Written by two experienced teachers with a long history of research, this textbook provides students with a detailed ove
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AHistot手。量主二
Earl? r Modern
Sout\1ea_-?t:一A?Ja, Barbara_ Watson A'nd?ya
LeonardY. Andaya
A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1830 Barbara Watson Andaya and Leonard Y. Andaya University of Hawai
'i
at Miinoa, Honolulu
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CONTENTS
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Acknowledgements
。Cambridge University Press 2015
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is
in cop严ight. Subject to statut。可exception
and to由e provisions of relevant
Introduction: conceptualizing an early of Southeast Asia
Kingdom by TJ
catalogue record for this publication
International Ltd.
is
Padstow Cornwall
available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data
Framing a
modern" period history of early modern Southeast Asia
Chapter
I:
A history of early modern Southeast Asia,
I
Barbara Watson Andaya and Leonard Y. Andaya.
cm
distinctiveness of “Southeast Asia"
adaptations to出e physical environment
Valued imported goods: ceramics and
Andaya, Leonard Y叮author.
II.
1.
Southeast Asia-
1i1i1Aq,,“7“叮3句3叮3句3
247170159
text且es
The trading context Environmental considerations and early
Title.
DS514.3.A53 2014 959飞02-dc23
Southeast Asia and the geographic environment
Valuable products from a unique environment
Human
ISBN 978-0-521-88992-6 (Hardback) - ISBN 978-0-521-68193-3 (Paperback) I.
250
唱EA
Environmental factors conducive to maritime connections 1400-1830
Includes index.
History.
"early
Geography and the
Andaya, Barbara Watson, au由or
pages
modern history
Southeast Asia as a region
published 2015
The
A
x-mum…m
and measuγements
Abbreviations
permission of Cambridge University Press.
Printed in the United
spelliηg
collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
First
lX
List of讯ustγαtions title:
polities
Conclusion
2014000264
Antecedents of early modern
ISBN 978-0-521-88992-6 Hardback
Chapter
ISBN 978-0-521-68193-3 Paperback
Formation of mandala polities
2:
societies,
c.
900-1400
Persons of prowess Cambridge Universi时Press has no responsibility
for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee accurate or appropriate
that
any content on such websites
is,
or will remain,
The mandala
polity as family
Localization
句,中FHJQj1i气unu--F31-
444556678
Antecedents to the early modern period
Mainland Southeast
Asia: Pagan,
Island Southeast Asia: Srivijaya
Angkor, Sukho白白,A严1tthaya, Dai Viet
and Majapahit
Conclusion
V
VI
CONTENTS(?"气VII
CONTENTS
Chapter
3:
The beginning of the
early
modern
era,
1400-1511
A transitional period in the historical record Noteworthy features of the period Expanding trade and encounters with India and China
and ph过osophical domains Technological changes and agricultural expansion Religious
in island Southeast Asia
Developments
82
86
Developments
197
in island Southeast Asia
197
202
87
The Western Archipelago The Central Archipelago The Northern Archipelago
91
The Eastern Archipelago
210
87
95 99
Developments
in
206
216
mainland Southeast Asia
216
Mainland
The飞tv estern
The Western Archipelago
100
The Central Mainland
220
The Central Archipelago
104
The Eastern Mainland
228
The Northern Archipelago
107
The Eastern Archipelago Developments in mainland Southeast Asia
233
Conclusion
110 113
Chapter
The Western Mainland The Central Mainland
113
Noteworthy
The Eastern Mainland
122
117
128
Conclusion
New boundaries and changing regimes,
6:
Chapter
Acceleration of change, 1511-1600
4:
Noteworthy features of the period Portuguese and Spanish involvement in Southeast Asia
134 134
domains
140
Chinese trade and the worlds beyond the center
147
in island Southeast Asia
151
Expanding
religious
Developments
The Western Archipelago
151
The Central Archipelago
154
The Northern Archipelago
159
The Eastern Archipelago
164
Economic development and its impact on Cultural, ethnic and religious boundary-making
240
Charismatic leadership in a time of upheaval
247
relationships
The The The The
Central Archipelago
253
Northern Archipelago
258
Eastern Archipelago
262
264
The Western Mainland The Central Mainland The Eastern Mainland
269 275 279
Conclusion
167
Noteworthy
The Central Mainland The Eastern Mainland Conclusion
7:
Early
modern Southeast
5:
Expanding global links and their impact on Southeast Asia, 1600-1690s
Noteworthy Features of the Period
New and old
actors
and mob过ity of human labor Changes to the physical environment Slavery
Asia: the last phase, 1780s-1830s
282
features of the period
286
172
Increased centralization on the mainland
286
176
Contrasts and similarities between island and mainland Southeast Asia
290
179
Demarcating
political
and
cultural boundaries
Developments in island Southeast Asia
Chapter
264
Developments in mainland Southeast Asia
The Western Mainland
mainland Southeast Asia
251
in Island Southeast Asia
Western Archipelago
Chapter
in
244
251
167
Developments
236 240
features of the period
Developments 130
1690s-1780s
182 187 187 192 195
The The The The
293 298
Western Archipelago
298
Central Archipelago
301
Northern Archipelago
306
Eastern Archipelago
310
Developments
in
mainland Southeast Asia
The Western Mainland
314 314
VIII惠、CONTENTS
The Central Mainland The Eastern Mainland
the early modern period Conclusion: Southeast Asia and world and Southeast Asia Features of the early modern the early
modern
Glossary
Further Readings
Index
325 332
Conclusion
From
319
to the colonial
334
ILLUSTRATIONS
337 341
344
Monsoon winds
18
Figure 1.2
Hunting birds of paradise
22
Figure 1.3
A
28
Figure 2.1
Bhairava from Candi Singasari, East Java
56
Fi思ire 2.2
Popa Medaw
62
Figure 2.3
Buddhist monks in front of Angkor Wat, Cambodia
66
Figure 2.4
69
Figure 3.1
Walking Buddha, from Sukhothai Tree of life, Coromandel Coast, India
Figure 3.2
Ceramic
Figure 3.3
Fi丘eenth-century bowl from northern Thailand
Fi思ire 3.4
Examination
Fi思ire 4.1
A Topass man
Fi思ire 4.2
Vigan Cathedral, Philippines
144
Figure 4.3
Chinese in seventeenth-century Banten
148
Figure 4.4
Women and the market in Melaka
154
Fi凯ire 4.5
Sultan Trenggana and J aka Tingkir
157
Figure 4.6
The Reclining Buddha (Pegu)
168
Figure 5.1
VOC seapower: attack on Makassar, June
Figure 5.2
An
Figure 5.3
Sama Bajau
Figure 5.4
Wat Chaiwatthanaram, Ayutthaya
Figure 6.1
Japanese print of an eighteenth-century
Figure 6.2
A Manipuri
Figure 6.3
Bahnar tomb house
278
Figure 7.1
Ilanun warrior
282
Fi思ire 7.2
Ronggeng dancer
347
Figure
354
1.1
ship cloth from South Sumatra
jar,
fi丘eenth-century
stele
121
125
from Dai Viet
and
136
his wife
185
1660
211
ancestor from eastern Indonesia
212
voe
236 265
297
“The attack of the stockades at
Figure 7.4
“View of the city of Bangkok" “View of the
223 ship
(Cassay) horseman
Figure 7.3
Figure 7.5
88
96
Vietnam
Thu Bon
Pagoda Point on the Rangoon
(Faifo) River south of
River"
318 322
Da Nang
,,
327
IX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
MAPS 1
Southeast Asia and
its
neighbors
3
Antecedents of early modern
societies,
c.
4 Zones in early modern Southeast Asia 5
Early
modern Southeast
Asia,
1400-1511
6 Acceleration of change, 1511-1600 7 Southeast Asia,
l
600- l 830s
12
Undertaking such a major and complex task as writing the history of an entire region was only possible because of the unstinting and generous assistance of so many friends and
42
colleagues.
83
would
82
questions and requests
xiv
2 Southeast Asia and the geographic environment
900一1400
With
a sincere apology to
anyone
whom we
acknowledge the following individuals
like to
for help,
and
have inadvertently omitted,
who
we
generously responded to our
assisted in locating pictures
and supplying
infor-
Stephen Acabado, Jaap Anten, Michael Aung-
130
mation
182
Thwin, Bryce Beemer, Anne Blackburn, Peter Borschberg, Francine Brinkgreve, Michael
for captions: Patricio Abinales,
Charney, Steven Collins, Helen Creese, George Dutton, Caroline Hau,
Thomas Hudak,
Michael Feener, Volker Grabowsky, Hans H注gerdal, Ken Hall, Liam Kelley, Mar斗ke Klokke,
Keng
We
Koh, Michael Laffan, Sun Laichun, Christian Lammerts, Paul
Victor Lieberman, Li Tana, John Miksic, Linda Newson, Lance Nolde, Liesbeth
Laηr,
Ouwe-
hand, Victor Paz, Maurizio Peleggi, Rohayati Paseng, Anthony Reid, Merle Ricklefs, Jan
Henk
Bronwen Solyom, Miriam Stark, David Stuart-Fox, Akiko Sugiyama, Heather Sutherland, Saw Tun, Paul Tacon, Michele Thompson, James Warren, Graham Watson, and Kathryn Wellen. Our special thanks go to Ken Breazeale, Raquel Reyes, Bruce Lockhart (twice), and to two anon严nous
van Rosmalen, Marie-Odette
readers,
Scalliet,
Schulte Nordholt,
read earlier drafts of the manuscript and offered valuable criticisms and
who
suggestions for improvement.
The
errors
and oversights出at remain
are of course our
responsib山ty.
We would also like to express our gratitude to the following institutions for providing facilities
and
financial support to complete the writing of this history: National University
of Singapore (NUS), Asia Research Institute at
NUS,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, the Royal
Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies (KITLV), and our institution, the University of
Hawai'i
at
home
Manoa.
At Cambridge University Press Marigold Acland was an enthusiastic supporter of the and following her retirement Lucy Rhymer has sustained this interest
original conception,
and together with Claire
Wood has
offered constructive advice.
XI
NOTE ON SPELLING AND MEASUREMENTS
ABBREVIATIONS
We
AH
Anno
BCE BEFEO
Before the
Bulletin d主cole Franraise d'Extreme Orient
BKI
Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde
CE
Common Era
have tried to maintain consistency in spelling place names and individuals, since
variation can o丘en be confusing to students. readily recognizable
To accommodate recent names, we have used transcriptions that are commonly
and acceptable
changes in the spelling of place used in the secondary
literature
We have used the form we believe is most
and
to the majority of scholars.
at first
mention included the indigenous equivalent in mention. Unless otherwise noted, for
H斗rah,
Muslim lunar calendar
that
began
in
622
CE
Common Era
Company
EiC
English East India
dates we have used Before the Common Era (BCE) and the Common Era (CE), instead of BC and AD. American weights and measures have been used with metric equivalents in
JMBRAS
Journal of the Malayan (Malaysian) Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
JSEAS
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies
brackets.
JSS
Journal of the Siam Society
brackets. Foreign
words are
italicized
only
at first
KITLV
now the
Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde,
Royal
Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies
MB RAS
Malayan (Malaysian) Branch of the Royal
MEP
Missions Etrangeres de Paris (French Foreign Missions)
voc
(Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie) Dutch East India
Asiatic Society
Company
XIII
Introduction: conceptualizing an early modern history of Southeast Asia
乡 ,,
、/
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寸 二二, 0、
HADHRAMAUT
{
C工〉
IND/AN
也
OCEAN
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,
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Map
1:
Modem
Southeast Asia and
its
neighbors
Land over I
1000阳l0
500 250
1
500
000
1500
750
2000 km
1000 miles
AUSTRALIA
A HISTORY OF EARLY如1.0DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
2
INTRODUCTION China had maintained an
Southeast Asia as a region
and
interactive relationship for centuries, despite linguistic, religious
cultural differences. Indeed, in 1959 the
introduced his short history of Southeast Asia It
now
is
nearly seventy years since “Southeast Asia"
geographic area worthy of academic study. During
ongoing debate about the extent to which the
much
modern
was
(Myanmar [Burma],
of the
new
began
to speak of“Southeast Asia,'’while the strategic interests of the region’s
states
encouraged greater collaboration, notably through the Association of Southeast
states of Southeast
Asia comprise a
and most recently East Timor [Timor Leste/
many
Timor
Lorosae]). This contemporary configuration, however, has taken
evolve,
and the occasional nineteenth-century mention of “Southeast Asia" even included
“Hindustan" and China. Although the term appeared
World War
rather arbitrary
the identification of “southeast”Asia
as a theater of Allied military action incorporated places
Asia, such as Sri
still
now
considered part of South
Lanka and the Maldives, while excluding the Philippines and
until
1945 even the Indonesian archipelago east of Sumatra.
By出e
1950s,
was therefore was
when
little
field,
there
agreement about regional boundaries. Some authorities argued that
it
“Monsoon Asia" encompassing not only the
countries of Southeast Asia, but southern China, eastern India area,出ey said, displayed significant ethnic cultural features that arose as local societies
and
all
made up
ten nations that officially
the eleventh
member
(following
and
Sri
Lanka. This entire
lin伊istic similarities as well as
shared
responded to the seasonal changes in
rainfall
its
new nation-
ASEAN had expanded to incorporate
the region, and
Timor
Leste's application to
independence from Indonesia in 2002)
is
become
currently
under review. If
anything, this long-standing historical debate on what constitutes “Southeast Asia"
has highlighted the
difficulties
of writing a regional history. In the
borders by which Southeast Asia islands of the Pacific colonialists
frequently imposed an
by
ties
Ocean
is
differentiated
are of relatively recent origin.
place, the national
India,
and the
Determined by European
artificial
division between communities that have long been linked
of family, history, and culture. As this study will show, the contemporary political if
applied retroactively to the early
boundaries of modern nation-states did not mobile, and
when
exist,
when
modern
period,
is
when
the
populations could be highly
ethnic identities were fluid and evolving. Second, even
concept of “Southeast Asia"
when
the
accepted in principle, generalizations are di伍cult because
differing religious beliefs, political systems,
the linguistic and ethnic diversity that
To
first
from China, Bangladesh,
through Western-style agreements or by diplomatic collusion, these borders
landscape can be misleading
Southeast Asian studies was developing as an academic
better to think in terms of a larger
Indonesian state - as a regional hallmark.2 In the early 1960s even Coedes
Asian Nations (ASEAN), founded in 1967. By 1999
years to
more frequently during the first half
of the twentieth century, there was no effort to standardize what were
geographic borders. During the Second
motto
of this time there has been an
Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos) and “island" ( the Philip-
pines, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia
diversity”一the
conceptualized as a
first
coherent region or are simply located in a residual area between China and India. Today Southeast Asia as it is generally defined includes eleven countries, categorized as“main- land"
Vietnamese scholar Le Thanh Khoi had
by invoking “unity in
is
a considerable degree this diversity
and
historical experiences further complicate
said to be the defining feature of the region.
was
a response to differences in the geographic
and temperature associated with the cycle of the monsoon winds. Other scholars, favoring different criteria, proposed their own regional boundaries. In 1944 George Coedes,
environment. Though virtually the entire region
regarded as the doyen of early Southeast Asian studies, wrote a history of the region
by highlands dissected by
before the fi丘eenth century without attempting to delineate
characterized by extensive plains areas through which flow long river systems, creating
Rather, he identified commonalities
Far East,”where
elite
among what he termed
cultures were shaped
by contact with
its
“the
physical boundaries.
Hinduized
India. In the
states of the
mainland
this
focus thus excluded northern Vietnam, which Coedes viewed as Sinicized, while the Philippines and the eastern Indonesian archipelago were considered too distant to have
been affected by Hindu
Ten
years later D. G. E. Hall’s pioneering History of South- East Asia, which stretched from early times to the twentieth century, included Vietnam and all of Indonesia but also omitted the Philippines, which he deemed to lie飞utside the
main stream of
ideas.
historical developments."1
However, in reversing
edition of 1964 recognized the long-standing maritime links its
1
this view, his
second
between the Philippines and neighbors and provided further evidence that the countries lying between India and
D. G. E. Hall,
A History of South-East Asia (London:
Macmillan, 1955),
Southeast Asia
within the tropics,“mainland"
river valleys, the
lowlands of mainland Southeast Asia are
conditions that are highly suited to the cultivation of rice through irrigation. This higher- yielding“wet-rice" agriculture encouraged the demographic growth that enabled lowland polities to
extend their
political
and
consists of thousands of islands, for irrigation
Though
and
more accessible and less named “island" Southeast Asia
cultural au出ority into
populated upland areas. By contrast, the appropriately
some minuscule, some ve巧extensive, but
areas suitable
agricultural expansion are limited, with the notable exception of Java.
the seas are important highways of communication,
areas are seasonally isolated
by rough
seas
some
islands
and adverse winds and ocean
and
Le Thanh Khoi,
L’histoire
coastal
currents. Efforts
to extend control over territ。可and populations thus faced significant obstacles.
2
3.
is
lies
an extension of the Asian continent. Bordered to the north and northeast
de l'Asie de Sud-Est (Paris: Universi可Press of France, 1959), 8
3
4
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
INTRODUCTION
These physical variations were compounded by historical experiences and the influence of different belief systems. While the form of Buddhism now termed "Theravada" became
dominant on most of the mainland, Vietnam was the exception, being more influenced by the religious and intellectual traditions of China, including those associated with Confu-
Mahayana Buddhism.
cian teachings, Daoist ideas, and
major
In the island areas, however, the
were Islam and Christianity ( the
religious streams
fai出in the Philippines, East Timor, Bali retaining a localized
becoming the majority
latter
and parts of the eastern Indonesian archipelago), with
form of Hinduism. From the early sixteenth century to the early
nineteenth century the extent of European influence in island Southeast Asia also repre- sents a
marked
contrast with
relatively
its
In responding to these issues,
we
low
and economic developments.
continue to surface, whether
we
on the mainland.
to diverging histories,
On
the Southeast Asian land and seascapes limited the growth of large empires, allowing for
the proliferation of numerous small and largely independent polities. The仕ag且ity oflife in a tropical environment
and generally low populations meant a high value was placed on
human
men and women. Combined
resources, both
most notably
with socio-cultural traditions and
economic patterns that encouraged male-female complementarity, the
relative
autonomy
of women helped lessen the gap in gender status. Finally, while the unique flora and fauna
found
in Southeast Asia’s seas
and
forests
were a magnet to international
traders, the
athwart the busiest maritime east-west trade routes enabled local
region’s location
become active and dynamic that可pi命the early modern world. inhabitants to
recognize that basic differences between mainland
and island Southeast Asia have contributed to political
profile
of incoming religious teachings, notably Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity. The nature of
participants in the increasing connectivities
in regard
the other hand, regional connectivities
are speaking of language links
between central Vietnam
The
“early
modern" period
and northern Sumatra, trading relationships between southern Myanmar and the Malay world, or the activities of Makassarese mercenaries in Siam. Even that outsiders have long seen regional similarities especially
when compared with
Although the
political
non-existent until
modern
ent.
northern Thailand, and
the
among
now
is
the fact
Southeast Asian societies,
demarcate Southeast Asia were largely
times, the highlands reaching
India and China. Nevertheless,
striking
Arab world, China, and the Hindu Indian subcontin-
boundaries that
Myanmar
more
from Vietnam across Laos,
did act as a buffer against control from centers in
mountain paths and
river systems facilitated migration
The
division of
human
experience into a chronological sequence as a tool for organizing
information and interpretations about the past has been a particular feature of Western historiography, but the use of the term “early is
a twentieth-century
phenomenon.
Its first
modern"
to characterize a period of history
application in 1926
by a historian of Europe
represented an effort to bridge the long time gap in European history between the
Renaissance and the Modern. Although European historians this
new
periodization,
it
initially
found
little
use for
was more readily accepted by Americans, possibly because the
from southwest China into upland Southeast Asia. Connected by overland trade routes, the communities in these border areas were part of a shared cultural world that resisted
year 1970, which saw the publication of Eugene
incorporation into larger political entities. For the island world, the seas created border-
Europe, 1460-1559 and the launch of the Cambridge Studies of Ear抄Modern History,
zones of a somewhat different kind. In the distant past the Pacific was peopled by groups moving out from island Southeast Asia, but the preva过ing wind system and
can thus be said to mark the formal inauguration of “early modern" as a historical period.
like
extensive stretches of open sea
routes that
century or
made
societies
Foundations of
Rice’s
regional similarities that outsiders observed were the result of several factors,
dates, the period
is
generally perceived as beginning around the mid-fifteenth century
ending in a transitional phase
from 1780
to
“modern" history. influenced historiography in other world areas, and the
and
growing trend to adopt a similar periodization. Accordingly,
and extensive
and mountain products. In turn, deep respect for
was
hill
on rice-growing and
fishing, while the
areas provided a livelihood for collectors of forest
dependency on the natural environment fostered a the forces of nature and the protective influences of the ancestors, which this
reflected in indigenous cosmologies
and was incorporated into
local understandings
and
around 1830 that marks the move into
foremost of which was the geographic environment. Despite differences in mainland- island topography, Southeast Asia’s tropical climate and widespread access to rivers, lakes, vast forested lands
h均Modern
deeply entrenched in European historiography, and although not bounded by precise
earlier,
seas helped shape lifestyles that relied heavily
The
from the eighteenth
To
but sustained interaction between Southeast Asia and Oceania did not extend beyond the eastern Indonesian archipelago and the coasts of western New Guinea.
The
1500-c. 1800 - coincided with the early history of the United States.
the
with their Pacific cousins.
regular voyages to northern Australia
c.
The newly designated timeframe was then intended only for European and American studies, and even among European scholars was regarded merely as a transition丘om the medieval to the modern period. Since that time, however,“early modern" has become
impeded the creation and maintenance of regular maritime
would have linked Southeast Asian
south, Indonesian ships
time frame -
The general acceptance of an“early modern" period
substitute “early
Tokugawa
Europe and America has
last fi丘y
years have witnessed a
it
is
not
uncommon
to
modern"
for
modern China" for Ming and early Qing China,“early modern India" for the Mughal period. 0丘en such
Japan, or even "early
have been applied without serious reflection about the “early
in
modern"
features identified in
term’s applicab且ity or
European history are relevant
labels
whether
to other contexts.
It is
5
A HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400一1830
INTRODUCTION
therefore pleasing to note that recent years have seen the emergence of
scholarship which addresses questions such as the
the concept "early modern,'’whether such a period can be identified features
in
different
regions,
and the degree
more thoughtful
meaning of modernity, the to
rulers.
validity of
by addressing
specific
world
hist。可.
which there are shared global
government and
in these exchanges are scholars of
They have been
characteristics that can
at the forefront
world systems and the growing
of proposing and debating
spiritual
pushed scholars
field of
a“golden
modern"
on the manner and the extent
to
world historians there
is
a general consensus that
after the
which the changes thus
from the
factor in linking
all
The
parts of the globe.
early
modern period
is
Second World War, and the periodization they developed has exercised is
presented. The可pical textbook
a far-
came to
political
and
model or“charter"
territorial
for their successors; a "precolonial" period,
characterized by the crystallization of many polities into fewer and larger units (fifteenth-
consequently distin-
early nineteenth centuries); the colonial period (mid-nineteenth-mid-twentieth centur-
of goods and people. In contrast to the global networks that began to
develop in the nineteenth centu町,early
generation of regional historians of Southeast Asia
critical
expanding communications and trade patterns. At the same time, international commerce remained polycentric, with overlapping but distinct economic regions connected through
movement
first
the great“classical”states (roughly seventh-early且丘eenth centuries), seen as providing a
guished by an unprecedented increase in cross-cultural encounters that resulted from
the
age,'’from
be conceptualized in terms of a cultural, geographic, and “prehistory" section, followed by
late fourteenth
century the growth of long-distance trade, especially via sea passages, became a
beneficial
advancement. However, they were st山inclined to look back to which time a steady downward trend had made local societies
reaching influence on the ways the region’s past
introduced have transformed the mental attitudes (mentalite) of different societies.
Among
tutelage.
local but
civilizing
Similar views were held by the
attention to
developments. Social science interest in the public sphere has also
to reflect
and economic development under European
The attainment of independence would mean not only political freedom and economic progress, but a cultural confidence based on a renewed awareness of past achievements.
and technological
more
period represented merely a transition between past glories and the
vulnerable to European imperialism.
A useful distinction, for instance, has been
the interlinked ideas of “modernization”一the material
transformations of culture contact - and “modernity,”which gives
and
“early
be globally applicable, and in discussing the terminology best
suited to the changes so evident in this period.
made between intellectual
best, this
During the early decades of the twentieth century an emerging cohort of Western-educated historians rejected the idea that colonialism had introduced
characteristics.
Prominent
At
reconstitution of good government
modern commerce did not constitute a compre- demands opened up new pathways
and the era of independent nation-states (mid-twentieth centu巧to the
ies);
Wh过e
it
is
still
present).
possible to use "pre-colonial" to describe the entire period before a
country’s colonization,
contemporary historians of Southeast Asia generally avoid apply- lies between the “classical”and “colonial" because this
ing this term to the period that
undue emphasis on European dominance in the nineteenth centu巧. The search an acceptable way of categorizing the centuries that roughly correspond to the European“early modern" period helps explain the acceptance of the same term in places
hensive world system.3 Nonetheless, global economic
for
for the transmission of goods and ideas (technological and philosophical), flora, fauna, and pathogens. Across the world the same demands encouraged sh的s in resource use,
Southeast Asian historiography. This acceptance has been encouraged because the increas-
readjustments in social hierarchy, and increasing mob过ity of populations, both forced and voluntary. Although the impact of these developments was most pronounced at the major
nodes of global exchange, their ramifications touched an ever-increasing number of peoples and societies and thus drew
This discussion
undergone of五cials
is
them
into the ambit of “world history."
highly relevant to Southeast Asia because periodization here has
signi且cant changes. In the nineteenth century, for instance, colonial scholar-
saw only two
significant epochs: the indigenous classical civilizations
by great monuments such
as
Angkor
in
Cambodia and Borobodur
ing availab山ty of sources from the late fourteenth century enables us to track historical
developments in Southeast Asia in a way出at
in Java),
and
their
can discuss the changes and continuities出at have provided a framework for global
approaches to
As Asia
this period.
world regions, the adoption of “early modern" by historians of Southeast a relatively recent development. The term appeared first in 1993 in the title of a
in other
is
enlightened administrations of the colonial states, together with the independ- ent but st过l progressive Siam. From this viewpoint, the intervening centuries seemed be
volume edited by Anthony Reid, Southeast Asia
characterized by constant wars, dynastic upheaval, and interpolity squabbling, with a 仕agmented historical narrative punctuated by the occasional emergence
though
to
of powerful
3
Charles H. Parker, Global Interactions in the Early Press, 2010), 69, 106.
Modern
Age, 1400-1800 (Cambridge University
not possible for earlier periods. The
unequal distribution of material st山means that some areas and some topics are better documented than others. Nonetheless, to a far greater extent than in previous 出口es we
(symbolized
“heirs,”the
is
tion,
its
“boundaries or
second volume of
4
in the
Early Modern Era. In the introduc-
Reid argues that the early modern period marked a watershed for Southeast Asia,
Anthony
Reid’s
dominant features”remained
blurred.4 That
same year出e
Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680 appeared,
Reid, ed., Southeast Asia in the University Press, 1993).
Ear抄Modern
Era: Trade, Power,
and
Belief (Ithaca: Cornell
8
INTRODUCTION
A HISTORY OF EARLY岛1.0DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 clearly defining a specific time
early this
modern
period.
The
frame for an“age of commerce”that formed part of an
explicit focus
on commerce
is
crucial to his contention that in
period the inclusion of Southeast Asian trade into the global economic network
produced“transformations in urbanism, commercial organization, religious systems and values,
and
state structures."5 In
1999 Victor Lieberman embarked on a major project to
It is
background that we accepted the challenge of writing
against this historiographical
a history of Southeast Asia in the early
modern
fifteenth to the early nineteenth century.
the global
and
era,
Because Southeast Asians were active players in
phenomenon of expanding commerce,
casualties of the changes that可pi命the period.
identi马r what constituted“early moder旷in terms of world history. He identified common- alities across“Eurasia”(including Vietnam, Thailand, and Java) and Europe between the
Asia, but the region also displays a character of
fourteenth/凶eenth centuries and about 1800 that he regarded as sufficient reason to justi命
arbitrated
the use of“early a
modern" to define a specific historical period.6 This research culminated in
monumental two-volume work of impressive
Parallels.7
Here Lieberman refined
his
scholarship, appropriately entitled Strange
arguments
to depict a coherent period extending
between about 1450 and 1850 in which Southeast Asia’s major polities displayed patterns of territorial consolidation, administrative centralization,
and
cultural integration that could
In the
meantime
there has been a steady stream of publications
offer detailed explanations
and interpretations of demographic
by other scholars shifts,
that
environmental
change, religious interactions, and gender relationships as they occurred in local areas implicated in global developments. This growing corpus of material has to propose certain features that characterize
expansion of international commerce and maritime
new
possible
traffic,
most commonly
cite the
a rise in population, a
more
technologies, the growth of regional centers,
the rise of urban commercial classes, religious revival,
more pronounced incidence of peasant
it
an early modern period in Southeast Asia in a
global context. In distinguishing this period, world historians
intensified use of land, the di旺usion of
made
unrest.
and missionary movements, and
of these features certainly varies in different cultural contexts, there can be that the expansion of international exchanges
a
Although the applicab让ity and impact little
doubt
and the transformations they generated
local societies
As
this
were both beneficiaries
book will show, many features
associated with early modernity in other parts of the world can be tracked in Southeast its own. The idea that modernity is not by particular cultures or nations and that its manifestations will differ according
to particular locations,
scholars
be they
spatial or temporal,
working on non-Western
opens up intriguing questions for
societies. Historical
evidence suggests that Southeast
Asian societies were remarkably accepting of new ideas and that the desire to be
“up-to-
date" appears to have been culturally and historically characteristic from early times. The means by which “modernity" was displayed could differ over time and between cultures,
and were typically eclectic.
be usefully compared with those of Japan, Russia, France, China, and South Asia.
which we have dated from the early
A Vietnamese ruler who saw the imperial court in China as the
apogee of culture could also look to European traders to supply the technology; by the same token, a Malay ideas
requested
German
beyond
lay
Muslim king might
from newly arrived Arab teachers even
as
latest military
eagerly listen to reformist
he sported a Dutch-style jacket and
porcelain ornaments for his children. In other words, the world that
familiar environments did
not鸣ni命threats or danger but o旺ered novel
opportunities and the possibility of widening social interactions.
A
legion of Southeast
Asian myths in which a beautiful princess, symbolic of the country, takes as her husband a foreign prince, reveals a deep-seated
and recurring desire to create and strengthen
cultural links. In a similar vein, legends
trans-
from all over the region describe cultural heroes who
knowledge and return loaded with honors to gain the hand of the community’s most beautiful woman, herself imbued with unusual qualities. travel to distant lands in search of
These
stories provide useful
metaphors by which
managed connections with
to consider the
ways in which
While new ideas
brought the world together in ways never before experienced. Significantly, no one area
Southeast Asian societies
dominated these developments, but by the early nineteenth century fundamental changes
and technologies were usually welcomed, a remarkable capacity to localize incoming influences meant that the ancestral past st山retained its authority and its relevance to
in
Europe and America - the centralization of nation-states, increasing
industrialization,
advances in science and military technology, developing theories about human hierarchies - meant that an earlier multi-centered world gradually became one in which
human action.
West occupied a hegemonic position. The contrast with the previous mark the divide between “early modern" and “modern" history.
ous agency and self-confidence.
the
centuries helps
Because of this cultural
a wider world.
ability to adapt, a句ust,
and
integrate, the history of
modern period can be written largely in terms of indigen- From the late eighteen由centu巧,however, traditional strategies of selective innovation became increasingly more difficult as the global connec- tions to which Southeast Asia had been so open hastened the pace of change. In numerous Southeast Asia during the early
cumulative effects of social and economic inequities and greater state demands posed a heavy burden for ordinary people, but it was in relations with Europeans societies the
5
Anthony
Reid, Southeast Asia in the
Haven: Yale University 6
7
Age of Commerce 1450一168αvol.
II:
Expansion and
Crisis
(New
Press, 1993), 2.
Victor Lieberman,“Introduction,”in Victor Lieberman, ed. Beyond Binary Histories: Imagining Eurasia to c. 1830 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999), 14. Victor Lieberman, Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800-183αVol. I. Integration on the Mainland (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003) and Vol. II, Mainland Mirrors: Europe, Japan, China, South Asia, and the Islands (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
that cross-cultural tensions were like several other
world
areas,
most painfully manifested. By the 1830s Southeast
was faced by the
relentless
Asia,
and uncompromising pressures
of European-dominated global imperialism and the tightening restraints由at brought the early
modern period
to
an end.
9
10
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400一1830
INTRODUCTIO by noteworthy developments that we believe to be regionally
Framing a history of early modern Southeast Asia Bearing these issues in mind, our History of Early
provide signposts to the reader,
Modern Southeast Asia
by a short description of the focuses
on the
varied nature of Southeast Asian experiences as local societies were caught up in the
complex forces of change associated with the early modern world. Throughout the book we emphasize three major and interwoven themes: first, the various ways in which Southeast
evolved in relation to their specific environments;
Asia’s diverse societies
second, the nature of the far-reaching economic, political, and cultural changes that characterize the early
modern
period;
and
third, the
dynamics of
which Southeast Asians responded to such changes by
selecting
“localization"
through
and adapting incoming
influences.
We have organized the material in a way that we feel reflects significant connectivities in Southeast Asia during the early
modern
period, particularly the growing links with the
outside world. In approaching “Southeast Asia" as a region, in
we remain aware
of the ways
which geographic and environmental influences have contributed to differing historical and relationships, and especially to the distinction between “island”and
trajectories
“mainland." This distinction
is
accentuated by the nature of contemporary sources.
On
European and indigenous material tends to focus on of which became the core of modern nation-states. These centers
the mainland, for instance, both political centers, several
and the founder-figures viewed
as
privileged position in later histories.
fundamental to the national story thus gained a
By
contrast, sources
disparate. Despite the wealth of detail available for
interaction between different可pes of polities
from the island world are more
some places, notably Java,
and communities
is
not easily connected to
the evolution of present-day nations. Conscious of these di旺erences
graphic problems they present,
we have
the complex
and the
historio-
nonetheless worked to construct a history that
developments across the entire region. Accordingly, while recognizing the impo口ance of major centers of power, we also draw attention to developments in gives attention to
lesser-known
localities
and
to the peoples
who were
distanced from mainstream cultures.
Though most of
these societies left no written accounts of their own past, they were nonetheless integrally involved in the changing cultural, economic, and political patterns that characterize this period.
We believe that this
generalizations, usually based
on better-documented areas, can obscure the
make
attention
is
the study of Southeast Asia so fascinating. Ultimately
coherent narrative that
is
faithful to local
necessa町because regional
we have
diversities that
tried to provide a
concerns while relating these events to larger
regional and international circumstances.
Chapters 1 and 2 are intended to provide a general background and a context for understanding the historical environment in which early modern Southeast Asia developed.
The following
five chapters are
based on the centuries of the
organized chronologically.
Though roughly
Common Era, the beginning and end points are demarcated
during that particular time.
we begin with
significant. In
order to
a brief overview of the chapter, followed
specific global circumstances that affected Southeast Asia
We then turn to discuss the general features that may continue
through the entire period but are particularly evident during the timeframe covered by the chapter.
The body of each chapter connects
detailed historical narrative
areas connected
Southeast Asia
these regional generalizations to a
by approaching Southeast Asia
by longstanding economic and
is
in terms
cultural interaction.
of “zones”-
The
more
extended
history of island
thus discussed in relation to four zones - the Western Archipelago, the
Central Archipelago, the Northern Archipelago, and the Eastern Archipelago - while the
mainland
is
divided into the Western Mainland, the Central Mainland, and the Eastern
Mainland. This form of organization should enable students and teachers to focus on any particular zone
and read
a
connected account from the beginning to the end of the early
modern period. We also feel that this strategy will help give a more comprehensive and thus more accurate depiction of the diverse historical developments of the region. Maps of and the illustrations are intended to support more extended definitions of unfamiliar terms, with
the various zones
the text, while a glossary
provides
a final section providing
suggestions for further reading. In the conclusion “early
modern period"
distinctive feature
a global system of reflects
we have brought
is
together the themes that
as a specific
economic and cross-cultural exchange. The
not merely Southeast
but also attests local willingness to
and
their regional implications.
this
facilitate
field
now sees
as“early
modern."
vitality of this interaction
many products found nowhere
such exchanges. The story of early
it
will contribute
not merely to Southeast
of world history, and that
greater appreciation of the region’s global
consensus
into
book is thus a record of transcultural encounters
We hope that
Asian studies but to the burgeoning
became integrated
geographical location at the crossroads of
Asia’s singular
modern Southeast Asia presented in
distinguish the
time-span in Southeast Asia history. The most
the degree to which Southeast Asian societies
Asian trade and the physical environment that yielded so else,
we believe
engagement
it
w山encourage a
in a period that a scholarly
11
Southeast Asia and the geographic
environment 理
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14
6
MODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…830
A RISTO盯OF EARLY
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT jack-仕uit,
ments, for
In?!eogra
way
has been fundamental in shaping the
it
evolved. Environmental influences
and economic adaptation contributed
regional history has
on patterns of human settlement, and
to the variation in cultures
lifestyles,
ethnicities that
or customs like chewing a betel quid (a mild stimulant, combining the
leaf of the betel vine, the
nut of the areca palm and lime). Early travel accounts
convey something of
typically tried to
by emphasiz-
this difference to their readership
ing and often exaggerating the exotic sights they witnessed themselves or that others
A
helped distinguish Southeast Asia in the eyes of early travelers. Although distanced from
had described.
powerful centers in China and India, the
Battuta (1304-68?) that even ordinary Javanese had access to elephants, which were
region’s
unique location between these two great
neighbors encouraged a continuing extension of economic and cultural connections that
became
increasingly important as global
commerce expanded. Equipped with an
acute
in fact
as beasts of
rides
commercial opportunities by tapping the biodiversity of the
plausible. In
and
seas that sur-
rounded them in exchange for prestige items from overseas. Local societies made use of a web of land and sea routes by which imported and locally produced goods circulated within Southeast Asia
itself.
This heritage of cooperation and resourcefulness suppo口ed
the far-reaching trade networks that were to affirm the region’s global significance in the early
modern
period.
As
this
limited the expansion of
chapter will show, the geography of Southeast Asia also
more
centralized polities (a term referring to an organized
settlement of varying size and complexity) while encouraging the cultural and ethnic diversity出at
is
seen as a regional hallmark.
it
reports
misinformation
is
the claim by the
Moroccan Ibn
normally associated with royalty:“[The Javanese] ride them and use them
knowledge of their own environment, Southeast Asians were able to take advantage of new forests
clear case of
burden
.
.
.
Eve巧one
home and
to go
who
has a shop
to carry goods."1
ties
up
his elephant beside
and
Other accounts, however, are more
remarking on the independence of local women, for instance, Chinese
often contrasted
Southeast Asian practices with the
more
hierarchical
gender relations promoted in China. While these commentaries are frequently the translator
Ma Huan
(c.
1380-1460),
He (1371-1433)
to the Southern
approving:“It
their
affairs are
it
is
managed by
custom
who accompanied
Ocean
[in
their wives;
Xian,
the Chinese admiral
in the early fifteenth century, i.e.
critical,
Zheng
was quite
the Thai polity of Ayutthaya] that
both the king of the country and the
all
common
they have matters which require thought and deliberation - punishments light and heavy, all trading transactions great and small - they all follow the people,
if
decisions of their wives, [for] the mental capacity of the wives certainly exceeds that
of the men."2
等Geog呐创出e distinct1
Noting that women and men were rarely distinguished in terms of dress and were o丘en bare『chested, early Chinese observers also
Scholars
who have
tried to relate the “Southeast Asia"
descriptions furnished
encountered major
by
early travelers
difficulties.
from China,
shown on modern maps
to
India, Arabia, or Persia have
Place-names are hard to veri命,material was o丘en copied
from other authors, and claims of personal experience cannot be confirmed.
On the other
hand, historians have argued that Southeast Asia had long assumed a separate
if
vaguely
defined identity in the eyes of outsiders. In referring to this region, early Indian sources like the epic
Ramayana
(the story of
Rama) and
the Jatakas, tales of the Buddha’s former
commented on
Asia’s
high
rainfall,
high humidity, and high temperatures are unusually uniform for an
area that covers a land
square kilometers).
and sea area of over
the
Yunnan
plateau, pop吐ated
by many
different ethnic groups
more
frequently to denote the
Muslim
areas
Some Arab, Persian, and Turkish writers, aware that their own seaborne journeys beyond India were determined by the annual monsoon cycle, adopted variants of the phrase “below the winds" which Malays o丘en used when referring of Southeast Asia as well as Java
to
itself.
maritime Southeast Asia.
was perceived as“different,”whether
(o丘en simply a sarong tied
around the
in terms of
taxed. Di伍culties in maintaining control
a Vietnamese military victory
waist), unfamiliar
dressed
food such as sago or
lived outside the
to invade
meant
and
that their resources were severely
encouraged an eventual withdrawal following
and the defeat of a Chinese
fleet.
In the words of one
emperor,“The government of our present d严1asty, out of affection for the
we know
how people
out丘om
hold the land they called 叮iaozhi" (modern northern Vietnam) for a thousand years
1
In combination, these sources thus convey an impression that the region as Southeast Asia
who
mainland Southeast Asia. Although the Chinese were able
(111 BCE-c. 900 CE), geographical distance
thirteenth century the term 吁awa" occurs
also played a role
radiating
control of any powerful center, helped to separate China proper from the northern
Southern Ocean. Toponyms in Arab writings are
from the
square miles ( thirteen million
Combined with climatic similarity, topography The great sweep of mountains and hills
frontiers of
difficult to identi马几but
five million
in setting the region apart.
speak of voyages to Suvarnabhumi, the Land of Gold; and in the seventh century a Chinese account mentions ?N anhai,”an inclusive term referring to the countries of the
lives,
the tropical climate as a
distinguishing feature of the countries around the Southern Ocean. Indeed, Southeast
2
army and
for
H. A. R. Gibb, trans. The Travels of Ibn Battuta A.D. 1325-1354. Translated wi由revisions and notes from the Arabic text edited by C. Defremery and B. R. San思丘ne忧i, with annotations by C. F. Beckingham. Vol. IV (London: The Ha挝uyt Society, 1994), 883. Ma Huan,ηng-yai Sheng-Zan.“The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores”[1433), J. V. G. M山s, trans.
and
ed.
(Cambridge University Press
for the
Hakluyt Society, 1970), 104.
A HISTORY OF EARLY岛'.lODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
16
the weal of poor humanity,
deemed
in this pestilential climate for the
The obstacles
that the terrain
it
advisable that our troops should
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONM no longer be kept
purpose of guarding such an unprofitable
because the timing of any sailing venture was determined by seasonal winds and ocean
territory."3
currents.
posed to outside invasion became more evident in the late
when the Mongols, having established the new Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) in China, attempted on three separate occasions to reassert and extend Chinese authority over the Vietnamese. Because their food and supply lines were strained their forces, suffering
from the heat and humidity, were decimated by
Mongol
by smaller Vietnamese
but
tropical fevers,
major
in the late thirteenth century
were
moved, but military access from centers of power in Bengal or the Indus-Gangetic plain would have been possible only by moving forces through Manipur, Assam, and Rakhine (Arakan). The hilly terrain, heavy monsoon rainfall, and the prevalence of malaria in this border zone was a further deterrent. A丘er into the Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) River Valley
the failure of a seventeenth-century campaign against Assam, a Mughal scribe, referring to "raging forests, frightful valleys and deadly forests" remarked that“in all the past ages no
To
made
exit
a considerable extent the
region against
3
its
...
Every army
outside, not only because of distance but
and W.W. Rockhill, trans. Chau Ju-Kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade Twe伊h and Thirteenth Centur邸,entitled Chu-fan-chi (St. Petersburg: Imperial Academy of
New York:
celebrating the dispatch of many ships, raids
on
several port towns,
sea. It
has also been suggested that Rajendra Chola instituted
rolled heavily
and the
2nd
rev.
edn. ( Calcutta
some
soldiers could not eat for
commander from
a severe lashing
and confiscation of a third of his property.
静也
程等 Environrn创al factors conducive to maritime connections Hostile seaborne invasions of Southeast Asia were rare,
and
for the
most part the oceans
operated as a highway for international commerce. Various archaeological finds, especially beads, supply evidence of trading connections
Ocean by
at least the fifth
century BCE. By the
ceramics discovered in several variety of artifacts
sites
from overseas
grate Southeast Asia into
from Southeast Asia across the Indian first
and second centuries CE, Chinese
point to expanded links with East Asia as well. The
testifies to
the maritime connections that helped inte-
Roman coins of Oc Eo on the Mekong
an international trade network. These even include
River Delta in southern Vietnam.
As we
will see in the following chapter, these
seaborne
were conduits for cultural and religious influences
as well, and images of the Buddha and Hindu gods dating to fourth- and fifth-century India, frequently facing the sea, have been found in caves and other sites located along coastal areas of Thailand, Cambodia,
links
the
Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra.
A
major reason
for these far-reaching connections
Paragon Reprint, 1966), 45
Ci毗nG.H. L盹“Th Cited in Edward Gait, A History of Assam, 1926), 147.
Though
unearthed in the entrepot (meaning a major exchange center)
surrounding seas also protected the Southeast Asian
unwelcome incursions from
Sciences, 1911; reprinted :
of this country
Friedrich Hirth in the
.
skirt
venture are unclear,
a labyrinth of
to the Chittagong Hills (in present- day Bangladesh), formed another natural impediment to the extension of control by Indian rulers. There were certainly well-traveled mountain paths along which traders
that entered
factor.
to save the
hand of conquest on the from the realm of life."5
an
perished in the Java expedition, and the treasure that was brought back was not su伍cient
subject to China."4
foreign king could lay the
in
many days."6 A丘er they landed in Java the commander became embroiled in local politics, and a丘er four months, deterred by the heat, he set sail for home. Three thousand men
From his perspective the whole enterprise was a disaster, since “we have not seen the gain of a foot of territory, or a single person added to those Myanmar,
this
thought that trading rivalry with the southeast Sumatran polity of Srivijaya was a
and the sea very rough, so that the ships
cost of the previous thirty years.
India and
campaign recorded
if so it was short-lived, especially as Tamil power waned in the twelfth century. Mongol efforts to mount a seaborne invasion of Java in 1292 were similarly frustrated. The fleet, car巧ing around five thousand men, did not follow the favored coastal route and therefore took several months to reach Java. According to reports, "The wind was strong
A memorial presented to the emperor by one mentioned Myanmar when he assessed the military
modern thickly wooded ranges extending from Yunnan down
in a
but
several
In the west, in the border region between
1024-5
The reasons behind
kind of direct rule over several areas in north Sumatra and the northern Malay Peninsula,
mounting a campaign during the hot season. official specifically
Straits area in
notes that places along the coasts of the Melaka Straits were“surrounded”and “protected"
towns in upper Myanmar. In 1287 they came within striking distance of Pagan (Bagan), Myanmar’s capital, but were deterred from pressing由is advantage by the loss of thousands of men and the difficulties of high-ranking Yuan
who attempted to
the capture of elephants and treasures, and the defeat of Srivijaya, the inscription also
equally unsuccessful. Apparently attracted by the possibility of reaching India, their forces
pushed through Yunnan and captured
it is
by the moat of the deep
Myanmar
Melaka
inscription in a southern Indian temple.
boats.
conquer northern
efforts to
seas could thus frustrate the ambitions of powerful rulers
instance, attacked the
Mongol armies were ineffective against Vietnamese tactics of ambush and strategic retreat. The final Mongol defeat came when a support fleet, lured upriver, was overtaken in a surprise attack
The
extend their authority into the region. The Tamil ruler Rajendra Chola (1012-44 CE), for
thirteenth century,
and
17
and Simla: Thacker, Spink and Co,
6
W. P. Groeneveldt, Historical Notes on Indonesia and Malaya Compiled from Chinese Sources (Jakarta: C. V. Bahratara, 1960. Reprint of 1880 article), 25-7. Cited in
18
'
A HISTORY
OF山…ODERN SOUTH…A队14…830
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT of the highly desired spices (cloves, nutmeg, and mace), and then towards the Melaka Straits.
A丘er these winds
weaken between August and October, the
more. As long as shipping depended on
movement
of
all
Southeast
Asia’s
sail,
maritime
the
cycle begins
monsoons determined
traffic (see
Map
once
the pattern of
2).
Equally important were the ocean currents, which follow the direction of the prevailing
monsoon and can add
the coasts of China at
1.5 to 2
knots to a
vessel’s
speed. Ships could leave
and Japan during the northeast monsoon and make
a timely landfall
various points such as the coast of central Vietnam, the Gulf of Siam, north coast
Java, or the
Melaka
would embark on
Straits.
their
Meanwhile, ships originating
homeward voyage
across the
in India
Bay of Bengal.
and further west
When
the south-
west winds were in force, the reverse pattern would apply. Since winds and water Fi♂ue
and the also
Monsoon winds. The northeast monsoon was dominant between January-April southwest monsoon丘om July-November. The circulation oflocal land and sea breezes
1.1.
determined the pattern of sailing within the region.
circulation helped determine the pattern of early maritime voyaging, seaborne travel to
and from the region was
timed to coincide with the onset of the monsoons. In Arab writer could thus speak of "the season of travel to
carefully
the early thirteenth century an
Jawa,”while the arrival of the northeast to leave for the
was Southeast that reached
Asia’s
position at the center of a“single ocean" linked by a
from the coasts of eastern Africa and western Asia
wind system
to the Indian subcontinent
and China.
The
favorable location of Southeast Asia between the great markets of the early world
Nanyang
monsoon was
the signal for Chinese shipping
(“Southern Ocean,”i.e. Southeast Asian) destinations.
Venetian Marco Polo (1254一1324), succinctly.“In that sea there are but
who
traveled to
China
two winds that blow, the one that
ant from the tenth century,
went overland across the steppes of Central
and the Southern Song dynasty (1127-1279) encouraged maritime
of the transpenins吐ar routes through the
Some cargoes were also shipped via one Myanmar-Thai isthmus and the neck of the
northern Malay Peninsula. Goods were unloaded from ships on one coast and transferred to various types of land
Around the Straits
and
river transport to waiting vessels
on the opposite
coast.
a丘h century CE, navigators began using the all-sea route through the Melaka
between Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula because
lessened and expanding maritime knowledge
piratical attacks
meant sailing conditions
appear to have
at the
southern end
carries
them
outward and the other that brings them homeward; and the one of these winds blows all winter, and the other all the summer."7
was not fully appreciated until the third century CE. Previously the Malay Peninsula was 由ought to constitute a barrier between the oceans surrounding India and China that could not be circumnavigated, and the “silk road" connecting China to the Mediterranean Asia.
The
in 1275, put the matter
Southeast
Asia’s
location at the meeting of the
when
monsoons had become more import-
invasions by various tribal groups prevented China’s
easy access to traditional land routes across central Asia.
the
first
Southern Song emperor,“Overseas trade
enormous
profits.
to attract private
highway
is
The Northern Song (960-1127) trade. In the
words of
a business that can produce
The court ... should therefore follow the old and successful policy traders and develop commercial exchange."8 The value of the ocean China and India was further strengthened
after the disruption of
the overland caravan trade across Central Asia following the
Mongol conquest of
Baghdad
in connecting
in 1268.
CE the Chinese pilgrim Faxian returned all the
Increasing use of what has been termed the “maritime silk road" from the thirteenth
way from Sri Lanka to China by sea, and a few years later a Kashmiri prince went to China
century onwards also helps explain the greater frequency with which references to
using the same
Southeast Asian ports and shipping occur in Chinese sources.
of the Straits were less treacherous. In 413
itinera巧・
Understanding the regularity of the monsoon winds (from the Arabic mausim, mean- ing“season") was fundamental to the exploitation of the
Melaka Straits route. Eve町year from around November and December, the strong monsoon winds blow from the north- east across the South China Sea, gradually retreating through January and February. There
ary,
move in a clockwise direction to eastern Indonesia, the homeland
to the
Melaka
itiner-
Straits,
was
protected from major hurricanes and typhoons by the Spratley and Paracel Island
7
follows a transitional period of about five weeks before the start of the southwest monsoon winds that develop in the Indian Ocean and grow in strength from May and June. During
the transition, the winds
which followed the coastline of present-day Vietnam
The most favored
8
Michael Laffan,“Finding Java: Muslim Nomenclature oflnsular Southeast Asia仕om Srivijaya to Snouck Hurgronje,'’in Eric Tagliacozzo, ed. Southeast Asia and the Middle East: Islam, Movement and the Long Duree (Singapore: NUS Press, 2009), 34; Hen可Yule and Henri Cordier, The Travels of Marco Polo (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1993; reprint of 1929 edition) 1: 264-5. Cited in David C. Ka吨,East Asia Bφre the West (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012), 111
20
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 chains. In the twel丘h century a system of seaports
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT
around Vietnam’s Halong Bay,
subsumed under the general name of Van Don, provided outlets for silk, ceramics, and Red River Delta. There is also mention of other ports along the coast of the Gulf of Siam that served as major transshipment and
Valuable products from a unique environment
exchange points for maritime trade, including one that the Chinese called Xian, a port or group of ports thought to have provided the basis from which the city of A yutthaya
topographical, and climatic environment, which gave rise to the region’s great biodiver-
developed in the fourteenth century. Seven Tamil inscriptions dating to the mid-ninth
Almost
other crafts produced in villages in the
to late thirteenth centuries discovered along the coast of
Myanmar, Thailand,
the Malay
Southeast
and
sity
Asia’s attraction to early traders
of Southeast Asia
all
and fauna
flora
and
a vast range of forest
is
is
can be explained by
its
unique geological,
anywhere
sea products unavailable
else in the world.
located within the tropical zone, but the variety of
enhanced because
it lies
at the
its
convergence of two continents, Asia
Peninsula, and northern Sumatra refer to Tamil merchant guilds or corporations.
and
In con且rming the connections with south India, the remains of temples also suggest
the Asian continent,
the presence of settled Tamil communities and indicate the continuing connections
western Malay-Indonesian archipelago (including Sumatra, Java, and Borneo), forming
between trade and the movement of religious
invaluable
the
many
eventually submerged as sea levels rose. Until six to eight thousand years ago the
ideas. Archaeological
in locating other sites that developed along these
work
is
expanding sea routes, for
are
not mentioned in written sources. For example, ceramic remains show that between the eleventh and fourteenth centu巧Kota Cina, on Sumatra’s northeast coast, functioned
an important exchange port
as
A
large
much
interior provides tangible evidence of site
known
as
on the Banten from
frequented by Chinese and Tamil traders.
Hindu-Buddhist ceremonial complex
how
at
Padang Lawas
in the north
far this influence extended. In
Banten Girang (upriver Banten), about River, has similarly yielded impressive
Sumatran
west Java
amounts of Chinese pottery dating
this period.
Chinese interest in Southeast Asia was sustained and extended under the Yuan dynasty,
Wang Dayuan (c.
prompting one traveler,
tion of Island Barbarians,
which provides
1311-50), to compile the valuable Brief Descr伊- far
more information on
areas to the east of the
Sunda
Mainland Southeast Asia and the Malay Peninsula are an extension of and up to around 7,500 years ago were joined to the islands of the
shelf
and
now underwater
a biogeographical region
known
as Sundaland,
much
of which was
Sahul shelf provided another land bridge that linked Indonesia’s
easternmost islands to
New
Guinea and Australia, forming
a large continent that
was
separated from the Sunda shelf by marine troughs around 3 to 4.5 miles (5,000 to 7,000
meters) deep.
As
a
six miles (ten kilometers) inland
Australia.
and fauna of the Sunda and Sahul shelves are marked by the Wallace Line, a boundary between Borneo
a result of this separation, the flora
quite distinct, with the division
and Sulawesi drawn by the
British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) separat-
ing two ecozones.
The
nutmeg
once grew only in the Banda group, the
trees that
clove trees
largest carnivorous lizard, “birds
on the small volcanic
named
for the island
and Tidore, the
islands of Ternate
Komodo dragon
on which
(
the world’s
was discovered), and the
it
of paradise" with their magnificent plumage, are just a few examples of plant and
Malay Peninsula than any other source and a伍rms growing maritime connections with the Philippines, Maluku, and Timor. Increasing Chinese traffic along the maritime routes
animal
passing through Southeast Asia
compendiums that give Ocean" ( the Indian Ocean and
very distant past Palawan and the Sulu islands were apparently joined to Borneo, the rest
maritime Southeast Asia west of Borneo) as well as the “Eastern Ocean" (modern Philippines, Borneo, and eastern Indonesia).
ocean trenches. This separation resulted in a long period of independent evolution that
is
evident in other nautical
detailed directions for those sailing to the “Western
A
similar pattern of
narrative of his journey
growing fam过iarity
is
evident in Arab accounts. Ibn Battuta's
from India to China did not become widely known
until long after
unique to the eastern part of the Indonesian archipelago
life
(see Figure 1.2).
Similar effects of separate development can be seen in the Philippines. Although in the
of the Philippine archipelago
is
separated from Indonesia and the Asian continent by deep
why such a high proportion of flora and fauna is endemic to the Philippines. One example is the tiny and now endangered Philippine tarsier, the world’s smallest primate, explains
with
its
extraordinary night vision
made
possible because of
enormous eyes
relative to its
the author’s death (about 1368), but his decision to include an account of Java and
body weight. The impression such unusual animals made on outsiders
G沪to Those Who Contemplate the Marvels of Traveling is a telling comment on new networks fostered by international trade. So valuable was knowledge
sketches of a seventeenth-century Jesuit priest-apothecary in Manila. Struck by the
Sumatra
in his
of maritime itineraries that they were often jealously safeguarded. From the early four- teenth century Gujarati traders from northwestern India became more active in Southeast Asia, but they sought to dissuade their rivals
from using the
the west coast of Sumatra and then led to Java via the here could not be navigated.
tarsi er’s“lion-like face
and
large
round red eyes
like those of
is
evident in the
an owl,”he made a sketch
of a female with a baby tied to her body by vines for the interest of his European colleagues.
9
profitable route that followed
Sunda
Straits,
claiming the waters
9
Cited in R.
A
Reyes,“Botany
Georg Josef Camel
and Zoology
in the Late Seventeenth-century Philippines: the
SJ (1661-1706),”Archives of Natural History 36, 2
(October 2009), 271.
Work of
21
22
' A HISTO盯OF EAR…ODERN SOUTHEAST A队叫…830
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT a
magnet
to international trade.
A
prime example
is
the sandalwood tree, found in the
southern arc of the Indonesian archipelago (Nusatenggara, or Lesser Sundas). Partially parasitic,
able to survive in relatively poor soil
it is
drawing moisture and nutrition from
and through a hot dry season only by growing nearby. In Timor, said
specific host trees
the fourteenth-century traveler斗\Tang Dayuan, there was nothing to
wood, but there were twelve
different localities
where
it
buy except sandal-
could be purchased.
As one would expect, the botanical complexity that characterizes Southeast Asia was more pronounced in places where rainfall is plentiful. The rainforests that
considerably
and high precipitation were
flourish in areas of high humidity, high temperatures,
Figure 1
1.2.
dominated by giant
Hunting birds of
paradise. Males of the greater bird of paradise sp配ies gathered in lo的
in tropical lowlands. In turn, these trees
orchids,
and fungi; indeed, the
supported an array of climbing vines,
ferns,
more than forty thousand
forests of Southeast Asia contain
indigenous species of flowering plants. In Peninsular Malaysia alone there are over eight
feathers to attract watching females
thousand, including two thousand
Hunters hid under a canopy ofleaves and fired blunt arrows so由at they did not damage the beautiful plumage. Because the legs and wings were removed from the carcasses prior to sale, Europeans initially
Fed by constant sunlight and heavy
came
all帆The Mala Archipelago (New York: Harpe r Alfi时Russe
and Brothers, 1869),
provided
many
trees, eight
hundred
rainfall,
orchids,
Southeast
and two hundred palms.
Asia’s
dense tropical jungles
of the plant and animal products for which the region became justly
renowned. In lowland areas further from the equator where the annual rainfall declines and there is
to
land and simply floated in the heavens where they subsisted on dew. They were thus called “birds of the gods”or“birds of paradise." l
with most belonging to the very large dipterocaψfamily found
trees with exposed branches where they could dance and display their
believed these birds never
I
trees,
a
marked dry
were able to
season, the可pical forest cover
tolerate
extended periods without
was semi-deciduous. The dominant rainfall,
the most famous being the teak,
another dipterocarp, which was particularly favored for
common
were
in the rainforest,
plentiful,
trees
its
durab让ity.
Bamboos,
less
and grasslands ( often created by human and
intervention) provided a hospitable environment for elephants, deer, wild pigs,
water buffalo. Mangroves lined river deltas and coasts sheltered from wave action as
frontispiece.
Courtesy of the John M. Echols Collection on Southeast Asia of
well as silted river deltas, frequently extending deep inland.
When waterlogged sediment
accumulated, mangroves were replaced by freshwater swamp forests - home to import- ant sources of nutrition such as the sago palm - and tidal creeks as the water receded. At
Cornell University Library.
higher elevations tropical evergreen forests were dominated by conifers but above
The
biodiversity that
is
a feature of all Southeast Asia also reflects differences in the
climate and the physical environment. cycle,
but there
is still
The
entire region
is
subject to the
monsoon wind
considerable variation in the arrival and duration of rain-bearing
currents. In the mainland, for instance, the northeast
monsoon
air
brings rains to southern
Vietnam and Thailand, but in the same period interior Myanmar, central Thailand, and Cambodia experience a marked dry season, and the rains only arrive with areas of
the southwest
no
monsoon (June-October).
In the western Indonesian archipelago there
truly dry period, but in certain sectors of eastern Indonesia
there
is
and the western Philippines
may be no rainfall at all for five to six months of the year. In its adaptation to the dry
environment of Timor and neighboring islands, one species of native deer will even drink seawater and eat seaweed. A similar adaptation of indigenous vegetation to different conditions has resulted in
many rare species, so that otherwise remote areas could become
elevations of 5,000 feet (1,500 meters),
where the temperature was even
cooler, the trees
became gnarled and stunted. Because wet clouds and fog carried abundant moisture, these upper rich bird
At
montane
forests
were characterized by a diversity of
ferns, mosses,
and
a
life.
all altitudes,
Southeast Asian forests yielded a cornucopia of trees and plants that
supplied the woods, resins, and rattans that were valued for their timber, aromatic, and
dye
qualities,
now
central
and
especially for their medicinal properties. In the
and southern Vietnam,
the sweet smelling aloes (also in the
heartwood of certain
known
Ma Huan
Cham areas
of what
mentioned an incense believed
as gaharu, or eaglewood), a
trees in response to a parasitic
mold.
is
to be
dark resin that forms
He
reported that this
was“produced only on one large mountain in由is country and comes仕om no other place in the world; it is very expensive, being exchanged for [its own weight]
A HISTORY OF EARLY
24
in silver."10
MODERN SOUTHEAST
The high demand
color association wi出blood
most plants and
for
their use as medicinal ingredients.
ASIA, 1400-1830
Sappanwood,
combined with
its
trees,
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT
however, was generated by
for example, yielded a reddish dye, but the
coagulant properties
made
it
much used in
Chinese treatment of wounds, hemorrhages, and menstrual problems. In 1387 A严1tthaya shipped as much as 10,000 kati ( one kati equals
1.3 lbs
or 0.6 kg) to China. Knowledge of the
medicinal qualities of herbs and trees was especially well-tabulated in Vietnam, where the
honors even in China. In the fourteenth century knowledge of herbal medicines was even sent to the
expertise of local physicians received high
monk renowned
a Buddhist
Ming
court as part of the customa町tribute. Here, for the benefit of Chinese physicians,
he compiled a
treatise entitled
local plants
lists
The Miraculous Effecti附
[i.e.
suited
the Vietnamese]."11
from
saline springs
salt,
most
readily available
from seawater
and saltwater ponds. The value of salt
and
indicated not merely by
in trade, but also in
ritual offering to the spirits.
far
from the
coast,
prominence Access to
salt
in coastal areas but also
as a prese凹ative, as
ingredient in certain food preparations its
an
essential
for general health in a tropical climate
was a major concern
its
is
frequent inclusion as a
for interior groups located
and communities that controlled the deposits of rock
across the highlands of
to southern
magnet
Borneo
to later
as Puradvipa,“the land of diamonds,”the presence of
European
traders.
From
reputation as a source of gold, and
modern northeast Thailand and Laos almost
it
has been suggested that Indian texts used
that
its
to denote the mainland,
Indian owner was working in a local gold mine.13 The insatiable appetite for gold local production,
Luzon highlands, Mindanao, and the Visayas. Though gold was most valued, the highly mineralized belt that stretches from Yunnan to Sumatra yielded other metals and ores; panning for tin in tributary rivers and streams was well established
inevitably gained a
and copper was mined
in the north of
modern Thailand. Used
the
Malay Peninsula the
sieve
and then casting
The
interpreter
it
Ma
the spirits of these
salt wells to
beliefs required that certain rituals
the weeping of a
should be followed, for
domains were jealous伊ardians and did not easily permit human
coral reefs are
Southeast
Asia’s
warm and
provide habitats for unusual creatures
fish, invertebrates,
fields
of underwater seagrass
herbivorous marine
like the large
and
over 30 percent of the world’s
Asian waters, while
in Southeast
generally shallow
ideally suited to the evolution of
and underwater vegetation were
found
in a
into blocks.
sea, too, yielded its treasures, since
waters, coral reefs,
visit to
Huan mentioned teams of men“washing”tin
seaweeds. Six of the world’s seven sea turtle species and
(northern Thailand) thus attributes the presence of nearby
as alloys in the
manufacture of bronze, both metals were prized by Indian traders, and during his
deep
Such
and when
the Spanish arrived in the Philippines in the sixteenth century mines were being worked in
remarkable marine biodiversity, including innumerable句pes of
Salt."
a
and Suvarnadvipa (Island of Gold) to indicate the islands. It is thus possible that a ring found in North Sumatra dated to the tenth centu叩with a Sanskrit inscription“In the darkness, I have chosen to work" meant Suvarnabhumi (Land of Gold)
salt scattered
from these underground deposits was obtained through excavating the water of which was thought to have supernatural origins; a text from Nan
legendary “Mistress
which was
ancient times Southeast Asia had also acquired a
privileged position. Salt wells,
figure
various areas, including the
Less remarkable to early travelers but of extraordinary importance to local societies were the natural sources of
Yunnan. Although diamonds did not
in the trade to China because they were not then used as a gemstone, the Javanese referred
both domestically and overseas was a powerful incentive to
and animals used in且ve hundred “southern remedies" uniquely
cure people of the south
“to
for his
thriving ruby trade with China via southwest
mammal,
the
There are also significant iron deposits across the uplands, and archeological excavations
dugong (now endangered). Sperm whales migrated annually from the Indian Ocean through the islands of eastern Indonesia and into the Pacific. Their intestines produced
show evidence of mining,
the rare resinous excretion
entry.
smelting, and forging in early times, although as maritime trade have been more feasible to obtain metal tools ( essential for forest clearance) and similar items through exchanges with coastal settlements.
expanded
it
may
Beneath the earth lay other treasures that assumed a special place in the regional trade network. The geology of the more northerly areas of Myanmar, for instance, created conditions出at produced precious stones, especially sapphires and distinctive deep red rubies,“the flesh and blood of Mother Earth."12 The value attached to these rare gems is suggested by early descriptions of surveillance of workers and by the discovery of swords and weapons at ancient mining sites, and by the late thirteenth century there was a
1
1
2
Cited in
Hoang Bao Chau, Pho Due Thuc and Huu Ngoc,“Overview of Vietnamese The Gioi Publishers, 1993), 17.
ambergris
(“gray
amber'
would thereby
be infused with the maritime mastery and longevity of these revered sea-creatures. Internationally, however, ambergris gained a specialized market as incense and as an ingredient in medications.
account出at
The high
prices
quality ambergris,
Traditional 14
it
could
command are attested
refers to the “extraordinarily expensive
carcasses of dead whales or floating
Ma Hua川ng-yai Sh付Zan, 81. Medicine,'’Vietnamese Traditional Medicine (Hanoi: Cited in Ted Theme
call
eastern Indonesia was used to caulk boats, perhaps with the idea出at they
13 :0
we
it
was
said,
on由e ocean
or
.
.
.
washed up on
might only be found once
in
one Chinese
dragon spittle”found in the shore.14
The
best
in a decade.
Heddy Surachman,“South Asia and the Tapanuli Area (North-west Sumatra): Ninth-Fourteenth Centuries CE," in Pierre-Yves Man伊in, ed. Ear伊Interactions between South and Southeast Asia (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2011), 166. Pei Hsin, Hsing-ch口a-sheng-lan: the Overall Survey of the Star Ra卢,J.V.G.M山s, trans叮Roderick Ptak, Cited in Daniel Perret and
ed. (Otto HarrassowitzVerlag, 1996), 61.
26
6 A RISTO…F EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST A队14…切 Chinese
lists
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT
of products from the Southern Seas indicate the great value placed on
other marine items such as edible seaweeds, corals, and tortoiseshell, which were used for
many purposes:
in food, divination, medicines,
evil spirits. In later years, as
and even
as
household protection against
foreign cuisines developed or tastes changed, additional
products were harvested from Southeast Asian waters, such as the famed sea slugs
from the Pigafetta
from the
relatively
remote area to the attention of foreign traders. In his
much
Barbarians,
Bri吃f Description of Island
Wang Da严1an stressed the superiority of the pearls from Sulu because of their
white color and their round shape. For the Chinese, pearls symbolized wealth, beauty, and supernatural power, and the Southern Seas therefore held out a particular lure that
continued to attract traders, despite the alien surroundings. In the words of a ninth- century Tang poet,“In the southern land many birds sing;/Of towns and cities half are unwalled./The country markets are thronged by wild
/Poisonous mists
rise from gleam through the night-rain./And none passes but the lonely seeker of pearls./Y ear by year on his way to the South Sea."15 This image of the lone Chinese “seeker of pearls”embarking on an annual voyage to negotiate with “barbarians"
the
is
damp
sands;/Strange
tribes; ...
fires
a reminder of the value placed
Because certain species of plant,
on the products of Southeast Asian seas and jungles. marine, and animal life were o丘en confined to particular
ecological niches, an apparently isolated or inaccessible region could
become
(c.
and
sea environments
from indiscriminate
1480-c. 1534), the chronicler of the
moon“otherwise
ment, as
tripang,
without appropriate propitiation. Such cultural restrictions also served to
first
exploitation.
Antonio
circumnavigation of the world, thus
noted that in Timor the cutting of sandalwood was restricted to certain phases of the
from Indonesian teripang) found in eastern Indonesia. In the maritime environ- on the land, a reputation for providing goods of high quality could bring even a
(
forest
protect the forest
spirits.
would not be good,'’and it was always necessary to request permission Similarly, a later Chinese observer said that the search for honey in Java it
was only undertaken seasonally“and then not
to excess,”for it“would fail
were too
collected."16
会在H…ada内ti…问忡叫n忧…nt The complexity of the Southeast Asian environment was mirrored in its human popula- tions, still apparent today in more than a thousand separate languages (and many more dialects) that have been identified. There were undoubtedly numerous others in earlier times, with as
many
as
two hundred
in the Philippines alone.
early history are frustratingly sparse, the
movement
Although the sources
for
of products and goods meant that
seemingly remote communities could be involved in exchange networks that linked the
deep interior to settlements on the coast and beyond.
Maritime linkages within the region were
the principal
and Indian Oceans,
facilitated
because Southeast Asian waters,
by the arc of islands stretching
source of a favored product in world trade.
though fed by
It would be wrong, however, to assume that these products were not valued by local people themselves. Bezoar stones are a concretion found in the intestinal tracts of various
from Sumatra and Java around
mammals,
advantage of seasonal currents and local land and sea breezes to develop a network of sea
birds, reptiles,
and sea
creatures.
Borneo became especially famous
for this
the Pacific
internal basins connected
routes.
own
possible to sa诅from the
their
invulnerability warriors o丘en
wore a number into
battle.
In
many
Southeast Asian
societies certain可pes of feathers, like those of the hornbill or the so-called “bird of
an essential accoutrement for a warrior’s headdress since they would render him impervious to the enemy’s arrows and spears. To a far greater extent paradise,”were considered
example, the location of trees containing the rare aromatic aloeswood might only be revealed to the collector in a dream a丘er he had made certain offerings to the tree spirit. Gathering the much-valued honey and wax from the hives of wild bees found high in the branches of very tall trees was similarly surrounded by ritual, for these giant trees
between
15
Edward H.
Schafer,
guardian
spirits
who would have no mercy on
individuals
who
The Golden Peaches of Samarkand (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of
California Press, 1963), 244.
is
divided into smaller
where
skillful sailors
for example, a strong stream flowing in itself,
so that
it
took
from the was quite
Malay Peninsula to Java, or from northern Borneo to Sulawesi, or for traders from the Cham region of central Vietnam to reach Java or ports in northern Sumatra. The distribution of the well-known Dong Son drums, made in northern Vietnam sometime between 600 and 300 BCE but found throughout the region from Maluku to Thailand,
own
straits,
South China Sea forced water to circulate within the region
than purchasers from overseas, Southeast Asians themselves also appreciated the ritual knowledge and practical skills required to obtain and deliver these valued items. For
possessed their
to the Philippines. This area
by channels, passages, and
During the northeast monsoon,
product, particularly those produced from the porcupine. In Southeast Asia, as in Europe, bezoar stones were valued as a talisman against all kinds of dangers, and to ensure
are enclosed
testimony to a continuing use of sailing routes that can be tracked to very
is
ancient times. Speakers of Austronesian languages, five
the Pacific
and
six
it is
believed, spread out
from Taiwan
thousand years ago, moving by boat through the Philippines, out
and down
into the Malay-Indonesian archipelago.
As
to
a result, with the
exception of tiny pockets of Austroasiatic languages in the Malay Peninsula and
Papuan-type languages in some of the eastern Indonesian islands and western
took 16
Antonio Pigafetta, The First Voyage around the World 1519-1522: an Account of Magellan's Expedition, Theodore J. Cachey Jr., ed. (University of Toronto Press, 2007), 118: Claudine Salmon,“Wang Dahai and his View of the Insular Countries (1791)," in Ding Choo Ming and Ooi Kee k吨,Chinese Studies of the Malay World. A Comparative Approach (Singapore: Eastern Universities Press, 2003), 53.
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400一1830
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC HNVIRONMEN1 Though
foreign traders
had only limited knowledge of
local
exchange networks, they
were always heavily dependent on the ingenuity and resourcefulness of those involved in harvesting local products and delivering them to local ports and collecting points. Crews of ships following the maritime routes linking China and India were especially aware of the sea people, the communities
who
islands at the northern entrance ( the
of the Melaka
Sama
eastern Indonesia (the
The
birds s严nbolize the upperworld, the fish the underworld, and the ship with all its passengers is universe.
the fertile world of human beings. On the top deck two figures represent a
Guinea, the hundreds of identified languages in island Southeast Asia all belong to the Austronesian linguistic family. Their descendants display many features in common,
symbolism attached
to boats
the importance of the sea in local cosmologies
and seafaring
(see Figure 1.3).
While
this
is
and the
understandable
economies based on fishing and maritime trade, it can also be located among interior and agricultural societies - a legacy of the sea voyages associated with in
the ancient
When
Austronesian past.
the Spanish
centu巧,they recorded that the Tagalog in central Flores
(
first
arrived in the Philippines in the sixteenth
word for village, barangay,
also meant“boat,”and
one of the islands of eastern Indonesia), Dutch colonial
officials
encountered villages with names that mean“sa止”“rudder,”or“great oar." In the fourteenth centu町,Wang Dayuan出us marveled at the boat-building and navigational skills of sailors from the island of Madura, off the northern Javanese coast, who went “in the roughest sea with only their wooden oars and have never been wrecked."17
the
around the
Orang Laut)
and the northern and
from Sulawesi to the Lesser Sundas
in
history of several coastal polities in island
Sama Bajau
developing international entrepots. They were simultaneously absolutely delivery of tortoiseshell, corals, seaweeds, shells,
fleets
was
to
vital for the
and other marine products
to the
market. Impressed by the extent to which the seas were the natural habitat of these groups, a Chinese commentator recorded that“they can dive in water without closing their eyes."18
Equally valuable as collectors of Southeast Asian products were the small bands of
today termed Orang Asli
descriptions of these groups are rare,
New
(
sea
patrol the seas, protect the coastlines, and thus act as a van凯1ard in establishing and
forest dwellers
and Suku Terasing plant
and animal
(
[“isolated tribes”]
life
[“original
in Indonesia),
modern Malaysia
people"] in
whose unparalleled knowledge of
supplied an essential link in the economic chain. Early eyewitness
and we
are
dependent on
of the complex rituals that were required before the
humans
is
Bajau).
for a baby. Liefkes Collection 819,
Leiden, the Netherlands.
The
Southeast Asia shows that a principal role of Orang Laut and
nomadic
Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde,
more widespread
islands stretching
and his consort. Cloths like this could be used as mats on which a bride might sit, as a p山ow cover during a circumcision, or as a blanket ruler
but one of the
and the
on the
Moken) and the southern entrance
Straits, along the southern islands of the Philippines
eastern coasts of Borneo,
Figure 1.3. A ship cloth from South Sumatra. This ceremonial cotton cloth ( tampan pasisir, here shown on 由e reverse side) from South Sumatra, dated to the nineteenth centu町, depicts a traditional view of the
lived completely or partially
to enter their
domain, or would reveal the
spirits
later sources for
accounts
of the forest would allow
secret locations of valued trees
catch a glimpse of the experience and
and
Only occasionally do we camphor tree, which was largely confined to northwestern Borneo, the Malay Peninsula, and northwest Sumatra. While its aromatic timber and
plants.
skills
necessary to
exploit jungle resources like the
sweet-smelling resin solidified
were highly valued, the highest prices were paid when the camphor as crystals in the fissures of older trees. A thirteenth-century account by the oil
Inspector of Foreign Trade in Fuji钮,Zhao Rugua, offers a remarkably convincing account from Borneo, where bands of men collected camphor from "the depths of the hills and the
remotest valleys."19
It
was then shipped
to China, India,
and Persia
as
an ingredient in
perfumes, incense, and medicines.
Over the centuries the foreign traders who came to Southeast Asia as buyers for its natural resources gained the knowledge necessa巧to negotiate a successful exchange. Chinese and Indian merchants were able to distinguish various grades of products such as incense, wax, tortoiseshell, and kingfisher feathers, and knew the best places where each
was produced. They were also well aware of the preferences of different communities and 17
W. W.
Rockh山,“Notes on the Relations and Trade of China with the Eastern Archipelago and the Coasts of the Indian Ocean during the Fourteenth Century," T'oungPao, Second Series 16, 2 (1915),
254.
18
19
Chau Ju-Kua on Chau Ju-Kua on
the Chinese the Chinese
and Arab Trade, and Arab Trade,
32, fn. 2
193.
29
30
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
goods brought from
comes from Chinese
lists,
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC
clientele,
anxious to acquire both rare and utilitarian
The most
detailed information about such imports
were therefore welcomed by an eager distant lands.
ASIA, 1400-1830
which widened considerably during the thirteenth and four-
teenth centuries to include different可pes of beads, combs, iron cauldrons, lacquerware,
bronze drums, and fabrics of various kinds. However, as in the past, these
dominated by ceramics, which have become are not perishable
and can be dated
vital historiographical tools
lists
Vietnam and interior Sumatra, preferred green wares. A bowl dated to the Yuan dynasty (thirteenth-fourteenth centuries), which was unearthed in Singapore, was decorated with the Chinese characters for compass directions and may have been used as a navigational guide, or perhaps for geomancy. status in the Islamic world.
A
are
because they
to particular periods.
ENVIRONJ』t ENT
Other places, such
as
second imported product of great value in Southeast Asia was
text过es, particularly
those from the Indian subcontinent. Indian traders, like their Chinese counterparts, were alert to
market trends in Southeast Asia, for the cloth they brought had long been one of
most versatile and valued exchange products, not merely for practical use but because of its important place in ritual. Production by Southeast Asian women, however, still
the
'Val叫rnported good…
continued, although the effects of the tropical climate
mean
that there are few early
were not
examples. Because certain rituals required specific indigenous designs, they Despite the obvious
demand for Chinese ceramics, it is worth remembering that Southeast
women) because of the areas in modern Myanmar,
Asia has a long tradition of earthenware production (mostly by
widespread availab山ty of suitable
clay,
and that
certain
Thailand, Cambodia, and north and central Vietnam ( the latter associated with the
Cham
displaced by foreign textiles, while cheap local cloth could serve utilitarian purposes. In
some
cases there
from abaca,
was even an overseas market. For example, cloth that was probably made
fiber
obtained from a species of banana native to the Philippines,
is
frequently
mentioned in Chinese trading records.
own ceramic traditions. Nonetheless, the range and sheer numbers of the bowls, dishes, vases, and jars exported from kilns in
cloth enjoyed great prestige because of
southeast China
during由e Song and Yuan dynasties (960一1368) are extraordinary. Ongoing marine archaeology has salvaged several sunken vessels from this period in Southeast Asian waters, and although they carried items ranging from bronze且gur: from India to Middle Eastern glassware, Chinese mirrors, and local foodstu俗,the
description of
overwhelming bulk of the cargo consisted of diverse fine and coarse stoneware ceramics from various parts of China, many of which were of very high quality.
dated to around 1340 that was produced in Gujarat (India) but found in the Toraja area of central Sulawesi is an example of the cotton cloth painted with female fi思ires that were
rather than the Vietnamese) developed their
A
primary reason for the success of
Southeast Asians attached to
was the symbolic and ritual value imported ceramics, which could be used as ceremonial this trade
containers, to adorn sacred buildings, or as a gong-like musical instrument. For many groups these beautiful items - delicate bluish-white plates, smooth, lustrous white jars, translucent green dishes - from distant China became heirlooms that gave extraordinary status to the owner and could be infused with their own
powers. Some of this comes through in Zhao Rugua’s description of forest dwellers from the island of Palawan in the Philippines:“If thrown a porcelain bowl,
and shouting
they will stop and pick
it
up and go away leaping
for joy户。
A second reason is the attention that Chinese producers gave to local requirements, for the small ceramic jars, cups, and figurines uncovered in excavations of burial sites seem to have been produced primarily for markets in the Nanyang. Aesthetic preferences were also taken into account. For example, the Bri吃f Description of Island Barbarians notes that
people in Java and the Malay Peninsula favored blue and white porcelain, a possible indication of new influences among the elite, since this style and coloration e时oyed high 2°
Chau Ju-Kua on
the Chinese
and Arab Trade, 161-2
Nonetheless, though local text过es maintained a place in indigenous culture, impo口ed
(c.
Cambodia
its
quality, variety, colors,
in the late thirteenth centu町,the
and
designs. In his
Chinese envoy Zhou Daguan
1270一1350) noted that Indian cloth was preferred to that produced by Khmer, Thai,
and Vietnamese weavers. The designs of text过es arriving in Southeast Asia also indicate that Indian producers were anxious to tap this expanding market. A ceremonial banner
made
specifically to please
unseen
clients in the far-off
of this cloth at such a distance from
Indonesian islands. The discovery
place of origin provides further evidence that by
its
the fourteenth century Southeast Asia was well integrated into a global trading network that stretched
from the Middle East and the Mediterranean
to China.
The trading context The expanding role which Southeast Asia came to play in world commerce during the early modern period was not only attributable to the benefits of a unique environment and a favorable geographic location. The exchange of goods always required sustained cooper- ation,
whether
it
was between
coastal
communities and
timber for boat building, forest dwellers
who brought
interior peoples
rattans
who
delivered
and resins丘om the jungles
to lowland middlemen, or between Southeast Asian suppliers and foreign traders. Much of this trust was attained through the ties of marriage and kinship. Innumerable legends丘om
Southeast Asian societies record the arrival of a young
man丘om some
marriage to a local woman, and his adoption by her family as a son.
distant place, his
When he returned to
31
HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400一1830
A
32
trade the following year, he
environment where
trust
would be welcomed
as a relative
SOUTHEAST山AND THE GEOGRAPHIC…RONMENT tS
and incorporated
into an
between kinfolk was considered the strongest basis for commer-
cial transactions.
as the “stitched
Intermarriage was also a significant factor in strengthening connections with China,
and kinship
alliances benefited
both Chinese merchants and members of the Southeast
Asian trading communities that had grown up in southern ports larly,
Chinese
like
Guangzhou. Simi-
men who settled abroad typically took local women as their wives, while the
family relationships established by visiting traders through temporary“marriages" could
be regenerated
when they returned. That these relationships were based on real affection is
suggested by Wang Da严1an, who mentions the annual reunions that took place between women who paddled the small ferry boats in Cham ports in central and southern Vietnam and their "husbands" on incoming vessels. He notes that tears were shed when it came time for the couple to separate.“If it happens that one gets to this country when his luck is
woman, for the sake of her old affection for him, will give him food and when she leaves she will speed his parting with many presents, for nothing
bad, then the
clothing and
can shake their faithfulness.”Such liaisons were particularly useful because so prominent in the marketplace both as sellers
century Chinese observer, for instance,
women come
The use of square pivoting sails set in the stern and bow of a vessel enabled seamen to sail into the wind and to take advantage of sh的ing land and sea breezes. A technique known
when
and buyers. According
trading junks arrived in
women were
Timor
the
aboard to trade."21
planks,
and mortua町sites
as well as the cargoes of sunken ships indicate a long trading relationship with other areas in Southeast Asia, as well as with China. Found in 1989 southeast of Manila, the Laguna copperplate inscrip- tion, which concerns the acquittal of a debt, is dated to 900 CE and is written in a
easily transferred to
characteristic vessel
was
built of
passed through holes,
fiber
long distance trading vessels. Evidence from excavations and from
shipwrecks dated to the tenth century indicate that“stitched plank" ships were at least
33 yards (30 meters) in length, rigged with multiple
large,
and considered to be
sails
very seaworthy, capable of making extended sea voyages and carrying sizeable cargoes.
The
best preserved vessel of this type
from the end of the tenth centu巧is the “Cirebon
shipwreck" which was found in deep water o旺the north Java coast.
It
carried an estimated
165 tons (150 metric tonnes) of iron cargo and over 250,000 pieces of Chinese ceramics.
Remains of ships dating from the fourteenth centu巧demonstrate the development of a hybrid vessel that incorporated features associated with both Chinese and Southeast Asian ships. Despite the preponderance of Chinese ware, Southeast Asians were also able to take
when
cargoes of ceramics from
his travels in the Indian
Ocean, for instance, Ibn
advantage of niche requirements and to以is马r markets
Battuta recorded that he was given four martabans,“which are big vessels ginger, pepper, citrus fruit,
voyages产2 These large
and mangoes,
jars,
named
for
all
salted with
what
is
Martaban (Mottama),
demonstrated that by the twelfth century trade between China and the Philippine islands was flourishing. Although written sources for the pre-Spanish period are very limited, imports of trade wares show that the lowland polities developing along Philippine
were
circulation, for all
ship.
They must have had
even though large Chinese and Thai
filled
major supply center oil,
in
wine, and other
a long history of production jars also entered the
called “martaban." Local production of potte巧also
with
used in preparing for sea a
lower Myanmar, became an absolute necessity for storing water,
commodities on board
coasts
The
supplemented by dowels or“lugs”inserted into the seams of planks. This method was
combination of Old Malay, Old Javanese, and Sanskrit. The place-names it lists are all located on rivers with access to the South China Sea. Other archaeological finds have
were linked to a wide-ranging cultural and economic network. The site of present-day Manila dates back to at least the eleventh centu巧,and finds of Song and Yuan dynasty ceramics in graves here and elsewhere in the Philippines dynasty point to ongoing trade
considered句rpically Southeast Asian
which were held together by vegetable
China were in short supply. During
In the Philippines, excavations of settlements
is
(although the Vikings used similar methods).
wooden
to a fi丘eenth- “all
plank or lashed-lug tradition"
and
market, they
expanded when the Ming
dynasty came to power in China in 1368 and imposed a prohibition on overseas trade. This led to a marked increase in the export of Vietnamese and Thai ceramics, with some cargoes reaching as far as the
Red
Sea.
Connections with Chinese po仕ers played a pa时in
the development of Southeast Asian techniques, but ceramics like the miniature figurines
and animals and the
distinctive green-glazed
ware produced
in
Thai kilns are immediately
connections. Excavations below the Santa
identifiable, displaying decorative motifs
richest sites, a
life.
China. By the same token, although Vietnamese ware undoubtedly reflects Chinese influences, here too styles and shape developed their own unique qualities. Motifs include
relationships that fostered local initiatives
h山nan
Ana church in Manila have yielded one of the mother and her child buried with over seventy pieces of porcelain and
glazed wares that testi命to their high status in Against this background, the cross-cultural
figures, fish, ships,
and
and other features that are distinct丘om those
in
village scenes, while the prevalence of the lotus design
many vessels were made for Buddhist temples and monasteries. Though the
叫fa?il阳
suggests出at
sion
products of Southeast Asian kilns could be sent to more distant locations, the most
°1
maritime trade, for instance, encouraged a burgeoning shipbuilding industry that
drew on the strength of indigenous boat-building 21
skills,
well adapted to local conditions.
Rockh山,“Notes on the Relations and Trade of China with the Eastern Archipelago,'’85, 259.
attractive
22
markets were in the region
Gibb, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, 887
itself,
and the cargo of
a
Chinese shipwreck,
33
34
A HISTORY OF
tS
EAR口MODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫3
tentatively dated to
CE
1305-70, carrying Thai, Vietnamese, and Chinese ceramics (as well
lumps of iron and some elephant
as
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT
tusks),
was apparently destined
for
Borneo or
Sulawesi.
medium, low-unit currency was increased by melting down Chinese picis, adding lead and tin, recasting smaller coins and thus doubling or tripling the amount. The older gold coinage did not disappear but
Underpinning these widening commercial connections was the development of cross- cultural communications that established accepted market equivalents for buying and selling in societies
where coinage was not the
common medium
of exchange. In trading
directly with suppliers,
it
was now primarily
as a high-status item for
ceremonial
such as wedding exchanges.
gi丘s
The
some
history of moneta巧usage in Southeast Asian trading networks
cases,
such as Myanmar, coinage that was in use in
earlier
is
thus diverse. In
times appears to have
goods could be simply placed in the vicinity of collecting groups, and the exchange could take place through mutual agreement but without direct bargain-
dropped out of circulation, and in Cambodia the Khmer never developed a coinage with a standard value. Religious and cultural contacts could also shape developments and
much cloth for many tortoiseshells, for example); in others, rice, cakes of salt, or cloth could be given a
introduce changes. Close connections with China meant that copper cash and paper
ing. In established
so
markets exchange could be in terms of equivalencies (so
value in terms of gold or silver weights. Currency of various types also circulated, including both imported and locally made coins of silver and gold as well as alloys of
and
Around
Ocean the most favored monetary unit was the small cowηr shell, which originated in the Maldives. The use of these shells was widespread because they were difficult to counterfeit and were easily portable, being strung together in set amounts (e.g. forty or fifty). More importantly, cowries were acceptable through a large tin
lead.
the Indian
currency were well established in northern Vietnam, while in the early fourteenth centu叩 the
first locally
thirteenth tion,
produced Islamic coins appeared
centu町Europe
is
said to have
in north Sumatra.
During the "long"
been transformed by the process of monetiza-
much of the non-Western world the evolution of a money economy extended very long period of time. Prior to the fifteenth century there are no known
but in
over a
Southeast Asian societies that could be considered truly monetized.
trading area that reached from Africa to the coasts of
Myanmar and Siam, and as far inland as Yunnan. They were most frequently used for small transactions, but even large amounts like betrothal gifts or fines could be calculated in terms of their value in cowries.
棒En讪ronmental
co
For example, a cloth used to cover a pedestal might cost 60,000 cowries, while acquiring a plot ofland could require as many as 84,120,000. Cowries were still in use in Siam and the
The
Lao areas
nineteenth century, which brought improved medical conditions and a decline in raiding
in the seventeenth century
and even
later,
although coinage was already
available.
In
effect there
was a growing demand
for small denominations as ordinary people became accustomed to the use of money for a range of different dealings. In island Southeast Asia Java provides an illustrative example of these changes because the large
number of coins found here coincides with numerous
inscriptions regarding matters such as debt-settlement, property transfer, taxes, and trade. By the mid-fourteenth centu叮 there is increasing mention of a new coinage - low-denomination copper coins called picis
were used for smaller transactions and strung together through a hole in the center. Imported from China, picis gradually began to displace older gold and silver coins, probably because they were more useful in markets and as payment 出at
for individual taxes.
The large caches found in
archaeological excavations demonstrate that they were circulat- ing widely in east Java, and inscriptions sometimes refer to amounts of up to two million
when the Chinese restricted the export of copper cash, and as they began to use paper currency, the Javanese started to cast their own coins, even picis.
In times of shortage,
copying the square holes and Chinese characters associated with decorated with Hindu deities and in one case, the Islamic
been strung around the neck
as amulets.
As
Some
that were
confession of faith,
may have
a result of local
picis.
demand
for
an exchange
was always
closely linked to the environ-
ment and to the ability of leaders and communities to marshal and
much of Southeast Asia trade continued to operate through barter, but in those areas
where currencies were in
location of early Southeast Asian polities
interstate conflict, Southeast Asia’s population,
was ve巧low
in
human resources. Until the
probably about six million in 1400,
comparison with neighboring China (estimated between llO and 130
million in 1500) and India (then around 100 million). Various factors helped to limit the
and semi-nomadic agriculture, which favors small demographic growth was mortality families), but the prima巧reason resulting from tropical diseases such as malaria and water-borne infections, or what the Chinese termed “pestilential" and “miasmic" vapors. On the other hand, when the survival
and birth
rate (such as warfare
for restrained
physical environment provided favorable conditions that could feed a substantial popula- tion,
such losses could be replenished and demographic advantages maintained.
Although
it is
estimated that there
Thailand, and over a hundred in
still
are over seventy living languages in
modern
Myanmar and Vietnam, the mainland environment was
more populous and more centralized units than was the case in island Southeast Asia.23 The polities located in what is today Myanmar, Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam developed in broad and fertile always
more conducive
to the incorporation of different groups into
lowland areas through which coursed long navigable
rivers,
Chao Phraya, and the great Mekong, which the Portuguese 23
See www.ethnologue.com, accessed January 24, 2013.
notably the Irrawaddy, the later called "the prince
of
35
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
36
waters.”24
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT
Flowing in a southerly or southeasterly direction, these rivers and their tribu-
taries facilitated contact
among communities
living along their
banks and gave access
to
overland and maritime trade routes, which became especially important as seaborne trade developed. More importantly, the well-watered so山of the lowlands were eminently suited to wet-rice agriculture,
both rain-fed and irrigated by man-built canals or via weirs on
tributary rivers. In these conditions
it
was possible
to
grow more than one crop
a year,
producing surpluses that could support larger populations. Supplementing the diet of expanding communities was fish from the waterways and the reservoirs that were neces- sary for irrigating the rice paddies. Stable
and sedentary communities
cultivation enabled rulers to extract tax, marshal armies,
essential to wet-rice
and organize corvee (forced
or
required labor) to construct roads, canals, irrigation works, royal buildings, and temples. As small chiefdoms expanded into larger kingdoms, religious networks buttressed royal au由ority and greater social cohesion emerged around a lowland ethnic group that dominated a particular river basin. In mainland Southeast Asia, where the dominant physical pattern was of mountain ranges separating a river valley, the natural boundaries contributed to this settlement pattern.
mudflows. In Java the most well-known volcano periodically erupting since prehistoric times, while
erupted forty-eight times since the violent eruptions, like those of
is Mount Merapi, which has been Mount Mayon in the Philippines has
recorded observation in 1616. Extraordinarily
first
Mount Tambora
(1815) and the volcanic island of
Krakatau (1883) caused severe climatic change around the globe. The physical destruction
and
loss of life that resulted
from volcanic explosions were always interpreted
as a sign of
supernatural anger, or一like other natural disasters and unusual events, such as an eclipse or a
comet -
as a
warning of great changes
could cause extensive
fatalities
to
come. In the short term these eruptions
through rapid lava flows and
lethal gases,
the surrounding landscape unusable because of the ash cover or
mud
however, the physical breakdown and weathering of lava rocks resulted
made and
the lower
mountain
slopes
and surrounding lowlands
ideal for
and could render flows.
Over
time,
in fertile soil that
human
settlement
sedentary agriculture.
Although limited areas of rich volcanic Asia, only in Java and the
much
soil
can be found throughout island Southeast
smaller island of Bali were they sufficiently extensive to
support populations similar to those of the mainland plains. Evidence of organized forest
Nevertheless, the extent of lowland authority in mainland Southeast Asia was always constrained by the physical landscape because in many upland areas inaccessible moun-
clearance for agricultural purposes in Central and Eastern Java dates from about
tainous terrain and forests prevented lowland centers from projecting their sustained fashion. A number of prestigious upland centers also developed in
Brantas Rivers provided conditions eminently suited for irrigated rice cultivation. As in
valleys suited to the
growing of wet rice, and
at
power
in
any
intermontane
times marshalled forces that could
mount a
considerable challenge to lowland ambitions. In general, upland communities were less to the kind of control that could be exerted over sedentary populations on the
amenable
prima巧reason being the mobility derived from their reliance on shifting cultivation,。丘en termed swidden, or“slash and burn." In this form of agriculture, trees were felled and burned to clear the land, with the ashes providing nutrients plains, a
for the
planting of rain-dependent hillside
depleted and
it
rice.
would be necessary to
A丘er several harvests the soil fertility
would be
clear another forest site before eventually returning
to the original site years later. Dry-rice
farming could not support the large
settled
populations可pical of the higher-yielding wet-rice areas, and it entailed periodic move- ment that made ties with a larger center tenuous and in need of constant reaffirmation.
The influence of the geographic environment on the nature of more evident in the aptly named“island" Southeast Asia, where
early polities
is
even
1500 years ago, and the volcanic the mainland,
and more
it
was
soils
and extensive watersheds of the Solo and the
grow two or more crops a year, which resulted in larger more complex social stratification, labor hierarchies, and the development of systems of government. Even
possible to
settled populations that in turn led to
specialization, religious
Wang Da川an was
in the fourteenth century the experienced Chinese traveler
by the density of
Java's inhabitants,
Dipanagara boasted that气here the soil ofJava."25 fertile soil
and
cultivation of
the
Nowhere
is
and
wet
rice,
hundred years
later the
famed prince
nothing on earth that does not grow luxuriantly on
else in island
Southeast Asia can
ideal climate, although there
Minangkabau
five
impressed
we find this combination of
were certainly smaller areas favorable to the
such as the interior plateaus and highland valleys occupied by
in central Sumatra, the southwestern areas of the island of
Luzon
in
the Philippines, and the hinterland of Makassar in southwest Sulawesi.
Areas of high population were therefore exceptional in maritime Southeast Asia. Even in Java
much
land remained heavily forested, especially in the eastern part of the island
present-day Indonesia comprises an estimated seventeen thousand and the Philippines seven thousand islands. Lying along geological fault lines and shi丘ing tectonic plates, the volcanic arc that extends from southern Myanmar through Sumatra and Java into eastern Indonesia and up to the
where widespread areas covered with teak trees were home
Philippines
Some, like Tidore and Ternate in eastern Indonesia, are simply the peaks of volcanic
24
is
characterized by high seismic activity, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
Lu V臼de Cam6盹s, 丁he Lu邱ads, Landeg University Press, 1997), 222
Wl阮trans.
ar
am
as
Kalang
(literally
the other islands are divided into separate geographic
mountain chains, with only limited places
25
to the
nomadic peoples known
encircled or fenced), well-known for their timber-cutting skills.
domains by
suitable for intensive
Cited in Peter Carey, The Power of Prophecy: Prince D伊anagara and the 1785-1855 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2007), 87.
Most of
hilly terrain
and
and productive farming.
End of an Old Order
in Java,
37
38
A HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400一1830 mountains are
rising
among由e
from the
sea floor.
At the other end of the spectrum Borneo and Sumatra
world’s largest islands
but the height and luxuriant foliage of great jungle
trees created a false impression, since the soil itself
the coastal lowlands were covered with
When
it
was impossible
to
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT
swamp
forest
maintain permanent
not particularly
is
growing in
fields
of wet
fertile
and much
of
rice,
swidden farming and
from由e Americas
basic carbohydrate in
until the sixteenth century).
many environments
naturally in a range of different
soils,
The
pith of the sago
palm was
unsuitable for rice cultivation, since
it
the
grew
including the low-lying marshy areas that fringe
many coastlines. In some of the drier islands of eastern Indonesia such as in Savu and Rote human existence was only sustained by the life-giving sap of the lontar palm. The calorie from such food supplies could not support large populations, and the contrast is evident when we compare areas that developed wet-rice cultivation with those that relied yield
primarily on d巧rice. In the early fifteenth centu巧the population of the intensively farmed plains of northern Vietnam was estimated at around 5.2 million, in contrast to the 1.57 million inhabitants in the
much larger but more sparsely settled islands of Luzon and
the Visayas in the Philippines.
and
interior raiding,
arrow
thick, water-logged peat.
dry rice formed the basis of food production, supplemented by root crops ( corn did not arrive
reputation as fighters and head-hunters.
fired
The
by
“the
differences
Ma Huan
Downstream communities
mentioned that one king had been
its
and culture than with upriver suzerainty;
common with
each other in terms of
interior societies. Occasionally a strategically
would become dominant, and surrounding po口s would acknow- one such center was Srivijaya in southeast Sumatra, which was
recognized as a regional entrepot from the seventh to the fourteenth centuries. But
because coastal areas were also in competition, selling similar products and ηring to attract international trade,
common maxim requires
some
any claims
to overlordship
were readily challenged. The
and the lands divide"
that in island Southeast Asia “the seas unite
qualification since sea travel
are thus deceptive, for people living
on
also
was dictated by seasonal winds. Modern maps
islands that appear close
because of prevailing high seas or adverse currents. the geography of island Southeast Asia thus
might rarely interact
To a greater extent than the mainland,
promoted
was not conducive to the creation of large and unified
movement along the Solo and Brantas Rivers and a settled growing community did lead to a greater degree of cultural coherence. In however, the rivers that tumbled down from highland areas or meandered
by a poisoned
between lowland and upland peoples were often accentuated because
located coastal center
ledge
killed
tattooed-face king" from an upland Batak area.26
coastal communities linked by the sea had more in lifestyles
often lived in fear of
a multi-centered
environment that
polities.
In Java the relatively easy
sawah (wet
rice)
other islands,
through
lightly inhabited thick jungles
and swamp
forests
divisions that fostered the
development of different ethnolinguistic communities. In the eastern Indonesian island of Alor (approximately 50 to 60 miles [80 to 100 kilometers] in size), for instance, as many as twenty languages have been identified. The physically fragmented environment that characterizes many parts of island Southeast Asia rendered consolidation of scattered communities into a unified center extremely difficult. Indeed, such consolidation was in most cases unnecessary, since economic n mosr links
and intercom-
munity connections could be achieved through indirect and voluntary relationships. Because trade was a necessity for most communities, even groups far from major maritime routes were linked to neighboring islands through boat travel. People
living in the interior
could use short land passages and waterways to reach a major river that functioned as an ?rt町by which they were connec
downstream ports with forest products and agricultural surpluses, and in exchange they acquired goods that traders brought to the coastal center. While prestige items were always valued, interior societies were especially concerned to obtain utilitarian but none- theless valuable items, like metal tools, salt, cheap text过es, and ceramics. For the most part, traditions emphasizing
mutual respect acknowledged and affirmed the value of the complementary and mutually beneficial“upstream-downstream/ interior一lowland" rela- tionship. Sometimes, however, disputes
violence. In northern
(
CONCLUSION
formed natural geographic This chapter has ar思1ed that an appreciation of geography and the environment must be at the forefront
of any historical examination of Southeast Asia. Across the entire region,
monsoon winds determined agricultural cycles and the movement of international traders to the source of highly valued Southeast Asian products
the regularity of the annual
or to specific entrepots that served as distribution points for these goods.
even the most distant and isolated communities came to be linked to the wider global
economy. Rain-bearing monsoons were
later
termed the Batak had a formidable
also a blessing to agricultural societies, particu-
lady those reliant on irrigation for wet-rice cultivation. In the mainland the annual floods of the so山,and in Cambodia由ey created large temporary lakes出at were a major source of fish for the community - that
accompanied these rains replenished也e
important developments that determined the
fert过i句r
rise
of powerful
In mainland Southeast Asia a noteworthy physical feature
polities. is
the mountainous terrain
and hilly ranges stretching from what is now southwest China, northeastern
India, eastern
Bangladesh, and the interior uplands of Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, and
Cambodia. These highlands presented an impediment to expansion by power缸i neighbors from the north, while providing a vast area of cultural interconnections among highland
0丘en over the terms of trade) could lead to
Sumatra the people
As networks
were created for the smooth flow of goods from producers to buyers in coastal markets,
26
Ma Huan,
Ying-yai Sheng-Zan, 116.
39
40
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
populations出at helped distinguish them from the dominant lowland
polities.
Another
geographic element that was typical of the mainland was the presence of major
rivers
Chao Phraya, Mekong) and north-southeast
(Red)
flowing in a north-south (Irrawaddy, direction.
Not only were these
rivers a
major artery of communication, but they
also
supplied irrigation water for wet-rice agriculture in their extensive lowland watersheds.
Wet-rice agriculture demanded a sedentary population to regulate water孔ows, protect the crops from pests and disease, and bring in the harvest. Settled villages located
on accessible
lowlands could be easily taxed and organized for milita巧service and corvee labor. With 让rigation
it
was possible
to
more land was brought
grow
at least
two and sometimes three crops a
this
complex societies
non-farming groups, such as
that included
population base supported the development of more artisans, artists,
personnel, as well as由e governmental apparatus that centered therefore,
as
into production, the increase in food surpluses encouraged
demographic growth. In turn,
The mainland,
and
year,
saw a greater tendency towards
on the
ruler
and religious
and his
court.
unified, centralizing polities than
did the islands. In maritime Southeast Asia, a defining environmental feature tation, nicely
of “the seas of the Orient/ Scattered
among
was
its
physical fragmen”
captured by the sixteenth南century Portu凯1ese poet
Cam6es when he spokes wi由islands beyond number."27 Although some are
the world’s largest (notably Borneo and Sumatra), outside Java
and
Bali only
limited areas in the other islands provide an environment suitable for the development of extensive wet-rice agriculture. that
formed
in the
many
More common were
smaller ethnolinguistic communities
eco- niches found in the extensive forested
terrains in the larger islands, or in small
and more remote islands
and mountainous
scattered throughout the
archipelago’s various seas.
The geographic fragmentation of
the islands was to
some
extent vitiated by the
networks of exchange that linked producers or collectors from the deep forested interiors, the rugged highlands or inaccessible islands to the secondary and primary ports that were strategically placed for local, regional,
and international
trade.
In
this
way many commu-
Southeast Asia were able to retain their distinctive identities and independ- ence from ambitious neighbors, while st山benefiting from the flow of goods and ideas nities in island
仕om the outside world. Although this characteristic is often associated with the islands, scholarship on mainland Southeast Asia has shown that the major lowland polities were also
deep
composed of numerous smaller regions with
the gradual agglomeration of populations under a
mainland and on
Java,
own history and
a strong sense of their
loyalties to their local lords. In the early
modern period
it
possible to see
is
dominant overlord,
especially
on
the
but the appearance of consolidation and centralization belied
the persistence of smaller unities that arose and were maintained because of spec凶c geographical environments. 27
Camoes, The Lusiads, 223.
Antecedents of early
??
modern C.
TIMELINE Antecedents of early modern
societies,
c.
900-1400
900-1400
7th-11th century
societies,
90。一1400
c.
Period of the 气lassical Rise
and dominance of
Foundation of Angkor
states’,in
Southeast Asia
Srivijaya in southeast
in
Sumatra
modern Cambodia
Buddhist Borobodur and Hindu Prambanan temples built Central Java
960…1276
Tang dynasty
in
China
Song dynasty
in
China
Ly dynasty founds Dai Viet in
Vietnam
Gradual movement of Tai-speakers into Southeast Asia o
。工hyZ可〉
’n
n
肉d
sea
Chola attack on Srivijaya
・归川,川uwmw
GO的VO
w机MW问阳
A n da m a n
ikamm陀恼
mtmu咄叫咱 NhnHU吓
bRM
uf ’同,HHBU
Sea O 申l
v--
o
a nH
CJU 川U 白UW川u
cur’
po
n怡
nHQU
a
Mid-11thζentury
cehb
LnVAM -dHnH
vd
Rise of
Pagan
modern Myanmar
in
:i
FE-
Tran dynasty succeeds the Ly 。ρ
.:::,:,
Mid田13th century
Rise of Lan Earliest
Na
in
Rise
200
0
Map
100
3:
400 200
Sang
in
in
A N 800 km
400 miles
Antecedents of ear忖modern
societies,
c.
90。一1400
Southeast Asia at
northeast Sumatra in
Java
modern Laos
Desawarnana cou付epic composed
600 300
in
settlement
and dominance of Majapahit
Rise of Lan
0
the north of modern Thailand
known Muslim
Samudera-Pasai
CE
Dai Viet
0
0
0
in
in
Majapahit
in
44
' A HISTO…川剧Y MODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…切
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,
T:pre世 and
physical environment helped to delineate Southeast Asia as a region and
contributed to Asia’s global
trade
its
and
ethnic
ecological diversity.
also
It
showed
entire world, these
across ever greater
by the
rise
1025,
it
many places一India,
and elsewhere - while opening opportunities
of South India as a
Southeast
new commercial hub
China, the Ryukyu
for Southeast Asians
linking Southeast Asia to
Vietnam
(
is
dominated popular memory. Since a group’s history was often traced to the union between this great ancestor and a nature spirit who had magically emerged from a mountain, a tree, a lake, a waterfall, or a cave, the sense of shared identity was closely society and thus
connected to a specific
locali町.
raphies served to anchor the
The myths
communal past,
then more formally “Dai
Dai Co
Viet,,
Viet,“the
Great Viet
State,, in
the tenth century and
from the mid-eleventh century), the Song dynasty was
The late arrival of the monsoon rains, poor harvests,可phoons, and especially earthquakes and volcanic eruptions could all be interpreted as signs of supernatural anger. Certain crimes, such as incest, had cosmological significance that could bring reprisals for the entire
continuous exchange of envoys and missions to and from other areas of Southeast Asia.
society. In sixteenth-century Philippines a
Cultivating China’s favor was especially important for those rulers
beings, a brother
whose revenues came
primarily仕om
trade; between 960 and 1178 Srivijaya sent thirty-three missions to the Chinese court. However, although written accounts le丘by Chinese observers have been
invaluable in reconstructing regional histories,
ences related by Southeast Asians
who
we can only
speculate about the experi-
traveled to important Buddhist centers in India
N alanda or by the many envoys who were received in the imperial
As subsequent chapters
will
show, Southeast
Asia’s
wider world accelerated the processes of change in time, pre-existing concerns related to
increased interaction with
many
community
aspects of local
life.
At
a
the
identity, ethnic hierarchies,
interpolity relationships, access to supernatural assistance, the nature of leadership,
and control of manpower remained relevant throughout the early modern period. It is therefore necessary to give some attention to the preceding“classical age” 900-1400), so called because the kingdoms that flourished at this time established
cultural
models
to
which
their successors aspired. Accordingly, this chapter will begin
by considering some of the socio-cultural features that shaped the evolution of early polities before turning to examine how these features played out in different parts of the region. As later history unfolds it should then be possible to identi命those developments that represent a continuation or elaboration of earlier developments, and others
that signi马r
new
period in Southeast Asia.
directions
and thus help
to
mark
off an“early modern"
and
sister,
Spanish soldier was told that the
first
human
were only able to marry and thereby populate the earth a丘er
they had received permission from the fish of the sea, the birds of the air, and the spirit of the earthquake. Constant propitiation was necessary to gain the approval of non-human powers or to assuage their wrath, o丘en through special rituals that involved
all
members of the
community. If such rituals were successful, the favor of non-human powers would result in bountiful food supplies, healthy children, long-lived adults, and benevolent leaders.
Community coherence was
Chinese court.
(c.
while prominent features such as rivers and
with China also expanded. While direct Chinese influence was
cultural inspiration.
particularly concerned to strengthen trade relations across the region. This led to a
same
associated with supernaturally infused topog-
and the surrounding environment was simultaneously maintained by beliefs that powerful forces in the heavens, in the earth, and beneath the oceans could both punish and reward.
called
such as Bodhgaya and
members of the
all
against Srivijaya in
mounted
in Southeast Asia primar且y for the expedition
Asia’s links
was sustained by legendary accounts ultimately linking
mountains could also demarcate territorial boundaries. The interaction between community
was a source of artistic and
greatest in
identity that
in a sense of local
powers, such founder-figures were credited with introducing the cultural foundations of the
A丘ica and the Arab lands, and although the powerful southern Indian Chola dynasty
remembered
communities scattered across Southeast Asia were grounded
networks brought Southeast Asians into direct contact
themselves to travel to distant destinations. Connections across the Bay of Bengal were fostered
early
group to a distant ancestor. Honored as exceptional individuals possessed of extraordinary
with traders, envoys, and religious figures from Islands, Arabia, Persia,
move
The
an economic integration that would eventually
distances. Signaling the beginnings of
encompass the
to
等Fo叫on of mandala polities
that Southeast
connections can be tracked from very early times as expanding networks of
and communication allowed people, goods, and ideas
900-1400
C.
which served as“markers,, of
also related to lan伊age, appearance, housing,
and customs,
and of differences丘equently invoked
to establish a
identity
hierarchy in which one group could claim superiority to others. The village lists compiled when
Vietnam was under the control of China’s Tang d严1asty (618-907 CE), for example, did not include upland communities, who were considered to lie beyond the state. Al由ough many were probably originally lowlanders authori町,their less settled
who moved int。由highlands to escape expanding state
and culturally“barbarian”ways were unfavorably compared to出e
sedentary lowlanders whose
economy depended on
irrigated rice. In a similar fashion, old
Javanese texts refer to“imp田e,, people who remained outside mainstream society because由町 、at what is considered unclean,”while Chinese visitors to Java spoke of“ugly" individuals wi由
tousled hair and bare feet
1
Stuart Robson, trans. 139;
who consumed “snakes, ants, and all kinds of insects and worms."1
Desawarnana (Nagarakrtagama) by Mpu Prapanca
Ma Huan,ηng-yai Sheng-Zan.“The
trans.
and
(Leiden:
KITLV
Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores”[1433), ed. (Cambridge University Press for the Hakluyt Society, 1970), 93.
J.
Press, 1995),
V. G. M且ls,
45
46
MODERN SOUTHEAST
A HISTORY OF EARLY
ASIA, 1400一1830
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,
should be stressed, however, that any discussion of “ethnic”relationships during this early period raises problems, since shifts in identity markers changed over time and the It
sources frequently refer to groups that cannot be identified today.
We
also
know
that
the boundaries between such groups were highly porous, and that individuals could often be accepted into another community by adopting their language, dress, religious practices, and customs. This kind of movement has been tracked in many Southeast Asian societies, especially
when
it
was economically or
particular group. Nonetheless,
it is
clear that
of peoples in terms of linguistic and
dominance of
socially
advantageous to declare
affiliation with a
by the early modern period the categorization was well established, and that the
lifestyle differences
certain groups, such as the
Khmer
in
Cambodia, or the Burman
in
Myanmar, formed the basis for the development of larger polities. The historiography of the classical period has been dominated by studies of these larger polities - Angkor in Cambodia, Pagan (Bagan) in Myanmar, Sukhothai in Thailand, Dai Viet in Vietnam, Srivijaya in Sumatra, Majapahit in Java - with their impressive royal capitals and complex systems of administration reminiscent of India or China. Yet though their influence was long lasting, they were vastly outnumbered by smaller foci of authority ranging from prestigious centers that emulated the larger
groups where leadership was in the hands of elders. Local in such places were retained through distinctions in language, culture, and
The
result
was a dynamic political environment, where weaker
attach themselves to
new leaders who
acknowledged the leadership of one settlement, or powerful overlord dominated several lesser but
own
and
that
mimicked the
internal rivalries or competition for control of trading paths or a riverine tract they could easily dissolve into internecine conflict. Their relationship
meant
might end at出is
point, or be renegotiated with a
new leader at the helm of a different configuration. Larger polities could similarly readjust to changing circumstances and royal policies be shaped in accordance with geographical
were always ready
to
The
could cover widespread areas where a
still
signi且cant tributaries, each with
The
di旺usion of
power
it
in this ever-
changing kaleidoscope of relationships meant that the formation of large centralized
state
was not easi忖accomplished.
An
component of mandala polities was the preeminent lord, whose demonstration of extraordinary prowess became the impetus for rearrangement of loyal- ties and the redrawing of mandala borders. In societies where leadership was gained through personal achievement and where revered elders provided communal stability and indispensable
continuity, the ve叩idea of a dynastic line status over
Ambon
accomplishment was novel.
includes a revealing episode in
about the benefits of having a
A
and hereditary kingship that privileged birth seventeenth-century text from the island of
which four lineage heads express opposing views
Their solution
raj a.
in the
villages
it
subservient but potentially restless clients.
affiliations
come together in federations and at times develop into a hierarchy cultural and political features of more centralized polities. However,
rulers
displayed special spiritual or physical prowess.
extent of influence wielded by a center could be restricted to a few districts that jointly
spokesperson; his position rotates
smaller polities might
900-1400
smaller centers were highly sensitive to sh的s in power that could affect their security.
polities to village-based
behavior, and o丘en by a geographic environment that was not amenable to centralized territorial control or to the maintenance of lasting alliances. Groups of
C.
among
is
to install a ruler
the lineages
and
real
who merely acts
as a
decision-making remains
hands of the community’s oldest members.
The expansion and contraction of individual polities in accordance with the waxing and waning of individual centers and the prestige of their rulers had other implications, for
myths
new
detailing a society’s past
allegiances.
The processes of
new realities and reshaping communal memories made it possible for were constantly adjusted to
reflect
smaller domains to attach their histories to those of prestigious centers while simultan-
eously retaining accounts that detailed their restive rulers or chiefs
own networks
own specific origins. On the other hand, since
could easily disavow their tributary status and
of followers, even
powerful rulers
fall
back on
were necessarily engaged
their
in continual
asser-
negotiation to maintain their circles of loyalty. Marriage alliances were a primary source of
tions regarding the extent of their suzerainty, but regardless of such claims their authority inevitably declined with distance as the
cementing mandala relationships by extending the kinship network and the reciprocal obligations that this involved, including favors bestowed on the bride’s family. In ninth-
realities.
Rulers might
make grandiose
influence of one overlord or local
leader faded
away
to
merge or
cen阳d
intersect with that of a rival neighbor. In this multi-
world, where boundaries between polities were rarely stable, av01d envisaging well-defined, fixed territorial
we should
thus
domains.
0.
W.
Wolters, an eminent historian of the region, found
it
useful to think of inter-
polity relationships in terms of the Sanskrit
mandala (“circle"), a word that first occurs in Southeast Asia in a seventh-century Sumatran inscription. Used in Indian manuals of government, a mandala was conceptualized as a series of concentric circles where a great ruler, claiming divine and universal authority, counter potential 飞八T
rivals
by bu且ding up
olters depicts the Southeast
was able to maintain hegemony and
a system of alliances with
surrounding kings.
Asia landscape as one dotted with mandala
polities,
where
centu巧Cambodia,
for example,
Jayavarman
women from
different parts of the country.
male
were made court
relatives
officials.
vow
802-c. 834) married at least seven
They were
all
awarded
Another strategy was
the center to participate in ritual oath-taking.
subservient chiefs to
II (r.
One
to
elite titles
and
their
summon vassal lords
to
widespread custom required lords and
some fermented liquid into consuming the meat of solemn vows would incur dire
allegiance while drinking water or
which royal weapons had been dipped, and in
some
slaughtered animals. Those accused of flouting these
supernatural punishment. Royal
commands could
also
cases
be reinforced by丘ightening
curses threatening divine retribution for any infringement. In Java, for instance, those
who ignored the provisions of a land grant would be bitten by poisonous snakes, attacked
47
48
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,
devoured by crocodiles, or smashed on jagged rocks.“During a shower of rain, on the battle field may their heads be cleaved." may由ey be struck by lightning
by
tigers,
.
.
.
Death would be inevitable, their torments would continue in
hell,
and they
In combination with marriage alliances
center and
its
periphery, as long as obligations to
ties
between
an overlord were not onerous and
a
as
long as the reciprocal responsibilities inherent in kinship relations ( whether real or symbolic) were maintained. A“son”or“younger brother" should immediately respond to requests
favors
from
his “father" or older sibling, but in return
he could also expect
special
and assistance when needed. Particular emphasis was given to correct treatment of
women exchanged in marriage alliances. The cultural weight attached to the maintenance of family honor
is
repeatedly demonstrated in indigenous accounts that attribute
declar-
ations of war to the perceived ill-treatment of a princess sent as a sign of submission or seal
an
alliance.
