to

form of “bashlikcha" (torpedoes) and cannon

a chapter. The

issued a stern reprimand and

rightful owners,

return, Alauddin asked for teachers to strengthen Islam in

for military aid in the

Melaka, as well as those launched by Johor and the Javanese, were interpreted as a struggle between Islam and Christianity. However, even with Javanese assistance it

1488-1511, 1513-28), clearly expected the Chinese

intervene on his behalf, but although the

and

of Asian

co口1口1erce.

For the Malays, however, the

and eunuchs. In

slaves,

N叩511一

Press, 2011), 65-96.

Documented

eds.,占1.apping the

in the Turkish Sources,'’ Acehnese Past (Leiden・

154

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

ACCELERATION OF

ASIA, 1400-1830

f沁1Y,!Y, <ff其冯i?-kt;但 Pg c又C/l.uzge

and human ingenui可. Despite the

sophisticated engineering,

Netherlands and the lush Balinese landscape, the

commander

CHANG川山600 '155

difference between the

of the

first

Dutch ships

1597 was so thrilled by the prospects of future interaction that he

arrive in

named

to

the

“Young Holland (Jonck Hollandt).”25

island

Political

and

changes were more evident on Java, where the Muslim-

religious

on the

controlled ports

pasisir

1513 the lord of Japara

north coast were already signaling their ambitions. In

launched an armada of well-armed large ships carrying ten

men in an unsuccessful attempt to assist the refugee Malay Sultan and recapture

thousand

Portuguese Melaka. His brother-in-law Trenggana, ruler of 1521-46), led an alliance that

subdued the other

including the old capital of Majapahit, his attention

now

From this power base he was

pasisir

under

1505-18 and

towns and by 1527

his control.

ally

(c.

east Java,

Trenggana then turned

through marriage to the

of

sister

able to assert authority over the nearby port

patronized by traders as an alternative to Melaka. Trenggana himself

have used the Islamic

said to

also

toward west Java, gaining a significant

Cirebon’s ruler.

of Banten,

was

Demak

succeeded in conquering

all

“Sultan"

title

Java he

and

his successor allegedly said that if

would be regarded

is

he

as“a second Turk,”an obvious

Ottoman Sultan Sulayman.26 It was not easy, however, for Demak to maintain its position, and its dominance was short-lived. By mid-century both Cirebon and Banten were operating as autonomous polities, and a丘er Trenggana's reference to his cop.temporary, the



...;)I,,..兰兰仲、飞

二,,1

death the thriving port

,/’

’吨"'"

towns along the north Javanese coast were

independence. In the second half of the sixteenth century Figure 4.4. Women and the market in Melaka. This engraving of barter trade in Melaka was obviously based on a sketch made from life. Many visitors were struck by the prominence of women in the market

leading Javanese center.

and commented on their ab让ity to calculate trading equivalences, either in goods or currencies Here we see a group of women transacting a sale wi出foreign traders. Johan Nieuhof, Voyages and Travels, into Brasil, and the East-Indies (London: A. and J. Churchill, 1704), 219.

description of Melaka

clear that the arrival

It is

place,

to the

the

Majapahit in east Java and

The previous chapter described the decline of Hindu-Buddhist the rise of the Muslim kingdom of Demak on the northeastern coast. A丘er the

final defeat

of Majapahit, thought to have occurred about 1527, and of Pajajaran around 1579, the

Buddhist kingdom. associated

飞厅ith

in the

left his

and the Arab lands,

as well as

impressions of Java a丘er a visit

had been introduced by traders from

by Muslim Chinese. The movement of Islam

remote eastern

Many Javanese also

salient survived as Java's

fled to Bali,

only Hindu-

which preserved numerous

traditions

medium of communication. Muslim traders themselves sometimes where they taught local boys to recite the

schools,

well as the

0位en

fundamentals of the Islamic

and by 1600

authors were also In both Java

legal texts句pically begin飞矿ith a eulogy to the

Majapahit

from Majapahit. Although

ruler,

and

aristocratic genealogies

Bali’s literary, artistic,

technical traditions are suffused with the rich

performative, and

rearticulated to

naked

faith.

Qt汀’an

Muslim

set

up temporary

and imparted some

rulers

might

also

literacy as

sponsor teachers,

from India or the Islamic heartlands. These teachers brought with them

classical texts,

pre

trace their descent

such a valuable source, also

Tome Pires, whose

through the archipelago thus followed the trade routes, using the lingua franca of Malay as

The Central Archipelago

Blambangan

of Islam had brought significant changes.

north coast in 1513. According to Pires, Islam

India, Persia,

polity of

is

also able to assert their

Demak was thus displaced as the







Islam’s

a few had been translated into Javanese and Malay, while local

producing their

own

and Sumatra these

Islamic tracts.

demonstrate that Muslim teachings were being engage the audiences they attracted. Describing himself as“poor and texts

Neither Persian nor Arab/Yet in constant union with the Eternal

One,'’由e

Hindu-Buddhist heritage derived from

Majapahit, the unique culture that emerged was distinguished by an extraordinary

empathy with for example,

the environment.

The complex

irrigation systems

were only developed through a combination of

Ci

and terraced

rice fields,

based

decisions,

ritually

::u

Cited in H.J. de Graaf, over de Staatkundige

and Th. G. Th. Pigeaud, De Eersteλ1oslimse Vorstendommen op Java. Studien Geschiedenis van de lSde en 16de Eeuw ('τhe Hague: Nijho旺,1974), 76.

156

A HISTORY OF EARLY

_ ・\

Hamzah

Acehnese poet metaphors

MODERN SOUTHEAST Fansuri

(d.

One

of his

Malay language and invoked familiar of Sufi theology in ways that ordinary people co毗

poems compares the

boat, while another uses the

ACCELER川…F CH山川11-1600

1590) used the

to explain the complexities

understand.27

ASIA, 1400一1830

adept’s spiritual

journey

to a voyage

by

woman applying colors and designs to a cloth in which God shapes the lives of believers. Hamzah

image of a

to

facilitate

understanding of the ways

obviously believed由at one did not need to travel to distant lands to gain

knowledge.“How strange Sea, looks for

water on

it is,'’he

Mount

wrote,“that the whale, Sinai,

and hence

having

its

religious

habitat in the

China

efforts are useless."28

Javanese

manuscripts dating from this transitional period are also intended for teaching,

substitut-

its

ing Javanese words for unfamiliar Arabic terms, criticizing those interpretations of Islamic doctrines, “A free

who

and prescribing correct behavior

taught“false"

for good Muslims.

woman who does not stay in her house,”says one,“is like a slave.”29 These sources

reflect a fluid

environment when Javanese were becoming Muslims and

were becoming

“Javanized,'’although

they reveal

little

foreign Muslims

about the practice of Islam

among

the ordinary people.

Despite the economic and religious influence of the pasisir ports, over the course of the sixteenth century the nucleus of

power sh的ed to由e two central Javanese kingdoms of Pajang (near present-day Surakarta) and Mataram (near present-day Y ogyakarta). Bo出 were located

in the vicinity of earlier polities that

had produced the

magnificent

temple

complexes of the Borobodur and the Prambanan. In keeping with Javanese traditions】 always concerned with continuity and legitimacy, Pajang was regarded as an heir to both

Demak and Majapahit, and its

first ruler, Jaka Tingkir, reputedly married the daughter of Demak’s Sultan Trenggana and was installed in 1581 by one of the great walis, Sunan Giri (see Figure 4.5).

Little is

ruler,

known

of Pajang’s history, but around 1587

Senapati Ingalaga

(r. c.

it

Senapati had

and she taught him what was necessary to become king. A丘er three days he returned where he was greeted by one of Java's legendary Nine ali, who assured him由at Mataram' s ascendancy was predestined. The chronicles then relate how Senapati seize d P仇g'? regal盯灿hu川stran由陀dl鸣gitima love,



tellmg mstance of the widespread Southeast Asian belief that a kingdom's

巳叫t二d

in

叫L

G.

W.

Publications, 1986), 141. J.

sacral

Peter阳川…毗eMal,

28νmversity of Hawai‘i Press, 2001), 108. G. W. J. Drewes K. B地el, The Poems of Hamzah Fansuri. Bibliotheca Indonesica Faris 29"

and becomes

ruler of Paja吨,as predicted

by出e wali Sunan

Kal与aga.

Courtesy

was conquered by the Mataram

adopted Islam around 1576 but also established a special relationship with Ratu Kidul, the powerful spirit princess whose kingdom lay beneath the Southern Ocean. According to chronicle traditions, Ratu Kidul proclaimed that Sena pa ti was destined by God to rule, and promised that she would always give him her support. In her underwater palace they made

27

Trenggana’s daughter

of Leiden University Library Or. 6379.

1584-1601). According to later chronicles,

to land,

Fi伊re 4.5. Sultan Trenggana and Jaka Tingkir. This nineteenth-century Javanese illustration depicts a well-known st。可found in a number of different texts. The legendary hero, JakaTingkir, demonstrates his extraordinary prowess by subjugating a wild buffalo in the presence of Sultan Trenggana of Demak, who is sitting on the grandstand with his attendants. Jaka Tingkir later marnes

J.

Br山,1954),

women

- were infused with supernatural

13.

powers由at could then be transmitted

Though Senopati remains

to

an

shadowy

figure,

European sources reinforce Javanese perceptions that this was a formative period.

When

individual

the

Dutch

and confer the right first

to rule.



reached Java in 1596, Mataram’s authority extended from the agricultural

interior to include

many coastal towns and had laid the basis

for further expansion in the

seventeenth century. In western Java, the

Sunda region remained outside Mataram's

Sundanese maintained their

control,

and the

own language and literature, despite cultural similarities with

By the beginning of the sixteenth centu可由e Sunda region was dominated by Pajajaran, located in the interior near present-day Bogor. As yet no archaeological excavations have been undertaken on this site, but it seems that their

neighbors in central and east Java.

Pajajaran (Dordrecht:

'J

Drewes, Een Javaanse primbon uit de zestiende eeuw (Leiden: E.

possessions一texts, drums, weapons, daggers, elephants, albinos, and even certain

Banten.

drew trading revenues from the ports of Sunda Kelapa (modern

Though

Jakarta)

and

the Portuguese concluded a treaty with the Pajajaran ruler in 1522,

yielded few benefits because of the rise of Banten,

which was prospering

as

it

an outlet for



157

158想飞

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 black pepper. Global

demand

from the pepper trade enabled Banten Located between two

and

at various

all

worlds - Malay Sumatra and central and eastern Java

times

it

by both neighbors. As noted

suffered incursions

Sunda Kelapa and Banten

Gunung

Java’s

dominant

Maulana Makhdum,

Islam.

known

another of the Nine Wali attributed with the Islamization of title

Its

Sunan

as

Java.

The

of 飞1aulana,”used

only for a very learned or saintly religious teacher. The jewel of the royal capital was

mosque ( today one of

which was first

Dutch

faith.

visitors arrived in

its

the oldest examples of Islamic architecture in Indonesia),

built in the mid-sixteenth century

adherence to the Muslim

The Northern Archipelago The thriving entrepot of Brunei on Borneo’s northwest coast was another beneficiary of Melaka's

and proclaimed the kingdom’s proud

Links to the holy land remained strong, and when the

1596 they were struck by the presence of Islamic teachers

the

Hasanuddin

fall (r.

as a regional entre-

when

the second

ruler,

1552-70), gained access to the pepper-producing areas of southern

Sumatra by expanding

and

became renowned

of Malay Melaka. This reputation was confirmed

his control across the

irrigation canals increased rice

Sunda

The construction

Strait.

of dams

production and led to a further growth in population,

while the royal capital, relocated to the

mouth of the Ban ten River, was laid out according

to traditional Javanese designs. Rich in people

and economic resources, Banten conquered

former overlord Pajajaran, thereby destroying the last of Java's major Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms, leaving only the more distant polity of Blambangan in the east. The conquest of its

Pajajaran probably occurred in 1579, perhaps at the time

Agung

(“great mountain”),

the second highest in Java, was

presented to the rulers

this was a court well

that the trade in

Banten“doth

farre exceede

Achin (Ache) or any towne or

citie

thereabouts. "31

The men who eventually completed

and even“a pair of silver shoes"

by the

town’s

and

over the river, which

salt

on

structed

p过es

elite

The

this first gi丘s

they

for the

queen - indicate that

remarkable adaptation to an aquatic

houses, the entire settlement was con-

water tides

made

mosque, and the presence of numerous

Changes

of the faith.

distinguished Brunei [Qur’an] ...

and

in dress

and

into

an extension of the

Muslim scholars symbolized the

lifestyle,

sea.

Muslims from the

ruler’s

promotion

including the rejection of pork, clearly

interior tribal peoples

many pigs. 2 now extended throughout much

who

“keep not the alcoran

raise

influence

of Borneo, the Sulu archipelago,

and along coastal areas of the Philippines as far north as the island of Luzon. In these areas traders port,

from Brunei intermarried with local women while maintaining links to their

and these kinship connections help explain

Brunei. Brunei’s place in a a local

why

home

the "Luφes" sailed to Melaka via

world linked by maritime communications

is

nicely captured in

Renowned as a sea rover, this ruler sets out on of pepper and announces that he intends to name each seed after

legend associated with an early ruler.

his travels

with a cargo

one of the myriad islands he expects to encounter. In the course of his travels he visits Melaka, marries a Javanese princess, conquers Sulu, Borneo, designates his burial place in

and commercial connections,

to colonize the

that

it is

not surprising that a Muslim community with

Brunei was well-established in Manila

The capture of Manila

is

and even Manila, and

Brunei with a tombstone imported from Aceh. Given these

when it was seized by the Spaniards in

historically significant because

it

1571.

affirmed the Spanish decision

Philippine islands and, like the Portuguese attack

on Melaka, demonstrated Europeans were willing to use violence to achieve their commercial or religious

objectives. It also

showed

that even

when Europeans were outnumbered

military

technology gave them a considerable advantage. In Europeans and local recruits le丘Cebu for Manila.

May

their superior

1570 a combined force of

Following skirmishes with around ten

30 J.

Noorduyn and A. Teeuw,

445. 31

by

Through the sixteenth century, Brunei’s patronage of Islam, the central place of the

renamed Slamat, which has so, the word was

Company

conversion to Islam

accustomed to the luxuries available through international trade. The

environment. Apart from the palace

been identified with an Arabic loanword meaning“prosperity户。If

(EIC) remarked

ruler’s

his nobles - a Turkish-style robe, a velvet chair, glassware,

and

Spanish were particularly struck

cultural

indeed apt, for in 1603 an employee of the English East India

enhanced by the

circumnavigation of the globe described Brunei’s wealth in glowing terms.

links to

Banten’s revered

traders

during a confrontation in the Philippines.

Gunung

when

Muslim

remnants of a Spanish expedition, whose leader Ferdinand Magellan had been killed

Brunei’s

In addition to these Islamic credentials, Banten

attraction to

sometime in the early sixteenth century. In 1521 the Brunei court hosted a brief visit

from Mecca. pot a丘er the

fall, its

paper, a gilded writing case,

polity.

better

subsequent three rulers of the sixteenth century also bore the great

its

around the time that he conquered few years Banten once again became independent from

traditionally attributed to

Jati,

earlier,

Muslim Demak, who

Banten identity was the close association with

central element in is

ruler of

in 1527,

Javanese control and soon developed into west

founding

_

distinctive culture that

Majapahit. Nevertheless, in just a



pro且ts

autonomy.

to exercise considerable

economic success attracted the attention of Trenggana, seized both

over Asia, and increased

melded Javanese, Malay, and Sundanese intermediate position meant Banten was also vulnerable to attack,

Banten developed a elements. But this

rival

from

attracted traders

ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-1600 r非159

ed.

and

trans.,

Three Old Sundanese Poems (Leiden:

William Foster, ed叮The Voyage of Sir Henry Middleton Society, 1943), 68

to the

KITLV Press,

2006),

Moluccas, 1604-1606 (London: Hakluyt

thousand

32

Muslim

warriors, the Spanish

Cited in John Carroll,“Berunai in the

burned the surrounding settlements, captured

Boxer Codex,”]MB孔4.S

55, 2 (1982), 3, 11

160毯A HISTORY

OF

and took

several ships set sail,

EAR…ODERN SOUTH山T山,14…830 several

hundred

prisoners.

The following year another

own good and benefit

with Legazpi assuring local leaders that this was“for their teach

expedition

them the holy law and

...

1571,

As

and to

soldiers, religious

orders and in

the Catholic faith so that they might be saved and not

the outset the decision to colonize was inseparable from Spanish commitment to

the Christianization project. Several Augustinians

were soon joined by the Franciscans (1577),

had accompanied Legazpi, but

Dominicans

Jesuits (1581), the

the Recollect branch of the Franciscan order (1606).

working

By 1594

there were 267 missionaries

in the Philippines, although their claims of 286,000

baptisms that year

superiors in Europe. Each Catholic order was assigned a specific region to

(i.e.

not belonging to an order and answerable directly to the bishop)

established. This

happened only

orders) continued to argue that the

religious

rarely because "reg吐ar" priests

“spiritual

parish

when the faith (members

conquest”of the Philippines was

of

still

incomplete. Nonetheless, by the end of the sixteenth century the religious orders could

claim considerable success in purveying Catholic teachings, aided

and

languages, the establishment of schools for both boys religious texts. Material

rewards and guaranteed status

many

to Christianity, but

of the inhabitants were

girls,

by the use

and

of

local

translations of

may have attracted the native elite

also eager to tap into a supernatural

on earth and heavenly

authority that appeared to promise health and well-being

“Indios.”Rather than

As we have noted,

this intertwined process of colonization

on Philippine

society. In

rewards

and conversion

exacted

221,700. Together with fatalities from

new

and

former

( vandala)

areas

sent

part of Luzon.

II (r.

1527-98, at this

weeks or even galleys.

many

regarded as a“righteous war" in retaliation for head-hunting

raids

The

enco-

mienda system (from encomendar,“to give

were captured or

major

in trust"), a

killed.

instrument in extending

men

away仕om

to be

went

tribute payers

for years without

any

ler

it

lingered

on

into the eighteenth century. Nonetheless,

expressed a general view

deros

their villages for

religious instruction at

1674 clerical protests at such abuses led to the o面cial abolition of the although

Pampanga and the

time cutting forest timber or serving as rowers in Spanish

at a

when he

preaching to

them of the

The

is

an Augustinian chronic-

asserted that“the collaboration of many

were o丘en the

significant because friars

more numerous than

the secular

and were therefore of

more compact

friars

By

encomen-

infidels

and the

gospels.”35

acknowledgement

Spanish authority. Far

all.

encomienda system,

had made possible the entrance of the religious in the regions of the

in

burning houses.34 During a 1592 campaign against the upland Sambals in central Luzon, against Christian lowlanders, three thousand natives

Some

months

forcing people to resettle in the

as they can,”seizing food supplies, and

burdensome payments and impose

did encomenderos accord any priority to preparing

baptism, o丘en requiring

their tribute-payers for

tribute.

reported, however, that Spanish soldiers often adopted extreme measures to subdue recalcitrant villages,“mercilessly killing as

many deaths. Nor

of

bore his name. Observers

thousand natives or

many encomenderos

Because of their absence, insufficient rice was planted in

lack of food led to

major factor was the nature

time also king of Portugal) had issued

however,

obligations,

were particularly severe. In 1580, for example, a large contingent of men was forcibly

to

diseases, a

several

from Pampanga, close to Manila, to work in the gold mines of Ilocos in the northern

from 383,000

in the Visayas

number

could

The hardships experienced by native communities near Spanish-dominated urban

assigned to rural areas,

for a bloodless pacification of the archipelago that

friars

right to tribute

heavy labor obligations.

populations into

Spanish policies that ignored royal decrees. Shocked by reports of Spanish brutality

Mexico and Peru, King Felipe



their

fulfilling

of

Luzon, for instance, an estimated population

1,044,150 in 1565 had fallen to 683,760 in 1600,

which even

Crown, the

exploited their right of collecting tribute to exact

This

commands

cases the

who

instruction to his tribute-payers,

after death.

costly toll

some

would

and labor services (polo) from the population of a particular area. In return, the

are

evangelize,

with the understanding that their congregations would be handed over to“secular"

was well

they

(1587), and

questionable because numbers were o丘en exaggerated in order to impress

priests

that the souls of benighted pagans

in Spanish America, this system granted civilian officials,

encomendero was required to introduce civic order and provide protection and religious

condemned.'’33

From

by claims

Spanish control, was also justified thereby be saved.

and despite strong resistance the Spanish took possession of Manila in June

critical

officials,

sole

symbol of

they were可pically

importance in moving scattered

settlements to facilitate conversion and the collection of

helped recruit Filipino chiefs or datu, whose assistance in enticing or

new administrative units could be rewarded by an appointment as cabeza de barangay (village head), and in later years by the more prestigious position of gobernadorcillo

(“little

i町,inadequate support for the missions clerics

o丘en ignored royal orders to refrain

of poverty, within

twenty years

governor”).

Given

and simple temptation, from commercial

a丘er their arrival

Augustinian

their position of author- it is

not surprising that

activities.

friars

Despite their

vow

were already involved

personal trade, profiting from the sale of rice, wax, and cloth which出ey had obtained from their parishioners for a fraction of their true value. As time went on religious orders and secular priests also participated in the galleon trade between Mexico and China, in

despite royal interdictions. 33

Cited in William Henry Scott, Cracks in the Parchment Curtain

(New Day, 34

1985),

and other Essays

5.

Cited in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands, 34: 259-61

in Philippine History

35

Cited in R. Morales 106.

Maza, The Augustinians

in

Panay

(Iloilo City:

University of San Agustin, 1987),

162噜A HISTO阳OF队R…ODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…伽 Spanish attempts to extend their control into the Cordillera with its rich gold mines clearly demonstrate that military means alone would never have been sufficient to

maintain the colonial position. Several costly campaigns were launched to bring

mountain

these

were unsuccessful. Despite compuls。可 the Spanish forces were consistently defeated by a

areas under Manila’s authority, but

drafting of Christianized Filipinos,

combination of forbidding terrain and

fierce

intimate knowledge of the land to punishing

all

opposition from people

effect.

who

used

their

In 1601, for instance, a Spanish

force

was attacked by "three thousand pagans,”and many Spaniards were killed. Spears were o丘en tipped with poison, and sharpened bamboo stakes could also be poisoned and placed along

trails.

The unwary could

fall

into disguised pits

dug along pathways, or be

blockades at narrow passes, while defenders waiting above rolled sections of tree trunks. A丘er fi的years these military

halted by

down large boulders and

campaigns to pac的the mountain

peoples were essentially abandoned.

raider

and

on Manila, which had been almost captured

a force of three

in 1574-5

to

by a Chinese

thousand men. Though eventually driven off by a much smaller

Spanish force together with Filipino auxiliaries from nearby Pampanga, this attack made the strengthening of Manila’s defenses a high priority. fortified inner city, the

By 1600

the construction of

Intramuros, was well under way. Because the outbreak of fires

1583 and 1603 demonstrated the叽tlnerab过ity of palm leaf and wood, stone was preferred building material, and in architectural terms Manila soon developed

showcase of Spanish power.

who had been itions in 1567.

given a

Its

commercial connections quickly attracted Chinese

new freedom to move

a in

the

into a settlers,

overseas by the removal of imperial prohib-

However, the Spanish regarded the growing Chinese numbers with some

suspicion and their use of the term sangley (roughly, Chinese merchant) carried negative all non-Christian Chinese, regularly condemned as“infidels,”were move inside a walled compound known as the Parian, a term of indeterminate

connotations. In 1582

required to

1594 another section of Manila, Binondo, was

origin. In

The Parian

rapidly

became

Manila’s

economic

set aside for Christian Chinese.

center, with

Chinese craftsmen

provid-

ing skilled services as shipbuilders, carpenters, weavers, cobblers, bakers, apothecaries, jewelers,

and much more. Yet Spanish suspicions of Chinese

by incidents such

as the 1593

were hardly allayed

The proximity to China and the

someday

convinced Spanish authorities to

reside in the Philippines, although this

Brunei revived quickly a丘er the Spanish departure and regained

illness.

status as a thriving

hub

for regional

its

commerce.

Spanish aspirations in the southern Philippines were also challenged by the rise of three other

prominent Muslim sultanates in Mindanao and Sulu. The

the Sulu archipelago, received tions with Brunei; a

many

of

its

Muslim

first,

traditions through

centered on Jolo in its

trading connec-

second, Magindanao, located at the delta of the Pulangi river in

Mindanao (present-day Cotabato), was more closely associated with Ternate

Gowa

Maluku and with

the upper

(“in

Pulangi River

valley”)

(“in

the lower

late sixteenth

valley”)

population could be supported by the

larger

River; in

addition,

in

northern

polity

was the

century Buayan was

fertile agricultural

Buayan had access to valuable

up the

more impor-

land of the upper Pulangi

place’').

forest products like

for Islamic

among

treatises,

resins collected

by

These products were brought to Buayan and then taken downriver

influences that traveled upriver

trade network.

wax and

groups ( collectively termed Lumad, a Visayan word meaning“grown

salt,

imported goods. In this closely integrated relationship,

and

Muslim

settlement of Magindanao, partly because a

Magindanao, where they were exchanged for

riages

third

1596 a Spanish expedition was decisively defeated by Buayan warriors. In

the various interior

from the

The

polity of Buayan, about 30 miles (48 kilometers)

from Magindanao. In the

tant than the sa-ilud

to

in southwestern Sulawesi.

Economic and

religious

aristocratic families,

and thus

Magindanao acted tied

Buayan

and other

as the conduit

into a wider

Muslim

bonds were created and sustained by intermar-

by pa口icipation

and by mutual assistance

iron, cloth, porcelain,

in the circulation of religious teachers

pacts.

The growing dominance of downstream Magindanao can be attributed to the expan- sion of

maritime commerce that strengthened

particularly

its

links to other sea-oriented sultanates,

Ternate and Gowa. In 1593 the Spanish unsuccessfully attempted to counter

the religious

and commercial influence of the Muslim south by establishing

Zamboanga. Located

at a strategic

point overlooking the narrow

strait

a fort at

separating Minda-

fear that Chinese settlers could

Magindanao and provide notice of any raiding fleets heading northward into Spanish-held

restrict the

was only loosely enforced

number

allowed to

until the mid-eighteenth

accept baptism, mar巧locally, and thus attain the privileges attached to being

to

at least

areas.

Though the Jesuits were instrumental in urging the building and maintenance of the

fort, it

was under continual attack from local forces (with assistance from Ternate) and

was consequently abandoned just five years

As

in

later.

Mindanao, the downstream-upstream/coast-interior interaction helps explain

the expansion of Sulu,

nominally Christian. co时oining of economic

ravaged by

nao from the island of Basilan, this post was intended to impede the flow of trade to

century. Such discriminatory policies provided considerable incentive for Chinese

Spain’s

Brunei in 1578, the occupation was brief because the European troops were

to take

forcibly

shipboard murder of the Philippines governor by

recruited Chinese rowers. rise in rebellion

loyalties

enemy,

and viewed Brunei as the spearhead of a threatening Islamic advance that posed an obstacle to Spanish territorial and economic ambitions. Though a Spanish force was able

sa-raya

In the early years of their colonial endeavor the Spanish were also concerned

consolidate their hold

Portuguese, the Spanish arrived with perceptions of “Moors" (Moros) as the great

goals with the Christianization of the Philippines had

lasting implications in relations with the

Muslim

sultanates to the south. Like

the

where a maritime-based economy was reinforced by supplies of woods, resins, and other exotic forest products from Borneo’s northern coast.认Tith different areas

of jurisdiction and independent sources of support, the three

Muslim

164



MODERN SOUTHEAST

A HISTORY OF EARLY sultanates of Sulu,

ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-1600

Magindanao, and Buayan were able to co-exist

that sustained close

doms

ASIA, 1400-1830

economic and

in areas that are

as

autonomous

cultural relationships with neighboring

now included in

realms

Muslim

king-

Malaysia and Indonesia.

relationships,

ties, ritual

marriage

and economic connections with

islands

and commu-

nities to its north and west, while Tidore did the same with areas to its south and east. In each case, the networks that underlay these cultural and economic unities were main-

by shared origin myths and real or fictive family bonds that linked the center to the periphe町,and by rituals that could be interpreted according to the differing sensibilities of tained

The Eastern Archipelago The

sixteenth

centu巧was

participating

change in the Eastern

a time of considerable

Archipelago.

A major development was the rise of the Makassarese twin kingdom of Gowa-Tallo (later referred to simply as

combined Gowa’s

Gowa),

in

South Sulawesi. The merging of these two kingdoms

agricultural surplus with Tallo’s

growing wealth from maritime

trade,

thus creating a formidable union that dominated the eastern Indonesian region until into the seventeenth century. After the Portuguese capture of Melaka in 1511,

who had been engaged in commerce permanently in Gowa in return for promises refugees

fled to

well

many Malay

South Sulawesi and agreed

to settle

of royal protection and the provision

of a

mosque for worship. Wi由strong links to the Western Archipelago, these experienced Malay traders helped generate the revenues that enabled Gowa' s rulers to expand their authority beyond Sulawesi to the neighboring islands. Gowa' s rapid rise to preeminence also meant changes in the political landscape of South Sulawesi, as traditional federations of smaller and essentially equal polities were reshaped into a hierarchical order conceptu- alized in familiar kinship relations. In a

strongest

was termed the

“elder

union of three Bugis

brother" to the other w。“younger brothers."

were similarly expressed in kinship terms by referring as“brothers,”while contracts

states, for example, the Treaties

to contractual parties of equal status

between “elder”and “younger" brothers

clearly denoted an

written

history of this period

down

is

recorded in the chronicles of

in the late sixteenth century with the stated

Gowa and

Maluku

whose

right to govern

was attested by the white blood

outsiders will say

we

are just

we

If

accounts of

that

royal

will feel ourselves to be

common people."36

in the sixteenth century, but this area

was now dominated by

neighboring kingdoms of Ternate and Tidore. Located on two tiny islands about functioned as a complementary dualism that could



the

a mile

best be

characterized as“friendly hostili牛”In keeping with this dualism, Ternate established 36

western

Cited in William Cummings, '‘Rethinking the Imbrication of Orality and Literacy: Historical Discourse in Early Modern Makassar," Journal of Asian Studies 62, 2 (May 2003): 537.

and the aromatic

lot

their bodies with

of

money on

it

as

it,

an ointment, even when in good

each year."37 These exotic products were

and island communities around the Birdshead of

New Guinea. To af且rm these links Papuan leaders customarily appeared in Tidore

to take part in a

ceremony of mutual exchange and

respect.

From

the perspective of the

Tidore court, the Papuans crawling across the floor were demonstrating their respect and reverence in an appropriate fashion; for the Papuans, however, this ritual enabled their bodies to“sweep up" the spiritual potency of the Tidore ruler

enhanced power and

status. In

Ternate the idea that the ruler

father to his children is graphically

were provided with or

noblewomen

two weeks. These

women and

meaningful to

all

trading relations

Papuan

is

and return home with

linked to his people like a

demonstrated in customs by which the

as wet-nurses,

their

and thus drawn into the

children

husbands then became,

ruler’s

participants, Ternate

sultan’s

sons

each “mother" suckling the child for one

kinship

circle.

in effect, parents of royal

Through such

and Tidore were each able

interactions,

to preserve extensive

and exercise authority over separate domains that included hundreds of

and numerous

islands extending

from eastern Sulawesi

to the

coast.

Even

that

the conceptual unity of the “four pillars" discussed in Chapter

(1.6 kilometers) apa此,they

and rub

obtained through trade with coastal

so, this

Gowa rulers by emphasizing their matchless genealogy as descend-

(“Lords”)/Or

it

and they spend a

nineteen

attainments were not known,“there are two dangers;/ either

was st山current

health,

A second and prima可

flowed in their veins and the sacred objects in their possession.

In northern

where "they grind

close ties

ants of a supernatural couple,

such Karaengs

Tallo, probably

purpose of ensuring

ordinary subjects should not see themselves as equal to the rulers.

concern was to elevate

deliveries of bird of paradise feathers, the valuable ambergris,

massoi bark, used for medicine and as a cosmetic. Massoi bark had a large market in Java,

languages and cultures

acceptance of inequality.

The

from

communities. For example, an important source of revenue for Tidore came

authority sat very lightly because of the sheer di面culty of maintaining

with such a distant and inaccessible region.



Po口u思1ese traveler

who

spent

months in the Papuan islands in the early 1580s commented on the treacherous sandbanks, shoals, currents, and whirlpools that abound in the surrounding seas. The settlements由at he visited were headed by essentially independent “kinglets" with rela-

tively

small entourages of between two to five thousand

king was “elected." These coastal fleets

of well over a

Makassar,

Bali,

bark. Cloth, traders,

hundred frequently

and Java

men. In one case he noted that出e

and island-dwelling Papuans sailed to

built their

own

bronze gongs

and massoi

and伊ns were the prized exchange items for the Papuan know how to use guns but only kept them as prestige objects.

Raiding was a significant source of revenue because captives were ransomed, and

37

and

such distant places as Timor, Buton,

to trade slaves, spices, bird of paradise plumage, sago,

though they did not

boats,

it

was

J. Sollewijn Gelpke,‘'The Report of Miguel Roxa de Brito of his voyage in 1581一1582 to由e Raja Ampat, the MacCluer Gulf and Seram,'’BKI 150, 1 (1994), 133.

Cited in

〔咆165

166'

OD川SO UTHE川山,140叫30

A HISTO盯OF EARL not

uncommon for vulnerable communities to maintain funds

ACCELERATION OF山NGE, 1511-1600

so that payments could be

The

ruthless

methods adopted by the Portuguese

made if one of their number was captured. By the beginning of the sixteenth century the position of the rulers of both Ternate and

their “Christian" allies

Tidore had been enhanced by their acceptance of Islam, and court customs

resentment, Sultan Babullah

Muslim ever,

had arrived through trading connections.

influences that

employed a Malay guide

them

to bring

that island

to the Spice Islands, the ultimate objective of their

globe and extend

dominate the spice

around which

dominion and gl。可of Maluku."38 In pursuit of

trade, the Portu凯1ese

a small Christian

including a few local converts. ever,

were therefore able to establish a

their goal

expense of Christianity. as Sulawesi,

and the emphasis on

women

Her

earlier described as “the

reason for

and possession of extraordinary powers

to exercise considerable authority. For the next

from 1546

to 1547.

and unrealized hopes As explained

kingdom would soon follow

Muslim

less impressive.

Numerous

Ambon and

surrounding

and community

who vowed

nicely captured in a legend recalling a

ruler

Islam a丘er a

teacher)

won the

“race"

Drake

visited Ternate in

1579 he

access to the wealth

power was

very

A major

and weaponry derived from

further strengthened by the recruitment of

to withstand

an attack launched from

Portuguese in 1512, Europeans had played a sign凶cant role

first

fundamental alienation in relationships with

had bidden

that even after their brief visit

would

leave

him

he

felt “like

a child at the breast

to arrive in 1599 as potential allies in

could not have foreseen that these

who knew his

alone.”42 A丘er eighty years the vision

had irrevocably crumbled. However, the Ternate

Dutchmen

local societies. In

farewell to the survivors of Magellan’s expedition,

ruler

of a family-

who welcomed

opposing the hated Portuguese

new arrivals would be even more determined than their

predecessors to assert their political

and economic

control.

reali可

辙g尴

whose teacher

arrived in his land.

the

and

leaders assessed t h e

Indigenous understandings of what appeared to be a Christian-Muslim contest are

first

them

可pe relationship

spice

advantages and disadvantages of an alliance with the Portuguese or with local Muslim

T ernate He chose

direct control led to a

telling

Christian-

islands, the

such a wide area that the Portu凯1ese

When Francis

was thus well able

arrival of the

1521 the ruler of Tidore

suit.

reportedly

practices or declared a preference for Islam as rulers

rulers.

first

dear mother departing

But despite the evangelization of Francis Xavier

Isles."

broadening the Eastern Archipelago’s global connections but the attempt to impose

more

years in the

Maluku, economic aims were therefore inextricably linked to the

missionary accounts of mass conversions in

was

in

Portuguese voyages to Asia were motivated to a large extent by the

struggle for converts.

Babullah’s authority stretched over

T ernate’s preeminence was its

Since the

st山allowed

Crown’s desire to displace the Muslims as the masters of the spice trade. In the islands of

and

Manila.41

N aicili Boki Raja actively

spent nearly two

in the Eastern

its rival Tidore and increasing the prestige of Islam at the The extension of Ternate’s realm brought Islam westward as far

of fire.”In 1585 Ternate

the most

The conversion of such an important individual raised unrealistic

that the

earlier,

who

reopened the door to

most prosperous entrepot

Turkish gunners, well experienced in the use of "bombs, grenades and other instruments

manipulate the Ternate throne until she was converted to

Christianity by the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier, area,

decade

leave. This

position as the

international trade. Its fighting

status indicates that pre- Islamic concepts of leadership

oratorical skills

resisted Portu思1ese attempts to

one with

its

was impressed by the wealth of the court and by Babullah himself corpulent and well-set together, of a very princely and gracious countenance."40

fort in Ternate,

community developed, largely European or Eurasian but The relationship with the Portuguese deteriorated, how-

whom the Portuguese had

authority in the kingdom.”39

Malukan on trade, and

“of a tall stature,

出e Portuguese. This arrangement aroused immediate opposition from the Queen Mother,

Boki Raja,

numbers of

to strengthen

1570一83) of Ternate laid siege to the Portuguese fort

dubbed him “Lord of Seventy-two

to

when a young son succeeded to the throne only to be controlled by an uncle, aided by

Naicili

in order to increase the

Muslim enemies only se凹ed

Archipelago, overshadowing

They were initially welcomed by the Ternate ruler, who had "men of iron" would come to his land from a distant part of the

“the

(r.

and forced the occupants to

Ternate soon recovered

Portuguese

search for a sea route to Asia.

reportedly dreamt that

their

Islam as a focus of local resistance. In 1575, after years of conflict and escalating

reflected

Islam’s advance, how-

was challenged soon after由e conquest of Melaka in 1511, when the

and eliminate

by reaching Ternate before

to adopt the religion

Muslim ulama

(a religious

his rival, a Catholic priest.

喀善Developm创sin川mainland Sou The Western Mainland As we have seen in the previous chapter, the rise of the independent Mon polity of Pegu meant that the interior kingdom of Ava no longer had access to the sea and to the wealth from international trade. Weakened by the loss of revenue and by increasing raids丘om the

Shan

polities in the north,

Ava in 1527

finally fell victim to

its

former

vassals, the

Shan

38

Cited in Leonard Y. Andaya, The World of Maluku: Eastern Indonesia in the Early Modern Period (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1993), 60 39 Cited in Paramita R. Abdurachman,“Niachile Pokaraga: a Sad Story of a Moluccan Queen,”Modern

Asian Studies 22, 3 (1988): 571-92

40

41'

Richard Carnac Temple, The World Encompassed and Analogous: Contemporary Documents Concerning Sir Francis Drake’s Circumnavigation of the World (London: Argonaut Press, 1926), 66一72 42 Cited in Andaya, The World of Maluku, 134. Pigafetta, First Voyage around the World, 97.

6而

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-1600告年169 Lower Myanmar. Tabinshweti’s attempt to invade Rakhine in 1546 was abandoned, and a major expedition against A严1tthaya in 1548 was also a failure. His successor and brother- in-law,

who came to be known as the “Victor of the Ten Directions,” 1551. From this base, which became his new capital, Bayinnaung set

Bayinnaung,

conquered Pegu in

out to impose his authority over the entire Irrawaddy basin.

The success of these campaigns was made possible by the increased revenues from international trade, which enabled Tabinshweti and Bayinnaung to buy the services of European mercenaries and purchase出e European-style firearms so readily available in the coastal zone. Successive victories also

Myanmar augmented silting

meant

Lower Myanmar. Because of the

of the Pegu River, the port of Syriam (Thanlyin), located

present day

Upper

that the agricultural riches of

the wealth of foreign trade in

Yangon, became the primary exchange point

for

on the

river opposite

Bay of Bengal

trade.

With

access to revenue from both the coast and the interior, Bayinnaung was able to marshal forces that substantially

outnumbered any opposition. In 1555 he recaptured Ava from

Shan control, and during the next four years he extended Taungoo’s authority westwards

Manipur and over the Shan communities and other Tai polities in the Mohnyin, for instance, was able to muster only around three hundred horsemen and five hundred elephants against the vastly superior Burmese forces, over parts of

Figure 4.6. The Reclining Buddha (Pegu). The Shwethalyaung Paya (Golden Reclining) Buddha 1s located on the west side of Pe伊(Bago). Built of brick and mortar, it is 180 feet (55 meters) long and 52 feet (16 meters) high. The Buddha’s passing, which marked his ent可into nibbana, the ultimate goal of Buddhism, was a common motif in Buddhist art, and was o丘en represented by the reclining Buddha. The original image, substantially restored, is believed to date from the reign of Dhammazedi (1472-91). Following the destruction of Pegu in 1757 it was abandoned and overgrown, but was uncovered during railway construction in the 1880s. Photograph cou巾sy of Michael Aung

Th win.

northeastern highlands.

and Chiang Mai was taken in 1557. In these ongoing struggles

not merely in

it is

evident that Bayinnaung saw a major source of power

weapons and manpower, but

Many White Elephants" was not assumed

Many Burmans fled southward to Taungoo, a Burman area that had already

demonstrated

its

strength by seizing the Kyaukse rice-producing lands and thus substan-

weakening Ava's agricultural base.

as land reclamation

and

Now Burman migration and resettlement as well

irrigation projects contributed to the prosperity of

increasing the area under rice cultivation

Burman

dynasty,

usual忖known

ruler Tabinshweti

(r.

and

Taungoo by

facilitated the establishment of



new

Taungoo Dynasty (1539-99). Eager to of Lower Myanmar, the ethnically Burman

as the First

obtain greater access to the maritime trade

Taungoo

own accumulated

1531-50) captured

Pe凯1, the center of the

Mon-dominated

the sacred

animal

it

sent offerings to the tooth relic in

own

hair

and that of

tooth relic seized in Sri

Pegu was

a natural site for Tabinshweti’s

new capital and royal residence

traders to refer to the entire

Mon

Myanmar

that

its

name was adopted by

homeland. With the help of Portuguese

foreign

mercenaries,

Tabinshweti gained control of the important peninsular port of Martaban in 1540, and two years later took the town of Prome (Pyay), the strategic gateway between Upper and

when Melaka

a magically reconstituted

spirits

refusal to surrender

a“pretext" for his siege

it

Bayinnaung had also made from his

even attempted to purchase the sacred sizeable

sum

of money and a

required provisions, especially

rice.

On

Colombo subsequently

tooth出at had been hidden from the Portuguese.

was enshrined

in the

Bayinnaung, this was affirmation that his piety and great kings of

Indeed, Pegu so dominated Lower

He had

occasion Bayinnaung was unsuccessful, but the ruler of

him

among

“Lord of

in Sri Lanka, including brooms

Lanka by the Portuguese, offering a

promise to respond immediately this

Kandy

his chief queen.

Greeted with great solemnity,

relics,

from being

of Ayutthaya in 1564, these ambitions should be taken seriously.

gigantic

(see Figure 4.6).

and A归tthaya's

regarded as a cakkavatti, the ideal universal ruler. Far

offered

and tooth

lightly,

title

possessed was a clear denial of Bayinnaung’s aspirations to be

south, in 1539.

Combining material wealth with the spiritual prestige derived from its reclining Buddha and the great Shwemawdaw pagoda which housed both hair

merit. This

helps explain his proscription of what he viewed as“non-Buddhist" customs

upland groups, such as drinking alcohol and the sacrifice of animals. His

of Mohnyin.

tially

also in his

Mahazedi pagoda

wisdom

in Pegu.

For

far exceeded that of the

Pagan, and he was even prepared to threaten the great nats, the guardian

of the kingdom, with destruction of their shrines

if

they did not assist

him

in his

campaigns.

A confident Bayinnaung maintained his military conquests, establishing a loose author- 1可over the Lao polity of

Lan Sang, and

in 1569

mounting

a successful

campaign against

OD川…HEAST山,14…830

阴'AH STO…F EARL his

paramount

rival,

A严1tthaya,

ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-1600

whom he termed “the arch enemy" of Buddhism卢Large

accounts, this delicate relationship

is

articulated in the familiar terms of kinship, with

died during the grueling journey. Despite several references to uprisings by captured

Sipsongpanna described as the child of a Chinese "father" and a Burmese “mother." After Bayinnaung died in 1581 the仕ag且ity of the empire he had created was soon

prisoners of war, the glorification of warfare in royal chronicles glosses over the human

exposed, and references to the constant campaigns required to maintain

misery of those condemned to a

eminence can even be found

numbers of the vanquished population were deported

to

Taungoo, and many would have

fate of servitude or sexual exploitation.

However,

the

As one Burmese

in courtly literature.

Burman

pre-

princess lamented,

husband marches boldly to

and

forced transplanting of entire communities provided not only an increased base of labor

“Ever-triumphant conqueror of the foes瓜1y

and taxes, but also a source of artistic and intellectual ideas as skilled artisans and artists - masons, carpenters, goldsmiths, sculptors, dancers, musicians - were transported back to

Lan Sang/To clear the enveloping enemies,/Sadly I nurse my loneliness."44 In the ensuing years the disruption caused by wars of succession and vassal rebellions was compounded

Myanmar. This

by severe drought and a loss of resources as

culture transfer, especially evident in the prolonged mainland wars, was

significant side-effect of the harsh policies of capture

As center,

Burman

control over a vast area stretching

distant from

from the Rakhine border

the

modern

to

encouraged by promoting or enforcing cultural patterns associated with the only to reform localized Buddhist practices, but to require the Shan to adopt

These high-ranking princes were essentially prerogatives, raise t缸es

rival

Burmese bayin.

not

codes.

who bore the title of bayin. independent lords who could exercise royal senior relatives,

and armies, and even appoint

were placed under myozas, or junior princes, and other through marriage links

ties,

the gi丘ing of titles

their sons as heirs. Lesser officials

were o丘en tenuous, however, and any sign of weakness

districts

whose loyalty was retained

and other honors, and

special ceremonies. Such

at the center

could encourage

math of

shi丘ing loyalties of tributary lords,

literally “Lord

A yutthaya,

of the

S峙’'),

as well as the

reflected the region’s

dynasty with

its

capital in

such as the Shan saw-bwa (hereditary

conquered rulers of Lan Na, Lan

Pegu created an extensive network of vassals

center. Polities located in frontier areas

that reached to由e rule at the

between two powerful lords commonly

allegiance to each, such as the Tai-speaking territorial

Sang, and

communities on the Yunnan

claims overlapped. Sipsongpanna in

offered

frontier where

modern Yunnan was

one of the most important of these Tai polities and, as an indication of his favor, Bayinnaung presented its chief with a Burman princess. Accompanied by a large entou- rage and lavish presents, she arrived in Sipsongpanna where her husband was enthroned in a

43

ceremony over which Burmese and Ming representatives jointly presided.

In chronicle

ed.,

Royal Orders of Burma, AD. 1598一1885 (Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian

Kyoto University,

1983斗,vol.

II:

7-8.

Studies,

made up

at

Ava and was

provided chilling commentaries on the dreadful

Pegu’s destruction, the ruins

the

more neglected topics

Burman expansion by



populace飞rought

its

to such miserie

and

flesh.”45

in Southeast Asia’s early

and

political system,

Bengal to由e east. In the Buddhist world

it

its rise

modern

formidable navy and the long

retained a distinctive culture

a丘er-

of “gilded temples,”the fields“full of skulls and

choked with dead bodies, and

mans

thus removed from Pegu,

of vengeful forces from A严1tthaya, Rakhine, and

Rakhine's prominence in this period deserves attention, for

and decline

it

one of

history. Protected

Y oma mountain

though

is

had much

was renowned because

it

from

in

range, Rakhine

common

with

possessed a highly

Buddha, the Mahamuni (Great Sage), allegedly cast during the when he visited Rakhine. The monasteries and religious institutions capital Mrauk-U also contained other treasures, for Man Pa (r. 1531-53),

revered statue of the Buddha’s lifetime its

Rakhine’s

most well-known

ruler,

had been able

to obtain copies of the Tipitaka

from

Sri

Lanka and even a replica of the Buddha’s tooth.

With the

assistance of Portuguese mercenaries,

seaport of Chittagong, territorial

which provided new access

to

Man

Pa seized the bustling Bengali

Bay of Bengal trade and extended his

control well to the east. St山today evidence of Rakhin的prosperity

buildings such as the “Temple of 90,000 in Bengal. In the

Buddhas" built in 1535

is

visible in

to commemorate victories

ensuing years Rakhine developed into a powerful polity that successfully

challenged attempts

by

India’s

Mughal

rulers to extend their authority into Bengal.

Rakhine forces periodically raided across the mountains into Taungoo domains while formidable

44

45J

Than Tun,

a“Second”or Restored Taungoo dynasty

was reestablished

Jesuit priests

want, that they did eate

changing power dynamics. Even though the Taungoo

ve町borders of China, maintaining allegiance required extraordinarily strong

Chinese and Burmese

chiefs,

establishing

waste by an alliance

bones,”the river

around

defection.

The

capital

now

Administrative structures in Taungoo also reinforced central authority. The most import” ruler’s

The

be

many aspects

of Burman culture, such as the writing system, weights and measures, and judicial

(1597-1752).

center.

Bayinnaung's incursions into the Shan areas were thus accompanied by a campaign

by

bleak situation

this

to

laid

Laos was absolutely dependent on maintaining chains of loyalty. Such loyalty could

ant principalities were entrusted to the

men fled to monasteries or to outlying areas to

escape military conscription. In 1597 a branch of Myanm缸’s old ruling family responded

and resettlement.

domains where vassal areas were geographically very

in other



far-。在China

fleet

dominated the sea

Cited in Viedlinger, Spreading the accessed January 27, 2014.

lanes.

Dhamma,

134;

www.cpamedia.com/research/hsinbyushinme,

Samuel Purchas, ed叮Purchas His Pilgrimes (Glasgow: James Maclehose and Sons, 1905) 216.

its

By the end of the century Rakhine controlled the

vol. X: 211,

归毯A HISTO盯OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫30

ACCELERATION OF CHANGE,

from contemporary Bangladesh to modern-day Yangon. The key port of Syriam was captured in 1599 and placed under Felipe de Brito e Nicote, the Portuguese favorite of the Rakhine ruler. It is not surprising that conquest of Rakhine was the ultimate entire coast

goal for ambitious

Burman

rulers,

and when

Bayinnaung died in 1581 he was

preparing an assault. Though his successors were forced to abandon this project, forgotten; the invasion of

Rakhine was merely

delayed for

two hundred

it

1592 he even offered to help China against Japan. In 1593

Ayutthaya

attribute to a decisive duel

gized in legend

transmission of information via the Portuguese. greater priority as competition

between

The

acquisition of military technology

rival centers

gathered pace, for from the

1530s, A严1tthaya' s military campaigns to the east generated increased conflicts with

the

Burmese. As we have seen, Bayinnaung responded by making the subjugation of Ayut- thaya a prima巧goal, and his armies penetrated Thai territory with increasing

Naresuan

A puppet ruler was placed on the throne and his son, Naresuan, was

brought back to Taungoo as a hostage. Naresuan's elder

sister

was then

taken by

was governor of the northern muang, and by the time he was reputation as an inspiring leader and a brave warrior.

ence from a weakened Taungoo in 1584, and a丘er

thirty

he had

established a

He declared Ayutthaya's independ-

survi飞ring

subsequent Burmese

he ascended the throne six years later, an event that marked a major

who had been essentially subservient to Taungoo.

shift

also a

reminder of the divided

who had been given as a symbol of submission.

Stories of the personal

asked his

sister

relatives.”’46

rivalry

collective

by royal women

for instance, that

N aresuan had

(Bayinnaung's wife) to accompany him back to Ayutthaya, but she

to leave.“When Naresuan received her reply,

more than her

loyalties experienced

It is said,

attacks,

from the reign of

between Naresuan and Bayinnaung have become embedded in the Thai memo町,but they are

refused

he mocked her, saying, 'She loves her husband

Constant military campaigns, especially on the

mainland,

generated an almost insatiable desire for guns and large cannon, and mercenaries know- ledgeable in gunpowder manufacture - Chinese, Turks, Indians, Portuguese - were 46

murals, the “duel" with

The sword

Burmese prince and

(“The

leather cap (“Dodging Helmet”) that he

regalia.

War

wore on

Scythe that

this

occasion

a Translation of the

Naresuan then launched a successful

the aid of Portuguese mercenaries,

campaign against Cambodia, which had taken advantage of A yutthaya’s weakness to seize

on

areas

fulfilled

common

their

an

this series

earlier

frontier.

According to legend, through

vow to“wash our

feet" in the

Naresuan blood of the Cambodian king.47 With

Yodaya Yazawin (Yangon:

this victory

of triumphs behind him, Naresuan then turned to his old enemies, Pegu

and

Taungoo, and extended into the uplands to force Chiang Mai (then under the Burmese) to

By

Taungoo dynasty established two years earlier was sufficiently strong to withstand an A严It由ayan siege and a brief respite from continuous warfare followed. During another campaign against accept his overlordship.

Taungoo in

in 1605

1599, however, the second (“Restored")

Naresuan fell山,dying

at the age of fi丘y

but remaining an iconic figure

Thai history. In

many ways

power

in

districts

the protracted wars with

Taungoo contributed

to the consolidation of

Ayutthaya by strengthening the position of the court and the capital in relation the death or deportation of

created a pool of ordinary people

who were no

many

nobles in outlying

longer under the authority of

own resources by recategoriz- manpower under royal control. Second, weakened Ayutthaya meant that Naresuan could install new

any lord. Naresuan seized the opportunity of increasing his ing these individuals as phrai luang, or

or absent leadership in areas outside

who were amenable to his authority. Third, in the a丘ermath of the conflicts由e Burmese were preoccupied with internal problems. This enabled Naresuan to concentrate on strengthening Ayutthaya's maritime connection. Profiting from the influx of foreign appointees

traders,

Ayutthaya

soon reclaimed

its

position as a major entrepot and an important

shipbuilding center. Because of increased revenues

it

was possible

armaments and recruit manpower, both decisive factors paigns against ition

its

neighbors.

to purchase

European

in A严1tthaya's successful

Under Naresuan's leadership Ayutthaya rea伍rmed

cam-

its

pos-

as由e preeminent Tai polity.

To the north were the uplands, which the Portuguese poet Cam6es (1524-80), a man with some experience in the region, described as occupied by a“thousand nations/ of 47

Tun Aung Chain, trans., Chronicle of Ayutthaya: Myanmar Historical Commission, 200日,39.

With

to the provincial centers. First,

as a wife.

In 1571 Naresuan, then only sixteen years old, returned to Ayutthaya. Until 1584 he

his father,

and

as his country’s liberator.

ferocity.

Meeting little opposition, an immense Burmese army laid siege to A严1tthaya, which finally

Bayinnaung

monuments and temple

in

were considered so spiritually powerful that they were even included in Ayutthaya’s

The ruler of Ayutthaya viewed the conquest of Melaka in 1511 rather differently from his Muslim counterparts, and in 1516 the Portuguese were permitted to settle in A归tthaya in return for supplying guns and ammunition. A versified "Treatise on Victorious Warfare," apparently derived from Khmer texts, details the causes of warfare and outlines military tactics, but a manual explaining how to produce rockets and gunpowder may reflect the

August 1569.

between Naresuan and the Taungoo crown prince. Mytholo-

both combatants riding their elephants resulted in the death of the

The Central Mainland

in

succeeded in defeating the Burmese, which pop时ar accounts

and commemorated

routed the Myriad”)

fell

finally

already

the celebration of

assumed

N aresuan was so confident of his military power that in

recruited into Ayutthaya’s forces.

was not

years.

1511-1600缸’飞173

Richard Cushman, trans. and David K. Wyatt, ed叮The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya (Bangkok: Siam Society, 2000), 122, 153.

The

174’吨?

ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-1600 1吨175

A HISTORY OF EARLY B哑ODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 which even the names are unknown."48 Foremost among these was the Tai polity ofLan Na, with its capital at Chiang Mai. In the early sixteenth century it had rivaled Ayutthaya, and its golden age is associated with the reign of Phaya Kaeo (r. 1495一1525). Under his aegis Buddhist literature written in Pali flourished, the three

reformist orders from Sri Lanka and a third that was

more

main Buddhist

orders (two

traditional) were reconciled,

monasteries were built, and a religious hierarchy created that mirrored the

secular

by the expenditures associated with religious estab- - lishments, Lan Na’s overland trade with Yunnan also flourished, and Chiang Mai 49 Nonetheless, we should city of twelve languages,,一boasted at least three large markets. administrative structure. Stimulated

'‘the

The

Chinese be careful to avoid exaggerating the extent of Chiang emperor may have seen its ruler as pre-eminent, but for leaders of other Tai muang he

Mai’s authority.

simply “ruler of the city at the Ping River."50

was

Towards the end of

his reign Kaeo's

ambitions to conquer A归tthaya and extend further into the Shan areas over-taxed available resources

and made

it

more

difficult to

maintain

its

former

his

international market.

mobilization of

allegiance of outlying areas

Emerald Buddha, but

a large



few years

number

later

and took with him npt only

of religious manuscripts.

the revered

Weakened by protracted

internal fighting, ongoing conflicts with Ayutthaya, and the deportation of

Chiang Mai was conquered by Taungoo mandala, were able to chart their

own

in 1558. Several

muang, once

part of the Lan Na

course, and places such as Chiang Saen, on the trade

route to Yunnan, continued to be economically and culturally important. visitor in the 1580s,

saw

in

its people,

An

English

however, was st山impressed by the number of Chinese merchants

Chiang Mai and the

“great store

of muske, golde, silver and

many

sheltered

from invading armies.

muang, where

alliances

It

were periodically disrupted by recurring feuds, but over

had developed a degree of cohesion that lasted until the latter part of the



major reason was the increased wealth that resulted from relocating the

1560 from Luang Prabang south to Vientiane on the

by the

fear of

was able 48

sixteenth

Luis

Burmese

to supply the

Vaz de Cam6es, The

attacks.

From

this

more

Lusiads. Trans.

it

capital in

its

site,

the landlocked Lan Sang

forests to a

growing

regional and

and annotated by Landeg White (Oxford/New York:

Oxford

University Press, 1997), 222. 49 Cited in SaratsawadT‘Op.gsakun, Dolina so

W. Millar, and Sandy M. Barron, History of Lan Na (Bangkok: Silkworm Books, 2001), 98. Cited in Volker Grabowsky and Foon Lieuw-Herres, in collaboration with Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, Lan

communal

veneration.

The reach of

these administrative

it

was impossible

withstand successive attacks by the Burmese. Vientiane was

1590s the country was a vassal of Taungoo.

Equally threatened by the growing strength of

Khmer

capital at

Phnom

Penh. Although

its

same

area.

The chosen

site

neighbors was the post-Angkorian

Phnom Penh remained

center, in the mid-sixteenth century the royal capital

moved yet

the

main commercial

again,

though within the

was Lovek, meaning气rossroads,”located further

Mekong

where the terrain was more defensible, but where the

to the north

River provided access to

Phnom Penh’s flourishing trade. The new wealth was visible in royal suppo口for monastic foundations and in the construction of Buddhist temples, but public demonstrations of

commitment remained an important prop I,

who ascended

had cut off and burnt her

to leadership.

The mother of the

the throne in 1567, recorded that as an act of piety

“luxuriant hair,”scattering the ashes over statues of the

Buddha.52 Her influence was instrumental in persuading her son to undertake the merit-

making deed of restoring Angkor Wat, and

it

may have been

at this

time that the wall of

one Angkorian temple was converted into a giant reclining Buddha.

Although he had only recently assumed power, Sattha was sufficiently confident to

centu叮-

Mekong River, a move partly dictated

accessible

much-desired products of

time

of

and by marrying into

to strategic areas

invaded on several occasions between 1563 and 1574, and in the latter year the ruler taken

of

relatively

also sought to maintain the

untouched. Because centers of authority were geographically dispersed to rally forces sufficient to

religious

had previously been simply a loose confederation

by appointing relatives

Chiang Mai, became foci of

she

Protected by a mountainous terrain, Lan Sang in present-day Laos was

They

collection of revenue.

measures was limited, however, and vast areas of Lan Sang remained essentially

young king, Sattha

other things

Khorat plateau,

As elsewhere in the Theravada Buddhist world, there was a growing emphasis on the Sinhalese form of the religion, including the introduction of its Buddhist law codes. Potent images, notably Vientiane’s Emerald Buddha taken from

he

China worke."51

also provided greater access to the

powerful provincial families.

A Lan Sang prince was invited to ascend the Lan Na throne in 1548, but this brief union ended when he returned home

manpower and

captive. Until the

alliances.

The new location

where a steady migration of Lao peasants extended the areas under irrigated rice cultiva- tion. Lan Sang’s rulers reorganized the Vientiane administration in order to improve the

launch a series of attacks against Ayutthaya following

its

defeat

by Taungoo

strengthen his army, but political weakness

meant

that

51

1899), 171.

to to

(who had adopted two Flemish sons) was persuaded by his Christian missionary connections to seek assistance from Spanish Manila, sending an elephant as a gift and even holding out由e possibility of his own conversion. In 1594, while this matter was being discussed, an Ayutthaya army of

continuing encroachments by their neighbors. Sattha

80,000 men sacked Lovek and killed or captured much of the population, including members of the royal family. Two years later an interim Philippine governor, persuaded

Na

in Chinese Historiography: Sino-Tai Relations as Re_卢ected in the Yuan and Ming Sources (13出to 17th centuries) (Bangkok: Institute of Asian Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 2008), 73. Cited in J. Horton Ryley, Ralph Fitch, England云Pioneer to India and Burma (London: T. Fisher Unwin,

in 1569.

made a concerted effort the Khmers were vulnerable

Threatened in return by a resurgent A严1tthaya, Sattha

52

Cited in

Trudy Jacobsen, Lost Goddesses:

(Copenhagen:

NIAS

Press, 2008), 81-3.

the Denial of Female

Power

in

Cambodian History

w毯A HISTO…F山…ODERN SOUTH山T山,14…830 by the arguments of two Iberian

soldiers of fortune,

embarked on

a project that was

intended to“colonize [poblar] the mainland of the Kings of Cambodia and spread Catholicism, and extend Spanish influence into the

Cham

areas.



Siam,"s3

small contin-

gent was dispatched to offer Sattha assistance, only belatedly discovering that he and family had fled to Vientiane in Lan Sang. The

his

new ruler and the Chinese community were

openly su叩icious of the Spaniards, whose leaders decided to“terri旷the

natives by

launching an attack on the palace. In the subsequent fighting the ruler was

killed, but

the two adventurers

who had been

instrumental in the original proposal eventually made

Now

contact with Sattha's son in Vientiane. restored to the throne in

work, leading

clerics in

regarded as the legitimate king, he

1597 with the support of powerful

thousand Lao troops. Encouraged by

six

in

May

this king’s

men

in

promises of toleration

Cambodia

rulers.

Crop

failures

and peasant unrest contributed

forcing the Le king to flee south.

agriculture

This economic recovery

reaffirmed state

was

of morally upright officials

ushering in

a time of

calm to the beleaguered kingdom.

“the

to the

fertile

wise are established;

out.

who had

support to the Chinese emperor,

this

period

may have

nurtured a nascent sense of “Khmer" identity

fostered by

recurring conflict with neighbors, by nostalgia for the past greatness of Angkor, by

emergence of a Khmer vernacular dhism, where older female

spirits

who

by a growing demand

Khmer

literature,

traditions

and by the

localization of Theravada Bud-

were retained and the personalities of

ruled over terrestrial domains

This foundation of a strengthened

the

became embedded

in

powerful

Buddha

images.

Khmer identity provided a base from which later rulers

sought to reconstitute their realm.

for

less fertile districts.

Vietnamese products as

Mac also

Confucian moral order through the promulgation of

One Dai

With

Viet scholar had no doubt that the

the establishment of the

Heaven and Earth

documents before 1601 survived the years of turmoil following the destruction Yet

weaving and ceramics in

meant the Mandate of Heaven had been

and war broke

The chronology of a turbulent period that saw no less than five different Cambodian some reigning for only a few months, has been largely transmitted through European accounts. The royal chronicles were composed much later, and no court

are cared for, truly

lost;

Mac

it is

Mac

said, the lack

the soil was no

dynasty, however,

a time of prosperity.

Heaven’s will has returned."54

The Mac continued

rulers,

of Lovek.

as

had been responsible for restoring the fortunes of the count巧. Previously, he longer

relative

facilitated

commitment

N aresuan' s

ruler,

Mac

law and edicts, while simultaneously strengthening links with village communities

brother had been taken as a captive following the Thai attack in 1594. In 1603, under

became Cambodia’s new

by an individual

South China Sea expanded in the mid-sixteenth century. The

through support of Buddhist pagodas.

continuing instab过ity and turned for assistance from Ayutthaya, where Sattha's younger

revolt led

Taking advantage of the turmoil, a general named

and cottage industries such

the trade across the

Cambodia and

major

Dang Dung overcame his rivals, the powerful Trinh and N伊yen clans, imprisoned the young Le heir and his mother, and in 1527 proclaimed himself king. With a power base in the Red River Delta area, the Mac dynasty was able to restore the economy by encouraging

and

for missiona叮

to a

claiming to be not merely a descendant of the Tran dynasty but a reincarnation of the Hindu god Indra. For a brief period his forces were able to control the capital Thang Long,

was

Manila pressed for the establishment of a strong Catholic presence

patronage, this prince

CHANG川1叫

ACCELERATION OF

to face opposition

from an

alliance of the

Nguyen and

the Trinh,

home base south of the delta. In 1535 both families appealed for who deemed the Mac to be usurpers. Although a Chinese army arrived on the border, an invasion was avoided when the Mac protested their abiding loyalty to the Ming Dynasty. The Mac continued to govern in the northern region, rallied at their

expand its ow丑base of power further south with the aid Nguyen and the Trinh. By the middle of the sixteenth century this arrangement collapsed as the Trinh challenged the Nguyen claim to be Le guardians and forced the Nguyen in 1558 to acknowledge Trinh superiority. As recompense, the Nguyen leader was appointed governor over the lands south of the area held by the Trinh, which bordered while the Le dynasty attempted to of the

Cham

territories in central

Vietnam. Meanwhile, the Trinh gradually gained the upper

Mac and by 1592 forced them to withdraw to Dai Viet’s northern border. protection of successive Chinese emperors, the Mac successfully maintained

hand against the

The Eastern Mainland

Under the

In Dai Viet the death of Le

Thanh Tong in 1497 brought little immediate change, since his policies were continued under his son. Evidence of a thriving export economy is suggested by the discovery of

sunken ship which was headed southwards car巧ing thousands of blue and white ceramics produced by Dai Viet potters. From the early sixteenth century, a

however, the achievements of 53

earlier reigns

were undermined by a succession

of weak

Cited in Jenny Klages,“Cambodia, Catholicism and Conquistadores: Spanish Cambodian Interactions from、the late Sixteenth to the Mid-Seventeenth Century”(PhD Thesis, University of Hawai'i, 2007), 171.

their

opposition to the Trinh until the late seventeenth centu巧・

This ongoing conflict between the

Mac and the Trinh allowed the Nguyen, who already

controlled substantial territory in the south, to build

they could challenge the Trinh for dominance.

Hoi

up

their resources to the point

An ("safe haven”)

in

Nguyen

where

territory

developed into the most important Vietnamese port, where ceramics produced in districts further north,

54

Chinese porcelain, and Japanese

silver

George Dutton, Jayne Werner, and John K. Whitmore, (Columbia University Press, 2012), 125-6.

eds.,

could be exchanged for rare woods

Sources of Vietnamese Tradition

圳毡

ODERN

A HISTORY OF EA汉L

From

ACCELERATION OF山NG川11-1600

brought from the uplands via connecting streams and

forest products

and other

SO川EAST山 rivers.

Nguyen family was able to tap this technology from the West. Nguyen Binh阳iem

wealth to import weapons and military

much

(1491一1585), a

advised the

Nguyen

who

respected scholar

Mac court, was said to have of Hoanh Son a mountain on

served in the

move south because “in the region ( southern border) is room to stand for thousands of years.”55

Nguyen

the traditional

to

control over

Vijaya in 1471. At

opened the door

this area

and Viet settlement of the

Cham

Cham

migration

after the defeat of

centers were st山able to

with the Muslim

Cham

areas of island Southeast Asia. In 1594 the

military assistance in

account commented

that there

that the “pagan”king existed in the

its

Malay kingdom

operate

wanted Islam “spoken of and taught.”As a

kingdom alongside

older

Hindu

Cham peoples and

result,“many mosques”

“temples of the gentiles.”56

At the close of the sixteenth century Dai Viet was thus divided into jurisdiction, each

the Mac.

under a powerful family. To the

The Le remained nominal rulers

the Le and assigned

challenge ate areas

came from

title

near the Chinese border, were

previously

The Trinh presented their women as marriage partners own family to major government posts. Their only whose

territory

latter

had expanded southwards

st山exercised

dominance over the

to inco叩or-

some independence but were in With neither the Trinh nor the

other, a precarious peace - and, for

a few

decades, an actual truce - reigned in Dai Viet as both families contended that they were loyal

and legitimate servants of the Le Emperor and that they governed

in his name. For

The networks created in

and sword/Who then can have a

for

human goodness/Then

scholar’s

high-minded aim? ... Wait

there will be reliance

for peace and

upon the study of books."57

orientation towards

Cited in Keith A.

J.

S.

W.

Taylor,“Nguyen

Hoang and the Beginning of Vietnam’s Southward Modern Period: Trade, Power, Belief (Cornell

Reid, ed叮Southeast Asia in the Early

Expansion,"

ruler of

Press: Ithaca, 1993), 46. 56

57

Cited in Pierre-Yves Manguin,‘'The Introduction of Islam into Champa,”in Al斗ah Gordon, ed., The Propagation of Islam in the Indonesian-Malay Archipelago (Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Sociological Research Institute, 2001), 300. Cited in Keith Taylor,“Literacy in Early Seventeenth-century Northern Vietnam,”in Michael Aung

Thwin and Kenneth R.

Hall, eds., New Perspectives on the History and Continuing Explorations (London: Routledge, 2011), 192

Asia Historiography of Southeast

a significant contribution to the expansion of

ports.

An

maritime trade had always been a feature of the island world, even in

and passes introduced an

Melaka had put

and trade" and where

it,“to

“all

alien concept into a

for establishing

sphere.

The

stimulated

new and

world where, as a

master the blue oceans people must engage in commerce

the lands within the seas are united in one body."58

While trade was responsible for shaping regional connectivities,

it

was

also responsible

extensive networks of relationships, particularly in the religious

saw

sixteenth century

a remarkable expansion of Islam in the region,

and encouraged by the powerful Islamic empires of the Ottomans

the Safavids in Persia,

and the Mughals

inspiration, as well as material

and

in India.

new

in Turkey,

Such vibrant centers were sources of

spiritual succor, for the

newly converted Southeast

Asian communities and their leaders. Islam’s rapid spread in this period

is

also o丘en

by the Europeans. Southeast Asians who accepted Christianity entered a new world where converts might attend Catholic seminaries in Goa and Macau and meet other students from Africa, India, attributed to a“race" against the

religion of Christianity brought

and where Filipino men, recruited

as sailors for the galleon trade, sailed

Mexico and made the pilgrimage to honor holy figures

like the Virgin

had long been a medium through which new connectiv- ities penetrated the Southeast Asian region, but this period saw the introduction of destabilizing tensions that were exacerbated by aggressive European tactics and by the

of Guadalupe. Trade

and

religion

between Islam and

beginning to coalesce

m出e center, and Dai Viet in 58

Christianity.

and economic power on the mainland was around three powerful kingdoms: Taungoo in the west, A yutthaya

At the end of the sixteenth century

in

University

made

Java, o丘en viewed simply as an“agrarian" state, but the Portuguese goal of restricting

age-old religious antagonism 55

period

became zones of competition as different groups sought to control lucrative

across the Pacific to

fire

this

and the delivery of forest products, but the benefits of seaborne trade were increas- ingly evident. Ambitious rulers therefore sought to gain access to coastal areas, which

China, and Japan,

brings

in Southeast Asia

ture

had suffered and

achievement was negligible.“Competing for supremacy

and the Chinese presence

maritime commerce. In mainland Southeast Asia local economies st诅rested on agricul-

Confucian scholars, however, the years of warfare meant that the education of young men literary

traders,

grew markedly after 1567 following the relaxation of the imperial ban on overseas trade.