Tensions could and did arise
when a powerful and ambitious
smaller mandala). In such cases the use of armed force to a recalcitrant vassal, but
it
compel
invariably le丘legacies of resentment
to
ruler sought
economic resources, and political
overlord. In the
words of an old
rivalry
battles
he
fights.”3
in west Java, purporting to present
the
The dominance of certain ethnic groups encouraged ambitious on shared religious and cultural features as a means of
composed of multiple communities, each with
woman) owed much
assumption of authority by a
man
(and
to the perception of what elements defined a true
leader destined for greatness. Such a person
must stand out above
possessing a reputation for invulnerability, great
his or her fellows
by
wisdom, extraordinary courage, and
exceptional feats, frequently in battle but also spiritual achievements. Throughout the early
modern period we
see the repeated
drew on the symbols and
emergence of individuals whose
ideas associated with religion,
and the
status as leaders
belief that they could tap
supernatural and godlike powers. Legitimacy could be further demonstrated by possession of an object infused with special potency, such as a magic dagger or a charmed cloth. The cultural weight attached to the association
between leadership and sacred objects occurs
crossbow rules the realm."5 The traditions of the Bugis and Makassar people from the southwestern peninsula of Sulawesi supply another example. Legends describe how
cohesion and garnering allegiance. This trend, however, confronted
reality of a region
occasionally a
justified the
competition
rulers to place greater stress instilling social
understanding of what
accounts refer to struggles to gain possession of a magic crossbow, the trigger of which was made from a claw of the Golden Turtle Deity, for “he who is able to hold this
words of a twel丘h-century r吐er,“Obedience on the part of the people/is the key for a safe and prosperous land,/with that the king will reign in peace/will enjoy the food he eats/will
win the
societies the
tributary
and encouraged
among ambitious leaders - helped to promote at all levels owed their loyalty to a single
from Sunda
those perceived to posse
extraordinary qualities and renowned for remarkable achievements.4 In Southeast Asian
accounts of Vietnamese history written during the Jin dynasty (260-425 CE). These
where subjects
text
“prowess,”i.e.
allegiance might subdue
During the early modern period a number of factors - population growth, the notion of an ideal polity as one
were ruled by persons of
repeatedly in Southeast Asian histories, with perhaps the earliest example coming from
center of
lords to seek out an alternative patron.
for
polities
a
impose greater authority over more substantial vassals (themselves the
to
等Pers…f pr… Mandala
and the presentation of titles and honors, oaths
of loyalty and threats of punishment were usually sufficient to maintain
900-1400
would
2
never be reborn.
C.
its
the
own history and sense
The diversity of customs, beliefs, and lifestyle in Southeast Asia remained a major impediment to centralizing efforts that could not be easily overcome by even the most powerful rulers. It is not surprising that those rulers who were able to create and of identity.
maintain a strong center and bring numerous groups under their sway were
eulogized
in the chronicles.
come across an item identified with the deity, such as a rusty plowshare, a petrified mango seed, or an unusually shaped stone, which is regarded as a sign of divine favor. These sacrally charged items become the palladia of the community and the person who holds them is entitled to be leader. Through their possession of special objects, supported by perceptions that they were endowed with extraordinary spiritual and/or physical power, these men or women of prowess accumulated faithful followers. As community
ancestors
surrounded their birth -
their following grew, stories proliferated about the events that
meteors, great storms, earthquakes - their amazing feats as a child and their incredible
achievements as leader.
The
idea that
some
individuals were innately superior to their fellows
importance in shaping views of kingship, since Southeast Asian administrative or bureaucratic institutions, but on a to
leader’s
polities
was of enormous
were not based on
personal standing and ab过ity
marshal a sizeable number of loyal supporters. Because of the concern to demonstrate and statecra丘that evolved in India ( where rulers were also
“prowess,”views of religion
preoccupied with questions of authority and social organization) were particularly
2
V eerdonk, 1222-1486," BK! 157, 1 (2001), 106-8. Cited in Ann Kumar and John H McGlynn, eds. Illuminations: the Writing Traditions of Indonesia (Jakarta: The Lontar Foundation, 1996), 109.
Jan van der
AD 3
4
The phrase
is
taken仕om O. W. Wolters,
History, Culture,
and Region
in
Southeast Asian Perspectives
Program, 1999), 18. Keith Taylor, The Birth of Vietnam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), (Ithaca: Cornell Southeast Asia
5
25.
49
50
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,
Asian leaders. In Buddhist societies the concept of karma referred to the consequences of one's actions that determined
attractive to early Southeast
(Sanskrit) or
how
kamma
(Pali)
favorably or unfavorably one
valuable tool in statecra丘because
over the
justified a ruler’s
in the next
life.
This concept was
monkhood,
the sangha. Buddhist teachings could also supply guidance and
precedents for political action, with tales of the Buddha’s former lives demonstrating, instance, the value of a marriage alliance in bringing
could be averted through diplomacy.
A
ruler’s
about peace or showing how
religious credentials
through the copying and distribution of the Tipitaka
(literally,
Theravada Buddhism, discussed below) and other sacred
were
strengthened
three baskets, the canon of
texts,
clothing, fly whisks,
slippers, gongs,
and
and betel-boxes to weapons, sacred
horse’s bridles
introducing“Allah" into their royal honorifics.
The most convincing evidence that even a person of humble origins was the recipient of supernatural favor and merited claims to kingship was victory in warfare. Indigenous texts and chronicles, generated from royal
capitals and可pically
resources could maintain an
needed
to
overcome powerful
army with rivals.
sponsored by
the requisite horses, elephants, and
Rulers
who
and diplomatic connections with both India and China were also able to gain access to new types of weaponry such as incendiaries and bombards (rudimentary cannon, o丘en
wholesale importation of communities from other areas and their resettlement in the
items
manuscripts, god,
lands of their victors enhanced the
ruler’s
homage while simultaneously expanding
the
prestige
by adding
slave-lists
discovery of a white elephant was a public confirmation of the
the context of war-captives.
ruler’s
vast merit and
ruler’s
is
found
in
who
paid
him
and the
found on stone first
mention of
an eleventh-century Cham inscription from central Vietnam in
Buddha had been born as a unique
snow-white elephant, Chaddanta. While any addition to the storehouse of sacred could only increase the
his
“Syam" (Siam)
to those
number of subjects who could be taxed and
organized for warfare or labor. In mainland Southeast Asia the
or copper-plate inscriptions o丘en include non-indigenous names,
the
manpower
enjoyed the benefits of expanding trade
such as dwarfs and albinos, were also seen to be imbued with special powers and hence o丘en maintained in the royal court. For Buddhist rulers the
life
devote
possession
human beings,
superiority over lesser rulers, since in a previous
rulers,
And indeed, only a king with access to major
considerable attention to great feats in battle.
made of wood). As many scholars have emphasized, however, the main priority in warfare remained the capture of people rather than the taking of life or occupation of land. The
sacred
the latter two associated with the Hindu
(
Islamic mytholo部r, like Alexander the Great (Iskandar Zul-karnain), and occasionally
and
the dedication of
of magically charged objects, critical to royal legitimacy, could include a range of
from umbrellas, golden
for
war
images, the construction of temples, together with donations of property, goods, slaves for their upkeep - all of which contributed to his good kamma. The
Vishnu). Unusual
a
high status ( a result of his good deeds
and invoked moral authority to legitimize political control and author-
in past existences) ity
it
would be reborn
900-1400
C,
legitimacy and power, any loss ( especially
if seized
items
by a rival
The mandala
polity as fam过y
or an enemy)
would signi命the opposite. The ongoing need for leaders to provide proof of great merit or supernatural favor was
necessary because leadership was inherently strongest ruler could be
fragile.
Popular acceptance of even
the
undermined by some unforeseen
Entwined with the notion that the leader of a mandala polity was a person of prowess was an entrenched belief that the interaction between those in authority and the people under
them should resemble
relationships within a family.
The model of the
ruler as a strict but
event, since natural disasters or catastrophes such as an epidemic or a prolonged drought were regarded as signs of
benevolent parent whose “children”should render willing obedience obviously functioned
cosmic displeasure
and an indication that divine favor had been with- drawn. Leaders might thus seek to enhance their position by themselves pointing to
best in smaller polities
religious
omens or predictions indicating that their rise to power was predestined. Inscrip- produced during the reign of Kyanzittha of Pagan 1084一1113 CE) thus invoked a ( prophecy foretelling his rebirth as a king, which was attributed to the Buddha. In a region
was
tions
Although the concept of inherited rule was gradually incorporated into political traditions,
at royal failings
where physical distance and geographic obstacles limited the reach of even the most powerful polities, the prestigious language and symbols associated with religious teachings provided one of the most effective means of emphasizing a ruler’s special standing and affirming royal authority.
Some Buddhist
kings assumed
titles
such as dhammaraja,
the
King who would preserve the Buddha’s teachings, and aspired to be a righteous “wheel-turning monarch" or cakkavatti (Sanskrit, cakravartin) who turned the wheel Just
(cakka) that was the symbol of universal dominion. titles
Muslim
rulers also elevated
their
and genealogies, claiming descent from great heroes who had been incorporated into
where
chiefly families
genuinely connected through blood far
this
more
links.
and
their followers
In Southeast
difficult for a ruler to ensure allegiance
by no means eliminated the succession disputes
numbers of royal progeny. The
were more
Asia’s larger polities,
by appealing
likely to
however,
be it
to family loyalties.
that arose because of the large
liaisons of individual rulers are difficult to quanti命,but
the women’s quarters町pically included hundreds, even thousands, of residents, any of
whom Even
might
in
attract royal favor
and bear a
child
who
could have claims to the throne.
Vietnam, where the dynastic principle promoted by the Chinese model was
stronger than elsewhere in Southeast Asia, rival families vied for
much
power and competed
to
control access to the emperor through their female kin. In this situation an ambitious
born from one of a ruler’s many women, could well resent rendering obeisance to a half-brother whose birth status might be no higher or even lower than his own. It was prince,
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
much
quite possible for a rival claimant to demonstrate as
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,
or more“prowess”as
the
become
stakes were so high, the center itself could
a hotbed of family intrigue
strengthen the
who emerged
victorious reaffirmed deep- rooted indigenous traditions
patriarchal
form of
idealization
is
common
in
many
societies (Britain’s
kinship as a justification for the ruler-subject relationship
Queen
is
While
Victoria,
female
own
pronouncements that describe
individuals
owed
to parental care.
When
Asian rulers employed the vocabulary of kinship, referring to their subjects
and distant
vassals as
younger brothers,
assumed a mutual recognition of the
it
was
far
nurse.
Even when the
traces descent
through both male and
between
villagers
and
nobility,
and of
were recruited or abducted or given by their families to serve as elite
households. Royal genealogies demonstrate the complex
ties
created
when elite children were breast-fed by the same wet-
allegiance of subjects
was exacted by compulsion and
Though
historical sources o丘en
model
for political authority “cities,”or“emperors,”
(great king of kings),
“raj as”(kings),“maharajadiraja"
these terms tend to
it
responsibilities that lay at the heart of diplomatic
mask
their labor
mention飞mpires" and
exploited, the idea of the parent-directed family as the persisted.
as children for
which
bilateral kinship,
that the tentacles of real or fictive genealogical ties could reach deep
adoption, and the sibling
ruler
Southeast
more than customa町protocol,
meant
servants or concubines in
and mother of his people,”occasionally meting out punishment but always acting with their welfare in mind. 6 This metaphor carried a heavy cultural weight because all
and thus endorsed the
interests
household head.
kinship networks that connected high-ranking families through marriage, concubinage,
as“the father
of the reciprocal obligations that
lines,
ordinary women who
of
womb-
a good
male
to further
ruler as a metaphorical
into society. Legends o丘en speak of marriages
for
especially noticeable. The
as loving their subjects“like their
children" are可pical of region-wide formulaic
power of the
This perception of the polity as family was given practical application because the
that
example, was called “mother of her people"), in Southeast Asia the vocabulary
Burmese chronicles depicting kings
were intended
widespread pattern of
Simultaneously, however, a leader should also exhibit the qualities of a parent.
expand and
web of kinship on which power rested. Although male-female relationships were generally conceptualized as complementary, we need to remember
that these exchanges
viewed “prowess" as an inherent quality of leadership.
this
active participants in the marriage strategies intended to
900-1400
in Southeast Asia
as
contenders competed for power, and “disloyalty" was most o丘en encountered from a disaffected royal relative. In demonstrating his capacity to overcome challengers, the individual
and were
riches,
designated successor to the throne, and thus gain greater popular acceptance. Because the
C.
and ?purohitas"
(chief priests),
the kinship dynamics through which Southeast Asian polities
operated.
relations.
Imported models of statecra丘with
mandala relationships, but they did not also wield political power.
give birth, older
Asian view that females could
among
certainly
shaped命 -
early
modern period we encounter queens and regents, or
a special debt because she
women commanded
at large,
efface the Southeast
direct authority as
mother was owed
mediators in restoring amity
community
male leaders
Throughout the
mention of women who exercised royal kin. Since a
their preference for
・
Localization
frequent
indirectly
had risked her own
as
life to
A
key feature in the development of Southeast Asian
polities was“localization," or the
process of selecting and modi马ring foreign concepts to
great respect in palace politics
indigenous society. This process was particularly relevant
hostile princes.
the relationship between
and were frequently As emblematic “mothers" for the
legendary queens could often be credited with establishing
features of traditional cultures. Describing the early history of the Malays, the classic known as Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) refers to
only one female ruler,
human
society
key
concentrated on maintaining
text
supernatural deities and powerful
Wan Sri Benian,
who governed the island of Bintan (near Singapore). However, she is described as a“great raja" who not only introduced the nobat, the ceremonial drumming by which a ruler was
life,
venerated a variety of nature and spirit
of the
soil
depended. The
and the cosmos. Indigenous
belief systems
were
gaining prosperity, and avoiding calamity by placating spirits.
Although early Southeast Asian communities
among由e most important was the food on which humans and animals
territorial deities,
because the earth produced the
fertilization
make them compatible with in regard to new ideas about
of the “female"
soil
by
life-giving
rain仕om由e“male" sky
installed, but allegedly visited the distant country of Sham (Syria) and took a Muslim title long before Islam was adopted by later male rulers.7 The constant circulation of well-born daughters among ruling houses attests to the belief effectively
represented the sexual union由at ensured the community’s continued well-being. Spirits
formed and maintained through blood
and support. Certain people endowed with divine
that allegiances were
6
Pe
Maung Tin and
Press, 1960), 20-4. 7
relationships. Elite
women
most
enjoyed
status and
of departed kin and legendary founder-figures or ancestors (who might sometimes enter the bodies of particular animals, like the tiger) could also be approached for assistance
C. C. Brown,“Sejarah
Melayu or Malay Annals,”JMB扎4.S
25, 2
and
3 (1952), 28.
and possessing sacred
o问ects
and esoteric knowledge of specialized rituals communicated with the supernatural on
community or of individuals. The ceremonies over which such specialists officiated o丘en focused on a stone or rock,仕equently near a large tree, both of which were manifestations of the divinized fertile forces of the soil. This location became a ritual behalf of the
G. H. Luce, The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma (Rangoon
qualities
University
52
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
much
quite possible for a rival claimant to demonstrate as
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,
or more“prowess”as the
stakes were so high, the center itself could
become
strengthen the
a hotbed of family intrigue as
contenders competed for power, and “disloyalty" was most o丘en encountered from disaffected royal relative. In demonstrating his capacity to
overcome
a
form of idealization
is
common
many
in
example, was called “mother of her
people”),
societies (Britain’s
patriarchal
that
and mother of his
acting with their welfare in mind.6 This
of the reciprocal obligations that
all
individuals
female
owed
ordinary
meant
women who
were recruited or abducted or given by
adoption, and the sibling
ruler
nurse.
When
ties
created
assumed
far
and of
more than customa巧protocol,
for
when elite children were breast-fed by the same wet- model mention “empires" and
exploited, the idea of the parent-directed family as the
Southeast
persisted.
Though
historical sources often
these terms tend to
was
nobility,
Even when the allegiance of subjects was exacted by compulsion and
and
it
and
their families to serve as
servants or concubines in elite households. Royal genealogies demonstrate the complex
“raj as”(kings),“maharajadiraja"
younger brothers,
through both male and
kinship networks that connected high-ranking families through marriage, concubinage,
Asian rulers employed the vocabulary of kinship, referring to their subjects as children distant vassals as
traces descent
own womb-
a heavy cultural weight because
to parental care.
lines,
which
bilateral kinship,
that the tentacles of real or fictive genealogical ties could reach deep
into society. Legends often speak of marriages between villagers
meting out punishment but always
metaphor carried
and thus endorsed the
interests
household head.
The
pronouncements that describe a good
people,”occasionally
ruler as a metaphorical
This perception of the polity as family was given practical application because the
Victoria, for
especially noticeable.
as loving their subjects“like their
children" are typical of region-wide formulaic as“the father
is
were intended to further male
power of the
widespread pattern of
in Southeast Asia the vocabulary of
kinship as a justification for the ruler-subject relationship
Burmese chronicles depicting kings
Queen
expand and
web of kinship on which power rested. Although male-female relationship were generally conceptualized as complementary, we need to remember
that these exchanges
Simultaneously, however, a leader should also exhibit the qualities of a parent. While this
active participants in the marriage strategies intended to
900-1400
in Southeast Asia
challengers, the
individual who emerged victorious reaffirmed deep-rooted indigenous traditions viewed “prowess" as an inherent quality of leadership.
and were
riches,
designated successor to the throne, and thus gain greater popular acceptance. Because the
C.
it
a mutual recognition of the responsibilities that lay at the heart of diplomatic
mask
(great king of kings),
their labor
for political authority “cities,”or“emperors,”
and "purohitas”(chief
priests),
the kinship dynamics through which Southeast Asian politie
operated.
relations.
Imported models of
mandala
statecraft
with their preference for male leaders certainly shaped
relationships, but they did not efface the Southeast
also wield political
power. Throughout the early modern period
mention of women who exercised royal kin. Since a give birth, older
women commanded
at large,
among
we encounter
输@
£‘
IL
O C a za o n
frequent as
A
to
process of selecting and modi马ring foreign concepts to
great respect in palace politics
and were frequently As emblematic “mothers" for the
indigenous society. This process was particularly relevant
hostile princes.
the relationship between
direct authority as
mother was owed a
mediators in restoring amity
community
Asian view that females could
queens and regents, or indirectly
special debt because she
had risked her own
life
legendary queens could o丘en be credited with establishing key
key feature in the development of Southeast Asian
human
concentrated on maintaining
society
life,
features of traditional cultures. Describing the early history of the Malays, the classic text
supernatural deities and powerful
known as Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) refers to only one female ruler, Wan Sri Benian, who governed the island of Bintan (near Singapore). However, she is described as a飞reat
venerated a variety of nature and
raj a”who
depended. The
installed,
drumming by which a ruler was count巧of Sham (Syria) and took a Muslim title
not only introduced the nobat, the ceremonial but allegedly visited the distant
long before Islam was adopted by later male rulers.7 The constant circulation of well-born daughters among ruling houses attests to the belief that allegiances were most effectively
formed and maintained through blood
6
Pe
Maung Tin and G.
relationships. Elite
women
enjoyed status and
C. C. Brown,“Sejarah
of the
soil
were
spirits.
Although early Southeast Asian communities
among
territorial deities,
the most important was the
soil
by
life-giving rain
humans and animals from the
“male" sky
of departed kin and legendary founder-figures or ancestors (who might sometimes enter the bodies of particular animals, like the tiger) could also be approached for assistance
and support. Certain people endowed with divine qualities and possessing sacred objects and esoteric knowledge of specialized rituals communicated with the supernatural on
community or of
officiated often focused
manifestations of the divinized
3 (1952), 28.
belief systems
gaining prosperity, and avoiding calamity by placating
of the “female"
Melayu or Malay Annals," JMB扎4.S
and
and the cosmos. Indigenous
represented the sexual union由at ensured the community’s continued well-being. Spirits
behalf of the
25, 2
make them compatible with in regard to new ideas about
because the earth produced the food on which
fertilization
H. Luce, The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma (Rangoon University
Press, 1960), 20-4. 7
spirit
polities was“localization,”or the
on
individuals.
The ceremonies over which such
specialists
a stone or rock,仕equently near a large tree, both of which were fertile forces
of the
so且.
This location became a ritual
53
54
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 as guardians of community welfare. center where protective deities were venerated conducted through trance, Communication with these supernatural beings was typically
drums, and it was not uncommon for older 。丘en induced by the music of gongs and women and transvestites (who represented the merging of male and female into one) to be among recognized spirit practitioners. Spirit propitiation could also require included
blood
sacrifices of
Taking root
animals and
times humans.
at
in these indigenous beliefs
political expression that
came
and
practices, the
new forms
of religious and
result of
widening global
were a direct
to Southeast Asia
connections and were most evident in population hubs located in
and
in
fertile agric吐tural areas
busy ports along the major sea routes. As we have seen, these interactions were
longstanding. Remains
of ceramics, beads, coins,
and other items show
that centuries of
influences. Between trade with India preceded the spread of religious and philosophical
centu可CE
the third and fi丘h statues,
and epigraphy begin
tions to the interior - a
inscriptions written in Sanskrit, Indian-inspired temples,
to appear,可pically in coastal locations with riverine conn饵’
common
route for those
engaged in maritime
trade. Exempli马ring
what one scholar has called the “local genius,'’Southeast Asian societies encountered religious beliefs and political difficulty in amalgamating indigenous features with the models that reached the region from India and China.8 little
in the Ideas associated with what we now call Hinduism were brought to Southeast Asia deities early centuries of the Common Era by Indian traders. The mixture of sky and earth
that evolved in the interaction between Brahmanic and indigenous Indian beliefs was that especially appealing to Southeast Asian rulers. While they recognized many features were reminiscent of their indigenous deities, they were also ready to accept the new and
From Mahayana Buddhism emerged “Tantric,”because specific
it
and Hindu
of early Buddhist
beginning of the
Buddhism
Common
Era.
in this early period,
it
described in Indian texts from around the
Although there
is
was Mahayana that held out the greatest appeal because
of the concept of bodhisattvas, enlightened beings
nibbana in spiritual
Pali),
and even
evidence of several different forms of
who have postponed nirvana
meaning the dissolution of the
(Sanskrit,
sentient being) in order to provide
practical assistance to others to attain this ultimate objective.
H. G. Quaritch Wales, Prehistory and Religion 109-27.
in South-East
Asia (London: Bernard Quaritch, 1957),
ideas were thus adapted
A number
and absorbed into the Southeast
and evolving system of
and protective and healing requirements. In
Southeast Asia, Tantric polities
(salvationist)
Buddhism appealed
and acquiring the loyalty of their
to rulers as a
subjects.
where a 1347 inscription commemorates
a
plex,
where images,
statuary,
belief that
way of strengthening
their
An early example comes from Sumatra,
Malay/Minangkabau
Tantric Siva-Buddhist deity Bhairava. Further north
the
is
ruler’s initiation
Padang Lawas
and temples dating from the eleventh
religious
as the
com-
to the fourteenth
centuries have also been identified as Tantric Buddhist. In mainland Southeast Asia, too,
Tantric
Buddhism
is
evident in votive tablets found in present-day Thailand in the Khorat
plateau areas dating from the
Khmer period
(
eleventh to twel丘h centuries).
Ongoing local
adaptations of techniques and beliefs associated with esoteric forms of Hindu-Buddhism
continued to be a dynamic element in Southeast early
By
modern
Asia’s religious
landscape throughout the
period.
the eighth
and ninth centuries
great
monuments
like the
Bakong
in
and the Mahayana Buddhist Borobodur in
Cambodia,
dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva, t创的to the growth of more complex polities linked to a wider Indic world in which Sanskrit was the language of power. Simultaneously, however, such monuments reflect the local environment from which they had developed. Although the presence of Indian
and
religious scholars
was certainly a
central Java,
critical factor in transferring
many
aspects of Indian culture, Southeast Asians themselves were actively engaged in the localization process, evident in the hospitable reception extended to religious specialists in the fourth century
one Chinese observer had remarked that“出e
Dunsun [probably on the Malay Peninsula] practice [the Brahmans’J doctrine and give them their daughters in marriage; consequently many of the Brahmans do not go
people of
away.呻Hindu and Buddhist legends were linked geography”could be created by
incoming
beliefs,
and the phallic
to familiar localities
conferring Sanskrit honorifics
由at were already viewed as inhabited
by powerful
spirits.
rivers
In the fusion of local
sacred stones and rocks could represent both the
linga that in
and a“sacred
on mountains or earth’s
potent
and
fertility
Hindu thought manifested the creative energy of sexual union
between Shiva and his divine Shakti. As a focus of worship, linga were placed on a square stone (in Sanskrit, yoni, invoking the universal womb), or sometimes simply on the soil itself,
8
of which were
flexible
from overseas. Even
is
and the use of
all
responded to both soteriological
Southeast Asian rulers could aspire to a status that reached beyond their specific locality. The major Hindu gods, Shiva and Vishnu, were particularly revered, and many Southeast
Mahayana form of Buddhism, which
and sacred knowledge,
Asian indigenous religious base to create a
traders, artisans,
the
special techniques, such as meditation
to explicate profane
900-1400
sometimes termed
thought to contribute to a quicker path to Buddhism’s ultimate goal of nibbana.
complex cosmology associated with the powerful sky deities so prominent in Hindu new rituals. More elaborate and refined than indigenous belief systems, the gods of the which religion were universal rather than locally grounded and thus created a model by
Asian rulers adopted names that linked them directly to one of these powerful deities. Another Indian religion that reached Southeast Asian shores at about the same time was
on
relied
words or numbers
a separate esoteric path,
C.
9
emblematic of female regenerative power.
Paul Wheatley, The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula bφre AD 1500 (Kuala L山npur: University of Malaya Press, 1961), 17.
56
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,
C.
900-1400
images date from the sixth and seventh centuries, and recent finds include two bronze figures considered to
be of Chinese
origin.
Buddhist influences from China are most pronounced in Vietnam, which was a vassal of China between 111
BCE and around 939 CE. Although Buddhism did initially come by
sea仕om
India, Vietnam’s cultural universe continued to
after the
gaining of independence in the tenth centu叩.
elite
be oriented northwards, even
The educated Sino- Vietnamese
thus absorbed the Chinese view that Confucian teachings should provide the ethical
basis of
government. As in China, however, those versed in Confucian scholarship could
simultaneously be followers of Buddhism and the Chinese indigenous religion, Daoism.
Vietnam continued Bhairava from Candi Singasari, East Java. Bhairava (“terrible" or“frightening") could represent both the demonic form of Shiva and Mahakala (“出e great black one”), the Tantric Buddhist protector deity. Infused with power and ferocity, this naked Bhairava from
Fi伊re
2.1.
thirteenth-century Java also resembles statues of guardian
found
in
fi思ires
crown and
the base, the chain of severed heads,
and his jackal mount (sni伍ng blood from the his dagger, skull-bowl,
dagger) reflect the “demonic"
image叩and Tantric
rituals
practitioners gained access to
extraordinary spiritual and physical powers. Courtesy of Rijksmuseum
voor
V olkenkunde, Leiden,
selective localization of
incoming
the
was always apparent. Female
beliefs
and Daoist
priests appealed in times of drought, while
behavior and good government were adjusted to
By
fit
displaced
(“the
Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism
in
deities of rain,
whom Buddhist monks
Confucian teachings about ethical
existing priorities.
the end of the fourteenth century the Buddhist practices which
modern
much
of the region covered by present-
which only came into
common
use
among academics
the school of Buddhism that transmitted
and
liturgy. In
its
about 250
in the twentieth centu巧,refers to
teachings through the use of the Pali language
BCE Buddhism was brought仕om
India to Sri
Lanka, where the Theravada traditions developed, claiming to follow the original teach- ings of the
Buddha more
faithfully.
early as the fi丘h century,
may
Myanmar,
In
inscriptions written in Pali appear as
though other forms of Buddhism using
Pali as a scriptural
have come to Southeast Asia from India in the early centuries CE. The
primary source of Theravada influences was the island of Sri Lanka, renowned for
A
monasteries and for sin世ar pattern can be noted in regard to early
frequently depicted
Buddhism. For instance, a on the merit-making Buddhist votive tablets found along the
of peninsular Thailand
is
Jambhala, the bodhisattva of wealth,
who was
its
sacred relics - a bodhi tree, originally a
figure
under which the Buddha had received enlightenment,
coasts
the revered
especially
favored by merchants and seafarers. In Southeast Asian society where maritime trade was of immense importance, this bodhisattva would have had great appeal and would
have reinforced and been amalgamated with local deities associated with the sea. The most popular bodhisattva, however, was the compassionate Avalokitesvara, and one of the earliest images, a seventh-century statue found in Cambodia, shows him with life- giving water flowing from his hands. Unlike Hindu teachings that derived from India,
Buddhist influences also came to Southeast Asia from China. Chinese Buddhist pilgrims passed through the Melaka Straits en route to India, and the port of Srivijaya enjoyed a high reputation as a place for Buddhist scholarship. In Cambodia numerous Buddhist
scholars
Doctrine of the Elders") had essentially
day Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and southern Vietnam. The word "Theravada,”
language
Netherlands. Inv. 1403-1680.
re矶山rly circulated. Nonetheless, the
thunder, lightning, and clouds were recast as “Lady Buddhas" to
in texts, rituals,
by which
environment through which envoys, Confu-
to operate in a Sinicized
and Buddhist and Daoist monks
have subsumed under the term Theravada
temple complexes. The
skulls that decorate his
cian scholars,
life
Tooth
Relic.
These bodily
relics
and the
his
its
great
branch丘om出e ve巧tree
alms bowl, his collarbone, and
objects associated
with出e Buddha’s
created a field of transcultural Buddhist devotion in which Sri Lanka occupied a special
place. Central to the perception of Sri
that the
Buddha himself had
Lanka
as the
home of pure Buddhism was
the belief
visited the island three times, leaving his footprint
on出e
sacred mountain, Sri Pada. In the eleventh centu可deepening links with mainland South- east Asia
assumed particular importance
creation of a nities
as the spread of Theravada traditions fostered the
common Buddhist world that linked monasteries, monks, and their commu-
through a network reaching from
Thailand, and the
Mekong
Sri
Lanka
to present-day
Myanmar, northern
Delta.
Despite the role of royal patronage and exchanges of religious missions with Sri Lanka, the
prima巧reason
for the success of
Theravada teachings was the appeal to ordinary
57
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400一1830
who understood
people,
the conception of
kamma more
easily
than that of attaining
nibbana. The idea of kamma provided followers of Buddhism with an immediate explan- ation for their current condition, a clear exposition of the path necessa巧for a better rebirth,
and a belief that could
and
also seen as a source of protection for individuals
through performing good deeds, observing proper Direct channels to Buddhist
Buddhism was
co-exist comfortably with spirit veneration.
power were
their families as they acquired merit
rituals,
and supporting the monkhood.
available in the chanting of prayers, the wearing
of protective amulets, and the propitiation of
Buddha images. The wealthy should
give
generously through sponsoring the recopying of the Tipitaka or endowing a monaste町,
but a poor person could also gain merit through small acts of devotion. Murals
on the temples of Pagan, for instance, show individuals grass, or
simply opening a gate for
monks
no overarching
Since there was
religious authority that
As the font of the Theravada form of Buddhism,
much
offering a cup of water, a bundle of
leaving to receive alms.
regarding dogma, the great strength of Buddhism was
respect
Sri
its
pronounced on matters
ab过ity to
independent
entities adjusting to the
be regarded as
lent to the Sanskrit mlecc仰,or outsiders.
adapt to local contexts.
Lanka was always regarded with latter
great
operated ve巧
needs and special circumstances of
their
Some achieved particular fame because they housed a sacred relic, Buddha image. The development of localized Buddhism saw the rise of
Muslim communities
in Southeast Asia
the tenth centu巧. Apparently
comes from
coming from
a ship wrecked off the coast of Java in
Sriv加ya,
it
carried
numerous
Java
and Sumatra, points
to increasing tra面c
between the Middle East and Southeast Asia.
Muslim environment the landscape itself could be reconfigured to reflect the immediacy of what was for many a new faith. During his travels, for instance, the Moroccan Ibn Battuta made a pilgrimage to Sri Lanka, where Muslims (and later some local Christians) believed the
and legends
architecture, while popular beliefs
of
rock formation
at the
peak of the revered
was the footprint not of the Buddha but of Adam, the Battuta's visit in the fourteenth century
around four hundred
years,
pilgrims
first
visiting this site for
collection of orally transmitted stories
Islamic date
canon, around the ninth century the Earth Goddess became a popular figure in India,
stopped
where she was credited with having helped defeat the forces of Mara, the
presence.
unknown
evil one.
in India
stories attached to the
As
this
and
Sri
Earth Goddess
evidence of a settled Muslim community in Southeast Asia comes from
AH 608
Pasai’s links
earliest
is
carved with the
Marco Polo (1254-1324) account refers to a Muslim
(1211 CE). In 1292 the Venetian traveler
at the settlement
The
his fall
and written
throughout the Islamic world.
northern Sumatra, where the gravestone of a local ruler found in Aceh
witnessed Buddha’s enlightenment. Although this story does not appear in the Pali
earliest
Pada mountain
man. By the time of Ibn
had been
who
The
Sri
and accounts of Adam’s expulsion from Paradise and
Lanka were part of a vast
texts that circulated
Muslim
community origins were linked to Buddhist mythology. For example, the female figure most commonly encountered in Theravada Buddhist societies is that of the Earth Goddess
Lanka was added: from Rakhine to Cambodia the
letters,
and glassware originating in Cairo and other distant Islamic centers. From the twel丘h century the frequent mention in Arabic writings of “Jawa,”a vague reference generally to
to earth in Sri
legend traveled to Southeast Asia a significant detail largely
artifacts
intended for Muslim buyers, such as prayer beads, small plates to duplicate Arabic
or a revered
and
are evident as
Islam entered Southeast Asia, again through trading connections. Tangible evidence of
particular communities.
distinctive styles of sculpture
community reinforcement
Similar patterns of religious adaptation and
In this expanding
and veneration among Southeast Asian monasteries, but the
as
like those
identi马ring a member of the Buddhist community. Animist upland outside this community were described as milakkha, a Pali equiva- remained who groups
to
of Samudra-Pasai, where his brief
gravestone found in this area bears the date
with the wider Muslim world are evident in the
AH 615 (1297 CE), and names adopted by
thirteenth-century kings, which replicate those used in Egypt and Syria.
A
late
few decades
relate
how she achieved her victory over Mara by wringing a flood of water from her hair
later Ibn Battuta also provided a description of the same area, commenting on the wealth
(itself
emblematic of fertility). Accounts of the Buddha’s actual appearance in the neigh-
of the court and the lavish reception he received.
borhood over the course of his
final lifetime also
encouraged a reconceptualization of the
landscape, so that unusual depressions in rock formations could be read as“footprints,”
evidence that the
transformed into
Buddha himself had walked sites
the earth in this vicinity, and were
of worship and p过grimage. The
chronicle from northern Thailand, thus describes
how
Buddha
Travels the World, a
the Buddha’s visit leads to the
establishment of numerous towns and monasteries. Another history from a丘eenth-
century Chiang
Mai
records that the
and Mon Khmer and once occupied much of modern
Buddha
people (who spoke a language related to
instructed the forest-dwellers
Thailand and Myanmar) to support their parents, respect their elders, and honor refrain
his
The Mons, overcome with joy, paid homage to the Buddha and agreed to from taking life, stealing, adultery, lying, and drinking alcohol, precepts that came
teachings.
He
observed that the people
M由e
noted由at the coastal Muslims belonged to the Syafi'i were school of Islamic law, which was followed in much of southern India and the Middle East.
interior
still“pagan,”but
Although Malay texts of the period,
like the history of Pasai, prefer to see the
adoption
Muslim
influence
of Islam as a result of direct connections with Mecca,
was arriving in Southeast Asia from a range of China, Gujarat, Bengal, and southern India. (mystical Islam),
religious practices. In the
evident that
A number of scholars have ar思1ed that Sufism
which had already taken root
because the goal of direct
it is
di旺erent places - Egypt, Arabia, Persia,
communion with
in India, also appealed in Southeast Asia
the divine resonated with
Muslim communities
that
grew up
many
in ports along
existing
maritime
routes, Sufi brotherhoods (tarikat) provided services for merchants由at ranged仕om accommodation to facilities for money transfers. Nor was this traffic丘om the west simply
60
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,
A HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 one-way, for Southeast Asians were also traveling to the Islamic heartlands.
A fourteenth-
centu巧Arab source makes reference to one飞reat and famous" teacher of Sufism who was himself仕om“Jawa,”and whose very name invoked the “fragrant scents" of distant lands.10
Threading through local conditions.
The
Malay Peninsula,
is
this early
date
partially illegible, but at the latest
punishments for sexual crimes, lettering,
and
evidence are recurring indications of Islam’s adaptation to
on the famed Terengganu Stone, found on the
refers to the
east coast of the
can be read as 1387 CE. Listing
written in Arabic script rather than Indian-derived
it is
Supreme God
Dewata Mulia Raya, using the more
as
familiar
Sanskrit term of dewata or deity rather than the Arabic “Allah." In a graphic demonstra- tion of the relative gender equality said to typi命Southeast Asian societies, a 1375 Spanish
map
of the world depicts Sumatra as an island over which a female ruler presides,
surrounded by mosques. Already, however, we can see that distinctions are being made
between those who have embraced Islam and those
Sumatran “lover
coastal port of
Samudera
who have not. During his visit
in 1345 Ibn Battuta described the
Muslim
to the
ruler, a
of theologians,”as constantly involved in expeditions“for the Faith" against interior
Such
polities,
C.
900-1400
however, were never as powerful as implied in written sources or conveyed
by architectural remains. The core of authority was always concentrated in and around the capital, beyond which was a mosaic of communities that varied greatly in size, language, lifestyles, and belief systems. Allegiance to a personally known leader or patron and loyalty to a particular
amorphous
group remained more meaningful than
polity built
around
affiliation
with a larger and more
a prestigious but distant ruler. Extensive territorial
easily fragment and revert to their component parts when a center made or when some charismatic individual emerged and attracted demands unacceptable sufl且dent following to form a new competing center. A successful ruler was one who
domains could
acquired prestige through the arrogation of religious symbols, the accumulation of wealth and followers, and the repeated demonstration of superior status, thus maintaining
mandala coherence. As the following section shows, such rulers and the royal centers over which they presided played a fundamental role in producing the cultural traditions and the narrative of a glorious past that was inherited by the early modern successors to the “classical states." Since the sto巧differs somewhat between mainland and island
we
Southeast Asia,
will discuss
them
in separate sections.
“heathens.”11
会在
Mainland Southeast Asia: Pagan, Angkor, Sukhothai, A严1tthaya, Dai Viet
A叫ents to the叫
Let us turn
In considering the antecedents to the early
ment was
modern period
it is
evident that the environ-
a key element in shaping the societies associated with early
dominant
centers.
On the mainland and Java these centers developed in areas that favored wet-rice agricul- ture,
where surplus food enabled population growth with
increased resources, political power,
and
all
cultural prestige.
that this implied in terms of
Other
polities like Srivijaya in
first
to consider
Myanmar, where
early urbanized walled settlements dated to
CE
developed along four main river systems一出e Sittang, Salween, Kaladan (which flows through Rakhine into the Bay of Bengal), and Irrawaddy. It is commonly believed that in this ve巧early period a people known as the P严L who spoke a
the
first
millennium
language related to Burmese, occupied the principal settlements in central Myanmar, while the area further south was pop吐ated by Mons. It is likely, however, that a variety of
and that population movement
southeast Sumatra flourished because of their favorable location along maritime trade
peoples settled along the Irrawaddy and
routes even though they
scholarly attention has been focused
contributed to the sharing of certain cultural attributes. Nonetheless, there is general agreement that by the eleventh centu叩the Mons were the dominant group in the south, a
the shifting cultivators
region that
region are largely
the Indian Ocean. References to the
tions
and
had
little
or
no
access to an agricultural hinterland. While
on these dominant centers, details of the lives of and semi-nomadic communities who populated so much of the unrecorded and their pasts are o丘en overlooked. Furthermore, inscrip- produced from literate court centers were primarily concerned and therefore convey an impression of strong central authority. From
later chronicles
to glori命the regime
this perspective, great polities are characterized battle,
1°
11
who
oversee increased prosperity, and
Cited in Michael
by prestigious
who command
rulers
who are successful in
a large
and
loyal populace.
F. Laffan and R. Michael Feener,“Sufi Scents Across the Indian Ocean: Y emem Hagiography and the Earliest Hist。可of Southeast Asian Islam,'’Archipel 70 (2005): 185-208 H. A. R. Gibb, trans. The Travels of Ibn Battuta A.D. 1325-1354. Translated with revisions and notes from the Arabic text edited by C. Defremery and B. R. Sanguinetti, with annotations by C. F. Beckingham. Vol. IV (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1994), 274.
became known
areas formerly
its
tributaries
as“the country of the
under the P归and
Mons"
(Ramafni.adesa), with access to
Pyu disappear, and the Burmans come
to
dominate
establish their center at Pagan, said to have developed
own tutelary spirit or nat. Located on from Mount Popa, an extinct volcano venerated
from the union of nineteen
villages,
each with
the Irrawaddy River, Pagan
was not
far
its
Medaw, the “mother of Popa”(see Figure 2.2). The surrounding plains, which extend for some 250 miles (400 kilometers), were o丘en termed the “dry zone”because the rain shadow created by the Rakhine Mountains means that the annual rainfall is less than 31 inches (80 cm) a year. Yet this as the
area
home
of powerful spirits such as Popa
became a major producer of rice since the extensive fertile plains could be irrigated by
digging channels connected to tributaries of the Irrawaddy River.
Due
to the long dry
61
A HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES, numbers of
Mon
and
P严1. In this
with differences in language, dress,
C.
900-1400
environment, where people were directly confronted
and customs,
it is
not surprising to see indications of
ethnic categorization. Inscriptions thus differentiate between “Burman”and “Mon”music, and there are references to“Mr Rakhine,"“Mr Shan,'’and “Mr Chin,”as well as to tonsu
(meaning
h过l
person, probably Karen peoples).
key element in Pagan kingship, since any leader was thought to have position because of great merit accumulated in previous lives. In Pagan
Buddhism was acquired his
a
around three thousand temples, stupas, and monasteries have survived the centuries to bear witness to the
city’s
wealth and prestige as a center of Buddhist learning. The concept
of the Buddhist world-conqueror and ideal ruler, the cakkavatti, was also a Figure 2.2. Popa Medaw. This powerful Burmese spirit (nat), Popa Medaw (“the mother of Mount
known as Mei on Mount Popa where
Popa,'’sometimes
Wunna)
lives
she met her mythical Indian husband and fa由ered two sons, known as the
Taungbyon brothers a丘er出e town that
honors them. Unlike her
sons,
Popa Medaw is not included in the pantheon of thirty-seven nats but is revered because of her ability to assist in all religious endeavors. In contrast to Buddha images, the Burmese make no great effort to preserve nat statues, which are replaced when age begins to take a toll. Photograph by 飞Nagaung, summer 1987, from
Wikimedia
Commons
(http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/File:
Brother_Nats.jpg).
means of
enhancing existing views of power and justi马ri吨expansion of territorial control. The Ananda temple, built in the eleventh century by king Kyanzittha, houses four gigantic standing Buddhas and was meant to represent an
ascetic’s
mountain. Perhaps intended as his funerary temple, Kyanz让tha,
who
it
cave on a mythological Indian
also includes a kneeling
image of
claimed to be a bodhisattva, a cakkavatti, and a reincarnation of Vishnu.
Simultaneously, however, in an inscription placed in the Shwezigon Pagoda, he presents
himself as a ruler
who may
e时oy“the splendor of
consoles and cares for his subjects.“The nasal
course of benefits, by compassion which
is
who
royalty,'’but
mucus of those who
even as water, the king
also, parent-like,
are sick at heart,
shall
wash away
by a
... All
the people shall be comfortable like children resting in their mother’s bosoms; so shall the
king keep watch and reward them with benefits."12
Although Theravada was the dominant form of Buddhism, many temples also display Mahayana and Hindu images and decorations, while everywhere India-derived
merged with indigenous ideas. Images of Pagan’s nats (spirits of trees, rivers, mountains, ancestors, and individuals who have met a tragic death) were o丘en placed near Buddhist stupas as guardians and protectors. Officially acknowledged by religious beliefs
King Anawrahta, the most feared were the "Thirty-seven Nats,'’whose supernatural power and inclusion in this special pantheon stemmed from their violent end,。丘en at
associated with the
Though always denoted by the auspicious and constant number names of those included might not necessarily tally with official lists because nats who had greater relevance at particular times were propitiated in place of others deemed to be less important. The great Shwezigon Pagoda, where the Thirty- seven Nats were enshrined, contained a hair of the Buddha taken in one of King Anawrahta’s victories, as well as a tooth and a frontal bone obtained from Sri Lanka, and thus stands as a prime example of the amalgamation of Buddhism and indigenous
that closer connections with these
beliefs.
scriptures
During the height of its power the mandala of Pagan incorporated numerous satellite settlements to encompass most of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin River valleys, and claimed
season, the landscape
growing
was only lightly forested and the
plains, particularly the well-watered
soil
more
Kyaukse River
easily turned.
district,
These
rice-
produced a food
surplus that supported a sizeable population.
The
rise
of Pagan
associated with the reign of King
Anawrahta (1044-77 CE), expansion led to growing contact with both the P严1 and areas to the is
whose
territorial
south,
where archeological surveys show that a rich material culture thought to be Mons had developed during the first millennium CE. It is believed
two groups resulted in Pagan’s acquisition of Buddhist and the importation of Buddhist monks, artists, and skilled craftsmen. While benefiting from these religious and cultural links, Pagan also inherited traditions had that
developed in the Upper
Myanmar
region.
Though dominated by
ethnic Burmans,
the hands of rulers. “thirty-seven,”the
it
developed into a multi-ethnic polity of around one to two million people, including large
12
Cited in
N ai Pan Hla,“The Major Role of the Mons in Southeast Asia,”JSS 79,
1
(1991), 19.
64
MODERN SOUTHEAST
A HISTORY OF EARLY
ASIA, 1400-1830
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,
suzerainty over an area reaching from the borders of present-day China
Although no
locally
produced coinage
occasionally gold ingots as a
is
known from Pagan,
medium
down to the coast.
the use of silver, copper and
of exchange, in addition to the cowry
shells
(imported from the Maldives) for smaller transactions, points to a vigorous trading network. In the
Mien"
its
century Marco Polo specifically noted that the “King of
Pagan) was“very powerful in lands, treasure, and people.”Pagan’s
(i.e.
enforce
late thirteenth
horses and elephants trained for warfare
fermented
mated
some alcoholic Pagan army sent
rice or
that the
including
and o丘en readied
combat by being fed stimulant) were an important component. Polo esti- into China numbered around forty thousand men, (
many horsemen and two thousand
that contained at least twelve soldiers.13 In the (“bearer
ab且ity to
authority over an extensive area was largely due to a formidable army, in which
of the burden")
their service to the ruler,
first
for
wooden tower mid-fourteenth century the term ahmudan elephants, each carrying a
appears in the sources to distinguish those people
who owed
and they formed a substantial proportion of Pagan’s army.
other centers had generated their
own
circles
of glory”whose conquests stretched across a vast area.
generations of his sons, grandsons, and great grandsons.”15
An even more formidable reputation was attached to Angkor, the Khmer kingdom that dominated much of mainland Southeast Asia from the ninth through the thirteenth century.
formal establishment
Its
records that a ruler
known
science”to preside over a
60 kilometers northeast of
One of these was the upland by a branch of the ve可large Tai-speaking
of authority.
modern Thais and Lao as well as many highland peoples. The term Burmese rendering of“Syam," has been used to refer generically to those northern
versed in magical as Jayavarman invited a Brahman ceremony conducted on Mount Kulen (about 37 miles or
modern Siem Reap town). 16 This
Tai peoples who mostly lived west of the Salween River. Located around a lake in the middle of
centu可it was described as飞ne large paddy-field."14
It
and by the nineteenth
became known
ritual established the inde-
pendence of the country termed “Kambujadesa" under the rule of a cakravartin. Although inscriptions assign aspects of the divine to various rulers, mention of the installation of the devaraja
(“king
of the
gods”) refers
not to the king himself but to a sacred object, probably
a linga or statue representing the god Shiva, which was placed in the most important
Not long afterwards the capital moved just north of the Tonle Sap (飞reatLake”) and was called Angkor (仕om the Sanskrit, meaning “holy city’'). The fert过ity of this region was central to the
growth and longevity of Angkor, since annual flooding regenerated surrounding
and provided a natural environment
for wet-rice cultivation
a later inscription
“well
lake increases ten- fold in depth
Kengtung was well-suited
when
generally dated to 802 CE,
is
“Shan,”a
fertile valley,
Under him Pagan had enjoyed own welfare and that of the
great prosperity that advanced "the welfare of the religion, his
fam过y that includes
a
900…1400
temple as the protector of the realm.
Pagan’s supremacy was not unchallenged, for in the highlands beyond the Irrawaddy valley
settlement of Kengtung (Kyaingtong), developed
“full
C,
as a center for
for wet-rice cultivation.
soil
During the rainy season the
and extends westward almost to Battambang some 25 miles
(40 kilometers) away. Located about 5 miles (8 kilometers)
from the lake during the dry
Angkor becomes a lakeshore settlement in the rainy season. The flooded Tonle Sap thus creates ideal conditions for the breeding of fish and is st山one of the world’s largest season,
Buddhism, with one wat (monastery, temple) even said to contain six strands of the Buddha’s hair. Shan hill groups were renowned as able mountaineers and skilled r1ders of small but
freshwater fisheries.
hardy hill-bred ponies, and Shan raids into the lowlands became increasingly common. Over time Pagan faced internal problems as the state’s economic and administrative
they were built for ritual purposes and intended primarily to symbolize the lake surrounding
power was weakened by the drain of resources away from the center through continuous donations of land and manpower to Buddhist temples. Although the city was able to
inscriptions
Some kings built very large reservoirs (baray) near their temples, but the
do not indicate that they were used
for irrigation. Scholars believe instead that
Mount Meru, the home of the gods, in Hindu-Buddhist cosmology, which was represented by the temples themselves. Wet-rice cultivation more likely relied on the excess water to irrigate
bunded fields, while rain
withstand attacks by Mongol forces in the 1280s, raiding by the upland Shan continued.
may also have been collected in small tanks and reservoirs. These
systems of water control
Pagan was soon eclipsed by new centers of power - Ava, located to the north in ethnically Burman area around modern Mandalay, and the Mon-dominated polity in
made it possible to harvest at least two and sometimes more crops a year. Wi由ready access to fish and a rice surplus, Angkor was able to increase its population and build up a sedentary community that could be organized for taxation, co凹优labor, and armies. The economy grew in other ways, for Angkor’s territorial expansion strengthened links between local markets and larger trade networks, marked by the proliferation of temples
south, later
known
as
Pegu
after its
major
center. Despite
eclipse, Pagan’s reputation as the source of Burmese culture, a
tration,
and a
site
the
the
decline and subsequent model of effective adminis-
its
of great spiritual potency survived unscathed, exercising a far-reaching
influence over the evolution of subsequent states. Glass Palace Chronicle, was completed in 1831,
When a new history of Myanmar, Anawrahta was
still
the
extolled as a king
R叫t邸,Tl川avels of Marco Polo (阳Y忧V出ng p邸,阳), 196. Younghusband, The Trans-Salwin Shan State of Kiang Tung, David K. Wyatt, Books: Chiang Mai, 2005; Reprint of 1888 edition), 18.
Aldo ?: 1"
G.
J.
eds.
(Silkworm
available during the yearly flooding,
built
which was diverted
along trade routes. Forest clearance and rice cultivation also developed in provincial
centers.
A
15
Pe
16
Cited in
tenth-century inscription le丘by an
official in the far south, for
Maung Tin and Luce, The Glass Palace Chronicle, 99-100 Hermann Kulke, The Devariija Cult (Southeast Asia Program,
1978), 15.
example, lays
Cornell University: Ithaca,
65
66
'A HISTO盯OF EARL
ODERN SOOTHE川山,14…伽
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES, Normally the
reliefs
here Suryavarman
is
decorating temple walls were reserved for depicting the gods, but
shown
presiding over a ritual on a mountain top where he accepts
One whole gallery is devoted to his
the loyalty of his retainers.
Su巧avarman stands on an elephant facing the god Indra, links between king and divinity are quite clear.
known
Equally well
Jayavarman VII
(r.
900-1400
C.
is
military procession,
also riding
where
an elephant. The
the Bayon, built seventy-five years later by the Buddhist ruler
1181-c. 1220), in the middle of his
symbolizing the sacred mountain, the Bayon
is
city,
Angkor Thom. Though
also
covered with 凶y-four towers, each carved
with four faces looking out in the cardinal directions. As representations of the bodhisat- tva of compassion, Avalokitesvara, they
may also have invoked the face of Jayavarman VII
himself. Offering a unique picture of twel丘h-century
display familiar scenes
from everyday
woman giving birth.
scenes including a
Cambodia,
reliefs
on the outer walls
such as cock且ghts, markets, and household
life,
For Khmers, however, the temple was primarily a
Zhou
stage for rituals associated with kingship that ensured the fertility of the land.
Buddhist monks in front of Angkor Wat, Cambodia. Angkor Wat, the world’s largest religious structure, was built during the reign of Su叮avarman 11 (c. 1113-50), and is part of a complex of monuments也at extends over 24.8 km (15.4 miles). It was intended as a funerary temple for the deceased ruler, and would have contained his statue in the form of Vishnu. The reliefs along the terraces illustrate important scenes from the Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana; and the walls are covered with carvings of apsaras, heavenly divinities. A丘er the fourteenth centu叮 Angkor Wat became a Buddhist temple, and its image appears on the Cambodian flag. Photograph by Sam Garza, 22 December 2006 (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Buddhist_monks_in一 Figure
2.3.
front_of_the_Angkor_飞八Tat.jpg).
down
difficult to obtain, in a forested
hollow, he
us that“in a place
tells
made
is
.
.
where water was
neighboring countries until the
first
devaraja
power
rice, livestock, forest
Angkor
status of
in
cult. It its
in
coins were cast in 1516. Transactions such as the
made through
currency
history
is
primarily due to the prominence of the
own
a
wide swath of mainland Southeast Asian lands. Since each
royal sanctua町,hundreds of temples dot the region
between Mount
clea由apparent. For instance, the
Khmer
statues of
Hindu gods
or Buddhist
at
this
time
Malay Peninsula.
time
Khmer
when London was
Chao Phraya River
captured
in
to
may
a ci可of only
from the borders of
modern Thailand, and and inscriptions
incorporated people from conquered areas. Military innovations included the missile
weapon
Cham
initially
developed by China, which appears on Angkor
ballista, a
Wat
reliefs
mercenaries firing from platforms attached to the back of elephants. The
importance of a strong army in defending the count巧against outside enemies, countering internal challenges, J ayavarman
VII,
and ensuring the
who came
the devastation of
to
ruler’s
power
Angkor by Cham
wellbeing,
a丘er a
reliefs
clearly illustrated in the career of
attacks.
During this period, continued interaction with between upland and lowland
is
period of internal disruption and following
lifestyles
Cham and Tai peoples and the contrasts
must have reinforced a sense of being “Khmer."
“Syam-kuk" (Siam people). Over a hundred years
depicting由e army of Suryavarman
soldiers, distinguished
by
II
thus label a unit of unruly
their distinctive sarongs, headdresses, later,
and long
tridents, as
when Zhou Da事ian
visited
Angkor, he commented on the hierarchies由at had been created between the animist 18
76.
is
major settlement
Reliefs depicting military processions
marked deviation from Indian tradition. A prime example of this type of localization is the magnificent Angkor Wat, dedicated to Vishnu and constructed by King Suryavarman II (r. 1113-c. 1150 CE) (see Figure 2.3). Cited in Charles Higham, The Civilization of Angkor (Berkeley, CA: University of California, 2004),
its
territory reached
Angkor Wat
17
intensity of these beliefs
around 1200, and
bodhisattvas placed inside the temples are believed to be portraits of actual rulers or their close relatives, a
was told that Angkor’s
praising the victories of kings attest to the strength of Angkor’s army, which o丘en
Kulen and the Tonle Sap, and despite obvious Indian influences the imprint of indigenous beliefs is
The
as 750,000 people at a
around 35,000 inhabitants. By
showing
products, manufactured goods, and labor.
Khmer
power
noteworthy, however, that Cambodia
provided the rationale and legitimation for the expansion of Angkorian
heyday through
king built his
many
its
lands in southern Dai Viet to the
purchase of land or payment of fines and taxes were also
The
Angkor reached the peak of
to the
was
1296,
an inscription extolling the achievements of Jayavarman VII, who "took the earth wife and gave her his gl。可for a necklace.”18
down
rivers, as
never developed a currency during this period, instead using coinage from China and
equivalents in
or serpent, was a symbol of water and the earth).
Cham
by three
Khmer capital in
in
the
a reservoir fed
for the benefit of others."17 It
.
visited the
prosperity was due to the nightly union between the ruler and a naga princess ( the naga,
have supported as
the boundaries of the rice fields and
proper thing to do
Daguan, the Chinese envoy who
Cited in
M.
L. Finot,“Notes d’epigraphie. L’inscription Sanskrite
de Say Fong,'’BEFEO 3 (1903), 30.
68捕、A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
and semi- nomadic upland groups ( which he said were generally known as “Zhuang”) and the lowland, sedentary Khmer. People from upland areas were o丘en sold as slaves and were“so despised that
if
there
is
a quarrel between
two
city dwellers,
them to be called Zhuang for hatred to enter into the marrow By the time of Zhou Daguan’s visit, the nature of the Angkorian
it
only takes one of
of his bones.”19
changes由at point to economic and edifices
came
to
political decline: the building
an end, inscriptions became
reservoirs ceased.
less
common, and the
While the reasons are not completely
could no longer exert authority over Agricultural production
state
its
periphery, and
clear, its
it is
had undergone
of great religious
construction of large evident that Angkor
territories steadily retracted.
may have been adversely affected by alterations in the water table
caused by deforestation and erosion, intensi马ring the impact of unusually dry seasons.
Zhou Daguan claimed that during his visit “not a drop of rain" fell between the tenth lunar month and the third of the following year (28 October 1296 to 22 April 1297). If rice- growing could no longer be sustained at previous levels, then Angkor could not have supported the same population as in earlier times. The puzzling destruction or defacement of hundreds of Buddhist images may even point to some kind of religious upheaval. There were also more direct challenges. The absence of mountain barriers that had allowed the Khmer population to expand westwards now worked to Angkor’s disadvantage, for its heartland was exposed to repeated raiding by Tai-speaking groups from various parts of
what
is
now
Angkor’s
first
more than four centuries after the construction of Zhou Daguan was still impressed by Angkor’s vibrant economy,
central Thailand. Yet
temples,
the status attached to Buddhism,
Today, the image of Angkor
and the
Wat on
ritual
and panoply associated with the
ruler.
the flag of eve町Cambodian regime since independ-
ence affirms the unique place of Angkor in the country’s
hist。可・
Figure 2.4. Walking Buddha,丘om Sukhothai. Sukhothai developed a distinctive style of Buddhist sculpture, representing the
Buddha
with an oval face, broad shoulders, smooth long limbs, and a clinging monk’s robe. Here
Buddha
is
depicted walking ( one of four postures prescribed for meditational exercises in ancient Theravada
Buddhist
texts)
with his le丘hand in
The expansion of Tai-speaking peoples coincided with and contributed to the contrac- tion of Khmer power, although the slow percolation of the Tai from the Sino-Vietnamese border region was probably underway by the beginning of the second millennium. As they
the gesture of reassurance and encouragement. The influence of Sri Lanka is seen in the flame-like ushnisha on the head, symbolizing
moved southwards由ey absorbed the numerous Mon-Khmer communities already living in the watershed of the Chao Phraya River, typically through a symbiotic relationship that
wisdom and enlightenment. Courtesy of Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.
incorporated a recognition of the links of earlier inhabitants to the land and the powers of the spirits they venerated.
By
the early fourteenth centu叩Tai peoples dominated the
along the central
Mekong
flowed.
ment of Tai groups
standing or“walking"
early
into this region
is
arguably the most significant factor in shaping the
modem history of mainland Southeast Asia.
Pagan and Angkor) was among the numerous independent Tai
inscriptions
and a distinctive
to
polities that developed
in
eclipsed by the fi丘eenth century,
style
Buddha
Ram Kamhaeng (c. premodem Thai, emphasizes
number of inhabitants
in the
19
Zhou Da伊an, A Record
of Cambodia. The Land and its People. Translated with an introduction and notes by Peter Harris (Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2007), 59.
and
Chao Phraya
body of significant
first
known
most famous
inscription written
the fert山ty of the land, the vitality of trade, and the large
kingdom.
all
Ram Kamhaeng justifies his
rule
by references
to
promotion of Buddhism, his development of a Tai and benevolent government. Even a commoner can he or she has to do is to ring the bell that hangs outside
especially his paternal
approach him with problems;
le丘a
(see Fi思ire 2.4). Attributed to Sukhothai’s
his royal descent, his kingly valor, his script,
it
of Buddhist architecture and sculpture, such as the丘ee-
1279-98), long thought to be the
ruler
Sukhothai (which Thai nationalists of the twentieth century saw as their equivalent
River and the central plains through which the
Though Sukhothai was
entire stretch of this major river, over 225 miles (365 kilometers) in length, and had established their settlements (muang) in areas previously subject to Angkor. The move-
70惯、A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
the palace gate.“So the people of Muang Sukhothai praise
him
the lands of the Tai, in knowledge and wisdom, in bravery
energy, there was
no one
possessed large states and
to equal him.
He was
...
Among men who live in
and courage,
in strength and
able to subdue a throng of enemies
many elephants.”Nonetheless, he
st过l
who
acknowledges the favor
he has received from the powerful deity of a nearby mountain.“Whatever lord
may rule
kingdom of Sukhothai, if he makes obeisance properly, with the right offerings this kingdom ... will thrive." If obeisance was not made or offerings were unsatisfactory, the spirit of the h过l would no longer provide protection and Sukhothai would be lost.20 this
Indeed, the Sukhothai heritage was not forgotten, for in the early nineteenth century,
and
its
its
court traditions were
iconic place in Thailand’s history
still
honored
was assured
located on the Shweli
to legend one of
rulers
its
degree of independence
the direct authority of provincial officers in
Mao it
Mekong
much
and
closer to the sea than Sukhothai,
Xian in
it
was
developed in a coastal zone ( termed
Chinese sources) where collecting centers were already established.
earlier
Flourishing
that
it
muang
also arose
among
the hills and river valleys that extend through
northern Thailand and from the Khorat plateau across present-day Laos. Mon-speakers
were spread over
much
of this area, although they were gradually outnumbered by Tai
migrants moving from the
Yunnan
region.
intermontane valleys were suitable for
rice cultivation
small independent mua吨,each under routes
and resources could lead
Surrounded by highlands, the long narrow
its
own
neighboring h山tribes. Yet the number of to
between upland
in a region stretching across southern
persistently defied outside
A fourteenth-century Chinese account entitled the
“Hundred Barbarians" acknowledges the
common identity
of these upland communities
but notes that their customs
not worship ancestors
...
at least three regional centers
muang of Nan
“are not uniform." While some were Buddhist, others and had no Buddhist monks or priests产1
Cited in David K. Wya仗,“Contextual Arguments for the Au由enticity of the
“did
211
Ram Khamhaeng
Chamberlain, ed., The Ramkhamhaeng Controversy: Selected Papers; foreword by H. R.H. Princess Galyani Vadhana (Bangkok: Society, 1991), 446-9. Inscription," in
James
Southeast Asian societies, local chronicles highlight the
known
as
Mangrai
(r.
1259-1317). Through a
network of alliances and superior military resources he was able to take control of the area
around Chiang Mai
(“New City"),
the foot of the sacred
of a
mandala which
which became
his capital.
Located on the Ping River
Doi Suthep mountain, Chiang Mai gradually emerged later
became known
Chinese sources, however, refer to
as
Lan Na
(“‘[land
at
as the leader
O句a million rice且elds"). hundred wives’,,each of
this area as “the [land of] eight
whom ruled a v山age, indicative not only of the high position attributed to women but also to the kinship
networks that drew Lan
Na together. Wi由access to
a corridor of trade
and
Yunnan that are now part of China, including the impo口ant polity of Sipsongpanna. The collaborative relationships among the northern muang were so effective that they were collectively able to repel a Mongol attack in 1292. In the history of Chiang Mai Mangrai is honored for respecting pre-existing Mon culture and for developing a humane code of laws that stressed the mutual relationship Tai-speaking areas in
between rulers and people.“A citizens
and the
city
citizens respect出e
without citizens lords.”22
is
not a city
...
the lords love the
Though patronage of Theravada Buddhism
could be found in most muang, Chiang Mai was particularly renowned for supporting
amalgamated into the
local landscape,
and
Buddhism was
stories of the Buddha’s travels
also
through the
F.
Cited in Christian Daniels,“The Formation of Tai Polities between the 13th and 16th Centuries: the Role of Technological Transfer,”The Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko 58 (2000), 53, 72, 76.
to the southeast;
Mon stronghold with links to the Mon polity in
meditative or“forest-dwelling" traditions introduced from Sri Lanka. 2°
of
communication that linked the coastal areas around the Bay of Bengal to southwest China,
Myanmar, northern Thailand and northern Laos
efforts to conceptualize a unified polity.
many
Yunnan highlands lying
Lan Na flourished economically. At the height of its power the Lan Na network extended over much of northwestern Laos, as far west as Kengtung in modern Myanmar, and into
rivalries to control trade
mutually beneficial connections with the
muang
status.
Although
collaboration. Their populations, largely Tai but
also including other ethnic groups, established
in so
of conflict,
and encouraged the development of
to internecine conflict, the relationships
muang were more可pically marked by
Yunnan
lord.
according
River were geographically buffered from the
power; the northeast, especially around Chiang Saen; the
deeds of a heroic founder-king, in this case
important to note that
China-
in marriage.
a丘er several years
former
its
Chinese advance. Early sources indicate that there were
Lower Burma. As
it is
part of the
Mong Mao came under was a brief revival of Mong
Tai polities further south in the mountainous extension of the
views as a direct successor to Sukhothai. This kingdom, the most enduring of
be discussed in the following chapter, but
muang) Mao,
1399
Yunnan. There
was overrun by Ming forces and never regained
founding of Ayutthaya, which chronicles date to 1351, and which national historiography polities, will
now
(i.e.
King Anawrahta
energy in the early fi丘eenth centu巧,but in the 1440s,
and, in the southwest, Chiang Mai, once a
the Tai
to
muang leaders could exercise, and in
prominence. In terms of the
all
Irrawaddy and
However, Chinese determination to control frontier areas in the northwest limited the
west of the upper reaches of the
Thailand the most important event was the
the Shan polity of Mong
had even given a daughter
when no less a person than the future King Rama IV (Mongkut) discovered the famed Ram Kamhaeng inscription. South of Sukhothai, in the lower Chao Phraya, a number of other muang came to later hist。可of
is
River, a tributary of the
Myanmar boundary. Mong Mao lay at the peripheηof the Pagan mandala, but
in
1833
飞、飞
Frequently mentioned in Chinese sources
22
Aroonrut Wichienkeeo and Gehan Wijeyawardene, trans. and ed., The Laws of King Mangra1 (Mangrayathammasart), (Canberra: Department of Anthropology, Research School of Pacific Studies, 1986), 21.
72
'
A
HISTO…F EARLY MODERN SO盯HE川山,14…830
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY如’ODERN SOCIETIES,
northern mountains - sometimes accompanied by the semi-legendary paragon of Buddhist kingship, Ashoka of the Indian Mauryan dynasty (r. 304一232 BCE) - established a conceptual
map出at
reinforced connections
and enabled communities
to envisage
themselves as part of a wider and interactive Buddhist world.
brought together the Lao
narrow
basin, the
plateau (r.
Hom Khao
(“a
chronicles extol the exploits of a leader
new kingdom
known as Fa N伊m
which he
in 1353
revered image the Phra Bang,“Royal
Buddha
was
Image,”with the palms of
in the gesture of dispelling fear,
was brought
now came under
Cambodia. The center of the Lao mandala
to
ati且rmed
Luang (Lord) Phra Bang. Later chronicles
extol
to
when
hands
its
a
raised
Lan Sang from
the protective
image, which had reputedly been cast in Sri Lanka, and subsequently gave capital,
called Lan
million elephants under a white parasol飞an implicit reference
military might under a single ruler. Court sponsorship of Buddhism
and facing forward
River
rugged northern mountains, and the drier Khorat
said to have established a
is
Sang, which
Mekong
scattered through the fertile plains of the
river valleys of the
(now in Thailand). Lao
1353-7日,who
Sang
muang
power of this
name to the
its
Fa Ngum’s reign
as a time of
extensive territorial conquests, administrative innovations, codification of law,
and
sup-
port for Buddhism - deeds时pically associated with a founder figure. In explaining why this great ancestor
was deposed and
exiled in 1375, local accounts invoke a familiar
justification for court opposition to a ruler
by
citing
of women. Nonetheless, the prestige of Lan Sang was
and
heir could obtain wives
from the royal
Fa Ngum’s immorality and abuse
still suti且cient
to ensure that his son
families of other powerful Tai
muang, such as
Lan Na, and Sipsongpanna. In
a region
where
rarely be enforced, the chronicles claim that
under Fa
Ngum an arrangement was reached
A严1tthaya,
territorial
boundaries could
regarding control over populations. Towards the east, people living in houses built on
would owe
allegiance to the
Vietnamese
style,
Lao king, while those with homes on the ground
(in the
now
northern Vietnam was shaped by
however,
its
history, for the
development of what
proximity to China. Even more
was出e geographic environment. The
inscription
Asia.
is
from the
Cham
area
is
the
first
known
A
Cham were
fourth-century
Malayo-Polynesian Ian思路ge,
text in a
included in the great Austronesian family found throughout insular Southeast
Cham
affinities
with the island world are evident in the accounts of fam过y bonds
forged through marriage, and in the nineteenth centu巧Stamford Raffles remarked on the “priests”who st山guarded the
tomb of a Cham
who had come to
princess
Cham
bride in the fourteenth century. Further south beyond the tropical
Java as a royal
territory
was
swamps and
low-lying coastal areas,
it
enter the Vietnamese consciousness as a potential area for expansion until
Vietnam the overriding concern was
relations with the
Cham and most
much later. For of
all
is
influential,
highlands, where rice was grown on
The collapse in 907 CE of China’s Tang d严iasty, overlord of the Viet lands, opened 出e way for powerful Vietnamese families (among them regional overlords known collectively as the “Twelve Warlords”) to establish their
own domains
all
course of the Red River. Fighting between rival leaders continued through
along the
much
of
the tenth century, for only occasionally was one leader able to assert his dominance, the
most famous being Dinh Bo Linh
(r.
with the
fully negotiating relations
968-79). Proclaiming independence and success-
new Song dynasty
revered in Vietnamese historiography as出e
Dai Co Viet (Great Viet
State). It
was not
China (960-1279), he
in
emperor of the country he
first
until the early eleventh century,
the country was effectively united under the
is
called
however, that
Ly dynasty (1009-1225) and renamed
Dai Viet.
An important development under the new regime came in capital
was moved to由e newly named Thang Long
1010,
(“Soaring
when
the Vietnamese
Dragon”the
later
Its
topographical features evoke those of a coiled dragon or a crouching
covered by mountains and
rivers, the site is vast
and
exposed. Eve巧由ing there flourishes and prospers.
country of the飞Tiet."23 The
flat
tiger.
Hanoi).
Red River was swampy, subject to tidal flooding, and with a much lower population density. As a whole, this northern region was distin- guished from the central area of modern Vietnam, which was occupied by the Cham and the lower delta of the
Here the spurs of mountain ranges, dissected by river valleys, stretched the sea, and in places the coastal plain was only around 30 miles (50 kilometers)
claimed, for the dragon
simple matter.
A
Favorably
and the land elevated and
It is
well-
indeed the best place in the
name of the new capital symbolized the au出ority由e Ly commands the earthly realm, while its ascent conveys由e
idea of mastery over the heavens. Translating these claims into reality, however,
and on the banks of mountain river valleys, were inhabited by a mixture of Tai, and other peoples. The majority of the Viet population occupied the extensive and fertile watershed of the Red River (named for its reddish-brown heavily silt-laden water), which could support a significant population and had been the focus of Chinese adminis-
down to
with their
overlord China.
Viet,
related peoples.
more
did not begin to
hillsides
By contrast,
a
zone around the delta of the Mekong River, populated by Khmers. Less hospitable
to settlement because of mangrove
now
tration.
900-1400
A royal edict makes the reasons clear: Thang Long“is situated at the heart of our land ...
This reference to distinctive house styles provides yet another context for considering
modern
primarily seafarers and involved in international maritime trade.
st且ts
modeled on China) would be under the authority of Vietnam.
the antecedents of Southeast Asia’s early
wide. Because land suitable for large-scale rice cultivation was so limited, the
which
The mid-fourteenth century saw the emergence of another Tai polity, Lan
C.
primaηr concern was to regain control over
good portion of the population had
fled
human
was not a
resources, since a
during the years of fighting. Ly raids into the
highlands resulted in the capture and resettlement of tens of thousands of Tai people.
Another concern was the restoration of the economy. Trade continued
23
Cited in
Ta Ngoc Lien,“Ly Cong Uan Hanoi 2004), 23.
Publishers,
(974一1028),”m Far-sighted Sovereigns in
to flow
to出e
Vietnam (The Gio1
73
74
' A HISTO盯OF EAR口MODERN SOOTHE川山
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,
network of harbors centered on the port of Van Don, but the
rulers of
Dai Viet were
primarily concerned to extend their agricultural base around the capital of
Though independence had been
gained, centuries of close association with China
meant由at the ruling Sino-Vietnamese culture
elite
maintained a strong attachment to Chinese
and the fundamentals of Confucian teachings. This was
出e Song dynasty had reasserted the requirement that
master Confucian learning rulers
a significant factor because
aspiring
all
government
officials
select administrators
included questions relating to Buddhist and Daoist
new Buddhist
teachings as well as those of Confucius. Thousands of constructed, often
on
sites
bamboo
small
and texts from this period recording stories of and the protection they offered against enemies suggest that Dai Viet society
retained a distinct character that Chinese visitors themselves recognized.
where nature
spirits
temples were
(invoked as protectors of Buddhism)
Island Southeast Asia: Srivijaya and Majapahit Although early Chinese and Arab sources
most important was found
scattered
cults dedicated to local spirits and deified ances- and the temple network contributed to greater coher- Sometime around the eleventh century Vietnamese Buddhist monks
began adapting Chinese characters
nom
amount of powder and shot, which powder from the elements. But victory also
necessitated appeal to supernatural powers, local spirits
tors also received royal patronage, state.
Another innovation was the use of leather cartridge boxes with
sections filled with the required
lessened reloading time while protecting the
had previously been venerated. Popular ence of the Ly
to write their
own
language in a form
known
as chu
or“southern script" in order to provide greater access to religious texts in Chinese.
Sri世jaya, a
name
refer to
numerous
in the Indonesian province of South Sumatra.
mention
in
Arab
writings,
Based on inscriptions, Chinese
and archaeological
finds,
River in the vicinity of the
claimed suzerainty over
modern
much
city of
of Sumatra and pa口s of the Malay Peninsula, Java, and
of loyalty that resembled ceremonies in other Southeast Asian societies, while revering
Although the extent is
to
from a
specifically local
environment.
which a “Vietnamese”identity was emerging during
debated, the Dai Viet association with Chinese culture
superiority in relation to their
Khmer and
may have
Tai neighbors? Gaining power after prolonged
feuding between powerful families, the Tran dynasty (1225-1400) tended to emphasize the Chinese
model of government, and the examinations now placed primary emphasis on
cities"
paid tribute to
its
ruler,
Arab writers also represented as“the uncontested master of the Straits
[
of
Melaka].”25
Unlike the mainland areas previously described, southeast Sumatra was not suited to
this period
reinforced a sense of
texts,
generally accepted that
Palembang. At the height of its power Srivijaya
whom
“godly beings" that arose
it is
between the seventh and eleventh centuries the center of Srivijaya was located on the Musi
western Borneo. Chinese records noted that“fourteen
and
ports in the island world, the
that appears in three seventh-century inscriptions
Nonetheless, the court continued to observe “non-Chinese" rituals such as the blood oath
spirits, ancestors,
900-1400
they wished to gain a position in the bureaucracy. Yet Ly
were also drawn to Mahayana Buddhism, and the examinations that were periodic-
conducted to
ally
if
Thang Long.
Cham king.
death of the
C.
agriculture.
Swamp
grown along
forests cover
river banks,
it is
much
of the coastal zone and although rice could be
likely that sago
was
a staple food. In this lightly populated
army of twenty thousand men mentioned in one inscription was undoubtedly exaggerated, but even if accurate it would not compare with the much larger forces that region an
sponsored Thien (Sanskrit Dhyana, Chan in China, Zen in Japan) meditation school as Truc Lam (Bamboo Grove), and a Buddhist text, Thien叼en Tap Anh
could be raised by polities with an extensive agricultural base. Nonetheless, Sriv与aya became the most important trading po此on the maritime route between India and China. The center was located about 50 miles (80 kilometers) from the coast on the broad and
(Compendium of Outstanding
navigable
knowledge of the Chinese
classics.
Chinese Buddhism was integrated with the Tran-
known
Figures in the [Vietnamese]
compiled by royal decree. Warfare
may
also
Zen Garden) was probably
have fostered
this sense
of identity by
contributing to self-perceptions of superiority, especially after the repulse of attacks
by
China’s
Mongol (Yuan) dynasty
recurring conflict with
overrun by
Cham and
in 1285
and 1287. Added
to these invasions were
upland Tai groups, and several times Thang Long was
Cham
armies during the dynasty’s waning decades in the late 1300s. In this situation the ideal of the ruler as parent-like, stressed in Chinese advice for kings, seems to
have had special significance. In the words of one Tran ruler of
my
people. If the people are in distress,
I
am bound
“I
am the father and mother
to help them."24
By
the
late
fourteenth centu町,however, the Vietnamese had gained a military advantage, in part through a时pe of handgun acquired from the Chinese that in 1390 was responsible for the 24
Ta抖or, The Birth of Vietnam, 207.
Musi River which provided easy access to the sea. Upstream, it led to the Barisan
mountain range along the spine of Sumatra, where better suited to rice cultivation. to
fertile
and well-watered plateaus were
The Musi and its tributaries were also linked by land paths
form a network of exchange settlements, some well-populated. The gold and
forest
products一rattans, resins, aromatic woods - from the Sumatran interior, together with other Southeast Asian goods, were brought to Srivijaya and found a ready market
among
moving through the Melaka Straits. In the Straits themselves the boat-dwelling sea people ( Orang Laut) delivered tropical ocean products, patrolled the maritime lanes, traders
served as p过ots for incoming ships, and formed the major part of Srivijaya's
25
fleet.
Cited in 0. W. Wolters, h均Indonesian Commerce: a Study of the Or也ins of Srivijaya (I由aca: Cornell University Press, 1967), 239; George Coed缸,The Indianized States of Sou仇east Asia, Walter F. Vella, ed.;
Susan Brown Cowing,
trans. (Honolulu:
East-West Center Press, 1968), 131.
76
6 A HISTO…FEAR…ODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫3
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,
For several centuries Srivijaya enjoyed a reputation as a place where a merchant could rely
on justice,
correct commercial behavior,
and all the facilities that promoted trade at an
entrepot. Prosperity attracted religious scholars
ments.
A number
Hindu
of Buddhist and
and helped support
sanctuaries have been found in the Musi
watershed, and the Chinese pilgrim Yijing (635-713 CE) spent
and Buddhism while en route
studying Sanskrit
religious establish-
some time
He was
to India.
in Srivijaya
increased trade passing through the Straits had stimulated the rise of rival ports. In the late eleventh century the center of
which became known
come under
monks
as
power
in southeast
Malayu. By the
Sumatra sh的ed northwards
late thirteenth century,
the overlordship of Singasari in east Java.
to Jambi,
however, Malayu had
A hundred years later the Chinese
noted that the former Srivijaya was now“a ruined country卢7
so impressed by the
strength of Buddhist learning and the presence of around a thousand
900-1400
C.
The weakness of
this
once powerful polity provided further oppo口unities for harbor
autonomy and attract traders directly to their ports. Extensive and numerous examples of Hindu statua巧indicate that Tamil
that he even
chiefs to assert their
advised his fellow pilgrims to stay here for a year or two before continuing their voyage.
deposits of potsherds
Religious links with China were particularly important in ensuring the favor of successive
and Chinese trading settlements were developing along the Sumatran coasts. Older exchange centers on the Malay Peninsula and around the Gulf of Siam also continued
Chinese emperors, and tribute
gifts
included not only exotic goods but also Buddhist texts.
draw
and Malay legends of
on the
island of Singapore are
In 1003 the Song emperor accorded the Srivijaya ruler the singular honor of granting a
to
name
supported by significant finds of ceramics and other items dating to the fourteenth
in Srivijaya to wish the
Chinese traders
had
by Heaven") and a bell
(“Temple of Longevity conferred
emperor a long life. Sriv斗ayan missions
who moved between
a vested interest in maintaining
their
good
homeland and relations
to a Buddhist temple built to
China were o丘en led by
and who would have
Srivijaya,
between the two countries.
On behalf
of the Srivijayan ruler, for instance, several Chinese merchants sponsored the restoration of an imperial sanctua巧and a Daoist temple in Guangdong.
employed Chinese accompanied the
and
as interpreters
translators,
and
The
ruler of Srivijaya also
to write the letters in Chinese that
renown as an entrepot explains its ab过ity to sustain a preeminent position in the Straits of Melaka for around four centuries. Nonetheless, references to military exped- itions suggest that overlordship was not easily maintained in an area where populations were highly mobile and geographically
was
inaccessible.
fear of supernatural retribution for
What
anyone
could induce obedience, how-
guilty of derhaka, a Sanskrit
found repeatedly in Srivijayan inscriptions meaning“treason to the that
most people would not be
tions
would have increased
ruler."
word
The ve町fact
able to read or understand the language of these impreca-
their
potency as magical signs,时,when read aloud,
pronouncements imbued with supernatural powers. Their
as royal
effectiveness as a deterrent to
opposition was strengthened by specifically identi马ring occupational groups, from wash-
ermen
to merchants, sea captains
and sons of princes.
"If you are not faithful to
me, and if
who
you behave
like a traitor,”threatens
contact with
my enemies, or if you spy for the enemy, you will be killed by the curse."26
Beyond
one
inscription,“plotting with those
Srivijaya' s spiritual reach in southeast
Malay Peninsula, such royal curses had impedes
historical reconstruction,
it
little
Sumatra and across the
significance.
seems that from the
Though
late tenth
challenged by the Javanese, and then in 1025 was attacked by the Srivijaya could
centu巧. Although the
J.
no longer maintain
its
Straits
are in
to由e
the lack of sources
century Sriv加ya was
Cho la
of South India.
A
Malay author writing
seventeenth century put the case simply:“According to the account
in the early
we have received, the
Palembang which has been mentioned was the same as the Palembang of today. Formerly it was a ve巧great city, the like of which was not to be found in the whole
city of
country of Andelas [S旧natra]产8
Around thirty inscriptions have been found along the upper reaches of the Batang Hari ( the main river in the modern Indonesian province of Jambi) and in the Minangkabau highlands of central Sumatra. They celebrate the achievements of a king, with one statue depicting him as the ferocious Tantric Shiva-Buddhist deity Bhairava standing skulls.
interior.
on a corpse surrounded by
We know little of this king’s Minangkabau subjects, who occupied the fertile valleys
and gold-bearing areas of the volcanic
interior,
accumulating a corpus of intri伊ing evidence.
but ongoing work by archaeologists
A
AD (Masa Baru:
is
fourteenth-century law code recently
discovered in Kerinci (a highland society located in an upland valley on the mountain
range along Sumatra’s central spine)
may have originated from this interior Minangkabau
Minangkabau area was another group of interior inhabitants, the Batak, who built a society based on religio-political foundations supported by the wealth generated by international trade in camphor and benzoin from their native forests. Finally, we turn to central Java, where rich volcanic soils and moderate rainfall could
cou此North of
the
support a large rice-growing population. Surrounded by mountains, including the impres- sive
and st出active Mount Merapi,
central Java
was an
ideal site for the
development of an
early polity, Mataram. It is not surprising that由e most impressive monuments, statua巧, and inscriptions in island Southeast Asia are found in this area, or出at it was
former supremacy as a regional entrepot because
G. de Casparis, ed. and trans., Selected Inscriptions from the 7th to the 9th Century II: 36-46.
Bandung, 1956), Vol.
of Sri世jaya disappeared from Malay memo巧,the legends
of a great port in southeast Sumatra were retained.
27
26
name
a thriving port
Meanwhile, there were other developments in the Sumatran
tribute missions.
Srivijaya's
ever,
traders,
Cited in 0.
W.
Wolters, The Fall of Srivijaya in Malay His归ry (I由aca: Cornell University Press,
1970), 71. 28
Brown,“S写jarah Melayu,'’25
78
'
A
ODERN SOUTH觅A川队1400-
HISTO…F觅ARL
demographically so dominant. Java
A tenth century Arab chronicler almost certainly refers to
when he remarks出at“there
An
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY MODERN SOCIETIES,
are
no uninhabited places
in this country产9
water management. Inscriptions from the ninth and tenth centuries mention around four sizes,
which were administered by a council
landholders. Their relationship to the central authority officials
may
have been appointed from the local
is
elite,
unclear,
and although
required. Several
from
Javanese kings do not appear
to
right to
also required to supply corvee labor
when
hundred temples on the Dieng Plateau (near modern Yogyakarta)
dating
from the seventh
monument
who were
of
irrigation
have been directly involved in water management. However, they did have the exact land taxes
villagers,
to the thirteenth centuries, the eighth to ninth-century Buddhist
of Borobodur, and the nearby
Hindu complex of Prambanan
are striking
testimony to the ability of Javanese rulers to organize substantial labor for these projects.
Although Indian religion and architectural and
monuments were products
these
evidence of repeated volcanic eruptions in central Java from prehistoric times, the shift in
artistic influences are clearly evident,
of local designers and artisans, and they represent
a
and was well underway
a
hundred years later, presumably as
(“Bitter
Maja
was hardly
Fruit"),
which was established around 1293 about 35 miles (56 kilometers) midway between central Java and the coast,
accidental, for
it
controlled the Brantas river valley in east Java, which linked
like the可pically
at
Hindu gods and Buddhist
bodhisattvas
times highlight features that are unique to the region,
Southeast Asian outrigger ships depicted on the Borobodur
reliefs. Early
Javanese inscriptions have yielded information regarding land grants, revenue collection, elite hierarchies, local
markets, and foreign commerce, with mention of trading
commu-
tages of an agrarian base with access to maritime commerce. This access was so important
that
one Old Javanese to
sell, its
is
not to
till
the land, but
purpose
is
merchants
who buy and
sell
is
costly
also frequented
by
a vast
amount of shipping, and by
goods from which they reap great
profit.
Indeed the
The merchants of Zayton (now Quangzhou) and Manzi (meaning generally southern China) draw annually great returns
treasure of this Island
from
is
so great as to be past telling ...
Despite the combined evidence from literary sources, inscriptions, temples, outlines. Historians
and
it
transporting cloves, nutmeg, and to ports along Java’s
Majapahit that for
The commercial
mace from
statua町,
findings, Java’s early history can only be reconstructed in broad
have been particularly puzzled by the
has been assumed that
Cited in G. R. Tibbetts,
some
disaster
move from
central to east Java,
must have occurred. Although
there
Hen巧Yule and Henri
the code of
who
and traders in
the spice islands in the Eastern Archipelago
many years
the Chinese believed spices were actually
and
vitality of these ports
their attraction for foreign
of rice available.
sites
in Java.
merchants was
Production increased as areas
forest clearance
The urban
grown
and by constructing
located at
some
irriga-
distance from the
coast apparently operated as collection points for loading rice surpluses, which were then sent downriver
and along canals
1349 account,“The that there
is
As Wang Dayuan remarked in his and producing rice in such abundance
to the coastal ports.
fields are fertile, the
land level
a surplus to export to other countries产2
Malay texts
all
speak with respect of
ceaseless coming and going”of people丘om Majapahit’s economic importance, where overseas territories brought “beeswax, sandalwood, massoi bark used for medicine and in [
cosmetics], cinnamon, cloves,
A
Study of the Arabic Texts con阳的ing Material on South-East Asia (Leiden:
Cordier, The Travels of Marco Polo reprint of 1929 edition), Vol. II: 272.
(New York: Dover
and nutmeg
obtained from animals such as deer and
...
ambergris and
civets] piled
musk an aromatic secretion [
high in heaps.”There was no doubt
is
Br山,1979), 33. 30
buy
north coast. Indeed, spices were so abundant in the markets of
tion canals linked to the Brantas River.
31
29
is
sea, to
“a
this country."30
and archaeological
on land and on the
significant role as shippers
under wet- rice cultivation were extended by
all
trade
Coastal Javanese (a designation that included people from the island of Madura,
were well known as seafarers) played a
heightened because of the large amount
other kinds of spices. This island
“to
prosperity and wealth, to car巧out trade; this
thirteenth century
wealth, producing black pepper, nutmegs, spikenard, galingale, cubebs, cloves, and
duty of the
text adjusts Indian caste allocation to assert that the
sudra ( the lowest caste)
nities that include various
Indian groups as well as Mon, Cham, and Khmer. In the Marco Polo spoke of Java in glowing terms.“The island is of surpassing
combined the advan-
the agricultural interior to the ports near Surabaya. Majapahit thus
near village shrines and suggest that Hindu-Buddhist temples were built in places where
and
new opportunitie
southwest of modern Surabaya. This location,
and
artistic styles,
a result of
commerce and wet-rice agriculture. A succession of thriving kingdoms then developed in east Java, their economies based on international trade and rice exports. The most long lasting and prestigious of these was Majapahit afforded by the expansion of maritime
behavior of a sudra, thus say the scriptures."31
Javanese
the
Brantas River was a gradual process that began around the middle of the ninth century
convergence oflndian and Javanese traditions. Scattered yoni and linga stones, represent-
reflect
movement towards
Merapi. The mapping of temple construction indicates that
ing the forces of fertility resulting from the conjoining of male and female, are o丘en found ancestors were already venerated. Depictions of
Mount
population eastwards was probably not caused by a cataclysmic explosion of
essential element in the expansion of rice cultivation was the village-based system of
hundred settlements ( wanua) of various
C. 90。一1400
Publications, Inc., 1993,
Sharada Rani, ed., Slokantara. An Old Javanese Didactic Text (New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1957),”,llS. We are grate创to Dr. Helen Creese for clarifying and contextualizing this reference
32
Rockh血,“Notes on the Relations and Trade of China with the Eastern Archipelago and the Coasts of the Indian Ocean during the Fourteenth Century,”T'oungPao, Second Series 16, 2 {1915),
W. W. 237.
79
80
'
A
RISTO…F EARLY MODERN SO川EAST山,140叫3
ANTECEDENTS OF EARLY岛10DERN SOCIETIES,
in认Tang Da严ian’s mind that the Javanese were“the foremost of the Barbarians of Eastern
Seas.”33
International exchanges were facilitated by the use of local
the
and archaeologists have even unearthed clay coin containers, including some in the shape of pigs (emblematic of prosperity) which are thought to indicate a pattern of household savings. Evidence of workshops and specialized occupations suggest a range of activities that supported a vibrant economy.
Desawarnana is
is
(Description of the Country).
Hayam Wuruk (r.
the ruler
celebrated in a long court
king’s
grandmother,
Within the narrative are
The primary focus of the poet,
CONCLUSION
Mpu Prapanca, religious
The physical environment of Southeast Asia fostered the development of distinct com- munities characterized by shared lifestyles, customs, and beliefs, a common language, a sense of belonging to a distinctive geographic space, and a social order maintained ties of kinship. At the dawn of the early modern period much of this polycentered and ethnically diverse world can be conceptualized in terms of overlapping mandala, where rulers might claim suzerainty over an extensive domain but where vaguely defined
through
borders expanded or contracted in keeping with the prestige of the center.
Among many
and court ceremonies dedicated
to deceased relatives,
who
societies, such as those in the Northern and Eastern Archipelagoes or the highland areas
was a Buddhist nun.
of the mainland, polities of almost equal strength co-existed. While individual mandala
towards the end of her
life
significant details about the eclecticism of Javanese religious
Terraced temples on mountain
beliefs.
written in 1365, the
1350-89) and his family, their royal p地rimages to
sanctuaries around the country,
notably the
poem
900-1400
and Chinese
coins,
Majapahit’s golden age
C.
Hindu
sites
where ancestors were
still
venerated were
polities
and
might come together
in a loose federation, such alliances could easily dissolve
times erupt into warfare.
at
and Buddhism enjoyed high status. The king Shiva and Buddha, King of the Mountain, a world conqueror,
From early times Southeast Asia’s far-flung trading networks had brought a continuous flow of new ideas and technologies into the region, but cultural priorities remained
whose very birth was marked by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that destroyed evildoers. Although a few royal gravestones bearing Javanese dates (the earliest from
constant even as ambitious rulers looked for greater status and material advantages.
A leader should be an
1368 CE) display Islamic phrases, the text makes no mention of Islam and for Ibn Battuta
favor he or she received
Java was
warfare, and acknowledged prestige. The possession and accumulation of sacred objects,
dedicated to the worship of
himself
飞气Te
is
described as
still“a
gods,
country of infidels.”34
will return to
Majapahit in the following chapter, but
at this
point
we need to stress
that the Desawarnana’s portrayal of “Java”as a coherent society with
economic and diplomatic network
is
attracted not because of M勾apahit’s
powerηand
and
sea the
an extensive
was one with the land of Java." Beyond the core area of Java, Madura, and the Malay lands and islands of the Indonesian archipelago are described as submis- “it
all “seek
refuge" under Majapahit, pay homage,
and render tribute. In a pragmatic recognition of the limits of Majapahit authority, the Desawarnana simply depicts the more powerful mainland polities of Ayutthaya, Cambodia, the Cham areas, and
33
Annam
A.H.
kingdom, success
in
animals, and people legitimized and enhanced royal authority, while the ongoing
acquisition of subjects asserted a
ruler’s
superiority
and augmented revenues and human should resemble
that of parent to child. Combining the discipline of a father with the softness of a mother,
its “puri马rin
ments were placed under Javanese surveillance so that the country“conformed with all the customs of Java." The island of Madura was included in this cultural circle because in
who
could tap supernatural power, and the
resources.
strength, but because of
punishment. In 1343, for example, the Desawarnana records that the “evil and base" king of Bali was“completely crushed" by Javanese armies. All Buddhist establish-
sive vassals
who
in the prosperity of the
also depicted in spiritual terms. Vassal lords are
will incur
Bali,
was demonstrated
economic
its many experts in sacred texts. Nevertheless, in referring to attacks by land poem also makes clear that disobedient vassals or rival kings, such as Srivijaya,
former times
texts,
extraordinary person
(Dai Viet) as “always friends.”35
Hill,“Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai,”JMBRAS 33, 2 (1960), 161; Rockhill,“Notes
Trade of China with the Eastern Archipelago,'’236 34 35 给Gibb, trans., The Travels of Ibn Battuta, 880. Robson,
trans.,
on the
Relations and
Desawarnana,另一4, 59, 82, 85
But the relationship of ruler to
subject, or leader to follower,
be able to administer stern but impartial justice while remaining constantly alert to the welfare of his or her children. Mandala interactions can thus be best understood in familial terms, where each polity occupied a specific ?kinship" position a ruler should
based on resources and strengths, and related to other
polities as a
younger
to
an elder
sibling or a child to a parent, while acknowledging the obligations associated with each status.
At the pinnacle was the father/mother
figure, the
modern period many
lord,
whose mediating
As we move
into the
features associated with the classical period" remain,
though
hand assured the harmony and prosperity of the entire early
dominant
family/polity. ?
出ey are modified as a result of the unprecedented and cumulative economic, religio时, and political changes that characterize the early modern era in Southeast Asian history.
81
The beginning of the early modern era, 1400-1511 Map
4
(top):
Zones
modern Southeast Asia
in early
1000 km
750
CH
<7
IN A (!
。
。
Bay
PACIFIC
of
Bengal
0
CE
A N 。
。
r?
0 0 0
Andaman Sea 。 。
0 0
0 。。
f) 三〉
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4二三?/Terna!\)吃Halmahera
INDIAN 0
CE
A N
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八f弓士1
rla讥Si (、?・
Sunda毛trai必??坦问 Banten Girana
人
【Maj?ltJ;:,
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九1?
Se ’丁D)t c.r
子气Demak峦如_Madura
〕三?、ι
-;,
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c汇/飞。飞
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U气万元。
Java
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Borneo
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δeram
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0
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tJ
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Map
5 (bottom): Early
modern Southeast
Asia,
1400-1511
,avu0
.})Rote
""'
84
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODF.RN ERA, 1400-1511
TIMELINE The beginning of the c.
1293一ι1527
early
modern
F
era, 1400一1511
Majapahit kingdom
in
Java
Ming dynasty
1364-1527
Ava dynasty
stimulated commercial traveled seaborne
Peninsula, First
which became renowned
mentioned in Chinese sources
serves as a in
in
China
signals a
cultural interaction along well-
routes.
Emblematic of
marker
as a center for regional
in 1403, Melaka' s
this invigorated
and international commerce.
emergence on the
polities
modern
for the beginning of Southeast Asia’s early
time of transition from the period dominated by the
which new
Myanmar
and fostered
acti飞rity
and overland trade
was the prosperous town of Melaka, on the west coast of the Malay
maritime activity
Foundation of Ayutthaya
1368-1644
…阳t……
and
rulers,
own
period.
“classical”states to
though always conscious of their
were intent on marking out their
historical scene It
also
one
in
illustrious predecessors,
spheres of authority. Across the region flourishing
maritime commerce brought not merely increased wealth, but new religious ideas and First
mention of Melaka
in
Chinese sources
technologies that enabled
many
polities to
expand
their territ。可and for
some
the
opportunity to develop more elaborate bureaucratic structures.
Ming voyages to Southeast
Asia, India,
and east Africa
Because of
location at the crossroads of international trade, Southeast Asia was
its
inevitably affected
1407-28
Ming occupation of Dai Viet
New Le dynasty established
by the
ripple effects of world developments,
most notably the consoli-
Ming dynasty in China. In 1369, a decade after his accession in 1358, the first Ming emperor made clear his policies towards the Nanyang, the ?Southern Ocean,,一a term dation of the
by Le Loi
in
Dai Viet
generally used to
Melaka adopts Islam
announce
by the Chinese
his
to refer to Southeast Asia -
vict。可over the Mongols and
regime in China. Less directly
but no
felt,
by sending a
series
of missions
to proclaim the establishment of a
less signi且cant,
was the
rise
new
of powerful Islamic
empires in Central Asia and India. The prestige of Islam steadily rose as the Ottoman
Mraul←U becomes capital
city
Turks extended their conquests into the Balkans, Greece, and Europe. In 1453 Ottoman armies captured Constantinople, the heavily fortified capital of “Rum" (the name Arabs
of Rakhine (Arakan)
Sacking of Angkor by Ayutthaya;
Khmer capital
movest[
Phnom Penh Conquest of Constantinople
gave to the Byzantine Empire). The
fall
of Constantinople also meant出at the
and the Mongols controlled the land and maritime trade routes (”Rum”)
by Ottoman
Turks
affected decisions
made
in far-off Europe,
where the
Ottoman
to Asia. This in turn
rulers of Spain
and Portugal were
determined to gain access to the rare products of eastern lands, especially spices. To avoid
Cham
polity of Vijaya destroyed
confrontation, the two countries concluded the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 under papal
by Dai Viet
authority, giving jurisdiction of
Treaty of Tordesillas signed between Portugal and
Spain
all
newly encountered lands
east of a line
drawn through
the Atlantic to Portugal and west of the line to Spain. Most of Southeast Asia was placed in the Portuguese zone, though Spain was eventually able to claim the Philippine islands.
1511
Portuguese conquest of Melaka
Because the 700-year occupation of the Iberian Peninsula by the Moors (Muslims仕om northwest Africa) had only
finally
ended
in 1492, the Spanish
and the Portu伊ese brought
with them fiercely hostile attitudes toward Islam. The most dramatic manifestation of this
combination of economic ambition and religious antipathy came with Melaka's conquest Asia’s most famous port was the
by the Portuguese in 1511. The defeat of Southeast
harbinger of far-reaching developments由at were to affect the entire region.
We
first
consider the sources available for reconstructing the history of what can be
regarded as a transitional period, and then turn to the notable features出at characterize the beginning of the early
modern
period: increased trade,
new
religious influences,
and
85
86
A HISTORY OF EARLY如'IODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511
innovations in agriculture and military technology. Yet despite these regional Southeast
Asia’s cultural
misleading. Although in
and ethnic
some
diversity
areas this
more
adverse aspects of change cut
was
means
features,
that broad generalizations can be
a period of rising opportunity, in others the
The chapter
deeply.
therefore continues with
a
chronological narrative structured in terms of seven sub- regions or zones (Western,
and Eastern Mainland; and Western, Central, Northern, and Eastern Archipel- The changing dynamics of these complex zones and their interaction with the wider world infuses the history of early modern Southeast Asia with a unique character.
The Suma Oriental ( Compendium of the East), compiled by Tome Pires, the Portuguese apothecary who lived in Melaka for three years immediately a丘er the Portuguese conquest in 1511, provides considerable historical material gained
documents appear in unexpected
from
places, like the letters
local informants.
Sometime
exchanged between the court of
Ryukyu (Okinawa) and several Southeast Asian rulers. Archaeological excavations continue
Central,
to reveal
ago).
there are few written sources. Certainly
new
evidence regarding trade links, which
unanswered, but
we
are
is
especially valuable for places
where
many questions will probably remain permanently now in a much better position to look beyond major centers and
consider developments in localities that had previously barely entered the historical record.
A transitional period in the historical record 毒害Noteworthy By
the fourteenth centu巧the construction of great religious
monuments on
those associated with Angkor, Pagan, or central Java had ended, and the stone inscriptions that have
endured over time and have provided the basis
history gradually decrease in number. Although literacy
for reconstructing so
was always confined
much
to an
elite
minority, royal capitals and religious institutions continued to produce written material,
no longer on durable material such surfaces -
wooden
as stone or copperplate but
life
on perishable
dates
from 1697. Manuscript and the discovery
on bark paper
is
is
unknown.
collections
were
also vulnerable to fire, civil disruption, and
supplying the products that attracted this trade, and to foster environments that facilitated
in Kerinci (Sumatra) of a fourteenth-century law code written
muang
to this story of loss -
- but for most of Southeast Asia the
detailed
were composed
at a later date, or
which they have been subject
Finally,
it is
fifteenth
have survived only in
for reconstructing the history of
copies,
to interpolations or reinterpretation
not until the early sixteenth century that
European accounts, which are
we can
begin to
tap
especially important for the island areas and
many
places
where written material
is
otherwise
Despite these historiographical caveats, sources such as law codes, dynastic lists, literary
political
texts,
and royal chronicles provide a much
developments than was hitherto
the original composition, and the
available.
Muslim
fuller picture
Sometimes these
texts
of cultural and
give出e date
of
made
a
practice of dating gravestones has
The annals of the Ming dyn- contain a wealth of information found nowhere else, while accounts
significant contribution to establishing local chronologies. asty, the
commercial exchange. Because predominantly interior agricultural communities were actively involved in
maritime commerce,
it
Ming Shi-lu,
of Chinese travelers and envoys provide valuable details about specific
localities.
also
would be misleading to categorize Southeast
Asian polities in terms of an“agricultural" and“trade-based”dichotomy. Indeed, control of the coasts
became the
objective of any ambitious ruler, since this
able advantages over rivals
The claim by Tome
who had
it
or no access to出e sea.
spoken
in
Melaka
is
does convey the idea of the multi-cultural, cosmopolitan
atmosphere可pical of Southeast
Asia’s
investors in overseas trade along the Straits
would mean consider-
Pires that eighty-four distinct languages were
obvious hyperbole, but
and the
little
port towns. Wealthy Hindus were st诅出1portant
Burmese
coast, the
Gulf of Siam, northern Sumatra,
of Melaka, but by the fi丘eenth century Indian shipping was primarily in the
hands of Muslims from Gujarat, Bengal, and south
non-existent.
works, religious
marked
ence because of their ab让ity to attract local and overseas traders, to sustain the networks
century has yielded very few written sources. Even chronicles purporting to describe
to
the early fi丘eenth centu巧,however, historians have discerned a
of new centers of authority along the major maritime routes. Such places rose to promin-
production in the northern Tai
and the degree
From
this technique
thus extremely rare. There are certainly exceptions
itself
ture.
feature of in agricul-
in a tropical climate. Despite Vietnam’s long legacy of
the fi丘eenth and early sixteenth centuries have been seen as a“golden age”of textual
events at the time
As the previous chapters have shown, international trade had long been a Southeast Asian economies, even when the population was primarily involved
expansion of seaborne commerce throughout the region and the consequent emergence
woodblock-printed books, for instance, the oldest surviving example of warfare,
vegetal
Expanding trade and encounters with India and China
of pounded bark, and other plant
boards, palm-leaves, paper
material - with a limited
made
features of the period
the scale of
India.
Marco
Polo’s report
from
1292 shows that several ports in northern Sumatra, including Pasai, had already accepted
and they flourished because of patronage by Muslim traders, who were naturally drawn to places where they could find a mosque and a sympathetic religious milieu. Links
Islam,
with the wider Muslim world are evident Pasai kings,
which
tombstones, which
M由e names
replicate those in vo思1e in
adopted by thirteenth-century
Egypt and
point to the arrival of religious fi凯ires
Syria,
and by inscriptions on
from places such
Bengal and their marriages with well-born Pasai women. Such
women
as Gujarat
and
are celebrated for
88
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, I400-15ll
ASIA, 1400-1830
Indian merchants
commanded
which they sold or bartered
One
owned
considerable resources and even
but the vast majority were small traders
on commission.
either for themselves or
of the great strengths of Indian traders was their appreciation of the preferences of
different areas in Southeast Asia, so that they could service sub-regional text且es in silks for
highest demand. For example, although there was always
which G时arat was cheap cotton
looking for carried
ships themselves,
who made an annual trip carrying a bale of cloth,
most buyers were
particularly famous, in Southeast Asia
cloth, usually with printed designs.
markets with the
a clientele for the fine
For their pa时,Indian ships
back cargoes of Southeast Asian products that were o丘en transshipped to the and Europe. Spices and aromatic woods were the most important, and tin -
Middle East Figure
3.1.
Tree of life, Coromandel
Coast, India. This textile has been
carbon dated to 1670-95, and was found in the Toraja area of central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Although the idea of the tree as the source of abundance and fertility has old roots in India, designs were modi且ed in the
scarce in India - to
Far better documented
au出ority in the
Singapore. Previously in the Roger
women governed Across the
and
their benevolence,
and
it
Pasai, although the extent of their authority
Straits,
Melaka adopted Islam around 1430 and
appears that is
its
at least three
a
hub
and international commerce drew Indian traders away from rival Muslim Some indication of the extent of the Indian presence in Melaka is provided by Tome Pires, who commented on the “great Kling (Hindu) merchants with trade on a large scale and many junks" and noted that every year around five thousand Gujarati arrived.1
for regional ports.
Nonetheless, while Indian ships
now rarely sailed beyond Java, and did not conduct direct
trade with eastern Indonesia, the cargoes they brought - beads, gems, religious objects, jewelry, and, above
1
all,
textiles
- were distributed
all
over the region (see Figure
The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires and The Book of Francisco Rodrigues, 2 (London, 1944) vol. I: 42, 45; vol. II: 255.
vols.
Armando
3.1).
Some
Cortesao,
ed.
several
copper
from Southeast Asia (and the exotic
gifts
against private involvement in maritime
the reign
name
campaigns
in
an
effort to
extend
rather di旺erent. Believing that uncontrolled trade
contributed to instab山ty along the coast, the
its
Y ongle (“Perpetual
new emperor encouraged
had
tribute missions
they brought) but issued repeated prohibitions
commerce. His son, who succeeded
Happiness”),
embraced
this policy
in
1402 with
but was even more
concerned with asserting Chinese prestige and power. Between 1405 and 1433 Yongle and his successor dispatched several naval expeditions to出e“Western Ocean’飞which
from the Melaka
Straits to A仕ica, as well as
encompas付出e
established trade routes, the fleets were
of
development into
to
the growing Chinese presence. In the late thirteenth century
Ming dynasty (1368-1644) were
stretched
unclear.
was added
Melaka indicate that
N anyang, the southern ocean. The strategies adopted by the founder of the
“Eastern Ocean”,which
their virtue, their compassion,
is
Yuan (Mongol) dynasty had launched
the
Hollander Collection.
it
to
lacuna.
tree
Asian Civilisations Museum,
who came
convey some sense of the experience of Indian traders themselves remains a frustrating
European
was often applied to families, communities, and the larger polity.
staple of Bay of Bengal trade because
these commercial ventures were highly profitable, the lack of detailed accounts that could
seventeenth centu叩to conform with tastes. Textiles showing a with meandering branches sprouting fantastic oversize flowers, fruit, and leaves, often with birds and small mammals, were ve可popular as hangings in Southeast Asia, where the metaphor of the fertile tree由at also provided shade and protection
was another
produce bronze. Though the numbers of Indians
whom was
the
seas
lesser-known missions to the
from the Philippines
commanded
to
Timor. Following
by court eunuchs, the most famous
Muslim Zheng He (1371-1433), who
led the seven expeditions
to由e
ve町large ships that carried thousands of soldiers
Comprising岳的to a hundred many horses, these well-armed armadas represented
west.
and
a formidable display of power.
were taken back to China to pay homage to也e A number of Southeast Asian Emperor, their compliance no doubt obtained because the threat of force was always present. In 1407, in southeast Sumatra, the local Chinese leader of “Old Port" ( the former rulers
Srivijaya)
was captured
for alleged treason;
around
five
thousand people were
killed
and
The effects of this determination to assert Chinese suzerainty were experienced even more directly in Dai Viet, which was invaded in 1407 and occupied for twenty years. The Chinese were eventually forced to withdraw, but Ming Emperors
ten ships burnt.
continued to assert their overlord status by sending envoys to Southeast Asia to of且dally invest or“enfeo旺”rulers. The upland polities of the mainland also felt由e effects of
89
90
(愧
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA,
Ming ambitions when (i.e.
140。一1830
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511
military expeditions were sent to extend control over
non-Han
non- "Chinese”) peoples in Yunnan.
There
is
another side to
many
this sto巧,for the
thousands of
men who
traveled or
fought beyond China’s borders would have brought back stories of strange lands and exotic environments. Chinese particularly fascinated
who
described the countries of the Southern Ocean were
by the brightly colored parrots and
[and, they believed, understand]
human
lorikeets
which could
became
speech,'’and these
“imitate
a favored gi丘for
Chinese emperors.2 Such accounts would have reaffirmed perceptions of Southeast Asia a region of
party of soldiers logs,
On
economic opportunity.
around 10
an island off the coast of Melaka, for
as
instance, a
whom Zheng He had sent to collect aromatic wood brought back six great feet (3 meters) in
diameter and 100
black markings and a scent that was“clear and
feet (30
strong,'’such
meters) long.
wood
飞机th its fine
(possibly referring to
Religious
The driving
and philosophical domains force behind the expanding global networks of the fifteenth century
was the
increase in maritime trade.Yet other fields of communication incorporated Southeast Asians into overlapping religious
traders
and envoys, but
and ph过osophical worlds
also
maintained
that intersected with the
specific connections.
movement of
Vietnam was distinguished
from the Theravada Buddhist world of the rest of mainland Southeast Asia by its inclusion in the Sinicized domain, while the spread of Islam introduced new networks that were part of another religious and cultural environment. Southeast Asians were active pa口icipants in these domains, and elites eagerly embraced teachings that provided reaffirmation of their
More important for common people was the belief that the spiritual forces now available would work in combination with ancient deities to伊arantee greater protec-
superior status.
hardly surprising that private trade between
and prosperity. In a continuing process of selective adaptation, ideas considered useful were adjusted so that they melded more easily wi由indigenous beliefs and practices. Yet at
Southeast Asia and southern Chinese ports continued to flourish, despite imperial prohib-
times this inclusion in a larger international religious or philosophical cultural sphere could
Aquilaria malaccensis, which produces the aromatic aloeswood) was“very scarce
indeed产With
these inducements
itions that forbade ordinary
is
it
Chinese from sailing overseas. Wh过e some Chinese traders
spent only a short time away from home, others settled along Southeast coastlines
and became
actively involved as
middlemen
in local trade networks.
responsible for bringing in Chinese copper cash - picis - which were
lower-value transactions. In a also adopted.
number of
They were
much in demand for
instances Chinese weights
would
that
encouraged them to take up residence in the hope
follow.
The members of these small from the southeastern coastal included Chinese Muslims and in Fujian from the 1360s. Some
but growing overseas Chinese communities mostly came provinces of
Guangdong and
other refugees
who had
Fujian,
and would have
fled reprisals following uprisings
Chinese became so acculturated that they were appointed
not simply as interpreters for tribute missions to B均ing, but as
official
envoys and royal
representatives.
These individuals were o丘en the products of intermarriage between
Chinese
and
settlers
local
women, and
in
play important roles as cultural brokers.
many
Southeast Asian societies they came
The woman who, with imperial
to
blessing, sue-
ceeded as ruler of “Old Port" in southeast Sumatra was probably the offspring of such union.
The
respect in
which she was held
is
indicated
rewards, punishments, degradations and promotions
by the remark
all
generate tensions
a
that“in every case
depended on her
decision."4
by introducing
conflicting interpretations of "correct" transmission
which
ruler’s
localization
Although China continued to receive envoys from Southeast Asian
from the mainland, geographical proximi可and
3
4
Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores" [1433}, J. V. G. M且ls, trans and ed. (Cambridge University Press for the Hakluyt Society, 1970), 92 Fei Hsin, Hsing-ch口a-sheng-lan: the Overall Survey of the Star Ra卢,J. V. G. Mills, ed. Roderick Ptak, trans. (Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1996), 56.
Ma Huan,
Ying-yai Sheng-Zan, 100.
meant出at only
Dai Viet was ever integrated into the Chinese cultural sphere to any degree. As a result, the concerns of its elite were closely linked to trends in China. The in且uence of the Chinese model
was pa此ic吐缸ly influential in the fifteenth century because a renewed emphasis on Confucian ethics as the basis for the administration was central to the policies of the Ming d严iasty. In 1415 Emperor Yongle commissioned a complete compendium of the great Confucian classics which was distributed all
for examination candidates to master. Scholarly writings stressed that
individuals were involved in prescribed relationships with their families, their communi町,
and heaven itself, and must act in accordance with certain principles so that harmony would prevail. The emperor himself should provide the exemplary model by honoring his the state,
ancestors
and reigning in accordance with the traditions of sage-kings. In Dai Viet these views
were presented in
full
force during the short-lived
Ming occupation
(1407-28).
To
a
much
had been the case in the Buddhist-oriented courts before 1400, Confucian were perceived as the foundations for government a丘er independence was regained.
greater degree than ethics
Ming
place in a larger Sinic civilization,由e‘‘domain of mani岳st
Ma Huan,盯ng-yai Sheng-Zan,“The
courts, partic由rly
historical connections
In 1435 a group of court writers, proudly recording
2
and
was acceptable. Furthermore, in emphasizing a upl的the moral standard of his or her people, these and example responsib且ity to set an larger domains also established expectations that were not necessarily easy to meet. the degree to
and measures were
So important was the commercial contribution of Chinese traders
several Southeast Asian rulers actively
that others
Asia’s extensive
tion
ambassador to China had been accorded the same rank as
5
recognition of白白count町’s
civili二lt)
his counte叩art
from Korea."
eds. (Columbia Sources of Vietnamese Tradition, George Dutton, Jayne Werner, and John K. Whitmore, University Press, 2012), 138-9.
f:'、91
92
4
A HISTORY OF
EAR…ODERN SOUTHEAST A队14…830
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511
In reaching accommodation with Daoism and Buddhism, Confucianism in China under the Song dynasty had also extended the idea of harmony to include the relationship between these “three teachings." In the words of a fourteenth-century Buddhist monk, “although the Three Teachings are different, in the arguments they put forward, they are
One."6
There were other reasons for concern with the demarcation of time. Although Gautama
Buddha himself had warned that his teachings would eventually disappear, the most influential prophecy came from the a丘h-century Indian scholar Buddhaghosa, who said that the Buddhist doctrine and legacy would last only five thousand years, steadily
It was thus quite possible for a Confucian scholar to be a devout Buddhist as well, and Yongle himself commissioned the printing of Buddhist texts as well as sponsoring the
declining in thousand-year stages. At the end of this time the future Buddha, the
construction of several mosques. Despite the growing dominance of Confucian scholar-
would begin anew. While this became the standard view in Theravada Buddhism, it was believed that in the meantime the inevitable deterioration of the religion could be delayed by maintaining the purity of Buddhist practices. Meritorious acts, especially by rulers,
was no fundamental difference between the great sages and Buddhist or Daoist teachers was of great importance in shaping the eclectic nature of ship, the idea that there
popular
belief,
many life Daoist
and
in permitting the incorporation of local deities. Nonetheless, although
cycle ceremonies
rituals,
the educated
promoted by Confucianism were influenced by Buddhist and elite of Dai Viet, like their Chinese counterparts, o丘en looked
disdainfully at popular practices
There were other grounds their
which credited monks and
for official unease, for
priests with magical powers.
become a seedbed for discontent and rebellion. The philosophical and religious ideas that entered Southeast Asia also introduced new methods of reckoning time and of considering its implications for human existence. The goal of spreading Chinese culture, for example, led the
first
Ming emperor
to distribute
states to indicate auspicious days for
ranging丘om marriage to harvesting. By contrast, the Theravada Buddhist societies of Sri Lanka and mainland Southeast Asia were part of a different calendrical system derived from ancient Hindu traditions that began in 638 CE and combined solar and lunar cycles. Initially developed in Myanmar, this system spread to Khmer areas and activities
to the Tai polity of Ayutthaya,
where
it
was adopted
in the fourteenth centu巧. For
ordinary people出is calendar also helped identi马r key events in the Buddha’s as the
day he preached
his first sermon),
and
to calibrate
them with the
life
(such
agricultural cycle,
while the festivals that began and ended the three months of the rainy season marked a period of retreat for monks. An individual’s horoscope, determined by the relative
(
or Sanskrit Maitreya),
could ensure that
would appear and the
cycle of creation
Buddhism would endure. King Anawrahta of Pagan was
and decline
said to have
a reminder of the Buddha, usually a reliquary) to
built five cetiya (a structure serving as
enshrine sacred tooth relics and thus gain sufficient merit to ensure that the religion would last for a “臼11 five
thousand years."8
dhamma (dharma in Sanskrit), the them remained a continuing preoccupation.
Despite such measures, the predicted decline of the
Buddhist and Daoist sanctuaries had
own networks of allegiance and sources of revenue, and therefore had the potential to
hundreds of Chinese lunar calendars to tributary
Mette问,a
Buddha’s teachings, and the need to preserve
In an inscription dated to 1357, for example, the ruler of Sukhothai, enshrining a relic from Sri Lanka, had warned that“ninety-nine years from the year this relic is enshrined, the Tipitaka (the Buddhist
perform meritorious
Canon)
had urged“all good people”to 9 st出survived. This prediction and the
will disappear,'’and
acts while the
dhamma
associated i时unctions are significant, for “ninety-nine years" coincided with 1456 CE,
and anxiety would have been heightened the 1420s a group of around for可senior monks
the end of the second Buddhist millennium, as this
time approached. Sometime in
from the major Theravada communities of mainland Southeast Asia set out for Sri Lanka, believed to be the only place where an unsullied form of the religion was maintained. Here
more studying Pali and the proper method of intoning the sacred held on a special liturgy. In 1426 Sri Lankan monks officiated at a re-ordination ceremony ra丘on the Kalyani (“auspicious") River (north of modern Colombo), where the Buddha - himself was said to have bathed. These monks then returned home to reordain others a they spent a year or
pattern of events that occurred several times in different pa口s of the mainland Southeast
position of planets at the time of birth, was a guide to action and could predict the future.
Asian world.
By the same token,
This purification of the sangha, the revision and recopying of scriptures, the dedication of Buddha images, and the construction of pagodas and replicas of the Mahabodhi temple
it
constructed, a king
founded
“in
the w缸ing (i.e.
6
was extremely important
came
to record the exact time
to power, or a city
was
bu过t.
Ayutthaya, for instance was
712, a Year of the Tiger, second of the decade,
moon of the :fi丘h month, at three nalika and nine
Friday 4
March
when a temple was
on
Friday, the sixth day of
bat after the break of dawn"
1351, shortly a丘er nine in the morning).7
Cited in Timothy Brook,“Rethinking Syncretism: the Unity of the Three Teachings and their Joint in Late-imperial China," Journal of Chinese Rel也ions 21 (1993), 17.
Worship 7
Richard Cushman, trans. and David K. Wyatt, ed. The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya (Bangkok: The
Siam
Society, 2000), 10
in India,
where Buddha gained enlightenment,
all reflect
the concern,。丘en explicitly
expressed in inscriptions or colophons to manuscripts, to preserve the Buddha’s teaching. In 1477 the ruler of Lan Na convened a great council of monks to revise出e Tipitaka. Even
8
9
Pe
Maung
Tin and G. H. Luce, The Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma (Rangoon
University Press, 1960), 92. A. B. Griswold and Prasert na Nagara, Epigraphical Society, 1992), 453-7.
and
Historical Studies (Bangkok: Historical
93
94
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY岛10DERN ERA, 1400-151
the labor of temple slaves could help in this great endeavor, and an inscription of 1489 near the
Lan Na
capital of Chiang
also their children
Mai notes
and grandchildren,
that everybody in a
donated group of people“and
are to be in the service of the
monastery [with the generations] following each other
Buddha image of this
end of the Religion [after its] five thousand years.”10 At the same time, protective deities were regularly incorporated into monastic enclosures and propitiation of these powerful spirits continued. Failure to until the
demands - sometimes for blood sacrifices一could result in catastrophe for the community. The persistence of such practices could lead to questions among those
between Muslim and tions,
and condemned
infidels,
such as eating dogs and drinking wine.
Malay Peninsula, acknowledges that although the ka_卢r (infidel, i.e.
non-Muslim)
habits."12 In Java,
number about
were not averse to using Islam to
to food restrictions
and the preservation of life.