Thang Long under the domination

of vuong (king), an honor

to challenge Viet settlement of their lands.

able to assert

of

of their

the Nguyen,

outnumbered by Asian

trade through permits

three areas

to

occupied by the Cham. The

no position

Nguyen

members

far north,

in the capital

of the Trinh, whose leader in 1599 took on the reserved for imperial relatives.

of Johor

struggle against the Portuguese, and a Spanish

were“many Mahometans”among the

had long been involved in global exchanges, but from the early sixteenth centu巧a major difference compared with the past was the immense growth in trade due to newly established connections with the European market. Europeans themselves were Southeast Asia

always far

southward

domains, a process that had begun

however, several

this stage,

for continuing

independently, and their active involvement in maritime trade sustained their connections

received

CONCLUSION

base in the southern part of Dai Viet, the

its

political

the east. In island Southeast Asia, however, the proliferation

from Sultan Mansur of Melaka to King of Ryukyu, Feb 7, 1468. Ryukyuan Relations with Korea and South Seas Countries: an Annotated Translation of Documents in the RekidaiHoan, Ats时11 Kobata and Mitsugu Matsuda, trans. (Kyoto: Atsushi Kobata, 1969), lll. Letter

6叨

180

' A HISTORY OF EAR…ODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…伽 of centers continued as in the past though the actors

The naval

superiority of the

may

have changed. Unlike

far

along the east African and Asian littoral仕om which they attempted to impose

on

the local communities.

activities to the

The Spaniards, on the other hand, were forced to

readiness to use arbitrary measures

economic and

由e greater interference and eighteenth centuries by a

confine

and the Spanish had demonstrated

and even violence against the indigenous

(for the Spanish) religious goals.

their

population

Such methods

presaged

polities, they neverthe-

played a significant role as ambitious rulers sought to achieve their economic

strategic goals.

will

their

more widespread destruction wrought in the seventeenth and new European power in the region: the Dutch. While the

Europeans were never able to dictate terms to powerful mainland less

their

northern and central Philippines because of powerful hostile Muslim

sultanates to the south. Both the Portuguese

to achieve their

the

more vulnerable to the presence of the Europeans. Portuguese enabled them to create a string of fortified ports

mainland, the island world was also

and

Expanding global links and their impact on Southeast Asia,

Map

7:

1600-…-1690s

Southeast Asia, 1600-1830s

184

6 AH……F山…ODERN SO川EAST山,14…830

EXPANDING GLOBAL川邸,1600一向OS

TIMELINE Expanding global

links

and

their impact

on Southeast



Asia, 1600-1690s

Dutch East India Company (VOC) founded

Spread of Islam

in

Restored Taungoo

Myanmar

Batavia

founded

Dutch United East India

Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, VOC).

Established in 1602 and

by the

protracted but intermittent conflict

asse内s control

in Pegu

Protestant

along north coast Java

as headquarters of VOC operations in缸”

Japan closed to most outside trade

A product of this

Manila

of the three

Portuguese Melaka with help from

to

Ming Dynasty power

falls;

Treaty of Bungaya changes

Johor

Manchus (Qing

dynasty)

power balance

in Eastern

War”when

the nascent

independence from Catholic Spain. The

Dutch had embarked on



new

age of

artistic, scientific,

and

VOC became the agent by which Dutch commercial enterprise

and maritime superiority overcame

The

China’S

age, the

all

other European contenders to dominate the sea

Though agreements reached

Manila to an end, the

in

as the“Eighty-years

for

technological achievement that characterized their “Golden [seventeenth] Centu巧."

commerce by

Spanish suppress Chinese rebellion

VOC is generally considered to be the

Peace of Westphalia in 1648 finally recognized the sovereignty of the Netherlands, but well before hostilities ceased the

cities

known

Dutch Republic was struggling

routes to Asia.

VOC captures

sale of stock to shareholders, the

first modern transnational company. This innovative enterprise was developed during the

and Lan Na

Mataram conquers port

the seventeenth century, especially after the arrival of the

capitalized

South Sulawesi in

outheas

its rivals,

VOC

in 1648

brought Dutch attacks on Spanish

continued to use every oppo口unity to obstruct Asian

and English trade

in Southeast Asia suffered severely as a result

Anglo-Dutch wars (1652-4, 1665-7, 1672-4).

effects

of the

areas because of the

Dutch

arrival in Southeast Asia

were most noticeable in the island

VOC's superiority in naval warfare and the aggressive methods it used

come

Archipelago Final

defeat of

End of

conflict

Gowa

in

Makassar by

voe and Bugis

between Nguyen and Trinh

VOC conquers Banten

in

Nguyen

seizes

Dai Viet

west Java

Ban Phlu Luang dynasty comes to power Raids by Manipuri into

in

force1

in

Ayu忧hay a

Myanmar

Cham domains

in

central Vietnam

Assassination of Johor ruler, last of Melaka dynastic

VOe

voe

seapower: attack on Makassar, June 1660. The fleet出at attacked Makassar June 1660 included thirty-five vessels and well over two thousand soldiers. This engra世ng shows heavily armed ships bombarding the royal citadel of Sombaopu, while in the foreground smaller vessels clear the beaches, enabling soldiers to advance. The notes at出e side indicate important sites like the Makassar forts and the Portuguese quarter, as well as由e gate where the Dutch were able Figure 5.1.

line

in

voe

to force the Makassar forces back. Wouter Schouten, Oost-Indische Voyagie (Amsterdam: Jacob Meurs, 1676), p. 90. eourtesy of the Royal Library, The Ha思1e.

tS由

186

...

a,

EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS,

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 to

monopolize the spice

trade.

The Dutch

strategy of protecting their economic

new Manchu dynasty, the Qing. Remnants of Ming forces continued to maintain resist- ance in south China, while other supporters and refugees who fled to Southeast Asia

interests

through both economic and political measures severely obstructed even the strongest local

augmented existing Chinese communities. The most well-known loyalist leader was

kingdoms from consolidating power. In mainland Southeast Asia, Europeans were less engaged, partly because naval superiority was not an advantage against extensive land- based kingdoms with large armies, but also because neither commercial nor

The major mainland

incentives equaled those in the islands.

Zheng Chenggong (1624-62), whom Europeans termed “Koxinga”(from his title Guoxingye,“Lord of the Imperial Surname”). Koxinga's fleets fought the Manchu along

religious

polities benefited from

China’s east coast

the

wealth and technological resources that accompanied the expansion of maritime com- merce, but they were not constrained by the European presence.

than in island Southeast Asia, the mainland saw river valleys

and the development of

To

a far greater

some consolidation along

polities characterized

Qing dynasty banned overseas trade, although these restrictions were

extent

Together with the intrusion of the Dutch, events in Japan

of one

influential in

ethnic community, strong leadership, increased trade revenues, rising population, and territorial

expansion. Yet small and independent polities continued to survive

uplands, and even the largest mandala was susceptible to challenges

The divisio川Dai Viet

from

A brief but important source Tokugawa shogunate came

rivalries, and

of commercial and cultural exchange was Japan. When

to

power

in 1600,

it

issued at least 300 official passes

with

red seals to ships engaged in trade to Southeast Asia between 1604 and 1635. Unfortu-

open trade led

to the arrival of foreign Christians

potential threat to the regime.

1633 and 1639 proscribing

proselytizing their religion

who

The shogunate therefore issued a

all

were regarded

as a

series of edicts between

maritime commerce except with the Chinese,

Ryuk严1ans, and the Dutch. Unlike Catholic missionaries, the

Dutch were

and hence were granted the right to continue

Koreans,

uninterested

in

to trade in Japan,

though confined to the man-made island of Deshima in Nagasaki harbor. Meanwhile, severe restrictions

on shipping

to

and from Japan meant hundreds of Japanese

stranded in the Nihonmachi (Japanese towns) that had

grown up

all

over Southeast

were Asia.

Without any hope of repatriation, many became mercenaries in local armies, took service with Europeans, or concentrated on commerce. Some Japanese (especially those born to a mother) rose to positions of prominence. Products from Southeast Asian countries continued to reach Japan as cargo on okubune (literally, ships from remote countries), including those of the Dutch. Manned by Chinese and built according to Chinese

local

prescriptions, these junks, even those belonging to the rulers of A严1tthaya or Cambodia, were treated as Chinese and hence able to enter Japan with Southeast Asian goods. In 1688, however, the Tokugawa shogunate restricted these vessels to seventy per year, and in

1708 the number was reduced to

fifty-nine.

Even with the decline

Southeast Asia, the Dutch post on Deshima maintained Southeast Asian products.

?o毗削Asia

shaping the shi丘s in patterns of trade and communication that characterized

Southeast Asia in the seventeenth centu巧・

t盒

int

local loyalties.

nately, this

Ii丘ed in 1684.

and China were extremely

in the

restless vassals.

taining central authority in the face of geographical fragmentation, elite

the

through the 1650s, and in 1662 he was even preparing to invade the

Junk trade to Southeast Asia slumped during these years, especially when the

Philippines.

the m叫or

by the dominance

160叫90s咎由

its

in shipping from

importance

as a conduit

for

also felt

under increased pressure from invading Manchu armies from the north. In 1644 the capture of Beijing and the suicide of the last Ming Emperor heralded the installation of a



New and The

VOC was by far the most successful of several European trading companies founded

in the

the

old actors

and governmental support, the

infusion, organization,

Company

competitor, the English East India the

VOC sent

disparity

founded

(present-day Jakarta),

from

all

it

unique

and ultimately

legal position

with native rulers.

and

its

principal

for instance,

in the next decade the

VOC headquarters in Batavia

in 1619, acted as a collection

and

VOC

collation point for

to the directors in

posts to the Governor-

Amsterdam. Third, the

through the granting of semi-sovereign powers by

Netherlands Estates-General which enabled

treaties

to a



in 1620,

terms of capital

far eclipsed

by the EiC, and

59). Second, the

over Asia, linking even very small

General and Council in Batavia

voe e时oyed

VOC

First, in

(EiC). Between 1620 and 1630,

141 ships to Asia as opposed to 58

was even more marked (157 to

information

the

Dutch in 1602, the Danes

seventeenth century: the English in 1600, the

French in 1664. Several reasons explain this dominance.

The favored

it

to raise armies, build forts,

strategy was

to persuade or

compel

and make

rulers to agree

monopoly contract excluding all other traders, particularly Europeans, and由us make

VOC to obtain products at low prices and then sell them at higher prices considerable profit. If necessary, the VOC was fully prepared to go to war to defend

possible for the

for a

trading advantages. Finally, the Dutch were superior to their rivals in naval technology, and their deployment of well-armed ships and advanced weaponry combined with the its

recruitment of native allies enabled territory.

Through such

Makassar port of

Gowa

alliances

them to capture key po时s and control the surrounding the Dutch seized Portuguese Melaka in 1641 and the

where the Portuguese had been major players in The position of the VOC was fur由er strengthened from 1639 when the Portuguese were expelled from Japan and the Dutch became the only E旧opeans permit- in 1669, ports

the spice trade.

ted access to this lucrative

market.

The Japanese connection proved extremely profitable

188

..,\

A HISTORY OF觅ARLY

voe

because the

MODERN SOUTHEAST

was able

exchange for Japanese

textiles, in

silver

to Spanish

The VOC's challenge

from

to sell products

EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os轨电189

ASIA, 1400-1830 over Asia, notably

all

and

silk

other

and copper.

and Portuguese power in Southeast Asia

injected a

into

dispatched to Southeast Asia were officials were interested in

evangelism in societies

initially

intended to serve

promoting Christian

beliefs.

VOC personnel, but some

Accordingly, though opposed

where Islam or Buddhism were well established, the

to

VOC con-

doned missionizing among“heathens" and Catholics, especially in eastern Indonesia. Converting such groups to Protestantism became more important as the VOC sought to gain the loyalty of local leaders who would help deliver the products for which the Dutch had contracted,

suppressing pockets of Portuguese resistance, and provide

assist in

allies

Although Portuguese pre-eminence in the region was now past, their language remained a lingua franca in much of maritime Southeast Asia, and Protestant ministers o丘en found it necessary to preach in Portu思1ese in order to make

Muslim

against

attacks.

any impression on

their largely mesti<;:o congregations.

Furthermore, despite the appear-

European involvement in local the final

phase of the early

Despite a

elusive

affairs

remains a minor theme in mainland history until

modem period.

more pronounced European presence, the

remained primarily Asian. thereby

remove



VOC

and ultimately unattainable

spice trade in eastern

goal.

Hampered by Dutch restrictions on

by obtaining English, Danish, and French passes or taking passage on European ships. Trade to Southeast Asia from Gujarat, Bengal,

and various ports along the Coromandel

Coast in southeastern India during the seventeenth centu叮was extensive, and Indians

continued to dominate the all-important textile market.

as the rituals of oath-taking following declarations of friendship

and

alliance. In 1655,

for

example, a contract思1aranteed Timor lords protection as long as they traded only with the

VOC

and provided assistance against

its

enemies. This agreement was

sanctified

when Dutch representatives and Timor leaders mixed toge也er and own blood. The language of kinship was also readily invoked, with the Dutch

Myanmar, Ayutthaya, along

Melaka, and western Java, while establishing

new connections such

Indians held an advantage over

required

was not

Such cultural compromises, of course, had their accept several Javanese

women

on the

sisters in

much desired in Mughal India, Though both the Dutch and English experience showed that the expertise

On

and valuable gi缸,but these were poor

substitutes

less significant

A yutthaya,

and

several

and mercenaries. As the previous chapter has shown, for a brief time the activities of Spanish and p。此uguese adventurers in Myanmar, Cambodia, and the Lao areas encour- priests also arrived in

Dai

Viet.

is

always the case由at

we cannot compete with [Indian

They are better bargainers than we, and know better where and how to dispose of

Although several Indian groups were involved in trade to Southeast Asia, the most visible

Muslims丘om

were the Chulias, Tamil

the

Coromandel Coast, who were o丘en

employed by local rulers as agents, especially in dealing with Europeans. Some Chulia merchants were extremely wealthy, but ships arriving from India also brought small-scale Chulia traders,

who

margin. English

merchants in Banten (west

carried packs of cheap cloth

higgle

Choulyas

them out againe and







...

Java),

and were content with

a low profit

watching their revenues decline, com-

carrying a peece or two at a time under their arms,

utterly

spoyl付出at market."2 In mainland Southeast

their official influence as corporate

than that of independent European traders, opportunists,

aged Catholic missionaries to envisage new

Captured elephants became山,fell into the sea and

VOC

Governor-General was frank.“It

plained of the "peddling

Dutch and English East India Companies maintained

o丘en struggling posts, notably in

was

g的s

at confirming alliances through the exchange of

were the cornerstones of indigenous diplomacy.

the mainland the

entities

sending in return

easily acquired.

Acknowledging the handicap under which Europeans operated, the

of sorrow."

ally).

marriage. Building relationships with local rulers was dependent

circulation of letters, emissaries,

for the kinship ties that

a native

Although a Dutch governor might

retainers as a token of friendship,

such as a Persian horse, Europeans balked daughters and

limits.

(i.e.

prime example was the capture

“died

drank

to“instruct" his wife



drowned while being transshipped from one vessel to another, or refused to eat and

their goods."1

husband who has

the Straits of

as those with Manila.

and shipment of Southeast Asian elephants, which were

traders].

their

influential

Europeans because of their expert knowledge and

with local products.

extensive experience in dealing

during a ceremony

often comparing themselves to a

They remained an

presence in Rakhine, the coastal ports of

attempted to enter this profitable trade, bitter such

the lucrative

Indonesia, Indians were nonetheless able to circumvent such policies

they wielded real control were few.

compromise with indigenous customs,

kingdoms and

major source of their wealth, but complete mastery of the seas was an

where they could be sold for considerable profit.

realized the value of

foreign trader in Southeast Asia

ships could prevent shipping to island

ance of military supremacy, the Dutch conquest of key ports like Melaka and Makassar was only possible because of the assistance of local allies, and outside Java the areas where

Over time, the Dutch

and made only modest numbers of converts. Overall,

mainland’s Theravada Buddhist societies

advances in Dai Viet, despite missionary claims of large

commercial enmities. While the Vatican condemned all Protestants as as a false faith espoused by their heretics, the Dutch vehemently opposed Catholicism comforters of the sick) former oppressors. The ministers, assistants, and krankbezoekers (

new element

among the

unsuccessful

fields for

conversion. French merchants and

However, the Christianization project was

spectacularly



Cited in G.

W.

Irwin,“The

and N. Tarling, 2

Dutch and the Tin Trade of Malaya in the Seventeenth Century," in J. Ch'en History of China and Southeast Asia (Cambridge University

eds., Studies in the Social

Press, 1970), 275.

Cited in Claude Guillot,“Banten Centuries,”in

lS00-1800

and the Bay of Bengal during the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal, Manohar. Indian Council of Historical Research, 1999), 177

Om Prakash and Denys Lombard, eds.,

(New

Delhi:

190

EXPANDING GLOBAL川KS, 1600-吻。s

1400-1830 A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA,

and even massacre

in the continuing unprofitability of Asia Indian competition was a significant factor

periodic attempts to expel

Dutch and English

beginning of the seventeenth century around 600 Chinese had converted to Christianity,

As

factories.

much more

in the past, the sources reveal

whose Indian

about the

activities

of Chinese

traders,

commercial networks threaded through the entire Southeast Asia region. Like their counterparts, the Chinese (many of whom were born of a Chinese father and an

indigenous mother) were willing to work

for slim profit margins

beyond the reach of European traders. Indeed, they were o丘en agents, selling goods

on

and

in

remote

locations

employed by Europeans as

from Company warehouses to buy local products. Acquisi- example, meant negotiating with the highly mobile sea people,

credit

tion of tortoiseshell, for

Makassar the Dutch acknowledged that they could only obtain supplies“through our Chinese creatures [i.e. agents]产Chinese communities steadily expanded, especially in ports and towns along the major trade routes where increasing numbers of Chinese junks carried human cargoes as well as goods. In 1570 there were less than two hundred Chinese

and

often

in Manila, but

by 1603

their

numbers

and by 1636

to 30,000,

compared to

230 Spaniards. In the same period the number of junks reaching Manila annually grew from around nine to fo时y. A similar pattern can be seen in Batavia, where arriving

just

junks went from three or four to around twenty. In the 1690s Chinese

pop吐ation group, apart from slaves,

Though many Chinese returned home, because of developments in

China

made up the largest

and were already cultivating land around the

itself.

the influx of

new

settlers

decision to adopt Christianity cut off his

Vietnam, where the circulation of Buddhist monks

also

was

to reimpose the “maritime prohibition" (haijin)

return to

China and thus

Shared religious societies,

Guangzhou (Cantonese) ent kingdom and a major



The degree economic and

to

new Qing government

River in a little-populated area

at

authority. Providing good settled by

Muslim name, by circumcision, and by shaving the head

(a

mark

of piety for a convert).

The Dutch thus distinguished them by the term geschoren Chinees, or shaven Chinese. As

in the Philippines,

adopting Islam and cutting one's queue were clear indications of

intention to settle

permanently

in the

new environment.

While well-established economic and cultural connections reaching from the Islamic

China were maintained and in

many

arrivals were incorporated into existing frameworks differed considerably. In Spanish Manila, there were

Cited in Heather Sutherland,“A Sino-Indonesian Commodity Chain: the Trade in Tortoiseshell m the Late Seventeenth and Eighteen由Centuries,”in Eric Tagliacozzo and Wen-Ching Char吧,eds.,

(Durham and London.

cases strengthened, the arrival of the

from Queen Elizabeth of England addressed to“our loving

received a letter

brother,'’

promising that her merchants would behave better than the Spanish and Portuguese

and would

“learn

the language of your country."4 In the

same year



VOC ship carried

an Acehnese delegation to the Netherlands, the

gifts)

first from a Southeast Asian ruler. was considerable (not least because of two Malay-speaking parrots and during their stay of fi丘een months the envoys visited several cities,

where they were feted and entertained.

One even learned sufficient Dutch to act as and several European courts sent representatives to make their acquaint- While ambassadors from A yutthaya spent time in the Netherlands and France,

interpreter,

ance.

two Banten representatives, knighted by King Charles, visited treated to a



Castle

and were

encounter are almost non-existent. Rare examples are the diary of Kosa

Pan, the Thai minister a brief

Windsor

performance of The Tempest. Sadly, records of Southeast Asian experiences

in this cultural

commerce.

Chinese Circulations: Capital, Commodities and Networks in Southeast Asia Duke University Press, 2011), 181.

of a distinctive Chinese

Chinese were male, throughout Southeast

became the primary means of integration into local communities. and culinary traditions made the localization process easier in Buddhist

account by

charged with transporting a royal

Imam

was amazed to且nd“people 3

all

rise

especially apparent

which these numerous Chinese

cultural

to

northern Europeans further extended global communication. In 1602 the ruler of Aceh

Ha Tien was sometime around 1700 and developed into an independ-

center of international

him

in

new settlements, especially around the Gulf of Siam. The most

trader

for

ful血l traditional obligations to his parents.

but Chinese also converted to Islam, demonstrating their identity by adopting a

brought as

anchorage and well situated in relation to maritime trade routes,

to

Asia intermarriage

important places in Southeast Asian port administrations, and Chinese migrants were

Ha Tien Khmer

would have been almost impossible

mestizo culture. Indeed, because virtually

Public attention

the southeastern end of the Gulf nominally under

it

was required

back of the head), a symbol of loyalty to the

at the

Over time, intermarriage in the Philippines led to the

and was finally revoked in 1684, resulting in a renewed expansion of the junk from the southern Chinese provinces of Guangdong and Fujian. Chinese assumed

notable of these was located in the estuary of the

worn

The

heartlands to

trade

responsible for establishing

of hair

a useful patron.

significant because a Chinese convert

in

on overseas commerce. The ban was often

flouted

(a plait

become

usually Spanish, could

Qing Emperor. Lacking this symbol,

intensified

helped reinforce links with China.

In 1647 loyalist activities and what was classed as“piracy”led the

queue

was

were also allowed to move into the countryside and

dynasty

Following the collapse of the

1644, thousands of loyalists fled southwards. Their presence

was

Ming

who was

the baptismal sponsor,

O肘’s

city.

by the

through marriage to a Christianized Filipina. Such marriages had practical economic

advantages, since Christian Chinese

in

rose to 20,000

this“alien" population, although

Ridjali,

who

who

travelled

from

never had places to

letter to

France in 1686, and

Ambon

to India

live,

where he

and people who clean up

John Bruce, Annals of the Honorable East-India Company:卢om their Establishment by the Charter of Queen Elizabeth, 1600, to the Union of the London and English East-India Compan邸,1707-8, Vol. I (London: Black, Par叮,and Kingsbu町,1810), 47-8.

6191

192

EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os

ASIA, 1400-1830 A HISTORY OF EARLY如1:0DERN SOUTHEAST

human

filth."s

we can only assume that other returning travellers

regaled audiences

with stories of foreign lands, although countless Southeast Asian communities accounts are forever lost to the

modern



their

As

a result of a

growing demand, some places

reputation as a reliable source of

of warfare, the extension

labor. Southeast

number

subjects to contribute a certain

Asian rulers traditionally required

annum, and some

of corvee days per

could involve a veritable army of laborers who record that sixty at a time. The A归tthaya chronicles thus

were conscripted

for three

their

projects

home for weeks thousand men from eight

months while they worked

to straighten a canal that

deemed crooked. Such absences were normally adjusted to comply with the adopted periods of planting and harvesting. By contrast, although Europeans

the ruler critical

had little understanding of the changing

the local practice of employing co凹优labor, they

labor

demands of

As

the agricultural cycle.

yards, for instance, surrounding

the Spanish began to develop shipbuilding

communities were forced to provide

men

whenever

not needed to work on boat construction and cut timber in grueling conditions. It is southern and difficult to understand why revolts erupted in the islands of Samar, Leyte,

Luzon when one considers

that cutting

required the labor of six to eight thousand In addition to the traditional corvee, individuals or whole families to ruler or noble,

and work

until

it

and transporting masts for

men

for three

was a

become bonded

galleon

practice in Southeast Asia

for

such debt was repaid. Even with the debt bondage system for workers could not be met,

VOC's building and agricultural projects. This lack of manpower led to a

or sold by impoverished families. Even in the Philippines,

prohibited slavery

be bought and

among it

Christians, children as

young

was permitted to own Muslim

as

two

where the Spanish

since been imprisoned

had

or three years old could

rowers on Spanish ships were Indios cimarrones,“wild”Filipinos

some punishment and had

as war-prisoners,

slaves captured in war.

Many of the

who had fled to

Rakhine, which supplied slaves

were taken to urban centers, where

escape

and condemned to“slave町and

hard

labor in the galleys."6

social status

and where there was an almost

retainers

statistics give

Between 1624 and 1665 the VOC purchased

Hans Straver, Chris van Fraassen, and Jan van der Putten, eds. and trans., Ri司jali: Historie van Hitu. Ben Ambonse geschiedenis uit de zeventiende eeuw (Utrecht: Landel斗k Steunpunt Educatie Molukkers, 2004), 159.



Cited in Jose

Flogging and Other Moral Cases in 17th Century Philippines," Philippine Studies 20, 3 (1972), 402 S.

Arcilla,“Slavery,

insatiable

men, women, and

a total of 11,556

itself

numbers

the

marked expansion of the Muslim

community. Balinese rajas regularly sold criminals and debtors as well as prisoners taken in local warfare,

in particular

and about two thousand slaves arrived annually

favored Balinese

women

as

in Batavia alone.

concubines because of their

Chinese

fairer skin

and

toleration for pork.

The explosion in the demand

human

for slaves contributed to

displacement. In the 1620s

it

an unprecedented

level of

has been estimated that around six hundred slaves

were annually transported from the Philippines to Mexico, both legally and山egally.

Notwithstanding royal prohibitions, native galleons sailing to

Mexico

women were forcibly taken aboard the Spanish

to serve as concubines for wealthy passengers, officials,

and

crew members. By 1673 Batavia’s population of 27,051 included 13,281 slaves, in addition to

many former slaves who originated mainly from Bali, the nearby island of Lombok, and The fortunes of such individuals could va町. While a consider-

the Eastern Archipelago.

were

number died en route because of appalling shipboard conditions, many survivors condemned to a miserable existence as chattels. Others were able to buy their

freedom,

settle

In this regard,

show



down, acquire a

local family,

and even

rise in

economic and

leave to seek their fortune elsewhere,

support, female slaves charity often

social status.

however, there could be a marked gender disparity and pop吐ation figures

preponderance of former female slaves in urban centers. Freed

manumitted

but

women

men

could easily

had far fewer options. Without family

in the will of their deceased

owner or

as

an

act of

sank into penu叩and prostitution.

Persisting warfare

and the

desire for larger populations also

meant

that not just

communities could be forcibly relocated. Resettlement of war areas under the victor’s control was always the preferred outcome of any

individuals but entire captives in conflict

between

rival political centers.

Although the mortality rate on the

battlefield

could

be high一thousands of soldiers, for instance, perished in the fighting between the Nguyen and Trinh in seventeenth-century Dai Viet - conquered populations in Southeast certainly

Asian warfare were usually taken as prisoners rather than killed because 5

was

some sense of the volume of

from Rakhine and shipped them to Batavia, while in Rakhine

of Bengali slaves assigned to the workforce led to a

able

dramatic increase in the trafficking of individuals seized in raids, taken

st过l

one

as“debt slaves" to a creditor, usually a

complementing compuls。可labor, the growing demand especially for the

just

months.

common

this trade.

children

could be called away from

districts

slaves

market for laborers and domestic servants. The

The growth of large port cities and royal capitals, the persistence new e附叩r ofw吁rice andαsh crop agriculture, and the em盯gence of

human

many

numbers of household

reflected in the

and mobility of human labor

continuing need for

in Southeast Asia acquired a partic吐ar

One was

labor.

captured in Bengal by Portuguese mercenaries and Rakhine raiders. Although also used as

historian.

agricultural laborers,

Slavery

human

always required to

work

manpower was

in fields or in construction, to maintain temples, carry out

domestic tasks like spinning, washing, and cooking, to entertain by singing and dancing,

and for a multitude of other tasks. Since war captives were considered to be chattel

slaves,

they could also be donated to religious foundations or temples as a meritorious act,

and

EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os

ASIA, 1400-1830 .I' - 11.u,nPlHT 只OUTHEAST ::,vu .Lil 山?-- OF EARLY岛1.0Dh.KN S匙‘A Hlδ1υK HISTORY 194雷电A records of endowment. For the most part, such of human donations are prominent in supply workers for land clearance, royal projects》 deoortations were intended primarily to Burmese forcibly marched or? In the early seventeenth century the

lists

agricultural labor.

Acehnese took back hundreds of prisoners been devastated by war. In the same period the most were assigned to work in 仕om conquered areas on the Malay Peninsula. Apparently many were simply abandoned in Acehnese pepper gardens, but observers also noted that

and

le仕to die of starvation.

was an increasing move- Contributing further to demographic change in this period to areas where there gravitated who ment among free populations. Lowly paid workers was



demand for year-round or seasonal laborers,

slave labor.

of

slaves, refugees,

their

and migrants

to

new lands and their growing involvement in the affairs

of

and

regicide.

The

ever-increasing

host countries contributed to a marked change in the ethnic diversity, social

composition, and economic complexity of Southeast Asian polities in this period.

UI

the capital

movement

deeply implicated in palace conspiracies

for instance, frequently complemented

An example is seen in the growth of Batavia, and the surrounding lands, where

of Fujian and poor Chinese immigrants, mainly from the southeastern Chinese provinces the new sugar on work to recruited Guangdong, and young male Javanese (bujang) were plantations. Local entrepreneurs involved in rice export

and market gardening were

even

Changes to the physical environment

A third feature of the

seventeenth century was the acceleration of environmental change.

This was due to the exploitation of resources

and the clearing of forests

new settlements

as

developed and as rice cultivation expanded to feed growing populations. In areas where - the soil was suitable and water available, swidden or “slash and burn" agriculture which

and brush cover

over time allows the tree irrigated fields.

While most

states actively

to return -

encouraged

began

this

to give

way

development

by

move ahead

of

occasionally relieving peasants of taxes), agricultural pioneers could also central authority. In the Philippines the Spanish introduced the

permanent

to

(for instance,

plow and promoted the

more eager to hire cheaper labor, which was usually negotiated through special individuals

growing of wet-rice and sedentary agriculture, including maize, sugar cane, and tobacco.

employment. The economic growth from the vast increase in international commerce in

rice terraces

who drew up

contracts stipulating the terms of

and physical expansion resulting Southeast Asian cities and the development of adjacent lands fed demands of cheap skilled and unskilled labor. Such willing to

work

for

areas served as a

magnet

for a large pool

for those

who

were

low wages and could relocate to places where seasonal work was

Increased mobility conflict, like the

among

free populations also

occurred as a result of warfare and

exodus of Bugis and Makassarese people from South Sulawesi escaping

the turmoil of prolonged conflict in the second half of the seventeenth centu巧. Bugis and

Makassar refugees had something to

offer potential

patrons because of their renowned

and commercial acumen, and were therefore recruited by

the region. Their leaders frequently married into royal families established their

own

who

mid seventeenth centu町proved

settled in

A yutthaya were

executed. Another example of suspicion towards migrant groups

the large Japanese colony in Ayutthaya in 1633,

when

The Nihonmachi was destroyed and the Japanese

Khmer

in

some

under royal

all

forces in attacking

outsiders fared better.

As

when

places

Ayutthaya.

protection

they revolted

eventually

was

killed or

the annihilation of

the leadership

through involvement in the palace violence by which Prasat Thong ruler.

and

faithful retainers until 1686,

against alleged mistreatment. After且erce resistance they

joined

rulers throughout

dynasties. Yet their loyalty, like that of other outside groups, could

be open to question. The Makassarese in the

in the Cordillera

control, taking

of northern Luzon also occurred as lowland people fled to escape Spanish

with them techniques previously developed along lower-level hillsides and

introducing wet-rice cultivation in the terraced taro-ponds of the upland-dwelling Igorot. In other places settlers

could modi马r existing farming practices or

initiate

The Minangkabau of Sumatra had already developed the water wheel to

available.

fighting skills

However, archaeological research indicates that a major extension of irrigated

(r.

fell

out of

favor

1629-56) became

evicted. Fleeing to Cambodia,由ey

In other cases groups initially seen

part of the Rakhine royal guard, the skilled

Muslim

as

archers

transported from eastern Bengal were required to drink the water of allegiance to ensure their fidelity. In time, however, they

became kingmakers

in their

own

right and were

new methods.

irrigate rice fields

and extract water from underground mining sha缸,and as migrants to the Malay Peninsula they transferred this technology to their

new homes.

In areas less amenable to

spread of New World crops such as maize allowed local populations to

irrigation the

move

into marginal lands出at could not previously support human settlement. It may have been Makassarese traders who introduced maize to the water-starved island of Sumba in

eastern Indonesia, but

it

was quickly incorporated

as a staple

and

“traditional"

crop for

which successful harvests required a special blessing from the ancestors. Land clearance was also encouraged to cultivate non-food or cash crops in

Vietnam the mulberry

trees that fed the

like cotton,

pepper, and indigo, or

silkworms on which the local

silk

industry

depended. Yet despite the revenues derived from cash crops, the production of food was always the highest priority, cultivation

and farming communities quickly returned

to subsistence

when profits fell. Efforts by authorities, both local and European, to enforce the

cultivation of

commercial crops in adverse times aroused considerable resistance. is evident that the demands of the market were beginning

In the seventeenth centu巧it to place pressures

on Southeast

Asia’s

unique biological environment. Forest

often deliberately felled to create grassy areas that

prey for hunters

would

and trappers, and certain animals such

elephants (for ivory)

were

specifically targeted.

attract

trees

were

animals and provide easy

as deer (prized for their skins)

and

Because of the global demand, elephant

l96

(;;

EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os

1400-1830 A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, and could fetch profits of around 100 percent; in the 1660s 15,500 lbs (7,000 kilos) a year. Dutch exports from Myanmar alone amounted to around may have been taken from elephants who had died, but even if the animal was not

Maluku islands the Dutch organized locally manned

Some

Ambon and

usually results in painful infection and killed the cutting of tusks (which are actually teeth)

faced the death penalty,

tusks were extremely valuable

elephants death. Nonetheless, although hundreds ofliving

elephant populations were able to survive,

were shipped annually to

The herds of deer which

are

its

armor. The

demand for

so丘ness, flexibility,

and

strength,

was used

for

making

Cambodia

More destructive to the natural environment was the wood trees to supply timber for urban construction and despite laws restricting size and tonnage, the

demand

treaty signed in 1677 allowed them to build a shipbuilding center

forest products could also

envoy

and

to

aloeswood

however, two or three thousand

(also

known

as

this valuable resin. In other cases, the

prices

Cham

would remain

policies



high.

and

VOC access to the sandalwood trees,

that cutting was prohibited.

reemergence of powerful

entities

The economic and

cation

were a key element as these large

and expand

cultural connections derived

their populations.

polities

from global trade and communi-

sought to increase control over physical

Combined with

the unending quest for status,

and

as refugees fled to safe havens.

The landscape

itself

was undergoing change as agriculture extended into areas that were previously light忖 inhabited

trees

to

and as the region’s unique plant and animal life felt the impact of the competition

supply global markets. Finally, despite the similarities that distinguish Southeast Asia as a

region, the influence

of Europeans一the Spanish in the Philippines and the Dutch in the

Malay-Indonesian archipelago - heightened the different experiences of island and main-

Rumphius

number

spirits

fate that

famed Pulau Cendana or

Ayu忧haya, and strong island kingdoms like those in central Java, Makassar, and

transported captives were resettled

Cham polities under Nguyen

authorities kept a record of trees felled, limiting the

Presumably conscious of the

economic competition generated recurring conflicts that led to demographic changes as

very value of such products could

E.

lifetime.

in this chapter begins with the

Aceh.

resources

appreciate the true value

were a major source of aloeswood, and according to the naturalist G.

(1627-1702),

reenergized

eaglewood or gaharu wood).7 Now,

provide some protection. The coastal areas in the surviving rule

and a

men were annually sent into the jungle to cut down

and Africa, observers were

both on the mainland and in the island areas - the “restored Taungo。”in Myanmar, a

be under threat as market demands increased. In 1686 a Persian

price" of the aromatic

were home to ancestral

The period discussed

In Java the

so depleted由at

human

were noticeable within a

saying they

that all logging be stopped. Other

Ay川haya reported that former忖“the Siamese did not

thought to contain

and

Of course, Southeast

remarking on environmental changes, which were sometimes so rapid and so striking

Sandalwood Island, adamantly refused to allow the

on the coast with access to

A hundred years later the forests of east Java were

Dutch Commission unsuccessfully recommended

size.

first arrival,

had provided some environmental protection. But the unrelenting market resulted in premature felling, and by the end of the century the

had fallen Timor, an eighteenth-centu巧ruler of Sumba, the

for greater cargo space led to the

Dutch had an eye on the teak tracts of eastern Java from the time of their

special

also

in

of vast numbers of hard-

construction of veritable“castles of the sea”that far exceeded the approved

hosts and takes around twenty years to mature,

Asia was not alone, for in other areas of the world, such as India

shipbuilding. Each Spanish ship trees,

ritual procedures. Since this

Portuguese were already bemoaning the ruin of the sandalwood trade.

that they

constructed in the Philippines required timber from about two thousand mature

the interior forests.

inroads of the

alone.

felling

and required prolonged

traditional attitudes

Southeast Asian deer increased markedly in the mid-seventeenth

1664 Chinese junks took out 128,000 hides from

islands.

clove or

partially parasitic tree requires specific

parts of samurai

centu巧a丘er over-hunting caused a drastic decline in deer numbers in Taiwan, and

Banda

all

place at certain times of the year

once

roamed freely on the grasslands of mainland Southeast Asia were less fortunate. The VOC and Chinese traders in A严1tthaya, Cambodia, and the Lao areas shipped out hundreds of thousands of deerskins per annum, mostly intended for Japan, where deer hide, valued because of

the

extiψatie, or extirpation expeditions,

nutmeg trees outside areas ofVOC control on Anyone growing cloves or nutmeg without authorization

locating and destroying

and ultimately most of these forests were eliminated. An even worse fate awaited the sandalwood tree of the Solor- Timor archipelago. Prior to the European arrival, local society had regarded sandalwood as sacred, and any cutting could only take

India,

presumably because female Asian elephants

usually tuskless and could thus continue to reproduce.

aimed

at

land.

so that

The nature of these differences will become evident in the detailed histories that follow.

Though Chinese traders complained about short supplies, such

must have contributed

to forest sustainab且ity.

Even

so, said

Rumphius,

aloes was

“much rarer in our time than

it was wont to be in the past."8 The most vulnerable ecosystem was in eastern Indonesia, and here the fragile relation- ship between man and environment was dramatically and permanently disrupted. In the

但斟t.:,,.,

喀Developments叫and

Southeast Asia

The Western Archipelago At the beginning of the seventeenth century the preeminence of the no此h Sumatran kingdom



John O'Kane, trans. and ed., T,川材Sulaiman (Londo1 Georgius Everhardus Rumphius, The AmbonesεHerbal, translated, annotated, and with an introduction by E. M. Beekman (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011) Vol. II: 48

of

Aceh

in the Straits of

Melaka was unchallenged.

were further enhanced under

its

renowned

Its

status

ruler, Sultan

and

Iskandar

territorial

expansion

Muda

1607-36).

(r.

梗电197

圳6 A HISTORY OF E肌Y MODERN…旧川山,14…何0

EXPANDING GLOBAL川肘,160叫90s

name -“the Young Alexander" - he proclaimed his descent from Alexander the Great, who was known to Malays via the Qur’an as Iskandar Zulkarnain, and who had been integrated into their own mythical history as a great Muslim hero. Through

his very

Sultan Iskandar’s Islamic credentials were reinforced by his reputation as a Sufi “in-dwelt

by

Allah,'’by his

and the Middle

East,

sponsorship of Muslim scholars

and by

his

who had

ruler

close links to India

emulation of court protocol in Ottoman Turkey and

T句-al

Alam's greatest setback came in the 1660s

engineered a treaty in authority over

all

which Aceh acknowledged the Minangkabau

Sumatran uplands).

central

voe

tion" of the

post at

A long

strip of the

Padang, and the

Meanwhile, the English East India

along the west coast. A丘er being evicted

officials,

and the prominence of court eunuchs. Aceh’s connections with the Islamic

Dutch

ruler in Pagaruyung’s

west coast was placed under the ?protec-

voe

eompany was

Mughal India. The influence of these models was evident in the political role played by the religious advisor, in the use of military titles for local

In 1668 the

the rantau (Minangkabau settlements outside their homeland in the

Syaikh al-Islam, the

ruler’s

when Minangkabau settlements along

Sumatra’s west coast sought VOC help in rejecting her overlordship.

was accorded

a trading

monopoly.

also contemplating establishing a base

by the Dutch仕om Banten

in 1682, the English set

up a post at Bengkulu (Benkulen), about 190 miles (300 kilometers) south of Padang. Both

world were strengthened by Hindu and Muslim

traders bringing rich cargoes of Indian textiles, the principal

exchange commodity

for

Southeast Asian products. Indian cloth was not only valued because of its quality and wide variety of designs, colors, and sizes, but it also formed a key element in rituals connected

with birth, marriage, and funerals. For their part, traders from India and elsewhere were

Aceh by a vast range of items that included Sumatran elephants, Minangkabau spices from the east, rice from Java, and cargoes from mainland ports such as Pegu

Dutch and English hoped to gain access to upland pepper supplies as well as the gold of central

Sumatra.

Much less is known about the three queens who followed Taj al-Alam, but at the end of the seventeenth centu可Europeans could st让l comment on the splendor and wealth of the Acehnese court. Nonetheless, religious opposition to female rule was growing, and some

attracted to

people publicly expressed their desire

gold,

them.呻Local chronicles allege that in 1699 a fatwa (Muslim legal pronouncement)

and

A yutthaya.

Straits products, tin

and pepper. In 1620

producing areas of the Aceh’s

monopoly over two important most important tin- western Malay Peninsula (Perak and Kedah), while extending

In addition, Iskandar gained a virtual

his forces overran the

control over pepper-producing areas in northeast

Sumatra and over

Minangkabau lands along

Sumatra’s western coast.

standing, Iskandar asked an

EIC

he would be installed

king over several pepper producing

as

o伍cial for

Anxious to enhance

an English wife, sa抖ng that

if

a son was born

He

even

approached the A严1tthaya court with an unsuccessful proposal for marriage with Siamese princess.



Islam had always been an important element in the evolution of an Acehnese identity, but under Sultan Iskandar’s successors debates regarding

religious localization

and the

an Islamic ruler became more intense. Muslim traders continued to receive royal favor, and one royal decree even banned Chinese from Aceh because they ate and reared pigs. Arriving in Aceh about 1636, a priorities of

Gujarati scholar of

Islam in

Hadhrami (Yemeni) tl叫叫est terrr

eventually overruled,

some Muslim

Iskandar’s daughter, Sultana Taj

descent,

scholars also

from Mecca decreeing that no

of

women, but the seventeenth centu巧marked the end of female rule. was the kingdom of Johor, where the capital moved between the River at the southern end of the Malay Peninsula and the nearby Riau-Lingga

Johor

archipelago.

Although Johor kings claimed direct descent from the royal house of Melaka,

they were never able to regain the territorial control

e时oyed by their illustrious forebears

by both the Acehnese and the Portuguese. Articulating this rivalry in religious terms, the Portu思1ese condemned all “Moors,”while an Acehnese poem from this period denounced the prince of Johor as a heretic, a sun worshipper, and a because of continuous attacks

follower of

Moses. In return for trade concessions and support against his enemies, the

Johor ruler therefore decided to assist the

Following the successful conquest of

Melaka

voe

in

its

in 1641, the

siege of Portu凯1ese Melaka.

Dutch granted Johor trading

advantages that were denied to other polities. These advantages enabled Johor to over-

opposed the

in Java,

installation of Sultan

shadow

its rival Aceh as the major port in the Straits area. The Dutch had determined that their center of operations would be located

commonplace existence,

(r.

1641-73), as

ruler.



10 v

at Batavia

and Melaka was retained simply as a伊ard post. One contemporary Dutch

of four seventeenth-century Acehnese queens, Taj al-Alam proved well able to deal with significant changes in the political and economic environment. Her skillful negotiations with the Dutch authorities in Batavia and Melaka seized from ( the Portuguese in 1641), despite frequent blockades of Aceh and its tin- producing vassal Perak, were highly effective in defusing tensions and assuring Aceh's

independence.

this

many examples

Aceh’s greatest rival

observer phlegmatically

VOC

should be permitted to reign, since

Nuruddin al-Raniri (d. 1658), condemned adherents of mvstical

al-Alam Sa句ryat al-Din

first

women

influential

As

the

have a Kinge to rule and beare dominion over

was against the law of Allah. Subsequent Acehnese history supplies

the

his regional

territories.

arrived

“to

down

to a

remaining only a memory.”10

St山,

noted that the once-prosperous city“has come its

wealth,

commerce

etc.

A Geographical Account of Countries Round the Bay of Bengal, 1669 to 1679, Richard Carnac Temple, ed. (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 190日,310, 325.

Thomas Bowrey, Cited in

P.A. Leupe,

JMB扎4.S 14,



(1936), 110.



199

200

EXPANDING GLOBAL川肘,1600-169os

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 knowledge of medicinal herbs and however, the forest dwellers, famed for their specialist a year a丘er the voe vict。可a aromatic woods, delivered their products to Melaka, and “Benua people" who were reconnoitering outside the town met a group of

sought out alternative markets

The hold of J ambi

Dutch party

bringing to market

“a

few roots for pregnant

In the following years J ohor’s traditionally in charge of the fleets

members

family

in

most

women

Laksamana

experiencing

their crews of

and

key positions. In

all

the powerful Malay

(“Admiral”),

Orang

voe

difficult labor."11

was able

Laut,

official

to place

his

public ceremonies Johor’s boy sultan was

seen sitting on the lap of his mother, the Laksamana’s daughter. This symbolic association was of great importance because the ruler, regarded with reverence by his Malay subjects,

family

Minister”)

By

to the sea people.

was almost god-like

managed

young

to seize the

Bendahara

a clever ruse, the rival

ruler

and thus induce the

(“Prime

sea people

to

support him. Successfully removing the Laksamana and his family from power, the Bendahara engineered J ohor’s economic resurgence from the 1670s and its displacement of Aceh as the dominant entrepot in the Straits and the leader of the In 1699, however, Johor’s standing in the

Malay world suffered

Mahmud,

disaffected nobles publicly assassinated Sultan

Contrary

line.

ruler.

to established practice, the non-royal

Malay world.

the last of the Melaka dynastic

Bendahara was

Although Johor recovered economically through relocating

its

installed as the new

capital to the nearby

Riau Archipelago, Malay society remained deeply divided because time-honored insisted that

and

that

all

subjects should render

unswerving loyalty to the

an u时ust king would receive due punishment from divine

thus questioned the Bendahara's legitimacy as successor. the

ruler,

Orang Laut refused

to由e Melaka dynastic

The

to transfer their allegiance to the

line.

crisis

tradition

whatever

forces.

his

sins,

Many Malays

was exacerbated when

Bendahara,

who

did not belong

Because the usurping royal house could no longer lay claim to

genealogical pre-eminence as Melaka's rightful heir, the regicide of 1699

marks

a turning

In southeast Sumatra, the lowland rulers of Jambi

and Palembang exercised

suzerainty

rulers over the interior

and

local traders

and other Southeast Asian

was

steadily

weakened

arranged for

ports.

as they tried to satis行

higher prices and of lesser quality than those previously pepper growers and gold miners who moved Minangkabau brought by into upstream areas were unwilling to accept Jambi’s overlordship, while the downstream capital was rent by internal factions caused by the arrival of Makassar refugees fleeing from VOC campaigns in their homelands in southwest Sulawesi. Frustrated by Dutch to

buy Dutch-supplied

text过es at

Indian traders.

ambi ruler even made overtures to A严1tthaya, indicating his willingness traditional tokens of tribute known as “bunga mas dan perak”(lit.,“gold and

intervention, the to

send the

silver



and

flowers,”representations of gold

gifts as

symbol of vassal

the

status).

By

silver floral trees,

contrast, a flourishing

accompanied by valuable

and

prestigious

of domestic conflicts was better placed to negotiate with the

seaborne connections for which, said one Dutchman,

exploit the

it

Palembang

VOC

was renowned

and

to

“from

ancient times.”12

Although Jambi saw A严1tthaya as a possible overlord, Thai attitudes towards tributary states were already changing as A严1tthaya extended its authority southwards into areas were culturally Malay.

that



Malay

regular timetable was maintained for

vassals to

submit the “gold and silver flowers," and refusal to send this tribute was tantamount to rebellion.

Retribution was immediate and unforgiving, as demonstrated in the

polity of Patani, a

Patani skills

was

also

Malay

well-frequented port on the maritime route from China. Like Aceh,

and Europeans were impressed by the diplomatic of person and full of majesty.”13 Patani had been willing to

amenable to female

of the old queen,“tall

rule

send the gold and silver flowers to A严1tthaya in return for virtual independence, but the fourth

point in the history of the Malay world.

Sumatra’s west coast

demands for the delivery of pepper at low prices, while their subjects were required

relatively free

a major setback when

on

cargoes of pepper to be sent to Johor, China,

and

last

queen of Patani came

resisted their subservient status.

On

to the throne about 1635 she

several occasions

when

and her successors

A yutthaya rulers

dispatched

fleets

pepper-growing uplands. During the early sixteenth century both these “upstream-

and armies to force this rebellious vassal to submit, with the most decisive invasion occurring in 1689. Coinciding with internal factionalism, ongoing warfare completely

downstream"

disrupted Patani’s

own

over their

were

fleets

states

of

Orang Laut and over

riverine

had come under Javanese

far into the

and a hundred years later they They survived threats from Aceh in the

influence,

sending tribute to the Mataram court.

still

communities reaching

1620s only to become arenas for commercial competition as the Dutch and English vied to gain greater supplies of pepper and displace

much

older trading communities of Indians,

he could

products required

and

his brothers,

treat the English as his children,

was simply unworkable. Ultimately

eclipsing

rivals,

the

deliveries.

VOC compelled Jambi and Palembang to accept monopoly

12

Enforcement, however, was vi此ually impossible as upstream communities

Cited in P.A. Leupe,“De Orang Benuas of wilden op Malakka in 1642:’BKI 8 (1862), 33.

by monopoly contracts aroused considerable resentment. The

closest

its

contracts for pepper



11

Europeans, looked elsewhere

Melaka had once provided. Nor was there any concerted movement against Dutch, even though VOC restrictions on maritime trade and pressures to deliver the

the

husband, maintain the Portuguese as

as foreign traders, including the

leadership

Chinese, and black Portuguese. In this situation, the ruler of Jambi’s expressed hope出at relate to Batavia as a wife to a

economy

more

profitable environment. At the end of the seventeenth centu巧no Malay kingdom had emerged to assume由e

for a



Cited in Barbara Watson Andaya, To Live as Brothers: Southeast Sumatra in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1993), 118. Cited in W. H. Moreland, ed. Peter Floris: His Voyages to the East Indies in the Globe 1611-1615

(London: H汰luyt Society 1934), 59.



201

202

' A HISTORY OF EAR…ODE RN…HEAST A队14…伽 approximation was launched in 1685 by a charismatic figure from Minangkabau known as Raja Sakti ( the holy king), who claimed he was commissioned by Allah to expel all

Dutchmen and

called

to join him.

on fellow Muslims

leaders of anti-European rebellions

is

his vision of

What

sets

him apa口from

an archipelago-wide

other

alliance; letters

were sent not only to Islamic courts in Aceh, west Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and Ternate, but also to the Buddhist ruler of Ayutthaya. This vision disintegrated,

however, when

the cultural and economic rivalries that contributed to the persistence of local

faced by

loyalties.

the grave of

Sunan

also

sponsored the writing of Islamic

history of Java during the seventeenth

and eighteenth centuries can be constructed in

considerable detail because of the rich corpus of Javanese texts and extensive

known

of the legendary Senapati (died

in later texts as a recipient of the special favor of the powerful

c.

VOC

1601), described

Goddess of the

Southern

Ocean, Ratu Kidul, with whose support he achieved military victories and

laid the

Mataram kingdom. There is far more specific information regarding grandson, Sultan Agung (“Great Sultan,”r. 1613-46), the architect of Mataram’s

foundations of the his

expansion. His principal opponent was the coastal derived from international trade. cities,

and

as overlord over

domain of Surabaya, with

As the acknowledged leader of Java’s

most of the eastern Javanese

its

wealth

pasisir or coastal

salient (the area closest to

Surabaya posed a direct challenge to Sultan Agung’s quest for supremacy on Nonetheless,

bere丘of

Mataram forces

allies,

steadily

overcame each of the coastal

polities,

and

Bali),

Java.

Surabaya,

was eventually starved into submission in 1625. Through these

victories



ali

to

whom

the intro-

introduced an Islamic calendar that was

texts,

He

such as the still-popular Serat Yusuf, a Javanese

account based on the Qt汀’anic story of Joseph in Egypt.

Some

of these manuscripts were

considered sufficiently powerful to bestow blessings

his arrows,

may

that

reflect Agung’s

and

own

philosophy urges the Javanese king to

draws a direct relationship between Islamic

victories in war. Islamic beliefs are the ruler’s fortress, the Qt汀’an

and piety

his

bow. In vanquishing

his

enemies through magical powers, the

demonstrates that his position was given“by the most Holy God/because of your

ruler

on the

shown divine grace."14 In 1641, Agung followed the example of his contem- ruler of Banten, and became the first Mataram ruler to adopt the Islamic title

outstanding heroism

field

of battle/Yea you are

requesting authorization from Mecca,

a丘er

pora町,the

of Sultan.

When he died in

Sultan Agung’s son father,

and

his cruelty

1646 he was honored as a holy man.

and successor, Amangkurat

prince,

Raden Trunajaya

Mataram

in east

r叫er.

I,

proved

and arbitrary execution of senior

far less capable

courtiers

1649-80), whose father had been murdered

(c.

at the orders

Because of Madura’s generally poor

A伊ng became master of both central and most of eastern Java, as well as the nearby island

staple. It is

of Madura.

men

Only the western end of Java (the kingdom of Banten) and Balinese-supported Blambangan at the eastern tip remained free of Mataram’s control, although Sultan Agung

larger

are

the sea that provides a livelihood,

known

of

Only a few miles of water separate Madura from the port of Surabaya

Java (near the former Majapahit capital), but the physical environment

different.

than his

and respected Muslim

1675 a rebellion was led by a Madurese

leaders generated considerable opposition. In

the

on the reader and audience equivalent Mecca, or combat in a Holy War (jihad).

of the Qur’an, the pilgrimage to

to the recitation

kingship, piety,

little is

A凯mg

follow Sufi asceticism in language that

The Central Archipelago

sources. Nonetheless,

most senior of the revered Nine

based on the lunar year while retaining elements of the former Hindu-style system.

One manuscript

The

Giri, the

duction of Islam in Java was attributed.

as shippers

and

traders.

soils,

yams

is

quite

rather than rice are出e food

and throughout the archipelago Madurese

The embroilment of Madura

in the affairs of

its

neighbor was almost inevitable, given the long history of economic and social

interaction with the Javanese.

probably viewed both as obstacles to his ambitions rather than sworn enemies. From 1619 a more intransigent rival was the VOC stronghold at Batavia, a small territorial

shared past helps explain his appeal to Javanese. In addition, his marriage to the daughter

enclave protected by a massive European-style fo口fronting directly onto the sea and by a

of a revered Islamic leader

anchored offshore. Despite overwhelming numbers, Javanese forces in 1628 and 1629 were unable to breach Batavia’s walls or starve out the defenders, who were easily

whose treaty with the

supplied by sea. A丘er these setbacks

southwest Sulawesi,

large fleet

which meant that Batavia

Agung never again

indirectly shielded the

sent his armies

against the Dutch,

kingdom of Banten from

Mataram’s

otherwise relentless advance. It

also

spiritual

seems that these

fa过ed ventures

power through concerted

his forebear Senapati,

encouraged Agung to strengthen his

efforts to synthesize

Javanese beliefs with

sources of

Islam. Like

Trunajaya claimed descent from the great kingdom of Majapahit, and the legacy of a

attracted

many

produced

VOC

a formidable coalition against出e

was depicted

disaffected Javanese,

renowned

Mataram

ruler,

as a pact with Christian infidels. Trunajaya

and was

fighters intent

also joined

by Makassar refugees丘om

on avenging the humiliating conquest of

homeland by a voe一Bugis alliance. A sense of impending disaster was heightened by the approach of the Javanese year 1600 (1677 CE), since it was commonly believed出at the end of a centu巧would witness cataclysmic events. Indeed, Mount Merapi erupted in their

1672, rains

fell

out of season, and there was a lunar eclipse. The rebel forces soon

Agung was thought

to be the lover of Ratu Kidul, whom he was said to have visited in her magnificent underwater palace, but he also made Islam central to the Javanese concept of kingship. This is marked by his pilgrimage in 1633 to

14

Cited in M. C. Ricklefs, Mystic Synthesis in Java: a History of Islamization卢om the Fourteenth Ear炒Nineteenth Centuries (EastBridge, CT: Signature Books, 2006), 48-9.

to the

则'A

EXPANDING GLOBAL川川600-169os

HISTORY旧川LY MODERN SOUTHE川山 cceeded in capturing the Mataram

resulting conflict the ruler,

who had

capital,

taken

which was looted and put to the torch.

flight,

was

enhanced by connections with Mecca and the presence of such scholars for the Dutch to as Syeikh Yusuf. Internal factionalism, however, provided an opportunity control of the sought to gain intervene when Sultan Tirtayasa’s son and crown prince

Islam was further

In the

killed.

Hιn and successo川m肌a哝ura

kingdom by force. Fa过ing to attract sufficient support, he solicited help from the VOC, which now pursued its well-proven method of demanding concessions before agreeing to give assistance. In 1682 Batavia dispatched troops to Banten, deposed Tirtayasa, placed

he o旺ered the Dutch significant territorial concessions In return for military assistance, southward to the Indian Ocean),思iarantees of deliveries of (including land from Batavi a armies brought together superior compensation. In 1679 ・

rice

and teak, and

VOC

financial

crown prince on the throne, expelled all other European traders (most notably the English), and exiled Sheikh Yusuf to the Dutch-ruled Kaapstad (Cape Town) in what is

of their Bugis allies and succ时曲时ed the ??tc? firepower and the figh问skills and delivered to Amangkurat, who personally stabbed rebellion. Trunajaya was captured compliance with the 1677 agreements and him to death. Although Amangkurat II resisted from the Dutch, his initial appeal to the VOC made him

attempted to distance himself vulnerable to criticism that he had

set aside his cultural heritage in favor

the

now South

garb"



Mataram

sitting

upon

his throne."15

Opposition to the Dutch

alliance was

o: was Sye削Yusuf of M冰assar (1626-99), who h仙et旧时d的m position in the west Javanese cou口ot important an assume to East Middle study in the Banten, then a center of Islamic learning and practice. should be broken. Wi出 By 1686 Amangkurat II decided that the links with the VOC

years

figures

royal approval, a former Balinese slave

named

Surapati

(whom

later Javanese tradition

VOC

contingent of the small elevated to the status of royal descent), killed around half genuine challenge to the the Mataram palace. For a time this alliance presented a

guarding

and the Minangkabau Dutch, and there was even some communication between Surapati forced to "holy man,'’R均a Sakti. Eventually, however, Surapati and his followers were out an independ- to the remote Tengger uplands of eastern Java, where they carved retreat

ent

domain and where Surapati was

Amangkurat

II

his reign finally killed in 1706. In the final years of

sought a reconciliation with the Dutch, but relations remained

uneasy.

A significant outcome of this period was Batavia’s deep involvement in native disputes, contravention of policies laid

down by the VOC

In west Java, Banten was able to retain

its

directors in

reputation as a center for Islamic learning. In 1638 the ruler adopted the significant statement because

it

Mecca and Medina

sustain

its

the Sharif

in the Islamic Holy

Land. Another religious figure from Mecca established the office of Kadi ( Qadi),即 ana highest religious authority in the land, thus reinforcing the links between Banten the

Muslim

heartlands.

Under Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa

(r.

1651一82), Banten prospered

an international entrepot and major supplier of pepper, and

its

reputation as a center

M. C. Ricklefs, War, Culture and Economy in Java 1677-1726: Asian and European Imperialism in the Ear炒Kartasura Period (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1993), 64.

Cited in

Bali.

For

dominant kingdom was centered in Gelgel, which extended

much

its

and

eight-

of this period the

influence to the eastern

part of Java, although here the Balinese faced repeated attacks from Javanese Mataram.



mission sent to Ayutthaya in 1646

assistance.

From

may

therefore have been intended to solicit Thai

the 1650s Bali reverted to its可pically localized polities, and despite the

and subsequently Mengwi in the south, the island remained divided into competing realms which acknowledged no single overlord. The Balinese elite continued to regard east Java as their ancestral home, but from

rise

of Buleleng in the north,

由e 1660s

The

Karangasem

Karangasem extended

fully repelling

late

its

largely

then

in the east,

authority into the western areas of

opposition from southwest Sulawesi and

seventeenth century was

marked by

authority over the neighboring island of

Lombok,

success-

the nearby island of S山口bawa.

periodic Balinese campaigns to assert

Lombok, where

the local people,由e Sasak, were

Muslim. Recalling invasions of the 1690s, Sasak leaders said that the Balinese were

“daily stealing

for the

and capturing so many people

whom由ey

sold,由at this land

was

had been of little economic interest to Europeans; Bali of savage people”and Dutch sources accord it only passing

English was“an island

mention.17 However, because of the growing demand for labor to service the needs of Batavia

and other

VOC cities, Bali became increasingly important as a source of slaves, especially

women. Sold by

their

own

lords or captured in ongoing con且icts, hundreds of people仕om

and neighboring islands were sent to Batavia, and the Balinese language became an impo此ant component of the distinctive Betawi Ian伊age s旧l spoken in modern Jakarta. Bali

as 16

for 17

15

little

literary sources for the seventeenth

about developments on

completely ruined."16 Initially Bali

title “Sultan," a

had been requested from and granted by

(governor, traditional steward) of the cities of

in

Amsterdam.

independence from Mataram and

most formidable

a trading ente叩rise into Java's

documentary and

In contrast to Java,

led

eenth centuries reveal

b;肌 s1.

had been transformed from

territorial lord.

li

a prince of

voe

the

so tha poem which describes his “donning Dutch-style and‘‘n川all ke ob飞er仕omaf:盯he looked 1阳he Governor-General仙atavia"

《‘if

VOC not only acquired further territories in

Ceribon and the Priangan uplands, but gained a decisive advantage over their English acquisitions, rivals. Through its king-making policies in Mataram and Banten and its land

of infidels. This is

clearlv evident in a Javanese

Africa. Following this victory the

Cited in

Hans Hagerdal, Hindu

Rulers,

Muslim

Su句ects:

Lombok and Bali

Eighteenth Centuries (Bangkok: White Lotus, 2001), 66. Cited in David Kenneth Bassett, The Factory of the English East India

Edited and Introduced by

Dianne Lewis (Penang, Malaysia:

Studies Publications Series, 2010), 189.

in the Seventeenth

Company

at

and

Bantam, 1602-1682.

USM Press. APRU-USM Asia Pacific



205



EXPANDING GLOBAL川肘,1600-169os

MOnF.RN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 206,、A HISTORY OF EARLYv MUlJ也KNδU

necessary to ensure that Filipinos did not stray

The Northern Archipelago

therefore relied heavily

from the Christian

on the卢seal de doctrir叽a member

path.

The

of the principalia

friars

who was

in the Philippines developed For several reasons the Spanish colonial administration occupation of the island of brief was a Philippines principal foray outside the

persuading or responsible for various duties such as organizing processions on holy days, The catechism. the of compelling people to attend Mass, and supervising recitation

whose inhabitants had succeeded in ousting the Portuguese in 1575. A large armed expedition sent from Manila succeeded in seizing Ternate in 1606, and it became

Catholic orders remained unwilling to admit Filipinos as friars, but

withdrawal to Manila in the center of Spanish activity in Maluku until their voluntary on the ongoing pacification concentrated 1663. In the Philippines itself, attention was

and the inclusion of “Indios" in confraternities of devout laymen

slowly. Its

Ternate,

seventeenth century

some

secular priests (mostly Chinese- Filipino)

by the end of the

were ordained, and

women was

well

campaigns, and the implantation of administrative plans was impeded by the continuing lack of personnel. The military force was tiny, and attempts to attract colonists from

to perform established. In more remote areas suitable Filipinos were sometimes selected important Christian duties, such as baptism and preparing the seriously ill for death. This meant that Church rituals like the sacrament of communion, thought to impart not

Hispanic America and Spain were unsuccessful; in 1604 there were only 1,200 Spaniards in the entire Philippines. The ambitious resettlement program of moving the Indios from

with merely sanctity but courage, strength, and potency, were interpreted in accordance more enforce to present always were not local beliefs because Spanish missionaries

their scattered

hamlets to larger barangay (世Hages) or pueblos (provincial towns)

ceeded slowly, and at the end of the seventeenth century there were

st让l

pro-

orthodox doctrines and practices.

only around

twenty barangay outside the Manila region where the population numbered more

than

Local understandings of the of anti-Spanish rebellions in

power of Christianity

which the indigenous

adopted Christian symbols and

are particularly evident in a

number

who

acted as

priests

and

priestesses

Tapar, a babaylan from the Visayan island of

two thousand people.

leaders

During this time, however, the allocation of encomiendas steadily declined, falling from 257 in 1591 to 186 in 1621. By 1700 most of the Spanish Philippines had been divided into

Panay, was described by the Spanish as“a noted sorcerer and priest of the

provinces under Spanish governors (alcalde-mayores) or magistrates. Poorly recompensed, they usually tried to augment their

more payment and relatively

few

tribute

meager pay through various schemes

from the people under their control. Because

where the headman (cabeza de barangay) was

(“little

governor"),

who headed

local administrator

down to villages,

responsible for collecting tribute from

Foremost among the principalia was the

thirty to forty families.

a pueblo,

and was

gobernadorcillo

and thus occupied the highest

was necessary for him to be literate and able and

there were

Spanish officials, the Christianized indigenous elite, the principal仰,became

a key element in the colonial administration. Their connections stretched

around

that exacted

to speak Spanish, since

native

office.

he acted as both judge

in charge of organizing corvee duties, collecting

and overseeing church attendance. He was

also expected to

It

tribute,

work closely with the friars in

maintaining order, adjudicating petty crimes, and inflicting physical punishment when necessa巧. Although the principalia could act as an extension of Span

might

also

become spokesmen

h government, the y

for discontented peasants, challenge the authority of other

The involvement of high-ranking

Filipinos

committed to the evangelizing agenda was

crucial to the success not only of Spanish colonization, but of Christianity

people themselves remarked,“If the father of them

do

otherwise?”18

dressed in the clothes of a instructions

all

became

a Christian,

The Spanish were convinced, however, that constant

itself.

Pedro Chirino, Relacion de

las Islas Filipinas: the Philippines in 1600, (Manila: Historical Conservation Society, 1969), 337.

Ramon

In developing his entitling

one

own

religion,

demon" who

he claimed that

of his deputies “Son,”another the

Although churches were occasionally attacked, Filipinos involved in such movements were already able to distinguish between Spanish colonial exploitation and their own a acceptance of a new religion. In another anti-Spanish uprising in 1660 Andres Malong, of the principalia from Pangasinan, allied with upland Sambal people. Styling “had no himself King of Pangasinan, he nonetheless stressed that he and his followers ... with desire to abandon the faith of Jesus Christ which they had professed at baptism

member

God出ey would be faithful sons of the Church until death."20 Such rebellions, however, rarely moved beyond a localized area, and a force of Spanish soldiers assisted by The enslave- native auxiliaries and local allies was sufficient to overcome any resistance.

the help of

stakes,

rebels, executions, hangings,

were grim reminders of the

realities

and public display of corpses impaled on

of colonial power.

Filipino challenges to Spanish colonialism were primarily due to onerous tribute, military service,

and

forced labor, including timber extraction

demands

trans.

2°

for

and shipbuilding.

supervision was

Echevarra,

his

Holy

and executed.

19

18

titles.

apostles, Ghost, and a female supporter“Maria Santisima." Tapar’s cult had its own Father."19 sealed was fate His bishops, and popes, and he himself took the title “Eternal following were captured after he killed a priest who opposed him, and he and most of his

The

how could they

woman.

came from the ancestors,

ment of captured

principalia, or even lead revolts.



Colonialism, Cited in Eric Anderson,“Traditions in Conflicts: Filipino Responses to Spanish 1565-1665," PhD由esis, University of Sydney, 1977, 146-7. Cited in Rosario Mendoza Cortes, Pangasinan, 1572-1800 (Quezon City, 1974), 155.

207

208

'A川ORY OF川LY MODERN SOUTHEAST A队140叫 The construction of a

EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os K十209

single ship could require the mobilization of thousands of workers,

and many deaths resulted from poor

diet, disease,

and

ill

treatment. In addition, demands

for rowers in Spanish galleys increased considerably when campaigns were mounted against Spain’s enemies, the Muslims in the south and, between 1609 and 1647, the

Protestant Dutch. In 1616 a Spanish plan to attack the Dutch on Java was aborted when the fleet reached Singapore waters, but seven hundred of the three thousand Filipino sailors

aboard died of fevers and other

illnesses.

The absence or permanent

loss of male

meant women and children o丘en had to shoulder responsibilities for the sowing and ha凹esting of rice, and this gender imbalance would have contributed to a continuing labor

mining was not merely precluded by geographical inaccessib且ity and alienate the fierce opposition, but by Igorot beliefs that missionary attitudes would working Men its treasure. earth to for the was yield favor necessary whose powerful spirits

exploitation of gold

in the

gold mines followed certain rituals very closely, consulting auguries and sacrificing

pigs to ensure that a vein of

gold would continue. Should Christians enter the mines, the

would be angered. Although a number of military expeditions were under- gold taken, from 1668 the Spanish abandoned efforts to take direct control of the Igorot retaliation and in mines. Christian Filipinos had often been included in these campaigns, anito (spirits)

lowland barangay became targets of headhunting raids by upland groups. Adherence Christianity thus introduced new divisions by distinguishing lowland Filipinos from

their

decline in lowland populations.

to

Vehement opposition to Spanish colonialism also came from Manila’s Chinese commu- nity. A significant number of Chinese had adopted Christianity, and although missionaries

animist highlanders

believed that

and undermining ( though not eliminating) the old trading connec- tions that had previously linked lowland and upland communities. By 1700 the Spanish had effectively introduced Christianity over most lowland areas in

conversion

the north

many new converts were sincere, in other cases the advantages obtained made a purely pragmatic decision. For example, wealthy Chinese men could use the

patronage involved in becoming a godparent to build up a following of

1599 the ever-suspicious Spanish forbade Spanish distrust meant that

when a hundred-strong

official

and

in

beyond the urban

depth

of

control

clients,

this practice to Christian Chinese.

The

delegation from Fujian

visited

Manila in 1603 (apparently to enquire about the existence of a“golden mountain,”news of

which had reached the emperor) local

Chinese were planning a

it

was immediately interpreted

revolt. Conflict

Chinese. Although the Chinese emperor took

court

merchants

still

who

“disgrace

no

killing

action,

around twenty

deeming those

thousand

involved

our Empire" by abandoning their parents, the

believed that the Spanish “had

outbreak of violence occurred in 1639 participation in the galleon trade

an indication由at由e

erupted and with the assistance of Filipinos

and Japanese mercenaries, the Spanish responded by unfilial

as

murdered people without

when Chinese

license."21

and central Philippines, but actual Spanish administration did not extend

to be

imperial



second

protests against restrictions on

their

and abuses, such as forcible work on crown lands, triggered

areas.

available for

some 600,000

Qt汀’anic

knowledge.



Chinese rebellion against the Spanish in 1662,

another in 1686, but these were suppressed by Spanish and Filipino forces. Quelling resistance was far more difficult among mountain groups, where justified

campaigns by arguing that

God had

the exclusive use of naked savages."22

never intended the gold of the

The Spanish found, however,

with

22"

He was

met

fierce

and

also reputed to speak fluent Spanish, as well as Chinese,

branch of the Franciscan order.