The most important a伍rmation of Southeast the
religious
ummah. Although Islam had been
and was
the
Muslim communi町,
present in the region for about two hundred years
well established in north Sumatra, the turning point
Melaka accepted Islam. Because of
its
came when
the ruler of
importance as an entrepot, Melaka became
for the appeal of the Islamic faith during this period. Rulers
may have wished to
Muslim trade or been impressed by the example of powerful sultanates like Ottoman Turkey, or by the support Islam gave to kingship as“God’s shadow on ea口h." attract
Local
elites
increased
followed their example and the status accorded the
its
influence
among
Muslim
new
religion
would have
ordinary people. Formulaic inscriptions from graves
still
Tome
Pires
alter a single
commented
whom
support in conflicts with their non-Muslim
rally
Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai (Story of the Kings of Pasai) recounts
on the
coast, but
had
war with the
Sumatra there are occasional
thus“ka缸”) polity of Majapahit. In
lived
town
he estimated to
lords of the north coast ports were frequently at
had previously
one of hi
that the
accorded great respect. Yet some Muslim ruler
references to conflict with the “infidel" Batak of the interior, while the
the Gayo,
restric-
how
Malay
text,
the
another group,
fled inland a丘er they refused to
accept Islam.
the
primary dissemination point of Islam, which followed the maritime trade routes from the Melaka Straits to northern Java and into eastern Indonesia. Several reasons have been
advanced
enemies, for the
Hindu-Buddhist (and
development during the a丘eenth century was
inclusion in the expanding global
Asia’s
fifty
thousand, were
food
adopted Islam and gave up
ruler
along the north coast were Muslim, but pre- Islamic ascetics,
entire
ensure that the Buddha’s teachings were maintained, particularly in regard
local indifference to Islamic
A text from Patani, on the east coast of the
worshipping idols and eating pork,“apart from that he did not
satis命their
who sought to
11
in
Technological changes and agricultural expansion Although adaptation and adoption of new technologies in Southeast Asia was certainly not a
new development,
the expansion of trade opportunities and cross-cultural
commu-
nication encouraged innovation in a variety of fields. Ceramics from Southeast Asian kilns
continued to
command
a wide market,
shortage of Chinese porcelain
and potters were well-placed
to
respond to the
when the Ming banned private maritime commerce in
1436.
men and the chastity, virtue, and compassion
Thai production increased as green-glazed dishes were refined to become high-quality
of specific teachings at this time, since Islam was reaching Southeast Asia from different areas - China, India, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula,
celadon readily accepted in place of Chinese ware. The declining ava过ab过ity of the popular
and Turkey. Some scholars have suggested也at Islam spread rapidly because of the role of mystical Islam or Sufism. Traders were often members of Sufi brotherhoods or tarikat in which teachings transmitted from a revered leader in the past were accompanied by rituals
producers benefited from the transference of techniques during the
north Sumatra refer to the piety of Muslim of
Muslim women, but
little is
known
intended to bring the believer in closer communication with God. Practices such repetitive recitation of verses
as
from the Qur'an or trance-inducing music and chanting
Chinese “blue-and-white”porcelain also created
China. Archaeological include large
sites
amounts
white designs (see Figure
3.2).
Eventually finding
at
Although Islamic influence was growing, this was clearly a period of religious transi- tion, and Southeast Asia was caught up in debates that gained in intensity with the
originating in central Thailand, Vietnam,
suit the local situation?
account of Melaka dates from 866
AH
An Arab
sailor-author, whose
attest the far-flung
11
12
or 1462 CE, was highly critical of marriages
Cited in
Hans Penth,“On Rice and Rice
Fields in old Lanna,'’JSS 91 (2003), 98.
to this period
in the
its
way
eigh由year of Ta Ho"
reach of Southeast
to Turkey, the缸1est
example
“brushed at leisure by a lady artisan of the Bui clan (i.e.
1450).13 Shards of ceramic
and Myanmar found仕om Japan
Asia’s
to
West Asia
indigenous ceramic trade.
Cited in G. R. Tibbetts, A Study of仇e Arabic Texts containing Material on South-East Asia (Br山. Leiden and London, 1979), 206. A. Teeuw and D. K. Wyatt, eds. Hikayat Patani. The Story of Patani. 2 vols. (The Hague: Nijho伍1970), vol.
13 1°
Nam-sach Province
imported from
of Dai Viet ceramics由at frequently display distinctive blue-and-
may be a vase inscribed with the words
should Islam be adjusted to
Ming occupation and
and cargoes salvaged from sunken ships dating
of the rituals associated with indigenous belief systems.
far
opportunities for Dai Viet, where
the availability of cobalt (the source of the blue coloring used in ceramics)
may have held out considerable appeal to ordinary people because they resembled aspects
expansion of the global Muslim community. How, for instance, did one identi马r a Muslim? Why should one fast? Who determines “correct" behavior and beliefs? How
new
I:
75.
Cited in John
S.
Guy, Oriental Trade Ceramics
(Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990), 49.
in South-east Asia:
Ninth
to Sixteenth
Centuries
95
96
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511
ASIA, 1400-1830
traditions. In the
1990s a locally built boat was found in Kerala in southwest India that
has attracted interest because
known
far
it
employed the lugs可pical of Southeast Asia but not so was intended
in India. This particular boat
demonstrating that Indian traders
which they operated. Those engaged
Myanmar and Ayutthaya,
in coastal trade
for instance,
for travel
on inland waterways,
ships to adapt to the environment in
had developed
from Bengal along the coasts of
were di旺erent from the wide-bottomed deep-
water vessels that sailed across the open seas from the southeastern Coromandel Coast to the
Malay
areas.
The spread of gunpowder technology and Figure 3.2. Ceramic jar,且丘eenth- century Vietnam. This tall, slender jar with cobalt decoration of lion-like mythical creatures, peony scrolls, and lotus-petal panels
was made
at a kiln
Red River Delta of northern
in the
Vietnam. During the
and sixteenth centuries the ceramic products of kilns in this area, made with fine white local clay, were traded to markets ranging from Japan to West Asia. This jar was recovered in Indonesia, demonstrating the regional pieces.
demands
fi丘eenth
for these beautiful
Courtesy of Freer Galle叮of
Art, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, DC. Friends of Asian Arts and Smithsonian Collections Acquisition Program, Flgg2.12.
development
in early
creative innovations
promoted by
Around
evident in ship-building.
cross-cultural
communication
thirty shipwrecks dating
are similarly
from the pre-1600 period
have been found in Southeast Asian waters, and the kind of timber used in construction can reveal their place of origin. Those built of fir, for instance, come from China, while
made from
hardwood would have been built along the coasts of Java, southern Borneo, and southern Myanmar and Thailand, where teak or ironwood was
those
tropical
available. Regardless of
where they were
built, these ships
have attracted attention
because they combine features associated with Southeast Asia such as V-shaped
hulls
and wooden dowels with those more characteristic of Chinese vessels, notably square iron nails and transverse bulkheads across the hull. Since no ships displaying these hybrid features have been dated prior to 1371,
avoided
official
Ming
it is
likely that
some Chinese merchants
prohibitions against shipbuilding in their
own
country by com-
missioning or overseeing construction in Southeast Asia. Unfortunately, there is no way of knowing at present whether similar technology transfers occurred in coastal areas of India, for archaeological exploration has not yielded suf且cient data to
come
to
any且rm
conclusions about the interaction between Indian and Southeast Asian ship-building
Asia, although close
the norm, and
another significant
is
combat in enclosed spaces weaponry - spears, swords,
rather than in open fields was st过1 - poison darts, and bows and arrows, together with the tactical maneuvering of elephants was far more effective than firearms. Loading and firing was time-consuming, the range traditional
was limited and unpredictable, and tropical humidity could render weapons and gunpow晴 der ineffective. Nonetheless, there can be no doubt that the thunderous noise emitted by this firepower did invoke the idea of powerful supernatural forces, and in fourteenth- century China there
is
already mention of ceremonies dedicated to the
God of Cannon.
In
Southeast Asia a similar process can be seen in the rituals performed prior to a battle,
which invoked the assistance of the protective especially large
spirits often believed to
cannon. Honored with high-ranking
titles,
animate firearms,
such cannon were revered even
when rust and corrosion meant they failed to function. According to later evidence they were even deliberately upended with their barrels upright, resembling and probably intended to represent the sacred and protective linga.
Although there
The
modern Southeast
use in warfare
its
is
a long tradition of metal-working in Southeast Asia, the manufacture
of firearms requires skilled knowledge and a complex division of labor that was only slowly acquired. Large
cannon were
initially
imported from India, the Middle East, and
four- China, and a later Burmese chronicler mentions Indian mercenaries from the late teenth century who were equipped with firearms, probably referring to a rocket-type
device about a foot long (30 centimeters) that could kilometer).
fire
around half a mile (one
A Burmese-Chinese dictionary dating to由e same period also includes terms
cannon and handguns. In mainland Southeast Asia the military value of由is new technology was graphically demonstrated as出e Ming d严iasty pushed into southwestern for
Yunnan, since the noise and smoke of gunpowder was highly
e旺ective against the
elephants used by Tai polities. But this technology could easily be transferred and by the late fourteenth century Tai groups in Yunnan, previously armed only with elephants, spears,
and crossbows, had learned how
from Chinese captives and Parallel
to
make
rockets, small cannon,
and handguns
deserters.
developments can be seen in Dai
Viet.
During由e Ming invasion
in 1407,
Chinese troops eq山pped with handguns and cannon as well as conventional weapons
overwhelmed Vietnamese
forces,
and according to出e Ming
Shi-lu‘'Their gallbladder
97
98
MODERN SOUTHEAST
A HISTORY OF EARLY cracked
[i.e.
ASIA, 1400-1830
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511
they were completely demoralized]."14 Thousands of Vietnamese died
in
establish [pepper] gardens."17
From Sumatra
cultivation spread to western Java
and the
by the capture and adaptation of Ming weapons and by skills acquired from prisoners and defectors. As a result, the Vietnamese were highly successful in adopting and modi马ring firearm technology. Indeed, Vietnamese captives were even taken back to China to pass on techniques that would
Malay Peninsula. Pepper differed from most forest and sea products because
increase the shooting range of handguns
went to China, where pepper was used not only
these battles, but the balance was gradually redressed
Ming
elephant units. A丘er the
Ming withdrawal
strengthen their arsenal. Military
and Tome
and improve
in 1428,
Dai Viet
to specialists in且ring
titles refer
Pires speaks of “countless musketeers
During也e
igniting devices, as well as to train rulers continued to
handguns and cannon,
Growers therefore had
needed careful tending, and required
to plan for the future while organizing
them
family labor to train the vines around stakes and keep
it
was even used
to
was impressed by the defenses, which consisted of stockades made of of numerous cannon large and small and cases crammed with
and
agriculture, specific
it is
department to oversee wet-rice
fields.
Tai areas the rise of significant mandala polities like Lan
contrast, the Portuguese
and
it is
were chronically short of cannon
for ships and
not surprising that the three thousand cannon captured in Melaka
were considered a great fighting using primarily
Yet although gunpowder technology
prize.
destructive than before,
most
battles
were
st过l
largely
made
supplies
Europe, was hair.
Indeed,
salaries.
warfare more
determined by hand-to-hand
bows and arrows, spears, and poisoned darts. it is more difficult to track innovations
In the absence of written sources,
production and agriculture, despite the long-term significance of knowledge
in domestic transfer. For
Cambodia became well known for silk production, but in the late Zhou Daguan said categorically that the Khmer had no knowledge of
A yutthaya
included a
with agricultural production, and there were renewed efforts to increase land under cultivation
fortified cities,
Most
In Dai Viet rulers were always concerned
gunpowder."16 Melaka's gun founders were said to equal the Germans - high praise indeed, since at that time German foundries were supplying cannon to most European
By
pay
noteworthy that the early administration of
“huge, thick trees full
armies.
free of weeds.
as a preservative, but as in
thought to prolong youth, restore sexual prowess, and maintain glossy black
pepper was so valuable in China that
was
In mainland Southeast Asia a major development was the expansion of wet-rice
fi丘eenth
in 1511
several years to mature.
and small bombards."15
centu町Southeast Asian mastery of gunpowder technology expanded considerably, and an Italian who participated in the Portuguese attack on
Melaka
cultivated rather than being collected in the wild,
it
by repairing damaged dikes and extending the
irrigation techniques
existing system. In the northern
Na
is
attributed to the spread of
which raised food production, stimulated population growth, and
fostered sedentary settlements.
The
cultivation of rain-dependent dry rice through swid-
den farming by no means disappeared, but associated with upland groups.
its
more mobile
As the northern Tai put
work swiddens/The Tai work paddy
it,“The
was increasingly
lifestyle
Lawa
[
a highland people]
fields.”18
Developments in island Southeast Asia
instance, in later times
thirteenth century this technology,
referring to
adding that migrants from
some
place in the
plant mulberry trees
and
“Xian”(a
Chao Phraya
forerunner of Ayutthaya, in
valley, possibly
raise silkworms.
On
this case
near the coast) had begun
the other hand, specialists are
to
fairly
confident that ceramic production in northern Thailand incorporated new可pes of designs and techniques from connections with Chinese kilns. In agriculture the increased cultivation of piper
nigrum (black pepper), a native of India,
is
a clear demonstration of
Southeast Asian ab过ity to respond to rising world demand. Since pepper requires certain
and so过conditions, experimentation would have been necessary to determine the best locations, and the first plantings were probably in north Sumatra, where Ma Huan, climatic
who 14
travelled with
Zheng He, remarked
that,“householders over against the mountains
Cited in Sun Laichen,“Chinese Borderless Histories,
Gunpowder Technology and Dai Viet: c. 1390-1497:’in Viet Nam Nhung Tuyet Tran and Anthony Reid eds. (Madison: University of Wisconsin
Press, 2006), 79 15
The Sur
16
A. Bausani, ed. and trans, Lettera de Giovanni da Empoli (Jakarta and Media ed Estremo Oriente Centro Italiano di Cultura, 1970), 136.
The uneven
Instituto Italiano peril
of foreign influences and local adaptations to specific ecologies the entire island world. Instead,
it is
more
make it
useful to think in
terms of sub-regions or zones where the geography and maritime links helped shape historical
developments. The
first
of these zones, which
we w山term
the Western
Archipelago, consists of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, as well as the northwest and
southwest coasts of Borneo. The second zone, the Central Archipelago,
is
dominated by
southern Borneo and
to the islands which was linked by the Java Sea to of Madura, Bali, and Lombok. A third zone, the Northern Archipelago, includes present- day Philippines and the northern and northeastern coasts of Borneo. A final zone encompasses the complex Eastern Archipelago. It stretches from the island of Sumbawa
the island of Java,
and southeastern Borneo in the west, eastward to the coastal areas of western New Guinea, northward to Mindanao and the islands of Maluku, and southward to the Lesser Sunda Islands (Nusatenggara).
17 18
Rome:
effects
difficult to generalize across
Ma Huan,
Ying-yai sheng-lan, 118; Fei Hsin, Hsing-ch a-sheng-lan, 57. Cited in Cholthira Satyawadhna,“A Comparative Study of Structure and Contradiction in the Austro-Asiatic System of the Thai-Yunnan Periphery,'’in Gehan Wijeyewardene, ed. Ethnic Groups across National Boundaries in Mainland Southeast Asia (Singapore: SEAS, 1990), 75.
99
100
(?,\
A HISTORY OF EARLY The飞句T estern In 1365,
when
MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA,
Archipelago
the author of the Javanese text
Desawarnana
(Description of the Countη)
under the “protection" of the kingdom of Majapahit, the "lands of the Malays" (bhumi Malayu) were clearly distinguished from his own country, the “lands of
listed places
the Javanese" (bhumi Jawa).
The connections
that helped create a“Malay world" (in
its
broadest sense extending as far as the Philippines) were possible because the maritime
environment was so amenable to might appear
as
human
interaction.
The Malay Peninsula and Sumatra
two separate land masses, but the
Straits
of Melaka has
functioned almost like an inland lake, and although western Borneo
is
historically
400 miles ( 640
kilometers) from the Peninsula, the intervening waters are so calm and easily traversed
them the Mar de Damas, the Ladies’Sea. The kingdom of Sri时jaya, located in the Palembang area of southeast Sumatra, had once
that the Portuguese called
claimed authority over
much
of the Western Archipelago zone, but by the end of the fourteenth century attacks丘om Java - and centuries earlier from the Chola kingdom in southern India - had undermined its dominance. Nonetheless, the Srivijaya heritage survived with the rise of Melaka, which enters historical sources at the beginning of the t泊eenth century. According to
Malay
oral traditions recorded in the text best
known
as
Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals) and in the Suma Oriental by Tome Pires, the founder of the
new Melaka dynasty was a refugee prince from Palembang. In 1403 the Ming Emperor sent an emissary to identi命some polity in the Melaka
Straits that
could operate under
his
patronage and思iarantee safe passage for Chinese shipping. Reports about Melaka were obviously favorable, for two years later a
delegation
full
was dispatched, carrying a
special
composed by the Emperor himself. This inscription, engraved on pure white stone, was to be placed on present-day Bukit Cina, designated as Melaka’s State Mountain.
inscription
It
carried the assurance that the Emperor’s
increasing prosperity, while your the
first
own
ancestors
would
many descendants enjoy great fortune and respect."19 As
in India),
Melaka was
clearly favored
above competing entrepots in the
region.
In addition, this open display of Chinese patronage and protection dissuaded harassment by
kingdom of Ayutthaya. Advanta- geous connections with China were strengthened through the Ming expeditionary voyage, rivals,
notably Majapahit in east Java and the mainland
and by
Melaka’s acceptance of a tributary relationship with the imperial court, which
allowed for the dispatch of missions that offered tribute, but were also involved in trading transactions. In 1411 the
Melaka
ruler, his wife
and son, and more than
five
hundred
after 1435,
Melaka
rulers
made
four
more visits to China - more than any of its neighbors - helping to confirm its special status in
Chinese eyes.
A primary reason now bear
Straits that
gullet
.
.
.
sea people, to the
for Melaka’s regional its
preeminence was
its
strategic location
on the
name, which a thirteenth-century Chinese writer compared
through which the foreigners' sea and land
The new
pass.”21
port also resembled Srivijaya in
its
traffic in either direction
authority over the
Orang
to“a
must
La时,the
whose home waters were among the many tiny islands that dot both entrances The head of the Orang Laut enjoyed high status in the court hierarchy and
Straits.
his followers
became
a vital
pilots or hostile raiders
element in Melaka' s commercial success, acting as friendly
according to their overlord’s direction, and delivering sea products
such as tortoises, tripang, coral, mother-of-pearl, and edible seaweeds for the China trade.
Reading back from
later material,
it
appears that relationships between different Orang
Laut communities were governed by age-old understandings of a demarcated seascape.
Each group identified with certain islands sacred to
their ancestors,
and with
specific sea
areas from which products were harvested. For the most part Orang Laut communities collected only in waters
acknowledged by other groups
although reciprocal arrangements
as their specific area of usufruct,
could allow for harvesting resources in the
domain of
another group. In a mutual与beneficial relationship, Melaka rulers strengthened their
ties
with Orang Laut leaders by presenting them with titles, valued goods, and sometimes royal women in return for their loyalty and faithful service. Legends recall ancient ties of kinship, [nobles]
and according to a Portuguese chronicler “all the nobles who are now卢dalgos in Melaka" were descended from marriages between migrants from Palembang
and the daughters of Orang Laut or indigenous leaders from forest-dwelling communities.
“watch over your ever-
of just four places to receive this imperial blessing (the others were Japan, Brunei,
and Cochin
Ming withdrew from overseas expeditions
Before the
1400-1511【阳、101
The
22
existence of Chinese, Arab, Malay,
means
that
we know more
and European sources, meager though they
this period. Successive rulers exploited its
trade facilities, an ordered administration,
advantageous location by developing excellent
and
a
maritime code of law, and
it
became
regular stapling port for the increasing maritime tra伍c passing through the Straits.
monsoon so that for the
actual
are,
about Melaka than any other place in Southeast Asia during a
The
cycle allowed for re伊lar arrival and departures from both the east and the west,
incoming merchants could
refit their vessels
winds to change. Because so
number of inhabitants
in
and discharge cargoes while waiting
many traders were
Melaka
fluctuated,
and
resident only pa此of the year,由e at the
beginning of the sixteenth
century the Portuguese estimated that the total population could range from forty
attendants “showing his gratitude for imperial favors,'’came to China to offer thanks. This
was one of the largest delegations from Southeast Asia recorded in
official
Ming sources.20
21
Rockh山,eds., Chau Ju-Kua on the Chinese and Arab Trade (St Petersburg, Amsterdam, 1966), 60. Joao de Barros and Diogo do Couto, Da Asia de Joiio de Barros e de Diogo do Couto: dos卢itos que os portugueses fizeram no descobrimento dos mares e terras do Oriente. Decada Segunda, Parte Segunda F.
Hirth and
W. W.
1914, reprinted
22
::
M咐灿Geo川ade, trans. (2005) http:/ Fei Hsin, Hsing-ch口a-sheng-lan, 55
and
fn.
116
(Lisbon; San Carlos, 1973), 7-9.
102
C斗、,\
A E王ISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 thousand to
THE BEGINNING OF THE
times as many. In this cosmopolitan environment traders could
five
negotiate sales with their counterparts
from
Asia. Listing the range of products that
all
over Asia and other areas of Southeast
Melaka could supply, from
textiles of silk
muslin to spices and rare jungle products, Pires could only remark that
this
is
a place
"where you find what you want and sometimes more than you are looking In 1410 ten pairs of a
Emperor
new European
and
for.”23
invention, spectacles, were even sent to the Ming
as tribute. stab过ity
regional prestige,
its
smaller polities throughout the Western Archipelago and even beyond emulated Mela-
governing
style,
The suzerainty
that
administrative practices and other aspects such as music and
Melaka
rulers claimed over
Sumatra was reinforced by
honorific
titles,
much
strategic alliances
Melaka
warfare. In this context, the decision of the
highly significant.
and asserting authority over
The Malay word
of the Malay Peninsula and
through marriage and ruler to adopt Islam
daulat, taken
evolved into a central element in
dress. east
at times direct
around 1430 was
from the Arabic dawla, used in Malay expressions of royal power,
ruler,
superior to the
Melaka
Muslim, however, Sultan Mansur refuses to Other sources
when
she asks
and ministers
are laid out in the
Sejarah Melayu, where Qur’anic verses and Arabic and Persian quotations are para-
phrased to liken kings and their people to trees and their roots, and kings and ministers to
fire
their
and wood. Some contemporary observers were impressed by the newly
converted mood, and
Ma Huan commented
count叩and
that“the king of the
the
Those coming
today.”26
Muslim world meant
that the
Malay language
absorbed an extensive vocabulary from Arabic and Persian relating to practical as spiritual matters. For example, the title “syahbandar" “lord" (syah)
and
“port" (bandar),
to denote the
center of Islamic learning, and
numerous
translated into
Malay and
combines the Persian words
and was used throughout the Indonesian
and even adopted by Europeans
major port
official.
for
archipelago
Melaka became a major
The
status of Malay, already
commerce, was reinforced through
apogee of the
23
its
Sultan
Mansur Syah
(1459一77),
Melaka reached
to trade
The Suma Oriental of Tome
as a
Pires, vol.
I:
ve町great
228.
blood as a betrothal
gi丘.
during this time, and Sultan Mansur
his predecessors."27 Indeed, while the
Melaka administration. According last ruler,
and
Sultan
Mahmud Syah
to boast that
(r.
it
the destruction of the great
of
rivalries
number
prompted the
may well have
that
could become equivalent to
it
was the
ruler’s
among neighboring Portuguese when they
aroused resentment
hubris, said
The
some Muslims, which
led to
actions of the victorious p。此uguese -
mosque, the burning and looting of the
city,
and the slaughter
of Muslims, men, women, and children" - injected economic
with a degree of religious host山ty that Southeast Asians had never previously
experienced.
29
In contrast to Melaka, the societies that inhabited the
in
and was
ruler frequently
1488一1528), to claim that“the world needed his port”
a“prince of Sumatra" lent forces to assist the
and
24
city ... so that princes
from
Ma Huan,盯ng-yai Sheng-Zan,
all
110.
countries
it is
later years
Ayutthaya, he had nothing but praise for the
Melaka's unexpected and humiliating defeat.
“an infinite
Ryukyu
to Pires, this extraordinary success even
Melaka was of such importance
attacked in July 1511,
not
of a powerful mountain-
were especially appreciative of his suppo此In
complained about impediments to trade in
Western Archipelago’s inland
and highlands have le丘almost no records of their own and are barely mentioned
contemporary sources.
products for
It is clear,
however, that出ey were never isolated from outside
on connections with interior groups to the international market. In modern times the Minangkabau from the
influences, since
all
coastal ports relied
Sumatran highlands have been differentiated仕om
their
deliver
central
Malay-speaking neighbors
because of their matrilineal traditions and the custom of merantau, the deep-rooted
25
C. C. Brown,ζ‘Sejarah Mela严1 or
(1953): 59
the
power. In the words of the Sejarah Melayu,“from below the wind to above
wind Melaka became famous
for his son’s
all
26
fifth ruler,
bow to the demands
recalled that the sultan granted privileges to foreigners,
its use as the
regional language of Islam.
During the reign of the
if
religious texts in Persian and Arabic were
diffused following the trade routes.
well-established as a lingua franca for
as well
Emperor of
飞better king than
jungles
Increasing connections to a wider
Java and the
Muslim merchants
people of the count巧all follow the Muslim religion, fasting, doing penance, and
chanting liturgies."24
as the
himself remarked that“life has never been as affluent in preceding generations as
Straits polities, for
their subjects
The King of
attest to Melaka’s great prosperity
of Shiva. Those guilty of derhaka ( treason against the ruler) would be“struck”by the
dependent relationship between rulers and
Mansur
both present him with a daughter in marriage. As a good
rulers,
Mecca.28 Such overweening pride
daulat and suffer agonizing deaths. Islamic-based formulations of the mutually
text depicts Sultan
studying with Muslim scholars, resisting invaders,
recalcitrant vassals.
apparently replacing the Sanskrit-derived term shakti, associated with the divine energy
ruler’s
The
ERA, 1400-1511
China, two monarchs subtly acknowledged by this Malay court document as equal
helped promote a court culture that became
intimately linked to evolving ideas of being Malay. Because of
coast
to present themselves before [the sultan.]"25
dwelling spirit princess
Melaka' s wealth and dynastic
ka’s
came
epitome of the successful Malay
EAR…ODERN
27
28 """
from Sultan Mansur of Melaka to King of R归均认Feb 7, 1468. Ryukyuan Relations with Korea and South Seas Countries: an Annotated Translation of Docun Kobata and岛1itsu凯1岛1atsuda, trans. (Kyoto: Atsushi Kobata, 1969), 111 The Suma Oriental of Tome Pires, vol. II: 249. The Sun Albuquerque, Caesar of the East: Selected Texts by Afonso de Albuquerque and his Son. T. F. Earle and John Villiers, ed. and trans., including an introduction and notes (Warminster, UK: Aris and Letter
Phillips, 1990),
89
tS时
104' AH…盯OF山…ODERN SOUTHE川山,14…830 cultural expectation that
the past, the
young men should
Minangkabau were regarded
separate culture.
Minangkabau
T…阳NNING
and knowledge. In part of the wider Malay world rather than a
travel in search of fortune
as
traders occupied a significant niche as
major
suppliers of
gold mined in the uplands and pepper grown both in the interior and in the coastal
By
the early sixteenth century one of three rulers in the
areas.
Minangkabau uplands had
converted to Islam, a notable consequence of this involvement in international
The Batak were another interior group who gained in prominence as
trade.
camphor and benzoin were
so rare that in
China they were worth
etian traveler
and kept the
was told that they
ate
human
skulls of their captured
flesh,
ideas to reach into
as
were continually
is
much
as gold. Over
a fifteenth-century Ven- at
enemies as treasure. Although
of ritual practices helped deter intruders, the Batak case
which interlocking
and
war with each other,
this misrepresentation
a telling reminder of the ways
agriculture (sawah) that flourished because of Majapahit’s fertile soils to water.
resins,
in
and international networks enabled foreign goods and remote islands, jungles, and uplands throughout Southeast Asia. local, regional,
we
also
know
little
about the Western Archipelago’s forest
Later evidence suggests that each group lived
by natural landmarks such lated over generations
and
meant
that
all
dwellers.
collected in a recognized area bounded
as a jungle stream or a
mountain
ridge.
Knowledge accumu-
groups had an intimate understanding of their own
environment. They possessed not merely the
skills
required to locate rare trees and
rattans, but also the ritual expertise necessary to ensure that collection
and
Although some trade had been diverted
strong trading connections local markets.
extraction
also careful to foster relations
to
obtain the forest products so necessa町to attract foreign traders to their ports.
in
role in the spice
sent a total of
Zheng
He fleet,“is rich and prolific - there is nothing which they do not have. This certainly is so because the country is situated in a place where all trade comes through." He was especially taken by the parrots and parakeets which when trained “are able to speak words and to sing tunes."30 Impressed with this prosperity, as a place
where no one had
to
a
Malay chronicle depicted Majapahit
worry about food, and where people spent
their days
playing music, dancing, and watching entertainment such as shadow puppet plays.“These
went on day and night in the land of Majapahit
and
fro in
Eve巧where there were people going to
...
numbers past counting."31
Sources relating to western Java, the homeland of the Sundanese people, are even
more
limited.
An
inscription dated 1333 refers to a polity called Pajajaran (near
modern
Bogor), and several other inscriptions from the fifteenth century have been found in this
The occurrence of
area.
location,
different
toponyms suggests由at the main settlement moved
perhaps because of the dependency on shi丘ing dry
rice cultivation. It also
seems that trade conducted in the two ports of Kelapa (modern-day Jakarta) and Banten
was a substantial prop to the economy. Very evident that Vietnamese and Thai
demand. Significant finds from (at this
little
Ming
artisans
their kilns
show
Chinese porcelain仕om the fi丘eenth restrictions
on the ceramic
trade, but
were able to take advantage of market that the upriver site of Banten Girang
point an outpost of Pajajaran), st山operated as an important collection and
distribution point.
The Central Archipelago
In the 1690s the
As the previous chapter demonstrated, toward the end of the thirteenth century Javanese sovereignty in the Central Archipelago was affirmed by the rise of Majapahit in east Java, and the extension of its cultural and political dominance to the neighboring lands of Bali, Madura, and southern Borneo. Yet despite Java’s status in the history of island Southeast Asia, for the period covered in this chapter
many questions remain unanswered. While the
a revealing picture of Majapahit society in the mid-
fourteenth centu町,our knowledge of subsequent developments
is
limited and uneven
been gleaned from a few inscriptions, Portu伊ese
accounts,
Javanese chronicles written a hundred years or so later, notably the Babad Tanah Jawi and the Pararaton, and from continuing archaeological excavations. The revenues that helped establish this pre-eminence
major
seventy tribute missions.“This count巧J’wrote a Chinese observer accompanying a
it is
in quality. Information has
ready acce
centu巧point to
Ming China, and between 1368 and 1526
with
century has been unearthed here because of
Desawarnana (1365) provides
fi丘eenth
coastal po口s continued to play a
indigenous people of the forests were indispensable
seeking
its
and indicate that imported luxury items found keen buyers
The northeastern
would not offend the domain’s powerful spirits. As possessors of these unique abilities, the allies for coastal rulers
and
to Melaka, deposits of Chinese, Thai,
and Vietnamese potsherds or potte町fragments dating from the
Despite their importance as suppliers of jungle products such as rattans, aromatic
woods, and
MODERN ERA
market because of their maritime connections to the Eastern Archipelago. Majapahit was
suppliers of resins
obtained from the camphor and benzoin trees located in the forests around Lake Toba, the Batak heartland in north central Sumatra. Believed to cure or prevent a host of illnesses, time, however, the Batak developed a fearsome reputation,
OF THE EARLY
were derived primarily from the economic base of wet-rice
buildings in the lived.
Dutch described
Bogor area of west
inscriptions, statues,
Java, but there
is little
remnants of a to
show how
once more widely spread. regional connections
it
It
was
lifestyle
and traditions
does appear, however, that while west Java maintained strong also developing
an identity distinct from the
Chinese sources refer to rivalry in Java between an“eastern" and
poem written in Old Sundanese,
rest of Java.
a “western”king,
and
a
describing a hero’s travels, also points to an awareness of
di他rence.“I crossed the river Ci-Singgarung/Having reached the
31
and other
We have no way of knowing, for instance, if the non-Muslim Badui (today known as
Kanekes) in the mountainous regions to the south have prese凹ed a
3°
fort,
people actually
Fei Hsin, Hsing-ch口a-sheng-lan, 48.
A.H.H山,“Hikayat R时a-Raja Pasai,”]MB扎4.S 33, 2 (1960), 161.
end of Sunda/I crossed
106
6 A 阳TO盯OF EARL
ODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…830
the river Ci-Pamah/and districts
came
into the Javanese area/I
of Majapahit/and the plain of the
The gaps
wandered through the
various
area.”32
explanations for the demise of Majapahit reveal deep-seated beliefs that dynasties could at the
fall
turn of the Javanese century and that extraordinary events such as an
earthquake or a widespread epidemic were auguries of imminent and calamitous events.
may
Composed over
never be
filled,
but surviving evidence does highlight a major
a
hundred years
later,
the Pararaton thus locates Majapahit’s downfall
development -也e spread of Islam. Historians have debated the chronology of Islam’s initial arrival in Java, but through the fi丘eenth century trading connections with Melaka
in the
and with Muslims from China,
to the ascendancy of
According to Javanese chronicles, following
Babad Tanah
and declared
India,
and the Islamic heartlands led
Demak. The
Islamic interests in the coastal ports, notably
later
Jawi,
a collection of texts dealing with the history of Java, attributes the spread of Islam to nine
saintly Sufi fi事ires,由e
Wali Sanga
(Nine飞句Tali, a
wali being a friend of God), several of
whom had connections with Melaka.
Qur’an
is
undeniable.
its
Hindu-Buddhist
A number of gravestones
culture, although
capital. Several are
lion associated with Majapahit
a
displaying quotations from the
and pious formulae, including the syahadat, the confession of
found near the ancient
Shaka year 1400
(a calendric
1478), attributing this to the attacks
it
to be
an Islamic
system derived from India, here equivalent to
by Muslim armies from the
state.
One
this defeat the
wood
with a roof in the multi-tiered
faith,
have been
decorated with the distinctive sunburst medal-
and thus suggest
that
members of
the royal family had
assumption that Majapahit’s defeat occurred the previous year represents a cultural rationalization. Authorities believe that the
Hindu-Buddhist court (then located
Kediri) experienced not a cataclysmic collapse in
possibly because of loss of control over the coastal ports,
by Muslim
Demak
and that
its
eventual conquest
only came in 1527.
Demak began to flourish in the late fifteenth century, and various
decorated with Arabic writing indicates that as trade restrictions eased Chinese kilns were
emphasize continuities with the past, and a
new demand. The growing influence of Islam in the wealthy and cosmopolitan ports accentuated the contrast between the culture of the inland courts
was the
and
marked by
“a
Muslim advance, in east Java the melding of Hindu-Javanese beliefs with ancient fertility cults and ancestor veneration is apparent in the construction of
frightening
sound of thunder,”which emerged丘om the Majapahit palace and
dozens of sanctuaries,
defeat several of the
well placed to respond to a
that of the north coast.
Despite signs of a
altars, bathing places, and hermitages. The mountains of the remote Tengger highlands and especially the great volcanic Mount Bromo (named for the Hindu god Brahma) were regarded with special reverence, and the extension of Majapahit’s
au出ority into this area has been confirmed by the recent archaeological discovery of the
By
this time,
Mount Bromo
however,
rifts
dated to the late fi丘eenth and early sixteenth
had developed within
Majapahit’s ruling
Admittedly inconclusive, evidence nonetheless points to internal warfare and regarding succession, and unclear
when the royal center moved to Kediri sometime a丘er
the former Majapahit dynasty was
if
still
Although written references do not appear
1486
who would
said to
site
J.
Noorduyn and
2006), 230
A. Teeuw, ed. and trans., Three Old Sundanese
Poems
(Leiden:
KITLV Press,
of this
hit’s
Demak’s founder
of Majapahit and his mother a Chinese princess. Demak’s inception was
sign of greatness looking like a streak of lightning
new Muslim
late fi丘eenth
W
ali
center.33
new regime was
and accompanied by the
According to the Babad Tanah
fell
near the
Jawi, a仕er Majapahit’s
Sanga held a joint meeting in Demak. Furthermore, although the
century witnessed a
greatness survived well
royal genealogies
new supremacy
beyond
Java,
and in
and origin myths continued
of coastal
memories of Majapa-
states,
distant areas of island Southeast Asia
to invoke
its
name and
incorporate
its
heroes into local histories.
The Northern Archipelago
Later
history of the islands
in Southeast Asia,
geography played a fundamental role in shaping the
Northern Archipelago. From early times demographic growth in these
was constrained because arable land was
limited,
ture could not support large populations. Islands
33
32
last ruler
later chronicle claims that
have been signaled by a volcanic eruption, and the transition to a
As elsewhere
tumultuous events of出is
put the world to rights following a period of chaos.
Javanese accounts regarding the role of Islam in Majapahit’s defeat. But these accounts
it is
period probably contributed to the development of the Javanese idea of a savior king (erucakra)
sources indicate that
occurred under the leadership of a foreign Muslim Chinese, which parallels legendary
elite.
disputes
in control.
until later, the
at
Shaka 1400 but a gradual decline,
this
century.
Demak
found not only in Java but in several places in the Indonesian archipelago.
adopted Islam. Trading links to Melaka and other areas of Muslim Asia fostered Islam’s spread along the north coast,。丘en termed pasisir (literally, beach). Some members of the pasisir Islamic elite were of Chinese descent, and the discovery of a part of a ceramic bowl
remains of a temple facing
in
of the wali, Sunan Kal斗aga, supervised the
construction of Demak’s great mosque, built of style
Demak.
coastal port of
Nine Walis met
CE
Although an inscription supplied the foundation date of Shaka 1401 (CE 1478), the
Further inland the Majapahit court retained
Muslim presence
THE山Y MODERN ER川400→511
knowledge of Central Archipelago history during the fourteenth and
in our
a丘eenth centuries
Demak
THE BEGINNING OF
Cited in Somarsaid Moertono, State
Program
198), 56.
and
and
fishing
and forested
Statecra卢in Old Java (I由aca,
and swidden
agricul-
interior uplands
were
NY: Cornell Southeast Asia
6
107
108
6 A HISTO盯OF山川ODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫 settled
by small communities that shared many
separation fostered distinct identities based
on
THE BEG川ING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA
cultural features even as their physical
differences in language
and customs.
Despite the dearth of written sources, archaeological finds and judicious use of material enable us to early
sixteenth centu巧polities in Sulu
type entrepot. later
The power base of their
leaders rested
arrival in the Philippines in the sixteenth centu叮
on
alliances of personal
and kinship
ties that
A trader from A严1tthaya who
arrived in
Cebu
In combination, the local market for foreign luxury goods jungle, h血,and sea products
and
between leaders,
allies,
scarcity of labor
and the competition between Philippine
and
allies.
to the ability of leaders to attract followers
In出is regard leaders close to the coasts enjoyed certain advantages, since
their
resources were enhanced because of greater oppo时unities offered by the expansion international trade. Prestige commodities (sometimes
and ceramics, interior
cloth,
produced
locally),
forest products, notably
into
chiefs also
encouraged
The
inter-
necine raiding both by sea and by land, with captives contributing to a chiefs prestige by
augmenting
his retinue
(
especially his
women), adding
oarsmen, and providing potential victims
to his agricultural laborers
to be sacrificed
when he
died. Fi丘eenth-
and and
sixteenth-century mortuary sites display signs of violence not found previously, including decapitation
and evidence of wounding by metal weapons. The appearance of
objects
symbolically associated with successful warriors, such as weapons, animal tooth necklaces,
and trophy heads, support the ar伊ment that competitive raiding was on the rise. In other words, increased international trade brought greater wealth and hence raised the ambi-
as chiefs vied to increase their
own
standing over
tions of these chiefs.
numbers of followers.
Excavations of mortuary late
for
aromatic woods, resins, timber, honey, and wax. Exchanges
networks of patronage and trade partners and thus to enhance their ever larger
and the overseas demand
as gi丘s to local leaders or bartered for
between coastal and interior groups steadily increased
仕om the
such as potte叩
metal implements, and decorative ornaments, were carried
communities where they were presented
of
wa
cemented the upland-lowland exchanges and relationship
only partially related to territorially defined domains. These alliance networks could
and composition, according
slaves
followers that were central to early Philippine polities.
were
fluctuate in size
buy gold and
to
probably not unusual.
make general comments about the social and economic basis of these
communities prior to the Spanish
and Manila had become smaller versions of the Melaka-
sites
The expansion of trade have pointed to growing engagement with foreign
trade
fourteenth century. Imported porcelain and other status goods interred with
high-ranking individuals indicate increased social stratification as leaders and
elites gained
access to luxury commodities. Philippine chiefs strengthened their position by investing
ideas
and practices into indigenous
(native to India) enabled
from the fourteenth and consumption but
more complex
weapons stimulated
Beginning in 1373, a
series of tributary missions from
women
to
The introduction of silk thread and cotton produce fabric由at was more pliable than abaca or
fi丘eenth centuries as
for export to
new
culture.
barkcloth. In the central Philippines, spindle whorls are
valued goods in bridewealth alliances, which in turn encouraged the growth of larger and political systems.
also helped the peoples of the Philippines to incorporate
China
as well.
more numerous
women wove
The demand
in graves dating
not merely for domestic
imported iron tools and
for
local metal smiths to develop a local iron industry. In a sin世ar
Ming court Luzon was honored with a visit by a Chinese imperial envoy in 1405,
fashion the market for high quality ceramics brought from outside encouraged the growth
and in 1417 three Sulu leaders, including the widow of a previous chief ( described as "r时er
described in later years were probably introduced through trading contacts with the
of the Sulu
accompanied by more than three hundred retainers, arrived in China with gi丘s of pearls, spices, and tortoiseshells for the Emperor. According to Chinese
Malay-Indonesian archipelago or the
records, the reception they received was“at a level equal to those accorded to the king of
during this period was the spread of Islamic teachings in northern Borneo, the Sulu
the country of Melaka.'’All three were installed as rulers of their individual domains and
archipelago,
when one died before leaving China the Emperor personally composed a poem to place on
northwest coast, through
his tomb.34 Boats
which was well situated on the maritime routes to China place the Chinese and where “traders are treated in high regard." One Chinese source was quite仕ank:“Ifhe [a Chinese man] is drunk, they [由e people] help him back to the house where he lodges
“Li.i-song"
(Luzon, identified as Manila) and nearby polities are mentioned in
records. Like Melaka,
aborigines”),
from the Philippines were commonly seen in South China ports, while term meaning people from Luzon, including both Manila and other
Lu<r6es ( a Portuguese
were regular
arrivals in Melaka. They were known for bringing supplies of gold, presumably from mines in the Cordillera mountain chain in central Luzon. Philippine
areas)
chiefs actively sought to
make
their ports attractive to foreign traders
and by
the early
of decorated earthenware for local distribution.
The most
significant
sg/msl/entry/2440, accessed October 15, 2012.
which the Spanish
areas of central Vietnam.
and Mindanao. The prima巧gateway was出e port of Brunei, on its
connections with Melaka. Brunei
is
Borneo’s
generally equated with a
called “Boni"
and由ey treat him politely like an old friend户5 In the early fifteenth centu巧, Boni appears to have been an independent state of some consequence. Envoys were for the night
for the state
Geoff Wade, trans., Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an Open Access Resource (Singapore: Asia Research Institute and the Singapore E-Press, National University of Singapore), http://epress.nus.edu.
scripts
development in the southern areas of the Northern Archipelago
exchanged with China and, 34
Cham
The indigenous
3s
like
Melaka
in 1405,
its
ruler received
an imperial inscription
mountain. In a special ceremony he was presented with
Hi此h and Rockhill,
Chau Ju-Kua,
155丘;Fei Hsin, Hsing-ch
a-sheng-lan, 95.
a variety of gifts,
110
6
A HISTORY OF EARLY including silk vassal,
textiles,
he made
With an
MODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…830
and invested as king. Responding
a personal visit three years later to
extensive hinterland
and
own
its
in the
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511
mode expected of a grateful
pay homage
at the
Chinese
populations of sea people,
of the year, the environmental conditions that prevail here were ideally suited for
sandalwood, with the best quality trees found on the island of Timor.
court.
Boni’s successor
that
moved
a
Brunei was well equipped to service international commerce. Trade operated in tandem with the preva且ing wind system so that Brunei was frequented by Chinese ships moving
instrumental in the spread of Islam into what
is
now the
as
one geo-cultural
unit.
The
increasing influence
of Islam strengthened longstanding cultural and commercial connections between
the
southern Philippines and their Muslim trading partners in Borneo and Sulawesi, and helped distinguish Sulu and Mindanao from the central and northern Philippines, where Islam had not yet penetrated.
at night.
There
The
natives always cover their bodies with short shirts.
Ugly In contrast to the
is
profit [there].
the fragrance of sandalwood growing in water.
cannot be eas由looked
in appearance, they
Western Archipelago,
large
at.36
emporia did not develop on the islands that
produced these rare and valuable products because of limited anchorage for large ships, a shortage of drinking water, and frequently inadequate food supplies. Until the arrival of Europeans in the early sixteenth century, spices and sandalwood were carried to the ports of east Java and Melaka on small boats manned by people from the island of Banda, Malays, Javanese, as well as Chinese based on Java.
With
the rapid development of arms
technology, sulphur became a major trade commodity because
The Eastern Archipelago
this aspect
Ocean ..
down
Exposing themselves to danger, the merchants seek
The growth of these trade-based religious networks was facilitated because the Sulu and Sulawesi seas acted as a highway linking the Sulu archipelago, northern Borneo, northern and southwest Sulawesi, and Mindanao
in the Southeastern
is
hot during the day and cools
It is
southern Philippines.
was
Chinese observer in the early fifteenth centu巧to compose a poem: Chi-li [Timor]
between the northern Philippine Islands and the Sulu archipelago. As an important exchange point with close links to Melaka, Brunei hosted Muslim merchants who were
It
it
was an
essential ingredi-
this
producing♂mpowder. The island of Flores in the Eastern Lesser Sundas was a major source of sulphur, collected from the craters of inactive volcanoes and shipped to
in international trade, distribution and
Melaka. Such trade links served as a conduit for the spread of Islamic ideas, for in the early
ent in
Beyond Java
hundreds of islands that make up the Eastern Archipelago. Though
lie
region yielded
some
collecting points
the
most coveted items
were distant from the major maritime routes. Climatic conditions were
generally unsuitable for rice cultivation,
together with sago from certain species
and root crops, notably varieties of taro and yams, of palm tree, comprised the staple carbohydrates.
For maritime travel a可pe of long-lasting hardtack made from sago flour was o丘en the most convenient form of nutrition. However, in some areas of eastern Indonesia even this
degree of food production was
difficult.
For example, the mountain peaks that form
Maluku islands of Ternate and Tidore are simply the tops of mountains rooted to the ocean floor and have little arable land. Food supplies, which relied heavily on controlling
the
tracts of sago
palms on the larger neighboring island of Halmahera, were never
to support large
sufficient
sixteenth century
Tome Pires
recorded that the Sultan of Ternate was nominally Muslim,
although most of his subjects had
little
knowledge of Islamic teachings.
communities in the Banda Islands were beginning to adopt some Muslim practices, there is evidence of burial (obligatory for Muslims) rather than cremation and an
coastal
since
absence of pig bones (pork
is
a forbidden food in Islam) in
A few places
are
mentioned
in the Javanese
number, have survived only from
where
commerce because they were the natural home of unique plants found nowhere else in the world. The Maluku archipelago was the only known source of the trees from which came the great spice triad of clove, nutmeg, and mace that fetched high prices on the international market. The forests of clove trees from five small northern Maluku islands off the west coast of Halmahera, including Ternate and Tidore, provided
through legendary kinship
in global
nutmeg
trees of the
Banda Islands
to the south of
Ambon
produced
a nut
covered by a red filament, the respective origins of nutmeg and mace. Further south, at由e fringe of the Indonesian archipelago, lies the island group later known as the Eastern Lesser Sundas and today as Nusatenggara Timor.
Though
arid
and inhospitable
sites.
with the
local texts, very limited in
earliest
dated to the seventeenth
indigenous conceptions of unity created lasting links
ive cultures
cloves; the
Desawarnana, but
later times,
interaction,
prominence
mortuary
Despite the importance of this unique zone, a chronological narrative that encompasses the entire Eastern Archipelago cannot be constructed on the basis of current knowledge.
areas of the Eastern Archipelago assumed
some
also appears that
century. Nevertheless, the connecting seas did operate as arenas of economic
numbers of people.
Despite these apparent disadvantages,
It
for
much
ties.
An
example of the ways
in
and
between
cultural distinct-
which individual
communities sought to establish mutually beneficial relationships can be fo山1d in north-
em
a‘'family" of four Maluku, where the early Portuguese recorded a local tradition of kingdoms - Ternate, Tidore,如ilolo, and Bacan - founded by individuals born of eggs "four" from the same sacred naga (serpent). Together these island kingdoms formed the pillars,
36
the
number four syi丑bolizing Maluku’s unity and completeness. The Maluku world
Cited in Roderick Ptak,“Some References to 1983), 38.
Timor
in
Old Chinese Records,”Ming Studies 17
(Fall
lll
112
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511
ASIA, 1400-1830
was dominated by the kingdoms of Ternate and Tidore, whose extensive maritime links that stretched from Sulawesi to the Birdshead in West New Guinea made them an
也3阳loprne川n rnai川叫叫“
important presence in the Eastern Archipelago.
The major competitors of these Maluku kingdoms were the Bugis and Makassar polities from the southwest peninsula of Sulawesi. This peninsula stands apart from the
As
general depiction of the Eastern Archipelago as a zone of fragmented geography and small populations. The lands inhabited by the Bugis and Makassar people contain areas
determining factor in shaping local
of
of the Irrawaddy River, the
and are served by one of the best ports in the Eastern Archipelago at Makassar. Blessed with abundant food supplies and access to the wealth of maritime trade, the Bugis and Makassarese came to play a dominant role in the affairs of the Eastern Archipelago and beyond. From around fertile plains well suited to
wet-rice agriculture,
1400 a general pattern of agricultural expansion and increased trade throughout lowland southwest Sulawesi fostered the development of several small polities that were alterna- tively at
war or
in alliance.
Although Makassar did not emerge
as a
major port
until the
sixteenth centu町,archaeological evidence, including extensive ceramic finds, points
to
contact with China and India from early times. Maritime connections with Java and Sumatra explain the adoption of an Indic script later used to record oral traditions and court chronicles. The foremost example of this oral heritage is the great Bugis epic La Galigo,
which
ancestors.
relates the ancient past
As an
through legendary
orally transmitted text,
it
stories attached to semi-divine
underwent changes over time and
therefore
poses a problem as a source for a precise historical period. It can nonetheless convey some understanding of how the past was perceived and does provide valuable data about
customs and
rituals,
especially those surrounding birth, marriage,
and
it
the divine position of male-female unity.
As guardians of
to the spirit world, the bissu presided over all
the regalia and as conduits
major ceremonies and continued
maintain a high position in Bugis society even a丘er the adoption of Islam in the
to
early
seventeenth century. Historians have found
region because of
Yet
if
its
it
difficult to
numerous
approach the Eastern Archipelago
islands, contrasting
the seas are viewed as a connecting
and
highway
as a coherent
environments, and diverse
cultures.
that allowed for the circulation of
how Ternate and Tidore exerted their influence over distant islands and to appreciate why Bugis and Makassar traders had such a prominent economic and cultural presence. Nonetheless, in many areas of the Eastern people, objects,
Archipelago the
ideas,
it is
easier to
understand
of the far-reaching changes that characterize the early modern period in island Southeast Asia were muted. It is therefore not surprising to note the effects
persistence of certain features considered characteristic of ancient Austronesian cultures, such as the strength of dualism (mountain-sea, sun-moon, man-woman, light-dark, right-left)
and the number four which
is
associated with wholeness.
helpful to approach the history of mainland Southeast
it is
Asia by thinking in terms of geographical zones, since environmental conditions were a
present-day
Myanmar, comprises
the
The Western Mainland, which covers highland areas, the central lowlands on either side societies.
downstream region along the
delta
and the
coasts,
and
Rakhine (Arakan) in the west. The Central Mainland can be identified with contemporary Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, but in the early modern period it refers to the watershed of the
River, the highlands occupied
Chao Phraya
by the northern
Tai, the Lao,
and various
other upland peoples, and the northern areas of the Malay Peninsula. The Eastern Mainland incorporates areas that are basically coterminous with present-day Vietnam:
Red River basin and surrounding uplands, the eastern half of the Annamite mountain chain, the coastal lowlands, and the Mekong Delta. In all these areas control over the the
major
rivers, particularly
the
more navigable reaches near the
direct access to the agricultural
riverine control
lowlands and thus
coast, gave ambitious rulers
to rice surpluses.
At the same time,
provided a gateway to the sea and to the maritime trade which was a
source of wealth and advanced technology, but which was also a channel for
new cultural
influences.
The飞V estern Mainland
death. For
describes the prominent role of the bissu, the “transgender" ritual leaders who, in seeking the intercession of the gods to assure the fertility of the land, embody instance,
in island Southeast Asia,
Shaped
like a
horse-shoe, the highlands that surround the elongated basin of the great
Irrawaddy River were occupied by tribal peoples who lived by swidden or
“slash
and burn"
agriculture and wet-rice cultivation. Sedentary populations developed in some intermon- tane river valleys where communities cultivated irrigated rice, adopted Buddhism, and
established
more
hierarchical socio-political structures, although physical distance
com-
bined with long-standing rivalries undermined any efforts towards unity under a single overlord. Larger groups such as the Chin, the Karen,
and the Kachin
are occasionally
mentioned, but their histories remain impressionistic and ethnic designations problem- atic. Somewhat more detailed are sources dealing with the various Tai-speaking upland groups, collectively referred to as“Shan," and including other peoples that
name, who lived in scattered settlements interspersed
who no longer bear
in the valleys
between the
north-south mountain chains. Rakhine, which was separated from
Myanmar
proper by the high
by
range,
was more
plains.
Located in a low-lying and flood-prone delta dissected by
accessible
from Bengal,
particularly
sea,
Y oma mountain
than丘om
many
the Irrawaddy
rivers
and many
small offshore islands, Rakhine was not an easy region to control, or a desirable conquest. However, a new chapter in its history began in 1430 when the royal astrologers advised the
ll3
114 {盹
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
new settlement further inland. The
ruler to establish a
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511
site selected,
Mrauk U, was located
about 45 miles (70 kilometers) up the Kaladan River in the center of a
fertile plain suitable
The literary name given to Rakhine in the chronicles,“Dhanawati,”in means “rich in grain.”37 Mountain chains and uplands provided natural defenses from
for rice cultivation. fact
from the coast gave protection from seasonal cyclones but pro且t from the expanding maritime trade. This favorable
attack, while the distance
permitted
Mrauk
U
to
its
Buddhist rulers adopted Islamic-style
titles
and minted coinage modeled
British later
dry season and
after that
termed “Upper Burma,”was more favored for
its fertile soils
downstream region
human settlement and
(akriy), in part
because
benefited from an extensive irrigation system.
it
had
The
a long
ability to
number of people ensured Upper Myanmar’s demographic dominance. location, Ava could monitor traffic along the river systems that watered the
feed a growing
Because of its
rich agricultural
Kyaukse
area,
succession of able leaders.
where
By
irrigation
works were repaired and extended under a
the fourteenth century the cotton plant, presumably
introduced from India, was being widely cultivated in the dry zone because it required less water than rice and it eventually became an important trade item with China. Ava is
noted for the expansion of writing in the Burmese language
which had frequently been used religious texts,
(at the
expense of Mon,
in Pagan), including poetry, chronicles,
law codes, and
some of which were composed by high-born women. Economic and
diplomatic relations with China were sustained and the Buddhist connections with
Lanka contributed to
was by no means
Ava’s reputation as a center for
all-powerful.
The
Myanm町、“Great Chronicle" (Mahayazawingyi) ridge of the
Yoma
range was established as their
the east belonging to the
Burmese and those
Mon polity of Ramaiiiiadesa to
on the
also treated
common
Rakhine
as
an
in
equal. The
border, with trees leaning
modern Shan
apart,
spanning the
The
China, including the imperial court. military capacity
emerged
as
one of the
allied
and amber. Carried over land on mules and the small
hardy Shan ponies, these luxury items found a ready market
Mit’s
Mohnyin borders of modern
and the periodically
and enabled its
it
among wealthy
buyers in
Mong
exchange strengthened
silver received in
Though the an“aboriginal woman,”Mong Mit
to incorporate additional peoples.
female leader as
fi丘eenth century’s strongest
upland
polities.
38
A similar movement towards territorial growth occurred in Mohnyin/Mogaung, which Mong Mit by expanding at the expense of their old overlord Ava and
challenged their rival
Manipur and Assam (in modern India). Because made mountain paths into Yunnan increasingly unsafe, the Ming
by launching expeditions as recurring conflicts
far as
dynasty sought to assert control over these border areas, but with
little
success.
Both
Mong Mit and Mohnyin/Mogaung continued to extend their control across much of the uplands and down to the plains, and Chinese sources speak in awe of Shan armies consisting of thousands of men and as many as a hundred elephants. The Mogaung/ Mohnyin region
also benefited
formerly powerful
Mong Mao
from the
flight
of leading families and followers from the
a丘er its final defeat
by Ming
forces.
Faced with the constant threat of Shan raiding, Ava was unable to maintain the profitable overland trade links with China. Settlements in the
waterways and roadways meet" were
much
upland Shan areas “where
frequented by Chinese, for here, noted an
and things of the barbarian lands are all produced.”39 Some Chinese traders became permanent settlers, and along the commercial routes of the upper Mekong their acculturation through marriage to local women was described imperial envoy,“the utensils
in
Ming records
as“getting
on the
houses of upland communities).40 southern
Mon count可of
participation in
bamboo house"
stilted
Ava was
(a reference to the pole-
also unable to assert authority over the
Ramaiiiiadesa (see below), and thus benefit by greater
maritime trade. As a
result,
it
was more dependent than
its
predecessor
to
frontier with
came from the uplands,
especially from
China where neither the suzerainty
38
of
Gems, Chinese Silver and the Rise of Shan Principalities in Northern Burma, c. 1450一1527,”in Geoff Wade and Sun Laichen, eds., Southeast Asia in the Fifteenthαntury: the China Factor (Singapore/Hong Kong: NUS Press/Hong Kong University Press, 2010), 181. Cited in Sun Laichen,“Shan
Cited in Christian Daniels, Rol,巳of Technologicalτransfer,'丁,The
Jacques Leider, '‘Arakan’S Ascent during the Mrauk U Period,”in Recalling Local Pasts: Autonomous History in Southeast As仰,Sunait Chutintaranond and Chris Baker, eds. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, (
2002), 67.
State)
able to dominate surrounding settlements because of their
profitable trade in rubies, jade,
39罗
37
between southwest China and Myanmar. However, other
(in the
to the west to Rakhine.
serious challenge to Ava's ambitions
inaccessible areas
Sri
Buddhist learning. Nonetheless, Ava
ruler of the ethnically
the south was seen as an equal, a“soul mate,”and an agreement in 1454 described
more
Mit
Chinese scathingly dismissed
agriculture than the Irrawaddy’s
the
Mong
Myanmar and Yunnan) were
confluence of the Irrawaddy and a major tributary, with inscriptions giving the date as 1364. As the history of Pagan shows, this area, which the Burmese called upstream (anya)
A more
centers, like
and Mogaung (about 50 miles or 80 kilometers
There were other important developments in the Irrawaddy Valley. A丘er the decline of Pagan in the late thirteenth centu町,Burmans established a new center at Ava at the
also
in the frontier region
site
of Bengal.
and the
Mao
still
remained the Rakhine capital for another three centuries until 1785, when it was con- quered by the Burmese. In the fi丘eenth century, however, the greatest influence on Rakhin的style of government came from the prestigious Muslim sultanate of Bengal,
and
Ava nor the Ming court could be imposed in any kind of lasting basis over persistently nominal Shan vassals. In 1448 Ming armies had destroyed the powerful polity of Mong
Memoirs of the Research Departmεntof thεTO)卢O Bunko 58
1丁. 4°
Cited in Sun Laichen,飞1ing-Sou出east Asian Overland Interactions 1368-1644”(PhD由esis, University of Michigan, 2000), 211.
(2000),
MODERN SOUTHEAST
116”、A HISTORY OF EARLY Pagan on expanding
much
ASIA, 1400-1830
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511
Here too there were problems, because so ground was held by tax-free religious estates and thus yielded no
cultivable
revenue for royal
agricultural base.
its
coffers.
Continuing Shan raids and a decline in available agricultural land ( due to donations to monastic establishments and possibly increasing desiccation) encouraged Burmans to migrate southwards to Prome (Pyay) and Taungoo. These two Burman settlements formally rendered allegiance to Ava, but their leaders governed as sovereign lords. They may have resembled Ava in ethnic composition, administration, and support for Bud-
dhism, but long-standing
1503 Ava
lost the rich
in 1527 the capital
rivalries
and animosities eventually
a confederation of
Shan
open
Myanmar to
rice-growing Kyaukse plains of Upper
was taken by
led to
polities
warfare. In
Taungoo, and
under the leadership
of
Mohnyin. In the fi丘eenth century the
downstream
polity of Ramaiiiiadesa
formidable challenge to the upstream region since stretched
down
the peninsula with a
from the expanding Indian Ocean because
it
it
number of competing trade.
was able
all
Martaban enjoyed an Asia-wide
a
as the capital of Ramaiiiiadesa,
reputation
and gave
ships.
its
The
name
to
the entire southern region. It
Burmans by
areas.
The Mons of
by their
hairstyles
to a sense of difference
between the
upriver
Khmer
and
dress,
to live “misdirected lives”by trading or acting like
laymen would be expelled from their monastery.41 During his visit to Pegu in 1505, an Italian traveler remarked on“the go and come,”the “good houses"
He was
“extremely powerful”ruler.
wealth; the king
and
palaces,
and the
particularly impressed
was so covered with gold and
many ships that army commanded by the
by the
visible display of royal
precious stones that“by a light at night, he
much that he appears to be a sun.”42 Yet though Pegu emerged as a genuine rival to the Upper Myanmar polities, the generally swampy and malarial lands limited rice cultivation and therefore population growth. One of Dhammazedi’s own inscriptions even shines so
acknowledged that the rainy season was“beyond doubt
.
.
.
excessive.”43
Between the
and sixteenth centuries the Mons organized several campaigns against their Upper Myanmar rivals, but were unable to extend their supremacy northwards, where rice fourteenth
surpluses supported a substantial population
and thus
far larger armies.
The Central Mainland The Chao Phraya Basin, bounded by mountains and uplands, forms a natural geographic unit in the Central Mainland that is only easily accessible from the southeast and south. By the fourteenth century this region
had become the domain of Tai-speaking peoples
from the present-day Sino- Vietnamese border region and other Austro-Asiatic-speaking peoples. The early
riverine systems
into areas inhabited
by the
Ayutthaya,
Mon
rather than to Tibeto-Burman or the Tai
most durable of the n山口erous Tai muang, is known only through various accounts recorded in later Thai chronicles and European repo口s. On
and by the lack of tattoos common among
the basis of these sources, historians believe that
the southern region were distinguished from the
their language (related to
linguistic family),
monks who continued
moving down the
was not only geography that contributed
and downriver
“sinful"
that
as“martabans”)
over Southeast Asia for storing water, especially on
town of Pegu eventually emerged
mount
ports well placed to benefit
produced the large black or brown earthenware vessels (known
that were transported
to
incorporated a long coastline
Those
history of
the
an enterprising individual named
Burman men. Because Upper Myanmar lords were preoccupied with Shan raiding, Pegu was generally free from Burman incursions, reaching the apogee of its political and cultural prestige under the only known female ruler, Shin Saw Bu (r. 1453-72), and her successor King Dhammazedi (r. 1472-92). The revenues that came from international
U Thong (reputed to be出e son of a Chinese merchant and a Tai-speaking mother) established the kingdom of A归tthaya around 1351 by negotiating advantageous mar-
trade supported the construction of great pagodas, the
ment’s success
and the Shwemawdaw
U Thong is
of the White
right to the throne.
equal to her
in the
town of Pe伊itself.
Elephant,'’a clear association
She
is
Shwedagon at the port of Yangon Shin Saw Bu assumed the title“Mistress
with Buddhist iconography, to proclaim her
even said to have g过ded the spire of the Shwedagon with gold
own weight.
also be distraction
Yet for Dhammazedi, himself a former monk, this wealth could from a meritorious path. Concerned about the material preoccupations
of the sangha and the predicted decline of Buddhism, he sent
monks仕om Pegu
to join
riages由at gained
him
the support of the ruling families of two nearby muang.
Composed two hundred
of merit),
years later, chronicles from A归tthaya note that the settle-
had been predicted by the Buddha himself. As a classic “founder-figu贱” depicted not merely as a man of superhuman g的s, but as a phumibun (a man
whose settlement
is
destined for success, since
new
Buddha. In more pragmatic terms, the
it is
located near a footprint of the
settlement benefited from
its
location at the
confluence of several major rivers. These not only watered the wet-rice growing plains but gave easy access to the coast
and thus
U Thong (ruling as King Ramathibodi
I,
facilitated participation in
1351一69) succeeded in
maritime commerce.
making Ayutthaya
into a
other Buddhist leaders from mainland Southeast Asia in a mission to Sri Lanka, where
they were re-ordained. In Pegu a royal proclamation composed in 1479 to honor this event also included a “if
you
warning to monks accused of worldly activities.“Sirs,”the
are really
imbued with
faith,
you
will
inscription ran,
endeavor to give up your gold,
silver,
such other treasure, corn, elephants, horses, oxen, buffaloes, male and female
41
42
and
slaves.”
43
The Kalyani Inscriptions Erected by King Dhammaceti at Pegu in 1476 AD. Text and translation (Rangoon: Government Printing, Burma 1892), 102. John Winter Jones, ed. The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema, AD 1503-1508 (H也luyt Socie句,London 1863; reprinted, 1963), 215 The Kalyani Inscr伊tions, 64.
n7
118
A HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511
major regional entrepot, primarily because of links to the Chinese trading communities around the Gulf of Siam. A严1tthaya exported resins and aromatic woods to China and, like several
as
other Southeast Asian ports, supplied the ruler of Ryukyu with products such
sappanwood and pepper, which were then
an imperial
Ayutthaya was
rescript,
to
China was dispatched
in 13 71.
on to China as
regarded favorably by the
Chinese
role as a distribution center for
sent
textiles
Ming
first official
mission
see the potential
for
chronicles even mention that canals were dredged
to provide ships with easier access to the city. Chinese visitors also appreciated the
hospitality they received
from
local
communities.
He's voyages thus wrote,“When (Siamese)
A soldier included in several of Zheng
women meet
our
men from
the Middle
Kingdom, they ve巧much like them: they are sure to serve wine and treat them respect and由ey sing with pleasure and [ask them] to stay for the night.”44 Effectively
with
including
The resettlement of captured populations solidified A归tthaya' s demographic dominance, and a fi丘eenth-century poem,“The Defeat of the Yuan," proudly celebrates the victories of King Trailok
northern uplands:“See
1448-88) over the forces of the
(r.
hands
their
tied, are pulled along the road
they are exhausted they are bartered by our
men
rival
of Lan
Na
in the
Lan Na, which was ultimately
and provided some
Trailok’s
by horses and when
muang
(with the notable
able to withstand
A
its
long reign gradually formalized
institutional continuity even
when
rulers
social
were weak. The
“Law of Civil Hierarchy,'’for example, used the quantified measure of "field power” (sakdina) to assign
all
subjects apart
from the
ruler a certain
number of sakdina
points
meant
were subject to greater scrutiny and thus
their activities
enhanced prestige of A严1tthayan kingship was
central element in the
monkhood
for eight
months, modeling his ordination
been further enhanced by the discovery of a white elephant ( the
momentous
event).
place for Ayutthaya's kings, including Trailok himself,
Buddha
was regarded
that
that
dominant
Lan Na
the territo叩adjoining
(Tanintharyi) in the south.
by the
Tai polity in the region,
fact that, as the Portu驴1ese
gifts
to the
A归tthaya
claim that Melaka Ayutthaya’s
ruler.
This deputation
and Java were among
dominance
its
in the Central
may have
Although
it
was always possible
for powerful ministers
and
military
their royal allies to
affairs.
become
45
A. B. Griswold
support relatively
Cornell University Press, 1976), 152.
is
contributed to the later Thai
muang alliances that had developed in
Divided into numerous river valleys where rice-growing could large settlements, the physical environment of the uplands encouraged
the rise of many small Tai polities.
The Ming court regarded these as
47
and northeast of modern Thailand
Laos were gradually drawn together under the umbrella of a
by languages more closely related
distinctive scripts,
In this region
46
muang, located
threatened Chinese intervention, and periodic inter-muang warfare, the peoples
distinguished
by
distant
troublesome vassals, and was quick to threaten overland trade routes were disrupted. Yet despite geographic segmen-
on the periphery of the Chinese Empire,
the
and Prasert Na Nagara,“A Siamese Historical Poem," in Southeast Asian History and Historiography: Essays presented to D. G. E. Hall, C. D. Cowan and O. W. Wolters, eds. (Ithaca:
and Tenasserim
the northern uplands.
Griswold and Griswold and
and by shared
to each other
common
culture
than to the Central Thai,
localized Buddhist practices.
Ayutthaya' s most obvious rival was the polity of Lan Na. Even the eulogy
earth praised His Fei Hsin, Hsing-ch 'a-sheng-lan, 43.
fifteenth
authority reaching from
Mainland, however, did not go unquestioned,
and it faced persistent challenges from the powerful
to Trailok’s victories
44
its
tributaries.
into
and of
protector.
commander Afonso de Albuquerque was some Chinese merchants to carry a letter
instituted through the “Law of Military
as minister of the south
and
a magnificent
preparing to attack Melaka in July 1511, he asked
demonstrations of loyalty and service. Another significant administrative change was
and the Kalahom
housed
importance as a center for maritime trade
inhabiting the uplands that stretch across the north
civil affairs,
later
in the north to the ports of Tavoy (Dawei)
Ayutthaya' s
tation,
and of
record of such a
were proliferating across the Central Mainland. By the end of the
century Ayutthaya was the
indicated
first
founding, Ayutthaya had been simply one of a number of Tai
In 1351, at the time of its
muang
and
as the kingdom’s guardian
punishment when
overarching ministries with separate jurisdictions: the Mahatthai as minister of the north
a丘er that of the
constructed inside the royal complex became a burial
One temple he
connected to the ruler were allocated the highest sakdina rank, and thus encouraged created two
Trailok’s
Buddha himself and marking an occasion that“brought bliss to the kingdom and the news caused all mankind to strew flowers [in celebration].”46 In 1471 his prestige would have
that established their place in the social order. Individuals associated with the court or
and Provincial Hierarchies,”which
located
the potential for challenges.
even entered the
attacks) was
series of adminis-
itself
Kalahom and Mahathai were
sponsorship of Buddhism and the great merit he accumulated through religious donations and support for the sangha, the community of ordained monks and nuns. In 1465 Trailok
and
not only due to military prowess, but also to internal consolidation.
reforms introduced during King
...
for liquor."45
A严1tthaya's assertion of authority over other powerful its
muang
how our men follow the enemy eveηrwhere to surround them!
The prisoners of war, with
hierarchies
A
standing
Sukhothai.
trative
minimized
employing the weapons and firepower acquired through international trade,
Ayutthaya mounted a succession of campaigns against other Tai muang,
exception of
A归tthaya
in
a recipient of
court because of its
and ceramics, and the
A yutthaya’s leaders were quick to
new commercial opportunities, and the
As
tribute.
center of resistance to a ruler, the fact that both the
and
Yuan" acknowledged that while “heaven and the arrogant foe (the ruler of Lan Na) swaggered."47 The
his “defeat of the
Majesty
...
Na Nagara,“A Na Nagara,“A
Siamese Historical Poem,”144. Siamese Historical Poem," 144
【吨ll9
120
酝飞?
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
name“Lan Na,”apparently first employed used over the following decades as the rivals to
region.
become Lan Na's
Chiang
in the fourteenth century,
muang
of Chiang
capital, the religious
Mai’s religious leadership
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511
ASIA, 1400一1830
and
Mai
became more widely
eclipsed
and
defeated
its
political leader of the northern Tai
was enhanced by royal support
for a compara-
and scholarly Buddhist order of Sri Lankan origin, which came to dominate other monastic orders and create a Buddhist network closely linked to the royal capital. tively ascetic
In 1477 Chiang
Mai gained even
greater
prominence during the lengthy reign of King
who convened a great assembly of monks to revise the Tipitaka. Originally written down in the sacred language of Pali over a period of time beginning in Tilokarat (1441一87),
the
first
centu巧BCE, these texts had spread from
Sri
Fi事ire 3.3. Fifteenth-century
fourteenth
Lanka into mainland Southeast Asia,
there
mammoth task of
eight
but in the process discrepant versions had developed. In sponsoring the
bowl
from northern Thailand. Between the
and sixteenth centuries
were kilns operating in at least locations in northern Thailand. Kiln construction, production
reviewing the Tipitaka in order to eliminate unacceptable accretions, Tilokarat - “renowned in all quarters" says one text,“as the Universal Monarch" - was registering
techniques,
his claim to leadership in the Tai
shapes, and glazes. This bowl comes from the Kalong area, where about a hundred kilns produced some of the most beautiful Thai ceramics, known for their fine clay and soft green glaze
Tilokarat’s
came during thousand
concern to sponsor
Buddhist world.48 this
extremely meritorious act
is
significant because
a period of concern about the religion’s survival for the specified
it
five
A revered jadeite statue known as the Emerald Buddha, believed to have
years.
been carved in ancient times under the direction of a great Buddhist
sage,
was taken from
and designs suggest links with China, although each northern kiln site had its own types of clay,
with abstract designs of birds or bats. Photograph courtesy of Pamela
more northerly muang and installed in Chiang Mai. The belief that it was endowed with supernatural powers and the prophecy that it would confer prosperity to those who possessed it, seemed to be fulfilled by Tilokarat’s m且ita巧victories. Facilitated by his
Watkins.
a
apparent that Luang Prabang was a句pical mandala polity governed by individuals
incorporation of Chinese-style cannon and firearms, these conquests extended Lan
it is
Na
who emerged as“men (and sometimes women) of prowess,”who could nonetheless be
control into the Shan areas. For a brief period he even controlled the polity of
Sipsongpanna
(literally “twelve districts,”now in
Yunnan), a region rich
in silver and
iron ore mines. In 1479 the Chinese court rewarded Tilokarat’s successful repulse of
Vietnamese attack by awarding him the of the
Mekong
title
“[pre-eminent] ruler in the
West"
(i.e.
a
west
Like Lan Na, the Tai federation of Lan Sang in the mountainous region of modern Laos shifting alliances
rice-cultivating intermontane plains.
between autonomous muang that developed
in the
By the end of the fourteenth centu巧the principali可
Luang Prabang had emerged as the leader of this Lao federation, its preeminence symbolized by possession of the famed standing Buddha image, Phra Bang. Lan Sang’s of
manpower thirty
strength at this time
thousand
invasion.
men and
a
is
suggested by a recorded claim that
hundred elephants
to assist
Although conflicting chronicle accounts make
it
was
able to offer
Dai Viet against
a Chinese
historical reconstruction
difficult,
by other individuals who
several
met
49""
N. A. Jayawickrarna, The Sheaf of Garlands of the Epochs of the Conquero九being a translation of the JinakalamalTpakaranam of Rata觅觅apanna Thera of Thailand (London: Pali Text Society, 1968), 134.
David K. Wyatt and Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, The Chiang Mai Chronicle (Bangkok: Silkworm Books, 1995), 100
and
own
followers.
As many
factional disputes within the
as fourteen elite
meant
violent deaths.
ruler
who managed
(1438-79), the
first
Lao ruler
to maintain his position in
Luang Prabang was Vangburi
to ass山ne a Buddhist title出at included a
Lao translation of
the Pali cakkavatti, the “universal [Buddhist] monarch." During his long reign, members of the royal family were appointed as regional governors, and ashes of his relatives were often housed in monasteries constructed along the banks of the Mekong. Luang Prabang
developed into an important center for Buddhist learning as the
movement
of monks,
images, and texts between monasteries helped to connect geographically distant Tai
muang. But Vangburi's perceived temerity in addressing the Dai Viet ruler as“younger brother" and “nephew" as an indication of his superior status was condemned by the Viet as "arrogance" and led directly to the invasion in 1479. Much of Lan Sang was overrun and, as noted earlier, Tilokarat of
48
attracted their
kings are listed for the fifteenth century,
One
River)卢
was comprised of
challenged
recognition of his years Buddhist
and his
tributaries' role in repulsing the
monks assumed
were close relations with
Lan Na eventually received Chinese commendation
in
Dai Viet army. In the following
leadership in Lan Sang’s reconstruction, but while there
A yutthaya and Chiang Mai monasteries, Buddhism in Lan Sang
HISTORY OF EARLY如tODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
122
THE BEGINNING OF THE
retained strong local connections. Indigenous traditions of spirit veneration were absorbed into Buddhist practices
from the
and the
earliest
known
inscription in Lao rather than Pali date
late fifteenth century.
now modern Cambodia, the great Khmer kingdom of enormous power. We know little of Khmer experiences during the
In the extended plains of what
Angkor once wielded
is
fourteenth and fi丘eenth centuries because the historical records for this period are
so
.EARLY
between the forested mountains to the west and the sea to the
Cham peoples, whose “upstream-downstream”economies
the
MODERN
more on
relied
pendent settlements located in the estuaries and upriver, and political control never coalesced under
one authority. Ruins of Hindu monuments and written
Cham
Lan Sang, was said
and Panduranga) emerged in different periods as significant mandala in their
because they had appropriated old Angkorian
Angkorian
sites
and used
lintels
and
The legacy of
Angkor’s influence was particularly evident in the court culture of its
founding had mounted periodic raids into Cambodia.
In
1431 following a major campaign Ayutthaya occupied a weakened Angkor, the culmin- ation of a long process of Tai expansion
prisoners taken back to
and Angkorian
Ayutthaya
were high
and performers. Khmer influence was evident
political contraction.
Among the
officials, religious figures, artisans,
and
in a symbolic transference
of authority, power-laden Angkorian statues were removed and reestablished in Ayutthaya.
The sacking of Angkor
move
in 1431
may
have been the catalyst in the Khmer decision
the royal capital southwards to
confluence of the
Mekong
Sea via a large tributary
Phnom
Penh. The
latter
was located
at the
River and the Tonle Sap, and had access to the South China
river.
Angkor
still
growing heartland and religious significance
ment of
this river port suggests that the
retained economic importance in the
rice-
as a revered p且grimage site, but the establish-
Khmer were
anxious to gain greater access
to
maritime commerce. The growing Chinese community opened up new commercial opportunities, while
from proximity
talk
Cham kingdom,
Phnom Penh attracted overland trade仕om the interior and benefited
to the rich rice-growing areas
into a cosmopolitan entrepot
and a potential
around the Tonle Sap. rival to
recover the extensive territory and the authority of
its
A yutthaya,
It
soon developed
but was never able
to
Angkorian predecessors.
allies
own
right.
or rivals and had never coalesced into a
even though contempora巧and modern historical records 0位en
about a single“Champa.” Viet’s
history of a
more
unified government, at the end of the
Tran faced growing opposition. Alternating droughts,
floods,
and
food shortages exacerbated discontent as an expanding peasant population eked out a living
on limited arable land. These problems were compounded by
the royal family
conflicts within
and intermittent warfare with the Cham, whose invasions even
trated as far as the capital
pe肘’
of Thang Long (Hanoi) and the various highland Tai polities
to the west.
A major change in the relationships
in the Eastern
Mainland occurred with the
Ming
imperial
dynasty, which revived Chinese ambitions to incorporate Dai Viet realm. In 1407 Dai Viet was defeated and occupied by Ming forces,
depicted
by Vietnamese chronicles
出e
was
installed, military
as a
time of unmitigated
rise
of
into the a period
A Chinese governor
disaster.
conscription introduced, and serious efforts undertaken to
make the
people more“ci世lized,”时,in other words, like the Chinese. Locally produced books expressing
any sense of a separate southern kingdom were deemed ?heterodox”;some
were confiscated and destroyed on the orders of the
Ming Emperor,
while other literary
and historical texts simply disappeared. Intense Viet opposition and a ten-year revolt led by
a frontier leader
named Le
Loi (said to be an upland
man丘om
the
Muong
group) culminated in the expulsion of the Chinese in 1428. This success attributable to the fact that the
knowledge, as well as from the battle in
Vietnamese were able
skills
to benefit
now
in part
of Chinese prisoners and captured weapons. In one
1426 three thousand Dai Viet soldiers reportedly killed
few weapons,
is
ethnic
from Chinese military at least出irty
Chinese soldiers, and captured another ten thousand. As Le Loi put
The Eastern Mainland
source
(identified as Indrapura, Amaravati, Vijaya, Kauthara,
Shan polities, they were alternatively
Notwithstanding Dai
in the artistic forms, dance, lan思iage, and
the style of kingship associated with the A严1tthayan court,
to
single
Cham polities
fourteenth century the
Ayutthaya, which since
Khmer
Like the
bricks taken from
ruins.
The
fragmented terrain in which they lived encouraged the development of numerous inde-
suggest that several
venerated remained sacred; some Theravada wats (temples) were surrounded by a moat
of
trade with
wet-rice agriculture.
meager, but Angkor’s cultural heritage was formidable. Fa Ngum, the legendary founder of to have taken a wife from Angkor and some chronicles claim that Buddhism was introduced when she asked her husband to bring Buddhist monks and scriptures from Cambodia. In Cambodia itself the places where Hindu gods were once
home
This was the
east.
commerce than on
groups living in the highlands and maritime
ERA, 1400-1511但、12
it,“In
thousand
the past
we had
up like clouds, armors shine against the sun, gunpowder is stored full. Comparing the past to出e present, [the change] strong is apparent.”so The victory over the Chinese marked a new chapter, [our] warships line
firearms p且e up,
The most populous
polity in the Eastern
Mainland was Dai
Viet,
where the construction
of dikes and irrigation canals had transformed the plains surrounding the Red River and its
tributaries into a rich rice-growing region.
centuries the Tran dynasty
beyond
their
domain
lay
During the thirteenth and had extended control over most of this area but to the south numerous smaller river valleys located on由e narrow strip
fourteenth
from weak to for in the
words of
a fi丘eenth-century text,“The soil
is
again the
soil
kingdom. The people are again the people of the Viet race. Coats and 5°
Cited in Sun,“Chinese
Gunpowder
Technology,'’l 15n. 89.
of the Southern
skirts
and customs
124
(r时h
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 are in agreement.
The moral and political order is
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA,
established as of old."51
With the return
of peace, increased rice production led to population expansion, particularly into
Men
released
were encouraged to
settle in
coastal areas.
was thus opened up
for
from army the lightly
more
1400-1511
the
service, including
non-Viet followers of Le Loi, inhabited areas of the lower Red River Delta which
intense rice cultivation.
Nevertheless, though the Chinese were expelled, their cultural influence was long- lasting because of the centuries of
an
occupation of the Viet lands. The new Le dynasty (1428-1789) founded by Le Loi continued to look to China for political and earlier
cultural models. While measures imposed by the Chinese during the Ming occupation to promote bureaucratic unity facilitated the ongoing Viet campaign to replicate the Chinese model, trends were strengthened during the long reign of the ruler generally known by his
posthumous
title,
Le Thanh Tong (1460-97). His
society in accordance with Confucian teachings
efforts to reshape the government and were unflagging.“Don’t say that a king
has nothing to do," he wrote,‘'Thousands of complicated problems constantly absorb him."52 Early in his reign he ordered officials of twelve provinces to produce detailed maps
showing the mountains and easy travel.
By
rivers,
including dangerous areas and those that allowed
for
1469, only four decades a丘er the expulsion of Chinese forces, a modified
Ming administration system was well in place and as a sign of Heaven’s Le Thanh Tong adopted a new title for his reign - Hong Duc (overflowing virtue).
version of the favor
As with other Confucian rulers, he believed that failings on his part had a direct bearing on the welfare of his subjects, and so he held himself to blame one year when no rains fell.
am the father and mother of the people ... If I do not dispense wide grace and generous forgiveness, then how can genuine blessings reach the people?”53 It was also his responsi- “I
bility to elevate the
moral condition of Vietnamese society through good government.
Reaching deep into the countryside, directives, execute orders
from the
village leaders
the court. In recognition of their services
members of rituals
and
were recruited
center, collect taxes,
and
and serve
seniority,
to
implement
o伍cial
as intermediaries wi由
on retirement they became
the village Council of Notables, which was responsible for overseeing
for the
all
management of communal lands. The Hong Duc Code, promulgated in
1483, systematized existing civil
and criminal law while affirming the
center’s legal
authority. This reduced the ability of local lords or powerful families to manipulate the judiciary.
The
Chinese-style examination system was reintroduced in a
and more Confucian form than under
earlier dynasties in
more
order to train and
systematic select loyal
Figure 3.4. Examination stele from Dai Viet. These eighty-two stone stele in the Temple of Literature, Hanoi, record the names of well over a thousand candidates who passed palace examinations held between the years 1442 and 1779. Although a considerable number of stele are no longer extant, those that have survived do provide some information about the participants and the administration and date of the examination. They also include a statement emphasizing the importance of education and the need to strengthen the country through training people of talent. Each stele is mounted on the back of a turtle, traditionally regarded as a symbol of strength. Authors' photograph.
。面cials for rites, civil
to
the bureaucracy
for the Chinese-style“Boards" (ministries dealing with
service,自nance, war, justice,
honor those
their
and
who had
names and
villages
and public works).
attained the highest honors in the imperial examinations, with
recorded on stone
the impact of Dai Viet authority,
stele (see Fi事ire 3.4).
and those who
52
53
N伊yen
?ac Vien, N伊归n Van Ho矶ar Hm
(Hanoi: Editions en lan思1es etrang二res, 1972-5), Cited in Stephen Yong,
《goc,咄,Anthologie de 1:
1428-1788,”Journal of Asian History 10 (1976), 16
205-6
la
littera阳陀E毗iamien
submit tribute
at
chiefs felt
predetermined
Although the adaptation of Chinese Confucianism was a significant factor in administrative consolidation, adjustments
this
were always necessa巧because the cultural
and physical environment of Dai Viet was very different仕om由at of China. For instance, though based on Chinese precedent, the
Hong Duc code made numerous modifications to
comply with existing Viet practices, especially most
cited
at the village level
and
in family
life.
The
examples concern由e position of women. Unlike China, a daughter in Dai Viet officiate at the ancestral cult in the absence
had some rights of inheritance and was able to Viet culture
Cited in Alexander Barton Woodside, Vietnam and the Chinese Model: a Comparative Study of Vietnamese and Chinese Government in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies, 1988. Reprint of 1971 edition), 21.
failed to
Even upland
times were stripped of their position.
of sons. Indeed, Chinese visitors continued to 51
A Confucian temple was erected
comment on
and that of China. Even while deploring
the disparities between Dai
this deviation, the
Le d严1asty
itself
contributed to a strengthening of Vietnamese “difference" by actions such as the official recognition of local思1ardian spirits. Classical Chinese
was used for
all official
writings, but
Chinese ideograms were adapted to write the Vietnamese language in the demotic characters known as chu nom. This system, which allowed for the development of specifically
Vietnamese poetic meters, had been developed several centuries
earlier
125
126砸、A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
but came into more frequent use, and Le in both Chinese
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511 ?、127
ASIA, 1400-1830
Thanh Tong was himself known
for writings
and nom.
Similar styles of localization were far less evident in Dai Viet’s relations with non-Viet
and burned the Cham capital, which collapsed after a siege of only four days. According to Vietnamese chronicles, some sixty thousand people were killed, and another looted
thirty
Cham king and fifty members of his family,
thousand taken prisoner, including the
and
peoples. Ming“pacification”of Tai peoples living along the northeast and northwest
and the
borders between Dai Viet and China had initiated a pattern of punitive expeditions
Amaravati were incorporated into Dai Viet to become the province of Quang Nam, while to the south a stone marker denoted the border between Dai Viet and the independent but
was continued under Le Loi and under Viet
his successors.
By
the 1440s these areas were
need for a powerful army became words of Le Thanh Tong’s father,“whenever there is a state,
control. In a context of recurring warfare the
central to Le policies. In the
must be armaments and military provisions." He
there
that
effectively
military innovation, declaring that“only
also stressed the importance of
new implements
are prized."54
Le Thanh Tong’s major concern was the continuing conflicts with Cham peoples, who occupied the central and southern areas of contemporary Vietnam. Through a mutually advantageous relationship with their upland relatives, Cham settlements in low句ring river valleys
such as
exchanged
cloth, salt, iron,
resins, elephant tusks,
ebony that fed the China
and imported
prestige items for jungle products
rhinoceros horns, the aromatic eaglewood, cinnamon, and
Cham
The most prominent a丘eenth-century Cham polity, Vijaya (covering much of modern Quang-Nam, Quang- Ngai, and Binh Dinh provinces), was especially renowned for its brown- and green- trade.
potters were also famous.
glazed ceramics that were traded as far as Sulawesi. private trade in 1436 temporarily like their
prohibitions on
ended the flow of ceramics from China, Cham
counterparts in Dai Viet,
production to satis命the
When Ming
demand
Myanmar and
potters,
the central Tai regions, increased
in the thriving east-west trade.
Cham kilns is evident in a shipwreck in Philippine waters
The
activity of the
dated around the mid-fifteenth
Cham
territories
were dismembered. The two northern
domains of Kauthara (modern Nha Trang) and Panduranga (modern Phan Rang). Many Cham fled southwards and to the uplands, as well as to southern China, Cambodia, A严1tthaya, and places in the island world such as Melaka, Aceh, and Java.
vassal
The vict。可over the Cham marked the beginning of Le Thanh Tong’s efforts towards the goal of molding Dai Viet into a model Confucian state. Agriculture, not trade, should provide the society’s economic base, aside the roots (agriculture)
and Le Thanh Thong urged
the
Vietnamese were“a very weak people on the
sea; all their
Nonetheless, maritime trade continued to flourish and Le
kilns
were destroyed and
Cham
potters forcibly
moved
from China.
supplies
Specialist
ceramic villages and other
thousand
soldiers) the
Cham
were
difficult to
Cham
were sent
since the ( as
many
first
as
decades
the ancient port of Van
subdue. Despite the superior armaments
of the Vietnamese, even Chinese observers were impressed with military effectiveness
of
and harbors of this
The
exchanged women with their
Cham wives.
Le Thanh Tong was determined to end the periodic conflict between groups and the southward-moving Vietnamese, and to punish the Cham for their “arrogance." Being personally invested in the campaign, he led the large and well-armed
identity,
inhabitants of the regions
Viet force that marched towards
also
itself
shook with
“the
boom
how the
earth
:4 6
throughout
late fi丘eenth
century the
Mekong Delta to the island of Hainan
little
from
was
also
“barbarian" peoples.
in defense of earlier kings
who had
Cham counterparts, and in 1499 all Viet men were forbidden
Kauthara and Panduranga helped maintain a sense of Cham the Ming dynasty did not respond to Cham appeals for assistance and the
the southern areas of
annexed
in 1471
were gradually assimilated into the Viet
population. In 1479, in response to continued attacks from the west, Le
Thanh Thong
launched a campaign against Lan Sang, sacking Luang Prabang. This expansionism
of the thunder-cannon."56 In 1471 victorious Viet troops 57
Ci
craft centers located
in
Nonetheless, although the preservation of lan凯1age and customs in
Cham
describing
Dai Viet
from the decline
zone had become an important node in the
Fifteenth-century Confucian literati could say
factors. It is clear that
poem
land."57
many Cham
assertion of Viet superiority epitomized in the 1471 conquest of Vijaya
to take
a
on
to the north, enabling
evident in Viet discourses about “civilized" as distinguished
Cham weapons and their “poisoned barbs, knives, and spears. 55 In all likelihood, the Viet attack on the Cham polity of Vijaya in 1470一1 was not simply motivated by political
V加ya and composed
is
Thanh Tong exploited revenues
Don and the Ha Long Bay area. By the
coastal settlements, inlets,
of
two hundred
achievement
the Red River Delta were linked to a thriving commercial zone that had developed around
region.
on the
remark that
Pires to
merchants to garner a greater share of the ceramic market and benefit
and the southeastern coast of China. attacks
Tome
from maritime trade to strengthen his Confucian vision. A丘er the conquest
network of littoral communities stretching from the
The Vietnamese had been mounting
his subjects not t。“cast
insignificant (commerce).”The apparent
and pursue the
withdrawal from the ocean even struck Europeans, prompting
century, in which 75 percent of the cargo consisted of glazed ware from the Vijaya
their independence, but although very large armies
polities of Vijaya
Cited in Sun Laichen, Institute, National University of Singapore,
Cited in John K. Whitmore,
and State in Dai Viet, Circa 1450一1550,'’in Nola Cooke, Li Tana, and James A. Anderson, eds吁The Tongking Gulf through His归ry (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), 102, 107; Pires,
in Sur
Working Papers
Series
No. 11
(Sept. 2003), 20.
Suma
Oriental,
I:
114.
凶tS A日STORY OF EARL
ODERN SO川EAST山,140叫3
THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY MODERN ERA, 1400-1511 ?、129
was eventually repelled but appeared so aggressive that even Melaka complained to the Ming Emperor. Though admonished, the self-confidence of the Dai Viet court is suggested
accompanied the expansion of international commerce were always subject to modifica- tion in different physical and cultural environments, few communities, however remote,
compiled in 1485 that included as tributary countries not only th气Cham and Lao areas but Melaka, A严1tthaya, and Java.
remained untouched by the global interactions that were now gathering pace. The economic, political, and religious flows so closely connected with the expansion of trade
in a
list
The Mekong
southernmost area of the Eastern Mainland, represented a transition zone both geographically and culturally. As in other deltas of Southeast Asia, Delta, the
periodic flooding occurs during the rainy season so that boundaries between land and
water are never clearly defined. Shorelines could extend quite rapidly because of silting,
tidal
although the fringe of mangrove forests did help to bind coastal swamplands.
In
much earlier times an active trading port known as Oc Eo on the coast had been linked to interior centers
by an extensive canal system. In the
no
commercial past and the Mekong Delta was primarily the home of Khmer
signs of this
fishermen. Viet occupation was position
still
fifteenth centu町,however, there were
far in the future
and the
delta’s
formerly favored
on the maritime highway between A yutthaya and China was not to be resurrected
until the following centuries.
linked Southeast Asia to other cultures, but never
overwhelmed the capacity of
by Spain and Portugal, the foremost Catholic powers, imposed a stamp of “ownership”on as yet unvisited societies that lay at the other side of the world, including Southeast Asia. Four years later a Portuguese expedition led by Vasco da Calicut
on the west coast of
India, the culmination of a
Gama
The rise of Melaka at the turn of the fifteenth century and its conquest in 1511 provide bookends to a period of unprecedented growth in Southeast Asia’s maritime trade connections. Sea-oriented polities like Melaka derived their wealth and prestige from an
unceasing flow of goods and traders and the revenue thus generated. Some gained additional advantages primarily routes, while others, such as
from
their physical location
A yutthaya and
on major maritime
Majapahit, could also draw on a large
trade rice-
producing pop吐ation.飞'Yell-established patterns of“upstream-downstream”relationships connecting coastal ports to internal collecting centers were similarly strengthened during this
period of enhanced trade.
As this chapter has shown, competition for control of economic and human resources could lead to conflict when mandalas overlapped, and as rulers vied to assert their superior standing. However, in some cases, like Melaka,让was quite possible to maintain a mandala without a large army and with only occasional recourse to force because client polities saw
genuine advantages in attachment to the center. Other areas, as in the Northern and Eastern Archipelagoes, functioned as confederations that were occasionally competitors but were more generally linked cooperatively through kinship relations, economic ties, and shared cultures. In all areas, the status of powerful rulers
and high ranking chiefs was affirmed by indigenous attitudes towards leadership, buttressed by religious and philosophical teach- ings出at supported their preeminence and justified the extension of authority.
The major features
associated with this
in Southeast Asia over the next three
first
phase of the early modern period persisted years. Although the changes出at
hundred
1460-1524) arrived
at
rounded the Cape of Good
Hope. His return from India heralded the opening of a sea route by which Europeans could trade directly with Asia.
CONCLUSI
(c.
centu巧of explorat。可voyages
from Portugal along the African Atlantic coast that eventually
The conquest of Melaka
in 1511
darker side of Southeast Asia’s widening global connections.
毒I
local
and adapt from incoming influences. From the late fifteenth century, however, new chains of influence emanating from Europe implicated Southeast Asia in ways that could never have been foreseen. In 1494 the signing of the Treaty ofTordesillas societies to select
was
a
grim portent of the
Acceleration of change, 1511-1600
250
CH
500
750
1000 km
σ
IN A
250
500 miles
(!
川川 、m〉
Bay
。
Guanazh H血lI JV"!'\
。
TAIWAN
PACIFIC
of
Bengal
0
CE
A N 。
。
0 D 0
o>
Andaman Sea
。。 。。 。 。
。
Birdshead
INDIAN 0
CE
A N
0 巳之二:=:,
New Guinea
0
0 0
0
飞
I)飞出f
气〉
如fap 6: Acceleration of change, 1511一1600
132
fτ?'l1
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
ACCELERATION OF CHANGE,
S川…ing
TIMELINE Acceleration of change, 1511-1600 Safavids
come to power
in Persia
Po时uguese capture Melaka
and Majapahit were st山revered, but
emerged
and the Arabian
Peninsula
as
On
Islam.
reaches thi
Philippines
in India
the
mainland sh的s were
Demak on Java
m
the past.
in
Establishment of Portuguese
Spanish establish their
first
Southeast Asia
rulers
Macau
settlement at Cebu
Removal of Chinese imperial
in
the
1540-1680
Philippine1
restrictions
on overseas travel
make Manila
their capital after seizing city from
in
in
Muslirm
mandalas of the land-
and
among
conflicts
ambitious
status,
now beginning to shape regional history to a far greater extent than China remained the unchallenged power
imprimatur was highly desired.
would no doubt have continued
Had the
in the East,
and the
Portu♂1ese not taken Melaka,
Malay
to dispatch envoys with local products, as they did
a white
elephant in acknowledgement of his tributary status. Chinese trade was an
Chinese market for
From
especially that it
silver,
fueled
felt
the effects of the voracious
by population growth and requirements
the latter part of the sixteenth century
much
for tax
payments
of the silver reaching China,
brought by Europeans from Mexico and Peru, came via Southeast Asia,
helped to stimulate greater monetization and furthered regional integration into
the global
economy.
emanating丘om the Muslim empires
that
domin-
assumed power in Persia, from 1526 the Mughals became dominant in India, and in
Ottomans of Turkey gained control over Egypt, Syria, and the Arabian Peninsula, including the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The transmission and translation of Muslim texts from Arabia, Persia, and India, the retellings of stories丘om Islam’s almost limitless
southern Dai Viet
storehouse,
and the
circulation of religious teachers
strengthened Southeast Asia’s connections with the larger as a
and
their disciples,
Muslim world. While serving
source of Islamic ideas, these lands also offered Southeast Asians an entree to global
Muslim trade networks, a vast market
for regional goods,
and on occasion even military
armaments when Muslim kingdoms were threatened by Europeans. Together with China, these three mighty Muslim empires form a backdrop to the personnel and
central Java
Dai Viet divided into three jurisdictions: Mac, Trinh, and
power and
rulers.
1517 the
Ayutthaya under Naresuan regains independence from Taungoo
End of 16th century
and Ceribon
ated the central lands of Islam in the sixteenth centu可. In 1501 the Safavid dynasty
Burmese control Lan Na Founding of Mataram
also evident in the shrinking
Equally significant are the influences
Spain and Portugal unified under one Crown
Nguyen family expandsεontrol
in
In 1555 the Thai ruler of Ayutthaya, in addition to the customa巧gi缸,even sent
where via Manila
Aceh
in 1508.
in specie.
conquest of Ayutthaya by Taungoo of Myanmar
Spanish
coast Java ports of Demak
important source of revenue, while Southeast Asia also
Galleon trade inaugurated linking China and Mexico First
places such as
Although the Ming dynasty did not respond to Melaka’s appeal for help
against the Portuguese,
Emperor’s
Frances Xavier proselytizes
and
Na and Lan Sang, while neighboring polities with access to seaborne
ongoing struggles
Global forces were
of Majapahit and expansion of Muslim
and
commerce, most notably Pegu and A严1tthaya, drew ever-increasing benefits from mari-
fueling
Fall
number of other
time trade. This prosperity, however, generated intense rivalry for
Mughals gain dominance
in 1511 political,
important hubs for both international commerce and the dissemination of
locked polities of Lan
Ferdinand Magellan leads a Spanish expedition that
a
Ban ten in west Java, and the north
north Sumatra,
seize Egypt, Syria,
Melaka
impact of increased international trade on the economic,
landscape of Southeast Asia in the sixteenth centu町. In the island areas the names
cultural
of Melaka
Ottoman Turks
global conne
period, this chapter begins with the Portuguese conquest of traces the
1511一1600 (吨133
Nguyen
religious,
economic, and political trajectories that helped shape Southeast Asian history
in this period.
Thousands of miles away from Southeast Asia, events in Europe were to have equally By the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 the great Catholic powers, Spain
far-reaching effects.
134嗒A HISTORY
OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTH…山,14…830
and Portugal, had agreed
to a division of the
ment with the Papacy, known
ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-160。如飞135
world beyond Europe. Through an
as the “Royal Patronage,”both
the Christian faith in newly discovered lands in return for the right to control the
of the Church within their jurisdictions.
and
forts
arrange-
Crowns undertook to spread
The Portuguese quickly moved
activities
to establish posts
along the maritime routes to the spice islands of eastern Indonesia, while
Spain,
more hesitantly, finally claimed the Philippine archipelago. Meanwhile, in what is now Germany, Martin Luther’s criticisms of Church practices and the sale of indulgences, made public in 1517, laid the ground for the birth of Protestantism and its consolidation in northern Europe.
and their capture of three of the most important ports in the Indian Ocean, the Portuguese had only limited success in controlling the spice trade. By mid-century, official Crown voyages were largely displaced by concessions granted to a Despite their naval superiority
few favored卢dalgos (nobles),
Crown monopoly nor
the concessionary voyages
manpower
proved capable of overcoming insufficient finance, ships, and
dominance in the spice trade. By the 1580s these successful private trade local
Responding to this profound challenge, the Catholic Church reaffirmed its fundamental doctrines and the primacy of the Pope, but a new mood of reform saw the founding of the
who were permitted to ply a specific trade route in return for
payments to the Crown. Neither the
efforts
to achieve
were overshadowed by the more
conducted by ordinary Portuguese: the casados (men married to
women), the lanrados (men-of-fortune serving
local lords as mercenaries),
and
the mestiros, sometimes referred to as the “black Portuguese" or Topasses ( offspring of
marriages between Portuguese fathers
and local women, or between mesti<;:os). Residing in
and the invigoration of other Catholic orders dedicated to the training of mission- aries who would restore the Church in Europe and assume the task of global evangelism. In
Asia and participating with Asian
Southeast Asia the missionary view of animism as "devil worship" and their condemnation
arrangements with rich Asian merchants and powerful rulers, they maintained the
of “heathen”ideas could rarely find accommodation with indigenous belief systems or
the
Portuguese presence
by competing successfully
bitter
including those that
spanned Southeast Asia.
Jesuits
well-established practices of
Buddhism
or the expanding faith of Islam. Car巧ing
memories of the “Reconquest" (Reconquista) of the Iberian Peninsula from centuries of domination by North African Muslims (the Moors), both Portuguese and Spanish viewed Islam not only as a sworn
enemy but as a monolithic force,
Asian Muslims as“Moors." As religious
affiliation in
evident in their reference
to
all
Southeast Asia became increasingly
merchants in established Asian networks, private
Portuguese were the primary beneficiaries of the spice trade.
Because of their
skills
with伊ns and
recruited
by ambitious Southeast Asian
Ongoing
conflicts, especially
insatiable desire for
Through mutually beneficial
in well-established
artillery,
Portuguese
rulers unwilling to cede
Asian trade networks,
lan<;:ados
were eagerly
any advantage
to a rival.
between Ayutthaya and Myanmar, generated an almost
firepower and large cannon, and Portuguese mercenaries were
linked to the idea of loyalty to a particular polity or ethnic group, the vocabulary of religion
regarded as valuable additions to local forces. But the lan<;:ados were a mobile group,
was readily invoked to provide
moving regularly between service with foreign lords and the various Portuguese
spiritual justification for hostile activities.
ments within the Estado. Some, like the notorious Filipe de Brito e Nicote,
settle-
whom we w山
meet again in the following chapter, gained such power that they effectively governed as
Noteworthy
features of the period
independent kings.
Portuguese and Spanish involvement in Southeast Asia
termed Topasses or
A more
enduring legacy was the growth of the “black Portuguese" communi町,。丘en
Figure 4.1).
“hat
people" (so called because they wore European-style hats, see
The prominence of the
mesti<;:o
Portuguese, especially in the Eastern
The Portu伊ese defeat of Melaka in 1511 marks the beginning of European intervention in
Archipelago, can be traced to the policies advocated
the affairs of the region. Initially, the Portuguese
aimed to challenge Muslim domination of the spice trade by controlling the areas of actual production, as well as key nodes along the route by which spices were carried from Asia to Europe. They seized Goa in west coast
proposed that the
India (1510), Melaka (1511), and the island of
parentage,
Hormuz (1515), which commanded the Aden on the Red Sea in 1513. Goa
entrance to the Persian Gulf, but they failed to take
became the headquarters and administrative center
known as
as Estado
its first
territories
da India
governor.
The
(State of India), with “Es tad。”legally
for the Portuguese Asian Empire
Afonso de Albuquerque
referred to the listed
under formal Portuguese control, but the term
many other settlements established by private Cape of Good Hope to Macau in China.
also
came
cities,
(c.
1453-1515)
fortresses, and
to include informally
Portuguese individuals stretching from
the
by Afonso de Albuquerque, who
Crown should actively encourage marriage between Portuguese soldiers
women of good birth so that their offspring would provide manpower for Portugal's expanding empire in Asia and Africa. As a result of their mixed and
officials
and native
.
he argued, these individuals would
feel “Portu事1ese"
through a shared religion
and language, and would widespread mestic;:o
become loyal subjects of the Crown. Indeed, members of也is community did emerge as important cultural brokers and economic
mediators because of their family connections parents.
their fluency in the languages of
both
These kinship links o丘en enabled the black Portuguese to arrange favorable loan
terms from local financiers or gain special their
and
advantages仕om
local rulers. In
some
cases
personal intervention could be highly effective in resolving tensions出at arose
because of cruelty
and abusive or insulting behavior committed by the
“white"
Portuguese
币6 A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTH…山,140叫30
ACCELERATION OF small Spanish-sponsored fleet
command
under
of the Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan
A local chief on the island of Cebu was persuaded
(1480一1521) arrived in the Philippines.
by assurances that Spain would make him the preeminent
to accept baptism
the islands, together
Eight
with an image of the Santo N江10, the
made
Holy
that (in the
Ch且d.
It
wife,
firrr让y
who was
was nonetheless over
serious attempts to stake a claim to the islands
planted the Christian cross. This hesitation
Portuguese were
(or mard扩ker, referring to
descendants of freed slaves) and his wife was engraved in The Netherlands, based on sketches made by Johan Nieuhof during his travels as a VOC employee. Apart from trousers reaching to his ankles, the man’s clothing is said to be “in the Dutch fashion" and he wears a European-style hat, a Topass
was in part due to the knowledge that the
friar)
without a“legitimate or pious cause"
and as
"Filipinas" in
honor of Crown Prince Felipe
a fleet sailed
from the Spanish American colony of
Lopez de Legazpi
(c.
community or
ruler.
As time passed, continuing intermarriage meant that
and to lay the foundations for missionary work. Legazpi initially established the
main Spanish settlement on
the island of
Nino image given to the
Spanish colonization
raja’s
wife
by Magellan was interpreted
was part of a divine plan. However, Legazpi soon
control of Muslim
datu or chiefs,
was clearly a preferable
site for
it
as a sign that
realized that the
attracted considerable trade
Though under the
from China and Japan and
a Spanish capital. In 1571 Manila was seized仕om the
Muslims to become the center of the colonial administration.
which
New World
It
also
silver
became the
focal
was shipped仕om
Acapulco to Manila and exchanged for silk brought from Macau. For over two hundred
as
eighteenth
in the
economic advantages of Cebu were limited, whereas 365 miles/587 kilometers to the north
European-style hats and clothing. Their fierce loyalty to this cultural legacy ensured that the Portuguese heritage survived in Southeast Asia in the face of devastating attacks on
and
Cebu
Visayan archipelago in the central Philippines. Here the fortuitous (re)discovery of the
years participation in the galleon trade
in the seventeenth
in 1565
command
1502-72). His charge was to establish relations with the
was little in physical appearance to distinguish the black Portuguese from the indigenous inhabitants, but they proudly proclaimed themselves “Portuguese”in their adherence to Catholicism, some knowledge of the Portuguese language, and the wearing of
by the Dutch East India Company
and
Spain under the
was the thriving entrepot of Maynilad (Man且a) on the island of Luzon.
there
the formal Estado
New
Philippines ( while avoiding the Portu事1ese-occupied islands of the Eastern Archipelago)
point in the triangular “galleon trade,”by
against a local
and China, which
in 1543 registered Spain’s claim,
arose because of their cultural
Johan Nie吐10f, Voyages and Travels, into Brasil, and the East-Indies (London: A. and J. Churchill, 1704), 316C.
would
The naming of the archipelago
Santo
adaptab过ity.
it
by the Treaty of
a base for missionizing in Japan
promised a rich harvest in both conversion and commerce.
The pig in the background shows that he and his wife are not Muslim. Nieuhof believed that Topass meant“accommodator," and privilege.
years
Advocates for a more aggressive policy ar事1ed that the Philippines could
be valuable as a source of spices
of Miguel
f。此y
where Magellan had
be difficult to establish settlements in islands assigned to Portugal
Figure 4.1. A Topass man and his wife. This picture of a Topass man
presented
ensconced in the spice-producing areas of eastern Indonesia, and
words of an Au恕”tinian
Tordesillas.1
ruler in
with threats of retribution should he reject this grand opportunity.
hundred of his followers were also baptized as well as his
before Spain
CHANG川1叫00
Catholic Church, the sufficient
enabled the Spanish administration, as well as the
missiona町orders, and Church institutions in Manila, to obtain
revenues to fund their operations. These revenues, however, were never as great
viceroys.
had hoped because control of the galleon trade remained with the Mexican Even the annual subsidy that Mexico sent to Manila drew heavily仕om taxes
levied in
Acapulco on incoming and outgoing cargoes. Yet while the Spaniards
Legazpi
centuries.
reap the anticipated
By the last quarter of the sixteenth century the other Iberian power,由e Spanish, had also become a settled presence in Southeast Asia. However, in moving into the region由ey were far more undecided than the Portuguese. The initial foray came in 1521, when a
1
economic rewards
85’
Cited in T. Valentino Sitoy Day: Quezon City, 1985),
Jr.,
in the Philippines, they
A History of Christianity in
failed to
proved far more successful
the Phil伊pines: the Initial
Encounter (New
6叨
138点A HISTORY
OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST and
in converting inhabitants to Christianity
islands an“arsenal
and warehouse of the
ASIA, 1400-1830
ACCELERATION
in achieving their stated goal of making
the
faith."2
in
some
differences
and some
similarities. First, political
centraliza-
Although Goa was the administrative and religious hub of the Estado da India, it did not exercise direct control over Portuguese settlements. Operating essentially as independent entities in obtaining and dispensing revenues, governors and captains tion
was
limited.
of
these settlements were encouraged to reach local traders
and
economic and
rulers. In the Philippines, despite
political arrangements
the appearance of
with
centralization,
the
Spanish administration was hobbled by a lack of personnel - only five hundred Spaniards in the whole of the archipelago in 1582 - and a weak or non-existent presence outside
few
a
towns. Inaccessible areas, notably the Cordillera mountain range of northern Luzon, remained outside colonial control, and the Spanish were never able to establish fortified
contrast,
A second area of comparison concerns the effects on indigenous economies. In the people they termed
‘'Lm;:oes" (lit.,
early
in trade-oriented
towns
Melaka. By
like
pop吐ation densities in the scattered villages of the Philippines and island
to acute infections
through recurring exposure. The geographical separation between the
Eastern Archipelago islands provided
some protection from contagion, but
easily.
Manila was
first
in the
Spanish
compact settlements
Philippines the policy of bringing local populations together in
meant infections spread more
struck by a smallpox epidemic in
1574, and this was followed by outbreaks of "plagues" and “pestilence" that resulted in
many
deaths. In
combination with the military action that accompanied the Spanish
from exacting heavy labor requirements, and a generally the recurrence of contagious diseases led to a dramatic demographic
conquest, the fatalities resulting
low
rate of fertility,
decline.
Between 1565 and 1600 the population of the Philippines, excluding the Muslim
south, probably
fell
by around 36 percent.
In the fourth place, the
had commented on the regional trade carried out by those from Luzon but referring generally to Philippine
immunity
communities in the Eastern Archipelago never reached a level that produced resistance
themselves in the Muslim south. sixteenth century出e Portuguese
predated the European arrival, and contact with China and India where such diseases
were endemic led to a degree of
Portugal and Spain were technically united between 1580 and 1640, but despite sharin? a king their empires remained legally separate. The nature of their involvement
Southeast Asia displays
also
OF山NG川1叫00 '139
to
two Iberian nations
differed in the social legacy出ey bequeathed
Asia一the offspring of intermarriages or cohabitation between Europeans and native
women.
On
the one hand, the Portu思1ese actively encouraged miscegenation to create
loyal subjects for the
Estado, and as cultural brokers the mesti<;:o communities were a key
and in 1600 the Jesuit Pedro Chirino could still comment on the Filipino aptitude for commerce. Nevertheless, Filipino trade with the Muslim south and the rest of Southeast
element in maintaining a Portuguese presence throughout Asia.
Asia was already retracting because of increasingly restrictive measures imposed by
meant Southeast Asia as well]; neither are there any People of more different Complexions than of that Race, even from the Coal-black tQ a light Tawney."4 The Spanish, on the other
traders),
Spaniards, their heaηr demands for labor, life.
the
and growing Chinese dominance of commercial
These economic restraints fundamentally destabilized indigenous linkages
not
only
within the Northern Archipelago but with major ports like Melaka. In the spice islands of Maluku Portuguese attempts to establish a spice monopoly also caused political and economic disruption and led to wars with local communities, but never at a level that could throttle local commerce. With their strong local connections, individual Portuguese traders
and
mesti<;:os
Demographic
were
easily
shi缸,particularly the effects of warfare and the introduction of new pathogens, provide a third comparative topic. Apart from infections common in出 tropics such as malaria and dengue fever
was
seems that syph且is (which untreated
can
be
present in Southeast Asia prior to the sixteenth century. Yet although Pigafet钮, the chronicler of Magellan’s voyage, commented that“the disease of St. Job was found in all the islands e en ountered,”its association with Europeans is indicated by local references t。“the Portuguese disease."3 fatal)
especially smallpox,
2
?;:::;???汇出飞?:;?,::骂:工业::攻?:?s: ti??:::i:?峦:;;;:t ;7s:,g;o:??:?,t?;torld
scattered
all
hand, never adopted such a policy, although concubinage was absence of Iberian Philippines
women.
Soldiers
and
difficult to calculate
the
friars
who
local families,
common and
who
because of the stayed in the
in the count巧side
had fathered children with their “housekeeper."
number of Spanish mestizos
numerous. However, since
all
de espaflol, like castilas, were (“Indians,”a
fairer skin,
were never
individuals of Spanish descent enjoyed privileges, mestizos
exempt from the
tribute
payments required of
Spanish mestizos were part of a small
elite
who, despite
played the same brokering role as the Portuguese
“Indios"
social status
and
undoubted
their
mesti<;:os.
Perhaps the most noteworthy comparison between these Iberian powers concerns their
any commercially viable export crops in the Philippines, the Spaniards rationalized their continued presence by proclaiming that their primary intention was“the advance of our Holy Catholic Faith and the salvation of pursuit of Christian converts. In the absence of
Sp叫Aims and Filipino闷。nses,
(1519-臼22):即z
4
Accoun
it
It is
(mestizos de espafiol), since they were
term used for the native inhabitants). Set apart by their
influence, rarely
trader later
over India [by which he
lower-level administrators
sometimes married into high-ranking
was customary to find
w
Other contagious diseases,
is
administratively categorized with castilas (pure-blooded Spaniards) but they
absorbed into the vast network of Asian commerce.
it
remarked w可ly,“The breed of [ the Portuguese]
As an English
William Dampier, Voyages and Discoveries (London: Argonaut 1931, Reprinted from Voyages, vol.
II,
1729), 111.
A
Collection of
SOUTHEAST山,1400一1830 吟。舔A HISTO盯OF山川ODERN
ACCELERATION OF CHAN叩511-1600
the souls of the heathen产Despite periodic disagreements between religious and leaders, this declaration ensured that in the Philippines the Catholic monastic
exerted a significant influence.
The
secular
orders
commitment to con- and fewer resources than the
Portuguese also asserted their
verting local populations, but they expended far less energy
Spanish. Furthermore, Portuguese secular authorities were o丘en hostile to missionizing seeing
effi。此s,
private
and
army of
them
undermining or even threatening the economic
as
state trading ventures.
well-being
of
The view expressed by one Goa Viceroy that a veritable
were a drain on the Estado’s finances was widely shared by many
“lazy religious"
of his contemporaries.6
distance, the Raja of
home,"
to
The
religious
arrival of
coincided with a period
when
the spread of Islam
for
From the Malay perspective, Melaka may have come under infidel rule and its great mosque destroyed but other Muslim ports, notably Demak, Aceh, Banten, and Brunei quickly developed into major centers for the diffusion of Islamic teachings. They
legendary reminders of the connections that overcame physical separation. The J盯an创
was said
to have
named for al-Quds, the holy city of Jerusalem, and its foundation stone
been brought directly by Sunan Kudus, one of the nine
Another wali, the Javanese Sunan
Kalijaga,
was so
reach out and orient the roof of the renowned
towards the Ka’aba believed to be the
(literally “the Cube,”a
first
Stories transmitted
Muslim
spiritually
saintly
powerful that he was
to this
Demak mosque
so that
it
was
place of worship). to the sense that
local
fail to be impressed by accounts of the great Islamic empires of Safavid Persia, Mughal India, and especially Ottoman Turkey, which now
Mecca and Medina. By adopting
Islam, a Southeast
in the prestige of being a co- religionist with
some
of the
Asian
greatest
and of being incorporated into the larger family of the ummah. The Malay epic Hikayat Hang Tuah thus describes the ruler of Rum (i.e. Turkey) as an awe- rulers of the time
inspiring potentate, but yet one
5
Cited in
Emma Blair and James Alexander Robertson,
Arthur H. Clark, 1903-9) 6
Cited in
who relates to a Melaka delegation
Anthony
2:
(allegedly sent in
MA: Harvard
in
the faith,
also
period - generally composed
have been deployed to support the
written in honor of Aceh's Sultan Alauddin
him
“Perfect
the highest Sufi
Man" who
title
III
(r.
of "The Pole of the Universe"
has achieved union with God. This rulers with a justification
own influence by forcibly spreading the religion to ka_卢r (non-Muslim) however,
it
provided additional incentive to oppose the enemies of
both Portuguese and Spanish,
who
name
themselves waged wars in the
of
Christianity.
The
defeat of
Melaka and the
flight
movement of The encounter between Islam and animist
of Malay Muslims encouraged the
and then between Islam and Christianity, i时ected greater urgency into persisting
questions about the boundaries of faith.
A text from Java, which probably dates from this
transitional period, distinguishes adherents of Islam
Islamic conversion cision,
from those who follow
“Javanese
including lengthy warnings against idol-worship and heresy toge由er with
reminders that non-believers are the “enemies of
were appearance and
lifestyle
God户The most
obvious indicators of
- burial rather than cremation, circum-
observing the ritual of prayer, and abstaining from forbidden food such as pork.
While these provisions apply to localization
all
Muslims, there are numerous indications of the
through which the world religions were adapted to the Southeast Asian
environment. For instance, according to Pigafetta's local informants in Brunei,
Muslim
law required that before eating chicken wings the tips should be cut off and then
7
(Cleveland:
Southwest India
University Press, 1978), 21-3.
may
this
between kingship and divine authority provided
extending their
lands. Simultaneously,
9
Trade
have survived from
split
1481)
89-99.
R. Disney, Twil也ht of the Pepper Empire: Portuguese
Early Seventeenth Century (Cambridge,
association for
8
The Philippine Islands 1493-1898
A poem
1589-1604), for instance, accords
religion,”while
by traders and travelers similarly contributed
treatises that
and equates him with the
peoples,
Southeast Asian rulers could not
monarch could bask
8
position of the ruler.
able to
sacred building inside Mecca’s Grand Mosque,
The fame more pragmatic attrac-
efforts of
Islam along the archipelago’s trade routes.
Muslims were now part of the ummah, the world-wide Islamic community of believers.
controlled the ho忖cities of
were the
walis.
directed
world
us."7
Muslim missionaries themselves, and a Jesuit priest in Melaka resentfully remarked that they were so "solicitous and industrious that they come from Mecca and Cairo and Constantinople to these remote regions" to spread Islamic Added
c。“
now be located in a world where the geographical distance between Southeast Asia and the great centers of Islam had contracted, not merely through human movement but by
us, in this
Muslim traders preferred to conduct business in ports where they were assured of protection from a Muslim ruler and would be provided with a mosque to worship.
it
in island Southeast
both mother and father to
tions, since
within the Sufi or mystical tradition -
at a critical time,
was gathering pace
replies,“You are
We may never be able to repay your great love towards
Some of the few
Asia.
port of Kudus was
which Hang Tuah
and the hereafter.
domains
Europeans and of Christian missionizing came
Rum tells the Malays,“O sons, forget us not when you have returned
gained by association with these powerful kings was enhanced by
teachings.