(now

From 1622 the Recollects began to gather converts among

termed Lumad) around the Cagayan River in aroused Kudarat’s anger because he regarded the Lumad

collectively

northern Mindanao, but this

His efforts to suppress their perceived disloyalty met staunch resistance, especially from Christianized Lumad leaders. Questions of loyalty, articulated as Christian-Muslim enmities, were exacerbated after the Spanish rebuilt the Zamboanga fort in 1634.

friars

interior

“for

that any possibility of

Kudarat responded by seeking closer relations with the Dutch, by negotiating a marriage alliance with the daughter of the Sultan of Sulu, and by dispatching raiding expeditions to the northern islands, particularly the Visayas. Though the Jesuits were instrumental in urging the building and maintenance of the

Cited in Jo始E斗genic Borao,“The Massacre of 1603: Chinese Perception of the Spanish in由e Philippines,”Itmerario 22, 1 (March 1998), 32 Cited in W. H. Scott, The Discovery of the Igorots: Spanish Contacts with the Pagans of Northern Luzon (Quezon City: New Day, 1974), 26-30

Zamboanga fort,

it

was under

from Ternate) and was abandoned in 1662 when troops were withdrawn to protect Manila from expected attacks by the Chinese. From the Spanish/Christian perspective, Moro terrorizing of villages and

continual attack 21

native converts. Furthermore, the Spanish

clerics

and Dutch, and was eager to learn about world affairs, including European customs and beliefs. Any possib过ity of compromise with Manila was undermined by Spanish host且ity towards “Moros" and by the inroads of missionaries from the Recollect

as his subjects.

up by Koxinga encouraged

time only around 400

English,

had been brought from Mexico and resembled a Filipina. Spanish retaliation was swift and merciless and it is estimated that a further 20,000 Chinese died. The maritime empire

built

at this

sustained resistance in the south, which was dominated by Muslim sultanates in the Sulu archipelago and on the island of Mindanao. Through international trade the Magindanao sultanate had expanded and reached a highpoint under Sultan Kudarat (r. 1619一71), an exceptional individual who was regarded as a “holy man" because of his Islamic piety and

the interior peoples

that

in the Christianized areas in the count巧side, the extent of

was loose and intermittent since there were

major insurrection that attacked symbols of Spanish power. The church of Antipolo was burned and attempts made to destroy its revered image, a Virgin Mary carved in dark wood a

Even

far

from

local forces (with assistance

enslavement of local populations provided evidence of their “brutality,”but in the

EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 160叫90s

210' A HISTO盯OF山…ODERN SOUTHEAST山 southern Philippines由is period repelled the infidel Spaniards Sulu, the second

is st过l

and

remembered

as a time

when Muslims

successfully

their missionizing efforts.

major southern Muslim sultanate, had long been involved

national trade with China and the rest of the archipelago. Because of

importance Sulu was also subject to attacks by the Spaniards, but was able these incursions with help

from

its

of the anti-Qing leader Koxinga in 1662

meant

his

in inter-

economic

to withstand

planned attack on Manila had

Taiwan and there was

likelihood of a renewed campaign. In 1663 the Spanish therefore

them. Smaller fortifications and mission posts were

was another

fifty

still

still

not

a strong

withdrew from Zambo-

anga and Maluku to concentrate their forces on Manila, and the

it

its

neighbors, including Magindanao. Although the death

materialized, his followers were in firm control of

north and east coasts, but

Jesuits accompanied

maintained along the Mindanao’s

years before Manila again tried to advance

Spanish interests in the Muslim south.

Fi凯ire 5.2.

An

ancestor from

Indonesia. This ivo叩statue,

eastern

dating

from the

late

centu可,represents

The Eastern Archipelago

direct the course of history in island Southeast

The o丘-cited case is the Banda archipelago in central Maluku, which the VOC seized in

1621. In a show of brutal force the Dutch governor-general Jan Pieterszoon Coen (1587-1629) forcibly removed or killed most of the indigenous population, estimated at

15,000 people, and出us gained control over the world’s prima巧source of nutmeg and mace. Coen then introduced a plantation system operated by European and Eurasian settlers, who were provided with slave labor made up of various ethnic groups from other Maluku islands

VOC,

from

New

Guinea, Timor, and Borneo. In 1605 Portuguese and Spani h were ousted from their former stronghold on由e neighboring islan of Ambon, which in the mid-seventeenth century became the飞TOC's designated sole produ- cer of cloves.

evangel垃ation.

As

as well as

the major

VOC

from the Tanimbar Islands. So Cornelius was

ancestor

ways in which European intervention helped

defeated by the

seventeenth

an important

Teran (old master)

During the seventeenth century the Eastern Archipelago provides several graphic examples of Asia.

'211

outpost,

The estimated 20,000

who was

said to have Dutch attempt to monopolize Tanimbar trade when

a village

chief

thwarted a

the

voe established a post

in

1645 against local wishes. So Cornelius persuaded the Dutch to

and relations remained he was presented with

leave

amicable, since a coat

of chain mail, a small cabinet, and his name indicates that he

adopted Christianity.

(According to

the Bible, Cornelius, a

centurion,

the

was the

first

Roman

non-Jew

convert to Christian teaching.) Liefkes

Rijksmuseum

Collection 412,

voor

V olkenkunde,

Leiden, the Netherlands.

Ambon also became a center for Protestant on Ambon and the surrounding islands and

Catholics

would provide allies against the advance of Islam. At times VOC officials were quite ruthless in their determination to obliterate all signs of“devil-worship,”and in the

of the ambitions were tempered by the presence rice-growing powerful Makassarese kingdom of Gowa, with its wealth derived from寻rich Gowa launched interior and a thriving entrepot. When the ruler adopted Islam in 1605,

1620s and 1630s more than a thousand structures dedicated to indigenous

what Bugis

“heathen”communities became a target for Dutch missionary work in the belief that converts to Protestantism

spirits

were

In the

Eastern Archipelago,

and Makassarese chronicles

west Sulawesi

order to arouse real jealousy amongst other heathens in the surrounding

Bajau communities.

area.”23

nearby



key element in

B町0," or 23

Cited in G. J. Knaap, Kruidnagelen en Christenen: De Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie en de bevolking van Ambon 1656-1696 (Dordrecht: Feris, 1987), 109, llS

to the

call

the “Islamic

Wars"

that forced

all

the south-

extended to kingdoms to embrace the new faith. The campaigns were Ternate. Sumbawa and eastwards to islands that had formerly paid fealty to

destroyed. Other officials realized that cultivating Christianized allies requ让ed patience and enticement. In 1677, when the entire pop吐ation of a叫llage on the island of Seram was baptised, the governor thus sponsored a feast and distributed text过es to the converts “in

VOC

VOC

Gowa' s叫ansion was According to the

its

Gowa

Sama relationship明th the se川well中g "Karaeng in the distant past a

Chronicle,

who had descended progenitors of the Gowa

Lord of the Bajau, married a female upperworldly being

Gowa. They ruled together and became the The origin story of the Gowa royal lineage reflects the

land of

royal house.

close relationship

212

' A HISTORY OF EAR…ODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫

EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os are a very useful people."24 Their importance in the foundation

They

king.

expansion of island

kingdoms

and the

modern period

is thus emphasized in both contemporary Portuguese and Dutch documents. the Sama Bajau, Gowa could draw on European traders, missionaries,

and

indigenous chronicles In addition to

in the early

in

and mercenaries residing in the

kingdom

and training to create an burgeoning trade conducted in Makassar, Gowa was able to create direct links to Spanish Manila and to several Indian kingdoms. Its receptivity to foreigners was legend, and one Englishman describes Gowa as飞very impressive fighting force.

and

pleasant

King

is

and the kindest people in all the Indias to strangers. The and true-harted towards Christians." In response to repeated Dutch other Europeans should be excluded from his port, the ruler flatly stated

fruitful countrye,

demands that

count巧stands open to

for the Portuguese."25

was taken two kilometers offshore from the island of Kaledupa Bajau. This photograph

2007 in a Sama Bajau village located about in the Tukangbesi archipelago, which lies in

southeast of Sulawesi. Though it is a modern picture, in many respects the lives of Orang Laut and Sama Bajau st山follow traditional pa忧ems. The man has just returned from spearfishing at a nearby reef and the women have been ga出ering mangrove wood for firewood and collecting fresh water from a well on Kaledupa. Photograph courtesy of Lance Nolde.

Sama Bajau communities and kingdom of Tallo.

before their merger, the

As

in the relationship

the

kingdom

Gowa

and,

rise

and

Makassarese and Bugis kingdoms in southwest Sulawesi (see Fi伊re 出e sea lanes and delivered rare sea products, such as tortoiseshell

in the Straits of

prosperity of

5.3).

They

the

patrolled

and ambergris, which

could fetch high prices in the international market. In 1693, for instance, the

VOC paid

the Tidore ruler £2,000 for a piece of ambergris weighing 185 lbs (84 kg). Because of the close ties

between

territorial bases also

and the Makassar court, Sama Bajau networks and formed a vanguard for Gowa' s expansion to the east, where perman-

their leaders

Sama Bajau coastal settlements were established in various islands, such as Flores and Sumbawa. From these strategic locations their fleets were easily deployed to serve Makas- sar's interests. Unlike the Orang Laut in and around the Straits of Melaka, who remained sea dwellers, the Sama Bajau created a land-based kingdom in western Flores, which became an outpost of allegiance to the Gowa ruler. In speaking generally about these Sama

ent

Bajau communities, the Dutch remarked that,“They must always be ready to go with



sees

more

advantage to be gained, since they are the可pe of men who are known as slaves

[sic]

of the

may be

sent,

among

rebellion

the ruler

for

you people

as well as

The stage was thus set for a direct confrontation between Gowa and

overcoming strong resistance and

its

Bugis subjects prevented

VOC

seizing

Gowa from

was compelled to accept a treaty by which the

expedition sent from

one of Gowa's principal

continuing

hostilities,

and

VOC imposed severe restrictions

Gowa from the lucrative spice trade. Though this proved unsuccessful, Gowa to heel and assert their commercial

intended to exclude

Dutch remained determined to bring

What

dominance.

finally

destroyed this great kingdom was an alliance between the

and Gowa’s avowed enemies, the Bugis,

to the

who had

never accepted their subjugation

The Dutch found a willing ally in a refugee Bugis leader, Arung 1635-96). Escaping from Makassar domination in his homeland, he and his

Makassarese.

Palakka

(c.

had earned a formidable reputation as fighters, and now joined the attack on Gowa. A丘er a series of major battles, the Gowa ruler was defeated and in 1667 was Bugis following

forced to accept the vassal status.

The

hum且iating Treaty of Bungaya, which reduced

resulting peace proved丘agile,

him and

his people to

and Gowa once again took up arms

before being finally

vanquished in 1669. In the a丘ermath of the conflict well over a thousand Makassar captives were taken prisoner by the victorious Bugis and shipped

to Java as slaves.

The Bungaya Treaty gave the Dutch a complete monopoly of trade in Makassar and emasculated由e 24

their

wherever the king from time to time

boats in any direction they

is

Figure 5.1). The Dutch occupied the fort with over five hundred European soldiers, while several heavily armed ships guarded the Makassar harbor.

VOC

between the Orang Laut and Malay kingdoms

Melaka, the Sama Bajau were intimately involved in the

of

and what I have

fortifications (see

the

that developed between the

nations,

major conflict occurred in 1660 when a large

first

Batavia succeeded in

Sama

all

voe.

The

Fi事ire 5.3.

to obtain firearms

a result of the

very affable

that,“My

the

As

Gowa kingdom.

Cited in

In 1672

John Villiers,“Makassar:由e Rise 1412-1669,”in Kathrithamby

and

Wells and John



Fall

Cited in

Anthony

Reid,“Pluralism

as the

VOC's

of an East Indonesian Maritime Trading State, Southeast Asian Port and Polity: Rise and

Villiers, eds.,

Demise (Singapore University Press, 1990), 146. 436-7

Arung Palakka was confirmed

and Progress

in Seventeenth-century Makassar,'’BKI 156, 3 {2000),

问'A RISTO盯OF EAR…ODERN SOUTHE川山,14…8 chief ally

and

installed as ruler of the Bugis

EXPANDING GLO肌川KS, 160叫90s

kingdom of Bone, now the foremost power in

southwest Sulawesi. In order to prevent any challenge to Bugis dominance, Arung Palakka



telling

the divided allegiance of the Sama

Bajau.

then established a residence in Gowa, the heart of Makassar’s former power.

comment on While those

new power arrangements was

the

in western Flores

remained loyal to the vastly weakened Makassar

Arung Palakka and

others transferred their allegiance to

on由e

established a settlement

was the creation of a mandala-type

of closely linked domains that were allowed to maintain their as long as they recognized his overlordship.

Conquered Toraja groups

rocks which are your rocks ... the adat [custom] which

system] which

is

your adat, and the

your bicara."26 Meanwhile, he readily offered the

various campaigns, including that against Trunajaya 1679, since the

is

and

his

Dutch had helped him remove the shame

VOC

Makassarese inflicted

land, the

bicara

in

allies in Java in

Makassarese

conquest of his people. The contribution of Bugis fighting forces became a major

Dutch military successes

[legal

assistance

by the

factor in

in the archipelago.

in 1695, a year before his death. In

several hours received obeisance

poor health, he

from numerous

local lords.

sat

on

a stand and

Approaching

for

the seated

Arung Palakka, individually or in small groups, the lords and their nobles performed a ceremony of allegiance known as aru. The cultural weight attached to these ceremonies was intense kris

as each

and began

to

man, representing

his polity or constituents,

unsheathed

his sword or

dance to the frenetic beat of drums while loudly proclaiming

his

The emotion generated during the aru was such that on one occasion a lord performing the oath became so humiliated by the unexpected pause in the drumming that he ran amok. The only noteworthy rivals to the Bugis in the Eastern Archipelago were由e closely readiness to sacrifice his

related dualistic

life

for his king.

kingdoms of Ternate and Tidore

Treaty of 1667 restored Ternate to over

its

in northern

Maluku. The Bungaya

former pre-eminence by recognizing

many of the islands previously conquered by Gowa.

Its

major

rival

was

its

authority

Tidore, but

in

keeping with their unique dual relationship, even in times of host山ty a friendship was maintained through marriage between the royal families and constant movement of people between their kingdoms. The

VOC had little option but to negotiate this dualism,

which meant that any favor accorded to one had to be given to the 26

(r.

same

Dutch with

and

his counterpart

ball of wool."27

whom they had allied against the

independence through the Treaty of Bungaya. The as the father and Ternate as a child was frequently invoked, and

Dutch was

supporters of the

their

Kaicili Sibori,

Dutch names. One of the strongest who adopted the title “Sultan Amsterdam"

honor his privileged relationship with the VOC. But the Dutch were also maintain a balancing act with Tidore and Ternate, and Sultan Amsterdam

1675一90) to

attempting to

had to contend with the equally ambitious and talented Tidore ruler, Sultan Saifuddin (r.

1657-89). This delicate three-way diplomacy

when Sultan Amsterdam’s relationship with the desperate

move, for Ternate was

before,

on the

easily defeated

was almost impossible to maintain, and VOC soured, he declared war. It was a

by the Dutch and their local

allies

and was

VOC vassal state in 1683. In many respects Ternate continued to function as

proclaimed a

freedom to determine economic policies had been severely curtailed. Tidore, other hand, was able to remain apart from the仕ay and maintained its independ- but

its

other.

Unlike the

Archipelago

VOC encountered little or no opposition.

The loyalty and awe that Arung Palakka aroused among the Bugis and Makassarese people was evident

VOC

ruler as “Rossa"

ence into the eighteenth century.

The Bungaya Treaty brought a major realignment of power in the Eastern because the alliance of Arung Palakka and the

and who had assured

metaphor of the

federation

your

Ternate rulers were initially closer to the Portuguese,

Ternate rulers expressed their gratitude by assuming

in the Sulawesi

is

centu巧even referred to the Ternate

Tidore as‘'Tossa" to indicate they were from“the

at Bajoe

own customs and traditions

uplands, for instance, were told that they could “keep the land which

in

dynasty,

eastern shore of the Bay of Bone. In terms of South Sulawesi history, Arung

Palakka's most significant accomplishment

the seventeenth

The Malukans in

Cited in Leonard Y. Andaya, The Heritage of Arung Palakka: a History of South Sulawesi in the Seventeenth Century (The Hague: Martinus Nijho旺,1981), 112.

center exercising real or political

travel.

of the

even nominal control. Of considerable geographic,

complexity, the nearly six

of seas, each of

which has

hundred islands of this region

specific seasonal

are divided

cultural,

and

by a number

winds and ocean currents that regulate sea

Revenues from the sandalwood trade did enable some chiefs on Timor, the largest

Nusatenggara islands, to control domains of considerable

size,

but none ever

expanded beyond the Timorese shores.

century the most ambitious leaders in the Nusatenggara region came from the so called “black Portuguese" or Topasses, descended丘om unions In the seventeenth

between Portuguese or Indo-Portuguese Southeast Asia, they the eastern

the

local

women. Found throughout

Flores, had provided a refuge for Portu伊ese and mesti<;:o Catholics Dutch conquest of Melaka (1641) and Makassar (1667-9). On Timor

the leaders of the

Portuguese

men and

were most evident in the Nusatenggara area where Larantuka, on

end of

fleeing a丘er

Topasses (notably the da Costa and Hornay families) maintained their

names and Catholic

religion, but they also intermarried with local royal

houses and functioned like local lords,。丘en in alliance with Dominican丘iars. Close links to the

indigenous communities, participation in local

the lucrative

sandalwood trade enabled the Topasses

to

and involvement

rituals,

become



major force

Cited in

Leonard Y. Andaya, The World of Maluku: Eastern Indonesia

(Honolulu: Universi可of Hawaii Press, 1993),口

in the

in

in the

Timor and Solor archipelagoes. 27

(Celebes)

Muslim kingdoms in southwest Sulawesi and northern Maluku, the Nusa- had limited natural resources and lacked any large political

tenggara (Lesser Sundas)

Ear伊Modern Period



215

216'

EXPANDING饥OBAL LIN肘,160叫90s

ODERN SOUTHEAST山

A HISTO盯OF EARL

The Topasses represented a of a dominant center serving

typical

form of interaction in Nusatenggara.

magnet

as a

Instead

to outlying areas, the widely dispersed

Nusatenggara communities participated in overlapping networks of exchange based on material, ritual, or social requirements. Tangled lines of cultural and economic interaction connected

them

to the larger

and

more powerful Muslim kingdoms

far

southwestern Sulawesi, northern Maluku, or Java, so that even the most remote

in

islands

were linked to the wider world. At the same time, they were generally spared from the disruptive colonialism experienced by those areas that Europeans targeted for economic

in terror

when Burman armies approached.28 However, although northern

authority over the

muang

did provide opportunities for

the imposition of Ava’s

led to sporadic but quickly suppressed rebellions,

some

polities,

it

notably Chiang Saen, to overshadow the

dominant Chiang Mai. In the nineteenth centu巧,long a丘er the area had been laid waste by Thai armies, the once-extensive rice fields and impressive Buddhist ruins attested Chiang Saen’s former prosperity. previously

In 1635 Anaukpetlun's successor

Ava

returned to

Thalun

Upper Myanmar, where

in

(r.

1629-48), though crowned at Pe思l,

the heartland of wet-rice agric吐ture was

located and where the Burman population was heavily concentrated. From Ava he and later rulers addressed the problems that had led to the downfall of previous dynasties. In

exploitation.

this

每Develo仰川

they enjoyed

some advantages over

their predecessors, since the pacification

cam-

had substantially reduced raiding by the Shan of the northern hills, while the Yunnan, now imposed more

paigns

Chinese, anxious to ensure the safety of trade routes into control over the

The Western Mainland In the Western

of the old

Mainland the branch of a former royal house that assumed

the mantle

name

“Restored"

Taungoo dynasty

commonly accorded

is

Taungoo dynasty (1597-1752). The most feared was Anaukpetlun

(r.

1606-28).

From

across the entire Irrawaddy basin,

the retrospective

ruler of this restored

his capital at

from Kengtung

Ava he

reasserted

Burman

forces. In

was rewarded by the Rakhine and

(trade lodge)

ruler with the governorship.

He

control

One

previously e Nicote,

a fortress, received Goa's official recognition of his city as part of the

Estado da India, and was then appointed as captain-general of Pegu. Declaring

his

defiantly withheld

the customs revenue rightfully belonging to the Rakhine ruler. Efforts by Rakhine

oust de Brito failed, and his

Thanlyin”in one of the

Mon

De

Brito’s

Anaukpetlun that he besieged and

capture and agonizing death in 1613

European contemporaries of powerful mainland patrons.

their

armies

moved

seized

would have reminded

extreme vulnerab山ty should they

and Tavoy, which gave him control over most of the

relentlessly into the uplands,

coastline. His

and Chiang Mai, where Naresuan

had

previously extended Ayutthaya's overlordship, was recaptured in 1615. According stories told a

conquer

his

hundred years

later,

Restored

Taungoo

Irrawaddy basin, the sources indicate that the

adopted a more pragmatic approach than

their predecessors.

that

denied both senior and junior princes access to local sources of support by

moving no

them丘。m the pro悦nces into special palaces at the capital. Junior princes with legitimate claims to the

centers

throne were appointed as provincial governors (myowun) to

such as Prome, Taungoo, Pe事1, and Martaban, which had formerly been under

high-ranking senior princes (ba归). Although taxes,

myowun regulated appointments, collected

and made judicial decisions in towns and

subordinate officials

villages in their

were centrally appointed and were in

domains,

all

their

effect agents of the royal

household in Ava. These administrative reforms introduced greater uniformity in govern-

ment and created a bureaucratic structure that reached

down

to the sub-provincial level.

Another significant innovation was a wide- ranging census that enabled

officials to

document tax and labor obligations. This resulted in greater surveillance of the hereditary

(ahmudan) who were distinguished仕om

athi, or t缸-paying

than two

non优rvicemen,

were divided into more

ruler’s labor demands. Ahmudan hundred different groupings出at ranged from high-status cavalry units and royal

because由ey were subject to the bodyguards,

who

received benefits like land grants, salaries, and tax

relief,

to“platoons"

to

Anaukpetlun’s military prowess was such that he could

enemies simply by laughing, and “men, gods, monsters and

rulers

by

ties.

Thalun in particular strengthened royal authority by introducing administrative measures

servicemen penin-

and by patronage and marital

In consolidating their position in the

his

lose favor with

Following his siege and conquest of Syriam, Anaukpetlun' s forces captured the sular ports of Martaban

to

power and standing earned him the title of “king of chronicles. In 1611 his fortunes changed when he sought

to steal the royal treasure of Pegu, so angering

Syriam.

of

established a卢itoria

independence, he dominated trade in the Yangon River Delta and

d严1asty sought to maintain the loyalty of these far-flung regions

establishing small garrison posts

south.

1599 the mercena可(larn;:ado) Filipe de Brito

new

kingdoms, the

in the east to the borders of Rakhi肘,

most important conquests was the port of Syriam (Thanlyin), which had

been taken by Rakhine

Burmese suzerainty and influence over Lan Na remained a reality through the seventeenth centu巧. In place of the costly and distant military exped- itions that had exhausted resources and undermined the stab过ity of former Burmese

regime

Taungoo

and from Bhamo in the north to Chiang Mai and Tavoy (Dawei) further the

border areas. Significantly, no great campaigns were launched against出e

Shans or other Tai polities, but

ghosts" vanished

28

Cited in Victor B. Lieberman, Burmese Administrative Cycles: (Princeton University Press, 1984), 56.

Anarchy and Conquest,

c.

1580-1760

'217

划喽A HISTO盯OF E肌Y MODERN SOUTHEAST A叫140叫 made up

of families of elephant keepers and boatmen.

EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os

By 1650 ahmudan

constituted over

40 percent of the population within 120 miles (193 kilometers) of Ava, forming the core of the

army and

the palace workforce. Since

ahmudan

status

was

inherited, royal

edicts

attempted to limit intermarriage between categories and thus prevent individuals from moving into a more privileged group that had different duties and obligations. Because of the high value placed on scarce labor, severe restrictions were placed

ahmudan, who were tracked through censuses,

on

the movement

of

far less disruption to

country's there

fact, in diverting

south. Here, ships arriving丘om India’s Coromandel

Coast could meet their counterpa时s from places such as Aceh and

Ayutthaya.

authority into the southwest. Caravans of pack animals into the Tai-speaking uplands, bringing in silk

wended

their

way from Yunnan

and other products

to exchange

for

and gemstones. Far eclipsing the minimal European presence, Indian, Persian, Armenian, and Chinese merchants linked port cities and cotton, forest products,

redistribution centers to interior production areas credit,

and supplying

by collecting

rural traders with cotton yarn

international trade encouraged a monetization of the

local goods, providing

and coarse Indian

text过es. In turn,

economy as pa严nent of taxes in cash

became more common. The flow of revenues to the capital reinforced royal au由ori可by supporting and creating patron-client relationships that stretched from core areas to outlying provinces.

The concern

and manpower

also directed attention

to

The reason was twofold: first, continuing merit-making of land from lay devotees eliminated an impo时ant source of royal taxation; and second, men o丘en escaped service by taking refuge as monks. Under the Restored gi丘s

Taungoo, donations ofland by the laity were restricted and meritorious gifts were required to be in the form of cash, goods, or new religious buildings. Even lands already in the

hands of the sangha were gradually privatized and removed from monastic control, while the large numbers of people serving religious establishments were reduced and royal

monks was

Meanwhile, the

strengthened.

religious status of rulers

evil one.

Occasionally there

is

in the mid-seventeenth century a leading

Goddess image erased from a cave on the holy

evidence of

monk had an

such

as

the sponsorship of Buddhist texts, the construction of libraries, monasteries, and temples, and the dedication of Buddha images,。丘en have reflecting local aesthetics. Art historians

noticed a developing Burmese style that depicts the

Buddha with

shown taking

image, while murals of the Buddha’s previous lives are

modern

place in

Myanmar,

even to the chewing of betel.

Although greater administrative in the

stability, a thriving

economy, and

cultural integration

Irrawaddy basin enabled the Restored Taungoo d严1asty to survive for 140 years,

traditions.

Even under powerful

a shortened neck and

rulers like Thalun, the extension of royal

always constrained

by geographical

the preference for

swidden

by lands of distant areas also

realities.

agriculture,

people living in the lowlands,

all

bordering China

helped to distinguish upland groups仕om

and one royal ordinance

may have

power was

Languages, dress, and cultural practices, and

and water inhabited by people with

fire

sees

Burmese

“big ears."29

territory as ringed

H山communities

in

offered tribute to lowland kings but they could

be highly resistant to central demands. In 1616, for instance, one local governor,

perhaps responding to the reforming

mood

of Buddhism, attempted to prevent出e

growing of opium by destroying bushes and imposing heavy fines. his representatives,

Political

and

and economic

also rally

it

followers

stab过ity

thus depended on able leaders

By the same token,

local people killed

quell resistance.

who could generate loyalty

effective opposition to the ruler

could

around some charismatic individual (min-laung,“future king") who had har-

who

believed they

emerging in times of

had the capacity

crisis,

to restore prosperity

In the latter part of the seventeenth century as the

The

was necessa可to send an armed force to

nessed popular discontent. Typically

min-laung attracted

and

order.

rumblings of discontent began to develop

burden of taxes and corvee labor became more onerous. Struggling to survive,

ordinary people 出eir families as

had few choices:由ey could seek

relief

by mortgaging themselves and

debtors, take refuge in a monastery, attach themselves to a powerful lord,

or as a last resort less

was enhanced through exemplary acts

of Sagaing outside

h让l

image of a powerful nat or伊ardian spirit could be carved on the base of a Buddhist

丘om their family and followers.

to af且rm oversight of revenues

the powerful Buddhist sangha.

surveillance of

and

center-periphery relationships continued to operate in accordance with mandala-可pe

Overland trade to neighboring Rakhine and the Lao areas was similarly on the rise, and commercial connections with Yunnan were encouraged by the extension of Chinese

Burmese

and drowning the army of Mara, the

criticisms of popular practices,

Buddha by wringing water from her

changes was partly due to the

maritime commerce than in the island areas. In

Tavoy further

hair

Earth Goddess, believed to have saved the

Mandalay on the grounds that she was not mentioned in the Pali or Sanskrit canon. For the most pa此,however, Buddhist praxis easily adjusted to the local environment: the

Indian and West Asian ships away from the Malay-Indonesian archipelago, VOC mon- opoly policies benefited ports in southern Myanmar - Syriam on the Pegu River, Ma白- ban, Tenasserim, and

states are distinguished by crowns with elaborate decorated flanges. As Theravada Southeast Asia, Buddha images were o丘en set up close to depic- tall

Earth

strong economic base. Despite competition from Indian and European merchants,

was

elsewhere in tions of the

images from the Shan

elongated ears, and

special insignia, identifiable tattoos, and

written passes. Ava’s ability to institute these administrative

earlobes touching his shoulders, while their facial features,

migrate to the coastal zone. With a growing loss of servicemen, Ava was

able to

provide protection along its frontier zones, and in the 1690s bands of horsemen from the northwest polity of Manipur (now part of India) raided Ava's border 29

Than Tun,

ed., Royal Orders of Burma, Kyoto University, 1983) vol. I: 72

AD 1598-1885 (Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian Studies,

"'I\

219

220

' A HISTORY OF EAR…ODERN SO川EAST山,14…830

EXP ANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os

dawn of the eighteenth century conditions were increasingly favoring the emergence of some great min- laung. Because Rakhine is now part of modern Myanmar, there has been a tendency to overlook an impressive past when its territory stretched into southeast Bengal. This brought large tracts of agricultural land under its control, making Rakhine a significant with

territories

little

resistance.

By

the

and adopted many similar administrative and m过ita町advances. For example, both Ayutthaya and Ava adopted the policy that required senior princes to reside neighbor’s affairs

in the royal capital to the

so that their loyalty could be guaranteed, while administrative links

provinces were strengthened through royal appointment of local

officials.

In

exporter of rice on which the Dutch center of Batavia was initially heavily dependent. The

A归tthaya, where the pillaging of Taungoo armies in 1569 remained a bitter memory, Naresuan (r. 1590一1605) and his successors were particularly concerned to remedy the

tax revenues that flowed from the port of Chittagong also contributed to the prosperi时of

weaknesses believed to have contributed to the

Mrauk-U. The economy was further stimulated by particularly for construction in Batavia and labor on

the Rakhine capital,

the growing

the ruler’s position in

market

the nutmeg

as the traditional

for slaves,

plantations in Banda. Following any military success in Bengal thousands of captives were

transported back to Mrauk-



(30,000 in 1623 alone) while both “black”and

“white’3

Portuguese often acted as middlemen in the slave trade or themselves conducted

raids

Lanka added

Maham uni

to Rakhine' s reputation as a religious center

image. Yet, like

maintained an

and home of

the revered

counterparts in other parts of Southeast Asia, the

its

court

where devout Buddhist rulers adopted Muslim titles and Muslim dress, where Persian influence was evident, and where o面ciated on ceremonial occasions. Celebratory poems written by Bengali eclectic culture,

o丘en appeared in

Brahm ins Muslim poets which

“the

extol

both the Buddhist king and his Muslim commander and

king sat on his throne in

the world poured

down

numerous Hindus both

all

into the capital"

native

and

his royal splendor while people

and

“the pick of the

foreign, countless

from

Mughals and

a court all

in

pa民s of

the Pathans,

Brahmins, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas

and

Sudras the four major Hindu castes] also sat in rows户。In 1666, however, Rakhine forces [

suffered a devastating defeat defect

when

the

Mughal general bribed Portuguese

mercenaries

half of the eighteenth century political stab且ity

was restored, but Rakhine never fully recovered from the loss of connections to the Bay of Bengal trade, and由is economic decline contributed to its subsequent obscurity in Southeast Asian history. first

The

steps

followed by appalling deaths and perpetual rebirth in the burning

by which

A yutthaya' s

rulers

confirmed their dominance in the Central Mam’

competition to control ever larger populations, this rivalry was o丘en expressed in religious terms as successive rulers competed for recognition as leader of the Theravada Buddhist world. Unwilling to cede any advantage, each maintained a watchful eye on their 3°

Cited in Satyendra Nath Ghoshal,“Missing Links in Arakan History,'’in Muhammad Enamul Haq, ed., Abdul Karim Sahitya- Visarad Commemoration Volume (Dacca: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 1972),

258-9

fires

of hell - for

those guilty of disloyalty.

As

Ava, however, these efforts at royal control could always be circumvented since

in

powerful provincial lords retained considerable

autonomy

The appointment of princes to important positions in

them under closer surveillance, but

it

in their

home

Ayutthaya was

environment.

intended to bring

also provided opportunities for acquiring the wealth

manpower that could support a challenge to royal authority. Because of the custom of taking numerous wives there was always a large coterie of princes who possessed influen- and

tial

kinship ties

establish

and were eager to seek out

allies.

Those able

to garner a following

and

themselves as potential leaders were frequently prepared to become claimants to

the throne.

Unlike the pre-1569 situation, such confrontations were no longer launched by

senior princes

from

a base outside

A yutthaya, but by powerful princely ministers located

in the capital itself.

The previously autonomous Malay rulers to the south also attempts to tighten control over

send representatives to

its

vassals. Traditionally,

accompany

felt

the effects of Ayutthaya's

Malay

clients

had been

able to

the elaborately constructed gold and silver trees,

to make the formal prostration. Now N aresuan mandated that Malay rulers themselves travel to the court to make obeisance. The case together with textiles

and weapons,

was a stark reminder that perceived disloyalty would be immediately and

severely punished.

land were similar to those adopted by the rulers of Ava, and the proximity of these two powerful polities generated a fierce rivalry. Fostered by past enmities and spurred on by

solidi命

disaster

of Patani

The Central Mainland

primary goal was to

service,

to

and Mughal armies regained control over key areas of eastern Bengal. During出e



order to eliminate any challenges to his authority. Ceremonies such

drinking of the Water of Allegiance were obligatory for all in royal including vassal lords, while monks intoned the penalties - a life of continuous

along the Bengal coast. As in Myanmar, impressive Buddhist pagodas and exchanges with Sri

city’s fall.

Other Malay rulers therefore chose a more conciliatory approach and

were o丘en successful in avoiding going to A归t由aya to perform the humiliating act of obeisance. In 1645, for example, the ruler of Kedah feigned illness but agreed to pay homage twice daily to an image of the A归tthaya ruler. Apa时from administration, another concern was the revival of international trade and restoration of royal prerogatives. inclined

31

Jeremias

Van

transcription 1975),

King Ekathotsarot

(r.

1605-11) was said to be“greatly

towards strangers and foreign nations,"31 and the revenues丘om increased

88-9

Vliet, The Short Hist的of伽Kings of Siam. Translated by Leonard Ar向a, from a by Miriam J. Verku明-van den Berg; edited by David K. Wyatt (Bangkok: Siam Society,

222

EXPANDING GL叫L LINK队1600-吻。s

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

commerce contributed

to the

implementation and funding of administrative measures commerce encouraged monetization

that linked outlying areas to the capital. International

and the adoption of a

which

assisted

commercial transactions by placing a

particular products. Meanwhile, the expansion of acreage

standard value on cultivation

single currency,

of由e benefits of由is thriving economy flowed to the capital

monopoly of firearms and gunpowder, and other key products

since they enjoyed a

and arack

as ivo町,deerskins,

manpower, and economic

administrative centralizing measures, control of

through maritime trade. The rulers of

establish regional pre-eminence. to

rice

such

(rice wine).

Like Ava, Ayutthaya's history thus reveals a direct correlation between

cially

for

growing population. Many and to the rulers themselves,

to support a

and other crops enabled Ayutthaya

It

A yutthaya

China offering assistance against Japan, and

in 1602

growth,

espe-

also displayed a keen desire

be remembered that

will

political and

to

N aresuan had sent a mission

he asked the

ruler of Aceh

needed help in an attack on Portuguese Melaka. In 1608 Siamese envoys were

if

he

dispatched

where they visited the major ports and cities, including Amsterdam. In The Hague they were shown a new invention, the telescope, through which they could see the towers of Leiden and Delft. to the Netherlands,

A yutthaya

briefly

installed himself as

Nihonmachi, a

encountered international disfavor

when

the Kalahom

minister

King Prasat Thong in 1629. In the wake of the destruction

hostile Japanese

shogun viewed him

of the

as a usurper, while foreign obse凹ers,

sharing the same view, were shocked at the ruthless elimination of other contenders

power. Usurpation of power was not unusual in this period, and so the chronicles

for

paint

Thong as a meritorious Buddhist ruler chosen by nobles distressed at the neglect of government by a child-king. Concerned with the well-being of all sentient beings, he took Prasat

steps in 1638 to avert the dangers

posed by the impending thousandth year of the Lesser

Era calendar and the “Age of Evil" disasters

came

were avoided, rains

to trade in great

fell

it

foreshadowed. As a result of his virtuous

in season, food

numbers"

Thong’s ruthless path to power, a

was abundant, and

(see Figure 5.4). Despite his

Dutchman

also

Prasat Thong’s, son Narai

(r.

who dominates

of Prasat

the history

32

Richard Cushman,

斗ci叽2000 oJ Ayutthaya:

trans.

and

A yutthaya' s

prosperity were registered globally by

The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya, David K. Wyatt,

Dutch Perceptions of the Thai Kingdom

c.

1604-17臼(Leiden:

ed. (Bangkok: The

Brill,

2007), 100.

hosts户At home Malays,

Indians, Japanese,

and Europeans were among the royal retainers and advisors. Narai displayed and even appeared in Persian dress as a gesture of welcome when he

an interest in Islam,

of

Ayutthaya in the seventeenth century. Even as a child, say the chronicles, he was recognized as an individual “endowed with merit" who was destined for greatness. During his reign this greatness

French etiquette" as a courtesy to their Persians,

noted that“in matters of government

1656一88), however,

Golconda, Japan, India, Persia, and even to France, where his envoys took care to“follow

...

and well-being of state he is a wise, prudent and moderate prince who peacefully possesses his kingdom in prosperity and affluence of the common [people], and therefore, dese凹es an immortal memory产2 It is

unprecedented extension of international connections. Missions were sent to China,

acts,

“foreign nations

condemnation

Wat Chaiwatthanaram, A严1tthaya. Built in 1629 by Prasat Thong as his first temple, the name translates as“the shrine of a long reign and glorious era." The form of the tall tower-like temples (called prang by the Thais), common in both Sukothai and Ayutthaya, was derived from阳uner architecture, and symbolized Mount Meru,出e home of the gods in Hindu and Buddhist cosmology. Prang were o丘en built by rulers as a sign of their au由ority, and the ashes of kings and monks could also be placed here. Photograph, 2010. Courtesy of William Chapman.

Fi阴阳5.4.

received Persian envoys.

advantage because of

France, as

Europeans entertained high hopes of commercial

an influential minister, allegedly because his

helped launch the king’s large ship.

where Amangkurat

II

There were

Greek adventurer with skills

close ties to

with “pulleys and windlasses"

also contacts with the court of

sent much-desired Javanese horses as a

gi丘.

Mataram,

Foreign observers were

by Ayutthaya's cosmopolitan environment and openness to new ideas. no ci可in the orient,”wrote a French envoy,“where one sees so many different

consistently struck

"There

is

nationalities as in the capital city



part,

questions about Christianity and elective可pes of govern-

ment. In 1685 he appointed Constantine Phaulkon, a

an

Sia

For their

N arai’s

33

of Siam [Ayutthaya] and where one speaks so

many

The Diary of Kosa Pan, Thai Ambassador to France, June-July 1686. Introduction and Annotation, Dirk van der Cruysse; Visudh Busyakul, trans.; Michael Smithies, ed. and trans. (Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2002), 54

'223

叫喽A HISTO…F山LY MODERN SOUTHE川山,140叫 different languages产4 Visitors

remarked on

Ayutthaya’s

wealth,

its

size



a population

estimated at 150,000), the panoply that surrounded royal ceremonies, and the processions consisting of thousands of soldiers, courtiers, and hundreds of horses and elephants. The

were especially memorable, with the king

river flot山as

throne" while

“an infinite

number of people”fell

to the

sitting“like

ground

an

on

idol

a golden

in reverence as his barge

Impressed by these reports, the French accorded a reception to the Siamese envoys in Versailles in 1686 that was the most spectacular granted to any embassy during Louis XIV’s long reign. Two musical pieces,“The Entrance of the Siamese" and

passed.

“A

35

Siamese

Air,”were

Ayutthaya' s

composed

rivalry with

especially for the occasion.

Ava and

its

efforts to

become

the pre-eminent center

of

city,

the white elephants housed in the royal compound,

and the Buddha images whose bejeweled crowns emulated those of earthly Jesuit priest

richer than

remarked in all ...

which young

men

awe,“there

is

nothing to be seen but gold

...

kings. As one

one

single idol

is

form important points of connection between the

of learning

who

among monks,

N arai

monks were

Khmer

marked by short

reigns

influential role. Recurring

women work

the soil while their

1603, with Naresuan's support, one cou此faction gained control

prince previously taken to

Though backed by three thousand

Ayutthaya

as a captive

was

installed as ruler.

A yutthaya troops, he still faced strong opposition and

he therefore turned to the Spanish in Manila, asking for a hundred soldiers since “some of

my vassals clerics

...

are

still

in rebellion against

me,

their natural king产8

While



few Spanish

dreamt of a Christian Cambodia, the lack of commercial incentive and shortage of

rainy

new

In 1618 the

king and

Khmer

could not reach the requisite standard were expelled from to public

works or agricultural

labor.

still

had opponents within

suspicious of French influence

the court

also within the sangha,

and resented the harsh

discipline

as Narai lay

whose mother had been N arai’s wet-nurse,

for the throne

The new dynasty then

were

established

killed,

Phaulkon

staged

executed, and

was destined to be A严1tthaya’s last.

Although connections with Europeans were now much weaker, from 1684 Ayutthaya benefited from the revival of Siamese-Chinese trade after the Qing revoked prohib- maritime commerce. The staple exports of

tin,

deer hide, and

products continued, but a major stimulus for this trade was the

demand

forest

for rice

for

burgeoning population. Connections with China were fostered by the growing

Chinese community in Manila, Batavia, and elsewhere, and wealthier Chinese who

capital

moved

to nearby

Oudong, located on higher land about

from modern Phnom Penh, where Chei Chettha II (r. 1619-27), status, resumed resistance to A严1tthaya. It is worth emphasizing

25 miles (40 kilometers)

renouncing his vassal

which princely contenders

the French expelled.

affairs.

由at

dying, his “milk brother,”a senior noble

China’s



make war."37 In

for

instituted

imposed when they could not meet new standards of scholarship. In 1688,

itions against

men. In the words of a Spanish observer,“the

the

1684

where Phaulkon’s position and power were widely resented) and

in

in a period of upheaval

in which the Malay community played an

requirements

in

Notwithstanding his prodigious reputation, Narai

coup

Lovek had ushered

imposed a heavy burden on peasant society because of the unrelenting demand

fighting

and

erstwhile

Cambodia, Lan Sang, and Lan Na. For Cambodia the 1594 Thai attack on

capital at

and internal conflicts

for

its

Cambodian

monaste巧and assigned



Khmer

Mainland, A严1tthaya clearly overshadowed

entered the sangha for a short space of time, usually during the

ordination. Those

since

competitors the

in the Central

missiona可personnel meant that Manila could not be persuaded to become involved in

the laity since the oversight of religion was considered a royal responsib过ity. Concerned



Dominant

the Churches of Europe.”36 Because of the well-established custom by

season, monasteries could also

at the lack

A严1tthaya families were appointed to high posts in the court and

elite

provincial administrations.

husbands

Buddhist learning were unambiguously displayed in the four hundred temples and monasteries that dotted the

married into

commented on the effectiveness of Khmer fighters and that Cambodia was also a major supplier of forest products. An alliance with Cambodia was由us valuable, and the

Europeans

Nguyen lord

in return for a

family also battle in

in southern

Vietnam

sent one of his daughters as a wife for Chei Chettha

steady supply of elephants and sappanwood. Closer

provided the

1622, in

Khmer

which Vietnamese

participated, A严1tthaya lost

men. Chei Chettha bestowed a prestigious bride,

ties to

the N事1yen

with a counterweight against Thai pressure, and in one

title

around

five

thousand

equivalent to“queen”on his Vietnamese

and in 1623 the N伊yen were given customs authority over the port of Prey

(Saigon) in the

Mekong

N okor

Delta.

Although relations with Ayutthaya improved following a peace agreement in 1633,

Cambodia remained under constant pressure.

F让st,

royal control over

manpower

pro-

weakened, especially in the Khorat plateau, where Lao migration丘om Lan Sang was steadily increasing and where Khmer settlements were acknowledging A严1tthaya’s gressively

suzerainty.

Second, the negotiations with the

N伊yen

rulers, including

marriage to a

Nguyen princess, had opened the door for Vietnamese intervention in Cambodia’s

and eventually for Vietnamese migration into the Mekong Delta area. economic competition between rival trading groups exacerbated conflicts among

internal affairs

Third,

了?

j:,

36

Ci时in Michael Smi恤 Caron and Joost Schouten, A True Description of the Migh飞y Kingdoms of Japan and Siam (Bangkok: Siam Society, 1986; reprint of 1671 edition), 129一31. University Cited in Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit, A History of Thailand (Bangkok: Cambridge

Frarn;:ois

Press, 2009), 14.

:: JU

Ci灿 Cited in Jenny阳ages,“Cambodia, Catholicism and Conq山stadores: Spanish Cambodian Interactions from the late Sixteenth to the mid-Seventeenth Centu巧口’PhD Thesis, University of Hawai'i, 2007, 226

226砸、A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os

ASIA, 1400-1830

numerous contenders for the Cambodian throne. The third son of Chei Chettha II, who seized power in 1642 a丘er a bloody massacre of his opposition, sought to win supp。此 from the power臼l resident Malay/Javanese community by adopting Islam, even issuing an edict forbidding the sale and slaughter of pigs“because he intended to become entirely

given to the

Malay."39 Correspondence with the ruler of Japara (north coast Java) points to links with

glorious

the

other

Muslim

but the

rulers,

king’s

donations to a Buddhist monastery show that he was

equally aware of the importance of sangha support. His actions nonetheless aroused

offenses,

appointment of judges and to the codification of laws relating to criminal

slave町,and the regulation of corv优.

New provisions were introduced to manage

communities, including a precise listing of required gifts to the royal the foreign trading for such measures, as always, was the example of the family and port officials. Motivation Angkorian

past.

Transformed into

a site for

complex remained a focus for royal donations

Buddhist devotion, the Angkor

and pious works, and between 1612 and

1632 at least

fourteen inscriptions were le丘by Japanese p过grims. In

was evident

Ayutthaya

and the Khmer

the

influence of

Khmer

Khmer princes recruited Vietnamese support, and in 1658 a rebellion brought this reign to

was used in

some A严1tthayan monasteries. Despite the chronic instab过ity that charac-

an end. According to Dutch accounts, the Vietnamese ransacked the count巧,and scores

terizes

of vessels were required to carry away the booty, including hundreds of elephants and over

held in

considerable opposition. Assisted by the

a thousand artillery as court politics

now aging but influential Nguyen princess,

pieces. The following years were marked by almost unceasing

were factionalized between those linked to

pro- Vietnamese, while hopes of stab过ity were further

rival

undermined by another Nguyen

battles for

ascendancy among the

should not hide the

fact that

Khmer

elite

that

dominate indigenous

Phnom Penh was still a place of considerable profit.

neighbors.

Lan

Na was

controlled

by Ava

and persistent upheavals resulted in

much of the period between

for

competitor for

dominance

in the Tai-speaking world. Yet

a serious

Foreign

temples built during this period are inspired

by Burmese

came仕om

and the short flap of cloth over the left shoulder.

Cambodia

also attracted refugees like the Japanese evicted

from A归tthaya and Japanese Christians denied reentry to lived in a Japanese village recently excavated near

community

acted as royal bodyguards. But

it

the arrival of Ming loyalists after the dynasty’s

community. Khmer trading regulations even each having

its

own

their

Phnom

was the o丘en fall

in 1644,

the

fractious Chinese, swelled by

who formed the largest foreign

identified the different dialect groups,明白

appointed syahbandar.

In this environment Europeans were timber, cheap labor, and shipbuilding

skills

led the Spanish in

Manila to commission

the

Cambodia The VOC established a post in Phnom Penh in the 1630s, mainly the purchase of deerskins, and at one point Governor-General Anthony van Diemen

construction of several galleons, but even low-level trade with

had ended by the

early eighteenth century. for

From

a purely political

the

rife.

The

muang

of Lan Sang fared

much

better, in

own

kings, but rivalry

each other."41 Ongoing succession struggles

among

finally led



marker, sanctified by the consecration of a Buddhist shrine, was

borders with

Cited in Carool Kersten, of Reameathipadei I, 1642-1658,”]SEAS 37,



is

(2006), 17.

set

up

A yutthaya. reflected in the prosperity

A History of Tl毗圳叫ew Haven: Ya川1iv叫r Press, 1则,u Martin Stuart-Fox, The Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang: Rise and Decline (Bangkok: White

David Wyatt,

:丁



to出e

Lan Sang now enjoyed. Like his counterparts in Ava and Ayutthaya, Suriyavongsa required princes to move away from their provincial bases and resettle in Vientiane where they could be brought under closer long period of peace

secure footing. Royal protocol and the court hierarchy were clarified, and attention was

39

the

and swords"

of the long-reigning Suriyavongsa

1670 a frontier

indicate that successive rulers were trying to

Buddha images

in

(c. 1637-94), whose primary concern was to safeguard his country from invasion. In 1641 Dutch envoys mentioned a sign on an island in the Mekong River indicating the division between Lan Sang and Khmer territory, and

installation

reaffirm the

and economic rivalry, Khmer laws place出e apparatus of government on a more

and

script,

capital Vientiane, say the chroniclers, was“full oflances

and "relatives fought against

to

in this time of continuing political unrest

standpoint the Lao

Lao areas continued to be ruled by their

nobili可was

Dutch soon departed,

Comp过ed

cultural heritage

from major centers of power. Indeed, a Genoese compared the surrounding “mountains and inaccessible precipices" to ramparts,“出at none can force their way through and which thus serve as a protection against the insults of their enemies."40 Having permanently shaken off Burmese overlord-

in

unable to generate profits in a highly competitive market dominated by Chinese.

though Buddhist

Lan Na's

traveler specifically

(1636-45) entertained ideas of greater influence and, with Ayutthaya’s assistance, even conquest. A丘er his death such plans were abandoned and the

was no longer

pa此because of their geographic distance

ship,

at a distinct disadvantage. Cambodia’s durable

it

distinguished by specific iconographic features such as the lotus-bud shape of the flame

homeland. They probably Penh, and some of

styles,

Thai" language and

was st山manifested in the “Northern

over the region,

1558 and 1727,

depopulation and a consequent decline in agricultural

and their mestizo o旺spring vied to dominate trade in deerskins and forest products such as wax and namrack, a black tree resin used in lacquerwork. Although merchants all

st山

high esteem.

sources

traders

script

Cambodia histo巧in the seventeenth century, Khmer culture survived and was

production. Regarded primarily as a frontier area of the Burmese empire,

invasion in 1673.

The

in architectural styles,

The northern Tai areas were also increasingly vulnerable to the depredations of their

conflict

Ayutthaya and those who were

aesthetics

Cited in

Lotus Press, 1998),

85-6

EXPANDING也OBAL川口,16…690s'

川毡A HISTO盯OF山…ODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…830 surveillance. Their posts

number of

were then

filled

own

posts accorded his

by royal appointees

relatives.

limited direct access to maritime trade,

it

Although landlocked Lan Sang had

maintained foreign connections through

A yutthaya

land routes that led from Vientiane to

loyal to the ruler, with

and Cambodia, eastward



only

ancient

to Dai Viet,

and northward into southern Yunnan. Revenues flowed to the center, and a Dutchman remarked on the splendor of the royal palace,“so large one would take it for a town.”He

commented on the numbers of monks German Emperor”) who came from as far

also

(“more

numerous than

afield as

Myanmar

the soldiers of

the

to study in Lan Sang

monasteries卢The Lao themselves even said that they had been elevated over their neighbors because they possessed so many Buddhist temples and so many learned monks. Despite this self-confidence, Suriyavongsa’s death in 1694 and a subsequent dispute provided the pretext for intervention by Lan

from the latter in

east and, to a

much

greater degree,

later,

Lan Sang was

effectively

succession

powerful neighbors - Dai Viet

Ayutthaya from the west. An invasion by the

1707 reinforced the division between the

Luang Prabang, and when Champasak

Sang’s

rival ruling families in Vientiane and

in the south also

dismembered. Yet

formed

a separate unit

six years

this reversion to smaller polities was

keeping with a long tradition in which allegiances were locally focused. While

in

possession

Buddha and other ancient statues remained a source of Vientiane pride, Luang Prabang and Champasak similarly emphasized their genealogical connections to Lan Sang and elevated their own Buddha images as the focus of community veneration and local identity. of the Emerald

was affirming the chain of authority that bound him to his subjects. At the beginning of each New Year he made ritual obeisance to heaven, after which princes and officials paid

him the same homage. Court nobles and followers,

villages, facilitating efficient conscription

we

the Nguyen, the Trinh, and the

Trinh proclaimed

forced

families -

Mac - that eventually compelled the Mac to take refuge in

the mountains at the northern border. Here they received Chinese protection

when Trinh armies

former

resettled in

them out of Vietnamese

their loyalty to the

territory.

Le dynasty, the border area of Dong Hoi

day Quang Binh province) was accepted

as dividing the

until 1667,

Although both Nguyen

Nguyen domain

(in present-

in the south from

The emperor himself remained firmly under Trinh control Long while the Nguyen were effectively independent in their southern realm. that of the Trinh.

Sporadic fighting between the

Nguyen and

1627 the situation deteriorated into

civil

and

in

Thang

the Trinh continued, however, and

war. Four years later the N思1yen began

Cham

areas

con-

advice about the soldiers

and

a loyal populace, the

Trinh forces, offensive in

region,”i.e.

42

from those of the Trinh (Dang

the north, called Tonkin by Europeans). For the

Cited in Martin Stuart-Fox,



Ngoai,“outer

Nguyen lord a prime concern

History of Laos (Cambridge University Press, 1997), 13

and

cultivate land.

artillery

and gave

much

larger

failure of the last

Trinh

able to repel attacks by the losses.

The

1672 resulted in a stalemate, ushering in the so-called “centu町of peace" N凯1yen, claiming the

north, while the solidified their

Increased

position in the center

Khmer throne and through

Khmer cession of Prey Nokor/Saigon southern outlet to maritime

A major

the

“Lord of the

title

and looked

Realm" (quoc chua) since 1693,

to the south as a logical area of expansion.

Vietnamese influence in Cambodia was achieved through alliances with

claimants to the

assistance provided against A严1tthaya.

in 1623 provided the

The

Nguyen with an important

obstacle to the N事1yen“southward advance"

(nam

tien)

was the presence of

Cham, whose resistance had continued even a丘er出e major defeat of Vijaya

Cham

rival

commerce.

south

polities further

at

in 1471.

Kauthara and Panduranga

initially

independence and rulers, but acknowledged the overlordship of Dai Viet. As

Cham rulers and traditional elite grew weaker, the Cham people turned increasingly to

their religious

leaders for direction

and

as a source for the prese凹ation of

Cham

culture

and identity. In this situation the growing influence of Islam in island Southeast Asia held

Cham manuscripts refer to close links where Cham heroes and kings were said to

out possibilities of alternative sources of assistance.

with the northern

Malay

state

of Kelantan,

have travelled in search of magical skills出at

Although the dating

is

st山debated,

the

Malay

scribes,

title

it

“Paduka Seri Sultan."

and many

Cham

risons.

would help them

appears that at some Islam,

The

and the

against the Vietnamese.

point between 1607 and 1676 a

last ruler,

Po Saut

(r.

1660-92), used

court patronized Islamic scholars and Malay

subsequently became

at least

Panduranga and launched a

campaigns in 1611 and 1653, the

near

to clear

(roughly 1674 to 1770). The Trinh maintained their control over the Le dynasty in the

south, termed Cochin China by Europeans)

fortified walls

Nguyen were

even though both sides sustained heavy

Dong Hoi. Stretching from Hue, these walls divided their own domains (Dang Trong, meaning“inner region,”i.e. the

two

the sea to the hills north of

new

a well-trained

deployment of cannon, especially on shipboard. With well-trained

building fortifications at

structing

own

A second concern

and enabling development of

where they were ordered

Cham king from Panduranga adopted in

society.

European traders and mercenaries helped in the local production of

retained their

described the internal conflicts between powerful Vietnamese

Dang Trong

army of around 40,000 men, while thousands of captured Trinh soldiers were also

The two remaining

The Eastern Mainland

then received obeisance from their

officials

to the lowest levels of

was the development of a strong population base. Soldier-farmers were settled in

the

In Chapter 4

and so on,

down

nominal Muslims. Po Saut began series of assaults

on N凯1yen

gar-

His resistance, however, was short-lived. In 1692, following earlier Vietnamese

captured but his

younger

Cham forces were definitively defeated. Po Saut brother, whom the Nguyen appointed as“aboriginal

was

king,'’

maintained correct tributary relations until his death in 1727. The late seventeenth century was thus marked by continued Vietnamese migration and further incorporation of Cham

229

m喽A HISTO盯OF山川ODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫3 territories into the officials

were

Nguyen domains.

In a

renewed campaign of “Vietnamization," Cham

religious practices

riage tion.

and

Nguyen

even ordered to dress in the Sinicized

There was nevertheless another side to

and

Vietnamese domination,

this

is

N agar

Cemented by

links.

evident in

protection from

of

Cham

plow.

Trinh

intermar-

challenge, the

Chams and Khmers

exchange of gi丘s and

through

tribute, this adjustment

recognition of local spirits such as the powerful

N伊yen

and other

the ritualized

social

Cham and Khmer popula-

possibility of a future

N凯1yen were careful to maintain relations with both marriage

many

for

brought by Vietnamese migrants were reshaped through

own vulnerability and the

Cham

goddess Po

and by the construction of shrines to思iarantee continuing

deities,

Cham spirits. As they moved south the Vietnamese also adopted features

culture, such as boatbuilding techniques and a modified version of the Cham

The name of the Cham

Vietnamese

spirit

Po

deity

N agar was now Vietnamized

as she entered

pantheon as the Imperial Lady of the Earth, and the whale

venerated as protector of

Cham

fishermen,

received the

Buddhism remained

the

Vietnam were accentuated

a focus of devotion

in other ways.

throughout the Nguyen and Trinh

especially at the village level, but court patronage of

domains,

Buddhism was more pronounced in

the Nguyen-controlled south. Leading figures were o丘en devout Buddhists, and in 1695

eminent Chinese abbot from F时ian

initiated the

Nguyen

lord, his family,

and

an

thousands

of followers into a Chan/Thien (Zen) school favored by merchant associations. In Dang

Trong Chinese merchants contributed

to the establishment of

they could venerate deities such as Guandi (Viet.

Guanyin

Thien Hau), the goddess of the

(Viet.

Quan Cong),

sea,

Buddhist temples where

the god of war and

and the Bodhisattva of

Quan Am). These temples provided an anchor

colonies, but also helped society.

them connect with Vietnamese

elites

wealth,

Compassion,

for overseas Chinese

and

integrate into

A second difference from Dang N goai was the reduced political and social

local influ’

ence of Confucianism. The Nguyen were operating in a frontier environment where much of the population was Cham or Khmer and where the Confucian literati were smaller in

number,

less erudite,

the

and often

closely involved in trade. In this context the kind

man who

designed the walls at

Dong Hoi should have been

ineligible for any

administrative post because he was the son of a singer, but in the south he rose to become a well- known official

central

and imported products.44 The

rice, salt,

marked on a Chinese

routes closely

map

in

and “western”maritime

“eastern"

dating to about 1620

show

that

Nguyen

ports were tied

to Southeast Asia, China, R严ikyu, and Japan through the junk trade. In 1679,

following the collapse of the three

the world: as high as the clouds,”said one Italian -

Ming

thousand Chinese refugees,

dynasty, the

many of whom

Nguyen domains settled in the

also

took in about

upper Mekong Delta and

Hoi An. Intermarriage with Vietnamese led to a distinctive mixed population called

Minh Huong

(“people

can

whom the Nguyen

incense to the Ming”) to

accorded

In Hoi An, temples and guildhalls erected by Chinese dialect groups

special priv过eges. still

who burn

be seen today, but

it is

worth noting that a Minh Huong communal house has

also survived.

In

comparing the cultures of these two realms,

scholarship

it

is

thus apparent that Confucian

and the influence of Chinese customs and

cultural practices

were more

often extremely north,

however,

by the Sinicised

wealthy because of their role as brokers in the it

was impossible to

elite.

silk trade.

Even

replicate the administrative style of China so

Since administrative posts were sold or rewarded

in the

admired

to favored clients,

Confucian examination system was only partially effective in developing a meritorious

the

bureaucratic system. Provincial

Confucian ideals were

strengthen

specified that

morality

and

local elites wielded so difficult to enforce.

v山age chiefs should be educated

much

For example, the government

men who

could encourage Confucian

and enforce prohibitions against popular pastimes such

directives

were largely ignored. The

authority that edicts to

as cock且ghting, but such

Trinh lords discouraged spirit propitiation,

1663 prohibited certain “heterodox" practices associated with

and

in

Daoism, Buddhism, and

forms of popular religion. Ultimately, however, they were forced to acknowledge the

power of local

deities.

When

one of the shrines of the goddess Lieu Hanh was destroyed

by o伍cial order, the epidemics由at followed persuaded the court to accord her official recognition as a “Golden Princess, a Terrestrial

Mother."

Nor was the value of foreign contacts disregarded, despite the

a eunuch’s reiteration of

Chinese Confucian credo由at“this country hath no need of any foreign

which belies the Trinh desire to obtain weapons and metals, especially exchange for silk

and ceramics.

45

One important

thing,”

silver, in

source of silver was Japan, where

and poet.

In the third place, the

Nguyen were more

employing Japanese and Chinese

as

government

consistently officials

and

open

to the outside world,

even engaging Europeans

43

(“Safe Haven,”now a World Heritage site), where one European specifically remarked that the people were unlike the Chinese because they“admired things from

Dror and K. W. Taylor, eds., Views of Seventeenth-Century Vietnam: Christoforo Born on and Samuel Baron on Tonkin (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program, 2006), 115 Cited in Charles Wheeler,“Rethinking the Sea in Vietnamese Hist。可:Littoral Sode可in the Integration of Thaun-Quang, Seventeenth-Eighteenth Centuries,”JSEAS 37, 1 (2006), 137 n. 51. Cited in Hoang Anh Tuan, Silk for Silver: Dutch-Vietnamese relations, 1637-1700 (Leiden: Br山, Cited in Olga

Cochinchina

as 44

court physicians. This culturally inclusive atmosphere was reflected in the bustling port of

Hoi An

had long linked

coast-interior connections that

一“the finest trees in

timber

lowland

for

of

protocol followed in the north was frequently ignored. For instance, according to accepted

norms

The

pronounced in the Trinh court. As in China, eunuchs were a powerful influence and

Di旺erences between southern and northern

(Viet.

like forest

spirit,

“General of

title

the

Southern Seas."

Mazu

outside [world].叫3

[the]

Vietnam to archipelago trade were maintained through exchanges of highland products

style.

interaction with the predominantly Indic-influenced

Aware of their

EXPANDING GLOBAL川肘,1600-169os

45

2007),

40

t.S

231

232

6 A HI…Y OF EAR…ODERN…HEAST山,14…830 Vietnamese

EXPANDING GLOBAL川KS, 160叫90s毡巧3

was competitively priced in relation to that produced

in China and could benefit from the disruption to supply chains in the wake of the Ming collapse. silk

Europeans also used for example, a

VOC

silver to

buy Vietnamese products,

especially ceramics; in

ship sailed from the northern capital of

Thang Long

1670,

Banda

to

in

the Eastern Archipelago with a cargo that included 89,000 Vietnamese cups. The Red

River estua巧remained an important port of call for foreign traders, and

centu巧and 1680 about

that between the early seventeenth

five

tons of

estimated

it is

silver annually

entered the northern economy. Nevertheless, under the Confucian-oriented Trinh

government the Chinese notion of

By 1697

rising silk prices

Kingdom"

a self-su伍cient“Middle

meant few Chinese junks were coming

to Tonkin, while

Europeans objected to expensive delays caused by the obligatory European vessels.

Whether we

are speaking of Dang

Trong or Dang Ngoai, the extent

still prevailed.

to

inspection

of

outsiders

and the north

in 1626. Then

skills,

weapon巧and

(MEP) began to operate in Dang papacy. In both the Nguyen and Trinh cou口s the initial

great appeal

by the desire to acquire economic

advantages

since missionaries represented themselves as knowledgeable about

able to facilitate the

was access

to

procurement of arms.

new sources

Among

ordinary people,

of spiritual assistance, and by the 1650s the

the

Jesuit

Alexandre de Rhodes (1593-1660) claimed that there were around 300,000 Christians. Nor was it simply the poor and marginalized who were attracted to this new fai出. Although there were few Confucian literati converts, at times the missionaries received support from influential sponsors, particularly high-ranking

women. As

pines, missionaries placed great

and Alexandre

was instrumental

emphasis on linguistic

in devising a

romanized

Europeans master Vietnamese and

script

skills,

now known

local Catholics to read

in the Philip-

de副10des

as quoc ngu

and write

their

own

to help

language.

With

the assistance of local converts, traditional chu nom characters were also used to produce catechisms, prayers, saintly biographies, and biblical stories. While references to far-off countries in these works placed Christianity in a global environment, Christ was

depicted in a

more

piety expected of

local context, eating rice

all

and

between the different Catholic orders and the

of their faith. Rivalries loyalties

among

Dang Trong nor Dang Ngoai, however, was suppression enforced as later in

Qing China). Even

aries to

MEP

divided

Christians themselves and often exacerbated official hostility. In neither

return secretly

after expulsion Vietnam’s long

it

was

in

Japan (or

open coasts allowed mission-

and provide covert support to local communities. Despite and the expulsion of priests, clandestine missionizing

periodic executions of Christians

by the Vietnamese themselves continued. Meanwhile, rising landlessness, periodic droughts,

and crop

failures created a situation

where Christian

whom

pool of supernatural deities to

became incorpor-

saints

ordinary people might turn for

support.

relating to his

mother through

CONCLUSION

in

1663 the French-based Missions Etrangeres de Paris

and technical

north in 1663.

under the Portuguese Padroado Real

Franciscan, and Jesuit missionaries in the south in 1615

toleration of Christianity can be explained

equivalent to homicide.”46 Court opposition led

to

(Royal Patronage), but intensive proselytization only began with the Dominican,

Trong under the patronage of the

is

banning of Christianity in the south in 1631 and again in 1690, and in the By the 1660s around seventy Christian Vietnamese had died because

to the

ated into the

which

could be incorporated into Vietnamese society raises the issue of the response Christianity. Early Christianization efforts occurred

was“the utmost disrespectful act that

the且Hal

Vietnamese.

The seventeenth century saw an explosion of economic and political activity as a result of the arrival of the

Dutch and the ever-increasing numbers of Chinese who became

Company (VOC) proved

India

resources

particularly effective in using

and superiority in firearms and naval technology

contra可to

elite practice,

converts, as in China, were required to reject customs such as ancestor veneration that were central to local cultures. The destruction of ancestral tables, said the Trinh Lord,

its

to create a

throughout Asia that surpassed the Portuguese Estado da India. 出roughout the region, the construction sugar.

the

and land clearance

vast

effects

economic

network of posts

As

it

expanded

contributed to a flurry of urban

for the planting of export crops such as

The most damaging environmental

pepper and

occurred in northern Maluku, where

Dutch, determined to monopolize the spice trade, forced the local populations to

eradicate all spice trees that

VOC's economic ambitions

except for

commanded high

exploitation of certain

profits

Ambon and

on the

Banda. The voracious

demand

for items

international market led to an unprecedented

animal populations such as deer and of exotic resin-bearing and

aromatic trees, as well as

hardwoods

like teak

used in the construction of European

ships in local shipyards.

The human labor required in all these projects encouraged a burgeoning slave trade that had severe consequences for vulnerable societies. All the VOC cities possessed a multi-ethnic population, with a large percentage

Nonetheless, suspicion of missionary intentions persisted, primarily because of their insistence that allegiance to the Christian God preempted any other human loyalties. While the insistence on monogamy was completely Christian



permanent part of the social and economic fabric of Southeast Asia. The Dutch East

46

composed of slaves丘om various

pa时S

Cited in Anh Q, Tran,“Inculturation, Mission and Dialogue in Vietnam: the Conference of Representatives of Four Religions,'’in David Lindenfeld and Miles Richardson, eds., Beyond Conversion

and Syncretism: Indigenous Encounters with Missionary Christianity, 1800-2000 Berghahn Books, 2012), 172.

(New York/Oxford:

234肇电矗A

EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os甘,

HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

of the world.

Added

and communities

to this forced mobility

was

a continuing

as they migrated to areas of better

the coasts or in the

new cosmopolitan urban

numbers of refugees from wars

Dutch

policies, the

striking

of

individuals

economic oppo口unities,

centers.

There was

usually on

also a noticeable

example being the Bugis-Makassarese exodus

southwest Sulawesi after the defeat of

rise

that were directly or indirectly instigated by

in the

most

movement

Gowa

in 1669.

While the movement

of people

has always been a feature of Southeast Asia, the seventeenth century saw a vast

demarcated

from

increase

centu巧from

previous

This chapter has also traced the growing trend towards cultural and

political

in forced

and voluntary mobility也at

clearly

this

periods.

consolidation in what later became the pre-eminent

kingdoms on

the mainla时,each

based on a dominant ethnic group: the Burmans of the Restored Taungoo dynasty the Western Mainland; the Thai of A严1tthaya in the Central Mainland; and,

the division into two realms, the Vietnamese of Dai Viet in the Eastern Mainland.

any

efforts to

extend central authority were always countered by the persistence

many semi-autonomous were only capital

partially

domains. While challenges from regional lords and

remedied by the requirement that they spend time

under the watchful eye of出e

upland areas were able

to exist

Yet

of so

princes

in the royal

numerous settlements that dotted the most a minimal recognition of a remote

ruler, the

with

at

in

despite



overlord.

Tendencies towards centralization are even less evident in island Southeast Asia, in parts of northern

under

direct

and

central Spanish Philippines

and the small pockets

of

except

territo叮

VOC jurisdiction. As in the uplands of the mainland, the physical landscape

contributed to the persistence of individual independent entities that entered into relationships with

arrangements and the

voluntarily

more powerful kingdoms because of mutually beneficial economic obligations incurred through kinship ties. Even the most power创

of the island kingdoms, such as Aceh, Mataram, or Gowa, never possessed the resources to

extend and maintain their authori可far beyond those areas traditionally regarded

as

acceptable fields of expansion and control.



marked

feature of this period

is

the contrast between mainland and

island

Southeast Asia in regard to European involvement in local politics, international trade, and Christian proselytization. Although Europeans considered the economic potential

of the mainland

less alluring

relative strength of the

position to dictate terms.

Dutch were highly by exploiting

than the islands, a major factor in this difference was

powerful mainland polities where outsiders were never

On

the other hand, Europeans

and most

particularly the

successful in dominating smaller polities in the island

traditional rivalries

and thus acquiring native

allies.

the

in a

While

it

areas,。在en

was

possible

mainland kingdoms to ignore or manipulate Europeans in accordance with priorities, the archipelago states were forced to tread far more warily. In religious terms, European influences also played out differently. In the Theravada

for the

indigenous

Buddhist societies of the mainland Christianity held out rulers ciples

of

challenge

even in places

ways in

little

appeal, while Vietnamese

would undermine Confucian prin- government. In the island world Christianity was never able to meet the of Islam, except in the Philippines and parts of the Eastern Archipelago. Yet

remained suspicious that missionary activity

where European influence was most

visible,

we

still

see the multiple

which indigenous agency was able to domesticate outside ideas in the service

of local needs.

235

New boundaries and

TIMELINE New boundaries and changing regimes, 1690s-1780s

changing regimes,

Outbreak of VOC一Javanese war

169os-178os

War

Seζond voe…Javanese

Establishment of Bugis Raja Bugis dominance

Muda

office;

beginning of

Johor一Riau

in

Widespread rebellions

in

Dang Trong and Dang Ngoai

in

Dai Viet

Chinese uprising

in

Java;

Manipuri raiding into Figure 6.1. Japanese print of an eighteenth-century

1749

VOC ship. This depiction lists details

ship’s

Thai

Konbaung dynasty

settlement in Nagas达i

Timor

in

ordination

established

in Sri

in

Lanka

Myanmar

Treaty of Giyanti divides authority between the ζourts of Surakarta and Yogyakarta in Central Java

inclusion of

inaccurate estimates of the distance by sea from Japan to various destinations

monks assist

IS

correctly given as 1641.



in

size,出e

crew was estimated at around a hundred men. The date of the Dutch

Southeast Asia

defeats Topass army

local allies

height of the masts, and the number of c创mon. The

However, the

rebellion in Pegu; increased

Increased Muslim raiding of central and northern Philippines

such as出e

len阱and

voe with

Mon

Myanmar

British

in

capture Manila; anti-Spanish rebellion led by

Diego Silang

as well as

Europe ( the distance between Batavia and Japan, around 5,782 kilometers, is

Spanish expel non-Christian Chinese from the Philippines

given here as 3,400 Ii, about 13,600 kilometers) demonstrates the Japanese lack of familiarity wi由

Burmese forces destroy Ayutthaya, ending dynasty Taksin founds

maritime travel. Courtesy of KITL V, Royal Netherlands Institute for Southeast

new Thonburi

dynasty

in

Siam

Vietnam

1771

Outbreak of Tay Son

1778

Spanish permit Chinese to return to Manila

Asian and Caribbean Studies, Leiden.

rebellion in

增'A HISTO…F山…ODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…830

N…OUNDARIES AND CHANGING REGIME叫90s呐。s' desirable trading partners.

models of government and religious and was declining. In the 1680s envoys from Aceh and Ayutthaya

when

The

VOC was already stumbling towards bankruptcy, and its

maritime weakness was exposed by the British victory in the

so long provided Southeast Asia with

fate

cultural inspiration

Fourth Anglo-Dutch war (1780-4).