Expanding
Expressing regret that his empire and Melaka are separated by such a great
as a parent.
in the
The Epic of Hang Tuah, Muhammad Haji Terjemahan Negara Malaysia, 2010), 513.
Salleh, trans.,
Rosema巧Robson,
ed.
(Kuala Lumpur: Institut
Cited in Donald F. Lach, Southeast Asia in the Eyes of Europe: the Sixteenth Century (Phoenix Books: The University of Chicago Press, 1968), 517. Cited in M. C. Ricklefs, Mystic Synthesis in Java: a History of Islamization卢om the Fourteenth to the h均Nineteenth Centuries (Norwalk CT: Eastbridge, 2006), 23-5.
'叩
叩毯A HISTO盯OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…830 down
ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-1600
the middle. Issues regarding trading practices were also addressed, and another
Javanese text from this period affirms that an honest merchant
on the extension of
who places no
conditions
go to heaven. Individuals with specialized knowledge of herbal medicines ( usually women) even came to use由e names of the Prophet’s daughter credit will
Fatimah and her husband Ali ( considered
Islam’s ideal couple) to refer to plants
used
in
the treatment of pregnancy, childbirth, and sexual inadequacies. This domestication of ideas about
way towards
Muslim behavior and explaining
friars as
himself to a tearful child,
on the “noble book" of Christian doctrine
scattered Portuguese
interconnected world where
more
new pa由s of
The archdiocese centered at reached from Africa to Japan and
religious pathways.
communities in eastern Indonesia were thus part of an
members of Catholic
claimed a Portuguese identity and perceived spiritual power.
at
from access to trade products. moving wherever they found communities that
times being recruited by rulers for their technical
The Spanish sphere of influence in Southeast Asia was
ore lin啦ed, but the Philippines was
drawn
芝驴and South America through who saw the
orders and even individual Portuguese
souls for the faith while profiting
Friars themselves could be highly mobile,
idea atthis far-flung
domain
is
into a Hispanic world that linked the islands
the galleon trade, and ultimately to Madrid. The
nicely captured in a
remark by one Spanish
chronicler,
and crown of Spain" extending across lands that reached from Europe "unto its setting" in the distant lands of Asia.10
?scepter
sun’s rising in
the
were well established, Christian missionaries in the Philippines and much of eastern Indonesia were successful because of several factors. Chiefs and rulers were attracted by
power associated with Christians, and by the o丘en explicit promise that Europeans would assist their co-religionists against traditional enemies. In the Philippines the earthly
whom
Magellan had baptized accordingly “thanked
God
for inspiring
him
to
become
a Christian, [for] now he would more easily conquer his enemies than before."11 For ordinary people Christianity's perceived capacity for healing was a major attraction. The sacraments, notably baptism, were regarded as a potent defense against illness, especially for children,
and
stories of Christ’s miracles
easily with traditional beliefs that healers
crosses, rosaries,
and
Christianity’s curative
powers
could tap supernatural resources. The
and holy images brought by Catholic missionaries became
“heretic”Dutch
11
M
Irving, Colonial Counterpoi时Music Oxford University Press, 2010), 22. Pigafetta, First Voyage around the World, 49.
Mary was
enemies
like the
deity
credited with particular
Muslims and
later the
were especially appealing in the Philippines because of the
(65 kilometers)
miles
south of Manila, the volcanic mountain Taal, said an Augustinian
friar,
periodically“spits forth crops." Rites of
and
new faith. Some 40
promises of protection were persuasive incentives to accept the
many and
very large rocks, which are glowing and destroy the
exorcism, performed in order to “accustom [ the natives] to place their
only God,”became a regular practice whenever there was any indication of
trust in the
unusual volcanic activity,
and
a
huge cross was
later erected at the
edge of the main
Nor can we overlook the visual, aural, and olfactory appeal of solemn processions, priestly robes, beautiful altar cloths, incense, and liturgical music. In late sixteenth- centu可Manila it was said that there were“many indigenous singers and ministriles crater.13
[church instrumentalists]
who
are skillful
quently the friars
is
noteworthy
in particular
Ancient
spirits
sacred objects
[and] perform grace.”14
new
[reli-
This native
were仕e
were o丘en praised by the
converts.
the other hand, the acceptance of Christian beliefs
transition.
...
because Filipinos themselves
most effective missionaries, and women
because of their piety and ab且ity to attract
On nity's
and have good voices
and dramas] in Spanish and in their language with great
gious plays
was not necessarily an easy
were condemned as malevolent agents of the Devil, a
were destroyed with impuni町,and
ritual
commu-
heads were reviled and
denounced and even killed as witches and sorcerers. The indigenous priests and priest- Philippines (babaylan in Visayan, catalonan in Tagalog), usually elderly
esses of the
women and transvestite men who symbolized male-female unity, were a particular target of Spanish persecution. Nor was it easy to explain new concepts and practices like the requirement for confession, the idea of penance, and salvation. Mis-
“original sin,"
sionaries also
found that the Christian
stress
on monogamy and virginity was
at
odds with
protective Bienvenido
(Quezon in
the Virgin
frequency of natural disasters - typhoons, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions -
12
Cited in D.R.
rituals,
victories over
were attributed to her watchful oversight. Ritual supplications to a
unknown
previously
and
involvement in Christian praxis
Rarely able to attract Southeast Asian followers in areas where Islam and Buddhism
the chief
in the storm-tossed
prominence in pre-Christian
communication based on
to gain
buoy
female
Timor, and included not only Melaka but the Portuguese settlement in Macau, established
competed
will serve as a
how Southeast Asians could accommodate themselves in this new
Portuguese Goa, the capital of the Estado da India,
The
which
In keeping with cultural ideas about maternal vigilance and perhaps reflecting
concern for her followers,
cross-cultural
10
and obligations of kinship. A Tagalog poet thus compares whose perilous journey in search of “God our father”must rely
about the responsibilities
seas.12
Like Islam, the introduction of Christianity into Southeast Asia opened up
melded
all
local interpretations of Islamic teachings goes a long
domain.
in 1557.
nature of misfortunes from disease to earthquake. The kinship termin- - a father-like God, his Son, the Holy Family, the ology inherent in Christian teachings - resonated with indigenous beliefs spiritual fathers, converts as their children amulets against
Ear抄Modern Manila (Oxford/New York:
13」
14
Lumbera, Tagalog Poetry 1570-1898: Tradition and Influences in i归Development Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1986), 39-41. Miguel Saderra Maso, The Eruption of Taal Volcano, January 3α1911 (Manila: Bureau of
L.
City:
Cited in Fr.
Printing, 191月,6-7.
Cited in Irving, Colonial Counterpoi肘,105
144
'1-.:过A
ACCELERATI…F CHANGE, 151叫
HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
and a Spanish assault on Brunei in 1571, undoubtedly fueled enmity and generated Muslim responses in kind. While the Spanish spoke of Islam as an“accursed Melaka,
and
doctrine,”evil
false,
the ruler of Brunei, highly insulted, responded
℃astilians [Spaniards] are
when they
die,
ka缸,men
developed, since traditional allegiances
by
never wielded accept both
translated catechisms devised for friars to impart Christian teachings attempted to deal
with such issues by posing questions“With what will native convert should respond,“He will
God punish
sinners?”to
which
ache forever."15 Denial of sacraments became a highly effective tool in forcing aspiring Christians to reg吐arize marriage arrangements, and adultery or co-habitation could be
punished through exclusion from communion, the imposition of penance, or even physical chastisement. Catholic friars
employed
fines
and other punishments
churchgoing and inculcate a sense of gu山,with threats of divine wrath
to enforce
In the long term, the European importation of conflicts
15
with Muslims had the most serious repercussions. The Portuguese attack on
Cited in Vicente
L. Rafael,
Contracting Colonialism: Translation and Christian Conversion in Tagalog
Society under Ear炒Spanish Rule
(Durham: Duke University
Press, 1988), 179
ruler.
Asia,
where Europeans
friars in his territories.
“false
in
Dai Viet an
named
“I-Ni-Khu’
However,
religion”indicates that here the missiona巧presence
1505 the Portuguese had also arrived in
Sri
Lanka, building a fort
Colombo and setting up a number of trade settlements. During the course of the
at
sixteenth
centu巧they assumed control over the coastal areas, and in return for military
assistance
were permitted to launch their missionary enterprise. In 1557 the only Catholic
ruler in Sri
that
Lankan history agreed to transfer to the Franciscans revenues丘om出e area
included the temple
replete
housing the sacred Tooth
with accounts of Portu伊ese atrocities
egregious act
Relic.
and
While
Sri
Lankan chronicles
cruelty towards Buddhists, the
was the seizure and public destruction in Goa of this revered
Sinhalese tradition
relic
(
are
most
although
says出at this was simply a duplicate). In the religious disruption that
of territory in Sri Lanka, scriptures were lost, many monks disrobed, and monasteries destroyed or abandoned. Against由is background followed Portugal’s steady arrogation
Southeast Asia
Sri
Christian
mainland Southeast
1533 refers to Christian preaching by an individual
Southeast Asia, but in
if Christians
memories of long-standing
with some Muslim
The Dai Viet rulers were presumably aware of the Portuguese advance in island
ing,
neglected their religious obligations.
allied
was already seen as threatening.
the
throw them into hell and there they will suffer and
st山
any kind of power, so that the ruler of Rakhine, for instance, was willing to
and the ban of this
(Ignatius),
In the Philippines
were
Islam entailed a choice not merely of belief but of cultural and political
Muslim teachers and Catholic
edict issued in
life.
only slowly
religious belief
change irrevocably led to a situation where adoption of either
This was less likely to apply in
afl且liation.
as part of village
this level of host山ty
and enmities rather than
had reverted to Islam because they had
religious
Christianity or
and where pre-nuptial sex was accepted
fire
some members opt for Christianity and others for Islam. Nonetheless, the divisions
introduced
virility
by asserting that
condemned by
frequently sought to insure immunity in the case of potential conflicts by
Elite families
having
where possession of many women was a public display of male
are
elements in determining intercommunal relations. Securing powerful patron-
verted" villages
cultural values in societies
who
remained a high priority, and Christian missionaries o丘en complained that“con-
age
erected Figure 4.2. Vigan Cathedral, Philippines. Vigan’s original church, a chapel made of wood, was in 1641, here built was church second 1627. A and 1619 of earthquakes in 1574 but was damaged in the and the present church was completed between 1790 and 1800. During the Spanish period most The Philippine churches were deliberately built low and squat because of the danger of earthquakes. Vigan bell tower, about h而nty-five meters high and topped by a bronze weathercock said to symbolize Authors' photograph St. Peter, stands separately from the church to avoid damage should it topple.
souls,
and that too because they eat pork."16 In eastern Indonesia, where
and Islam wereηring for followers,
Christianity
the decisive
who have no
and
in
appeared to be the only place where the Buddha’s teachings were flourish-
1597 an embassy was sent to Rakhine to obtain
monks to
restore ordination in
Lanka.
Indeed, in contrast to the Sri Lankan situation, in Southeast Asia the promotion of Buddhism through establishing monasteries and disseminating texts created and affirmed ties between the center and distant communities. The monaste巧in the Shan polity of 16
Cited in Blair
and Robertson, The Philippine Islands,
vol. IV:
160-1
146
..
?\.
MODERN SOUTHEAST
A HISTORY OF EARLY
Kengtung (Kyaingtong),
became the center of an
for example,
connections出at reached into the surrounding highlands.
h山people came down
mountain
home
Some
...
of
A chronicle recalls that “many
Sasana [Buddhist teachings] back to eve叩h山and
them came down
and
to study
disciples."17 Itinerant
and learn
correctly ... and returned
monks played
(1527-92) sought to base the administrative structure
from popular Buddhist tales.
common
(now
lan凯iage
muang
called “northern
Thai”)
further
that proliferated in the uplands of northern
muang
elite families
in
across the Upper
Networks of monasteries and circulating monks drew the region
together
indigenous cults with is
reflected in the
village
guardian
believed to
ceremonies, temple decorations like the floating banners, and artistic styles
the Daoist
Buddha images
(believed to impart wealth
and knowledge), were
like the rotund
typically northern
Although the spread of Theravada Buddhism was largely peaceful, here too we
instance, the ruler of
Lan Sang embarked on
by destroying
spirits
campaign did not
their shrines
last long, since
a
as incompatible
(r. c.
eliminate
with Buddhism. Having advanced into the Shan
to the teachings of lowland
motivations, royal promotion of a
monks. While
sacrifices that
were
hills,
considered
and
insisted that religious
life
should
it is
not possible to determine
precise
more standardized Buddhism appears
to be linked
extend control over upland peoples. For observing Buddhists in the
consumption of pickled
of
to wreak
1551-81) was similarly concerned to
rituals, especially chiefly funerals,
for
failure that followed
would be quick
spirits
he prohibited the drinking of alcohol and the animal
Shan
1527,
traditional ceremonies. The
and crop
tea leaves, apparently
common among
to
lowland
the Shan,
replaced alcoholic drinks, but in the upland areas there was greater resistance. One sixteenth-century text records Shan objections to prohibitions against the ritual drinking
of alcohol, claiming that“it
is our invariable custom, and we Shans only trust an oath taken on liquor and meat.”18 Continuing rivalries between Buddhist polities point to the
persistence of local loyalties reinforced
images and
relics,
by traditions associated with sacred
Cited in Daniel
B圳iist s
M.
No伽
sites, revered
and prestigious monasteries.
Cited in Michael
W.
Charney, Southeast Asian
Wa价re 1300-1900
and Textual
(Brill:
Transmission
Leiden, 2004),
construction of
beliefs that
spirits,
communal
and
combined
houses, or dinh, the focus of ceremonies for
and peasant rebellions o丘en coalesced around
One
monks
of the major cults originating
Transformed into a
Jade Emperor.
most eminent of Vietnam’s
Chinese trade
disciple of the
numerous female
or holy
men
at this
time
human
daughter of
Buddha, Lieu Hanh became
deities.
11.
and the worlds beyond the center
Although overland trade continued to prosper, particularly
mainland and Yunnan, the sixteenth century Indian ports in
saw
between the uplands of the
a continuing growth of seaborne
merchants and their cargoes of textiles were st山central to the
economy
traffic.
of
many
around the Bay of Bengal, and the arrival of the Europeans was an important factor
extending existing networks, but in regional terms the Chinese
behind this increased trade. Despite the imperial the southeastern
from Dai Viet to A严1tthaya
the
were the driving force
ban on overseas commerce, ships from
provinces of Guangxi, Fujian, and
“Southern Ocean,”following either
“认T estern
Guangdong continued
to sail to the
Seas Route,”which hugged the coast
and the Malay Peninsula, or the
“Eastern Seas Route,”which
went from Japan through the Philippines to the eastern Indonesian islands. long familiarity the
Given
this
men to persuade some Cebu people that he and his companions were Chinese traders seems almost laughable. The Filipino response was unequivocal; they knew what Chinese looked like, and such a blatant untruth could only mean these newcomers were thieves.19 attempt by one of Legazpi’s
We will return to consider the implications of expanding Chinese trade in the following chapter,
but this has
its
from 1567, when the Numerous small Chinese settlements,
roots in the sixteenth centu町,and especially
imperial prohibition against private typically
Viedlinger, Spreading the Dhamma:讥1riting, Orality
worship and in
in cult
on Lady Lieu Hanh, understood to be the Vietnamese-born
trade was
lifted.
based on linguistic and territorial affiliation, developed along the seaboard from
southern 17
social disruption, failed harvests, famine,
encoun-
to eliminate the worship
and banning
the epidemics, disease
vengeance. In Myanmar, Bayinnaung
customs regarded
Buddhist teachings. In
campaign
confirmed popular views that angry and insulted
regions, the
由e
rulers. In addition to multiple
Buddhist and Daoist teachings. The rejuvenation of spirit veneration
have supernatural powers.
about the boundaries of belief, for rulers or their agents did occasionally use
force to destroy local practices thought to be inimical to
efforts to
Thai.
marked by
many Vietnamese found comfort
pestilence,
focused
conform
its
Mahayana Buddhism
favorable towards
had been under the preceding Le
popular veneration. In a period
and chronicles in the distinctive northern script recorded a collective past. Certain religious
essential in
dynasty
on the Confucian model and
Buddhas and bodhisattvas, the legenda巧Immortals of Daoism also provided a focus for
Kengtung, Chiang Mai, Luang Prabang, and other Tai-speaking
guardian
more
Mac
that were
Thailand, southern Yunnan, and northwestern Laos. Marriages connected
ter questions
but court attitudes were
scholar-officials,
Western and
in the
Mainland with the situation in Dai Viet. The founder of the
Central
knowledge by providing interpretations of scriptural meaning
strengthened the links between the
area.
compare the expansion of Theravada Buddhism
and Daoism than they
shared heritage and a
Mekong
useful to
It is
transmit-
adjusted to local environments and interspersed with lessons
A
influential lineage with
a critical role in
to teach pupils
ting Buddhist
to take the
ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-1600才1
ASIA, 1400-1830
Vietnam
to the
Gulf of Siam and Melaka
Straits,
while Chinese quarters,
in
19
Juan
Gil,
2011), 20.
Los Chinos en Manila: Siglos
XVI-XVII
(Lisbon: Centro Scienti且coy Cultural de
Macau,
147
148便、A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
ACCELERATION
ASIA, 1400-1830
OF山N叩511-1600'咐
number of intermediaries, these goods were delivered to ports and exchange points located
“downstream”or along the coasts.
With the expansion of global networks, local knowledge of specific ecosystems and the location of valuable
the scarlet trees,
resinous substance secreted
notably the banyan.
pound
(2.2
Around 90,000
shipped to destinations in
..二?-伊、f穹
other furniture.
斗二,,
专制 回确扬扬?斤’,
珍授1句号何名;1 4汗m窃窃移现:注明:'11'.":织7兰、/
・11
Figure 4.3. Chinese in seventeenth-century Banten. This picture comes from a collection of records of the first Dutch voyages to A丘ica, India and the East Indies. Although the engravings were not
made from
life,出ey did draw on descriptions and sketches provided by early Dutch observers. The clothing of these Chinese men is depicted according to European conventions, but the engraver also included certain objects such as山fan and the umbrella, seen as distinctly Chinese. Connections
with trade are indicated by the sea and boat in the background, and by the man who carries scales used for weighing local produce. Izaak Commelin, Begin ende Voortgangh van de Vereen也hde Nederlantsche Geoctroyeerde Oost-Indische Compagnie (Amsterdam: Jan Jansz, p. 76 1646), vol.
the sixteenth
of Melaka, the
Straits
gained
them
o丘en cemented links between Chinese leaders and Asia’s social fabric is
elite families.
suggested in a
The
poem from
west Java, in which a Sundanese hero takes passage on a ship operated by men from China as well as Sulawesi, Sumatra, Bali, and the Malay Peninsula.
The revival of the China trade and the new markets opening up in Europe could not fa且 and sea-dwelling groups, the primary collectors of local products that
to affect the forest
helped affirm the place of Southeast Asia in the world market. In small and relatively egalitarian communities, the nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples who frequented the interior forests delivered products like honey, wax, aromatic woods, rattans, resins, rare animals and birds, and even limited quantities of tin, in exchange for a
salt,
iron, cloth,
and
few prestigious foreign goods. Through networks of exchange出at o丘en involved
a
to a
growing world demand. By the end of fine lacquer,“and出e
woods
we
in
England and
for honie.”20
among the sea people. Though
major passageway for vessels participating in the lucrative east-west
a valued position in the fleets of Straits polities.
The
sea-dwellers were
economically indispensable because they collected products such as edible seaweeds,
shark
fins,
and
tortoiseshell.
The bulk of these were destined
becoming aware of the value of maritime harvests such as pearls,
tropical
made from
waters
for China, but
Europeans (well acquainted with products such as spices) were also
in a cradle
ties
added
known were the Orang Laut of the Western Archipelago. Their intimate knowledge of the
rich cargoes of lacquerware, porcelain, iron goods, cannon, beads,
marriage
a single
communities were found in several areas of island Southeast Asia, the most well-
such
were attracting elite clientele.
absorption of Chinese into Southeast
were needed to produce
of expanding connections can be found
sometimes very large, could be found in every po此These overseas communities and the expanding junk traffic anchored vast Chinese networks that transported and distributed Because of these connections and the resources at their disposal, leaders of overseas Chinese communities were courted by local rulers, and
insects
countrie do as diligently search for this lacca as
seeke in the
A similar story
sixteenth-century
this period.
more
centu叩Pegu had gained a reputation as a source of
other countries
corals, pearls,
on shipwrecks from
Stick-lac refers to
Chinese and Japanese lacquerware was taken back to Europe, and
inhabitants of that
also
and other goods found
prime source.
which was processed into dry flakes (shellac) and eventually China and Japan. Here it was dissolved and used as a veneer
European appreciation for由is artistry
trade,
I,
or
a
scale insect that encrusts the h矿igs of host
Asian tree resins) to protect and enhance wooden cabinets, screens and
(cheaper than East
精f气::.;,?’
by a
kg) of lac resin,
/-、7如一词, 一飞
--4
of the
world trading systems was the expanding market
which mainland Southeast Asia was
for “stick-lac,”for
One example
products acquired even greater impo口ance.
connections that linked collectors to
At his birth
in 1553 the future
and some
Henri IV of France was placed
a single carapace of a hawksbill turtle, a species
and around coral
reefs like those of the
exotic items
West
Indies
found only in
and Southeast
Asia.
Although Southeast Asian rulers might require a portion of valued products, or impose a
monopoly over items such as bezoar stone or elephant tusks, forest and sea dwellers were beyond the reach of coastal and lowland centers because of their mob且ity and
largely
scattered settlements in fairly instance, refer to
inaccessible areas. Missionary
sources仕om Vietnam,
for
"savage people" in the “mountains bordering
who were subservient to their own“kings of ledged the sovereignty
fire
on the kingdom of Laos" and water" and “in no way”acknow-
of Viet rulers尸The willingness of such groups to enter a reciprocal
exchange relationship with outsiders
was always conditional on
correct treatment
and
Joh山 ::
Olga
Dro? and K. W. Taylor, eds., Views of Seve仰enth-Cer阳y Vi?tnam: Christoforo Borri on Cochinchma and Samuel Baron on Tonkin (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program, 2006), 34.
150
1400-1830 A HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, respect for their unique knowledge
more
infinitely
difficult since
and
skills. If this
respect were lacking, exchanges were
was virtually impossible to enforce control. In
it
who
Philippines the various highland groups in northern
ACCELERATION OF CHAN叩511一1600
the
inhabited the Cordillera mountain ranges
Luzon (whom the Spanish termed
“Y golotes,"
"Tinggues," and “Mandayas”
from indigenous words meaning roughly“mountain people,,) traditionally entered into peace pacts with lowland communities in order to facilitate movement of people and of trade in gold
from the highland mines and
lowland items such
as beads, blankets, earthenware,
typically expressed in kinship terms,
townspeople and
forest products,
call
them
which were exchanged
and animals. These
relationships were
whereby upland groups“become However,
siblings."22
it
was impossible
replicate these fam过y句pe connections because of their contempt for
for
relatives of the
for the Spanish
to
“in卢eles”(pagans)
belief
and behavior continued
outside teachings to their
to surface even as Southeast Asians themselves adapted
own environment. In the island world the arrival of Christianity
coincided with the expansion of Islam and led to inter-religious tensions that had not previously existed. Exacerbating these tensions was a fierce economic rivalry for access to the region’s valuable commodities. Because Christian and
Muslim
religious
and economic
motivations were so entwined, there were added incentives for ambitious rulers to tap religious rivalry for their
own economic
benefit. In
both mainland and island Southeast
Asia, the sixteenth century witnessed increased efforts
by major centers
to strengthen
connections to more remote communities in order to gain control over more people and thus to
more
period, to
resources. These general features inform the specific historical events in this
which we now
turn.
and the violence associated with colonial penetration. If
we
consider Southeast Asia
more
generally,
it is
evident that increased exchanges
with political and economic centers could lead to distinct advantages and were normally
welcomed by outlying an obvious
lure,
areas.
but connections to a prestigious court, access to places of
spiritual
potency, and the strengthening of personal networks also facilitated trading relationships
with the center, especially
when
from
a powerful center
increased deliveries.
mountain paths (often mere animal
forest or
well-traveled sea routes facilitated travel. accessible
On
tracks) or
the other hand, settlements that were more
were also more vulnerable to demands for labor
or
New commodities like black pepper could yield high profits, but since
vines required careful tending
and took seven years to mature they were primarily
suited
The accessib山ty that allowed these communities to supply an expanding market and benefit from the opportunities now offered exposed them to greater control by major centers. Warfare between large polities meant communities previously to sedentary populations.
existing at the
periphe可of
state interests
came under increasing pressure,
especially on
where advancing and retreating armies seized food supplies and impressed and porters. Behind the accolades celebrating royal achievements thus lies a
the mainland, soldiers
电3叫opme川叫叫ea叫a
Trading profits and the acquisition of desirable goods were
The Western Archipelago The Portuguese capture of the siege
Western Archipelago.
appeared well placed to control achieved by requiring
all
target of Portuguese
for Southeast Asia, particularly in
those areas that were
the
and Spanish ambitions. Questions about the boundaries of religious
new
Cited in
Mark Dizon,“Social and
Caraba川OU叫
Spiritual
Kin hip
・
E忖Ei ?hteenth『ce
t叩M
vessels visiting the ports of the Estado
da India to obtain passes
many
their goal of seaborne
Much
hegemony, the
of the city was destroyed, including
of the refugee Malays either accompanied
their sultan in
or fled to various ports throughout the archipelago, including the in the Straits, the north Sumatran kingdom of Aceh. Since the goal of site
spreading Christianity had helped justi命the attack on Melaka,出e Portuguese initially evicted all Muslim traders and rebuilt the city to accommodate numerous convents, churches, chapels, hermitages, and other religious establishments. Over the next hundred years the Christian population grew to 7,400 people, comprising about three hundred
Portuguese casados with their Asian wives and families, as well as the“black Portu事1ese.,, Although visiting priests railed against the vices and impiety of Melaka's Catholic popu-
symbol of an aggressive new Christian presence. Immediately a丘er the conquest of Melaka, a Portuguese expedition was sent to establish a post in the spice islands of eastern Indonesia, the home of the precious cloves, nutmeg, and mace. lation, the city
22
dominat-
maritime trade, which由ey believed could be
conquest of Melaka had major ramifications.
emerging power
In sum, then, the expanding global connections that characterize the sixteenth century
Asia’s
Although the Portu思1ese never accomplished
to
had far-reaching implications
a significant step towards Portugal’s goal of
(cartazes).
search of a
when Le Thanh Tong's expansionist policies led numerous Tai leaders in the frontier areas to seek the protection of the Lan Sang ruler.
was
network - Goa, Melaka, Hormuz, and Aden. By 1515 all these ports except Aden were in Portuguese hands. With the creation of the Estado da India, the Po口u凯1ese
as
relationships, as in the fifteenth century,
It
global trade
from the Shan
mandala
in 1511 following a month’s
ing the spice trade, which they planned to achieve by seizing the principal nodes of the
the great mosque, and
a reconfiguration of
Malay port of Melaka
and ferocious hand-to-hand fighting redirected political and economic developments
in the
darker past that occasionally finds mention in written records, such as the chronicles hills, which record the harrowing experiences of those who fled Bayinnaung's forces pressed relentlessly forward. Such developments could then lead
great
became
a
'151
ASIA, 1400-1830 A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
ACCE山ATION OF C
the Portuguese had anticipated, it remained Although Melaka never yielded the profits point along the maritime route to China. key and a a wealthy and cosmopolitan city and Chinese graves from this period Melaka authorities welcomed Chinese migration, stone masons, s??iths, and in carpenters, as la咿resident community wo灿1g suggest a
the words of one observer
Chinese
“all
other professions one requires to run a
usually co-habited with local
men who
women formed
city."L.-'
Children
of
the basis of the mixed
encouraging intermarriage baba or peranakan community. The deliberate policy of wide-ranging kinship links that between Portuguese men and local women created allowed white traders and their Eurasian offspring to be integrated into the
web
last ruler,
Sultan
Mahmud
(r.
fall
of Melaka represented the
end of
Ming Emperor
ordered the Portuguese to return Melaka to
its
island realm
no
and eventually
its
in the
upper reaches of the Johor River
southern end of the Malay
settled
Peninsula.
Lacking the revenues from a bustling entrepot, and subject to ongoing attacks by rivals,
J ohor’s
to
military action was
The refugee dynasty roamed throughout
Portuguese and local
Malay world
position as the leader of the
textiles.
In 1524, however, Pasai
came under the control of
neighbor Aceh, which had also benefited from the
had grown several of
China
to incorporate
all
which had strong
Sea.
The
fall
of Melaka.
By
links to
preserve of the wealthy. Because of the high
demand on
successive rulers sought to supplement Aceh’s production
its
northern
this time Aceh
use and was no longer
a
the international market,
by seizing control
The similarity of the goods brought to Srivijaya
and then Melaka had
of other
On
sides of the Straits of Melaka, Sultan
Alauddin Riayat Syah al-Kahar
(r. 1539-71) was dubbed "Emperor of all the Malays" by Portuguese chronicler. His reputation as a patron of Islam was strengthened by his correspondence with the ruler of Ottoman Turkey, Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent
a
Sulayman
2010), 121.
difficult.
In the past
successfully asserted overlord status, but despite in international trade passing
Acehnese
through the
Straits
Patani,
where Islam was only beginning
down
to put
roots,
The had been a
regained
its
China, and was a reliable market for
it
imported from southeast Sumatra. By the 1580s there was
a resident foreign
commu-
around three thousand people, most of whom were from South China. A nineteenth-century Thai chronicle even records that the three great cannon embody- nity of
ing the country’s protective forces were cast by a Chinese
woman and
man who
married a Malay
converted to Islam. Such liaisons provide perhaps the most important
explanation for the regional penetration of private Chinese trade. Throughout South-
whereby Chinese men commonly took
dominated domestic markets and were known traders acquired a sexual partner
while the
local wives,。丘en
basis, established relationships that served both parties well. Since
woman and
who
for their
on
commercial acumen, Chinese
could also act as an able and trusted assistant,
her family acquired access to capital and economic resources
(see Figure 4.4).
Cited in Ismail Haklu Goksoy,“Ottoman-Aceh Relations as in R.
Michael Feener, Patrick Daly, and Anthony Reid,
KITLV
a
women
black
and Diplomacy in
it
was well placed on the maritime route to good quality pepper grown domestically and also
regional importance because
received Alaud-
aromatic woods,
Cited in Peter Borschberg, The Singapore and Melaka Straits: Violence, Security the 17th Century (Singapore: NUS Press,
made the
principal transshipment terminus in earlier times. During the sixteenth centuηr
24 23
attacks against
the east coast of the Malay Peninsula there was far less contestation.
kingdom of
east Asia the practice
1520-66). Turkish sources mention the delight with which
meant that Acehnese
the markets along this maritime corridor
dominance, the unprecedented increase
temporary
(r.
hostilities
simultaneous existence of more than one entrepot extremely
Malay Peninsula.
din's gifts of exotic animals, parrots of brilliant colors, spices,
more than
Despite numerous attempts, Aceh was never able to breach Portuguese Melaka’s
formidable defenses. At the time, religious
pepper-producing areas in north and west Sumatra, and along the west coast of the
Having extended Acehnese control over both
far
prosperity.
pepper was a further stimulant to Acehnese
common
though the Portuguese actually feared the poisoned arrows of the Acehnese their unpredictable firearms.
was
markets around the Indian Ocean and the South
expansion. In China, for instance, pepper was in
Alauddin was thus able to
allowed lesser centers such as Portuguese Melaka and Johor to continue in relative
the port polities along the northeastern coast of Sumatra,
cultivation of black
infidel citadel at Melaka.24
augment his own considerable forces with Turkish weapons, soldiers, and military experts,
the
subject to serious challenge. Pasai, in northeastern Sumatra, had accepted Islam towards the end of the thirteenth century and was now favored by the stream of Muslim traders who had abandoned Melaka, including the Gujarati with their cargoes
of Indian
be deployed against the
Aceh
that can destroy
proved impossible to mount a unified Muslim assault on Melaka because of ongoing enmities between Aceh and Johor in their quest to become the sole power in the Straits.
taken.
at the
castles" to
form of “bashlikcha" (torpedoes) and cannon
a chapter. The
issued a stern reprimand and
rightful owners,
return, Alauddin asked for teachers to strengthen Islam in
for military aid in the
Melaka, as well as those launched by Johor and the Javanese, were interpreted as a struggle between Islam and Christianity. However, even with Javanese assistance it
1488-1511, 1513-28), clearly expected the Chinese
intervene on his behalf, but although the
and
of Asian
co口1口1erce.
For the Malays, however, the
and eunuchs. In
slaves,
N叩511一
Press, 2011), 65-96.
Documented
eds.,占1.apping the
in the Turkish Sources,'’ Acehnese Past (Leiden・
154
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
ACCELERATION OF
ASIA, 1400-1830
f沁1Y,!Y, <ff其冯i?-kt;但 Pg c又C/l.uzge
and human ingenui可. Despite the
sophisticated engineering,
Netherlands and the lush Balinese landscape, the
commander
CHANG川山600 '155
difference between the
of the
first
Dutch ships
1597 was so thrilled by the prospects of future interaction that he
arrive in
named
to
the
“Young Holland (Jonck Hollandt).”25
island
Political
and
changes were more evident on Java, where the Muslim-
religious
on the
controlled ports
pasisir
1513 the lord of Japara
north coast were already signaling their ambitions. In
launched an armada of well-armed large ships carrying ten
men in an unsuccessful attempt to assist the refugee Malay Sultan and recapture
thousand
Portuguese Melaka. His brother-in-law Trenggana, ruler of 1521-46), led an alliance that
subdued the other
including the old capital of Majapahit, his attention
now
From this power base he was
pasisir
under
1505-18 and
towns and by 1527
his control.
ally
(c.
east Java,
Trenggana then turned
through marriage to the
of
sister
able to assert authority over the nearby port
patronized by traders as an alternative to Melaka. Trenggana himself
have used the Islamic
said to
also
toward west Java, gaining a significant
Cirebon’s ruler.
of Banten,
was
Demak
succeeded in conquering
all
“Sultan"
title
Java he
and
his successor allegedly said that if
would be regarded
is
he
as“a second Turk,”an obvious
Ottoman Sultan Sulayman.26 It was not easy, however, for Demak to maintain its position, and its dominance was short-lived. By mid-century both Cirebon and Banten were operating as autonomous polities, and a丘er Trenggana's reference to his cop.temporary, the
.
...;)I,,..兰兰仲、飞
二,,1
death the thriving port
,/’
’吨"'"
towns along the north Javanese coast were
independence. In the second half of the sixteenth century Figure 4.4. Women and the market in Melaka. This engraving of barter trade in Melaka was obviously based on a sketch made from life. Many visitors were struck by the prominence of women in the market
leading Javanese center.
and commented on their ab让ity to calculate trading equivalences, either in goods or currencies Here we see a group of women transacting a sale wi出foreign traders. Johan Nieuhof, Voyages and Travels, into Brasil, and the East-Indies (London: A. and J. Churchill, 1704), 219.
description of Melaka
clear that the arrival
It is
place,
to the
the
Majapahit in east Java and
The previous chapter described the decline of Hindu-Buddhist the rise of the Muslim kingdom of Demak on the northeastern coast. A丘er the
final defeat
of Majapahit, thought to have occurred about 1527, and of Pajajaran around 1579, the
Buddhist kingdom. associated
飞厅ith
in the
left his
and the Arab lands,
as well as
impressions of Java a丘er a visit
had been introduced by traders from
by Muslim Chinese. The movement of Islam
remote eastern
Many Javanese also
salient survived as Java's
fled to Bali,
only Hindu-
which preserved numerous
traditions
medium of communication. Muslim traders themselves sometimes where they taught local boys to recite the
schools,
well as the
0位en
fundamentals of the Islamic
and by 1600
authors were also In both Java
legal texts句pically begin飞矿ith a eulogy to the
Majapahit
from Majapahit. Although
ruler,
and
aristocratic genealogies
Bali’s literary, artistic,
technical traditions are suffused with the rich
performative, and
rearticulated to
naked
faith.
Qt汀’an
Muslim
set
up temporary
and imparted some
rulers
might
also
literacy as
sponsor teachers,
from India or the Islamic heartlands. These teachers brought with them
classical texts,
pre
trace their descent
such a valuable source, also
Tome Pires, whose
through the archipelago thus followed the trade routes, using the lingua franca of Malay as
The Central Archipelago
Blambangan
of Islam had brought significant changes.
north coast in 1513. According to Pires, Islam
India, Persia,
polity of
is
also able to assert their
Demak was thus displaced as the
・
・
・
Islam’s
a few had been translated into Javanese and Malay, while local
producing their
own
and Sumatra these
Islamic tracts.
demonstrate that Muslim teachings were being engage the audiences they attracted. Describing himself as“poor and texts
Neither Persian nor Arab/Yet in constant union with the Eternal
One,'’由e
Hindu-Buddhist heritage derived from
Majapahit, the unique culture that emerged was distinguished by an extraordinary
empathy with for example,
the environment.
The complex
irrigation systems
were only developed through a combination of
Ci
and terraced
rice fields,
based
decisions,
ritually
::u
Cited in H.J. de Graaf, over de Staatkundige
and Th. G. Th. Pigeaud, De Eersteλ1oslimse Vorstendommen op Java. Studien Geschiedenis van de lSde en 16de Eeuw ('τhe Hague: Nijho旺,1974), 76.
156
A HISTORY OF EARLY
_ ・\
Hamzah
Acehnese poet metaphors
MODERN SOUTHEAST Fansuri
(d.
One
of his
Malay language and invoked familiar of Sufi theology in ways that ordinary people co毗
poems compares the
boat, while another uses the
ACCELER川…F CH山川11-1600
1590) used the
to explain the complexities
understand.27
ASIA, 1400一1830
adept’s spiritual
journey
to a voyage
by
woman applying colors and designs to a cloth in which God shapes the lives of believers. Hamzah
image of a
to
facilitate
understanding of the ways
obviously believed由at one did not need to travel to distant lands to gain
knowledge.“How strange Sea, looks for
water on
it is,'’he
Mount
wrote,“that the whale, Sinai,
and hence
having
its
religious
habitat in the
China
efforts are useless."28
Javanese
manuscripts dating from this transitional period are also intended for teaching,
substitut-
its
ing Javanese words for unfamiliar Arabic terms, criticizing those interpretations of Islamic doctrines, “A free
who
and prescribing correct behavior
taught“false"
for good Muslims.
woman who does not stay in her house,”says one,“is like a slave.”29 These sources
reflect a fluid
environment when Javanese were becoming Muslims and
were becoming
“Javanized,'’although
they reveal
little
foreign Muslims
about the practice of Islam
among
the ordinary people.
Despite the economic and religious influence of the pasisir ports, over the course of the sixteenth century the nucleus of
power sh的ed to由e two central Javanese kingdoms of Pajang (near present-day Surakarta) and Mataram (near present-day Y ogyakarta). Bo出 were located
in the vicinity of earlier polities that
had produced the
magnificent
temple
complexes of the Borobodur and the Prambanan. In keeping with Javanese traditions】 always concerned with continuity and legitimacy, Pajang was regarded as an heir to both
Demak and Majapahit, and its
first ruler, Jaka Tingkir, reputedly married the daughter of Demak’s Sultan Trenggana and was installed in 1581 by one of the great walis, Sunan Giri (see Figure 4.5).
Little is
ruler,
known
of Pajang’s history, but around 1587
Senapati Ingalaga
(r. c.
it
Senapati had
and she taught him what was necessary to become king. A丘er three days he returned where he was greeted by one of Java's legendary Nine ali, who assured him由at Mataram' s ascendancy was predestined. The chronicles then relate how Senapati seize d P仇g'? regal盯灿hu川stran由陀dl鸣gitima love,
W
tellmg mstance of the widespread Southeast Asian belief that a kingdom's
巳叫t二d
in
叫L
G.
W.
Publications, 1986), 141. J.
sacral
Peter阳川…毗eMal,
28νmversity of Hawai‘i Press, 2001), 108. G. W. J. Drewes K. B地el, The Poems of Hamzah Fansuri. Bibliotheca Indonesica Faris 29"
and becomes
ruler of Paja吨,as predicted
by出e wali Sunan
Kal与aga.
Courtesy
was conquered by the Mataram
adopted Islam around 1576 but also established a special relationship with Ratu Kidul, the powerful spirit princess whose kingdom lay beneath the Southern Ocean. According to chronicle traditions, Ratu Kidul proclaimed that Sena pa ti was destined by God to rule, and promised that she would always give him her support. In her underwater palace they made
27
Trenggana’s daughter
of Leiden University Library Or. 6379.
1584-1601). According to later chronicles,
to land,
Fi伊re 4.5. Sultan Trenggana and Jaka Tingkir. This nineteenth-century Javanese illustration depicts a well-known st。可found in a number of different texts. The legendary hero, JakaTingkir, demonstrates his extraordinary prowess by subjugating a wild buffalo in the presence of Sultan Trenggana of Demak, who is sitting on the grandstand with his attendants. Jaka Tingkir later marnes
J.
Br山,1954),
women
- were infused with supernatural
13.
powers由at could then be transmitted
Though Senopati remains
to
an
shadowy
figure,
European sources reinforce Javanese perceptions that this was a formative period.
When
individual
the
Dutch
and confer the right first
to rule.
a
reached Java in 1596, Mataram’s authority extended from the agricultural
interior to include
many coastal towns and had laid the basis
for further expansion in the
seventeenth century. In western Java, the
Sunda region remained outside Mataram's
Sundanese maintained their
control,
and the
own language and literature, despite cultural similarities with
By the beginning of the sixteenth centu可由e Sunda region was dominated by Pajajaran, located in the interior near present-day Bogor. As yet no archaeological excavations have been undertaken on this site, but it seems that their
neighbors in central and east Java.
Pajajaran (Dordrecht:
'J
Drewes, Een Javaanse primbon uit de zestiende eeuw (Leiden: E.
possessions一texts, drums, weapons, daggers, elephants, albinos, and even certain
Banten.
drew trading revenues from the ports of Sunda Kelapa (modern
Though
Jakarta)
and
the Portuguese concluded a treaty with the Pajajaran ruler in 1522,
yielded few benefits because of the rise of Banten,
which was prospering
as
it
an outlet for
'
157
158想飞
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 black pepper. Global
demand
from the pepper trade enabled Banten Located between two
and
at various
all
worlds - Malay Sumatra and central and eastern Java
times
it
by both neighbors. As noted
suffered incursions
Sunda Kelapa and Banten
Gunung
Java’s
dominant
Maulana Makhdum,
Islam.
known
another of the Nine Wali attributed with the Islamization of title
Its
Sunan
as
Java.
The
of 飞1aulana,”used
only for a very learned or saintly religious teacher. The jewel of the royal capital was
mosque ( today one of
which was first
Dutch
faith.
visitors arrived in
its
the oldest examples of Islamic architecture in Indonesia),
built in the mid-sixteenth century
adherence to the Muslim
The Northern Archipelago The thriving entrepot of Brunei on Borneo’s northwest coast was another beneficiary of Melaka's
and proclaimed the kingdom’s proud
Links to the holy land remained strong, and when the
1596 they were struck by the presence of Islamic teachers
the
Hasanuddin
fall (r.
as a regional entre-
when
the second
ruler,
1552-70), gained access to the pepper-producing areas of southern
Sumatra by expanding
and
became renowned
of Malay Melaka. This reputation was confirmed
his control across the
irrigation canals increased rice
Sunda
The construction
Strait.
of dams
production and led to a further growth in population,
while the royal capital, relocated to the
mouth of the Ban ten River, was laid out according
to traditional Javanese designs. Rich in people
and economic resources, Banten conquered
former overlord Pajajaran, thereby destroying the last of Java's major Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms, leaving only the more distant polity of Blambangan in the east. The conquest of its
Pajajaran probably occurred in 1579, perhaps at the time
Agung
(“great mountain”),
the second highest in Java, was
presented to the rulers
this was a court well
that the trade in
Banten“doth
farre exceede
Achin (Ache) or any towne or
citie
thereabouts. "31
The men who eventually completed
and even“a pair of silver shoes"
by the
town’s
and
over the river, which
salt
on
structed
p过es
elite
The
this first gi丘s
they
for the
queen - indicate that
remarkable adaptation to an aquatic
houses, the entire settlement was con-
water tides
made
mosque, and the presence of numerous
Changes
of the faith.
distinguished Brunei [Qur’an] ...
and
in dress
and
into
an extension of the
Muslim scholars symbolized the
lifestyle,
sea.
Muslims from the
ruler’s
promotion
including the rejection of pork, clearly
interior tribal peoples
many pigs. 2 now extended throughout much
who
“keep not the alcoran
raise
influence
of Borneo, the Sulu archipelago,
and along coastal areas of the Philippines as far north as the island of Luzon. In these areas traders port,
from Brunei intermarried with local women while maintaining links to their
and these kinship connections help explain
Brunei. Brunei’s place in a a local
why
home
the "Luφes" sailed to Melaka via
world linked by maritime communications
is
nicely captured in
Renowned as a sea rover, this ruler sets out on of pepper and announces that he intends to name each seed after
legend associated with an early ruler.
his travels
with a cargo
one of the myriad islands he expects to encounter. In the course of his travels he visits Melaka, marries a Javanese princess, conquers Sulu, Borneo, designates his burial place in
and commercial connections,
to colonize the
that
it is
not surprising that a Muslim community with
Brunei was well-established in Manila
The capture of Manila
is
and even Manila, and
Brunei with a tombstone imported from Aceh. Given these
when it was seized by the Spaniards in
historically significant because
it
1571.
affirmed the Spanish decision
Philippine islands and, like the Portuguese attack
on Melaka, demonstrated Europeans were willing to use violence to achieve their commercial or religious
objectives. It also
showed
that even
when Europeans were outnumbered
military
technology gave them a considerable advantage. In Europeans and local recruits le丘Cebu for Manila.
May
their superior
1570 a combined force of
Following skirmishes with around ten
30 J.
Noorduyn and A. Teeuw,
445. 31
by
Through the sixteenth century, Brunei’s patronage of Islam, the central place of the
renamed Slamat, which has so, the word was
Company
conversion to Islam
accustomed to the luxuries available through international trade. The
environment. Apart from the palace
been identified with an Arabic loanword meaning“prosperity户。If
(EIC) remarked
ruler’s
his nobles - a Turkish-style robe, a velvet chair, glassware,
and
Spanish were particularly struck
cultural
indeed apt, for in 1603 an employee of the English East India
enhanced by the
circumnavigation of the globe described Brunei’s wealth in glowing terms.
links to
Banten’s revered
traders
during a confrontation in the Philippines.
Gunung
when
Muslim
remnants of a Spanish expedition, whose leader Ferdinand Magellan had been killed
Brunei’s
In addition to these Islamic credentials, Banten
attraction to
sometime in the early sixteenth century. In 1521 the Brunei court hosted a brief visit
from Mecca. pot a丘er the
fall, its
paper, a gilded writing case,
polity.
better
subsequent three rulers of the sixteenth century also bore the great
its
around the time that he conquered few years Banten once again became independent from
traditionally attributed to
Jati,
earlier,
Muslim Demak, who
Banten identity was the close association with
central element in is
ruler of
in 1527,
Javanese control and soon developed into west
founding
_
distinctive culture that
Majapahit. Nevertheless, in just a
A
pro且ts
autonomy.
to exercise considerable
economic success attracted the attention of Trenggana, seized both
over Asia, and increased
melded Javanese, Malay, and Sundanese intermediate position meant Banten was also vulnerable to attack,
Banten developed a elements. But this
rival
from
attracted traders
ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-1600 r非159
ed.
and
trans.,
Three Old Sundanese Poems (Leiden:
William Foster, ed叮The Voyage of Sir Henry Middleton Society, 1943), 68
to the
KITLV Press,
2006),
Moluccas, 1604-1606 (London: Hakluyt
thousand
32
Muslim
warriors, the Spanish
Cited in John Carroll,“Berunai in the
burned the surrounding settlements, captured
Boxer Codex,”]MB孔4.S
55, 2 (1982), 3, 11
160毯A HISTORY
OF
and took
several ships set sail,
EAR…ODERN SOUTH山T山,14…830 several
hundred
prisoners.
The following year another
own good and benefit
with Legazpi assuring local leaders that this was“for their teach
expedition
them the holy law and
...
1571,
As
and to
soldiers, religious
orders and in
the Catholic faith so that they might be saved and not
the outset the decision to colonize was inseparable from Spanish commitment to
the Christianization project. Several Augustinians
were soon joined by the Franciscans (1577),
had accompanied Legazpi, but
Dominicans
Jesuits (1581), the
the Recollect branch of the Franciscan order (1606).
working
By 1594
there were 267 missionaries
in the Philippines, although their claims of 286,000
baptisms that year
superiors in Europe. Each Catholic order was assigned a specific region to
(i.e.
not belonging to an order and answerable directly to the bishop)
established. This
happened only
orders) continued to argue that the
religious
rarely because "reg吐ar" priests
“spiritual
parish
when the faith (members
conquest”of the Philippines was
of
still
incomplete. Nonetheless, by the end of the sixteenth century the religious orders could
claim considerable success in purveying Catholic teachings, aided
and
languages, the establishment of schools for both boys religious texts. Material
rewards and guaranteed status
many
to Christianity, but
of the inhabitants were
girls,
by the use
and
of
local
translations of
may have attracted the native elite
also eager to tap into a supernatural
on earth and heavenly
authority that appeared to promise health and well-being
“Indios.”Rather than
As we have noted,
this intertwined process of colonization
on Philippine
society. In
rewards
and conversion
exacted
221,700. Together with fatalities from
new
and
former
( vandala)
areas
sent
part of Luzon.
II (r.
1527-98, at this
weeks or even galleys.
many
regarded as a“righteous war" in retaliation for head-hunting
raids
The
enco-
mienda system (from encomendar,“to give
were captured or
major
in trust"), a
killed.
instrument in extending
men
away仕om
to be
went
tribute payers
for years without
any
ler
it
lingered
on
into the eighteenth century. Nonetheless,
expressed a general view
deros
their villages for
religious instruction at
1674 clerical protests at such abuses led to the o面cial abolition of the although
Pampanga and the
time cutting forest timber or serving as rowers in Spanish
at a
when he
preaching to
them of the
The
is
an Augustinian chronic-
asserted that“the collaboration of many
were o丘en the
significant because friars
more numerous than
the secular
and were therefore of
more compact
friars
By
encomen-
infidels
and the
gospels.”35
acknowledgement
Spanish authority. Far
all.
encomienda system,
had made possible the entrance of the religious in the regions of the
in
burning houses.34 During a 1592 campaign against the upland Sambals in central Luzon, against Christian lowlanders, three thousand natives
Some
months
forcing people to resettle in the
as they can,”seizing food supplies, and
burdensome payments and impose
did encomenderos accord any priority to preparing
baptism, o丘en requiring
their tribute-payers for
tribute.
reported, however, that Spanish soldiers often adopted extreme measures to subdue recalcitrant villages,“mercilessly killing as
many deaths. Nor
of
bore his name. Observers
thousand natives or
many encomenderos
Because of their absence, insufficient rice was planted in
lack of food led to
major factor was the nature
time also king of Portugal) had issued
however,
obligations,
were particularly severe. In 1580, for example, a large contingent of men was forcibly
to
diseases, a
several
from Pampanga, close to Manila, to work in the gold mines of Ilocos in the northern
from 383,000
in the Visayas
number
could
The hardships experienced by native communities near Spanish-dominated urban
assigned to rural areas,
for a bloodless pacification of the archipelago that
friars
right to tribute
heavy labor obligations.
populations into
Spanish policies that ignored royal decrees. Shocked by reports of Spanish brutality
Mexico and Peru, King Felipe
a
their
fulfilling
of
Luzon, for instance, an estimated population
1,044,150 in 1565 had fallen to 683,760 in 1600,
which even
Crown, the
exploited their right of collecting tribute to exact
This
commands
cases the
who
instruction to his tribute-payers,
after death.
costly toll
some
would
and labor services (polo) from the population of a particular area. In return, the
are
evangelize,
with the understanding that their congregations would be handed over to“secular"
was well
they
(1587), and
questionable because numbers were o丘en exaggerated in order to impress
priests
that the souls of benighted pagans
in Spanish America, this system granted civilian officials,
encomendero was required to introduce civic order and provide protection and religious
condemned.'’33
From
by claims
Spanish control, was also justified thereby be saved.
and despite strong resistance the Spanish took possession of Manila in June
critical
officials,
sole
symbol of
they were可pically
importance in moving scattered
settlements to facilitate conversion and the collection of
helped recruit Filipino chiefs or datu, whose assistance in enticing or
new administrative units could be rewarded by an appointment as cabeza de barangay (village head), and in later years by the more prestigious position of gobernadorcillo
(“little
i町,inadequate support for the missions clerics
o丘en ignored royal orders to refrain
of poverty, within
twenty years
governor”).
Given
and simple temptation, from commercial
a丘er their arrival
Augustinian
their position of author- it is
not surprising that
activities.
friars
Despite their
vow
were already involved
personal trade, profiting from the sale of rice, wax, and cloth which出ey had obtained from their parishioners for a fraction of their true value. As time went on religious orders and secular priests also participated in the galleon trade between Mexico and China, in
despite royal interdictions. 33
Cited in William Henry Scott, Cracks in the Parchment Curtain
(New Day, 34
1985),
and other Essays
5.
Cited in Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands, 34: 259-61
in Philippine History
35
Cited in R. Morales 106.
Maza, The Augustinians
in
Panay
(Iloilo City:
University of San Agustin, 1987),
162噜A HISTO阳OF队R…ODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…伽 Spanish attempts to extend their control into the Cordillera with its rich gold mines clearly demonstrate that military means alone would never have been sufficient to
maintain the colonial position. Several costly campaigns were launched to bring
mountain
these
were unsuccessful. Despite compuls。可 the Spanish forces were consistently defeated by a
areas under Manila’s authority, but
drafting of Christianized Filipinos,
combination of forbidding terrain and
fierce
intimate knowledge of the land to punishing
all
opposition from people
effect.
who
used
their
In 1601, for instance, a Spanish
force
was attacked by "three thousand pagans,”and many Spaniards were killed. Spears were o丘en tipped with poison, and sharpened bamboo stakes could also be poisoned and placed along
trails.
The unwary could
fall
into disguised pits
dug along pathways, or be
blockades at narrow passes, while defenders waiting above rolled sections of tree trunks. A丘er fi的years these military
halted by
down large boulders and
campaigns to pac的the mountain
peoples were essentially abandoned.
raider
and
on Manila, which had been almost captured
a force of three
in 1574-5
to
by a Chinese
thousand men. Though eventually driven off by a much smaller
Spanish force together with Filipino auxiliaries from nearby Pampanga, this attack made the strengthening of Manila’s defenses a high priority. fortified inner city, the
By 1600
the construction of
Intramuros, was well under way. Because the outbreak of fires
1583 and 1603 demonstrated the叽tlnerab过ity of palm leaf and wood, stone was preferred building material, and in architectural terms Manila soon developed
showcase of Spanish power.
who had been itions in 1567.
given a
Its
commercial connections quickly attracted Chinese
new freedom to move
a in
the
into a settlers,
overseas by the removal of imperial prohib-
However, the Spanish regarded the growing Chinese numbers with some
suspicion and their use of the term sangley (roughly, Chinese merchant) carried negative all non-Christian Chinese, regularly condemned as“infidels,”were move inside a walled compound known as the Parian, a term of indeterminate
connotations. In 1582
required to
1594 another section of Manila, Binondo, was
origin. In
The Parian
rapidly
became
Manila’s
economic
set aside for Christian Chinese.
center, with
Chinese craftsmen
provid-
ing skilled services as shipbuilders, carpenters, weavers, cobblers, bakers, apothecaries, jewelers,
and much more. Yet Spanish suspicions of Chinese
by incidents such
as the 1593
were hardly allayed
The proximity to China and the
someday
convinced Spanish authorities to
reside in the Philippines, although this
Brunei revived quickly a丘er the Spanish departure and regained
illness.
status as a thriving
hub
for regional
its
commerce.
Spanish aspirations in the southern Philippines were also challenged by the rise of three other
prominent Muslim sultanates in Mindanao and Sulu. The
the Sulu archipelago, received tions with Brunei; a
many
of
its
Muslim
first,
traditions through
centered on Jolo in its
trading connec-
second, Magindanao, located at the delta of the Pulangi river in
Mindanao (present-day Cotabato), was more closely associated with Ternate
Gowa
Maluku and with
the upper
(“in
Pulangi River
valley”)
(“in
the lower
late sixteenth
valley”)
population could be supported by the
larger
River; in
addition,
in
northern
polity
was the
century Buayan was
fertile agricultural
Buayan had access to valuable
up the
more impor-
land of the upper Pulangi
place’').
forest products like
for Islamic
among
treatises,
resins collected
by
These products were brought to Buayan and then taken downriver
influences that traveled upriver
trade network.
wax and
groups ( collectively termed Lumad, a Visayan word meaning“grown
salt,
imported goods. In this closely integrated relationship,
and
Muslim
settlement of Magindanao, partly because a
Magindanao, where they were exchanged for
riages
third
1596 a Spanish expedition was decisively defeated by Buayan warriors. In
the various interior
from the
The
polity of Buayan, about 30 miles (48 kilometers)
from Magindanao. In the
tant than the sa-ilud
to
in southwestern Sulawesi.
Economic and
religious
aristocratic families,
and thus
Magindanao acted tied
Buayan
and other
as the conduit
into a wider
Muslim
bonds were created and sustained by intermar-
by pa口icipation
and by mutual assistance
iron, cloth, porcelain,
in the circulation of religious teachers
pacts.
The growing dominance of downstream Magindanao can be attributed to the expan- sion of
maritime commerce that strengthened
particularly
its
links to other sea-oriented sultanates,
Ternate and Gowa. In 1593 the Spanish unsuccessfully attempted to counter
the religious
and commercial influence of the Muslim south by establishing
Zamboanga. Located
at a strategic
point overlooking the narrow
strait
a fort at
separating Minda-
fear that Chinese settlers could
Magindanao and provide notice of any raiding fleets heading northward into Spanish-held
restrict the
was only loosely enforced
number
allowed to
until the mid-eighteenth
accept baptism, mar巧locally, and thus attain the privileges attached to being
to
at least
areas.
Though the Jesuits were instrumental in urging the building and maintenance of the
fort, it
was under continual attack from local forces (with assistance from Ternate) and
was consequently abandoned just five years
As
in
later.
Mindanao, the downstream-upstream/coast-interior interaction helps explain
the expansion of Sulu,
nominally Christian. co时oining of economic
ravaged by
nao from the island of Basilan, this post was intended to impede the flow of trade to
century. Such discriminatory policies provided considerable incentive for Chinese
Spain’s
Brunei in 1578, the occupation was brief because the European troops were
to take
forcibly
shipboard murder of the Philippines governor by
recruited Chinese rowers. rise in rebellion
loyalties
enemy,
and viewed Brunei as the spearhead of a threatening Islamic advance that posed an obstacle to Spanish territorial and economic ambitions. Though a Spanish force was able
sa-raya
In the early years of their colonial endeavor the Spanish were also concerned
consolidate their hold
Portuguese, the Spanish arrived with perceptions of “Moors" (Moros) as the great
goals with the Christianization of the Philippines had
lasting implications in relations with the
Muslim
sultanates to the south. Like
the
where a maritime-based economy was reinforced by supplies of woods, resins, and other exotic forest products from Borneo’s northern coast.认Tith different areas
of jurisdiction and independent sources of support, the three
Muslim
164
A
MODERN SOUTHEAST
A HISTORY OF EARLY sultanates of Sulu,
ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-1600
Magindanao, and Buayan were able to co-exist
that sustained close
doms
ASIA, 1400-1830
economic and
in areas that are
as
autonomous
cultural relationships with neighboring
now included in
realms
Muslim
king-
Malaysia and Indonesia.
relationships,
ties, ritual
marriage
and economic connections with
islands
and commu-
nities to its north and west, while Tidore did the same with areas to its south and east. In each case, the networks that underlay these cultural and economic unities were main-
by shared origin myths and real or fictive family bonds that linked the center to the periphe町,and by rituals that could be interpreted according to the differing sensibilities of tained
The Eastern Archipelago The
sixteenth
centu巧was
participating
change in the Eastern
a time of considerable
Archipelago.
A major development was the rise of the Makassarese twin kingdom of Gowa-Tallo (later referred to simply as
combined Gowa’s
Gowa),
in
South Sulawesi. The merging of these two kingdoms
agricultural surplus with Tallo’s
growing wealth from maritime
trade,
thus creating a formidable union that dominated the eastern Indonesian region until into the seventeenth century. After the Portuguese capture of Melaka in 1511,
who had been engaged in commerce permanently in Gowa in return for promises refugees
fled to
well
many Malay
South Sulawesi and agreed
to settle
of royal protection and the provision
of a
mosque for worship. Wi由strong links to the Western Archipelago, these experienced Malay traders helped generate the revenues that enabled Gowa' s rulers to expand their authority beyond Sulawesi to the neighboring islands. Gowa' s rapid rise to preeminence also meant changes in the political landscape of South Sulawesi, as traditional federations of smaller and essentially equal polities were reshaped into a hierarchical order conceptu- alized in familiar kinship relations. In a
strongest
was termed the
“elder
union of three Bugis
brother" to the other w。“younger brothers."
were similarly expressed in kinship terms by referring as“brothers,”while contracts
states, for example, the Treaties
to contractual parties of equal status
between “elder”and “younger" brothers
clearly denoted an
written
history of this period
down
is
recorded in the chronicles of
in the late sixteenth century with the stated
Gowa and
Maluku
whose
right to govern
was attested by the white blood
outsiders will say
we
are just
we
If
accounts of
that
royal
will feel ourselves to be
common people."36
in the sixteenth century, but this area
was now dominated by
neighboring kingdoms of Ternate and Tidore. Located on two tiny islands about functioned as a complementary dualism that could
3
the
a mile
best be
characterized as“friendly hostili牛”In keeping with this dualism, Ternate established 36
western
Cited in William Cummings, '‘Rethinking the Imbrication of Orality and Literacy: Historical Discourse in Early Modern Makassar," Journal of Asian Studies 62, 2 (May 2003): 537.
and the aromatic
lot
their bodies with
of
money on
it
as
it,
an ointment, even when in good
each year."37 These exotic products were
and island communities around the Birdshead of
New Guinea. To af且rm these links Papuan leaders customarily appeared in Tidore
to take part in a
ceremony of mutual exchange and
respect.
From
the perspective of the
Tidore court, the Papuans crawling across the floor were demonstrating their respect and reverence in an appropriate fashion; for the Papuans, however, this ritual enabled their bodies to“sweep up" the spiritual potency of the Tidore ruler
enhanced power and
status. In
Ternate the idea that the ruler
father to his children is graphically
were provided with or
noblewomen
two weeks. These
women and
meaningful to
all
trading relations
Papuan
is
and return home with
linked to his people like a
demonstrated in customs by which the
as wet-nurses,
their
and thus drawn into the
children
husbands then became,
ruler’s
participants, Ternate
sultan’s
sons
each “mother" suckling the child for one
kinship
circle.
in effect, parents of royal
Through such
and Tidore were each able
interactions,
to preserve extensive
and exercise authority over separate domains that included hundreds of
and numerous
islands extending
from eastern Sulawesi
to the
coast.
Even
that
the conceptual unity of the “four pillars" discussed in Chapter
(1.6 kilometers) apa此,they
and rub
obtained through trade with coastal
so, this
Gowa rulers by emphasizing their matchless genealogy as descend-
(“Lords”)/Or
it
and they spend a
nineteen
attainments were not known,“there are two dangers;/ either
was st山current
health,
A second and prima可
flowed in their veins and the sacred objects in their possession.
In northern
where "they grind
close ties
ants of a supernatural couple,
such Karaengs
Tallo, probably
purpose of ensuring
ordinary subjects should not see themselves as equal to the rulers.
concern was to elevate
deliveries of bird of paradise feathers, the valuable ambergris,
massoi bark, used for medicine and as a cosmetic. Massoi bark had a large market in Java,
languages and cultures
acceptance of inequality.
The
from
communities. For example, an important source of revenue for Tidore came
authority sat very lightly because of the sheer di面culty of maintaining
with such a distant and inaccessible region.
A
Po口u思1ese traveler
who
spent
months in the Papuan islands in the early 1580s commented on the treacherous sandbanks, shoals, currents, and whirlpools that abound in the surrounding seas. The settlements由at he visited were headed by essentially independent “kinglets" with rela-
tively
small entourages of between two to five thousand
king was “elected." These coastal fleets
of well over a
Makassar,
Bali,
bark. Cloth, traders,
hundred frequently
and Java
men. In one case he noted that出e
and island-dwelling Papuans sailed to
built their
own
bronze gongs
and massoi
and伊ns were the prized exchange items for the Papuan know how to use guns but only kept them as prestige objects.
Raiding was a significant source of revenue because captives were ransomed, and
37
and
such distant places as Timor, Buton,
to trade slaves, spices, bird of paradise plumage, sago,
though they did not
boats,
it
was
J. Sollewijn Gelpke,‘'The Report of Miguel Roxa de Brito of his voyage in 1581一1582 to由e Raja Ampat, the MacCluer Gulf and Seram,'’BKI 150, 1 (1994), 133.
Cited in
〔咆165
166'
OD川SO UTHE川山,140叫30
A HISTO盯OF EARL not
uncommon for vulnerable communities to maintain funds
ACCELERATION OF山NGE, 1511-1600
so that payments could be
The
ruthless
methods adopted by the Portuguese
made if one of their number was captured. By the beginning of the sixteenth century the position of the rulers of both Ternate and
their “Christian" allies
Tidore had been enhanced by their acceptance of Islam, and court customs
resentment, Sultan Babullah
Muslim ever,
had arrived through trading connections.
influences that
employed a Malay guide
them
to bring
that island
to the Spice Islands, the ultimate objective of their
globe and extend
dominate the spice
around which
dominion and gl。可of Maluku."38 In pursuit of
trade, the Portu凯1ese
a small Christian
including a few local converts. ever,
were therefore able to establish a
their goal
expense of Christianity. as Sulawesi,
and the emphasis on
women
Her
earlier described as “the
reason for
and possession of extraordinary powers
to exercise considerable authority. For the next
from 1546
to 1547.
and unrealized hopes As explained
kingdom would soon follow
Muslim
less impressive.
Numerous
Ambon and
surrounding
and community
who vowed
nicely captured in a legend recalling a
ruler
Islam a丘er a
teacher)
won the
“race"
Drake
visited Ternate in
1579 he
access to the wealth
power was
very
A major
and weaponry derived from
further strengthened by the recruitment of
to withstand
an attack launched from
Portuguese in 1512, Europeans had played a sign凶cant role
first
fundamental alienation in relationships with
had bidden
that even after their brief visit
would
leave
him
he
felt “like
a child at the breast
to arrive in 1599 as potential allies in
could not have foreseen that these
who knew his
alone.”42 A丘er eighty years the vision
had irrevocably crumbled. However, the Ternate
Dutchmen
local societies. In
farewell to the survivors of Magellan’s expedition,
ruler
of a family-
who welcomed
opposing the hated Portuguese
new arrivals would be even more determined than their
predecessors to assert their political
and economic
control.
reali可
辙g尴
whose teacher
arrived in his land.
the
and
leaders assessed t h e
Indigenous understandings of what appeared to be a Christian-Muslim contest are
first
them
可pe relationship
spice
advantages and disadvantages of an alliance with the Portuguese or with local Muslim
T ernate He chose
direct control led to a
telling
Christian-
islands, the
such a wide area that the Portu凯1ese
When Francis
was thus well able
arrival of the
1521 the ruler of Tidore
suit.
reportedly
practices or declared a preference for Islam as rulers
rulers.
first
dear mother departing
But despite the evangelization of Francis Xavier
Isles."
broadening the Eastern Archipelago’s global connections but the attempt to impose
more
years in the
Maluku, economic aims were therefore inextricably linked to the
missionary accounts of mass conversions in
was
in
Portuguese voyages to Asia were motivated to a large extent by the
struggle for converts.
Babullah’s authority stretched over
T ernate’s preeminence was its
Since the
st山allowed
Crown’s desire to displace the Muslims as the masters of the spice trade. In the islands of
and
Manila.41
N aicili Boki Raja actively
spent nearly two
in the Eastern
its rival Tidore and increasing the prestige of Islam at the The extension of Ternate’s realm brought Islam westward as far
of fire.”In 1585 Ternate
the most
The conversion of such an important individual raised unrealistic
that the
earlier,
who
reopened the door to
most prosperous entrepot
Turkish gunners, well experienced in the use of "bombs, grenades and other instruments
manipulate the Ternate throne until she was converted to
Christianity by the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier, area,
decade
leave. This
position as the
international trade. Its fighting
status indicates that pre- Islamic concepts of leadership
oratorical skills
resisted Portu思1ese attempts to
one with
its
was impressed by the wealth of the court and by Babullah himself corpulent and well-set together, of a very princely and gracious countenance."40
fort in Ternate,
community developed, largely European or Eurasian but The relationship with the Portuguese deteriorated, how-
whom the Portuguese had
authority in the kingdom.”39
Malukan on trade, and
“of a tall stature,
出e Portuguese. This arrangement aroused immediate opposition from the Queen Mother,
Boki Raja,
numbers of
to strengthen
1570一83) of Ternate laid siege to the Portuguese fort
dubbed him “Lord of Seventy-two
to
when a young son succeeded to the throne only to be controlled by an uncle, aided by
Naicili
in order to increase the
Muslim enemies only se凹ed
Archipelago, overshadowing
They were initially welcomed by the Ternate ruler, who had "men of iron" would come to his land from a distant part of the
“the
(r.
and forced the occupants to
Ternate soon recovered
Portuguese
search for a sea route to Asia.
reportedly dreamt that
their
Islam as a focus of local resistance. In 1575, after years of conflict and escalating
reflected
Islam’s advance, how-
was challenged soon after由e conquest of Melaka in 1511, when the
and eliminate
by reaching Ternate before
to adopt the religion
Muslim ulama
(a religious
his rival, a Catholic priest.
喀善Developm创sin川mainland Sou The Western Mainland As we have seen in the previous chapter, the rise of the independent Mon polity of Pegu meant that the interior kingdom of Ava no longer had access to the sea and to the wealth from international trade. Weakened by the loss of revenue and by increasing raids丘om the
Shan
polities in the north,
Ava in 1527
finally fell victim to
its
former
vassals, the
Shan
38
Cited in Leonard Y. Andaya, The World of Maluku: Eastern Indonesia in the Early Modern Period (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1993), 60 39 Cited in Paramita R. Abdurachman,“Niachile Pokaraga: a Sad Story of a Moluccan Queen,”Modern
Asian Studies 22, 3 (1988): 571-92
40
41'
Richard Carnac Temple, The World Encompassed and Analogous: Contemporary Documents Concerning Sir Francis Drake’s Circumnavigation of the World (London: Argonaut Press, 1926), 66一72 42 Cited in Andaya, The World of Maluku, 134. Pigafetta, First Voyage around the World, 97.
6而
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-1600告年169 Lower Myanmar. Tabinshweti’s attempt to invade Rakhine in 1546 was abandoned, and a major expedition against A严1tthaya in 1548 was also a failure. His successor and brother- in-law,
who came to be known as the “Victor of the Ten Directions,” 1551. From this base, which became his new capital, Bayinnaung set
Bayinnaung,
conquered Pegu in
out to impose his authority over the entire Irrawaddy basin.
The success of these campaigns was made possible by the increased revenues from international trade, which enabled Tabinshweti and Bayinnaung to buy the services of European mercenaries and purchase出e European-style firearms so readily available in the coastal zone. Successive victories also
Myanmar augmented silting
meant
Lower Myanmar. Because of the
of the Pegu River, the port of Syriam (Thanlyin), located
present day
Upper
that the agricultural riches of
the wealth of foreign trade in
Yangon, became the primary exchange point
for
on the
river opposite
Bay of Bengal
trade.
With
access to revenue from both the coast and the interior, Bayinnaung was able to marshal forces that substantially
outnumbered any opposition. In 1555 he recaptured Ava from
Shan control, and during the next four years he extended Taungoo’s authority westwards
Manipur and over the Shan communities and other Tai polities in the Mohnyin, for instance, was able to muster only around three hundred horsemen and five hundred elephants against the vastly superior Burmese forces, over parts of
Figure 4.6. The Reclining Buddha (Pegu). The Shwethalyaung Paya (Golden Reclining) Buddha 1s located on the west side of Pe伊(Bago). Built of brick and mortar, it is 180 feet (55 meters) long and 52 feet (16 meters) high. The Buddha’s passing, which marked his ent可into nibbana, the ultimate goal of Buddhism, was a common motif in Buddhist art, and was o丘en represented by the reclining Buddha. The original image, substantially restored, is believed to date from the reign of Dhammazedi (1472-91). Following the destruction of Pegu in 1757 it was abandoned and overgrown, but was uncovered during railway construction in the 1880s. Photograph cou巾sy of Michael Aung
Th win.
northeastern highlands.
and Chiang Mai was taken in 1557. In these ongoing struggles
not merely in
it is
evident that Bayinnaung saw a major source of power
weapons and manpower, but
Many White Elephants" was not assumed
Many Burmans fled southward to Taungoo, a Burman area that had already
demonstrated
its
strength by seizing the Kyaukse rice-producing lands and thus substan-
weakening Ava's agricultural base.
as land reclamation
and
Now Burman migration and resettlement as well
irrigation projects contributed to the prosperity of
increasing the area under rice cultivation
Burman
dynasty,
usual忖known
ruler Tabinshweti
(r.
and
Taungoo by
facilitated the establishment of
a
new
Taungoo Dynasty (1539-99). Eager to of Lower Myanmar, the ethnically Burman
as the First
obtain greater access to the maritime trade
Taungoo
own accumulated
1531-50) captured
Pe凯1, the center of the
Mon-dominated
the sacred
animal
it
sent offerings to the tooth relic in
own
hair
and that of
tooth relic seized in Sri
Pegu was
a natural site for Tabinshweti’s
new capital and royal residence
traders to refer to the entire
Mon
Myanmar
that
its
name was adopted by
homeland. With the help of Portuguese
foreign
mercenaries,
Tabinshweti gained control of the important peninsular port of Martaban in 1540, and two years later took the town of Prome (Pyay), the strategic gateway between Upper and
when Melaka
a magically reconstituted
spirits
refusal to surrender
a“pretext" for his siege
it
Bayinnaung had also made from his
even attempted to purchase the sacred sizeable
sum
of money and a
required provisions, especially
rice.
On
Colombo subsequently
tooth出at had been hidden from the Portuguese.
was enshrined
in the
Bayinnaung, this was affirmation that his piety and great kings of
Indeed, Pegu so dominated Lower
He had
occasion Bayinnaung was unsuccessful, but the ruler of
him
among
“Lord of
in Sri Lanka, including brooms
Lanka by the Portuguese, offering a
promise to respond immediately this
Kandy
his chief queen.
Greeted with great solemnity,
relics,
from being
of Ayutthaya in 1564, these ambitions should be taken seriously.
gigantic
(see Figure 4.6).
and A归tthaya's
regarded as a cakkavatti, the ideal universal ruler. Far
offered
and tooth
lightly,
title
possessed was a clear denial of Bayinnaung’s aspirations to be
south, in 1539.
Combining material wealth with the spiritual prestige derived from its reclining Buddha and the great Shwemawdaw pagoda which housed both hair
merit. This
helps explain his proscription of what he viewed as“non-Buddhist" customs
upland groups, such as drinking alcohol and the sacrifice of animals. His
of Mohnyin.
tially
also in his
Mahazedi pagoda
wisdom
in Pegu.
For
far exceeded that of the
Pagan, and he was even prepared to threaten the great nats, the guardian
of the kingdom, with destruction of their shrines
if
they did not assist
him
in his
campaigns.
A confident Bayinnaung maintained his military conquests, establishing a loose author- 1可over the Lao polity of
Lan Sang, and
in 1569
mounting
a successful
campaign against
OD川…HEAST山,14…830
阴'AH STO…F EARL his
paramount
rival,
A严1tthaya,
ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-1600
whom he termed “the arch enemy" of Buddhism卢Large
accounts, this delicate relationship
is
articulated in the familiar terms of kinship, with
died during the grueling journey. Despite several references to uprisings by captured
Sipsongpanna described as the child of a Chinese "father" and a Burmese “mother." After Bayinnaung died in 1581 the仕ag且ity of the empire he had created was soon
prisoners of war, the glorification of warfare in royal chronicles glosses over the human
exposed, and references to the constant campaigns required to maintain
misery of those condemned to a
eminence can even be found
numbers of the vanquished population were deported
to
Taungoo, and many would have
fate of servitude or sexual exploitation.
However,
the
As one Burmese
in courtly literature.
Burman
pre-
princess lamented,
husband marches boldly to
and
forced transplanting of entire communities provided not only an increased base of labor
“Ever-triumphant conqueror of the foes瓜1y
and taxes, but also a source of artistic and intellectual ideas as skilled artisans and artists - masons, carpenters, goldsmiths, sculptors, dancers, musicians - were transported back to
Lan Sang/To clear the enveloping enemies,/Sadly I nurse my loneliness."44 In the ensuing years the disruption caused by wars of succession and vassal rebellions was compounded
Myanmar. This
by severe drought and a loss of resources as
culture transfer, especially evident in the prolonged mainland wars, was
significant side-effect of the harsh policies of capture
As center,
Burman
control over a vast area stretching
distant from
from the Rakhine border
the
modern
to
encouraged by promoting or enforcing cultural patterns associated with the only to reform localized Buddhist practices, but to require the Shan to adopt
These high-ranking princes were essentially prerogatives, raise t缸es
rival
Burmese bayin.
not
codes.
who bore the title of bayin. independent lords who could exercise royal senior relatives,
and armies, and even appoint
were placed under myozas, or junior princes, and other through marriage links
ties,
the gi丘ing of titles
their sons as heirs. Lesser officials
were o丘en tenuous, however, and any sign of weakness
districts
whose loyalty was retained
and other honors, and
special ceremonies. Such
at the center
could encourage
math of
shi丘ing loyalties of tributary lords,
literally “Lord
A yutthaya,
of the
S峙’'),
as well as the
reflected the region’s
dynasty with
its
capital in
such as the Shan saw-bwa (hereditary
conquered rulers of Lan Na, Lan
Pegu created an extensive network of vassals
center. Polities located in frontier areas
that reached to由e rule at the
between two powerful lords commonly
allegiance to each, such as the Tai-speaking territorial
Sang, and
communities on the Yunnan
claims overlapped. Sipsongpanna in
offered
frontier where
modern Yunnan was
one of the most important of these Tai polities and, as an indication of his favor, Bayinnaung presented its chief with a Burman princess. Accompanied by a large entou- rage and lavish presents, she arrived in Sipsongpanna where her husband was enthroned in a
43
ceremony over which Burmese and Ming representatives jointly presided.
In chronicle
ed.,
Royal Orders of Burma, AD. 1598一1885 (Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian
Kyoto University,
1983斗,vol.
II:
7-8.
Studies,
made up
at
Ava and was
provided chilling commentaries on the dreadful
Pegu’s destruction, the ruins
the
more neglected topics
Burman expansion by
a
populace飞rought
its
to such miserie
and
flesh.”45
in Southeast Asia’s early
and
political system,
Bengal to由e east. In the Buddhist world
it
its rise
modern
formidable navy and the long
retained a distinctive culture
a丘er-
of “gilded temples,”the fields“full of skulls and
choked with dead bodies, and
mans
thus removed from Pegu,
of vengeful forces from A严1tthaya, Rakhine, and
Rakhine's prominence in this period deserves attention, for
and decline
it
one of
history. Protected
Y oma mountain
though
is
had much
was renowned because
it
from
in
range, Rakhine
common
with
possessed a highly
Buddha, the Mahamuni (Great Sage), allegedly cast during the when he visited Rakhine. The monasteries and religious institutions capital Mrauk-U also contained other treasures, for Man Pa (r. 1531-53),
revered statue of the Buddha’s lifetime its
Rakhine’s
most well-known
ruler,
had been able
to obtain copies of the Tipitaka
from
Sri
Lanka and even a replica of the Buddha’s tooth.
With the
assistance of Portuguese mercenaries,
seaport of Chittagong, territorial
which provided new access
to
Man
Pa seized the bustling Bengali
Bay of Bengal trade and extended his
control well to the east. St山today evidence of Rakhin的prosperity
buildings such as the “Temple of 90,000 in Bengal. In the
Buddhas" built in 1535
is
visible in
to commemorate victories
ensuing years Rakhine developed into a powerful polity that successfully
challenged attempts
by
India’s
Mughal
rulers to extend their authority into Bengal.
Rakhine forces periodically raided across the mountains into Taungoo domains while formidable
44
45J
Than Tun,
a“Second”or Restored Taungoo dynasty
was reestablished
Jesuit priests
want, that they did eate
changing power dynamics. Even though the Taungoo
ve町borders of China, maintaining allegiance required extraordinarily strong
Chinese and Burmese
chiefs,
establishing
waste by an alliance
bones,”the river
around
defection.
The
capital
now
Administrative structures in Taungoo also reinforced central authority. The most import” ruler’s
The
be
many aspects
of Burman culture, such as the writing system, weights and measures, and judicial
(1597-1752).
center.
Bayinnaung's incursions into the Shan areas were thus accompanied by a campaign
by
bleak situation
this
to
laid
Laos was absolutely dependent on maintaining chains of loyalty. Such loyalty could
ant principalities were entrusted to the
men fled to monasteries or to outlying areas to
escape military conscription. In 1597 a branch of Myanm缸’s old ruling family responded
and resettlement.
domains where vassal areas were geographically very
in other
a
far-。在China
fleet
dominated the sea
Cited in Viedlinger, Spreading the accessed January 27, 2014.
lanes.
Dhamma,
134;
www.cpamedia.com/research/hsinbyushinme,
Samuel Purchas, ed叮Purchas His Pilgrimes (Glasgow: James Maclehose and Sons, 1905) 216.
its
By the end of the century Rakhine controlled the
vol. X: 211,
归毯A HISTO盯OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫30
ACCELERATION OF CHANGE,
from contemporary Bangladesh to modern-day Yangon. The key port of Syriam was captured in 1599 and placed under Felipe de Brito e Nicote, the Portuguese favorite of the Rakhine ruler. It is not surprising that conquest of Rakhine was the ultimate entire coast
goal for ambitious
Burman
rulers,
and when
Bayinnaung died in 1581 he was
preparing an assault. Though his successors were forced to abandon this project, forgotten; the invasion of
Rakhine was merely
delayed for
two hundred
it
1592 he even offered to help China against Japan. In 1593
Ayutthaya
attribute to a decisive duel
gized in legend
transmission of information via the Portuguese. greater priority as competition
between
The
acquisition of military technology
rival centers
gathered pace, for from the
1530s, A严1tthaya' s military campaigns to the east generated increased conflicts with
the
Burmese. As we have seen, Bayinnaung responded by making the subjugation of Ayut- thaya a prima巧goal, and his armies penetrated Thai territory with increasing
Naresuan
A puppet ruler was placed on the throne and his son, Naresuan, was
brought back to Taungoo as a hostage. Naresuan's elder
sister
was then
taken by
was governor of the northern muang, and by the time he was reputation as an inspiring leader and a brave warrior.
ence from a weakened Taungoo in 1584, and a丘er
thirty
he had
established a
He declared Ayutthaya's independ-
survi飞ring
subsequent Burmese
he ascended the throne six years later, an event that marked a major
who had been essentially subservient to Taungoo.
shift
also a
reminder of the divided
who had been given as a symbol of submission.
Stories of the personal
asked his
sister
relatives.”’46
rivalry
collective
by royal women
for instance, that
N aresuan had
(Bayinnaung's wife) to accompany him back to Ayutthaya, but she
to leave.“When Naresuan received her reply,
more than her
loyalties experienced
It is said,
attacks,
from the reign of
between Naresuan and Bayinnaung have become embedded in the Thai memo町,but they are
refused
he mocked her, saying, 'She loves her husband
Constant military campaigns, especially on the
mainland,
generated an almost insatiable desire for guns and large cannon, and mercenaries know- ledgeable in gunpowder manufacture - Chinese, Turks, Indians, Portuguese - were 46
murals, the “duel" with
The sword
Burmese prince and
(“The
leather cap (“Dodging Helmet”) that he
regalia.
War
wore on
Scythe that
this
occasion
a Translation of the
Naresuan then launched a successful
the aid of Portuguese mercenaries,
campaign against Cambodia, which had taken advantage of A yutthaya’s weakness to seize
on
areas
fulfilled
common
their
an
this series
earlier
frontier.
According to legend, through
vow to“wash our
feet" in the
Naresuan blood of the Cambodian king.47 With
Yodaya Yazawin (Yangon:
this victory
of triumphs behind him, Naresuan then turned to his old enemies, Pegu
and
Taungoo, and extended into the uplands to force Chiang Mai (then under the Burmese) to
By
Taungoo dynasty established two years earlier was sufficiently strong to withstand an A严It由ayan siege and a brief respite from continuous warfare followed. During another campaign against accept his overlordship.
Taungoo in
in 1605
1599, however, the second (“Restored")
Naresuan fell山,dying
at the age of fi丘y
but remaining an iconic figure
Thai history. In
many ways
power
in
districts
the protracted wars with
Taungoo contributed
to the consolidation of
Ayutthaya by strengthening the position of the court and the capital in relation the death or deportation of
created a pool of ordinary people
who were no
many
nobles in outlying
longer under the authority of
own resources by recategoriz- manpower under royal control. Second, weakened Ayutthaya meant that Naresuan could install new
any lord. Naresuan seized the opportunity of increasing his ing these individuals as phrai luang, or
or absent leadership in areas outside
who were amenable to his authority. Third, in the a丘ermath of the conflicts由e Burmese were preoccupied with internal problems. This enabled Naresuan to concentrate on strengthening Ayutthaya's maritime connection. Profiting from the influx of foreign appointees
traders,
Ayutthaya
soon reclaimed
its
position as a major entrepot and an important
shipbuilding center. Because of increased revenues
it
was possible
armaments and recruit manpower, both decisive factors paigns against ition
its
neighbors.
to purchase
European
in A严1tthaya's successful
Under Naresuan's leadership Ayutthaya rea伍rmed
cam-
its
pos-
as由e preeminent Tai polity.
To the north were the uplands, which the Portuguese poet Cam6es (1524-80), a man with some experience in the region, described as occupied by a“thousand nations/ of 47
Tun Aung Chain, trans., Chronicle of Ayutthaya: Myanmar Historical Commission, 200日,39.
With
to the provincial centers. First,
as a wife.
In 1571 Naresuan, then only sixteen years old, returned to Ayutthaya. Until 1584 he
his father,
and
as his country’s liberator.
ferocity.
Meeting little opposition, an immense Burmese army laid siege to A严1tthaya, which finally
Bayinnaung
monuments and temple
in
were considered so spiritually powerful that they were even included in Ayutthaya’s
The ruler of Ayutthaya viewed the conquest of Melaka in 1511 rather differently from his Muslim counterparts, and in 1516 the Portuguese were permitted to settle in A归tthaya in return for supplying guns and ammunition. A versified "Treatise on Victorious Warfare," apparently derived from Khmer texts, details the causes of warfare and outlines military tactics, but a manual explaining how to produce rockets and gunpowder may reflect the
August 1569.
between Naresuan and the Taungoo crown prince. Mytholo-
both combatants riding their elephants resulted in the death of the
The Central Mainland
in
succeeded in defeating the Burmese, which pop时ar accounts
and commemorated
routed the Myriad”)
fell
finally
already
the celebration of
assumed
N aresuan was so confident of his military power that in
recruited into Ayutthaya’s forces.
was not
years.
1511-1600缸’飞173
Richard Cushman, trans. and David K. Wyatt, ed叮The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya (Bangkok: Siam Society, 2000), 122, 153.
The
174’吨?
ACCELERATION OF CHANGE, 1511-1600 1吨175
A HISTORY OF EARLY B哑ODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 which even the names are unknown."48 Foremost among these was the Tai polity ofLan Na, with its capital at Chiang Mai. In the early sixteenth century it had rivaled Ayutthaya, and its golden age is associated with the reign of Phaya Kaeo (r. 1495一1525). Under his aegis Buddhist literature written in Pali flourished, the three
reformist orders from Sri Lanka and a third that was
more
main Buddhist
orders (two
traditional) were reconciled,
monasteries were built, and a religious hierarchy created that mirrored the
secular
by the expenditures associated with religious estab- - lishments, Lan Na’s overland trade with Yunnan also flourished, and Chiang Mai 49 Nonetheless, we should city of twelve languages,,一boasted at least three large markets. administrative structure. Stimulated
'‘the
The
Chinese be careful to avoid exaggerating the extent of Chiang emperor may have seen its ruler as pre-eminent, but for leaders of other Tai muang he
Mai’s authority.
simply “ruler of the city at the Ping River."50
was
Towards the end of
his reign Kaeo's
ambitions to conquer A归tthaya and extend further into the Shan areas over-taxed available resources
and made
it
more
difficult to
maintain
its
former
his
international market.
mobilization of
allegiance of outlying areas
Emerald Buddha, but
a large
a
few years
number
later
and took with him npt only
of religious manuscripts.
the revered
Weakened by protracted
internal fighting, ongoing conflicts with Ayutthaya, and the deportation of
Chiang Mai was conquered by Taungoo mandala, were able to chart their
own
in 1558. Several
muang, once
part of the Lan Na
course, and places such as Chiang Saen, on the trade
route to Yunnan, continued to be economically and culturally important. visitor in the 1580s,
saw
in
its people,
An
English
however, was st山impressed by the number of Chinese merchants
Chiang Mai and the
“great store
of muske, golde, silver and
many
sheltered
from invading armies.
muang, where
alliances
It
were periodically disrupted by recurring feuds, but over
had developed a degree of cohesion that lasted until the latter part of the
A
major reason was the increased wealth that resulted from relocating the
1560 from Luang Prabang south to Vientiane on the
by the
fear of
was able 48
sixteenth
Luis
Burmese
to supply the
Vaz de Cam6es, The
attacks.
From
this
more
Lusiads. Trans.
it
capital in
its
site,
the landlocked Lan Sang
forests to a
growing
regional and
and annotated by Landeg White (Oxford/New York:
Oxford
University Press, 1997), 222. 49 Cited in SaratsawadT‘Op.gsakun, Dolina so
W. Millar, and Sandy M. Barron, History of Lan Na (Bangkok: Silkworm Books, 2001), 98. Cited in Volker Grabowsky and Foon Lieuw-Herres, in collaboration with Aroonrut Wichienkeeo, Lan
communal
veneration.
The reach of
these administrative
it
was impossible
withstand successive attacks by the Burmese. Vientiane was
1590s the country was a vassal of Taungoo.
Equally threatened by the growing strength of
Khmer
capital at
Phnom
Penh. Although
its
same
area.
The chosen
site
neighbors was the post-Angkorian
Phnom Penh remained
center, in the mid-sixteenth century the royal capital
moved yet
the
main commercial
again,
though within the
was Lovek, meaning气rossroads,”located further
Mekong
where the terrain was more defensible, but where the
to the north
River provided access to
Phnom Penh’s flourishing trade. The new wealth was visible in royal suppo口for monastic foundations and in the construction of Buddhist temples, but public demonstrations of
commitment remained an important prop I,
who ascended
had cut off and burnt her
to leadership.
The mother of the
the throne in 1567, recorded that as an act of piety
“luxuriant hair,”scattering the ashes over statues of the
Buddha.52 Her influence was instrumental in persuading her son to undertake the merit-
making deed of restoring Angkor Wat, and
it
may have been
at this
time that the wall of
one Angkorian temple was converted into a giant reclining Buddha.
Although he had only recently assumed power, Sattha was sufficiently confident to
centu叮-
Mekong River, a move partly dictated
accessible
much-desired products of
time
of
and by marrying into
to strategic areas
invaded on several occasions between 1563 and 1574, and in the latter year the ruler taken
of
relatively
also sought to maintain the
untouched. Because centers of authority were geographically dispersed to rally forces sufficient to
religious
had previously been simply a loose confederation
by appointing relatives
Chiang Mai, became foci of
she
Protected by a mountainous terrain, Lan Sang in present-day Laos was
They
collection of revenue.
measures was limited, however, and vast areas of Lan Sang remained essentially
young king, Sattha
other things
Khorat plateau,
As elsewhere in the Theravada Buddhist world, there was a growing emphasis on the Sinhalese form of the religion, including the introduction of its Buddhist law codes. Potent images, notably Vientiane’s Emerald Buddha taken from
he
China worke."51
also provided greater access to the
powerful provincial families.
A Lan Sang prince was invited to ascend the Lan Na throne in 1548, but this brief union ended when he returned home
manpower and
captive. Until the
alliances.
The new location
where a steady migration of Lao peasants extended the areas under irrigated rice cultiva- tion. Lan Sang’s rulers reorganized the Vientiane administration in order to improve the
launch a series of attacks against Ayutthaya following
its
defeat
by Taungoo
strengthen his army, but political weakness
meant
that
51
1899), 171.
to to
(who had adopted two Flemish sons) was persuaded by his Christian missionary connections to seek assistance from Spanish Manila, sending an elephant as a gift and even holding out由e possibility of his own conversion. In 1594, while this matter was being discussed, an Ayutthaya army of
continuing encroachments by their neighbors. Sattha
80,000 men sacked Lovek and killed or captured much of the population, including members of the royal family. Two years later an interim Philippine governor, persuaded
Na
in Chinese Historiography: Sino-Tai Relations as Re_卢ected in the Yuan and Ming Sources (13出to 17th centuries) (Bangkok: Institute of Asian Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 2008), 73. Cited in J. Horton Ryley, Ralph Fitch, England云Pioneer to India and Burma (London: T. Fisher Unwin,
in 1569.
made a concerted effort the Khmers were vulnerable
Threatened in return by a resurgent A严1tthaya, Sattha
52
Cited in
Trudy Jacobsen, Lost Goddesses:
(Copenhagen:
NIAS
Press, 2008), 81-3.
the Denial of Female
Power
in
Cambodian History
w毯A HISTO…F山…ODERN SOUTH山T山,14…830 by the arguments of two Iberian
soldiers of fortune,
embarked on
a project that was
intended to“colonize [poblar] the mainland of the Kings of Cambodia and spread Catholicism, and extend Spanish influence into the
Cham
areas.
A
Siam,"s3
small contin-
gent was dispatched to offer Sattha assistance, only belatedly discovering that he and family had fled to Vientiane in Lan Sang. The
his
new ruler and the Chinese community were
openly su叩icious of the Spaniards, whose leaders decided to“terri旷the
natives by
launching an attack on the palace. In the subsequent fighting the ruler was
killed, but
the two adventurers
who had been
instrumental in the original proposal eventually made
Now
contact with Sattha's son in Vientiane. restored to the throne in
work, leading
clerics in
regarded as the legitimate king, he
1597 with the support of powerful
thousand Lao troops. Encouraged by
six
in
May
this king’s
men
in
promises of toleration
Cambodia
rulers.
Crop
failures
and peasant unrest contributed
forcing the Le king to flee south.
agriculture
This economic recovery
reaffirmed state
was
of morally upright officials
ushering in
a time of
calm to the beleaguered kingdom.
“the
to the
fertile
wise are established;
out.
who had
support to the Chinese emperor,
this
period
may have
nurtured a nascent sense of “Khmer" identity
fostered by
recurring conflict with neighbors, by nostalgia for the past greatness of Angkor, by
emergence of a Khmer vernacular dhism, where older female
spirits
who
by a growing demand
Khmer
literature,
traditions
and by the
localization of Theravada Bud-
were retained and the personalities of
ruled over terrestrial domains
This foundation of a strengthened
the
became embedded
in
powerful
Buddha
images.
Khmer identity provided a base from which later rulers
sought to reconstitute their realm.
for
less fertile districts.
Vietnamese products as
Mac also
Confucian moral order through the promulgation of
One Dai
With
Viet scholar had no doubt that the
the establishment of the
Heaven and Earth
documents before 1601 survived the years of turmoil following the destruction Yet
weaving and ceramics in
meant the Mandate of Heaven had been
and war broke
The chronology of a turbulent period that saw no less than five different Cambodian some reigning for only a few months, has been largely transmitted through European accounts. The royal chronicles were composed much later, and no court
are cared for, truly
lost;
Mac
it is
Mac
said, the lack
the soil was no
dynasty, however,
a time of prosperity.
Heaven’s will has returned."54
The Mac continued
rulers,
of Lovek.
as
had been responsible for restoring the fortunes of the count巧. Previously, he longer
relative
facilitated
commitment
N aresuan' s
ruler,
Mac
law and edicts, while simultaneously strengthening links with village communities
brother had been taken as a captive following the Thai attack in 1594. In 1603, under
became Cambodia’s new
by an individual
South China Sea expanded in the mid-sixteenth century. The
through support of Buddhist pagodas.
continuing instab过ity and turned for assistance from Ayutthaya, where Sattha's younger
revolt led
Taking advantage of the turmoil, a general named
and cottage industries such
the trade across the
Cambodia and
major
Dang Dung overcame his rivals, the powerful Trinh and N伊yen clans, imprisoned the young Le heir and his mother, and in 1527 proclaimed himself king. With a power base in the Red River Delta area, the Mac dynasty was able to restore the economy by encouraging
and
for missiona叮
to a
claiming to be not merely a descendant of the Tran dynasty but a reincarnation of the Hindu god Indra. For a brief period his forces were able to control the capital Thang Long,
was
Manila pressed for the establishment of a strong Catholic presence
patronage, this prince
CHANG川1叫
ACCELERATION OF
to face opposition
from an
alliance of the
Nguyen and
the Trinh,
home base south of the delta. In 1535 both families appealed for who deemed the Mac to be usurpers. Although a Chinese army arrived on the border, an invasion was avoided when the Mac protested their abiding loyalty to the Ming Dynasty. The Mac continued to govern in the northern region, rallied at their
expand its ow丑base of power further south with the aid Nguyen and the Trinh. By the middle of the sixteenth century this arrangement collapsed as the Trinh challenged the Nguyen claim to be Le guardians and forced the Nguyen in 1558 to acknowledge Trinh superiority. As recompense, the Nguyen leader was appointed governor over the lands south of the area held by the Trinh, which bordered while the Le dynasty attempted to of the
Cham
territories in central
Vietnam. Meanwhile, the Trinh gradually gained the upper
Mac and by 1592 forced them to withdraw to Dai Viet’s northern border. protection of successive Chinese emperors, the Mac successfully maintained
hand against the
The Eastern Mainland
Under the
In Dai Viet the death of Le
Thanh Tong in 1497 brought little immediate change, since his policies were continued under his son. Evidence of a thriving export economy is suggested by the discovery of
sunken ship which was headed southwards car巧ing thousands of blue and white ceramics produced by Dai Viet potters. From the early sixteenth century, a
however, the achievements of 53
earlier reigns
were undermined by a succession
of weak
Cited in Jenny Klages,“Cambodia, Catholicism and Conquistadores: Spanish Cambodian Interactions from、the late Sixteenth to the Mid-Seventeenth Century”(PhD Thesis, University of Hawai'i, 2007), 171.
their
opposition to the Trinh until the late seventeenth centu巧・
This ongoing conflict between the
Mac and the Trinh allowed the Nguyen, who already
controlled substantial territory in the south, to build
they could challenge the Trinh for dominance.
Hoi
up
their resources to the point
An ("safe haven”)
in
Nguyen
where
territory
developed into the most important Vietnamese port, where ceramics produced in districts further north,
54
Chinese porcelain, and Japanese
silver
George Dutton, Jayne Werner, and John K. Whitmore, (Columbia University Press, 2012), 125-6.
eds.,
could be exchanged for rare woods
Sources of Vietnamese Tradition
圳毡
ODERN
A HISTORY OF EA汉L
From
ACCELERATION OF山NG川11-1600
brought from the uplands via connecting streams and
forest products
and other
SO川EAST山 rivers.
Nguyen family was able to tap this technology from the West. Nguyen Binh阳iem
wealth to import weapons and military
much
(1491一1585), a
advised the
Nguyen
who
respected scholar
Mac court, was said to have of Hoanh Son a mountain on
served in the
move south because “in the region ( southern border) is room to stand for thousands of years.”55
Nguyen
the traditional
to
control over
Vijaya in 1471. At
opened the door
this area
and Viet settlement of the
Cham
Cham
migration
after the defeat of
centers were st山able to
with the Muslim
Cham
areas of island Southeast Asia. In 1594 the
military assistance in
account commented
that there
that the “pagan”king existed in the
its
Malay kingdom
operate
wanted Islam “spoken of and taught.”As a
kingdom alongside
older
Hindu
Cham peoples and
result,“many mosques”
“temples of the gentiles.”56
At the close of the sixteenth century Dai Viet was thus divided into jurisdiction, each
the Mac.
under a powerful family. To the
The Le remained nominal rulers
the Le and assigned
challenge ate areas
came from
title
near the Chinese border, were
previously
The Trinh presented their women as marriage partners own family to major government posts. Their only whose
territory
latter
had expanded southwards
st山exercised
dominance over the
to inco叩or-
some independence but were in With neither the Trinh nor the
other, a precarious peace - and, for
a few
decades, an actual truce - reigned in Dai Viet as both families contended that they were loyal
and legitimate servants of the Le Emperor and that they governed
in his name. For
The networks created in
and sword/Who then can have a
for
human goodness/Then
scholar’s
high-minded aim? ... Wait
there will be reliance
for peace and
upon the study of books."57
orientation towards
Cited in Keith A.
J.
S.
W.
Taylor,“Nguyen
Hoang and the Beginning of Vietnam’s Southward Modern Period: Trade, Power, Belief (Cornell
Reid, ed叮Southeast Asia in the Early
Expansion,"
ruler of
Press: Ithaca, 1993), 46. 56
57
Cited in Pierre-Yves Manguin,‘'The Introduction of Islam into Champa,”in Al斗ah Gordon, ed., The Propagation of Islam in the Indonesian-Malay Archipelago (Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Sociological Research Institute, 2001), 300. Cited in Keith Taylor,“Literacy in Early Seventeenth-century Northern Vietnam,”in Michael Aung
Thwin and Kenneth R.
Hall, eds., New Perspectives on the History and Continuing Explorations (London: Routledge, 2011), 192
Asia Historiography of Southeast
a significant contribution to the expansion of
ports.
An
maritime trade had always been a feature of the island world, even in
and passes introduced an
Melaka had put
and trade" and where
it,“to
“all
alien concept into a
for establishing
sphere.
The
stimulated
new and
world where, as a
master the blue oceans people must engage in commerce
the lands within the seas are united in one body."58
While trade was responsible for shaping regional connectivities,
it
was
also responsible
extensive networks of relationships, particularly in the religious
saw
sixteenth century
a remarkable expansion of Islam in the region,
and encouraged by the powerful Islamic empires of the Ottomans
the Safavids in Persia,
and the Mughals
inspiration, as well as material
and
in India.
new
in Turkey,
Such vibrant centers were sources of
spiritual succor, for the
newly converted Southeast
Asian communities and their leaders. Islam’s rapid spread in this period
is
also o丘en
by the Europeans. Southeast Asians who accepted Christianity entered a new world where converts might attend Catholic seminaries in Goa and Macau and meet other students from Africa, India, attributed to a“race" against the
religion of Christianity brought
and where Filipino men, recruited
as sailors for the galleon trade, sailed
Mexico and made the pilgrimage to honor holy figures
like the Virgin
had long been a medium through which new connectiv- ities penetrated the Southeast Asian region, but this period saw the introduction of destabilizing tensions that were exacerbated by aggressive European tactics and by the
of Guadalupe. Trade
and
religion
between Islam and
beginning to coalesce
m出e center, and Dai Viet in 58
Christianity.
and economic power on the mainland was around three powerful kingdoms: Taungoo in the west, A yutthaya
At the end of the sixteenth century
in
University
made
Java, o丘en viewed simply as an“agrarian" state, but the Portuguese goal of restricting
age-old religious antagonism 55
period
became zones of competition as different groups sought to control lucrative
across the Pacific to
fire
this
and the delivery of forest products, but the benefits of seaborne trade were increas- ingly evident. Ambitious rulers therefore sought to gain access to coastal areas, which
China, and Japan,
brings
in Southeast Asia
ture
had suffered and
achievement was negligible.“Competing for supremacy
and the Chinese presence
maritime commerce. In mainland Southeast Asia local economies st诅rested on agricul-
Confucian scholars, however, the years of warfare meant that the education of young men literary
traders,
grew markedly after 1567 following the relaxation of the imperial ban on overseas trade.
Thang Long under the domination
of vuong (king), an honor
to challenge Viet settlement of their lands.
able to assert
of
of their
the Nguyen,
outnumbered by Asian
trade through permits
three areas
to
occupied by the Cham. The
no position
Nguyen
members
far north,
in the capital
of the Trinh, whose leader in 1599 took on the reserved for imperial relatives.
of Johor
struggle against the Portuguese, and a Spanish
were“many Mahometans”among the
had long been involved in global exchanges, but from the early sixteenth centu巧a major difference compared with the past was the immense growth in trade due to newly established connections with the European market. Europeans themselves were Southeast Asia
always far
southward
domains, a process that had begun
however, several
this stage,
for continuing
independently, and their active involvement in maritime trade sustained their connections
received
CONCLUSION
base in the southern part of Dai Viet, the
its
political
the east. In island Southeast Asia, however, the proliferation
from Sultan Mansur of Melaka to King of Ryukyu, Feb 7, 1468. Ryukyuan Relations with Korea and South Seas Countries: an Annotated Translation of Documents in the RekidaiHoan, Ats时11 Kobata and Mitsugu Matsuda, trans. (Kyoto: Atsushi Kobata, 1969), lll. Letter
6叨
180
' A HISTORY OF EAR…ODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…伽 of centers continued as in the past though the actors
The naval
superiority of the
may
have changed. Unlike
far
along the east African and Asian littoral仕om which they attempted to impose
on
the local communities.
activities to the
The Spaniards, on the other hand, were forced to
readiness to use arbitrary measures
economic and
由e greater interference and eighteenth centuries by a
confine
and the Spanish had demonstrated
and even violence against the indigenous
(for the Spanish) religious goals.
their
population
Such methods
presaged
polities, they neverthe-
played a significant role as ambitious rulers sought to achieve their economic
strategic goals.
will
their
more widespread destruction wrought in the seventeenth and new European power in the region: the Dutch. While the
Europeans were never able to dictate terms to powerful mainland less
their
northern and central Philippines because of powerful hostile Muslim
sultanates to the south. Both the Portuguese
to achieve their
the
more vulnerable to the presence of the Europeans. Portuguese enabled them to create a string of fortified ports
mainland, the island world was also
and
Expanding global links and their impact on Southeast Asia,
Map
7:
1600-…-1690s
Southeast Asia, 1600-1830s
184
6 AH……F山…ODERN SO川EAST山,14…830
EXPANDING GLOBAL川邸,1600一向OS
TIMELINE Expanding global
links
and
their impact
on Southeast
s
Asia, 1600-1690s
Dutch East India Company (VOC) founded
Spread of Islam
in
Restored Taungoo
Myanmar
Batavia
founded
Dutch United East India
Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, VOC).
Established in 1602 and
by the
protracted but intermittent conflict
asse内s control
in Pegu
Protestant
along north coast Java
as headquarters of VOC operations in缸”
Japan closed to most outside trade
A product of this
Manila
of the three
Portuguese Melaka with help from
to
Ming Dynasty power
falls;
Treaty of Bungaya changes
Johor
Manchus (Qing
dynasty)
power balance
in Eastern
War”when
the nascent
independence from Catholic Spain. The
Dutch had embarked on
a
new
age of
artistic, scientific,
and
VOC became the agent by which Dutch commercial enterprise
and maritime superiority overcame
The
China’S
age, the
all
other European contenders to dominate the sea
Though agreements reached
Manila to an end, the
in
as the“Eighty-years
for
technological achievement that characterized their “Golden [seventeenth] Centu巧."
commerce by
Spanish suppress Chinese rebellion
VOC is generally considered to be the
Peace of Westphalia in 1648 finally recognized the sovereignty of the Netherlands, but well before hostilities ceased the
cities
known
Dutch Republic was struggling
routes to Asia.
VOC captures
sale of stock to shareholders, the
first modern transnational company. This innovative enterprise was developed during the
and Lan Na
Mataram conquers port
the seventeenth century, especially after the arrival of the
capitalized
South Sulawesi in
outheas
its rivals,
VOC
in 1648
brought Dutch attacks on Spanish
continued to use every oppo口unity to obstruct Asian
and English trade
in Southeast Asia suffered severely as a result
Anglo-Dutch wars (1652-4, 1665-7, 1672-4).
effects
of the
areas because of the
Dutch
arrival in Southeast Asia
were most noticeable in the island
VOC's superiority in naval warfare and the aggressive methods it used
come
Archipelago Final
defeat of
End of
conflict
Gowa
in
Makassar by
voe and Bugis
between Nguyen and Trinh
VOC conquers Banten
in
Nguyen
seizes
Dai Viet
west Java
Ban Phlu Luang dynasty comes to power Raids by Manipuri into
in
force1
in
Ayu忧hay a
Myanmar
Cham domains
in
central Vietnam
Assassination of Johor ruler, last of Melaka dynastic
VOe
voe
seapower: attack on Makassar, June 1660. The fleet出at attacked Makassar June 1660 included thirty-five vessels and well over two thousand soldiers. This engra世ng shows heavily armed ships bombarding the royal citadel of Sombaopu, while in the foreground smaller vessels clear the beaches, enabling soldiers to advance. The notes at出e side indicate important sites like the Makassar forts and the Portuguese quarter, as well as由e gate where the Dutch were able Figure 5.1.
line
in
voe
to force the Makassar forces back. Wouter Schouten, Oost-Indische Voyagie (Amsterdam: Jacob Meurs, 1676), p. 90. eourtesy of the Royal Library, The Ha思1e.
tS由
186
...
a,
EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS,
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 to
monopolize the spice
trade.
The Dutch
strategy of protecting their economic
new Manchu dynasty, the Qing. Remnants of Ming forces continued to maintain resist- ance in south China, while other supporters and refugees who fled to Southeast Asia
interests
through both economic and political measures severely obstructed even the strongest local
augmented existing Chinese communities. The most well-known loyalist leader was
kingdoms from consolidating power. In mainland Southeast Asia, Europeans were less engaged, partly because naval superiority was not an advantage against extensive land- based kingdoms with large armies, but also because neither commercial nor
The major mainland
incentives equaled those in the islands.
Zheng Chenggong (1624-62), whom Europeans termed “Koxinga”(from his title Guoxingye,“Lord of the Imperial Surname”). Koxinga's fleets fought the Manchu along
religious
polities benefited from
China’s east coast
the
wealth and technological resources that accompanied the expansion of maritime com- merce, but they were not constrained by the European presence.
than in island Southeast Asia, the mainland saw river valleys
and the development of
To
a far greater
some consolidation along
polities characterized
Qing dynasty banned overseas trade, although these restrictions were
extent
Together with the intrusion of the Dutch, events in Japan
of one
influential in
ethnic community, strong leadership, increased trade revenues, rising population, and territorial
expansion. Yet small and independent polities continued to survive
uplands, and even the largest mandala was susceptible to challenges
The divisio川Dai Viet
from
A brief but important source Tokugawa shogunate came
rivalries, and
of commercial and cultural exchange was Japan. When
to
power
in 1600,
it
issued at least 300 official passes
with
red seals to ships engaged in trade to Southeast Asia between 1604 and 1635. Unfortu-
open trade led
to the arrival of foreign Christians
potential threat to the regime.
1633 and 1639 proscribing
proselytizing their religion
who
The shogunate therefore issued a
all
were regarded
as a
series of edicts between
maritime commerce except with the Chinese,
Ryuk严1ans, and the Dutch. Unlike Catholic missionaries, the
Dutch were
and hence were granted the right to continue
Koreans,
uninterested
in
to trade in Japan,
though confined to the man-made island of Deshima in Nagasaki harbor. Meanwhile, severe restrictions
on shipping
to
and from Japan meant hundreds of Japanese
stranded in the Nihonmachi (Japanese towns) that had
grown up
all
over Southeast
were Asia.
Without any hope of repatriation, many became mercenaries in local armies, took service with Europeans, or concentrated on commerce. Some Japanese (especially those born to a mother) rose to positions of prominence. Products from Southeast Asian countries continued to reach Japan as cargo on okubune (literally, ships from remote countries), including those of the Dutch. Manned by Chinese and built according to Chinese
local
prescriptions, these junks, even those belonging to the rulers of A严1tthaya or Cambodia, were treated as Chinese and hence able to enter Japan with Southeast Asian goods. In 1688, however, the Tokugawa shogunate restricted these vessels to seventy per year, and in
1708 the number was reduced to
fifty-nine.
Even with the decline
Southeast Asia, the Dutch post on Deshima maintained Southeast Asian products.
?o毗削Asia
shaping the shi丘s in patterns of trade and communication that characterized
Southeast Asia in the seventeenth centu巧・
t盒
int
local loyalties.
nately, this
Ii丘ed in 1684.
and China were extremely
in the
restless vassals.
taining central authority in the face of geographical fragmentation, elite
the
through the 1650s, and in 1662 he was even preparing to invade the
Junk trade to Southeast Asia slumped during these years, especially when the
Philippines.
the m叫or
by the dominance
160叫90s咎由
its
in shipping from
importance
as a conduit
for
also felt
under increased pressure from invading Manchu armies from the north. In 1644 the capture of Beijing and the suicide of the last Ming Emperor heralded the installation of a
唱
New and The
VOC was by far the most successful of several European trading companies founded
in the
the
old actors
and governmental support, the
infusion, organization,
Company
competitor, the English East India the
VOC sent
disparity
founded
(present-day Jakarta),
from
all
it
unique
and ultimately
legal position
with native rulers.
and
its
principal
for instance,
in the next decade the
VOC headquarters in Batavia
in 1619, acted as a collection
and
VOC
collation point for
to the directors in
posts to the Governor-
Amsterdam. Third, the
through the granting of semi-sovereign powers by
Netherlands Estates-General which enabled
treaties
to a
a
in 1620,
terms of capital
far eclipsed
by the EiC, and
59). Second, the
over Asia, linking even very small
General and Council in Batavia
voe e时oyed
VOC
First, in
(EiC). Between 1620 and 1630,
141 ships to Asia as opposed to 58
was even more marked (157 to
information
the
Dutch in 1602, the Danes
seventeenth century: the English in 1600, the
French in 1664. Several reasons explain this dominance.
The favored
it
to raise armies, build forts,
strategy was
to persuade or
compel
and make
rulers to agree
monopoly contract excluding all other traders, particularly Europeans, and由us make
VOC to obtain products at low prices and then sell them at higher prices considerable profit. If necessary, the VOC was fully prepared to go to war to defend
possible for the
for a
trading advantages. Finally, the Dutch were superior to their rivals in naval technology, and their deployment of well-armed ships and advanced weaponry combined with the its
recruitment of native allies enabled territory.
Through such
Makassar port of
Gowa
alliances
them to capture key po时s and control the surrounding the Dutch seized Portuguese Melaka in 1641 and the
where the Portuguese had been major players in The position of the VOC was fur由er strengthened from 1639 when the Portuguese were expelled from Japan and the Dutch became the only E旧opeans permit- in 1669, ports
the spice trade.
ted access to this lucrative
market.
The Japanese connection proved extremely profitable
188
..,\
A HISTORY OF觅ARLY
voe
because the
MODERN SOUTHEAST
was able
exchange for Japanese
textiles, in
silver
to Spanish
The VOC's challenge
from
to sell products
EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os轨电189
ASIA, 1400-1830 over Asia, notably
all
and
silk
other
and copper.
and Portuguese power in Southeast Asia
injected a
into
dispatched to Southeast Asia were officials were interested in
evangelism in societies
initially
intended to serve
promoting Christian
beliefs.
VOC personnel, but some
Accordingly, though opposed
where Islam or Buddhism were well established, the
to
VOC con-
doned missionizing among“heathens" and Catholics, especially in eastern Indonesia. Converting such groups to Protestantism became more important as the VOC sought to gain the loyalty of local leaders who would help deliver the products for which the Dutch had contracted,
suppressing pockets of Portuguese resistance, and provide
assist in
allies
Although Portuguese pre-eminence in the region was now past, their language remained a lingua franca in much of maritime Southeast Asia, and Protestant ministers o丘en found it necessary to preach in Portu思1ese in order to make
Muslim
against
attacks.
any impression on
their largely mesti<;:o congregations.
Furthermore, despite the appear-
European involvement in local the final
phase of the early
Despite a
elusive
affairs
remains a minor theme in mainland history until
modem period.
more pronounced European presence, the
remained primarily Asian. thereby
remove
a
VOC
and ultimately unattainable
spice trade in eastern
goal.
Hampered by Dutch restrictions on
by obtaining English, Danish, and French passes or taking passage on European ships. Trade to Southeast Asia from Gujarat, Bengal,
and various ports along the Coromandel
Coast in southeastern India during the seventeenth centu叮was extensive, and Indians
continued to dominate the all-important textile market.
as the rituals of oath-taking following declarations of friendship
and
alliance. In 1655,
for
example, a contract思1aranteed Timor lords protection as long as they traded only with the
VOC
and provided assistance against
its
enemies. This agreement was
sanctified
when Dutch representatives and Timor leaders mixed toge也er and own blood. The language of kinship was also readily invoked, with the Dutch
Myanmar, Ayutthaya, along
Melaka, and western Java, while establishing
new connections such
Indians held an advantage over
required
was not
Such cultural compromises, of course, had their accept several Javanese
women
on the
sisters in
much desired in Mughal India, Though both the Dutch and English experience showed that the expertise
On
and valuable gi缸,but these were poor
substitutes
less significant
A yutthaya,
and
several
and mercenaries. As the previous chapter has shown, for a brief time the activities of Spanish and p。此uguese adventurers in Myanmar, Cambodia, and the Lao areas encour- priests also arrived in
Dai
Viet.
is
always the case由at
we cannot compete with [Indian
They are better bargainers than we, and know better where and how to dispose of
Although several Indian groups were involved in trade to Southeast Asia, the most visible
Muslims丘om
were the Chulias, Tamil
the
Coromandel Coast, who were o丘en
employed by local rulers as agents, especially in dealing with Europeans. Some Chulia merchants were extremely wealthy, but ships arriving from India also brought small-scale Chulia traders,
who
margin. English
merchants in Banten (west
carried packs of cheap cloth
higgle
Choulyas
them out againe and
.
.
.
...
Java),
and were content with
a low profit
watching their revenues decline, com-
carrying a peece or two at a time under their arms,
utterly
spoyl付出at market."2 In mainland Southeast
their official influence as corporate
than that of independent European traders, opportunists,
aged Catholic missionaries to envisage new
Captured elephants became山,fell into the sea and
VOC
Governor-General was frank.“It
plained of the "peddling
Dutch and English East India Companies maintained
o丘en struggling posts, notably in
was
g的s
at confirming alliances through the exchange of
were the cornerstones of indigenous diplomacy.
the mainland the
entities
sending in return
easily acquired.
Acknowledging the handicap under which Europeans operated, the
of sorrow."
ally).
marriage. Building relationships with local rulers was dependent
circulation of letters, emissaries,
for the kinship ties that
a native
Although a Dutch governor might
retainers as a token of friendship,
such as a Persian horse, Europeans balked daughters and
limits.
(i.e.
prime example was the capture
“died
drank
to“instruct" his wife
A
drowned while being transshipped from one vessel to another, or refused to eat and
their goods."1
husband who has
the Straits of
as those with Manila.
and shipment of Southeast Asian elephants, which were
traders].
their
influential
Europeans because of their expert knowledge and
with local products.
extensive experience in dealing
during a ceremony
often comparing themselves to a
They remained an
presence in Rakhine, the coastal ports of
attempted to enter this profitable trade, bitter such
the lucrative
Indonesia, Indians were nonetheless able to circumvent such policies
they wielded real control were few.
compromise with indigenous customs,
kingdoms and
major source of their wealth, but complete mastery of the seas was an
where they could be sold for considerable profit.
realized the value of
foreign trader in Southeast Asia
ships could prevent shipping to island
ance of military supremacy, the Dutch conquest of key ports like Melaka and Makassar was only possible because of the assistance of local allies, and outside Java the areas where
Over time, the Dutch
and made only modest numbers of converts. Overall,
mainland’s Theravada Buddhist societies
advances in Dai Viet, despite missionary claims of large
commercial enmities. While the Vatican condemned all Protestants as as a false faith espoused by their heretics, the Dutch vehemently opposed Catholicism comforters of the sick) former oppressors. The ministers, assistants, and krankbezoekers (
new element
among the
unsuccessful
fields for
conversion. French merchants and
However, the Christianization project was
spectacularly
1
Cited in G.
W.
Irwin,“The
and N. Tarling, 2
Dutch and the Tin Trade of Malaya in the Seventeenth Century," in J. Ch'en History of China and Southeast Asia (Cambridge University
eds., Studies in the Social
Press, 1970), 275.
Cited in Claude Guillot,“Banten Centuries,”in
lS00-1800
and the Bay of Bengal during the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Commerce and Culture in the Bay of Bengal, Manohar. Indian Council of Historical Research, 1999), 177
Om Prakash and Denys Lombard, eds.,
(New
Delhi:
190
EXPANDING GLOBAL川KS, 1600-吻。s
1400-1830 A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA,
and even massacre
in the continuing unprofitability of Asia Indian competition was a significant factor
periodic attempts to expel
Dutch and English
beginning of the seventeenth century around 600 Chinese had converted to Christianity,
As
factories.
much more
in the past, the sources reveal
whose Indian
about the
activities
of Chinese
traders,
commercial networks threaded through the entire Southeast Asia region. Like their counterparts, the Chinese (many of whom were born of a Chinese father and an
indigenous mother) were willing to work
for slim profit margins
beyond the reach of European traders. Indeed, they were o丘en agents, selling goods
on
and
in
remote
locations
employed by Europeans as
from Company warehouses to buy local products. Acquisi- example, meant negotiating with the highly mobile sea people,
credit
tion of tortoiseshell, for
Makassar the Dutch acknowledged that they could only obtain supplies“through our Chinese creatures [i.e. agents]产Chinese communities steadily expanded, especially in ports and towns along the major trade routes where increasing numbers of Chinese junks carried human cargoes as well as goods. In 1570 there were less than two hundred Chinese
and
often
in Manila, but
by 1603
their
numbers
and by 1636
to 30,000,
compared to
230 Spaniards. In the same period the number of junks reaching Manila annually grew from around nine to fo时y. A similar pattern can be seen in Batavia, where arriving
just
junks went from three or four to around twenty. In the 1690s Chinese
pop吐ation group, apart from slaves,
Though many Chinese returned home, because of developments in
China
made up the largest
and were already cultivating land around the
itself.
the influx of
new
settlers
decision to adopt Christianity cut off his
Vietnam, where the circulation of Buddhist monks
also
was
to reimpose the “maritime prohibition" (haijin)
return to
China and thus
Shared religious societies,
Guangzhou (Cantonese) ent kingdom and a major
a
The degree economic and
to
new Qing government
River in a little-populated area
at
authority. Providing good settled by
Muslim name, by circumcision, and by shaving the head
(a
mark
of piety for a convert).
The Dutch thus distinguished them by the term geschoren Chinees, or shaven Chinese. As
in the Philippines,
adopting Islam and cutting one's queue were clear indications of
intention to settle
permanently
in the
new environment.
While well-established economic and cultural connections reaching from the Islamic
China were maintained and in
many
arrivals were incorporated into existing frameworks differed considerably. In Spanish Manila, there were
Cited in Heather Sutherland,“A Sino-Indonesian Commodity Chain: the Trade in Tortoiseshell m the Late Seventeenth and Eighteen由Centuries,”in Eric Tagliacozzo and Wen-Ching Char吧,eds.,
(Durham and London.
cases strengthened, the arrival of the
from Queen Elizabeth of England addressed to“our loving
received a letter
brother,'’
promising that her merchants would behave better than the Spanish and Portuguese
and would
“learn
the language of your country."4 In the
same year
a
VOC ship carried
an Acehnese delegation to the Netherlands, the
gifts)
first from a Southeast Asian ruler. was considerable (not least because of two Malay-speaking parrots and during their stay of fi丘een months the envoys visited several cities,
where they were feted and entertained.
One even learned sufficient Dutch to act as and several European courts sent representatives to make their acquaint- While ambassadors from A yutthaya spent time in the Netherlands and France,
interpreter,
ance.
two Banten representatives, knighted by King Charles, visited treated to a
4
Castle
and were
encounter are almost non-existent. Rare examples are the diary of Kosa
Pan, the Thai minister a brief
Windsor
performance of The Tempest. Sadly, records of Southeast Asian experiences
in this cultural
commerce.
Chinese Circulations: Capital, Commodities and Networks in Southeast Asia Duke University Press, 2011), 181.
of a distinctive Chinese
Chinese were male, throughout Southeast
became the primary means of integration into local communities. and culinary traditions made the localization process easier in Buddhist
account by
charged with transporting a royal
Imam
was amazed to且nd“people 3
all
rise
especially apparent
which these numerous Chinese
cultural
to
northern Europeans further extended global communication. In 1602 the ruler of Aceh
Ha Tien was sometime around 1700 and developed into an independ-
center of international
him
in
new settlements, especially around the Gulf of Siam. The most
trader
for
ful血l traditional obligations to his parents.
but Chinese also converted to Islam, demonstrating their identity by adopting a
brought as
anchorage and well situated in relation to maritime trade routes,
to
Asia intermarriage
important places in Southeast Asian port administrations, and Chinese migrants were
Ha Tien Khmer
would have been almost impossible
mestizo culture. Indeed, because virtually
Public attention
the southeastern end of the Gulf nominally under
it
was required
back of the head), a symbol of loyalty to the
at the
Over time, intermarriage in the Philippines led to the
and was finally revoked in 1684, resulting in a renewed expansion of the junk from the southern Chinese provinces of Guangdong and Fujian. Chinese assumed
notable of these was located in the estuary of the
worn
The
heartlands to
trade
responsible for establishing
of hair
a useful patron.
significant because a Chinese convert
in
on overseas commerce. The ban was often
flouted
(a plait
become
usually Spanish, could
Qing Emperor. Lacking this symbol,
intensified
helped reinforce links with China.
In 1647 loyalist activities and what was classed as“piracy”led the
queue
was
were also allowed to move into the countryside and
dynasty
Following the collapse of the
1644, thousands of loyalists fled southwards. Their presence
was
Ming
who was
the baptismal sponsor,
O肘’s
city.
by the
through marriage to a Christianized Filipina. Such marriages had practical economic
advantages, since Christian Chinese
in
rose to 20,000
this“alien" population, although
Ridjali,
who
who
travelled
from
never had places to
letter to
France in 1686, and
Ambon
to India
live,
where he
and people who clean up
John Bruce, Annals of the Honorable East-India Company:卢om their Establishment by the Charter of Queen Elizabeth, 1600, to the Union of the London and English East-India Compan邸,1707-8, Vol. I (London: Black, Par叮,and Kingsbu町,1810), 47-8.
6191
192
EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os
ASIA, 1400-1830 A HISTORY OF EARLY如1:0DERN SOUTHEAST
human
filth."s
we can only assume that other returning travellers
regaled audiences
with stories of foreign lands, although countless Southeast Asian communities accounts are forever lost to the
modern
m
their
As
a result of a
growing demand, some places
reputation as a reliable source of
of warfare, the extension
labor. Southeast
number
subjects to contribute a certain
Asian rulers traditionally required
annum, and some
of corvee days per
could involve a veritable army of laborers who record that sixty at a time. The A归tthaya chronicles thus
were conscripted
for three
their
projects
home for weeks thousand men from eight
months while they worked
to straighten a canal that
deemed crooked. Such absences were normally adjusted to comply with the adopted periods of planting and harvesting. By contrast, although Europeans
the ruler critical
had little understanding of the changing
the local practice of employing co凹优labor, they
labor
demands of
As
the agricultural cycle.
yards, for instance, surrounding
the Spanish began to develop shipbuilding
communities were forced to provide
men
whenever
not needed to work on boat construction and cut timber in grueling conditions. It is southern and difficult to understand why revolts erupted in the islands of Samar, Leyte,
Luzon when one considers
that cutting
required the labor of six to eight thousand In addition to the traditional corvee, individuals or whole families to ruler or noble,
and work
until
it
and transporting masts for
men
for three
was a
become bonded
galleon
practice in Southeast Asia
for
such debt was repaid. Even with the debt bondage system for workers could not be met,
VOC's building and agricultural projects. This lack of manpower led to a
or sold by impoverished families. Even in the Philippines,
prohibited slavery
be bought and
among it
Christians, children as
young
was permitted to own Muslim
as
two
where the Spanish
since been imprisoned
had
or three years old could
rowers on Spanish ships were Indios cimarrones,“wild”Filipinos
some punishment and had
as war-prisoners,
slaves captured in war.
Many of the
who had fled to
Rakhine, which supplied slaves
were taken to urban centers, where
escape
and condemned to“slave町and
hard
labor in the galleys."6
social status
and where there was an almost
retainers
statistics give
Between 1624 and 1665 the VOC purchased
Hans Straver, Chris van Fraassen, and Jan van der Putten, eds. and trans., Ri司jali: Historie van Hitu. Ben Ambonse geschiedenis uit de zeventiende eeuw (Utrecht: Landel斗k Steunpunt Educatie Molukkers, 2004), 159.
6
Cited in Jose
Flogging and Other Moral Cases in 17th Century Philippines," Philippine Studies 20, 3 (1972), 402 S.
Arcilla,“Slavery,
insatiable
men, women, and
a total of 11,556
itself
numbers
the
marked expansion of the Muslim
community. Balinese rajas regularly sold criminals and debtors as well as prisoners taken in local warfare,
in particular
and about two thousand slaves arrived annually
favored Balinese
women
as
in Batavia alone.
concubines because of their
Chinese
fairer skin
and
toleration for pork.
The explosion in the demand
human
for slaves contributed to
displacement. In the 1620s
it
an unprecedented
level of
has been estimated that around six hundred slaves
were annually transported from the Philippines to Mexico, both legally and山egally.
Notwithstanding royal prohibitions, native galleons sailing to
Mexico
women were forcibly taken aboard the Spanish
to serve as concubines for wealthy passengers, officials,
and
crew members. By 1673 Batavia’s population of 27,051 included 13,281 slaves, in addition to
many former slaves who originated mainly from Bali, the nearby island of Lombok, and The fortunes of such individuals could va町. While a consider-
the Eastern Archipelago.
were
number died en route because of appalling shipboard conditions, many survivors condemned to a miserable existence as chattels. Others were able to buy their
freedom,
settle
In this regard,
show
a
down, acquire a
local family,
and even
rise in
economic and
leave to seek their fortune elsewhere,
support, female slaves charity often
social status.
however, there could be a marked gender disparity and pop吐ation figures
preponderance of former female slaves in urban centers. Freed
manumitted
but
women
men
could easily
had far fewer options. Without family
in the will of their deceased
owner or
as
an
act of
sank into penu叩and prostitution.
Persisting warfare
and the
desire for larger populations also
meant
that not just
communities could be forcibly relocated. Resettlement of war areas under the victor’s control was always the preferred outcome of any
individuals but entire captives in conflict
between
rival political centers.
Although the mortality rate on the
battlefield
could
be high一thousands of soldiers, for instance, perished in the fighting between the Nguyen and Trinh in seventeenth-century Dai Viet - conquered populations in Southeast certainly
Asian warfare were usually taken as prisoners rather than killed because 5
was
some sense of the volume of
from Rakhine and shipped them to Batavia, while in Rakhine
of Bengali slaves assigned to the workforce led to a
able
dramatic increase in the trafficking of individuals seized in raids, taken
st过l
one
as“debt slaves" to a creditor, usually a
complementing compuls。可labor, the growing demand especially for the
just
months.
common
this trade.
children
could be called away from
districts
slaves
market for laborers and domestic servants. The
The growth of large port cities and royal capitals, the persistence new e附叩r ofw吁rice andαsh crop agriculture, and the em盯gence of
human
many
numbers of household
reflected in the
and mobility of human labor
continuing need for
in Southeast Asia acquired a partic吐ar
One was
labor.
captured in Bengal by Portuguese mercenaries and Rakhine raiders. Although also used as
historian.
agricultural laborers,
Slavery
human
always required to
work
manpower was
in fields or in construction, to maintain temples, carry out
domestic tasks like spinning, washing, and cooking, to entertain by singing and dancing,
and for a multitude of other tasks. Since war captives were considered to be chattel
slaves,
they could also be donated to religious foundations or temples as a meritorious act,
and
EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os
ASIA, 1400-1830 .I' - 11.u,nPlHT 只OUTHEAST ::,vu .Lil 山?-- OF EARLY岛1.0Dh.KN S匙‘A Hlδ1υK HISTORY 194雷电A records of endowment. For the most part, such of human donations are prominent in supply workers for land clearance, royal projects》 deoortations were intended primarily to Burmese forcibly marched or? In the early seventeenth century the
lists
agricultural labor.
Acehnese took back hundreds of prisoners been devastated by war. In the same period the most were assigned to work in 仕om conquered areas on the Malay Peninsula. Apparently many were simply abandoned in Acehnese pepper gardens, but observers also noted that
and
le仕to die of starvation.
was an increasing move- Contributing further to demographic change in this period to areas where there gravitated who ment among free populations. Lowly paid workers was
a
demand for year-round or seasonal laborers,
slave labor.
of
slaves, refugees,
their
and migrants
to
new lands and their growing involvement in the affairs
of
and
regicide.
The
ever-increasing
host countries contributed to a marked change in the ethnic diversity, social
composition, and economic complexity of Southeast Asian polities in this period.
UI
the capital
movement
deeply implicated in palace conspiracies
for instance, frequently complemented
An example is seen in the growth of Batavia, and the surrounding lands, where
of Fujian and poor Chinese immigrants, mainly from the southeastern Chinese provinces the new sugar on work to recruited Guangdong, and young male Javanese (bujang) were plantations. Local entrepreneurs involved in rice export
and market gardening were
even
Changes to the physical environment
A third feature of the
seventeenth century was the acceleration of environmental change.
This was due to the exploitation of resources
and the clearing of forests
new settlements
as
developed and as rice cultivation expanded to feed growing populations. In areas where - the soil was suitable and water available, swidden or “slash and burn" agriculture which
and brush cover
over time allows the tree irrigated fields.
While most
states actively
to return -
encouraged
began
this
to give
way
development
by
move ahead
of
occasionally relieving peasants of taxes), agricultural pioneers could also central authority. In the Philippines the Spanish introduced the
permanent
to
(for instance,
plow and promoted the
more eager to hire cheaper labor, which was usually negotiated through special individuals
growing of wet-rice and sedentary agriculture, including maize, sugar cane, and tobacco.
employment. The economic growth from the vast increase in international commerce in
rice terraces
who drew up
contracts stipulating the terms of
and physical expansion resulting Southeast Asian cities and the development of adjacent lands fed demands of cheap skilled and unskilled labor. Such willing to
work
for
areas served as a
magnet
for a large pool
for those
who
were
low wages and could relocate to places where seasonal work was
Increased mobility conflict, like the
among
free populations also
occurred as a result of warfare and
exodus of Bugis and Makassarese people from South Sulawesi escaping
the turmoil of prolonged conflict in the second half of the seventeenth centu巧. Bugis and
Makassar refugees had something to
offer potential
patrons because of their renowned
and commercial acumen, and were therefore recruited by
the region. Their leaders frequently married into royal families established their
own
who
mid seventeenth centu町proved
settled in
A yutthaya were
executed. Another example of suspicion towards migrant groups
the large Japanese colony in Ayutthaya in 1633,
when
The Nihonmachi was destroyed and the Japanese
Khmer
in
some
under royal
all
forces in attacking
outsiders fared better.
As
when
places
Ayutthaya.
protection
they revolted
eventually
was
killed or
the annihilation of
the leadership
through involvement in the palace violence by which Prasat Thong ruler.
and
faithful retainers until 1686,
against alleged mistreatment. After且erce resistance they
joined
rulers throughout
dynasties. Yet their loyalty, like that of other outside groups, could
be open to question. The Makassarese in the
in the Cordillera
control, taking
of northern Luzon also occurred as lowland people fled to escape Spanish
with them techniques previously developed along lower-level hillsides and
introducing wet-rice cultivation in the terraced taro-ponds of the upland-dwelling Igorot. In other places settlers
could modi马r existing farming practices or
initiate
The Minangkabau of Sumatra had already developed the water wheel to
available.
fighting skills
However, archaeological research indicates that a major extension of irrigated
(r.
fell
out of
favor
1629-56) became
evicted. Fleeing to Cambodia,由ey
In other cases groups initially seen
part of the Rakhine royal guard, the skilled
Muslim
as
archers
transported from eastern Bengal were required to drink the water of allegiance to ensure their fidelity. In time, however, they
became kingmakers
in their
own
right and were
new methods.
irrigate rice fields
and extract water from underground mining sha缸,and as migrants to the Malay Peninsula they transferred this technology to their
new homes.
In areas less amenable to
spread of New World crops such as maize allowed local populations to
irrigation the
move
into marginal lands出at could not previously support human settlement. It may have been Makassarese traders who introduced maize to the water-starved island of Sumba in
eastern Indonesia, but
it
was quickly incorporated
as a staple
and
“traditional"
crop for
which successful harvests required a special blessing from the ancestors. Land clearance was also encouraged to cultivate non-food or cash crops in
Vietnam the mulberry
trees that fed the
like cotton,
pepper, and indigo, or
silkworms on which the local
silk
industry
depended. Yet despite the revenues derived from cash crops, the production of food was always the highest priority, cultivation
and farming communities quickly returned
to subsistence
when profits fell. Efforts by authorities, both local and European, to enforce the
cultivation of
commercial crops in adverse times aroused considerable resistance. is evident that the demands of the market were beginning
In the seventeenth centu巧it to place pressures
on Southeast
Asia’s
unique biological environment. Forest
often deliberately felled to create grassy areas that
prey for hunters
would
and trappers, and certain animals such
elephants (for ivory)
were
specifically targeted.
attract
trees
were
animals and provide easy
as deer (prized for their skins)
and
Because of the global demand, elephant
l96
(;;
EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os
1400-1830 A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, and could fetch profits of around 100 percent; in the 1660s 15,500 lbs (7,000 kilos) a year. Dutch exports from Myanmar alone amounted to around may have been taken from elephants who had died, but even if the animal was not
Maluku islands the Dutch organized locally manned
Some
Ambon and
usually results in painful infection and killed the cutting of tusks (which are actually teeth)
faced the death penalty,
tusks were extremely valuable
elephants death. Nonetheless, although hundreds ofliving
elephant populations were able to survive,
were shipped annually to
The herds of deer which
are
its
armor. The
demand for
so丘ness, flexibility,
and
strength,
was used
for
making
Cambodia
More destructive to the natural environment was the wood trees to supply timber for urban construction and despite laws restricting size and tonnage, the
demand
treaty signed in 1677 allowed them to build a shipbuilding center
forest products could also
envoy
and
to
aloeswood
however, two or three thousand
(also
known
as
this valuable resin. In other cases, the
prices
Cham
would remain
policies
a
high.
and
VOC access to the sandalwood trees,
that cutting was prohibited.
reemergence of powerful
entities
The economic and
cation
were a key element as these large
and expand
cultural connections derived
their populations.
polities
from global trade and communi-
sought to increase control over physical
Combined with
the unending quest for status,
and
as refugees fled to safe havens.
The landscape
itself
was undergoing change as agriculture extended into areas that were previously light忖 inhabited
trees
to
and as the region’s unique plant and animal life felt the impact of the competition
supply global markets. Finally, despite the similarities that distinguish Southeast Asia as a
region, the influence
of Europeans一the Spanish in the Philippines and the Dutch in the
Malay-Indonesian archipelago - heightened the different experiences of island and main-
Rumphius
number
spirits
fate that
famed Pulau Cendana or
Ayu忧haya, and strong island kingdoms like those in central Java, Makassar, and
transported captives were resettled
Cham polities under Nguyen
authorities kept a record of trees felled, limiting the
Presumably conscious of the
economic competition generated recurring conflicts that led to demographic changes as
very value of such products could
E.
lifetime.
in this chapter begins with the
Aceh.
resources
appreciate the true value
were a major source of aloeswood, and according to the naturalist G.
(1627-1702),
reenergized
eaglewood or gaharu wood).7 Now,
provide some protection. The coastal areas in the surviving rule
and a
men were annually sent into the jungle to cut down
and Africa, observers were
both on the mainland and in the island areas - the “restored Taungo。”in Myanmar, a
be under threat as market demands increased. In 1686 a Persian
price" of the aromatic
were home to ancestral
The period discussed
In Java the
so depleted由at
human
were noticeable within a
saying they
that all logging be stopped. Other
Ay川haya reported that former忖“the Siamese did not
thought to contain
and
Of course, Southeast
remarking on environmental changes, which were sometimes so rapid and so striking
Sandalwood Island, adamantly refused to allow the
on the coast with access to
A hundred years later the forests of east Java were
Dutch Commission unsuccessfully recommended
size.
first arrival,
had provided some environmental protection. But the unrelenting market resulted in premature felling, and by the end of the century the
had fallen Timor, an eighteenth-centu巧ruler of Sumba, the
for greater cargo space led to the
Dutch had an eye on the teak tracts of eastern Java from the time of their
special
also
in
of vast numbers of hard-
construction of veritable“castles of the sea”that far exceeded the approved
hosts and takes around twenty years to mature,
Asia was not alone, for in other areas of the world, such as India
shipbuilding. Each Spanish ship trees,
ritual procedures. Since this
Portuguese were already bemoaning the ruin of the sandalwood trade.
that they
constructed in the Philippines required timber from about two thousand mature
the interior forests.
inroads of the
alone.
felling
and required prolonged
traditional attitudes
Southeast Asian deer increased markedly in the mid-seventeenth
1664 Chinese junks took out 128,000 hides from
islands.
clove or
partially parasitic tree requires specific
parts of samurai
centu巧a丘er over-hunting caused a drastic decline in deer numbers in Taiwan, and
Banda
all
place at certain times of the year
once
roamed freely on the grasslands of mainland Southeast Asia were less fortunate. The VOC and Chinese traders in A严1tthaya, Cambodia, and the Lao areas shipped out hundreds of thousands of deerskins per annum, mostly intended for Japan, where deer hide, valued because of
the
extiψatie, or extirpation expeditions,
nutmeg trees outside areas ofVOC control on Anyone growing cloves or nutmeg without authorization
locating and destroying
and ultimately most of these forests were eliminated. An even worse fate awaited the sandalwood tree of the Solor- Timor archipelago. Prior to the European arrival, local society had regarded sandalwood as sacred, and any cutting could only take
India,
presumably because female Asian elephants
usually tuskless and could thus continue to reproduce.
aimed
at
land.
so that
The nature of these differences will become evident in the detailed histories that follow.
Though Chinese traders complained about short supplies, such
must have contributed
to forest sustainab且ity.
Even
so, said
Rumphius,
aloes was
“much rarer in our time than
it was wont to be in the past."8 The most vulnerable ecosystem was in eastern Indonesia, and here the fragile relation- ship between man and environment was dramatically and permanently disrupted. In the
但斟t.:,,.,
喀Developments叫and
Southeast Asia
The Western Archipelago At the beginning of the seventeenth century the preeminence of the no此h Sumatran kingdom
:
John O'Kane, trans. and ed., T,川材Sulaiman (Londo1 Georgius Everhardus Rumphius, The AmbonesεHerbal, translated, annotated, and with an introduction by E. M. Beekman (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011) Vol. II: 48
of
Aceh
in the Straits of
Melaka was unchallenged.
were further enhanced under
its
renowned
Its
status
ruler, Sultan
and
Iskandar
territorial
expansion
Muda
1607-36).
(r.
梗电197
圳6 A HISTORY OF E肌Y MODERN…旧川山,14…何0
EXPANDING GLOBAL川肘,160叫90s
name -“the Young Alexander" - he proclaimed his descent from Alexander the Great, who was known to Malays via the Qur’an as Iskandar Zulkarnain, and who had been integrated into their own mythical history as a great Muslim hero. Through
his very
Sultan Iskandar’s Islamic credentials were reinforced by his reputation as a Sufi “in-dwelt
by
Allah,'’by his
and the Middle
East,
sponsorship of Muslim scholars
and by
his
who had
ruler
close links to India
emulation of court protocol in Ottoman Turkey and
T句-al
Alam's greatest setback came in the 1660s
engineered a treaty in authority over
all
which Aceh acknowledged the Minangkabau
Sumatran uplands).
central
voe
tion" of the
post at
A long
strip of the
Padang, and the
Meanwhile, the English East India
along the west coast. A丘er being evicted
officials,
and the prominence of court eunuchs. Aceh’s connections with the Islamic
Dutch
ruler in Pagaruyung’s
west coast was placed under the ?protec-
voe
eompany was
Mughal India. The influence of these models was evident in the political role played by the religious advisor, in the use of military titles for local
In 1668 the
the rantau (Minangkabau settlements outside their homeland in the
Syaikh al-Islam, the
ruler’s
when Minangkabau settlements along
Sumatra’s west coast sought VOC help in rejecting her overlordship.
was accorded
a trading
monopoly.
also contemplating establishing a base
by the Dutch仕om Banten
in 1682, the English set
up a post at Bengkulu (Benkulen), about 190 miles (300 kilometers) south of Padang. Both
world were strengthened by Hindu and Muslim
traders bringing rich cargoes of Indian textiles, the principal
exchange commodity
for
Southeast Asian products. Indian cloth was not only valued because of its quality and wide variety of designs, colors, and sizes, but it also formed a key element in rituals connected
with birth, marriage, and funerals. For their part, traders from India and elsewhere were
Aceh by a vast range of items that included Sumatran elephants, Minangkabau spices from the east, rice from Java, and cargoes from mainland ports such as Pegu
Dutch and English hoped to gain access to upland pepper supplies as well as the gold of central
Sumatra.
Much less is known about the three queens who followed Taj al-Alam, but at the end of the seventeenth centu可Europeans could st让l comment on the splendor and wealth of the Acehnese court. Nonetheless, religious opposition to female rule was growing, and some
attracted to
people publicly expressed their desire
gold,
them.呻Local chronicles allege that in 1699 a fatwa (Muslim legal pronouncement)
and
A yutthaya.
Straits products, tin
and pepper. In 1620
producing areas of the Aceh’s
monopoly over two important most important tin- western Malay Peninsula (Perak and Kedah), while extending
In addition, Iskandar gained a virtual
his forces overran the
control over pepper-producing areas in northeast
Sumatra and over
Minangkabau lands along
Sumatra’s western coast.
standing, Iskandar asked an
EIC
he would be installed
king over several pepper producing
as
o伍cial for
Anxious to enhance
an English wife, sa抖ng that
if
a son was born
He
even
approached the A严1tthaya court with an unsuccessful proposal for marriage with Siamese princess.
a
Islam had always been an important element in the evolution of an Acehnese identity, but under Sultan Iskandar’s successors debates regarding
religious localization
and the
an Islamic ruler became more intense. Muslim traders continued to receive royal favor, and one royal decree even banned Chinese from Aceh because they ate and reared pigs. Arriving in Aceh about 1636, a priorities of
Gujarati scholar of
Islam in
Hadhrami (Yemeni) tl叫叫est terrr
eventually overruled,
some Muslim
Iskandar’s daughter, Sultana Taj
descent,
scholars also
from Mecca decreeing that no
of
women, but the seventeenth centu巧marked the end of female rule. was the kingdom of Johor, where the capital moved between the River at the southern end of the Malay Peninsula and the nearby Riau-Lingga
Johor
archipelago.
Although Johor kings claimed direct descent from the royal house of Melaka,
they were never able to regain the territorial control
e时oyed by their illustrious forebears
by both the Acehnese and the Portuguese. Articulating this rivalry in religious terms, the Portu思1ese condemned all “Moors,”while an Acehnese poem from this period denounced the prince of Johor as a heretic, a sun worshipper, and a because of continuous attacks
follower of
Moses. In return for trade concessions and support against his enemies, the
Johor ruler therefore decided to assist the
Following the successful conquest of
Melaka
voe
in
its
in 1641, the
siege of Portu凯1ese Melaka.
Dutch granted Johor trading
advantages that were denied to other polities. These advantages enabled Johor to over-
opposed the
in Java,
installation of Sultan
shadow
its rival Aceh as the major port in the Straits area. The Dutch had determined that their center of operations would be located
commonplace existence,
(r.
1641-73), as
ruler.
9
10 v
at Batavia
and Melaka was retained simply as a伊ard post. One contemporary Dutch
of four seventeenth-century Acehnese queens, Taj al-Alam proved well able to deal with significant changes in the political and economic environment. Her skillful negotiations with the Dutch authorities in Batavia and Melaka seized from ( the Portuguese in 1641), despite frequent blockades of Aceh and its tin- producing vassal Perak, were highly effective in defusing tensions and assuring Aceh's
independence.
this
many examples
Aceh’s greatest rival
observer phlegmatically
VOC
should be permitted to reign, since
Nuruddin al-Raniri (d. 1658), condemned adherents of mvstical
al-Alam Sa句ryat al-Din
first
women
influential
As
the
have a Kinge to rule and beare dominion over
was against the law of Allah. Subsequent Acehnese history supplies
the
his regional
territories.
arrived
“to
down
to a
remaining only a memory.”10
St山,
noted that the once-prosperous city“has come its
wealth,
commerce
etc.
A Geographical Account of Countries Round the Bay of Bengal, 1669 to 1679, Richard Carnac Temple, ed. (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 190日,310, 325.
Thomas Bowrey, Cited in
P.A. Leupe,
JMB扎4.S 14,
1
(1936), 110.
6
199
200
EXPANDING GLOBAL川肘,1600-169os
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 knowledge of medicinal herbs and however, the forest dwellers, famed for their specialist a year a丘er the voe vict。可a aromatic woods, delivered their products to Melaka, and “Benua people" who were reconnoitering outside the town met a group of
sought out alternative markets
The hold of J ambi
Dutch party
bringing to market
“a
few roots for pregnant
In the following years J ohor’s traditionally in charge of the fleets
members
family
in
most
women
Laksamana
experiencing
their crews of
and
key positions. In
all
the powerful Malay
(“Admiral”),
Orang
voe
difficult labor."11
was able
Laut,
official
to place
his
public ceremonies Johor’s boy sultan was
seen sitting on the lap of his mother, the Laksamana’s daughter. This symbolic association was of great importance because the ruler, regarded with reverence by his Malay subjects,
family
Minister”)
By
to the sea people.
was almost god-like
managed
young
to seize the
Bendahara
a clever ruse, the rival
ruler
and thus induce the
(“Prime
sea people
to
support him. Successfully removing the Laksamana and his family from power, the Bendahara engineered J ohor’s economic resurgence from the 1670s and its displacement of Aceh as the dominant entrepot in the Straits and the leader of the In 1699, however, Johor’s standing in the
Malay world suffered
Mahmud,
disaffected nobles publicly assassinated Sultan
Contrary
line.
ruler.
to established practice, the non-royal
Malay world.
the last of the Melaka dynastic
Bendahara was
Although Johor recovered economically through relocating
its
installed as the new
capital to the nearby
Riau Archipelago, Malay society remained deeply divided because time-honored insisted that
and
that
all
subjects should render
unswerving loyalty to the
an u时ust king would receive due punishment from divine
thus questioned the Bendahara's legitimacy as successor. the
ruler,
Orang Laut refused
to由e Melaka dynastic
The
to transfer their allegiance to the
line.
crisis
tradition
whatever
forces.
his
sins,
Many Malays
was exacerbated when
Bendahara,
who
did not belong
Because the usurping royal house could no longer lay claim to
genealogical pre-eminence as Melaka's rightful heir, the regicide of 1699
marks
a turning
In southeast Sumatra, the lowland rulers of Jambi
and Palembang exercised
suzerainty
rulers over the interior
and
local traders
and other Southeast Asian
was
steadily
weakened
arranged for
ports.
as they tried to satis行
higher prices and of lesser quality than those previously pepper growers and gold miners who moved Minangkabau brought by into upstream areas were unwilling to accept Jambi’s overlordship, while the downstream capital was rent by internal factions caused by the arrival of Makassar refugees fleeing from VOC campaigns in their homelands in southwest Sulawesi. Frustrated by Dutch to
buy Dutch-supplied
text过es at
Indian traders.
ambi ruler even made overtures to A严1tthaya, indicating his willingness traditional tokens of tribute known as “bunga mas dan perak”(lit.,“gold and
intervention, the to
send the
silver
J
and
flowers,”representations of gold
gifts as
symbol of vassal
the
status).
By
silver floral trees,
contrast, a flourishing
accompanied by valuable
and
prestigious
of domestic conflicts was better placed to negotiate with the
seaborne connections for which, said one Dutchman,
exploit the
it
Palembang
VOC
was renowned
and
to
“from
ancient times.”12
Although Jambi saw A严1tthaya as a possible overlord, Thai attitudes towards tributary states were already changing as A严1tthaya extended its authority southwards into areas were culturally Malay.
that
A
Malay
regular timetable was maintained for
vassals to
submit the “gold and silver flowers," and refusal to send this tribute was tantamount to rebellion.
Retribution was immediate and unforgiving, as demonstrated in the
polity of Patani, a
Patani skills
was
also
Malay
well-frequented port on the maritime route from China. Like Aceh,
and Europeans were impressed by the diplomatic of person and full of majesty.”13 Patani had been willing to
amenable to female
of the old queen,“tall
rule
send the gold and silver flowers to A严1tthaya in return for virtual independence, but the fourth
point in the history of the Malay world.
Sumatra’s west coast
demands for the delivery of pepper at low prices, while their subjects were required
relatively free
a major setback when
on
cargoes of pepper to be sent to Johor, China,
and
last
queen of Patani came
resisted their subservient status.
On
to the throne about 1635 she
several occasions
when
and her successors
A yutthaya rulers
dispatched
fleets
pepper-growing uplands. During the early sixteenth century both these “upstream-
and armies to force this rebellious vassal to submit, with the most decisive invasion occurring in 1689. Coinciding with internal factionalism, ongoing warfare completely
downstream"
disrupted Patani’s
own
over their
were
fleets
states
of
Orang Laut and over
riverine
had come under Javanese
far into the
and a hundred years later they They survived threats from Aceh in the
influence,
sending tribute to the Mataram court.
still
communities reaching
1620s only to become arenas for commercial competition as the Dutch and English vied to gain greater supplies of pepper and displace
much
older trading communities of Indians,
he could
products required
and
his brothers,
treat the English as his children,
was simply unworkable. Ultimately
eclipsing
rivals,
the
deliveries.
VOC compelled Jambi and Palembang to accept monopoly
12
Enforcement, however, was vi此ually impossible as upstream communities
Cited in P.A. Leupe,“De Orang Benuas of wilden op Malakka in 1642:’BKI 8 (1862), 33.
by monopoly contracts aroused considerable resentment. The
closest
its
contracts for pepper
1
11
Europeans, looked elsewhere
Melaka had once provided. Nor was there any concerted movement against Dutch, even though VOC restrictions on maritime trade and pressures to deliver the
the
husband, maintain the Portuguese as
as foreign traders, including the
leadership
Chinese, and black Portuguese. In this situation, the ruler of Jambi’s expressed hope出at relate to Batavia as a wife to a
economy
more
profitable environment. At the end of the seventeenth centu巧no Malay kingdom had emerged to assume由e
for a
3
Cited in Barbara Watson Andaya, To Live as Brothers: Southeast Sumatra in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1993), 118. Cited in W. H. Moreland, ed. Peter Floris: His Voyages to the East Indies in the Globe 1611-1615
(London: H汰luyt Society 1934), 59.
4
201
202
' A HISTORY OF EAR…ODE RN…HEAST A队14…伽 approximation was launched in 1685 by a charismatic figure from Minangkabau known as Raja Sakti ( the holy king), who claimed he was commissioned by Allah to expel all
Dutchmen and
called
to join him.
on fellow Muslims
leaders of anti-European rebellions
is
his vision of
What
sets
him apa口from
an archipelago-wide
other
alliance; letters
were sent not only to Islamic courts in Aceh, west Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and Ternate, but also to the Buddhist ruler of Ayutthaya. This vision disintegrated,
however, when
the cultural and economic rivalries that contributed to the persistence of local
faced by
loyalties.
the grave of
Sunan
also
sponsored the writing of Islamic
history of Java during the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries can be constructed in
considerable detail because of the rich corpus of Javanese texts and extensive
known
of the legendary Senapati (died
in later texts as a recipient of the special favor of the powerful
c.
VOC
1601), described
Goddess of the
Southern
Ocean, Ratu Kidul, with whose support he achieved military victories and
laid the
Mataram kingdom. There is far more specific information regarding grandson, Sultan Agung (“Great Sultan,”r. 1613-46), the architect of Mataram’s
foundations of the his
expansion. His principal opponent was the coastal derived from international trade. cities,
and
as overlord over
domain of Surabaya, with
As the acknowledged leader of Java’s
most of the eastern Javanese
its
wealth
pasisir or coastal
salient (the area closest to
Surabaya posed a direct challenge to Sultan Agung’s quest for supremacy on Nonetheless,
bere丘of
Mataram forces
allies,
steadily
overcame each of the coastal
polities,
and
Bali),
Java.
Surabaya,
was eventually starved into submission in 1625. Through these
victories
W
ali
to
whom
the intro-
introduced an Islamic calendar that was
texts,
He
such as the still-popular Serat Yusuf, a Javanese
account based on the Qt汀’anic story of Joseph in Egypt.
Some
of these manuscripts were
considered sufficiently powerful to bestow blessings
his arrows,
may
that
reflect Agung’s
and
own
philosophy urges the Javanese king to
draws a direct relationship between Islamic
victories in war. Islamic beliefs are the ruler’s fortress, the Qt汀’an
and piety
his
bow. In vanquishing
his
enemies through magical powers, the
demonstrates that his position was given“by the most Holy God/because of your
ruler
on the
shown divine grace."14 In 1641, Agung followed the example of his contem- ruler of Banten, and became the first Mataram ruler to adopt the Islamic title
outstanding heroism
field
of battle/Yea you are
requesting authorization from Mecca,
a丘er
pora町,the
of Sultan.
When he died in
Sultan Agung’s son father,
and
his cruelty
1646 he was honored as a holy man.
and successor, Amangkurat
prince,
Raden Trunajaya
Mataram
in east
r叫er.
I,
proved
and arbitrary execution of senior
far less capable
courtiers
1649-80), whose father had been murdered
(c.
at the orders
Because of Madura’s generally poor
A伊ng became master of both central and most of eastern Java, as well as the nearby island
staple. It is
of Madura.
men
Only the western end of Java (the kingdom of Banten) and Balinese-supported Blambangan at the eastern tip remained free of Mataram’s control, although Sultan Agung
larger
are
the sea that provides a livelihood,
known
of
Only a few miles of water separate Madura from the port of Surabaya
Java (near the former Majapahit capital), but the physical environment
different.
than his
and respected Muslim
1675 a rebellion was led by a Madurese
leaders generated considerable opposition. In
the
on the reader and audience equivalent Mecca, or combat in a Holy War (jihad).
of the Qur’an, the pilgrimage to
to the recitation
kingship, piety,
little is
A凯mg
follow Sufi asceticism in language that
The Central Archipelago
sources. Nonetheless,
most senior of the revered Nine
based on the lunar year while retaining elements of the former Hindu-style system.
One manuscript
The
Giri, the
duction of Islam in Java was attributed.
as shippers
and
traders.
soils,
yams
is
quite
rather than rice are出e food
and throughout the archipelago Madurese
The embroilment of Madura
in the affairs of
its
neighbor was almost inevitable, given the long history of economic and social
interaction with the Javanese.
probably viewed both as obstacles to his ambitions rather than sworn enemies. From 1619 a more intransigent rival was the VOC stronghold at Batavia, a small territorial
shared past helps explain his appeal to Javanese. In addition, his marriage to the daughter
enclave protected by a massive European-style fo口fronting directly onto the sea and by a
of a revered Islamic leader
anchored offshore. Despite overwhelming numbers, Javanese forces in 1628 and 1629 were unable to breach Batavia’s walls or starve out the defenders, who were easily
whose treaty with the
supplied by sea. A丘er these setbacks
southwest Sulawesi,
large fleet
which meant that Batavia
Agung never again
indirectly shielded the
sent his armies
against the Dutch,
kingdom of Banten from
Mataram’s
otherwise relentless advance. It
also
spiritual
seems that these
fa过ed ventures
power through concerted
his forebear Senapati,
encouraged Agung to strengthen his
efforts to synthesize
Javanese beliefs with
sources of
Islam. Like
Trunajaya claimed descent from the great kingdom of Majapahit, and the legacy of a
attracted
many
produced
VOC
a formidable coalition against出e
was depicted
disaffected Javanese,
renowned
Mataram
ruler,
as a pact with Christian infidels. Trunajaya
and was
fighters intent
also joined
by Makassar refugees丘om
on avenging the humiliating conquest of
homeland by a voe一Bugis alliance. A sense of impending disaster was heightened by the approach of the Javanese year 1600 (1677 CE), since it was commonly believed出at the end of a centu巧would witness cataclysmic events. Indeed, Mount Merapi erupted in their
1672, rains
fell
out of season, and there was a lunar eclipse. The rebel forces soon
Agung was thought
to be the lover of Ratu Kidul, whom he was said to have visited in her magnificent underwater palace, but he also made Islam central to the Javanese concept of kingship. This is marked by his pilgrimage in 1633 to
14
Cited in M. C. Ricklefs, Mystic Synthesis in Java: a History of Islamization卢om the Fourteenth Ear炒Nineteenth Centuries (EastBridge, CT: Signature Books, 2006), 48-9.
to the
则'A
EXPANDING GLOBAL川川600-169os
HISTORY旧川LY MODERN SOUTHE川山 cceeded in capturing the Mataram
resulting conflict the ruler,
who had
capital,
taken
which was looted and put to the torch.
flight,
was
enhanced by connections with Mecca and the presence of such scholars for the Dutch to as Syeikh Yusuf. Internal factionalism, however, provided an opportunity control of the sought to gain intervene when Sultan Tirtayasa’s son and crown prince
Islam was further
In the
killed.
Hιn and successo川m肌a哝ura
kingdom by force. Fa过ing to attract sufficient support, he solicited help from the VOC, which now pursued its well-proven method of demanding concessions before agreeing to give assistance. In 1682 Batavia dispatched troops to Banten, deposed Tirtayasa, placed
he o旺ered the Dutch significant territorial concessions In return for military assistance, southward to the Indian Ocean),思iarantees of deliveries of (including land from Batavi a armies brought together superior compensation. In 1679 ・
rice
and teak, and
VOC
financial
crown prince on the throne, expelled all other European traders (most notably the English), and exiled Sheikh Yusuf to the Dutch-ruled Kaapstad (Cape Town) in what is
of their Bugis allies and succ时曲时ed the ??tc? firepower and the figh问skills and delivered to Amangkurat, who personally stabbed rebellion. Trunajaya was captured compliance with the 1677 agreements and him to death. Although Amangkurat II resisted from the Dutch, his initial appeal to the VOC made him
attempted to distance himself vulnerable to criticism that he had
set aside his cultural heritage in favor
the
now South
garb"
t
Mataram
sitting
upon
his throne."15
Opposition to the Dutch
alliance was
o: was Sye削Yusuf of M冰assar (1626-99), who h仙et旧时d的m position in the west Javanese cou口ot important an assume to East Middle study in the Banten, then a center of Islamic learning and practice. should be broken. Wi出 By 1686 Amangkurat II decided that the links with the VOC
years
figures
royal approval, a former Balinese slave
named
Surapati
(whom
later Javanese tradition
VOC
contingent of the small elevated to the status of royal descent), killed around half genuine challenge to the the Mataram palace. For a time this alliance presented a
guarding
and the Minangkabau Dutch, and there was even some communication between Surapati forced to "holy man,'’R均a Sakti. Eventually, however, Surapati and his followers were out an independ- to the remote Tengger uplands of eastern Java, where they carved retreat
ent
domain and where Surapati was
Amangkurat
II
his reign finally killed in 1706. In the final years of
sought a reconciliation with the Dutch, but relations remained
uneasy.
A significant outcome of this period was Batavia’s deep involvement in native disputes, contravention of policies laid
down by the VOC
In west Java, Banten was able to retain
its
directors in
reputation as a center for Islamic learning. In 1638 the ruler adopted the significant statement because
it
Mecca and Medina
sustain
its
the Sharif
in the Islamic Holy
Land. Another religious figure from Mecca established the office of Kadi ( Qadi),即 ana highest religious authority in the land, thus reinforcing the links between Banten the
Muslim
heartlands.
Under Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa
(r.
1651一82), Banten prospered
an international entrepot and major supplier of pepper, and
its
reputation as a center
M. C. Ricklefs, War, Culture and Economy in Java 1677-1726: Asian and European Imperialism in the Ear炒Kartasura Period (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1993), 64.
Cited in
Bali.
For
dominant kingdom was centered in Gelgel, which extended
much
its
and
eight-
of this period the
influence to the eastern
part of Java, although here the Balinese faced repeated attacks from Javanese Mataram.
A
mission sent to Ayutthaya in 1646
assistance.
From
may
therefore have been intended to solicit Thai
the 1650s Bali reverted to its可pically localized polities, and despite the
and subsequently Mengwi in the south, the island remained divided into competing realms which acknowledged no single overlord. The Balinese elite continued to regard east Java as their ancestral home, but from
rise
of Buleleng in the north,
由e 1660s
The
Karangasem
Karangasem extended
fully repelling
late
its
largely
then
in the east,
authority into the western areas of
opposition from southwest Sulawesi and
seventeenth century was
marked by
authority over the neighboring island of
Lombok,
success-
the nearby island of S山口bawa.
periodic Balinese campaigns to assert
Lombok, where
the local people,由e Sasak, were
Muslim. Recalling invasions of the 1690s, Sasak leaders said that the Balinese were
“daily stealing
for the
and capturing so many people
whom由ey
sold,由at this land
was
had been of little economic interest to Europeans; Bali of savage people”and Dutch sources accord it only passing
English was“an island
mention.17 However, because of the growing demand for labor to service the needs of Batavia
and other
VOC cities, Bali became increasingly important as a source of slaves, especially
women. Sold by
their
own
lords or captured in ongoing con且icts, hundreds of people仕om
and neighboring islands were sent to Batavia, and the Balinese language became an impo此ant component of the distinctive Betawi Ian伊age s旧l spoken in modern Jakarta. Bali
as 16
for 17
15
little
literary sources for the seventeenth
about developments on
completely ruined."16 Initially Bali
title “Sultan," a
had been requested from and granted by
(governor, traditional steward) of the cities of
in
Amsterdam.
independence from Mataram and
most formidable
a trading ente叩rise into Java's
documentary and
In contrast to Java,
led
eenth centuries reveal
b;肌 s1.
had been transformed from
territorial lord.
li
a prince of
voe
the
so tha poem which describes his “donning Dutch-style and‘‘n川all ke ob飞er仕omaf:盯he looked 1阳he Governor-General仙atavia"
《‘if
VOC not only acquired further territories in
Ceribon and the Priangan uplands, but gained a decisive advantage over their English acquisitions, rivals. Through its king-making policies in Mataram and Banten and its land
of infidels. This is
clearlv evident in a Javanese
Africa. Following this victory the
Cited in
Hans Hagerdal, Hindu
Rulers,
Muslim
Su句ects:
Lombok and Bali
Eighteenth Centuries (Bangkok: White Lotus, 2001), 66. Cited in David Kenneth Bassett, The Factory of the English East India
Edited and Introduced by
Dianne Lewis (Penang, Malaysia:
Studies Publications Series, 2010), 189.
in the Seventeenth
Company
at
and
Bantam, 1602-1682.
USM Press. APRU-USM Asia Pacific
6
205
?
EXPANDING GLOBAL川肘,1600-169os
MOnF.RN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 206,、A HISTORY OF EARLYv MUlJ也KNδU
necessary to ensure that Filipinos did not stray
The Northern Archipelago
therefore relied heavily
from the Christian
on the卢seal de doctrir叽a member
path.
The
of the principalia
friars
who was
in the Philippines developed For several reasons the Spanish colonial administration occupation of the island of brief was a Philippines principal foray outside the
persuading or responsible for various duties such as organizing processions on holy days, The catechism. the of compelling people to attend Mass, and supervising recitation
whose inhabitants had succeeded in ousting the Portuguese in 1575. A large armed expedition sent from Manila succeeded in seizing Ternate in 1606, and it became
Catholic orders remained unwilling to admit Filipinos as friars, but
withdrawal to Manila in the center of Spanish activity in Maluku until their voluntary on the ongoing pacification concentrated 1663. In the Philippines itself, attention was
and the inclusion of “Indios" in confraternities of devout laymen
slowly. Its
Ternate,
seventeenth century
some
secular priests (mostly Chinese- Filipino)
by the end of the
were ordained, and
women was
well
campaigns, and the implantation of administrative plans was impeded by the continuing lack of personnel. The military force was tiny, and attempts to attract colonists from
to perform established. In more remote areas suitable Filipinos were sometimes selected important Christian duties, such as baptism and preparing the seriously ill for death. This meant that Church rituals like the sacrament of communion, thought to impart not
Hispanic America and Spain were unsuccessful; in 1604 there were only 1,200 Spaniards in the entire Philippines. The ambitious resettlement program of moving the Indios from
with merely sanctity but courage, strength, and potency, were interpreted in accordance more enforce to present always were not local beliefs because Spanish missionaries
their scattered
hamlets to larger barangay (世Hages) or pueblos (provincial towns)
ceeded slowly, and at the end of the seventeenth century there were
st让l
pro-
orthodox doctrines and practices.
only around
twenty barangay outside the Manila region where the population numbered more
than
Local understandings of the of anti-Spanish rebellions in
power of Christianity
which the indigenous
adopted Christian symbols and
are particularly evident in a
number
who
acted as
priests
and
priestesses
Tapar, a babaylan from the Visayan island of
two thousand people.
leaders
During this time, however, the allocation of encomiendas steadily declined, falling from 257 in 1591 to 186 in 1621. By 1700 most of the Spanish Philippines had been divided into
Panay, was described by the Spanish as“a noted sorcerer and priest of the
provinces under Spanish governors (alcalde-mayores) or magistrates. Poorly recompensed, they usually tried to augment their
more payment and relatively
few
tribute
meager pay through various schemes
from the people under their control. Because
where the headman (cabeza de barangay) was
(“little
governor"),
who headed
local administrator
down to villages,
responsible for collecting tribute from
Foremost among the principalia was the
thirty to forty families.
a pueblo,
and was
gobernadorcillo
and thus occupied the highest
was necessary for him to be literate and able and
there were
Spanish officials, the Christianized indigenous elite, the principal仰,became
a key element in the colonial administration. Their connections stretched
around
that exacted
to speak Spanish, since
native
office.
he acted as both judge
in charge of organizing corvee duties, collecting
and overseeing church attendance. He was
also expected to
It
tribute,
work closely with the friars in
maintaining order, adjudicating petty crimes, and inflicting physical punishment when necessa巧. Although the principalia could act as an extension of Span
might
also
become spokesmen
h government, the y
for discontented peasants, challenge the authority of other
The involvement of high-ranking
Filipinos
committed to the evangelizing agenda was
crucial to the success not only of Spanish colonization, but of Christianity
people themselves remarked,“If the father of them
do
otherwise?”18
dressed in the clothes of a instructions
all
became
a Christian,
The Spanish were convinced, however, that constant
itself.
Pedro Chirino, Relacion de
las Islas Filipinas: the Philippines in 1600, (Manila: Historical Conservation Society, 1969), 337.
Ramon
In developing his entitling
one
own
religion,
demon" who
he claimed that
of his deputies “Son,”another the
Although churches were occasionally attacked, Filipinos involved in such movements were already able to distinguish between Spanish colonial exploitation and their own a acceptance of a new religion. In another anti-Spanish uprising in 1660 Andres Malong, of the principalia from Pangasinan, allied with upland Sambal people. Styling “had no himself King of Pangasinan, he nonetheless stressed that he and his followers ... with desire to abandon the faith of Jesus Christ which they had professed at baptism
member
God出ey would be faithful sons of the Church until death."20 Such rebellions, however, rarely moved beyond a localized area, and a force of Spanish soldiers assisted by The enslave- native auxiliaries and local allies was sufficient to overcome any resistance.
the help of
stakes,
rebels, executions, hangings,
were grim reminders of the
realities
and public display of corpses impaled on
of colonial power.
Filipino challenges to Spanish colonialism were primarily due to onerous tribute, military service,
and
forced labor, including timber extraction
demands
trans.
2°
for
and shipbuilding.
supervision was
Echevarra,
his
Holy
and executed.
19
18
titles.
apostles, Ghost, and a female supporter“Maria Santisima." Tapar’s cult had its own Father."19 sealed was fate His bishops, and popes, and he himself took the title “Eternal following were captured after he killed a priest who opposed him, and he and most of his
The
how could they
woman.
came from the ancestors,
ment of captured
principalia, or even lead revolts.
'
Colonialism, Cited in Eric Anderson,“Traditions in Conflicts: Filipino Responses to Spanish 1565-1665," PhD由esis, University of Sydney, 1977, 146-7. Cited in Rosario Mendoza Cortes, Pangasinan, 1572-1800 (Quezon City, 1974), 155.
207
208
'A川ORY OF川LY MODERN SOUTHEAST A队140叫 The construction of a
EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os K十209
single ship could require the mobilization of thousands of workers,
and many deaths resulted from poor
diet, disease,
and
ill
treatment. In addition, demands
for rowers in Spanish galleys increased considerably when campaigns were mounted against Spain’s enemies, the Muslims in the south and, between 1609 and 1647, the
Protestant Dutch. In 1616 a Spanish plan to attack the Dutch on Java was aborted when the fleet reached Singapore waters, but seven hundred of the three thousand Filipino sailors
aboard died of fevers and other
illnesses.
The absence or permanent
loss of male
meant women and children o丘en had to shoulder responsibilities for the sowing and ha凹esting of rice, and this gender imbalance would have contributed to a continuing labor
mining was not merely precluded by geographical inaccessib且ity and alienate the fierce opposition, but by Igorot beliefs that missionary attitudes would working Men its treasure. earth to for the was yield favor necessary whose powerful spirits
exploitation of gold
in the
gold mines followed certain rituals very closely, consulting auguries and sacrificing
pigs to ensure that a vein of
gold would continue. Should Christians enter the mines, the
would be angered. Although a number of military expeditions were under- gold taken, from 1668 the Spanish abandoned efforts to take direct control of the Igorot retaliation and in mines. Christian Filipinos had often been included in these campaigns, anito (spirits)
lowland barangay became targets of headhunting raids by upland groups. Adherence Christianity thus introduced new divisions by distinguishing lowland Filipinos from
their
decline in lowland populations.
to
Vehement opposition to Spanish colonialism also came from Manila’s Chinese commu- nity. A significant number of Chinese had adopted Christianity, and although missionaries
animist highlanders
believed that
and undermining ( though not eliminating) the old trading connec- tions that had previously linked lowland and upland communities. By 1700 the Spanish had effectively introduced Christianity over most lowland areas in
conversion
the north
many new converts were sincere, in other cases the advantages obtained made a purely pragmatic decision. For example, wealthy Chinese men could use the
patronage involved in becoming a godparent to build up a following of
1599 the ever-suspicious Spanish forbade Spanish distrust meant that
when a hundred-strong
official
and
in
beyond the urban
depth
of
control
clients,
this practice to Christian Chinese.
The
delegation from Fujian
visited
Manila in 1603 (apparently to enquire about the existence of a“golden mountain,”news of
which had reached the emperor) local
Chinese were planning a
it
was immediately interpreted
revolt. Conflict
Chinese. Although the Chinese emperor took
court
merchants
still
who
“disgrace
no
killing
action,
around twenty
deeming those
thousand
involved
our Empire" by abandoning their parents, the
believed that the Spanish “had
outbreak of violence occurred in 1639 participation in the galleon trade
an indication由at由e
erupted and with the assistance of Filipinos
and Japanese mercenaries, the Spanish responded by unfilial
as
murdered people without
when Chinese
license."21
and central Philippines, but actual Spanish administration did not extend
to be
imperial
A
second
protests against restrictions on
their
and abuses, such as forcible work on crown lands, triggered
areas.
available for
some 600,000
Qt汀’anic
knowledge.
a
Chinese rebellion against the Spanish in 1662,
another in 1686, but these were suppressed by Spanish and Filipino forces. Quelling resistance was far more difficult among mountain groups, where justified
campaigns by arguing that
God had
the exclusive use of naked savages."22
never intended the gold of the
The Spanish found, however,
with
22"
He was
met
fierce
and
also reputed to speak fluent Spanish, as well as Chinese,
branch of the Franciscan order.
(now
From 1622 the Recollects began to gather converts among
termed Lumad) around the Cagayan River in aroused Kudarat’s anger because he regarded the Lumad
collectively
northern Mindanao, but this
His efforts to suppress their perceived disloyalty met staunch resistance, especially from Christianized Lumad leaders. Questions of loyalty, articulated as Christian-Muslim enmities, were exacerbated after the Spanish rebuilt the Zamboanga fort in 1634.
friars
interior
“for
that any possibility of
Kudarat responded by seeking closer relations with the Dutch, by negotiating a marriage alliance with the daughter of the Sultan of Sulu, and by dispatching raiding expeditions to the northern islands, particularly the Visayas. Though the Jesuits were instrumental in urging the building and maintenance of the
Cited in Jo始E斗genic Borao,“The Massacre of 1603: Chinese Perception of the Spanish in由e Philippines,”Itmerario 22, 1 (March 1998), 32 Cited in W. H. Scott, The Discovery of the Igorots: Spanish Contacts with the Pagans of Northern Luzon (Quezon City: New Day, 1974), 26-30
Zamboanga fort,
it
was under
from Ternate) and was abandoned in 1662 when troops were withdrawn to protect Manila from expected attacks by the Chinese. From the Spanish/Christian perspective, Moro terrorizing of villages and
continual attack 21
native converts. Furthermore, the Spanish
clerics
and Dutch, and was eager to learn about world affairs, including European customs and beliefs. Any possib过ity of compromise with Manila was undermined by Spanish host且ity towards “Moros" and by the inroads of missionaries from the Recollect
as his subjects.
up by Koxinga encouraged
time only around 400
English,
had been brought from Mexico and resembled a Filipina. Spanish retaliation was swift and merciless and it is estimated that a further 20,000 Chinese died. The maritime empire
built
at this
sustained resistance in the south, which was dominated by Muslim sultanates in the Sulu archipelago and on the island of Mindanao. Through international trade the Magindanao sultanate had expanded and reached a highpoint under Sultan Kudarat (r. 1619一71), an exceptional individual who was regarded as a “holy man" because of his Islamic piety and
the interior peoples
that
in the Christianized areas in the count巧side, the extent of
was loose and intermittent since there were
major insurrection that attacked symbols of Spanish power. The church of Antipolo was burned and attempts made to destroy its revered image, a Virgin Mary carved in dark wood a
Even
far
from
local forces (with assistance
enslavement of local populations provided evidence of their “brutality,”but in the
EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 160叫90s
210' A HISTO盯OF山…ODERN SOUTHEAST山 southern Philippines由is period repelled the infidel Spaniards Sulu, the second
is st过l
and
remembered
as a time
when Muslims
successfully
their missionizing efforts.
major southern Muslim sultanate, had long been involved
national trade with China and the rest of the archipelago. Because of
importance Sulu was also subject to attacks by the Spaniards, but was able these incursions with help
from
its
of the anti-Qing leader Koxinga in 1662
meant
his
in inter-
economic
to withstand
planned attack on Manila had
Taiwan and there was
likelihood of a renewed campaign. In 1663 the Spanish therefore
them. Smaller fortifications and mission posts were
was another
fifty
still
still
not
a strong
withdrew from Zambo-
anga and Maluku to concentrate their forces on Manila, and the
it
its
neighbors, including Magindanao. Although the death
materialized, his followers were in firm control of
north and east coasts, but
Jesuits accompanied
maintained along the Mindanao’s
years before Manila again tried to advance
Spanish interests in the Muslim south.
Fi凯ire 5.2.
An
ancestor from
Indonesia. This ivo叩statue,
eastern
dating
from the
late
centu可,represents
The Eastern Archipelago
direct the course of history in island Southeast
The o丘-cited case is the Banda archipelago in central Maluku, which the VOC seized in
1621. In a show of brutal force the Dutch governor-general Jan Pieterszoon Coen (1587-1629) forcibly removed or killed most of the indigenous population, estimated at
15,000 people, and出us gained control over the world’s prima巧source of nutmeg and mace. Coen then introduced a plantation system operated by European and Eurasian settlers, who were provided with slave labor made up of various ethnic groups from other Maluku islands
VOC,
from
New
Guinea, Timor, and Borneo. In 1605 Portuguese and Spani h were ousted from their former stronghold on由e neighboring islan of Ambon, which in the mid-seventeenth century became the飞TOC's designated sole produ- cer of cloves.
evangel垃ation.
As
as well as
the major
VOC
from the Tanimbar Islands. So Cornelius was
ancestor
ways in which European intervention helped
defeated by the
seventeenth
an important
Teran (old master)
During the seventeenth century the Eastern Archipelago provides several graphic examples of Asia.
'211
outpost,
The estimated 20,000
who was
said to have Dutch attempt to monopolize Tanimbar trade when
a village
chief
thwarted a
the
voe established a post
in
1645 against local wishes. So Cornelius persuaded the Dutch to
and relations remained he was presented with
leave
amicable, since a coat
of chain mail, a small cabinet, and his name indicates that he
adopted Christianity.
(According to
the Bible, Cornelius, a
centurion,
the
was the
first
Roman
non-Jew
convert to Christian teaching.) Liefkes
Rijksmuseum
Collection 412,
voor
V olkenkunde,
Leiden, the Netherlands.
Ambon also became a center for Protestant on Ambon and the surrounding islands and
Catholics
would provide allies against the advance of Islam. At times VOC officials were quite ruthless in their determination to obliterate all signs of“devil-worship,”and in the
of the ambitions were tempered by the presence rice-growing powerful Makassarese kingdom of Gowa, with its wealth derived from寻rich Gowa launched interior and a thriving entrepot. When the ruler adopted Islam in 1605,
1620s and 1630s more than a thousand structures dedicated to indigenous
what Bugis
“heathen”communities became a target for Dutch missionary work in the belief that converts to Protestantism
spirits
were
In the
Eastern Archipelago,
and Makassarese chronicles
west Sulawesi
order to arouse real jealousy amongst other heathens in the surrounding
Bajau communities.
area.”23
nearby
A
key element in
B町0," or 23
Cited in G. J. Knaap, Kruidnagelen en Christenen: De Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie en de bevolking van Ambon 1656-1696 (Dordrecht: Feris, 1987), 109, llS
to the
call
the “Islamic
Wars"
that forced
all
the south-
extended to kingdoms to embrace the new faith. The campaigns were Ternate. Sumbawa and eastwards to islands that had formerly paid fealty to
destroyed. Other officials realized that cultivating Christianized allies requ让ed patience and enticement. In 1677, when the entire pop吐ation of a叫llage on the island of Seram was baptised, the governor thus sponsored a feast and distributed text过es to the converts “in
VOC
VOC
Gowa' s叫ansion was According to the
its
Gowa
Sama relationship明th the se川well中g "Karaeng in the distant past a
Chronicle,
who had descended progenitors of the Gowa
Lord of the Bajau, married a female upperworldly being
Gowa. They ruled together and became the The origin story of the Gowa royal lineage reflects the
land of
royal house.
close relationship
212
' A HISTORY OF EAR…ODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫
EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os are a very useful people."24 Their importance in the foundation
They
king.
expansion of island
kingdoms
and the
modern period
is thus emphasized in both contemporary Portuguese and Dutch documents. the Sama Bajau, Gowa could draw on European traders, missionaries,
and
indigenous chronicles In addition to
in the early
in
and mercenaries residing in the
kingdom
and training to create an burgeoning trade conducted in Makassar, Gowa was able to create direct links to Spanish Manila and to several Indian kingdoms. Its receptivity to foreigners was legend, and one Englishman describes Gowa as飞very impressive fighting force.
and
pleasant
King
is
and the kindest people in all the Indias to strangers. The and true-harted towards Christians." In response to repeated Dutch other Europeans should be excluded from his port, the ruler flatly stated
fruitful countrye,
demands that
count巧stands open to
for the Portuguese."25
was taken two kilometers offshore from the island of Kaledupa Bajau. This photograph
2007 in a Sama Bajau village located about in the Tukangbesi archipelago, which lies in
southeast of Sulawesi. Though it is a modern picture, in many respects the lives of Orang Laut and Sama Bajau st山follow traditional pa忧ems. The man has just returned from spearfishing at a nearby reef and the women have been ga出ering mangrove wood for firewood and collecting fresh water from a well on Kaledupa. Photograph courtesy of Lance Nolde.
Sama Bajau communities and kingdom of Tallo.
before their merger, the
As
in the relationship
the
kingdom
Gowa
and,
rise
and
Makassarese and Bugis kingdoms in southwest Sulawesi (see Fi伊re 出e sea lanes and delivered rare sea products, such as tortoiseshell
in the Straits of
prosperity of
5.3).
They
the
patrolled
and ambergris, which
could fetch high prices in the international market. In 1693, for instance, the
VOC paid
the Tidore ruler £2,000 for a piece of ambergris weighing 185 lbs (84 kg). Because of the close ties
between
territorial bases also
and the Makassar court, Sama Bajau networks and formed a vanguard for Gowa' s expansion to the east, where perman-
their leaders
Sama Bajau coastal settlements were established in various islands, such as Flores and Sumbawa. From these strategic locations their fleets were easily deployed to serve Makas- sar's interests. Unlike the Orang Laut in and around the Straits of Melaka, who remained sea dwellers, the Sama Bajau created a land-based kingdom in western Flores, which became an outpost of allegiance to the Gowa ruler. In speaking generally about these Sama
ent
Bajau communities, the Dutch remarked that,“They must always be ready to go with
A
sees
more
advantage to be gained, since they are the可pe of men who are known as slaves
[sic]
of the
may be
sent,
among
rebellion
the ruler
for
you people
as well as
The stage was thus set for a direct confrontation between Gowa and
overcoming strong resistance and
its
Bugis subjects prevented
VOC
seizing
Gowa from
was compelled to accept a treaty by which the
expedition sent from
one of Gowa's principal
continuing
hostilities,
and
VOC imposed severe restrictions
Gowa from the lucrative spice trade. Though this proved unsuccessful, Gowa to heel and assert their commercial
intended to exclude
Dutch remained determined to bring
What
dominance.
finally
destroyed this great kingdom was an alliance between the
and Gowa’s avowed enemies, the Bugis,
to the
who had
never accepted their subjugation
The Dutch found a willing ally in a refugee Bugis leader, Arung 1635-96). Escaping from Makassar domination in his homeland, he and his
Makassarese.
Palakka
(c.
had earned a formidable reputation as fighters, and now joined the attack on Gowa. A丘er a series of major battles, the Gowa ruler was defeated and in 1667 was Bugis following
forced to accept the vassal status.
The
hum且iating Treaty of Bungaya, which reduced
resulting peace proved丘agile,
him and
his people to
and Gowa once again took up arms
before being finally
vanquished in 1669. In the a丘ermath of the conflict well over a thousand Makassar captives were taken prisoner by the victorious Bugis and shipped
to Java as slaves.
The Bungaya Treaty gave the Dutch a complete monopoly of trade in Makassar and emasculated由e 24
their
wherever the king from time to time
boats in any direction they
is
Figure 5.1). The Dutch occupied the fort with over five hundred European soldiers, while several heavily armed ships guarded the Makassar harbor.
VOC
between the Orang Laut and Malay kingdoms
Melaka, the Sama Bajau were intimately involved in the
of
and what I have
fortifications (see
the
that developed between the
nations,
major conflict occurred in 1660 when a large
first
Batavia succeeded in
Sama
all
voe.
The
Fi事ire 5.3.
to obtain firearms
a result of the
very affable
that,“My
the
As
Gowa kingdom.
Cited in
In 1672
John Villiers,“Makassar:由e Rise 1412-1669,”in Kathrithamby
and
Wells and John
5
Fall
Cited in
Anthony
Reid,“Pluralism
as the
VOC's
of an East Indonesian Maritime Trading State, Southeast Asian Port and Polity: Rise and
Villiers, eds.,
Demise (Singapore University Press, 1990), 146. 436-7
Arung Palakka was confirmed
and Progress
in Seventeenth-century Makassar,'’BKI 156, 3 {2000),
问'A RISTO盯OF EAR…ODERN SOUTHE川山,14…8 chief ally
and
installed as ruler of the Bugis
EXPANDING GLO肌川KS, 160叫90s
kingdom of Bone, now the foremost power in
southwest Sulawesi. In order to prevent any challenge to Bugis dominance, Arung Palakka
A
telling
the divided allegiance of the Sama
Bajau.
then established a residence in Gowa, the heart of Makassar’s former power.
comment on While those
new power arrangements was
the
in western Flores
remained loyal to the vastly weakened Makassar
Arung Palakka and
others transferred their allegiance to
on由e
established a settlement
was the creation of a mandala-type
of closely linked domains that were allowed to maintain their as long as they recognized his overlordship.
Conquered Toraja groups
rocks which are your rocks ... the adat [custom] which
system] which
is
your adat, and the
your bicara."26 Meanwhile, he readily offered the
various campaigns, including that against Trunajaya 1679, since the
is
and
his
Dutch had helped him remove the shame
VOC
Makassarese inflicted
land, the
bicara
in
allies in Java in
Makassarese
conquest of his people. The contribution of Bugis fighting forces became a major
Dutch military successes
[legal
assistance
by the
factor in
in the archipelago.
in 1695, a year before his death. In
several hours received obeisance
poor health, he
from numerous
local lords.
sat
on
a stand and
Approaching
for
the seated
Arung Palakka, individually or in small groups, the lords and their nobles performed a ceremony of allegiance known as aru. The cultural weight attached to these ceremonies was intense kris
as each
and began
to
man, representing
his polity or constituents,
unsheathed
his sword or
dance to the frenetic beat of drums while loudly proclaiming
his
The emotion generated during the aru was such that on one occasion a lord performing the oath became so humiliated by the unexpected pause in the drumming that he ran amok. The only noteworthy rivals to the Bugis in the Eastern Archipelago were由e closely readiness to sacrifice his
related dualistic
life
for his king.
kingdoms of Ternate and Tidore
Treaty of 1667 restored Ternate to over
its
in northern
Maluku. The Bungaya
former pre-eminence by recognizing
many of the islands previously conquered by Gowa.
Its
major
rival
was
its
authority
Tidore, but
in
keeping with their unique dual relationship, even in times of host山ty a friendship was maintained through marriage between the royal families and constant movement of people between their kingdoms. The
VOC had little option but to negotiate this dualism,
which meant that any favor accorded to one had to be given to the 26
(r.
same
Dutch with
and
his counterpart
ball of wool."27
whom they had allied against the
independence through the Treaty of Bungaya. The as the father and Ternate as a child was frequently invoked, and
Dutch was
supporters of the
their
Kaicili Sibori,
Dutch names. One of the strongest who adopted the title “Sultan Amsterdam"
honor his privileged relationship with the VOC. But the Dutch were also maintain a balancing act with Tidore and Ternate, and Sultan Amsterdam
1675一90) to
attempting to
had to contend with the equally ambitious and talented Tidore ruler, Sultan Saifuddin (r.
1657-89). This delicate three-way diplomacy
when Sultan Amsterdam’s relationship with the desperate
move, for Ternate was
before,
on the
easily defeated
was almost impossible to maintain, and VOC soured, he declared war. It was a
by the Dutch and their local
allies
and was
VOC vassal state in 1683. In many respects Ternate continued to function as
proclaimed a
freedom to determine economic policies had been severely curtailed. Tidore, other hand, was able to remain apart from the仕ay and maintained its independ- but
its
other.
Unlike the
Archipelago
VOC encountered little or no opposition.
The loyalty and awe that Arung Palakka aroused among the Bugis and Makassarese people was evident
VOC
ruler as “Rossa"
ence into the eighteenth century.
The Bungaya Treaty brought a major realignment of power in the Eastern because the alliance of Arung Palakka and the
and who had assured
metaphor of the
federation
your
Ternate rulers were initially closer to the Portuguese,
Ternate rulers expressed their gratitude by assuming
in the Sulawesi
is
centu巧even referred to the Ternate
Tidore as‘'Tossa" to indicate they were from“the
at Bajoe
own customs and traditions
uplands, for instance, were told that they could “keep the land which
in
dynasty,
eastern shore of the Bay of Bone. In terms of South Sulawesi history, Arung
Palakka's most significant accomplishment
the seventeenth
The Malukans in
Cited in Leonard Y. Andaya, The Heritage of Arung Palakka: a History of South Sulawesi in the Seventeenth Century (The Hague: Martinus Nijho旺,1981), 112.
center exercising real or political
travel.
of the
even nominal control. Of considerable geographic,
complexity, the nearly six
of seas, each of
which has
hundred islands of this region
specific seasonal
are divided
cultural,
and
by a number
winds and ocean currents that regulate sea
Revenues from the sandalwood trade did enable some chiefs on Timor, the largest
Nusatenggara islands, to control domains of considerable
size,
but none ever
expanded beyond the Timorese shores.
century the most ambitious leaders in the Nusatenggara region came from the so called “black Portuguese" or Topasses, descended丘om unions In the seventeenth
between Portuguese or Indo-Portuguese Southeast Asia, they the eastern
the
local
women. Found throughout
Flores, had provided a refuge for Portu伊ese and mesti<;:o Catholics Dutch conquest of Melaka (1641) and Makassar (1667-9). On Timor
the leaders of the
Portuguese
men and
were most evident in the Nusatenggara area where Larantuka, on
end of
fleeing a丘er
Topasses (notably the da Costa and Hornay families) maintained their
names and Catholic
religion, but they also intermarried with local royal
houses and functioned like local lords,。丘en in alliance with Dominican丘iars. Close links to the
indigenous communities, participation in local
the lucrative
sandalwood trade enabled the Topasses
to
and involvement
rituals,
become
a
major force
Cited in
Leonard Y. Andaya, The World of Maluku: Eastern Indonesia
(Honolulu: Universi可of Hawaii Press, 1993),口
in the
in
in the
Timor and Solor archipelagoes. 27
(Celebes)
Muslim kingdoms in southwest Sulawesi and northern Maluku, the Nusa- had limited natural resources and lacked any large political
tenggara (Lesser Sundas)
Ear伊Modern Period
6
215
216'
EXPANDING饥OBAL LIN肘,160叫90s
ODERN SOUTHEAST山
A HISTO盯OF EARL
The Topasses represented a of a dominant center serving
typical
form of interaction in Nusatenggara.
magnet
as a
Instead
to outlying areas, the widely dispersed
Nusatenggara communities participated in overlapping networks of exchange based on material, ritual, or social requirements. Tangled lines of cultural and economic interaction connected
them
to the larger
and
more powerful Muslim kingdoms
far
southwestern Sulawesi, northern Maluku, or Java, so that even the most remote
in
islands
were linked to the wider world. At the same time, they were generally spared from the disruptive colonialism experienced by those areas that Europeans targeted for economic
in terror
when Burman armies approached.28 However, although northern
authority over the
muang
did provide opportunities for
the imposition of Ava’s
led to sporadic but quickly suppressed rebellions,
some
polities,
it
notably Chiang Saen, to overshadow the
dominant Chiang Mai. In the nineteenth centu巧,long a丘er the area had been laid waste by Thai armies, the once-extensive rice fields and impressive Buddhist ruins attested Chiang Saen’s former prosperity. previously
In 1635 Anaukpetlun's successor
Ava
returned to
Thalun
Upper Myanmar, where
in
(r.
1629-48), though crowned at Pe思l,
the heartland of wet-rice agric吐ture was
located and where the Burman population was heavily concentrated. From Ava he and later rulers addressed the problems that had led to the downfall of previous dynasties. In
exploitation.
this
每Develo仰川
they enjoyed
some advantages over
their predecessors, since the pacification
cam-
had substantially reduced raiding by the Shan of the northern hills, while the Yunnan, now imposed more
paigns
Chinese, anxious to ensure the safety of trade routes into control over the
The Western Mainland In the Western
of the old
Mainland the branch of a former royal house that assumed
the mantle
name
“Restored"
Taungoo dynasty
commonly accorded
is
Taungoo dynasty (1597-1752). The most feared was Anaukpetlun
(r.
1606-28).
From
across the entire Irrawaddy basin,
the retrospective
ruler of this restored
his capital at
from Kengtung
Ava he
reasserted
Burman
forces. In
was rewarded by the Rakhine and
(trade lodge)
ruler with the governorship.
He
control
One
previously e Nicote,
a fortress, received Goa's official recognition of his city as part of the
Estado da India, and was then appointed as captain-general of Pegu. Declaring
his
defiantly withheld
the customs revenue rightfully belonging to the Rakhine ruler. Efforts by Rakhine
oust de Brito failed, and his
Thanlyin”in one of the
Mon
De
Brito’s
Anaukpetlun that he besieged and
capture and agonizing death in 1613
European contemporaries of powerful mainland patrons.
their
armies
moved
seized
would have reminded
extreme vulnerab山ty should they
and Tavoy, which gave him control over most of the
relentlessly into the uplands,
coastline. His
and Chiang Mai, where Naresuan
had
previously extended Ayutthaya's overlordship, was recaptured in 1615. According stories told a
conquer
his
hundred years
later,
Restored
Taungoo
Irrawaddy basin, the sources indicate that the
adopted a more pragmatic approach than
their predecessors.
that
denied both senior and junior princes access to local sources of support by
moving no
them丘。m the pro悦nces into special palaces at the capital. Junior princes with legitimate claims to the
centers
throne were appointed as provincial governors (myowun) to
such as Prome, Taungoo, Pe事1, and Martaban, which had formerly been under
high-ranking senior princes (ba归). Although taxes,
myowun regulated appointments, collected
and made judicial decisions in towns and
subordinate officials
villages in their
were centrally appointed and were in
domains,
all
their
effect agents of the royal
household in Ava. These administrative reforms introduced greater uniformity in govern-
ment and created a bureaucratic structure that reached
down
to the sub-provincial level.
Another significant innovation was a wide- ranging census that enabled
officials to
document tax and labor obligations. This resulted in greater surveillance of the hereditary
(ahmudan) who were distinguished仕om
athi, or t缸-paying
than two
non优rvicemen,
were divided into more
ruler’s labor demands. Ahmudan hundred different groupings出at ranged from high-status cavalry units and royal
because由ey were subject to the bodyguards,
who
received benefits like land grants, salaries, and tax
relief,
to“platoons"
to
Anaukpetlun’s military prowess was such that he could
enemies simply by laughing, and “men, gods, monsters and
rulers
by
ties.
Thalun in particular strengthened royal authority by introducing administrative measures
servicemen penin-
and by patronage and marital
In consolidating their position in the
his
lose favor with
Following his siege and conquest of Syriam, Anaukpetlun' s forces captured the sular ports of Martaban
to
power and standing earned him the title of “king of chronicles. In 1611 his fortunes changed when he sought
to steal the royal treasure of Pegu, so angering
Syriam.
of
established a卢itoria
independence, he dominated trade in the Yangon River Delta and
d严1asty sought to maintain the loyalty of these far-flung regions
establishing small garrison posts
south.
1599 the mercena可(larn;:ado) Filipe de Brito
new
kingdoms, the
in the east to the borders of Rakhi肘,
most important conquests was the port of Syriam (Thanlyin), which had
been taken by Rakhine
Burmese suzerainty and influence over Lan Na remained a reality through the seventeenth centu巧. In place of the costly and distant military exped- itions that had exhausted resources and undermined the stab过ity of former Burmese
regime
Taungoo
and from Bhamo in the north to Chiang Mai and Tavoy (Dawei) further the
border areas. Significantly, no great campaigns were launched against出e
Shans or other Tai polities, but
ghosts" vanished
28
Cited in Victor B. Lieberman, Burmese Administrative Cycles: (Princeton University Press, 1984), 56.
Anarchy and Conquest,
c.
1580-1760
'217
划喽A HISTO盯OF E肌Y MODERN SOUTHEAST A叫140叫 made up
of families of elephant keepers and boatmen.
EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os
By 1650 ahmudan
constituted over
40 percent of the population within 120 miles (193 kilometers) of Ava, forming the core of the
army and
the palace workforce. Since
ahmudan
status
was
inherited, royal
edicts
attempted to limit intermarriage between categories and thus prevent individuals from moving into a more privileged group that had different duties and obligations. Because of the high value placed on scarce labor, severe restrictions were placed
ahmudan, who were tracked through censuses,
on
the movement
of
far less disruption to
country's there
fact, in diverting
south. Here, ships arriving丘om India’s Coromandel
Coast could meet their counterpa时s from places such as Aceh and
Ayutthaya.
authority into the southwest. Caravans of pack animals into the Tai-speaking uplands, bringing in silk
wended
their
way from Yunnan
and other products
to exchange
for
and gemstones. Far eclipsing the minimal European presence, Indian, Persian, Armenian, and Chinese merchants linked port cities and cotton, forest products,
redistribution centers to interior production areas credit,
and supplying
by collecting
rural traders with cotton yarn
international trade encouraged a monetization of the
local goods, providing
and coarse Indian
text过es. In turn,
economy as pa严nent of taxes in cash
became more common. The flow of revenues to the capital reinforced royal au由ori可by supporting and creating patron-client relationships that stretched from core areas to outlying provinces.
The concern
and manpower
also directed attention
to
The reason was twofold: first, continuing merit-making of land from lay devotees eliminated an impo时ant source of royal taxation; and second, men o丘en escaped service by taking refuge as monks. Under the Restored gi丘s
Taungoo, donations ofland by the laity were restricted and meritorious gifts were required to be in the form of cash, goods, or new religious buildings. Even lands already in the
hands of the sangha were gradually privatized and removed from monastic control, while the large numbers of people serving religious establishments were reduced and royal
monks was
Meanwhile, the
strengthened.
religious status of rulers
evil one.
Occasionally there
is
in the mid-seventeenth century a leading
Goddess image erased from a cave on the holy
evidence of
monk had an
such
as
the sponsorship of Buddhist texts, the construction of libraries, monasteries, and temples, and the dedication of Buddha images,。丘en have reflecting local aesthetics. Art historians
noticed a developing Burmese style that depicts the
Buddha with
shown taking
image, while murals of the Buddha’s previous lives are
modern
place in
Myanmar,
even to the chewing of betel.
Although greater administrative in the
stability, a thriving
economy, and
cultural integration
Irrawaddy basin enabled the Restored Taungoo d严1asty to survive for 140 years,
traditions.
Even under powerful
a shortened neck and
rulers like Thalun, the extension of royal
always constrained
by geographical
the preference for
swidden
by lands of distant areas also
realities.
agriculture,
people living in the lowlands,
all
bordering China
helped to distinguish upland groups仕om
and one royal ordinance
may have
power was
Languages, dress, and cultural practices, and
and water inhabited by people with
fire
sees
Burmese
“big ears."29
territory as ringed
H山communities
in
offered tribute to lowland kings but they could
be highly resistant to central demands. In 1616, for instance, one local governor,
perhaps responding to the reforming
mood
of Buddhism, attempted to prevent出e
growing of opium by destroying bushes and imposing heavy fines. his representatives,
Political
and
and economic
also rally
it
followers
stab过ity
thus depended on able leaders
By the same token,
local people killed
quell resistance.
who could generate loyalty
effective opposition to the ruler
could
around some charismatic individual (min-laung,“future king") who had har-
who
believed they
emerging in times of
had the capacity
crisis,
to restore prosperity
In the latter part of the seventeenth century as the
The
was necessa可to send an armed force to
nessed popular discontent. Typically
min-laung attracted
and
order.
rumblings of discontent began to develop
burden of taxes and corvee labor became more onerous. Struggling to survive,
ordinary people 出eir families as
had few choices:由ey could seek
relief
by mortgaging themselves and
debtors, take refuge in a monastery, attach themselves to a powerful lord,
or as a last resort less
was enhanced through exemplary acts
of Sagaing outside
h让l
image of a powerful nat or伊ardian spirit could be carved on the base of a Buddhist
丘om their family and followers.
to af且rm oversight of revenues
the powerful Buddhist sangha.
surveillance of
and
center-periphery relationships continued to operate in accordance with mandala-可pe
Overland trade to neighboring Rakhine and the Lao areas was similarly on the rise, and commercial connections with Yunnan were encouraged by the extension of Chinese
Burmese
and drowning the army of Mara, the
criticisms of popular practices,
Buddha by wringing water from her
changes was partly due to the
maritime commerce than in the island areas. In
Tavoy further
hair
Earth Goddess, believed to have saved the
Mandalay on the grounds that she was not mentioned in the Pali or Sanskrit canon. For the most pa此,however, Buddhist praxis easily adjusted to the local environment: the
Indian and West Asian ships away from the Malay-Indonesian archipelago, VOC mon- opoly policies benefited ports in southern Myanmar - Syriam on the Pegu River, Ma白- ban, Tenasserim, and
states are distinguished by crowns with elaborate decorated flanges. As Theravada Southeast Asia, Buddha images were o丘en set up close to depic- tall
Earth
strong economic base. Despite competition from Indian and European merchants,
was
elsewhere in tions of the
images from the Shan
elongated ears, and
special insignia, identifiable tattoos, and
written passes. Ava’s ability to institute these administrative
earlobes touching his shoulders, while their facial features,
migrate to the coastal zone. With a growing loss of servicemen, Ava was
able to
provide protection along its frontier zones, and in the 1690s bands of horsemen from the northwest polity of Manipur (now part of India) raided Ava's border 29
Than Tun,
ed., Royal Orders of Burma, Kyoto University, 1983) vol. I: 72
AD 1598-1885 (Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian Studies,
"'I\
219
220
' A HISTORY OF EAR…ODERN SO川EAST山,14…830
EXP ANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os
dawn of the eighteenth century conditions were increasingly favoring the emergence of some great min- laung. Because Rakhine is now part of modern Myanmar, there has been a tendency to overlook an impressive past when its territory stretched into southeast Bengal. This brought large tracts of agricultural land under its control, making Rakhine a significant with
territories
little
resistance.
By
the
and adopted many similar administrative and m过ita町advances. For example, both Ayutthaya and Ava adopted the policy that required senior princes to reside neighbor’s affairs
in the royal capital to the
so that their loyalty could be guaranteed, while administrative links
provinces were strengthened through royal appointment of local
officials.
In
exporter of rice on which the Dutch center of Batavia was initially heavily dependent. The
A归tthaya, where the pillaging of Taungoo armies in 1569 remained a bitter memory, Naresuan (r. 1590一1605) and his successors were particularly concerned to remedy the
tax revenues that flowed from the port of Chittagong also contributed to the prosperi时of
weaknesses believed to have contributed to the
Mrauk-U. The economy was further stimulated by particularly for construction in Batavia and labor on
the Rakhine capital,
the growing
the ruler’s position in
market
the nutmeg
as the traditional
for slaves,
plantations in Banda. Following any military success in Bengal thousands of captives were
transported back to Mrauk-
U
(30,000 in 1623 alone) while both “black”and
“white’3
Portuguese often acted as middlemen in the slave trade or themselves conducted
raids
Lanka added
Maham uni
to Rakhine' s reputation as a religious center
image. Yet, like
maintained an
and home of
the revered
counterparts in other parts of Southeast Asia, the
its
court
where devout Buddhist rulers adopted Muslim titles and Muslim dress, where Persian influence was evident, and where o面ciated on ceremonial occasions. Celebratory poems written by Bengali eclectic culture,
o丘en appeared in
Brahm ins Muslim poets which
“the
extol
both the Buddhist king and his Muslim commander and
king sat on his throne in
the world poured
down
numerous Hindus both
all
into the capital"
native
and
his royal splendor while people
and
“the pick of the
foreign, countless
from
Mughals and
a court all
in
pa民s of
the Pathans,
Brahmins, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas
and
Sudras the four major Hindu castes] also sat in rows户。In 1666, however, Rakhine forces [
suffered a devastating defeat defect
when
the
Mughal general bribed Portuguese
mercenaries
half of the eighteenth century political stab且ity
was restored, but Rakhine never fully recovered from the loss of connections to the Bay of Bengal trade, and由is economic decline contributed to its subsequent obscurity in Southeast Asian history. first
The
steps
followed by appalling deaths and perpetual rebirth in the burning
by which
A yutthaya' s
rulers
confirmed their dominance in the Central Mam’
competition to control ever larger populations, this rivalry was o丘en expressed in religious terms as successive rulers competed for recognition as leader of the Theravada Buddhist world. Unwilling to cede any advantage, each maintained a watchful eye on their 3°
Cited in Satyendra Nath Ghoshal,“Missing Links in Arakan History,'’in Muhammad Enamul Haq, ed., Abdul Karim Sahitya- Visarad Commemoration Volume (Dacca: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 1972),
258-9
fires
of hell - for
those guilty of disloyalty.
As
Ava, however, these efforts at royal control could always be circumvented since
in
powerful provincial lords retained considerable
autonomy
The appointment of princes to important positions in
them under closer surveillance, but
it
in their
home
Ayutthaya was
environment.
intended to bring
also provided opportunities for acquiring the wealth
manpower that could support a challenge to royal authority. Because of the custom of taking numerous wives there was always a large coterie of princes who possessed influen- and
tial
kinship ties
establish
and were eager to seek out
allies.
Those able
to garner a following
and
themselves as potential leaders were frequently prepared to become claimants to
the throne.
Unlike the pre-1569 situation, such confrontations were no longer launched by
senior princes
from
a base outside
A yutthaya, but by powerful princely ministers located
in the capital itself.
The previously autonomous Malay rulers to the south also attempts to tighten control over
send representatives to
its
vassals. Traditionally,
accompany
felt
the effects of Ayutthaya's
Malay
clients
had been
able to
the elaborately constructed gold and silver trees,
to make the formal prostration. Now N aresuan mandated that Malay rulers themselves travel to the court to make obeisance. The case together with textiles
and weapons,
was a stark reminder that perceived disloyalty would be immediately and
severely punished.
land were similar to those adopted by the rulers of Ava, and the proximity of these two powerful polities generated a fierce rivalry. Fostered by past enmities and spurred on by
solidi命
disaster
of Patani
The Central Mainland
primary goal was to
service,
to
and Mughal armies regained control over key areas of eastern Bengal. During出e
A
order to eliminate any challenges to his authority. Ceremonies such
drinking of the Water of Allegiance were obligatory for all in royal including vassal lords, while monks intoned the penalties - a life of continuous
along the Bengal coast. As in Myanmar, impressive Buddhist pagodas and exchanges with Sri
city’s fall.
Other Malay rulers therefore chose a more conciliatory approach and
were o丘en successful in avoiding going to A归t由aya to perform the humiliating act of obeisance. In 1645, for example, the ruler of Kedah feigned illness but agreed to pay homage twice daily to an image of the A归tthaya ruler. Apa时from administration, another concern was the revival of international trade and restoration of royal prerogatives. inclined
31
Jeremias
Van
transcription 1975),
King Ekathotsarot
(r.
1605-11) was said to be“greatly
towards strangers and foreign nations,"31 and the revenues丘om increased
88-9
Vliet, The Short Hist的of伽Kings of Siam. Translated by Leonard Ar向a, from a by Miriam J. Verku明-van den Berg; edited by David K. Wyatt (Bangkok: Siam Society,
222
EXPANDING GL叫L LINK队1600-吻。s
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
commerce contributed
to the
implementation and funding of administrative measures commerce encouraged monetization
that linked outlying areas to the capital. International
and the adoption of a
which
assisted
commercial transactions by placing a
particular products. Meanwhile, the expansion of acreage
standard value on cultivation
single currency,
of由e benefits of由is thriving economy flowed to the capital
monopoly of firearms and gunpowder, and other key products
since they enjoyed a
and arack
as ivo町,deerskins,
manpower, and economic
administrative centralizing measures, control of
through maritime trade. The rulers of
establish regional pre-eminence. to
rice
such
(rice wine).
Like Ava, Ayutthaya's history thus reveals a direct correlation between
cially
for
growing population. Many and to the rulers themselves,
to support a
and other crops enabled Ayutthaya
It
A yutthaya
China offering assistance against Japan, and
in 1602
growth,
espe-
also displayed a keen desire
be remembered that
will
political and
to
N aresuan had sent a mission
he asked the
ruler of Aceh
needed help in an attack on Portuguese Melaka. In 1608 Siamese envoys were
if
he
dispatched
where they visited the major ports and cities, including Amsterdam. In The Hague they were shown a new invention, the telescope, through which they could see the towers of Leiden and Delft. to the Netherlands,
A yutthaya
briefly
installed himself as
Nihonmachi, a
encountered international disfavor
when
the Kalahom
minister
King Prasat Thong in 1629. In the wake of the destruction
hostile Japanese
shogun viewed him
of the
as a usurper, while foreign obse凹ers,
sharing the same view, were shocked at the ruthless elimination of other contenders
power. Usurpation of power was not unusual in this period, and so the chronicles
for
paint
Thong as a meritorious Buddhist ruler chosen by nobles distressed at the neglect of government by a child-king. Concerned with the well-being of all sentient beings, he took Prasat
steps in 1638 to avert the dangers
posed by the impending thousandth year of the Lesser
Era calendar and the “Age of Evil" disasters
came
were avoided, rains
to trade in great
fell
it
foreshadowed. As a result of his virtuous
in season, food
numbers"
Thong’s ruthless path to power, a
was abundant, and
(see Figure 5.4). Despite his
Dutchman
also
Prasat Thong’s, son Narai
(r.
who dominates
of Prasat
the history
32
Richard Cushman,
斗ci叽2000 oJ Ayutthaya:
trans.
and
A yutthaya' s
prosperity were registered globally by
The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya, David K. Wyatt,
Dutch Perceptions of the Thai Kingdom
c.
1604-17臼(Leiden:
ed. (Bangkok: The
Brill,
2007), 100.
hosts户At home Malays,
Indians, Japanese,
and Europeans were among the royal retainers and advisors. Narai displayed and even appeared in Persian dress as a gesture of welcome when he
an interest in Islam,
of
Ayutthaya in the seventeenth century. Even as a child, say the chronicles, he was recognized as an individual “endowed with merit" who was destined for greatness. During his reign this greatness
French etiquette" as a courtesy to their Persians,
noted that“in matters of government
1656一88), however,
Golconda, Japan, India, Persia, and even to France, where his envoys took care to“follow
...
and well-being of state he is a wise, prudent and moderate prince who peacefully possesses his kingdom in prosperity and affluence of the common [people], and therefore, dese凹es an immortal memory产2 It is
unprecedented extension of international connections. Missions were sent to China,
acts,
“foreign nations
condemnation
Wat Chaiwatthanaram, A严1tthaya. Built in 1629 by Prasat Thong as his first temple, the name translates as“the shrine of a long reign and glorious era." The form of the tall tower-like temples (called prang by the Thais), common in both Sukothai and Ayutthaya, was derived from阳uner architecture, and symbolized Mount Meru,出e home of the gods in Hindu and Buddhist cosmology. Prang were o丘en built by rulers as a sign of their au由ority, and the ashes of kings and monks could also be placed here. Photograph, 2010. Courtesy of William Chapman.
Fi阴阳5.4.
received Persian envoys.
advantage because of
France, as
Europeans entertained high hopes of commercial
an influential minister, allegedly because his
helped launch the king’s large ship.
where Amangkurat
II
There were
Greek adventurer with skills
close ties to
with “pulleys and windlasses"
also contacts with the court of
sent much-desired Javanese horses as a
gi丘.
Mataram,
Foreign observers were
by Ayutthaya's cosmopolitan environment and openness to new ideas. no ci可in the orient,”wrote a French envoy,“where one sees so many different
consistently struck
"There
is
nationalities as in the capital city
m
part,
questions about Christianity and elective可pes of govern-
ment. In 1685 he appointed Constantine Phaulkon, a
an
Sia
For their
N arai’s
33
of Siam [Ayutthaya] and where one speaks so
many
The Diary of Kosa Pan, Thai Ambassador to France, June-July 1686. Introduction and Annotation, Dirk van der Cruysse; Visudh Busyakul, trans.; Michael Smithies, ed. and trans. (Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2002), 54
'223
叫喽A HISTO…F山LY MODERN SOUTHE川山,140叫 different languages产4 Visitors
remarked on
Ayutthaya’s
wealth,
its
size
(
a population
estimated at 150,000), the panoply that surrounded royal ceremonies, and the processions consisting of thousands of soldiers, courtiers, and hundreds of horses and elephants. The
were especially memorable, with the king
river flot山as
throne" while
“an infinite
number of people”fell
to the
sitting“like
ground
an
on
idol
a golden
in reverence as his barge
Impressed by these reports, the French accorded a reception to the Siamese envoys in Versailles in 1686 that was the most spectacular granted to any embassy during Louis XIV’s long reign. Two musical pieces,“The Entrance of the Siamese" and
passed.
“A
35
Siamese
Air,”were
Ayutthaya' s
composed
rivalry with
especially for the occasion.
Ava and
its
efforts to
become
the pre-eminent center
of
city,
the white elephants housed in the royal compound,
and the Buddha images whose bejeweled crowns emulated those of earthly Jesuit priest
richer than
remarked in all ...
which young
men
awe,“there
is
nothing to be seen but gold
...
kings. As one
one
single idol
is
form important points of connection between the
of learning
who
among monks,
N arai
monks were
Khmer
marked by short
reigns
influential role. Recurring
women work
the soil while their
1603, with Naresuan's support, one cou此faction gained control
prince previously taken to
Though backed by three thousand
Ayutthaya
as a captive
was
installed as ruler.
A yutthaya troops, he still faced strong opposition and
he therefore turned to the Spanish in Manila, asking for a hundred soldiers since “some of
my vassals clerics
...
are
still
in rebellion against
me,
their natural king产8
While
a
few Spanish
dreamt of a Christian Cambodia, the lack of commercial incentive and shortage of
rainy
new
In 1618 the
king and
Khmer
could not reach the requisite standard were expelled from to public
works or agricultural
labor.
still
had opponents within
suspicious of French influence
the court
also within the sangha,
and resented the harsh
discipline
as Narai lay
whose mother had been N arai’s wet-nurse,
for the throne
The new dynasty then
were
established
killed,
Phaulkon
staged
executed, and
was destined to be A严1tthaya’s last.
Although connections with Europeans were now much weaker, from 1684 Ayutthaya benefited from the revival of Siamese-Chinese trade after the Qing revoked prohib- maritime commerce. The staple exports of
tin,
deer hide, and
products continued, but a major stimulus for this trade was the
demand
forest
for rice
for
burgeoning population. Connections with China were fostered by the growing
Chinese community in Manila, Batavia, and elsewhere, and wealthier Chinese who
capital
moved
to nearby
Oudong, located on higher land about
from modern Phnom Penh, where Chei Chettha II (r. 1619-27), status, resumed resistance to A严1tthaya. It is worth emphasizing
25 miles (40 kilometers)
renouncing his vassal
which princely contenders
the French expelled.
affairs.
由at
dying, his “milk brother,”a senior noble
China’s
a
make war."37 In
for
instituted
imposed when they could not meet new standards of scholarship. In 1688,
itions against
men. In the words of a Spanish observer,“the
the
1684
where Phaulkon’s position and power were widely resented) and
in
in a period of upheaval
in which the Malay community played an
requirements
in
Notwithstanding his prodigious reputation, Narai
coup
Lovek had ushered
imposed a heavy burden on peasant society because of the unrelenting demand
fighting
and
erstwhile
Cambodia, Lan Sang, and Lan Na. For Cambodia the 1594 Thai attack on
capital at
and internal conflicts
for
its
Cambodian
monaste巧and assigned
a
Khmer
Mainland, A严1tthaya clearly overshadowed
entered the sangha for a short space of time, usually during the
ordination. Those
since
competitors the
in the Central
missiona可personnel meant that Manila could not be persuaded to become involved in
the laity since the oversight of religion was considered a royal responsib过ity. Concerned
(
Dominant
the Churches of Europe.”36 Because of the well-established custom by
season, monasteries could also
at the lack
A严1tthaya families were appointed to high posts in the court and
elite
provincial administrations.
husbands
Buddhist learning were unambiguously displayed in the four hundred temples and monasteries that dotted the
married into
commented on the effectiveness of Khmer fighters and that Cambodia was also a major supplier of forest products. An alliance with Cambodia was由us valuable, and the
Europeans
Nguyen lord
in return for a
family also battle in
in southern
Vietnam
sent one of his daughters as a wife for Chei Chettha
steady supply of elephants and sappanwood. Closer
provided the
1622, in
Khmer
which Vietnamese
participated, A严1tthaya lost
men. Chei Chettha bestowed a prestigious bride,
ties to
the N事1yen
with a counterweight against Thai pressure, and in one
title
around
five
thousand
equivalent to“queen”on his Vietnamese
and in 1623 the N伊yen were given customs authority over the port of Prey
(Saigon) in the
Mekong
N okor
Delta.
Although relations with Ayutthaya improved following a peace agreement in 1633,
Cambodia remained under constant pressure.
F让st,
royal control over
manpower
pro-
weakened, especially in the Khorat plateau, where Lao migration丘om Lan Sang was steadily increasing and where Khmer settlements were acknowledging A严1tthaya’s gressively
suzerainty.
Second, the negotiations with the
N伊yen
rulers, including
marriage to a
Nguyen princess, had opened the door for Vietnamese intervention in Cambodia’s
and eventually for Vietnamese migration into the Mekong Delta area. economic competition between rival trading groups exacerbated conflicts among
internal affairs
Third,
了?
j:,
36
Ci时in Michael Smi恤 Caron and Joost Schouten, A True Description of the Migh飞y Kingdoms of Japan and Siam (Bangkok: Siam Society, 1986; reprint of 1671 edition), 129一31. University Cited in Chris Baker and Pasuk Phongpaichit, A History of Thailand (Bangkok: Cambridge
Frarn;:ois
Press, 2009), 14.
:: JU
Ci灿 Cited in Jenny阳ages,“Cambodia, Catholicism and Conq山stadores: Spanish Cambodian Interactions from the late Sixteenth to the mid-Seventeenth Centu巧口’PhD Thesis, University of Hawai'i, 2007, 226
226砸、A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os
ASIA, 1400-1830
numerous contenders for the Cambodian throne. The third son of Chei Chettha II, who seized power in 1642 a丘er a bloody massacre of his opposition, sought to win supp。此 from the power臼l resident Malay/Javanese community by adopting Islam, even issuing an edict forbidding the sale and slaughter of pigs“because he intended to become entirely
given to the
Malay."39 Correspondence with the ruler of Japara (north coast Java) points to links with
glorious
the
other
Muslim
but the
rulers,
king’s
donations to a Buddhist monastery show that he was
equally aware of the importance of sangha support. His actions nonetheless aroused
offenses,
appointment of judges and to the codification of laws relating to criminal
slave町,and the regulation of corv优.
New provisions were introduced to manage
communities, including a precise listing of required gifts to the royal the foreign trading for such measures, as always, was the example of the family and port officials. Motivation Angkorian
past.
Transformed into
a site for
complex remained a focus for royal donations
Buddhist devotion, the Angkor
and pious works, and between 1612 and
1632 at least
fourteen inscriptions were le丘by Japanese p过grims. In
was evident
Ayutthaya
and the Khmer
the
influence of
Khmer
Khmer princes recruited Vietnamese support, and in 1658 a rebellion brought this reign to
was used in
some A严1tthayan monasteries. Despite the chronic instab过ity that charac-
an end. According to Dutch accounts, the Vietnamese ransacked the count巧,and scores
terizes
of vessels were required to carry away the booty, including hundreds of elephants and over
held in
considerable opposition. Assisted by the
a thousand artillery as court politics
now aging but influential Nguyen princess,
pieces. The following years were marked by almost unceasing
were factionalized between those linked to
pro- Vietnamese, while hopes of stab过ity were further
rival
undermined by another Nguyen
battles for
ascendancy among the
should not hide the
fact that
Khmer
elite
that
dominate indigenous
Phnom Penh was still a place of considerable profit.
neighbors.
Lan
Na was
controlled
by Ava
and persistent upheavals resulted in
much of the period between
for
competitor for
dominance
in the Tai-speaking world. Yet
a serious
Foreign
temples built during this period are inspired
by Burmese
came仕om
and the short flap of cloth over the left shoulder.
Cambodia
also attracted refugees like the Japanese evicted
from A归tthaya and Japanese Christians denied reentry to lived in a Japanese village recently excavated near
community
acted as royal bodyguards. But
it
the arrival of Ming loyalists after the dynasty’s
community. Khmer trading regulations even each having
its
own
their
Phnom
was the o丘en fall
in 1644,
the
fractious Chinese, swelled by
who formed the largest foreign
identified the different dialect groups,明白
appointed syahbandar.
In this environment Europeans were timber, cheap labor, and shipbuilding
skills
led the Spanish in
Manila to commission
the
Cambodia The VOC established a post in Phnom Penh in the 1630s, mainly the purchase of deerskins, and at one point Governor-General Anthony van Diemen
construction of several galleons, but even low-level trade with
had ended by the
early eighteenth century. for
From
a purely political
the
rife.
The
muang
of Lan Sang fared
much
better, in
own
kings, but rivalry
each other."41 Ongoing succession struggles
among
finally led
A
marker, sanctified by the consecration of a Buddhist shrine, was
borders with
Cited in Carool Kersten, of Reameathipadei I, 1642-1658,”]SEAS 37,
"
is
(2006), 17.
set
up
A yutthaya. reflected in the prosperity
A History of Tl毗圳叫ew Haven: Ya川1iv叫r Press, 1则,u Martin Stuart-Fox, The Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang: Rise and Decline (Bangkok: White
David Wyatt,
:丁
1
to出e
Lan Sang now enjoyed. Like his counterparts in Ava and Ayutthaya, Suriyavongsa required princes to move away from their provincial bases and resettle in Vientiane where they could be brought under closer long period of peace
secure footing. Royal protocol and the court hierarchy were clarified, and attention was
39
the
and swords"
of the long-reigning Suriyavongsa
1670 a frontier
indicate that successive rulers were trying to
Buddha images
in
(c. 1637-94), whose primary concern was to safeguard his country from invasion. In 1641 Dutch envoys mentioned a sign on an island in the Mekong River indicating the division between Lan Sang and Khmer territory, and
installation
reaffirm the
and economic rivalry, Khmer laws place出e apparatus of government on a more
and
script,
capital Vientiane, say the chroniclers, was“full oflances
and "relatives fought against
to
in this time of continuing political unrest
standpoint the Lao
Lao areas continued to be ruled by their
nobili可was
Dutch soon departed,
Comp过ed
cultural heritage
from major centers of power. Indeed, a Genoese compared the surrounding “mountains and inaccessible precipices" to ramparts,“出at none can force their way through and which thus serve as a protection against the insults of their enemies."40 Having permanently shaken off Burmese overlord-
in
unable to generate profits in a highly competitive market dominated by Chinese.
though Buddhist
Lan Na's
traveler specifically
(1636-45) entertained ideas of greater influence and, with Ayutthaya’s assistance, even conquest. A丘er his death such plans were abandoned and the
was no longer
pa此because of their geographic distance
ship,
at a distinct disadvantage. Cambodia’s durable
it
distinguished by specific iconographic features such as the lotus-bud shape of the flame
homeland. They probably Penh, and some of
styles,
Thai" language and
was st山manifested in the “Northern
over the region,
1558 and 1727,
depopulation and a consequent decline in agricultural
and their mestizo o旺spring vied to dominate trade in deerskins and forest products such as wax and namrack, a black tree resin used in lacquerwork. Although merchants all
st山
high esteem.
sources
traders
script
Cambodia histo巧in the seventeenth century, Khmer culture survived and was
production. Regarded primarily as a frontier area of the Burmese empire,
invasion in 1673.
The
in architectural styles,
The northern Tai areas were also increasingly vulnerable to the depredations of their
conflict
Ayutthaya and those who were
aesthetics
Cited in
Lotus Press, 1998),
85-6
EXPANDING也OBAL川口,16…690s'
川毡A HISTO盯OF山…ODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…830 surveillance. Their posts
number of
were then
filled
own
posts accorded his
by royal appointees
relatives.
limited direct access to maritime trade,
it
Although landlocked Lan Sang had
maintained foreign connections through
A yutthaya
land routes that led from Vientiane to
loyal to the ruler, with
and Cambodia, eastward
a
only
ancient
to Dai Viet,
and northward into southern Yunnan. Revenues flowed to the center, and a Dutchman remarked on the splendor of the royal palace,“so large one would take it for a town.”He
commented on the numbers of monks German Emperor”) who came from as far
also
(“more
numerous than
afield as
Myanmar
the soldiers of
the
to study in Lan Sang
monasteries卢The Lao themselves even said that they had been elevated over their neighbors because they possessed so many Buddhist temples and so many learned monks. Despite this self-confidence, Suriyavongsa’s death in 1694 and a subsequent dispute provided the pretext for intervention by Lan
from the latter in
east and, to a
much
greater degree,
later,
Lan Sang was
effectively
succession
powerful neighbors - Dai Viet
Ayutthaya from the west. An invasion by the
1707 reinforced the division between the
Luang Prabang, and when Champasak
Sang’s
rival ruling families in Vientiane and
in the south also
dismembered. Yet
formed
a separate unit
six years
this reversion to smaller polities was
keeping with a long tradition in which allegiances were locally focused. While
in
possession
Buddha and other ancient statues remained a source of Vientiane pride, Luang Prabang and Champasak similarly emphasized their genealogical connections to Lan Sang and elevated their own Buddha images as the focus of community veneration and local identity. of the Emerald
was affirming the chain of authority that bound him to his subjects. At the beginning of each New Year he made ritual obeisance to heaven, after which princes and officials paid
him the same homage. Court nobles and followers,
villages, facilitating efficient conscription
we
the Nguyen, the Trinh, and the
Trinh proclaimed
forced
families -
Mac - that eventually compelled the Mac to take refuge in
the mountains at the northern border. Here they received Chinese protection
when Trinh armies
former
resettled in
them out of Vietnamese
their loyalty to the
territory.
Le dynasty, the border area of Dong Hoi
day Quang Binh province) was accepted
as dividing the
until 1667,
Although both Nguyen
Nguyen domain
(in present-
in the south from
The emperor himself remained firmly under Trinh control Long while the Nguyen were effectively independent in their southern realm. that of the Trinh.
Sporadic fighting between the
Nguyen and
1627 the situation deteriorated into
civil
and
in
Thang
the Trinh continued, however, and
war. Four years later the N思1yen began
Cham
areas
con-
advice about the soldiers
and
a loyal populace, the
Trinh forces, offensive in
region,”i.e.
42
from those of the Trinh (Dang
the north, called Tonkin by Europeans). For the
Cited in Martin Stuart-Fox,
A
Ngoai,“outer
Nguyen lord a prime concern
History of Laos (Cambridge University Press, 1997), 13
and
cultivate land.
artillery
and gave
much
larger
failure of the last
Trinh
able to repel attacks by the losses.
The
1672 resulted in a stalemate, ushering in the so-called “centu町of peace" N凯1yen, claiming the
north, while the solidified their
Increased
position in the center
Khmer throne and through
Khmer cession of Prey Nokor/Saigon southern outlet to maritime
A major
the
“Lord of the
title
and looked
Realm" (quoc chua) since 1693,
to the south as a logical area of expansion.
Vietnamese influence in Cambodia was achieved through alliances with
claimants to the
assistance provided against A严1tthaya.
in 1623 provided the
The
Nguyen with an important
obstacle to the N事1yen“southward advance"
(nam
tien)
was the presence of
Cham, whose resistance had continued even a丘er出e major defeat of Vijaya
Cham
rival
commerce.
south
polities further
at
in 1471.
Kauthara and Panduranga
initially
independence and rulers, but acknowledged the overlordship of Dai Viet. As
Cham rulers and traditional elite grew weaker, the Cham people turned increasingly to
their religious
leaders for direction
and
as a source for the prese凹ation of
Cham
culture
and identity. In this situation the growing influence of Islam in island Southeast Asia held
Cham manuscripts refer to close links where Cham heroes and kings were said to
out possibilities of alternative sources of assistance.
with the northern
Malay
state
of Kelantan,
have travelled in search of magical skills出at
Although the dating
is
st山debated,
the
Malay
scribes,
title
it
“Paduka Seri Sultan."
and many
Cham
risons.
would help them
appears that at some Islam,
The
and the
against the Vietnamese.
point between 1607 and 1676 a
last ruler,
Po Saut
(r.
1660-92), used
court patronized Islamic scholars and Malay
subsequently became
at least
Panduranga and launched a
campaigns in 1611 and 1653, the
near
to clear
(roughly 1674 to 1770). The Trinh maintained their control over the Le dynasty in the
south, termed Cochin China by Europeans)
fortified walls
Nguyen were
even though both sides sustained heavy
Dong Hoi. Stretching from Hue, these walls divided their own domains (Dang Trong, meaning“inner region,”i.e. the
two
the sea to the hills north of
new
a well-trained
deployment of cannon, especially on shipboard. With well-trained
building fortifications at
structing
own
A second concern
and enabling development of
where they were ordered
Cham king from Panduranga adopted in
society.
European traders and mercenaries helped in the local production of
retained their
described the internal conflicts between powerful Vietnamese
Dang Trong
army of around 40,000 men, while thousands of captured Trinh soldiers were also
The two remaining
The Eastern Mainland
then received obeisance from their
officials
to the lowest levels of
was the development of a strong population base. Soldier-farmers were settled in
the
In Chapter 4
and so on,
down
nominal Muslims. Po Saut began series of assaults
on N凯1yen
gar-
His resistance, however, was short-lived. In 1692, following earlier Vietnamese
captured but his
younger
Cham forces were definitively defeated. Po Saut brother, whom the Nguyen appointed as“aboriginal
was
king,'’
maintained correct tributary relations until his death in 1727. The late seventeenth century was thus marked by continued Vietnamese migration and further incorporation of Cham
229
m喽A HISTO盯OF山川ODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫3 territories into the officials
were
Nguyen domains.
In a
renewed campaign of “Vietnamization," Cham
religious practices
riage tion.
and
Nguyen
even ordered to dress in the Sinicized
There was nevertheless another side to
and
Vietnamese domination,
this
is
N agar
Cemented by
links.
evident in
protection from
of
Cham
plow.
Trinh
intermar-
challenge, the
Chams and Khmers
exchange of gi丘s and
through
tribute, this adjustment
recognition of local spirits such as the powerful
N伊yen
and other
the ritualized
social
Cham and Khmer popula-
possibility of a future
N凯1yen were careful to maintain relations with both marriage
many
for
brought by Vietnamese migrants were reshaped through
own vulnerability and the
Cham
goddess Po
and by the construction of shrines to思iarantee continuing
deities,
Cham spirits. As they moved south the Vietnamese also adopted features
culture, such as boatbuilding techniques and a modified version of the Cham
The name of the Cham
Vietnamese
spirit
Po
deity
N agar was now Vietnamized
as she entered
pantheon as the Imperial Lady of the Earth, and the whale
venerated as protector of
Cham
fishermen,
received the
Buddhism remained
the
Vietnam were accentuated
a focus of devotion
in other ways.
throughout the Nguyen and Trinh
especially at the village level, but court patronage of
domains,
Buddhism was more pronounced in
the Nguyen-controlled south. Leading figures were o丘en devout Buddhists, and in 1695
eminent Chinese abbot from F时ian
initiated the
Nguyen
lord, his family,
and
an
thousands
of followers into a Chan/Thien (Zen) school favored by merchant associations. In Dang
Trong Chinese merchants contributed
to the establishment of
they could venerate deities such as Guandi (Viet.
Guanyin
Thien Hau), the goddess of the
(Viet.
Quan Cong),
sea,
Buddhist temples where
the god of war and
and the Bodhisattva of
Quan Am). These temples provided an anchor
colonies, but also helped society.
them connect with Vietnamese
elites
wealth,
Compassion,
for overseas Chinese
and
integrate into
A second difference from Dang N goai was the reduced political and social
local influ’
ence of Confucianism. The Nguyen were operating in a frontier environment where much of the population was Cham or Khmer and where the Confucian literati were smaller in
number,
less erudite,
the
and often
closely involved in trade. In this context the kind
man who
designed the walls at
Dong Hoi should have been
ineligible for any
administrative post because he was the son of a singer, but in the south he rose to become a well- known official
central
and imported products.44 The
rice, salt,
marked on a Chinese
routes closely
map
in
and “western”maritime
“eastern"
dating to about 1620
show
that
Nguyen
ports were tied
to Southeast Asia, China, R严ikyu, and Japan through the junk trade. In 1679,
following the collapse of the three
the world: as high as the clouds,”said one Italian -
Ming
thousand Chinese refugees,
dynasty, the
many of whom
Nguyen domains settled in the
also
took in about
upper Mekong Delta and
Hoi An. Intermarriage with Vietnamese led to a distinctive mixed population called
Minh Huong
(“people
can
whom the Nguyen
incense to the Ming”) to
accorded
In Hoi An, temples and guildhalls erected by Chinese dialect groups
special priv过eges. still
who burn
be seen today, but
it is
worth noting that a Minh Huong communal house has
also survived.
In
comparing the cultures of these two realms,
scholarship
it
is
thus apparent that Confucian
and the influence of Chinese customs and
cultural practices
were more
often extremely north,
however,
by the Sinicised
wealthy because of their role as brokers in the it
was impossible to
elite.
silk trade.
Even
replicate the administrative style of China so
Since administrative posts were sold or rewarded
in the
admired
to favored clients,
Confucian examination system was only partially effective in developing a meritorious
the
bureaucratic system. Provincial
Confucian ideals were
strengthen
specified that
morality
and
local elites wielded so difficult to enforce.
v山age chiefs should be educated
much
For example, the government
men who
could encourage Confucian
and enforce prohibitions against popular pastimes such
directives
were largely ignored. The
authority that edicts to
as cock且ghting, but such
Trinh lords discouraged spirit propitiation,
1663 prohibited certain “heterodox" practices associated with
and
in
Daoism, Buddhism, and
forms of popular religion. Ultimately, however, they were forced to acknowledge the
power of local
deities.
When
one of the shrines of the goddess Lieu Hanh was destroyed
by o伍cial order, the epidemics由at followed persuaded the court to accord her official recognition as a “Golden Princess, a Terrestrial
Mother."
Nor was the value of foreign contacts disregarded, despite the
a eunuch’s reiteration of
Chinese Confucian credo由at“this country hath no need of any foreign
which belies the Trinh desire to obtain weapons and metals, especially exchange for silk
and ceramics.
45
One important
thing,”
silver, in
source of silver was Japan, where
and poet.
In the third place, the
Nguyen were more
employing Japanese and Chinese
as
government
consistently officials
and
open
to the outside world,
even engaging Europeans
43
(“Safe Haven,”now a World Heritage site), where one European specifically remarked that the people were unlike the Chinese because they“admired things from
Dror and K. W. Taylor, eds., Views of Seventeenth-Century Vietnam: Christoforo Born on and Samuel Baron on Tonkin (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program, 2006), 115 Cited in Charles Wheeler,“Rethinking the Sea in Vietnamese Hist。可:Littoral Sode可in the Integration of Thaun-Quang, Seventeenth-Eighteenth Centuries,”JSEAS 37, 1 (2006), 137 n. 51. Cited in Hoang Anh Tuan, Silk for Silver: Dutch-Vietnamese relations, 1637-1700 (Leiden: Br山, Cited in Olga
Cochinchina
as 44
court physicians. This culturally inclusive atmosphere was reflected in the bustling port of
Hoi An
had long linked
coast-interior connections that
一“the finest trees in
timber
lowland
for
of
protocol followed in the north was frequently ignored. For instance, according to accepted
norms
The
pronounced in the Trinh court. As in China, eunuchs were a powerful influence and
Di旺erences between southern and northern
(Viet.
like forest
spirit,
“General of
title
the
Southern Seas."
Mazu
outside [world].叫3
[the]
Vietnam to archipelago trade were maintained through exchanges of highland products
style.
interaction with the predominantly Indic-influenced
Aware of their
EXPANDING GLOBAL川肘,1600-169os
45
2007),
40
t.S
231
232
6 A HI…Y OF EAR…ODERN…HEAST山,14…830 Vietnamese
EXPANDING GLOBAL川KS, 160叫90s毡巧3
was competitively priced in relation to that produced
in China and could benefit from the disruption to supply chains in the wake of the Ming collapse. silk
Europeans also used for example, a
VOC
silver to
buy Vietnamese products,
especially ceramics; in
ship sailed from the northern capital of
Thang Long
1670,
Banda
to
in
the Eastern Archipelago with a cargo that included 89,000 Vietnamese cups. The Red
River estua巧remained an important port of call for foreign traders, and
centu巧and 1680 about
that between the early seventeenth
five
tons of
estimated
it is
silver annually
entered the northern economy. Nevertheless, under the Confucian-oriented Trinh
government the Chinese notion of
By 1697
rising silk prices
Kingdom"
a self-su伍cient“Middle
meant few Chinese junks were coming
to Tonkin, while
Europeans objected to expensive delays caused by the obligatory European vessels.
Whether we
are speaking of Dang
Trong or Dang Ngoai, the extent
still prevailed.
to
inspection
of
outsiders
and the north
in 1626. Then
skills,
weapon巧and
(MEP) began to operate in Dang papacy. In both the Nguyen and Trinh cou口s the initial
great appeal
by the desire to acquire economic
advantages
since missionaries represented themselves as knowledgeable about
able to facilitate the
was access
to
procurement of arms.
new sources
Among
ordinary people,
of spiritual assistance, and by the 1650s the
the
Jesuit
Alexandre de Rhodes (1593-1660) claimed that there were around 300,000 Christians. Nor was it simply the poor and marginalized who were attracted to this new fai出. Although there were few Confucian literati converts, at times the missionaries received support from influential sponsors, particularly high-ranking
women. As
pines, missionaries placed great
and Alexandre
was instrumental
emphasis on linguistic
in devising a
romanized
Europeans master Vietnamese and
script
skills,
now known
local Catholics to read
in the Philip-
de副10des
as quoc ngu
and write
their
own
to help
language.
With
the assistance of local converts, traditional chu nom characters were also used to produce catechisms, prayers, saintly biographies, and biblical stories. While references to far-off countries in these works placed Christianity in a global environment, Christ was
depicted in a
more
piety expected of
local context, eating rice
all
and
between the different Catholic orders and the
of their faith. Rivalries loyalties
among
Dang Trong nor Dang Ngoai, however, was suppression enforced as later in
Qing China). Even
aries to
MEP
divided
Christians themselves and often exacerbated official hostility. In neither
return secretly
after expulsion Vietnam’s long
it
was
in
Japan (or
open coasts allowed mission-
and provide covert support to local communities. Despite and the expulsion of priests, clandestine missionizing
periodic executions of Christians
by the Vietnamese themselves continued. Meanwhile, rising landlessness, periodic droughts,
and crop
failures created a situation
where Christian
whom
pool of supernatural deities to
became incorpor-
saints
ordinary people might turn for
support.
relating to his
mother through
CONCLUSION
in
1663 the French-based Missions Etrangeres de Paris
and technical
north in 1663.
under the Portuguese Padroado Real
Franciscan, and Jesuit missionaries in the south in 1615
toleration of Christianity can be explained
equivalent to homicide.”46 Court opposition led
to
(Royal Patronage), but intensive proselytization only began with the Dominican,
Trong under the patronage of the
is
banning of Christianity in the south in 1631 and again in 1690, and in the By the 1660s around seventy Christian Vietnamese had died because
to the
ated into the
which
could be incorporated into Vietnamese society raises the issue of the response Christianity. Early Christianization efforts occurred
was“the utmost disrespectful act that
the且Hal
Vietnamese.