?halt would

have marveled

at the

magnificence of the royal court in Safavid

Persia, for

it

had

among Europeans familiar with the splendor of Versailles. However, this grandeur came to an end in 1722 when the capital Isfahan was sacked by A也han invaders and the Safavid dynasty collapsed. Though influences from Persia can st山be aroused wonder even

tracked in Southeast Asia, especially in Islam,

its

glorious days were

now past. The second

was sealed

its

One constant in the Southeast Asian firmament was China, since 1644 under the Qing dynasty. The primary link with Southeast Asia remained the junk trade, concen- trated on the southern ports of Xiamen (Amoy) in the province of Fujian and on Guangzhou ( Canton) in Guangdong. In places like Makassar in southwest Sulawesi, the goods carried by the annual junk from Xiamen was sufficient to stimulate the growth

mer

Ottoman Turkey, had suffered defeats in war and territorial losses, and was now preoccupied with threats from Russia. In the Philippines rumors that the Spanish were enslaving Filipinos to pay a ransom to the“Grand Turk" could st且l ca use panic・ stricken flight, and Malay texts st山stressed legendary associations with “Rum," but Ottoman interest in Southeast Asia had faded and direct connections were only revived

of trade in tripang

in the mid-nineteenth centu巧・

tributary states - although this status

great empire,

This lessened influence was most apparent in the third domain, Mughal

Aurangzeb, the sixth Mughal steady decline in

Mughal power

poor leadership, natural centers.



ruler,

died in 1707 a丘er a reign of forty-nine

and other key

ports,

VOC

restrictions

its

commerce was

and thus severely undermined

profitable

opium

especially evident in

had excluded Indians from

spice trades. In 1757 the English East India

of Bengal and

of

reduced revenue, and the emergence of regional power

retraction of overseas Indian

Southeast Asia, since

years. The

death has been attributed to a combination

a丘er his

disasters,

India, where

eastern Indonesia

their participation in the

Company gained control

trade, with prices inflated

island

textile and

of the rich province

by a market

of

(beche de

or sea cucumbers) which was a delicacy in China.

These junks not only carried cargoes of Chinese goods that were exchanged for local products, but also passengers, with over a

growing self-confidence of the Asia,

thousand arriving in Batavia every

Qing dynasty was

partic吐arly

felt

in

where Myanmar, A严1tthaya, Dai Viet, and the Lao areas were

meant

different points in time. China’s efforts to

Myanmar most

Yunnan

affected

with the

new Konbaung

directly,

year.

The

mainland Southeast all

considered to be

di旺erent things to different countries at

expand

its

authority further into southern

and between 1765 and 1769

this led to

dynasty, which was similarly attempting to affirm

its

war

overlord-

ship along the frontier region. In Dai Viet the influence of China’s religious policies

evident in anti-Christian in

1724 to expel

among

all

is

enactments by both the N思1yen and Trinh. The Qing decided

missionaries from China and to ban Christianity,

the “perverse sects

and

now

classified

sinister doctrines" that also included “superstitious"

Buddhist sects.2

The European presence remained considerably more influential in island Southeast

addicts.

worth remembering that even

many communities

never

Despite opposition from the Qing emperor and from individual Southeast Asian rulers, the consumption of opium, mixed with tobacco and then smoked, rapidly expanded, and

Asia,

in the early eighteenth century

circumventing the restrictions that Europeans had imposed, and n山nerous areas con-

that they

would mortgage

products that often

were able

to

own

was said that Malays were“such Admirers of Ophium

they hold most valuable to procure

demanded

hold their

“country traders,"

all

it

it."1

Dealing

in

specialized knowledge, such as elephants, the Chulias in the

Bay of Bengal. However, it was private British sailed from port to port within Asia, who

termed such because they

now dominated

but

it is

in the Philippines

saw a white face. Although local societies o丘en displayed remarkable adroitness in

tinued to operate

independently of outside intervention, there was no movement towards

Once again the story is very different on the mainland, where Europeans were far less involved and where we see the continuing dominance of three ethnic groups: the Burmans, the Central Thai, and the Vietnamese. The Burmans the creation

of larger polities.

Mons and the Shan and dominated Myanmar following the

the sea routes between Southeast Asia and India. Their well- rigged and well-armed ships carried cargoes of Indian goods (including opium) from bases in

overcame challenges from the

Kolkata, Chennai (Madras), and

status in relation to

exchanged

for products that

Ayutthaya in 1767.

of Chinese

tea,

more durably, under the Nguyen in 1802, and by the 1830s the

Mumbai to Southeast Asian ports. Here cargoes were were desired in China, where British ships loaded supplies increasingly popular in Europe. In Southeast Asia itself British country

traders were willing to sell思ms which, together with



opium, helped

establish them

as

Cited in Carl A. Trocki, Opium, Empire and the Global Political Economy: a Study of the Asian Opium Trade, 1750-1950 (Routledge: London and New York, 1999), 53.

establishment of the

The Central Thai a面rmed their superior northern Tai and Lao groups following the Burmese destruction of Vietnam became a unified kingdom under the Tay Son in 1788 and,

Konbaung dynasty

in 1752.

last

Cham

polity

was

formally abolished.



Cited in Daniel H. Bays, Christianity in China:卢om the Eighteenth Century to the Present (Stanford University Press, 1999), 8.

239

240

A HISTORY OF EARLY



tit岱 l'

Noteworthy

"'1

MODERN SOUTHEAST

N…OUN川IES AND山NGING REGIM川690s呐OS '241

ASIA, 1400-1830

you no longer have parents and brothers and if you are free of men."4 China, then you will perhaps be all your life the happiest of

If

features of the period

Economic development and

its

responsib山ty in

Through the eighteenth century Chinese involvement in plantation agriculture and mining steadily increased. For example, in the 17 40s, at the invitation of a West Borneo

impact on relationships

oly of spices in the Eastern Archipelago, but

Hakka from Guangdong) began to expand existing gold excavation. Chinese working methods were seen as more productive than the intermittent extraction practiced by indigenous Dayaks, and the West Borneo mines may have attracted as many as 60,000 Chinese. In Dang N goai, the Trinh ruler encouraged provincial officers to invest

important because clove and nutmeg trees

their

ruler,

The eighteenth-century expansion of mining and plantation

The

able changes to Southeast Asian export economies.

agriculture brought consider-

VOC st山maintained

its

monop-

by the 1770s the spice trade was far less were being grown in the French territories of

Mauritius and Madagascar in east Africa. The major sources of

VOC revenue now came

from introduced crops such

indigo.

as pepper, sugar, cotton, coffee,

and

The

extension of

commercial agriculture was especially evident on the island of Java, where peasants provided labor and were subject to a system of obligatory deliveries at low prices that fluctuated according to the world market. For the

VOC the cultivation of coffee, a native

of Africa, was a particular success. The

Chinese (mainly

own funds and cooperate with upland chiefs to open copper mines in return for five tax-free years. In some mines the largely Chinese workers could number as many as ten thousand. In addition to their long-standing

involvement in cash crops such as sugarcane,

the Chinese were responsible for introducing more island

of Riau, Teochiu migrants (also

gambier, a native plant

was

known

for

its

now finding a market

the Chinese in Java since the early seventeenth centu巧.

which Chinese customers preferred to rubies

number of sugar mills, largely operated by Chinese,

the

With a marked

increase in

VOC was able to supply profitable

markets in Japan, Persia, and Europe, while cargoes of sugar also provided

VOC's homeward-bound

the

ballast for the

gold mines and plantations. Although the Chinese were o丘en seen as a single grouping, an imperial source from the early eighteenth century notes that“of those going abroad, Fujian people account for 60一70 percent and Cantonese and those from Jiangsu and

make up

also

as a

the remaining 30-40

percent户Given

their cultural and

linguistic differences,

Chinese migrants did not necessarily cooperate and could be in competition, especially in terms of access to resources such as water as well as timber for firewood. Their interaction with Southeast Asian societies also differed. Marriage to

woman

a local

posed few problems in Vietnam or the Theravada Buddhist countries, and Chinese Christians easily took Filipinas as wives with few adjustments in regard to food or lifestyle. Chinese conversion to Islam, on the other hand, required significant changes

in religious expectations

and food preferences, notably the rejection of pork. Yet despite undercurrents of hostility and outbursts of violence like those in Manila, in Chinese eyes Southeast Asia remained a region of great opportunity. In the words of Wang Dahai, who spent ten years in Java between 1783 and 1793,“The oceans of the west are

of cotton to China, but

Kong Yuan

Zhi,“A

Study of Chinese Loan

Malay and Indonesian Languages,”BK!

for tanning leather.

it

Myanmar was

became a significant source of jade,

and other precious

stones. Chinese buyers

ensured a continuing profitab且ity for the products of Southeast Asia’s forests and

seas. China’s

traditional

pharmacology required many plants and

like paradise.

had become standard items in the elite cuisine.

parts of exotic animals

semi-nomadic groups

the

in a locally

who inhabited the seas, the jungles, and the uplands is suggested that describes the unique knowledge of “foresters" who

composed Thai Jataka

perform the ceremonies necessary to will

hunt elephants. In the

the early

scholars

prisoners to

open up the area where the king and

same mode, the Javanese

143, 4 (1987), 454.

F时ian Dialects)

in the

Serat Centini (probably

composed

in

Agung a丘er his campaigns in east Java and assigned The headman describes the different types of teakwood and the

brought back by Sultan

necessary to ensure that a house built from teak will always exude beneficial

be由e recipients of this山lique knowledge.5 These connections had implications beyond the purely economic sphere, for through-

influences.

The

out the region sion of





Words (from South

his entourage

nineteenth century) records a long conversation between a group of Muslim (santri) and the chief of the Kalang woodcutters, allegedly descended from

timber collection.

rituals

and tripang

The value placed on the specialized skills of

santri feel “very fortunate" to

innumerable legends recalled ancient marriages that recognized出e inclu-

non-state

communities in the

center’s cultural

cosmology. The

Jarai

people

Claudine Salmon,“Wang Dahai et sa vision des 'contrees insulaires’(1791)," Etudes 1-2 (Spring-Autumn, 1994), 225, 236. Suwito Santoso, with additional text by Kesty Pringgoha叶ono, The Centhini Story: the Javanese Cited in

Chinoises 13,

Cited in

medium

communities also responded to changes in consumer demand.

well-established as a supplier

On the

grown only in small

found only in a tropical environment, while food items such as birds' nests

ships.

Meanwhile, throughout Southeast Asia large numbers of Chinese migrants, previously concentrated in urban centers, were moving into more remote areas to open up tin and

Zhejiang provinces

Local

in

qualities. Previously

China

quantities,

it

effective agricultural initiatives.

from Guangdong) interspersed pepper vines with

medicinal

first supplies of Java-grown coffee reached the Netherlands in 1711, and by the 1720s the VOC was supplying most of Europe. The Dutch also extended the production of sugar cane, which had been commercially cultivated by



all

Journey of L价(Singapore: Marshall Cavendish, 2000), 16.

Ii飞ring

242、也A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING

ASIA, 1400-1830

mountains on the borders between Cambodia and Vietnam supported

in the

shadowy, mysterious, and venerated shamans

namese

as the Fire Chie丘ain

known

to the

Cambodians and

and the Water Chie丘ain, who were keepers of

regarded as immensely powerful. Each year

Khmer

such as a young elephant, glassware, iron, and

the two

the Viet- a sword

rulers sent the highland leaders

gifts

wrap the sacred sword that country. Such links were o丘en more important silk cloth to

would protect the well-being of the entire than economic considerations. In the a丘ermath of the 1699 J ohor the former Bendahara,

accept

him

made

regicide the

new Sultan,

a circuit of his territories to persuade the Orang Laut

as their rightful lord

and thus

reactivate the ancient connections between

to

sea-

dwelling groups and the Melaka- J ohor dynasty.

non-sedentary peoples. In the Western Archipelago the kingdom of ohor revived J economically a丘er 1699, but the new regime was never able to reestablish traditional with the Orang Laut. In the Eastern Archipelago

some of

the

Sama

Bajau who had

previously played such a sign凶cant role in Gowa’s affairs dispersed after the Dutch conquest of 1669. While some Sama Bajau based in western Flores retained their

l。同时

to

Gowa, others came

can usually be traced to the

it

to serve their former lord’s great

prima町means of subsistence for the people known as Kalang, non-Muslim foresters and timber cutters, who were now placed directly under Dutch control. In consequence,

the

the reality

was very different from the situation described in the Serat Centini. Previously,

although certain duties

were expected of the Kalang, they had retained considerable

they were

was

registered only

when

there were unexplained shortages of some

items,

as when collectors failed to deliver forest products, especially those which were a royal monopoly. Sometimes, however, resentment at economic incursions or retaliation for perceived wrongs could lead to conflict, with “mountaineers”launching direct attacks

on

settled

communities. In several areas there

is

increased mention of aggression

as

lowland and coastal dwellers pushed into areas where they had no legacy of co- operation with interior or upland peoples. In central Vietnam the Cham, whose role as

middlemen

in the collection of jungle

produce was arrogated by Viet migrants,

retaliated with violence. Indeed, the eighteenth-century play,“A

Monk, A

often

Nun,”was

partly intended to encourage Viet migrants in Cham areas to“smite the barbarians who cut down people like bananas and capture buffalo and horses.”6 Further upland

in

Dang Trong, minority groups were

subject to an unprecedented tax burden, and it is hardly surprising that their involvement in anti-Nguyen rebellions was apparent even

by the 1750s.

scarcity

of suitable trees.

time required to

Cited in Claudine Ang, "‘A Monk, A Nun’:a Lascivious Conversation about Reli2:ion, Governance and Smiting B的arians M帆叫1-C叫r川ietnam," presented to the AAS c?nference, Honolulu, Apr且2011. Used with permission.

logs,

eight

As

a result, woodcutters

man would

hours but by 1738 a

teams of eighty buffalo 1770 a

had to go

further inland, lengthening the

drag a log to the coast. In 1686 such an expedition took only around six to

be away仕om

home

for at least

two weeks, and

were needed to haul the timber through the rough

group of Kalang attacked a Dutch

fort, killing several

Although

this uprising

terrain. In

people and burning the rice

was soon suppressed,

it

is

an

of frustration and the weakening of traditional links that had

stressed

mutual respect and reciprocity. European influence in the destabilization of

cultural

and economic relations between different groups

the relations

is

also well

lowland areas of the Philippines. In pre-Spanish times, interaction through peace pacts, reconcile the

demonstrated in

between the upland Igorot in the Cordillera of Luzon and surrounding

opposing

which were employed

sides,

and ensure

had been negotiated

to settle disputes, avert further bloodshed,

that trade could continue.

As described in Chapter

5,

Spanish predilection for settling conflicts through military force encouraged reprisal,

and the lowland Christian villages

were o丘en

targets for Igorot raids, with r的s intensified

by the Spanish policy of impressing native Christians into colonial troops. Yet the readiness of

lowland people to

flee into

were responding to the military threats

the mountains indicates that highland people

posed by the Spanish-led native forces rather than

se.

In reports

about upland-lowland interaction, the Philippine material also points to another indirect consequence of increased contact with interior groups - the devastating effects

of smallpox. Despite high mortality

developed strategies that did help

them

tropical diseases, Southeast Asians

from

had

deal with familiar or rec盯ring山ness. For

example, while the debilitating results of malaria 6

Now

accordance with the calendar of swidden farming.

under tight European supervision, and the sped且cations of numbers of

opposed to lowlanders per



They themselves could

and dates for deliveries became a major problem because of deforestation and the

size,

indication of a rising level

relationships

unrestricted.

timing for cutting (felling a single tree could take five days) so that由e required

timber could be transported in

refugee Makassar noble, or simply built

anxious to purchase sea products like tortoiseshell or tripang. In most cases involving mobile communities and lowland sedentary populations, the deterioration in ancient

had been

independence and their access to forests

and ammunition storehouses.

relationships with Chinese middlemen

exchange were under-

the market by Europeans and the

A telling example comes from the teak-covered forests of Rembang in east Java, annexed by the VOC in 1677. Woodcutting and carpentry were

enemy, the Bugis ruler Arung Palakka and his successors. St山others took to raiding under the leadership of some

up new

new demands on

cultural

numbers of Chinese traders.

rising

a句ust the

While these interactions continue despite political and social upheaval, periodic references do point to weakening links between settled centers of au由ority and mobile,

ties

mined,

by generations of trade and

older ties forged

When

REGIMES, 169os-178os白飞243

and dysentery forced the withdrawal of

the

Qing armies that invaded

the

Burmese did not drink water during the hot season. Instead, they "cultivate rushes.

Everyone eats ten or

more

Myanmar in

leaves per

1765, a

Qing

day to slake

soldier held captive reported出at

their thirst.

They do not consider

244

6 A HISTORY

OF

drinking water

EAR…ODE RN…HEAST A队140叫30 ...

one's

Burmese sources

hurt.”7

also note

was issued to timber workers as a protection against

gum,

asafetida, a dried latex

No

stomach might swell and

NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING

such solution could be found to deal with smallpox, which had recurred

that

malaria.

at regular

Chapter

marking other communities as“different" can be tracked from early times, as at Angkor Wat, which depict the disorderly“Syam" soldiers as quite distinct in

2,

in reliefs

and deportment from the

dress

introduction into Southeast Asia (probably before the European

arrival).

centu叮murals at

Since the tenth century variolation (by which dried smallpox scabs were blown

into the

in the

cycles since

its

who

nose of an individual,

then contracted a mild form of the disease that

resulted in lifelong immunity)

known

in

Vietnam and was apparently only introduced

after 1784.

generally

had been practiced in India and China. However, it was not to

Myanmar by Rakhine captives

Written sources do not refer to such methods elsewhere in Southeast

where smallpox became noticeably more prevalent during the eighteenth

Asia,

centu叩. Not

only were more places affected, but the epidemics lasted longer, and interior communities that

had not

up the degree of resistance found among coastal populations

built

decimated. Throughout the region there are reports of regular outbreaks and

epidemic in Ilocos alone killed 14,000 people. In a desperate effort to avoid people burned their homes,

left

the sick to die,

and closed mountain

entrance oflowlanders associated with the epidemic. fled to distant It

was

and less

such times,

at

high, that

fertile

when

we encounter

system a group that

contagion,

passes to block

zones led to lack of food and consequent deaths from famine.

when

tensions ran

the practice of “silent”trade, found in various parts of the trust

had not been established or had waned. Through

felt itself at risk

by leaving products

for

or was suspicious of outsiders could negotiate

exchange on the beach or

at the forest margins

pre- this

trade

toge出er

with small amounts of what they required. For example, in dealing with the

jungle-

disciplined

army of Lord Mara, the

evil

between

ships

required

one,

who attacked the meditating Buddha, while scenes

Sultan

Agung of Mataram.

controlled cities

appearance could proclaim

language, physical general lifestyle

restoration of trust

in the

markers of another group, according to context.

the distinctive

home

as

when

to the interior,

be regarded

new

Much

and

religious

cultural influences

eighteenth

trading

were absorbed through interaction with other groups, or

was modified

as a result, for example, of



and

by invoking ethnic

cultural practices as the basis for larger

C. Patterson Giersch, Asian Borderlands: the

(Cambridge

social and

consequence, there was a growing tendency for more

centers to reestablish or create lines of allegiance religion,

degree of

MA: Harvard University

identity, a

need to generate

group cohesion. As we

common

the

corvee that forcibly recruited so

Press, 2006), 103.

China’s

Yunnan

Frontier

would persuade men

might

now

many men

flight

as soldiers.

were

On

to risk their

common reactions

the other hand, the

army could make an ordinary farmer aware of a broader

claim his allegiance, sometimes through something as simple as

adopt a specific hair

style.

Other symbols could

also

emphasize



Uniforms were st过l rare in Southeast Asia, but banners provided rail抖ng and by the 1780s Burmese ships could be identified by “a red flag with a peacock in

middle."8 Retelling accounts of conflicts

allegiance



Tran功rmation of Qing

loyalties that

shared loyalty. points

in

moving from swidden

centu巧contributed to an escalation of mobility throughout由e region. In

combat and stay true to their leaders. Desertion and

lives in

powerful

showed

as a

Asian history, recurring warfare and increased raiding in the

intensified the

requiring all troops to

some

A man might be “Malay"

Although the themes of demographic changes and group identification can be tracked

identity that

of Southeast Asia in the eighteenth centu巧witnessed

political upheaval. In

and

while

community’s lifestyle

to the

boundary-making

beliefs,

on the coast of Sumatra, but “Batak”upon returning Burmans who cut their long hair in the short Mon style could as“becoming Mon." Yet these identities themselves were constantly evolving

or“Minangkabau"

experience of inclusion in a large

Cultural, ethnic

VOC-

could speak

hat.

appearance, dress, dance, music, food, housing, religious

turn, this

The

who

- remained porous, and different identities could be assumed by adopting

cheated and by outsiders' fear of retaliation, since stories of individuals a丘ermath of some perceived betrayal could take generations.

only those

Despite such reg吐ations, in the lives of ordinary Southeast Asians signs of identity -

throughout Southeast

spear proved a highly effective deterrent to dishonesty.

affiliation, for

wear a认Testern-style

Dutch were permitted to

would take them and leave what they had collected; if not, they simply disappeared. In effect, this barter was regulated by Kubu refusal to engage in further exchanges if they felt Kubu

Jambi’s neighbor, ordered his subjects to tie

sarongs according to Malay custom rather than in the Javanese mode. Even in

farming to sedentary wet-rice cultivation.



and appearance.

A hundred years later, however, Java's prestige

and the Sultan of Palembang,

had declined

Kubu of Sumatra a Chinese or Malay trader would weigh out what he considered appropriate amounts, and retreat. If the Kubu found the equivalents acceptable, they

by

their clothing

such features could also highlight relation-

those appearing at court to dress in Javanese style, a recognition of the prestige

all

dwelling

killed

a similar vein, seventeenth-

In the early seventeenth century the ruler of Jambi in Sumatra

polities.

of his overlord,

their

Khmer. In

Japanese and Persians through

Associated with a particular cultural grouping,

the

The abandonment of crops as people

personal contact was actively avoided, or

modern world when mutual relations

were

in 1754 one

more

Pagan include Eurasian soldiers wearing striped trousers and black hats

Ayutthaya identi马r

in

REGIMES, 169os-178os

Cited in

between warring

polities

promoted group

by elevating local heroes and heroines as exemplars of approved cultural values,

Anne

Bulley, Free

BACSA, 1992),

56.

Mariner: John Adolphus Pope in the East Indies 1786一1821 (Putney, London.

叶,245

硝喽A HISTO…F山川ODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫

N…OUN川IES AND山NGING

while reinforcing negative stereotypes attached to traditional enemies.

A locally composed

Thai Jataka story thus describes the Lao as“rude and brash,”while Javanese warriors are “terrible." A Thai challenges his opponents by proclaiming,“I'm a true Thai/They talk of

me/in Sukhothai/Wherever I go/Every time I win/Yes, here

... If

you

The appeal same cultural customs

me/your

fight

practices,

and

for

members

all

followed

who

some time

Mon

and Lao

was reissued

believe in false doctrines"

and

therea丘er Siamese

effective because disputes over resources

to engage

Mon

were

still

and access

to land

when

in 1730 and

prohibited from

beliefs were often

settler-migrants moved

into already inhabited areas could easily be articulated in religious terms. In the

Myanmar and Yunnan,

Buddhist scriptures and

rites

conflict with native Tai rulers

the temples of Chinese

were

and

in

Asians], Farang [in this context Portuguese],

adopting Christianity. 10 Calls for allegiance on the basis of shared

between

the

for rulers to see differences in religion and

forbidding “Siamese,

Khaek [South

Angkrit [English], and Malayu, in the 1770s,

when

evident even in the relatively relaxed Theravada Buddhist

is

Narai’s earlier edict

sexual intercourse with

facilitated

filled

with ethnic

officials

who were

monks who

Han

frontier

into

closely associated with “Burmese”

monasteries linked to a network that reached deep into世llage

life.

Following

traditions

associated with Theravada lineages, these ese Buddhists

monasteries.

and

to

When

many

Chinese

monks used rituals and texts familiar to Burm- who had studied as novices in Theravada Mahayana) monks attempted to build temples in Tai

of the Tai chiefs (i.e.

where practices were modeled on those of lowland Myanmar, one Tai ruler ordered the buildings burned. Such episodes were a result of economic and religious rivalry between existing populations and more recent migrants to frontier areas. In 1769, when areas

Chinese

officials

queried the location of the

Yunnan-Myanmar boundary,

representatives said the Chinese should retreat behind

the Burmese

any town that possessed a“pagoda”

[presumably a Burmese-style temple], since this was evidence that they belonged king of Ava.11

to the

fight."12

The

mood

doctrinal

of Islam was also changing

by increasing

numbers of Arab traders in Southeast Asia and their intermarriage with royal families. In addition, more Muslims from Southeast Asia were spending long periods in the Holy

One such

individual sent back a hikayat (Malay narrative story) to be recited to his

of Mecca and Medina (although he st山longed for Aceh, which he saw in his dreams).13 On returning home Muslim scholars exposed to relatives that extolled the greatness

reformist tendencies hostile

condemned

spirit

veneration as polytheism and were particularly

towards transvestites and “third gender" figures

to the supernatural world.

Moves towards

were evident in the central Javanese courts,

who had long operated as conduits

more pronounced Islamization of kingship and calls for a“holy war" against Europeans



became more frequent. Muslim-Christian competition also exacerbated tensions between Manila and the southern Philippine sultanate of Sulu, where

demonstrate their Islamic

commitment but were

at

Muslim

wished

rulers

to

times seduced by Spanish promises of

support against Sulu' s rivals.

followed Chinese

migrants. They came

we should

because of greater connections with the Islamic heartlands, encouraged

Land.

and the tendency

as a potential divide

environment. King

My chief/Had me t町out

head'll fly.9

group loyalty was obviously

to

I’m brave.

on earth. Therefore

REGIM剖,阳s-178os毡均7

In eastern

Indonesia religious affiliations were especially complicated because Islam,

Protestantism,

and Catholicism were

regarded themselves as quite separate

ang可if a the

all

competing

for followers. Thus, despite Catholi-

adaptation to indigenous culture, the Portuguese-descended Catholic Topasses

cism’s

from

their

man should say they are not Portuguese.”14 Meanwhile, Timorese chiefs allied to

VOC who had been baptized as Protestants wore orange flowers on their headdresses in

honor of the installation of飞机lliam V, the child-prince of the In

still

Timorese neighbors and “would be very

1749 they celebrated the

House of Orange and Nassau.

triumph of a combined Timor-VOC force over the Topasses,

whose army had been blessed

by Catholic

priests. In

innumerable other communities

memories of victories over enemies conveyed through the reenvisaging, reenactment, and retelling

of heroic exploits reinforced the sense of collective achievement. At the

however, the experience of defeat, humiliation, of shared

outrage that could be even

more

same time,

and cruel treatment could also feed feelings

influential in shaping

group

identity.

The influence of religious beliefs in affirming domains of allegiance is very apparent in Muslim Southeast Asia, where economic competition fueled existing Islam一Christian

Charismatic leadership in a time of upheaval

Ambon source puts it,“The way in which the Dutch carry out trade contravenes the religion of Allah and shows no respect for the Sultan, the shadow of Allah

Economic developments brought changes to Southeast Asian societies that led to a

animosity. As an





°癒?

1 1

Thomas John Hudak, trans. and ed., The Tale Prince Samuttakote: a Buddhist Epic卢om of Thailand (Athens, Ohio; Monographs in International Studies, Southeast Asia Series No. 90, 1993), 29.

Cited in

Tamara L. Loos, Su句ect Siam: Fami凯Law and Colonial Modernity in Thailand (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006), 36. Cited in H. Burney,“Some Account of the Wars between Burmah and China, together with由ε Journals and Routes of Three Different Embassies sent to Pekin by the King of Ava. Taken仕om Burmese Documents," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 6, 1 (1837), 144

questioning of traditional relationships

12

13"

a reassessment of identities.

Although

Hans Ben

Cited in

and

Straver, Chris van Fraassen, and Jan van der Putten, eds. and trans., Ri哼ali: Historie van Ambonse geschiedenis uit de zeventiende eeuw (Utrecht: Landelijk Steunpunt Educatie

Hitu.

Molukkers, 2004), 171. Cited in

Ann Kumar and John H. McGlynn,

Illuminations: the Writing Traditions of Indonesia

The Lontar Foundation, 1996), 79. 14 τWilliam Dampier, A Voyage to New Holland: the English Voyage of Discovery l699, James Spencer, ed. (Gloucester, UK: Alan Sutton, 1981), 176, 183. (Jakarta:

to the

South Seas

in

248

;?‘A

HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

resistance to established authority

is

a continuing

theme

NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING REGIMES,

in Southeast Asian history,

changes contributed to出e frequency of civil unrest led by charismatic leaders

these

or“persons

of prowess." Individually or in combination, pressures related to economic stress, unaccept-

demands from

able

a ruler or of且cials,

some

natural disaster, the impending end

calendric or religious cycle, or prophecies of dynastic collapse feeling of well-being

and

create a situation ripe for the

could shake

emergence of some



society’s

promised to restore prosperity and justice. Since the polygamous households of elite men could produce numerous offspring一in Dang Trong the ruler Nguyen Phuc Chu (1675一1725) had 146 children - there was a plentiful supply of potential challengers

who

could lay claim to a prestigious ancestry. However, to attract support from

people required indisputable signs that such an individual possessed special

physical feature,

foretell the future,

by his remarkable

religious

indeed an extraordinary person the min-laung in

who had been

Myanmar or“men

singled out

fact,

by

that demonstrated he was

destiny. Figures resembling

of merit" (phumibun) in the Tai areas find

their

counterparts throughout Southeast Asia. Popular belief in their power

is

babad

which describes a local

rebellion against

Dutch when commoners were led by Muslim holy men carrying

the Qur'an and

the

(chronicle, usually sung)

from central

Java,

indicated

chewing calamus root (used medicinally to give strength and protection). The

power thus generated was so

great, the

babad

asserts, that the

in a

divine

VOC guns were rendered

inoperable.

The eighteenth centu町provides numerous examples of situations in which these and in some cases change the course of regional history. In

J ohor the legitimacy of the regime that assumed control

after the traumatic regicide

in

1699 was widely questioned, and R司a Kec且,a Minangkabau prince who claimed to be the son of the murdered ruler, was able to attract sufficient followers to seize the throne. Stories of his miraculous conception and bi此h, his supernatural powers, his incredible feats, and the

attainment of his true destiny, became

belief that a dynasty

was destined

to

embedded in Malay tradition.

fall at

In

other cases the

a set period of time, usually at the turn of a

century, could create the context for the rise of

warning of some

tsunamis, cyclones, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and epidemics

rences as late rains,

could life.

all

play a part in legitimizing an individual’s claims to be the harbinger of a better

The careful recording of these events in court chronicles and their association in

popular legends with changes in

Mount

so that

of these

it

seemed

terri马ring events.



Spanish description of the eruption of

Manila, in 1754 records that for seven months the volcano

Taal, south of

constantly belched

molten rocks, mud, and smoke, spewing out vast quantities of lava

as if the entire area

shook the

thunder and paro巧rsms lake

community fortunes are all evidence of their significance. modern readers can gain some sense of the

through European accounts, however, that

was on

fire.

As the sky was

earth, tsunami-like

and several villages in this“li札ng picture of

waves

rent by lightning

and

rolled across the surrounding

Sodom" were completely

the time the eruption subsided so many people had been

killed or

destroyed.

By

had fled that only 150 of

1,500 residents remained.16

the previous

Because otherwise indestructible buildings of stone or brick - temples, churches, mosques, royal palaces - were interpreted as supernatural

still

vulnerable to damage, natural disasters could easily be

admonitions.

From

the 1760s the Philippine island of Panay

experienced twenty years of seismic activity, epidemics,

some“holy man." In

priestesses,

and Moro

raiding,

and

in

1787 an

church at由e ve可moment mass was being said. Indigenous the babaylan, alleged that these events were a punishment for abandoning

on出e people to reject Catholicism. Though the Spanish quickly intervened to restore order, some charismatic leader could easily have elevated this social unease into popular resistance, for - as with Islam and Buddhism - Christianity was ancestral traditions

often

called

1762 the followers of the “rebel,”Diego Silang,

由ey attacked the priest’s house, roots, leaves,

Java the year

Scientists

drought in

opened the door for the emergence of Trunajaya, before whom the armies of Mataram“lost their supernatural power" because this was the will of God.15 In the

impelled

It

and

tapped to provide support for individuals with claims to supernatural power. In

Ilocos in

1677 marked the end of a Javanese century and thus fostered anticipation of some momen- tous event.

as a

earthquake destroyed the

individuals could emerge,

final

eve巧hundred years.

impending calamity and any natural disaster seen as cosmic punishment, such occur-

apocalyptic nature

other

that reputedly struck

where unusual weather patterns could be interpreted

qualities.

to

miracle-worker, by claims of in叽址nerab让ity - anything, in

Ava from the catastrophe

In societies

It is

accompany his birth, by his ab且i可to knowledge, by his reputation as a healer or

by strange circumstances said

could save

ordinary

Perhaps he (occasionally she) was distinguished by exceptional height, or some

in part attributable to the as甘ological prediction that the

years between 1723 and 1753 would be a time of great trouble and that only a unique person

of a

leader who

power was

His dramatic rise to

169os-178os

and

“a

fruit

they

and

call

demanded

the sacrament before

in addition to ancient protective items like certain

‘cat’s

eyeγthey wore a white cross

as

an amulet.17

studying tree rings have identified the years 1756-68 as a time of severe

mainland Southeast Asia, when crop

many peasant

rebellions由at

failure

and starvation would have

agriculturalists to take desperate measures. Across the region the

exploded so frequently were most prevalent in harsher environments where

eighteenth centu可the most impressive instance of the cultural weight placed on prophecies and omens is the Myanmar village chief who eventually became the“just king,”Alaungpaya. 16

15

M.

Modern Javanese

Historical Tradition: a Study of an Original Kartasura Chronicle and Related Materials (London: Clarendon Press, 1978), 84-5.

C. Ricklefs,

17'

Cited in Miguel Saderra

Maso, The Eruption of Taal Volcano, January

30,

Bureau, 1911), 9-19. Cited in Fernando Palanco, Jose S. Arcillia, trans吁℃iego Silang’s Revolt: a Studies 50,

4 (2002), 529.

1911 (Manila: Weather

New Approach,”Philippine



249

巧。'A HISTO…FEAR…ODERN SOUTHEAST

A吼叫0叫

food security was constantly under threat and where could be

a catalyst for revolt. It

in the infertile region of Ilocos,

such region suffered

Nghe An

is

from droughts

in

is

NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING

demands

state

thus no accident that Diego

for tribute or labor

Silang’s uprising originated

where anti-Spanish feeling was most pronounced. Another

Vietnam, sandwiched between mountains and

in the dry

months and可phoons and

season. These climatic fluctuations rendered

Nghe An

Nghe An was

One

was led by Le Duy Mat, a brother of the emperor, and from 1738

of the most

in

A common

until his death in 1770he

reason for resistance was perceived injustice, especially in times of adver-

repressive officials

whose

fa过ures,

actions

worsened the

lives

of

many peasants,

indebtedness, and loss of access to

already

communal

17 44 because his brother’s

man, Francisco Dagohoy,

often

suffering

lands. However,

humiliation and a sense of i时ustice might not necessarily be rooted in economic ances. In the Philippines a Visayan

griev-

instigated a rebellion

in

body had been denied burial by the priest. Dagohoy’s followers,

who numbered in the thousands, were no doubt inspired by stories of his amazing escapes from Spanish pursuers, and they themselves placed communion wafers in their mouths to ensure their inVl过nerability to bullets. While these rebellions figure prominently historical sources,

we

also

need to remember that出e movement of people beyond由

demands may be rarely documented, but is equally a sign of opposition. In both A yutthaya and Ava there was a steady drain of royal servicemen who sought to avoid burdensome obligations by placing themselves under hills.

forests

or出

Constant complaints from Spanish authorities about fugitive“vagabonds”and

reports of empty世llages in Dai Viet indicate that similar retreats

from perceived

repres-

sections will demonstrate, in

much

between important

and on the

seas.

Western Archipelago the absence of an acknowledged Malay overlord during the

eighteenth

centu可provided space for the reemergence of numerous and often contending

polities.

Along the west coast of Sumatra a number of small Minangkabau negeri (se时e

ments)

had developed, each under the authority of a

condescendingly compared ably located

Sunda this

to

mayors

in small

German

raja

official

towns). These negeri were favor-

because the sea route along the west coast allowed ships to reach Java via the

Straits.

Tho啡less frequented because 刷1e strong winds from the Indian Ocean,

route did provide

an alternative to the Melaka

Straits. It

was long familiar

and was increasingly used by English ships collecting pepper

traders

VOC

(whom one

at

to Indian

west coast

settlements.

The weakening of Aceh’s control along the west coast meant由at由e Minangkabau negeri

were able to restore traditional

essentially at

ties to their interior

homeland, but they remained

independent. Their rajas were由us free to negotiate agreements with the Dutch

Padang and the English further south at Bengkulu, by which local growers would deliver

amounts of pepper for a given price. However,

set

也ey received

from the Europeans were

pepper cultivation, they

insufficient

when

where they could

sell

found that the prices

compensation for the work involved in

responded by either abandoning

crops to alternative po此s

cultivators

their gardens or

to Indian, Chinese, or

by taking

their

Acehnese buyers.

By the 1760s, as the price of pepper declined with increased global supplies, Padang had

sion can be found throughout Southeast Asia during this period.

As the following

ties

living in the uplands, in the forests,

The Western Archipelago

in

reach of oppressive or unreasonable

another patron, by retreating into a monastery, or by simple flight to the

and groups

Developments in island Southeast Asia

In the

In Dai Viet, for instance, sporadic revolts can o丘en be attributed to inept and

because of crop

administrative centers

as a

long-lasting

ruled in the Lao uplands as an independent chief.

sity.

and by increased economic pressures weakened

authority

rainy

difficult for agriculture, and

the seat of several uprisings.

evident that the strains resulting from the imposition of central

sea, which

floods during the

1780 a famine was said to have wiped out two-fifths of the population. Long known “turbulent”area,

destabilization. It is also

REGIMES, 169os-178os t全251

of Southeast Asia the

eighteenth

become

a financial

burden

for the

VOC, while the English also contemplated closing their

century witnessed major sh的s in leadership and a weakening of royal power as a result of economic changes, declining control over human resources, natural disasters, and the

post at

demands of ongoing

kabau settlements were highly resistant to the可pe of centralized rule Europeans favored.

warfare.

While these

the eighteenth century led to the rise of past,

became the

new, their

factors are not

numerous平ersons of prowess,”who,

in

as in由e

basis for the reconstitution of polities. In affirming the bonds of

allegiance that assured the loyalty of their followers, there stress the

intensification

commonalities of religion, ethnic origins, and

was

a growing tendency

to

lifestyle as a basis for group

coalescence. Yet the ve巧institutionalization of a regime initially founded by such a figure could itself face challenges when the was undermined by established

order

expectations of cataclysmic events marking the end of a century, by evidence of supernatural displeasure, by u时ust or inefficient and by economic

government,

Bengkulu.

The Dutch had hoped

to

creation of larger coastal “kingdoms,”but

Migration in search of oppo此unities migrants

was

encourage pepper growing by sponsoring the

the egalitarian relationships between Minang-

culturally valued

among由e Minangkabau, and

from the central highlands continued to move downriver to the

Sumatra and the western

Malay Peninsula. The

east coast of

venerated rulers of Pagaru归ng

m出e

among these diasporic or rantau - any governmental apparatus which were never developed -

Minangkabau heartland exercised considerable au出ority communities, not through but

through the circulation of sacred missives and royal messengers. The Malay polities along the Melaka Straits never coalesced into a wider unity like their famous predecessors, Sriv斗aya and Melaka. Aceh recovered economically through the

252

HISTO盯OF山…ODERN SOUTHEAST ⑤ A

A队140叫

NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING

patronage of British and Muslim Tamil or Chulia traders, but did not regain leadership in the Straits.

The

its

former

shi丘from coastal international trade to interior export

coupled with the increasing use of Acehnese rather than Malay, were signs of a

crops,

gradual

separation from the Malay cultural world. The formerly prosperous polity of Jambi in southeast Sumatra had spiraled into economic and political chaos as Dutch manipulation

of downstream rulers fractured the delicate relationship with upstream communities. The wealthiest

pepper

Sumatran

and Chinese

sales

was Palembang, where a substantial income generated

state

mining on the island of Bangka was augmented by

tin

trade in both products in defiance of

Dutch-imposed monopoly

treaties.

Had

it

by

"illegal”

not been

VOC intervention to prevent expansion, Palembang could easily have absorbed Jambi

for

and much of south Sumatra, but

Malay kings and

origin of

The

continued to maintain some influence as出e legenda可

as a center for Islamic scholarship.

ab过ity to resurrect

weakened by

it

some of

A严1tthaya’s overlordship over

by the deep divisions

Malay world

in the

Opposition to the

new Bendahara dynasty

1718 by a“man of

prowess,'’Raja Kec过,a

mous son

of the murdered Johor ruler.

Laut, the mainstay of J ohor' s navy, lords. It

was

also alleged that

the

among

the

some of the northern Malay kingdoms and from the 1699 regicide in Johor.

in Johor led to the seizure of the throne

Minangkabau who claimed

in

to be the posthu-

thus able to gain the loyalty of the Orang

he had received the imprimatur of the revered Minangkabau at

Pagaru严mg, thereby guaranteeing him

Minangkabau who had migrated

to east coast Sumatra and

Malay Peninsula.

Raja Kec乱After several unsuccessful attempts to regain the Johor throne, R可a

Kecil

Sumatra and founded the new kingdom of Siak, located north of Jambi in the region where Malay and Minangkabau rantau society merged. His descendants in

intermarried with the Malay and Bugis aristocracy and

became

significant players in



new

Muda

or“younger

arrangement than

to the

arrangement adopted from Sulawesi came

sultan,

into being

now restored to power, became dependent on

king,'’a

position由at was more akin to a Bugis

Malay position of heir-apparent. The

in

the Bugis political

Bugis arrogation of many

court positions infused Malay politics with an unprecedented sense of ethnic conscious- ness, while the Dutch also saw their presence as a real threat. In 1756-7 Bugis forces from

Johor

(its

capital

the Malay, Bugis,

now on

the island of Riau, or

Melaka, and the siege was only

and Minangkabau

royalty,

and by 1760 the

ruler

ofJohor-Riau

Under the leadership of successive Bugis Raja Mudas, and Riau became the hub of an extensive trading network that

was himself of partial Bugis descent. the

kingdom flourished

eve巧port in the region. Ships arrived from all over the archipelago, spices, slaves, forest and sea products, tin, and pepper. Chinese and British

linked virtually delivering

count叮traders

had a prominent presence

in Riau, with the British exploiting their access

opium to acquire Southeast Asian products that were exchanged for tea in

and Chinese were all involved in gambier plantations and according to a later text, older people were unanimous in agreeing that“those days in Riau were good." Yet the painful memories of earlier events were never forgotten, and Malay China. Bugis, Malays,

perceptions of the

areas ...

Riau Bugis as interlopers

still

lingered.

As the Sultan of Kedah

put it,“From what pretensions the Bugis derive their authority in these

resentfully

we know

not."18

The Central Archipelago At由e beginning of the eighteenth century, Java was also divided into several di旺erent loci

modern Bintan) blockaded

VOC-ruled

lifted when a fleet arrived from Batavia. Fear of Bugis intervention helps explain the decision of the tin-producing state of Perak to negotiate a

commonly saw“Javanese"

even though outsiders

as a single ethnic group.

From

Dutch were less concerned about west Java, where the ruler of Banten retained some sovereignty but where the VOC had gained a pepper monopoly and other advantages when they assisted a prince to take power in 1682. Dutch attention was primarily focused on developments in central Java, and the rich VOC sources combined

their

enclave in Batavia, the

with a large ities

number of Javanese texts provide insights

that are

not available anywhere

Succeeding

Amangkurat political

Johor, whereby the Malay

Raja

among

the

history of the Straits.

From 1728

Malay Peninsula and in southwest Borneo. To some extent the passage of time blurred ethnic divisions as a result of intermarnages

the

of power,

reputation as formidable fighters, the Bugis allied with the displaced sultan and ousted

frontier

leadership led to the creation of other independent Bugis settlements both in



At this point, however, a large group of Bugis arrived in Johor, part of the diaspora出at had le丘southwest Sulawesi in the wake of the Makassar wars of 1666-9. Living up to their

remained

in their

rifts

who saw him as the descendant of their ancient Melaka

queen (Putri Jamilan) and the royal court sizeable following

fur由er

resulting

He was

new treaty with the VOC in 17 46, which was maintained until Melaka was occupied by the British in 1795. Nonetheless, the Bugis themselves were never a monolithic group, and

to Bengal’s

and Melaka was

the glories of Srivijaya

REGIMES, 169os-178os

brother of

Amangkurat

18

VOC

II,

political

complex-

II

as ruler of

Mataram was

the crown prince,

was tainted in Dutch eyes because of his sympathy for the

VOC

recognized instead Pakubuwana

who was

I (r.

the leader of a rival court faction

1704一19), a halι

and preferred by

was driven out of the capital Kartasura by a army that included Europeans, Javanese, and Madurese, as well as black

most Javanese. In 1705

combined

He

1703-8).

and so the

and

else in Southeast Asia during this period.

Susuhunan Amangkurat

III (r.

rebel Surapati,

into cultural

Amangkurat

III

Watson Andaya, Perak, the Abode of Grace: a Study of an Eψteenth Century Mala歹 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1979), 58; Raja Ali Haji ibn Ahmad, The Precious Gift (Tuhfat al-Najis), Virginia Matheson and Barbara Watson Andaya, trans. (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford

Cited in Barbara State

University Press, 1982), 90-1.

254坛、己、A

N…OUNDARIES AND山NGING REGIME山9os-178os tS

HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

Portuguese and people from regalia with

by some

Ambon,

Bali,

him, Amangkurat

Sulawesi, Ternate,

and Banda. Taking

III fled to join Surapati, the Balinese

to be a descendant of Javanese kings)

ous terrain of east Java. This region was

who was

st过l

former

slave (believed

entrenched in the mountain-

home to the non-Muslim Tengger people and had

always remained outside central Javanese control. In this tumultuous time the just king, a

Ratu Adil,

who would

title

belief in



put the world to rights a丘er a period of upheaval

and chaos, gained greater currency. One of the rebel leaders even assumed of Erucakra, associated with the

myth of

a millenarian king

the ancient

who would

restore a

righteous world.

which involved an army of well over forty thousand men. This costly in property as well as

human

rifles,

Surapati died in 1706 and position was hardly

more

return for their assistance,

pikes, shields, arrows, spears

Amangkurat

III

was

and

of

extremely

like a sea of blood,

swords.”19 Although

subsequently surrendered, Pakubuwana’s

Dutch had extracted heavy concessions in including reimbursement of costs and bans on Javanese ships a growing

mood

of Islamic piety among some

raised questions about Pakubuwana’s standing as a

Muslim king. In

the countryside persisting local grievances contributed to the recurrence of open opposition.

As grat

a result of suppo口ing the

II,

was able

au也ority. His court,

Pakubuwana

faction, the ruler of West

to control Java's eastern coastal districts

Madura,

and place his men

Cakranin-

in positions of

growing power in eastern Java aroused suspicion and hostility in the Mataram

and when Cakraningrat died

in

1707 Pakubuwana intervened in the Madura

sion by backing various claimants to the throne

and exploiting the

reassert Kartasura's authority over the eastern coastal districts.

were particularly

succes-

resulting instab山ty

to

Surabaya and West Madura

resistant to these centralizing efforts and, together with the other two

Madura principalities, petitioned to become subjects of the VOC. Rejecting this request,由e Dutch made it patently clear that they were determined to suppress any opposition to白白 client, the “legitimate" ruler,

Pakubuwana

I.

In the subsequent war, 1719-23,由e voe-

supported Mataram forces were ultimately successful, but Dutch demands for increased payments as compensation for their expenses meant even more exactions in labor and truces

from an already overburdened peasant巧. For example, the Kalang were now required to deliver over 10,500 logs per annum, a major operation that required three to five days for buffaloes to drag each log to the coast or river collection point.

Once more an

Cited in

Ann Kumar,

1976), 207.

Surapati,

Man and Legend. A

ruler,

regalia did

Indeed, the natural

1726-49), was dominated by his

II (r.

but a greater emphasis on public piety and even the return of the

unusually shaped

eclipse,

itself

expressed anxieties. In 1739

fruit,

and

and Javanese

texts

of the destruction of the world户O Premonitions of disaster

omen

mention a lunar

spatterings of blood suddenly appearing

on houses,

seemed justified,

in 1740 central Java was torn apart by the outbreak of the so-called Chinese War, of developments in Batavia, 300 miles (500 kilometers) away.

for

a result

As described in earlier sections, from the early seventeenth centu巧large numbers of Chinese

had been attracted to Java by the opportunities offered in urban areas under and in the prosperous royal courts. Increased migration was particularly

Dutch control

evident in Batavia. In

of the

1620 just one Kapitan Cina (Chinese captain) was considered

oversee the voe-appointed“Chinese Council,”which supervised the affairs

sufficient to

Chinese community; by 1766 the Chinese population had risen to over fi丘een

thousand with a council staff of eleven. lucrative

Throughout Java the Chinese not only dominated

positions associated with the collection of duties

and

tolls,

but were active as

opium and textile trades and as middlemen in the sale and purchase of such items as unspun cotton, salt, indigo, tobacco, and porcelain. Many Chinese were appointed to court posts and a significant number adopted Islam, a change retailers in

that their

the profitable

compatriots did not always welcome. As

"They do not scruple to refuse to eat

become Javanese

Wang Dahai remarked disapprovingly,

[and] call themselves Islam (Sit-lam).

They then

pork and adopt altogether native customs卢1 For most Javanese, conversion

and adaptation to local practices did not

compensate

for the

Chinese tendency to take

on profitable but resented occupations such as tax agents or customs collectors.“There

is

creek navigable for shipping,'’observed one Dutchman,“which have a customs post (tollgate), of which由e keeper is invariably a Chinese"; and a prince of Madura angr过y condemned the Chinese as“mangy dogs who licked up the waste

not a river, harbor, bay, or

does not

of Java’s table."22

In

an environment where the

Dutch remained a tiny minority,

Spanish counterparts in the Philippines,

2°

VOC officials, like their

remained suspicious of Chinese conspiracies.

M. C. Ricklefs, The Seen and Unseen Worlds in Java 1726一1749. History, Literature and Islam Court of Pakubuwana II (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998), 235-6. Cited in Claudine Salmon,“Wang Dahai and his View of the Insular Countries (1791),”in Ding Choo

Cited in in the

21

Ming and Ooi Kee Be吨,Chinese Studies of the Malay World. Br础,

among ordinary people. Mount Merapi erupted

not allay dissatisfactions in the court or

environment

days, Kartasura experienced a whirlwind,

for three

22,!

Study of Three Babad Traditions (Leiden:

Muslim

Mataram

unpopular

regime was maintained only by the VOC's guarantee of military support. 19

pious

Javanese

secure since the

Lombok. Furthermore,

members of the court

was

life.“Many were wounded,”records one

babad,“and weeping mingled with cries of pain/The battlefield

strewn with lances and

conflict

Pakubuwana

grandmother, the formidable Ratu Pakubuwana (d. 1732). She attempted to create a more Islamic environment in the court and to legitimize her grandson by presenting him as a

飞n

Between 1707 and 1708 east Java was the focus of several intense campaigns, one

trading east of

Succeeding at the age of sixteen,

the

Eastern Universities Press, 2003), 46. Cited in Peter Carey,“Changing Javanese Perceptions of the

1755-1825;’Indonesia 37 (Apr过1984), 7-8, 11.



Comparative Approach (Singapore:

Chinese Communities in Central Java,

255

NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 This mistrust was reciprocated because of periodic rumors that a forced deportation of Chinese was imminent - a mistrust no doubt reinforced by the Manila examples. In

September 17 40

this

mutual

distrust erupted into violence.

Chinese laborers attacked the sugar mills

were

killed.

through the

city).

itself

attacked several

governor-general imposed

the Chinese, killing pasisir towns,

an estimated ten thousand

Euro-

July

1741 Pakubuwana finally decided to attack the nearby Dutch garrison, which was

from an

alliance

against the Chinese,

and the

ruler of

Madura

and

this decision

st山felt that Pakubuwana’s grandfather

angered

the

tide

to reach an

many Javanese, especially those

(Pakubuwana

imately and that the rightful lineage was that of

quickly

firepower

turned

and by the end of the year Pakubuwana was forced

accommodation with the Dutch. But

who

VOC

between the

forces

I)

had come

Amangkurat

III.



to power山egit-

number

of leading

many ordinary Javanese threw in their lot with the Chinese and even nomin- ated their own candidate as ruler, a descendant of Amangkurat III known as Sunan Kuning. Any renewal of an alliance with the VOC was for them unthinkable. In the words of a Javanese lord,“Let none of my descendants down to the sixteenth generation be reconciled with the Dutch." In 17 42 rebel armies attacked Kartasura and plundered the

crown handed down from

the days

Majapahit. Sunan Kuning was installed as ruler, says one text,“by the Chinese and

order was destroyed."

Some

chroniclers

explaining the ruin of the royal capital

means of punishing

saw the

by

fall

of Kartasura as the end of an

asserting that

God had

used the Chinese

the Javanese for neglect of Islam.23 Meanwhile, the

of

forces, regaining authority over the pasisir lords.

Some Chinese sought pardon

Sunan Kuning

under Dutch

said he

would be w山ing

to govern

aegis.

and

conflict

even

By the end of 17 42 Kartasura had been retaken and the following year refugee Sunan Kuning surrendered. The VOC continued to regard Pakubuwana II as the legitimate king, despite unpopularity, since he was willing to sign any contract necessary to ensure Dutch



the

his

support.

treaty concluded in 17 43 ceded his suzerainty over the pasisir areas of Surabaya,

Pakubuwana

Widespread

a place ofrefuge as Javanese

and

host过ity led to the outbreak of yet another

which opposition

1749一88)

and

remained

III

Hamengkubuwana

to the

was led by the

latter’s

VOC own

and

Dutch-supported

to the

brother,

Mangkubumi.

financially crippling wars eventually compelled both sides to



(r.

at Surakarta,

while

Mangkubumi was

recognized as Sultan

1755-92), with his palace at nearby Yogyakarta. The treaty

some attention to equalizing the depleted economic resources and decimated popu-

lation

of this

now

divided center; for example, six thousand Kalang families, considered

indispensable as timber-collectors

was pacified

and woodworkers, were

distributed between the

Meanwhile, another royal challenger, a nephew of Pakubuwana

two sovereigns.

by the creation of a princely domain within Surakarta

known

III,

as the

Mangkunegaran. The Treaty of Giyanti

is

significant because

it

brought a period of peace to central Java

during

which the Dutch no longer saw the need to intervene in court

troops

were withdrawn. Although there was

叫or

no

conflict

still

some

resistance to the

affairs

occurred until 1825. This was mainly due to出e fact that

were le丘to control the surveillance.

From

interior,

with the

and

VOC

new arrangements,

pragmatically accepted the territorial division in which the Javanese

all

parties

kingdoms ( the

rest of Java subservient to

1767, fearful of possible English intrusion into

Dutch launched a succession of brutal military campaigns 出at defeated local resistance led by descendants of Surapati and brought this ravaged area more firmly under VOC control. In order to counter the influence of Bali, the Dutch made the

ceded lands of east Java, the

that

pragmatic decision, declaring由at出e people of east Java were Muslims and they should be placed under Muslim heads. In由is situation the VOC saw Islam not

as a

threat

a可pically

but as an

ally.

The years of war, famine, and

periodic epidemics, however,

The population of east Java declined dramatically, and in 1772 one observer commented that“scarcely a food crop is to be found throughout the entire land ... many dead bodies [are] lying around.”24 Meanwhile, in 1753 the Dutch acq山red heavy

another client, eignty,

toll.

when

the Sultan of Banten in west Java relinquished his limited sover-

formally accepting the status of a

succession.

24

Cited in Ricklefs, The Seen and Unseen Worlds in Java, 264-73.

continued to lead armed resistance.

compromise. By the Treaty of Giyanti (1755) central Java was partitioned:

exacted a

Rembang, and Japara, eastern Java (including Blambangan), and the island of Madura. Economic concessions included monopolies on products such as opium and textile imports, restrictions on Javanese shipping, quotas for the delivery of rice, timber, indigo, 23

III (r.

These inconclusive seek

gave

Java.

(1746-57), in

all

The VOC remained

implacable.

Madura and eastern

VOC overlordship and

its

that a

Madurese fled from the burden of labor and revenue exactions resulting from the cession

“Princely lands”)

as a

VOC rallied

VOC,

and the Tengger highlands became

of

age,

Pakubuwana hoped

teak sold in Java. Perhaps

of privileges conceded to the

Once again east Java

nobles and

palace treasures, including a splendid golden

to a

all

169os-178os草;:

court at Surakarta in 17 45 might initiate a fresh beginning, but powerful

princes, resentful

thousand

VOC posts. Pakubuwana and his factionalized court vacillated about the and whether to support the VOC or join the Chinese. In

overcome and the occupants taken prisoner. However, superior

move

new

Pakubuwana

people.

where Chinese forces of several

best course of action,

resulting



(at that time dispersed

In the resulting chaos, shots were fired, fighting escalated, and

soon reached the

fighting

VOC

Chinese houses

and ordered a search of all

peans and Javanese turned on

The

of poor

where they worked, and a number of Europeans

Fearing that violence would spread, the

curfew in Batavia

Outside Batavia bands

and a monopoly of

and coffee,

REGIMES,

With

VOC vassal in return for help during a disputed

royal revenues sustained

by pepper cultivation

Cited in Sri Margana,“Java’s Last Frontier: the Struggle for

PhD

thesis,

University of Leiden, 2007, 13 7.

in west Java

Hegemony of Blambangan,

c.

and south

1763一1813:’

257

巧8



A HISTORY OF

EAR…ODERN SO川川T山

Sumatra, Banten’s relationship with the

economy

VOC

NEW BOUNDARIES AND山NGING

survived relatively amicably

until the

declined in the late eighteenth century.

system placed Spaniards at the peak of the administrative pyramid, but they were

colonial

outnumbered by mestizos, Christian descendants of marriages between Chinese males and local women. In 1687 Christian Chinese and mestizos in

substantially

Spanish or

The Northern Archipelago

the

Manila suburb of Binondo had joined together in their

1741 the mestizos

The geography of authority,

and

the Philippines remained an obstacle to the expansion of Spanish

at the

beginning of the eighteenth century the

the interior highlands continued to defend their territory

Luzon

several missions

were established in the

tribal

and

resist

groups occupying

Spanish

control. In

foothills of the Cordillera with the goal

further conversion, but missionaries found that although upland peoples might make sign of the cross, accept Spanish-style clothing,

continued to venerate ancient

when

new

the

they

faith. Hostilities resurfaced

on settlements and the burning

Christians farming the foothills

and

buffaloes

Augustinian

cattle

and lowlands

would be seized and captives taken

priest, the situation in Ilocos

and reaped with the as

the

a priest for baptism,

of

troops entered the area and on occasion Igorot anger at perceived Spanish wrongs

Newly converted

when

and bargain with

spirits antagonistic to

led to direct reprisals, such as attacks

sickle in

had deteriorated

of churches.

lived in terror of

raids,

as slaves. According to one

so badly that peasants“sowed

one hand and a weapon in the

armed伊ards and watchmen, using drums

to signal danger

from

a possible Igorot

ants

areas, like those in

Cebu and Panay

that were covered

by dense

forests, also

home to the so-called mundos (short for vagamundos or vagabonds), descend- of Christians who had fled beyond the reach of Spanish authority because of alleged

crimes or to escape taxes. Essentially, they had returned to a pre-contact

lifestyle,

exchanging forest products such as wax and tree resins with the lowlanders, and

receiving

rice

Christian Chinese,

and cloth

in return.

Although the

friars

complained that the

profits

from

this trade

whom

(Spanish, Chinese mestizo,

Although resistance

house could be burnt and he himself killed严

to Spanish penetration

had

largely

come to an end

in the lowlands

of Luzon and the Visayas, this had not led to greater administrative effectiveness. The

26

were expelled.

thousand Christianized Chinese

region, the ten

resentful of

class

China-born Chinese

Many moved

southwards to Sulu and

in local

commerce. Over

five

In 1762, as

who remained

continued to wield com-

power out of all proportion to their numbers.

mercial

during the Seven Years

an enemy and launched

War (1756-63), the British regarded France’s ally Spain

an attack on Manila. They were accorded a sympathetic reception

which confirmed Spanish suspicions of Chinese loyalty, even among those

who had accepted Catholicism. After the occupying British forces returning

left

two years

later the

Spanish retaliated with widespread executions of Chinese, followed by orders for

another

mass expulsion in 1769. Nonetheless, the Spaniards admitted that出e presence of a

sizeable

Chinese population was necessary for the efficient functioning of the economy. In

1778 Chinese

allowed to

were permitted to return and in the 1790s non-Christian Chinese were

move

outside the Parian

Christian

mestizo Chinese

they gained

Among

labor,

were

for services,

in the

Manila

area.

despite

Meanwhile,

some restric-

solidified their place in Philippine society.

growing signs of discontent were directed not only as defenders of Filipino interests, but

and the abuse of

as exploitative

and oppressive.

religious au由ority

earlier times

demands

meant由at many

for

friars

A particular source of resentment was the

which o丘en entailed the appropriation of communal land. By the 17 40s one Dominican estate to the south of Manila had

accumulation of estates village

anywhere

but also towards the Church hierarchy. In

had o丘en been viewed

now seen

live

had benefited from new opportunities and

Filipinos themselves the

payment

and

economic advantages that

by the

land rights, rising rents,

Cited in Grace Estela Mateo,“A History of Ilocos: a St。可of the Regionalization of Spanish Colonialism," PhD thesis, University of Hawai'i, 2004, 203. Cited in Emma Blair and James Alexander Robertson, eds., The Philippine Islands 1493-1898 (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark, 1903-9) 48: 113

growing local-born middle

became heavily involved

religious orders,

grown to almost twice the size of 25



were said to be studying Christian doctrine. Concentrated in the Manila

because they

missionaries

tried to settle in a Christian village, his

Indios and from non-

hundred others were baptized and more than a thousand exempted from deportation

so doing, the Spanish contributed to a distinction based not

on ethnicity but on

them from both

periodically deported.

Mindanao, where they again

towards the administration

One priest even repo口ed that if any mundo with a reputation as a “wizard”

recognized as a separate group in Philippine society, with

thousand non-Christian Chinese

communities harbored“fearful wizards ... who conversed with the de训”and co叫d do "a thousand evil things,'’even changing into crocodiles to prey upon innocent victims. In religious beliefs.

own gremio or guild, but by own gremio de mestizos. Adminis-

dominance of the domestic economy, and as a result of this pressure in 1755 around two

tions

lifestyle and

their

and Indio) was increasingly

made lowland Christians reluctant to see the mundos return to“a civilized and Christian mode of life," the Spanish themselves accepted and thus reinforced local beliefs that these fugitive

form

the Spanish taxed heavily, forced to live within the walled

and

enclave of the Parian,

by local Chinese,

provided a

now

to

tax system that clearly di旺erentiated

own

their

had broken away

mestizos were

tratively,

other,”while others served

attack.25

Remote

REGIMES, 1690叫Sos

directed against a

its

original grant. In 1745 Filipino anger over denial of

and fraudulent surveys

led to the

first

monastic order. The participants made

God or the

rebelling

against

rights to

ancestral lands.

it

agrarian revolt speci且cally

clear由at由ey were not

Spanish Crown, but wanted government recognition of their

46

259

260

tS A

HISTO盯OF山川ODERN SO川EAST A队14…830 Although

this revolt

was

NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING

short-lived, Filipino bitterness fed into other areas of discon-

tent, notably that relating to native ordination.

The Vatican had long favored the training

of native clergy, but progress remained slow because the missionary orders, anxious protect their

own

position

and arguing that

resisted the granting of full ordination to "Indios.”As a result, Filipinos

mestizos

who

and most Chinese

had been trained in Church seminaries were assigned as

subordinate to Spanish

friars

priests but made

of the various religious orders. Unrepentantly

Spanish,

the orders continued to wield considerable power, since provincial governors needed

co-operation to function effectively and the native principals needed their support

confirmed

to

Filipinos lacked a true vocation, adamantly

friar

to be

in office.

able to maintain control of the countryside

when

by Diego Silang and subsequently by

his wife Gabriela. Again, the context

came at a time when storms,且ooding, and a plague of locusts forced starving peasants to leave their villages and forage for food in the mountains. Although Silang insisted on his loyalty to the Spanish king, the friars accused him of treason, and their influence ensured that most rural areas remained loyal to Spain. Silang’s following did include upland peoples, but the majority came from Ilocos, and offers

some

explanation, for this revolt

there was never any possibility that

long Silang was

killed,

it

might spread beyond the island of Luzon.

apparently at the instigation of a few

friars,

and the

Before

rebellion was

soon put down. Over a hundred of his following (including Gabriela) were hanged, others were flogged or imprisoned.

With

while

the suppression of this rebellion Spanish

authority in the lowlands was reaffirmed, although the interior highlands remained

beyond

known

In the

Muslim

south, the Spanish position

sultanate at Cotabato

was

rivals,

was unable

to capitalize

far less stable, since the

Zamboanga f。此

he encouraged the study of Arabic but his toleration of missionaries

and instituted an

restrictions

1750s Muslim

During the

destroying

trade,

many

raids

coastal札llages

expanding trade in slaves. In 1754, while package of Sulu so且to the Chinese

receptive to inquiries

from the

British,

his

own

with

datu

infidels,

Islamic-style codification of local law,

Manila

in

between Spanish Manila and Sulu was soon

Emperor with

coastal

their inhabitants to service the

Azimuddin was

in Manila, his son even sent a

the request that his country "be

Over the next decade the Sulu datu were

also

who had recently discovered what local navigators

had long known, that their ships could reach Guangzhou by riding the northwest

monsoon from Maluku through the southern Philippines and then passing between Luzon and Taiwan.



provisional treaty signed in 1761 granted the English East India

Company (EIC) a monopoly of Sulu’s trade, and in 1763 the EIC also acquired出e island of Balambangan, off Borneo’s northern coast, as a conduit for the transshipment of Bengal

opium.

among由e

Sulu datu, some of

whom

supported closer ties with the Spanish, while others advocated the British or even the allies.

The hand of the former group was strengthened

in 1775 a丘er

on Balambangan ordered by the Sultan and supporting nobles precipitated出e

British

departure. Nonetheless, the e旺ects of the British connection were far-reaching.

and economic Magindanao was

Bengal

opium was already entrenched

ordnance and

gunpowder supplied by

as

an invaluable trade item, while access to heavy

British country traders

in the

claimant retreating upriver and his opponent remaining downstream. The situation was

blockade intended to prevent British ships

further complicated following the return of the Spanish in 1719

further

and

allied

on the Visayas and Luzon devastated

frequently divided by internal dissension between contenders to the throne, wi由one

Zamboanga, which led to greater involvement in local

had

his

di伍cult

traditional cultural

in eastern Indonesia. In addition,

might well be

as a Christian during a visit to

and capturing

registered as a part of China’s territory."27

an attack

on trade undermined the

and other areas

his wishes

assembly

own brother.

The仕ag让ity of this apparent reconciliation apparent.

in the

demands of the Spanish and

and his baptism

an assassination attempt by his

on

withdrawal, especially a丘er由e

meant

were only partially successful. In order to allay accusations that he

Dutch as alternative

this

and opposition

Manila brought Sultan Azimuddin some assistance against

but his efforts to balance the conflicting

in 1662. Nonetheless, the Magindanao

death of Sultan Kudarat in 1671. Maintaining the former economic networks was

VOC

ruma bechara

(literally,“house for speaking”)

This agreement exacerbated existing divisions

Mindanao had been abandoned

links with Ternate

as

opposed. Overtures to

their reach.

in northern

because

govern effectively in consultation with his chiefs or datu,

British forces

captured Manila in 1762, but a major uprising against the abuses of colonial rule broke out in Ilocos, led

own position since in Sulu and Magindanao, as in much of the island world, the ruler was essentially first among equals. Although regarded with respect, he could only enhancing his

1749 led to

The Spanish were

REGIMES, 169os-178os

the rebuilding of their

meant

By

northern Philippines was wreaking greater havoc.

from selling伊ns

undermined the Magindanao economy

that

the late

Muslim

raiding

1770s a Spanish

to southern polities

had

by preventing the arrival of Chinese

One family line, for

junks

and cutting Cotabato’s connection with international trade. In an intriguing return

Magindanao because of Spanish assistance. The potential advantages of reaching some kind of accommodation with the Spanish was not lost on Sultan Azimuddin (r. 1735-48, 1762-74) of Sulu, who sought to

to the

sixteenth-century relationship, the upstream area of Buayan, with

fort at

conflicts.

instance, only gained pre-eminence in

strengthen his

own

work

was again more economically important than

its

solid agricul-

downstream counterpart,

Magindanao.

position by concluding a treaty with Manila. Presumably because

missionaries had attracted very few converts Jesuits to

tural base,

its

in Sulu.

He

among

also realized that

his

own

subjects,

he allowed

Spanish support could be

the

critical in

27

Cesar Adib Majul,

Muslims

in the Philippines (Manila: University

of the Philippines Press, 1999), 30l

262

A A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING

ASIA, 1400-1830

The Eastern Archipelago

eradicate spice trees

As previous chapters have demonstrated, the concept of a state where territorial control focused on a single center was particularly unsuited to the cultural and geographical environment of the Eastern Archipelago. In southwest Sulawesi the

by the lord of the Bugis kingdom of Bone, Arung

how

death in 1696, demonstrating once again

political unity crafted

Palakka, gradually disintegrated

after his

achievements by individuals of prowess

were quickly undone without a successor of comparable ab山ty and charisma. In coalition led

by

main opponent, the

Bone’s

丘om southwest Sulawesi, but was unable

Though

the

ruler of



to defeat the

ajo,

1778. Nonetheless, continuing opposition

supported suzerain ruling over In northern

Maluku

all

it

remained

forces.

a formidable power

subdue Makassarese rebellions

meant Arung

in 1739 and

Palakka’s vision of a Dutch-

southwest Sulawesi was no longer viable.

the rulers of Ternate

and Tidore were

able to maintain their long-

to

Dutch intervention

in their political

and economic

demonstrate the "modernity" that helped affirm their superior polities

affairs.

envoys. In Tidore a

VOC

artist

VOC

Eager

for European

painted a European-Style portrait of Sultan Saifuddin

(1657-89) and the major settlement was even rebuilt in Dutch fashion with

its streets laid

out in a grid. But both kingdoms also maintained the traditional hierarchical chain political relationships

from the center

authority over territories stretching

to the

periphe巧that enabled Ternate

Ampat

islands into the

Bird’s

of

south-

from southeast Halmahera

Head Peninsula

of western

New Guinea.

Other networks connected “Eastern Seram”( a Dutch term referring to the eastern end of the island of

Seram and the nearby archipelagoes)

settlements in western

New

to various river valley

(sosolot)

Guinea. While there was no dominant center among

the

hundreds of small communities inhabiting the Nusatenggara islands, strong linkages developed through a variety of interlocking networks of trade, ritual exchanges, and intermarriage.