The seventeenth century saw an explosion of economic and political activity as a result of the arrival of the
Dutch and the ever-increasing numbers of Chinese who became
Company (VOC) proved
India
resources
particularly effective in using
and superiority in firearms and naval technology
contra可to
elite practice,
converts, as in China, were required to reject customs such as ancestor veneration that were central to local cultures. The destruction of ancestral tables, said the Trinh Lord,
its
to create a
throughout Asia that surpassed the Portuguese Estado da India. 出roughout the region, the construction sugar.
the
and land clearance
vast
effects
economic
network of posts
As
it
expanded
contributed to a flurry of urban
for the planting of export crops such as
The most damaging environmental
pepper and
occurred in northern Maluku, where
Dutch, determined to monopolize the spice trade, forced the local populations to
eradicate all spice trees that
VOC's economic ambitions
except for
commanded high
exploitation of certain
profits
Ambon and
on the
Banda. The voracious
demand
for items
international market led to an unprecedented
animal populations such as deer and of exotic resin-bearing and
aromatic trees, as well as
hardwoods
like teak
used in the construction of European
ships in local shipyards.
The human labor required in all these projects encouraged a burgeoning slave trade that had severe consequences for vulnerable societies. All the VOC cities possessed a multi-ethnic population, with a large percentage
Nonetheless, suspicion of missionary intentions persisted, primarily because of their insistence that allegiance to the Christian God preempted any other human loyalties. While the insistence on monogamy was completely Christian
a
permanent part of the social and economic fabric of Southeast Asia. The Dutch East
46
composed of slaves丘om various
pa时S
Cited in Anh Q, Tran,“Inculturation, Mission and Dialogue in Vietnam: the Conference of Representatives of Four Religions,'’in David Lindenfeld and Miles Richardson, eds., Beyond Conversion
and Syncretism: Indigenous Encounters with Missionary Christianity, 1800-2000 Berghahn Books, 2012), 172.
(New York/Oxford:
234肇电矗A
EXPANDING GLOBAL LINKS, 1600-169os甘,
HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
of the world.
Added
and communities
to this forced mobility
was
a continuing
as they migrated to areas of better
the coasts or in the
new cosmopolitan urban
numbers of refugees from wars
Dutch
policies, the
striking
of
individuals
economic oppo口unities,
centers.
There was
usually on
also a noticeable
example being the Bugis-Makassarese exodus
southwest Sulawesi after the defeat of
rise
that were directly or indirectly instigated by
in the
most
movement
Gowa
in 1669.
While the movement
of people
has always been a feature of Southeast Asia, the seventeenth century saw a vast
demarcated
from
increase
centu巧from
previous
This chapter has also traced the growing trend towards cultural and
political
in forced
and voluntary mobility也at
clearly
this
periods.
consolidation in what later became the pre-eminent
kingdoms on
the mainla时,each
based on a dominant ethnic group: the Burmans of the Restored Taungoo dynasty the Western Mainland; the Thai of A严1tthaya in the Central Mainland; and,
the division into two realms, the Vietnamese of Dai Viet in the Eastern Mainland.
any
efforts to
extend central authority were always countered by the persistence
many semi-autonomous were only capital
partially
domains. While challenges from regional lords and
remedied by the requirement that they spend time
under the watchful eye of出e
upland areas were able
to exist
Yet
of so
princes
in the royal
numerous settlements that dotted the most a minimal recognition of a remote
ruler, the
with
at
in
despite
-
overlord.
Tendencies towards centralization are even less evident in island Southeast Asia, in parts of northern
under
direct
and
central Spanish Philippines
and the small pockets
of
except
territo叮
VOC jurisdiction. As in the uplands of the mainland, the physical landscape
contributed to the persistence of individual independent entities that entered into relationships with
arrangements and the
voluntarily
more powerful kingdoms because of mutually beneficial economic obligations incurred through kinship ties. Even the most power创
of the island kingdoms, such as Aceh, Mataram, or Gowa, never possessed the resources to
extend and maintain their authori可far beyond those areas traditionally regarded
as
acceptable fields of expansion and control.
A
marked
feature of this period
is
the contrast between mainland and
island
Southeast Asia in regard to European involvement in local politics, international trade, and Christian proselytization. Although Europeans considered the economic potential
of the mainland
less alluring
relative strength of the
position to dictate terms.
Dutch were highly by exploiting
than the islands, a major factor in this difference was
powerful mainland polities where outsiders were never
On
the other hand, Europeans
and most
particularly the
successful in dominating smaller polities in the island
traditional rivalries
and thus acquiring native
allies.
the
in a
While
it
areas,。在en
was
possible
mainland kingdoms to ignore or manipulate Europeans in accordance with priorities, the archipelago states were forced to tread far more warily. In religious terms, European influences also played out differently. In the Theravada
for the
indigenous
Buddhist societies of the mainland Christianity held out rulers ciples
of
challenge
even in places
ways in
little
appeal, while Vietnamese
would undermine Confucian prin- government. In the island world Christianity was never able to meet the of Islam, except in the Philippines and parts of the Eastern Archipelago. Yet
remained suspicious that missionary activity
where European influence was most
visible,
we
still
see the multiple
which indigenous agency was able to domesticate outside ideas in the service
of local needs.
235
New boundaries and
TIMELINE New boundaries and changing regimes, 1690s-1780s
changing regimes,
Outbreak of VOC一Javanese war
169os-178os
War
Seζond voe…Javanese
Establishment of Bugis Raja Bugis dominance
Muda
office;
beginning of
Johor一Riau
in
Widespread rebellions
in
Dang Trong and Dang Ngoai
in
Dai Viet
Chinese uprising
in
Java;
Manipuri raiding into Figure 6.1. Japanese print of an eighteenth-century
1749
VOC ship. This depiction lists details
ship’s
Thai
Konbaung dynasty
settlement in Nagas达i
Timor
in
ordination
established
in Sri
in
Lanka
Myanmar
Treaty of Giyanti divides authority between the ζourts of Surakarta and Yogyakarta in Central Java
inclusion of
inaccurate estimates of the distance by sea from Japan to various destinations
monks assist
IS
correctly given as 1641.
1
in
size,出e
crew was estimated at around a hundred men. The date of the Dutch
Southeast Asia
defeats Topass army
local allies
height of the masts, and the number of c创mon. The
However, the
rebellion in Pegu; increased
Increased Muslim raiding of central and northern Philippines
such as出e
len阱and
voe with
Mon
Myanmar
British
in
capture Manila; anti-Spanish rebellion led by
Diego Silang
as well as
Europe ( the distance between Batavia and Japan, around 5,782 kilometers, is
Spanish expel non-Christian Chinese from the Philippines
given here as 3,400 Ii, about 13,600 kilometers) demonstrates the Japanese lack of familiarity wi由
Burmese forces destroy Ayutthaya, ending dynasty Taksin founds
maritime travel. Courtesy of KITL V, Royal Netherlands Institute for Southeast
new Thonburi
dynasty
in
Siam
Vietnam
1771
Outbreak of Tay Son
1778
Spanish permit Chinese to return to Manila
Asian and Caribbean Studies, Leiden.
rebellion in
增'A HISTO…F山…ODERN SOUTHEAST山,14…830
N…OUNDARIES AND CHANGING REGIME叫90s呐。s' desirable trading partners.
models of government and religious and was declining. In the 1680s envoys from Aceh and Ayutthaya
when
The
VOC was already stumbling towards bankruptcy, and its
maritime weakness was exposed by the British victory in the
so long provided Southeast Asia with
fate
cultural inspiration
Fourth Anglo-Dutch war (1780-4).
?halt would
have marveled
at the
magnificence of the royal court in Safavid
Persia, for
it
had
among Europeans familiar with the splendor of Versailles. However, this grandeur came to an end in 1722 when the capital Isfahan was sacked by A也han invaders and the Safavid dynasty collapsed. Though influences from Persia can st山be aroused wonder even
tracked in Southeast Asia, especially in Islam,
its
glorious days were
now past. The second
was sealed
its
One constant in the Southeast Asian firmament was China, since 1644 under the Qing dynasty. The primary link with Southeast Asia remained the junk trade, concen- trated on the southern ports of Xiamen (Amoy) in the province of Fujian and on Guangzhou ( Canton) in Guangdong. In places like Makassar in southwest Sulawesi, the goods carried by the annual junk from Xiamen was sufficient to stimulate the growth
mer
Ottoman Turkey, had suffered defeats in war and territorial losses, and was now preoccupied with threats from Russia. In the Philippines rumors that the Spanish were enslaving Filipinos to pay a ransom to the“Grand Turk" could st且l ca use panic・ stricken flight, and Malay texts st山stressed legendary associations with “Rum," but Ottoman interest in Southeast Asia had faded and direct connections were only revived
of trade in tripang
in the mid-nineteenth centu巧・
tributary states - although this status
great empire,
This lessened influence was most apparent in the third domain, Mughal
Aurangzeb, the sixth Mughal steady decline in
Mughal power
poor leadership, natural centers.
A
ruler,
died in 1707 a丘er a reign of forty-nine
and other key
ports,
VOC
restrictions
its
commerce was
and thus severely undermined
profitable
opium
especially evident in
had excluded Indians from
spice trades. In 1757 the English East India
of Bengal and
of
reduced revenue, and the emergence of regional power
retraction of overseas Indian
Southeast Asia, since
years. The
death has been attributed to a combination
a丘er his
disasters,
India, where
eastern Indonesia
their participation in the
Company gained control
trade, with prices inflated
island
textile and
of the rich province
by a market
of
(beche de
or sea cucumbers) which was a delicacy in China.
These junks not only carried cargoes of Chinese goods that were exchanged for local products, but also passengers, with over a
growing self-confidence of the Asia,
thousand arriving in Batavia every
Qing dynasty was
partic吐arly
felt
in
where Myanmar, A严1tthaya, Dai Viet, and the Lao areas were
meant
different points in time. China’s efforts to
Myanmar most
Yunnan
affected
with the
new Konbaung
directly,
year.
The
mainland Southeast all
considered to be
di旺erent things to different countries at
expand
its
authority further into southern
and between 1765 and 1769
this led to
dynasty, which was similarly attempting to affirm
its
war
overlord-
ship along the frontier region. In Dai Viet the influence of China’s religious policies
evident in anti-Christian in
1724 to expel
among
all
is
enactments by both the N思1yen and Trinh. The Qing decided
missionaries from China and to ban Christianity,
the “perverse sects
and
now
classified
sinister doctrines" that also included “superstitious"
Buddhist sects.2
The European presence remained considerably more influential in island Southeast
addicts.
worth remembering that even
many communities
never
Despite opposition from the Qing emperor and from individual Southeast Asian rulers, the consumption of opium, mixed with tobacco and then smoked, rapidly expanded, and
Asia,
in the early eighteenth century
circumventing the restrictions that Europeans had imposed, and n山nerous areas con-
that they
would mortgage
products that often
were able
to
own
was said that Malays were“such Admirers of Ophium
they hold most valuable to procure
demanded
hold their
“country traders,"
all
it
it."1
Dealing
in
specialized knowledge, such as elephants, the Chulias in the
Bay of Bengal. However, it was private British sailed from port to port within Asia, who
termed such because they
now dominated
but
it is
in the Philippines
saw a white face. Although local societies o丘en displayed remarkable adroitness in
tinued to operate
independently of outside intervention, there was no movement towards
Once again the story is very different on the mainland, where Europeans were far less involved and where we see the continuing dominance of three ethnic groups: the Burmans, the Central Thai, and the Vietnamese. The Burmans the creation
of larger polities.
Mons and the Shan and dominated Myanmar following the
the sea routes between Southeast Asia and India. Their well- rigged and well-armed ships carried cargoes of Indian goods (including opium) from bases in
overcame challenges from the
Kolkata, Chennai (Madras), and
status in relation to
exchanged
for products that
Ayutthaya in 1767.
of Chinese
tea,
more durably, under the Nguyen in 1802, and by the 1830s the
Mumbai to Southeast Asian ports. Here cargoes were were desired in China, where British ships loaded supplies increasingly popular in Europe. In Southeast Asia itself British country
traders were willing to sell思ms which, together with
1
opium, helped
establish them
as
Cited in Carl A. Trocki, Opium, Empire and the Global Political Economy: a Study of the Asian Opium Trade, 1750-1950 (Routledge: London and New York, 1999), 53.
establishment of the
The Central Thai a面rmed their superior northern Tai and Lao groups following the Burmese destruction of Vietnam became a unified kingdom under the Tay Son in 1788 and,
Konbaung dynasty
in 1752.
last
Cham
polity
was
formally abolished.
2
Cited in Daniel H. Bays, Christianity in China:卢om the Eighteenth Century to the Present (Stanford University Press, 1999), 8.
239
240
A HISTORY OF EARLY
扫
tit岱 l'
Noteworthy
"'1
MODERN SOUTHEAST
N…OUN川IES AND山NGING REGIM川690s呐OS '241
ASIA, 1400-1830
you no longer have parents and brothers and if you are free of men."4 China, then you will perhaps be all your life the happiest of
If
features of the period
Economic development and
its
responsib山ty in
Through the eighteenth century Chinese involvement in plantation agriculture and mining steadily increased. For example, in the 17 40s, at the invitation of a West Borneo
impact on relationships
oly of spices in the Eastern Archipelago, but
Hakka from Guangdong) began to expand existing gold excavation. Chinese working methods were seen as more productive than the intermittent extraction practiced by indigenous Dayaks, and the West Borneo mines may have attracted as many as 60,000 Chinese. In Dang N goai, the Trinh ruler encouraged provincial officers to invest
important because clove and nutmeg trees
their
ruler,
The eighteenth-century expansion of mining and plantation
The
able changes to Southeast Asian export economies.
agriculture brought consider-
VOC st山maintained
its
monop-
by the 1770s the spice trade was far less were being grown in the French territories of
Mauritius and Madagascar in east Africa. The major sources of
VOC revenue now came
from introduced crops such
indigo.
as pepper, sugar, cotton, coffee,
and
The
extension of
commercial agriculture was especially evident on the island of Java, where peasants provided labor and were subject to a system of obligatory deliveries at low prices that fluctuated according to the world market. For the
VOC the cultivation of coffee, a native
of Africa, was a particular success. The
Chinese (mainly
own funds and cooperate with upland chiefs to open copper mines in return for five tax-free years. In some mines the largely Chinese workers could number as many as ten thousand. In addition to their long-standing
involvement in cash crops such as sugarcane,
the Chinese were responsible for introducing more island
of Riau, Teochiu migrants (also
gambier, a native plant
was
known
for
its
now finding a market
the Chinese in Java since the early seventeenth centu巧.
which Chinese customers preferred to rubies
number of sugar mills, largely operated by Chinese,
the
With a marked
increase in
VOC was able to supply profitable
markets in Japan, Persia, and Europe, while cargoes of sugar also provided
VOC's homeward-bound
the
ballast for the
gold mines and plantations. Although the Chinese were o丘en seen as a single grouping, an imperial source from the early eighteenth century notes that“of those going abroad, Fujian people account for 60一70 percent and Cantonese and those from Jiangsu and
make up
also
as a
the remaining 30-40
percent户Given
their cultural and
linguistic differences,
Chinese migrants did not necessarily cooperate and could be in competition, especially in terms of access to resources such as water as well as timber for firewood. Their interaction with Southeast Asian societies also differed. Marriage to
woman
a local
posed few problems in Vietnam or the Theravada Buddhist countries, and Chinese Christians easily took Filipinas as wives with few adjustments in regard to food or lifestyle. Chinese conversion to Islam, on the other hand, required significant changes
in religious expectations
and food preferences, notably the rejection of pork. Yet despite undercurrents of hostility and outbursts of violence like those in Manila, in Chinese eyes Southeast Asia remained a region of great opportunity. In the words of Wang Dahai, who spent ten years in Java between 1783 and 1793,“The oceans of the west are
of cotton to China, but
Kong Yuan
Zhi,“A
Study of Chinese Loan
Malay and Indonesian Languages,”BK!
for tanning leather.
it
Myanmar was
became a significant source of jade,
and other precious
stones. Chinese buyers
ensured a continuing profitab且ity for the products of Southeast Asia’s forests and
seas. China’s
traditional
pharmacology required many plants and
like paradise.
had become standard items in the elite cuisine.
parts of exotic animals
semi-nomadic groups
the
in a locally
who inhabited the seas, the jungles, and the uplands is suggested that describes the unique knowledge of “foresters" who
composed Thai Jataka
perform the ceremonies necessary to will
hunt elephants. In the
the early
scholars
prisoners to
open up the area where the king and
same mode, the Javanese
143, 4 (1987), 454.
F时ian Dialects)
in the
Serat Centini (probably
composed
in
Agung a丘er his campaigns in east Java and assigned The headman describes the different types of teakwood and the
brought back by Sultan
necessary to ensure that a house built from teak will always exude beneficial
be由e recipients of this山lique knowledge.5 These connections had implications beyond the purely economic sphere, for through-
influences.
The
out the region sion of
4
5
Words (from South
his entourage
nineteenth century) records a long conversation between a group of Muslim (santri) and the chief of the Kalang woodcutters, allegedly descended from
timber collection.
rituals
and tripang
The value placed on the specialized skills of
santri feel “very fortunate" to
innumerable legends recalled ancient marriages that recognized出e inclu-
non-state
communities in the
center’s cultural
cosmology. The
Jarai
people
Claudine Salmon,“Wang Dahai et sa vision des 'contrees insulaires’(1791)," Etudes 1-2 (Spring-Autumn, 1994), 225, 236. Suwito Santoso, with additional text by Kesty Pringgoha叶ono, The Centhini Story: the Javanese Cited in
Chinoises 13,
Cited in
medium
communities also responded to changes in consumer demand.
well-established as a supplier
On the
grown only in small
found only in a tropical environment, while food items such as birds' nests
ships.
Meanwhile, throughout Southeast Asia large numbers of Chinese migrants, previously concentrated in urban centers, were moving into more remote areas to open up tin and
Zhejiang provinces
Local
in
qualities. Previously
China
quantities,
it
effective agricultural initiatives.
from Guangdong) interspersed pepper vines with
medicinal
first supplies of Java-grown coffee reached the Netherlands in 1711, and by the 1720s the VOC was supplying most of Europe. The Dutch also extended the production of sugar cane, which had been commercially cultivated by
3
all
Journey of L价(Singapore: Marshall Cavendish, 2000), 16.
Ii飞ring
242、也A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING
ASIA, 1400-1830
mountains on the borders between Cambodia and Vietnam supported
in the
shadowy, mysterious, and venerated shamans
namese
as the Fire Chie丘ain
known
to the
Cambodians and
and the Water Chie丘ain, who were keepers of
regarded as immensely powerful. Each year
Khmer
such as a young elephant, glassware, iron, and
the two
the Viet- a sword
rulers sent the highland leaders
gifts
wrap the sacred sword that country. Such links were o丘en more important silk cloth to
would protect the well-being of the entire than economic considerations. In the a丘ermath of the 1699 J ohor the former Bendahara,
accept
him
made
regicide the
new Sultan,
a circuit of his territories to persuade the Orang Laut
as their rightful lord
and thus
reactivate the ancient connections between
to
sea-
dwelling groups and the Melaka- J ohor dynasty.
non-sedentary peoples. In the Western Archipelago the kingdom of ohor revived J economically a丘er 1699, but the new regime was never able to reestablish traditional with the Orang Laut. In the Eastern Archipelago
some of
the
Sama
Bajau who had
previously played such a sign凶cant role in Gowa’s affairs dispersed after the Dutch conquest of 1669. While some Sama Bajau based in western Flores retained their
l。同时
to
Gowa, others came
can usually be traced to the
it
to serve their former lord’s great
prima町means of subsistence for the people known as Kalang, non-Muslim foresters and timber cutters, who were now placed directly under Dutch control. In consequence,
the
the reality
was very different from the situation described in the Serat Centini. Previously,
although certain duties
were expected of the Kalang, they had retained considerable
they were
was
registered only
when
there were unexplained shortages of some
items,
as when collectors failed to deliver forest products, especially those which were a royal monopoly. Sometimes, however, resentment at economic incursions or retaliation for perceived wrongs could lead to conflict, with “mountaineers”launching direct attacks
on
settled
communities. In several areas there
is
increased mention of aggression
as
lowland and coastal dwellers pushed into areas where they had no legacy of co- operation with interior or upland peoples. In central Vietnam the Cham, whose role as
middlemen
in the collection of jungle
produce was arrogated by Viet migrants,
retaliated with violence. Indeed, the eighteenth-century play,“A
Monk, A
often
Nun,”was
partly intended to encourage Viet migrants in Cham areas to“smite the barbarians who cut down people like bananas and capture buffalo and horses.”6 Further upland
in
Dang Trong, minority groups were
subject to an unprecedented tax burden, and it is hardly surprising that their involvement in anti-Nguyen rebellions was apparent even
by the 1750s.
scarcity
of suitable trees.
time required to
Cited in Claudine Ang, "‘A Monk, A Nun’:a Lascivious Conversation about Reli2:ion, Governance and Smiting B的arians M帆叫1-C叫r川ietnam," presented to the AAS c?nference, Honolulu, Apr且2011. Used with permission.
logs,
eight
As
a result, woodcutters
man would
hours but by 1738 a
teams of eighty buffalo 1770 a
had to go
further inland, lengthening the
drag a log to the coast. In 1686 such an expedition took only around six to
be away仕om
home
for at least
two weeks, and
were needed to haul the timber through the rough
group of Kalang attacked a Dutch
fort, killing several
Although
this uprising
terrain. In
people and burning the rice
was soon suppressed,
it
is
an
of frustration and the weakening of traditional links that had
stressed
mutual respect and reciprocity. European influence in the destabilization of
cultural
and economic relations between different groups
the relations
is
also well
lowland areas of the Philippines. In pre-Spanish times, interaction through peace pacts, reconcile the
demonstrated in
between the upland Igorot in the Cordillera of Luzon and surrounding
opposing
which were employed
sides,
and ensure
had been negotiated
to settle disputes, avert further bloodshed,
that trade could continue.
As described in Chapter
5,
Spanish predilection for settling conflicts through military force encouraged reprisal,
and the lowland Christian villages
were o丘en
targets for Igorot raids, with r的s intensified
by the Spanish policy of impressing native Christians into colonial troops. Yet the readiness of
lowland people to
flee into
were responding to the military threats
the mountains indicates that highland people
posed by the Spanish-led native forces rather than
se.
In reports
about upland-lowland interaction, the Philippine material also points to another indirect consequence of increased contact with interior groups - the devastating effects
of smallpox. Despite high mortality
developed strategies that did help
them
tropical diseases, Southeast Asians
from
had
deal with familiar or rec盯ring山ness. For
example, while the debilitating results of malaria 6
Now
accordance with the calendar of swidden farming.
under tight European supervision, and the sped且cations of numbers of
opposed to lowlanders per
.
They themselves could
and dates for deliveries became a major problem because of deforestation and the
size,
indication of a rising level
relationships
unrestricted.
timing for cutting (felling a single tree could take five days) so that由e required
timber could be transported in
refugee Makassar noble, or simply built
anxious to purchase sea products like tortoiseshell or tripang. In most cases involving mobile communities and lowland sedentary populations, the deterioration in ancient
had been
independence and their access to forests
and ammunition storehouses.
relationships with Chinese middlemen
exchange were under-
the market by Europeans and the
A telling example comes from the teak-covered forests of Rembang in east Java, annexed by the VOC in 1677. Woodcutting and carpentry were
enemy, the Bugis ruler Arung Palakka and his successors. St山others took to raiding under the leadership of some
up new
new demands on
cultural
numbers of Chinese traders.
rising
a句ust the
While these interactions continue despite political and social upheaval, periodic references do point to weakening links between settled centers of au由ority and mobile,
ties
mined,
by generations of trade and
older ties forged
When
REGIMES, 169os-178os白飞243
and dysentery forced the withdrawal of
the
Qing armies that invaded
the
Burmese did not drink water during the hot season. Instead, they "cultivate rushes.
Everyone eats ten or
more
Myanmar in
leaves per
1765, a
Qing
day to slake
soldier held captive reported出at
their thirst.
They do not consider
244
6 A HISTORY
OF
drinking water
EAR…ODE RN…HEAST A队140叫30 ...
one's
Burmese sources
hurt.”7
also note
was issued to timber workers as a protection against
gum,
asafetida, a dried latex
No
stomach might swell and
NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING
such solution could be found to deal with smallpox, which had recurred
that
malaria.
at regular
Chapter
marking other communities as“different" can be tracked from early times, as at Angkor Wat, which depict the disorderly“Syam" soldiers as quite distinct in
2,
in reliefs
and deportment from the
dress
introduction into Southeast Asia (probably before the European
arrival).
centu叮murals at
Since the tenth century variolation (by which dried smallpox scabs were blown
into the
in the
cycles since
its
who
nose of an individual,
then contracted a mild form of the disease that
resulted in lifelong immunity)
known
in
Vietnam and was apparently only introduced
after 1784.
generally
had been practiced in India and China. However, it was not to
Myanmar by Rakhine captives
Written sources do not refer to such methods elsewhere in Southeast
where smallpox became noticeably more prevalent during the eighteenth
Asia,
centu叩. Not
only were more places affected, but the epidemics lasted longer, and interior communities that
had not
up the degree of resistance found among coastal populations
built
decimated. Throughout the region there are reports of regular outbreaks and
epidemic in Ilocos alone killed 14,000 people. In a desperate effort to avoid people burned their homes,
left
the sick to die,
and closed mountain
entrance oflowlanders associated with the epidemic. fled to distant It
was
and less
such times,
at
high, that
fertile
when
we encounter
system a group that
contagion,
passes to block
zones led to lack of food and consequent deaths from famine.
when
tensions ran
the practice of “silent”trade, found in various parts of the trust
had not been established or had waned. Through
felt itself at risk
by leaving products
for
or was suspicious of outsiders could negotiate
exchange on the beach or
at the forest margins
pre- this
trade
toge出er
with small amounts of what they required. For example, in dealing with the
jungle-
disciplined
army of Lord Mara, the
evil
between
ships
required
one,
who attacked the meditating Buddha, while scenes
Sultan
Agung of Mataram.
controlled cities
appearance could proclaim
language, physical general lifestyle
restoration of trust
in the
markers of another group, according to context.
the distinctive
home
as
when
to the interior,
be regarded
new
Much
and
religious
cultural influences
eighteenth
trading
were absorbed through interaction with other groups, or
was modified
as a result, for example, of
7
and
by invoking ethnic
cultural practices as the basis for larger
C. Patterson Giersch, Asian Borderlands: the
(Cambridge
social and
consequence, there was a growing tendency for more
centers to reestablish or create lines of allegiance religion,
degree of
MA: Harvard University
identity, a
need to generate
group cohesion. As we
common
the
corvee that forcibly recruited so
Press, 2006), 103.
China’s
Yunnan
Frontier
would persuade men
might
now
many men
flight
as soldiers.
were
On
to risk their
common reactions
the other hand, the
army could make an ordinary farmer aware of a broader
claim his allegiance, sometimes through something as simple as
adopt a specific hair
style.
Other symbols could
also
emphasize
a
Uniforms were st过l rare in Southeast Asia, but banners provided rail抖ng and by the 1780s Burmese ships could be identified by “a red flag with a peacock in
middle."8 Retelling accounts of conflicts
allegiance
8
Tran功rmation of Qing
loyalties that
shared loyalty. points
in
moving from swidden
centu巧contributed to an escalation of mobility throughout由e region. In
combat and stay true to their leaders. Desertion and
lives in
powerful
showed
as a
Asian history, recurring warfare and increased raiding in the
intensified the
requiring all troops to
some
A man might be “Malay"
Although the themes of demographic changes and group identification can be tracked
identity that
of Southeast Asia in the eighteenth centu巧witnessed
political upheaval. In
and
while
community’s lifestyle
to the
boundary-making
beliefs,
on the coast of Sumatra, but “Batak”upon returning Burmans who cut their long hair in the short Mon style could as“becoming Mon." Yet these identities themselves were constantly evolving
or“Minangkabau"
experience of inclusion in a large
Cultural, ethnic
VOC-
could speak
hat.
appearance, dress, dance, music, food, housing, religious
turn, this
The
who
- remained porous, and different identities could be assumed by adopting
cheated and by outsiders' fear of retaliation, since stories of individuals a丘ermath of some perceived betrayal could take generations.
only those
Despite such reg吐ations, in the lives of ordinary Southeast Asians signs of identity -
throughout Southeast
spear proved a highly effective deterrent to dishonesty.
affiliation, for
wear a认Testern-style
Dutch were permitted to
would take them and leave what they had collected; if not, they simply disappeared. In effect, this barter was regulated by Kubu refusal to engage in further exchanges if they felt Kubu
Jambi’s neighbor, ordered his subjects to tie
sarongs according to Malay custom rather than in the Javanese mode. Even in
farming to sedentary wet-rice cultivation.
a
and appearance.
A hundred years later, however, Java's prestige
and the Sultan of Palembang,
had declined
Kubu of Sumatra a Chinese or Malay trader would weigh out what he considered appropriate amounts, and retreat. If the Kubu found the equivalents acceptable, they
by
their clothing
such features could also highlight relation-
those appearing at court to dress in Javanese style, a recognition of the prestige
all
dwelling
killed
a similar vein, seventeenth-
In the early seventeenth century the ruler of Jambi in Sumatra
polities.
of his overlord,
their
Khmer. In
Japanese and Persians through
Associated with a particular cultural grouping,
the
The abandonment of crops as people
personal contact was actively avoided, or
modern world when mutual relations
were
in 1754 one
more
Pagan include Eurasian soldiers wearing striped trousers and black hats
Ayutthaya identi马r
in
REGIMES, 169os-178os
Cited in
between warring
polities
promoted group
by elevating local heroes and heroines as exemplars of approved cultural values,
Anne
Bulley, Free
BACSA, 1992),
56.
Mariner: John Adolphus Pope in the East Indies 1786一1821 (Putney, London.
叶,245
硝喽A HISTO…F山川ODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫
N…OUN川IES AND山NGING
while reinforcing negative stereotypes attached to traditional enemies.
A locally composed
Thai Jataka story thus describes the Lao as“rude and brash,”while Javanese warriors are “terrible." A Thai challenges his opponents by proclaiming,“I'm a true Thai/They talk of
me/in Sukhothai/Wherever I go/Every time I win/Yes, here
... If
you
The appeal same cultural customs
me/your
fight
practices,
and
for
members
all
followed
who
some time
Mon
and Lao
was reissued
believe in false doctrines"
and
therea丘er Siamese
effective because disputes over resources
to engage
Mon
were
still
and access
to land
when
in 1730 and
prohibited from
beliefs were often
settler-migrants moved
into already inhabited areas could easily be articulated in religious terms. In the
Myanmar and Yunnan,
Buddhist scriptures and
rites
conflict with native Tai rulers
the temples of Chinese
were
and
in
Asians], Farang [in this context Portuguese],
adopting Christianity. 10 Calls for allegiance on the basis of shared
between
the
for rulers to see differences in religion and
forbidding “Siamese,
Khaek [South
Angkrit [English], and Malayu, in the 1770s,
when
evident even in the relatively relaxed Theravada Buddhist
is
Narai’s earlier edict
sexual intercourse with
facilitated
filled
with ethnic
officials
who were
monks who
Han
frontier
into
closely associated with “Burmese”
monasteries linked to a network that reached deep into世llage
life.
Following
traditions
associated with Theravada lineages, these ese Buddhists
monasteries.
and
to
When
many
Chinese
monks used rituals and texts familiar to Burm- who had studied as novices in Theravada Mahayana) monks attempted to build temples in Tai
of the Tai chiefs (i.e.
where practices were modeled on those of lowland Myanmar, one Tai ruler ordered the buildings burned. Such episodes were a result of economic and religious rivalry between existing populations and more recent migrants to frontier areas. In 1769, when areas
Chinese
officials
queried the location of the
Yunnan-Myanmar boundary,
representatives said the Chinese should retreat behind
the Burmese
any town that possessed a“pagoda”
[presumably a Burmese-style temple], since this was evidence that they belonged king of Ava.11
to the
fight."12
The
mood
doctrinal
of Islam was also changing
by increasing
numbers of Arab traders in Southeast Asia and their intermarriage with royal families. In addition, more Muslims from Southeast Asia were spending long periods in the Holy
One such
individual sent back a hikayat (Malay narrative story) to be recited to his
of Mecca and Medina (although he st山longed for Aceh, which he saw in his dreams).13 On returning home Muslim scholars exposed to relatives that extolled the greatness
reformist tendencies hostile
condemned
spirit
veneration as polytheism and were particularly
towards transvestites and “third gender" figures
to the supernatural world.
Moves towards
were evident in the central Javanese courts,
who had long operated as conduits
more pronounced Islamization of kingship and calls for a“holy war" against Europeans
a
became more frequent. Muslim-Christian competition also exacerbated tensions between Manila and the southern Philippine sultanate of Sulu, where
demonstrate their Islamic
commitment but were
at
Muslim
wished
rulers
to
times seduced by Spanish promises of
support against Sulu' s rivals.
followed Chinese
migrants. They came
we should
because of greater connections with the Islamic heartlands, encouraged
Land.
and the tendency
as a potential divide
environment. King
My chief/Had me t町out
head'll fly.9
group loyalty was obviously
to
I’m brave.
on earth. Therefore
REGIM剖,阳s-178os毡均7
In eastern
Indonesia religious affiliations were especially complicated because Islam,
Protestantism,
and Catholicism were
regarded themselves as quite separate
ang可if a the
all
competing
for followers. Thus, despite Catholi-
adaptation to indigenous culture, the Portuguese-descended Catholic Topasses
cism’s
from
their
man should say they are not Portuguese.”14 Meanwhile, Timorese chiefs allied to
VOC who had been baptized as Protestants wore orange flowers on their headdresses in
honor of the installation of飞机lliam V, the child-prince of the In
still
Timorese neighbors and “would be very
1749 they celebrated the
House of Orange and Nassau.
triumph of a combined Timor-VOC force over the Topasses,
whose army had been blessed
by Catholic
priests. In
innumerable other communities
memories of victories over enemies conveyed through the reenvisaging, reenactment, and retelling
of heroic exploits reinforced the sense of collective achievement. At the
however, the experience of defeat, humiliation, of shared
outrage that could be even
more
same time,
and cruel treatment could also feed feelings
influential in shaping
group
identity.
The influence of religious beliefs in affirming domains of allegiance is very apparent in Muslim Southeast Asia, where economic competition fueled existing Islam一Christian
Charismatic leadership in a time of upheaval
Ambon source puts it,“The way in which the Dutch carry out trade contravenes the religion of Allah and shows no respect for the Sultan, the shadow of Allah
Economic developments brought changes to Southeast Asian societies that led to a
animosity. As an
9
1
°癒?
1 1
Thomas John Hudak, trans. and ed., The Tale Prince Samuttakote: a Buddhist Epic卢om of Thailand (Athens, Ohio; Monographs in International Studies, Southeast Asia Series No. 90, 1993), 29.
Cited in
Tamara L. Loos, Su句ect Siam: Fami凯Law and Colonial Modernity in Thailand (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006), 36. Cited in H. Burney,“Some Account of the Wars between Burmah and China, together with由ε Journals and Routes of Three Different Embassies sent to Pekin by the King of Ava. Taken仕om Burmese Documents," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 6, 1 (1837), 144
questioning of traditional relationships
12
13"
a reassessment of identities.
Although
Hans Ben
Cited in
and
Straver, Chris van Fraassen, and Jan van der Putten, eds. and trans., Ri哼ali: Historie van Ambonse geschiedenis uit de zeventiende eeuw (Utrecht: Landelijk Steunpunt Educatie
Hitu.
Molukkers, 2004), 171. Cited in
Ann Kumar and John H. McGlynn,
Illuminations: the Writing Traditions of Indonesia
The Lontar Foundation, 1996), 79. 14 τWilliam Dampier, A Voyage to New Holland: the English Voyage of Discovery l699, James Spencer, ed. (Gloucester, UK: Alan Sutton, 1981), 176, 183. (Jakarta:
to the
South Seas
in
248
;?‘A
HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
resistance to established authority
is
a continuing
theme
NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING REGIMES,
in Southeast Asian history,
changes contributed to出e frequency of civil unrest led by charismatic leaders
these
or“persons
of prowess." Individually or in combination, pressures related to economic stress, unaccept-
demands from
able
a ruler or of且cials,
some
natural disaster, the impending end
calendric or religious cycle, or prophecies of dynastic collapse feeling of well-being
and
create a situation ripe for the
could shake
emergence of some
a
society’s
promised to restore prosperity and justice. Since the polygamous households of elite men could produce numerous offspring一in Dang Trong the ruler Nguyen Phuc Chu (1675一1725) had 146 children - there was a plentiful supply of potential challengers
who
could lay claim to a prestigious ancestry. However, to attract support from
people required indisputable signs that such an individual possessed special
physical feature,
foretell the future,
by his remarkable
religious
indeed an extraordinary person the min-laung in
who had been
Myanmar or“men
singled out
fact,
by
that demonstrated he was
destiny. Figures resembling
of merit" (phumibun) in the Tai areas find
their
counterparts throughout Southeast Asia. Popular belief in their power
is
babad
which describes a local
rebellion against
Dutch when commoners were led by Muslim holy men carrying
the Qur'an and
the
(chronicle, usually sung)
from central
Java,
indicated
chewing calamus root (used medicinally to give strength and protection). The
power thus generated was so
great, the
babad
asserts, that the
in a
divine
VOC guns were rendered
inoperable.
The eighteenth centu町provides numerous examples of situations in which these and in some cases change the course of regional history. In
J ohor the legitimacy of the regime that assumed control
after the traumatic regicide
in
1699 was widely questioned, and R司a Kec且,a Minangkabau prince who claimed to be the son of the murdered ruler, was able to attract sufficient followers to seize the throne. Stories of his miraculous conception and bi此h, his supernatural powers, his incredible feats, and the
attainment of his true destiny, became
belief that a dynasty
was destined
to
embedded in Malay tradition.
fall at
In
other cases the
a set period of time, usually at the turn of a
century, could create the context for the rise of
warning of some
tsunamis, cyclones, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and epidemics
rences as late rains,
could life.
all
play a part in legitimizing an individual’s claims to be the harbinger of a better
The careful recording of these events in court chronicles and their association in
popular legends with changes in
Mount
so that
of these
it
seemed
terri马ring events.
A
Spanish description of the eruption of
Manila, in 1754 records that for seven months the volcano
Taal, south of
constantly belched
molten rocks, mud, and smoke, spewing out vast quantities of lava
as if the entire area
shook the
thunder and paro巧rsms lake
community fortunes are all evidence of their significance. modern readers can gain some sense of the
through European accounts, however, that
was on
fire.
As the sky was
earth, tsunami-like
and several villages in this“li札ng picture of
waves
rent by lightning
and
rolled across the surrounding
Sodom" were completely
the time the eruption subsided so many people had been
killed or
destroyed.
By
had fled that only 150 of
1,500 residents remained.16
the previous
Because otherwise indestructible buildings of stone or brick - temples, churches, mosques, royal palaces - were interpreted as supernatural
still
vulnerable to damage, natural disasters could easily be
admonitions.
From
the 1760s the Philippine island of Panay
experienced twenty years of seismic activity, epidemics,
some“holy man." In
priestesses,
and Moro
raiding,
and
in
1787 an
church at由e ve可moment mass was being said. Indigenous the babaylan, alleged that these events were a punishment for abandoning
on出e people to reject Catholicism. Though the Spanish quickly intervened to restore order, some charismatic leader could easily have elevated this social unease into popular resistance, for - as with Islam and Buddhism - Christianity was ancestral traditions
often
called
1762 the followers of the “rebel,”Diego Silang,
由ey attacked the priest’s house, roots, leaves,
Java the year
Scientists
drought in
opened the door for the emergence of Trunajaya, before whom the armies of Mataram“lost their supernatural power" because this was the will of God.15 In the
impelled
It
and
tapped to provide support for individuals with claims to supernatural power. In
Ilocos in
1677 marked the end of a Javanese century and thus fostered anticipation of some momen- tous event.
as a
earthquake destroyed the
individuals could emerge,
final
eve巧hundred years.
impending calamity and any natural disaster seen as cosmic punishment, such occur-
apocalyptic nature
other
that reputedly struck
where unusual weather patterns could be interpreted
qualities.
to
miracle-worker, by claims of in叽址nerab让ity - anything, in
Ava from the catastrophe
In societies
It is
accompany his birth, by his ab且i可to knowledge, by his reputation as a healer or
by strange circumstances said
could save
ordinary
Perhaps he (occasionally she) was distinguished by exceptional height, or some
in part attributable to the as甘ological prediction that the
years between 1723 and 1753 would be a time of great trouble and that only a unique person
of a
leader who
power was
His dramatic rise to
169os-178os
and
“a
fruit
they
and
call
demanded
the sacrament before
in addition to ancient protective items like certain
‘cat’s
eyeγthey wore a white cross
as
an amulet.17
studying tree rings have identified the years 1756-68 as a time of severe
mainland Southeast Asia, when crop
many peasant
rebellions由at
failure
and starvation would have
agriculturalists to take desperate measures. Across the region the
exploded so frequently were most prevalent in harsher environments where
eighteenth centu可the most impressive instance of the cultural weight placed on prophecies and omens is the Myanmar village chief who eventually became the“just king,”Alaungpaya. 16
15
M.
Modern Javanese
Historical Tradition: a Study of an Original Kartasura Chronicle and Related Materials (London: Clarendon Press, 1978), 84-5.
C. Ricklefs,
17'
Cited in Miguel Saderra
Maso, The Eruption of Taal Volcano, January
30,
Bureau, 1911), 9-19. Cited in Fernando Palanco, Jose S. Arcillia, trans吁℃iego Silang’s Revolt: a Studies 50,
4 (2002), 529.
1911 (Manila: Weather
New Approach,”Philippine
.
249
巧。'A HISTO…FEAR…ODERN SOUTHEAST
A吼叫0叫
food security was constantly under threat and where could be
a catalyst for revolt. It
in the infertile region of Ilocos,
such region suffered
Nghe An
is
from droughts
in
is
NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING
demands
state
thus no accident that Diego
for tribute or labor
Silang’s uprising originated
where anti-Spanish feeling was most pronounced. Another
Vietnam, sandwiched between mountains and
in the dry
months and可phoons and
season. These climatic fluctuations rendered
Nghe An
Nghe An was
One
was led by Le Duy Mat, a brother of the emperor, and from 1738
of the most
in
A common
until his death in 1770he
reason for resistance was perceived injustice, especially in times of adver-
repressive officials
whose
fa过ures,
actions
worsened the
lives
of
many peasants,
indebtedness, and loss of access to
already
communal
17 44 because his brother’s
man, Francisco Dagohoy,
often
suffering
lands. However,
humiliation and a sense of i时ustice might not necessarily be rooted in economic ances. In the Philippines a Visayan
griev-
instigated a rebellion
in
body had been denied burial by the priest. Dagohoy’s followers,
who numbered in the thousands, were no doubt inspired by stories of his amazing escapes from Spanish pursuers, and they themselves placed communion wafers in their mouths to ensure their inVl过nerability to bullets. While these rebellions figure prominently historical sources,
we
also
need to remember that出e movement of people beyond由
demands may be rarely documented, but is equally a sign of opposition. In both A yutthaya and Ava there was a steady drain of royal servicemen who sought to avoid burdensome obligations by placing themselves under hills.
forests
or出
Constant complaints from Spanish authorities about fugitive“vagabonds”and
reports of empty世llages in Dai Viet indicate that similar retreats
from perceived
repres-
sections will demonstrate, in
much
between important
and on the
seas.
Western Archipelago the absence of an acknowledged Malay overlord during the
eighteenth
centu可provided space for the reemergence of numerous and often contending
polities.
Along the west coast of Sumatra a number of small Minangkabau negeri (se时e
ments)
had developed, each under the authority of a
condescendingly compared ably located
Sunda this
to
mayors
in small
German
raja
official
towns). These negeri were favor-
because the sea route along the west coast allowed ships to reach Java via the
Straits.
Tho啡less frequented because 刷1e strong winds from the Indian Ocean,
route did provide
an alternative to the Melaka
Straits. It
was long familiar
and was increasingly used by English ships collecting pepper
traders
VOC
(whom one
at
to Indian
west coast
settlements.
The weakening of Aceh’s control along the west coast meant由at由e Minangkabau negeri
were able to restore traditional
essentially at
ties to their interior
homeland, but they remained
independent. Their rajas were由us free to negotiate agreements with the Dutch
Padang and the English further south at Bengkulu, by which local growers would deliver
amounts of pepper for a given price. However,
set
也ey received
from the Europeans were
pepper cultivation, they
insufficient
when
where they could
sell
found that the prices
compensation for the work involved in
responded by either abandoning
crops to alternative po此s
cultivators
their gardens or
to Indian, Chinese, or
by taking
their
Acehnese buyers.
By the 1760s, as the price of pepper declined with increased global supplies, Padang had
sion can be found throughout Southeast Asia during this period.
As the following
ties
living in the uplands, in the forests,
The Western Archipelago
in
reach of oppressive or unreasonable
another patron, by retreating into a monastery, or by simple flight to the
and groups
Developments in island Southeast Asia
In the
In Dai Viet, for instance, sporadic revolts can o丘en be attributed to inept and
because of crop
administrative centers
as a
long-lasting
ruled in the Lao uplands as an independent chief.
sity.
and by increased economic pressures weakened
authority
rainy
difficult for agriculture, and
the seat of several uprisings.
evident that the strains resulting from the imposition of central
sea, which
floods during the
1780 a famine was said to have wiped out two-fifths of the population. Long known “turbulent”area,
destabilization. It is also
REGIMES, 169os-178os t全251
of Southeast Asia the
eighteenth
become
a financial
burden
for the
VOC, while the English also contemplated closing their
century witnessed major sh的s in leadership and a weakening of royal power as a result of economic changes, declining control over human resources, natural disasters, and the
post at
demands of ongoing
kabau settlements were highly resistant to the可pe of centralized rule Europeans favored.
warfare.
While these
the eighteenth century led to the rise of past,
became the
new, their
factors are not
numerous平ersons of prowess,”who,
in
as in由e
basis for the reconstitution of polities. In affirming the bonds of
allegiance that assured the loyalty of their followers, there stress the
intensification
commonalities of religion, ethnic origins, and
was
a growing tendency
to
lifestyle as a basis for group
coalescence. Yet the ve巧institutionalization of a regime initially founded by such a figure could itself face challenges when the was undermined by established
order
expectations of cataclysmic events marking the end of a century, by evidence of supernatural displeasure, by u时ust or inefficient and by economic
government,
Bengkulu.
The Dutch had hoped
to
creation of larger coastal “kingdoms,”but
Migration in search of oppo此unities migrants
was
encourage pepper growing by sponsoring the
the egalitarian relationships between Minang-
culturally valued
among由e Minangkabau, and
from the central highlands continued to move downriver to the
Sumatra and the western
Malay Peninsula. The
east coast of
venerated rulers of Pagaru归ng
m出e
among these diasporic or rantau - any governmental apparatus which were never developed -
Minangkabau heartland exercised considerable au出ority communities, not through but
through the circulation of sacred missives and royal messengers. The Malay polities along the Melaka Straits never coalesced into a wider unity like their famous predecessors, Sriv斗aya and Melaka. Aceh recovered economically through the
252
HISTO盯OF山…ODERN SOUTHEAST ⑤ A
A队140叫
NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING
patronage of British and Muslim Tamil or Chulia traders, but did not regain leadership in the Straits.
The
its
former
shi丘from coastal international trade to interior export
coupled with the increasing use of Acehnese rather than Malay, were signs of a
crops,
gradual
separation from the Malay cultural world. The formerly prosperous polity of Jambi in southeast Sumatra had spiraled into economic and political chaos as Dutch manipulation
of downstream rulers fractured the delicate relationship with upstream communities. The wealthiest
pepper
Sumatran
and Chinese
sales
was Palembang, where a substantial income generated
state
mining on the island of Bangka was augmented by
tin
trade in both products in defiance of
Dutch-imposed monopoly
treaties.
Had
it
by
"illegal”
not been
VOC intervention to prevent expansion, Palembang could easily have absorbed Jambi
for
and much of south Sumatra, but
Malay kings and
origin of
The
continued to maintain some influence as出e legenda可
as a center for Islamic scholarship.
ab过ity to resurrect
weakened by
it
some of
A严1tthaya’s overlordship over
by the deep divisions
Malay world
in the
Opposition to the
new Bendahara dynasty
1718 by a“man of
prowess,'’Raja Kec过,a
mous son
of the murdered Johor ruler.
Laut, the mainstay of J ohor' s navy, lords. It
was
also alleged that
the
among
the
some of the northern Malay kingdoms and from the 1699 regicide in Johor.
in Johor led to the seizure of the throne
Minangkabau who claimed
in
to be the posthu-
thus able to gain the loyalty of the Orang
he had received the imprimatur of the revered Minangkabau at
Pagaru严mg, thereby guaranteeing him
Minangkabau who had migrated
to east coast Sumatra and
Malay Peninsula.
Raja Kec乱After several unsuccessful attempts to regain the Johor throne, R可a
Kecil
Sumatra and founded the new kingdom of Siak, located north of Jambi in the region where Malay and Minangkabau rantau society merged. His descendants in
intermarried with the Malay and Bugis aristocracy and
became
significant players in
a
new
Muda
or“younger
arrangement than
to the
arrangement adopted from Sulawesi came
sultan,
into being
now restored to power, became dependent on
king,'’a
position由at was more akin to a Bugis
Malay position of heir-apparent. The
in
the Bugis political
Bugis arrogation of many
court positions infused Malay politics with an unprecedented sense of ethnic conscious- ness, while the Dutch also saw their presence as a real threat. In 1756-7 Bugis forces from
Johor
(its
capital
the Malay, Bugis,
now on
the island of Riau, or
Melaka, and the siege was only
and Minangkabau
royalty,
and by 1760 the
ruler
ofJohor-Riau
Under the leadership of successive Bugis Raja Mudas, and Riau became the hub of an extensive trading network that
was himself of partial Bugis descent. the
kingdom flourished
eve巧port in the region. Ships arrived from all over the archipelago, spices, slaves, forest and sea products, tin, and pepper. Chinese and British
linked virtually delivering
count叮traders
had a prominent presence
in Riau, with the British exploiting their access
opium to acquire Southeast Asian products that were exchanged for tea in
and Chinese were all involved in gambier plantations and according to a later text, older people were unanimous in agreeing that“those days in Riau were good." Yet the painful memories of earlier events were never forgotten, and Malay China. Bugis, Malays,
perceptions of the
areas ...
Riau Bugis as interlopers
still
lingered.
As the Sultan of Kedah
put it,“From what pretensions the Bugis derive their authority in these
resentfully
we know
not."18
The Central Archipelago At由e beginning of the eighteenth century, Java was also divided into several di旺erent loci
modern Bintan) blockaded
VOC-ruled
lifted when a fleet arrived from Batavia. Fear of Bugis intervention helps explain the decision of the tin-producing state of Perak to negotiate a
commonly saw“Javanese"
even though outsiders
as a single ethnic group.
From
Dutch were less concerned about west Java, where the ruler of Banten retained some sovereignty but where the VOC had gained a pepper monopoly and other advantages when they assisted a prince to take power in 1682. Dutch attention was primarily focused on developments in central Java, and the rich VOC sources combined
their
enclave in Batavia, the
with a large ities
number of Javanese texts provide insights
that are
not available anywhere
Succeeding
Amangkurat political
Johor, whereby the Malay
Raja
among
the
history of the Straits.
From 1728
Malay Peninsula and in southwest Borneo. To some extent the passage of time blurred ethnic divisions as a result of intermarnages
the
of power,
reputation as formidable fighters, the Bugis allied with the displaced sultan and ousted
frontier
leadership led to the creation of other independent Bugis settlements both in
a
At this point, however, a large group of Bugis arrived in Johor, part of the diaspora出at had le丘southwest Sulawesi in the wake of the Makassar wars of 1666-9. Living up to their
remained
in their
rifts
who saw him as the descendant of their ancient Melaka
queen (Putri Jamilan) and the royal court sizeable following
fur由er
resulting
He was
new treaty with the VOC in 17 46, which was maintained until Melaka was occupied by the British in 1795. Nonetheless, the Bugis themselves were never a monolithic group, and
to Bengal’s
and Melaka was
the glories of Srivijaya
REGIMES, 169os-178os
brother of
Amangkurat
18
VOC
II,
political
complex-
II
as ruler of
Mataram was
the crown prince,
was tainted in Dutch eyes because of his sympathy for the
VOC
recognized instead Pakubuwana
who was
I (r.
the leader of a rival court faction
1704一19), a halι
and preferred by
was driven out of the capital Kartasura by a army that included Europeans, Javanese, and Madurese, as well as black
most Javanese. In 1705
combined
He
1703-8).
and so the
and
else in Southeast Asia during this period.
Susuhunan Amangkurat
III (r.
rebel Surapati,
into cultural
Amangkurat
III
Watson Andaya, Perak, the Abode of Grace: a Study of an Eψteenth Century Mala歹 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1979), 58; Raja Ali Haji ibn Ahmad, The Precious Gift (Tuhfat al-Najis), Virginia Matheson and Barbara Watson Andaya, trans. (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford
Cited in Barbara State
University Press, 1982), 90-1.
254坛、己、A
N…OUNDARIES AND山NGING REGIME山9os-178os tS
HISTORY OF EARLY岛10DERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
Portuguese and people from regalia with
by some
Ambon,
Bali,
him, Amangkurat
Sulawesi, Ternate,
and Banda. Taking
III fled to join Surapati, the Balinese
to be a descendant of Javanese kings)
ous terrain of east Java. This region was
who was
st过l
former
slave (believed
entrenched in the mountain-
home to the non-Muslim Tengger people and had
always remained outside central Javanese control. In this tumultuous time the just king, a
Ratu Adil,
who would
title
belief in
a
put the world to rights a丘er a period of upheaval
and chaos, gained greater currency. One of the rebel leaders even assumed of Erucakra, associated with the
myth of
a millenarian king
the ancient
who would
restore a
righteous world.
which involved an army of well over forty thousand men. This costly in property as well as
human
rifles,
Surapati died in 1706 and position was hardly
more
return for their assistance,
pikes, shields, arrows, spears
Amangkurat
III
was
and
of
extremely
like a sea of blood,
swords.”19 Although
subsequently surrendered, Pakubuwana’s
Dutch had extracted heavy concessions in including reimbursement of costs and bans on Javanese ships a growing
mood
of Islamic piety among some
raised questions about Pakubuwana’s standing as a
Muslim king. In
the countryside persisting local grievances contributed to the recurrence of open opposition.
As grat
a result of suppo口ing the
II,
was able
au也ority. His court,
Pakubuwana
faction, the ruler of West
to control Java's eastern coastal districts
Madura,
and place his men
Cakranin-
in positions of
growing power in eastern Java aroused suspicion and hostility in the Mataram
and when Cakraningrat died
in
1707 Pakubuwana intervened in the Madura
sion by backing various claimants to the throne
and exploiting the
reassert Kartasura's authority over the eastern coastal districts.
were particularly
succes-
resulting instab山ty
to
Surabaya and West Madura
resistant to these centralizing efforts and, together with the other two
Madura principalities, petitioned to become subjects of the VOC. Rejecting this request,由e Dutch made it patently clear that they were determined to suppress any opposition to白白 client, the “legitimate" ruler,
Pakubuwana
I.
In the subsequent war, 1719-23,由e voe-
supported Mataram forces were ultimately successful, but Dutch demands for increased payments as compensation for their expenses meant even more exactions in labor and truces
from an already overburdened peasant巧. For example, the Kalang were now required to deliver over 10,500 logs per annum, a major operation that required three to five days for buffaloes to drag each log to the coast or river collection point.
Once more an
Cited in
Ann Kumar,
1976), 207.
Surapati,
Man and Legend. A
ruler,
regalia did
Indeed, the natural
1726-49), was dominated by his
II (r.
but a greater emphasis on public piety and even the return of the
unusually shaped
eclipse,
itself
expressed anxieties. In 1739
fruit,
and
and Javanese
texts
of the destruction of the world户O Premonitions of disaster
omen
mention a lunar
spatterings of blood suddenly appearing
on houses,
seemed justified,
in 1740 central Java was torn apart by the outbreak of the so-called Chinese War, of developments in Batavia, 300 miles (500 kilometers) away.
for
a result
As described in earlier sections, from the early seventeenth centu巧large numbers of Chinese
had been attracted to Java by the opportunities offered in urban areas under and in the prosperous royal courts. Increased migration was particularly
Dutch control
evident in Batavia. In
of the
1620 just one Kapitan Cina (Chinese captain) was considered
oversee the voe-appointed“Chinese Council,”which supervised the affairs
sufficient to
Chinese community; by 1766 the Chinese population had risen to over fi丘een
thousand with a council staff of eleven. lucrative
Throughout Java the Chinese not only dominated
positions associated with the collection of duties
and
tolls,
but were active as
opium and textile trades and as middlemen in the sale and purchase of such items as unspun cotton, salt, indigo, tobacco, and porcelain. Many Chinese were appointed to court posts and a significant number adopted Islam, a change retailers in
that their
the profitable
compatriots did not always welcome. As
"They do not scruple to refuse to eat
become Javanese
Wang Dahai remarked disapprovingly,
[and] call themselves Islam (Sit-lam).
They then
pork and adopt altogether native customs卢1 For most Javanese, conversion
and adaptation to local practices did not
compensate
for the
Chinese tendency to take
on profitable but resented occupations such as tax agents or customs collectors.“There
is
creek navigable for shipping,'’observed one Dutchman,“which have a customs post (tollgate), of which由e keeper is invariably a Chinese"; and a prince of Madura angr过y condemned the Chinese as“mangy dogs who licked up the waste
not a river, harbor, bay, or
does not
of Java’s table."22
In
an environment where the
Dutch remained a tiny minority,
Spanish counterparts in the Philippines,
2°
VOC officials, like their
remained suspicious of Chinese conspiracies.
M. C. Ricklefs, The Seen and Unseen Worlds in Java 1726一1749. History, Literature and Islam Court of Pakubuwana II (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998), 235-6. Cited in Claudine Salmon,“Wang Dahai and his View of the Insular Countries (1791),”in Ding Choo
Cited in in the
21
Ming and Ooi Kee Be吨,Chinese Studies of the Malay World. Br础,
among ordinary people. Mount Merapi erupted
not allay dissatisfactions in the court or
environment
days, Kartasura experienced a whirlwind,
for three
22,!
Study of Three Babad Traditions (Leiden:
Muslim
Mataram
unpopular
regime was maintained only by the VOC's guarantee of military support. 19
pious
Javanese
secure since the
Lombok. Furthermore,
members of the court
was
life.“Many were wounded,”records one
babad,“and weeping mingled with cries of pain/The battlefield
strewn with lances and
conflict
Pakubuwana
grandmother, the formidable Ratu Pakubuwana (d. 1732). She attempted to create a more Islamic environment in the court and to legitimize her grandson by presenting him as a
飞n
Between 1707 and 1708 east Java was the focus of several intense campaigns, one
trading east of
Succeeding at the age of sixteen,
the
Eastern Universities Press, 2003), 46. Cited in Peter Carey,“Changing Javanese Perceptions of the
1755-1825;’Indonesia 37 (Apr过1984), 7-8, 11.
A
Comparative Approach (Singapore:
Chinese Communities in Central Java,
255
NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 This mistrust was reciprocated because of periodic rumors that a forced deportation of Chinese was imminent - a mistrust no doubt reinforced by the Manila examples. In
September 17 40
this
mutual
distrust erupted into violence.
Chinese laborers attacked the sugar mills
were
killed.
through the
city).
itself
attacked several
governor-general imposed
the Chinese, killing pasisir towns,
an estimated ten thousand
Euro-
July
1741 Pakubuwana finally decided to attack the nearby Dutch garrison, which was
from an
alliance
against the Chinese,
and the
ruler of
Madura
and
this decision
st山felt that Pakubuwana’s grandfather
angered
the
tide
to reach an
many Javanese, especially those
(Pakubuwana
imately and that the rightful lineage was that of
quickly
firepower
turned
and by the end of the year Pakubuwana was forced
accommodation with the Dutch. But
who
VOC
between the
forces
I)
had come
Amangkurat
III.
A
to power山egit-
number
of leading
many ordinary Javanese threw in their lot with the Chinese and even nomin- ated their own candidate as ruler, a descendant of Amangkurat III known as Sunan Kuning. Any renewal of an alliance with the VOC was for them unthinkable. In the words of a Javanese lord,“Let none of my descendants down to the sixteenth generation be reconciled with the Dutch." In 17 42 rebel armies attacked Kartasura and plundered the
crown handed down from
the days
Majapahit. Sunan Kuning was installed as ruler, says one text,“by the Chinese and
order was destroyed."
Some
chroniclers
explaining the ruin of the royal capital
means of punishing
saw the
by
fall
of Kartasura as the end of an
asserting that
God had
used the Chinese
the Javanese for neglect of Islam.23 Meanwhile, the
of
forces, regaining authority over the pasisir lords.
Some Chinese sought pardon
Sunan Kuning
under Dutch
said he
would be w山ing
to govern
aegis.
and
conflict
even
By the end of 17 42 Kartasura had been retaken and the following year refugee Sunan Kuning surrendered. The VOC continued to regard Pakubuwana II as the legitimate king, despite unpopularity, since he was willing to sign any contract necessary to ensure Dutch
A
the
his
support.
treaty concluded in 17 43 ceded his suzerainty over the pasisir areas of Surabaya,
Pakubuwana
Widespread
a place ofrefuge as Javanese
and
host过ity led to the outbreak of yet another
which opposition
1749一88)
and
remained
III
Hamengkubuwana
to the
was led by the
latter’s
VOC own
and
Dutch-supported
to the
brother,
Mangkubumi.
financially crippling wars eventually compelled both sides to
I
(r.
at Surakarta,
while
Mangkubumi was
recognized as Sultan
1755-92), with his palace at nearby Yogyakarta. The treaty
some attention to equalizing the depleted economic resources and decimated popu-
lation
of this
now
divided center; for example, six thousand Kalang families, considered
indispensable as timber-collectors
was pacified
and woodworkers, were
distributed between the
Meanwhile, another royal challenger, a nephew of Pakubuwana
two sovereigns.
by the creation of a princely domain within Surakarta
known
III,
as the
Mangkunegaran. The Treaty of Giyanti
is
significant because
it
brought a period of peace to central Java
during
which the Dutch no longer saw the need to intervene in court
troops
were withdrawn. Although there was
叫or
no
conflict
still
some
resistance to the
affairs
occurred until 1825. This was mainly due to出e fact that
were le丘to control the surveillance.
From
interior,
with the
and
VOC
new arrangements,
pragmatically accepted the territorial division in which the Javanese
all
parties
kingdoms ( the
rest of Java subservient to
1767, fearful of possible English intrusion into
Dutch launched a succession of brutal military campaigns 出at defeated local resistance led by descendants of Surapati and brought this ravaged area more firmly under VOC control. In order to counter the influence of Bali, the Dutch made the
ceded lands of east Java, the
that
pragmatic decision, declaring由at出e people of east Java were Muslims and they should be placed under Muslim heads. In由is situation the VOC saw Islam not
as a
threat
a可pically
but as an
ally.
The years of war, famine, and
periodic epidemics, however,
The population of east Java declined dramatically, and in 1772 one observer commented that“scarcely a food crop is to be found throughout the entire land ... many dead bodies [are] lying around.”24 Meanwhile, in 1753 the Dutch acq山red heavy
another client, eignty,
toll.
when
the Sultan of Banten in west Java relinquished his limited sover-
formally accepting the status of a
succession.
24
Cited in Ricklefs, The Seen and Unseen Worlds in Java, 264-73.
continued to lead armed resistance.
compromise. By the Treaty of Giyanti (1755) central Java was partitioned:
exacted a
Rembang, and Japara, eastern Java (including Blambangan), and the island of Madura. Economic concessions included monopolies on products such as opium and textile imports, restrictions on Javanese shipping, quotas for the delivery of rice, timber, indigo, 23
III (r.
These inconclusive seek
gave
Java.
(1746-57), in
all
The VOC remained
implacable.
Madura and eastern
VOC overlordship and
its
that a
Madurese fled from the burden of labor and revenue exactions resulting from the cession
“Princely lands”)
as a
VOC rallied
VOC,
and the Tengger highlands became
of
age,
Pakubuwana hoped
teak sold in Java. Perhaps
of privileges conceded to the
Once again east Java
nobles and
palace treasures, including a splendid golden
to a
all
169os-178os草;:
court at Surakarta in 17 45 might initiate a fresh beginning, but powerful
princes, resentful
thousand
VOC posts. Pakubuwana and his factionalized court vacillated about the and whether to support the VOC or join the Chinese. In
overcome and the occupants taken prisoner. However, superior
move
new
Pakubuwana
people.
where Chinese forces of several
best course of action,
resulting
a
(at that time dispersed
In the resulting chaos, shots were fired, fighting escalated, and
soon reached the
fighting
VOC
Chinese houses
and ordered a search of all
peans and Javanese turned on
The
of poor
where they worked, and a number of Europeans
Fearing that violence would spread, the
curfew in Batavia
Outside Batavia bands
and a monopoly of
and coffee,
REGIMES,
With
VOC vassal in return for help during a disputed
royal revenues sustained
by pepper cultivation
Cited in Sri Margana,“Java’s Last Frontier: the Struggle for
PhD
thesis,
University of Leiden, 2007, 13 7.
in west Java
Hegemony of Blambangan,
c.
and south
1763一1813:’
257
巧8
'
A HISTORY OF
EAR…ODERN SO川川T山
Sumatra, Banten’s relationship with the
economy
VOC
NEW BOUNDARIES AND山NGING
survived relatively amicably
until the
declined in the late eighteenth century.
system placed Spaniards at the peak of the administrative pyramid, but they were
colonial
outnumbered by mestizos, Christian descendants of marriages between Chinese males and local women. In 1687 Christian Chinese and mestizos in
substantially
Spanish or
The Northern Archipelago
the
Manila suburb of Binondo had joined together in their
1741 the mestizos
The geography of authority,
and
the Philippines remained an obstacle to the expansion of Spanish
at the
beginning of the eighteenth century the
the interior highlands continued to defend their territory
Luzon
several missions
were established in the
tribal
and
resist
groups occupying
Spanish
control. In
foothills of the Cordillera with the goal
further conversion, but missionaries found that although upland peoples might make sign of the cross, accept Spanish-style clothing,
continued to venerate ancient
when
new
the
they
faith. Hostilities resurfaced
on settlements and the burning
Christians farming the foothills
and
buffaloes
Augustinian
cattle
and lowlands
would be seized and captives taken
priest, the situation in Ilocos
and reaped with the as
the
a priest for baptism,
of
troops entered the area and on occasion Igorot anger at perceived Spanish wrongs
Newly converted
when
and bargain with
spirits antagonistic to
led to direct reprisals, such as attacks
sickle in
had deteriorated
of churches.
lived in terror of
raids,
as slaves. According to one
so badly that peasants“sowed
one hand and a weapon in the
armed伊ards and watchmen, using drums
to signal danger
from
a possible Igorot
ants
areas, like those in
Cebu and Panay
that were covered
by dense
forests, also
home to the so-called mundos (short for vagamundos or vagabonds), descend- of Christians who had fled beyond the reach of Spanish authority because of alleged
crimes or to escape taxes. Essentially, they had returned to a pre-contact
lifestyle,
exchanging forest products such as wax and tree resins with the lowlanders, and
receiving
rice
Christian Chinese,
and cloth
in return.
Although the
friars
complained that the
profits
from
this trade
whom
(Spanish, Chinese mestizo,
Although resistance
house could be burnt and he himself killed严
to Spanish penetration
had
largely
come to an end
in the lowlands
of Luzon and the Visayas, this had not led to greater administrative effectiveness. The
26
were expelled.
thousand Christianized Chinese
region, the ten
resentful of
class
China-born Chinese
Many moved
southwards to Sulu and
in local
commerce. Over
five
In 1762, as
who remained
continued to wield com-
power out of all proportion to their numbers.
mercial
during the Seven Years
an enemy and launched
War (1756-63), the British regarded France’s ally Spain
an attack on Manila. They were accorded a sympathetic reception
which confirmed Spanish suspicions of Chinese loyalty, even among those
who had accepted Catholicism. After the occupying British forces returning
left
two years
later the
Spanish retaliated with widespread executions of Chinese, followed by orders for
another
mass expulsion in 1769. Nonetheless, the Spaniards admitted that出e presence of a
sizeable
Chinese population was necessary for the efficient functioning of the economy. In
1778 Chinese
allowed to
were permitted to return and in the 1790s non-Christian Chinese were
move
outside the Parian
Christian
mestizo Chinese
they gained
Among
labor,
were
for services,
in the
Manila
area.
despite
Meanwhile,
some restric-
solidified their place in Philippine society.
growing signs of discontent were directed not only as defenders of Filipino interests, but
and the abuse of
as exploitative
and oppressive.
religious au由ority
earlier times
demands
meant由at many
for
friars
A particular source of resentment was the
which o丘en entailed the appropriation of communal land. By the 17 40s one Dominican estate to the south of Manila had
accumulation of estates village
anywhere
but also towards the Church hierarchy. In
had o丘en been viewed
now seen
live
had benefited from new opportunities and
Filipinos themselves the
payment
and
economic advantages that
by the
land rights, rising rents,
Cited in Grace Estela Mateo,“A History of Ilocos: a St。可of the Regionalization of Spanish Colonialism," PhD thesis, University of Hawai'i, 2004, 203. Cited in Emma Blair and James Alexander Robertson, eds., The Philippine Islands 1493-1898 (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark, 1903-9) 48: 113
growing local-born middle
became heavily involved
religious orders,
grown to almost twice the size of 25
A
were said to be studying Christian doctrine. Concentrated in the Manila
because they
missionaries
tried to settle in a Christian village, his
Indios and from non-
hundred others were baptized and more than a thousand exempted from deportation
so doing, the Spanish contributed to a distinction based not
on ethnicity but on
them from both
periodically deported.
Mindanao, where they again
towards the administration
One priest even repo口ed that if any mundo with a reputation as a “wizard”
recognized as a separate group in Philippine society, with
thousand non-Christian Chinese
communities harbored“fearful wizards ... who conversed with the de训”and co叫d do "a thousand evil things,'’even changing into crocodiles to prey upon innocent victims. In religious beliefs.
own gremio or guild, but by own gremio de mestizos. Adminis-
dominance of the domestic economy, and as a result of this pressure in 1755 around two
tions
lifestyle and
their
and Indio) was increasingly
made lowland Christians reluctant to see the mundos return to“a civilized and Christian mode of life," the Spanish themselves accepted and thus reinforced local beliefs that these fugitive
form
the Spanish taxed heavily, forced to live within the walled
and
enclave of the Parian,
by local Chinese,
provided a
now
to
tax system that clearly di旺erentiated
own
their
had broken away
mestizos were
tratively,
other,”while others served
attack.25
Remote
REGIMES, 1690叫Sos
directed against a
its
original grant. In 1745 Filipino anger over denial of
and fraudulent surveys
led to the
first
monastic order. The participants made
God or the
rebelling
against
rights to
ancestral lands.
it
agrarian revolt speci且cally
clear由at由ey were not
Spanish Crown, but wanted government recognition of their
46
259
260
tS A
HISTO盯OF山川ODERN SO川EAST A队14…830 Although
this revolt
was
NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING
short-lived, Filipino bitterness fed into other areas of discon-
tent, notably that relating to native ordination.
The Vatican had long favored the training
of native clergy, but progress remained slow because the missionary orders, anxious protect their
own
position
and arguing that
resisted the granting of full ordination to "Indios.”As a result, Filipinos
mestizos
who
and most Chinese
had been trained in Church seminaries were assigned as
subordinate to Spanish
friars
priests but made
of the various religious orders. Unrepentantly
Spanish,
the orders continued to wield considerable power, since provincial governors needed
co-operation to function effectively and the native principals needed their support
confirmed
to
Filipinos lacked a true vocation, adamantly
friar
to be
in office.
able to maintain control of the countryside
when
by Diego Silang and subsequently by
his wife Gabriela. Again, the context
came at a time when storms,且ooding, and a plague of locusts forced starving peasants to leave their villages and forage for food in the mountains. Although Silang insisted on his loyalty to the Spanish king, the friars accused him of treason, and their influence ensured that most rural areas remained loyal to Spain. Silang’s following did include upland peoples, but the majority came from Ilocos, and offers
some
explanation, for this revolt
there was never any possibility that
long Silang was
killed,
it
might spread beyond the island of Luzon.
apparently at the instigation of a few
friars,
and the
Before
rebellion was
soon put down. Over a hundred of his following (including Gabriela) were hanged, others were flogged or imprisoned.
With
while
the suppression of this rebellion Spanish
authority in the lowlands was reaffirmed, although the interior highlands remained
beyond
known
In the
Muslim
south, the Spanish position
sultanate at Cotabato
was
rivals,
was unable
to capitalize
far less stable, since the
Zamboanga f。此
he encouraged the study of Arabic but his toleration of missionaries
and instituted an
restrictions
1750s Muslim
During the
destroying
trade,
many
raids
coastal札llages
expanding trade in slaves. In 1754, while package of Sulu so且to the Chinese
receptive to inquiries
from the
British,
his
own
with
datu
infidels,
Islamic-style codification of local law,
Manila
in
between Spanish Manila and Sulu was soon
Emperor with
coastal
their inhabitants to service the
Azimuddin was
in Manila, his son even sent a
the request that his country "be
Over the next decade the Sulu datu were
also
who had recently discovered what local navigators
had long known, that their ships could reach Guangzhou by riding the northwest
monsoon from Maluku through the southern Philippines and then passing between Luzon and Taiwan.
A
provisional treaty signed in 1761 granted the English East India
Company (EIC) a monopoly of Sulu’s trade, and in 1763 the EIC also acquired出e island of Balambangan, off Borneo’s northern coast, as a conduit for the transshipment of Bengal
opium.
among由e
Sulu datu, some of
whom
supported closer ties with the Spanish, while others advocated the British or even the allies.
The hand of the former group was strengthened
in 1775 a丘er
on Balambangan ordered by the Sultan and supporting nobles precipitated出e
British
departure. Nonetheless, the e旺ects of the British connection were far-reaching.
and economic Magindanao was
Bengal
opium was already entrenched
ordnance and
gunpowder supplied by
as
an invaluable trade item, while access to heavy
British country traders
in the
claimant retreating upriver and his opponent remaining downstream. The situation was
blockade intended to prevent British ships
further complicated following the return of the Spanish in 1719
further
and
allied
on the Visayas and Luzon devastated
frequently divided by internal dissension between contenders to the throne, wi由one
Zamboanga, which led to greater involvement in local
had
his
di伍cult
traditional cultural
in eastern Indonesia. In addition,
might well be
as a Christian during a visit to
and capturing
registered as a part of China’s territory."27
an attack
on trade undermined the
and other areas
his wishes
assembly
own brother.
The仕ag让ity of this apparent reconciliation apparent.
in the
demands of the Spanish and
and his baptism
an assassination attempt by his
on
withdrawal, especially a丘er由e
meant
were only partially successful. In order to allay accusations that he
Dutch as alternative
this
and opposition
Manila brought Sultan Azimuddin some assistance against
but his efforts to balance the conflicting
in 1662. Nonetheless, the Magindanao
death of Sultan Kudarat in 1671. Maintaining the former economic networks was
VOC
ruma bechara
(literally,“house for speaking”)
This agreement exacerbated existing divisions
Mindanao had been abandoned
links with Ternate
as
opposed. Overtures to
their reach.
in northern
because
govern effectively in consultation with his chiefs or datu,
British forces
captured Manila in 1762, but a major uprising against the abuses of colonial rule broke out in Ilocos, led
own position since in Sulu and Magindanao, as in much of the island world, the ruler was essentially first among equals. Although regarded with respect, he could only enhancing his
1749 led to
The Spanish were
REGIMES, 169os-178os
the rebuilding of their
meant
By
northern Philippines was wreaking greater havoc.
from selling伊ns
undermined the Magindanao economy
that
the late
Muslim
raiding
1770s a Spanish
to southern polities
had
by preventing the arrival of Chinese
One family line, for
junks
and cutting Cotabato’s connection with international trade. In an intriguing return
Magindanao because of Spanish assistance. The potential advantages of reaching some kind of accommodation with the Spanish was not lost on Sultan Azimuddin (r. 1735-48, 1762-74) of Sulu, who sought to
to the
sixteenth-century relationship, the upstream area of Buayan, with
fort at
conflicts.
instance, only gained pre-eminence in
strengthen his
own
work
was again more economically important than
its
solid agricul-
downstream counterpart,
Magindanao.
position by concluding a treaty with Manila. Presumably because
missionaries had attracted very few converts Jesuits to
tural base,
its
in Sulu.
He
among
also realized that
his
own
subjects,
he allowed
Spanish support could be
the
critical in
27
Cesar Adib Majul,
Muslims
in the Philippines (Manila: University
of the Philippines Press, 1999), 30l
262
A A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING
ASIA, 1400-1830
The Eastern Archipelago
eradicate spice trees
As previous chapters have demonstrated, the concept of a state where territorial control focused on a single center was particularly unsuited to the cultural and geographical environment of the Eastern Archipelago. In southwest Sulawesi the
by the lord of the Bugis kingdom of Bone, Arung
how
death in 1696, demonstrating once again
political unity crafted
Palakka, gradually disintegrated
after his
achievements by individuals of prowess
were quickly undone without a successor of comparable ab山ty and charisma. In coalition led
by
main opponent, the
Bone’s
丘om southwest Sulawesi, but was unable
Though
the
ruler of
W
to defeat the
ajo,
1778. Nonetheless, continuing opposition
supported suzerain ruling over In northern
Maluku
all
it
remained
forces.
a formidable power
subdue Makassarese rebellions
meant Arung
in 1739 and
Palakka’s vision of a Dutch-
southwest Sulawesi was no longer viable.
the rulers of Ternate
and Tidore were
able to maintain their long-
to
Dutch intervention
in their political
and economic
demonstrate the "modernity" that helped affirm their superior polities
affairs.
envoys. In Tidore a
VOC
artist
VOC
Eager
for European
painted a European-Style portrait of Sultan Saifuddin
(1657-89) and the major settlement was even rebuilt in Dutch fashion with
its streets laid
out in a grid. But both kingdoms also maintained the traditional hierarchical chain political relationships
from the center
authority over territories stretching
to the
periphe巧that enabled Ternate
Ampat
islands into the
Bird’s
of
south-
from southeast Halmahera
Head Peninsula
of western
New Guinea.
Other networks connected “Eastern Seram”( a Dutch term referring to the eastern end of the island of
Seram and the nearby archipelagoes)
settlements in western
New
to various river valley
(sosolot)
Guinea. While there was no dominant center among
the
hundreds of small communities inhabiting the Nusatenggara islands, strong linkages developed through a variety of interlocking networks of trade, ritual exchanges, and intermarriage.
The involvement of regional and international players
in these networks,
such as the Bugis, Makassarese, Malays, Javanese, and Chinese, ensured that Indonesia remained very much an important part of the developments in the Southeast Asia.
eastern rest of
undermined or disrupted some of
the
years
earlier
Although Tidore remained relatively free of direct VOC interference, any room for maneuver was limited as its rulers continued to grant concessions that gave the Dutch
linkages.
greater control over trade. Cooperation of Tidore’s rulers with
into legitimate trade.
voe
These tensions meant that
it
was increasingly
di伍cult for native
allies to invoke the much-used metaphor of a caring parent and loved child to describe their
relationship
drought
with the
VOC. In this context ordinary people were easily inclined to interpret
and epidemic as signs of supernatural displeasure with the existing order. capital of the island
Ambon,
Dutch Fort Victoria,
had
group
collectively
known
risen to importance as the focus
mid-eighteenth centu可the prices for
the
all
spices
as
Amboina and
maintaining schools in Christian villages
the
site
who were
and ensuring that the basic
charged with
tenets of Protestant-
Ambonese teachers became symbols of VOC authority in places that rarely visited. The small island of Rote
had not previously 1729,
campaigns
to
it
officials
off the coast of Timor also acquired a
known. The first Rotenese
and other chiefs found
of the
ofVOC clove production, but by had fallen. Ambon retained its
importance, however, as a center for training native teachers
areas,
and pastors
prominence it
ruler converted to Protestant Christianity in
advantageous to adopt the religion as a means of acquiring
Dutch support. In the following years the development of Malay-language schools pro- vided
many Rotenese with an education that allowed them greater possibilities of advance-
ment under the
VOC umbrella even as
stories丘om the Christian Bible were
effortlessly
absorbed into their oral traditions.
A distinctive
feature of eastern Indonesia’s history during this period
is
the numerical
and economic importance of the Topasses. Clustered in the islands of the Solor-Tirnor archipelagoes, especially eastern Flores at
odds with the “white"
(i.e.
white Portuguese suffered a
and Tirnor, the “black" Portu思1ese were仕equently
European) Portu思1ese based
major setback when
Topass army. Despite attempts at administrative
Topass
their forces
remained uneasy.
出roughout the 出reat to the
kilometers)
an attack
were routed by a superior
compromise, the arrangement by which
Wi由a
population of around forty thousand scattered
Solor-Timor archipelagoes, the Topasses
Dutch whose unprofitable post
at
Kupang
also represented a significant
(west Timor) was 500 miles (800
from the nearest VOC settlement. In 1749 the entire Topass community joined on Kupang, and although soundly defeated by the Dutch and their local allies,
were st山sufficiently powerful to oust the white Portuguese governor from Lifau the chiefs of western Tirnor, as well as those on
twenty years later.
Meanwhile, in 1756
the islands
and Rote, agreed to a contract acknowledging VOC
list
of Savu
all
of native signatories to this contract is a
that
Timor. In 1707 the
post in Lifau
Portuguese
出ey
at Lifau in
was held by a white Portuguese and the second-in-command by a was only intermittently workable, and relations between white and black
the highest
in
Notwithstanding these continuities, by the mid-eighteenth century two hundred of European involvement had seriously
men, boats, and provisions. VOC patrols that attempted to eliminate Papuan slave-raiding and prevent“smuggling" of spices were regarded as an u时ustified intrusion required
to claim
from northern Halmahera to northern and
eastern Sulawesi, while Tidore’s overlordship extended
through the Raja
to
status, the rulers of bo由
took Dutch names, wore Dutch clothing, and served Dutch food
in the island of
ism were maintained. Assigned to different communities throughout the eastern
standing dualism by remaining alert to any favors the other might receive from the
and by adjusting
a
among their vassals
Halmahera and the Papuan region because of the hardships suffered in supplying the
evict the Dutch
combined Bone and Dutch
VOC was much weaker than in earlier times,
in this part of the archipelago, well able to
attempted to
1763
aroused considerable resentment
REGIMES, 169os-178os
characterized the Eastern Archipelago
au由ority.
The long
testimony to也e multi-centered environment
and indeed much of Southeast
Asia.
264
' A HISTORY OF EAR口MODERN SOUTHE川山,140叫 Developments
in
NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING REGIME山90叫Bos
mainland Southeast Asia
The Western Mainland In the eighteenth centu叩the centrifugal tendencies that characterized even the
largest
modern Southeast Asia were dramatically demonstrated in the kingdom of Restored Taungoo dynasty. Although royal power was largely derived丘om
polities in early
Ava under the control over
human
resources and the services they provided, the
ruler’s hereditary
servicemen (ahmudan) were not passive recipients of kingly orders, and avoidance, such as ordination as a
monk, were common. As
strategies of
service obligations became
more onerous, the steady seepage of ahmudan posed a major problem to royal authori可 it weakened the military strength of the ruler and his supporters. The forces Ava
because
could marshal, once so formidable, were over which
by
skilled
it
now insufficient to defend the extensive territ。可
claimed sovereignty. Between 1736-40 Manipur launched annual
raids led
and much feared horsemen, which destroyed villages and monasteries up
very walls of
Ava and
many
resulted in the forced deportation of
of
its
to the
subjects
飞飞j
1
(':,产’??'
//,,,,/1' I /// II
)
(see
Figure 6.2). Adding to royal woes was the persistent restlessness of vassal lords who had
been brought under Ava's authority either by military force or by voluntarily linking their fortunes to this prestigious center. Defiance arc that
was
had been conquered by Bayinnaung
especially apparent in the Tai-speaking
in the late sixteenth centu巧. Chiang Mai
threw off Burmese overlordship in 1727, in 1739 the Shan polity of Kengtung drove Ava's representative, and with
Manipur
assistance,
Mogaung
out
gained independence
in
A Manipuri (Cassay) horseman. This picture was drawn by the Bengali artist Singey Bey, who accompanied Michael Symes during his mission to Ava. In the eighteen由centuηr Manipuri captives comprised a significant part of the Burmese cavalry, since their renowned horsemanship skills were considered superior to those of the Burmese. Michael Symes, An Account of an Embassy归the Kingdom of Ava, sent by the Governor-General of India, in the Year 1795 (London: W. Bulmer and Co., 1799), 318. Courtesy of John M. Echols Collection on Southeast Asia of Cornell University Library. Fi伊re 6.2.
1734-5.
The
greatest threat to Ava's
Pe思1. Ports
dominance, however, came丘om the
Mon areas linked to
and Tavoy, supported a medley of Europeans and different Asian populations, who were lured by the availability of products such as rice, timber, elephants, and teak for ship serim,
repairs. Indeed, repeating
comments from
English observer described Pegu as
a
hundred years
“the richest
before,
one contemporary
and largest province of this kingdom."28
Increased revenues from maritime trade accentuated the economic imbalance between southern Myanmar and the agriculturally based interior. Embittered by their loss of privilege, the officials.
Against出is background, references in local sources to earthquakes, droughts, famines,
providing access to Bay of Bengal trade, notably Syriam, Martaban, Tenas-
Mons and
Nor were
their leaders chafed
under the authority of Ava-appointed
they alone in their resentment, since Pegu’s population, regardless
ethnic background, was generally alienated
by the tax burden and the prominent
of
positions
and epidemics are significant, since natural disasters supernatural displeasure Southeast Asia, evident in the
late
1740,
ently
Karen descent took
power
Buddhakeithi (“Golden king of
29
1580-1760
As
in the rest of
appearance of charismatic leaders, the min-laung, whose followers believed
claiming royal antecedents
Despite
c.
lack of sufficient merit to reign.
popular discontent and the anticipation of dynastic collapse are also
prophecies出at foretold a revitalization of the“ancient
of regional
Cited in Victor B. Lieberman, Burmese Administrative Cycles: Anarchy and Conquest, (Princeton University Press, 1984), 213.
ruler’s
as signs of
had the power to restore a past golden age. In Pegu there was also talk of omens and
出ey
gained by immigrant Burmans from the north.
28
and/ or a
were commonly viewed
We thank Emeritus this title.
at Pe思1
Buddhist
and personal
Professor
monk of appar- title of Smin Dhaw
a former
and assumed the kingly
fame’').29
undoubted Mon-Burman host且ity, differences
Mon count巧”of Ramaiiiiadesa. In
and supernatural powers,
this uprising in 17 40
loyalties rather
is
best viewed in terms
than simply ethnic
Saw Tun and Professor Michael AungThwin
conflict, for
both
for their help in translating
6
265
NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING REGIMES,
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 communities. Smin
sides consisted of a mixture of ethnic
attracting followers
from across
a
Dhaw was
highly successful
in
wide spectrum, including h且l people, because of his own
With access to cannon and artill町 acquired from European traders, Smin Dhaw could mount a highly effective challenge. Within four months all Ava's appointments in the Pegu area had been displaced and Smin Dhaw’s forces were pushing up the Irrawaddy River. Although he was later deposed, he mystique and the widespread rejection of Ava’s
rule.
who
was succeeded
as king in 17 46
future Buddha.
The occupation of the rice-producing district of Kyaukse by the Pegu army
was a death
knell for the
months, the
city fell
Taungoo
d严iasty
by
his
Burman
deputy Binn ya Dala,
capital of Ava. In
March
openly claimed
1752, a丘er a siege of two
and the starving occupants were deported or enslaved; to an ignoble end.
the Restored
had come
Nonetheless, the Taungoo heritage provided a solid foundation for the rapid of
to be a
Upper Myanmar control over
its
reassertion
The founder of the new Konbaung headman who, as an arche可pical min-
core domains.
d严iasty, a classic “man of prowess,”was a村llage
laung, declared himself king just three years after he defeated the
Mon
forces besieging
Ava. In 1755 he told the representatives of the English East India Company出at he was
whole Burma dominions and acknowledged king in all pa此s of it.”He contended出at he was the legitimate ruler, that his rise had been predicted because
“master of the
previous rulers had abandoned royal principles, and that he was king “because of
merit of my former deeds.”For this reason he took the grandiose
title
the
of Alaung-mintaya-
gyi-phaya, meaning“great august forthcoming righteous king," the dhammaraja
or
and by placing their male kin in positions of authority. Defeated rulers domains were required to present their daughters to Alaungpaya, independent of formerly and the entourage and ceremonial that surrounded their presentation functioned as a
well-born families,
of submission.
public sign
Alaungpaya was also aware that ancient garner
support and affirm
identity,
he called
loyalties. In
on“Burmans"
to unite,
topknots ( which distinguished
unfurl their
Mon-Burman
rivalries
and
in
one
them from
the short-haired
Talaings
the
Mon], you
the
[i.e.
are acting contrary to both your lineage
the
Mon
armies,
confidence
pany. His solid
Alaungpaya
between kings of different
the needs of each other,”and
be helpful to
in the world
destined to etc.
That
become
.
.
is
a
ve巧unusual
the Buddha’s prophecy.”31 Indeed, in one
is
man
of great past merits. He
the supreme lord of Chinese, Indians, Shans, Talaings (Mons),
is
Thais,
Burmese account Alaungpaya
is
consistently called “Min-laung.”32
would last气mtil the time of
he expressed
thousand [men] you won’t see of Pegu.”33
An
following year.
my match. I myself can crush a hundred such as the King
and military leader, he rallied other headmen to his cause and built up an army which was both well-trained and skillfully deployed. His victories were solidified by creating domestic alliances through marriages to the daughters of other astute tactician
countries,”he wrote,“they can
his
forbidding
Jacques P. Leider,“A Kingship by Merit and Cosmic Investiture: an Investi用tion into King Alau町n
31
Than Tun,
ed., Ro才al
Orders of Burma,
AD 1598-1885, vol.
33
(Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian
Kyoto University, 1985), 21. Phra Phraison Salarak, trans.,“The Testimony of an Inhabitant of the City of Ava,”JSS,
Studies, 32
II
(October 1957), 29-54. Cited in Lieberman, Burmese Administrative Cycles, 234.
45, pt. 2
to regaining authority over the south. Control of the
Mohnyin, Mogaung, and
polities,
was brought
34
which was already
silting
up and was taken the
Mong
Mit were required
to take the oath of
Alaungpaya reissued older
where
overcame resistance by the small but aggressive
flee.
edicts
festival.
polity
This was a turning point in the relations between
Myanmar came
to
dominate
affairs in
Manipur
until the latter
under British control in the Treaty of Yandabo in 1826 following the
Cited in Victor B. 3 (1978),
35,
new port of Yangon, literally
animist practices like the sacrifice of animals before the harvest
Manipur, forcing the ruler to
two
their friendship
Upper Myanmar forces captured and sacked Pe事1. In a very short hegemony was a伍rmed as far north as the Shan uplands, where the
Anglo-Burmese War. 30
way
Moving westwards, in late 1758 he
these
hope that
my royal sons, grandsons, and great-grandsons产5 Although
In following precedents set in earlier times,
allegiance.
of
letter, a
of Britain in 1756.
In 1757
Alaungpaya' s
saw-bwas of
For ordinary Burmese, Alaungpaya would indeed have seemed destined for kingship. Reportedly over six feet tall and claiming in叽tlnerability, he boasted that“amongst a
II
Com-
produced no results in terms of British support, Ala山1gpaya, supported by his
meaning“end of strife,”to replace Syriam,
time
demonstrated in his
is
with twenty-four rubies, sent to George
close friendship prevails
this letter
correspondence with the English East India
and sense of his place
gold plaque decorated
"When
initiated
had been assured with the establishment in 1755 of the
.
and your
and firepower necessa巧to conquer the south and overcome
Anxious to acquire guns
coast
edict proclaimed that“this king
in order
ab让ities.”34
the principle that an individual’s present status
one
Mons)
suppo此from Burmans within the Pe伊army. Though he promoted himself as ruler over a multi-ethnic state, he is also said to have berated one village headman: “Although you are a Burman and are a brave man, in planning to remain a subject of to attract
was already well on his
life,
to a shared ethnic
battle ordered his soldiers to
sons,
determined by deeds in a past
could be exploited to
an unprecedented appeal
righteous ruler of Buddhist tradition. 30 In accordance with the Buddhist belief in kamma, is
169os-178os
The Upper Myanmar populations were
registered
by
tattooing
first
and
Lieberman,“Ethnic Politics in Eighteen由-centu可Burma,”Modern Asian Studies 12,
473
King Alaungmintaya云Golden Letter to King George HσMay 1756): the Story of an Manuscr伊t and the Failure of a Diplomatic Overture (Hannover: Got的ied Wilhelm
Jacques P. Leider,
Exeψtional
Leibniz Biblioth仗,2009), 75,
http://der-goldene-brief.gwlb.de/fileadmin/images/GoldenerBrief/ Forschung/Leider_Golden_Letter.pdf, accessed December 28, 2012.
,\
267
268元A HISTORY OF
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
reorganized into their
ahmudan and athi groups, and as loyal headmen and ministers were
incorporated into the administration, Alaungpaya' s access to
human
resources was
increasingly secure. Every campaign increased the population,
and war
captives were
not enslaved as was customary, but settled on land to increase food production.
Given the legacy of conflict with the Thais and Alaungpaya' s belief in expansion eastwards was a logical
were revived because
Mon
step.
According to the Yodaya Yazawin,
rebels took refuge in
of conflict occurred in 1759,
when
his
A yutthaya,
Myanmar
several
Alaungpaya had threatened that
kingdom of A yutthaya] [
own
will
declaration during由e
if
old
rivalries
but the immediate
cause
subjects were imprisoned in this
works
text,
himself] with a piece of
[i.e.
Alaungpaya’s death during this campaign brought
arrived
at山 his
his death, he wrote
meat where
like
the sand』ies,
A yutthaya
no
respite, for his son
1763一76) was as implacable as his fa出er. Writing in Burmese, a Thai
exile
(presumably a captive) recorded memories of Hsinbyushin’s decision to punish Ayut由aya for giving shelter to disloyal
Ava
o伍cials
and of his warning
that“I
come marching by
land and water with an innumerable army."39 Other accounts bitterly recalled the hunger, flight,
and hardship experienced by local populations
1763 and reasserted control over Lan Na. fighting
It
as the
was said that
and deportation of people scarcely a thousand
Luang Prabang
also
to the
fell
Burmese seized Chiang Mai in in
men
Chiang Mai remained.
following
Two
years
Burmese, apparently with the assistance of
Vientiane, which thereby escaped a similar
the
later
its rival
Burmese
manpower
into the
to extend their
native o伍cials appointed
fate.
Burmese army. Continuing successes
also
emboldened
the
campaigns into southern Yunnan and demand tribute from by the Qing. In early 1765 Mergui and other peninsular towns
to the west of
A yutthaya
numbering half
a million
in
Myanmar’s great
were
men
seized,
as well as
and twelve months
later forces reportedly
hundreds of elephants, horses, and
were advancing steadily towards the Thai capital. The city was besieged for months, during which time the population was ravaged by famine and
spread rapidly.
European observers remarked that the
today the blackened stones in the tion.
fires
continued for a week, and
A yutthaya ruins are testimony to the resulting devasta-
The depopulation of the city was also unprecedented. The capture and relocation of
nothing
had been a feature of the continuous warfare between A严1tthaya and Ava,
compared with the wholesale
transferal of
Ayutthaya’s vanquished popula-
As many as around thirty thousand prisoners taken from the
city itself were
tions in
1767.
forcibly
marched to Ava, but disease, exhaustion, and hunger meant that
reached their destination. few
Those that did faced a miserable
brought specialized skills that the conquerors valued.
and musicians, for example, popularized the Thai elite
was undoubtedly enriched by the
planted A严It由aya artists
and
surrounding
circumstances
The period of direct
their
Burmese control
were not
defend his
most
captives the traumatic
was
short, since丘ontier warfare
and 1769 compelled Hsinbyushin
to return to
northern borders. In由is he was successful, since the Chinese troops, decimated
by malaria,
were forced to withdraw, and an agreement was reached regarding the
Myanmar army to withstand a Chinese force of around f。此y
boundary.
The
thousand
was certainly an achievement, but
(“record
for
easily forgotten.
in A严1tthaya
m出invading Chinese armies between 1765
Ramayana dance-drama.
cross-cultural flow between trans-
Burmese counterparts,
this relocation
never
existence, although a favored
Though
culture
many
The performances of captured
dancers
ab过ity
is
of the
it
fourteen city gates
memorating the defeat of
The Central
was the conquest of
their great rival
celebrated in a contemporary poem, the Yodayar Naing
of the victory over A严1tthaya") as the
Each of Ava's
was named
Mawgun
supreme tri山nph of Myanmar
after a notable conquest,
history.
but由at com-
Ayutthaya must surely have generated the most pride.
Mainland
firearms
Ayutthaya’s
fourteen
The death of
sickness.
marked the inauguration of the
a Translation of the Yodaya Yazawin (Yangon:
brother,
King
led
in 1688
and the
Ban Phlu Luang
by a former
who had been put
charismatic leader coronation,
N arai
seizure of
power by
d严1asty. Initially the
a
nobleman
new regime
faced
opposition because of a perceived usurpation of power, and later chronicles
to a rebellion
36
Chain, Yodaya Yazawin, 104.
Ayutthaya, even hacking at Buddha images for gold. Buildings
were set ablaze,
refer
9
applied the same policy of destruction that had been used
and because they were constructed primarily of wood, the conflagration
considerable
Tun Aung Chain, trans., Chronicle of Ayutthaya: …Myanmar Historical Commission, 2005), 96 "A Kingsl :/ L毗r,
rival,
Pegu. His troops pillaged
A川tthaya that
These conquests and a solid base of control in the north guaranteed a constant infusion of extra
crush
campaign of 1760 claimed that he had not
two months before
triumph, Burmese attitudes were very different from those that had the earlier conquest of Ayutthaya in 1569. Hsinbyushin, determined to
Reveling in this
but
mosquitoes and insects are flying around卢8
(r.
in April 1767.
war captives
again to the ruler of Ayutthaya, asserting that to compare the two kings would be
Hsinbyushin
finally fell
be destroyed and demolished.”36 By contrast, Alaungpaya's
of merit."37 Nonetheless, just
“confusing a red iron rod
the
the prisoners were not released "then the whole
border of Ayutthaya to make war, but to restore Buddhism and to make known “ever-lasting
determined Thai resistance, acknowledged even in Burmese sources, Ayutthaya
characterized
own destiny,
peninsular port of Mergui, which was under Thai authority. As recounted in
Despite
riding
monk
to death
claiming to be an incarnation of N arai’s elder
by the new
ruler. In the “holy
gathered two thousand followers and
man"
“putting
tradition, this
on the
regalia of
on the elephant Mongkhon Rattanakosa, displaying the white
270
'A HISTO…FEAR…ODERN SOUTH川T叭,140叫
NEW BOUN川ES AND CHANGING
umbrella" he advanced towards A严itthaya.40 Although this uprising was easily put down and its leaders executed, it was not an isolated incident. Yet despite periodic unrest and resistance in the vassal states of
and
Patani, the
Cambodia and
the northern
Ban Phlu Luang dynasty eventually came
most of Ayutthaya's former vassals. In
a familiar pattern,
Malay kingdoms
of Kedah
to be accepted as legitimate by
its
was
right to rule
retroactively
reaffirmed through stories of supernatural signs, the appearance of white elephants, and references to acts of merit, such as repairs to monasteries
and wats and
the casting
Khmer
of
由at
scriptures
from Ava and Pe♂1
was
envoys
a
the religion is
enshrined, greatly
[
established,
holy
were able to bring about the
Cambodia. In 17 48 Thai
in
Khmer prince who was
installation of a
monks
and according
told his patron由at he
had
received.
The same itself
for partic吐ar praise, elevating
and
stressing that
and
there was“a great
In recording this period, the
under
season.”42 Several factors
sufficient
Ayutthaya
recompense
king had
for the help he
ruler,“endowed with virtue and
from
silver flowers
as
many
as fifty
polities,
to
and the jockeying for division
leadership
declining,
was only happiness among everyone
account for these accolades.
in eve叮
Borommakot had come
members of the
to the
royal family, and subsequently
number of administrative reforms intended to prevent succession disputes and
princely challenges. Although these were only partially successful, his position was
strengthened by A严1tthaya’s general prosperity, which can be attributed primarily to由e
expanding trade with China. The position of Phrakhlang (minister in charge of the and foreign affairs) was dominated by Chinese. They were also appointed to high posts in the court, and their wives and daughters given prestigious
treasury, royal trade,
against
kingdoms.
It is
another king.
island
attested
in restoring the Sinhalese sangha,
by
a mission from
which had
Sri
suffered a丘er the
came under Portuguese and then Dutch
monks were
control. In 1751 and 1755 Ayutthaya sent to Sri Lanka to reestablish correct procedures for ordination, a mission
41 Chain,而daya Yazawin, 73. Chain, Yodaya Yazawin, 92. 一Richard Cushman, trans. and David K. Wyatt, ed., The Royal Chronicles of Ayudhya (Bangkok: The Siam Society, 2000), 424.
::
were
also
first
undermined because,
Burmese invasion of
as in
Myanmar during
of people available for royal service
were
Burmese
threat Ayutthaya apparently sent
with the message由at“our two kingdoms are both great
are killed
and
cities
and世llages are destroyed."44 But such appeals
shown in the previous section, Burmese armies met only sporadic challenges as出ey advanced仕om the north in 1763. Within two years both Chiang Mai and the Lao kingdom of Luang Prabang had capitulated. Joined by another force moving up from the south, the Burmese army laid siege to由e A归tthaya capital. Suffering great privation, A yutthaya held out for more than a year but finally surrendered in
and
as
April 1767.
Buddhism卢In
is
when Borommakot
impossible for any individual to assume the
not proper for a king to persecute, destroy and conquer the kingdom of
Men
animals, like sacred texts, provided public affirmation of a A严1tthaya’s status as a prestigious religious center
it
elite,
died in 1758. This
and periodic peasant movements demonstrated popular resentment
were unsuccessful,
"The
Lanka requesting assistance
intense
still
making
corvee obligations. In the face of the
women. Once again, the rulers of A严1tthaya acted as staunch patrons of Buddhism. The chronicles devote considerable attention to the splendid reception accorded the white elephant from Cambodia since the accumulation of such great merit.
was recurring factionalism among Ayutthaya's
Taungoo, the numbers
envoys to negotiate peace,
positions to serve the royal
ruler’s
power was
military operations
1760. Effective
steadily
his rule “there
predestined greatness and encouraged vassals to
powerful center.
necessary to offer convincing resistance during the
A yutthaya chronicles single out Borommakot (r. 1733-58) Ban Phlu Luang dynasty
Ayutthaya' s
paralyzed the court,
days of the
rulers of the
To
of the Restored Taungoo d严iasty in 1752 must have
prevent succession disputes, there
the last
him above previous
devote themselves to study and contemplation.”43
Behind this impressive exterior, however, were unresolved problems. Despite measures
coming and going of merchants.”41
throne despite the opposition from other instituted a
make
able to
text asserts that the
integri町,”received the tributary gold
while in the city
Yodaya Yazawin the weeping Khmer
to the
would never be
A归tthaya’s
fall
renew their allegiance to this
also a Thai protege.
Cambodia’s submission of a rare white elephant symbolized recognition of ruler as a cakkavatti,
forces
relicts are
J
encouraged and the
strengthened the belief in
power
Lanka
where the inscription of the scriptures and the practice of the religion are
Tro吨,
in
Sri
land in which
politics
N伊yen family
previous requests for
when A yutthaya was honored as“the [where] there are many pagodas in which the
court
clients of the
Yazawin,
had been unsuccessful, and the reception of the
splendid occasion
temporarily lessened the influence of the Vietnamese southern domain of Dang
which had kept
Sinhalese practices had served as the
reform. According to the Yodaya
standard for ordination
some observers at least, the
Buddhist images. Externally, Ayutthaya's successful intervention in
when
represents a reversal of older traditions
REGIMES, 169os-178os
It is
intriguing to note that a
poem
attributed to the great king Narai and
Long Song Prophecy”predicted that despite
numbered should
it
fall
later years
victim
its
known
as
prosperity Ayutthaya’s days would be
to the “sixteen disasters,”including the neglect of
compilers of Thai court chronicles were convinced由at moral
by early Ban Phlu Luang rulers - reputedly extreme cruelty, the violation of women, drunkenness - were responsible for A yutthaya' s ultimate downfall. Other accounts tried to
lapses
had been an unimaginable catastrophe by speaking of omens such as appearance of comets, tears shed by Buddha images, disloyalty among princes and
make sense of what the
::
Cha川daya
二Richard D.
Yazaw川5钊Cha川odaya
Yazawin, 104.
Cushman and David K. Wyatt,“Translating Thai Poetry: Cushman, and King Narai's 'Long
Song Prophecy for
A yutthayaγJSS 89,
1-2 (2001): 1-11
6
271
272' A HISTO…F川口MODERN SOUTHEAST A吼叫0叫 and even
ministers,
deficiencies in royal leadership.
NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING
The devastation of Ayutthaya was so
and the associated memories so painful that it was now abandoned. Despite the scale of the destruction, however, Thai recovery was surprisingly rapid. The previous 150 years great
had seen the growth of
resilient bureaucratic institutions
and the expansion
of
inter-
known
able leader could
other areas
of Asia. Chinese traders resident in Siam,
Chao Phraya basin
man called Sin, the son of a who had been appointed governor of the
to regain control of the
kingdom. In
paternal connections with the Chinese Teochiu trading
he was
this
as
he became
assisted by his
community, which provided food
and other goods necessary during the destitution that followed A归tthaya' s
fall.
After
taking control of the small port of Thonburi ( today part of metropolitan Bangkok, on
western bank of the Chao Phraya), which had previously guarded the downriver
He
the country.
Burmese
the
access to
force of any consequence st山remaining
continued to a伍rm his claims as successor to the A归tthayan
Thammarat
Si
in the north,
where the
(in
Malay, Ligor).
One
monk Phra Fang led
laymen and even carved out
a
weapons. Their prominence in northern Thailand and in Laos
may
esoteric Buddhist ideas that provided the basis for beliefs in the
“Chinese”(i.e.
Mahayana) Buddhism
may have been
in the
be related
power and
the Chinese term for elevating village
overcome
his
monk came
upland areas between Yunnan and
monks
to be translated
is
the
more
plague, prevailing lack of food,
of
the
uplands,
as“Buddha" or“man-god,”hence
to positions of great authority
opponents
of
protection
northern borderlands of mainland Southeast Asia. As Buddhism spread in the
and reverence.
Taksin’s ab过ity to
impressive, given the late rains in 1769, an
and banditry. French observers reported
insect
that even
Buddhist monasteries were being ransacked for their gold and silver images. By 1770 Taksin’s position as king was assured, and he turned to address some of the systemic problems that had contributed to A严1tthaya’s inab过ity to resist the Burmese attacks.
He
courted support by distributing ranks and
sought to strengthen
titles
among
region
and from
its
Chiang Mai, while the
capital
his supporters, and
rulers of
all
Lao
three major
Champasak, Luang Prabang, and Vientiane - submitted to Siamese suzerainty. states Valued Buddhist statues such as the Emerald Buddha, Vientiane’s most p血ed possession, -
were taken
、tent
back to Siam, and in a
letter to the
Vientiane ruler Taksin wrote that he w筒
on becoming greater than the King of Ava, and this
Why then
did the
Thonburi kingdom
fa且to survive?
is
It is
not beyond his
reach.”“
too easy to dismiss Taksin’s
interest in
meditative practices as a sign of mental imbalance, as did contemporary
Europeans.
Furthermore, although Taksin certainly had differences with the
and with
members of the old court
elite,
achieved the status
of sotapanna, the
first
Buddhist authorities
were adamant: in
made
to
Siam coast the po此of Ha Tien,
multi-cultural to Taksin’s result,
his
years later
terms a king st山ranked below a monk.
own
status,
tasks,
who were less
and the monks who opposed
and even
flogged.
than happy with Taksin’s policies.
On
founded by a merchant from Guangzhou, had attracted a
support
when he
attacked the settlement in 1771, other Chinese did not. As a
previously close relationship with the Chinese
community in Siam
suffered.
Ten
many Ha Tien Chinese, st山resentful, were receptive to proposals由at出ey assist
appointees led to
elite.
arose
population, including various Chinese groups. Although the Teochiu rallied
Vietnamese in an assault
meted out
spiritual
perform demeaning
Meanwhile, there were other groups
The question then
him to the veneration of ordinary monks.
regarded this as a slight to his
him were demoted,
the
stage of enlightenment.
whether these accomplishments entitled
Taksin evidently
the
him into power, and leading body displayed twelve of the出irty-two marks of a
Man as defined in the Pali canon. Taksin was thus encouraged to believe that he had
Great
as to
monkhood
his claims to exceptional spiritual standing were
acknowledged. Stories of invulnerab且ity had followed
members of the sangha agreed that his
to local
the increasing influence
Na
Lan
at
finally suppressed,
but there are other references to uprisings of armed monks, well versed in the use
economic revival and served as a conduit for the purchase of arms
widely
more formidable revolts occurred an army of “red- robed" monks who lived as
and other Chinese who came to trade,
obtained from Europeans. During the following decade the Burmese were expelled from the
to
of the
domain of their own before they were
afforded by religious leaders. Another factor
in
heritage,
and through pop吐ar perception that he was indeed a“man of merit" he was able overcome challenges from different parts of the country, including the far south
Nakhon
of order also
were major players in this
a丘er 1767.
province of Tak. Fleeing from Ayutthaya a丘er the Burmese attack, Taksin,
A严1tthaya, Taksin routed the only
Cambodia and much of the northern Malay Peninsula. The rapid restoration
resins, lac,
Chinese Teochiu father and a Siamese mother,
campaign
western
over
A yutthaya, a powerful new center arose at Thonburi. Chao Phraya basin, and soon asserted his overlordship
Burmese sacked
Taksin controlled the whole of the
recalcitrant, these
Such an individual emerged in the person of a young
a
the
and punish the
reconstitute the center of authority in the
known, began
four years a丘er
and economic base on which an
capacity to reward loyal vassals
factors provided the administrative
now used more frequently) were extended further than ever before. As early as 1771, just
allowed for a resumption in the flow of forest goods - elephants, elephant tusks, and sappanwood - that were shipped from the po口at Thonburi to China and
national trading connections that displayed remarkable durability. In combination with A严1tthaya’s
REGIMES, 169os-178os
on Thonburi. In
the country at large the greed of royal
among the peasant巧,but由e punishments own relatives aroused antagonism among the
m山enarian-style rebellions
by Taksin to
officials
and even
his
By the end of 1781 a group of nobles from the former Ayutthaya court had already
decided to take
action to depose him.
The
following April, in the course of concurrent
manpower surveillance by decreeing that all individuals of phrai status
should be tattooed to indicate both his nai (lord) and the muang to which he belonged. Under Taksin, the boundaries of Siam (a name previously associated M出A归tth町a, but
钊?_ited
i山rrai叫臼ick,“Ki刚叩and Poli削I叫ration
uissertation,
Cornell University, 1976, 98.
in Traditional Siam,
1767-1824:’m
274曹、A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
NEW BOUNDARIES AND山NGING
ASIA, 1400-1830
and Cambodia,出ey selected General Chakri (himself the son of a half- Chinese mother) as the count町’s ruler, later to be known as Rama I, and established the new uprisings in Siam
capital at
Bangkok, across the river from Thonburi. Taksin was executed in a royal manner
by being bound
The other
in a velvet sack
and
head struck with a sandalwood club. Mainland - Cambodia and the Lao kingdoms
his
polities in the Central
- had
room for maneuver or negotiation. Taksin had brought all three Lao states under Siamese authority, and Cambodia received few benefits from the lucrative maritime relatively
little
trade along the Gulf of rivalry
between
its
Siam dominated by Chinese and Sino- Vietnamese
two powerful neighbors, Siam and Dang Trong, made Cambodia
Nguyen
vulnerable to outside dominance. Between 1699 and 1772 re思tlarly in
migrants. The
Cambodian politics
rulers intervened
to support their candidates against those favored by Siam.
Meanwhile, Nguyen control of the lower
Mekong absorbed territory previously subject to
Khmer rulers, by way of a nibbling process compared by the Vietnamese to“slowly eating silkworms,”a common snack among ordinary people.47 At the ancient
capital of Angkor, inscriptions
from the
centuries record the careers of important officials
were able to
resist outside incursion. Overall,
impossible situation. Although the to the Vietnamese, the
Nguyen town of Saigon. links with the
and suggest
that
however, Cambodia was caught
Khmer were
who
more akin to the Siamese than of Oudong was more accessible from the
Siamese and those
who
enjoyed Vietnamese patronage. A丘er considerable
rival
Khmer princes凯1aranteed
that their clients
court, as
nominal ruler
at
Ang Eng (r.
Oudong. Siam
provinces of Battambang and Siemreap (literally,“Siam
much
earlier battles).
The
loss of
tried to ensure that
would remain
Taksin, Siamese forces installed the seven-year-old prince
Bangkok
that Siamese and their
in power. Under
1779-96), a refugee
annexed the northwestern defeated,”named for Khmer
also
population (along with
many
of the
sites
linked to the former Angkorian kingdom), economic deterioration, and the destruction war, exacted a heavy
toll
on the revenues of Khmer
kings.
As
their
incomes
of
declined,
were no longer able to exercise the patronage their clients expected; insufficiently recompensed, supporters and their following dri丘ed away or sought other sponsors.
rulers
Ultimately,
Oudong could only maintain
what amounted
N伊yen regime
a semblance of independence by entering
into
and
the
to vassal relationships with the (
Siamese court ( the
“father”)
and further commercial
increased prices,
the
effectively controlled
decline.
The agrarian
crisis intensified
half of the eighteenth centu巧,when hardly a year passed without
some
Food shortages were exacerbated because the elaborate dike system that pro-
calamity.
and the
tected villages
and
a
when
rivers overflowed
had been poorly maintained
desperate population survived by eating bark, grass, and leaves. Because
environmental catastrophes would have
lands
rice
of conflict. In the resulting famines roads were said to be lined with dead
during the years
been
difficult
and arbitrary rule and even killed
were interpreted
even for an
as a sign of supernatural anger, the situation
efficient administration,
but the corruption, venality,
of the Trinh regime were notorious. Le kings were deposed, replaced,
with impunity. Palace eunuchs (who probably numbered
hundred) gained
unprecedented authority, and high dignitaries were put
more than且ve to death.
A major issue for the Trinh was revenue collection, which was made more difficult because pop吐ation registers like付出at less
wealthy elites h侃侃er ruled
even adopted the Nguyen anti-Christian policy.
would be maintained and
victories in
in an almost
Dang Ngoai,
to
succession of disasters - drought, severe floods, heavy hail, and insect plagues - were major obstacles to economic recove町,leading to lost
during the first
bodies,
had not brought prosperity
A
Trinh family.
harvests,
in 1672
Vietnamese realm, which was ruled by the Le dynasty but
typhoons,
culturally
Vietnamese involvement in Cambodia would continue as both
at the
regional leaders
Cambodian capital The ruling elite were divided between those who supported closer
Recurring conflicts between
interests
some
Siamese client installed in 1748 was replaced in 1752 with a Vietnamese
conflict, the
protege,
seventeenth and eighteenth
late
war
The end of years of civil
by the
1690叫Bos'
Mainland
The Eastern
northern
REGIMES,
had not been kept up, and the last reliable survey dated丘om 1658.
than a也ird of those liable for taxation were actually compl内1g. Because
were often able to avoid pa严nents, the burden on ordinary Vietnamese became
and was worsened
the court
addition,
net for
tenant
was unable to prevent powerful
landless peasants),
regime,
To
mountains
many
to
used “thousands of
become
tricks
satirical verses
follow charismatic leaders
cite just
who promised
a solution to a desperate
monk occupied the Duy Mat, drawing issued a proclamation in chu nom with the
one such example, in 1737 the followers of a
The next year the
some scholars and upland
chiefs,
fugitive prince
Le
the "mother”) 48
47
Cited in
Cited in Alexander Woodside, A Comparative Study of Nguyen and Ch’的g Civil Government First Half of the Nineteenth Century (Boston: Harvard East Asian Monographs, 1988), 247.
in the 9
lnsun Yu,
Law and Society
Research Center, 1990), Cited in
.
communal lands had been taken,“there remains nothing for
Clandestine writings, slogans, rumors, and
northwest of the capital.
supp。此from
said, the notables
and it is hardly surprising to find evidence of increasing disillusionment
and a willingness to situation.
was
of the least opportunity to indict people.”48 By this stage even the
a也ni忧付出at since
peasants to live O乱”49
attacked the
estates
property to enrich themselves, oppressing出e poor, despising the
availing themselves
Trinh court
were deserted. In
from accumulating large
increasing peasant indebtedness and forcing
farmers.“In也e v山ages,”it
illiterate,
families
in the north
purchase or confiscation of communal lands (traditionally intended as a safety
grabbing other people’s
the
by new charges on basic items like salt. Migration to出e Nguyen-
and by the 17 40s a third of the v山ages
south increased
出rough the
It is
in Seventeenth
and E也hteen仇Century Vietnam
(Seoul: Asiatic
130
Nguyen Khac Vien, Vietnam: a Long History (Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, 2007), 90-1.
275
276立?、A
NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING
HISTORY OF EARLY岛{ODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
stirring e对1ortation,“Down
with the Trinh! Long Live the Le!”and elsewhere in the count可
thousands of peasants besieged towns. At times
it
was even necessa巧to
lock
soldiers and
伊ards in stocks to prevent their fleeing or joining the insurgents. In the face of repeated rebellions, especially in the
Trinh ruler
who succeeded in
17 40
made
restricting出e influence of eunuchs Relative
Red River
more
calm was gradually restored, but the Trinh
distribution of rice
right to rule
by Le Duy Mat was not put down
also unresolved, for
fluctuated
and
until 1770.
The
as
supplies.
fester,
Le was
and
the
position of Christianity was
although the Trinh were generally hostile to missionaries
several
such
on behalf of the
st山questioned, problems attributable to peasant poverty continued to revolt led
competent
concessions to allay popular discontent,
and improving the
prominent individuals in the court had
their policy
new faith.
converted to the
Dang Trong, the southern Vietnamese realm, initially seemed to fare better, since由e Nguyen family emerged strengthened from the protracted ci叫l wars and did not have to compete their
for
power with the Le emperors. Successive N事1yen lords were anxious
independence from the north, as well as to extend
lands, as indicated
King and Grand Lord of Cochin China,
the
Nguyen
Champa
relations with the
Viet
cast in 1670 that
Cham
N凯1yen were relatively amicable, but for ordinary
the invidious process of Vietnamization,
settlers,
and
title
an autonomous
vassals.
At
client
reads,“For
and Cambodia."50 The
leader,“Lord of the Realm,”proclaimed his status as
could grant honorifics such as“native king" to his
to asse此
political claims to vassal and
by the Portuguese inscription on a cannon
who
Cham
Cham the presence of
the intrusion of taxes and
A Cham
uprising in 1728 was quickly suppressed.
The process of carving out an autonomous domain
to reaffirm
Dang
(lord),
and a
Trong’s status as
series
title
of vuong
of ritual and symbolic reforms were
instituted
an independent kingdom. Royal
introduced, the court adopted Ming-style clothing,
southern
and palaces were
were also active sponsors of Buddhism, and by 1750 at 阿odas had been constructed. Meanwhile, the instituted elite
N仰n
honorifics were
renovated. The
China and
in the
local
in the north,
a
more咿a叫
Trinh domains, such as the reorganization of the bureaucracy
uncter
made
coins
and offices, resulting in a
1750 the satirical
Cited in Pierre-Yves Manguin, Les Portugais sur
les
cotes
du Vietnam
et
de
Champa (Paris: EFEO
fueling inflationary
play,“A
prominent southern
more funds丘om an
Monk,
village will
longer
A Nun,'’specifically criticized oppression and coπuption One of the more
mise巧has reached an extreme level: If you con出meto rule明白
people’s
without thinking of taking appropriate measures, even the administration of a
become impossible,
let
have anything to live on:
The problems in
alone that of a province or a whole country. The people no
how can their hearts be at peace?”51
Dang Trong can be
partly explained by the expansion of
Mekong
Increasing rice production in the
territ。可.
and the lucrative were depleted
po此of Ha Tien resulted in
conflicts with Taksin.
by the costs of warfare and deployment
commerce fluctuated, in part because of the
overseas
annually,
but
by 1772
this
number had
fallen to twelve,
Cambodia
Government revenues
of large troops,
silting
17 40s, for example, between sixty
N伊yen
Delta brought proximity to the
border and potential for border disputes, while the issue of control in
Siamese
at all levels
mandarins, addressing the Nguyen vuong, described the situation in the
strongest terms:“The indifference,
selling titles
increasingly impoverished population. In
among officials, but was also intended to encourage people to stay on the land.
and profits丘om
of the river estuary leading to
and eighty Chinese
j旧业s arrived
eight C缸丑e the following
and only
The Nguyen response to this drop in revenue was increased state interference in interior trade, undermining 明白白e upland communities that had previously year.
relations
been
relative与harmonious.
half the
and an
By
around the late 1760s ethnic minorities were contributing
Nguyen tax revenues (apart from those payable
Popular
resentment was fanned by
expanded tax system.
could cite the
official
for land).
corruption, problems in rice distribution,
When a major political crisis occurred in
occurrence of various natural
phenomena such
1765, the populace
as earthquakes, landslides,
and floods as portents of supernatural anger. One measure of peasant distress was the recrudescence of new cults and spirit mediums, and the rising popularity shooting stars,
such as the Princess Lieu
some missionaries
had managed
Hanh. Although
Christianity
the
。因cially proscribed,
to tap their
provided astronomy, or weapon-making. Catholicism also population desperate, and with a growing number of baptisms the Christian
a
have risen to ten to fi丘een thousand.
1972), 51
Cited in
was
remain because the Nguyen wanted
to
knowledge of medicine,
Was estimated to
206-7
by
bloated and poorly paid bureaucracy. As a result,。伍cials
used白白positions to extract
was composed of five military and
administrators.
situation
on those仕om whom funds could be exacted. The Nguyen resorted to
fell
refuge for
five civil
To compensate,出e Nguy en issued
worsened the
burden
of deities
so
of zinc, but this actually
Tax collection was always difficult in a highly mobile population, but now a greater
Boards or Departments, did not fundamentally reshape the nature of southern government. Unlike China, examinations to select new officials were not held regularly, and Dang Trong continued to be governed by the Nguyen vuong and his council, which
six
overcome deep-seated administrative
revenue instab山ty meant government income declined and in由e
tendencies.
least four hundred
administrative system in place of the m诅itary-style government that had characterizea the regime during the years of w缸fare. Yet changes that o阳1sibly resembled the si叩n in
As
suf且cient to
shortage of small coinage led to a moneta巧crisis.
Hoi An. In the late
in the south continued. From
1744 the Nguyen lord followed the Trinh in adopting the more elevated
chua
1720s a
was not
syncretic culture, this
distinctive
of the
ruler
this level
corvee labor were a constant reminder that they were a conquered people.
(king) rather than
Though some historians have detected a growing sense of a southern identi可and a
problems.
Delta, a
REGIMES, 169os-178os
Nguyen Khac Vien, Vietnam,
99.
,
'
277
278
i也A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
NEW BOUNDARIES AND CHANGING Though
less
REGIMES, 169os-178os
impressive than in earlier times, the Nguyen army did not readily interrupted by the rainy season, the battles with Tay Son forces
capitulate. Periodically
persisted for
another ten years. Virtually the entire Nguyen family was massacred in
1777 a丘er由e capture of their capital, but a surviving prince
(1762-1820) declared himself to be the
new N伊yen ruler,
named Nguyen Phuc Anh
ready to continue the struggle,
and with the help of loyal forces was able to retake Saigon the following year. Meanwhile, the eldest Tay Son brother claimed the title Emperor Thai Duc and established his capital
Cham power. Fighting between N事1yen now focused on the Saigon area, but when the town was finally captured by the Tay Son in 1783, N凯1yen Anh was forced to flee. Escaping capture, he eventually made his way to Siam, where he was given refuge in the newly in
Vijaya in central
and Tay Son suppo时ers was
armies
Figure 6.3. Bahnar tomb house. The Bahnar, neighbors of the Jarai, are
found
in Vietnam’s central highlands. As suppliers of forest
products, they maintained close relations with the Cham and Vietnamese. Their villages were distinguished by great communal houses with sloping roofs, and by funeral houses decorated with
various figures, often syt丑bolizing fert且ity or squatting like mourners. P. Cupet,“Chez les populations sauvages du sud de l' Annam,'’Tour du Monde 12-16, Paris, 1893: 220. Courtesy of John M. Echols
ν
Collection on Southeast Asia of Cornell University Library.
By the 1770s there was thus rising dissatisfaction in both the Trinh and Nguyen domains, but Dai
Viet’s greatest
and most long-lasting uprising erupted first in the southern realm of
Vietnam, once a center of
established
Chakri court
at
Bangkok. As the next chapter
will demonstrate, his survival and the French sponsorship he found in Bangkok laid the foundations for a new chapter in
Vietnamese history.
她叫川 In
mainland Southeast Asia the period between the 1690s and 1780s, which saw the
Ava, the conquest of Ayutthaya,
and the outbreak of a major
nomic change with period of
its
economic
concomitant repercussions played a
stress,
undermine apparently established polities and lead to the emergence of a charismatic with the promises of a return to a golden era of peace and prosperity. Even in stable
times these large polities
still
operated as mandala that included numerous domains
In 1771 a regent’s usurpation of power and popular resentment at increased payments precipitated a rebellion led by three brothers from the small village of Tay Son, which gave its name to the uprising. The Tay Son claim of promoting greater social equality
persuasion to outright warfare
and
standing. Yet the rapid
among
the poor gave
and attracted a following from a wide
ethnic dwellers, lowland peasants,
it
and a reputation as “virtuous upland including
social spectrum, 52
of his trading
Cham, and ethnic Chinese. Because Tay Son brother had close connections with various highland groups, with including the Bahnar, and reputedly took a Bahnar woman as a wife. An alliance Chinese raiders who had carved out their enabled own domain in the South China Sea also the Tay Son to assemble a signi且cant naval force. activities the eldest
由e center
Cited in Georg二 Dutton, The Tay Sσn〔伊ri (Honolulu: Umversity of Hawai‘i Press, 2006), 3
own
entourage of vassals. Strategies ranging仕om
were necessary to maintain o丘en tenuous linkages between and outlying areas where a sense of identity and independence was long- recovery and consolidation of royal au出ority in
Myanmar under
Konbaung dynasty and in Siam under Taksin could not have occurred simply through of arms or even strategic alliances. Despite由e con出uing strength of local loyalties, the resurgence of these powerful kingdoms suggests由at in the major river the
the force
valleys
of mainland Southeast Asia identification with a larger entity based
on由e culture,
and language of the dominant ethnic group was beginning to take root. In foreshadowing the shape of future states on the mainland, Europeans had already begun to publish regional atlases that included territorial boundaries between what they saw as religion,
separate countries. 52
role in this development, as a
leader
tax
policy of distributing goods
Viet,
natural disaster, wars, and political upheaval could easily
Dang Trong.
its
Dai
of
reminds us of the potential仕ag过ity of regimes that seemed strongly entrenched. Eco-
governed by local lords with their
charitable thieves"
rebellion in
fall
independent Ngoai],
Malay
In 1760 a Dutch
map
clearly divided A严1tthaya’s territories企om the
and outlined the borders of Ava, Pegu, Cochin China (Dang Trong], and Champa. polities,
Laos, Tonkin
[Dang
? ・・-
279
280
:?,
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
Apart from Spanish-produced of later developments are absent
ASIA, 1400-1830 Philippines, such cartographic projections
maps of the
from the island world. As we have noted
in the previous
continued to be weak because geographic fragmentation
chapter, centralizing trends
uplands of encouraged the maintenance of small polities which, like those in the
the
own identity. Throughout the region出e among these smaller communities depended
mainland, maintained a strong sense of their creation of e的ctive unities
and federations
social ties. In the island areas, however, the
on the maintenance of economic, cultural, and escalating effects of
European penetration dramatically influenced the nature
of these
and collaborative relationships. Dutch willingness to support local contenders strategies by for power with force of arms仕eed many local lords from using traditional which ties with allies and client states were negotiated. This distortion of political and
interactive
cultural patterns, often triggered
by economic
persons of prowess directed primarily at the
Such
rebellions,
Madura wrote to
a potential rebel in 1767,“I ...
results.
As
a prince of
have personally experienced what happened
you should
of resistance] will surely be destructive.”53 it is
local rulers they supported.
and destitution were almost invariable
when my father opposed the Company sources
Dutch and the
behind which lay an accumulation of resentment, were not undertaken
lightly, for death, flight,
[
factors, contributed to rebellions led by
deliberate carefully
Although these
conflicts
... the
loom
outcome
large in the
important to stress that even in the Spanish Philippines the reach of
the
colonial administration was always limited. Elsewhere in the island world direct European
authority was confined to a relatively small effort to
centers, and any
es extend beyond these enclaves was constrained by inadequate resources,
geographical
environment,
and the sheer complexity of indigenous
relationships.
53
number of ports and urban
Cited in Margana,“Java’s Last Frontier,”89.
the
interpolity
Early
modern
TIMELINE Early
Southeast Asia: the last phase, 178os-183os
modern Southeast Asia: the
last
phase, 1780s…1830s
Anti-VOC rebellion
Eastern Archipelago
in
Increased llanun raiding throughout the archipelago British victory in
the Fourth Angl。一Dutch war opens the seas to
free trade
Nuku
leads rebellion in the Eastern Archipelago
Chakri dynasty established
Bangkok
in
Tay Son capture Saigon Figure 7 .1. Ilanun wamor. In this sketch made from life an Ilanun warrior
Ava conquers Rakhine Onset of Siam-Ava wars
carries a kampilan (scimitar-like sword)
decorated with human hair, and is wearing a rattan skull cap to protect his head. He the is also holding a lance, point of which would have been manufactured by a
European or Chinese
him from attack by
letting of warfare, b川it mea卢that the bleeding
from a wound would be
less
an enemy. From
assumed by Dutch Republic
Nguyen dynasty established, country renamed Vietnam
British
also
Frank Mar町at, Borneo
affairs
Padri
War
Cambodia accepts Vietnamese
bladed weapons. These red, vests were often dyed symbolic of the blood-
visible to
its
Wahabi capture Mecca;
ironmongery. He wears a vest stuffed with kapok to orotect
Collapse of VOC;
in
central
Sumatra
”protection”
take control of various Dutch possessions
in island
Southeast Asia Galleon trade
in
Spanish Philippines ends; eruption of Mount
.
ana
w!th the India川rchipelago:
Drawings of Costume ana
Longman, Scenery (London: and Brown, Green
Longmans, 1848), 207. Image courtesy of James Warren.
Anti-Dutch rebellion
in
Ambon
-
British establish
Cham
Singapore as a free port
rebellion leads to tighter Vietnamese restrictions
Anglo甲Dutch Treaty divides Malay world into spheres First
British
Anglo-Burmese War; defeat of Myanmar and
Treaty of
Yandabo
and Dutch
signing of
284电,S
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST Java
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
War against the
Dutch, led by Javanese prince Dipanagara
Th
归此of the
ei
witnessed significant
Unofficial British recognition of Siamese control over northern
terize the closing
shif汪S
in local
and global power relationships由at charac-
phase of the early modern period
Malay States
mainland, Siam, Myanmar, and a newly unified Vietnam
Lao rebellion against Bangkok
a
Dutch introduce the Cultivation System (forced
deliveries)
in Java
ASIA, 178os-183os
tr叶ect。可of administrative
and
all
On
in Southeast Asia.
the
seemed on course to maintain
cultural consolidation.
By
the 1830s, however, the
balance of power was already weighted in favor of advancing European economic inter- British maritime ests, notably those of Britain. The Dutch had been steadily overtaken by superiority in
technology, cartography, and shipbuilding, and the Fourth Anglo一Dutch
War (1780-4) brought to an end the waters.
by the forces
On
December 1799 the
affairs
trade in Malay-Indonesian
monopoly of
of the
now
bankrupt Company were assumed
new Batavian Republic, formed after the invasion of the Netherlands by Napoleonic able to in 1795. Although the Netherlands was no longer a global power, it was
maintain 1824,
31
VOC
its
of position in the Indonesian archipelago through the Anglo-Dutch Treaty
by which
Britain’s
its
territorial stake in Southeast Asia
was acknowledged.
maritime dominance in Asia was confirmed by
control in India
and the establishment of the new丘ee
its
expanding
trade po口s of
Penang (1786) and
Singapore (1819). In 1826, following their victory in the且rst of three
Wars, the British also forced concessions.
ment
in
The
British
saw
Myanmar
their
to
make
Vietnam was fueled by missionary and
Anglo-Burmese
significant territorial
prim町European
rival as
territorial
and moneta可
the French, whose
involve-
nationalist ambitions由at envisioned
Southeast more active involvement in Asia, especially in China. Although the mainland withstand Asian states continued to send tribute to China, the Qing dynasty’s inability to that future bleak unrelenting European pressure was already evident. The poverty and numbers of confronted so many Chinese peasants was reflected in the ever-growing lives. their migrants who flocked to Southeast Asia carrying hopes of improving
new movement由at regarded many
Developments in the Middle East also cast a long shadow, for
Muhammad Abdul Wahab (1703-92), practices common in the Islamic world, such as
leader,
led a
in
Saudi Arabia a
unacceptable accre- saint veneration, as
of holy tombs shocked captured Mecca in 1803, the destruction attract adherents. Southeast Asian Muslims、but the call for a return to a p旧er faith did th川ad b?en Stemming from the hear?lands 。门slam itself, attacks on the 1叫zation 肌旧rm into such a hallmark of Southeast Asian Muslim l出injected a new tension that concernea questions about the extent of acceptable religious adaptation, questions
tions.
When the Wahabi
followers of other
world faiths as well. in the world-wide book has argued, Southeast Asia was deeply implicated 叫nent of pe帆commodities, ideas, and technologies tha aracteri中e :::?y As
this
modern period. Perhaps, however,
it
was the environment由at
s yielded the most impre
川叫叫on of阳global connecti
n the island of Sumbawa, reputably the greatest in 92,ooo people. In the
human experience’.
surrounding islands tsunamis, ash
..
a……
!--叫,m负l
crop incmerauuu, _
fallout,
285
286 I说A
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
death,
and famine
cost the lives of
many thousands more. But the
effects
were
felt
world-
wide and brought dramatic changes in global climates. In India the regular monsoon pattern was disrupted, with long periods of drought followed by heavy rains and flooding. In China and Japan winters were unusually severe and the
summer
extraordinarily hot,
while eastern America and Europe experienced extreme cold with consequent crop
and food riots. Inspired by a sunless “year without a summer,'’Lord Byron’s apocalyptic poem“Darkness" speaks of a world engulfed in war, burned palaces, over-
failures
Various
In
phrai to
178os-183os拽287
measures were instituted to strengthen authori可over these populations, par-
newly acquired or outlying areas, or in places regained
ticularly in tion.
ASIA,
after
enemy occupa-
Siam the Chakri kings continued the practice promoted by Taksin of requiring be identified
by
tattoos
permanently marked. This
on
form of
their
hands or wrist so
that their status
would be
identification, obviously well suited to marshal
men
war and to organize tax pa严nents, could also be quite complex, indicating whether
for
was exempt or assigned to pa口icular
an individual
Myanmar population
duties,
such as cu忧ing grass for
counts were an important factor
in tightening central
and starving and dying populations. In Sumbawa the eruption was popularly interpreted as divine punishment for the ruler’s godless behavior and thus a warning for future generations. For the composer of a Malay syair (narrative
elephants.
poem), the immediate devastation was also a reminder that trade was the lifeblood oflocal society, for without the rice and foodstuffs brought by foreign ships the survivors would
now included boys from the age of nine rather than eighteen as had previously been the
turned kings, devastated
cities,
have died of starvation.
In
over the workforce,
control
Furthermore, while tax
necessa巧to order
Increased centralization on the mainland
of a
priorities
first
periodically
evaluated. Indeed,
mainland and island Southeast Asia have resulted in a historiography that o丘en appears to be dealing with two unconnected regions. Studies of island Southeast Asia have been more
neighbors.“The
By
the ways in which local societies responded.
contrast, in
focus has been on powerful dynasties and the administrative
mainland Southeast Asia
and
the
cultural integration that
laid the basis for the evolution of later nation-states. Narratives are largely structured
around the careers of
a handful of
prominent
ments and comparisons of the extent
to
leaders, almost always male, with assess-
which
their actions
(
especially in dealing with
Europeans) helped or hindered the state-building process. While the divergence between
mainland and island Southeast Asia in the early modern era it
does
reflect the significant differences that
to the intrusive presence of the
When we compare it is
all
is
partially historiographical,
came about during this
Europeans in the
period, due primarily
islands.
developments across mainland Southeast Asia during由is
evident that the organization and expansion of resources
the core areas一the watershed of the Irrawaddy in
Siam, and the Red and
Mekong
Rivers in
and expanding food production. In especially in the fertile lowlands,
Myanmar,
Vietnam一there
grasslands, extension of wet-rice agriculture,
is still
is
time,
a shared concern. In
the
Chao Phraya
clearance of forests
in
and
publicly burnt, the
lists
efforts to regulate
Tay Son soon found
the
Vietnamese
officials
registers
were restored and
considered出is careful surveillance
them仕om
their
“less
civilized"
Khmer
one memorial,“but up until now its and and adult males have wandered about and have not been registered
Cambodia
territ。可is broad,'’noted
controlled.”I
Assertion of royal significant
autho向over
religion
step in the centralization process.
another and the application of law was
Konbaung kings actively intervened to ensure
precepts of adequately supe凹ised and that由e of a Buddhist teaching were maintained. Royal sponsorship resulted in the production norms, especially large corpus of Buddhist texts and a renewed promotion of Buddhist Bud- among upland communities. The Konbaung’s Chakri counterparts also convened monks should reach dhist councils, commissioned copies of the Tipitika, and insisted由at Nonetheless, although high standards and be tested through rigorous examinations. the削itions of locali川on w已re debates re伊rding“correct" practices c叫d be intense, instance, notwithstandmg generally sufficiently strong to reach some accommodation. For
出at the
his
religious training
goal of reforming由e
of
monks was
sangha, the Burmese ruler Bodawpaya
(r.
1782-1819) eventually
agreed th
The
style
of monks' robes
worn should not be a matter of concern,
for气he
dhamma is
development or repair of irrigation systems,
turn, this led to a natural increase in population,
which was augmented by internal migration,
of war captives and, in the urban centers,
new
arrivals
tA
relocation
from abroad,。丘en
Chines巳-
it
when the exiled N部1yen Anh became the of his imperial name Gia Long (r. 1802-20), one
population a prime feature distinguishing
soldiers
made
to be constructed if由ey were to maintain
was to ensure that land and population
of the
also
Tay Son regime
surprisingly, in 1802
new dynasty with
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries the di旺ering historical experiences of
concerned with the increasingly intrusive and well-documented European presence and
documents were
Not
to indicate service
establishing registration offices and issuing identity cards.
revenue and corvee
administration. ruler
first
by
outside the时llage
was used
registration, but the
Though probably not widely enforced, the Tay Son
case.
their
ta忱。oing
Vietnam had a long tradition of village
obligations.
travel
- Noteworthy features of the period
and occasionally
I??:出::ti?:::?:?::吭’::;:τ;'.';.?:{1??;;n?:e?;江;11:?;?::??:. \..Ouncil on East Asian Studies, 1988, reprint of 1971 edition), 145.
r
MODERN SOUTHEAST
288‘击A HISTORY OF EARLY
concerned with the clothes one wears. The
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
dhamma
is
only concerned with the
practice.
Let them wear what they want."2
for
Similar patterns are evident in
nom
an“anti-feudal”
leaders looked to classically trained literati for advice, while their
movement, Tay Son interest in
Vietnam. Though often lauded as
promoting education and popularizing Confucian
classics
through vernacular
translations reflects a recognition of the merits of a system dedicated to the
maintenance of the
social order.
The
first
Nguyen
ruler,
Gia Long, attempted
to restore
Confucian ethics as the basis of government by prohibiting certain practices deemed “unorthodox,'’particularly targeting Buddhist, Daoist, and Christian ritual, which he
But
despite limitations on
festivals, localized
Mahayana Buddhism
believed encouraged u叫ustified beliefs in magical protection. the building of pagodas
and the celebration of
(intermixed with Theravada practices in the southern areas) continued to thrive, especially popular to reassert
among court women. Minh Mang (r. 1820-41) was far more concerned to promote Confu-
Confucian ethics as the basis for state administration, and
cian ideals in terms of family organization Christianity
and was
and gender
hierarchies. Yet his host山句to
and bans on the construction of new churches did not
persecution of Christians until the 1830s,
escalate into direct
when missionaries were accused of involvement
in political unrest.
expanding trade, vibrant domestic markets, and closer surveillance of tax allowed for the maintenance of an
and
social relationships of the
elite lifestyle in
which the
dominant ethnic group established desirable norms women, members of the royal family, and o丘en rulers
for the
society at large. Courtiers, educated
themselves contributed to the cultural vitality of the age, music, and sponsoring the creation of performance
composing
and dance. Above
literary works and
all,
the royal centers even
were distinguished by their great palaces and magnificent temples, which amazed Europeans familiar with the glories of India. In 1795 Captain Michael Symes (c.
1753-1809), sent by the English East India
capital,
spoke of the
Company
as an envoy to the Burmese
and splendor" of the monaste町where the head of the sangha to it cannot fail most magnificent of its kind in the universe
“size
resided,“perhaps the
.
.
.
impress a stranger."3
There
is,
regulations,
Although codified laws, standardized currencies in each of the three major mainland kingdoms
of course, another side to the picture.
and
to阳and labor obligations was especially marked
common
momentum
communities
model Chin
take
reluctant to
found their origin
the
as
clothing, beliefs,
Vietnamese,
Myanmar,
wives because the as
disfiguring,
lesser place
for instance,
by the elevation
Burmese men were
facial tattoos central to the status of
and even those Karen who adopted as
monks. In Vietnam,
rebellions o丘en like the
determined to inculcate values deemed morally
superior,
court,
requiring non-Viet communities to abandon
and language. But these norms could
such as
figures attributed
Such movements o丘en gained
Ho Xuan Huong
their traditional lifes可le,
also be questioned
(1772-1822 ), whose
load of
stones/Why devote so
despite
much
pain for so
little
by educated
witty but irreverent
poet叩on topics ranging from sexual relationships to the religious
Finally, of
social equilibrium.
denied ordination
Vietnam’s great literary
of
the Lao in the northeast and
in the marginalization experienced by minority groups
Nguyen
renewed efforts
acerbic
demands
rigorous
exceeded acceptable bounds an
they had been relegated to a
felt
girls as
Buddhism were allegedly
Cham
among
When demands
as superior. In
women were regarded
adult
more
and o丘en
life“as
heavy
favor?”established her as one
a驴ues.4
undoubted moves towards
greater centralization, the mandala heritage
independence and nominal allegiance to an overlord was not easily cast aside. could be issued from some center, but ensuring that edicts were actually imple-
regional
Orders
mented in outlying areas seasonal
limitations
on
was extremely
travel.
nominal. Provincial lords
best
In
and di伍cult because of geographical distance,
many cases acknowledgement of royal
and
in solemn tributary kings might a而rm their loyalty
and send their daughters in marriage, but in their
rituals
the capital,
authority was at
own domains, far removed from
they could effectively operate as independent polities.
The
traditional auton-
was sufficiently (Ligor) in southern Siam, for instance, great for of A yu忧haya in its governor to declare himself king a丘er the destruction was not a 1767, and in the early nineteenth century some European visitors assumed it 1763一1832) province but an independent vassal of Bangkok. In Vietnam, Le Van Duyet (c. omy of
Nakhon
Si
Thammarat
叫 m_ilit
Dinh after Vietnam's reunification、he charted his
own course in determining
policie s
,
especi
Cited in Jacques P. Leider,“ArafifiavasT and GamavasT Forms of Buddhist Monasticism in Myanmar,”in Mentalities, Interpretations
3
if
one cultural
of
and
powers to restore justice
with
prestige,
was created that favored the emergence of millenarian
environment
Gia
2
minority groups in the north.
upland
collection
clothing, language, religion,
and enhanced royal power and
and labor could represent a heavy burden on the populace. In Siam, resistance
tribute
as a
Across the mainland the increased revenue that flowed to royal centers through
center
strengthened the
178os-183os气289
ASIA,
and
Practices,
Monks: Towards Further Study of Variant Asia: Buddhist Legacies in Mainland Southeast Chalemermpow edited by Franc;:ois Lagirarde and Paritta
Koanantakool (Paris: Ecole Fran伊ise d’Extreme-Orient; Bangkok: Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre, 2006), 124. Michael Symes, An Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava in the Year 1795 (Edinburgh. Constable and Co, 1827), vol.
I:
139.
~川 he1r
populations
4:叫山i The
by targeting more vulnerable
Nguyen The t叫ρuddhism H叫d Phil叫h?,20毗241. }
in
minorities.
Viet仰i
(Sar
As
a Tai saying has
it,
ti川eseard ntonia, TX: Council
巧0
6 A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫30
EARLY MODERN SOUTHFA凭 U HiEAST ASIA,圳os-183os ,.L 伐
“Put vegetables into baskets
and kha (non-Tai upland peoples) into muang.”5 Whole could be wiped out as the inhabitants were killed or carried off as slaves, and as survivors who fled to由e forests died of malaria and dysentery. In出is last phase of the
Malay-Indonesian archipelago the Dutch used a combination of armed
In由e
villages
modern period the process of “centralization" was slowly moving ahead, but by no means unchallenged or even inevitable. early
it
a们创es
persuasion,
was
'.xpanded, Spanish ale他-
mayores, though ch吨ed with ir咐menting Man削instruc-
tlons, could preside er semi-autonomous fiefdoms. The prima叩(although frequently tenuous) links between Manila and the countryside where the bulk of the people lived depended on the friars, who acted as agents of the Crown as well as the Church, but whose effectiveness t:ness was constrained by their small numbers. Furthermore、clerical lines of
communication often broke down because C叫eration between the the 。rders,叫the Church hierarchy was
independent, but were nevertheless responsive to their Dutch “lord" Solemn ceremomes were held in which chiefs and sultans reiterated
Batavia.
in
?,斗
had
al
among Filipinos themselves. :叫he time of the Span灿…l the eth比com向阳ven wi灿small islands had Deen igno时by subs飞ming 1叩istically
ch
and咄u吨r differentiated groups u毗labels
as“Tagal二g,”“V叫an,'’“Bicol,”or“Ilocano."
specific Catholic orders
between the different
The p削
tended to highlight boundaries of jurisdiction because
to the sea,
la
townships were separated by mountains and headlands that reached down sea voyages were hazardous when rough weather prevailed during the
and even
southwest monsoon.
taken until
Peninsula,
Su 1l
In
central
dyna阳or
collapse in
individuals were acknowledged as overlords beyond a
was
said,
and
one could
travel for a
irrigated rice fields
pa时of the
hundred miles without
had expanded
into areas由at
s阳the growth 向opulation, the movement towards political consoli- Agung in the early seventeenth century had been per n-
began under Sultan
by the intrusion of the Dutch.
halted
(ruled directly
un?er vass仙rds
m
yo盯akarta
:;;;:;:2:?:?・-I-?-
Ill司ny
prince or
J创ors
in
・
the north coast and the eastern
mιm
independent, there was no pronounced move towards internal
ofi且cial
from developing a base of people and territory仕om which t 0
yogyakar
the
Weaker than
officials);
answerable川e Dutch); and仙川rulers川ant川 and Su附rta m t 1 J Altho ugh the central Javanese
yet geographical distance
Although like
by VOC
divided between Batavia
C则guous and cou
f
ch a challe r1 c::nge, dmin・
By the 1780s Java was
Yo阴阳the仰nages granted t?由e sultan's rela
prever川1
vuυmy.
it
an uncultivated spot,
Bu
and
d叩灿g
in the latter
叫Hangan region
h en
VOC
Dutch operations, and
which most resembles the mainland, the twin processes and population growth are pa口icularly evident
and the Pri:in
)』va,
as the nerve center of
The
a:i genera
that
(
interests.
Southeast Asia continued to operate as a poly-centered environ-
century. Here,
encountering
ient
VOC
!ava,
production
g?rs.
to threaten
key role
area.
eighteenth
ti
power
Batavia’s
Malay
so that island
「e川ere no Jfllited
::↑:??ns,
Vege毗s into Baskets and People into Towns," in Luc川
resources, such as
towards extending territorial control in the archipelago were not under- after 1830. As yet the British had no thought of direct control over the
we do encount
rulers
and poor land communication allowed local keen to exert
direct control over their
s阳of Palem::ng咄o in 1792 ini」:…Y削iste
二、mce obligation s,
???:,nJ?:i:? ??::?:!?e「i吨“Put
human
efforts
rivalries
us communities encouraged a jealous oversight of “their" people and fed petty animosities that limited co-operation. Despite the optimistic appear- of Spanish maps, interactio impeded by geographic distance and the isolation of set阳nts.归山e island of Sam矶岛r example,
ι』cause coastal
serious
food
ended
temporarily
li99
kmgdoms wer essentially ~,were
relig"
r灿1
individual rulers
gaining sufficient
归Ii守from
ently
accentuated and reshaped differences
should they or their descendants prove unfaithful. Outside the and Spanish control there were certainly cases where
w「h
datJon
many respec队despite Chri阳
Philippines
Q的na附wea鸣叫叫剖threatened
expand both economic connections and
附re able to
::n
continuously disrupted by quarrels over
questions relatmg to jurisdiction.
their
the
retribution
VOC
of
areas
less出an
S二cu
force、
n伽ork们仙e山s and vassal削es whic卢
loose
;呐川eVOC, u叫阳ed items like
and mainland Southeast Asia
In the archipelago, echoes of centralizing tendencies like those in the mainland are most obvious in the Spanish-dominated northern and central Philippines although, as we have noted, appearances could be deceptive. From Madrid’s perspective, the Governor of the Philippines wielded great power as the representative of the Spanish king and飞rice-patron of the Roman Catholic Church, but in practice his influence was limited because civil authority did not reach far beyond Manila and the major towns. In Manila itself the Governor confronted an o丘en hostile bureaucracy. As the number of provinces
er毗a
remained essentially
upernatural
Contrasts and similarities between island
to
any trends toward greater administrative
ages
centralization were
on the mainland.
NY: Cornell Univer叩out?:?:: 飞;;可;立2;二:??:;::;二:;;t;rp仇Dipana伊m
and
the
End
of an Old
Or们Java,
291
292
・
(?.
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
Notwithstanding these differences between island and mainland Southeast
Asia,
it is
possible to track regional similarities, for the island areas also experienced increasing monetization and the growth of export industries, although these were largely underwrit- ten by European interests. Changing land use, such as the introduction of cash crops and the expansion of rice growing, is similarly evident, but on
VOC
demand
the
for slaves.
This
demand showed no
maintaining fortresses like that at
from Sulu and Borneo were st山able
Raiders
effect.
Zamboanga as well
the peasant巧・
commerce, forced rice fields to be abandoned,
revenue did flow to the courts and, as in the mainland, the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries are characterized by flourishing literary and artistic activity.
In island Southeast Asia the refinement of Javanese court culture has received greatest attention, but important developments also occurred in other areas. In the Philippines a long Tagalog poetic version of the Pasyon, the life of Christ, composed in 1814, drew connections between Filipino experiences under the Spanish and those of Christ and his
followers under
Roman
tion, duplication,
The advent of lithographic printing stimulated the publica- and circulation of Malay books all over the archipelago dealing with
topics that could range
rule.
from personal experiences to entertaining poems and moral
treatises.
contentious in areas in close contact with the Islamic heartlands. However, reformists were usually less concerned with theological issues than with the enforcement of approved clothing, correct
male-female
relations,
and the prohibition of “unlslamic”practices
such
gambling and cock』ghting. The challenge of European penetration could sometimes
forge
Muslim
but the variant ways in which “being Muslim" was manifested in ordinary lives continued to reflect the archipelago’s ethnic and linguistic diversity. A时erance for localization thus allowed for the mysticism assoc附d古th the Java飞rane alliances,
leader Dipanagara,
who was
not affected by叭T ahabi reforms.
evident in the Islamizing areas of eastern Sulawesi, polities
could maintain both a
taken in head-hunting raids.
mosque and
On
The same
tolerance was
where one of the most
Islamized
a traditional structure for keeping
throughout Southeast Asia the relegation of animist伊peoples to the bottom of the
hierarchy was gathering pace. praised Orang Laut boatmen
On
skulls
the other hand, this should not hide the fact出at cultural
Ujung Salang (Phuket) a Malay poem and skill in attempting to repel a Burmese
the island of
for their courage
For the renowned writer Munsyi Abdullah ( 1796一1854), however, the Orang Laut were little better than animals, while the forest-dwelling Orang Asli had no religion and ate food that could not be countenanced attack.
One
in Islam. factor clearly distinguishes island Southeast Asia
during the late eighteenth
century一the upsurge of maritime raiding. Although banditry and “lawless" behavior on land and sea can be tracked throughout regional history, especially in times of rising
poverty, the seventeenth century
had witnessed a marked increase in raiding because
of
to travel north to
Luzon and the Bicol
Apart from the capture of thousands of people, the
and
raids
undermined
led to the depopulation of
numerous
settlements.
coastal
Raiding in the
Malay-Indonesian archipelago
also increased,
due to a combination of
between rulers and sea people, independent marauding by princes“seeking fortune,”and above all by the influx of fleets from the Sulu sultanate in search of
weakening
ties
and booty. Every year from the 1790s Sulu raiders surged out into the archipelago, and because the most notorious were the Iranun/Ilanun from Magindanao, the northwest slaves
monsoon came to be called the “Ilanun season" (musim Lanun) (see Fi思ire chapter).
The Sulu
have been
attacks, so different in scale
and
VOC
and
treaties typically
repatriate their tions in
and
most studied, but other groups were
Archipelago the capture
Mirroring patterns on the mainland, the question of the degree to which religion could be localized was also a matter of debate, and among Muslims this debate was most
as
on their return trip.
their
and expeditions had little
as patrols
impunity, attacking the isolated coasts of Leyte and Samar in the Visayas
Peninsula with
much
sign of abating, and in the Philippines,
where Muslim raiding reached unprecedented heights by the 1750s, large expenditures on
Java at least demands for quotas of forest products and agricultural products placed a particularly heavy burden on
Yet
ASIA, 1780s一1830s
from Orang Laut
raiding,
also heavily involved. In the Eastern
ransom of slaves by Papuan
included clauses requiring
rajas of
fleets
was long-standing,
western
New
Guinea to
popula- captives. In the late eighteenth century slave-raiding of vulnerable
Archipelago acquired greater importance
the Eastern
because of declining 由at colonial
sale or
intensity
7.1 at start of
profits仕om the spice trade.
powers and local
driven practice that
allies
benefitted
were able
some
to
It
was not
as a source of revenue
until the nineteenth centu可
move effectively against an
economically
participants but had ruined the lives of untold
numbers of others.
Demarcating political by
and
cultural boundaries
and heightened competition for control over land combined to challenge the mandala concept由at
In the
period covered
people
and aggressive European activity
this chapter,
From the time of their arrival the Dutch had been preoccupied with determining the boundaries of their own domains and those of when used to divide their allies, but European-style cartography was highly inappropriate had been the cornerstone of interpolity relations.
communities long connected the
by
Sulawesi, for example, seas rather than land. In northern chiefs who with various coastal and island
Dutch signed treaties in 1677 and 1679
recognized the sidered to
as overlord. In so
be under their authority丘om
The obvious Sangir
VOC
anomaly
in these treaties
Dutch con- doing they distinguished areas the Spanish sphere. those regarded as located in出e
was the separation between
the “Dutch" islands of
and Talaud (adi
cu tions.
occum:u The most egregious example of由is disregard for traditional connectivities
293
294
l,'飞A
HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
in 1824,
when
the
Anglo-Dutch Treaty drew an arbitrary
line
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST through the
Straits of
Melaka, separating the Malay Peninsula from Sumatra by allocating the lands and above the line to a British “sphere of influence”and those below the line to
seas
the Dutch.
To some
extent the
European drive to stake
traditionally
Spanish, for such intrusion posed a fundamental challenge to the perceived unity of the mundo hispanico, the Spanish world. This imagined world is creatively depicted in an
engraving produced in Manila in 1761, which shows Hispania as a beautiful woman,
The
islands.
moved friars
is
Spain,
whose mantle
British attack of
to forestall
had made
is
the Americas,
and whose
feet are the Philippine
1762 was st山fresh in Spanish
memo巧and Manila now any further challenges. Over the previous hundred years Dominican
several unsuccessful effo口s to establish a
mission in the Batanes islands, the northernmost province of the Philippines. In 1783, however, these islands were formally annexed, with local leaders promised peace and prosperity in return for the accept…e of Christiani可and their agreement to“constitute with us the body们n nation."1 value,
its
sions.
As
with the
Though
the Batanes was seasonally ravaged by hurricanes and of no economic acquisition registered Spanish determination to legalize their territorial posses- a reward for his efforts, the governor-general title
“Conde de
la
Conquista de
las Islas
Batanes Islands).
was honored by the King of Spain
Batanes" ( Count of the Conquest of the
to identi马r fixed
central element in British relations with the border areas of Manipur
Myanmar
boundaries between飞tates”was
because of contested jurisdiction
a
and Assam. This is not to imply that Southeast Asians were and maritime boundaries that determined communal and usu- Forest dwellers and sea peoples, for instance, had clear ideas of the spaces in
fruct rights.
which they could仕eely roam, in some cases legitimized through the
legendary ancestor. Riv
between domai umams, reached
“the
sections of rivers
rl anct a sixteenth
end of Sunda" and
travels of
were commonly used to mark
some
a division
century poet from west Java thus describes how he
a丘er crossing a river, came “into the Javanese area."8 In ?i?ilar臼shion, during the seventeenth and for most of the eighteenth century the Li River acted as the boundary
between
Dai飞Tiet' s
a
southern and northern domains. More
however, territories merged into each other creating indeterminate frontiers borders stretching岛r ins :::e, υm one mountain pea』E to another, or across a range of hills. Control over land was typically,
we叫…时conceived…时lines
actively developed through
specific cultural
and Myanmar. Their
and receiving
gi丘s
and
titles
Mar川叫al Llorente, A阳ing of Cul
negotiated a
leaders adopted a Sinic
now
far less
accepting of previously tolerated arrangements, referred to border polities as“rats”whose
back and
heads swiveled tribute to
forth, as they“pretended" loyalty to the
Myanmar.9 Against
this
background,
Qing while rendering
not surprising that a preoccupation
it is
M出establishing boundaries - between villages, between religious and crown lands, between
Rakhine and adjoining Burmese domains -
is
particularly evident in
Bodawpaya maintained出at“any encroachment on
where
breadth,
is
virtually stealing."10 In
another’s land,
rebuking the Tay Son
Myanmar,
even for a hair’s
leaders, the first Chakri ruler
1782-1809) was also insistent on the need to be aware of where boundaries were located.“As to the assertion that you were not certain where the territorial border lay Rama
I (r.
and desired that
been the
In the
Bangkok dispatch an army
custom of all
vassal territories
to be stationed at the limits of the border,
it
states, large as well as small, to be aware of the limits of their
as well as their
common
territorial borders.”11
competitive climate that characterized interstate relations in the mainland,
European cartographic traditions did exercise
some
influence, but local
mapping was
more concerned with the locations of people of different ethnic origins,
famous or
memorable landmarks, trade or p且grimage routes. Demarcations of realms, using natural features such as mountains or rivers, were only indeterminate, but were nonetheless becoming a significant tool in statecra丘. In 1795 British envoys to
number of Burmese maps, including one that detailed China,
noting the days of travel
topographical picture
Burmese forces
of the
moved
Myanmar
collected a
the route丘om Amarapura
to
between each township, while another provided a As of Ava and the entire Irrawaddy watershed.
kingdom
into unfamiliar terrain,
documentary guides could be extremely
use刨and Bodawpaya himself noted that his armies would be equipped with maps, supplemented by the knowledge of local people. Seventeen Thai maps discovered in
Yunnan
China’s Patterson Giersch, Asian Borderlands: the Transformation of Qing (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Pre队2006), 119. Center for Than Tun, ed叮Royal 1598-1885. Part. 4: 1782-1787 (Kyoto: Orders of Burma, Frontier
0
onser飞ration Society, 1983), 7S.
?3?叫uyn叫Teeuw, ed. 叫肌TJ叩
skillfully
in return. Chinese of且cials,
Cited in C.
?::::r::a「;a
demanded
norms and were thus more
and acknowledged Qing suzerainty while sending envoys to Bangkok and the
Burmese capital
9
7
was
geographic bounds of allegiance. In the border areas of south-
relationship with China, Siam,
tripartite
se
polities.
Yunnan, for instance, the Tai polity of Sipsongpanna
western
resources and thus
challenge from powerful states that
and conformity with
concerned to identi命the
lifes可le
now under
were
human
domain. The defense of a “boundary”per
importance to Southeast Asian
unconditional allegiance
over
indifferent to territorial
of
little
Such relaxed attitudes
has
The European preoccupation
was
if it
became a significant part of a ruler’s
territorial claims in island Southeast Asia
was a response to the flur巧of map-making and charting by British sea captains. Their discovery of new routes to China that passed through the Philippines struck fear into the
whose head
but only
important,
ASIA, 178os-183os
1
AD
So毗a川sian St叫战Kyo卢Un如创町,1986), 121. Th峨山and Chadin Flood. trans. and eds叶The Dynastic Reign (Tokyo:
Centre for
E卢st
The First Chronicles of the Bangkok Era.
Asian Cultu;al Studies, 1978), 204-5.
・r.:-
J
295
296
i玲、A
山…ODE RN…HEAST ASIA, 1780叫30s毯巧7
HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
1996 dating from the early Bangkok period highlight areas that were of
strategic or
economic importance, giving particular attention to transport and navigation
routes and
to frontier areas, in places indicating that“the
one border
village
wished to be
allied
border terminates here."12
A notation that
with Vietnam or Cambodia suggests
that the
now more rigorously demanded and that the traditions whereby frontier communities had been able to paci命two or even three overlords was now coming to allegiances
were
an end.
The shrinking and increasingly measurable world in which Southeast Asians now operated the
is
nicely symbolized in the miniature globe that
Susuhunan of Surakarta
depiction of a
monarch
motif for European in face of reality
whom
or a
in 1815.
Stamford
Raffles presented to
the time of the early voyages to Asia the
famous navigator holding the world in
his
palm was a favored
but on the other side of the world such hubris largely dissipated
artists,
and the need
had been born
From
to
compromise with
in the Indies,
local cultures.
VOC officials, many of
adopted indigenous symbols of authority
among them. I have been received by them as
their families as far as the prejudices of religion
kindness and generosity
.
.
.
I
shall
a child
and domesticated, I may say in
would
allow, universally treated with
Ronggeng dancer. In
ronggeng dancers (who were also singers) were
professional
like the
umbrella and betel box and even the golden anklets worn by Malay royalty. Sometimes we encounter glimpses of very real friendships, such as those made by a young English country trader who wrote in 1786:“Those who say the Malays have no virtues have never lived
Figure 7.2. Java,
common
at all festive
During these performances the ron囚eng dancer invited
the
performance reinforced the of public dancing as an
complacence and pleasure."13 By the time he wrote, however, socializing with the natives was becoming less acceptable in European society, as exemplified in British attitudes to
stereo可pe
James S叫’another co则可trader,
dancers could earn a
invitation to sexual relations.
However, the income,
Malays.”14
By
From
contrast, Southeast Asians
acquired linguistic
remained appreciative of culturally adroit outsiders who
and could operate according to accepted norms, and they saw such people as potential sources of information and technological skills. In Myanmar, Bodawpaya even hired an English sa且or, '‘George,'’to teach English to four Burmese
Vietnamese army organized on the European model. Although indigenous practices could treat many illnesses, Europeans were also respected for their medical knowledge and its potential for dealing with epidemics and disease. Thus, while many Muslims were suspi- cious of the
new European methods of inoculation because it was thought to interfere with
the divine plan, the Sultan of 12
13
14
y ogyaka此a
supported
its
introduction into Java in 1804.
Santanee Phasuk and Philip Stott, eds叮Royal Siamese Maps: War and Trade in Nineteenth Century Thailand (Bangkok: Riverbooks, 2004), 15, 29. Cited in Anne Bulley, Free Mariner: John Adolphus Pope in the East Indies, 1786-1821 (London: British Association for Cemeteries in South Asia, 1992), 109_10_ , Anne Bulley, Free Mariner, 107.
most accomplished
considerable and might even marry well. T. S. Raffles,
I ・
The History of
?1..:3切切or衍吮卢?ct
(London, 1817. Reprint, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press,
Java
skills
pupils so they could operate as translators and interpreters. Gia Long employed French engineers to construct the citadel walls of Hue, and French training helped develop a
watching
men to dance with her in return for money or gifts. The erotic nature of
always think of the inhabitants of由is spot with
who was critici时for living“a vagrant life among the
and
occasions,
belonged to a travelling troupe of dancers and musicians usually
1978), vol.
Believing that
I,
累,.也蝇2、b也h峰’‘’组画,,,,n
?. ?函,良.J?占’慢骂命吧
342.
Western writings would provide access
to these
new forms
of knowledge,
Bodawpaya expressed interest in translating an entire British encyclopedia into Burmese. Other courts were willing to tolerate extraordinary adjustments in court protocol in order to
make foreigners
feel
Java in
1813, the
Raffles,
while Raffles
welcome.
When
Stamford
Susuhunan of Surakarta
Raffles
made an
official visit to central
country dance" with Lady Olivia
“led off a
himself“danced a few couple
[sic]
with the Empress [i.e.出e
Susuhunan’s wi创・”This was an extraordinary event, given由at well-born Javanese women did not dance in public (see Figure 7.2).15
European assertion of their action
and
elicited a critical
own
inter- superiority nonetheless affected cross-cultural
response from Southeast Asians. In 1832
IS?叫overnrner;刊侃侃,优din Jean Gelman Taylo口he ιurasians in
Social
a
Vietnamese
Wo仙f Batavia: Eu呻ans and
Colonial Indonesia (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984), lOS.
A HISTORY OF EARLY ambassador sent
MODERN SOUTHEAST
to Batavia
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400一1830
wrote about Dutch steamships and sawmills in glowing terms,
but concluded that Europeans would remain barbarians because of their indifference
to
and ignorance of Confucian teaching. Even in Siam, where a court poet spoke approvingly of“merchants from foreign countries" all speaking distinct languages,
social hierarchies
other members of the
elite
saw Europeans as“a dangerous people."16 In a Sumatran epic an
Acehnese prince, deploring the imminence of civil war, utters words “Later
on we
shall
have to
fight against the
Europeans
...
you will
filled
with foreboding:
live to see that later on
others will take possession of the country.”17 For
some perceptive Southeast Asians, like the
Javanese prince Dipanagara, the greatest peril
now posed was
indigenous cultural values and a weakening of moral east
fiber.
The
the potential erosion of
decisions
made by South-
Asian leaders as they confronted this more threatening environment were to
future of the region in
examine
in
more
ways that none could have ever envisaged.
建黑叫opments
We will now turn to
The VOC soon recaptured their post on Riau, but any economic recovery was retarded by protracted battles
between
rival
Chinese divided by culture and language. While laborers
gambier and pepper plantations were Cantonese speakers from Guangdong, traders
in the
附re
Hokkien speakers from Fujian.
after
the dissolution
administration.
Riau's
The Dutch allowed
Although connections with other Malay areas remained strong and
much respected, the imposition of Dutch tari他combined with the establishment of the new British settlement of Singapore in 1819 ensured that the once- were
Riau scholars
port
flourishing
of阳au never regained
vassals
its
former standing.
Siam was intent on regaining control over
Meanwhile, a resurgent
and
rulers
of these states
and then Rama
silver flowers,”as
well as for assistance in the wars against
In the late eighteenth century international rivalries in the
an unprecedented level
as the British
Western Archipelago reached
enforced仕ee trade in Asian seas a丘er their victory in
the Anglo-Dutch飞叮叮. Perceptions of
VOC weakness
revived
Malay hopes of retaking
Melaka, the iconic symbol of past greatness which successive European powers had held since 1511. In 1784, following a period of rising tensions and open conflict with the Dutch, Raja Haji, the Bugis-descended Raja
campaign that
Muda
of Johor-Riau, laid siege to Melaka
in a
The obvious candidate
Muslims elevated to a holy war. The capture of the town was only prevented by the arrival of a large Dutch squadron and Raja Haji's own death. In reply, the
VOC
successfully attacked the island of Riau.
claimed a Dutch vassal and Resentful
ofVOC
The Johor-Riau kingdom was now
Bugis except those local忖born were expelled. impositions, Johor-Riau's Sultan Mahmud (r. 1761-1812),
pro-
all
himself of mixed Malay-Bugis descent, renewed efforts to assert indigenous authority. He recruited the assistance of Ilanun raiders from the Sulu archipelago, who were now
making annual sweeps through the Straits up semi-permanent settlements along
booty and slaves, even setting isolated coasts. With their formidable numbers,
large well-armed boats,
the
16
Cited in Nidhi Eoseewong, Pen
Anderson, 7
and reputation
in search of both
as fierce fighters, the Sulu raiders quickly overcame
VOC garrison in Riau in 1787 but departed just as rapidly with their spoils. Fearful of
Vella,
G.
W.
eds.
and Sail:
Literature
and History in Early Bangkok, Chris Baker and Ben
(Chiang Mai: Silkworm books, 2005. Original version in Thai, 1982), 116; Walter
Siam under Rama J.
with Patani's
and tribute
III (Locust Valley,
Drewes, Hikajat Potjut
Muhamat
NY:
a powerfi.址and prestigious guardian had been
apparent by the fate of rebellious Patani, whose resistance to
quick and merciless punishment. In 1785
two sacred cannon.
from both
was soon evident,
to
it
Siam’s
was overrun by
Bangkok, together
When the Sultan of Kedah was pressed for levies of men
Myanmar and
Siam, he sought to avoid the
EIC
fate of Patani
by
in return for protection.
however, that the British were not willing to confront Siam and
primary concern was to resist competition仕om other European powers. In
l795, after
Napoleon’s invasion of the Netherlands, British troops occupied
VOC
other
demolition
among these
Melaka and
posts to prevent their falling into French hands. The subsequent
was an awesome statement of power and provided with convincing evidence of Britain’s dominance in the Straits. Foremost
of the great
Malay leaders
the
The value of
1786 to lease the offshore island of Penang to the
offering in
出at their
was the English East India
had been specifically advised “to conc过iate
and thousands of prisoners were transported back
Siamese forces
several
who was
and protectors."18
demands had resulted in a
It
for assistance
Malay
the
ally against
and affection of the natives and to teach them to look up to出e English as their
esteem
made painfully
local
Myanmar,
adopted the time-honored strategy of seeking a powerful
Siamese overlord.
台iends
former Malay
for increased tribute through the dispatch of the
I
Company (EIC), especially since British traders the
its
northern peninsula: Patani, Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu. Faced with
in the
"gold
出eir
The Western Archipelago
the Sultan to return in 1795, but
VOC four years later the Netherlands government took over
of the
demands from Taksin
and South
i
Sultan and his following le丘for the neighboring island of Lingga.
Dutch retribution, the
affect the
which these decisions were made.
detail the contexts in
ASIA, 178os-183os
Melaka
fort
Malay leaders was the Temeng伊ng, one of the leading traditional officials in kingdom, whose appanage included the Johor River in the southern
Johor-Riau
产叫a
as well as
町om control ?roducts
Singapore and surrounding islands. His r例nues can
over hundreds of Orang Laut, with
who alternated their seasonal collection of sea
iemenggung and one of阳ro claimants to the Johor一Riau throne reached an agreement
F. 18
J. J.
Au思1stin, 1957), 116.
(The Hague: N可hoff, 1979), 63
Cited in Arnold Wright and Thomas H. Reid, The Malay Pe川,zsula: a Record of British Progress Mi仙East (Lo附比Sc巾
in the
';..
299
30。这电A
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
with Stamford Raffles由at allowed the EIC to establish a post on the island of Singapore.
Within three years
had already attracted a cosmopolitan population, including a large number of Chinese migrants, and was annually clearing about a hundred European ships it
and another thousand or so from Asia,
myriads of native boats. Nonetheless, though the EIC relied on legal contracts rather than force, the Temenggong found that any talk of
as well as
power-sharing was a chimera. Clearly unwilling to relinquish their new-found
control, the
EIC
was le丘to
his son
in
1824 deprived the
and grandson
independent “New Johor" (Johor
Temenggong of all
legal authority in Singapore.
and Malay Peninsula.
to resurrect the claims of the past
Bahm) on
the southern
establish an
significant
development was the
rise
present-day Yemen), and the high status
from the Prophet,
signified
by
Hadhrami Arab population
in the
many e时oyed
where出ey became prominent
(from
because of their claimed descent
their
urban bases the commercial ramifications
the Sa川rid network stretched throughout the archipelago as far as in the horse trade.
As
of
Sumba and Sumbawa,
supplies of Javanese teak dwindled,
the east coast Sumatra state of Siak, once a Johor-Riau vassal but
now
independent,
became renowned
for its trees that could supply durable timber for ships and houses. Because of its close connections with Penang, Aceh’s economy was rejuvenated through the revival of the pepper trade and the production of quality betel nut (the prima叮
ingredient in betel chewing), a major item of trade with India. Ships from the new republic, the United States of America, began appearing in Sumatra to buy pepper.
To many Muslims,
the British advance in India
and increased presence
represented a threat that could only be countered cohesion. In 1790 the Kedah nobles attempted Straits
by
appealing to“all Muslims, that is, Bugis, Acehnese, Chulias who dwell at Pulau Pinang."19 Other
men
against the British
new
Islamic century in
AH
by
of Minangkabau, Malays and
Muslims, especially those
the beginning of a
in the Melaka
fostering greater Islamic
to marshal support
who believed that
1200 (CE 1785) portended the coming
of Judgment D町,felt the
first priority was a revitalization of Islam itself and the eradication of unacceptable accretions. Improved maritime communications from Singa-
pore and Penang allowed many believers to they encountered ahabi calls for
W
stricter
make
Minangkabau
the long pilgrimage to Mecca, where
implementation of Islamic teachings. This
in the Padri
The scale elsewhere,
but the ripples of reformism spread through the region. Perhaps in response to
the
(1803-37) was not repeated
as a center for Islamic scholar-
became an important conduit for reformed Islam by including members of the growing Arab community.
and the Riau court also
sponsoring visiting scholars,
British-Dutch rivalry in the early nineteenth
M出each side hoping to use
tolerance for
al旷After
those
its
who sought
more than
bang in 1825
threatened.
a
When
instab山可would
and when
conflict, the
rebellious chiefs in
latter’s
drawing a
direct control of
if
Palem-
Ambon. For
their interests appeared
the sultan in 1814 in favor of a
Penang
forces invaded
vis-主-vis
the Siamese. Despite Malay hopes of
carefully avoided policies that could alienate Siam,
Kedah
in 1821
and again
in 1831.
Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 had permanently carved up the Malay boundary line through the middle of the Straits of Melaka, around the
end of Singapore, and vaguely out into the South China Sea, with the lands and
above the line
Dutch sphere. Melaka,
kingmakers
little
other sign of “disloy-
time the
this
southern
show any
intervened to reinstate the previous ruler because of the fear that
maintained a studied neutrality
world,
act as
deter-
justi命Dutch intervention. In the northern Malay Peninsula, however,
British-controlled
By
The Dutch were
of a prestigious dynasty to
Aceh overthrew
assistance,
when the
to indigenous conflicts,
was strong they showed
Dutch assumed
last representative
the British
even
their position
to contact the British or
were equally w山ing to
Penang Arab, the British
centu可extended
native allies to seek advantage.
decade of
and banished the
the British
由eir part,
seas
飞叩ar
by the Thais, Patani developed
humiliation of defeat
ship,
mined to safeguard their interests,
their title of Sayyid. Intermarriage with royal families was
common in the Malay areas, and from
including matrilineal descent and female inheritance of houses and land.
of violence in
It
The opening of Penang and Singapore offered increased access to global markets that continued to attract migrants and provide opportunities for local entrepreneurs.
A
practices (adat),
ASIA, 178os-183os
belonging to the British sphere and those below the
The Netherlands accepted the
and agreed出at
it
would not attempt
line within the
British acquisition of Singapore, ceded
to establish a post
on the Malay Peninsula.
Bengkulu on the southwest coast of Sumatra and guaranteed that no British post would be established anY'矿here else on the island. Two In return,
Britain relinquished its factory in
Amity and Commerce between Britain and Siam recognized suzerainty over the northern Malay states but implicitly placed areas south of Kedah within the British sphere. Malay bewilderment at arrangements by which foreign- ers in distant capitals had parted “father from son, brother from brother and丘iend仕om years later
a
Treaty of
Bangkok’s
friend”foreshadowed the greater
pain that colonialism was to bring.20
influence was
most apparent among the Minangkabau of Sumatra, where returning p过grims and religious scholars, the Pad邸,disseminated their ideas through the network of teachers and pupils linked to religious schools. Padri insistence on a more literal application of Islamic law into conflict with aspects of Minangkabau customary
The Central
VOC
from campaigns in the eastern part of the island, Java in the years between and l825 was generally peaceful. There was little effective opposition to the Treaty of
Apart 1755
Archipelago
20
飞出nU:i?:r::;哇:.a?9?:?:?!???:阳叫叫叫叫
Bendahara of Pahang to (Kuala
L
Governor of Melaka
cited in Notes
and
Queries, 1885-1887, ed.
W. E. Maxwell
302
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
t说A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400一1830 which divided central Java between Surakarta (including the small domain of Mangkunegaran) and Yogyakarta. The Javanese initially saw these arrangements as a
Sultan
Hamengkubuwana
ASIA, 178os-183os
1792一1810, 1811-12, 1836-8) installed
Giyanti,
Yogyakarta court,
temp or a巧expedient, but the division became entrenched with the birth of princely heirs
key positions while maintaining increasingly onerous taxes and co凹优 labor. One ofJava's great poets, Yasadipura II (d. 1844), bemoaned the “degeneracy" of the
and the formalization of
territorial
boundaries.
kingdoms regarding land ownership, the potential for conflict
legal procedures,
and
(CE 1774) may have
such regulations, since the advent of a
new centu巧was
of a regime. In 1789 the Surakarta ruler
plans to reduce
series of
agreements between the two
territorial jurisdiction reduced
and contributed to a sense of permanency. Apprehension
the approaching Javanese year 1700
fall
A
and
about
intensified a perceived need for
traditionally associated with the
a cohort of Islamic advisors formulated
Y ogyakarta to subsidiary status, but
it
became
clear that the
Dutch were
prepared to go to war to defend the established arrangement. Confronted by a combined force
from
Y ogyakarta and
troops, Surakarta
new treaty that rea伍rmed At the
Mankunegaran, together with
hundred
of the
years.
several thousand
VOC
crisis led to a
the existing boundaries.
Javanese,
and
local lords were theoret-
Al出ough
m碍。r
position to dictate policy; the coastal areas were supposedly
governed by Javanese lords
under Dutch
who were left to their own devices
in
no
control, but were
as long as they delivered
set
quotas of labor and products. Despite the
reason
II
expression
became highly refined.
Striking a note of optimism, Yogyakarta's crown even composed a work in which he predicted that Java would ultimately be reunited
prince
one kingdom and the Dutch converted to Islam. The intellectual achievements of
as
this
period are thus considerable, including the emerging idea that individual loyalty is owed to a larger Javanese ethnic community rather than simply to the king. The long and complex epic Serat Centhini, part of
sense of Java’s past
and
which was composed in this period, conveys a remarkable history and geography as the hero visits the ruins of great kingdoms of the
travels
through the
island’s
varied landscapes.
The
text even
shows some
awareness of the culture and religious beliefs of the upland Tengger people living around Mount Bro mo in eastern Java.
Unlike the Malay world, Java was relatively unaffected by Napoleon’s invasion of the Netherlands in 1795 because the Dutch did not relinquish authority to the British until 1811. The dissolution of the VOC in 1799 and the transfer of the Company’s poss创ons to the Netherlands
government resulted in no change in personnel or
administration.
Nonetheless, on the northern coast of Java the exploitation of peasants to support the i…h lifes可le of tl叫avanese regional lords sugar, indigo, corree, pepper, cotton,
and timber
to the
(咿nts) and to deliver rice, Dutch remained an unresolved problem.
In the
had made the Dutch
imposed on the Netherlands, Daendels was
Dutch
Lieutenant
down
legally to
Meanwhile, events in
the sovereign
was
to
blame
also infused with the
mise巧of
for the
in favor of his son. Daendels then imposed
annex
Europe led
Java’s
to the British takeover of Java in 1811,
and the troops
mon由. Only a year a丘er his arrival, Raffles ordered a storming of the because he believed the restored
he and
could
still
highly inquisitive and
with radical
governor-general,
a
in the Java
to abolish the slave trade,
ban
little
compromise with
existing systems,
Malay world, faced major
challenges in
changes to traditional practices.
le丘Java in 1816, the situation steadily worsened.
The incoming Dutch
Baron van der Capellen (1819-26), advocated the development of the measures he adopted offended
of land in central Java deprived
many
local elites. His cancellation of
aristocrats of revenue, while the
monetized economy increased peasant indebtedness and strengthened influence of Chinese landholders and entrepreneurs. Rural commerce was inhibited by
penetration
?he
As
of penetration."21 Nonetheless, the policies
their counterparts in the
population, but the
private leases
the
full
Daendels had formulated allowed for
After the British
native
and introduced measures
Y ogyakarta attack.
describe the Javanese as“a highly polished people, considerably
and Javanese rulers, like dealing
remove the worst abuses
little
(whose scholarly History of Java remains the most impo口ant study from
advanced in science, 出at
privileges
elite
was planning an
in
and reorganize revenue collection. Though these measures had only mixed
Raffles
period)
this
Hamengkubuwana II
reformer, Raffles, like Daendels, sought to
He rejected
success,
new treaties
Governor Stamford Raffles were able to subdue Dutch resistance
capital
courts.
the
north coast.
over a
opium sales,
artistic
(1762-1818).
deterioration in Dutch-Javanese relations.
his belief that the 17 43 treaty
was forced to step
enabled the
as irrigated ricefields
treasu町-
in
Tensions accelerated, rebellions broke out, and in 1810 Hamengkubu-
ordinary people.
of
saw a dramatic
revolutionary notion that the aristocracy
French
dedicated
Court culture flourished, literary production expanded, and performance and
was
Napoleonic regime
出at
the
worsened
situation
new governor, Marshal Herman Willem Daendels
period as governor
demands placed on Javanese peasants, in this more peaceful climate the population increased. Y ogyakarta and Surakarta both prospered were extended and increased revenues flowed to the royal
of a
and the
deteriorated,
and that the central Javanese rulers were indeed mere vassals. As an appointee of
power 由e
Dutch
Muslim people and had been reduced to
Daendels was committed to reforming what he saw as an inefficient and corrupt
system, his
A
their courage as
Relations with the
1808 with the arrival
VOC but they were actually more independent than they had been for
The飞TOC's military power was steadily waning, and Batavia was
who had forgotten
of beggars.
status
wana
close of the eighteenth century all Javanese rulers
ically vassals
a
the
was besieged and the ruler forced to surrender. This
II (r.
inept favorites in
expenses
of a
i叫
itself
symptomatic of growing pover句r
labor
obligations
and
of landlessness. Exploitation of older patterns
combined with cash-crop development
":::??!?;丁,1:?:o?;?:t伪an
b川rvice
affected even previously remote
304
\;°\t
A HISTORY OF EARLY
areas like the
on
Dutch
1776 the
for in
fi思ires
provide an indication of the growing demands
VOC had
1600
men and a
thousand buffalo working
by 1809 the equivalent numbers had increased to over
forests;
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
Tengger highlands, where villagers were forcibly recruited for corvee
coffee plantations.
on workers,
MODERN SOUTHEAST
five
labor
and exiled to
in teak
sent to Ambon. The Java
thousand men and
pressures.
Madura
after years
of peace also meant greater social and economic
has been estimated there were around seven million people on Java and
It
in 1800,
and food production did not keep pace with
despite the expansion of wet-rice cultivation.
this rising population,
Food shortages were aggravated by a series of
talks
broke
down
in 1830, Dipanagara
Makassar, and the Susuhunan of Surakarta,
placed
2,500 buffalo.22
Demographic growth
and Muslim leader. A仕er
both sultan
War
ASIA, 178os-183os’h 305
who had
(1825-30) marks the end of a chapter
was arrested
supported him, was in Javanese history,
and the beginnings of
true colonial
control, symbolized in the inauguration of the“Cultivation System" in 1830.
An estimated
for
it
represented the last stand of the old regime
70 percent
of all Javanese peasant households
export crops, profits
from which supplied
would soon be working in the production of
as
much
as a third of the Netherlands state
revenue.
Dutch ascendancy
was
similarly
a伍rmed by developments
had declined
in west Java,
where the
in direct correlation to diminished royal
extrava-
authority
of the Banten sultan
gance drained villages of labor. At a time of scarce resources, competition between
revenues.
Not only was pepper production considerably reduced, but the Dutch had
communities led to the frequency of perang desa (village wars), exacerbated by involvement of roaming bandit gangs. In 1821 a failed rice harvest coincided with
the
acquired valuable
the
southwest Borneo.
natural disasters
and because the extortionate
levies
necessa巧to maintain court
world’s first cholera
pandemic, which broke out in India and quickly spread to Penang and much of Southeast Asia, including Java. Popular interpretations of these events as
subjects,
arrivals
Chinese settlers
erupted.
background, the Javanese were well prepared to
individual as a Ratu Ad址,the Just King,
who
tradition said
identi马r
would appear
wrongs of the world. Such an individual was personified by Pangeran gara, eldest
Born
son of
in 1785, he
Hamengkubuwana
III (r.
1810一11, 1812一14)
had grown up away from the
some
Y ogyakarta
to
The
generation earlier.
remedy
Daendels because of closer
the
unofficial wife.
court in an environment
imbued with mystical Islam, and the ordinary people who flocked to him thousands came to regard him as a holy man. Belief that his leadership would
only recourse was to
raise the taxes levied
made him
on
his
own
increasingly dependent
on
Banten was thus ill-prepared to respond to growing numbers of Chinese
charismatic
(Prince) Dipana-
and an
sultan’s
and their domination of economic enterprises, especially sugar m山s. By由e 1810s had taken over whole districts that had been only lightly populated a
omens of impending disaster received supernatural confirmation in 1822, when the sacred this
The
but this led to仕equent uprisings that
Dutch support.
Mount Merapi Given
concessions such as control of Banten’s diamond-producing areas in
road-building abolition
worsened under the administration of Governor-General Dutch surveillance and onerous demands for co凹ee labor for
situation
and harbor construction.
of the sultan's political
situation in
When Raffles took control of Java he ar伊ed由at
power was
justified
because the
political
Banten had deteriorated to the point where roaming groups
and economic
of “bandits"
were
new age of justice and prosperity was fostered because his birth occurred in a Javanese month thought to inaugurate a new historical cycle, while 1785 marked the beginning of
In 1816 the returning Dutch attempted to address aristocratic factionalism and continuing peasant unrest by replacing the existing elite with their own appointees and initiating a new village-based administration. Tensions continued to rise, however, and when the Dutch suspected that the sultan was planning a rebellion he
an anticipated momentous Muslim century. Dipanagara himself contributed to this perception not only by adopting the ancient title Erucakra, the prophesied Ratu Adil,
was sent as a prisoner to Surabaya, a deliberate humiliation intended to demonstrate that the old regime palace was demolished, while the royal
but also by promising relief from tax and labor obligations. His precise goals are unclear, but he apparently hoped to establish himself religious ruler over a
pusaka (sacred objects, heirlooms)
in their
usher
in
a
as
“divine order" in
an independent
south central Java that might even extend to include
Bali,
Lombok,
and Sumbawa, while the Dutch would retreat to enclaves on the north coast. In July 1825 a clash between Dipanagara’s men and the Dutch initiated the Java War.
Flores,
Centered in leaders initially
and
Y ogyakarta,
the且ghting spread throughout central and east Java as
religious
influential court o伍cials lent their support. Javanese guerilla-type action was
extremely
successfi.址,but after
two years the
tide
turned against Dipanagara.
In
subsequent negotiations the Dutch refused as to approve the request that he be recognized 22
Cited in Peter Boomgaard,“Forest Management and Exploitation in Colonial Java, 1677-1897," Forest and Conservation History 36, 1 (Jan. 1992), 6.
disrupting rural life.
had indeed been displaced. The
the
Batavian Society of Arts
and
and the
given to collection of Arabic manuscripts were
Sciences. Batavia’s
and former slaves made up a considerable portion of Balinese influence itself had remained largely outside Dutch interests.
Al出ough Balinese slaves population, Bali eastern Java stop
had been constrained by the
VOC annexation in 1743, but there was
migration to the neighboring island of
colonized.
Lombok, which
little
in to
the Balinese effectively
The indigenous Sasak, largely Muslim, st山wielded some authority but由ey
were subservient to Balinese overlords.
From
references to the 1770s there are repeated
Meanwhile, but an 1826 rebellion against the Balinese was unsuccessful. commerce. Bali itself was affected by British-Dutch rivalry and by changing pa忧ems of shipwrecked vessel and According to traditional custom, it was quite acceptable to loot a stopped was also claim possession of the cargo. Batavia’s insistence that such practices be Sasak discontent,
MODERN SOUTHEAST
306、飞A E王ISTORY OF EARLY
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
due to apprehension that the English might use the pretext of protecting maritime trade in order to establish a post
on
To
forestall
sometime
overtures to the local rulers
make any headway,
Bali.
any such development,
in the 1820s.
the Dutch made
Although these approaches
mud
the occurrence of various natural disasters -
failed to
flows, volcanic
eruptions, earthquakes,自oods, and epidemics - were regarded by the Balinese as presaging
an ominous future, though
it
would be
several years before their rulers
felt
the
f时l
impact
of Dutch colonial ambitions.
Desperate for
new
Spanish administration of the
worsened by declining
deficit,
profits
from the
trade.
sources of revenue, Manila tried to encourage plantation development,
1780 the imposition of a government
monopoly over tobacco had
taxes.
From
far-reaching implica-
Tobacco smoking had been introduced by the Spanish and was common
among
oly
small children, resulting in wide-spread addiction because of the belief
smoking provided protection against
fevers.
According to the new
even that
regulations, tobacco
foreign ships,
although vested interests rallied
was
1785
founding of the Royal Philippine
established tobacco trade linking suppliers in
the Spanish found that enforcement
ments, destruction of those willing to
“illegal"
Luzon
was extremely
since
it
disrupted an
to the Visayan Islands. Furthermore,
punish- difficult, despite the threat of
gardens, and the offer of freedom from corvee labor
grow tobacco
for the
monopoly.
A
special police force was
unable
for to
prevent persistent“smuggling”by organized gangs or cuadrillas, since in the words of a Spanish governor,“in a land f叫l of rivers and canals, the roads and footpaths [are]
unknown
to us because
we seldom go through the
provinces."23
As one
of obtaining cash, tobacco continued to be cultivated illegally
and
of the few ways
sold outside the
monopoly system. Taxes were也ced regardless of personal economic circumstances, and the rebellions that erupted in tobacco-growing areas were largely due to the continuing exaction of monetary payments cash-poor (often through physical coercion) from a peasantry who were not allowed to engage in private tobacco trade. Purchase and sale of协acco were dominated by Chinese m创zos, but the monopol?
did open up to enter the
new
opportunities for
some more fortunate
Filipinos.
A few were permitted
lower ranks of the tobacco administration and, despite exploitative
Cited in Ed. C. de Jesus, The Tobacco αange, 1766-1880 (Quezon City:
Monopoly
in the Phil伊,pines・
48.
economy was
more
effective reporting, a rise in the population of
Luzon and the
lessening
of internal disruption
were permitted to Filipinos
return.
a
moderate prosperity,
especially a丘er the Chinese
But in other respects the relationship between the colonizers and
was deteriorating, notably in the religious sphere. Following the expulsion of
from
the Jesuits
all
Spanish territories in 1767,由e remaining
compelled to agree to hands of native
religious orders
an experiment by which vacant parishes could be placed
and mestizo
“secular" priests
who would
were
in the
be answerable to the diocesan
than a Catholic order. This experiment failed because too
many
poorly
and ill-trained Filipinos were suddenly appointed to positions of au由ority.
were endless complaints
appointed clergy, exaction
and
from
Filipinos themselves about the conduct of the newly
favoritism towards their relatives, use of the recto巧for parties, and
oflarge stipends
and fees. The most unfortunate result was a strengthening of the
Filipinos did not have a true vocation and could not be entrusted with demanding spiritual tasks. But the prestige associated with any religious position
Spanish belief that
more
could also
empower
Christianity
Only his death clearly
local appointees,
during a
and
own Moro raid brought
and formed his
in
Samar
this
movement
threatened the au出ority of the religious orders,
阳led
to the
a Filipino priest rejected Spanish
religion, ordaining followers
and
it
to an end.“Indigenization"
was primarily their lobbying
suspension of the policy of giving Filipino priests greater responsibilities.
by
Church and the colonial government was further undermined and inexperienced Spanish administrators. In the period仕om 1764to 1816therewere
The standing of the inept
and appointing governors.
governors-general, their terms sometimes as brief as three years. Relatively were available to staff government positions, leading to claims由at it was
eleven different
few
Spaniards
common
to
see飞[Spanish] hairdresser converted into a governor; a sailor or a desert??
transformed into a district
magistrate or military
commander
province.":t4 of a populous
conditions,
and Social Bureaucratic Enterprise
Ateneo de Manila University P?邸,1980),
intended to encourage agriculture
from an estimated 900,000 in 1750 to around 1,555,043 in 1800 suggests a
Visayas
24
23
Company was
but from 1820 the development of an agricultural export
due to foreign investment (mainly American, British, and French).
could be purchased only from government tobacco shops.
economy
clear,
Even allowing for
There
further destabilized the
however, that the Philippines economy was undercapitalized. The
1815. It
sugar assigned to other areas. All tobacco should be delivered to government agents, and
monopoly
monop-
1810 the Philippines
to protect the galleon trade which remained operative
until
educated
the
a丘er
from Mexico. In 1790 the po此of Manila was opened to and additional voyages were permitted between Spain and the Philippines,
could be grown in only eight Luzon provinces, with crops such as pepper, cotton, and
many ways
in the cigar factories gained
the Spanish viewpoint, the profits from the
without a subsidy
bishop rather
In
From
improve the colony’s financial situation, and
helped
operated
Philippines
galleon
reform the military and the administration, and improve the collection of
tions.
some economic independence.
primar过y
the latter half of the eighteenth century the
was facing a crippling
women who comprised the majority of wage-laborers
and industry,
The Northern Archipelago By
the
ASIA, 178os-183os
Tomas de Comyn, State of the Phil伊pine Islands: Being an Historical, Statistical, and D臼criptive T. and Port叫仇e Indian Archipelago. William Walton, trans. (London:
1:::::1???口支sting
r
・._
307
A HISTORY OF EARLY At the provincial
MODERN SOUTHEAST
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
Spanish alcalde mayor, in charge of administering the
level the
law,
typically lacked legal training and saw nothing amiss in arbitrarily requesting
demanding donations and
gi丘s.
The
policies
adopted in the Batanes
or
islands after
annexation in 1783 - compulsory relocation, confiscation of prope此y, forced deliveries, denunciation of spirit practitioners - show how little colonial officials had learned from the previous capricious,
position to a small cohort of wealthy families,。丘en mestizo.
The
and the cuadrillas由at preyed on villages and markets were a
telling
inab让ity to enforce
law and order. Yet terms such as
limited
this
prevalence of banditry
comment on Spanish
“bandit,”“smuggler,”and
“pirate,"
which come through European sources, should be used with caution. Ruthlessness and cruelty are well
documented, but cuadrilla leaders were sometimes charismatic
regarded with great respect by local communities. Effectively acting as local
were able to exercise their
own
systems of justice in areas under their
Colonial administration was further complicated
Napoleon invaded Spain
in
by
political
1808 and placed his brother on
expulsion of the French returned Spain to an absolute
ism. In the early nineteenth centu叩Filipinos
prohibiting publications about Spanish colonies
had never been repealed, and the
state
regulations,
a sixteenth-century law
and their peoples without
censor in Manila reviewed
special permis- all
short-lived constitution granting colonial representation. This
the Philippines,
where one
stirred,'’believing that
vassalage产5
It is
friar
was widely publicized
a in
stationed in Ilocos reported that“all the natives were
they would
now
be
“free
from the bonds of obedience
not surprising that the resistance to Spanish
and
policies following the
and the abrogation of the constitution was most pronounced who had a long history of rebellion and who bitterly resented
dissolution of the Cortes
the Ilocanos,
monopolies on tobacco and the manufacture of palm wine. A major uprising in 1815 demanded the restoration of the constitution, which peasants believed would end the hated tribute
and labor requirements. Though these revolts were suppressed, by由e
an incompetent colonial government faced rising discontent caused by
the
economic changes assoc附d with cash c即ping, increased demands for taxes and co叩 and the perceived injustice suffered by the native clergy at the hands of Spanish
labor,
25
Cited in 0. D. Corpuz, The Roots of the Filipino Nation Press, 2005) vol. I: 548.
(Quezon
Philippines City: University of the
Conde
who spoke“with his people" styled himself“el
and
The social
now
Sulu,
ab过ity
sea
polity, provides a telling
poet
groups, including the
and
extended over Borneo’s north coast,
soup was
now an
population
Bajau, sea-dwelling people
and
edible seaweed. Sulu
known for the rare birds' nests found on由e
indispensable item in
book of seafood delicacies, including
tripang.
With
its
was already well 1764 following
close connections
known
new
bird’s
elite
Chinese
feasts,
and the famous
appreciation for marine foods, com- nest as well as shark’s
to由e Bugis trade network,
fin,
Jolo, Sulu’s
abalone, and
prima巧port,
to Chinese. After Spanish control of Manila was reinstated in
the British occupation, thousands of Chinese were expelled, suspected of
Many relocated
in Sulu,
where they reinforced the maritime networks through
much-desired forest and sea products were delivered to the Chinese market.
Despite the
as far
Sulu’s
of limestone caves, with collection teams under the control of Taosug datu.
posed a
disloyalty.
Sama
collectors of tripang, tortoise shell,
Yuan Mei (1716-97), remarking on the
which
of the reasons for Sulu's success was
Although the Taosug peoples were ethnically dominant,
comprised several different ethnic
nest
One
where
example of a maritime polity
respond to the demands of the Chinese and European markets for forest and
to
products.
Bird’s
was
Filipino,”the Filipino Count.26
very different in the southern Philippines,
completely outside European control.
operating its
political situation
dominant Muslim
the
slave trade.
In 1812 a brief period of liberalism in the Spanish Cortes or Parliament produced
early 1820s
employing what may be the first use of the term "Filipino,”one Spanish mestizo
manuscripts
before any could be printed or distributed.
among
while
high ceilings
the Madrid govern-
were st山governed by obsolete
with some dating back two hundred years or more. For example, sion
alike,
authority
ment was ve巧unstable. The rapid succession of governors-general in the Philippines brought men who were agents of regimes that swung wildly from monarchy to republican-
and
no parishes to administer. Arguing that Spanish and natives should be treated
chiefs,出ey
developments when
level of the religious hierarchy
with
famed as pearl divers
jurisdiction.
occupying the lowest
often
individuals
the throne. The subsequent
monarchy but
point there were around 250 Spanish friars and about 800 priests, over-
this
whelmingly Filipino, the latter
two hundred years. The power wielded by the native principales could also be
and the insistence that a gobernadorcillo must know Spanish
At
friars.
ASIA, 1780s一1830s
By the 1790s raiding extended from the northern and
as the
benefits to
importance of Chinese connections, the basis of
New Guinea
the
coasts
Taosug datu
who
and west
to the
economy was出e
Sulu’s
central Philippines, east
Malay Peninsula, bringing
the
most
financed raids in return for a percentage of the booty.
Many captives were assigned as rowers in Sulu ships and others were used in the collection of sea as a
and jungle products.
regional slave
market也at supplied Batavia and other
domestic servants. Sulu' s sultanate
The greatest profits came from the operation
large cities with laborers
growing prosperi勾r came at由e expense of its
Magindanao, since
of the capital Jolo
many of the latter’s Ilanun subjects moved to
by trade
and
neighbor and rival Sulu, attracted
skills to use.
and the opportunity to put由eir shipbuilding and navigational uninhabited islets as bases and captured slaves as rowers, the Ilanun founded
Using
satellite
gain access locations throughout the archipelago where出ey could to the heavy ordnance and gunpowder which English traders continued to supply. much By the 1770s the crippling effects of raiding by Ilanun and other groups through of the centu叩 Philippine archipelago were already evident, and well into the nineteenth settlements in strategic
26
?ited吨1hn Blanco, Fron阳C叫itutions: Lentury Philippines (Berkeley,
Chγi
CA: University of California
Press, 2009), 134
r.
309
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 coastal settlements suffered repeated raids especially in the
more dense忖settled
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
and the enslavement of thousands
and northeast Mindanao. The take any effective measures, and the
areas of the Visayas
Spanish administration was simply too
weak
to
expense involved in obtaining ships for coastal defense, repairing
new order was
treasu巧. In 1799 a its
own
the colonial
issued requiring each pueblo to take responsib且ity for
protection. In this situation the friars ( themselves targets for capture and ransom
by Muslim
raiders)
and help
advisors
Several factors
assumed
a central role, for they
direct the construction
prompted the Spanish
interest in Sulu,
and
it
were expected
and maintenance of military to
embark on new
defenses.
was increasingly necessary to make the Philippines
a growing
economically
The Manila government sought to incorporate the south into its sphere of influence
by promoting commercial links with boats from Sulu, Magindanao,
Sulu’s
Sultan Sharifuddin
and Borneo began
Spanish authorities and the southern sultanates that lasted until the imposition of
to call at
1791-1808). Trading
Manila and by
had adjusted
American colonialism
(r.
to
the
the 1820s
an uneasy
the
co-existence
in the early twentieth
momentum of his
cultural
groups
centu町・
rebellion for
refused to
in
an area inhabited by so many
comply with the 1795 agreement
Battles for
control of
Dutch posts
different
local
that allowed the British to take
in the Eastern Archipelago continued well a丘er the
VOC in 1799, and in 1801 the local British commander installed Nuku Four years later, however, he died. Because
the sense of Malukan unity Nuku had created and sustained for so long was based on widespread perceptions that
sultan of Tidore.
he possessed special qualities,
disintegrated
and
their dependencies,
and
had constructed
finally returned to take
in 1824 these
over
kingdoms were incorporated
colonial-administered residency, the “government of Celebes and Dependencies"
covering
Halmahera (including Ternate and Tidore), the
and parts of Sulawesi.
faded,
prowess,”the polity that he
without his leadership. In 1817 the Dutch
Ternate, Tidore, into a
a“man of
For the Dutch, the
Maluku and Nusatenggara as the
The Eastern Archipelago
two decades
to the effectiveness of his appeal. N时ω’s position was also
testifies
Dutch posts to prevent their falling into French hands.
over
出at
and increasingly oppressive Dutch
by his links with British traders and the assistance he received when
reinforced
VOC officials
as
spice revenues
VOC initially dismissed Nuku as a pirate, his ab且ity to maintain
Though the
dissolution of the
overtures to the Muslim
by declining
communities hard-hit measures.
to act as technical
Sulu were ineffective, the British showed
sultanates: naval expeditions against
viable.
forts, building watch-
and supplying cannon and guns, placed a tremendous burden on
towers,
of people,
ASIA, 178os-183os
and
it
home
entire west coast of New Guinea,
earlier appeal of the islands of
northern
of the highly valued spices and sandalwood had
was the po时of Makassar and the kingdoms
in southwest Sulawesi that
now
became the key to the success of the colonial ventures in eastern Indonesia.
Although spices and sandalwood had declined in economic importance, the demands of the China trade and the unique products found in the Eastern Archipelago made the area once again an internationally contested space. The Dutch now faced opposition丘om由e British,
who
enormo山potential of direct links between the Eastern Archipelago and China. A captain who had missed the southwest monsoon could st诅sail to Quangzhou企om realized the
附stern
New
Guinea by taking advant咿of alternative winds由at passed throψ出
Philippines. British traders
were welcomed in many settlements along this route because由ey
were willing to supply guns and opium in return for local products, which they could then
cal'l'}「
to China.
With demand fueled by addiction, opium was fast developing into a kind of currency,
and the
flintlocfil♀and
devastating slave-raids
purchased丘om the British offered protection against by Sulu and Magindanao fleets. The VOC, which saw the British other guns
presence as a direct challenge, placed greater pressure suppress any sign of resistance to Dutch authority.
on the
Tidore to rulers of Ternate and
As M由e past,
there was no
toleration for
and in 1779 the sultan of Tidore was replaced and a VOC protege installed. Nuku, a member of Tidore’s royal family, refused to accept this change
where the prestigious Makassarese kingdom of Gowa had been conquered by the VOC and its Bugis allies in 1669, there was also a call for the
southwest Sulawesi,
restoration
of a lost golden age.
Memories of
Makassarese pride could only be restored
by the
past glories encouraged the belief出at eviction of the
Dutch and the return of
government. In 1776 a rebellion broke out under the leadership of an known as I Sangkilang, who claimed to be a former ruler returning from exile
indigenous individual in Sri
Lanka.
With
local support,
I
Sangkilang assumed control of
Dutch preoccupation with the British presence enabled
Gowa
him to maintain
in 1777,
and
this position until
Anxious to forestall any British intervention, the Dutch then seized the Gowa regalia and presented it to the ruler of the rival Bugis kingdom of Bone. Though this arrangement meant Gowa was more amenable to VOC oversight, Dutch
he died in 1785.
efforts to
identi命other rulers
successful.
The
British
who would
serve as acquiescent clients were only pa时ially
interregnum (1811一16) was
also
marked by continuing rebellions,
when the Dutch returned in 1817 they were rejected by a coalition of Bugis domains by Bone. In a dramatic was defeated reversal of the seventeenth-century alliances, Bone of 1824 by a combined Dutch-Makassarese force. The subsequent renewal of the Treaty
and
recalcitrance, Kaicili
In
finally
in
and regime, and promised to restore proprieties and hence reestablish the spiritual material welfare of Maluku. In 1780, proclaimin吨gl址imself n or the Papuan islands, and the seas from Seram eastwards, Nuku asserted his leadership Jailolo, the four symbolic "p山ars" of the Maluku world (the kingdoms ofTernate, Tidore, among and Bacan) as laid down in the myths. His message struck a responsive chord
led in
Bungaya (1667) confirmed Sulawesi stage for
continuing
and its dependencies
Bone defiance and rebellions
Dutch possession but set the
“anti-colonial." that can be truly termed leaders, alert to British一Dutch
Throughout other areas of eastern Indonesia, local rival町,calculated
as a
The Dutch the odds in allying with one or the other European power.
312式稳
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 were not universally regarded as enemies, and in 1797 a British the principal
Dutch. In a rebellions ising,
VOC post
aimed
and
was frustrated by
in Nusatenggara,
number of other
a native force loyal to the
indigenous
rule.
their ab过ity to recruit local allies
The Dutch response was uncomprom-
was often aided by long-standing
rivalries
between different groups. In northern Sulawesi, for example, the Tondano War
of
1808-9 marks the definitive defeat of anti-colonial resistance, but troops from Ternate
formed the majority of the Dutch control gained heart
from
force.
On
other occasions, opposition to foreign
religious beliefs, including Christianity. In
Protestantism had a long history, a Christian soldier of the Dutch fortress in 1817
known
Ambon,
where
as Pattimura took control
and was only defeated (and publicly hanged) when
reinforcements were sent from Batavia. Although the leaders of this rebellion gained inspiration
from
through raiding
Biblical passages, the
Dutch continued
to believe that the spread of
far as
graves
supply material evidence
further attested
ramifications
of global
supported strong Islamic centers, such as Makassar, Ternate, and Tidore, the Christian-
the
ized areas of Ambon, Timor,
profitable
By
the 1830s Christian expansion in previously animist areas contributed to an
communal
identity
and of
cultural superiority over those
who had
a
marker
been
of
neither
circumcised nor baptized.
Throughout eastern Indonesia uncertainties resulting from
was increased
of survivors
left
and remote
entire districts
considered an essential element for
islands died in their
abandoned.
slave raiding. In earlier periods“stealing”people
but during the eighteenth century
An
added scourge
from enemy villages was
community survival in this lightly populated region, new markets for slaves encouraged the formation of
larger and more organized expeditions that could raid ever further afield. In some areas whole coasts were uninhabited because villagers had been captured or had taken refuge elsewhere. As in the Western Archipelago, the Ilanun developed permanent settlements,
which were then used as bases for regular raiding. Fleets from Sulu and Magindanao were often joined by refugees displaced by conflicts such as Nuku’s rebellion in Maluku,
and
local chiefs
the booty.
The
it
was
dif五cult to
commodity
obtain pearls from
for the
VOC to propose As
a
monopoly
shell,
became
contract,
and
a sufficiently for
Aru men
a result, Am’s cultural and economic cosmology
whole undersea world where
depended on
rarities
Am because of the lack of divers. By
the inner lining of a pearl oyster
hone their diving skills.
the ocean’s
away from the main
were similarly apparent in the Aru islands, which
harvesting of tripang and pearls in response to international markets.
expanded to incorporate a
political instability were
As cholera and smallpox epidemics swept through
the region, vulnerable populations in the interior flight
1660s
into areas located far
and legend. The
a diver’s success in locating
his ab过ity to gain supernatural assistance from
demanding but seductive sea spirits.
exacerbated by other developments.
thousands and the
sailed as
of由e Bugis-Makassarese-Sama Bajau presence, which
commerce, reaching
1730s mother-of-pearl,
to
all
and Muslim
trees,
in Australian aboriginal art, linguistic borrowings,
of international trade,
centers
In the
environment in which adherence to either Islam or Christianity became
and Sama Bajau
Along Australia’s north coast, stone fireplaces, tamarind
increased their
tion.
in
Makas-
northern Australia in search of tripang to supply the seemingly insatiable Chinese
Christianity (specifically Protestantism) could help strengthen their control, since
foci of Protestant missiona叮evangeliza-
for Chinese junks.
involved in the slave trade, while Bugis, Makassarese,
market.
is
hub
Makassarese, and local Malay networks出at were
was also the base for the Bugis,
sar
particularly
trade continued to flourish, fueled by the Chinese
po邸,and Makassar developed as the commercial
heavily
was
Asian products. Chinese communities were well established
demand for Southeast local
it
Archipelago.
Despite this disruptive raiding,
Muslims were considered innately anti-European. Though the Eastern Archipelago
and Rote became
was found elsewhere in island Southeast Asia, but
marked in the Eastern
however, awareness of Dutch weakness encouraged
areas,
at reasserting
effort to capture Kupang,
ASIA, 178os-183os
were frequently willing to provide patronage in return for a portion of Dutch mounted various campaigns to restrain raiding and attacks on
shipping, but the destruction of“pirate nests" simply
meant
that the inhabitants
regrouped and reestablished themselves in some other location. Whether forced
or
voluntary, the mobility of communities and the sale and resale of slaves resulted in less populations that were far more ethnically diverse than ever before and由us receptive to calls for allegiance people to some distant center. Major displacement of
Dutch attempts
Notwithstanding
commerce maintained
pe削旬,indigenous sosolot
western in
trade
to establish control by instituting a system of its
own
dynamics, well-illustrated by the
Gorom
system of eastern Seram, the Seram Laut and
New Guinea.
December for the
In Banda, where trade operated through
archipelagoes,
and
the entire year, boats left
Am and Kei islands, the Tanimbar archipelago, and the Birdshead
taking manufactured goods as well as rice and sago exchange for tripang, birds' nests, pearls, mother of pearls, birds of para也se, tortoiseshell, and slaves. By mid-May these vessels had returned but出ey set out again Peninsula in
western
New Guinea,
to
for
Timor between June
?ar削to Batavia began to
and September. The products出ey had
for毗As
missionaries,
and
travel
penetrate the eastern Indonesian islands in the late nineteenth centu叮,they
obse町ed intriguing styles bar islands,
for instance,
out specific
?e阳wi£
whole
villages traveled
by boat
to
an
allied
old. In the
Tanim-
community to
car叮
that had grown“cold.”
would renew or“reheat" alliances were also maintained through a well-understood process of gi丘exchange
iv叩I川fe-taki耶omm alliances of the Eastern Archipelago, establishing and renewing such to the flow of material and spiritual life and hence the forging of networks
tragmented islands Were crucial
of alliance-formation that were centuries
rituals that
Relationships
that
European administrators,
collected were then
helped unite the area.
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA,
ASIA, 1400-1830
等Developments…ω灿问Asia
men were repeatedly or
The Western Mainland
and death. It
Ava and ordered
and
eldest surviving
the execution of his
son of Alaungpaya, seized the throne
nephew and
of
potential rivals in the royal family.
all
Faced with opposition from min-laung fi伊res and a brief occupation of Yangon
in
Bodawpaya relied primarily on loyal men from his own appanage on the lower Chindwin River. The assertion of his legitimacy was clearly a major concern. 1783 by
The
Mon
elaborate
forces,
Brahmanic consecration ceremony was performed
was moved away from Ava
Bodawpaya
to a
new center
at
Amarapura, deemed
also recruited the assistance of court authorities,
to be
reduced to
more auspicious.
In
both monks and laymen,
to his
Supreme Patriarch and head of the Buddhist sangha, did not lose the opportunity to remind Bodawpaya of his obligations. In composing a work commemorating Bodawpaya's
the
eous king destroys his
Bodawpaya then embarked on
a
himself as a cakkavatti, destined to
ruler that“an unright-
become lord over
unpopular government, and
this
his peers.
reflected his perception of
To
the west the people of
message, having experienced years of natural
civil unrest.
Some even
requested that Bodawpaya
was transported back to Amarapura, together with The greatest prize was the gigantic Mahamuni Buddha image,
swi丘,and Rakhine' s royal family
hundreds of prisoners.
believed to be Rakhine’s protector. Subsequently,
Burmese monks were
sent to oversee
reforms in the Rakhine sangha.
Spurred on by success in Rakhine, Bodawpaya turned his attention to his old enemy_ now ruled仕om Bangkok by the new Chakri dynasty. On this occasion, however, the
Siam,
invading Burmese army was forced to retreat, weakened by an outbreak of smallpox and lack of adequate food supplies. The campaign was renewed in 1786, but despite ongoing battles over the next sixteen years, Burmese forces never succeeded in defeating a resur- gent Siam.
As
so o丘en in the past, both sides transported thousands of captives to faraway
C削m
Thailand.
felled the
ground/They had
coconut
trees
and
also destroyed the
Burmese had looted/they had squeezed the
mere skeletons and they had
“lost all
district dry.?
The people
spirit户8
Myanmar the ongoing cost of wars with Siam and the steady depletion of the treasu巧
on peasants, fuelling indebtedness
tion fell
M出the
flight
were delayed or
rains
Meanwhile, the
seasonal rainfall
was low,
sale
of land. Rice produc-
when
the
monsoon
between 1805 and 1812.
as occurred
Siam was impossible
to sustain,
eliminating the Burmese出reat to
effectively
and the sheer pressure on
among
叫dent that his
its
eastern neighbor.
The situation
had Myanmar and Vietnam concluded an anti-Siam
by the former in 1823, but the
he feared
Vietnamese
ruler,
Minh Mang,
alliance
rejected the idea
Siam might then challenge his hegemony in Cambodia.
Bodawpaya held him as
and encouraging the
expansion of large irrigation works increased corvee demands. The cam-
mi供have been different
because
at the center increased the
ended Bodawpaya,s attempts to continue the territorial expansion initiated by his
father,由us
proposed
problems
of cultivators, and food shortages worsened
launched in 1809 against
paign
on to his throne for thirty-seven years, and Burmese chroniclers depict
their best kings.
European commentators were often
hostile,
but
it is
saw enhanced political control and continuing economic expansion. Central authority was strengthened over the entire Irrawaddy basin, while countrywide censuses (1783 and 1802) and land surveys improved tax and revenue collection, which reign
now more likely to be in cash rather than in kind. Although groups such as由e Ch恤, ?ar叽and Kachin remained on the per忡巧of state i阳矶Burmese ir en was
mcreased in fields
l叫to exchanges t??t
areas, especially in terms of dress and style of government. Ric e and maritime and overland trade flourished. Across the count巧it is tr础a network of internal production centers and market towns, where the
Shan
expanded,
were facilitated
by increased monetization that lessened the句pe of haggling
oc叫n a pu of灿nd ace阳岛r邮build吗ar川ev山of the
might
叫ny
Cited in Michael Cham町,Powerful Learning: Buddhist Literati and the Throne in Burma’s Last Dynas凯1752-1885 (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Universi可of Michigan for South and Southeast Asian Studies, 2006), 202.
modern
move
been slaughtered/not one was left/everything
demands
??er
27
all
heavy price. In a familiar pa忧em, revenue
intervene in their kingdom’s affairs to restore order. In 1784, claiming that insufficient
support had been given to Buddhism, Bodawpaya dispatched a Burmese army of more than thirty thousand men to invade Rakhine both by land and sea. Conquest was relatively
had
to the
exacted a
resources
program of expansion that
Rakhine were especially amenable to disasters,
remind the
own kingdom产7
had been leveled
The chickens and ducks
crops/ ...
highlands to escape capture, enslavement,
on Ujung Salang in 1809:“The Burmese had Eve叩世llage
were
monarch. Nevertheless, the thathanabaing,
coronation, he used examples from previous reigns to
attack
palms.
areca
village
impressed for warfare, and because agricultural lands were destroyed
(poem) conveys a moving description of the miseries suffered in the wake
was to loot, the
compile texts that accorded particular attention to the standing of the king and potential status as cakkavatti, or universal
of the
marauding armies because
Salween River into the relative safety of the jungles in
the
A Malay syair
出ere
twice,
to a halt along the path of
was probably during this period出at the Karen of Myanmar began to
capital
and the
came
abandoned as people fled further into the
across
In 1782 Bodawpaya, the fifth
Cultivation
locations.
178os-183os气・" 315
as
several
thousand mules and horses) carrying cotton to
caravans ( sometimes as
Yunnan
to
exchange for
is
C.
Skinner,吐,The Battle for
(Dordrecht:
Foris, for
Junk Ceylon: the Syair Sultan Maulana. Text, Translation and Notes the Koninkl斗k Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 1985), 241-3.
316 ,・电A
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
Chinese
silk
was more than half that of the maritime-based revenues. Missions
China helped
to resolve
Bodawpaya is
remembered for his attention
to
the lack of discipline in the
strongly believed出at
monks who
Buddhism and his emphasis
with set
grounded rib as a
also
and
texts,
to
his reign he was
sangha and the ignorance of religious texts. He
did not reach required standards had no place
monaste叮,and as a result of his reforms
monks were
in the vinaya (monastic discipline).
Unsuccessful candidates were
from the monaste町,and
in outlying areas could
still
well-
tattooed on a
their teachers co叫d
be punished. The sangha was brought under greater central authority,
monks
in a
required to attend courses of study
submit to monthly examinations to ensure that they were
record of their failure and expelled
although
or ignore royal decisions. Bodawpaya took
resist
special interest in the compilation, dating,
a
and copying of Buddhist manuscripts, most While such measures were in themselves
notably correct translations of original texts. great acts of merit, they
monks involved in
accomplished yet another aim of creating monastic
factional disputes typically appealed to textual authority.
alphabet was approved for copying the Tipitaka,
sador to the
and Michael
with a lay
group that stressed meditation and a speculative ph过osophy more akin
Mahayana Buddhism. Yet despite or perhaps because of
border issues and address the problem of banditry.
particularly
on correct observance of Buddhist precepts. From the beginning of scandalized by
sent to
uni町,since
The Burmese
S严nes, the British ambas-
Amarapura cou时,was amazed by the thousands of manuscripts
in the ro归l
Myanmar maintained
groups,
people of
ASIA, 178os-183os
low caste in
Lanka
Sri
were forbidden to enter the Sinhalese
Burmese
the
sought ordination at
reputation as a center for Buddhist
its
capital of
on
monks did not necessarily agree
to
this proliferation of different activity.
When
monkhood, they
Amarapura. But Bodawpaya and leading
religious issues,
and al由ough by 1812 he had
monkhood signaled opposed出e monks potential problems. Relations were especially fraught when some campaigns against Siam and when the sangha refused to recognize him as the fifth Buddha abandoned his reform efforts, his intense involvement with the
of the
present
world
cycle.
was the deteriorating relations with Britain. Between 1795 and 1811 a series of missions from Kolkata in British India attempted to open up diplomatic relations, establish a post at Yangon, and secure access to Myanmar’s teak. The Ultimately a far
lack of
success
contributed to traditional
more
serious issue
and what the growing
saw
British
as deliberate humiliation of their representatives
now impinged on
friction because British India
sphere of influence. Attention focused particularly
Myanmar’s
on the border areas of
where Bodawpaya was asserting his prerogatives as overlord. In Burmese client was placed on the Manipur throne, and in 1817 another was
Manipur and Assam, 1812 a
marriages governor of Assam. Connections were also strengthened because Manipuri, were astrologers were arranged with princesses仕om these areas, most court and were a key component of Myanm缸’s installed as
collection.
In promoting sangha unity, disputes as to
Bodawpaya attempted to put an end to the long-standing whether monastic robes should be worn over one or both shoulders.
Whereas Alaungpaya had supported the one-shoulder pa町,it was proscribed
under
captive or recruited
Manipuri horseman
且ghting forces.
two-shoulder party. Favored
The issue of boundary demarcation became increasingly serious as refugees fled丘om Myanmar into British-controlled territories and as Burmese forces pressed further into
teacher
borderlands in pursuit of rebels.
the next ruler.
affairs,
Bodawpaya resolved the controversy by issuing
a decree
in favor of the
monks were appointed to lead monasteries, and his own became Supreme Patriarch. He created a Council of Elders to oversee religious
delegated an official to supervise
and keep records of monastic
amount accumulated by monasteries, and appointed another discipline. In
an
effort to enforce
Buddhist teachings
among
lands to
limit the
to maintain monastic
ordinary people, numerous
pagodas were built and proscriptions against gambling and intoxicants rea伍rmed. 1787 the Emperor of China even sent a Buddha image from the imperial palace. Despite the chroniclers' praise, divisions in the
it
is
monkhood were only
evident that Bodawpaya’s partially successful
In
his influence
in
monastic affai川as always limited, as was gener吻the case岛r reform-minded rulers: His reign was marked by the emergence of dissident monks who questioned the materiai aspects of merit-making, rejected the practice of venerating
monks and Buddha
statues,
denied reincarnation, and preached the existence of a supreme deity, the world Though the leaders were arrested as heretics, since such radical doctrines were beyond the creator.
pale even
century, faced
often led
the
by individuals in the min-laung tradition. In the early nineteentn
by peasant discontent and military setbacks, Bodawpaya be
m
。lved
from
British control,
and
his
view of
his position in
his world was dramatically conveyed in a court ceremony, where a hundred of
by dressed as foreign kings.
Bodawpaya's grandson Bagyidaw,
who
men
monarch of succeeded in 1819 as the seventh
and Konbaung dynasty, thus inherited a sangha increasingly strained by new sects British India along their secular reformists, as well as the danger of confrontation with common borders. Bagyidaw' s gen叫Maha Bandt此persuaded him to send…p?g Burmese tnbutanes, forces to Assam and Manipur so由at they would be retained as the
devastation." Though period which the Manipuri called the “seven years of a出口inis- boundaries between these areas and British India were never clearly defined,
the
initiating a
trators in
by the灿
the飞rillage level,
Bodhgaya, Buddhism’s holiest city,
paraded
the efforts to repair
and由at
as By this time Bodawpaya reputedly claimed suzerainty 趾west as Dacca, with a royal order even entitling him to collect revenue from由es town ot places. At one point he even considered raising an army to丘ee the Indian
Kolkata were angered
deemed British territo巧. Was appointed
The
when Burmese
situation
remained
what was armies pursued rebels into Bandula 1824, after Maha
tense,
governor of Assam, Burmese troops
and
made
in
Chittagong. ready to march on
・-
317
318制‘A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
and they would be forced
由出luck would soon turn foresee出at the the
29
They could not then
War would break out a quarter centu町later, or that
was already closing
in.
Mainland
The Central In
next Anglo-Burmese
shadow of colonialism
to leave.
ASIA, 178os-183os a咽’319
some ways the situation in the Central Mainland
is
reminiscent of
Myanmar
in the
Chakri rulers of Siam and their understanding of their place Chakri in the world was rather different from that of the Konbaung. In 1782, Chaophraya but the attitudes of the
1750s,
(Rama
Siam that I
commander, was enthroned as ruler of the kingdom of had been reconstituted by Taksin more than a decade before. Rama
a successful
I),
immediately established a
but popularly called palace at
ruthlessly
response was swift and decisive. In May a British fleet moved Irrawaddy Delta and took Yangon with little resistance (see Figure 7.3). Bagyidaw's armies were driven out of Assam, Rakhine, and Manipur, and despite campaign mismanagement British forces
eventual忖advanced towards Amarapura. The cost was
fighting lasted nearly
two
years,
and the
British lost almost
substantial; the
half their forces in the
first
defeated
take the meritorious path of givi鸣也e
Engl出what they
desired. His gove盯1ment由
ag陀ed to the Trea竹of
Ya毗bo, which required Myanmar to c优T叩asserim… pay an indemnity of around a million pounds, and renounce all Assam and Manipur, now British protectorates. Yangon and the surrounding
Rakhine to the claims to
The court chronicle noted that “the English
for our faith
Taksin’s
had
earlier
claimed for Siam.
Rama I also moved quickly to affirm authority
could be tolerated,
and
No
resistance to
a rebellion in the
demands
for tribute
Malay kingdom of Patani
suppressed. Writing to Dutch-controlled Melaka
Terengganu expressed his anger and resentment
in
and human in 1791
to request help, the
was
Malay
unambiguous terms:“The
canals
to construct thousands of Cambodians and Lao were impressed Emerald and buildings in the new capital, including the Grand Palace where the their
own
Buddha, taken In a
taxes,
from Vientiane in 1779, was housed.
pattern可pical of those attempting to establish a
loyal可of his followers
by rewarding family and
new d严iasty, Rama I ensured the
suggest由at supporters. Several projects
power by modeling his regime on abandoned Ayutthaya. He built his new palace in the Ayut由aya style with bricks from the ordered the recom- site, recreated court ceremony according to Ayutthaya traditions, and was deliberately seeking to legitimize his seizure of
pilation
of Ayutthaya histories destroyed during the 1767
Burmese
invasion. Yet these
measures were not intended to revive the past, but to demonstrate that出e
new kingdom
British,
terri
boundaries.
from
but the was content when I sent him the bunga mas dan perak polities present king thinks only of ruining me.'’30 The same held true in regard to the Lao could Bangkok to and Cambodia. Although smaller muang on the Khorat plateau subject
he
many of them through disease. Nonetheless, the Burmese army was and Maha Bandula killed. In February 1826, Bagyidaw’s advisers urged him to
twelve months,
City of the Angels)
located directly across the river
previous king [Taksin]
collect
into the
Kolkata’s
(
Lao states that Taksin had brought under Siamese control, and over A严It由aya’s
resources
of
named Krungthep
in various parts of the count巧,including Chiang Mai,
Malay tributaries to the south.
former
ruler
Bangkok, which was
Burmese invasions
which Taksin over the
capital, officially
Combined with his ab过ity to rally support, the experience of Rama I as commander was soon demonstrated. In 1785 and 1786 Siamese troops were
repel
able to
new
Thonburi.
a military
Figure 7.3.“The attack of the stockades at Pagoda Point on the Rangoon River." The first Anglo-Burmese War began in May 1824, when a force of five thousand British soldiers and over _ five thousand Indian sepoys entered the Yangon harbor. Drawn by a participant, this illustration ot July 8 shows British boats car可ing troops to attack Burmese stockades along the Irrawaddy River. The flotilla included the steamship Diana, called the “fire devil" by the Burmese. As the first steam vessel used in Bay of Bengal warfare, the Diana was a potent symbol of European technology Courtesy of Ames Library, University of Minnesota.
military
and
are devoid of reverence
and
are a people
who show no respect
religious feelings,”citing predictions
that
Account of how the The End of the First Anglo-Burmese War: the Burmese Chronicle o阳Treaty of Yi叫bo was Negotiated伽gkok: Chulalongk川niv,叫?::s?::.9:r??;二, National Archives of VOC 3967, Secret, King of Terengganu t
29
Anna
Allott,
The Netherlands:
6
October 1791.
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
320 -飞A
was A严1tthaya's legitimate successor. Several families prominent since Ayutthaya times remained influential in Rama I's government, such as the Bunnag, descended from Persian traders who had come
to
Ayutthaya in the early seventeenth century and known
long history of royal service. marriage
Rama I was
closely linked to the
family through
and from the time of his succession they headed or occupied high
ties,
in the administration.
However, the composition of the court had
death or incarceration
of Chakri enemies, and
come from
Bunnag
the old aristocracy but
also
been
The
(normally ineligible for higher positions in the bureaucracy).
positions
altered by出e
a significant proportion of the
from minor nob过ity or non-royal
for their
elite did not
trading
close relationship
between these commercially involved families and the Chinese community was cant factor in strengthening
1786
when
the
Rama
support,
I's
Qing Emperor of China
officially
and
his position
families
was
acknowledged him
a signifi-
recognized
in
as the legitimate
ruler of Siam.
described as a “revolution”in Thai history, the changes
regarded as revolutionary, albeit manifested in a
moral
many
crisis,
older traditions,
I
was convinced
initiated have
also been
subtle form. Even though he
A yutthaya' s臼H was
due
to a
be destroyed.
Closely related to than a legal
system
accumulated/I
poem Rama
Burmese in 1785 as Naresuan's victories two hundred years
celebrates his victories over the
ran and fled for their lives/ A great
vow
to give
all
my
a series of laws issued
many were killed/With this
showing
his
earlier.“The Burmese
transcendent
between 1782 and 1801 the sangha was
monk
monastery of residence, and those
were demoted. Recalling actions by
N arai
himself
I
a Buddhist triumph,
virtue
support/to the upholding of the Buddhist
renewed attention given to monastic discipline. Every
the recopying of the entire Tipitaka that
I
have
religion.")!
reformed, with
was required
modern
legal
who had supported
Thai Buddhist Three
was reorganized in a and in a rewriting
manner
word
act, but
Rama I commissioned was elevated into the most
religious authorities to
review the entire Pali canon. Monastic support
for the throne
and the was ensured by giving monks special honors, and by recognizing that the sangha Supreme Patriarch had ultimate authority in the interpretation of Buddhist scriptures.
more prominence
hero’s capital is
a pro-
The Traibhumikatha,
to lived experiences.
the
in the fourteenth century,
to the world of
of the Ramakien, the Thai version of the Ramayana,
human
beings,
the geographic
Bangkok. Translations and adaptations of
Mon, Malay一including a rendering of the romance, Three Kingdoms (Sam Kok in Thai), were selected and were not merely entertaining but presented appropriate models
promoted because they of behavior.
was not the obvious choice for king, since his mother was of lower rank, but he had由e support of the powerful Bunnag family. He succeeded to a calm and relatively prosperous kingdom, which allowed for the Rama
II (r.
1809一24), the eldest
and
son of Rama
I,
Rama
II
literature.
was
a talented poet
and dramatist
in
own right and the group he gathered around him included Sunthorn Phu ( 1786-1855), “山regarded as the foremost writer of the nineteenth centu巧. The impressive literary production of this period covered a range of genres, most notably a new version of the in long narrative poem named for its two heroes, Khun Chang Khun Phaen. Though set Thai sixteenth-century A严1tthaya, this popular story of love and war reveals much about attitudes in
the ear忖Bangkok period. The self-confidence that infuses these writings
prosperi可of Bangkok life (see incomes through
Figure
the junk trade,
officials
profiting
booming.
Manas Chitakasem,“Politics and Thai Literature,”in L. J. Mallari-Hall and Lily R. Tope, (Quezon City, Text and Contexts: Interactions between Literature and Culture in Southeast Asia
feature of the period is出e
W odds cosmology composed
that gave
Siam and the
Chinese historical
Another
as the basic
works, which differed仕om traditional genres because of
nounced effort to relate the written venerated
from three important
known as the Three-Seals Law (Code). Until the introduction
企ame of reference for Siam’s judicial decisions.
his
in the seventeenth centu叩,these
seal of approval
system in the early twentieth centu巧,this Code served
blossoming of court culture
(the he convened the Ninth Buddhist Council monks Eighth had been held in Chiang Mai in the fifteenth century), bringing together 250
l?bor or
is itself
and a reflection of出vitality their
7.4).
and the
Rama I and his nobles had supplemented ranking same held true for Rama II, wi由high-
even more than before, in part because the
rice trade to
China was
Revem
full叫va叫e
Cited in
1999), 59.
and出us became
ministries,
to car叩
prestigious event of his reign. In 1788
eds.,
The document received the
irregular
measures sent a clear signal that the sangha would not be le位to police itself. All Buddhist kings regarded the production of religious texts as a meritorious
31
was recodifed in 1805, blending the best of the surviving A严1tthaya laws with
from other languages - Persian,
of their religious actions were similar. Indeed, a
less
tenth of which had survived a丘er the sacking of Ayutthaya in 1767. The Siamese
new provisions.
of a
the regulation of Buddhism was the compilation of legal material,
literature
deliberate忖recalling阳ng
and
these
for example, believing that foreign
would find the ancient veneration of phallic symbols offensive, he ordered出at
visitors
have been motivated by competition with his contemporary Bodawpaya,
assert his spiritual
Rama I expressly refused to be involved in
the other hand, he was concerned about the way his subjects
clearly
many
activities
I
often been
for
practiced Buddhism and the perceptions of outsiders;
setting is
since so
identification
On
debates.
doctrinal
from Bodawpaya,
superiority.
also
Through
Rama
Rama
more
and he was therefore especially concerned to
He may
composed
regard he differed
production of literary
Whereas the ve巧public events of 1688 following the death of Narai have
reaffirmed
In this
ASIA, 1780S-183os
们iam' s economic opportuni恼,since由ey were
not subject to
co凹? e
to阳毗res
tin-mining
enterprises
and cash crops such
as tobacco
and
sugar, while retaining
meiI
r ,
321
322
!?,??
A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400-1830
ASIA, 178os-183os
months. In 1822 the practice whereby royalty and senior nobles were
出ree to
four
marshal
groups of people to
gave the central
sense of agricultural resources and the amount of rice that could
administration a greater be expected in taxes.
work for them was banned. Other measures
able to
A
survey of
arable land, covering the central plains and
all
its
immediate surroundings and including areas to the north, recorded the name of the
Allowing land to
owner and a description of the field.
These ancient
lie
fallow was absolutely forbidden.
measures were part of the process by which Siam sought
independent
muang
of Lan
Na
to incorporate the
into the administrative fold of the expansive
kingdom. Fighting against Burmese forces had been particularly intense
in the
new
Chiang Mai
and efforts to assert Bangkok’s preeminence st山faced resistance in a region which
area
yearned to restore its
proud legacy of
a separate
and
distinctive
domain. Opposition to
Siamese control was also evident in the predominantly Lao-speaking the northeast. In 1820 around six thousand people in this region joined an
extension of
the
areas
of
by a monk, but the rebellion was crushed and leaders of the minority communities executed. Although Vietnam also received tribute仕om Lao rulers, the uprising led
regarded the three Lao polities across the
Siamese clearly vn可w
.:'IP
THI":
C芒TT
OP
出e
EAU''
Figure 7.4.“View of the city of Bangkok.”This view of the approaches to Bangkok in 1828 shows Chinese shops edging the Chao Phraya River and behind them Dusit Mahaprasat, the throne hall built by King Rama I for royal ceremonies and state occasions. Crawfurd’s account describes Bangkok’s numerous glittering Buddhist temples, the women vendors and Buddhist monks crossing the river,出e bustling harbor filled with native boats of every description, and the numerous large Chinese j山1k.s, one of which is depicted on出e left. John Crawfu时,Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and
Cochinchina (Henry Colburn: London, 1828. Reprint, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University
Press, 1967),
opp. 78.
no巾,Vientiane in the center,
subservient part
depicts a
groups
map drawn up during出e
in the collection of traditional jungle products for markets in China,
Cambodia, southern Vietnam, and the British entrepots of Penang and Singapore. During the 1820s around two thousand Chinese were annually arriving in
has been estimated that in 1825 the Chinese - most of
comprised around 4.75 percent of a
Some Chinese migrants were
total
Bangkok
whom
were
alone, and
Bangkok
in
population of around three to four
assimilated into the workforce
by voluntarily
it
-
million.
cutting their
queue and by being tattooed to show that they were a phrai under a certain master or nai. In this case they were known as Cin phrai (“A Chinese who is a phrai" Others remainεd outside the system, and
became
a source of free
tion occurred as wealthy Chinese
men
and mobile wage
sent back to
China
labor.
Some
overlord of the
for brides.
to the throne,
and debt
II to take
came In 1810, just a year a丘er he
he ordered a census that would enumerate available manpower.
III (r. 1824一51),
regarded himself as由e uneq山vocal
Lao tributary kingdoms and therefore had no hesitation (r.
1805-28), to appear
in ordering
Chao
at court, organize deliveries of timber
and
of
descendants of overlordship.
Chao Anou' s request
for the return of the
Lao captives provided the
Chao Anou’s goal was
and Khorat plateau,
catalyst for a
famed Emerald Buddha and
major rebellion against Siamese
in the north- to take control of Lao-populated areas extension direct Siamese control and where the
which were under there by tattooing to include Lao communities was bitterly resented. In fact, was little hope of an earthquake that success, and even before the campaign was under way forces of around shook Vientiane was interpreted as an omen of disaster. Though Lao twenty thousand moved deep into the Khorat plateau, they were poorly coordinated and east
of registration
vastly
ou
Lao
白e Lao.
chron忱“one heard the noise In disciplined
rank and
The inevitable defeat also
file
of削ant hill mard向阳川the coun町雪
brought ruthless
,,.,L
They were a multitude. members suppression. Chao Anou and leading
they crossed the border
..
・
All fugitives
were required to return to their former masters, but new provisions allowed for some to seek a new patron, and the length of corvee service was reduced to slaves
Rama
palm trees, and supply laborers for digging canals and other public works. In 1826-8
the rejection
of a
The confidence generated by the Bangkok environment encouraged Rama
new steps to tighten control over the country’s resources.
resinifica-
years of the Chakri regime出at
and over 160悦llages, as being within Siamese boundaries.
Anou, ruler of Vientiane
dominance
first
small area in southern Laos, identi马ring the location of three different ethnic
Inheriting these attitudes,
sugar
in
in the south) as a “secondary nation,”a
of the “Siamese Empire." Bangkok’s colonial attitude towards the Lao
suggested in a
areas is
and Champasak
Mekong (Luang Prabang
12
?:;!?:::,r:;',?;;:;:v;?
?:?/c?;;?:,・iti:;??・i::;工::uc;1a:?::;:r::::,e?;?;{
170.
τ;;--
323
归咎A HI…Y OF EARLY MODERN SOUTH…山,140叫30 of the uprising were taken to in iron cages
and
reviled
Bangkok
Ang Chan
war captives where they were publicly displayed
by passers-by. different.
Although the Cambodian
1797-1835), continued to send missions to Bangkok,
(r.
Oudong
Vietnamese faction dominated the
court. In 1807
Ang Chan
a pro-
placed himself
under the “protection”of the newly united Vietnam. Twice a month, wearing Vietnam-
gowns supplied by Hue, Ang Chan and entourage were required
ese bureaucratic a
Vietnamese temple near the
bearing
Emperor Gia
Long’s
more amenable
with a
new
name.
client,
Phnom Penh and bow
capital of
Rama
II
had
initially
planned
to visit
before a
to replace
tablet
Ang Chan
but he faced the prospect of confronting forces
sent to
safeguard Vietnam’s interests. His pragmatic decision to temporarily forego claims overlordship allowed control,
Cambodia
to
fall
increasingly under Vietnamese control. Yet
which entailed greater monetization, fixed
to popular discontent,
and
in
taxes,
and more
1820 the forced recruitment of
repair a 44-mile (70-kilometer) canal
the tipping-point. In southeastern
from the frontier
Cambodia near
five
to
this
co凹衍,contributed
thousand
to the port of
Ha
were
the
Tien provided
a sacred
by a combined Vietnamese-Khmer army led by famed m过ita巧eunuch, Le Van Duyet. The leaders were summarily executed, and the easily defeated
Vietnamese did not withdraw from Cambodia until the 1840s, after an extended occupation which saw an unprecedented degree of interference in Cambodia’s political
and
A
cultural affairs.
was the northern Malay
manpower but where Malay
loyalty
states,
which were an important
was constantly
in question. Here
too the early Chakri rulers tolerated
no opposition. Following a rebellion in 1808, Patani seven provinces and thousands of captives transported back to Bangkok.
was divided into Kedah was another target of Siamese attention, for it had been forced to contribute forces to help subdue Patani and was again ordered to launch a punitive attack on its neighbor Perak when the latter failed to submit the customary tribute of the gold and silver flowers. In 1821, a丘er the the humiliating
Kedah
continued to
ruler refused to offer personal
homage
to
Bangkok and perform
were
mount
killed or enslaved,
attacks
by
its
1ad no wish
states,
Nor
did Britain have
although the expan-
economic interests in the Malay Peninsula was already envisaged. While
over
three
Malay states (Kedah, Kelantan, Terengganu). Patani was placed firmly borders while the more southerly Perak ruler, supported by Britain, was
northern
within Siam’s
allowed to
further
ity
the“Treaty of
concept,
renounce
down
the
tributary obligations to Bangkok.
all
Malay Peninsula had thus been halted by the
around ten thousand Malays, most of
campaigns against
Kedah and
rival
when
the
first
Chakri ruler was
and territorial losses
were most evident in the defeat
not
installed,
and the new
suffered by Siam’s traditional
Bangkok court heard and accepted the unambiguous message that it now expand beyond borders that Europeans had defined and that the key to
in this
survival
future, is
Rama
III
depicts
environment must be compromise. This
nicely
and
is
equal in
set in a
royal
In this
power. Royal authority
should lead to war,
there
is
is
no preeminent
may have
by
awareness that
national
world in which
vast resources but are essentially
commerce will collapse, but if kings all “behave according
The text’s stress
growing
cakkavati; rather, the
restricted to the boundaries of individual kingdoms. If
countries will prosper and
tradition" their
unmarked by
partially written
world of Sukhothai. The narrator, Lady Nophamat, in a manner that is markedly different from traditional
new conceptualization
tongues in all lands.”34
important for the
fictionalized
composed of various states which
competition
realization, so
conveyed in a prose text thought to have been
interstate relations
geographies.
was
had been captured during
Myanmar. The
could
to
whom
Patani.