The involvement of regional and international players

in these networks,

such as the Bugis, Makassarese, Malays, Javanese, and Chinese, ensured that Indonesia remained very much an important part of the developments in the Southeast Asia.

eastern rest of

undermined or disrupted some of

the

years

earlier

Although Tidore remained relatively free of direct VOC interference, any room for maneuver was limited as its rulers continued to grant concessions that gave the Dutch

linkages.

greater control over trade. Cooperation of Tidore’s rulers with

into legitimate trade.

voe

These tensions meant that

it

was increasingly

di伍cult for native

allies to invoke the much-used metaphor of a caring parent and loved child to describe their

relationship

drought

with the

VOC. In this context ordinary people were easily inclined to interpret

and epidemic as signs of supernatural displeasure with the existing order. capital of the island

Ambon,

Dutch Fort Victoria,

had

group

collectively

known

risen to importance as the focus

mid-eighteenth centu可the prices for

the

all

spices

as

Amboina and

maintaining schools in Christian villages

the

site

who were

and ensuring that the basic

charged with

tenets of Protestant-

Ambonese teachers became symbols of VOC authority in places that rarely visited. The small island of Rote

had not previously 1729,

campaigns

to

it

officials

off the coast of Timor also acquired a

known. The first Rotenese

and other chiefs found

of the

ofVOC clove production, but by had fallen. Ambon retained its

importance, however, as a center for training native teachers

areas,

and pastors

prominence it

ruler converted to Protestant Christianity in

advantageous to adopt the religion as a means of acquiring

Dutch support. In the following years the development of Malay-language schools pro- vided

many Rotenese with an education that allowed them greater possibilities of advance-

ment under the

VOC umbrella even as

stories丘om the Christian Bible were

effortlessly

absorbed into their oral traditions.

A distinctive

feature of eastern Indonesia’s history during this period

is

the numerical

and economic importance of the Topasses. Clustered in the islands of the Solor-Tirnor archipelagoes, especially eastern Flores at

odds with the “white"

(i.e.

white Portuguese suffered a

and Tirnor, the “black" Portu思1ese were仕equently

European) Portu思1ese based

major setback when

Topass army. Despite attempts at administrative

Topass

their forces

remained uneasy.

出roughout the 出reat to the

kilometers)

an attack

were routed by a superior

compromise, the arrangement by which

Wi由a

population of around forty thousand scattered

Solor-Timor archipelagoes, the Topasses

Dutch whose unprofitable post

at

Kupang

also represented a significant

(west Timor) was 500 miles (800

from the nearest VOC settlement. In 1749 the entire Topass community joined on Kupang, and although soundly defeated by the Dutch and their local allies,

were st山sufficiently powerful to oust the white Portuguese governor from Lifau the chiefs of western Tirnor, as well as those on

twenty years later.

Meanwhile, in 1756

the islands

and Rote, agreed to a contract acknowledging VOC

list

of Savu

all

of native signatories to this contract is a

that

Timor. In 1707 the

post in Lifau

Portuguese

出ey

at Lifau in

was held by a white Portuguese and the second-in-command by a was only intermittently workable, and relations between white and black

the highest

in

Notwithstanding these continuities, by the mid-eighteenth century two hundred of European involvement had seriously

men, boats, and provisions. VOC patrols that attempted to eliminate Papuan slave-raiding and prevent“smuggling" of spices were regarded as an u时ustified intrusion required

to claim

from northern Halmahera to northern and

eastern Sulawesi, while Tidore’s overlordship extended

through the Raja

to

status, the rulers of bo由

took Dutch names, wore Dutch clothing, and served Dutch food

in the island of

ism were maintained. Assigned to different communities throughout the eastern

standing dualism by remaining alert to any favors the other might receive from the

and by adjusting



among their vassals

Halmahera and the Papuan region because of the hardships suffered in supplying the

evict the Dutch

combined Bone and Dutch

VOC was much weaker than in earlier times,

in this part of the archipelago, well able to

attempted to

1763

aroused considerable resentment

REGIMES, 169os-178os

characterized the Eastern Archipelago

au由ority.

The long

testimony to也e multi-centered environment

and indeed much of Southeast

Asia.

264

' A HISTORY OF EAR口MODERN SOUTHE川山,140叫 Developments

in

NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING REGIME山90叫Bos

mainland Southeast Asia

The Western Mainland In the eighteenth centu叩the centrifugal tendencies that characterized even the

largest

modern Southeast Asia were dramatically demonstrated in the kingdom of Restored Taungoo dynasty. Although royal power was largely derived丘om

polities in early

Ava under the control over

human

resources and the services they provided, the

ruler’s hereditary

servicemen (ahmudan) were not passive recipients of kingly orders, and avoidance, such as ordination as a

monk, were common. As

strategies of

service obligations became

more onerous, the steady seepage of ahmudan posed a major problem to royal authori可 it weakened the military strength of the ruler and his supporters. The forces Ava

because

could marshal, once so formidable, were over which

by

skilled

it

now insufficient to defend the extensive territ。可

claimed sovereignty. Between 1736-40 Manipur launched annual

raids led

and much feared horsemen, which destroyed villages and monasteries up

very walls of

Ava and

many

resulted in the forced deportation of

of

its

to the

subjects

飞飞j



(':,产’??'

//,,,,/1' I /// II



(see

Figure 6.2). Adding to royal woes was the persistent restlessness of vassal lords who had

been brought under Ava's authority either by military force or by voluntarily linking their fortunes to this prestigious center. Defiance arc that

was

had been conquered by Bayinnaung

especially apparent in the Tai-speaking

in the late sixteenth centu巧. Chiang Mai

threw off Burmese overlordship in 1727, in 1739 the Shan polity of Kengtung drove Ava's representative, and with

Manipur

assistance,

Mogaung

out

gained independence

in

A Manipuri (Cassay) horseman. This picture was drawn by the Bengali artist Singey Bey, who accompanied Michael Symes during his mission to Ava. In the eighteen由centuηr Manipuri captives comprised a significant part of the Burmese cavalry, since their renowned horsemanship skills were considered superior to those of the Burmese. Michael Symes, An Account of an Embassy归the Kingdom of Ava, sent by the Governor-General of India, in the Year 1795 (London: W. Bulmer and Co., 1799), 318. Courtesy of John M. Echols Collection on Southeast Asia of Cornell University Library. Fi伊re 6.2.

1734-5.

The

greatest threat to Ava's

Pe思1. Ports

dominance, however, came丘om the

Mon areas linked to

and Tavoy, supported a medley of Europeans and different Asian populations, who were lured by the availability of products such as rice, timber, elephants, and teak for ship serim,

repairs. Indeed, repeating

comments from

English observer described Pegu as



hundred years

“the richest

before,

one contemporary

and largest province of this kingdom."28

Increased revenues from maritime trade accentuated the economic imbalance between southern Myanmar and the agriculturally based interior. Embittered by their loss of privilege, the officials.

Against出is background, references in local sources to earthquakes, droughts, famines,

providing access to Bay of Bengal trade, notably Syriam, Martaban, Tenas-

Mons and

Nor were

their leaders chafed

under the authority of Ava-appointed

they alone in their resentment, since Pegu’s population, regardless

ethnic background, was generally alienated

by the tax burden and the prominent

of

positions

and epidemics are significant, since natural disasters supernatural displeasure Southeast Asia, evident in the

late

1740,

ently

Karen descent took

power

Buddhakeithi (“Golden king of

29

1580-1760

As

in the rest of

appearance of charismatic leaders, the min-laung, whose followers believed

claiming royal antecedents

Despite

c.

lack of sufficient merit to reign.

popular discontent and the anticipation of dynastic collapse are also

prophecies出at foretold a revitalization of the“ancient

of regional

Cited in Victor B. Lieberman, Burmese Administrative Cycles: Anarchy and Conquest, (Princeton University Press, 1984), 213.

ruler’s

as signs of

had the power to restore a past golden age. In Pegu there was also talk of omens and

出ey

gained by immigrant Burmans from the north.

28

and/ or a

were commonly viewed

We thank Emeritus this title.

at Pe思1

Buddhist

and personal

Professor

monk of appar- title of Smin Dhaw

a former

and assumed the kingly

fame’').29

undoubted Mon-Burman host且ity, differences

Mon count巧”of Ramaiiiiadesa. In

and supernatural powers,

this uprising in 17 40

loyalties rather

is

best viewed in terms

than simply ethnic

Saw Tun and Professor Michael AungThwin

conflict, for

both

for their help in translating



265

NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING REGIMES,

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 communities. Smin

sides consisted of a mixture of ethnic

attracting followers

from across



Dhaw was

highly successful

in

wide spectrum, including h且l people, because of his own

With access to cannon and artill町 acquired from European traders, Smin Dhaw could mount a highly effective challenge. Within four months all Ava's appointments in the Pegu area had been displaced and Smin Dhaw’s forces were pushing up the Irrawaddy River. Although he was later deposed, he mystique and the widespread rejection of Ava’s

rule.

who

was succeeded

as king in 17 46

future Buddha.

The occupation of the rice-producing district of Kyaukse by the Pegu army

was a death

knell for the

months, the

city fell

Taungoo

d严iasty

by

his

Burman

deputy Binn ya Dala,

capital of Ava. In

March

openly claimed

1752, a丘er a siege of two

and the starving occupants were deported or enslaved; to an ignoble end.

the Restored

had come

Nonetheless, the Taungoo heritage provided a solid foundation for the rapid of

to be a

Upper Myanmar control over

its

reassertion

The founder of the new Konbaung headman who, as an arche可pical min-

core domains.

d严iasty, a classic “man of prowess,”was a村llage

laung, declared himself king just three years after he defeated the

Mon

forces besieging

Ava. In 1755 he told the representatives of the English East India Company出at he was

whole Burma dominions and acknowledged king in all pa此s of it.”He contended出at he was the legitimate ruler, that his rise had been predicted because

“master of the

previous rulers had abandoned royal principles, and that he was king “because of

merit of my former deeds.”For this reason he took the grandiose

title

the

of Alaung-mintaya-

gyi-phaya, meaning“great august forthcoming righteous king," the dhammaraja

or

and by placing their male kin in positions of authority. Defeated rulers domains were required to present their daughters to Alaungpaya, independent of formerly and the entourage and ceremonial that surrounded their presentation functioned as a

well-born families,

of submission.

public sign

Alaungpaya was also aware that ancient garner

support and affirm

identity,

he called

loyalties. In

on“Burmans"

to unite,

topknots ( which distinguished

unfurl their

Mon-Burman

rivalries

and

in

one

them from

the short-haired

Talaings

the

Mon], you

the

[i.e.

are acting contrary to both your lineage

the

Mon

armies,

confidence

pany. His solid

Alaungpaya

between kings of different

the needs of each other,”and

be helpful to

in the world

destined to etc.

That

become





is



ve巧unusual

the Buddha’s prophecy.”31 Indeed, in one

is

man

of great past merits. He

the supreme lord of Chinese, Indians, Shans, Talaings (Mons),

is

Thais,

Burmese account Alaungpaya

is

consistently called “Min-laung.”32

would last气mtil the time of

he expressed

thousand [men] you won’t see of Pegu.”33

An

following year.

my match. I myself can crush a hundred such as the King

and military leader, he rallied other headmen to his cause and built up an army which was both well-trained and skillfully deployed. His victories were solidified by creating domestic alliances through marriages to the daughters of other astute tactician

countries,”he wrote,“they can

his

forbidding

Jacques P. Leider,“A Kingship by Merit and Cosmic Investiture: an Investi用tion into King Alau町n

31

Than Tun,

ed., Ro才al

Orders of Burma,

AD 1598-1885, vol.

33

(Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian

Kyoto University, 1985), 21. Phra Phraison Salarak, trans.,“The Testimony of an Inhabitant of the City of Ava,”JSS,

Studies, 32

II

(October 1957), 29-54. Cited in Lieberman, Burmese Administrative Cycles, 234.

45, pt. 2

to regaining authority over the south. Control of the

Mohnyin, Mogaung, and

polities,

was brought

34

which was already

silting

up and was taken the

Mong

Mit were required

to take the oath of

Alaungpaya reissued older

where

overcame resistance by the small but aggressive

flee.

edicts

festival.

polity

This was a turning point in the relations between

Myanmar came

to

dominate

affairs in

Manipur

until the latter

under British control in the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826 following the

Cited in Victor B. 3 (1978),

35,

new port of Yangon, literally

animist practices like the sacrifice of animals before the harvest

Manipur, forcing the ruler to

two

their friendship

Upper Myanmar forces captured and sacked Pe事1. In a very short hegemony was a伍rmed as far north as the Shan uplands, where the

Anglo-Burmese War. 30

way

Moving westwards, in late 1758 he

these

hope that

my royal sons, grandsons, and great-grandsons产5 Although

In following precedents set in earlier times,

allegiance.

of

letter, a

of Britain in 1756.

In 1757

Alaungpaya' s

saw-bwas of

For ordinary Burmese, Alaungpaya would indeed have seemed destined for kingship. Reportedly over six feet tall and claiming in叽tlnerability, he boasted that“amongst a

II

Com-

produced no results in terms of British support, Ala山1gpaya, supported by his

meaning“end of strife,”to replace Syriam,

time

demonstrated in his

is

with twenty-four rubies, sent to George

close friendship prevails

this letter

correspondence with the English East India

and sense of his place

gold plaque decorated

"When

initiated

had been assured with the establishment in 1755 of the



and your

and firepower necessa巧to conquer the south and overcome

Anxious to acquire guns

coast

edict proclaimed that“this king

in order

ab让ities.”34

the principle that an individual’s present status

one

Mons)

suppo此from Burmans within the Pe伊army. Though he promoted himself as ruler over a multi-ethnic state, he is also said to have berated one village headman: “Although you are a Burman and are a brave man, in planning to remain a subject of to attract

was already well on his

life,

to a shared ethnic

battle ordered his soldiers to

sons,

determined by deeds in a past

could be exploited to

an unprecedented appeal

righteous ruler of Buddhist tradition. 30 In accordance with the Buddhist belief in kamma, is

169os-178os

The Upper Myanmar populations were

registered

by

tattooing

first

and

Lieberman,“Ethnic Politics in Eighteen由-centu可Burma,”Modern Asian Studies 12,

473

King Alaungmintaya云Golden Letter to King George HσMay 1756): the Story of an Manuscr伊t and the Failure of a Diplomatic Overture (Hannover: Got的ied Wilhelm

Jacques P. Leider,

Exeψtional

Leibniz Biblioth仗,2009), 75,

http://der-goldene-brief.gwlb.de/fileadmin/images/GoldenerBrief/ Forschung/Leider_Golden_Letter.pdf, accessed December 28, 2012.

,\

267

268元A HISTORY OF

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

reorganized into their

ahmudan and athi groups, and as loyal headmen and ministers were

incorporated into the administration, Alaungpaya' s access to

human

resources was

increasingly secure. Every campaign increased the population,

and war

captives were

not enslaved as was customary, but settled on land to increase food production.

Given the legacy of conflict with the Thais and Alaungpaya' s belief in expansion eastwards was a logical

were revived because

Mon

step.

According to the Yodaya Yazawin,

rebels took refuge in

of conflict occurred in 1759,

when

his

A yutthaya,

Myanmar

several

Alaungpaya had threatened that

kingdom of A yutthaya] [

own

will

declaration during由e

if

old

rivalries

but the immediate

cause

subjects were imprisoned in this

works

text,

himself] with a piece of

[i.e.

Alaungpaya’s death during this campaign brought

arrived

at山 his

his death, he wrote

meat where

like

the sand』ies,

A yutthaya

no

respite, for his son

1763一76) was as implacable as his fa出er. Writing in Burmese, a Thai

exile

(presumably a captive) recorded memories of Hsinbyushin’s decision to punish Ayut由aya for giving shelter to disloyal

Ava

o伍cials

and of his warning

that“I

come marching by

land and water with an innumerable army."39 Other accounts bitterly recalled the hunger, flight,

and hardship experienced by local populations

1763 and reasserted control over Lan Na. fighting

It

as the

was said that

and deportation of people scarcely a thousand

Luang Prabang

also

to the

fell

Burmese seized Chiang Mai in in

men

Chiang Mai remained.

following

Two

years

Burmese, apparently with the assistance of

Vientiane, which thereby escaped a similar

the

later

its rival

Burmese

manpower

into the

to extend their

native o伍cials appointed

fate.

Burmese army. Continuing successes

also

emboldened

the

campaigns into southern Yunnan and demand tribute from by the Qing. In early 1765 Mergui and other peninsular towns

to the west of

A yutthaya

numbering half

a million

in

Myanmar’s great

were

men

seized,

as well as

and twelve months

later forces reportedly

hundreds of elephants, horses, and

were advancing steadily towards the Thai capital. The city was besieged for months, during which time the population was ravaged by famine and

spread rapidly.

European observers remarked that the

today the blackened stones in the tion.

fires

continued for a week, and

A yutthaya ruins are testimony to the resulting devasta-

The depopulation of the city was also unprecedented. The capture and relocation of

nothing

had been a feature of the continuous warfare between A严1tthaya and Ava,

compared with the wholesale

transferal of

Ayutthaya’s vanquished popula-

As many as around thirty thousand prisoners taken from the

city itself were

tions in

1767.

forcibly

marched to Ava, but disease, exhaustion, and hunger meant that

reached their destination. few

Those that did faced a miserable

brought specialized skills that the conquerors valued.

and musicians, for example, popularized the Thai elite

was undoubtedly enriched by the

planted A严It由aya artists

and

surrounding

circumstances

The period of direct

their

Burmese control

were not

defend his

most

captives the traumatic

was

short, since丘ontier warfare

and 1769 compelled Hsinbyushin

to return to

northern borders. In由is he was successful, since the Chinese troops, decimated

by malaria,

were forced to withdraw, and an agreement was reached regarding the

Myanmar army to withstand a Chinese force of around f。此y

boundary.

The

thousand

was certainly an achievement, but

(“record

for

easily forgotten.

in A严1tthaya

m出invading Chinese armies between 1765

Ramayana dance-drama.

cross-cultural flow between trans-

Burmese counterparts,

this relocation

never

existence, although a favored

Though

culture

many

The performances of captured

dancers

ab过ity

is

of the

it

fourteen city gates

memorating the defeat of

The Central

was the conquest of

their great rival

celebrated in a contemporary poem, the Yodayar Naing

of the victory over A严1tthaya") as the

Each of Ava's

was named

Mawgun

supreme tri山nph of Myanmar

after a notable conquest,

history.

but由at com-

Ayutthaya must surely have generated the most pride.

Mainland

firearms

Ayutthaya’s

fourteen

The death of

sickness.

marked the inauguration of the

a Translation of the Yodaya Yazawin (Yangon:

brother,

King

led

in 1688

and the

Ban Phlu Luang

by a former

who had been put

charismatic leader coronation,

N arai

seizure of

power by

d严1asty. Initially the



nobleman

new regime

faced

opposition because of a perceived usurpation of power, and later chronicles

to a rebellion

36

Chain, Yodaya Yazawin, 104.

Ayutthaya, even hacking at Buddha images for gold. Buildings

were set ablaze,

refer



applied the same policy of destruction that had been used

and because they were constructed primarily of wood, the conflagration

considerable

Tun Aung Chain, trans., Chronicle of Ayutthaya: …Myanmar Historical Commission, 2005), 96 "A Kingsl :/ L毗r,

rival,

Pegu. His troops pillaged

A川tthaya that

These conquests and a solid base of control in the north guaranteed a constant infusion of extra

crush

campaign of 1760 claimed that he had not

two months before

triumph, Burmese attitudes were very different from those that had the earlier conquest of Ayutthaya in 1569. Hsinbyushin, determined to

Reveling in this

but

mosquitoes and insects are flying around卢8

(r.

in April 1767.

war captives

again to the ruler of Ayutthaya, asserting that to compare the two kings would be

Hsinbyushin

finally fell

be destroyed and demolished.”36 By contrast, Alaungpaya's

of merit."37 Nonetheless, just

“confusing a red iron rod

the

the prisoners were not released "then the whole

border of Ayutthaya to make war, but to restore Buddhism and to make known “ever-lasting

determined Thai resistance, acknowledged even in Burmese sources, Ayutthaya

characterized

own destiny,

peninsular port of Mergui, which was under Thai authority. As recounted in

Despite

riding

monk

to death

claiming to be an incarnation of N arai’s elder

by the new

ruler. In the “holy

gathered two thousand followers and

man"

“putting

tradition, this

on the

regalia of

on the elephant Mongkhon Rattanakosa, displaying the white

270

'A HISTO…FEAR…ODERN SOUTH川T叭,140叫

NEW BOUN川ES AND CHANGING

umbrella" he advanced towards A严itthaya.40 Although this uprising was easily put down and its leaders executed, it was not an isolated incident. Yet despite periodic unrest and resistance in the vassal states of

and

Patani, the

Cambodia and

the northern

Ban Phlu Luang dynasty eventually came

most of Ayutthaya's former vassals. In

a familiar pattern,

Malay kingdoms

of Kedah

to be accepted as legitimate by

its

was

right to rule

retroactively

reaffirmed through stories of supernatural signs, the appearance of white elephants, and references to acts of merit, such as repairs to monasteries

and wats and

the casting

Khmer

of

由at

scriptures

from Ava and Pe♂1

was

envoys



the religion is

enshrined, greatly



established,

holy

were able to bring about the

Cambodia. In 17 48 Thai

in

Khmer prince who was

installation of a

monks

and according

told his patron由at he

had

received.

The same itself

for partic吐ar praise, elevating

and

stressing that

and

there was“a great

In recording this period, the

under

season.”42 Several factors

sufficient

Ayutthaya

recompense

king had

for the help he

ruler,“endowed with virtue and

from

silver flowers

as

many

as fifty

polities,

to

and the jockeying for division

leadership

declining,

was only happiness among everyone

account for these accolades.

in eve叮

Borommakot had come

members of the

to the

royal family, and subsequently

number of administrative reforms intended to prevent succession disputes and

princely challenges. Although these were only partially successful, his position was

strengthened by A严1tthaya’s general prosperity, which can be attributed primarily to由e

expanding trade with China. The position of Phrakhlang (minister in charge of the and foreign affairs) was dominated by Chinese. They were also appointed to high posts in the court, and their wives and daughters given prestigious

treasury, royal trade,

against

kingdoms.

It is

another king.

island

attested

in restoring the Sinhalese sangha,

by

a mission from

which had

Sri

suffered a丘er the

came under Portuguese and then Dutch

monks were

control. In 1751 and 1755 Ayutthaya sent to Sri Lanka to reestablish correct procedures for ordination, a mission

41 Chain,而daya Yazawin, 73. Chain, Yodaya Yazawin, 92. 一Richard Cushman, trans. and David K. Wyatt, ed., The Royal Chronicles of Ayudhya (Bangkok: The Siam Society, 2000), 424.

::

were

also

first

undermined because,

Burmese invasion of

as in

Myanmar during

of people available for royal service

were

Burmese

threat Ayutthaya apparently sent

with the message由at“our two kingdoms are both great

are killed

and

cities

and世llages are destroyed."44 But such appeals

shown in the previous section, Burmese armies met only sporadic challenges as出ey advanced仕om the north in 1763. Within two years both Chiang Mai and the Lao kingdom of Luang Prabang had capitulated. Joined by another force moving up from the south, the Burmese army laid siege to由e A归tthaya capital. Suffering great privation, A yutthaya held out for more than a year but finally surrendered in

and

as

April 1767.

Buddhism卢In

is

when Borommakot

impossible for any individual to assume the

not proper for a king to persecute, destroy and conquer the kingdom of

Men

animals, like sacred texts, provided public affirmation of a A严1tthaya’s status as a prestigious religious center

it

elite,

died in 1758. This

and periodic peasant movements demonstrated popular resentment

were unsuccessful,

"The

Lanka requesting assistance

intense

still

making

corvee obligations. In the face of the

women. Once again, the rulers of A严1tthaya acted as staunch patrons of Buddhism. The chronicles devote considerable attention to the splendid reception accorded the white elephant from Cambodia since the accumulation of such great merit.

was recurring factionalism among Ayutthaya's

Taungoo, the numbers

envoys to negotiate peace,

positions to serve the royal

ruler’s

power was

military operations

1760. Effective

steadily

his rule “there

predestined greatness and encouraged vassals to

powerful center.

necessary to offer convincing resistance during the

A yutthaya chronicles single out Borommakot (r. 1733-58) Ban Phlu Luang dynasty

Ayutthaya' s

paralyzed the court,

days of the

rulers of the

To

of the Restored Taungoo d严iasty in 1752 must have

prevent succession disputes, there

the last

him above previous

devote themselves to study and contemplation.”43

Behind this impressive exterior, however, were unresolved problems. Despite measures

coming and going of merchants.”41

throne despite the opposition from other instituted a

make

able to

text asserts that the

integri町,”received the tributary gold

while in the city

Yodaya Yazawin the weeping Khmer

to the

would never be

A归tthaya’s

fall

renew their allegiance to this

also a Thai protege.

Cambodia’s submission of a rare white elephant symbolized recognition of ruler as a cakkavatti,

forces

relicts are



encouraged and the

strengthened the belief in

power

Lanka

where the inscription of the scriptures and the practice of the religion are

Tro吨,

in

Sri

land in which

politics

N伊yen family

previous requests for

when A yutthaya was honored as“the [where] there are many pagodas in which the

court

clients of the

Yazawin,

had been unsuccessful, and the reception of the

splendid occasion

temporarily lessened the influence of the Vietnamese southern domain of Dang

which had kept

Sinhalese practices had served as the

reform. According to the Yodaya

standard for ordination

some observers at least, the

Buddhist images. Externally, Ayutthaya's successful intervention in

when

represents a reversal of older traditions

REGIMES, 169os-178os

It is

intriguing to note that a

poem

attributed to the great king Narai and

Long Song Prophecy”predicted that despite

numbered should

it

fall

later years

victim

its

known

as

prosperity Ayutthaya’s days would be

to the “sixteen disasters,”including the neglect of

compilers of Thai court chronicles were convinced由at moral

by early Ban Phlu Luang rulers - reputedly extreme cruelty, the violation of women, drunkenness - were responsible for A yutthaya' s ultimate downfall. Other accounts tried to

lapses

had been an unimaginable catastrophe by speaking of omens such as appearance of comets, tears shed by Buddha images, disloyalty among princes and

make sense of what the

::

Cha川daya

二Richard D.

Yazaw川5钊Cha川odaya

Yazawin, 104.

Cushman and David K. Wyatt,“Translating Thai Poetry: Cushman, and King Narai's 'Long

Song Prophecy for

A yutthayaγJSS 89,

1-2 (2001): 1-11



271

272' A HISTO…F川口MODERN SOUTHEAST A吼叫0叫 and even

ministers,

deficiencies in royal leadership.

NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING

The devastation of Ayutthaya was so

and the associated memories so painful that it was now abandoned. Despite the scale of the destruction, however, Thai recovery was surprisingly rapid. The previous 150 years great

had seen the growth of

resilient bureaucratic institutions

and the expansion

of

inter-

known

able leader could

other areas

of Asia. Chinese traders resident in Siam,

Chao Phraya basin

man called Sin, the son of a who had been appointed governor of the

to regain control of the

kingdom. In

paternal connections with the Chinese Teochiu trading

he was

this

as

he became

assisted by his

community, which provided food

and other goods necessary during the destitution that followed A归tthaya' s

fall.

After

taking control of the small port of Thonburi ( today part of metropolitan Bangkok, on

western bank of the Chao Phraya), which had previously guarded the downriver

He

the country.

Burmese

the

access to

force of any consequence st山remaining

continued to a伍rm his claims as successor to the A归tthayan

Thammarat

Si

in the north,

where the

(in

Malay, Ligor).

One

monk Phra Fang led

laymen and even carved out



weapons. Their prominence in northern Thailand and in Laos

may

esoteric Buddhist ideas that provided the basis for beliefs in the

“Chinese”(i.e.

Mahayana) Buddhism

may have been

in the

be related

power and

the Chinese term for elevating village

overcome

his

monk came

upland areas between Yunnan and

monks

to be translated

is

the

more

plague, prevailing lack of food,

of

the

uplands,

as“Buddha" or“man-god,”hence

to positions of great authority

opponents

of

protection

northern borderlands of mainland Southeast Asia. As Buddhism spread in the

and reverence.

Taksin’s ab过ity to

impressive, given the late rains in 1769, an

and banditry. French observers reported

insect

that even

Buddhist monasteries were being ransacked for their gold and silver images. By 1770 Taksin’s position as king was assured, and he turned to address some of the systemic problems that had contributed to A严1tthaya’s inab过ity to resist the Burmese attacks.

He

courted support by distributing ranks and

sought to strengthen

titles

among

region

and from

its

Chiang Mai, while the

capital

his supporters, and

rulers of

all

Lao

three major

Champasak, Luang Prabang, and Vientiane - submitted to Siamese suzerainty. states Valued Buddhist statues such as the Emerald Buddha, Vientiane’s most p血ed possession, -

were taken

、tent

back to Siam, and in a

letter to the

Vientiane ruler Taksin wrote that he w筒

on becoming greater than the King of Ava, and this

Why then

did the

Thonburi kingdom

fa且to survive?

is

It is

not beyond his

reach.”“

too easy to dismiss Taksin’s

interest in

meditative practices as a sign of mental imbalance, as did contemporary

Europeans.

Furthermore, although Taksin certainly had differences with the

and with

members of the old court

elite,

achieved the status

of sotapanna, the

first

Buddhist authorities

were adamant: in

made

to

Siam coast the po此of Ha Tien,

multi-cultural to Taksin’s result,

his

years later

terms a king st山ranked below a monk.

own

status,

tasks,

who were less

and the monks who opposed

and even

flogged.

than happy with Taksin’s policies.

On

founded by a merchant from Guangzhou, had attracted a

support

when he

attacked the settlement in 1771, other Chinese did not. As a

previously close relationship with the Chinese

community in Siam

suffered.

Ten

many Ha Tien Chinese, st山resentful, were receptive to proposals由at出ey assist

appointees led to

elite.

arose

population, including various Chinese groups. Although the Teochiu rallied

Vietnamese in an assault

meted out

spiritual

perform demeaning

Meanwhile, there were other groups

The question then

him to the veneration of ordinary monks.

regarded this as a slight to his

him were demoted,

the

stage of enlightenment.

whether these accomplishments entitled

Taksin evidently

the

him into power, and leading body displayed twelve of the出irty-two marks of a

Man as defined in the Pali canon. Taksin was thus encouraged to believe that he had

Great

as to

monkhood

his claims to exceptional spiritual standing were

acknowledged. Stories of invulnerab且ity had followed

members of the sangha agreed that his

to local

the increasing influence

Na

Lan

at

finally suppressed,

but there are other references to uprisings of armed monks, well versed in the use

economic revival and served as a conduit for the purchase of arms

widely

more formidable revolts occurred an army of “red- robed" monks who lived as

and other Chinese who came to trade,

obtained from Europeans. During the following decade the Burmese were expelled from the

to

of the

domain of their own before they were

afforded by religious leaders. Another factor

in

heritage,

and through pop吐ar perception that he was indeed a“man of merit" he was able overcome challenges from different parts of the country, including the far south

Nakhon

of order also

were major players in this

a丘er 1767.

province of Tak. Fleeing from Ayutthaya a丘er the Burmese attack, Taksin,

A严1tthaya, Taksin routed the only

Cambodia and much of the northern Malay Peninsula. The rapid restoration

resins, lac,

Chinese Teochiu father and a Siamese mother,

campaign

western

over

A yutthaya, a powerful new center arose at Thonburi. Chao Phraya basin, and soon asserted his overlordship

Burmese sacked

Taksin controlled the whole of the

recalcitrant, these

Such an individual emerged in the person of a young



the

and punish the

reconstitute the center of authority in the

known, began

four years a丘er

and economic base on which an

capacity to reward loyal vassals

factors provided the administrative

now used more frequently) were extended further than ever before. As early as 1771, just

allowed for a resumption in the flow of forest goods - elephants, elephant tusks, and sappanwood - that were shipped from the po口at Thonburi to China and

national trading connections that displayed remarkable durability. In combination with A严1tthaya’s

REGIMES, 169os-178os

on Thonburi. In

the country at large the greed of royal

among the peasant巧,but由e punishments own relatives aroused antagonism among the

m山enarian-style rebellions

by Taksin to

officials

and even

his

By the end of 1781 a group of nobles from the former Ayutthaya court had already

decided to take

action to depose him.

The

following April, in the course of concurrent

manpower surveillance by decreeing that all individuals of phrai status

should be tattooed to indicate both his nai (lord) and the muang to which he belonged. Under Taksin, the boundaries of Siam (a name previously associated M出A归tth町a, but

钊?_ited

i山rrai叫臼ick,“Ki刚叩and Poli削I叫ration

uissertation,

Cornell University, 1976, 98.

in Traditional Siam,

1767-1824:’m

274曹、A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

NEW BOUNDARIES AND山NGING

ASIA, 1400-1830

and Cambodia,出ey selected General Chakri (himself the son of a half- Chinese mother) as the count町’s ruler, later to be known as Rama I, and established the new uprisings in Siam

capital at

Bangkok, across the river from Thonburi. Taksin was executed in a royal manner

by being bound

The other

in a velvet sack

and

head struck with a sandalwood club. Mainland - Cambodia and the Lao kingdoms

his

polities in the Central

- had

room for maneuver or negotiation. Taksin had brought all three Lao states under Siamese authority, and Cambodia received few benefits from the lucrative maritime relatively

little

trade along the Gulf of rivalry

between

its

Siam dominated by Chinese and Sino- Vietnamese

two powerful neighbors, Siam and Dang Trong, made Cambodia

Nguyen

vulnerable to outside dominance. Between 1699 and 1772 re思tlarly in

migrants. The

Cambodian politics

rulers intervened

to support their candidates against those favored by Siam.

Meanwhile, Nguyen control of the lower

Mekong absorbed territory previously subject to

Khmer rulers, by way of a nibbling process compared by the Vietnamese to“slowly eating silkworms,”a common snack among ordinary people.47 At the ancient

capital of Angkor, inscriptions

from the

centuries record the careers of important officials

were able to

resist outside incursion. Overall,

impossible situation. Although the to the Vietnamese, the

Nguyen town of Saigon. links with the

and suggest

that

however, Cambodia was caught

Khmer were

who

more akin to the Siamese than of Oudong was more accessible from the

Siamese and those

who

enjoyed Vietnamese patronage. A丘er considerable

rival

Khmer princes凯1aranteed

that their clients

court, as

nominal ruler

at

Ang Eng (r.

Oudong. Siam

provinces of Battambang and Siemreap (literally,“Siam

much

earlier battles).

The

loss of

tried to ensure that

would remain

Taksin, Siamese forces installed the seven-year-old prince

Bangkok

that Siamese and their

in power. Under

1779-96), a refugee

annexed the northwestern defeated,”named for Khmer

also

population (along with

many

of the

sites

linked to the former Angkorian kingdom), economic deterioration, and the destruction war, exacted a heavy

toll

on the revenues of Khmer

kings.

As

their

incomes

of

declined,

were no longer able to exercise the patronage their clients expected; insufficiently recompensed, supporters and their following dri丘ed away or sought other sponsors.

rulers

Ultimately,

Oudong could only maintain

what amounted

N伊yen regime

a semblance of independence by entering

into

and

the

to vassal relationships with the (

Siamese court ( the

“father”)

and further commercial

increased prices,

the

effectively controlled

decline.

The agrarian

crisis intensified

half of the eighteenth centu巧,when hardly a year passed without

some

Food shortages were exacerbated because the elaborate dike system that pro-

calamity.

and the

tected villages

and



when

rivers overflowed

had been poorly maintained

desperate population survived by eating bark, grass, and leaves. Because

environmental catastrophes would have

lands

rice

of conflict. In the resulting famines roads were said to be lined with dead

during the years

been

difficult

and arbitrary rule and even killed

were interpreted

even for an

as a sign of supernatural anger, the situation

efficient administration,

but the corruption, venality,

of the Trinh regime were notorious. Le kings were deposed, replaced,

with impunity. Palace eunuchs (who probably numbered

hundred) gained

unprecedented authority, and high dignitaries were put

more than且ve to death.

A major issue for the Trinh was revenue collection, which was made more difficult because pop吐ation registers like付出at less

wealthy elites h侃侃er ruled

even adopted the Nguyen anti-Christian policy.

would be maintained and

victories in

in an almost

Dang Ngoai,

to

succession of disasters - drought, severe floods, heavy hail, and insect plagues - were major obstacles to economic recove町,leading to lost

during the first

bodies,

had not brought prosperity



Trinh family.

harvests,

in 1672

Vietnamese realm, which was ruled by the Le dynasty but

typhoons,

culturally

Vietnamese involvement in Cambodia would continue as both

at the

regional leaders

Cambodian capital The ruling elite were divided between those who supported closer

Recurring conflicts between

interests

some

Siamese client installed in 1748 was replaced in 1752 with a Vietnamese

conflict, the

protege,

seventeenth and eighteenth

late

war

The end of years of civil

by the

1690叫Bos'

Mainland

The Eastern

northern

REGIMES,

had not been kept up, and the last reliable survey dated丘om 1658.

than a也ird of those liable for taxation were actually compl内1g. Because

were often able to avoid pa严nents, the burden on ordinary Vietnamese became

and was worsened

the court

addition,

net for

tenant

was unable to prevent powerful

landless peasants),

regime,

To

mountains

many

to

used “thousands of

become

tricks

satirical verses

follow charismatic leaders

cite just

who promised

a solution to a desperate

monk occupied the Duy Mat, drawing issued a proclamation in chu nom with the

one such example, in 1737 the followers of a

The next year the

some scholars and upland

chiefs,

fugitive prince

Le

the "mother”) 48

47

Cited in

Cited in Alexander Woodside, A Comparative Study of Nguyen and Ch’的g Civil Government First Half of the Nineteenth Century (Boston: Harvard East Asian Monographs, 1988), 247.

in the 9

lnsun Yu,

Law and Society

Research Center, 1990), Cited in



communal lands had been taken,“there remains nothing for

Clandestine writings, slogans, rumors, and

northwest of the capital.

supp。此from

said, the notables

and it is hardly surprising to find evidence of increasing disillusionment

and a willingness to situation.

was

of the least opportunity to indict people.”48 By this stage even the

a也ni忧付出at since

peasants to live O乱”49

attacked the

estates

property to enrich themselves, oppressing出e poor, despising the

availing themselves

Trinh court

were deserted. In

from accumulating large

increasing peasant indebtedness and forcing

farmers.“In也e v山ages,”it

illiterate,

families

in the north

purchase or confiscation of communal lands (traditionally intended as a safety

grabbing other people’s

the

by new charges on basic items like salt. Migration to出e Nguyen-

and by the 17 40s a third of the v山ages

south increased

出rough the

It is

in Seventeenth

and E也hteen仇Century Vietnam

(Seoul: Asiatic

130

Nguyen Khac Vien, Vietnam: a Long History (Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, 2007), 90-1.

275

276立?、A

NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING

HISTORY OF EARLY岛{ODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

stirring e对1ortation,“Down

with the Trinh! Long Live the Le!”and elsewhere in the count可

thousands of peasants besieged towns. At times

it

was even necessa巧to

lock

soldiers and

伊ards in stocks to prevent their fleeing or joining the insurgents. In the face of repeated rebellions, especially in the

Trinh ruler

who succeeded in

17 40

made

restricting出e influence of eunuchs Relative

Red River

more

calm was gradually restored, but the Trinh

distribution of rice

right to rule

by Le Duy Mat was not put down

also unresolved, for

fluctuated

and

until 1770.

The

as

supplies.

fester,

Le was

and

the

position of Christianity was

although the Trinh were generally hostile to missionaries

several

such

on behalf of the

st山questioned, problems attributable to peasant poverty continued to revolt led

competent

concessions to allay popular discontent,

and improving the

prominent individuals in the court had

their policy

new faith.

converted to the

Dang Trong, the southern Vietnamese realm, initially seemed to fare better, since由e Nguyen family emerged strengthened from the protracted ci叫l wars and did not have to compete their

for

power with the Le emperors. Successive N事1yen lords were anxious

independence from the north, as well as to extend

lands, as indicated

King and Grand Lord of Cochin China,

the

Nguyen

Champa

relations with the

Viet

cast in 1670 that

Cham

N凯1yen were relatively amicable, but for ordinary

the invidious process of Vietnamization,

settlers,

and

title

an autonomous

vassals.

At

client

reads,“For

and Cambodia."50 The

leader,“Lord of the Realm,”proclaimed his status as

could grant honorifics such as“native king" to his

to asse此

political claims to vassal and

by the Portuguese inscription on a cannon

who

Cham

Cham the presence of

the intrusion of taxes and

A Cham

uprising in 1728 was quickly suppressed.

The process of carving out an autonomous domain

to reaffirm

Dang

(lord),

and a

Trong’s status as

series

title

of vuong

of ritual and symbolic reforms were

instituted

an independent kingdom. Royal

introduced, the court adopted Ming-style clothing,

southern

and palaces were

were also active sponsors of Buddhism, and by 1750 at 阿odas had been constructed. Meanwhile, the instituted elite

N仰n

honorifics were

renovated. The

China and

in the

local

in the north,



more咿a叫

Trinh domains, such as the reorganization of the bureaucracy

uncter

made

coins

and offices, resulting in a

1750 the satirical

Cited in Pierre-Yves Manguin, Les Portugais sur

les

cotes

du Vietnam

et

de

Champa (Paris: EFEO

fueling inflationary

play,“A

prominent southern

more funds丘om an

Monk,

village will

longer

A Nun,'’specifically criticized oppression and coπuption One of the more

mise巧has reached an extreme level: If you con出meto rule明白

people’s

without thinking of taking appropriate measures, even the administration of a

become impossible,

let

have anything to live on:

The problems in

alone that of a province or a whole country. The people no

how can their hearts be at peace?”51

Dang Trong can be

partly explained by the expansion of

Mekong

Increasing rice production in the

territ。可.

and the lucrative were depleted

po此of Ha Tien resulted in

conflicts with Taksin.

by the costs of warfare and deployment

commerce fluctuated, in part because of the

overseas

annually,

but

by 1772

this

number had

fallen to twelve,

Cambodia

Government revenues

of large troops,

silting

17 40s, for example, between sixty

N伊yen

Delta brought proximity to the

border and potential for border disputes, while the issue of control in

Siamese

at all levels

mandarins, addressing the Nguyen vuong, described the situation in the

strongest terms:“The indifference,

selling titles

increasingly impoverished population. In

among officials, but was also intended to encourage people to stay on the land.

and profits丘om

of the river estuary leading to

and eighty Chinese

j旧业s arrived

eight C缸丑e the following

and only

The Nguyen response to this drop in revenue was increased state interference in interior trade, undermining 明白白e upland communities that had previously year.

relations

been

relative与harmonious.

half the

and an

By

around the late 1760s ethnic minorities were contributing

Nguyen tax revenues (apart from those payable

Popular

resentment was fanned by

expanded tax system.

could cite the

official

for land).

corruption, problems in rice distribution,

When a major political crisis occurred in

occurrence of various natural

phenomena such

1765, the populace

as earthquakes, landslides,

and floods as portents of supernatural anger. One measure of peasant distress was the recrudescence of new cults and spirit mediums, and the rising popularity shooting stars,

such as the Princess Lieu

some missionaries

had managed

Hanh. Although

Christianity

the

。因cially proscribed,

to tap their

provided astronomy, or weapon-making. Catholicism also population desperate, and with a growing number of baptisms the Christian



have risen to ten to fi丘een thousand.

1972), 51

Cited in

was

remain because the Nguyen wanted

to

knowledge of medicine,

Was estimated to

206-7

by

bloated and poorly paid bureaucracy. As a result,。伍cials

used白白positions to extract

was composed of five military and

administrators.

situation

on those仕om whom funds could be exacted. The Nguyen resorted to

fell

refuge for

five civil

To compensate,出e Nguy en issued

worsened the

burden

of deities

so

of zinc, but this actually

Tax collection was always difficult in a highly mobile population, but now a greater

Boards or Departments, did not fundamentally reshape the nature of southern government. Unlike China, examinations to select new officials were not held regularly, and Dang Trong continued to be governed by the Nguyen vuong and his council, which

six

overcome deep-seated administrative

revenue instab山ty meant government income declined and in由e

tendencies.

least four hundred

administrative system in place of the m诅itary-style government that had characterizea the regime during the years of w缸fare. Yet changes that o阳1sibly resembled the si叩n in

As

suf且cient to

shortage of small coinage led to a moneta巧crisis.

Hoi An. In the late

in the south continued. From

1744 the Nguyen lord followed the Trinh in adopting the more elevated

chua

1720s a

was not

syncretic culture, this

distinctive

of the

ruler

this level

corvee labor were a constant reminder that they were a conquered people.

(king) rather than

Though some historians have detected a growing sense of a southern identi可and a

problems.

Delta, a

REGIMES, 169os-178os

Nguyen Khac Vien, Vietnam,

99.





277

278

i也A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING Though

less

REGIMES, 169os-178os

impressive than in earlier times, the Nguyen army did not readily interrupted by the rainy season, the battles with Tay Son forces

capitulate. Periodically

persisted for

another ten years. Virtually the entire Nguyen family was massacred in

1777 a丘er由e capture of their capital, but a surviving prince

(1762-1820) declared himself to be the

new N伊yen ruler,

named Nguyen Phuc Anh

ready to continue the struggle,

and with the help of loyal forces was able to retake Saigon the following year. Meanwhile, the eldest Tay Son brother claimed the title Emperor Thai Duc and established his capital

Cham power. Fighting between N事1yen now focused on the Saigon area, but when the town was finally captured by the Tay Son in 1783, N凯1yen Anh was forced to flee. Escaping capture, he eventually made his way to Siam, where he was given refuge in the newly in

Vijaya in central

and Tay Son suppo时ers was

armies

Figure 6.3. Bahnar tomb house. The Bahnar, neighbors of the Jarai, are

found

in Vietnam’s central highlands. As suppliers of forest

products, they maintained close relations with the Cham and Vietnamese. Their villages were distinguished by great communal houses with sloping roofs, and by funeral houses decorated with

various figures, often syt丑bolizing fert且ity or squatting like mourners. P. Cupet,“Chez les populations sauvages du sud de l' Annam,'’Tour du Monde 12-16, Paris, 1893: 220. Courtesy of John M. Echols

ν

Collection on Southeast Asia of Cornell University Library.

By the 1770s there was thus rising dissatisfaction in both the Trinh and Nguyen domains, but Dai

Viet’s greatest

and most long-lasting uprising erupted first in the southern realm of

Vietnam, once a center of

established

Chakri court

at

Bangkok. As the next chapter

will demonstrate, his survival and the French sponsorship he found in Bangkok laid the foundations for a new chapter in

Vietnamese history.

她叫川 In

mainland Southeast Asia the period between the 1690s and 1780s, which saw the

Ava, the conquest of Ayutthaya,

and the outbreak of a major

nomic change with period of

its

economic

concomitant repercussions played a

stress,

undermine apparently established polities and lead to the emergence of a charismatic with the promises of a return to a golden era of peace and prosperity. Even in stable

times these large polities

still

operated as mandala that included numerous domains

In 1771 a regent’s usurpation of power and popular resentment at increased payments precipitated a rebellion led by three brothers from the small village of Tay Son, which gave its name to the uprising. The Tay Son claim of promoting greater social equality

persuasion to outright warfare

and

standing. Yet the rapid

among

the poor gave

and attracted a following from a wide

ethnic dwellers, lowland peasants,

it

and a reputation as “virtuous upland including

social spectrum, 52

of his trading

Cham, and ethnic Chinese. Because Tay Son brother had close connections with various highland groups, with including the Bahnar, and reputedly took a Bahnar woman as a wife. An alliance Chinese raiders who had carved out their enabled own domain in the South China Sea also the Tay Son to assemble a signi且cant naval force. activities the eldest

由e center

Cited in Georg二 Dutton, The Tay Sσn〔伊ri (Honolulu: Umversity of Hawai‘i Press, 2006), 3

own

entourage of vassals. Strategies ranging仕om

were necessary to maintain o丘en tenuous linkages between and outlying areas where a sense of identity and independence was long- recovery and consolidation of royal au出ority in

Myanmar under

Konbaung dynasty and in Siam under Taksin could not have occurred simply through of arms or even strategic alliances. Despite由e con出uing strength of local loyalties, the resurgence of these powerful kingdoms suggests由at in the major river the

the force

valleys

of mainland Southeast Asia identification with a larger entity based

on由e culture,

and language of the dominant ethnic group was beginning to take root. In foreshadowing the shape of future states on the mainland, Europeans had already begun to publish regional atlases that included territorial boundaries between what they saw as religion,

separate countries. 52

role in this development, as a

leader

tax

policy of distributing goods

Viet,

natural disaster, wars, and political upheaval could easily

Dang Trong.

its

Dai

of

reminds us of the potential仕ag过ity of regimes that seemed strongly entrenched. Eco-

governed by local lords with their

charitable thieves"

rebellion in

fall

independent Ngoai],

Malay

In 1760 a Dutch

map

clearly divided A严1tthaya’s territories企om the

and outlined the borders of Ava, Pegu, Cochin China (Dang Trong], and Champa. polities,

Laos, Tonkin

[Dang

? ・・-

279

280

:?,

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

Apart from Spanish-produced of later developments are absent

ASIA, 1400-1830 Philippines, such cartographic projections

maps of the

from the island world. As we have noted

in the previous

continued to be weak because geographic fragmentation

chapter, centralizing trends

uplands of encouraged the maintenance of small polities which, like those in the

the

own identity. Throughout the region出e among these smaller communities depended

mainland, maintained a strong sense of their creation of e的ctive unities

and federations

social ties. In the island areas, however, the

on the maintenance of economic, cultural, and escalating effects of

European penetration dramatically influenced the nature

of these

and collaborative relationships. Dutch willingness to support local contenders strategies by for power with force of arms仕eed many local lords from using traditional which ties with allies and client states were negotiated. This distortion of political and

interactive

cultural patterns, often triggered

by economic

persons of prowess directed primarily at the

Such

rebellions,

Madura wrote to

a potential rebel in 1767,“I ...

results.

As

a prince of

have personally experienced what happened

you should

of resistance] will surely be destructive.”53 it is

local rulers they supported.

and destitution were almost invariable

when my father opposed the Company sources

Dutch and the

behind which lay an accumulation of resentment, were not undertaken

lightly, for death, flight,



factors, contributed to rebellions led by

deliberate carefully

Although these

conflicts

... the

loom

outcome

large in the

important to stress that even in the Spanish Philippines the reach of

the

colonial administration was always limited. Elsewhere in the island world direct European

authority was confined to a relatively small effort to

centers, and any

es extend beyond these enclaves was constrained by inadequate resources,

geographical

environment,

and the sheer complexity of indigenous

relationships.

53

number of ports and urban

Cited in Margana,“Java’s Last Frontier,”89.

the

interpolity

Early

modern

TIMELINE Early

Southeast Asia: the last phase, 178os-183os

modern Southeast Asia: the

last

phase, 1780s…1830s

Anti-VOC rebellion

Eastern Archipelago

in

Increased llanun raiding throughout the archipelago British victory in

the Fourth Angl。一Dutch war opens the seas to

free trade

Nuku

leads rebellion in the Eastern Archipelago

Chakri dynasty established

Bangkok

in

Tay Son capture Saigon Figure 7 .1. Ilanun wamor. In this sketch made from life an Ilanun warrior

Ava conquers Rakhine Onset of Siam-Ava wars

carries a kampilan (scimitar-like sword)

decorated with human hair, and is wearing a rattan skull cap to protect his head. He the is also holding a lance, point of which would have been manufactured by a

European or Chinese

him from attack by

letting of warfare, b川it mea卢that the bleeding

from a wound would be

less

an enemy. From

assumed by Dutch Republic

Nguyen dynasty established, country renamed Vietnam

British

also

Frank Mar町at, Borneo

affairs

Padri

War

Cambodia accepts Vietnamese

bladed weapons. These red, vests were often dyed symbolic of the blood-

visible to

its

Wahabi capture Mecca;

ironmongery. He wears a vest stuffed with kapok to orotect

Collapse of VOC;

in

central

Sumatra

”protection”

take control of various Dutch possessions

in island

Southeast Asia Galleon trade

in

Spanish Philippines ends; eruption of Mount



ana

w!th the India川rchipelago:

Drawings of Costume ana

Longman, Scenery (London: and Brown, Green

Longmans, 1848), 207. Image courtesy of James Warren.

Anti-Dutch rebellion

in

Ambon



British establish

Cham

Singapore as a free port

rebellion leads to tighter Vietnamese restrictions

Anglo甲Dutch Treaty divides Malay world into spheres First

British

Anglo-Burmese War; defeat of Myanmar and

Treaty of

Yandabo

and Dutch

signing of

284电,S

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST Java

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

War against the

Dutch, led by Javanese prince Dipanagara

Th

归此of the

ei

witnessed significant

Unofficial British recognition of Siamese control over northern

terize the closing

shif汪S

in local

and global power relationships由at charac-

phase of the early modern period

Malay States

mainland, Siam, Myanmar, and a newly unified Vietnam

Lao rebellion against Bangkok



Dutch introduce the Cultivation System (forced

deliveries)

in Java

ASIA, 178os-183os

tr叶ect。可of administrative

and

all

On

in Southeast Asia.

the

seemed on course to maintain

cultural consolidation.

By

the 1830s, however, the

balance of power was already weighted in favor of advancing European economic inter- British maritime ests, notably those of Britain. The Dutch had been steadily overtaken by superiority in

technology, cartography, and shipbuilding, and the Fourth Anglo一Dutch

War (1780-4) brought to an end the waters.

by the forces

On

December 1799 the

affairs

trade in Malay-Indonesian

monopoly of

of the

now

bankrupt Company were assumed

new Batavian Republic, formed after the invasion of the Netherlands by Napoleonic able to in 1795. Although the Netherlands was no longer a global power, it was

maintain 1824,

31

VOC

its

of position in the Indonesian archipelago through the Anglo-Dutch Treaty

by which

Britain’s

its

territorial stake in Southeast Asia

was acknowledged.

maritime dominance in Asia was confirmed by

control in India

and the establishment of the new丘ee

its

expanding

trade po口s of

Penang (1786) and

Singapore (1819). In 1826, following their victory in the且rst of three

Wars, the British also forced concessions.

ment

in

The

British

saw

Myanmar

their

to

make

Vietnam was fueled by missionary and

Anglo-Burmese

significant territorial

prim町European

rival as

territorial

and moneta可

the French, whose

involve-

nationalist ambitions由at envisioned

Southeast more active involvement in Asia, especially in China. Although the mainland withstand Asian states continued to send tribute to China, the Qing dynasty’s inability to that future bleak unrelenting European pressure was already evident. The poverty and numbers of confronted so many Chinese peasants was reflected in the ever-growing lives. their migrants who flocked to Southeast Asia carrying hopes of improving

new movement由at regarded many

Developments in the Middle East also cast a long shadow, for

Muhammad Abdul Wahab (1703-92), practices common in the Islamic world, such as

leader,

led a

in

Saudi Arabia a

unacceptable accre- saint veneration, as

of holy tombs shocked captured Mecca in 1803, the destruction attract adherents. Southeast Asian Muslims、but the call for a return to a p旧er faith did th川ad b?en Stemming from the hear?lands 。门slam itself, attacks on the 1叫zation 肌旧rm into such a hallmark of Southeast Asian Muslim l出injected a new tension that concernea questions about the extent of acceptable religious adaptation, questions

tions.

When the Wahabi

followers of other

world faiths as well. in the world-wide book has argued, Southeast Asia was deeply implicated 叫nent of pe帆commodities, ideas, and technologies tha aracteri中e :::?y As

this

modern period. Perhaps, however,

it

was the environment由at

s yielded the most impre

川叫叫on of阳global connecti

n the island of Sumbawa, reputably the greatest in 92,ooo people. In the

human experience’.

surrounding islands tsunamis, ash

..

a……

!--叫,m负l

crop incmerauuu, _

fallout,

285

286 I说A

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

death,

and famine

cost the lives of

many thousands more. But the

effects

were

felt

world-

wide and brought dramatic changes in global climates. In India the regular monsoon pattern was disrupted, with long periods of drought followed by heavy rains and flooding. In China and Japan winters were unusually severe and the

summer

extraordinarily hot,

while eastern America and Europe experienced extreme cold with consequent crop

and food riots. Inspired by a sunless “year without a summer,'’Lord Byron’s apocalyptic poem“Darkness" speaks of a world engulfed in war, burned palaces, over-

failures

Various

In

phrai to

178os-183os拽287

measures were instituted to strengthen authori可over these populations, par-

newly acquired or outlying areas, or in places regained

ticularly in tion.

ASIA,

after

enemy occupa-

Siam the Chakri kings continued the practice promoted by Taksin of requiring be identified

by

tattoos

permanently marked. This

on

form of

their

hands or wrist so

that their status

would be

identification, obviously well suited to marshal

men

war and to organize tax pa严nents, could also be quite complex, indicating whether

for

was exempt or assigned to pa口icular

an individual

Myanmar population

duties,

such as cu忧ing grass for

counts were an important factor

in tightening central

and starving and dying populations. In Sumbawa the eruption was popularly interpreted as divine punishment for the ruler’s godless behavior and thus a warning for future generations. For the composer of a Malay syair (narrative

elephants.

poem), the immediate devastation was also a reminder that trade was the lifeblood oflocal society, for without the rice and foodstuffs brought by foreign ships the survivors would

now included boys from the age of nine rather than eighteen as had previously been the

turned kings, devastated

cities,

have died of starvation.

In

over the workforce,

control

Furthermore, while tax

necessa巧to order

Increased centralization on the mainland

of a

priorities

first

periodically

evaluated. Indeed,

mainland and island Southeast Asia have resulted in a historiography that o丘en appears to be dealing with two unconnected regions. Studies of island Southeast Asia have been more

neighbors.“The

By

the ways in which local societies responded.

contrast, in

focus has been on powerful dynasties and the administrative

mainland Southeast Asia

and

the

cultural integration that

laid the basis for the evolution of later nation-states. Narratives are largely structured

around the careers of

a handful of

prominent

ments and comparisons of the extent

to

leaders, almost always male, with assess-

which

their actions



especially in dealing with

Europeans) helped or hindered the state-building process. While the divergence between

mainland and island Southeast Asia in the early modern era it

does

reflect the significant differences that

to the intrusive presence of the

When we compare it is

all

is

partially historiographical,

came about during this

Europeans in the

period, due primarily

islands.

developments across mainland Southeast Asia during由is

evident that the organization and expansion of resources

the core areas一the watershed of the Irrawaddy in

Siam, and the Red and

Mekong

Rivers in

and expanding food production. In especially in the fertile lowlands,

Myanmar,

Vietnam一there

grasslands, extension of wet-rice agriculture,

is still

is

time,

a shared concern. In

the

Chao Phraya

clearance of forests

in

and

publicly burnt, the

lists

efforts to regulate

Tay Son soon found

the

Vietnamese

officials

registers

were restored and

considered出is careful surveillance

them仕om

their

“less

civilized"

Khmer

one memorial,“but up until now its and and adult males have wandered about and have not been registered

Cambodia

territ。可is broad,'’noted

controlled.”I

Assertion of royal significant

autho向over

religion

step in the centralization process.

another and the application of law was

Konbaung kings actively intervened to ensure

precepts of adequately supe凹ised and that由e of a Buddhist teaching were maintained. Royal sponsorship resulted in the production norms, especially large corpus of Buddhist texts and a renewed promotion of Buddhist Bud- among upland communities. The Konbaung’s Chakri counterparts also convened monks should reach dhist councils, commissioned copies of the Tipitika, and insisted由at Nonetheless, although high standards and be tested through rigorous examinations. the削itions of locali川on w已re debates re伊rding“correct" practices c叫d be intense, instance, notwithstandmg generally sufficiently strong to reach some accommodation. For

出at the

his

religious training

goal of reforming由e

of

monks was

sangha, the Burmese ruler Bodawpaya

(r.

1782-1819) eventually

agreed th

The

style

of monks' robes

worn should not be a matter of concern,

for气he

dhamma is

development or repair of irrigation systems,

turn, this led to a natural increase in population,

which was augmented by internal migration,

of war captives and, in the urban centers,

new

arrivals

tA

relocation

from abroad,。丘en

Chines巳-

it

when the exiled N部1yen Anh became the of his imperial name Gia Long (r. 1802-20), one

population a prime feature distinguishing

soldiers

made

to be constructed if由ey were to maintain

was to ensure that land and population

of the

also

Tay Son regime

surprisingly, in 1802

new dynasty with

In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries the di旺ering historical experiences of

concerned with the increasingly intrusive and well-documented European presence and

documents were

Not

to indicate service

establishing registration offices and issuing identity cards.

revenue and corvee

administration. ruler

first

by

outside the时llage

was used

registration, but the

Though probably not widely enforced, the Tay Son

case.

their

ta忱。oing

Vietnam had a long tradition of village

obligations.

travel

- Noteworthy features of the period

and occasionally

I??:出::ti?:::?:?::吭’::;:τ;'.';.?:{1??;;n?:e?;江;11:?;?::??:. \..Ouncil on East Asian Studies, 1988, reprint of 1971 edition), 145.



MODERN SOUTHEAST

288‘击A HISTORY OF EARLY

concerned with the clothes one wears. The

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

dhamma

is

only concerned with the

practice.

Let them wear what they want."2

for

Similar patterns are evident in

nom

an“anti-feudal”

leaders looked to classically trained literati for advice, while their

movement, Tay Son interest in

Vietnam. Though often lauded as

promoting education and popularizing Confucian

classics

through vernacular

translations reflects a recognition of the merits of a system dedicated to the

maintenance of the

social order.

The

first

Nguyen

ruler,

Gia Long, attempted

to restore

Confucian ethics as the basis of government by prohibiting certain practices deemed “unorthodox,'’particularly targeting Buddhist, Daoist, and Christian ritual, which he

But

despite limitations on

festivals, localized

Mahayana Buddhism

believed encouraged u叫ustified beliefs in magical protection. the building of pagodas

and the celebration of

(intermixed with Theravada practices in the southern areas) continued to thrive, especially popular to reassert

among court women. Minh Mang (r. 1820-41) was far more concerned to promote Confu-

Confucian ethics as the basis for state administration, and

cian ideals in terms of family organization Christianity

and was

and gender

hierarchies. Yet his host山句to

and bans on the construction of new churches did not

persecution of Christians until the 1830s,

escalate into direct

when missionaries were accused of involvement

in political unrest.

expanding trade, vibrant domestic markets, and closer surveillance of tax allowed for the maintenance of an

and

social relationships of the

elite lifestyle in

which the

dominant ethnic group established desirable norms women, members of the royal family, and o丘en rulers

for the

society at large. Courtiers, educated

themselves contributed to the cultural vitality of the age, music, and sponsoring the creation of performance

composing

and dance. Above

literary works and

all,

the royal centers even

were distinguished by their great palaces and magnificent temples, which amazed Europeans familiar with the glories of India. In 1795 Captain Michael Symes (c.

1753-1809), sent by the English East India

capital,

spoke of the

Company

as an envoy to the Burmese

and splendor" of the monaste町where the head of the sangha to it cannot fail most magnificent of its kind in the universe

“size

resided,“perhaps the







impress a stranger."3

There

is,

regulations,

Although codified laws, standardized currencies in each of the three major mainland kingdoms

of course, another side to the picture.

and

to阳and labor obligations was especially marked

common

momentum

communities

model Chin

take

reluctant to

found their origin

the

as

clothing, beliefs,

Vietnamese,

Myanmar,

wives because the as

disfiguring,

lesser place

for instance,

by the elevation

Burmese men were

facial tattoos central to the status of

and even those Karen who adopted as

monks. In Vietnam,

rebellions o丘en like the

determined to inculcate values deemed morally

superior,

court,

requiring non-Viet communities to abandon

and language. But these norms could

such as

figures attributed

Such movements o丘en gained

Ho Xuan Huong

their traditional lifes可le,

also be questioned

(1772-1822 ), whose

load of

stones/Why devote so

despite

much

pain for so

little

by educated

witty but irreverent

poet叩on topics ranging from sexual relationships to the religious

Finally, of

social equilibrium.

denied ordination

Vietnam’s great literary

of

the Lao in the northeast and

in the marginalization experienced by minority groups

Nguyen

renewed efforts

acerbic

demands

rigorous

exceeded acceptable bounds an

they had been relegated to a

felt

girls as

Buddhism were allegedly

Cham

among

When demands

as superior. In

women were regarded

adult

more

and o丘en

life“as

heavy

favor?”established her as one

a驴ues.4

undoubted moves towards

greater centralization, the mandala heritage

independence and nominal allegiance to an overlord was not easily cast aside. could be issued from some center, but ensuring that edicts were actually imple-

regional

Orders

mented in outlying areas seasonal

limitations

on

was extremely

travel.

nominal. Provincial lords

best

In

and di伍cult because of geographical distance,

many cases acknowledgement of royal

and

in solemn tributary kings might a而rm their loyalty

and send their daughters in marriage, but in their

rituals

the capital,

authority was at

own domains, far removed from

they could effectively operate as independent polities.

The

traditional auton-

was sufficiently (Ligor) in southern Siam, for instance, great for of A yu忧haya in its governor to declare himself king a丘er the destruction was not a 1767, and in the early nineteenth century some European visitors assumed it 1763一1832) province but an independent vassal of Bangkok. In Vietnam, Le Van Duyet (c. omy of

Nakhon

Si

Thammarat

叫 m_ilit

Dinh after Vietnam's reunification、he charted his

own course in determining

policie s



especi

Cited in Jacques P. Leider,“ArafifiavasT and GamavasT Forms of Buddhist Monasticism in Myanmar,”in Mentalities, Interpretations



if

one cultural

of

and

powers to restore justice

with

prestige,

was created that favored the emergence of millenarian

environment

Gia



minority groups in the north.

upland

collection

clothing, language, religion,

and enhanced royal power and

and labor could represent a heavy burden on the populace. In Siam, resistance

tribute

as a

Across the mainland the increased revenue that flowed to royal centers through

center

strengthened the

178os-183os气289

ASIA,

and

Practices,

Monks: Towards Further Study of Variant Asia: Buddhist Legacies in Mainland Southeast Chalemermpow edited by Franc;:ois Lagirarde and Paritta

Koanantakool (Paris: Ecole Fran伊ise d’Extreme-Orient; Bangkok: Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre, 2006), 124. Michael Symes, An Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava in the Year 1795 (Edinburgh. Constable and Co, 1827), vol.

I:

139.

~川 he1r

populations

4:叫山i The

by targeting more vulnerable

Nguyen The t叫ρuddhism H叫d Phil叫h?,20毗241. }

in

minorities.

Viet仰i

(Sar

As

a Tai saying has

it,

ti川eseard ntonia, TX: Council

巧0

6 A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫30

EARLY MODERN SOUTHFA凭 U HiEAST ASIA,圳os-183os ,.L 伐

“Put vegetables into baskets

and kha (non-Tai upland peoples) into muang.”5 Whole could be wiped out as the inhabitants were killed or carried off as slaves, and as survivors who fled to由e forests died of malaria and dysentery. In出is last phase of the

Malay-Indonesian archipelago the Dutch used a combination of armed

In由e

villages

modern period the process of “centralization" was slowly moving ahead, but by no means unchallenged or even inevitable. early

it

a们创es

persuasion,

was

'.xpanded, Spanish ale他-

mayores, though ch吨ed with ir咐menting Man削instruc-

tlons, could preside er semi-autonomous fiefdoms. The prima叩(although frequently tenuous) links between Manila and the countryside where the bulk of the people lived depended on the friars, who acted as agents of the Crown as well as the Church, but whose effectiveness t:ness was constrained by their small numbers. Furthermore、clerical lines of

communication often broke down because C叫eration between the the 。rders,叫the Church hierarchy was

independent, but were nevertheless responsive to their Dutch “lord" Solemn ceremomes were held in which chiefs and sultans reiterated

Batavia.

in

?,斗

had

al

among Filipinos themselves. :叫he time of the Span灿…l the eth比com向阳ven wi灿small islands had Deen igno时by subs飞ming 1叩istically

ch

and咄u吨r differentiated groups u毗labels

as“Tagal二g,”“V叫an,'’“Bicol,”or“Ilocano."

specific Catholic orders

between the different

The p削

tended to highlight boundaries of jurisdiction because

to the sea,

la

townships were separated by mountains and headlands that reached down sea voyages were hazardous when rough weather prevailed during the

and even

southwest monsoon.

taken until

Peninsula,

Su 1l

In

central

dyna阳or

collapse in

individuals were acknowledged as overlords beyond a

was

said,

and

one could

travel for a

irrigated rice fields

pa时of the

hundred miles without

had expanded

into areas由at

s阳the growth 向opulation, the movement towards political consoli- Agung in the early seventeenth century had been per n-

began under Sultan

by the intrusion of the Dutch.

halted

(ruled directly

un?er vass仙rds



yo盯akarta

:;;;:;:2:?:?・-I-?-

Ill司ny

prince or

J创ors

in



the north coast and the eastern

mιm

independent, there was no pronounced move towards internal

ofi且cial

from developing a base of people and territory仕om which t 0

yogyakar

the

Weaker than

officials);

answerable川e Dutch); and仙川rulers川ant川 and Su附rta m t 1 J Altho ugh the central Javanese

yet geographical distance

Although like

by VOC

divided between Batavia

C则guous and cou



ch a challe r1 c::nge, dmin・

By the 1780s Java was

Yo阴阳the仰nages granted t?由e sultan's rela

prever川1

vuυmy.

it

an uncultivated spot,

Bu

and

d叩灿g

in the latter

叫Hangan region

h en

VOC

Dutch operations, and

which most resembles the mainland, the twin processes and population growth are pa口icularly evident

and the Pri:in

)』va,

as the nerve center of

The

a:i genera

that



interests.

Southeast Asia continued to operate as a poly-centered environ-

century. Here,

encountering

ient

VOC

!ava,

production

g?rs.

to threaten

key role

area.

eighteenth

ti

power

Batavia’s

Malay

so that island

「e川ere no Jfllited

::↑:??ns,

Vege毗s into Baskets and People into Towns," in Luc川

resources, such as

towards extending territorial control in the archipelago were not under- after 1830. As yet the British had no thought of direct control over the

we do encount

rulers

and poor land communication allowed local keen to exert

direct control over their

s阳of Palem::ng咄o in 1792 ini」:…Y削iste

二、mce obligation s,

???:,nJ?:i:? ??::?:!?e「i吨“Put

human

efforts

rivalries

us communities encouraged a jealous oversight of “their" people and fed petty animosities that limited co-operation. Despite the optimistic appear- of Spanish maps, interactio impeded by geographic distance and the isolation of set阳nts.归山e island of Sam矶岛r example,

ι』cause coastal

serious

food

ended

temporarily

li99

kmgdoms wer essentially ~,were

relig"

r灿1

individual rulers

gaining sufficient

归Ii守from

ently

accentuated and reshaped differences

should they or their descendants prove unfaithful. Outside the and Spanish control there were certainly cases where

w「h

datJon

many respec队despite Chri阳

Philippines

Q的na附wea鸣叫叫剖threatened

expand both economic connections and

附re able to

::n

continuously disrupted by quarrels over

questions relatmg to jurisdiction.

their

the

retribution

VOC

of

areas

less出an

S二cu

force、

n伽ork们仙e山s and vassal削es whic卢

loose

;呐川eVOC, u叫阳ed items like

and mainland Southeast Asia

In the archipelago, echoes of centralizing tendencies like those in the mainland are most obvious in the Spanish-dominated northern and central Philippines although, as we have noted, appearances could be deceptive. From Madrid’s perspective, the Governor of the Philippines wielded great power as the representative of the Spanish king and飞rice-patron of the Roman Catholic Church, but in practice his influence was limited because civil authority did not reach far beyond Manila and the major towns. In Manila itself the Governor confronted an o丘en hostile bureaucracy. As the number of provinces

er毗a

remained essentially

upernatural

Contrasts and similarities between island

to

any trends toward greater administrative

ages

centralization were

on the mainland.

NY: Cornell Univer叩out?:?:: 飞;;可;立2;二:??:;::;二:;;t;rp仇Dipana伊m

and

the

End

of an Old

Or们Java,

291

292



(?.

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

Notwithstanding these differences between island and mainland Southeast

Asia,

it is

possible to track regional similarities, for the island areas also experienced increasing monetization and the growth of export industries, although these were largely underwrit- ten by European interests. Changing land use, such as the introduction of cash crops and the expansion of rice growing, is similarly evident, but on

VOC

demand

the

for slaves.

This

demand showed no

maintaining fortresses like that at

from Sulu and Borneo were st山able

Raiders

effect.

Zamboanga as well

the peasant巧・

commerce, forced rice fields to be abandoned,

revenue did flow to the courts and, as in the mainland, the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries are characterized by flourishing literary and artistic activity.

In island Southeast Asia the refinement of Javanese court culture has received greatest attention, but important developments also occurred in other areas. In the Philippines a long Tagalog poetic version of the Pasyon, the life of Christ, composed in 1814, drew connections between Filipino experiences under the Spanish and those of Christ and his

followers under

Roman

tion, duplication,

The advent of lithographic printing stimulated the publica- and circulation of Malay books all over the archipelago dealing with

topics that could range

rule.

from personal experiences to entertaining poems and moral

treatises.

contentious in areas in close contact with the Islamic heartlands. However, reformists were usually less concerned with theological issues than with the enforcement of approved clothing, correct

male-female

relations,

and the prohibition of “unlslamic”practices

such

gambling and cock』ghting. The challenge of European penetration could sometimes

forge

Muslim

but the variant ways in which “being Muslim" was manifested in ordinary lives continued to reflect the archipelago’s ethnic and linguistic diversity. A时erance for localization thus allowed for the mysticism assoc附d古th the Java飞rane alliances,

leader Dipanagara,

who was

not affected by叭T ahabi reforms.

evident in the Islamizing areas of eastern Sulawesi, polities

could maintain both a

taken in head-hunting raids.

mosque and

On

The same

tolerance was

where one of the most

Islamized

a traditional structure for keeping

throughout Southeast Asia the relegation of animist伊peoples to the bottom of the

hierarchy was gathering pace. praised Orang Laut boatmen

On

skulls

the other hand, this should not hide the fact出at cultural

Ujung Salang (Phuket) a Malay poem and skill in attempting to repel a Burmese

the island of

for their courage

For the renowned writer Munsyi Abdullah ( 1796一1854), however, the Orang Laut were little better than animals, while the forest-dwelling Orang Asli had no religion and ate food that could not be countenanced attack.

One

in Islam. factor clearly distinguishes island Southeast Asia

during the late eighteenth

century一the upsurge of maritime raiding. Although banditry and “lawless" behavior on land and sea can be tracked throughout regional history, especially in times of rising

poverty, the seventeenth century

had witnessed a marked increase in raiding because

of

to travel north to

Luzon and the Bicol

Apart from the capture of thousands of people, the

and

raids

undermined

led to the depopulation of

numerous

settlements.

coastal

Raiding in the

Malay-Indonesian archipelago

also increased,

due to a combination of

between rulers and sea people, independent marauding by princes“seeking fortune,”and above all by the influx of fleets from the Sulu sultanate in search of

weakening

ties

and booty. Every year from the 1790s Sulu raiders surged out into the archipelago, and because the most notorious were the Iranun/Ilanun from Magindanao, the northwest slaves

monsoon came to be called the “Ilanun season" (musim Lanun) (see Fi思ire chapter).

The Sulu

have been

attacks, so different in scale

and

VOC

and

treaties typically

repatriate their tions in

and

most studied, but other groups were

Archipelago the capture

Mirroring patterns on the mainland, the question of the degree to which religion could be localized was also a matter of debate, and among Muslims this debate was most

as

on their return trip.

their

and expeditions had little

as patrols

impunity, attacking the isolated coasts of Leyte and Samar in the Visayas

Peninsula with

much

sign of abating, and in the Philippines,

where Muslim raiding reached unprecedented heights by the 1750s, large expenditures on

Java at least demands for quotas of forest products and agricultural products placed a particularly heavy burden on

Yet

ASIA, 1780s一1830s

from Orang Laut

raiding,

also heavily involved. In the Eastern

ransom of slaves by Papuan

included clauses requiring

rajas of

fleets

was long-standing,

western

New

Guinea to

popula- captives. In the late eighteenth century slave-raiding of vulnerable

Archipelago acquired greater importance

the Eastern

because of declining 由at colonial

sale or

intensity

7.1 at start of

profits仕om the spice trade.

powers and local

driven practice that

allies

benefitted

were able

some

to

It

was not

as a source of revenue

until the nineteenth centu可

move effectively against an

economically

participants but had ruined the lives of untold

numbers of others.

Demarcating political by

and

cultural boundaries

and heightened competition for control over land combined to challenge the mandala concept由at

In the

period covered

people

and aggressive European activity

this chapter,

From the time of their arrival the Dutch had been preoccupied with determining the boundaries of their own domains and those of when used to divide their allies, but European-style cartography was highly inappropriate had been the cornerstone of interpolity relations.

communities long connected the

by

Sulawesi, for example, seas rather than land. In northern chiefs who with various coastal and island

Dutch signed treaties in 1677 and 1679

recognized the sidered to

as overlord. In so

be under their authority丘om

The obvious Sangir

VOC

anomaly

in these treaties

Dutch con- doing they distinguished areas the Spanish sphere. those regarded as located in出e

was the separation between

the “Dutch" islands of

and Talaud (adi

cu tions.

occum:u The most egregious example of由is disregard for traditional connectivities

293

294

l,'飞A

HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

in 1824,

when

the

Anglo-Dutch Treaty drew an arbitrary

line

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST through the

Straits of

Melaka, separating the Malay Peninsula from Sumatra by allocating the lands and above the line to a British “sphere of influence”and those below the line to

seas

the Dutch.

To some

extent the

European drive to stake

traditionally

Spanish, for such intrusion posed a fundamental challenge to the perceived unity of the mundo hispanico, the Spanish world. This imagined world is creatively depicted in an

engraving produced in Manila in 1761, which shows Hispania as a beautiful woman,

The

islands.

moved friars

is

Spain,

whose mantle

British attack of

to forestall

had made

is

the Americas,

and whose

feet are the Philippine

1762 was st山fresh in Spanish

memo巧and Manila now any further challenges. Over the previous hundred years Dominican

several unsuccessful effo口s to establish a

mission in the Batanes islands, the northernmost province of the Philippines. In 1783, however, these islands were formally annexed, with local leaders promised peace and prosperity in return for the accept…e of Christiani可and their agreement to“constitute with us the body们n nation."1 value,

its

sions.

As

with the

Though

the Batanes was seasonally ravaged by hurricanes and of no economic acquisition registered Spanish determination to legalize their territorial posses- a reward for his efforts, the governor-general title

“Conde de

la

Conquista de

las Islas

Batanes Islands).

was honored by the King of Spain

Batanes" ( Count of the Conquest of the

to identi马r fixed

central element in British relations with the border areas of Manipur

Myanmar

boundaries between飞tates”was

because of contested jurisdiction



and Assam. This is not to imply that Southeast Asians were and maritime boundaries that determined communal and usu- Forest dwellers and sea peoples, for instance, had clear ideas of the spaces in

fruct rights.

which they could仕eely roam, in some cases legitimized through the

legendary ancestor. Riv

between domai umams, reached

“the

sections of rivers

rl anct a sixteenth

end of Sunda" and

travels of

were commonly used to mark

some

a division

century poet from west Java thus describes how he

a丘er crossing a river, came “into the Javanese area."8 In ?i?ilar臼shion, during the seventeenth and for most of the eighteenth century the Li River acted as the boundary

between

Dai飞Tiet' s



southern and northern domains. More

however, territories merged into each other creating indeterminate frontiers borders stretching岛r ins :::e, υm one mountain pea』E to another, or across a range of hills. Control over land was typically,

we叫…时conceived…时lines

actively developed through

specific cultural

and Myanmar. Their

and receiving

gi丘s

and

titles

Mar川叫al Llorente, A阳ing of Cul

negotiated a

leaders adopted a Sinic

now

far less

accepting of previously tolerated arrangements, referred to border polities as“rats”whose

back and

heads swiveled tribute to

forth, as they“pretended" loyalty to the

Myanmar.9 Against

this

background,

Qing while rendering

not surprising that a preoccupation

it is

M出establishing boundaries - between villages, between religious and crown lands, between

Rakhine and adjoining Burmese domains -

is

particularly evident in

Bodawpaya maintained出at“any encroachment on

where

breadth,

is

virtually stealing."10 In

another’s land,

rebuking the Tay Son

Myanmar,

even for a hair’s

leaders, the first Chakri ruler

1782-1809) was also insistent on the need to be aware of where boundaries were located.“As to the assertion that you were not certain where the territorial border lay Rama

I (r.

and desired that

been the

In the

Bangkok dispatch an army

custom of all

vassal territories

to be stationed at the limits of the border,

it

states, large as well as small, to be aware of the limits of their

as well as their

common

territorial borders.”11

competitive climate that characterized interstate relations in the mainland,

European cartographic traditions did exercise

some

influence, but local

mapping was

more concerned with the locations of people of different ethnic origins,

famous or

memorable landmarks, trade or p且grimage routes. Demarcations of realms, using natural features such as mountains or rivers, were only indeterminate, but were nonetheless becoming a significant tool in statecra丘. In 1795 British envoys to

number of Burmese maps, including one that detailed China,

noting the days of travel

topographical picture

Burmese forces

of the

moved

Myanmar

collected a

the route丘om Amarapura

to

between each township, while another provided a As of Ava and the entire Irrawaddy watershed.

kingdom

into unfamiliar terrain,

documentary guides could be extremely

use刨and Bodawpaya himself noted that his armies would be equipped with maps, supplemented by the knowledge of local people. Seventeen Thai maps discovered in

Yunnan

China’s Patterson Giersch, Asian Borderlands: the Transformation of Qing (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Pre队2006), 119. Center for Than Tun, ed叮Royal 1598-1885. Part. 4: 1782-1787 (Kyoto: Orders of Burma, Frontier



onser飞ration Society, 1983), 7S.

?3?叫uyn叫Teeuw, ed. 叫肌TJ叩

skillfully

in return. Chinese of且cials,

Cited in C.

?::::r::a「;a

demanded

norms and were thus more

and acknowledged Qing suzerainty while sending envoys to Bangkok and the

Burmese capital





was

geographic bounds of allegiance. In the border areas of south-

relationship with China, Siam,

tripartite

se

polities.

Yunnan, for instance, the Tai polity of Sipsongpanna

western

resources and thus

challenge from powerful states that

and conformity with

concerned to identi命the

lifes可le

now under

were

human

domain. The defense of a “boundary”per

importance to Southeast Asian

unconditional allegiance

over

indifferent to territorial

of

little

Such relaxed attitudes

has

The European preoccupation

was

if it

became a significant part of a ruler’s

territorial claims in island Southeast Asia

was a response to the flur巧of map-making and charting by British sea captains. Their discovery of new routes to China that passed through the Philippines struck fear into the

whose head

but only

important,

ASIA, 178os-183os



AD

So毗a川sian St叫战Kyo卢Un如创町,1986), 121. Th峨山and Chadin Flood. trans. and eds叶The Dynastic Reign (Tokyo:

Centre for

E卢st

The First Chronicles of the Bangkok Era.

Asian Cultu;al Studies, 1978), 204-5.

・r.:-



295

296

i玲、A

山…ODE RN…HEAST ASIA, 1780叫30s毯巧7

HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

1996 dating from the early Bangkok period highlight areas that were of

strategic or

economic importance, giving particular attention to transport and navigation

routes and

to frontier areas, in places indicating that“the

one border

village

wished to be

allied

border terminates here."12

A notation that

with Vietnam or Cambodia suggests

that the

now more rigorously demanded and that the traditions whereby frontier communities had been able to paci命two or even three overlords was now coming to allegiances

were

an end.

The shrinking and increasingly measurable world in which Southeast Asians now operated the

is

nicely symbolized in the miniature globe that

Susuhunan of Surakarta

depiction of a

monarch

motif for European in face of reality

whom

or a

in 1815.

Stamford

Raffles presented to

the time of the early voyages to Asia the

famous navigator holding the world in

his

palm was a favored

but on the other side of the world such hubris largely dissipated

artists,

and the need

had been born

From

to

compromise with

in the Indies,

local cultures.

VOC officials, many of

adopted indigenous symbols of authority

among them. I have been received by them as

their families as far as the prejudices of religion

kindness and generosity









shall

a child

and domesticated, I may say in

would

allow, universally treated with

Ronggeng dancer. In

ronggeng dancers (who were also singers) were

professional

like the

umbrella and betel box and even the golden anklets worn by Malay royalty. Sometimes we encounter glimpses of very real friendships, such as those made by a young English country trader who wrote in 1786:“Those who say the Malays have no virtues have never lived

Figure 7.2. Java,

common

at all festive

During these performances the ron囚eng dancer invited

the

performance reinforced the of public dancing as an

complacence and pleasure."13 By the time he wrote, however, socializing with the natives was becoming less acceptable in European society, as exemplified in British attitudes to

stereo可pe

James S叫’another co则可trader,

dancers could earn a

invitation to sexual relations.

However, the income,

Malays.”14

By

From

contrast, Southeast Asians

acquired linguistic

remained appreciative of culturally adroit outsiders who

and could operate according to accepted norms, and they saw such people as potential sources of information and technological skills. In Myanmar, Bodawpaya even hired an English sa且or, '‘George,'’to teach English to four Burmese

Vietnamese army organized on the European model. Although indigenous practices could treat many illnesses, Europeans were also respected for their medical knowledge and its potential for dealing with epidemics and disease. Thus, while many Muslims were suspi- cious of the

new European methods of inoculation because it was thought to interfere with

the divine plan, the Sultan of 12

13

14

y ogyaka此a

supported

its

introduction into Java in 1804.

Santanee Phasuk and Philip Stott, eds叮Royal Siamese Maps: War and Trade in Nineteenth Century Thailand (Bangkok: Riverbooks, 2004), 15, 29. Cited in Anne Bulley, Free Mariner: John Adolphus Pope in the East Indies, 1786-1821 (London: British Association for Cemeteries in South Asia, 1992), 109_10_ , Anne Bulley, Free Mariner, 107.

most accomplished

considerable and might even marry well. T. S. Raffles,

I ・

The History of

?1..:3切切or衍吮卢?ct

(London, 1817. Reprint, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press,

Java

skills

pupils so they could operate as translators and interpreters. Gia Long employed French engineers to construct the citadel walls of Hue, and French training helped develop a

watching

men to dance with her in return for money or gifts. The erotic nature of

always think of the inhabitants of由is spot with

who was critici时for living“a vagrant life among the

and

occasions,

belonged to a travelling troupe of dancers and musicians usually

1978), vol.

Believing that

I,

累,.也蝇2、b也h峰’‘’组画,,,,n

?. ?函,良.J?占’慢骂命吧

342.

Western writings would provide access

to these

new forms

of knowledge,

Bodawpaya expressed interest in translating an entire British encyclopedia into Burmese. Other courts were willing to tolerate extraordinary adjustments in court protocol in order to

make foreigners

feel

Java in

1813, the

Raffles,

while Raffles

welcome.

When

Stamford

Susuhunan of Surakarta

Raffles

made an

official visit to central

country dance" with Lady Olivia

“led off a

himself“danced a few couple

[sic]

with the Empress [i.e.出e

Susuhunan’s wi创・”This was an extraordinary event, given由at well-born Javanese women did not dance in public (see Figure 7.2).15

European assertion of their action

and

elicited a critical

own

inter- superiority nonetheless affected cross-cultural

response from Southeast Asians. In 1832

IS?叫overnrner;刊侃侃,优din Jean Gelman Taylo口he ιurasians in

Social



Vietnamese

Wo仙f Batavia: Eu呻ans and

Colonial Indonesia (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984), lOS.

A HISTORY OF EARLY ambassador sent

MODERN SOUTHEAST

to Batavia

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400一1830

wrote about Dutch steamships and sawmills in glowing terms,

but concluded that Europeans would remain barbarians because of their indifference

to

and ignorance of Confucian teaching. Even in Siam, where a court poet spoke approvingly of“merchants from foreign countries" all speaking distinct languages,

social hierarchies

other members of the

elite

saw Europeans as“a dangerous people."16 In a Sumatran epic an

Acehnese prince, deploring the imminence of civil war, utters words “Later

on we

shall

have to

fight against the

Europeans

...

you will

filled

with foreboding:

live to see that later on

others will take possession of the country.”17 For

some perceptive Southeast Asians, like the

Javanese prince Dipanagara, the greatest peril

now posed was

indigenous cultural values and a weakening of moral east

fiber.

The

the potential erosion of

decisions

made by South-

Asian leaders as they confronted this more threatening environment were to

future of the region in

examine

in

more

ways that none could have ever envisaged.

建黑叫opments

We will now turn to

The VOC soon recaptured their post on Riau, but any economic recovery was retarded by protracted battles

between

rival

Chinese divided by culture and language. While laborers

gambier and pepper plantations were Cantonese speakers from Guangdong, traders

in the

附re

Hokkien speakers from Fujian.

after

the dissolution

administration.

Riau's

The Dutch allowed

Although connections with other Malay areas remained strong and

much respected, the imposition of Dutch tari他combined with the establishment of the new British settlement of Singapore in 1819 ensured that the once- were

Riau scholars

port

flourishing

of阳au never regained

vassals

its

former standing.

Siam was intent on regaining control over

Meanwhile, a resurgent

and

rulers

of these states

and then Rama

silver flowers,”as

well as for assistance in the wars against

In the late eighteenth century international rivalries in the

an unprecedented level

as the British

Western Archipelago reached

enforced仕ee trade in Asian seas a丘er their victory in

the Anglo-Dutch飞叮叮. Perceptions of

VOC weakness

revived

Malay hopes of retaking

Melaka, the iconic symbol of past greatness which successive European powers had held since 1511. In 1784, following a period of rising tensions and open conflict with the Dutch, Raja Haji, the Bugis-descended Raja

campaign that

Muda

of Johor-Riau, laid siege to Melaka

in a

The obvious candidate

Muslims elevated to a holy war. The capture of the town was only prevented by the arrival of a large Dutch squadron and Raja Haji's own death. In reply, the

VOC

successfully attacked the island of Riau.

claimed a Dutch vassal and Resentful

ofVOC

The Johor-Riau kingdom was now

Bugis except those local忖born were expelled. impositions, Johor-Riau's Sultan Mahmud (r. 1761-1812),

pro-

all

himself of mixed Malay-Bugis descent, renewed efforts to assert indigenous authority. He recruited the assistance of Ilanun raiders from the Sulu archipelago, who were now

making annual sweeps through the Straits up semi-permanent settlements along

booty and slaves, even setting isolated coasts. With their formidable numbers,

large well-armed boats,

the

16

Cited in Nidhi Eoseewong, Pen

Anderson, 7

and reputation

in search of both

as fierce fighters, the Sulu raiders quickly overcame

VOC garrison in Riau in 1787 but departed just as rapidly with their spoils. Fearful of

Vella,

G.

W.

eds.

and Sail:

Literature

and History in Early Bangkok, Chris Baker and Ben

(Chiang Mai: Silkworm books, 2005. Original version in Thai, 1982), 116; Walter

Siam under Rama J.

with Patani's

and tribute

III (Locust Valley,

Drewes, Hikajat Potjut

Muhamat

NY:

a powerfi.址and prestigious guardian had been

apparent by the fate of rebellious Patani, whose resistance to

quick and merciless punishment. In 1785

two sacred cannon.

from both

was soon evident,

to

it

Siam’s

was overrun by

Bangkok, together

When the Sultan of Kedah was pressed for levies of men

Myanmar and

Siam, he sought to avoid the

EIC

fate of Patani

by

in return for protection.

however, that the British were not willing to confront Siam and

primary concern was to resist competition仕om other European powers. In

l795, after

Napoleon’s invasion of the Netherlands, British troops occupied

VOC

other

demolition

among these

Melaka and

posts to prevent their falling into French hands. The subsequent

was an awesome statement of power and provided with convincing evidence of Britain’s dominance in the Straits. Foremost

of the great

Malay leaders

the

The value of

1786 to lease the offshore island of Penang to the

offering in

出at their

was the English East India

had been specifically advised “to conc过iate

and thousands of prisoners were transported back

Siamese forces

several

who was

and protectors."18

demands had resulted in a

It

for assistance

Malay

the

ally against

and affection of the natives and to teach them to look up to出e English as their

esteem

made painfully

local

Myanmar,

adopted the time-honored strategy of seeking a powerful

Siamese overlord.

台iends

former Malay

for increased tribute through the dispatch of the



Company (EIC), especially since British traders the

its

northern peninsula: Patani, Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu. Faced with

in the

"gold

出eir

The Western Archipelago

the Sultan to return in 1795, but

VOC four years later the Netherlands government took over

of the

demands from Taksin

and South



Sultan and his following le丘for the neighboring island of Lingga.

Dutch retribution, the

affect the

which these decisions were made.

detail the contexts in

ASIA, 178os-183os

Melaka

fort

Malay leaders was the Temeng伊ng, one of the leading traditional officials in kingdom, whose appanage included the Johor River in the southern

Johor-Riau

产叫a

as well as

町om control ?roducts

Singapore and surrounding islands. His r例nues can

over hundreds of Orang Laut, with

who alternated their seasonal collection of sea

iemenggung and one of阳ro claimants to the Johor一Riau throne reached an agreement

F. 18

J. J.

Au思1stin, 1957), 116.

(The Hague: N可hoff, 1979), 63

Cited in Arnold Wright and Thomas H. Reid, The Malay Pe川,zsula: a Record of British Progress Mi仙East (Lo附比Sc巾

in the

';..

299

30。这电A

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

with Stamford Raffles由at allowed the EIC to establish a post on the island of Singapore.

Within three years

had already attracted a cosmopolitan population, including a large number of Chinese migrants, and was annually clearing about a hundred European ships it

and another thousand or so from Asia,

myriads of native boats. Nonetheless, though the EIC relied on legal contracts rather than force, the Temenggong found that any talk of

as well as

power-sharing was a chimera. Clearly unwilling to relinquish their new-found

control, the

EIC

was le丘to

his son

in

1824 deprived the

and grandson

independent “New Johor" (Johor

Temenggong of all

legal authority in Singapore.

and Malay Peninsula.

to resurrect the claims of the past

Bahm) on

the southern

establish an

significant

development was the

rise

present-day Yemen), and the high status

from the Prophet,

signified

by

Hadhrami Arab population

in the

many e时oyed

where出ey became prominent

(from

because of their claimed descent

their

urban bases the commercial ramifications

the Sa川rid network stretched throughout the archipelago as far as in the horse trade.

As

of

Sumba and Sumbawa,

supplies of Javanese teak dwindled,

the east coast Sumatra state of Siak, once a Johor-Riau vassal but

now

independent,

became renowned

for its trees that could supply durable timber for ships and houses. Because of its close connections with Penang, Aceh’s economy was rejuvenated through the revival of the pepper trade and the production of quality betel nut (the prima叮

ingredient in betel chewing), a major item of trade with India. Ships from the new republic, the United States of America, began appearing in Sumatra to buy pepper.

To many Muslims,

the British advance in India

and increased presence

represented a threat that could only be countered cohesion. In 1790 the Kedah nobles attempted Straits

by

appealing to“all Muslims, that is, Bugis, Acehnese, Chulias who dwell at Pulau Pinang."19 Other

men

against the British

new

Islamic century in

AH

by

of Minangkabau, Malays and

Muslims, especially those

the beginning of a

in the Melaka

fostering greater Islamic

to marshal support

who believed that

1200 (CE 1785) portended the coming

of Judgment D町,felt the

first priority was a revitalization of Islam itself and the eradication of unacceptable accretions. Improved maritime communications from Singa-

pore and Penang allowed many believers to they encountered ahabi calls for



stricter

make

Minangkabau

the long pilgrimage to Mecca, where

implementation of Islamic teachings. This

in the Padri

The scale elsewhere,

but the ripples of reformism spread through the region. Perhaps in response to

the

(1803-37) was not repeated

as a center for Islamic scholar-

became an important conduit for reformed Islam by including members of the growing Arab community.

and the Riau court also

sponsoring visiting scholars,

British-Dutch rivalry in the early nineteenth

M出each side hoping to use

tolerance for

al旷After

those

its

who sought

more than

bang in 1825

threatened.



When

instab山可would

and when

conflict, the

rebellious chiefs in

latter’s

drawing a

direct control of

if

Palem-

Ambon. For

their interests appeared

the sultan in 1814 in favor of a

Penang

forces invaded

vis-主-vis

the Siamese. Despite Malay hopes of

carefully avoided policies that could alienate Siam,

Kedah

in 1821

and again

in 1831.

Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 had permanently carved up the Malay boundary line through the middle of the Straits of Melaka, around the

end of Singapore, and vaguely out into the South China Sea, with the lands and

above the line

Dutch sphere. Melaka,

kingmakers

little

other sign of “disloy-

time the

this

southern

show any

intervened to reinstate the previous ruler because of the fear that

maintained a studied neutrality

world,

act as

deter-

justi命Dutch intervention. In the northern Malay Peninsula, however,

British-controlled

By

The Dutch were

of a prestigious dynasty to

Aceh overthrew

assistance,

when the

to indigenous conflicts,

was strong they showed

Dutch assumed

last representative

the British

even

their position

to contact the British or

were equally w山ing to

Penang Arab, the British

centu可extended

native allies to seek advantage.

decade of

and banished the

the British

由eir part,

seas

飞叩ar

by the Thais, Patani developed

humiliation of defeat

ship,

mined to safeguard their interests,

their title of Sayyid. Intermarriage with royal families was

common in the Malay areas, and from

including matrilineal descent and female inheritance of houses and land.

of violence in

It

The opening of Penang and Singapore offered increased access to global markets that continued to attract migrants and provide opportunities for local entrepreneurs.



practices (adat),

ASIA, 178os-183os

belonging to the British sphere and those below the

The Netherlands accepted the

and agreed出at

it

would not attempt

line within the

British acquisition of Singapore, ceded

to establish a post

on the Malay Peninsula.

Bengkulu on the southwest coast of Sumatra and guaranteed that no British post would be established anY'矿here else on the island. Two In return,

Britain relinquished its factory in

Amity and Commerce between Britain and Siam recognized suzerainty over the northern Malay states but implicitly placed areas south of Kedah within the British sphere. Malay bewilderment at arrangements by which foreign- ers in distant capitals had parted “father from son, brother from brother and丘iend仕om years later



Treaty of

Bangkok’s

friend”foreshadowed the greater

pain that colonialism was to bring.20

influence was

most apparent among the Minangkabau of Sumatra, where returning p过grims and religious scholars, the Pad邸,disseminated their ideas through the network of teachers and pupils linked to religious schools. Padri insistence on a more literal application of Islamic law into conflict with aspects of Minangkabau customary

The Central

VOC

from campaigns in the eastern part of the island, Java in the years between and l825 was generally peaceful. There was little effective opposition to the Treaty of

Apart 1755

Archipelago

20

飞出nU:i?:r::;哇:.a?9?:?:?!???:阳叫叫叫叫

Bendahara of Pahang to (Kuala



Governor of Melaka

cited in Notes

and

Queries, 1885-1887, ed.

W. E. Maxwell

302

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

t说A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400一1830 which divided central Java between Surakarta (including the small domain of Mangkunegaran) and Yogyakarta. The Javanese initially saw these arrangements as a

Sultan

Hamengkubuwana

ASIA, 178os-183os

1792一1810, 1811-12, 1836-8) installed

Giyanti,

Yogyakarta court,

temp or a巧expedient, but the division became entrenched with the birth of princely heirs

key positions while maintaining increasingly onerous taxes and co凹优 labor. One ofJava's great poets, Yasadipura II (d. 1844), bemoaned the “degeneracy" of the

and the formalization of

territorial

boundaries.

kingdoms regarding land ownership, the potential for conflict

legal procedures,

and

(CE 1774) may have

such regulations, since the advent of a

new centu巧was

of a regime. In 1789 the Surakarta ruler

plans to reduce

series of

agreements between the two

territorial jurisdiction reduced

and contributed to a sense of permanency. Apprehension

the approaching Javanese year 1700

fall



and

about

intensified a perceived need for

traditionally associated with the

a cohort of Islamic advisors formulated

Y ogyakarta to subsidiary status, but

it

became

clear that the

Dutch were

prepared to go to war to defend the established arrangement. Confronted by a combined force

from

Y ogyakarta and

troops, Surakarta

new treaty that rea伍rmed At the

Mankunegaran, together with

hundred

of the

years.

several thousand

VOC

crisis led to a

the existing boundaries.

Javanese,

and

local lords were theoret-

Al出ough

m碍。r

position to dictate policy; the coastal areas were supposedly

governed by Javanese lords

under Dutch

who were left to their own devices

in

no

control, but were

as long as they delivered

set

quotas of labor and products. Despite the

reason

II

expression

became highly refined.

Striking a note of optimism, Yogyakarta's crown even composed a work in which he predicted that Java would ultimately be reunited

prince

one kingdom and the Dutch converted to Islam. The intellectual achievements of

as

this

period are thus considerable, including the emerging idea that individual loyalty is owed to a larger Javanese ethnic community rather than simply to the king. The long and complex epic Serat Centhini, part of

sense of Java’s past

and

which was composed in this period, conveys a remarkable history and geography as the hero visits the ruins of great kingdoms of the

travels

through the

island’s

varied landscapes.

The

text even

shows some

awareness of the culture and religious beliefs of the upland Tengger people living around Mount Bro mo in eastern Java.

Unlike the Malay world, Java was relatively unaffected by Napoleon’s invasion of the Netherlands in 1795 because the Dutch did not relinquish authority to the British until 1811. The dissolution of the VOC in 1799 and the transfer of the Company’s poss创ons to the Netherlands

government resulted in no change in personnel or

administration.

Nonetheless, on the northern coast of Java the exploitation of peasants to support the i…h lifes可le of tl叫avanese regional lords sugar, indigo, corree, pepper, cotton,

and timber

to the

(咿nts) and to deliver rice, Dutch remained an unresolved problem.

In the

had made the Dutch

imposed on the Netherlands, Daendels was

Dutch

Lieutenant

down

legally to

Meanwhile, events in

the sovereign

was

to

blame

also infused with the

mise巧of

for the

in favor of his son. Daendels then imposed

annex

Europe led

Java’s

to the British takeover of Java in 1811,

and the troops

mon由. Only a year a丘er his arrival, Raffles ordered a storming of the because he believed the restored

he and

could

still

highly inquisitive and

with radical

governor-general,



in the Java

to abolish the slave trade,

ban

little

compromise with

existing systems,

Malay world, faced major

challenges in

changes to traditional practices.

le丘Java in 1816, the situation steadily worsened.

The incoming Dutch

Baron van der Capellen (1819-26), advocated the development of the measures he adopted offended

of land in central Java deprived

many

local elites. His cancellation of

aristocrats of revenue, while the

monetized economy increased peasant indebtedness and strengthened influence of Chinese landholders and entrepreneurs. Rural commerce was inhibited by

penetration

?he

As

of penetration."21 Nonetheless, the policies

their counterparts in the

population, but the

private leases

the

full

Daendels had formulated allowed for

After the British

native

and introduced measures

Y ogyakarta attack.

describe the Javanese as“a highly polished people, considerably

and Javanese rulers, like dealing

remove the worst abuses

little

(whose scholarly History of Java remains the most impo口ant study from

advanced in science, 出at

privileges

elite

was planning an

in

and reorganize revenue collection. Though these measures had only mixed

Raffles

period)

this

Hamengkubuwana II

reformer, Raffles, like Daendels, sought to

He rejected

success,

new treaties

Governor Stamford Raffles were able to subdue Dutch resistance

capital

courts.

the

north coast.

over a

opium sales,

artistic

(1762-1818).

deterioration in Dutch-Javanese relations.

his belief that the 17 43 treaty

was forced to step

enabled the

as irrigated ricefields

treasu町-

in

Tensions accelerated, rebellions broke out, and in 1810 Hamengkubu-

ordinary people.

of

saw a dramatic

revolutionary notion that the aristocracy

French

dedicated

Court culture flourished, literary production expanded, and performance and

was

Napoleonic regime

出at

the

worsened

situation

new governor, Marshal Herman Willem Daendels

period as governor

demands placed on Javanese peasants, in this more peaceful climate the population increased. Y ogyakarta and Surakarta both prospered were extended and increased revenues flowed to the royal

of a

and the

deteriorated,

and that the central Javanese rulers were indeed mere vassals. As an appointee of

power 由e

Dutch

Muslim people and had been reduced to

Daendels was committed to reforming what he saw as an inefficient and corrupt

system, his



their courage as

Relations with the

1808 with the arrival

VOC but they were actually more independent than they had been for

The飞TOC's military power was steadily waning, and Batavia was

who had forgotten

of beggars.

status

wana

close of the eighteenth century all Javanese rulers

ically vassals



the

was besieged and the ruler forced to surrender. This

II (r.

inept favorites in

expenses

of a

i叫

itself

symptomatic of growing pover句r

labor

obligations

and

of landlessness. Exploitation of older patterns

combined with cash-crop development

":::??!?;丁,1:?:o?;?:t伪an

b川rvice

affected even previously remote

304

\;°\t

A HISTORY OF EARLY

areas like the

on

Dutch

1776 the

for in

fi思ires

provide an indication of the growing demands

VOC had

1600

men and a

thousand buffalo working

by 1809 the equivalent numbers had increased to over

forests;

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

Tengger highlands, where villagers were forcibly recruited for corvee

coffee plantations.

on workers,

MODERN SOUTHEAST

five

labor

and exiled to

in teak

sent to Ambon. The Java

thousand men and

pressures.

Madura

after years

of peace also meant greater social and economic

has been estimated there were around seven million people on Java and

It

in 1800,

and food production did not keep pace with

despite the expansion of wet-rice cultivation.

this rising population,

Food shortages were aggravated by a series of

talks

broke

down

in 1830, Dipanagara

Makassar, and the Susuhunan of Surakarta,

placed

2,500 buffalo.22

Demographic growth

and Muslim leader. A仕er

both sultan

War

ASIA, 178os-183os’h 305

who had

(1825-30) marks the end of a chapter

was arrested

supported him, was in Javanese history,

and the beginnings of

true colonial

control, symbolized in the inauguration of the“Cultivation System" in 1830.

An estimated

for

it

represented the last stand of the old regime

70 percent

of all Javanese peasant households

export crops, profits

from which supplied

would soon be working in the production of

as

much

as a third of the Netherlands state

revenue.

Dutch ascendancy

was

similarly

a伍rmed by developments

had declined

in west Java,

where the

in direct correlation to diminished royal

extrava-

authority

of the Banten sultan

gance drained villages of labor. At a time of scarce resources, competition between

revenues.

Not only was pepper production considerably reduced, but the Dutch had

communities led to the frequency of perang desa (village wars), exacerbated by involvement of roaming bandit gangs. In 1821 a failed rice harvest coincided with

the

acquired valuable

the

southwest Borneo.

natural disasters

and because the extortionate

levies

necessa巧to maintain court

world’s first cholera

pandemic, which broke out in India and quickly spread to Penang and much of Southeast Asia, including Java. Popular interpretations of these events as

subjects,

arrivals

Chinese settlers

erupted.

background, the Javanese were well prepared to

individual as a Ratu Ad址,the Just King,

who

tradition said

identi马r

would appear

wrongs of the world. Such an individual was personified by Pangeran gara, eldest

Born

son of

in 1785, he

Hamengkubuwana

III (r.

1810一11, 1812一14)

had grown up away from the

some

Y ogyakarta

to

The

generation earlier.

remedy

Daendels because of closer

the

unofficial wife.

court in an environment

imbued with mystical Islam, and the ordinary people who flocked to him thousands came to regard him as a holy man. Belief that his leadership would

only recourse was to

raise the taxes levied

made him

on

his

own

increasingly dependent

on

Banten was thus ill-prepared to respond to growing numbers of Chinese

charismatic

(Prince) Dipana-

and an

sultan’s

and their domination of economic enterprises, especially sugar m山s. By由e 1810s had taken over whole districts that had been only lightly populated a

omens of impending disaster received supernatural confirmation in 1822, when the sacred this

The

but this led to仕equent uprisings that

Dutch support.

Mount Merapi Given

concessions such as control of Banten’s diamond-producing areas in

road-building abolition

worsened under the administration of Governor-General Dutch surveillance and onerous demands for co凹ee labor for

situation

and harbor construction.

of the sultan's political

situation in

When Raffles took control of Java he ar伊ed由at

power was

justified

because the

political

Banten had deteriorated to the point where roaming groups

and economic

of “bandits"

were

new age of justice and prosperity was fostered because his birth occurred in a Javanese month thought to inaugurate a new historical cycle, while 1785 marked the beginning of

In 1816 the returning Dutch attempted to address aristocratic factionalism and continuing peasant unrest by replacing the existing elite with their own appointees and initiating a new village-based administration. Tensions continued to rise, however, and when the Dutch suspected that the sultan was planning a rebellion he

an anticipated momentous Muslim century. Dipanagara himself contributed to this perception not only by adopting the ancient title Erucakra, the prophesied Ratu Adil,

was sent as a prisoner to Surabaya, a deliberate humiliation intended to demonstrate that the old regime palace was demolished, while the royal

but also by promising relief from tax and labor obligations. His precise goals are unclear, but he apparently hoped to establish himself religious ruler over a

pusaka (sacred objects, heirlooms)

in their

usher

in



as

“divine order" in

an independent

south central Java that might even extend to include

Bali,

Lombok,

and Sumbawa, while the Dutch would retreat to enclaves on the north coast. In July 1825 a clash between Dipanagara’s men and the Dutch initiated the Java War.

Flores,

Centered in leaders initially

and

Y ogyakarta,

the且ghting spread throughout central and east Java as

religious

influential court o伍cials lent their support. Javanese guerilla-type action was

extremely

successfi.址,but after

two years the

tide

turned against Dipanagara.

In

subsequent negotiations the Dutch refused as to approve the request that he be recognized 22

Cited in Peter Boomgaard,“Forest Management and Exploitation in Colonial Java, 1677-1897," Forest and Conservation History 36, 1 (Jan. 1992), 6.

disrupting rural life.

had indeed been displaced. The

the

Batavian Society of Arts

and

and the

given to collection of Arabic manuscripts were

Sciences. Batavia’s

and former slaves made up a considerable portion of Balinese influence itself had remained largely outside Dutch interests.

Al出ough Balinese slaves population, Bali eastern Java stop

had been constrained by the

VOC annexation in 1743, but there was

migration to the neighboring island of

colonized.

Lombok, which

little

in to

the Balinese effectively

The indigenous Sasak, largely Muslim, st山wielded some authority but由ey

were subservient to Balinese overlords.

From

references to the 1770s there are repeated

Meanwhile, but an 1826 rebellion against the Balinese was unsuccessful. commerce. Bali itself was affected by British-Dutch rivalry and by changing pa忧ems of shipwrecked vessel and According to traditional custom, it was quite acceptable to loot a stopped was also claim possession of the cargo. Batavia’s insistence that such practices be Sasak discontent,

MODERN SOUTHEAST

306、飞A E王ISTORY OF EARLY

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

due to apprehension that the English might use the pretext of protecting maritime trade in order to establish a post

on

To

forestall

sometime

overtures to the local rulers

make any headway,

Bali.

any such development,

in the 1820s.

the Dutch made

Although these approaches

mud

the occurrence of various natural disasters -

failed to

flows, volcanic

eruptions, earthquakes,自oods, and epidemics - were regarded by the Balinese as presaging

an ominous future, though

it

would be

several years before their rulers

felt

the

f时l

impact

of Dutch colonial ambitions.

Desperate for

new

Spanish administration of the

worsened by declining

deficit,

profits

from the

trade.

sources of revenue, Manila tried to encourage plantation development,

1780 the imposition of a government

monopoly over tobacco had

taxes.

From

far-reaching implica-

Tobacco smoking had been introduced by the Spanish and was common

among

oly

small children, resulting in wide-spread addiction because of the belief

smoking provided protection against

fevers.

According to the new

even that

regulations, tobacco

foreign ships,

although vested interests rallied

was

1785

founding of the Royal Philippine

established tobacco trade linking suppliers in

the Spanish found that enforcement

ments, destruction of those willing to

“illegal"

Luzon

was extremely

since

it

disrupted an

to the Visayan Islands. Furthermore,

punish- difficult, despite the threat of

gardens, and the offer of freedom from corvee labor

grow tobacco

for the

monopoly.



special police force was

unable

for to

prevent persistent“smuggling”by organized gangs or cuadrillas, since in the words of a Spanish governor,“in a land f叫l of rivers and canals, the roads and footpaths [are]

unknown

to us because

we seldom go through the

provinces."23

As one

of obtaining cash, tobacco continued to be cultivated illegally

and

of the few ways

sold outside the

monopoly system. Taxes were也ced regardless of personal economic circumstances, and the rebellions that erupted in tobacco-growing areas were largely due to the continuing exaction of monetary payments cash-poor (often through physical coercion) from a peasantry who were not allowed to engage in private tobacco trade. Purchase and sale of协acco were dominated by Chinese m创zos, but the monopol?

did open up to enter the

new

opportunities for

some more fortunate

Filipinos.

A few were permitted

lower ranks of the tobacco administration and, despite exploitative

Cited in Ed. C. de Jesus, The Tobacco αange, 1766-1880 (Quezon City:

Monopoly

in the Phil伊,pines・

48.

economy was

more

effective reporting, a rise in the population of

Luzon and the

lessening

of internal disruption

were permitted to Filipinos

return.



moderate prosperity,

especially a丘er the Chinese

But in other respects the relationship between the colonizers and

was deteriorating, notably in the religious sphere. Following the expulsion of

from

the Jesuits

all

Spanish territories in 1767,由e remaining

compelled to agree to hands of native

religious orders

an experiment by which vacant parishes could be placed

and mestizo

“secular" priests

who would

were

in the

be answerable to the diocesan

than a Catholic order. This experiment failed because too

many

poorly

and ill-trained Filipinos were suddenly appointed to positions of au由ority.

were endless complaints

appointed clergy, exaction

and

from

Filipinos themselves about the conduct of the newly

favoritism towards their relatives, use of the recto巧for parties, and

oflarge stipends

and fees. The most unfortunate result was a strengthening of the

Filipinos did not have a true vocation and could not be entrusted with demanding spiritual tasks. But the prestige associated with any religious position

Spanish belief that

more

could also

empower

Christianity

Only his death clearly

local appointees,

during a

and

own Moro raid brought

and formed his

in

Samar

this

movement

threatened the au出ority of the religious orders,

阳led

to the

a Filipino priest rejected Spanish

religion, ordaining followers

and

it

to an end.“Indigenization"

was primarily their lobbying

suspension of the policy of giving Filipino priests greater responsibilities.

by

Church and the colonial government was further undermined and inexperienced Spanish administrators. In the period仕om 1764to 1816therewere

The standing of the inept

and appointing governors.

governors-general, their terms sometimes as brief as three years. Relatively were available to staff government positions, leading to claims由at it was

eleven different

few

Spaniards

common

to

see飞[Spanish] hairdresser converted into a governor; a sailor or a desert??

transformed into a district

magistrate or military

commander

province.":t4 of a populous

conditions,

and Social Bureaucratic Enterprise

Ateneo de Manila University P?邸,1980),

intended to encourage agriculture

from an estimated 900,000 in 1750 to around 1,555,043 in 1800 suggests a

Visayas

24

23

Company was

but from 1820 the development of an agricultural export

due to foreign investment (mainly American, British, and French).

could be purchased only from government tobacco shops.

economy

clear,

Even allowing for

There

further destabilized the

however, that the Philippines economy was undercapitalized. The

1815. It

sugar assigned to other areas. All tobacco should be delivered to government agents, and

monopoly

monop-

1810 the Philippines

to protect the galleon trade which remained operative

until

educated

the

a丘er

from Mexico. In 1790 the po此of Manila was opened to and additional voyages were permitted between Spain and the Philippines,

could be grown in only eight Luzon provinces, with crops such as pepper, cotton, and

many ways

in the cigar factories gained

the Spanish viewpoint, the profits from the

without a subsidy

bishop rather

In

From

improve the colony’s financial situation, and

helped

operated

Philippines

galleon

reform the military and the administration, and improve the collection of

tions.

some economic independence.

primar过y

the latter half of the eighteenth century the

was facing a crippling

women who comprised the majority of wage-laborers

and industry,

The Northern Archipelago By

the

ASIA, 178os-183os

Tomas de Comyn, State of the Phil伊pine Islands: Being an Historical, Statistical, and D臼criptive T. and Port叫仇e Indian Archipelago. William Walton, trans. (London:

1:::::1???口支sting



・._

307

A HISTORY OF EARLY At the provincial

MODERN SOUTHEAST

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

Spanish alcalde mayor, in charge of administering the

level the

law,

typically lacked legal training and saw nothing amiss in arbitrarily requesting

demanding donations and

gi丘s.

The

policies

adopted in the Batanes

or

islands after

annexation in 1783 - compulsory relocation, confiscation of prope此y, forced deliveries, denunciation of spirit practitioners - show how little colonial officials had learned from the previous capricious,

position to a small cohort of wealthy families,。丘en mestizo.

The

and the cuadrillas由at preyed on villages and markets were a

telling

inab让ity to enforce

law and order. Yet terms such as

limited

this

prevalence of banditry

comment on Spanish

“bandit,”“smuggler,”and

“pirate,"

which come through European sources, should be used with caution. Ruthlessness and cruelty are well

documented, but cuadrilla leaders were sometimes charismatic

regarded with great respect by local communities. Effectively acting as local

were able to exercise their

own

systems of justice in areas under their

Colonial administration was further complicated

Napoleon invaded Spain

in

by

political

1808 and placed his brother on

expulsion of the French returned Spain to an absolute

ism. In the early nineteenth centu叩Filipinos

prohibiting publications about Spanish colonies

had never been repealed, and the

state

regulations,

a sixteenth-century law

and their peoples without

censor in Manila reviewed

special permis- all

short-lived constitution granting colonial representation. This

the Philippines,

where one

stirred,'’believing that

vassalage产5

It is

friar

was widely publicized

a in

stationed in Ilocos reported that“all the natives were

they would

now

be

“free

from the bonds of obedience

not surprising that the resistance to Spanish

and

policies following the

and the abrogation of the constitution was most pronounced who had a long history of rebellion and who bitterly resented

dissolution of the Cortes

the Ilocanos,

monopolies on tobacco and the manufacture of palm wine. A major uprising in 1815 demanded the restoration of the constitution, which peasants believed would end the hated tribute

and labor requirements. Though these revolts were suppressed, by由e

an incompetent colonial government faced rising discontent caused by

the

economic changes assoc附d with cash c即ping, increased demands for taxes and co叩 and the perceived injustice suffered by the native clergy at the hands of Spanish

labor,

25

Cited in 0. D. Corpuz, The Roots of the Filipino Nation Press, 2005) vol. I: 548.

(Quezon

Philippines City: University of the

Conde

who spoke“with his people" styled himself“el

and

The social

now

Sulu,

ab过ity

sea

polity, provides a telling

poet

groups, including the

and

extended over Borneo’s north coast,

soup was

now an

population

Bajau, sea-dwelling people

and

edible seaweed. Sulu

known for the rare birds' nests found on由e

indispensable item in

book of seafood delicacies, including

tripang.

With

its

was already well 1764 following

close connections

known

new

bird’s

elite

Chinese

feasts,

and the famous

appreciation for marine foods, com- nest as well as shark’s

to由e Bugis trade network,

fin,

Jolo, Sulu’s

abalone, and

prima巧port,

to Chinese. After Spanish control of Manila was reinstated in

the British occupation, thousands of Chinese were expelled, suspected of

Many relocated

in Sulu,

where they reinforced the maritime networks through

much-desired forest and sea products were delivered to the Chinese market.

Despite the

as far

Sulu’s

of limestone caves, with collection teams under the control of Taosug datu.

posed a

disloyalty.

Sama

collectors of tripang, tortoise shell,

Yuan Mei (1716-97), remarking on the

which

of the reasons for Sulu's success was

Although the Taosug peoples were ethnically dominant,

comprised several different ethnic

nest

One

where

example of a maritime polity

respond to the demands of the Chinese and European markets for forest and

to

products.

Bird’s

was

Filipino,”the Filipino Count.26

very different in the southern Philippines,

completely outside European control.

operating its

political situation

dominant Muslim

the

slave trade.

In 1812 a brief period of liberalism in the Spanish Cortes or Parliament produced

early 1820s

employing what may be the first use of the term "Filipino,”one Spanish mestizo

manuscripts

before any could be printed or distributed.

among

while

high ceilings

the Madrid govern-

were st山governed by obsolete

with some dating back two hundred years or more. For example, sion

alike,

authority

ment was ve巧unstable. The rapid succession of governors-general in the Philippines brought men who were agents of regimes that swung wildly from monarchy to republican-

and

no parishes to administer. Arguing that Spanish and natives should be treated

chiefs,出ey

developments when

level of the religious hierarchy

with

famed as pearl divers

jurisdiction.

occupying the lowest

often

individuals

the throne. The subsequent

monarchy but

point there were around 250 Spanish friars and about 800 priests, over-

this

whelmingly Filipino, the latter

two hundred years. The power wielded by the native principales could also be

and the insistence that a gobernadorcillo must know Spanish

At

friars.

ASIA, 1780s一1830s

By the 1790s raiding extended from the northern and

as the

benefits to

importance of Chinese connections, the basis of

New Guinea

the

coasts

Taosug datu

who

and west

to the

economy was出e

Sulu’s

central Philippines, east

Malay Peninsula, bringing

the

most

financed raids in return for a percentage of the booty.

Many captives were assigned as rowers in Sulu ships and others were used in the collection of sea as a

and jungle products.

regional slave

market也at supplied Batavia and other

domestic servants. Sulu' s sultanate

The greatest profits came from the operation

large cities with laborers

growing prosperi勾r came at由e expense of its

Magindanao, since

of the capital Jolo

many of the latter’s Ilanun subjects moved to

by trade

and

neighbor and rival Sulu, attracted

skills to use.

and the opportunity to put由eir shipbuilding and navigational uninhabited islets as bases and captured slaves as rowers, the Ilanun founded

Using

satellite

gain access locations throughout the archipelago where出ey could to the heavy ordnance and gunpowder which English traders continued to supply. much By the 1770s the crippling effects of raiding by Ilanun and other groups through of the centu叩 Philippine archipelago were already evident, and well into the nineteenth settlements in strategic

26

?ited吨1hn Blanco, Fron阳C叫itutions: Lentury Philippines (Berkeley,

Chγi

CA: University of California

Press, 2009), 134

r.

309

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 coastal settlements suffered repeated raids especially in the

more dense忖settled

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

and the enslavement of thousands

and northeast Mindanao. The take any effective measures, and the

areas of the Visayas

Spanish administration was simply too

weak

to

expense involved in obtaining ships for coastal defense, repairing

new order was

treasu巧. In 1799 a its

own

the colonial

issued requiring each pueblo to take responsib且ity for

protection. In this situation the friars ( themselves targets for capture and ransom

by Muslim

raiders)

and help

advisors

Several factors

assumed

a central role, for they

direct the construction

prompted the Spanish

interest in Sulu,

and

it

were expected

and maintenance of military to

embark on new

defenses.

was increasingly necessary to make the Philippines

a growing

economically

The Manila government sought to incorporate the south into its sphere of influence

by promoting commercial links with boats from Sulu, Magindanao,

Sulu’s

Sultan Sharifuddin

and Borneo began

Spanish authorities and the southern sultanates that lasted until the imposition of

to call at

1791-1808). Trading

Manila and by

had adjusted

American colonialism

(r.

to

the

the 1820s

an uneasy

the

co-existence

in the early twentieth

momentum of his

cultural

groups

centu町・

rebellion for

refused to

in

an area inhabited by so many

comply with the 1795 agreement

Battles for

control of

Dutch posts

different

local

that allowed the British to take

in the Eastern Archipelago continued well a丘er the

VOC in 1799, and in 1801 the local British commander installed Nuku Four years later, however, he died. Because

the sense of Malukan unity Nuku had created and sustained for so long was based on widespread perceptions that

sultan of Tidore.

he possessed special qualities,

disintegrated

and

their dependencies,

and

had constructed

finally returned to take

in 1824 these

over

kingdoms were incorporated

colonial-administered residency, the “government of Celebes and Dependencies"

covering

Halmahera (including Ternate and Tidore), the

and parts of Sulawesi.

faded,

prowess,”the polity that he

without his leadership. In 1817 the Dutch

Ternate, Tidore, into a

a“man of

For the Dutch, the

Maluku and Nusatenggara as the

The Eastern Archipelago

two decades

to the effectiveness of his appeal. N时ω’s position was also

testifies

Dutch posts to prevent their falling into French hands.

over

出at

and increasingly oppressive Dutch

by his links with British traders and the assistance he received when

reinforced

VOC officials

as

spice revenues

VOC initially dismissed Nuku as a pirate, his ab且ity to maintain

Though the

dissolution of the

overtures to the Muslim

by declining

communities hard-hit measures.

to act as technical

Sulu were ineffective, the British showed

sultanates: naval expeditions against

viable.

forts, building watch-

and supplying cannon and guns, placed a tremendous burden on

towers,

of people,

ASIA, 178os-183os

and

it

home

entire west coast of New Guinea,

earlier appeal of the islands of

northern

of the highly valued spices and sandalwood had

was the po时of Makassar and the kingdoms

in southwest Sulawesi that

now

became the key to the success of the colonial ventures in eastern Indonesia.

Although spices and sandalwood had declined in economic importance, the demands of the China trade and the unique products found in the Eastern Archipelago made the area once again an internationally contested space. The Dutch now faced opposition丘om由e British,

who

enormo山potential of direct links between the Eastern Archipelago and China. A captain who had missed the southwest monsoon could st诅sail to Quangzhou企om realized the

附stern

New

Guinea by taking advant咿of alternative winds由at passed throψ出

Philippines. British traders

were welcomed in many settlements along this route because由ey

were willing to supply guns and opium in return for local products, which they could then

cal'l'}「

to China.

With demand fueled by addiction, opium was fast developing into a kind of currency,

and the

flintlocfil♀and

devastating slave-raids

purchased丘om the British offered protection against by Sulu and Magindanao fleets. The VOC, which saw the British other guns

presence as a direct challenge, placed greater pressure suppress any sign of resistance to Dutch authority.

on the

Tidore to rulers of Ternate and

As M由e past,

there was no

toleration for

and in 1779 the sultan of Tidore was replaced and a VOC protege installed. Nuku, a member of Tidore’s royal family, refused to accept this change

where the prestigious Makassarese kingdom of Gowa had been conquered by the VOC and its Bugis allies in 1669, there was also a call for the

southwest Sulawesi,

restoration

of a lost golden age.

Memories of

Makassarese pride could only be restored

by the

past glories encouraged the belief出at eviction of the

Dutch and the return of

government. In 1776 a rebellion broke out under the leadership of an known as I Sangkilang, who claimed to be a former ruler returning from exile

indigenous individual in Sri

Lanka.

With

local support,



Sangkilang assumed control of

Dutch preoccupation with the British presence enabled

Gowa

him to maintain

in 1777,

and

this position until

Anxious to forestall any British intervention, the Dutch then seized the Gowa regalia and presented it to the ruler of the rival Bugis kingdom of Bone. Though this arrangement meant Gowa was more amenable to VOC oversight, Dutch

he died in 1785.

efforts to

identi命other rulers

successful.

The

British

who would

serve as acquiescent clients were only pa时ially

interregnum (1811一16) was

also

marked by continuing rebellions,

when the Dutch returned in 1817 they were rejected by a coalition of Bugis domains by Bone. In a dramatic was defeated reversal of the seventeenth-century alliances, Bone of 1824 by a combined Dutch-Makassarese force. The subsequent renewal of the Treaty

and

recalcitrance, Kaicili

In

finally

in

and regime, and promised to restore proprieties and hence reestablish the spiritual material welfare of Maluku. In 1780, proclaimin吨gl址imself n or the Papuan islands, and the seas from Seram eastwards, Nuku asserted his leadership Jailolo, the four symbolic "p山ars" of the Maluku world (the kingdoms ofTernate, Tidore, among and Bacan) as laid down in the myths. His message struck a responsive chord

led in

Bungaya (1667) confirmed Sulawesi stage for

continuing

and its dependencies

Bone defiance and rebellions

Dutch possession but set the

“anti-colonial." that can be truly termed leaders, alert to British一Dutch

Throughout other areas of eastern Indonesia, local rival町,calculated

as a

The Dutch the odds in allying with one or the other European power.

312式稳

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 were not universally regarded as enemies, and in 1797 a British the principal

Dutch. In a rebellions ising,

VOC post

aimed

and

was frustrated by

in Nusatenggara,

number of other

a native force loyal to the

indigenous

rule.

their ab过ity to recruit local allies

The Dutch response was uncomprom-

was often aided by long-standing

rivalries

between different groups. In northern Sulawesi, for example, the Tondano War

of

1808-9 marks the definitive defeat of anti-colonial resistance, but troops from Ternate

formed the majority of the Dutch control gained heart

from

force.

On

other occasions, opposition to foreign

religious beliefs, including Christianity. In

Protestantism had a long history, a Christian soldier of the Dutch fortress in 1817

known

Ambon,

where

as Pattimura took control

and was only defeated (and publicly hanged) when

reinforcements were sent from Batavia. Although the leaders of this rebellion gained inspiration

from

through raiding

Biblical passages, the

Dutch continued

to believe that the spread of

far as

graves

supply material evidence

further attested

ramifications

of global

supported strong Islamic centers, such as Makassar, Ternate, and Tidore, the Christian-

the

ized areas of Ambon, Timor,

profitable

By

the 1830s Christian expansion in previously animist areas contributed to an

communal

identity

and of

cultural superiority over those

who had



marker

been

of

neither

circumcised nor baptized.

Throughout eastern Indonesia uncertainties resulting from

was increased

of survivors

left

and remote

entire districts

considered an essential element for

islands died in their

abandoned.

slave raiding. In earlier periods“stealing”people

but during the eighteenth century

An

added scourge

from enemy villages was

community survival in this lightly populated region, new markets for slaves encouraged the formation of

larger and more organized expeditions that could raid ever further afield. In some areas whole coasts were uninhabited because villagers had been captured or had taken refuge elsewhere. As in the Western Archipelago, the Ilanun developed permanent settlements,

which were then used as bases for regular raiding. Fleets from Sulu and Magindanao were often joined by refugees displaced by conflicts such as Nuku’s rebellion in Maluku,

and

local chiefs

the booty.

The

it

was

dif五cult to

commodity

obtain pearls from

for the

VOC to propose As



monopoly

shell,

became

contract,

and

a sufficiently for

Aru men

a result, Am’s cultural and economic cosmology

whole undersea world where

depended on

rarities

Am because of the lack of divers. By

the inner lining of a pearl oyster

hone their diving skills.

the ocean’s

away from the main

were similarly apparent in the Aru islands, which

harvesting of tripang and pearls in response to international markets.

expanded to incorporate a

political instability were

As cholera and smallpox epidemics swept through

the region, vulnerable populations in the interior flight

1660s

into areas located far

and legend. The

a diver’s success in locating

his ab过ity to gain supernatural assistance from

demanding but seductive sea spirits.

exacerbated by other developments.

thousands and the

sailed as

of由e Bugis-Makassarese-Sama Bajau presence, which

commerce, reaching

1730s mother-of-pearl,

to

all

and Muslim

trees,

in Australian aboriginal art, linguistic borrowings,

of international trade,

centers

In the

environment in which adherence to either Islam or Christianity became

and Sama Bajau

Along Australia’s north coast, stone fireplaces, tamarind

increased their

tion.

in

Makas-

northern Australia in search of tripang to supply the seemingly insatiable Chinese

Christianity (specifically Protestantism) could help strengthen their control, since

foci of Protestant missiona叮evangeliza-

for Chinese junks.

involved in the slave trade, while Bugis, Makassarese,

market.

is

hub

Makassarese, and local Malay networks出at were

was also the base for the Bugis,

sar

particularly

trade continued to flourish, fueled by the Chinese

po邸,and Makassar developed as the commercial

heavily

was

Asian products. Chinese communities were well established

demand for Southeast local

it

Archipelago.

Despite this disruptive raiding,

Muslims were considered innately anti-European. Though the Eastern Archipelago

and Rote became

was found elsewhere in island Southeast Asia, but

marked in the Eastern

however, awareness of Dutch weakness encouraged

areas,

at reasserting

effort to capture Kupang,

ASIA, 178os-183os

were frequently willing to provide patronage in return for a portion of Dutch mounted various campaigns to restrain raiding and attacks on

shipping, but the destruction of“pirate nests" simply

meant

that the inhabitants

regrouped and reestablished themselves in some other location. Whether forced

or

voluntary, the mobility of communities and the sale and resale of slaves resulted in less populations that were far more ethnically diverse than ever before and由us receptive to calls for allegiance people to some distant center. Major displacement of

Dutch attempts

Notwithstanding

commerce maintained

pe削旬,indigenous sosolot

western in

trade

to establish control by instituting a system of its

own

dynamics, well-illustrated by the

Gorom

system of eastern Seram, the Seram Laut and

New Guinea.

December for the

In Banda, where trade operated through

archipelagoes,

and

the entire year, boats left

Am and Kei islands, the Tanimbar archipelago, and the Birdshead

taking manufactured goods as well as rice and sago exchange for tripang, birds' nests, pearls, mother of pearls, birds of para也se, tortoiseshell, and slaves. By mid-May these vessels had returned but出ey set out again Peninsula in

western

New Guinea,

to

for

Timor between June

?ar削to Batavia began to

and September. The products出ey had

for毗As

missionaries,

and

travel

penetrate the eastern Indonesian islands in the late nineteenth centu叮,they

obse町ed intriguing styles bar islands,

for instance,

out specific

?e阳wi£

whole

villages traveled

by boat

to

an

allied

old. In the

Tanim-

community to

car叮

that had grown“cold.”

would renew or“reheat" alliances were also maintained through a well-understood process of gi丘exchange

iv叩I川fe-taki耶omm alliances of the Eastern Archipelago, establishing and renewing such to the flow of material and spiritual life and hence the forging of networks

tragmented islands Were crucial

of alliance-formation that were centuries

rituals that

Relationships

that

European administrators,

collected were then

helped unite the area.

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA,

ASIA, 1400-1830

等Developments…ω灿问Asia

men were repeatedly or

The Western Mainland

and death. It

Ava and ordered

and

eldest surviving

the execution of his

son of Alaungpaya, seized the throne

nephew and

of

potential rivals in the royal family.

all

Faced with opposition from min-laung fi伊res and a brief occupation of Yangon

in

Bodawpaya relied primarily on loyal men from his own appanage on the lower Chindwin River. The assertion of his legitimacy was clearly a major concern. 1783 by

The

Mon

elaborate

forces,

Brahmanic consecration ceremony was performed

was moved away from Ava

Bodawpaya

to a

new center

at

Amarapura, deemed

also recruited the assistance of court authorities,

to be

reduced to

more auspicious.

In

both monks and laymen,

to his

Supreme Patriarch and head of the Buddhist sangha, did not lose the opportunity to remind Bodawpaya of his obligations. In composing a work commemorating Bodawpaya's

the

eous king destroys his

Bodawpaya then embarked on



himself as a cakkavatti, destined to

ruler that“an unright-

become lord over

unpopular government, and

this

his peers.

reflected his perception of

To

the west the people of

message, having experienced years of natural

civil unrest.

Some even

requested that Bodawpaya

was transported back to Amarapura, together with The greatest prize was the gigantic Mahamuni Buddha image,

swi丘,and Rakhine' s royal family

hundreds of prisoners.

believed to be Rakhine’s protector. Subsequently,

Burmese monks were

sent to oversee

reforms in the Rakhine sangha.

Spurred on by success in Rakhine, Bodawpaya turned his attention to his old enemy_ now ruled仕om Bangkok by the new Chakri dynasty. On this occasion, however, the

Siam,

invading Burmese army was forced to retreat, weakened by an outbreak of smallpox and lack of adequate food supplies. The campaign was renewed in 1786, but despite ongoing battles over the next sixteen years, Burmese forces never succeeded in defeating a resur- gent Siam.

As

so o丘en in the past, both sides transported thousands of captives to faraway

C削m

Thailand.

felled the

ground/They had

coconut

trees

and

also destroyed the

Burmese had looted/they had squeezed the

mere skeletons and they had

“lost all

district dry.?

The people

spirit户8

Myanmar the ongoing cost of wars with Siam and the steady depletion of the treasu巧

on peasants, fuelling indebtedness

tion fell

M出the

flight

were delayed or

rains

Meanwhile, the

seasonal rainfall

was low,

sale

of land. Rice produc-

when

the

monsoon

between 1805 and 1812.

as occurred

Siam was impossible

to sustain,

eliminating the Burmese出reat to

effectively

and the sheer pressure on

among

叫dent that his

its

eastern neighbor.

The situation

had Myanmar and Vietnam concluded an anti-Siam

by the former in 1823, but the

he feared

Vietnamese

ruler,

Minh Mang,

alliance

rejected the idea

Siam might then challenge his hegemony in Cambodia.

Bodawpaya held him as

and encouraging the

expansion of large irrigation works increased corvee demands. The cam-

mi供have been different

because

at the center increased the

ended Bodawpaya,s attempts to continue the territorial expansion initiated by his

father,由us

proposed

problems

of cultivators, and food shortages worsened

launched in 1809 against

paign

on to his throne for thirty-seven years, and Burmese chroniclers depict

their best kings.

European commentators were often

hostile,

but

it is

saw enhanced political control and continuing economic expansion. Central authority was strengthened over the entire Irrawaddy basin, while countrywide censuses (1783 and 1802) and land surveys improved tax and revenue collection, which reign

now more likely to be in cash rather than in kind. Although groups such as由e Ch恤, ?ar叽and Kachin remained on the per忡巧of state i阳矶Burmese ir en was

mcreased in fields

l叫to exchanges t??t

areas, especially in terms of dress and style of government. Ric e and maritime and overland trade flourished. Across the count巧it is tr础a network of internal production centers and market towns, where the

Shan

expanded,

were facilitated

by increased monetization that lessened the句pe of haggling

oc叫n a pu of灿nd ace阳岛r邮build吗ar川ev山of the

might

叫ny

Cited in Michael Cham町,Powerful Learning: Buddhist Literati and the Throne in Burma’s Last Dynas凯1752-1885 (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Universi可of Michigan for South and Southeast Asian Studies, 2006), 202.

modern

move

been slaughtered/not one was left/everything

demands

??er

27

all

heavy price. In a familiar pa忧em, revenue

intervene in their kingdom’s affairs to restore order. In 1784, claiming that insufficient

support had been given to Buddhism, Bodawpaya dispatched a Burmese army of more than thirty thousand men to invade Rakhine both by land and sea. Conquest was relatively

had

to the

exacted a

resources

program of expansion that

Rakhine were especially amenable to disasters,

remind the

own kingdom产7

had been leveled

The chickens and ducks

crops/ ...

highlands to escape capture, enslavement,

on Ujung Salang in 1809:“The Burmese had Eve叩世llage

were

monarch. Nevertheless, the thathanabaing,

coronation, he used examples from previous reigns to

attack

palms.

areca

village

impressed for warfare, and because agricultural lands were destroyed

(poem) conveys a moving description of the miseries suffered in the wake

was to loot, the

compile texts that accorded particular attention to the standing of the king and potential status as cakkavatti, or universal

of the

marauding armies because

Salween River into the relative safety of the jungles in

the

A Malay syair

出ere

twice,

to a halt along the path of

was probably during this period出at the Karen of Myanmar began to

capital

and the

came

abandoned as people fled further into the

across

In 1782 Bodawpaya, the fifth

Cultivation

locations.

178os-183os气・" 315

as

several

thousand mules and horses) carrying cotton to

caravans ( sometimes as

Yunnan

to

exchange for

is

C.

Skinner,吐,The Battle for

(Dordrecht:

Foris, for

Junk Ceylon: the Syair Sultan Maulana. Text, Translation and Notes the Koninkl斗k Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 1985), 241-3.

316 ,・电A

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

Chinese

silk

was more than half that of the maritime-based revenues. Missions

China helped

to resolve

Bodawpaya is

remembered for his attention

to

the lack of discipline in the

strongly believed出at

monks who

Buddhism and his emphasis

with set

grounded rib as a

also

and

texts,

to

his reign he was

sangha and the ignorance of religious texts. He

did not reach required standards had no place

monaste叮,and as a result of his reforms

monks were

in the vinaya (monastic discipline).

Unsuccessful candidates were

from the monaste町,and

in outlying areas could

still

well-

tattooed on a

their teachers co叫d

be punished. The sangha was brought under greater central authority,

monks

in a

required to attend courses of study

submit to monthly examinations to ensure that they were

record of their failure and expelled

although

or ignore royal decisions. Bodawpaya took

resist

special interest in the compilation, dating,



and copying of Buddhist manuscripts, most While such measures were in themselves

notably correct translations of original texts. great acts of merit, they

monks involved in

accomplished yet another aim of creating monastic

factional disputes typically appealed to textual authority.

alphabet was approved for copying the Tipitaka,

sador to the

and Michael

with a lay

group that stressed meditation and a speculative ph过osophy more akin

Mahayana Buddhism. Yet despite or perhaps because of

border issues and address the problem of banditry.

particularly

on correct observance of Buddhist precepts. From the beginning of scandalized by

sent to

uni町,since

The Burmese

S严nes, the British ambas-

Amarapura cou时,was amazed by the thousands of manuscripts

in the ro归l

Myanmar maintained

groups,

people of

ASIA, 178os-183os

low caste in

Lanka

Sri

were forbidden to enter the Sinhalese

Burmese

the

sought ordination at

reputation as a center for Buddhist

its

capital of

on

monks did not necessarily agree

to

this proliferation of different activity.

When

monkhood, they

Amarapura. But Bodawpaya and leading

religious issues,

and al由ough by 1812 he had

monkhood signaled opposed出e monks potential problems. Relations were especially fraught when some campaigns against Siam and when the sangha refused to recognize him as the fifth Buddha abandoned his reform efforts, his intense involvement with the

of the

present

world

cycle.

was the deteriorating relations with Britain. Between 1795 and 1811 a series of missions from Kolkata in British India attempted to open up diplomatic relations, establish a post at Yangon, and secure access to Myanmar’s teak. The Ultimately a far

lack of

success

contributed to traditional

more

serious issue

and what the growing

saw

British

as deliberate humiliation of their representatives

now impinged on

friction because British India

sphere of influence. Attention focused particularly

Myanmar’s

on the border areas of

where Bodawpaya was asserting his prerogatives as overlord. In Burmese client was placed on the Manipur throne, and in 1817 another was

Manipur and Assam, 1812 a

marriages governor of Assam. Connections were also strengthened because Manipuri, were astrologers were arranged with princesses仕om these areas, most court and were a key component of Myanm缸’s installed as

collection.

In promoting sangha unity, disputes as to

Bodawpaya attempted to put an end to the long-standing whether monastic robes should be worn over one or both shoulders.

Whereas Alaungpaya had supported the one-shoulder pa町,it was proscribed

under

captive or recruited

Manipuri horseman

且ghting forces.

two-shoulder party. Favored

The issue of boundary demarcation became increasingly serious as refugees fled丘om Myanmar into British-controlled territories and as Burmese forces pressed further into

teacher

borderlands in pursuit of rebels.

the next ruler.

affairs,

Bodawpaya resolved the controversy by issuing

a decree

in favor of the

monks were appointed to lead monasteries, and his own became Supreme Patriarch. He created a Council of Elders to oversee religious

delegated an official to supervise

and keep records of monastic

amount accumulated by monasteries, and appointed another discipline. In

an

effort to enforce

Buddhist teachings

among

lands to

limit the

to maintain monastic

ordinary people, numerous

pagodas were built and proscriptions against gambling and intoxicants rea伍rmed. 1787 the Emperor of China even sent a Buddha image from the imperial palace. Despite the chroniclers' praise, divisions in the

it

is

monkhood were only

evident that Bodawpaya’s partially successful

In

his influence

in

monastic affai川as always limited, as was gener吻the case岛r reform-minded rulers: His reign was marked by the emergence of dissident monks who questioned the materiai aspects of merit-making, rejected the practice of venerating

monks and Buddha

statues,

denied reincarnation, and preached the existence of a supreme deity, the world Though the leaders were arrested as heretics, since such radical doctrines were beyond the creator.

pale even

century, faced

often led

the

by individuals in the min-laung tradition. In the early nineteentn

by peasant discontent and military setbacks, Bodawpaya be



。lved

from

British control,

and

his

view of

his position in

his world was dramatically conveyed in a court ceremony, where a hundred of

by dressed as foreign kings.

Bodawpaya's grandson Bagyidaw,

who

men

monarch of succeeded in 1819 as the seventh

and Konbaung dynasty, thus inherited a sangha increasingly strained by new sects British India along their secular reformists, as well as the danger of confrontation with common borders. Bagyidaw' s gen叫Maha Bandt此persuaded him to send…p?g Burmese tnbutanes, forces to Assam and Manipur so由at they would be retained as the

devastation." Though period which the Manipuri called the “seven years of a出口inis- boundaries between these areas and British India were never clearly defined,

the

initiating a

trators in

by the灿

the飞rillage level,

Bodhgaya, Buddhism’s holiest city,

paraded

the efforts to repair

and由at

as By this time Bodawpaya reputedly claimed suzerainty 趾west as Dacca, with a royal order even entitling him to collect revenue from由es town ot places. At one point he even considered raising an army to丘ee the Indian

Kolkata were angered

deemed British territo巧. Was appointed

The

when Burmese

situation

remained

what was armies pursued rebels into Bandula 1824, after Maha

tense,

governor of Assam, Burmese troops

and

made

in

Chittagong. ready to march on

・-

317

318制‘A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

and they would be forced

由出luck would soon turn foresee出at the the

29

They could not then

War would break out a quarter centu町later, or that

was already closing

in.

Mainland

The Central In

next Anglo-Burmese

shadow of colonialism

to leave.

ASIA, 178os-183os a咽’319

some ways the situation in the Central Mainland

is

reminiscent of

Myanmar

in the

Chakri rulers of Siam and their understanding of their place Chakri in the world was rather different from that of the Konbaung. In 1782, Chaophraya but the attitudes of the

1750s,

(Rama

Siam that I

commander, was enthroned as ruler of the kingdom of had been reconstituted by Taksin more than a decade before. Rama

a successful

I),

immediately established a

but popularly called palace at

ruthlessly

response was swift and decisive. In May a British fleet moved Irrawaddy Delta and took Yangon with little resistance (see Figure 7.3). Bagyidaw's armies were driven out of Assam, Rakhine, and Manipur, and despite campaign mismanagement British forces

eventual忖advanced towards Amarapura. The cost was

fighting lasted nearly

two

years,

and the

British lost almost

substantial; the

half their forces in the

first

defeated

take the meritorious path of givi鸣也e

Engl出what they

desired. His gove盯1ment由

ag陀ed to the Trea竹of

Ya毗bo, which required Myanmar to c优T叩asserim… pay an indemnity of around a million pounds, and renounce all Assam and Manipur, now British protectorates. Yangon and the surrounding

Rakhine to the claims to

The court chronicle noted that “the English

for our faith

Taksin’s

had

earlier

claimed for Siam.

Rama I also moved quickly to affirm authority

could be tolerated,

and

No

resistance to

a rebellion in the

demands

for tribute

Malay kingdom of Patani

suppressed. Writing to Dutch-controlled Melaka

Terengganu expressed his anger and resentment

in

and human in 1791

to request help, the

was

Malay

unambiguous terms:“The

canals

to construct thousands of Cambodians and Lao were impressed Emerald and buildings in the new capital, including the Grand Palace where the their

own

Buddha, taken In a

taxes,

from Vientiane in 1779, was housed.

pattern可pical of those attempting to establish a

loyal可of his followers

by rewarding family and

new d严iasty, Rama I ensured the

suggest由at supporters. Several projects

power by modeling his regime on abandoned Ayutthaya. He built his new palace in the Ayut由aya style with bricks from the ordered the recom- site, recreated court ceremony according to Ayutthaya traditions, and was deliberately seeking to legitimize his seizure of

pilation

of Ayutthaya histories destroyed during the 1767

Burmese

invasion. Yet these

measures were not intended to revive the past, but to demonstrate that出e

new kingdom

British,

terri

boundaries.

from

but the was content when I sent him the bunga mas dan perak polities present king thinks only of ruining me.'’30 The same held true in regard to the Lao could Bangkok to and Cambodia. Although smaller muang on the Khorat plateau subject

he

many of them through disease. Nonetheless, the Burmese army was and Maha Bandula killed. In February 1826, Bagyidaw’s advisers urged him to

twelve months,

City of the Angels)

located directly across the river

previous king [Taksin]

collect

into the

Kolkata’s



Lao states that Taksin had brought under Siamese control, and over A严It由aya’s

resources

of

named Krungthep

in various parts of the count巧,including Chiang Mai,

Malay tributaries to the south.

former

ruler

Bangkok, which was

Burmese invasions

which Taksin over the

capital, officially

Combined with his ab过ity to rally support, the experience of Rama I as commander was soon demonstrated. In 1785 and 1786 Siamese troops were

repel

able to

new

Thonburi.

a military

Figure 7.3.“The attack of the stockades at Pagoda Point on the Rangoon River." The first Anglo-Burmese War began in May 1824, when a force of five thousand British soldiers and over _ five thousand Indian sepoys entered the Yangon harbor. Drawn by a participant, this illustration ot July 8 shows British boats car可ing troops to attack Burmese stockades along the Irrawaddy River. The flotilla included the steamship Diana, called the “fire devil" by the Burmese. As the first steam vessel used in Bay of Bengal warfare, the Diana was a potent symbol of European technology Courtesy of Ames Library, University of Minnesota.

military

and

are devoid of reverence

and

are a people

who show no respect

religious feelings,”citing predictions

that

Account of how the The End of the First Anglo-Burmese War: the Burmese Chronicle o阳Treaty of Yi叫bo was Negotiated伽gkok: Chulalongk川niv,叫?::s?::.9:r??;二, National Archives of VOC 3967, Secret, King of Terengganu t

29

Anna

Allott,

The Netherlands:



October 1791.

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

320 -飞A

was A严1tthaya's legitimate successor. Several families prominent since Ayutthaya times remained influential in Rama I's government, such as the Bunnag, descended from Persian traders who had come

to

Ayutthaya in the early seventeenth century and known

long history of royal service. marriage

Rama I was

closely linked to the

family through

and from the time of his succession they headed or occupied high

ties,

in the administration.

However, the composition of the court had

death or incarceration

of Chakri enemies, and

come from

Bunnag

the old aristocracy but

also

been

The

(normally ineligible for higher positions in the bureaucracy).

positions

altered by出e

a significant proportion of the

from minor nob过ity or non-royal

for their

elite did not

trading

close relationship

between these commercially involved families and the Chinese community was cant factor in strengthening

1786

when

the

Rama

support,

I's

Qing Emperor of China

officially

and

his position

families

was

acknowledged him

a signifi-

recognized

in

as the legitimate

ruler of Siam.

described as a “revolution”in Thai history, the changes

regarded as revolutionary, albeit manifested in a

moral

many

crisis,

older traditions,



was convinced

initiated have

also been

subtle form. Even though he

A yutthaya' s臼H was

due

to a

be destroyed.

Closely related to than a legal

system

accumulated/I

poem Rama

Burmese in 1785 as Naresuan's victories two hundred years

celebrates his victories over the

ran and fled for their lives/ A great

vow

to give

all

my

a series of laws issued

many were killed/With this

showing

his

earlier.“The Burmese

transcendent

between 1782 and 1801 the sangha was

monk

monastery of residence, and those

were demoted. Recalling actions by

N arai

himself



a Buddhist triumph,

virtue

support/to the upholding of the Buddhist

renewed attention given to monastic discipline. Every

the recopying of the entire Tipitaka that



have

religion.")!

reformed, with

was required

modern

legal

who had supported

Thai Buddhist Three

was reorganized in a and in a rewriting

manner

word

act, but

Rama I commissioned was elevated into the most

religious authorities to

review the entire Pali canon. Monastic support

for the throne

and the was ensured by giving monks special honors, and by recognizing that the sangha Supreme Patriarch had ultimate authority in the interpretation of Buddhist scriptures.

more prominence

hero’s capital is

a pro-

The Traibhumikatha,

to lived experiences.

the

in the fourteenth century,

to the world of

of the Ramakien, the Thai version of the Ramayana,

human

beings,

the geographic

Bangkok. Translations and adaptations of

Mon, Malay一including a rendering of the romance, Three Kingdoms (Sam Kok in Thai), were selected and were not merely entertaining but presented appropriate models

promoted because they of behavior.

was not the obvious choice for king, since his mother was of lower rank, but he had由e support of the powerful Bunnag family. He succeeded to a calm and relatively prosperous kingdom, which allowed for the Rama

II (r.

1809一24), the eldest

and

son of Rama

I,

Rama

II

literature.

was

a talented poet

and dramatist

in

own right and the group he gathered around him included Sunthorn Phu ( 1786-1855), “山regarded as the foremost writer of the nineteenth centu巧. The impressive literary production of this period covered a range of genres, most notably a new version of the in long narrative poem named for its two heroes, Khun Chang Khun Phaen. Though set Thai sixteenth-century A严1tthaya, this popular story of love and war reveals much about attitudes in

the ear忖Bangkok period. The self-confidence that infuses these writings

prosperi可of Bangkok life (see incomes through

Figure

the junk trade,

officials

profiting

booming.

Manas Chitakasem,“Politics and Thai Literature,”in L. J. Mallari-Hall and Lily R. Tope, (Quezon City, Text and Contexts: Interactions between Literature and Culture in Southeast Asia

feature of the period is出e

W odds cosmology composed

that gave

Siam and the

Chinese historical

Another

as the basic

works, which differed仕om traditional genres because of

nounced effort to relate the written venerated

from three important

known as the Three-Seals Law (Code). Until the introduction

企ame of reference for Siam’s judicial decisions.

his

in the seventeenth centu叩,these

seal of approval

system in the early twentieth centu巧,this Code served

blossoming of court culture

(the he convened the Ninth Buddhist Council monks Eighth had been held in Chiang Mai in the fifteenth century), bringing together 250

l?bor or

is itself

and a reflection of出vitality their

7.4).

and the

Rama I and his nobles had supplemented ranking same held true for Rama II, wi由high-

even more than before, in part because the

rice trade to

China was

Revem

full叫va叫e

Cited in

1999), 59.

and出us became

ministries,

to car叩

prestigious event of his reign. In 1788

eds.,

The document received the

irregular

measures sent a clear signal that the sangha would not be le位to police itself. All Buddhist kings regarded the production of religious texts as a meritorious

31

was recodifed in 1805, blending the best of the surviving A严1tthaya laws with

from other languages - Persian,

of their religious actions were similar. Indeed, a

less

tenth of which had survived a丘er the sacking of Ayutthaya in 1767. The Siamese

new provisions.

of a

the regulation of Buddhism was the compilation of legal material,

literature

deliberate忖recalling阳ng

and

these

for example, believing that foreign

would find the ancient veneration of phallic symbols offensive, he ordered出at

visitors

have been motivated by competition with his contemporary Bodawpaya,

assert his spiritual

Rama I expressly refused to be involved in

the other hand, he was concerned about the way his subjects

clearly

many

activities



often been

for

practiced Buddhism and the perceptions of outsiders;

setting is

since so

identification

On

debates.

doctrinal

from Bodawpaya,

superiority.

also

Through

Rama

Rama

more

and he was therefore especially concerned to

He may

composed

regard he differed

production of literary

Whereas the ve巧public events of 1688 following the death of Narai have

reaffirmed

In this

ASIA, 1780S-183os

们iam' s economic opportuni恼,since由ey were

not subject to

co凹? e

to阳毗res

tin-mining

enterprises

and cash crops such

as tobacco

and

sugar, while retaining

meiI

r ,

321

322

!?,??

A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400-1830

ASIA, 178os-183os

months. In 1822 the practice whereby royalty and senior nobles were

出ree to

four

marshal

groups of people to

gave the central

sense of agricultural resources and the amount of rice that could

administration a greater be expected in taxes.

work for them was banned. Other measures

able to



survey of

arable land, covering the central plains and

all

its

immediate surroundings and including areas to the north, recorded the name of the

Allowing land to

owner and a description of the field.

These ancient

lie

fallow was absolutely forbidden.

measures were part of the process by which Siam sought

independent

muang

of Lan

Na

to incorporate the

into the administrative fold of the expansive

kingdom. Fighting against Burmese forces had been particularly intense

in the

new

Chiang Mai

and efforts to assert Bangkok’s preeminence st山faced resistance in a region which

area

yearned to restore its

proud legacy of

a separate

and

distinctive

domain. Opposition to

Siamese control was also evident in the predominantly Lao-speaking the northeast. In 1820 around six thousand people in this region joined an

extension of

the

areas

of

by a monk, but the rebellion was crushed and leaders of the minority communities executed. Although Vietnam also received tribute仕om Lao rulers, the uprising led

regarded the three Lao polities across the

Siamese clearly vn可w

.:'IP

THI":

C芒TT

OP

出e

EAU''

Figure 7.4.“View of the city of Bangkok.”This view of the approaches to Bangkok in 1828 shows Chinese shops edging the Chao Phraya River and behind them Dusit Mahaprasat, the throne hall built by King Rama I for royal ceremonies and state occasions. Crawfurd’s account describes Bangkok’s numerous glittering Buddhist temples, the women vendors and Buddhist monks crossing the river,出e bustling harbor filled with native boats of every description, and the numerous large Chinese j山1k.s, one of which is depicted on出e left. John Crawfu时,Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and

Cochinchina (Henry Colburn: London, 1828. Reprint, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University

Press, 1967),

opp. 78.

no巾,Vientiane in the center,

subservient part

depicts a

groups

map drawn up during出e

in the collection of traditional jungle products for markets in China,

Cambodia, southern Vietnam, and the British entrepots of Penang and Singapore. During the 1820s around two thousand Chinese were annually arriving in

has been estimated that in 1825 the Chinese - most of

comprised around 4.75 percent of a

Some Chinese migrants were

total

Bangkok

whom

were

alone, and

Bangkok

in

population of around three to four

assimilated into the workforce

by voluntarily

it



million.

cutting their

queue and by being tattooed to show that they were a phrai under a certain master or nai. In this case they were known as Cin phrai (“A Chinese who is a phrai" Others remainεd outside the system, and

became

a source of free

tion occurred as wealthy Chinese

men

and mobile wage

sent back to

China

labor.

Some

overlord of the

for brides.

to the throne,

and debt

II to take

came In 1810, just a year a丘er he

he ordered a census that would enumerate available manpower.

III (r. 1824一51),

regarded himself as由e uneq山vocal

Lao tributary kingdoms and therefore had no hesitation (r.

1805-28), to appear

in ordering

Chao

at court, organize deliveries of timber

and

of

descendants of overlordship.

Chao Anou' s request

for the return of the

Lao captives provided the

Chao Anou’s goal was

and Khorat plateau,

catalyst for a

famed Emerald Buddha and

major rebellion against Siamese

in the north- to take control of Lao-populated areas extension direct Siamese control and where the

which were under there by tattooing to include Lao communities was bitterly resented. In fact, was little hope of an earthquake that success, and even before the campaign was under way forces of around shook Vientiane was interpreted as an omen of disaster. Though Lao twenty thousand moved deep into the Khorat plateau, they were poorly coordinated and east

of registration

vastly

ou

Lao

白e Lao.

chron忱“one heard the noise In disciplined

rank and

The inevitable defeat also

file

of削ant hill mard向阳川the coun町雪

brought ruthless

,,.,L

They were a multitude. members suppression. Chao Anou and leading

they crossed the border

..



All fugitives

were required to return to their former masters, but new provisions allowed for some to seek a new patron, and the length of corvee service was reduced to slaves

Rama

palm trees, and supply laborers for digging canals and other public works. In 1826-8

the rejection

of a

The confidence generated by the Bangkok environment encouraged Rama

new steps to tighten control over the country’s resources.

resinifica-

years of the Chakri regime出at

and over 160悦llages, as being within Siamese boundaries.

Anou, ruler of Vientiane

dominance

first

small area in southern Laos, identi马ring the location of three different ethnic

Inheriting these attitudes,

sugar

in

in the south) as a “secondary nation,”a

of the “Siamese Empire." Bangkok’s colonial attitude towards the Lao

suggested in a

areas is

and Champasak

Mekong (Luang Prabang

12

?:;!?:::,r:;',?;;:;:v;?

?:?/c?;;?:,・iti:;??・i::;工::uc;1a:?::;:r::::,e?;?;{

170.

τ;;--

323

归咎A HI…Y OF EARLY MODERN SOUTH…山,140叫30 of the uprising were taken to in iron cages

and

reviled

Bangkok

Ang Chan

war captives where they were publicly displayed

by passers-by. different.

Although the Cambodian

1797-1835), continued to send missions to Bangkok,

(r.

Oudong

Vietnamese faction dominated the

court. In 1807

Ang Chan

a pro-

placed himself

under the “protection”of the newly united Vietnam. Twice a month, wearing Vietnam-

gowns supplied by Hue, Ang Chan and entourage were required

ese bureaucratic a

Vietnamese temple near the

bearing

Emperor Gia

Long’s

more amenable

with a

new

name.

client,

Phnom Penh and bow

capital of

Rama

II

had

initially

planned

to visit

before a

to replace

tablet

Ang Chan

but he faced the prospect of confronting forces

sent to

safeguard Vietnam’s interests. His pragmatic decision to temporarily forego claims overlordship allowed control,

Cambodia

to

fall

increasingly under Vietnamese control. Yet

which entailed greater monetization, fixed

to popular discontent,

and

in

taxes,

and more

1820 the forced recruitment of

repair a 44-mile (70-kilometer) canal

the tipping-point. In southeastern

from the frontier

Cambodia near

five

to

this

co凹衍,contributed

thousand

to the port of

Ha

were

the

Tien provided

a sacred

by a combined Vietnamese-Khmer army led by famed m过ita巧eunuch, Le Van Duyet. The leaders were summarily executed, and the easily defeated

Vietnamese did not withdraw from Cambodia until the 1840s, after an extended occupation which saw an unprecedented degree of interference in Cambodia’s political

and



cultural affairs.

was the northern Malay

manpower but where Malay

loyalty

states,

which were an important

was constantly

in question. Here

too the early Chakri rulers tolerated

no opposition. Following a rebellion in 1808, Patani seven provinces and thousands of captives transported back to Bangkok.

was divided into Kedah was another target of Siamese attention, for it had been forced to contribute forces to help subdue Patani and was again ordered to launch a punitive attack on its neighbor Perak when the latter failed to submit the customary tribute of the gold and silver flowers. In 1821, a丘er the the humiliating

Kedah

continued to

ruler refused to offer personal

homage

to

Bangkok and perform

were

mount

killed or enslaved,

attacks

by

its

1ad no wish

states,

Nor

did Britain have

although the expan-

economic interests in the Malay Peninsula was already envisaged. While

over

three

Malay states (Kedah, Kelantan, Terengganu). Patani was placed firmly borders while the more southerly Perak ruler, supported by Britain, was

northern

within Siam’s

allowed to

further

ity

the“Treaty of

concept,

renounce

down

the

tributary obligations to Bangkok.

all

Malay Peninsula had thus been halted by the

around ten thousand Malays, most of

campaigns against

Kedah and

rival

when

the

first

Chakri ruler was

and territorial losses

were most evident in the defeat

not

installed,

and the new

suffered by Siam’s traditional

Bangkok court heard and accepted the unambiguous message that it now expand beyond borders that Europeans had defined and that the key to

in this

survival

future, is

Rama

III

depicts

environment must be compromise. This

nicely

and

is

equal in

set in a

royal

In this

power. Royal authority

should lead to war,

there

is

is

no preeminent

may have

by

awareness that

national

world in which

vast resources but are essentially

commerce will collapse, but if kings all “behave according

The text’s stress

growing

cakkavati; rather, the

restricted to the boundaries of individual kingdoms. If

countries will prosper and

tradition" their

unmarked by

partially written

world of Sukhothai. The narrator, Lady Nophamat, in a manner that is markedly different from traditional

new conceptualization

tongues in all lands.”34

important for the

fictionalized

composed of various states which

competition

realization, so

conveyed in a prose text thought to have been

interstate relations

geographies.

was

had been captured during

Myanmar. The

could

to

whom

Patani.

Much had changed since 1782, realities

“sphere of influence"

of past conflicts was evident in the population of Bangkok, which

but the legacy

now included

The extension of Siam’s author-

“their praises [will]

be sung in

all

on由e necessity of political pragmatism points to

European intervention was fundamentally reshaping

Siam had operated

the inter-

so successfully. In this sense,

any watershed event, the historical era that

we have

called “early



though

modern"

coming to an end.

while the ruler escaped to Penang. Malay exiles

on Siamese garrisons

in

Kedah, but an uprising

in 1831 was

and Kedah’s vassal status confirmed. numerous vassals, Bangkok was aware that Britain could well be seen

resentful lords as a potential source of support. It

卢riti

Siam in regard to the northern Malay

confront

formally ratified,

The Eastern

eventually suppressed

In dealing with

provinces and the richest throne in the East."33

Amity and Commerce" signed with the East India Burney in 1826 agreed that in return for the removal of Company’s representative Henry restrictions and duties on trade, Britain would unofficially recognize Siamese overlordship

ceremony of obeisance, a Siamese force invaded. Thousands of Malays

fled as refugees, or

of fifty-seven

of their

never

world

third area of attention

source of rice and

sion

laborers to

mountain (Ba Phnom), a monk pronounced himself king and declared that he would institute a new society where the Vietnamese would no longer be masters. Despite a belief in their invulner- ab过ity, his forces

“ruler

any desire to

Cambodia were rather

Bangkok’s policies towards king,

as

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 178os-183os

was soon

h「it

all

the

the evident, however, that

nopes, no assistance was given to the ruler of Kedah against Siam, and a non-committal reply was sent to a similar overture from the lord of Chiang Mai, who described himself as

Mainland

southern realm of

Dang Trong. Escaping

Pap的With…

兑::r?ur?ey ?rn?tional Publishers, 4 Cited

1971), vol. V, part

m Nidhi, Pen and Sail,

244-5.

1,

89.

to Siam, N♂iyen

Phuc Anh

(the future

c;

325

326

?i♀1

MODERN SOUTHEAST

A HISTORY OF EARLY

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 1400一1830

Gia Long), claimant to the N凯1yen domain, had hopes of returning with

ASIA, 178os-183os

Bangkok’s

1784队renty thousand soldiers and three thousand ships supplied by Rama reached the south by land via Cambodia and by sea across the Gulf of Siam. However,

assistance. In I

numbers and some initial success, the Siamese forces were pushed back and Nguyen Anh was st过l intent on regaining his heritage, Rama I gave up any

despite their

although

fur出er idea of intervention.

The Tay Son army, reinforced by a fleet of four hundred

ships, then

moved northwards,

where

political infighting, a palace

fragile

Trinh regime. In 1786 a ten-year truce with the Trinh was broken by

coup, and a severe famine were threatening the

already



Tay Son

attack, justified by the claim that the authority of the Le emperors would be Trinh power collapsed, and the second Tay Son brother (Nguyen Hue) took the

northern

capital of

Thang Long, even marrying

a favorite daughter of the Le ruler. The

restored.

latter st山

new son-in-law, however, and in 1788 he fled to China where he asked the Qing emperor to intervene on his behalf, an act which led Nguyen Hue to harbored suspicions of his declare himself as the

Quang Trung Emperor, and thus inaugurate a new Nguyen Hue was able to restore

defeating a Chinese invasion in 1789,

China, receiving Qing affirmation as the legitimate ruler of Chinese name meaning“the Pacified South."

Tay Son concern became evident

to recti命past injustices

in areas

under

their control.

and

to initiate a

An Nam, new

dynasty. After relations with

the

traditional

style of government

A reformed tax system and other incentives

encouraged peasants to return to their villages and to cultivate rice, and the Tay Son leadership gained support through burning tax documents, imprisoning or executing tax collectors

and other unpopular

officials,

traditional beliefs, claiming supernatural

and opening

rice

warehouses. They

powers over wind and rain and

also tapped

Figure 7.5.‘'View of the Thu Bon (Faifo) River south of Da Nang.”This engra世ng was published in an account of Lord McCartn町’s visit to由e Tay Son court. It depicts the estua叮of the Thu Bon River leading up to Hoi An, which was st过l an important trade center in the late eighteenth centu巧r despite

silting. The row『galleys depicted here, from fifty to eighty feet long, were made of several planks held together by wooden pins and fiber ropes. 0丘en finely decorated,出ey carried umbrellas, streamers, and flags denoting the status of the passengers si忧ing in the bow. John Barrow, A Voyage to Cochinchina in the Years 1792 and 1793 (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1896. Reprint,

some river single

Kuala

their

flaunting

Cham sword. Yet they simultaneously drew on established ideas about the role of kings, accepting advice from Confucian scholars, asserting their own possession of a magical

righteousness and virtue,

and even sponsoring the translation of Confucian

nom. Like past rulers of Vietnam, they regarded the Lao areas in 1790 and looting Luang Prabang in 1791. Maintaining

this

classics into

polities as vassals, invading

these

new regime, however, was only possible under unified leadership, but

Tay Son brothers were themselves at odds, with tensions erupting into armed combat. Their position was severely undermined by the premature death of the Quang Trung Emperor in 1792 and that of his elder brother the following year. Continuing at

“the

Nguyen forces in the southern region led to tensions with local since villagers were not only conscripted for military service but were required to u?e

populations,

mon坏labor, and

when men were

go仙Even women and

unavailable to

work on

contrib-



canals, dikes,

and

cases fortifications. In such

One Confucian

adviser thought

it

Son necessary to remind the Tay

Cham, and Khmer were

disappointed by unfulfilled king"

felt由e do not recognize the authority of father and brunt of growing Tay Son host山ty.36 For the growing numbers of those who felt aggrieved or victimized, the reinstatement of the N伊yen became more and more attractive. promises while Christians “who

By the

late

In Siam, return to power seemed increasingly possible. (1741-99), the French missionary Bishop Pierre Pigneau de Behaine

1780s a

Nguyen

Nguyen Anh had met who saw an alliance with the Vietnamese prince as a way to further Catholic missionizing. Although the bishop succeeded in persuading the French king to sign a treaty in 1787, any promised support仕om France disappeared with the outbreak of the French Revolution recruit French two years later. Pigneau de Behaine was thus forced to use his own funds to

fear

was often the only means by which Tay Son authority was sustained, and for many peasants the reappearance of corrupt, arbitrary, and u时ust officials was depressingly familiar.

people are the foundation of the count可;也ey are the stable base of the newly pacified

state.咐Earlier supportive Chinese,

times the

conflict with

Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1975). Courtesy of George Dutton

that

35



Cited in

George Dutton, The Tay Sσn Uprising: Society and Rebellion

(Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2006), 28.

Vietnam

Historiques Adrien Launay, Histoire de la mission de Cochinchine, 1658-1823: Documents Missions Etrangeres de Paris: Indes savantes, 2000) vol III: 119.

Cited in (Paris:

in Eighteenth-century

句气

327

328 t霄,A

HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

mercenaries in India. Meanwhile,

Nguyen Anh had returned and after years of frustration

as

was able

Saigon in 1788. Arriving in 1789, Pigneau de

continued. In the

to reestablish control of

small force of around a

hundred

men and

their

knowledge of

artillery

and

Behaine’s

fortification

construction contributed to N♂1yen Anh’s efforts to consolidate his position

in the

southern region.

was

at best half-hearted,

literati class as well as the Chinese and

the great advantage of

Nguyen

forces was白白

domination of the Vietnam coast. French officers were enlisted to train the Nguyen navy, and from the 1790s Nguyen Anh ordered the construction of dockyards to build well-

armed

vessels in a style that

combined European and Chinese

launched the “monsoon wars,”so

titles,

named because

Son positions and, Long in 1802.

Tay Son fleet at Qui Nhon and the city’s Nguyen army was able to move up the coast by sea, avoiding Tay led by Nguyen Anh himself, crossing the Linh River and taking Thang the

had

of

lasted for nearly a quarter



had never before been ruled as a single kingdom. Yet despite the reign name which N凯iyen Anh selected - Gia Long, a combination of Gia Dinh (Saigon/Ho Chi Minh Ci可) and Thang Long (Hanoi) -由e count巧remained some extent partitioned. Gia to

area of direct control

was around

the capital Hue, while the south and

no口h

were under governors who had served as his chief military suppo口ers. An important step was therefore to assert the country’s unity and independence. Aware that the Chinese court persisted in using the term “An

of

Nam

Nam" (Pacified South), rather than Dai Viet (Great 1803 Gia Long sent an envoy to the Qing emperor asking for investiture as“ruler Viet" (the Southern Viet). The long historical memory of the Chinese, however,

associated this

name with an ancient southern kingdom that had resisted central au出ority

and had spanned both

sides of the nineteenth-century

r句ecting Gia Long’s request, the

and the name the

Mekong

“Viet

Nam"

Delta. This

Chinese proposed

border.

Sino-Vietnamese

instead that the characters be

be applied to the entire count町from the northern

borders

was not the name the Vietnamese desired, and by 1813

1?

reversed, to

they had

generally reverted to using“Dai Viet."

Gia Long’s

first

family’s traditional

何叫与in tl川oli削ly

and economicall内1portant northern

core.

legitimacy,

H协mily

never been associated with this part of the country. Opposition to his rule was

bad

st山strong,

to offer regular

power base, was

built

on

model of Be斗ing, the Chinese capital, and Chinese artisans were even brought from

Chinese system,

such as the introduction of a monthly salary and

first

carried out in 1805

status in

social

lation register,

information

and then

and

social hierarchy.

A land measurement

revised annually, allocated plots according to

accordance with Confucian ideas of propriety. Combined with the popu-

about individual peasants and their agricultural holdings.

Gia Long’s

effi。此s

Chan of Cambodia

elite

culture in Vietnam,

came

particularly evident

to

Hue

Ang

to appeal for help against his Siam-backed brother, Gia

him back with an

escort of thirteen thousand

and Cambodia were expected

mandala tradition, the Lao both Bangkok and Hue; between 1812 and 1813 Gia Long received

submit tribute to

many as 127 elephants. In south-central

was

to replicate the Chinese system of diplomacy. In 1813, after

Long responded as overlord, sending

to

allowance for

the use of land records as the basis of taxation provided extremely detailed

The admiration of China, intrinsic to in

rice

Promulgated in 1812, the Gia Long code emulated that of the Qing, giving

officials.

states

some

respects

Panduranga,出e rump

of the

last

Vietnam, though effectively a Vietnamese administrative

as

Cham polity in unit,

was

also

and the privileges accorded to the “regimental commander" ( a member Cham royal family) meant that the Cham could still regard him as their king. At

treated as a vassal,

of the

court

ceremonies, for instance, he

was seated with the Khmer and Lao

rulers,

not with the

Vietnamese mandarins. In Vietnam’s reconfigured diplomatic world even groups like出e Jarai

of the central

But the

highlands could become

dream of creating

completely achieved.

“tributaries."

a Chinese-style capital

The prima叩reason was

introduction of a Chinese-可pe

and administration was never

the low level of bureaucratic centralization,

M出authority delegated to representatives located at

some distance仕om由e capital. The

mandarinate was impeded because

civil

service examin-

introduced in 1807, were only held every six years in regional centers rather than men, but every three years at the capital. The successful candidates were typically northern their numbers were insufficient to fill the administrative posts in Vietnam’s twenty-seven ations,

provinces,

and so more than half the positions were held by military veterans丘om由e

叫Village headmen W盯O伍cial charged

concern was to reestablish order and assert his own

reinsti-

Envoys were sent

and then

to request investiture

Vietnamese troops. In the

territ。可that

Viet), in

first

Hue, the N思1yen

insurrections

was the

Guangzhou to teach Vietnamese workers. Legislative measures again mirrored the

this support

centu巧and had cost thousands of lives. Although there were st诅pockets of Tay Son resistance and lingering loyalty to the Le dynasty, the Nguyen were now masters of a

own

at

program,

subsequent

This vict。可marked the end of a struggle that

Long’s

The new capital

prima巧attention to maintaining the political

to

and

status as capital,

of a Chinese-style administration associated with past greatness.

China seven times during his reign,

the

its

culturally appropriate solution

to

merchant ships in return for a share of the booty. Nonetheless,

From 1800

Vietnamese context the

the preva且ing winds were used

could not prevent destruction of the capture.

Long’s loss of

he

providing them with sturdy, well-equipped vessels, and encouraging them

raid passing

to

Thang

techniques. In 1793

mount repeated attacks on the Tay Son stronghold of Qui Nhon in central Vietnam. The Tay Son responded by incorporating Chinese pirates into their naval forces, awarding them

tution

tribute.

Although anticipated support from the Christians

was resentment over

ASIA, 178os-183os铲寄去 329

dates.

Yet in

lists

candi- of eligible examination the elders, who still wielded

many respects they remained agents of the village

know-

because of the administration was further hampered not of Chinese culture was so unevenly spread, and even court protocol did

greatest

ledge

with出1portant duties such as comp且ing the influence. Sinification

330卢也A HISTORY OF EARLY

MODERN SOUTHEAST

conform to Chinese precedent. In a ritual that would have been

necessarily

the Chinese, special veneration

The

difficulties

was accorded the

late as

1818

how

officials

it

the

spirits

quite foreign to

of the N事1yen elephant army.

of inculcating Chinese cultural features were especially pronounced

the ethnically diverse southern provinces,

As

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

ASIA, 140。一1830

new

registers to

some

show

districts to

Nor

Chinese-style laws should be compiled.

local

did administrative

reform bring an end to peasant rebellion, for over a hundred were reported during Gia Long’s eighteen-year reign. Northern scholars, like the poet Nguyen Du (1766一1820),

由e

famed

for his classic story of

new regime but were ambivalent about

human

its

fortitude,

legitimacy and

The Tale of Kieu,

Attempts to emulate China raised other issues, notably Vietnam’s Westerners, since Gia Long’s

list

served

future.

its

of purported vassals included not only

Vietnam.

the capital

but

Christians, but he

was the strongest and most innovative of

indicative, for instance, that shortly a丘er his succession

to acquire

smallpox vaccine and to be trained in

than his father,

its

all

the N凯1yen

rulers.

of

It is

However,

to a far greater extent

Minh Mang was preoccupied with reconstituting the Vietnamese poli可on

idealized Chinese lines. Because

ment had allowed

he believed that his

father’s

more

decentralized govern-

the governors in Hanoi and particularly Saigon to assume too much

power, his primary concern was the centralization of authority and the promotion “virtuous behavior."

To

this end,

he

of

revived reg时ar civil service examinations and

personally oversaw the appointment of provincial submit officials, requiring them to accounts of their conduct while in office in order to show that“the central and provincial

governments constitute one body."37 Although he considered his subjects to be often ignorant of Sinic ideals, he believed that they could be civilized through a strong and vigilant

government. In his words,“I do not dare to be

idle for

an

instant.”38 Written

descriptions of practices associated with for great Chinese emperors provided guidelines all court ritual, even the presentation of captured rebels to the throne, while moral maxims

were proclaimed to inculcate“good customs" and foster allegiance. The outbreak of the Opium飞Ivar in China in 1839, the British advance in China, and the alleged use of opium

Van

Duyet. The

been publicly dishonored by

The reform

from the north, was

neither a hidden valley nor a deep forest

it is

to

be integrated into a

Mang’s message was unequivocal:‘'The southern land .



is

far

You must improve



were founded

to foster a southern scholarly class, cadastral

women were even ordered the traditional sarong. On the other hand, he

discour-

Minh Huong)

to claim

entertainments were proscribed and rather than

tendency for the descendants of Ming loyalists (known as

a special

status

by ordering that the character

another character

with the same

for “huong”(丘agrance) be

to

changed

Ci时in Wood巾,Vietnam and伽Ch切倪e Model:

this

assimilation project, ethnic tensions

was tightened after rebellions in

Cham to

access to coastal trade.

forget their

were exacerbated. Control over the

1822 and 1828, and new

and acquire“central

Cham poem,“we had to endure

all

southern part of

steadily

exactions

Mang

felt

should be

Cambodia was

Khmer rebellion led by a former monk name

killed.

has put the southern regions under all

its

control

By 1838 Ming

of the count可he ruled

changed to“Dai Nam”(the “Great”or“Imperial" South)

the feet of the mountains, command."41

Cit,?d

words of one

and we were exhausted."40 The annexed丘om 1835, but labor and tribute

su伍ciently confident to propose that the official

the seas to

39

culture,”but in the

Vietnamese military posts before the leaders were

fact出at“our court

Cited

areas

restrictions greatly lessened

sorts of sorrows

generated widespread resentment, and a

overran several

Cham

From the Vietnamese perspective, Chams were being taught

“barbarian habits"

..

in recognition of the ・

From

the shores of

under our these lands are being brought



Choi Byung ook, Southern Vietnam under the Rei伊of Minh Mang (1820-1841): Central and Local Response (Ithaca: Cornell Southeast Asia Program, 2004), IOI. Assimilation of Campa in Choi, Southern Vietnam今142: Nicholas Weber,“The Destruction and in

l。832-5) as seen from George Dutton,

Jayne

26.

to

As lower-level Vietnamese of且cials, soldiers, and peasants were recruited to assist in



Ci毗州叫

wear

pronunciation but meaning“叫llage" or“local."

Policies

:: JU

丘om

were undertaken, shrines dedicated to state deities were established, popular

Chinese-style trousers

he sent a French doctor to Macau

use.

Minh

educational institutions

aged any

has suffered in Western historiography because of his treatment

able lieutenant Le

memo叩had

u川I

"licentious"

Mang

father’s

felt his

by血ial piety, sympathy, loyalty, and trust."39 In his unflagging campaign t 0

SU凹eys

Mi时1

people

was crucial if this region, so ethnically different

yourselves

means of ur

many

Minh Mang then introduced were motivated by the belief that state intervention

measures

to

as a

in the Be斗ing court could even encourage the idea that

in upholding ancient traditions.

Minh Mang, and a major rebellion erupted under Duyet’s adopted son.

Christianity

which the problems of using the Chinese model count叮became increasingly problematic.

but

died in 1832,

polities to the

was short-lived and he remained suspicious of European intrusion, agreeing trade only on certain conditions. His son Minh Mang succeeded in 1820 but inherited a

China

under the governorship of his

independently latter

relations with

Myanmar, but France and England as well. Although Gia Long recognized debt he owed Pigneau de Behaine and retained some French advisors, his interest in

situation in

by Minh Mang)

occupied by ethnic Khmer. This area had previously operated semi-

largely

Delta,

larger

west such as the

prohibited

Much of Minh Mang’s attention was focused on the southern areas and the Mekong

in

which were under their own governor in Saigon.

was necessary to send model

(strictly

Vietnam was superior to

ASIA, 178os-183os

Cam Sou;c♂JSEAS弘1 (Februa叩20叫η Werner and John

(Columb川nive哟Pr叽2斗叫2 6 0.

K.

Whitmore,

eds.,

Sources of Vietnamese Tradition

?.

331

332

6 A HISTO…F山…ODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫30 Despite ships as

Minh

and the

EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST

Mang’s respect for Western knowledge and technology, such

court’s taste for

unfounded and

as steam-

Western products, Christian teachings were seen not merely but as a fundamental threat to state

irrational,

Church

stability.

opposition to cultural practices like ancestor worship was nothing new, but nineteenth century Christians were implicated in several insurrections. In 1826, all

missionary work was prohibited. Although congregations were

some mandarins were devout

and

scale,

in

exile,

maintained and of

From 1836 onward, persecution,

and death of Vietnamese Christians took place on an unprecedented

France protection of French missionaries and the Vietnamese flock became a

justification for m且itary intervention. In a

very real sense,

Minh Mang' s death in may differ, he had

1841 marks the end of a period, for although historical judgments

been able to articulate his

were

far

own

vision of what

Vietnam should

be. His successor’s options

more limited and even in retrospect it is diffict山to identi马, a course of action that

would have saved the Vietnamese people from the trauma of colonization.

and what was below rose up to above."42 As the forces of Western imperialism

pushed relentlessly forward,

the potential

calculate

The

in the

therefore,

Catholics, Christians were under constant suspicion

fomenting rebellion and of involvement in the black arts. imprisonment,

still

below,

ability

by aggressive resources ity.

rulers

European

political

own

economic and affairs

to

political policies.

was increasingly constrained

and economic measures backed by

and legitimized by an overweening

the considerable

belief in their inherent superior-

foreshadowed the可pe of colonial control

imposed in the Philippines exception of Siam.

and由eir advisers were compelled

in framing

of Southeast Asians to order their

of the state

and would eventually encompass

that

had already been

the entire region with the

In the past Southeast Asian responses to European incursion had taken

many forms, with local societies themselves deciding on options that could range仕om outright resistance

enabled so

to

compromise and accommodation. The

many people in all walks of life to exercise their

influences - a

outside

Southeast Asia’s“early

had by

had

own judgment in dealing with

hallmark of the previous three hundred years - had infused

modernity" with a unique character. By the 1830s

coming generations would

of mutually

agency

cultural confidence that

this confidence

no means disappeared, but disturbing questions had been raised about the kind of

of Europeans

会喜

even mainland

European reaction

These developments

world that

CONCLUSION

ASIA, 178os-183os俨泣333

inherit.

The technological and economic dominance

was fostering an imbalance that eroded

beneficial

arrangements possible

local capaci句to negotiate the kinds

in the past.

The undermining of indigenous

marks a significant division between the early modern and the

“colonial”periods.

In mainland Southeast Asia the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries are typiαUy

seen as a time of renewed energy that gave rise to

some of the most powerful dynasties in 42

regional history. In reviewing this period, political

in

it is

possible to see the cumulative processes of

and cultural consolidation that had taken place

which

certain ethnic groups

in

had been able to ensure

favored locations, and the ways their

permanent dominance

of

major polities. To a considerable degree the new creation of fixed boundaries determined by warfare and legalized through international treaty conventions stemmed from an

European demand for precision in delineati吨a state’s territories. The implica- tions of this development were quickly understood by some mainland Southeast Asian insistent

n过ers,

who now

used

this

n倒’diplomatic tool to stake their claims wi也in a

environment increasingly dominated by European states

interests.

political

The outlines of future nation-

were already beginning to take shape.

The

s缸ne period in island Southeast Asia has been associated with

retreat of indigenous po坦ties as the territorial

re,・ersal

and出t

entrenched

hold of Europeans became more and 邵阳region was canred up by European rivalries. It is important to remember, however, that in the island world the historical context was

veηF

different仕om由e

two hundred years earlier. Local societies attempted to deal wi白白e disruption brought about by European political and commercial intrusion as they had done success- situation

but the context had changed. Adaptation and readjustment were now found to be inadequate solutions in a time of unprecedented change. In the words of a fully in the past,

Malay

text,“the state

of the world was in a constant flux; what was above descended

to

G. L. Koster,“A Kin岛”in

(Bangi:

Nineteenth-century

Lampoon: the Poem of the Cobra-King and the Frog- Kai Lit, eds., New Perspectiv臼in Malaysian Studies Phua S., and

Political

Mohd. Hazim Shah, Jomo K.

Malaysian Socia} Science Association 2002), 40.

Conclusion: Southeast Asia and the early

period

modern

336、司怠A

HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

IlMi川…臼rly



mo…ia

controversial concepts:“Southeast Asia"

and

“early

we have

modern."

cont

historians

We have approached

Southeast Asia as a region that encompasses the current Association of South

Asian Nations (ASEAN), as well as certain contiguous areas neighboring“world regions”of East and South Asia.

We

now

incorporated

East

into the

are also aware that we have

located a Southeast Asia that predates the establishment of international borders

or

regional complexes determined

by governments, funding agencies, and academic insti- tutions. In the past many communities now included within modern nations were separated by inhospitable terrain or rough seas, and in other areas geography facilitated zones of

From

human

interaction that have

the outset, therefore,

in Southeast

we have seen

Asian history because of

relationship to contempora叮boundaries.

little

the physical environment as an integral element

its

key role in determining the extent

have advocated approaching the early

可mamic historical processes" that

interconnectedne队it

global

resources;

technologies;

promoted increased cross-cultural interaction.1

intensive

and human

and

ideas, information,

political institutions to cater to these developments.

by no means resulted in a homogenous

Lieberman has perceptively remarked,“it

Victor

A new

mob过ity; the rise of an urban commercial

and extensive exchanges of

and new economic and

These processes

in terms of a cluster of

argued, resulted in intensified use of land and natural

increased populations

religious revival;

class;

is

modern world

is

“early

modern" world

precisely this fluid

but, as

mix of

local

perspectives specificities with overarching commonalities that recommends comparative this period to local as well as global historiography."2 The history of Southeast Asia in

such an opportunity.

pro训des

to which

and economic pathways could draw different societies together into larger domains of communication and interaction. The multiple and complex connectivities that gave certain subregions in Southeast Asia cultural

their

own

around

coherence was the operative principle in our decision to structure the

specific zones, regardless of their relationship to

example, the zone nities in the

now form

we

modern

narrative

nation-states. As one

called the “Northern Archipelago”includes islands and

commu-

southern Philippines, northern Indonesia, Sabah (Malaysia), and Brunei

part of four contemporary countries.

At the same

time,

we

have

that

constantly

emphasized the interactions between the zones we have identified, particularly the cultural and economic exchanges made possible by maritime connections. Though the term “Southeast Asia"

is

applied anachronistically, the commonalities resulting from adapta-

tions to the cycles of rainfall cultural

and economic

and wind patterns

as well as the extensive

links support the notion of a distinctive region.

and

interactive

Not only

Euro-

peans but visitors from other areas of Asia repeatedly described Southeast Asia

somehow

different

from

their

own

countries. For the Arabs, the region was

called the lands “below the winds,”while the

and

Chinese consistently referred

seas to their south as“the southern ocean”or“the

these conceptualizations exactly corresponds to

what

Asia,”we regard the testimonies of early travelers as

as

collectively

to the lands

southern seas.”Although none

is

currently regarded as

an indication that even

of

“Southeast

in the distant

past there existed the notion of a world area that included all or most of the region. While the concept of Southeast Asia is now generally accepted, the adoption of 冗arly modern" to characterize a historical period is still debated. As noted in the Introduction, ・

this

term and the underlying concept behind

considerable discussion thirty years historians

among historians

it

are both relatively

in other

world

new and have aroused

areas. Nonetheless, over the

have become more receptive to this periodization,

the application of “early

modern"

modern world and

Southeast Asia

of land and natural resources and consequent changes environment. Southeast Asia came to world attention because of its unique

consider first the exploitation

Let us to

of the early

the physical

supply valuable and highly desired products. Throughout this book we have tried to show the rapidity with which the people of the region responded to the demands of the global market, a response出at stemmed from ecological

diversity

and the

ab过ity to

demands was similarly impressive. The expansion of maritime and overland trade and the rise of more urbanized centers necessitated the extension of agricultural lands for cultivating food and long experience in international trade.

their

for

growing of cash crops.

the

readily

The

New World crops, particularly maize and sweet potato, were

incorporated into local diets, especially in less fertile and rain-deprived areas,

enabling

people to

resources, too,

move

into otherwise marginal

evident

and

less hospitable lands.

Natural

But were vigorously exploited to meet the growing international demand.

developme川adap町,and the damaging

such

reaction to internal

effects

wherever the traditional collecting practices

on native flora and fauna becam二 were overridden by commercial

considerations.

A second feature of Southeast Asia’s early modern era was由e expansion of population. that mainland While figures for this period must be treated with caution, it is estimated Southeast A削population of about six million in 1400 had increased to more tha干 around fifteen million by 1820, although settlement was concentrated in core areas but decline, capitals and urban centers. There were certainly periods of demographic

last

particularly when

associated with the underlying themes of expanding and the far-reaching transformations resulting from increased economic and cultural encounters. Rather than thinking of a set of static characteristics, several

global exchange

Features



Jerry

H.

is



H. Bentley,“Early Mod<:



B叫,eds., Between the :i::i:01;e

Modern World Victor

and

(Lanham MD:

:l

the Early



Modern World,"

in Charles H. Parker

Modern圳

Rowman and Little且eld,

2007), 13.

Lieberman,

World History," The American Historical Review 116, 4 (October 20ll),

962・

and

Jer町

338

,\

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

CONCLUSION

by the end of the eighteen出centu巧. In the payers indicate that between 1700 and 1800 the

available sources point to significant recovery

Spanish Philippines

lists

of tribute

population of Luzon and the Visayas

more than doubled

million, while in densely populated Java the general

absence of warfare

aged growth to an estimated six million. Southeast Asia was population, but the early

modern period

distinguished the nineteenth

Increased

a region of relatively low

sets the stage for the

demographic

rise that

repre-

in Southeast Asia.

greatly increased with the

pilgrims, slaves,

and even

involvement of Europeans. Traders, exiles

were

now moving

sailors, soldiers, envoys,

along truly global paths. Within

Southeast Asia mobility was stimulated by the expansion of seaborne commerce and the rise of new ports and stapling points, which strengthened the network of coastal commu- nities

and attracted

The

first

millennium of the

influences

Buddhist

from

India,

and by



mixed Daoist-Buddhist-Confucian amalgam

China. By the eleventh centu巧the Theravada

from

Southeast Asia

probably

Muslim

The

communities in northeast Sumatra, but

peacefully,

however,

associated with Sri Lanka

and differences in belief were

it

most

well established in the

arrival of Islam in the island

occurred well before the thirteenth century,

connected to trade routes. For the

closely

Buddhism

and by the fourteenth century was

mainland centers, other than Dai Viet.

major

when

there

is

world

strong evidence of

was st山confined to areas that were changes came

part, these religious

rarely a justification for conflict. This changed,

and Spanish Catholic missionaries

with the arrival of Portuguese

Common Era,

complemented by Hindu-

in the sixteenth

desire of local rulers to

Protestant

At the same time, increased mob且ity also fed a greater awareness of ethnic identity as people from different communities came into increasing contact in the market- place and in the cosmopolitan environment of port cities. Indigenous law codes demon- local rulers.

an awareness of ethnic categorization in the early modern period, although

enforcement of laws that sought to maintain such categories was always modified in

the

actual

associate

antagonism from Europe into Southeast Asia, encouraged a tendency to

religious practices

and established a court

belief

of

remember

that there

was a darker

side of mobility,

notably the demographic shifts that accompanied slave raiding, warfare, and forcible relocation, sometimes of er由e communities. Flight from the p卢th of oncoming armies w产scommon川,as was the

readiness川ee from an oppr臼sive lord. The forced附ttlerr

or war captives as agriculturalists, laborers, skilled artisans, theme. Traffic in slaves was stimulated by

and performers is a continuing

the increased demand for labor to cultivate new cash crops and provide various services in the thriving new cosmopolitan urban centers, where we find whole enclaves of manumitted or former slaves and their descendants. As a result of these demands, maritime raiding assumes a new and pernicious presence, with captives sold in slave markets and transported not only to various parts of the region but beyond. In the late eighteenth century a French naval suggested that Timor officer

even

could supply two or three thousand slaves annually for plantations on French-dominated Mauritius in the Indian Ocean.

religious establishments,

environment that promoted

is

apparent across出e

sponsored由e writing of

religious

and

ethical

norms

for

But ordinary people were also intensely involved in the ongoing localization, through which religious practices were amalgamated with the

出e society at

process

affiliation.

spread of the world religions

was由ey who supported

region, for it texts,

large.

in spirits

that

animated the natural world. Southeast Asians continued to exercise which incoming beliefs were compatible

白白own judgment in determining the extent to wi出创sting beliefs adapted to

and

and

is

priorities,

and the ways

in

which they could be adopted and

enhance protection and security.

The transfer of ideas

nonetheless impo口ant to

with ethnicity and community

The role of rulers in furthering the

practice. It is

During the

出e strong indigenous spirit belief system in Southeast Asia was

interior populations to the coast to participate in the

presence has a long history in the region, a major inflow from the late sixteenth centu叮 led to the expansion of Chinese enclaves within urban ports and the rise of new settle- ments, which became a source of support or opposition to both European governors and

strate

influences prior to this period.

religious

is

although the region had already been exposed to a variety of

centu町,and Dutch Protestants in the seventeenth. The new association between religion and economic goals, combined with the transferal of the Muslim一Christian and Catholic-

new economic augment the numbers of由eir subjects encouraged intermarriage between local women and migrants and the incorporation of those w过ling to shift their loyalties and identities to a new lord. While the Chinese opportunities.

the

Southeast Asia shared with the rest of the early modern world

spread of world religions,

had reached

a third world-wide characteristic of this period, also

From the sixteenth century the ancient maritime along well-established routes from the Middle East to India and finally to China was

sents a traffic

still

a丘er 1757 encour-

and twentieth centuries.

human mob且ity,

major theme

to well over one and a half

fourth feature that



also a

and technologies

is

a fi丘h global feature of the early

dominant theme in Southeast Asian

出at

characterized this

gies

associated

period exposed

hist。可.

era,

The great commercial expansion

local societies to sophisticated ideas

with trade and warfare, such as textile

modern

and technolo-

techniques, manufacture of cannon

Historians have been especially interested in transfer, although this usually proceeded in tandem with the domestication influences and accommodation to local beliefs. For example, while Southeast

and且rearms,

and designs for ships and

forts.

technological of

outside

adopted the deployment of heavy artillery, the successful discharge of cannon demanded special ceremonies and sacrifices to tap the supernatural forces believed to Asians

reside in

these

power-charged objects. Nor was the exchange of information one way, for

Southeast fa

Asians themselves mil邸,made friends,

became teachers

acquired as outsiders learned languages,

and C缸ne to respect indigenous navigational and boatbuilding the of forest and sea dwellers, the efficacy of local medicines, and

skills,也e

expertise

artist可of

court culture.





.?

339

A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 Finally,

we

turn to consider the issue of early

modern

CONCLUSION

territorial consolidation

and

administrative centralization, and the impact of the European presence on these develop-

ments. This topic has generated considerable discussion

among Southeast Asian historians

because the regional variation in state development meant that European-style

colonial

governments coexisted with indigenous courts displaying influences from India, China,

and the Islamic heartlands.

On the mainland it is certainly possible to see the basis of later

nation-states that cohered around the major basins of the Irrawaddy, the Chao Phraya,

and the Red Rivers

economic

as stronger central control,

common

and record keeping, the promotion of a

integration, the spread ofliteracy

language, and

were limited since outlying areas were generally le丘to their

trends they

seventeenth-century Java,

control towards the coast. Whether reluctant pasisir lords into perman-

Dutch East India

of greater

military

seriously considered undertaking

campaign against any of the powerful mainland states

dominant mainland kingdoms remained remarkably

and

traditions in the early

modern

period.

and the structure of government was



its

Southeast Asia during the early

modern

era,

and there

cultural cohesion, territorial consolidation,

is little

evidence of the可pe

and administrative

centralization

marked the history of the three main river basins in the mainland.

until the first quarter of the

loyal to their

own

subject ruler usually remained in place

largely unchanged. Even when the Malay kingdom

sense of bei吨culturally and

modern

From the early

to the colonial

local lords

of Patani was divided into seven provinces in the early nineteenth centu巧and placed

direct与under Siamese control,

the ancient pattern of mandala-可pe polities persisted throughout



nineteenth centu巧. Yet despite these centralizing tendencies, the component parts of even the

that

for the intervention of the

Company restricted and ultimately ended any effo白to uni扪ava under

one regime. Overall, island

No European power

an inland dynasty remains an open question,

submission to

ent

in

religious ambitions.

kingdom of Mataram extended

its

contributed to greater administrative coherence. Furthermore, unlike the situation

nomic or

where the west was dominated by the kingdom of Banten and

military superiority would have eventually forced the

where the interior

all

eco-

devices as long as

acknowledged a nominal subservience. Territorial ambitions were most evident in

religious practice

island Southeast Asia, these developments proceeded independently of European

own

religiously separate from

modern period in Southeast Asia was coming to an end. On the Konbaung dynasty in Myanmar, the Chakri in Siam, and the Nguyen in

By the 1830s the early mainland, the

Vietnam had created the Asia.

However,

was

it

most powerful multi-ethnic kingdoms

in the

whole of Southeast

now becoming ever clearer that the principal barrier to further among these states themselves, but rather the encroaching

the central Thai was reflected in a continuing resistance to assimilation. Mainland centers

expansion

may

European spheres of influence, the harbingers of later colonial empires. In earlier times

have expanded their

territorial control,

but upland

defenders of their independence and eschewed any but

polities

continued to be

tempora巧and

fierce

expedient con-

federations with similar entities.

far

more

effective

new cities and

than in

forts,

much

Europeans based their

of the mainland. Nonetheless, despite their impressive

the Europeans never succeeded in establishing a strongly centralized

administration in the island world.

The

Spanish Philippines appears to have achieved



interests.

they

countryside, the evidence shows that there were simply insufficient clerics to administer

number of

scattered rural communities. These

governed by the indigenous

elite,

whom

communities continued

the Spaniards sought to incorporate into

formal o伍cial hierarchy by assigning them Spanish offices and calling them

to be their

collectively

principalia,“the principal individuals."

For the most

part, the various

battlefield

beginning to appreciate

sultanates that developed in island Southeast

Asia during the early modern period can be characterized as federations of powerful datus in

which the

ruler

was regarded

sophisticated port administration

as the first

was

among

equals.

Although Malay

Melaka’s

replicated throughout the region, centralizing

their

to由e expansion of their economic scientific advances,

that出ey were now unable

as their forebears.

As

to exercise the

same agency and

the industrialization of Europe gathered pace,由e

demands for access to profitable markets and sources of raw materials fore- shadowed the advent of a new era when Southeast Asians would fall victim to foreign economic and political control. Another sign that the early E uropean

attitudes

modern was giving way to the colonial was the hardening of

towards compromise, particularly in regard to determining the areas could legitimately be exercised. European concern to demarcate

where their au由ority precise

Muslim

now

be intrinsically superior to the inhabitants of all other world reality of their technological superiority was increasingly apparent on the and in the sea lanes, and even the most powerful mainland rulers were

expanding

and only in the urban centers could the colonial au由orities Whereas Spanish sources tend to emphasize the role of friars in the

effective limits

navies, but

The

was more apparent than

real

saw no

by superior

considered themselves to

regions.

initiative

the large

in walled cities flanked

Exuding a self-confidence bred of stunning technological and

greater level of administrative unity than elsewhere, but the formal governmental structure

claim effective control.

power

nineteenth-century successors

and seascape meant greater political environment European naval and firearms technology proved

In island Southeast Asia the nature of the land-

fragmentation, and in this

was not the rivalry

boundaries using cartographic conventions reinforced by international law

asserted a

Thai

concept of space that was diametrically opposed to the mandala idea. While

maps from the

first

three Chakri reigns do

show

as

the outlines of the poli町,cartog-

were more interested in determining the location of topographical features such boundaries. vegetation, mountains, in delineating precise

raphers

and

river systems than

烧得之

341

342樊淹鑫A

CONCLUS

HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830

The Southeast Asian mandala view of porous and indeterminate frontiers由at reflected the overlapping authority of di旺erent centers was regarded by Europeans as inadequate and even deceptive. The

irreconcilab过ity

the spark that ignited the First

between these contrasting concepts of space was

Anglo-Burmese War

warships powered by steam for the

first

time. This

decided advantage in battle because steamships could

more

the

British used

new technology gave Europeans a move against the current and could

which drew an

year saw

arbitrary line through the

of Melaka and under Singapore to create an artificial international border

Malay world

As

where the

an ominous coincidence, the same

easily gain control of river systems. In

the signing of the Anglo一Dutch Agreement, Straits

in 1824,

rulers

dividing

and Dutch spheres of influence.

into British

were defeated, deposed, or

exiled,

and

became pawns

as their subjects

in the

European competition to acquire colonies, the capacity of Southeast Asians to order own existence was increasingly restricted. The early modern period had certainly

Founded in 1778 and revived by

defensive.

describing the

阳ly uals

modern period

had been

able to negotiate with foreign traders

By

strength.

exploitation, but

on the whole

Southeast Asians

and missionaries from

a position of

the mid-nineteenth century, however, a world transformed by unrelenting

economic and

political pressure

the adaptive strategies that

made

had been

it

difficult for

The

superior position

in

long ended earlier expectations that they would

obligations inherent in family relationships, and even the

an association based on mutual respect had

possibility of

Southeast Asians

so successful in the past.

which Europeans placed themselves had accept the reciprocities and

more

far

to apply

all

but

disappeared. This

disregard for local sensibilities was dramatically demonstrated in 1804

when

the British

decided to destroy Melaka’s pride, the great fort built by the Portu思1ese three hundred years earlier.

Watching the demolition, which was carried out in the face of extreme public

and

Abdullah, the scribe of Stamford

distress Raffles,



fears of supernatural reprisal,

Munsyi

voiced the feeling that an age was passing, for to

new world

is

created and

all

around us

In the face of this unprecedented

is

change.

European

him

“the

old order

is

destroyed,

"3

challenge, a few of the

was the promise to restore the proprieties in the land. While each

associated with the creative

prince

process由at marked

society’s

ve可beginnings. The

Dipanegara also sought a restoration of the moral order that had been so

b创m

and a mood of foreboding is vividly captured in by an anxious Burmese father sometime in the reign of Bodawpaya

widespread sense that

written

a letter

(1782-1819). and the

dangers are

brought tion.”5

was

aw巧,,

Expressing concern for his son’s welfare, he warns that“both the astrologers

agreed that times are bad, the planets are unfavorable and

ahead for both the king and the kingdom."

such prosperity in the past

In retrospect, this

region as a

Southeast

whole.

During

unknown

The maritime connections由at had

would now open the door

for “disaster

father spoke not merely for

and destruc-

Myanmar

but for the

the nineteenth centu巧由e imposition of colonial rule over

apart仕om Thailand

Asia

imagined. In ability

the world

general public are

all

tested local societies in ways never previously

meeting these challenges, however, the legacy of resourcefulness and adapt-

modern period became a key element in由e and the molding of the new unities由at eventually

had characterized the early

that

preservation

of cultural identities

emerged after the

more

order was

by the promise of restoration, they also spoke to pa此icular local concerns. Raja Nuku in Maluku sought to reestablish the kingdoms that formed the original four pillars of the world of Maluku as the only way to return to the peace and Javanese

and

pride,”while for Raffles

of quiet habits and contented dispositions."4

movement was characterized

their

share of hostilities

soil,

met with dismay in many quarters, and the end of the was marked by a number of millenarian movements led by individ-

whose m碍。r appeal

prosperity

its fair

Burmese as“arrogant,”possessed of “inordinate

were“attached to the

The demise of the old

global

witnessed

the

Javanese

Society of

whole societies in a few words. Michael Symes had no hesitation in

dismiss

could

Dutch Royal Batavian

marks a significant step in the creation of an Orientalist confidence that

and Sciences

Arts

Raffles, the

Second World War.

powerful

Myanmar, were prepared to take up arms. Traditional styles of warfare, however, could not match the forces of this uncompromising Southeast Asian kingdoms, most notably

enemy. While parts of the central and northern Philippines had long been under Spanish control, during the nineteenth century Southeast Asia’s major polities all succumbed to European power. Even though Siam survived as an independent kingdom, partially because Britain and France agreed to retain a buffer state between their

respective

of did not escape imperialist pressures and impositions, including the loss distri’ large stretches of territ。可. As European military might changed the balance and

colonies,

it

bution of regional power, Southeast Asians were increasingly placed on the



A.H. H山,The Hikayat Abdullah: Lumpur: Oxford University

the

cultural

Autobiography of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir, 1797-1854

Press, 1970), 63, 162

(Kuala



Michael

Symes,

巳o?stable, 5

An Account

1827), vol.

university Press, Epistles

Hague:

I:

100;

of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava in the Year 1月5 (Edinburgh: Thomas Stamford Raffl战History of Java (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford

1965. Reprint of

Written on the

1817 edition), vol. I: 64. Eve of the Anglo-Burm臼e War, trans. and annotated by

Nijho旺,1968), 44-5.

Maung Htin Aung (The

Dang

known

as Tonkin China by the

known

asζ0ζhin China by the

Ngoai”Oute「region,”i.e. the northern realm of Dai Viet,

Eu「opeans

Dang

Trong叫nner

Malaya-Polynesian languages with meanings of

different

see

eaglewood

Laut

abaca manila hemp, from a type of banana adat (Malay) customa叩law and traditions lit.,、ea「er

mayor (Spanish) (also called

ambergris

solid,

on the

of the burden”;people

governor

p「ovincial

in

who owed

the Philippines

when

waxy, substance from the digestive system of sperm whales, often found

woman

elderly

and

settlers to

benz。in

resin

title

karma

obtained from the bark of a tree, of the genus Styrax, used as an incense, a

flavo「1ng

areca nut, leaves of a vine

(sirih),

and slaked

lime,

which

is

chewed,

b。dhi tree

the

name given to the tree (Ficus religiosa) under which

the Buddha sat on

Bodhisattva (Sanskrit)/B。dhisatta

(Pali)

holy beings

entering into the state of nirvana/nibbana until deity,

mainly

in

all

who

compassionately

other beings attain

refrain

this goal;

to

lit.,

"gold and

silver flowers”;small artificial trees of gold

aζζompanied by weapons, cloth, and other gifts sent as tribute by Malay rulers to

camphor

an aromatiζζompound obtained from the wood or leaves of various Dryobalanops aromatica which g「ew in Sumatra and Borneo; highly valued medicinal value

massoi

Mahayana Buddhism

bunga mas dan perak (Malay)

in

treating the eyes, for nosebleeds, liver ailments

casados (Po同uguese)

Po「tuguese

men

cakravartin (Sanskrit)/cakkavatti (Pali) benevolent ruler

chu n。m (Vietnamese)

married to local Asian

and high

and silver

thei「Thai overlo「d

trees,巴pecially the in

the past for

and the ”wheel-turning monarch”;the unive「sal ethical

lit.飞outhern script”;Chinese characters adapted to the Vietnamese

c。rvee

Tamil Muslims from south India and the Coromandel coast labor required by the overlord or state for va叩ing lengths of time

「ight

appear

at the

end of the age

lit.

in

the Philippines

all

Buddhas, including the Buddha of an

this

age

infidel

consequenζe of past actions that determine one’s

symbol representing

Shiva’s procreative

rebi「th

powers

people f「om Luzon but often used by the Portuguese to refer generally to

form of Buddhism practiced



it.”circle”;used in

were

fluid

in all

Buddhist ζountries except for the

Lanka and Southeast Asia the Southeast Asian context to「efer to a type of early

with overlapping jurisdictions at the edges

bark (from the tree Cryptocarya

{Portuguese)/mestizo (Spanish)

lit.”mixed”;ζhildren of

mixed marriages, though

generally「efe巴to .

!川・laung

川uang

women

entrusted

massoy) which is ground into a paste for external pains or warm the body, or boiled in a decoction as a medicinal drink for stomach ailments and pregnancies mixed offspring of European and Asian pa陀nts (Burm臼e) one destined川ea futu陀ki

Tai village,

its

feve「

is

given the

traders

Buddhism

bark

mesti飞o

town, or polity

!阳owu『 ”iyoza

{Burmese)

offiζials

given a territory f「om which they derive t「1e1r「evenues

m川ythic忖a阳ssoci削wit

:??a

川a1…ble川e「T阳of阳eliteζlass Nanha1/Nanya『19 to

language Chulia

phallic

pol句,whose bo「ders as a

is

or petty governor”;term given to a native head above other

a non-believer [of Islam],

Theravada Buddhist lands of Sri

from

he

term used by the Spaniards for natives of the Philippines

recounting the lives of

mandala {Sanskrit)

worshipped

Indians;

{Portuguese)

Mahayana

the night he

attained enlightenment

lit.”Ii忧le

from Arabic)

Philippine

who was to

the Spanish colonial administration lit.

lingam/linga {pl.) Luφes

customarily offered to guests

of the righteous king

{Sanskrit)/kamma (Pali)

given to senio「「elatives of the ruler

wad combining



tales

name

{Spanish)

chiefs in

{Malay

encomendero

whom

aloeswood

see

{Spanish)

Jataka kafir

and as medicine betel

Java the

religion, usually an

the Philippines but later used to refer to a village or settlement

bayin (Burmese)

po时serving as a major site for international trade

village

name of a boat bringing ea「ly Austronesian

wards, from



Indios

originally

his

in

gobernadorcillo

at times a transvestite

barangay (Tagal。g, northern Philippines)

and physical welfare of

Erucakra

gaharuwood

perfumes

(Burmese) tax-paying people freed from service to the ruler babaylan (Visayan, central Philippines) ritual specialist in indigenous

Seram and nearby Seram

encomienda

entrepot

floating

athi

island of

and use thei「labor

tribute

to collect

infected by a

end of the

Spanish encomendar,”to entrust,”in which the

with the spiritual

by the king

eaglewood and gaharuwood)

sea; used in

Spanish individual granted an f「om the

encomienda

serviαto the king

aloeswood

and Go「om arζhipelagoes

encomendero

dark aromatic resin produced by trees of the genus Aquilaria

aloesw。。d

mold

fibre

in

noble, and ancestor

mammal

marine

Dutch term referring to the eastern

Seram

East

ζhief, priest,

Buddha

teachings of the large he「bivorous

dugong

and used

Proto Malayo-Polynesian term「eferring to a lineage or clan official,

original

datu

Dhamma

alcalde

the southern realm of Dai Viet,

Europeans

GLOSSARY

ahmudan (Burmese)

region,”i.e.

nat



Sout「1e「n

tradi甘on

Seas/Southe「n Ocean, terms used by the Chinese to

Southeast Asia

'.旧me ftA

{Chinese)

e川ers圳e ea忱 in

of spi川ts in

汇『1 {Mal二y) on『nachi

Myanma「

a settled c

m叫and町e怕to village川川a

Japanese quarters

in

Asian town s

refe「

nirvana (Sanskrit)/nibbana sentient being

Orang

Asli

ultimate state achieved

(Pali)

in

Buddhism with the

dissolution of the

and hence the end of suffering

(Malay)

lit.

"original people,”term refer「ing to the interior forest

and mountain

dwelle「son the Malay Peninsula

Orang Laut (Malay) and a「ound the

lit.飞ea peop怡,”referring to those

Parian

Manila

pasisir

the northern

phrai luang

polo

district

who

live

on boats and on the

litto旧I in

Melaka

Straits of

where non-Christian Chinese were「equired

to

READINGS

FURTHER

live

or coastal areas of Java

litto「al

direct subjects of the Thai king

corvee labor imposed by Spaniards on the native inhabitants of the Philippines

term used by the Spanish

principales/principalia

incorporated into the Spanish

pueblo

town

or township

in

in

the Philippines to refer to the

hierarchy

political

and

Minangkabau settlements anywhere outside the homeland

in

derived f「om”Rome,”a

name

who were

given

title

of ”regent”by the Dutch

convention came to

that

in

Malay

in

the eyes of Southeast Asian Muslims

community

sawah wet-「ice saw-bwa (Shan)

of Buddhist believers;

agriculture; irrigated rice lit.

trade areas

stupa

between

and

Seram

Shan

refe「to

to refer to the Buddhist

Ottoman

monkhood

fields

chiefs in upland

villages

and Papuan communities

in

form the basis

English that could

fo「

of course, numerous other works that could be ζonsulted, but because of

culled

what we

believe

a「e

the most accessible for the general reader

one of the four legal schools in syahadat Muslim Confession of faith

dominant school

in

whole region

incorporate the

official in

charge of international trade

at a maJor

Southeast Asian entrepot

Haven: Yale University Press,

Southeast As日的the

Reid,

Age

of

about the

whose

vol.



brief

entire region

Commerce 1450-1680,

1988, 1993); Victor Lieberman, Strange

Parallels:

Southeast

800-1830, 2 vols (P「inζeton University Press, 2003, 2009); Barbara Watson Andaya, The Flaming Womb: Repositioning Women in Early Modern Southeast Asia (Honolulu Un?ersi可of Hawai’i Press, 2006); Michael G. Peletz, Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia since Early in

Global Context,

(New York: Ro叫edge, 2009); Michael W.ζharney,

Times

2004); Peter

Boomgaard,

ed.,



Sou阳st

World of Water:

2007) and also

Histories (Leiden: Kl丁LV Press,

his

Asian 阳rfan已

Rain, Rivers

Southeast Asia:

An

and Seas的

Environmental

Ba阳

叫,a门World Reg盯n, loutheast

Malay narrative form using quat「ains o「four-line stanzas swidden farming cutting back and burning off vegetative cover to provide nutrients of vegetables and d「y rice; also termed飞lash-and-burn”agriculture

their studies. Individual wo「ks written

tvols(New

H盹少(Santa

syahbandar”harbo「master,”a term for the

in

Anthony

modern period are

Southeast Asian

Southeast Asia

The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia,

Cambridge University Press, 1993). These articles are w「itten by specialists

130ι1900 (Leiden: Brill,

Islam・

modern s。utheast Asia

Nicholas Tarling, ed.,

is

ntheearly

M「n

mystical dimension of Islam

Syafi’i

collect1on

Melbourne:

Asa

Burma

dome-like structu「e containing Buddhist「elics

Sufism

a「e,

we have

works on early

A useful

was to

the Birdshead Peninsula designated as exclusive

river valleys in

specific East

lite「ary

more often used grown in flooded

"lord of the sky”;title of

bays, anchorages,

s。s。lot

There

only included books written

the interior central Sumatran

Turkey, the leader of the Islamic wo「Id

sangha

limitations

General

bupati or regional Javanese lords

Rum

1oace

we have

religious supervision

uplands

regent

1ncompiling this list, !urthe「resea「ch.

Spanish Philippines where the people were resettled "unde「the

bells”for easier administration

rantau

local elite

Asia in his

1000-1800 (Hong Kong University

discussion of the global

Press,

2011) gives particular attention to

connections that characterize

this

period

syair



taril《at

Muslim brotherhood or order

in

for planting

Sufism

Baskets”,the Theravada Paliζanon Malay teripang, a species of the holothuroidea (sea cucumber)

name

T。passes

who

fo「the ”black Portuguese,”offspring of Portuguese fathers

and Asian

mothe巧,

customs, and religion shell

mainly from the Hawksbill

turtle,

used to

produce combs and

other ornaments,

important trade item to China

vandala tribute imposed by Spaniards on the Vinaya Buddhist monastic discipline

voe

Dutch East

India

vuong (Vietnamese) Wali (Arab)

wat



lit.

o i:h:0?se

?:?Ii?:::



.Than



..

Tun, ed.,

",'.'‘,dre

Southeast Asia

The

Phil,草)p们e Isla门ds

1493一1898, 55 vol s

Ame「iζans upon咒izi

the histo「y of the Philippines The Royal Orders of Burma, 1598-1885,

AD

using this valuable

source for the history of

J川叫Edwin J.川ey, ?1:?4,

1998)

阳…’吊pact on

in

Blair, eds.,





vols. (Kyoto:

Center fo「Southeast



|的'lable

of Java "friend of God”;WaliSangaor”NineWali”are a杜ributed with the lslamization

Helen

190刊[19叫ζD’ROM阳

:;:??:?di咫叫四rsit

??:a1::?:?,

king

E『η『na

1econst「ucting



native inhabitants of the Philippines

and

Cla「|〈ζom阳y,

000

则巴Pensable n e ,n

Company

Theravada Buddhist temple complex

A. H.

?hilipp

prided themselves on being ”Portuguese”through p「eservation of Portuguese language,

t。rtoiseshell

collections

Alexande「Robe「tso『1

(Cleveland:

Tipitaka”Three tripang

Special

坦mes

1「1fo「mation

is

an叩ng

eds., Asia in

early

in

the early modern period (The

Uni叫of

p「O阳whiζ}

Eu「ope. Discussions of several

on

Burma

the协同川叩e

obscure sources complement the more

modern Southeast Asia

348

幸吨A

FURTHER

FURTHER READINGS Readings of translated prima叩s。urces Several collections of t「anslations of primary sources include material from the early

Tineke Hellwig and

Tagliacozzo, eds., The Indonesia Reader: History, Culture,

Eric

modern

Politics

pe「iod

(Durham

Duke University Press, 2009); D. R. CO: Westview Press, 2006); Ahmad Ibrahim, Sharon Siddique, and Yasmin Hussain, eds., Readings on Islam的Southeast As日(Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1985); and George E Dutton, Jayne S. Werner, and John K. Whitmo陀,eds., Sources of Vietnamese Tradition (New York Desai, ed., Soυtheast Asian History: Essential Readings (Boulder,

Columbia University

P「ess,

2012). Geo「ge

E.

Dutton, ed., Voices of Southeast Asia. Essential Readings

from Antiquity to the Present (Armonk, NY: M.

R.

is still

and Economy (Sydney, 2002) for a good introduction to the region. A stimulating Culture of why Southeast Asia can be considered a unified region is 0.W. Wolters, History,

Peop也Land discussion

and Region in

and

University



is

list

ro「an

of useful count「y-based histories with

Camb。dia: David

P.

Southeast Asian Perspectives (Ithaca |「1stitute

good

sections on the early

modern

pe「iod

Chandl凹,A History of Cambodia, Fourth Edition (Boulder: Westview

Press,

2007)

Singapo「e: Southeast Asia Program,ζornell

of Southeast Asian Studies, Revised Edition,

1999)

Antecedents of early m。dern societies,

excellent collection

of a「tides

from

c.

900-1400

prehisto「y to the classical period, see Ian Glover

and Peter

(London/New York: Routledgeζurzon, 2004). Victor Lieberman’s two-volume study, Strange Parallels: Southeast As日的the Global Context, 80ι1归。(cited above) examines parallel developments in society in the Eurasian world. Kenneth 100-1500 Hall, A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development Southeast Asia from Prehistory to H也tory

Bellwood, eds.,

c.

Ind。nesia: M. C. Ricklefs,



H臼tory of Modern Indonesia since

Gelman

Palgrave MacMillan, 2008); Jean University P「ess,

c.

Taylor, Indonesia: Peoples

1200. Fou「th Edition (London

and Histories (New

Haven: Yale

2003)

R.

A H陆的ry of Laos (Camb「idge

University Press, 1997); Martin Stuart-Fox,

The Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang: Rise and Decline (Bangkok: White Lotus Malaysia: Barbara Watson and Leonard Y. Andaya,



Press,

1998)

MD;

(Lanham, p「io「to

La。s: Ma「tin Stuart-Fox,

Myanmar:

Michael and Maitrii Aung-Thwin, Ltd.,

Philippines: Patricio Abinales and University of the Philippines Press,

Thailand: David

A H恒的ry of Myanmar since Ancient Times (London

2012)

Donna J. Amoroso,

Anvil Publishing, Inc., 2005); 0. D. Corpuz,

Wyatt,

K.



State and Soc但ty的the Philippines (Manila

The Roots of the日lipino Nation,

vol.



(Quezon

City

2005)

societies.

New

Haven: Yale

University Press, 2003); David K. Wyatt, Studies in Thai History (Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 1996 [1994]). B.

J.

River Books,

Terwiel, Thailand’s Political Hιtory:

From the 13th Century

to

Tenth

Vietnam: Thomas Hodgkin, Vietnam: The Revolutionary Path (New York: St. Martin’S A History of the Vietnamese (Cambridge University Press, 2013)

pe「iod

study of the impact of Indian ideas

art

of articles

and linguistics.

Society

studies

2006) and Randolph Starn,”Review

in

histo「y

probably

first

oζcurred

in a

1987 conference, which

Two

Modern

resulted

MD

in

the

Era (Ithaca: Cornell

Watson Andaya and Leonard Y. Andaya briefly (March in the Ea「ly Modern Period,”JSEAS 26, 1995): 92-7. An early attempt to demonstrate that developments in Southeast Asia had much in common with othe「a「eas of the early modern world is Victor Lieberman, ed., Beyond Binary Histories: Re-lmagim’ng Eurasia to c. 1830 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999) University Press, 1993).

Pierre-Yves

See Tran Ky

Cham

in

Phuong and Bruce M. Lockhart,

NUS

is

also a

Vietnam, from archaeology and histo叩to eds.,

The

Cham

of Vietnam: Hιtory,

Press, 2 O 11)

see further Sriw.归,ya: H岳阳ry, Religioηδ门d Lδnguδge

by George Goedes

and

of

δn Eδκly儿4δlδy Poli飞y,



Louis-Chδrles Damδis (Kuala Lumpu「:Malaysian Branch of

Desawarnana!Nagarakertagδma, with the latest translation by Stuart 1995) and in vol. IV of Th. Pigeaud’s Ja旧的the

Robson

(Leiden: KITLV

Fourteenth Century (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1962).



;?丁Paga「

Modern H臼tory 6, 3 (2002): 296-307, a「e two of the clearest expositions of the "early modern ”as a concept in history. The use of "early modern ”to characte「ize a

Southeast Asian

is

eds., Ear,伊Interactions

Roya 〔as

Muddle,” Article: the Early Modern

following volume: Anthony Reid, ed., Southeast As日in the Early

the formation of Southeast Asian

???

Journal of Early

emergenζe of

Wade,

of various aspects of the

and A厅(Singapore:

for Srivijaya,

P「ess,

lntroducti。n:c。nceptualizing an early m。dern hist。ry of s。utheast Asia Cha「les H. Parker and Jer叩H. Bentley, eds., Be阳1een the Middle Ages and Modernity (Lanham, Littlefield,

in

Fourteenth Century (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2009). Of value

Press,

Rowman and

a synthesis of the histo「y of the region just

The Indian但ed States of Southeast Asia (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press,

Mani, and Geoff

through the

collected

1981 ); Keith W. Taylor,

2011) provides

between South and Southeast Asia (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2011 ). Two works indispensable for the study of the relations between ζhina and the Malay world are 0. W. Wolters, The Fall of Srivijaya的Malay History (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1970) and Derek Heng, Sino-Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the

Recent刀mes (Bangkok

2011)

Littlefield,

A more「ecent examination of the relationship between these two regions

collection

Sho厅Hιtory of Thailand, 2nd edn. (London and

modern

George Coedes,

Manguin, A.

Reaktion Books

Rowman and

the early

1968)「emains a classic

History of Malays日(London: Palgrave,

2001)

period

and

Sharpe, 2014)

E.

hist。ries

The following

University Press,

with Avijit Gupta, The Physical a standa「dint「oduction, which can be read inζonjunction 1979) Ronald Hill, Southeast Asia also See 2005). University Press, Geography of Southeast Asia (Oxford

Chapter 2:

Country

South-East Asia: a Systematic

ed.,

D. Hill,

and the geographic envir。nment Geography (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford

Southeast Asia

chapter 1:

R山INGS'

u川1ve「sity

。对ord G.

of Hawai'i P「ess,

Unive「sity Press,

Coedes,

1985), whileζharnvit Kasetsiri, The Rise of

1976), remains the standard

work on

Ayudhya (Kuala Lumpur

early Ayutthaya.

Angkor: an Introduction (Singapore: Oxford University Press,

1986

On Angko

[1963]),



see

and more

v;;t?E?f'.??t:d ?u?0:?:

??;???\!:???:::::::I::::?:v?;.?::?:?:?.士;二:::;!i:? count可studies

years later Barbara

discussed this periodization in”Southeast Asia



;g???j:古'.:::i?io:?:::::飞古;:?::?z:::fa:.告::ac:;口:i??a::?:

349

350

NGS

?也FURTHER READINGS Island: Leona「d Y. Andaya, Leaves of the

discusses the formation of early ethnicities

and

Muhammad

the Malay kingdom of Melaka.

Same

Tree (Honolulu: University of Hawai’l Press, 2008),

polities in

the Straits of Melaka, including

Srivijaya

and

Yusoff Hashim, The Malay Sultanate of Malacca (Kuala

Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1993) provides a detailed study of the Malay kingdom

Melaka

in its

heyday. For Java, see M. C. Ricklefs, Mystic Synthesis

in Java: a Hi性的ry

prehispanic Philippines

Laura Lee Junker, Raiding, Trading,

is

Press,

and

is

Richard

Cushman,

and David

trans.

lasting

dynasty

in

in





Treatise

Feasting: the Political

study of

Economy

1999)

Wyatt, ed., The Royal Chronicles of

University of Hawai’i Press,

are ra陀,but

see

A Biography of King Naresuan

the Great (Bangkok: Toyota Foundation, 2008) by

Hundred Years of Thai-Portuguese Relations (Bangkok: Siam

Thai history.



number

addition to Kasetsiri, Rise of Ayudhya cited for Chapter

In

Ming

history of this northern Thai

shi-lu as a

2,

see also

1 (Feb 2003): 41-62. Fo「a Chinese view of Ayutthaya, Source fo「Thai History - Fourteenth to Seventeenth

An alte「native view of Thai history from the north of Lan Na (Bangkok: Silkworm Books, 200日,whichζovers the is

kingdom from early times to 1933. Another history of the north is Hans Na (Chiang Mai: Silkwo「m Books, 1994). Daniel M. Viedlinge「,

sixteenth cited

with

of articles dealing

collection

some

Society,

2011 ),

is



aspects of Po「tuguese relations with Thailand f「om the

through the eighteenth centuries. See also Cushman’s, The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya,

and also see for Laos, Penth,

under Chapter 3

Kingdom of Lan

Xang

A Brief History of Lan Na and

for the Tai in the northeast. Little has

period,

and the best discussion

relating

to

is

still

Chandler,



Stuart-Fox,

The Lao

been written on Cambodia for

this

History of Cambodia, cited above. Fo「details

Vietnam, Taylor’s magisterial History of the Vietnamese.

Brief History of Lan

Spreading the

Dhamma:

in

recounted

P「ess,

and

Textual Transm,岳阳门的Buddhist Northern Thai阳nd

Chapter

5:

2006) discusses the influence of the cultural and economic

Chapter

6:

Writing, 0日lity,

(Honolulu: University of Hawai’i

the local encounter with Buddhist manusc「ipts. The sto叩of the Tai in Stua「t-Fox,

Cambodia

after the

The Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang. There

fall

is still little

of Angkor, except for Michael Vickery’s

the no「theast

is

written about the pe「iod

in

Cambodia

in

after Angkor: the

Chronicular Evidence for the Fourteenth to Sixteenth Centuries, 2 vols. (Yale University 1977, digitized in 2008). For Vietnam, see

(New Haven: Yaleζenter

John

for International

K.

Whitmore, Ho Quy Ly and the Ming (1371-1421)

and Area Studies, 1985)

Expanding global links and their impact 。n s。utheast Asia, 1600-1690s; and New b。undaries and changing regimes, 1690s-1780s Island: For the Western Archipelago, the following early works are still worth ζonsulting fo「this period: Barba「a Watson Andaya, Perak, the Abode of Grace: a Study of an Eighteenth-Century Malay University Press, 1979) and Leona「d Y. Andaya, The Kingdom of 1641-1728 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford Unive「sity Press, 1975). An innovative study of early

5归也(Kuala Lumpu「: Oxfo「d Johar,

Minangkabau history (Kuala

4:

An

Accelerati。n。f change,

1511-1600

llth

M.A. P. Meilink-Roelofsz, Asian Trade and European Influence的the Indonesian Archipe臼go between 1500 and about 1630 (The Hague Nijhoff, 1962). Paulo Jorge de Sousa Pinto, The Portuguese and the Straits of Melaka 1575-1619 (Singapore: NUS Press, 2012) and Luis Filipe Thomaz, Early Portuguese Malacca (Macau: Macau Territorial Commission fo「the Commemorations of the Portuguese Discoveries, 2000) offer a impressive early

work on

t「ade in

the archipelago

is

king- life in Portuguese Melaka and Po「tuguese relations with neighbo「ing Malay doms. Tara Alberts Conflict and Conversion: Catholicism的Southeast Asia 1500-1700 (Oxfo「d University Press, 2013) focuses on Christianization in Melaka and contempo旧叩Thailand and

study of the hispanization of the Philippines. destroying the traditional religion

in



critical

assessment of the

role of Catholicism

in

the Philippines isζarolyn Brewer, Shamanism, Catholicism, and

Ashgate, 2004). A valuable and is Linda A. Newson, Conquest Pestilence in Ear,伊Spanish Philippines (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i P「ess, 2009). William Hen叩 Scott, Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Soc尼ty (Manila: Ateneo de Manila Press,

Gender Relations的Colonial

Philippines,

1521一1685

(Bu「lington, VT:

study of the impact of the early Spanish on the Philippines

Jane D「akard,

of Words: Language and Power的Sumatra Other useful works on the Western Archipelago are

A Kingdom

The Singapore and Melaka

Straits:

Violence, Security

and Diplomacy的the

Dianne Lewis, Jan Compagnie

NUS

in the Straits of Press, 201 O); 1641-1795 (Athens, OH: Center for International Studies, Ohio University, 1995); Barbara Andaya, To Live as Brothers: Southeast Sumat,旧的the Seventeenth and Eighteen的Centur-

Century (Singapore:

Malacca,

Watson ies

(Honolulu: University

Authority:

Society a门d

of Hawai’i Press, 1993);

and Timothy

P.

Barnard, Multiple Centres of

Environment的5日k and Eastern Sumatra 1674-1827 (Leiden: KITLV

Press,

2003)

detailed look at

Vietnam. John Leddy Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines: Span也h Aims and月l仰的O Responses, 1565-1700 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1959) continues to be a valuable

is

Lumpu「:Oxfo「d University Press, 1999).

Pete「Borschberg,

Island:

Modern Period (Honolulu:

Maluku from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centu「ies 1993), deals with no「them and Mainland: For Myanmar, see Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin'sA H臼tory of Myanmar from Ancient Times cited unde「Chapter 3. Mon civilization and the history of Pegu is covered in Emmanual Guillan, The Mons: a Civilization of Southeast Asia (Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1999). Biographies central

P「in臼Damrong Rajanubhab. The edited work by Kennon Breazeale and Michael

Sarassawadee Ongsakul, History

Chapter

Indonesia in the Early

Smithies, Five

Cushman compares

Centuries,”JSEAS 31, 2 (2000), 249-94.

ζontext

on the

World of Maluku: Eastern

Thai historian

see Geoff Wade,”The



The Philippine Islands (under ”Special Collections”above). For centu叩Portuguese source on Maluku, see Hube「t Jacobs, ed. and trans., Moluccas (匕1544) (Rome: Jesuit Historical Institute, 1970). Leonard Y. Andaya, The

and Robertson’s fifty-five-volume

Blair

of



document on society in the V1sayas 1n modern period of the Philippines. See also

a sixteenth-century Spanish

of variants of the

Chris Baker,”Ayutthaya Rising,”JSEAS 34,

Penth,

cent旧1

and study of

by one of the best historians of the early

order to produce an almost poetiζrende「ing of the history of the longest

Ayu时haya (Bangkok: The Siam Society, 2000). surviving chronicles

K.

Philippines

of /slamization

Mainland: Events in Myanmar are discussed in Michael and Maitrii Aung-Thwin, A History of Myanmar since Ancient Times (London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2012). For Ayutthaya, an extraordinary feat of scholarship

a translation

is

contempo「a叩sixteenth

from the Fourteenth 的the Early Nineteenth Centuries (Norwalk: EastBridge, 2006). of Philippine Chiefdoms (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i

1994)

works by M. C. Ricklefs should be consulted: War, Culture and Economy m 1677-1726 (Sydney: Asian Studies Association of Australia, 1993); The Seen and Unseen

On Java the following Java,

w尬的局旧,1726-1749: un1ve「si叩of of

Hawai'i

no「theast Java

Northeast

P「ess,

H伽y, Literature,川l阳1的the

are Luc Nagtegaal, Riding the

Coast of Java,

1680-1743

Dutch盯ger: The Dutch East Indies

(Leiden: KITLV Press, 1996); Robe「t

Coast,

1740-1840:δSt,υdy in Colonial CNWs, Leiden University,

Encroachment and Dominance

200日,and Hui Kian Kwee, The

:o?st,

c.

1肌1800:

Elite

川Javanese history in the the Collapse of the

wana 附O毗」

Court of P.δkl

1998); and Mystic Synthesis listed under Chapter 3. Three helpful studies

Sy,叫y (L附n:缸ill, 2006).

Political

A削

Van

Company and the

Niel, Java’s

Economy of Java's Northeast

mid-eighteenthζentu叩is Willem Re『nmelink, The Chinese

Javanese State,

Northeast

(Leiden: Researζh School

War and

1725-1743 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 1994). Leonard Blusse,



351

352

对毒也

FURTHER READINGS

FURTHER READINGS

Women

Strange Company: Chinese Settlers, Mestizo Foris Publiζations,

1986)

an interesting collection of

is

For studies on eastern Indonesia, see William

and the Dutch articles

on

early

in VOC Batavia VOC Batavia

Cummings, Making Blood White:

(Do「d「echt

Historical Trans-

formations的Early Modern Makassar (Honolulu: University of Hawai’1 Press, 2002); and the

two books by Leonard

Modern

Hans Hagerdal, Lords of the Land, Lords of the Sea:

Period, under Chapte「4. in Early

1600-1800

Colonial Timor,

(Leiden: Kl丁LV P「ess, 2012)

is

based

New

Parchment Curtain and Other Essays的Philippine

Conflict

prima「ily

and

on voe

for Chapte「s 5 and 6 above; No「din Hussin, Trade and Society的the Straits of Melaka: Dutch Melaka and Engh约Penang, 1780-1830 (Singapo「e: NUS Press, 2007); Barbara Watson Andaya, To Live as Brothers, in readings cited fo「Chapters 5 and 6 above; Ch「istine Dobbin, Islamic Revivalism的a Changing Peasant Economy: Central Sumatra, 1184-1847 (London:ζurzon Press, 1983) A good study of Banten in West Java is Atsushi Ota, Changes of Regime and Social Dvnam,cs m

History (Quezon City

Day Publishers, 1982). Vicente Rafael, Contracting Colonialism: Translation and

阳山阳知倪凯5归屹川the 0阳World of Bant1矶1750-1830 (L附n,

Christian

Conversion in Tagalog Society under Early Spanish Rule (Durham: Duke University P「ess, 1993) is a study of the p「oblem of translation and meaning of ζhristian ideas among Tagalog society in the early years of conve「sion. For the southern Philippines, see Cesar Adib Majul, Muslims的the Philippines (Manila: University of the Philippines Press, 1999),

Oona

Pa「edes,

Unive「sity

see Peter Ca「ey,

Conquest 1580-1760 (Princeton

Victo「B. Lieberman,

Anarchy and

the relevant chapters

Thant

Myint”U, The

Maitrii

Aung-Thwin,

Unive「sity Press, 1984),

Makings of Modern Burma (Cambridge

University Press, 2001)

in

and Michael and

Parallels, vol.

I:

in

mainland Southeast Asia between 800 and 1830, see

Integration

on the Mainland,

For Ayutthaya, see Richard

Kingdom

c.

India

(Leiden:

Brill,

under

2007).

A usefulζollection

Van



voe official. Two contempora叩French accounts of Ayutthaya A New Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Siam (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford

seventeenth-century

de La Loubere,

Historical

1969 [1693]) and Niζolas Gervaise, The Natural and Political H岳阳ry of the Kingdom in (Ba「1gkok: White Lotus, 1998 [1688]). The final years of the Ayutthaya dynasty are discussed the duri「19 Busakorn Lailert,”The Ban Phlu Luang Dynasty, 1688-1767: a Study of the Thai Mona「chy ζlosing Years of the

Ayutthaya Period,”PhD

thesis, University of

London, 1972. Fo「the troubled

between Ayutthaya and Myanmar, see Sunait Chutintaranond and Than Tun, On Both Sides of the Tenasserim Range: History of Siamese-Burmese Relations (Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University, relations

Material archival

Politics,

onζambodia

materials

Cambodian

is

in

the seventeenth century

is

limited,

Spanish but a recent study based on

University of Hawai'i at

from the

late Sixteenth to

Manoa, 2007. See

the mid-Seventeenth ζentury,”PhD

also the relevant chapte「s

dissertation,

inζhand I凹,A

History of

Cambodia For Vietnam, see

Li

Tana, Nguyen Cochinchina: Southern

Vietnam的the Seventeenth and

Eighteen的Centun巴(Ithaca: Southeast East Asia Program, 1998); George

E.

Dutton, The Tay Son

Upris的g:Soc尼飞y and Rebellion in Eighteenth-century Vietnam (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i

P「ess,

Niel Java's

period of transition

who was

in

a rare success

Maluku. James Francis th二

Parallels,

vol.

I.

Administration,

For

and

Myanmar, see W.

J.

Koenig,

The Burm巴e

Polity,

Social Organization (Ann A「bor: Center fo「South and

and the

state are disζussed

in

1752-1885 (Ann Arbo「:ζenter fo「South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Myanmar in the eighteenth centu叩and its confrontation with the British is the focus of

2006).

Thant Myint-U,

The Making of Modern Burma (Camb「idge

「α「Siam汀阳a

d,

the

Cornell University,

1969).

Unive「sity P「ess,

2001)

伽ic study of manpow凹叩nization川in Rabibhad川5阳Organ-

of Thai Soc但飞y的the

tzat,on

Ea叫y

Bangkok Period, 7 782-1873

On Rama

I,

see Klaus

Wenk

(Ithaca,

NY: Southeast Asia Progr

The Restoration of Thailand under Rama



1782刊09 (Tucson: Arizo川niversity P邸,1968) and Thadeus and Chadi川ood eds.川t卡 The Dynastic Chronicles, Bangkok Era, The First Reign (Tokyo:ζentre fo「East Cultural Studies 1978) B. J. Terwiel’s Through Travelle店’Eyes: an Approach to Early Nineteenth Century Thai History chapters

Jenny Klages,”Cambodia, Catholicism, and Conquistadores: Spanish-

lnte「actions

Nagtegaal, Riding the Dutch

the Throne的Burma's Last Dynasty,

(Bangkok: Editions

1995)

in a

Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1990). Religion W. Charney’s, Powerful Learning: Buddhist Literati and

of S日m

Reprints,

Indiaζompany

Michael

Vliet’5

are Simon

Strange

1752-1879:

ζhapte「3,

at the Court of Ayutthaya: Dutch is

in

fo「ζhapters 5 and 6, pa口icula「ly

Siam (Chiang Mai: Silkwo「m Books, 2005), four valuable edited and translated pieces on Ayutthaya by

opposition to the Dutch East

Lieberman,

Company Merchants

1604-1765

his

Wa「m

Liebe「man’s Strange

cited

2007). Further details are provided

Company and the Northeast Coast of Java, 1680-1743; Van

The灿Zone 7 768- 7 898 (Si叩阳e University Press, 1981) is a classic study of emergence of the Sulu Sultanate as a leading slave and trade entrepot in Southeast Asia Mainland: Relevant wo「ks a「e also cited in the readings

above

Cushman, The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya

and Bhawan Ruangsilp, Dutch East Perceptions of the Thai

cited

P「ess,

The Dutch East Indies

Tidore prince,

in

H恒的ry of Myanmar since Ancient Times, cited above. For an excellent study of the consolidation of

the major polities

F叫va

1740-1840: a Study的Colonial Encroachment and Dominance; and Kwee, Political Economy of Java’s Northeδst Coast, ι1740-1800, unde「Chapter 6 Mu「idan S. Widjojo, The Revolt of Prince Nuku: Cross-cultural Alliance-making的Maluku c. 1780-1870 (Leiden: Brill, 2009) is a study of a charismatic

NY: Cornell

Cycles:

2006).

Northeast coast,

by

Burmese Administrative

Brill,

The Power of Prophecy: Prince Dipanagara and the End of an Old Order的Java

1785-1855 (Leiden: KITLV Tiger:

Southeast Asia Program, 2013)

Mainland: Fo「Myanmar, see



and the new research provided

A Moun臼in of Di汗erence: the Lumad的Early Colonial Mindanao (Ithaca,

Relations, 1637-1700 (Leiden: Brill and Eighteenth Century Vietnam (Seoul

7: Early m。dern Southeast Asia: the last phase, 1780s-斗830s Reinout Vos, Gentle Janus, Merchant Prince: the VOC and the Tightrope of Diplomacy in the Malay World, 1740-1800 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 1993); Dianne Lewis, Jan Compagnie cited in「eadings

and deals not only with Timor but the whole of Nusatengga「a Timu「. For the Philippines, see John Leddy Phelan cited above for Chapter 4 and Linda Newson for Chapter 5 A valuable examination of both the lowland and highland communities in the Philippines is William Scott, Cracks in the

Research Center, Ko「ea University, 1990)

Dutch-Vietnamese

Society in Seventeenth

Island:

archival mate「ials

Henry

Asiatic

Silk for s,如er:

Law and

Yu,

|「1sun

Chapter

Seventeenth Century (The Hague:

Adaptation

Hoang Anh Tuan, and

followi「19

Andaya, The Heritage of Arung Palakka: South Sulawesi (Celebes) in the Nijhoff, 1981) and World of Maluku: Eastern Indonesia in the Early

Y.

2006); 2007);

’For

in

Duang Kamol, 1989)

Stuart-Fox,



p「ovides different pe巴pectives. Fo「Laos, see the relevant

H后tory of Laos and Wyatt, Thailand:

Vietnam, Alexande「Woodside, Vietnam

Vietnam 门dm

H叫d

and

A Sho厅History, both cited above A Comparative Study

the Chinese Model:

of

and Chinese Government in the阿巴t Half of the Nineteenth Century (Camb「idge University Press, 1988 1971]) is a classic study. Dutto叽The Tay Son Uprising:如促tyand e



Rebel/ton的Eighteenth-century Vietnam cited above provides a detailed examination of the tu「bulent late叫hteenth and early nineteenth centuries. A useful study of the创y years们unified Viet 5

Choi

Byung Wook, Southernν'ietnam under the Reign of M的h

Southeast Asian

Program Publications, Cornell

University,

2004)



Mang (1820- 84 7) 7

(Ithaca,

NY

缸飞飞

353

DEX b让ds’nests 241,

309, 313

Mette阿ra (Future Buddha) 93 Ninth Buddhist Council 320 sangha 50, 93, 116-117, 119,

112

bissu

Portuguese 135-136, 139, 151-152, 200, 214-215,

black

218-219, 224, 226, 270, 273, 287-288, 314,

253-254, 263 Blambangan 154-155, 202, 255-256

INDEX

247,

boat building see

shipbuilding

bodhisattva of

abaca 31, 109

Aceh

Anawrahta, King 62-65,

59, 133, 140, 151-153, 191,

194, 197-199, 234,

93 ancestor veneration 45, 74, 78,

251-252, 300

Aden 134, 151 Ageng Tirtayasa,

80, 91, 101, 106, 195,

Sultan 204-205

agriculture

Ang Ang

232 Chan, King 324, 329 Eng, Prince 274

Angkor 6-7, 46, 65-68, 122,227,

dry-rice see d可-nee

expansion 37-38, 98-99

274

plantation agriculture

see also

expansion 210, 220,

240-244 slash and burn/swidden cultivation 36, 113-114,

195 and volcanic

soil

37

wet-rice see wet-rice

known

as

eaglewood and gaharu), 23, 26,90, 125,189,196 Alor 38

Amangkurat I, Sultan 203 Amangkurat II, Sultan 204, 223 Amangkurat III, Sultan 253-254, 256

Amarapura 314 Amaravati see also

Cham

123,

127 ambergris 25, 79, 165, 215

Amboina/Ambon

191, 197, 210,

47, 110, 166,

233,246,254,

263,312 Amoy (Xiamen) 239 Amsterdam, Sultan 215

An Nam 326, 328 Anaukpetlun, King 216-217

Badui 105-106 Baghdad, Mongol conquest

of

boundaries

Bagyidaw, King 317-319

c叫tural

Balambangan 261

Ban Phlu Luang

boundaries 38-39,

86-87, 116-117, 234, 244-247, 293-298

Bali 37, 80, 154」55,205,

boundaries 46, 244-247

religious

Banten Girang 20, 105 Banten 105, 133-140, 155,

territorial

archaeological且nds 17一18, 20, 30, 32, 87, 95, 108

Aru islands 313 Arung Palakka 213-215,

242,

262

Ashoka 72

Assam

115, 294,

317-319

Association of Southeast Asian

Nations (ASEAN) 3,336 Aurangzeb 238 Austronesian 27-28, 73, 112 Ava 64, 114-116, 167-169, 171,

217,219-220,250,264-266 Avalokitesvara 56-57 Ayutthaya 70, 117-119, 168-169, 175-176,

72, 92,

99-100,

269-272 21, 111, 197,

boundaries 293-298

political

210, 233, 313

72, 272,

of Island

influence 238, 253, 260, 285, 291, 294, 298-300,

303, 310, 330, Brito e

342

Nicote, Filipe

216 Brunei 2-3, 100,

17?

Bengal 113-114, 220, 238 Bengkulu 199, 251, 301

Buddhism 4-5, 17, 50, 54, 56-59, 63-64, 71-72, 74, 91,

240’

250,268-274 Azimuddin, Sultan 260-261

Babad Tanah Jawi

Birdshe;d Peni川la

babaylan 143, 207, 249

106-107

313 bird of paradise 26, 165,

Papuan

see also

313 islands 112, 16S,

93-94

227-228, 269,271, 314 Buddhaghosa 93

174, 176,

220,224, ,

145-147



188-189, 218,

230-231 235

246,

270, 272,

316-317,

287-288, 320-321

Eigh出Buddhist Council 320 Mahayana 4, 54, 57, 63, 74,

147,246,272, 288, 317

meritorious

acts

258

217-218

224,

bezoar stones 26 Bhairava 55, 77 Binnya Dala, King 266 Binondo 162, 259 Bintan 52, 252 biodiversity 21-24

109, 137,

census (Restored Taungoo) centralization

Buddha画images 58, 72, 93-94, 120, 146, 176, 218-219,

172-173, 179-180,

79,220,317

Catholic church see Christianity

Cebu 109-110, 140,

145, 159,

150 30, 54, 59, 88, 142, 148, 252 Bendah?ra dynasty 200, 242,

40, 173

cannon see且rearms Canton see Guangzhou Cape of Good Hope 129, 134 Capellen Baron van der 303-304 caste

de 135, 172,

163 Buayan 162-164, 261 Buddha (Gautama Buddha)

Angkor

ca口ography 280, 294, 296, 341

EIC

Benua people 200

104,

30_ 31

British

see also

270,274, 324-329

Camoes

Barbarians 20, 26,

Batak 38-39, 95, 104 Batanes islands 294, 308 Batang Hari 77 Batavia 187, 193-194, 199-200, 202, 204-205, 220,256,291 Battambang 65, 274

2-3, 31, 39, 122, 173-176, 225-227, 242,

see also

218-219

Chei Chettha II, King 225 Chiang Mai 58-59, 71-72,

120, 146, 169, 173-175, 216,

264,271,324-325 Chiang Saen 71, 174, 217 Chin 113-114, 289, 315 China firearms 74

mvasion by 123-124 Middle Kingdom idea 232 Opium War 330-331 routes to 294-295 trade links 17, 29-30, 44,

89-90, 109-110, 115-116, 147-151,

Myanmar

Cambodia

279, 294, 302

122, 128,

220-228, 234, 239, 245,

see

50, 63, 269-270, 314 Cakraningrat I, King 254

37

Brief Description

ba;a吨町,cabeza de 28, 161, 206

4,

290

93-94, 113-114,

189, 192, 197, 201,

Burma

boundaries 36, 45,

Brantas River

see Christianity

bayin 170,217 Bayinnaung, King 146, 150, 167-169, 172 Bayon 67 beads, prayer beads/rosaries

bunga mas dan perak tribute 201,221,270,299,319,324

cakkavatti, wheel-tun由1gmon缸ch

boundaries 141,

146, 244,

157-158, 191, 199, 202-205, 257, 305

baptism

Bugis 49, 112, 194, 213-214, 252-253, 262, 311, 313 Bukit Cina 100 Buleleng 205

e由nic

d归asty

Bangka island 251-252 Bangkok 274, 319, 321-325

Anglo-Dutch War (1780-4) 285, 298-299 Antipolo 208

168-169

Borobodur 6-7, 55, 78

317-319 Anglo-Burmese wars 285,

293-294, 301,342

246,288

Borommakot, King 270-271

19

4, 50,

tooth relics 57, 63,”,145,

Bone 214, 262

Banda archipelago

treaty {1824) 285,

compassion

Boni 109-11 O

Angkor Thom 67 Angkor Wat 66-68, 175, 245 Anglo-Burmese relations

Anglo-Dutch

134 Alexander the Great 51, 198

Babullah, Sultan 166-167 Bacan 111-112, 310

charismatic leaders 49-51, 120, 247-252, 265, 269-270, 272, 279

57-59, 63, 71-72, 91, 93, 145-147, 175-176, 188-189, 220, 235, 240,

56-57, 67, 230 Bogor 105-106

305-306

Khmer

318-319, 342

Agung, Sultan 202-203, 245 ahmudan 64, 217-218, 264 al-Kahar, Sultan Alauddin 阳ayat Syah 152-153 Alauddin III, Sultan 141 Alaungpaya, King 249, 266一268, 316 Albuquerque, Afonso de, 119, aloes wood ( also

71,

Theravada Buddhism

on mainland 234,

286-290, 340 ceramics 29-31, 33-34, 95,饨, 109 Ceribon 133, 205 Chakri, General (later Rama I)

251-252

Chakri 279, 287-288, 314-315, 324,341 Cham 3, 67-68, 72-73, 78, 126-128, 196, 229-230,

239,242,276,289,331 Amaravati 123, 127 Indrapura 123 Kauthara 123, 127, 229 Panduranga 123, 127, 229, 329 Vijaya 123, 126, 178

40,

340

316-317, 320 Sinhalese sangha 270-271 Tantric Buddhism 55

Bodawpaya, King 287-288, 295-296, 314-317, 320, 343 Bodhgaya钮,317

Champasak 228, 273, 323 Chao Anou 323-324 Chao Phraya River 35-36,

190-192,224-225,241 Chindwin River 63, 314 Chinese

and Christianity 188-189, 239,259 Cin phrai 322 sailing routes 20, 147,

232 Western Maritime Route 227-228 Western Ocean directions 20 Western Seas Route 147

Spanish mistrust of 162, 208 voe mistrust of 255-258 Council 255 culture

329-330

mestizos 191, 259 migration 240-241, 255,

321-322 mining 240-241 pirates 328

plantation agriculture

240-241 violence in Batavia 256

war 255 Chittagong 171, 220, 317 Chola 76 Chola, Rajendra 16-17 cholera 312 Christianity 4-5, 179 baptism 137, 142, 160 Catholic Church 133-134, 137, 139-140, 142-145, 151, 160, 188-189, 191, 206,234,277,294,307 and charismatic leaders 249



355

INDEX

INDEX Dai Viet 3-4, 46,

Christianity (cont.)

89, 91-92, 95, 97-99, 120, 145, 176-177, 179-180, 186, 188-189,

and China 188-189, 239 Christian clerics and trade 161 competition for followers

247 conflict with Islam 144-145,

151,208 enforced adoption of 143-144, 166-167,206 Indios 207 Pasyon 292 in Philippines 138-140, 142-144, 159一164,

206-209,258-261 prohibition of 246 Protestant missionizing 188,

263,312 and Spanish colonialism 159-164, 208-209, 258-260,294, 308 Vietnam 232-233, 332 chu nom (southern script) 74 Chulia traders 189一190,238,252 Cirebon shipwreck 33



climate 4, 22-23 cloves 110-111, 196-197, 240 coastal polities 29, 39, see also

individual polities/ seaports

Cochin China see Dang Trong 228,276 Coedes, George 2-3 Coen, Jan Pieterszoon 210 coffee 240, 257, 302, 304

coms

see currency

colonialism 6-7,

Confucianism

9,

160,

4, 57, 74,

258-261 91-92,

193, 228, 234, 250,

278-279,294, 328

Dang N goai

228-230, 232-233, 242, 270,275-276, 278-279

288

195 97, 189,

218

corvee labor 192, 206, 219-220, 227, 245, 271, 276, 287,

303-307, 315,321 Cotabato 260-261 cotton 109, 114, 195, 218, 240-241, 255,302,306 cow叮shell currency 34-35,

64 Cultivation System 305

currency 34-35, 64, 66, 90, 222,

277,292 Daendels, Marshal Herman Willem 303, 305 Dai Nam 331

physical changes 4

and

60-61 Estado da India 134, 233 eunuchs 198, 231, 275 missions to Europe 222-224 evangelism see Christianity polities

Dhammazedi, King 116-117

Guangzhou 32,190,239,261,273 Guanyin 230

273-274, 277 Hadhrami Arabs 300 H可i, Raja 298-299

Islam 4-5, 59-60,邸,87-88, 94-95, 106-107, 109-110, 198-199, 292 Chinese 255

Ha Tien

190,

and Christianity 246-247

D.G.E. 2

Hall,

Halmahera 110, 262-263, 311 Halong Bay 19-20 Hamengkubuwana I, Sultan 257 Hamengkubuwana II, Sultan 303 Hamengkubuwana III, Sultan 304 Hamzah Fansuri 156 Hanoi 73, 123, 328, 330 Hasanuddin, King 158

Dinh Bo Linh 73

Fa N驴1m, King 72, 122 Faxian 17

Hayam

Felipe,

disease 35, 138-139, 243-244,

312 Doctrine of the Elders see Theravada Buddhism Dominicans 160, 232, 294 Dong Hoi 228 Dong Son drums 27 Drake, Francis 166-167 dry-rice agriculture ,36, 38,

61-62 see also wet - rice dugong 25 Dutch influence 285, see also

VOC

VOC

eaglewood 23, 126, 196 see aloeswood early modern, use of term 5-8 early

modern

world, features of

Prince 137

firearms/ cannon 7 4,

110-111, 152-153, 169, 229 Flores 111, 212, 215, 242, 263 forced labor 161一162, see also

corvee forest clearance 24, 37, 65, 79,286

Orang

35-39

Earth Goddess 58, 218- 219 East India Company see EIC Eastern Lesser Sundas 110-111 eastern Seram 262, 313 EIC (East India Company) 187, 199, 238-239, 251, 261,

267,288,299-300 Eighty-Years War 185 Ekathotsarot, King 221-222 elephants battle elephants 67, 97-98 hunting of 241

highland groups see uplands/

highlands Hikayat Hang Tuah 140-141 Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai 95

Hinduism

4, 17, 50, 54 calendar system 92

220 176-177 Shiva 54, 65, 80 Vishnu 50, 54, 63, 66-67 Ho Xuan Huong 289 177,

230-231

VOC

Hsinbyushin,

gold 104, 108, 150, 161一162,201,

240-241,296,299 gold and silver flowers see bunga mas dan perak 209,

Gorom

archipelago 313

36-40, 99-112, 197-216,

234,298-313,332-333,340 compared to Mainland Southeast Asia 290-293

An

Hoi

Franciscans 160, 209, 232

134, 138

Islamic law 59 94-95, 140 Islamic coins 35 Islamic Wars (Gowa) 211-212 Island Southeast Asia 2-3, 5, 10, Syafi'i

Northern, Wes tern Archipelagos isolated tribes see Suku Terasing ivory hunting 195-196

honey/wax collection 26-27 Hong Due Code 124 Hormuz 134

Goa

257 Sufism 59, 94, 106, 140, 156,

see also Central, Eastern,

199-200,258,292,294-295 founder-figures 45

14-17 Gia Long, King 287-288, 296, 328-329 Giri, Sultan 203 Glass Palace Chronicle 64-65

spread of 140-142, 151, 155, 158, 166, 179, 204-205,

Indra

71-72, 104, 149-150,

Gayo people 95 geography, and distinctiveness

Muslim law 141-142

castes 79,

Holland see

307

247,298 holy war 247, 298 increased cohesion 300-301

ummah

Asli 29-30, 37, 58一切,

gaharu, see also aloeswood 23 Galleon Trade 6, 137-138, 142,

competition for followers

198,203

292

97一饨,

forest dwellers, see also

W uruk 80

head-hunting, head-hunters 160,

female authority/rulers 15, 52-53, 87-88, 90, 115-117, 198-199, 255 female inheritance rights 125 fertility cult, 55, 105, 106

337-341 early polities

Crown

black Portu思1ese



Kachin 113-114, 315 Kaicili N uku 310-311 Kaicili Sibori 215 Kaladan River 61, 114 Kalang forest dwellers 257

37, 243,

Kalyani River 93

Kamb时adesa 65-68 kamrna坷,266 Kandy Tooth Relic 57, 145, 169 Karaeng Bayo 211 Karangasem 205 Karen 63, 113-114, 289, 315 karma, see also kamma 50 Kartasura 256 Kauthara see Cham Kec且,R可a 248, 252 Kedah 198, 299-301, 324-325 Kedah, Sultan of 253, 299 Kediri 106-107 Kei islands 313 Kelantan 229, 299, 324-325

Kengtung

64, 146,

264

Kerinci bark manuscripts 86 Kerinci people 77 Khmer 67-68, 73, 78, 92, 98,

176,225-227,274 Angkor Khorat plateau 175,225,319,323 see also

kingship, views of 49-51, 52, 63, 67, 72, 94, 119, 141,

202-203,247,266 kinship 31-32, 47, 52-53, 71, 81,

King 268-269

111-112 Jambi 77, 200-201, 245, 251-252 Jailolo

Japan, cultural/commercial links 137, 149, 173, 186, 194一195, 222, 226,

Sangkilang 311

Ibn Battuta 15, 33, 38-39, 59-60,

80

230-231, 240

Igorot 195, 209, 243, Ilocanos 249-250,

258

258, 290,

308-309 ImamRi句ali 191-192 India

merchants 29-30 trade links 88-89, 189一190,

218 1?:::g?:;:?a?!:7s6

mtermarriage 3 l一32, 47-48, 51-53, 230-231, 240一241,

Jarai

241-242

Jatakas 14, 241, 246

Java

14-16, 30, 33, 37-38, 77, 104-107, 155, 202-205, 253-258, 291, 301-305,

3,

338,341

Mongol

invasion of 17

Jayavarman II, 65-68 Jayavarman VII 67 Jesuits 160,

101, 108, 111, 128, 135, 150, 159, 164一165, 188, 221

Kolkata 317-318 Konbaung dynasty 239,

266-268,279,287-288,341 Kota Cina 20 Koxinga, 210 see also Zheng

Chenggong

Japara 155

252-253, 300

Johor 178, 199-200, 242, 248, 252-253, 298-299 see also Riau Jolo 162-163, 309

113-114, 124, 154,

gunpowder 7 4, 97-98, 110-111 Gunung Agung 158

hat people see

304-305,343

78, 99,

158,168,195,286,291,302, 315 Iskandar Mu缸,Sultan 197-198

family see kinship

Dipanegara, Prince 37, 292, 298,

286-287,340 irrigation 3, 36-37, 39, 45, 65,

Gujarat 20, 31, 59, 87, 89, 152,

Dieng Plateau temples 78

Company see

Cordillera 108, 138, 150, 162,

35-36, 40, 61-62, 113-114,

119, 133, 169, 270

Emerald Buddha 174一175 encomienda system 160 environment and maritime connections 17-20

Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) River,

311

189, 198

trade in 189 white elephants 50, 116-117,

Dutch United East India

Constantinople 85 see Rum copper deposits 25, 241

Coromandel Coast

147, 231,

debt slaves 192 deer 23, 195-196, 222, 226, 233 Demak 107, 133, 140, 155 derhaka 76, 102 Desawarnana 80, 100, 104, 111 devaraja 65-68, 165-168 dhamma, 93 dhammaraja, the Just King 50

125, 177, 230-232, 235,

288,326

4, 57, 76, 92,

Gowa 163-164, 211-214, 234,

269-270

outer region

228-229,233 Dang Trong inner region

Daoism

iv。可hunting 195-196 Javanese use of 15 Mistress of the White Elephant 116-117 Mongkhon Rattanakosa

209-210, 232, 260,

307 Jin dynasty 49 Johor Bahm 300

Krakatau 36-37 Krun钊1ep see Bangkok Kudarat, Sultan 209-210, 260

Kudus 140 Kupang 263, 312 Kyanzittha, King 50, 63 Kyaukse River district 61-62

La Galigo 112 lacquer 30, 148-149, 226 Lan Na 71-72, 93, 99, 118-120, 133, 170一171, 174-175,

194,227,323

DEX Lan Sang

72, 120-122, 127-128,

227-228 land below the winds 14 Land of Gold 14, 25

260-261,293,309-310,312 General 317 -318

Maha Bandula,

227 34, 64, 70-72, 113, 175-176,

Mahabodhi temple 93

188,196,218,225,227,239,

Mahamuni Buddha

246,272,289,319,323,329

220, 314

Larantuka 215 Law of Civil Hierarchy 118 Law of Military and Provincial Hierarchies 118 Le Duy Mat, Prince 250, 275一276 Le dynasty 124, 178, 228, 275 Le Loi 123-124, 126 Le Thanh Tong 124, 126-128, 150, 176-177 Le Van Duyet 289-290, 324, 331 leaders, distin伊ishing

characteristics of 47, 50, 52, 121, 128, 166, 175,248,250

Legazpi, Miguel Lopez de

137-138, 147, 159-160 Sunda Islands 262, 312 Lieberman, Victor 8, 337 Lieu Hanh, female deity 147, Lesser

231,277 Lifau 263 Ligor see also

N akhon S1

Thammarat 289-290 linga stones 55, 78, 97

Linh River 294, 328 literacy 86, 155, 206,

340

lithograph printing 292

dynamics 10

119, 141, 170, 176, 198,

285-286,288, 292,339 logging, see also Kalang 196 Lombok 193, 205, 305

palm 38

Lovek 175-176, 225 Luzon (Lu-song) 108-109,

137,

261 159 Luang Prabang 120-122, LU(;:6es 138,

127一128, 146, 174, 228,

271,273,323

Lumad

4,

54-55,

288

Mahazedi pagoda 169

Mahmud 200

Sultan of Johor-

Syah, Sultan of Melaka

103

113-128, 167-178,

216-234,264-279,314-332 compared to Island Southeast Asia 290-293 Majapahit 46, 75, 95, 100, 104-107, 128, 133, 154-155 岛1akassar 49, 112, 194-195, 211-212, 262, 312-313 Dutch attack on 187 Malay traders in 313 voe and 187-188 Malay-Indonesian archipelago 291, 293 Maldives, cow叩shell currency

15, 23, 25, 38-39,饨,

102

Mac Dang Dung, General 177 Mac dynasty 147, 177一178,228 210

compound

162

Manipur 267, 317-319 Mansur Syah, Sultan 102一103 manuscripts 86 mapping see cartography archaeology 30, 32

20, 27, 110-112, 138,

164, 166, 197,206,210, 214, 233, 261-262, 310, 343

connections 17-20 and environmental factors

17-20 law 101 linkages 27-28

King 171-172 Manchu 186-187 see Qmg mandala polities 45-53, 99 ethnic/diverse groups 48 as family 51-53 female authority 15, 52-53 kinship relations 48, 51-53, 81 marriage alliances 4 7 meaning of 46-4 7 persons of prowess 49-51

Martaban (Mottama) 168, 264-265

Mangkub山ni (Sultan

Hamengkubuwana

33, 116,

156一157, 200,

100-101, 128, 133, 140, 199-200, 252,340

I)

257

invasion of 187,

199 Portuguese invasion of 133-134, 141, 144, 151-153, 166 Melaka fort 342 岛1elaka Straits 19, 29, 75, 85,

87-89, 94-95, 98, 100-101, 128, 133, 140, 147, 149, 151-153, 189, 197,

81 see also individual polities

Ming d归asty 33, 85-87, 89-90, 92, 95, 97, 100-101, 105, 108-109, 114-115, 119, 123-124, 186-187, 190 Ming Shi-lu 86-87, 97-98 Minh Huong 331 288, 315,

192-195, 208,234,242,245,277, 312, 322, 337-338 modernity

6, 9 modernization 6

money/monetization see currencv

see

89-90

monkhood (sangha)

273’

Buddhism

92, 116,

57, 58, 66, 76.

Monsoon Asia 2 monsoon wars 328 monsoon winds 2, 18-19, 39

22-23,

Moors 133-134 Mount Bro mo 106

Mount Kulen 65-68 Mount Mayon 36-37 Mount Merapi 36-37, 77-78、

口1erit

Mount Meru 65 Mount Popa 61-62 Mount Taal 249 Mount Tambora

(Missions Etrangeres de Paris)

232-233

203, 255,

voe

304’

36-37, 285-286

trade in 238, 255, 261, 303,

310

War 330-331

Opi山n

Orang

Asli ( original people,

forest-dwellers) 29, 200,

292

Orang Laut

(sea people) 29, 101, 149一150, 200, 211-213,

241-242, 252, 292,

294-295,299

Orang

Asli

85, 133,

152-153,238 225, 274

Oudong

Si

Thammarat

(Ligor)

Nan

71

Padri

Wars 301 46, 58, 62-65,

P司ajaran 105, 158

Nanhai 14

P可ang 156-157

Nanyang 19

Pakubuwana

Narai, King 222-224, 246,

285-286, 304,306 weather patterns and calamities 249 Netherlands see VOC

II,

III,

King 256-257 King 257-258

Palawan 30 Palembang 75,

77, 100, 200-201, 245,251-252, 291,301 P缸npanga, 161 Panay 249, 258 Panduranga 3, 127-128, 229,329 Pangasinan 207 27, 165-166, 263,

293, 310

249一250

279,

287, 325-328

Nihonmachi 222 Nine Wali (Wali Sanga)

Pakubuwana Pakubuwana

Papuan islands

N思1yen 177-178, 193, 225, 228-231, 275-276, 278-279, 326,328,341

Nguyen Phuc Anh, Prince

King 253一254,

I,

256

supernatural interpretation of 249, 255, 265, 277,

Nghe An

Padang 199, 251 Padang Lawas 20, 55 Pagan (Bagan) 16, 93, 114, 245

and economic recove可275

Mongol invasions 16-17, 19, 64,

consumption of 238, 330 growing of 219

Ottoman emp让e

natural disasters

Mong Mao 115,.267 Mong Mit 115, 267

194, 221

128

precious stones 24-25 and 189

269-271, 320 Naresuan, King 172一173, 221-222, 225,320 nat spirits, see also Thirty-Seven Nats 63, 169

Mogaung 114-115, 267 Mohnyin 115, 168, 267 Moken sea people 29

17,

original people see

272,289 Nalanda 44

Christianity

Oc Eo opium

Mongol invasion of 16

Nakhon

142, 149, 190,

71, 74,

Abdullah 292, 342 Musi River 75-76 Myanmar 2-3 border wars with China 71, 115 British relations with 317-319 Burmese alphabet 316 and Chin wives 289 control of people 287 dominance 239 Hindu calendar system 92 岛1unsyi

166

mobility 3, 6, 36, 76, 99, 135,

Water of Allegiance see also royal curses

Mrauk-U 113-114, 171, 220 岛1ughal India 133, 140, 171, 179, 189, 198, 220, 238-239

120

see also tin

monks,

Mpu Prapanca 80

naga 67 Naicili Boki Raja, Queen Mother

missionaries 160, see also

oaths

see uplands/highlands

330-332

199-200, 212, 251-252, 294,298-301, 340,342 of prowess/merit see persons of prowess/

Mengwi 205

MEP

Queen 252

iron ore deposits

River/Delta 35-36, 40, 113, 128, 286-287, 323 Melaka 85, 88-89, 94-95, 97-98,

rulers 47-48, 51-53, 60-61,

306-309 4, 27-28, 240-241, 255, 275, 286 mm-laung 219-220, 248, 265, 314, 316 see also charismatic leaders Minangkabau 77, 103一104, 195, 198-199, 201, 251-252, 301

expansion 240-244

202-205, 223, 234, 245, 248, 253-255, 341 Mauryan dynasty 71-72 Mazu 230 medicinal plants 24

men

215

mining 24

silk road 19-20 marriage alliances 31-32, 47-48, 51-53, 230-231 martaban earthenware vessels 116

Dutch/VOC

(Port.) 135, 138, 188,

mestizo (Sp.) 139, 226, 259,

Mi出Mang

prohibition 190 raiding 292一293

Man Pa,

m创♀o

Putri Jamilan,

products 29

Mataram 77-78,

229

migration

Mekong

royal curses 4 7

19, 79, 110, 151,

capture of 159-160, 162

Maynilad 137

口ianti口1e

mainland centralization 286-290 Mainland Southeast Asia 2-3, 10,

mangroves 23, 73, 128 Manila Binondo sector 162

biodiversity 25-26

阳au 298

Mahmud

mercenaries 135, 169, 171-173,

marine

Syah, Sultan of Johor

Mahmud Syah,

merantau 103

Mangrai, King 71-72

preeminent lords 47-48 ritual oath-taking 47

163, 209

Ma Huan

63, 74, 147, 272,

Maluku

of foreign concepts 53-60 of religion 4, 57-58, 66, 91,

lontar

Mahayana Buddhism

mountain and h山people

Mangkunegaran 257

Parian

statue 171,

34-35,64 Malong, Andres 207

localization

mace

28, 79-80, 99, 104,

Magellan, Ferdinand 137-138, 142, 159, 167 Magindanao 162-164, 209-210,

languages 27-28, 35, 38, 87, 102,

Lao

Madura

202-204,254-255,280,304

133, 146, 169一171,

see also Birdshead Peninsula Pararaton 104, 107 Parian 162 Pasai 87-88, 152 pasisir 106 Pasyon 292

Patani 95, 153, 201, 221, 299,

301,319,324,340 Pattimura 312 106,

156, 158, 203

Nuku, Raja 343 Nuruddin al-Raniri 198-199 Nusatenggara Timur, see also Eastern Lesser Sundas 22-23, 99, 110, 214-216, 262,312 nutmeg 110-111, 196-197

pearls 26, 108, 149, 309, 313

Pegu (Bago)

64, 116-117, 133, 149, 167-169, 171, 173, 194, 198, 216-218,

264-265,269,271,279,351 Penang 285, 299, 304, 322, 324 pepper 158-159, 200, 240, 253,

257,305-306



359

EX

360遥远INDEX pepper

Portugal

(cont.)

cultivation of 98-99, 104, 150, 152一153, 194, 233,

241,251,299 trade in 118, 158, 195, 198-201, 204, 251-253,

300,302 Perak 198, 252-253, 324 persons of prowess/merit 49-51, 120, 247-252, 265, 269一270, 272, 311 see also charismatic leaders;

min-laung Phaulkon, Constantine 223-224 Phaya Kaeo, King 17 4 Philippine tarsier (primate) 21 Philippines 2-3 biodiversity 21 Catholic Church 307 centralized authority 290 e由nic diversity 290 Filipino friars

308-309

gold miners 208-209

Moro

raids 249

Spanish colonization 159-164, 206-210, 258-261, 306 tobacco 306-307 traders 138

Phnom Penh

122, 175, 226,

324

picis coins, see also

currency

34-35, 90

Antonio 27, 138 Pigneau de Behaine, Pierre 327-328, 330 pirates 18, 308, 311-313, 328 see also raiding, Sulu Pires, Tome 86-87, 95, 100, 102一103, 111, 126-127, 155 plantation agriculture expansion Pigafetta,

240-244 Po Nagar 230 Po Saut, King 229一230

empire building 133-140 Estado da India 134, 233 invasion of Melaka 133-134, 141, 144, 151一153, 166 mercenaries 135, 171一173 Portu事1ese disease 138 Prambanan 78 Prasat Thong, King 194, 222 Prey Nokor (Saigon) 225 principalia (elite Filipinos) 206 printing 292 Prome 116, 168, 217 prophecies 50, 93, 120, 248, 265-266, 271 Pyu people 61-62

Qing dynasty

186-187, 190, 210, 224, 238-239, 243, 5,

268, 285, 295, 320, 326,

328-329

Quang Nam 127 Quang Trung Emperor 326 Lady Olivia 297

Raffles, Sir

coastal 29

35-39 and environment 60-61 and rulers 47-48, 51-53, early

60-61, 81, 102 of 46

see also individual people! polities

Marco 19,”,64,78,87-88

population元,37-38, 101, 138-139, 286, 304, 307,

337-338

Sambal people see Samudra-Pasai 59

289,306,312,331

sandalwood 22-23, 27, 197, 215,

Recollect Franciscans 160, 209 Reconquest (Reconquista)

133-134

Red River

3,

296,300,303, 305,342-343 raiding, 51, 109, 115-117, 165-166,249, 312 capture of people 51, 109, 127-128, 165-166

Ilanun,293,309 Magindanao, 310 Manipuri, 216, 262 Moro raids 249 Shan 113 Sulu, 291, 298, 310, see also pirates

22-23, 77, 315, 336 Raja Muda 252, 298 Ra挝1ine (Arakan) 113-114, 145, 168-169, 171, 193, 218, rainfall 2, 15,

220,314, 318-319

Ram Kamhaeng 68-70

I, King 14, 251-252, 295, 319-321, 325-326

Rama Rama Rama

II, King 321-324 III, King 323-325 IV, King 70 Ramakien 321

domains 91-95

religious relationships 179 religious transition

94-95

religious/political expression

54 royal authority 287

Rembang 243 Restored Taungoo dynasty 197, 216-220, 234, 264-266, 271 see also

Taungoo

Rhodes, Alexandre de 232 Riau 241, 253, 298-299, see also J ohor rice cultivation see dry rice, wet river systems 3, 40,

61-62

Rote 263 Royal Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences 343 royal curses 47, 76 Royal Patronage 133一134,232 Royal Philippine Company 307 rulers 47-48, 51-53, 60-61, 81, 102, 115-117, 165 see also female au出ority treason to the ruler 76 tributary lords 170-171

Rum 85,

140-141, 238 Rurnphius, G.E. 196 44, 87, 103, 118, 186,

231 sacred geography 55 Safavid dynasty Persia 133, 238 sago 14, 23, 38, 75, 110, 165, 313 Sahul shelf 21 Saifuddin, Sultan 215, 262

Sattha

I,

charismatic

savior king see

leaders

Savu 38, 263

human mob出ty 338

saw-bwa 170, 267 Sea people see

Sejarah

Orang Laut

Melayu

52, 100,

historical periods 7

102

population explosion

337-338

202

Seram Laut 313

territorial

Serat

Centhini 302

Serat

Yus旷203

transfer of ideas/technologies

123, 146, 167,

169-170,

330

salt

sa让ing routes

275, 24, 33-34, 38, 126, 148, 159, 163, 231, 255 Salween River 61-62 Sarna B勾au sea people 29, 211-213, 242, 309, 313

339 Spain

174,217,219, 239, 264, 266-267, 315

lashed-lug 33

plank shipbuilding

33 shipwrecks 33, 96, 148

empire building 133-140 mestizos 139, 258-259 mundo hispanico 294 in the Philippines 206-210, 258-261 spices, see also clove, mace,

nutmeg

19, 78-79, 85, 89, 102, 108, 110-111, 134, 137, 149, 152, 165,

pagoda 116-117 ??:::;;? aw pagoda 116, 168 Pagoda 63

196-197,240,253,263,310

??:e;??o年n

300 -:i

26-27, 29, 53-54, 61, 63, 68, 74-75, 94, 97, 104, 125, 143, 146, 147, 169, 176,

spirits 24,

Siam, 299,

314-315 see also Ayutthaya Silang, Diego 249-250, 260 Silang, Gabriela 260 silk, introduction of 109

197, 209-210, 230, 258, 313, 330, 339 Sri

road 17

silk

maritime silk road 19_ 20

59-60, 75-78, 80,100,252 stick-lac 149

170 171,295 ii!??:阳::'.'.? and

burn agriculture, see swidden cultivation 36,

113-114, 195

192-195, 233-234、 ’

;????? 293, 309, 312-313, 338 smallpox 138, 139, 243-244, 312

330 38

Solo River

ong

sty 44, 73,

Northern Song Southern Song

sugar 233, 240, 321, 323 mills 240, 256, 305 plantations 158 Sukhothai 46, 68-70, 118 Suku Terasing, 29 see also Orang Asli

slavery/slave trade, see also

?olor-?:or archipelagoes

57, 92-93, 114, 116, 120, 145, 169,174,270,317,

Srivijaya 16-17, 44, 46, 56-57,

port 77 de port 285 Singasari 77

314,

Lanka 339

Singapore 2-3

also

263

92 19

f?归n::; 19

Sus吐1山1an 296, 305 Surapati 204, 254 Suriyavongsa, King 227-228 II, King 66-68 Suvarnabhumi 14, 25 swidden cultivation, see also slash and burn agriculture

Suηravarman

36, 195 Syaikh al-Islam 197-198 Syeikh Yusuf of Makassar 204 Symes, Michael 288, 316, 343 syph血s 138-139 Syriam (Thanl抖n) 169, 172, 216,

264-265

206-210,258-261

310 Shin Saw Bu, Queen 116-117 shipbuilding 32-33, 96-97, 328

252,

Sunda Kelapa 156, 158 Sunda 105, 156 Sunda shelf/Sundaland 21 Sunda Straits 251 Surabaya 254-255 Surakarta 301-302

colonization by 159-164,

Sharifuddin, Sultan

stitched

consolidation

340-341

Shan 63-64, 71, 113-114, 120,

Saigon 225, 229, 274, 279, 328,

Ramayana

Ratu Ad且,see also charismatic leaders 304-305 Ratu Kidul 156, 202 Ratu Pakubuwana 255

336-337 Early Modern to Colonial period 341-343 exploitation of land/ resources 337 features of 337-341

305-306 King 175-176

e仕a:??::??g

Rarnai诅adesa 114, 116, 265 Ramathibodi I, King 117 -118

268

definition of area 2-3,

Sasak 205,

see also individual rivers

R归均u

340-341 293-294

Senapati Ingalaga

27 Chinese western sea routes 20, 147, 231 Sakti, Raja (holy king) 202

14,

Sangir island

religion see individual religions religious

administrative centralization

274,311

sappanwood 24, 118, 225, 273

72-73, 113, 127,

232,275-276,286-287,340 Reid, Anthony 7-8

Thomas Stamford 73,

South Sulawesi 164,194,214,352 Southeast Asia

Zambales

217,242,249,262,273,276,

nce Raffles,

Rama

polities

Polo,

Portuguese

see also slavery

Phra Bang (Royal Buddha Image) 72, 120

sizes

rebellions 147, 171, 202, 207,

see also black

Sulawesi 214, 234, 311-312 Sulayman出e Magni且cent, Sultan 152-153 sulphur 110-111 Sulu 108-109, 163-164, 210,

261,293,309 Sunan Gunung Jati 158 Sunan Kalijaga 140 Sunan Kudus 140 Sunan Kuning 256

Tabinshweti, King 167-169 Tagalog 143, 290, 292 Tai people/polities 67-73, 113 Taj al-Alam Safiyyat al-Din, Sultana 198-199 Taksin, King 272-274, 279, 287, 319 Talaud island 293-294 The Tale of Kieu 330 Tallo, 164 see also Gowa Tamil traders 252 Tang dynasty毡,73 Tanimbar archipelago 313 Taosug, 309 see also Sulu Taungoo dynasty 171 see also Restored Taungoo Taungoo 116, 167-170, 173, 175, 179-180, 197 Tavoy (Dawei) 119, 264-265 t仪34, 40, 51, 65-66, 78, 116, 124, 133, 170, 195, 217, 241,

255,258,275,277,287,303, 308, 315, 319, 323-324, 326,329 Tay Son 278-279, 287, 325-328 teak 23, 241, 243, 300 technological change 95-99

Temple of 90,000 Buddhas

171-172 Tenasserim (Tanintharyi) 119, 264-265, 318-319 Tengger 106, 253-254, 302, 304 Teochiu 272-273 Terengganu 299, 319, 324-325 Terengganu Stone 60 Ternate 21, 37, 110-112, 163, 166-167, 206, 215, 260, 262-263, 310-312



361

NDEX' 363 30-31, 38, 88, 102, llO, ll8, 147, 152, 188, 198,201,

textiles

176一178,326

Thi此y-Seven Nats 63 Thonburi 273 Three-Seals Law 321

Three Worlds Cosmology (Traibhumikatha) 319 Tidore 21, 37, ll0-ll2, 164一167,215,262,310一312 Tilokarat, King 120 32, 89, llO-lll, 142, 165,

188, 197, 210, 215, 247, 263,

312 321 Tingkir, Joko 156 Tipitaka (Pali)!Tripitaka(Skt) tin 25, 34, 252,

50, 58, 93, 171, 316,

320

tobacco 306-307 Tokugawa shogunate 186 Tondano War 312

Tonkin 229, 232 Ngaoi

see

Dang

Tonle Sap 65-66, 122 Topasses see black Portu凯1ese Tor吗a 214 trade 29-35 with China 44, 89-90 cultural coherence 38-39 diversity of 87-88 and Europe 179 with India 88-89 and intermarriage 31一32 mutual respect 38-39 and rivers 35-36 and shipbuilding 32-33 and violent disputes 38-39

and weapons acquisition 51 see also EIC,

VOC

trade expansion 87-90 trade networks 39, 81 trade routes land 17

and monsoon winds 18-19 and ocean currents 19 sea 17-18 trading relationships 4

King ll8-ll9 Tran dynasty 3, 74-75

Trailok, treaties

Anglo-Dutch 293-294, 301, 342

Dutch 285, 293-294 monopoly 251-252

Treaty of Tordesillas 85, 129, 133-134, 137 Treaty of Yandabo 267, 318-319 Treatise on Victorious Warfare 172 Trenggana, Sultan 155-156, 158 Trinh 177一178, 193, 228-229,

275-276 tripang 26, 101, 239, 241, 309 Trunajaya, Prince Raden

203-204,214,248 tsunami 249 Twelve Warlords 73

U Thong ll7-ll8 Ujung Salang 292, 315 United East India see

voe

Company

123, 125, 147, 150, 169, 173, 178, 186, 218-219,

231, 234, 241-243, 250, 266-267, 272, 275, 277-278, 280, 287, 289-290, 315, 329,

340 upstream-downstream 38, 75, 114, ll6, 123, 128, 163, 200, 252, 261

vagamundos 258 van Diemen, Anthony 226 seaports 19-20, 74,

127 Vanburi, King 121-122 Vasco da Gama 129 Vientiane 175, 227, 273, 323 Viet people 72-73

Vietnam 2-3 Buddhism

Chinese culture 74-75 as

232-233 Dai Co Viet 44, 73

Company)

whale/whales 25, 156, 230 white elephants see elephants wives, authority of 15, 52-53

O.W. 46-47

Wolters,

109 Water of Allegiance see oaths

women, see

also female authority

trees 197,

263 founding of 187

mainland Southeast Asia 226,228-229,279 involvement in Maluku 210, 214,261-262,310 involvement in Timor 247, 263,312 Manila, attack on 185

in

Melaka, conquest

of,

199

monopoly

strategy 187, 200, 213, 218, 233, 253, 256,

285,306 plantation crops and 240,

252,292 relations with

Aceh 198

relations with Johor-Riau

199,253,298 Makassar

relations with

201,

203, 213, 262, 311 relations with

Mataram

291一292, 202, 248, 253 seapower of 233, 187, 189 slave trade 192, 205, 293

trade in deerskin 196, 226, in tortoiseshell 190; in teak 196, 243 volcanoes 36-37, 77-78, 106,

249,255,285-286,304

Wahabi285,292, 300 Wali Sanga see Nine 106-107

Wah

Wang Dayuan 20, 23, 26, 28, 32,

Yo岛,akarta, Sultan of

Y ongle, Emperor yoni stones 78

Yuan

d严1asty 16, 20, 74,

89-90

Yunnan

50-51, 67, 97-98, 109, 118,

Zambales 160, 207

167, 178,

wives 127, 151, 153, 221, 240,

Zamboanga

management 78

water wheels 195

wax 26, 29, 47, 79, 108, 148, 161, 163, 226,

weapons,

258

weapon可24, 47,

123, 126, 153, 157,

270,289

187,221, 231-232, 258,

Western

trade links 215, 313

fort 163,

209-210,

260,293 Zhao Ru凯Ia 29-30

Xavier, Francis 166-167

Zheng Chenggong187

Yangon

Zheng He, Admiral

Ocean directions 20

Y与ing 76

162

see

see also

western

boundary with Myanmar 244,294

weavers maritime route 230-231

wea由鸣,177, 58,

wet-rice agriculture 3, 36,

38, 40,

Yodaya Yazawin 268, 270-271 Yogyakarta 291, 301-302,

64-65, 79, 99, 104,

113-114, 192, 195,

267, 314-315

286

304-305

296

89-90, 92

abuse 72 gender roles 5, 8, 15, 60, 193, 208,288 polygamy 248 queens 225, 52, 198 royal women 101, 172, 270

water

272,277

Bandanese, massacre of 210 Batavia, headquarters of 202, 220 Chinese and 190, 255 collapse of 291, 302 compromise with indigenous customs 188, 291, 296 extermination of clove and

37, 80

150 and capture of people 51, between polities

Wajo 262 in 57

Christianity

warfare

geographic environment and development 72-73 Mongol invasion of 16 overlords 73 warfare 74-75 Vijaya see Cham village-based water management 78 世llage wars 304 Visayas 261, 290, 310 VOC (Dutch United East India

nutmeg

uplands/highlands in island Southeast Asia 25, 37-38, 40, 104, 106, 108-109, 150, 160, 162, 195, 199-200, 204-205, 207-209, 214, 234, 243, 251, 257-258, 260, 302, 304 in mainland Southeast Asia 3-4,24, 36, 39,45, 59, 64,67-68, 70一74, 81, 89, 99, 113-ll5, ll7, ll9,

Van Don

dominance of 239 且rearms 74

301, 324-325

301-302

123,

Thaton 62 Thien (Zen) meditation 74

Timor

Commerce

Treaty of Bungaya 213-215, 3ll Treaty of Giyanti 257-258,

210,218,221 Thai Due, Emperor 279

Thang Long 73-74,

Treaty of Amity and

Ko到nga 15,

89-90,

98, 105

Zhou Daguan 31, 67-68, 98 Zhuang people 67-68

the authors convey in remarkably clear terms the complexity of the dynamics during the early modern age. Their coherent narrative will no doubt help bring Southeast Asian developments into the flourishing field of world history.” “...

entire region's

Pierre-Yves Manguin, Emeritus Professor, Ecolej切m;aise d'Extreme-Orient I Centre Asiedu Sud-Est (EHESS-CNRS) “This is a stunningly ambitious, comprehensive, and insightful overview of pre- modern Southeast Asia. It will serve both to energize regional specialists and to introduce the region to a wider public. A landmark history greatly to be welcomed.”

Victor Lieberman, Raoul Wallenberg Distinguished U,.:ziversity Professor of History and Professor of Southeast Asian History, University ofMichigiαn “For once, the term magnum opus is truly appropriate for the Andayas’stunning achievement. An ambitious and sweeping history reflecting their vast learning, a sure grasp of both region-wide developments and local adaptations, and an eye for the telling detail. No history of early-modern Southeast Asia is likely to surpass this high intellectual standard for the foreseeable future. We are all in their debt.”

James C. Scott, Sterling Professor of Political Science and Anthropology, Yale University

Written by two experienced teachers with a long hist。可of research,出is textbook provides students with a detailed overview of developments in early modern Southeast Asia, wh_en the region became tightly integrated into the world economy because of international demand for its unique forest and sea products.

The authoritative yet accessible narrative features maps, illustrations, and timelines

to support student learning. A major contribution to the field, this text is essential reading for students and specialists in Asian studies and early modern world history.

Cover illustration: De l、1ieuwe Poort (Batavia) by Johan Nieuhoff. ? den Haag, Koninklijke Bibliotheek. 1049 B 13. 仁。、・er

design: Andrew飞气Tard