Much had changed since 1782, realities
“sphere of influence"
of past conflicts was evident in the population of Bangkok, which
but the legacy
now included
The extension of Siam’s author-
“their praises [will]
be sung in
all
on由e necessity of political pragmatism points to
European intervention was fundamentally reshaping
Siam had operated
the inter-
so successfully. In this sense,
any watershed event, the historical era that
we have
called “early
a
though
modern"
coming to an end.
while the ruler escaped to Penang. Malay exiles
on Siamese garrisons
in
Kedah, but an uprising
in 1831 was
and Kedah’s vassal status confirmed. numerous vassals, Bangkok was aware that Britain could well be seen
resentful lords as a potential source of support. It
卢riti
Siam in regard to the northern Malay
confront
formally ratified,
The Eastern
eventually suppressed
In dealing with
provinces and the richest throne in the East."33
Amity and Commerce" signed with the East India Burney in 1826 agreed that in return for the removal of Company’s representative Henry restrictions and duties on trade, Britain would unofficially recognize Siamese overlordship
ceremony of obeisance, a Siamese force invaded. Thousands of Malays
fled as refugees, or
of fifty-seven
of their
never
world
third area of attention
source of rice and
sion
laborers to
mountain (Ba Phnom), a monk pronounced himself king and declared that he would institute a new society where the Vietnamese would no longer be masters. Despite a belief in their invulner- ab过ity, his forces
“ruler
any desire to
Cambodia were rather
Bangkok’s policies towards king,
as
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 178os-183os
was soon
h「it
all
the
the evident, however, that
nopes, no assistance was given to the ruler of Kedah against Siam, and a non-committal reply was sent to a similar overture from the lord of Chiang Mai, who described himself as
Mainland
southern realm of
Dang Trong. Escaping
Pap的With…
兑::r?ur?ey ?rn?tional Publishers, 4 Cited
1971), vol. V, part
m Nidhi, Pen and Sail,
244-5.
1,
89.
to Siam, N♂iyen
Phuc Anh
(the future
c;
325
326
?i♀1
MODERN SOUTHEAST
A HISTORY OF EARLY
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 1400一1830
Gia Long), claimant to the N凯1yen domain, had hopes of returning with
ASIA, 178os-183os
Bangkok’s
1784队renty thousand soldiers and three thousand ships supplied by Rama reached the south by land via Cambodia and by sea across the Gulf of Siam. However,
assistance. In I
numbers and some initial success, the Siamese forces were pushed back and Nguyen Anh was st过l intent on regaining his heritage, Rama I gave up any
despite their
although
fur出er idea of intervention.
The Tay Son army, reinforced by a fleet of four hundred
ships, then
moved northwards,
where
political infighting, a palace
fragile
Trinh regime. In 1786 a ten-year truce with the Trinh was broken by
coup, and a severe famine were threatening the
already
a
Tay Son
attack, justified by the claim that the authority of the Le emperors would be Trinh power collapsed, and the second Tay Son brother (Nguyen Hue) took the
northern
capital of
Thang Long, even marrying
a favorite daughter of the Le ruler. The
restored.
latter st山
new son-in-law, however, and in 1788 he fled to China where he asked the Qing emperor to intervene on his behalf, an act which led Nguyen Hue to harbored suspicions of his declare himself as the
Quang Trung Emperor, and thus inaugurate a new Nguyen Hue was able to restore
defeating a Chinese invasion in 1789,
China, receiving Qing affirmation as the legitimate ruler of Chinese name meaning“the Pacified South."
Tay Son concern became evident
to recti命past injustices
in areas
under
their control.
and
to initiate a
An Nam, new
dynasty. After relations with
the
traditional
style of government
A reformed tax system and other incentives
encouraged peasants to return to their villages and to cultivate rice, and the Tay Son leadership gained support through burning tax documents, imprisoning or executing tax collectors
and other unpopular
officials,
traditional beliefs, claiming supernatural
and opening
rice
warehouses. They
powers over wind and rain and
also tapped
Figure 7.5.‘'View of the Thu Bon (Faifo) River south of Da Nang.”This engra世ng was published in an account of Lord McCartn町’s visit to由e Tay Son court. It depicts the estua叮of the Thu Bon River leading up to Hoi An, which was st过l an important trade center in the late eighteenth centu巧r despite
silting. The row『galleys depicted here, from fifty to eighty feet long, were made of several planks held together by wooden pins and fiber ropes. 0丘en finely decorated,出ey carried umbrellas, streamers, and flags denoting the status of the passengers si忧ing in the bow. John Barrow, A Voyage to Cochinchina in the Years 1792 and 1793 (London: T. Cadell and W. Davies, 1896. Reprint,
some river single
Kuala
their
flaunting
Cham sword. Yet they simultaneously drew on established ideas about the role of kings, accepting advice from Confucian scholars, asserting their own possession of a magical
righteousness and virtue,
and even sponsoring the translation of Confucian
nom. Like past rulers of Vietnam, they regarded the Lao areas in 1790 and looting Luang Prabang in 1791. Maintaining
this
classics into
polities as vassals, invading
these
new regime, however, was only possible under unified leadership, but
Tay Son brothers were themselves at odds, with tensions erupting into armed combat. Their position was severely undermined by the premature death of the Quang Trung Emperor in 1792 and that of his elder brother the following year. Continuing at
“the
Nguyen forces in the southern region led to tensions with local since villagers were not only conscripted for military service but were required to u?e
populations,
mon坏labor, and
when men were
go仙Even women and
unavailable to
work on
contrib-
巾
canals, dikes,
and
cases fortifications. In such
One Confucian
adviser thought
it
Son necessary to remind the Tay
Cham, and Khmer were
disappointed by unfulfilled king"
felt由e do not recognize the authority of father and brunt of growing Tay Son host山ty.36 For the growing numbers of those who felt aggrieved or victimized, the reinstatement of the N伊yen became more and more attractive. promises while Christians “who
By the
late
In Siam, return to power seemed increasingly possible. (1741-99), the French missionary Bishop Pierre Pigneau de Behaine
1780s a
Nguyen
Nguyen Anh had met who saw an alliance with the Vietnamese prince as a way to further Catholic missionizing. Although the bishop succeeded in persuading the French king to sign a treaty in 1787, any promised support仕om France disappeared with the outbreak of the French Revolution recruit French two years later. Pigneau de Behaine was thus forced to use his own funds to
fear
was often the only means by which Tay Son authority was sustained, and for many peasants the reappearance of corrupt, arbitrary, and u时ust officials was depressingly familiar.
people are the foundation of the count可;也ey are the stable base of the newly pacified
state.咐Earlier supportive Chinese,
times the
conflict with
Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1975). Courtesy of George Dutton
that
35
6
Cited in
George Dutton, The Tay Sσn Uprising: Society and Rebellion
(Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2006), 28.
Vietnam
Historiques Adrien Launay, Histoire de la mission de Cochinchine, 1658-1823: Documents Missions Etrangeres de Paris: Indes savantes, 2000) vol III: 119.
Cited in (Paris:
in Eighteenth-century
句气
327
328 t霄,A
HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
mercenaries in India. Meanwhile,
Nguyen Anh had returned and after years of frustration
as
was able
Saigon in 1788. Arriving in 1789, Pigneau de
continued. In the
to reestablish control of
small force of around a
hundred
men and
their
knowledge of
artillery
and
Behaine’s
fortification
construction contributed to N♂1yen Anh’s efforts to consolidate his position
in the
southern region.
was
at best half-hearted,
literati class as well as the Chinese and
the great advantage of
Nguyen
forces was白白
domination of the Vietnam coast. French officers were enlisted to train the Nguyen navy, and from the 1790s Nguyen Anh ordered the construction of dockyards to build well-
armed
vessels in a style that
combined European and Chinese
launched the “monsoon wars,”so
titles,
named because
Son positions and, Long in 1802.
Tay Son fleet at Qui Nhon and the city’s Nguyen army was able to move up the coast by sea, avoiding Tay led by Nguyen Anh himself, crossing the Linh River and taking Thang the
had
of
lasted for nearly a quarter
a
had never before been ruled as a single kingdom. Yet despite the reign name which N凯iyen Anh selected - Gia Long, a combination of Gia Dinh (Saigon/Ho Chi Minh Ci可) and Thang Long (Hanoi) -由e count巧remained some extent partitioned. Gia to
area of direct control
was around
the capital Hue, while the south and
no口h
were under governors who had served as his chief military suppo口ers. An important step was therefore to assert the country’s unity and independence. Aware that the Chinese court persisted in using the term “An
of
Nam
Nam" (Pacified South), rather than Dai Viet (Great 1803 Gia Long sent an envoy to the Qing emperor asking for investiture as“ruler Viet" (the Southern Viet). The long historical memory of the Chinese, however,
associated this
name with an ancient southern kingdom that had resisted central au出ority
and had spanned both
sides of the nineteenth-century
r句ecting Gia Long’s request, the
and the name the
Mekong
“Viet
Nam"
Delta. This
Chinese proposed
border.
Sino-Vietnamese
instead that the characters be
be applied to the entire count町from the northern
borders
was not the name the Vietnamese desired, and by 1813
1?
reversed, to
they had
generally reverted to using“Dai Viet."
Gia Long’s
first
family’s traditional
何叫与in tl川oli削ly
and economicall内1portant northern
core.
legitimacy,
H协mily
never been associated with this part of the country. Opposition to his rule was
bad
st山strong,
to offer regular
power base, was
built
on
model of Be斗ing, the Chinese capital, and Chinese artisans were even brought from
Chinese system,
such as the introduction of a monthly salary and
first
carried out in 1805
status in
social
lation register,
information
and then
and
social hierarchy.
A land measurement
revised annually, allocated plots according to
accordance with Confucian ideas of propriety. Combined with the popu-
about individual peasants and their agricultural holdings.
Gia Long’s
effi。此s
Chan of Cambodia
elite
culture in Vietnam,
came
particularly evident
to
Hue
Ang
to appeal for help against his Siam-backed brother, Gia
him back with an
escort of thirteen thousand
and Cambodia were expected
mandala tradition, the Lao both Bangkok and Hue; between 1812 and 1813 Gia Long received
submit tribute to
many as 127 elephants. In south-central
was
to replicate the Chinese system of diplomacy. In 1813, after
Long responded as overlord, sending
to
allowance for
the use of land records as the basis of taxation provided extremely detailed
The admiration of China, intrinsic to in
rice
Promulgated in 1812, the Gia Long code emulated that of the Qing, giving
officials.
states
some
respects
Panduranga,出e rump
of the
last
Vietnam, though effectively a Vietnamese administrative
as
Cham polity in unit,
was
also
and the privileges accorded to the “regimental commander" ( a member Cham royal family) meant that the Cham could still regard him as their king. At
treated as a vassal,
of the
court
ceremonies, for instance, he
was seated with the Khmer and Lao
rulers,
not with the
Vietnamese mandarins. In Vietnam’s reconfigured diplomatic world even groups like出e Jarai
of the central
But the
highlands could become
dream of creating
completely achieved.
“tributaries."
a Chinese-style capital
The prima叩reason was
introduction of a Chinese-可pe
and administration was never
the low level of bureaucratic centralization,
M出authority delegated to representatives located at
some distance仕om由e capital. The
mandarinate was impeded because
civil
service examin-
introduced in 1807, were only held every six years in regional centers rather than men, but every three years at the capital. The successful candidates were typically northern their numbers were insufficient to fill the administrative posts in Vietnam’s twenty-seven ations,
provinces,
and so more than half the positions were held by military veterans丘om由e
叫Village headmen W盯O伍cial charged
concern was to reestablish order and assert his own
reinsti-
Envoys were sent
and then
to request investiture
Vietnamese troops. In the
territ。可that
Viet), in
first
Hue, the N思1yen
insurrections
was the
Guangzhou to teach Vietnamese workers. Legislative measures again mirrored the
this support
centu巧and had cost thousands of lives. Although there were st诅pockets of Tay Son resistance and lingering loyalty to the Le dynasty, the Nguyen were now masters of a
own
at
program,
subsequent
This vict。可marked the end of a struggle that
Long’s
The new capital
prima巧attention to maintaining the political
to
and
status as capital,
of a Chinese-style administration associated with past greatness.
China seven times during his reign,
the
its
culturally appropriate solution
to
merchant ships in return for a share of the booty. Nonetheless,
From 1800
Vietnamese context the
the preva且ing winds were used
could not prevent destruction of the capture.
Long’s loss of
he
providing them with sturdy, well-equipped vessels, and encouraging them
raid passing
to
Thang
techniques. In 1793
mount repeated attacks on the Tay Son stronghold of Qui Nhon in central Vietnam. The Tay Son responded by incorporating Chinese pirates into their naval forces, awarding them
tution
tribute.
Although anticipated support from the Christians
was resentment over
ASIA, 178os-183os铲寄去 329
dates.
Yet in
lists
candi- of eligible examination the elders, who still wielded
many respects they remained agents of the village
know-
because of the administration was further hampered not of Chinese culture was so unevenly spread, and even court protocol did
greatest
ledge
with出1portant duties such as comp且ing the influence. Sinification
330卢也A HISTORY OF EARLY
MODERN SOUTHEAST
conform to Chinese precedent. In a ritual that would have been
necessarily
the Chinese, special veneration
The
difficulties
was accorded the
late as
1818
how
officials
it
the
spirits
quite foreign to
of the N事1yen elephant army.
of inculcating Chinese cultural features were especially pronounced
the ethnically diverse southern provinces,
As
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
ASIA, 140。一1830
new
registers to
some
show
districts to
Nor
Chinese-style laws should be compiled.
local
did administrative
reform bring an end to peasant rebellion, for over a hundred were reported during Gia Long’s eighteen-year reign. Northern scholars, like the poet Nguyen Du (1766一1820),
由e
famed
for his classic story of
new regime but were ambivalent about
human
its
fortitude,
legitimacy and
The Tale of Kieu,
Attempts to emulate China raised other issues, notably Vietnam’s Westerners, since Gia Long’s
list
served
future.
its
of purported vassals included not only
Vietnam.
the capital
but
Christians, but he
was the strongest and most innovative of
indicative, for instance, that shortly a丘er his succession
to acquire
smallpox vaccine and to be trained in
than his father,
its
all
the N凯1yen
rulers.
of
It is
However,
to a far greater extent
Minh Mang was preoccupied with reconstituting the Vietnamese poli可on
idealized Chinese lines. Because
ment had allowed
he believed that his
father’s
more
decentralized govern-
the governors in Hanoi and particularly Saigon to assume too much
power, his primary concern was the centralization of authority and the promotion “virtuous behavior."
To
this end,
he
of
revived reg时ar civil service examinations and
personally oversaw the appointment of provincial submit officials, requiring them to accounts of their conduct while in office in order to show that“the central and provincial
governments constitute one body."37 Although he considered his subjects to be often ignorant of Sinic ideals, he believed that they could be civilized through a strong and vigilant
government. In his words,“I do not dare to be
idle for
an
instant.”38 Written
descriptions of practices associated with for great Chinese emperors provided guidelines all court ritual, even the presentation of captured rebels to the throne, while moral maxims
were proclaimed to inculcate“good customs" and foster allegiance. The outbreak of the Opium飞Ivar in China in 1839, the British advance in China, and the alleged use of opium
Van
Duyet. The
been publicly dishonored by
The reform
from the north, was
neither a hidden valley nor a deep forest
it is
to
be integrated into a
Mang’s message was unequivocal:‘'The southern land .
.
is
far
You must improve
.
were founded
to foster a southern scholarly class, cadastral
women were even ordered the traditional sarong. On the other hand, he
discour-
Minh Huong)
to claim
entertainments were proscribed and rather than
tendency for the descendants of Ming loyalists (known as
a special
status
by ordering that the character
another character
with the same
for “huong”(丘agrance) be
to
changed
Ci时in Wood巾,Vietnam and伽Ch切倪e Model:
this
assimilation project, ethnic tensions
was tightened after rebellions in
Cham to
access to coastal trade.
forget their
were exacerbated. Control over the
1822 and 1828, and new
and acquire“central
Cham poem,“we had to endure
all
southern part of
steadily
exactions
Mang
felt
should be
Cambodia was
Khmer rebellion led by a former monk name
killed.
has put the southern regions under all
its
control
By 1838 Ming
of the count可he ruled
changed to“Dai Nam”(the “Great”or“Imperial" South)
the feet of the mountains, command."41
Cit,?d
words of one
and we were exhausted."40 The annexed丘om 1835, but labor and tribute
su伍ciently confident to propose that the official
the seas to
39
culture,”but in the
Vietnamese military posts before the leaders were
fact出at“our court
Cited
areas
restrictions greatly lessened
sorts of sorrows
generated widespread resentment, and a
overran several
Cham
From the Vietnamese perspective, Chams were being taught
“barbarian habits"
..
in recognition of the ・
From
the shores of
under our these lands are being brought
W
Choi Byung ook, Southern Vietnam under the Rei伊of Minh Mang (1820-1841): Central and Local Response (Ithaca: Cornell Southeast Asia Program, 2004), IOI. Assimilation of Campa in Choi, Southern Vietnam今142: Nicholas Weber,“The Destruction and in
l。832-5) as seen from George Dutton,
Jayne
26.
to
As lower-level Vietnamese of且cials, soldiers, and peasants were recruited to assist in
0
Ci毗州叫
wear
pronunciation but meaning“叫llage" or“local."
Policies
:: JU
丘om
were undertaken, shrines dedicated to state deities were established, popular
Chinese-style trousers
he sent a French doctor to Macau
use.
Minh
educational institutions
aged any
has suffered in Western historiography because of his treatment
able lieutenant Le
memo叩had
u川I
"licentious"
Mang
father’s
felt his
by血ial piety, sympathy, loyalty, and trust."39 In his unflagging campaign t 0
SU凹eys
Mi时1
people
was crucial if this region, so ethnically different
yourselves
means of ur
many
Minh Mang then introduced were motivated by the belief that state intervention
measures
to
as a
in the Be斗ing court could even encourage the idea that
in upholding ancient traditions.
Minh Mang, and a major rebellion erupted under Duyet’s adopted son.
Christianity
which the problems of using the Chinese model count叮became increasingly problematic.
but
died in 1832,
polities to the
was short-lived and he remained suspicious of European intrusion, agreeing trade only on certain conditions. His son Minh Mang succeeded in 1820 but inherited a
China
under the governorship of his
independently latter
relations with
Myanmar, but France and England as well. Although Gia Long recognized debt he owed Pigneau de Behaine and retained some French advisors, his interest in
situation in
by Minh Mang)
occupied by ethnic Khmer. This area had previously operated semi-
largely
Delta,
larger
west such as the
prohibited
Much of Minh Mang’s attention was focused on the southern areas and the Mekong
in
which were under their own governor in Saigon.
was necessary to send model
(strictly
Vietnam was superior to
ASIA, 178os-183os
Cam Sou;c♂JSEAS弘1 (Februa叩20叫η Werner and John
(Columb川nive哟Pr叽2斗叫2 6 0.
K.
Whitmore,
eds.,
Sources of Vietnamese Tradition
?.
331
332
6 A HISTO…F山…ODERN SOUTHEAST山,140叫30 Despite ships as
Minh
and the
EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST
Mang’s respect for Western knowledge and technology, such
court’s taste for
unfounded and
as steam-
Western products, Christian teachings were seen not merely but as a fundamental threat to state
irrational,
Church
stability.
opposition to cultural practices like ancestor worship was nothing new, but nineteenth century Christians were implicated in several insurrections. In 1826, all
missionary work was prohibited. Although congregations were
some mandarins were devout
and
scale,
in
exile,
maintained and of
From 1836 onward, persecution,
and death of Vietnamese Christians took place on an unprecedented
France protection of French missionaries and the Vietnamese flock became a
justification for m且itary intervention. In a
very real sense,
Minh Mang' s death in may differ, he had
1841 marks the end of a period, for although historical judgments
been able to articulate his
were
far
own
vision of what
Vietnam should
be. His successor’s options
more limited and even in retrospect it is diffict山to identi马, a course of action that
would have saved the Vietnamese people from the trauma of colonization.
and what was below rose up to above."42 As the forces of Western imperialism
pushed relentlessly forward,
the potential
calculate
The
in the
therefore,
Catholics, Christians were under constant suspicion
fomenting rebellion and of involvement in the black arts. imprisonment,
still
below,
ability
by aggressive resources ity.
rulers
European
political
own
economic and affairs
to
political policies.
was increasingly constrained
and economic measures backed by
and legitimized by an overweening
the considerable
belief in their inherent superior-
foreshadowed the可pe of colonial control
imposed in the Philippines exception of Siam.
and由eir advisers were compelled
in framing
of Southeast Asians to order their
of the state
and would eventually encompass
that
had already been
the entire region with the
In the past Southeast Asian responses to European incursion had taken
many forms, with local societies themselves deciding on options that could range仕om outright resistance
enabled so
to
compromise and accommodation. The
many people in all walks of life to exercise their
influences - a
outside
Southeast Asia’s“early
had by
had
own judgment in dealing with
hallmark of the previous three hundred years - had infused
modernity" with a unique character. By the 1830s
coming generations would
of mutually
agency
cultural confidence that
this confidence
no means disappeared, but disturbing questions had been raised about the kind of
of Europeans
会喜
even mainland
European reaction
These developments
world that
CONCLUSION
ASIA, 178os-183os俨泣333
inherit.
The technological and economic dominance
was fostering an imbalance that eroded
beneficial
arrangements possible
local capaci句to negotiate the kinds
in the past.
The undermining of indigenous
marks a significant division between the early modern and the
“colonial”periods.
In mainland Southeast Asia the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries are typiαUy
seen as a time of renewed energy that gave rise to
some of the most powerful dynasties in 42
regional history. In reviewing this period, political
in
it is
possible to see the cumulative processes of
and cultural consolidation that had taken place
which
certain ethnic groups
in
had been able to ensure
favored locations, and the ways their
permanent dominance
of
major polities. To a considerable degree the new creation of fixed boundaries determined by warfare and legalized through international treaty conventions stemmed from an
European demand for precision in delineati吨a state’s territories. The implica- tions of this development were quickly understood by some mainland Southeast Asian insistent
n过ers,
who now
used
this
n倒’diplomatic tool to stake their claims wi也in a
environment increasingly dominated by European states
interests.
political
The outlines of future nation-
were already beginning to take shape.
The
s缸ne period in island Southeast Asia has been associated with
retreat of indigenous po坦ties as the territorial
re,・ersal
and出t
entrenched
hold of Europeans became more and 邵阳region was canred up by European rivalries. It is important to remember, however, that in the island world the historical context was
veηF
different仕om由e
two hundred years earlier. Local societies attempted to deal wi白白e disruption brought about by European political and commercial intrusion as they had done success- situation
but the context had changed. Adaptation and readjustment were now found to be inadequate solutions in a time of unprecedented change. In the words of a fully in the past,
Malay
text,“the state
of the world was in a constant flux; what was above descended
to
G. L. Koster,“A Kin岛”in
(Bangi:
Nineteenth-century
Lampoon: the Poem of the Cobra-King and the Frog- Kai Lit, eds., New Perspectiv臼in Malaysian Studies Phua S., and
Political
Mohd. Hazim Shah, Jomo K.
Malaysian Socia} Science Association 2002), 40.
Conclusion: Southeast Asia and the early
period
modern
336、司怠A
HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
IlMi川…臼rly
I
mo…ia
controversial concepts:“Southeast Asia"
and
“early
we have
modern."
cont
historians
We have approached
Southeast Asia as a region that encompasses the current Association of South
Asian Nations (ASEAN), as well as certain contiguous areas neighboring“world regions”of East and South Asia.
We
now
incorporated
East
into the
are also aware that we have
located a Southeast Asia that predates the establishment of international borders
or
regional complexes determined
by governments, funding agencies, and academic insti- tutions. In the past many communities now included within modern nations were separated by inhospitable terrain or rough seas, and in other areas geography facilitated zones of
From
human
interaction that have
the outset, therefore,
in Southeast
we have seen
Asian history because of
relationship to contempora叮boundaries.
little
the physical environment as an integral element
its
key role in determining the extent
have advocated approaching the early
可mamic historical processes" that
interconnectedne队it
global
resources;
technologies;
promoted increased cross-cultural interaction.1
intensive
and human
and
ideas, information,
political institutions to cater to these developments.
by no means resulted in a homogenous
Lieberman has perceptively remarked,“it
Victor
A new
mob过ity; the rise of an urban commercial
and extensive exchanges of
and new economic and
These processes
in terms of a cluster of
argued, resulted in intensified use of land and natural
increased populations
religious revival;
class;
is
modern world
is
“early
modern" world
precisely this fluid
but, as
mix of
local
perspectives specificities with overarching commonalities that recommends comparative this period to local as well as global historiography."2 The history of Southeast Asia in
such an opportunity.
pro训des
to which
and economic pathways could draw different societies together into larger domains of communication and interaction. The multiple and complex connectivities that gave certain subregions in Southeast Asia cultural
their
own
around
coherence was the operative principle in our decision to structure the
specific zones, regardless of their relationship to
example, the zone nities in the
now form
we
modern
narrative
nation-states. As one
called the “Northern Archipelago”includes islands and
commu-
southern Philippines, northern Indonesia, Sabah (Malaysia), and Brunei
part of four contemporary countries.
At the same
time,
we
have
that
constantly
emphasized the interactions between the zones we have identified, particularly the cultural and economic exchanges made possible by maritime connections. Though the term “Southeast Asia"
is
applied anachronistically, the commonalities resulting from adapta-
tions to the cycles of rainfall cultural
and economic
and wind patterns
as well as the extensive
links support the notion of a distinctive region.
and
interactive
Not only
Euro-
peans but visitors from other areas of Asia repeatedly described Southeast Asia
somehow
different
from
their
own
countries. For the Arabs, the region was
called the lands “below the winds,”while the
and
Chinese consistently referred
seas to their south as“the southern ocean”or“the
these conceptualizations exactly corresponds to
what
Asia,”we regard the testimonies of early travelers as
as
collectively
to the lands
southern seas.”Although none
is
currently regarded as
an indication that even
of
“Southeast
in the distant
past there existed the notion of a world area that included all or most of the region. While the concept of Southeast Asia is now generally accepted, the adoption of 冗arly modern" to characterize a historical period is still debated. As noted in the Introduction, ・
this
term and the underlying concept behind
considerable discussion thirty years historians
among historians
it
are both relatively
in other
world
new and have aroused
areas. Nonetheless, over the
have become more receptive to this periodization,
the application of “early
modern"
modern world and
Southeast Asia
of land and natural resources and consequent changes environment. Southeast Asia came to world attention because of its unique
consider first the exploitation
Let us to
of the early
the physical
supply valuable and highly desired products. Throughout this book we have tried to show the rapidity with which the people of the region responded to the demands of the global market, a response出at stemmed from ecological
diversity
and the
ab过ity to
demands was similarly impressive. The expansion of maritime and overland trade and the rise of more urbanized centers necessitated the extension of agricultural lands for cultivating food and long experience in international trade.
their
for
growing of cash crops.
the
readily
The
New World crops, particularly maize and sweet potato, were
incorporated into local diets, especially in less fertile and rain-deprived areas,
enabling
people to
resources, too,
move
into otherwise marginal
evident
and
less hospitable lands.
Natural
But were vigorously exploited to meet the growing international demand.
developme川adap町,and the damaging
such
reaction to internal
effects
wherever the traditional collecting practices
on native flora and fauna becam二 were overridden by commercial
considerations.
A second feature of Southeast Asia’s early modern era was由e expansion of population. that mainland While figures for this period must be treated with caution, it is estimated Southeast A削population of about six million in 1400 had increased to more tha干 around fifteen million by 1820, although settlement was concentrated in core areas but decline, capitals and urban centers. There were certainly periods of demographic
last
particularly when
associated with the underlying themes of expanding and the far-reaching transformations resulting from increased economic and cultural encounters. Rather than thinking of a set of static characteristics, several
global exchange
Features
1
Jerry
H.
is
2
H. Bentley,“Early Mod<:
E
B叫,eds., Between the :i::i:01;e
Modern World Victor
and
(Lanham MD:
:l
the Early
d
Modern World,"
in Charles H. Parker
Modern圳
Rowman and Little且eld,
2007), 13.
Lieberman,
World History," The American Historical Review 116, 4 (October 20ll),
962・
and
Jer町
338
,\
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
CONCLUSION
by the end of the eighteen出centu巧. In the payers indicate that between 1700 and 1800 the
available sources point to significant recovery
Spanish Philippines
lists
of tribute
population of Luzon and the Visayas
more than doubled
million, while in densely populated Java the general
absence of warfare
aged growth to an estimated six million. Southeast Asia was population, but the early
modern period
distinguished the nineteenth
Increased
a region of relatively low
sets the stage for the
demographic
rise that
repre-
in Southeast Asia.
greatly increased with the
pilgrims, slaves,
and even
involvement of Europeans. Traders, exiles
were
now moving
sailors, soldiers, envoys,
along truly global paths. Within
Southeast Asia mobility was stimulated by the expansion of seaborne commerce and the rise of new ports and stapling points, which strengthened the network of coastal commu- nities
and attracted
The
first
millennium of the
influences
Buddhist
from
India,
and by
a
mixed Daoist-Buddhist-Confucian amalgam
China. By the eleventh centu巧the Theravada
from
Southeast Asia
probably
Muslim
The
communities in northeast Sumatra, but
peacefully,
however,
associated with Sri Lanka
and differences in belief were
it
most
well established in the
arrival of Islam in the island
occurred well before the thirteenth century,
connected to trade routes. For the
closely
Buddhism
and by the fourteenth century was
mainland centers, other than Dai Viet.
major
when
there
is
world
strong evidence of
was st山confined to areas that were changes came
part, these religious
rarely a justification for conflict. This changed,
and Spanish Catholic missionaries
with the arrival of Portuguese
Common Era,
complemented by Hindu-
in the sixteenth
desire of local rulers to
Protestant
At the same time, increased mob且ity also fed a greater awareness of ethnic identity as people from different communities came into increasing contact in the market- place and in the cosmopolitan environment of port cities. Indigenous law codes demon- local rulers.
an awareness of ethnic categorization in the early modern period, although
enforcement of laws that sought to maintain such categories was always modified in
the
actual
associate
antagonism from Europe into Southeast Asia, encouraged a tendency to
religious practices
and established a court
belief
of
remember
that there
was a darker
side of mobility,
notably the demographic shifts that accompanied slave raiding, warfare, and forcible relocation, sometimes of er由e communities. Flight from the p卢th of oncoming armies w产scommon川,as was the
readiness川ee from an oppr臼sive lord. The forced附ttlerr
or war captives as agriculturalists, laborers, skilled artisans, theme. Traffic in slaves was stimulated by
and performers is a continuing
the increased demand for labor to cultivate new cash crops and provide various services in the thriving new cosmopolitan urban centers, where we find whole enclaves of manumitted or former slaves and their descendants. As a result of these demands, maritime raiding assumes a new and pernicious presence, with captives sold in slave markets and transported not only to various parts of the region but beyond. In the late eighteenth century a French naval suggested that Timor officer
even
could supply two or three thousand slaves annually for plantations on French-dominated Mauritius in the Indian Ocean.
religious establishments,
environment that promoted
is
apparent across出e
sponsored由e writing of
religious
and
ethical
norms
for
But ordinary people were also intensely involved in the ongoing localization, through which religious practices were amalgamated with the
出e society at
process
affiliation.
spread of the world religions
was由ey who supported
region, for it texts,
large.
in spirits
that
animated the natural world. Southeast Asians continued to exercise which incoming beliefs were compatible
白白own judgment in determining the extent to wi出创sting beliefs adapted to
and
and
is
priorities,
and the ways
in
which they could be adopted and
enhance protection and security.
The transfer of ideas
nonetheless impo口ant to
with ethnicity and community
The role of rulers in furthering the
practice. It is
During the
出e strong indigenous spirit belief system in Southeast Asia was
interior populations to the coast to participate in the
presence has a long history in the region, a major inflow from the late sixteenth centu叮 led to the expansion of Chinese enclaves within urban ports and the rise of new settle- ments, which became a source of support or opposition to both European governors and
strate
influences prior to this period.
religious
is
although the region had already been exposed to a variety of
centu町,and Dutch Protestants in the seventeenth. The new association between religion and economic goals, combined with the transferal of the Muslim一Christian and Catholic-
new economic augment the numbers of由eir subjects encouraged intermarriage between local women and migrants and the incorporation of those w过ling to shift their loyalties and identities to a new lord. While the Chinese opportunities.
the
Southeast Asia shared with the rest of the early modern world
spread of world religions,
had reached
a third world-wide characteristic of this period, also
From the sixteenth century the ancient maritime along well-established routes from the Middle East to India and finally to China was
sents a traffic
still
a丘er 1757 encour-
and twentieth centuries.
human mob且ity,
major theme
to well over one and a half
fourth feature that
A
also a
and technologies
is
a fi丘h global feature of the early
dominant theme in Southeast Asian
出at
characterized this
gies
associated
period exposed
hist。可.
era,
The great commercial expansion
local societies to sophisticated ideas
with trade and warfare, such as textile
modern
and technolo-
techniques, manufacture of cannon
Historians have been especially interested in transfer, although this usually proceeded in tandem with the domestication influences and accommodation to local beliefs. For example, while Southeast
and且rearms,
and designs for ships and
forts.
technological of
outside
adopted the deployment of heavy artillery, the successful discharge of cannon demanded special ceremonies and sacrifices to tap the supernatural forces believed to Asians
reside in
these
power-charged objects. Nor was the exchange of information one way, for
Southeast fa
Asians themselves mil邸,made friends,
became teachers
acquired as outsiders learned languages,
and C缸ne to respect indigenous navigational and boatbuilding the of forest and sea dwellers, the efficacy of local medicines, and
skills,也e
expertise
artist可of
court culture.
,
l
.?
339
A HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830 Finally,
we
turn to consider the issue of early
modern
CONCLUSION
territorial consolidation
and
administrative centralization, and the impact of the European presence on these develop-
ments. This topic has generated considerable discussion
among Southeast Asian historians
because the regional variation in state development meant that European-style
colonial
governments coexisted with indigenous courts displaying influences from India, China,
and the Islamic heartlands.
On the mainland it is certainly possible to see the basis of later
nation-states that cohered around the major basins of the Irrawaddy, the Chao Phraya,
and the Red Rivers
economic
as stronger central control,
common
and record keeping, the promotion of a
integration, the spread ofliteracy
language, and
were limited since outlying areas were generally le丘to their
trends they
seventeenth-century Java,
control towards the coast. Whether reluctant pasisir lords into perman-
Dutch East India
of greater
military
seriously considered undertaking
campaign against any of the powerful mainland states
dominant mainland kingdoms remained remarkably
and
traditions in the early
modern
period.
and the structure of government was
A
its
Southeast Asia during the early
modern
era,
and there
cultural cohesion, territorial consolidation,
is little
evidence of the可pe
and administrative
centralization
marked the history of the three main river basins in the mainland.
until the first quarter of the
loyal to their
own
subject ruler usually remained in place
largely unchanged. Even when the Malay kingdom
sense of bei吨culturally and
modern
From the early
to the colonial
local lords
of Patani was divided into seven provinces in the early nineteenth centu巧and placed
direct与under Siamese control,
the ancient pattern of mandala-可pe polities persisted throughout
a
nineteenth centu巧. Yet despite these centralizing tendencies, the component parts of even the
that
for the intervention of the
Company restricted and ultimately ended any effo白to uni扪ava under
one regime. Overall, island
No European power
an inland dynasty remains an open question,
submission to
ent
in
religious ambitions.
kingdom of Mataram extended
its
contributed to greater administrative coherence. Furthermore, unlike the situation
nomic or
where the west was dominated by the kingdom of Banten and
military superiority would have eventually forced the
where the interior
all
eco-
devices as long as
acknowledged a nominal subservience. Territorial ambitions were most evident in
religious practice
island Southeast Asia, these developments proceeded independently of European
own
religiously separate from
modern period in Southeast Asia was coming to an end. On the Konbaung dynasty in Myanmar, the Chakri in Siam, and the Nguyen in
By the 1830s the early mainland, the
Vietnam had created the Asia.
However,
was
it
most powerful multi-ethnic kingdoms
in the
whole of Southeast
now becoming ever clearer that the principal barrier to further among these states themselves, but rather the encroaching
the central Thai was reflected in a continuing resistance to assimilation. Mainland centers
expansion
may
European spheres of influence, the harbingers of later colonial empires. In earlier times
have expanded their
territorial control,
but upland
defenders of their independence and eschewed any but
polities
continued to be
tempora巧and
fierce
expedient con-
federations with similar entities.
far
more
effective
new cities and
than in
forts,
much
Europeans based their
of the mainland. Nonetheless, despite their impressive
the Europeans never succeeded in establishing a strongly centralized
administration in the island world.
The
Spanish Philippines appears to have achieved
a
interests.
they
countryside, the evidence shows that there were simply insufficient clerics to administer
number of
scattered rural communities. These
governed by the indigenous
elite,
whom
communities continued
the Spaniards sought to incorporate into
formal o伍cial hierarchy by assigning them Spanish offices and calling them
to be their
collectively
principalia,“the principal individuals."
For the most
part, the various
battlefield
beginning to appreciate
sultanates that developed in island Southeast
Asia during the early modern period can be characterized as federations of powerful datus in
which the
ruler
was regarded
sophisticated port administration
as the first
was
among
equals.
Although Malay
Melaka’s
replicated throughout the region, centralizing
their
to由e expansion of their economic scientific advances,
that出ey were now unable
as their forebears.
As
to exercise the
same agency and
the industrialization of Europe gathered pace,由e
demands for access to profitable markets and sources of raw materials fore- shadowed the advent of a new era when Southeast Asians would fall victim to foreign economic and political control. Another sign that the early E uropean
attitudes
modern was giving way to the colonial was the hardening of
towards compromise, particularly in regard to determining the areas could legitimately be exercised. European concern to demarcate
where their au由ority precise
Muslim
now
be intrinsically superior to the inhabitants of all other world reality of their technological superiority was increasingly apparent on the and in the sea lanes, and even the most powerful mainland rulers were
expanding
and only in the urban centers could the colonial au由orities Whereas Spanish sources tend to emphasize the role of friars in the
effective limits
navies, but
The
was more apparent than
real
saw no
by superior
considered themselves to
regions.
initiative
the large
in walled cities flanked
Exuding a self-confidence bred of stunning technological and
greater level of administrative unity than elsewhere, but the formal governmental structure
claim effective control.
power
nineteenth-century successors
and seascape meant greater political environment European naval and firearms technology proved
In island Southeast Asia the nature of the land-
fragmentation, and in this
was not the rivalry
boundaries using cartographic conventions reinforced by international law
asserted a
Thai
concept of space that was diametrically opposed to the mandala idea. While
maps from the
first
three Chakri reigns do
show
as
the outlines of the poli町,cartog-
were more interested in determining the location of topographical features such boundaries. vegetation, mountains, in delineating precise
raphers
and
river systems than
烧得之
341
342樊淹鑫A
CONCLUS
HISTORY OF EARLY MODERN SOUTHEAST ASIA, 1400-1830
The Southeast Asian mandala view of porous and indeterminate frontiers由at reflected the overlapping authority of di旺erent centers was regarded by Europeans as inadequate and even deceptive. The
irreconcilab过ity
the spark that ignited the First
between these contrasting concepts of space was
Anglo-Burmese War
warships powered by steam for the
first
time. This
decided advantage in battle because steamships could
more
the
British used
new technology gave Europeans a move against the current and could
which drew an
year saw
arbitrary line through the
of Melaka and under Singapore to create an artificial international border
Malay world
As
where the
an ominous coincidence, the same
easily gain control of river systems. In
the signing of the Anglo一Dutch Agreement, Straits
in 1824,
rulers
dividing
and Dutch spheres of influence.
into British
were defeated, deposed, or
exiled,
and
became pawns
as their subjects
in the
European competition to acquire colonies, the capacity of Southeast Asians to order own existence was increasingly restricted. The early modern period had certainly
Founded in 1778 and revived by
defensive.
describing the
阳ly uals
modern period
had been
able to negotiate with foreign traders
By
strength.
exploitation, but
on the whole
Southeast Asians
and missionaries from
a position of
the mid-nineteenth century, however, a world transformed by unrelenting
economic and
political pressure
the adaptive strategies that
made
had been
it
difficult for
The
superior position
in
long ended earlier expectations that they would
obligations inherent in family relationships, and even the
an association based on mutual respect had
possibility of
Southeast Asians
so successful in the past.
which Europeans placed themselves had accept the reciprocities and
more
far
to apply
all
but
disappeared. This
disregard for local sensibilities was dramatically demonstrated in 1804
when
the British
decided to destroy Melaka’s pride, the great fort built by the Portu思1ese three hundred years earlier.
Watching the demolition, which was carried out in the face of extreme public
and
Abdullah, the scribe of Stamford
distress Raffles,
a
fears of supernatural reprisal,
Munsyi
voiced the feeling that an age was passing, for to
new world
is
created and
all
around us
In the face of this unprecedented
is
change.
European
him
“the
old order
is
destroyed,
"3
challenge, a few of the
was the promise to restore the proprieties in the land. While each
associated with the creative
prince
process由at marked
society’s
ve可beginnings. The
Dipanegara also sought a restoration of the moral order that had been so
b创m
and a mood of foreboding is vividly captured in by an anxious Burmese father sometime in the reign of Bodawpaya
widespread sense that
written
a letter
(1782-1819). and the
dangers are
brought tion.”5
was
aw巧,,
Expressing concern for his son’s welfare, he warns that“both the astrologers
agreed that times are bad, the planets are unfavorable and
ahead for both the king and the kingdom."
such prosperity in the past
In retrospect, this
region as a
Southeast
whole.
During
unknown
The maritime connections由at had
would now open the door
for “disaster
father spoke not merely for
and destruc-
Myanmar
but for the
the nineteenth centu巧由e imposition of colonial rule over
apart仕om Thailand
Asia
imagined. In ability
the world
general public are
all
tested local societies in ways never previously
meeting these challenges, however, the legacy of resourcefulness and adapt-
modern period became a key element in由e and the molding of the new unities由at eventually
had characterized the early
that
preservation
of cultural identities
emerged after the
more
order was
by the promise of restoration, they also spoke to pa此icular local concerns. Raja Nuku in Maluku sought to reestablish the kingdoms that formed the original four pillars of the world of Maluku as the only way to return to the peace and Javanese
and
pride,”while for Raffles
of quiet habits and contented dispositions."4
movement was characterized
their
share of hostilities
soil,
met with dismay in many quarters, and the end of the was marked by a number of millenarian movements led by individ-
whose m碍。r appeal
prosperity
its fair
Burmese as“arrogant,”possessed of “inordinate
were“attached to the
The demise of the old
global
witnessed
the
Javanese
Society of
whole societies in a few words. Michael Symes had no hesitation in
dismiss
could
Dutch Royal Batavian
marks a significant step in the creation of an Orientalist confidence that
and Sciences
Arts
Raffles, the
Second World War.
powerful
Myanmar, were prepared to take up arms. Traditional styles of warfare, however, could not match the forces of this uncompromising Southeast Asian kingdoms, most notably
enemy. While parts of the central and northern Philippines had long been under Spanish control, during the nineteenth century Southeast Asia’s major polities all succumbed to European power. Even though Siam survived as an independent kingdom, partially because Britain and France agreed to retain a buffer state between their
respective
of did not escape imperialist pressures and impositions, including the loss distri’ large stretches of territ。可. As European military might changed the balance and
colonies,
it
bution of regional power, Southeast Asians were increasingly placed on the
3
A.H. H山,The Hikayat Abdullah: Lumpur: Oxford University
the
cultural
Autobiography of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir, 1797-1854
Press, 1970), 63, 162
(Kuala
4
Michael
Symes,
巳o?stable, 5
An Account
1827), vol.
university Press, Epistles
Hague:
I:
100;
of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava in the Year 1月5 (Edinburgh: Thomas Stamford Raffl战History of Java (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford
1965. Reprint of
Written on the
1817 edition), vol. I: 64. Eve of the Anglo-Burm臼e War, trans. and annotated by
Nijho旺,1968), 44-5.
Maung Htin Aung (The
Dang
known
as Tonkin China by the
known
asζ0ζhin China by the
Ngoai”Oute「region,”i.e. the northern realm of Dai Viet,
Eu「opeans
Dang
Trong叫nner
Malaya-Polynesian languages with meanings of
different
see
eaglewood
Laut
abaca manila hemp, from a type of banana adat (Malay) customa叩law and traditions lit.,、ea「er
mayor (Spanish) (also called
ambergris
solid,
on the
of the burden”;people
governor
p「ovincial
in
who owed
the Philippines
when
waxy, substance from the digestive system of sperm whales, often found
woman
elderly
and
settlers to
benz。in
resin
title
karma
obtained from the bark of a tree, of the genus Styrax, used as an incense, a
flavo「1ng
areca nut, leaves of a vine
(sirih),
and slaked
lime,
which
is
chewed,
b。dhi tree
the
name given to the tree (Ficus religiosa) under which
the Buddha sat on
Bodhisattva (Sanskrit)/B。dhisatta
(Pali)
holy beings
entering into the state of nirvana/nibbana until deity,
mainly
in
all
who
compassionately
other beings attain
refrain
this goal;
to
lit.,
"gold and
silver flowers”;small artificial trees of gold
aζζompanied by weapons, cloth, and other gifts sent as tribute by Malay rulers to
camphor
an aromatiζζompound obtained from the wood or leaves of various Dryobalanops aromatica which g「ew in Sumatra and Borneo; highly valued medicinal value
massoi
Mahayana Buddhism
bunga mas dan perak (Malay)
in
treating the eyes, for nosebleeds, liver ailments
casados (Po同uguese)
Po「tuguese
men
cakravartin (Sanskrit)/cakkavatti (Pali) benevolent ruler
chu n。m (Vietnamese)
married to local Asian
and high
and silver
thei「Thai overlo「d
trees,巴pecially the in
the past for
and the ”wheel-turning monarch”;the unive「sal ethical
lit.飞outhern script”;Chinese characters adapted to the Vietnamese
c。rvee
Tamil Muslims from south India and the Coromandel coast labor required by the overlord or state for va叩ing lengths of time
「ight
appear
at the
end of the age
lit.
in
the Philippines
all
Buddhas, including the Buddha of an
this
age
infidel
consequenζe of past actions that determine one’s
symbol representing
Shiva’s procreative
rebi「th
powers
people f「om Luzon but often used by the Portuguese to refer generally to
form of Buddhism practiced
I
it.”circle”;used in
were
fluid
in all
Buddhist ζountries except for the
Lanka and Southeast Asia the Southeast Asian context to「efer to a type of early
with overlapping jurisdictions at the edges
bark (from the tree Cryptocarya
{Portuguese)/mestizo (Spanish)
lit.”mixed”;ζhildren of
mixed marriages, though
generally「efe巴to .
!川・laung
川uang
women
entrusted
massoy) which is ground into a paste for external pains or warm the body, or boiled in a decoction as a medicinal drink for stomach ailments and pregnancies mixed offspring of European and Asian pa陀nts (Burm臼e) one destined川ea futu陀ki
Tai village,
its
feve「
is
given the
traders
Buddhism
bark
mesti飞o
town, or polity
!阳owu『 ”iyoza
{Burmese)
offiζials
given a territory f「om which they derive t「1e1r「evenues
m川ythic忖a阳ssoci削wit
:??a
川a1…ble川e「T阳of阳eliteζlass Nanha1/Nanya『19 to
language Chulia
phallic
pol句,whose bo「ders as a
is
or petty governor”;term given to a native head above other
a non-believer [of Islam],
Theravada Buddhist lands of Sri
from
he
term used by the Spaniards for natives of the Philippines
recounting the lives of
mandala {Sanskrit)
worshipped
Indians;
{Portuguese)
Mahayana
the night he
attained enlightenment
lit.”Ii忧le
from Arabic)
Philippine
who was to
the Spanish colonial administration lit.
lingam/linga {pl.) Luφes
customarily offered to guests
of the righteous king
{Sanskrit)/kamma (Pali)
given to senio「「elatives of the ruler
wad combining
a
tales
name
{Spanish)
chiefs in
{Malay
encomendero
whom
aloeswood
see
{Spanish)
Jataka kafir
and as medicine betel
Java the
religion, usually an
the Philippines but later used to refer to a village or settlement
bayin (Burmese)
po时serving as a major site for international trade
village
name of a boat bringing ea「ly Austronesian
wards, from
a
Indios
originally
his
in
gobernadorcillo
at times a transvestite
barangay (Tagal。g, northern Philippines)
and physical welfare of
Erucakra
gaharuwood
perfumes
(Burmese) tax-paying people freed from service to the ruler babaylan (Visayan, central Philippines) ritual specialist in indigenous
Seram and nearby Seram
encomienda
entrepot
floating
athi
island of
and use thei「labor
tribute
to collect
infected by a
end of the
Spanish encomendar,”to entrust,”in which the
with the spiritual
by the king
eaglewood and gaharuwood)
sea; used in
Spanish individual granted an f「om the
encomienda
serviαto the king
aloeswood
and Go「om arζhipelagoes
encomendero
dark aromatic resin produced by trees of the genus Aquilaria
aloesw。。d
mold
fibre
in
noble, and ancestor
mammal
marine
Dutch term referring to the eastern
Seram
East
ζhief, priest,
Buddha
teachings of the large he「bivorous
dugong
and used
Proto Malayo-Polynesian term「eferring to a lineage or clan official,
original
datu
Dhamma
alcalde
the southern realm of Dai Viet,
Europeans
GLOSSARY
ahmudan (Burmese)
region,”i.e.
nat
n
Sout「1e「n
tradi甘on
Seas/Southe「n Ocean, terms used by the Chinese to
Southeast Asia
'.旧me ftA
{Chinese)
e川ers圳e ea忱 in
of spi川ts in
汇『1 {Mal二y) on『nachi
Myanma「
a settled c
m叫and町e怕to village川川a
Japanese quarters
in
Asian town s
refe「
nirvana (Sanskrit)/nibbana sentient being
Orang
Asli
ultimate state achieved
(Pali)
in
Buddhism with the
dissolution of the
and hence the end of suffering
(Malay)
lit.
"original people,”term refer「ing to the interior forest
and mountain
dwelle「son the Malay Peninsula
Orang Laut (Malay) and a「ound the
lit.飞ea peop怡,”referring to those
Parian
Manila
pasisir
the northern
phrai luang
polo
district
who
live
on boats and on the
litto旧I in
Melaka
Straits of
where non-Christian Chinese were「equired
to
READINGS
FURTHER
live
or coastal areas of Java
litto「al
direct subjects of the Thai king
corvee labor imposed by Spaniards on the native inhabitants of the Philippines
term used by the Spanish
principales/principalia
incorporated into the Spanish
pueblo
town
or township
in
in
the Philippines to refer to the
hierarchy
political
and
Minangkabau settlements anywhere outside the homeland
in
derived f「om”Rome,”a
name
who were
given
title
of ”regent”by the Dutch
convention came to
that
in
Malay
in
the eyes of Southeast Asian Muslims
community
sawah wet-「ice saw-bwa (Shan)
of Buddhist believers;
agriculture; irrigated rice lit.
trade areas
stupa
between
and
Seram
Shan
refe「to
to refer to the Buddhist
Ottoman
monkhood
fields
chiefs in upland
villages
and Papuan communities
in
form the basis
English that could
fo「
of course, numerous other works that could be ζonsulted, but because of
culled
what we
believe
a「e
the most accessible for the general reader
one of the four legal schools in syahadat Muslim Confession of faith
dominant school
in
whole region
incorporate the
official in
charge of international trade
at a maJor
Southeast Asian entrepot
Haven: Yale University Press,
Southeast As日的the
Reid,
Age
of
about the
whose
vol.
I
brief
entire region
Commerce 1450-1680,
1988, 1993); Victor Lieberman, Strange
Parallels:
Southeast
800-1830, 2 vols (P「inζeton University Press, 2003, 2009); Barbara Watson Andaya, The Flaming Womb: Repositioning Women in Early Modern Southeast Asia (Honolulu Un?ersi可of Hawai’i Press, 2006); Michael G. Peletz, Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia since Early in
Global Context,
(New York: Ro叫edge, 2009); Michael W.ζharney,
Times
2004); Peter
Boomgaard,
ed.,
A
Sou阳st
World of Water:
2007) and also
Histories (Leiden: Kl丁LV Press,
his
Asian 阳rfan已
Rain, Rivers
Southeast Asia:
An
and Seas的
Environmental
Ba阳
叫,a门World Reg盯n, loutheast
Malay narrative form using quat「ains o「four-line stanzas swidden farming cutting back and burning off vegetative cover to provide nutrients of vegetables and d「y rice; also termed飞lash-and-burn”agriculture
their studies. Individual wo「ks written
tvols(New
H盹少(Santa
syahbandar”harbo「master,”a term for the
in
Anthony
modern period are
Southeast Asian
Southeast Asia
The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia,
Cambridge University Press, 1993). These articles are w「itten by specialists
130ι1900 (Leiden: Brill,
Islam・
modern s。utheast Asia
Nicholas Tarling, ed.,
is
ntheearly
M「n
mystical dimension of Islam
Syafi’i
collect1on
Melbourne:
Asa
Burma
dome-like structu「e containing Buddhist「elics
Sufism
a「e,
we have
works on early
A useful
was to
the Birdshead Peninsula designated as exclusive
river valleys in
specific East
lite「ary
more often used grown in flooded
"lord of the sky”;title of
bays, anchorages,
s。s。lot
There
only included books written
the interior central Sumatran
Turkey, the leader of the Islamic wo「Id
sangha
limitations
General
bupati or regional Javanese lords
Rum
1oace
we have
religious supervision
uplands
regent
1ncompiling this list, !urthe「resea「ch.
Spanish Philippines where the people were resettled "unde「the
bells”for easier administration
rantau
local elite
Asia in his
1000-1800 (Hong Kong University
discussion of the global
Press,
2011) gives particular attention to
connections that characterize
this
period
syair
A
taril《at
Muslim brotherhood or order
in
for planting
Sufism
Baskets”,the Theravada Paliζanon Malay teripang, a species of the holothuroidea (sea cucumber)
name
T。passes
who
fo「the ”black Portuguese,”offspring of Portuguese fathers
and Asian
mothe巧,
customs, and religion shell
mainly from the Hawksbill
turtle,
used to
produce combs and
other ornaments,
important trade item to China
vandala tribute imposed by Spaniards on the Vinaya Buddhist monastic discipline
voe
Dutch East
India
vuong (Vietnamese) Wali (Arab)
wat
a
lit.
o i:h:0?se
?:?Ii?:::
c
.Than
1
..
Tun, ed.,
",'.'‘,dre
Southeast Asia
The
Phil,草)p们e Isla门ds
1493一1898, 55 vol s
Ame「iζans upon咒izi
the histo「y of the Philippines The Royal Orders of Burma, 1598-1885,
AD
using this valuable
source for the history of
J川叫Edwin J.川ey, ?1:?4,
1998)
阳…’吊pact on
in
Blair, eds.,
1
O
vols. (Kyoto:
Center fo「Southeast
p
|的'lable
of Java "friend of God”;WaliSangaor”NineWali”are a杜ributed with the lslamization
Helen
190刊[19叫ζD’ROM阳
:;:??:?di咫叫四rsit
??:a1::?:?,
king
E『η『na
1econst「ucting
i
native inhabitants of the Philippines
and
Cla「|〈ζom阳y,
000
则巴Pensable n e ,n
Company
Theravada Buddhist temple complex
A. H.
?hilipp
prided themselves on being ”Portuguese”through p「eservation of Portuguese language,
t。rtoiseshell
collections
Alexande「Robe「tso『1
(Cleveland:
Tipitaka”Three tripang
Special
坦mes
1「1fo「mation
is
an叩ng
eds., Asia in
early
in
the early modern period (The
Uni叫of
p「O阳whiζ}
Eu「ope. Discussions of several
on
Burma
the协同川叩e
obscure sources complement the more
modern Southeast Asia
348
幸吨A
FURTHER
FURTHER READINGS Readings of translated prima叩s。urces Several collections of t「anslations of primary sources include material from the early
Tineke Hellwig and
Tagliacozzo, eds., The Indonesia Reader: History, Culture,
Eric
modern
Politics
pe「iod
(Durham
Duke University Press, 2009); D. R. CO: Westview Press, 2006); Ahmad Ibrahim, Sharon Siddique, and Yasmin Hussain, eds., Readings on Islam的Southeast As日(Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1985); and George E Dutton, Jayne S. Werner, and John K. Whitmo陀,eds., Sources of Vietnamese Tradition (New York Desai, ed., Soυtheast Asian History: Essential Readings (Boulder,
Columbia University
P「ess,
2012). Geo「ge
E.
Dutton, ed., Voices of Southeast Asia. Essential Readings
from Antiquity to the Present (Armonk, NY: M.
R.
is still
and Economy (Sydney, 2002) for a good introduction to the region. A stimulating Culture of why Southeast Asia can be considered a unified region is 0.W. Wolters, History,
Peop也Land discussion
and Region in
and
University
a
is
list
ro「an
of useful count「y-based histories with
Camb。dia: David
P.
Southeast Asian Perspectives (Ithaca |「1stitute
good
sections on the early
modern
pe「iod
Chandl凹,A History of Cambodia, Fourth Edition (Boulder: Westview
Press,
2007)
Singapo「e: Southeast Asia Program,ζornell
of Southeast Asian Studies, Revised Edition,
1999)
Antecedents of early m。dern societies,
excellent collection
of a「tides
from
c.
900-1400
prehisto「y to the classical period, see Ian Glover
and Peter
(London/New York: Routledgeζurzon, 2004). Victor Lieberman’s two-volume study, Strange Parallels: Southeast As日的the Global Context, 80ι1归。(cited above) examines parallel developments in society in the Eurasian world. Kenneth 100-1500 Hall, A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development Southeast Asia from Prehistory to H也tory
Bellwood, eds.,
c.
Ind。nesia: M. C. Ricklefs,
A
H臼tory of Modern Indonesia since
Gelman
Palgrave MacMillan, 2008); Jean University P「ess,
c.
Taylor, Indonesia: Peoples
1200. Fou「th Edition (London
and Histories (New
Haven: Yale
2003)
R.
A H陆的ry of Laos (Camb「idge
University Press, 1997); Martin Stuart-Fox,
The Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang: Rise and Decline (Bangkok: White Lotus Malaysia: Barbara Watson and Leonard Y. Andaya,
A
Press,
1998)
MD;
(Lanham, p「io「to
La。s: Ma「tin Stuart-Fox,
Myanmar:
Michael and Maitrii Aung-Thwin, Ltd.,
Philippines: Patricio Abinales and University of the Philippines Press,
Thailand: David
A H恒的ry of Myanmar since Ancient Times (London
2012)
Donna J. Amoroso,
Anvil Publishing, Inc., 2005); 0. D. Corpuz,
Wyatt,
K.
A
State and Soc但ty的the Philippines (Manila
The Roots of the日lipino Nation,
vol.
I
(Quezon
City
2005)
societies.
New
Haven: Yale
University Press, 2003); David K. Wyatt, Studies in Thai History (Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 1996 [1994]). B.
J.
River Books,
Terwiel, Thailand’s Political Hιtory:
From the 13th Century
to
Tenth
Vietnam: Thomas Hodgkin, Vietnam: The Revolutionary Path (New York: St. Martin’S A History of the Vietnamese (Cambridge University Press, 2013)
pe「iod
study of the impact of Indian ideas
art
of articles
and linguistics.
Society
studies
2006) and Randolph Starn,”Review
in
histo「y
probably
first
oζcurred
in a
1987 conference, which
Two
Modern
resulted
MD
in
the
Era (Ithaca: Cornell
Watson Andaya and Leonard Y. Andaya briefly (March in the Ea「ly Modern Period,”JSEAS 26, 1995): 92-7. An early attempt to demonstrate that developments in Southeast Asia had much in common with othe「a「eas of the early modern world is Victor Lieberman, ed., Beyond Binary Histories: Re-lmagim’ng Eurasia to c. 1830 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999) University Press, 1993).
Pierre-Yves
See Tran Ky
Cham
in
Phuong and Bruce M. Lockhart,
NUS
is
also a
Vietnam, from archaeology and histo叩to eds.,
The
Cham
of Vietnam: Hιtory,
Press, 2 O 11)
see further Sriw.归,ya: H岳阳ry, Religioηδ门d Lδnguδge
by George Goedes
and
of
δn Eδκly儿4δlδy Poli飞y,
,
Louis-Chδrles Damδis (Kuala Lumpu「:Malaysian Branch of
Desawarnana!Nagarakertagδma, with the latest translation by Stuart 1995) and in vol. IV of Th. Pigeaud’s Ja旧的the
Robson
(Leiden: KITLV
Fourteenth Century (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1962).
.
;?丁Paga「
Modern H臼tory 6, 3 (2002): 296-307, a「e two of the clearest expositions of the "early modern ”as a concept in history. The use of "early modern ”to characte「ize a
Southeast Asian
is
eds., Ear,伊Interactions
Roya 〔as
Muddle,” Article: the Early Modern
following volume: Anthony Reid, ed., Southeast As日in the Early
the formation of Southeast Asian
???
Journal of Early
emergenζe of
Wade,
of various aspects of the
and A厅(Singapore:
for Srivijaya,
P「ess,
lntroducti。n:c。nceptualizing an early m。dern hist。ry of s。utheast Asia Cha「les H. Parker and Jer叩H. Bentley, eds., Be阳1een the Middle Ages and Modernity (Lanham, Littlefield,
in
Fourteenth Century (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2009). Of value
Press,
Rowman and
a synthesis of the histo「y of the region just
The Indian但ed States of Southeast Asia (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press,
Mani, and Geoff
through the
collected
1981 ); Keith W. Taylor,
2011) provides
between South and Southeast Asia (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2011 ). Two works indispensable for the study of the relations between ζhina and the Malay world are 0. W. Wolters, The Fall of Srivijaya的Malay History (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1970) and Derek Heng, Sino-Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the
Recent刀mes (Bangkok
2011)
Littlefield,
A more「ecent examination of the relationship between these two regions
collection
Sho厅Hιtory of Thailand, 2nd edn. (London and
modern
George Coedes,
Manguin, A.
Reaktion Books
Rowman and
the early
1968)「emains a classic
History of Malays日(London: Palgrave,
2001)
period
and
Sharpe, 2014)
E.
hist。ries
The following
University Press,
with Avijit Gupta, The Physical a standa「dint「oduction, which can be read inζonjunction 1979) Ronald Hill, Southeast Asia also See 2005). University Press, Geography of Southeast Asia (Oxford
Chapter 2:
Country
South-East Asia: a Systematic
ed.,
D. Hill,
and the geographic envir。nment Geography (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford
Southeast Asia
chapter 1:
R山INGS'
u川1ve「sity
。对ord G.
of Hawai'i P「ess,
Unive「sity Press,
Coedes,
1985), whileζharnvit Kasetsiri, The Rise of
1976), remains the standard
work on
Ayudhya (Kuala Lumpur
early Ayutthaya.
Angkor: an Introduction (Singapore: Oxford University Press,
1986
On Angko
[1963]),
,
see
and more
v;;t?E?f'.??t:d ?u?0:?:
??;???\!:???:::::::I::::?:v?;.?::?:?:?.士;二:::;!i:? count可studies
years later Barbara
discussed this periodization in”Southeast Asia
1
;g???j:古'.:::i?io:?:::::飞古;:?::?z:::fa:.告::ac:;口:i??a::?:
349
350
NGS
?也FURTHER READINGS Island: Leona「d Y. Andaya, Leaves of the
discusses the formation of early ethnicities
and
Muhammad
the Malay kingdom of Melaka.
Same
Tree (Honolulu: University of Hawai’l Press, 2008),
polities in
the Straits of Melaka, including
Srivijaya
and
Yusoff Hashim, The Malay Sultanate of Malacca (Kuala
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1993) provides a detailed study of the Malay kingdom
Melaka
in its
heyday. For Java, see M. C. Ricklefs, Mystic Synthesis
in Java: a Hi性的ry
prehispanic Philippines
Laura Lee Junker, Raiding, Trading,
is
Press,
and
is
Richard
Cushman,
and David
trans.
lasting
dynasty
in
in
a
A
Treatise
Feasting: the Political
study of
Economy
1999)
Wyatt, ed., The Royal Chronicles of
University of Hawai’i Press,
are ra陀,but
see
A Biography of King Naresuan
the Great (Bangkok: Toyota Foundation, 2008) by
Hundred Years of Thai-Portuguese Relations (Bangkok: Siam
Thai history.
a
number
addition to Kasetsiri, Rise of Ayudhya cited for Chapter
In
Ming
history of this northern Thai
shi-lu as a
2,
see also
1 (Feb 2003): 41-62. Fo「a Chinese view of Ayutthaya, Source fo「Thai History - Fourteenth to Seventeenth
An alte「native view of Thai history from the north of Lan Na (Bangkok: Silkworm Books, 200日,whichζovers the is
kingdom from early times to 1933. Another history of the north is Hans Na (Chiang Mai: Silkwo「m Books, 1994). Daniel M. Viedlinge「,
sixteenth cited
with
of articles dealing
collection
some
Society,
2011 ),
is
a
aspects of Po「tuguese relations with Thailand f「om the
through the eighteenth centuries. See also Cushman’s, The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya,
and also see for Laos, Penth,
under Chapter 3
Kingdom of Lan
Xang
A Brief History of Lan Na and
for the Tai in the northeast. Little has
period,
and the best discussion
relating
to
is
still
Chandler,
A
Stuart-Fox,
The Lao
been written on Cambodia for
this
History of Cambodia, cited above. Fo「details
Vietnam, Taylor’s magisterial History of the Vietnamese.
Brief History of Lan
Spreading the
Dhamma:
in
recounted
P「ess,
and
Textual Transm,岳阳门的Buddhist Northern Thai阳nd
Chapter
5:
2006) discusses the influence of the cultural and economic
Chapter
6:
Writing, 0日lity,
(Honolulu: University of Hawai’i
the local encounter with Buddhist manusc「ipts. The sto叩of the Tai in Stua「t-Fox,
Cambodia
after the
The Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang. There
fall
is still little
of Angkor, except for Michael Vickery’s
the no「theast
is
written about the pe「iod
in
Cambodia
in
after Angkor: the
Chronicular Evidence for the Fourteenth to Sixteenth Centuries, 2 vols. (Yale University 1977, digitized in 2008). For Vietnam, see
(New Haven: Yaleζenter
John
for International
K.
Whitmore, Ho Quy Ly and the Ming (1371-1421)
and Area Studies, 1985)
Expanding global links and their impact 。n s。utheast Asia, 1600-1690s; and New b。undaries and changing regimes, 1690s-1780s Island: For the Western Archipelago, the following early works are still worth ζonsulting fo「this period: Barba「a Watson Andaya, Perak, the Abode of Grace: a Study of an Eighteenth-Century Malay University Press, 1979) and Leona「d Y. Andaya, The Kingdom of 1641-1728 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford Unive「sity Press, 1975). An innovative study of early
5归也(Kuala Lumpu「: Oxfo「d Johar,
Minangkabau history (Kuala
4:
An
Accelerati。n。f change,
1511-1600
llth
M.A. P. Meilink-Roelofsz, Asian Trade and European Influence的the Indonesian Archipe臼go between 1500 and about 1630 (The Hague Nijhoff, 1962). Paulo Jorge de Sousa Pinto, The Portuguese and the Straits of Melaka 1575-1619 (Singapore: NUS Press, 2012) and Luis Filipe Thomaz, Early Portuguese Malacca (Macau: Macau Territorial Commission fo「the Commemorations of the Portuguese Discoveries, 2000) offer a impressive early
work on
t「ade in
the archipelago
is
king- life in Portuguese Melaka and Po「tuguese relations with neighbo「ing Malay doms. Tara Alberts Conflict and Conversion: Catholicism的Southeast Asia 1500-1700 (Oxfo「d University Press, 2013) focuses on Christianization in Melaka and contempo旧叩Thailand and
study of the hispanization of the Philippines. destroying the traditional religion
in
A
critical
assessment of the
role of Catholicism
in
the Philippines isζarolyn Brewer, Shamanism, Catholicism, and
Ashgate, 2004). A valuable and is Linda A. Newson, Conquest Pestilence in Ear,伊Spanish Philippines (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i P「ess, 2009). William Hen叩 Scott, Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Soc尼ty (Manila: Ateneo de Manila Press,
Gender Relations的Colonial
Philippines,
1521一1685
(Bu「lington, VT:
study of the impact of the early Spanish on the Philippines
Jane D「akard,
of Words: Language and Power的Sumatra Other useful works on the Western Archipelago are
A Kingdom
The Singapore and Melaka
Straits:
Violence, Security
and Diplomacy的the
Dianne Lewis, Jan Compagnie
NUS
in the Straits of Press, 201 O); 1641-1795 (Athens, OH: Center for International Studies, Ohio University, 1995); Barbara Andaya, To Live as Brothers: Southeast Sumat,旧的the Seventeenth and Eighteen的Centur-
Century (Singapore:
Malacca,
Watson ies
(Honolulu: University
Authority:
Society a门d
of Hawai’i Press, 1993);
and Timothy
P.
Barnard, Multiple Centres of
Environment的5日k and Eastern Sumatra 1674-1827 (Leiden: KITLV
Press,
2003)
detailed look at
Vietnam. John Leddy Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines: Span也h Aims and月l仰的O Responses, 1565-1700 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1959) continues to be a valuable
is
Lumpu「:Oxfo「d University Press, 1999).
Pete「Borschberg,
Island:
Modern Period (Honolulu:
Maluku from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centu「ies 1993), deals with no「them and Mainland: For Myanmar, see Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin'sA H臼tory of Myanmar from Ancient Times cited unde「Chapter 3. Mon civilization and the history of Pegu is covered in Emmanual Guillan, The Mons: a Civilization of Southeast Asia (Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1999). Biographies central
P「in臼Damrong Rajanubhab. The edited work by Kennon Breazeale and Michael
Sarassawadee Ongsakul, History
Chapter
Indonesia in the Early
Smithies, Five
Cushman compares
Centuries,”JSEAS 31, 2 (2000), 249-94.
ζontext
on the
World of Maluku: Eastern
Thai historian
see Geoff Wade,”The
A
The Philippine Islands (under ”Special Collections”above). For centu叩Portuguese source on Maluku, see Hube「t Jacobs, ed. and trans., Moluccas (匕1544) (Rome: Jesuit Historical Institute, 1970). Leonard Y. Andaya, The
and Robertson’s fifty-five-volume
Blair
of
A
document on society in the V1sayas 1n modern period of the Philippines. See also
a sixteenth-century Spanish
of variants of the
Chris Baker,”Ayutthaya Rising,”JSEAS 34,
Penth,
cent旧1
and study of
by one of the best historians of the early
order to produce an almost poetiζrende「ing of the history of the longest
Ayu时haya (Bangkok: The Siam Society, 2000). surviving chronicles
K.
Philippines
of /slamization
Mainland: Events in Myanmar are discussed in Michael and Maitrii Aung-Thwin, A History of Myanmar since Ancient Times (London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2012). For Ayutthaya, an extraordinary feat of scholarship
a translation
is
contempo「a叩sixteenth
from the Fourteenth 的the Early Nineteenth Centuries (Norwalk: EastBridge, 2006). of Philippine Chiefdoms (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i
1994)
works by M. C. Ricklefs should be consulted: War, Culture and Economy m 1677-1726 (Sydney: Asian Studies Association of Australia, 1993); The Seen and Unseen
On Java the following Java,
w尬的局旧,1726-1749: un1ve「si叩of of
Hawai'i
no「theast Java
Northeast
P「ess,
H伽y, Literature,川l阳1的the
are Luc Nagtegaal, Riding the
Coast of Java,
1680-1743
Dutch盯ger: The Dutch East Indies
(Leiden: KITLV Press, 1996); Robe「t
Coast,
1740-1840:δSt,υdy in Colonial CNWs, Leiden University,
Encroachment and Dominance
200日,and Hui Kian Kwee, The
:o?st,
c.
1肌1800:
Elite
川Javanese history in the the Collapse of the
wana 附O毗」
Court of P.δkl
1998); and Mystic Synthesis listed under Chapter 3. Three helpful studies
Sy,叫y (L附n:缸ill, 2006).
Political
A削
Van
Company and the
Niel, Java’s
Economy of Java's Northeast
mid-eighteenthζentu叩is Willem Re『nmelink, The Chinese
Javanese State,
Northeast
(Leiden: Researζh School
War and
1725-1743 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 1994). Leonard Blusse,
6
351
352
对毒也
FURTHER READINGS
FURTHER READINGS
Women
Strange Company: Chinese Settlers, Mestizo Foris Publiζations,
1986)
an interesting collection of
is
For studies on eastern Indonesia, see William
and the Dutch articles
on
early
in VOC Batavia VOC Batavia
Cummings, Making Blood White:
(Do「d「echt
Historical Trans-
formations的Early Modern Makassar (Honolulu: University of Hawai’1 Press, 2002); and the
two books by Leonard
Modern
Hans Hagerdal, Lords of the Land, Lords of the Sea:
Period, under Chapte「4. in Early
1600-1800
Colonial Timor,
(Leiden: Kl丁LV P「ess, 2012)
is
based
New
Parchment Curtain and Other Essays的Philippine
Conflict
prima「ily
and
on voe
for Chapte「s 5 and 6 above; No「din Hussin, Trade and Society的the Straits of Melaka: Dutch Melaka and Engh约Penang, 1780-1830 (Singapo「e: NUS Press, 2007); Barbara Watson Andaya, To Live as Brothers, in readings cited fo「Chapters 5 and 6 above; Ch「istine Dobbin, Islamic Revivalism的a Changing Peasant Economy: Central Sumatra, 1184-1847 (London:ζurzon Press, 1983) A good study of Banten in West Java is Atsushi Ota, Changes of Regime and Social Dvnam,cs m
History (Quezon City
Day Publishers, 1982). Vicente Rafael, Contracting Colonialism: Translation and
阳山阳知倪凯5归屹川the 0阳World of Bant1矶1750-1830 (L附n,
Christian
Conversion in Tagalog Society under Early Spanish Rule (Durham: Duke University P「ess, 1993) is a study of the p「oblem of translation and meaning of ζhristian ideas among Tagalog society in the early years of conve「sion. For the southern Philippines, see Cesar Adib Majul, Muslims的the Philippines (Manila: University of the Philippines Press, 1999),
Oona
Pa「edes,
Unive「sity
see Peter Ca「ey,
Conquest 1580-1760 (Princeton
Victo「B. Lieberman,
Anarchy and
the relevant chapters
Thant
Myint”U, The
Maitrii
Aung-Thwin,
Unive「sity Press, 1984),
Makings of Modern Burma (Cambridge
University Press, 2001)
in
and Michael and
Parallels, vol.
I:
in
mainland Southeast Asia between 800 and 1830, see
Integration
on the Mainland,
For Ayutthaya, see Richard
Kingdom
c.
India
(Leiden:
Brill,
under
2007).
A usefulζollection
Van
a
voe official. Two contempora叩French accounts of Ayutthaya A New Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Siam (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford
seventeenth-century
de La Loubere,
Historical
1969 [1693]) and Niζolas Gervaise, The Natural and Political H岳阳ry of the Kingdom in (Ba「1gkok: White Lotus, 1998 [1688]). The final years of the Ayutthaya dynasty are discussed the duri「19 Busakorn Lailert,”The Ban Phlu Luang Dynasty, 1688-1767: a Study of the Thai Mona「chy ζlosing Years of the
Ayutthaya Period,”PhD
thesis, University of
London, 1972. Fo「the troubled
between Ayutthaya and Myanmar, see Sunait Chutintaranond and Than Tun, On Both Sides of the Tenasserim Range: History of Siamese-Burmese Relations (Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University, relations
Material archival
Politics,
onζambodia
materials
Cambodian
is
in
the seventeenth century
is
limited,
Spanish but a recent study based on
University of Hawai'i at
from the
late Sixteenth to
Manoa, 2007. See
the mid-Seventeenth ζentury,”PhD
also the relevant chapte「s
dissertation,
inζhand I凹,A
History of
Cambodia For Vietnam, see
Li
Tana, Nguyen Cochinchina: Southern
Vietnam的the Seventeenth and
Eighteen的Centun巴(Ithaca: Southeast East Asia Program, 1998); George
E.
Dutton, The Tay Son
Upris的g:Soc尼飞y and Rebellion in Eighteenth-century Vietnam (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i
P「ess,
Niel Java's
period of transition
who was
in
a rare success
Maluku. James Francis th二
Parallels,
vol.
I.
Administration,
For
and
Myanmar, see W.
J.
Koenig,
The Burm巴e
Polity,
Social Organization (Ann A「bor: Center fo「South and
and the
state are disζussed
in
1752-1885 (Ann Arbo「:ζenter fo「South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Myanmar in the eighteenth centu叩and its confrontation with the British is the focus of
2006).
Thant Myint-U,
The Making of Modern Burma (Camb「idge
「α「Siam汀阳a
d,
the
Cornell University,
1969).
Unive「sity P「ess,
2001)
伽ic study of manpow凹叩nization川in Rabibhad川5阳Organ-
of Thai Soc但飞y的the
tzat,on
Ea叫y
Bangkok Period, 7 782-1873
On Rama
I,
see Klaus
Wenk
(Ithaca,
NY: Southeast Asia Progr
The Restoration of Thailand under Rama
l
1782刊09 (Tucson: Arizo川niversity P邸,1968) and Thadeus and Chadi川ood eds.川t卡 The Dynastic Chronicles, Bangkok Era, The First Reign (Tokyo:ζentre fo「East Cultural Studies 1978) B. J. Terwiel’s Through Travelle店’Eyes: an Approach to Early Nineteenth Century Thai History chapters
Jenny Klages,”Cambodia, Catholicism, and Conquistadores: Spanish-
lnte「actions
Nagtegaal, Riding the Dutch
the Throne的Burma's Last Dynasty,
(Bangkok: Editions
1995)
in a
Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1990). Religion W. Charney’s, Powerful Learning: Buddhist Literati and
of S日m
Reprints,
Indiaζompany
Michael
Vliet’5
are Simon
Strange
1752-1879:
ζhapte「3,
at the Court of Ayutthaya: Dutch is
in
fo「ζhapters 5 and 6, pa口icula「ly
Siam (Chiang Mai: Silkwo「m Books, 2005), four valuable edited and translated pieces on Ayutthaya by
opposition to the Dutch East
Lieberman,
Company Merchants
1604-1765
his
Wa「m
Liebe「man’s Strange
cited
2007). Further details are provided
Company and the Northeast Coast of Java, 1680-1743; Van
The灿Zone 7 768- 7 898 (Si叩阳e University Press, 1981) is a classic study of emergence of the Sulu Sultanate as a leading slave and trade entrepot in Southeast Asia Mainland: Relevant wo「ks a「e also cited in the readings
above
Cushman, The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya
and Bhawan Ruangsilp, Dutch East Perceptions of the Thai
cited
P「ess,
The Dutch East Indies
Tidore prince,
in
H恒的ry of Myanmar since Ancient Times, cited above. For an excellent study of the consolidation of
the major polities
F叫va
1740-1840: a Study的Colonial Encroachment and Dominance; and Kwee, Political Economy of Java’s Northeδst Coast, ι1740-1800, unde「Chapter 6 Mu「idan S. Widjojo, The Revolt of Prince Nuku: Cross-cultural Alliance-making的Maluku c. 1780-1870 (Leiden: Brill, 2009) is a study of a charismatic
NY: Cornell
Cycles:
2006).
Northeast coast,
by
Burmese Administrative
Brill,
The Power of Prophecy: Prince Dipanagara and the End of an Old Order的Java
1785-1855 (Leiden: KITLV Tiger:
Southeast Asia Program, 2013)
Mainland: Fo「Myanmar, see
A
and the new research provided
A Moun臼in of Di汗erence: the Lumad的Early Colonial Mindanao (Ithaca,
Relations, 1637-1700 (Leiden: Brill and Eighteenth Century Vietnam (Seoul
7: Early m。dern Southeast Asia: the last phase, 1780s-斗830s Reinout Vos, Gentle Janus, Merchant Prince: the VOC and the Tightrope of Diplomacy in the Malay World, 1740-1800 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 1993); Dianne Lewis, Jan Compagnie cited in「eadings
and deals not only with Timor but the whole of Nusatengga「a Timu「. For the Philippines, see John Leddy Phelan cited above for Chapter 4 and Linda Newson for Chapter 5 A valuable examination of both the lowland and highland communities in the Philippines is William Scott, Cracks in the
Research Center, Ko「ea University, 1990)
Dutch-Vietnamese
Society in Seventeenth
Island:
archival mate「ials
Henry
Asiatic
Silk for s,如er:
Law and
Yu,
|「1sun
Chapter
Seventeenth Century (The Hague:
Adaptation
Hoang Anh Tuan, and
followi「19
Andaya, The Heritage of Arung Palakka: South Sulawesi (Celebes) in the Nijhoff, 1981) and World of Maluku: Eastern Indonesia in the Early
Y.
2006); 2007);
’For
in
Duang Kamol, 1989)
Stuart-Fox,
A
p「ovides different pe巴pectives. Fo「Laos, see the relevant
H后tory of Laos and Wyatt, Thailand:
Vietnam, Alexande「Woodside, Vietnam
Vietnam 门dm
H叫d
and
A Sho厅History, both cited above A Comparative Study
the Chinese Model:
of
and Chinese Government in the阿巴t Half of the Nineteenth Century (Camb「idge University Press, 1988 1971]) is a classic study. Dutto叽The Tay Son Uprising:如促tyand e
[
Rebel/ton的Eighteenth-century Vietnam cited above provides a detailed examination of the tu「bulent late叫hteenth and early nineteenth centuries. A useful study of the创y years们unified Viet 5
Choi
Byung Wook, Southernν'ietnam under the Reign of M的h
Southeast Asian
Program Publications, Cornell
University,
2004)
m
Mang (1820- 84 7) 7
(Ithaca,
NY
缸飞飞
353
DEX b让ds’nests 241,
309, 313
Mette阿ra (Future Buddha) 93 Ninth Buddhist Council 320 sangha 50, 93, 116-117, 119,
112
bissu
Portuguese 135-136, 139, 151-152, 200, 214-215,
black
218-219, 224, 226, 270, 273, 287-288, 314,
253-254, 263 Blambangan 154-155, 202, 255-256
INDEX
247,
boat building see
shipbuilding
bodhisattva of
abaca 31, 109
Aceh
Anawrahta, King 62-65,
59, 133, 140, 151-153, 191,
194, 197-199, 234,
93 ancestor veneration 45, 74, 78,
251-252, 300
Aden 134, 151 Ageng Tirtayasa,
80, 91, 101, 106, 195,
Sultan 204-205
agriculture
Ang Ang
232 Chan, King 324, 329 Eng, Prince 274
Angkor 6-7, 46, 65-68, 122,227,
dry-rice see d可-nee
expansion 37-38, 98-99
274
plantation agriculture
see also
expansion 210, 220,
240-244 slash and burn/swidden cultivation 36, 113-114,
195 and volcanic
soil
37
wet-rice see wet-rice
known
as
eaglewood and gaharu), 23, 26,90, 125,189,196 Alor 38
Amangkurat I, Sultan 203 Amangkurat II, Sultan 204, 223 Amangkurat III, Sultan 253-254, 256
Amarapura 314 Amaravati see also
Cham
123,
127 ambergris 25, 79, 165, 215
Amboina/Ambon
191, 197, 210,
47, 110, 166,
233,246,254,
263,312 Amoy (Xiamen) 239 Amsterdam, Sultan 215
An Nam 326, 328 Anaukpetlun, King 216-217
Badui 105-106 Baghdad, Mongol conquest
of
boundaries
Bagyidaw, King 317-319
c叫tural
Balambangan 261
Ban Phlu Luang
boundaries 38-39,
86-87, 116-117, 234, 244-247, 293-298
Bali 37, 80, 154」55,205,
boundaries 46, 244-247
religious
Banten Girang 20, 105 Banten 105, 133-140, 155,
territorial
archaeological且nds 17一18, 20, 30, 32, 87, 95, 108
Aru islands 313 Arung Palakka 213-215,
242,
262
Ashoka 72
Assam
115, 294,
317-319
Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN) 3,336 Aurangzeb 238 Austronesian 27-28, 73, 112 Ava 64, 114-116, 167-169, 171,
217,219-220,250,264-266 Avalokitesvara 56-57 Ayutthaya 70, 117-119, 168-169, 175-176,
72, 92,
99-100,
269-272 21, 111, 197,
boundaries 293-298
political
210, 233, 313
72, 272,
of Island
influence 238, 253, 260, 285, 291, 294, 298-300,
303, 310, 330, Brito e
342
Nicote, Filipe
216 Brunei 2-3, 100,
17?
Bengal 113-114, 220, 238 Bengkulu 199, 251, 301
Buddhism 4-5, 17, 50, 54, 56-59, 63-64, 71-72, 74, 91,
240’
250,268-274 Azimuddin, Sultan 260-261
Babad Tanah Jawi
Birdshe;d Peni川la
babaylan 143, 207, 249
106-107
313 bird of paradise 26, 165,
Papuan
see also
313 islands 112, 16S,
93-94
227-228, 269,271, 314 Buddhaghosa 93
174, 176,
220,224, ,
145-147
'
188-189, 218,
230-231 235
246,
270, 272,
316-317,
287-288, 320-321
Eigh出Buddhist Council 320 Mahayana 4, 54, 57, 63, 74,
147,246,272, 288, 317
meritorious
acts
258
217-218
224,
bezoar stones 26 Bhairava 55, 77 Binnya Dala, King 266 Binondo 162, 259 Bintan 52, 252 biodiversity 21-24
109, 137,
census (Restored Taungoo) centralization
Buddha画images 58, 72, 93-94, 120, 146, 176, 218-219,
172-173, 179-180,
79,220,317
Catholic church see Christianity
Cebu 109-110, 140,
145, 159,
150 30, 54, 59, 88, 142, 148, 252 Bendah?ra dynasty 200, 242,
40, 173
cannon see且rearms Canton see Guangzhou Cape of Good Hope 129, 134 Capellen Baron van der 303-304 caste
de 135, 172,
163 Buayan 162-164, 261 Buddha (Gautama Buddha)
Angkor
ca口ography 280, 294, 296, 341
EIC
Benua people 200
104,
30_ 31
British
see also
270,274, 324-329
Camoes
Barbarians 20, 26,
Batak 38-39, 95, 104 Batanes islands 294, 308 Batang Hari 77 Batavia 187, 193-194, 199-200, 202, 204-205, 220,256,291 Battambang 65, 274
2-3, 31, 39, 122, 173-176, 225-227, 242,
see also
218-219
Chei Chettha II, King 225 Chiang Mai 58-59, 71-72,
120, 146, 169, 173-175, 216,
264,271,324-325 Chiang Saen 71, 174, 217 Chin 113-114, 289, 315 China firearms 74
mvasion by 123-124 Middle Kingdom idea 232 Opium War 330-331 routes to 294-295 trade links 17, 29-30, 44,
89-90, 109-110, 115-116, 147-151,
Myanmar
Cambodia
279, 294, 302
122, 128,
220-228, 234, 239, 245,
see
50, 63, 269-270, 314 Cakraningrat I, King 254
37
Brief Description
ba;a吨町,cabeza de 28, 161, 206
4,
290
93-94, 113-114,
189, 192, 197, 201,
Burma
boundaries 36, 45,
Brantas River
see Christianity
bayin 170,217 Bayinnaung, King 146, 150, 167-169, 172 Bayon 67 beads, prayer beads/rosaries
bunga mas dan perak tribute 201,221,270,299,319,324
cakkavatti, wheel-tun由1gmon缸ch
boundaries 141,
146, 244,
157-158, 191, 199, 202-205, 257, 305
baptism
Bugis 49, 112, 194, 213-214, 252-253, 262, 311, 313 Bukit Cina 100 Buleleng 205
e由nic
d归asty
Bangka island 251-252 Bangkok 274, 319, 321-325
Anglo-Dutch War (1780-4) 285, 298-299 Antipolo 208
168-169
Borobodur 6-7, 55, 78
317-319 Anglo-Burmese wars 285,
293-294, 301,342
246,288
Borommakot, King 270-271
19
4, 50,
tooth relics 57, 63,”,145,
Bone 214, 262
Banda archipelago
treaty {1824) 285,
compassion
Boni 109-11 O
Angkor Thom 67 Angkor Wat 66-68, 175, 245 Anglo-Burmese relations
Anglo-Dutch
134 Alexander the Great 51, 198
Babullah, Sultan 166-167 Bacan 111-112, 310
charismatic leaders 49-51, 120, 247-252, 265, 269-270, 272, 279
57-59, 63, 71-72, 91, 93, 145-147, 175-176, 188-189, 220, 235, 240,
56-57, 67, 230 Bogor 105-106
305-306
Khmer
318-319, 342
Agung, Sultan 202-203, 245 ahmudan 64, 217-218, 264 al-Kahar, Sultan Alauddin 阳ayat Syah 152-153 Alauddin III, Sultan 141 Alaungpaya, King 249, 266一268, 316 Albuquerque, Afonso de, 119, aloes wood ( also
71,
Theravada Buddhism
on mainland 234,
286-290, 340 ceramics 29-31, 33-34, 95,饨, 109 Ceribon 133, 205 Chakri, General (later Rama I)
251-252
Chakri 279, 287-288, 314-315, 324,341 Cham 3, 67-68, 72-73, 78, 126-128, 196, 229-230,
239,242,276,289,331 Amaravati 123, 127 Indrapura 123 Kauthara 123, 127, 229 Panduranga 123, 127, 229, 329 Vijaya 123, 126, 178
40,
340
316-317, 320 Sinhalese sangha 270-271 Tantric Buddhism 55
Bodawpaya, King 287-288, 295-296, 314-317, 320, 343 Bodhgaya钮,317
Champasak 228, 273, 323 Chao Anou 323-324 Chao Phraya River 35-36,
190-192,224-225,241 Chindwin River 63, 314 Chinese
and Christianity 188-189, 239,259 Cin phrai 322 sailing routes 20, 147,
232 Western Maritime Route 227-228 Western Ocean directions 20 Western Seas Route 147
Spanish mistrust of 162, 208 voe mistrust of 255-258 Council 255 culture
329-330
mestizos 191, 259 migration 240-241, 255,
321-322 mining 240-241 pirates 328
plantation agriculture
240-241 violence in Batavia 256
war 255 Chittagong 171, 220, 317 Chola 76 Chola, Rajendra 16-17 cholera 312 Christianity 4-5, 179 baptism 137, 142, 160 Catholic Church 133-134, 137, 139-140, 142-145, 151, 160, 188-189, 191, 206,234,277,294,307 and charismatic leaders 249
6
355
INDEX
INDEX Dai Viet 3-4, 46,
Christianity (cont.)
89, 91-92, 95, 97-99, 120, 145, 176-177, 179-180, 186, 188-189,
and China 188-189, 239 Christian clerics and trade 161 competition for followers
247 conflict with Islam 144-145,
151,208 enforced adoption of 143-144, 166-167,206 Indios 207 Pasyon 292 in Philippines 138-140, 142-144, 159一164,
206-209,258-261 prohibition of 246 Protestant missionizing 188,
263,312 and Spanish colonialism 159-164, 208-209, 258-260,294, 308 Vietnam 232-233, 332 chu nom (southern script) 74 Chulia traders 189一190,238,252 Cirebon shipwreck 33
m
climate 4, 22-23 cloves 110-111, 196-197, 240 coastal polities 29, 39, see also
individual polities/ seaports
Cochin China see Dang Trong 228,276 Coedes, George 2-3 Coen, Jan Pieterszoon 210 coffee 240, 257, 302, 304
coms
see currency
colonialism 6-7,
Confucianism
9,
160,
4, 57, 74,
258-261 91-92,
193, 228, 234, 250,
278-279,294, 328
Dang N goai
228-230, 232-233, 242, 270,275-276, 278-279
288
195 97, 189,
218
corvee labor 192, 206, 219-220, 227, 245, 271, 276, 287,
303-307, 315,321 Cotabato 260-261 cotton 109, 114, 195, 218, 240-241, 255,302,306 cow叮shell currency 34-35,
64 Cultivation System 305
currency 34-35, 64, 66, 90, 222,
277,292 Daendels, Marshal Herman Willem 303, 305 Dai Nam 331
physical changes 4
and
60-61 Estado da India 134, 233 eunuchs 198, 231, 275 missions to Europe 222-224 evangelism see Christianity polities
Dhammazedi, King 116-117
Guangzhou 32,190,239,261,273 Guanyin 230
273-274, 277 Hadhrami Arabs 300 H可i, Raja 298-299
Islam 4-5, 59-60,邸,87-88, 94-95, 106-107, 109-110, 198-199, 292 Chinese 255
Ha Tien
190,
and Christianity 246-247
D.G.E. 2
Hall,
Halmahera 110, 262-263, 311 Halong Bay 19-20 Hamengkubuwana I, Sultan 257 Hamengkubuwana II, Sultan 303 Hamengkubuwana III, Sultan 304 Hamzah Fansuri 156 Hanoi 73, 123, 328, 330 Hasanuddin, King 158
Dinh Bo Linh 73
Fa N驴1m, King 72, 122 Faxian 17
Hayam
Felipe,
disease 35, 138-139, 243-244,
312 Doctrine of the Elders see Theravada Buddhism Dominicans 160, 232, 294 Dong Hoi 228 Dong Son drums 27 Drake, Francis 166-167 dry-rice agriculture ,36, 38,
61-62 see also wet - rice dugong 25 Dutch influence 285, see also
VOC
VOC
eaglewood 23, 126, 196 see aloeswood early modern, use of term 5-8 early
modern
world, features of
Prince 137
firearms/ cannon 7 4,
110-111, 152-153, 169, 229 Flores 111, 212, 215, 242, 263 forced labor 161一162, see also
corvee forest clearance 24, 37, 65, 79,286
Orang
35-39
Earth Goddess 58, 218- 219 East India Company see EIC Eastern Lesser Sundas 110-111 eastern Seram 262, 313 EIC (East India Company) 187, 199, 238-239, 251, 261,
267,288,299-300 Eighty-Years War 185 Ekathotsarot, King 221-222 elephants battle elephants 67, 97-98 hunting of 241
highland groups see uplands/
highlands Hikayat Hang Tuah 140-141 Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai 95
Hinduism
4, 17, 50, 54 calendar system 92
220 176-177 Shiva 54, 65, 80 Vishnu 50, 54, 63, 66-67 Ho Xuan Huong 289 177,
230-231
VOC
Hsinbyushin,
gold 104, 108, 150, 161一162,201,
240-241,296,299 gold and silver flowers see bunga mas dan perak 209,
Gorom
archipelago 313
36-40, 99-112, 197-216,
234,298-313,332-333,340 compared to Mainland Southeast Asia 290-293
An
Hoi
Franciscans 160, 209, 232
134, 138
Islamic law 59 94-95, 140 Islamic coins 35 Islamic Wars (Gowa) 211-212 Island Southeast Asia 2-3, 5, 10, Syafi'i
Northern, Wes tern Archipelagos isolated tribes see Suku Terasing ivory hunting 195-196
honey/wax collection 26-27 Hong Due Code 124 Hormuz 134
Goa
257 Sufism 59, 94, 106, 140, 156,
see also Central, Eastern,
199-200,258,292,294-295 founder-figures 45
14-17 Gia Long, King 287-288, 296, 328-329 Giri, Sultan 203 Glass Palace Chronicle 64-65
spread of 140-142, 151, 155, 158, 166, 179, 204-205,
Indra
71-72, 104, 149-150,
Gayo people 95 geography, and distinctiveness
Muslim law 141-142
castes 79,
Holland see
307
247,298 holy war 247, 298 increased cohesion 300-301
ummah
Asli 29-30, 37, 58一切,
gaharu, see also aloeswood 23 Galleon Trade 6, 137-138, 142,
competition for followers
198,203
292
97一饨,
forest dwellers, see also
W uruk 80
head-hunting, head-hunters 160,
female authority/rulers 15, 52-53, 87-88, 90, 115-117, 198-199, 255 female inheritance rights 125 fertility cult, 55, 105, 106
337-341 early polities
Crown
black Portu思1ese
I
Kachin 113-114, 315 Kaicili N uku 310-311 Kaicili Sibori 215 Kaladan River 61, 114 Kalang forest dwellers 257
37, 243,
Kalyani River 93
Kamb时adesa 65-68 kamrna坷,266 Kandy Tooth Relic 57, 145, 169 Karaeng Bayo 211 Karangasem 205 Karen 63, 113-114, 289, 315 karma, see also kamma 50 Kartasura 256 Kauthara see Cham Kec且,R可a 248, 252 Kedah 198, 299-301, 324-325 Kedah, Sultan of 253, 299 Kediri 106-107 Kei islands 313 Kelantan 229, 299, 324-325
Kengtung
64, 146,
264
Kerinci bark manuscripts 86 Kerinci people 77 Khmer 67-68, 73, 78, 92, 98,
176,225-227,274 Angkor Khorat plateau 175,225,319,323 see also
kingship, views of 49-51, 52, 63, 67, 72, 94, 119, 141,
202-203,247,266 kinship 31-32, 47, 52-53, 71, 81,
King 268-269
111-112 Jambi 77, 200-201, 245, 251-252 Jailolo
Japan, cultural/commercial links 137, 149, 173, 186, 194一195, 222, 226,
Sangkilang 311
Ibn Battuta 15, 33, 38-39, 59-60,
80
230-231, 240
Igorot 195, 209, 243, Ilocanos 249-250,
258
258, 290,
308-309 ImamRi句ali 191-192 India
merchants 29-30 trade links 88-89, 189一190,
218 1?:::g?:;:?a?!:7s6
mtermarriage 3 l一32, 47-48, 51-53, 230-231, 240一241,
Jarai
241-242
Jatakas 14, 241, 246
Java
14-16, 30, 33, 37-38, 77, 104-107, 155, 202-205, 253-258, 291, 301-305,
3,
338,341
Mongol
invasion of 17
Jayavarman II, 65-68 Jayavarman VII 67 Jesuits 160,
101, 108, 111, 128, 135, 150, 159, 164一165, 188, 221
Kolkata 317-318 Konbaung dynasty 239,
266-268,279,287-288,341 Kota Cina 20 Koxinga, 210 see also Zheng
Chenggong
Japara 155
252-253, 300
Johor 178, 199-200, 242, 248, 252-253, 298-299 see also Riau Jolo 162-163, 309
113-114, 124, 154,
gunpowder 7 4, 97-98, 110-111 Gunung Agung 158
hat people see
304-305,343
78, 99,
158,168,195,286,291,302, 315 Iskandar Mu缸,Sultan 197-198
family see kinship
Dipanegara, Prince 37, 292, 298,
286-287,340 irrigation 3, 36-37, 39, 45, 65,
Gujarat 20, 31, 59, 87, 89, 152,
Dieng Plateau temples 78
Company see
Cordillera 108, 138, 150, 162,
35-36, 40, 61-62, 113-114,
119, 133, 169, 270
Emerald Buddha 174一175 encomienda system 160 environment and maritime connections 17-20
Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) River,
311
189, 198
trade in 189 white elephants 50, 116-117,
Dutch United East India
Constantinople 85 see Rum copper deposits 25, 241
Coromandel Coast
147, 231,
debt slaves 192 deer 23, 195-196, 222, 226, 233 Demak 107, 133, 140, 155 derhaka 76, 102 Desawarnana 80, 100, 104, 111 devaraja 65-68, 165-168 dhamma, 93 dhammaraja, the Just King 50
125, 177, 230-232, 235,
288,326
4, 57, 76, 92,
Gowa 163-164, 211-214, 234,
269-270
outer region
228-229,233 Dang Trong inner region
Daoism
iv。可hunting 195-196 Javanese use of 15 Mistress of the White Elephant 116-117 Mongkhon Rattanakosa
209-210, 232, 260,
307 Jin dynasty 49 Johor Bahm 300
Krakatau 36-37 Krun钊1ep see Bangkok Kudarat, Sultan 209-210, 260
Kudus 140 Kupang 263, 312 Kyanzittha, King 50, 63 Kyaukse River district 61-62
La Galigo 112 lacquer 30, 148-149, 226 Lan Na 71-72, 93, 99, 118-120, 133, 170一171, 174-175,
194,227,323
DEX Lan Sang
72, 120-122, 127-128,
227-228 land below the winds 14 Land of Gold 14, 25
260-261,293,309-310,312 General 317 -318
Maha Bandula,
227 34, 64, 70-72, 113, 175-176,
Mahabodhi temple 93
188,196,218,225,227,239,
Mahamuni Buddha
246,272,289,319,323,329
220, 314
Larantuka 215 Law of Civil Hierarchy 118 Law of Military and Provincial Hierarchies 118 Le Duy Mat, Prince 250, 275一276 Le dynasty 124, 178, 228, 275 Le Loi 123-124, 126 Le Thanh Tong 124, 126-128, 150, 176-177 Le Van Duyet 289-290, 324, 331 leaders, distin伊ishing
characteristics of 47, 50, 52, 121, 128, 166, 175,248,250
Legazpi, Miguel Lopez de
137-138, 147, 159-160 Sunda Islands 262, 312 Lieberman, Victor 8, 337 Lieu Hanh, female deity 147, Lesser
231,277 Lifau 263 Ligor see also
N akhon S1
Thammarat 289-290 linga stones 55, 78, 97
Linh River 294, 328 literacy 86, 155, 206,
340
lithograph printing 292
dynamics 10
119, 141, 170, 176, 198,
285-286,288, 292,339 logging, see also Kalang 196 Lombok 193, 205, 305
palm 38
Lovek 175-176, 225 Luzon (Lu-song) 108-109,
137,
261 159 Luang Prabang 120-122, LU(;:6es 138,
127一128, 146, 174, 228,
271,273,323
Lumad
4,
54-55,
288
Mahazedi pagoda 169
Mahmud 200
Sultan of Johor-
Syah, Sultan of Melaka
103
113-128, 167-178,
216-234,264-279,314-332 compared to Island Southeast Asia 290-293 Majapahit 46, 75, 95, 100, 104-107, 128, 133, 154-155 岛1akassar 49, 112, 194-195, 211-212, 262, 312-313 Dutch attack on 187 Malay traders in 313 voe and 187-188 Malay-Indonesian archipelago 291, 293 Maldives, cow叩shell currency
15, 23, 25, 38-39,饨,
102
Mac Dang Dung, General 177 Mac dynasty 147, 177一178,228 210
compound
162
Manipur 267, 317-319 Mansur Syah, Sultan 102一103 manuscripts 86 mapping see cartography archaeology 30, 32
20, 27, 110-112, 138,
164, 166, 197,206,210, 214, 233, 261-262, 310, 343
connections 17-20 and environmental factors
17-20 law 101 linkages 27-28
King 171-172 Manchu 186-187 see Qmg mandala polities 45-53, 99 ethnic/diverse groups 48 as family 51-53 female authority 15, 52-53 kinship relations 48, 51-53, 81 marriage alliances 4 7 meaning of 46-4 7 persons of prowess 49-51
Martaban (Mottama) 168, 264-265
Mangkub山ni (Sultan
Hamengkubuwana
33, 116,
156一157, 200,
100-101, 128, 133, 140, 199-200, 252,340
I)
257
invasion of 187,
199 Portuguese invasion of 133-134, 141, 144, 151-153, 166 Melaka fort 342 岛1elaka Straits 19, 29, 75, 85,
87-89, 94-95, 98, 100-101, 128, 133, 140, 147, 149, 151-153, 189, 197,
81 see also individual polities
Ming d归asty 33, 85-87, 89-90, 92, 95, 97, 100-101, 105, 108-109, 114-115, 119, 123-124, 186-187, 190 Ming Shi-lu 86-87, 97-98 Minh Huong 331 288, 315,
192-195, 208,234,242,245,277, 312, 322, 337-338 modernity
6, 9 modernization 6
money/monetization see currencv
see
89-90
monkhood (sangha)
273’
Buddhism
92, 116,
57, 58, 66, 76.
Monsoon Asia 2 monsoon wars 328 monsoon winds 2, 18-19, 39
22-23,
Moors 133-134 Mount Bro mo 106
Mount Kulen 65-68 Mount Mayon 36-37 Mount Merapi 36-37, 77-78、
口1erit
Mount Meru 65 Mount Popa 61-62 Mount Taal 249 Mount Tambora
(Missions Etrangeres de Paris)
232-233
203, 255,
voe
304’
36-37, 285-286
trade in 238, 255, 261, 303,
310
War 330-331
Opi山n
Orang
Asli ( original people,
forest-dwellers) 29, 200,
292
Orang Laut
(sea people) 29, 101, 149一150, 200, 211-213,
241-242, 252, 292,
294-295,299
Orang
Asli
85, 133,
152-153,238 225, 274
Oudong
Si
Thammarat
(Ligor)
Nan
71
Padri
Wars 301 46, 58, 62-65,
P司ajaran 105, 158
Nanhai 14
P可ang 156-157
Nanyang 19
Pakubuwana
Narai, King 222-224, 246,
285-286, 304,306 weather patterns and calamities 249 Netherlands see VOC
II,
III,
King 256-257 King 257-258
Palawan 30 Palembang 75,
77, 100, 200-201, 245,251-252, 291,301 P缸npanga, 161 Panay 249, 258 Panduranga 3, 127-128, 229,329 Pangasinan 207 27, 165-166, 263,
293, 310
249一250
279,
287, 325-328
Nihonmachi 222 Nine Wali (Wali Sanga)
Pakubuwana Pakubuwana
Papuan islands
N思1yen 177-178, 193, 225, 228-231, 275-276, 278-279, 326,328,341
Nguyen Phuc Anh, Prince
King 253一254,
I,
256
supernatural interpretation of 249, 255, 265, 277,
Nghe An
Padang 199, 251 Padang Lawas 20, 55 Pagan (Bagan) 16, 93, 114, 245
and economic recove可275
Mongol invasions 16-17, 19, 64,
consumption of 238, 330 growing of 219
Ottoman emp让e
natural disasters
Mong Mao 115,.267 Mong Mit 115, 267
194, 221
128
precious stones 24-25 and 189
269-271, 320 Naresuan, King 172一173, 221-222, 225,320 nat spirits, see also Thirty-Seven Nats 63, 169
Mogaung 114-115, 267 Mohnyin 115, 168, 267 Moken sea people 29
17,
original people see
272,289 Nalanda 44
Christianity
Oc Eo opium
Mongol invasion of 16
Nakhon
142, 149, 190,
71, 74,
Abdullah 292, 342 Musi River 75-76 Myanmar 2-3 border wars with China 71, 115 British relations with 317-319 Burmese alphabet 316 and Chin wives 289 control of people 287 dominance 239 Hindu calendar system 92 岛1unsyi
166
mobility 3, 6, 36, 76, 99, 135,
Water of Allegiance see also royal curses
Mrauk-U 113-114, 171, 220 岛1ughal India 133, 140, 171, 179, 189, 198, 220, 238-239
120
see also tin
monks,
Mpu Prapanca 80
naga 67 Naicili Boki Raja, Queen Mother
missionaries 160, see also
oaths
see uplands/highlands
330-332
199-200, 212, 251-252, 294,298-301, 340,342 of prowess/merit see persons of prowess/
Mengwi 205
MEP
Queen 252
iron ore deposits
River/Delta 35-36, 40, 113, 128, 286-287, 323 Melaka 85, 88-89, 94-95, 97-98,
rulers 47-48, 51-53, 60-61,
306-309 4, 27-28, 240-241, 255, 275, 286 mm-laung 219-220, 248, 265, 314, 316 see also charismatic leaders Minangkabau 77, 103一104, 195, 198-199, 201, 251-252, 301
expansion 240-244
202-205, 223, 234, 245, 248, 253-255, 341 Mauryan dynasty 71-72 Mazu 230 medicinal plants 24
men
215
mining 24
silk road 19-20 marriage alliances 31-32, 47-48, 51-53, 230-231 martaban earthenware vessels 116
Dutch/VOC
(Port.) 135, 138, 188,
mestizo (Sp.) 139, 226, 259,
Mi出Mang
prohibition 190 raiding 292一293
Man Pa,
m创♀o
Putri Jamilan,
products 29
Mataram 77-78,
229
migration
Mekong
royal curses 4 7
19, 79, 110, 151,
capture of 159-160, 162
Maynilad 137
口ianti口1e
mainland centralization 286-290 Mainland Southeast Asia 2-3, 10,
mangroves 23, 73, 128 Manila Binondo sector 162
biodiversity 25-26
阳au 298
Mahmud
mercenaries 135, 169, 171-173,
marine
Syah, Sultan of Johor
Mahmud Syah,
merantau 103
Mangrai, King 71-72
preeminent lords 47-48 ritual oath-taking 47
163, 209
Ma Huan
63, 74, 147, 272,
Maluku
of foreign concepts 53-60 of religion 4, 57-58, 66, 91,
lontar
Mahayana Buddhism
mountain and h山people
Mangkunegaran 257
Parian
statue 171,
34-35,64 Malong, Andres 207
localization
mace
28, 79-80, 99, 104,
Magellan, Ferdinand 137-138, 142, 159, 167 Magindanao 162-164, 209-210,
languages 27-28, 35, 38, 87, 102,
Lao
Madura
202-204,254-255,280,304
133, 146, 169一171,
see also Birdshead Peninsula Pararaton 104, 107 Parian 162 Pasai 87-88, 152 pasisir 106 Pasyon 292
Patani 95, 153, 201, 221, 299,
301,319,324,340 Pattimura 312 106,
156, 158, 203
Nuku, Raja 343 Nuruddin al-Raniri 198-199 Nusatenggara Timur, see also Eastern Lesser Sundas 22-23, 99, 110, 214-216, 262,312 nutmeg 110-111, 196-197
pearls 26, 108, 149, 309, 313
Pegu (Bago)
64, 116-117, 133, 149, 167-169, 171, 173, 194, 198, 216-218,
264-265,269,271,279,351 Penang 285, 299, 304, 322, 324 pepper 158-159, 200, 240, 253,
257,305-306
6
359
EX
360遥远INDEX pepper
Portugal
(cont.)
cultivation of 98-99, 104, 150, 152一153, 194, 233,
241,251,299 trade in 118, 158, 195, 198-201, 204, 251-253,
300,302 Perak 198, 252-253, 324 persons of prowess/merit 49-51, 120, 247-252, 265, 269一270, 272, 311 see also charismatic leaders;
min-laung Phaulkon, Constantine 223-224 Phaya Kaeo, King 17 4 Philippine tarsier (primate) 21 Philippines 2-3 biodiversity 21 Catholic Church 307 centralized authority 290 e由nic diversity 290 Filipino friars
308-309
gold miners 208-209
Moro
raids 249
Spanish colonization 159-164, 206-210, 258-261, 306 tobacco 306-307 traders 138
Phnom Penh
122, 175, 226,
324
picis coins, see also
currency
34-35, 90
Antonio 27, 138 Pigneau de Behaine, Pierre 327-328, 330 pirates 18, 308, 311-313, 328 see also raiding, Sulu Pires, Tome 86-87, 95, 100, 102一103, 111, 126-127, 155 plantation agriculture expansion Pigafetta,
240-244 Po Nagar 230 Po Saut, King 229一230
empire building 133-140 Estado da India 134, 233 invasion of Melaka 133-134, 141, 144, 151一153, 166 mercenaries 135, 171一173 Portu事1ese disease 138 Prambanan 78 Prasat Thong, King 194, 222 Prey Nokor (Saigon) 225 principalia (elite Filipinos) 206 printing 292 Prome 116, 168, 217 prophecies 50, 93, 120, 248, 265-266, 271 Pyu people 61-62
Qing dynasty
186-187, 190, 210, 224, 238-239, 243, 5,
268, 285, 295, 320, 326,
328-329
Quang Nam 127 Quang Trung Emperor 326 Lady Olivia 297
Raffles, Sir
coastal 29
35-39 and environment 60-61 and rulers 47-48, 51-53, early
60-61, 81, 102 of 46
see also individual people! polities
Marco 19,”,64,78,87-88
population元,37-38, 101, 138-139, 286, 304, 307,
337-338
Sambal people see Samudra-Pasai 59
289,306,312,331
sandalwood 22-23, 27, 197, 215,
Recollect Franciscans 160, 209 Reconquest (Reconquista)
133-134
Red River
3,
296,300,303, 305,342-343 raiding, 51, 109, 115-117, 165-166,249, 312 capture of people 51, 109, 127-128, 165-166
Ilanun,293,309 Magindanao, 310 Manipuri, 216, 262 Moro raids 249 Shan 113 Sulu, 291, 298, 310, see also pirates
22-23, 77, 315, 336 Raja Muda 252, 298 Ra挝1ine (Arakan) 113-114, 145, 168-169, 171, 193, 218, rainfall 2, 15,
220,314, 318-319
Ram Kamhaeng 68-70
I, King 14, 251-252, 295, 319-321, 325-326
Rama Rama Rama
II, King 321-324 III, King 323-325 IV, King 70 Ramakien 321
domains 91-95
religious relationships 179 religious transition
94-95
religious/political expression
54 royal authority 287
Rembang 243 Restored Taungoo dynasty 197, 216-220, 234, 264-266, 271 see also
Taungoo
Rhodes, Alexandre de 232 Riau 241, 253, 298-299, see also J ohor rice cultivation see dry rice, wet river systems 3, 40,
61-62
Rote 263 Royal Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences 343 royal curses 47, 76 Royal Patronage 133一134,232 Royal Philippine Company 307 rulers 47-48, 51-53, 60-61, 81, 102, 115-117, 165 see also female au出ority treason to the ruler 76 tributary lords 170-171
Rum 85,
140-141, 238 Rurnphius, G.E. 196 44, 87, 103, 118, 186,
231 sacred geography 55 Safavid dynasty Persia 133, 238 sago 14, 23, 38, 75, 110, 165, 313 Sahul shelf 21 Saifuddin, Sultan 215, 262
Sattha
I,
charismatic
savior king see
leaders
Savu 38, 263
human mob出ty 338
saw-bwa 170, 267 Sea people see
Sejarah
Orang Laut
Melayu
52, 100,
historical periods 7
102
population explosion
337-338
202
Seram Laut 313
territorial
Serat
Centhini 302
Serat
Yus旷203
transfer of ideas/technologies
123, 146, 167,
169-170,
330
salt
sa让ing routes
275, 24, 33-34, 38, 126, 148, 159, 163, 231, 255 Salween River 61-62 Sarna B勾au sea people 29, 211-213, 242, 309, 313
339 Spain
174,217,219, 239, 264, 266-267, 315
lashed-lug 33
plank shipbuilding
33 shipwrecks 33, 96, 148
empire building 133-140 mestizos 139, 258-259 mundo hispanico 294 in the Philippines 206-210, 258-261 spices, see also clove, mace,
nutmeg
19, 78-79, 85, 89, 102, 108, 110-111, 134, 137, 149, 152, 165,
pagoda 116-117 ??:::;;? aw pagoda 116, 168 Pagoda 63
196-197,240,253,263,310
??:e;??o年n
300 -:i
26-27, 29, 53-54, 61, 63, 68, 74-75, 94, 97, 104, 125, 143, 146, 147, 169, 176,
spirits 24,
Siam, 299,
314-315 see also Ayutthaya Silang, Diego 249-250, 260 Silang, Gabriela 260 silk, introduction of 109
197, 209-210, 230, 258, 313, 330, 339 Sri
road 17
silk
maritime silk road 19_ 20
59-60, 75-78, 80,100,252 stick-lac 149
170 171,295 ii!??:阳::'.'.? and
burn agriculture, see swidden cultivation 36,
113-114, 195
192-195, 233-234、 ’
;????? 293, 309, 312-313, 338 smallpox 138, 139, 243-244, 312
330 38
Solo River
ong
sty 44, 73,
Northern Song Southern Song
sugar 233, 240, 321, 323 mills 240, 256, 305 plantations 158 Sukhothai 46, 68-70, 118 Suku Terasing, 29 see also Orang Asli
slavery/slave trade, see also
?olor-?:or archipelagoes
57, 92-93, 114, 116, 120, 145, 169,174,270,317,
Srivijaya 16-17, 44, 46, 56-57,
port 77 de port 285 Singasari 77
314,
Lanka 339
Singapore 2-3
also
263
92 19
f?归n::; 19
Sus吐1山1an 296, 305 Surapati 204, 254 Suriyavongsa, King 227-228 II, King 66-68 Suvarnabhumi 14, 25 swidden cultivation, see also slash and burn agriculture
Suηravarman
36, 195 Syaikh al-Islam 197-198 Syeikh Yusuf of Makassar 204 Symes, Michael 288, 316, 343 syph血s 138-139 Syriam (Thanl抖n) 169, 172, 216,
264-265
206-210,258-261
310 Shin Saw Bu, Queen 116-117 shipbuilding 32-33, 96-97, 328
252,
Sunda Kelapa 156, 158 Sunda 105, 156 Sunda shelf/Sundaland 21 Sunda Straits 251 Surabaya 254-255 Surakarta 301-302
colonization by 159-164,
Sharifuddin, Sultan
stitched
consolidation
340-341
Shan 63-64, 71, 113-114, 120,
Saigon 225, 229, 274, 279, 328,
Ramayana
Ratu Ad且,see also charismatic leaders 304-305 Ratu Kidul 156, 202 Ratu Pakubuwana 255
336-337 Early Modern to Colonial period 341-343 exploitation of land/ resources 337 features of 337-341
305-306 King 175-176
e仕a:??::??g
Rarnai诅adesa 114, 116, 265 Ramathibodi I, King 117 -118
268
definition of area 2-3,
Sasak 205,
see also individual rivers
R归均u
340-341 293-294
Senapati Ingalaga
27 Chinese western sea routes 20, 147, 231 Sakti, Raja (holy king) 202
14,
Sangir island
religion see individual religions religious
administrative centralization
274,311
sappanwood 24, 118, 225, 273
72-73, 113, 127,
232,275-276,286-287,340 Reid, Anthony 7-8
Thomas Stamford 73,
South Sulawesi 164,194,214,352 Southeast Asia
Zambales
217,242,249,262,273,276,
nce Raffles,
Rama
polities
Polo,
Portuguese
see also slavery
Phra Bang (Royal Buddha Image) 72, 120
sizes
rebellions 147, 171, 202, 207,
see also black
Sulawesi 214, 234, 311-312 Sulayman出e Magni且cent, Sultan 152-153 sulphur 110-111 Sulu 108-109, 163-164, 210,
261,293,309 Sunan Gunung Jati 158 Sunan Kalijaga 140 Sunan Kudus 140 Sunan Kuning 256
Tabinshweti, King 167-169 Tagalog 143, 290, 292 Tai people/polities 67-73, 113 Taj al-Alam Safiyyat al-Din, Sultana 198-199 Taksin, King 272-274, 279, 287, 319 Talaud island 293-294 The Tale of Kieu 330 Tallo, 164 see also Gowa Tamil traders 252 Tang dynasty毡,73 Tanimbar archipelago 313 Taosug, 309 see also Sulu Taungoo dynasty 171 see also Restored Taungoo Taungoo 116, 167-170, 173, 175, 179-180, 197 Tavoy (Dawei) 119, 264-265 t仪34, 40, 51, 65-66, 78, 116, 124, 133, 170, 195, 217, 241,
255,258,275,277,287,303, 308, 315, 319, 323-324, 326,329 Tay Son 278-279, 287, 325-328 teak 23, 241, 243, 300 technological change 95-99
Temple of 90,000 Buddhas
171-172 Tenasserim (Tanintharyi) 119, 264-265, 318-319 Tengger 106, 253-254, 302, 304 Teochiu 272-273 Terengganu 299, 319, 324-325 Terengganu Stone 60 Ternate 21, 37, 110-112, 163, 166-167, 206, 215, 260, 262-263, 310-312
6
361
NDEX' 363 30-31, 38, 88, 102, llO, ll8, 147, 152, 188, 198,201,
textiles
176一178,326
Thi此y-Seven Nats 63 Thonburi 273 Three-Seals Law 321
Three Worlds Cosmology (Traibhumikatha) 319 Tidore 21, 37, ll0-ll2, 164一167,215,262,310一312 Tilokarat, King 120 32, 89, llO-lll, 142, 165,
188, 197, 210, 215, 247, 263,
312 321 Tingkir, Joko 156 Tipitaka (Pali)!Tripitaka(Skt) tin 25, 34, 252,
50, 58, 93, 171, 316,
320
tobacco 306-307 Tokugawa shogunate 186 Tondano War 312
Tonkin 229, 232 Ngaoi
see
Dang
Tonle Sap 65-66, 122 Topasses see black Portu凯1ese Tor吗a 214 trade 29-35 with China 44, 89-90 cultural coherence 38-39 diversity of 87-88 and Europe 179 with India 88-89 and intermarriage 31一32 mutual respect 38-39 and rivers 35-36 and shipbuilding 32-33 and violent disputes 38-39
and weapons acquisition 51 see also EIC,
VOC
trade expansion 87-90 trade networks 39, 81 trade routes land 17
and monsoon winds 18-19 and ocean currents 19 sea 17-18 trading relationships 4
King ll8-ll9 Tran dynasty 3, 74-75
Trailok, treaties
Anglo-Dutch 293-294, 301, 342
Dutch 285, 293-294 monopoly 251-252
Treaty of Tordesillas 85, 129, 133-134, 137 Treaty of Yandabo 267, 318-319 Treatise on Victorious Warfare 172 Trenggana, Sultan 155-156, 158 Trinh 177一178, 193, 228-229,
275-276 tripang 26, 101, 239, 241, 309 Trunajaya, Prince Raden
203-204,214,248 tsunami 249 Twelve Warlords 73
U Thong ll7-ll8 Ujung Salang 292, 315 United East India see
voe
Company
123, 125, 147, 150, 169, 173, 178, 186, 218-219,
231, 234, 241-243, 250, 266-267, 272, 275, 277-278, 280, 287, 289-290, 315, 329,
340 upstream-downstream 38, 75, 114, ll6, 123, 128, 163, 200, 252, 261
vagamundos 258 van Diemen, Anthony 226 seaports 19-20, 74,
127 Vanburi, King 121-122 Vasco da Gama 129 Vientiane 175, 227, 273, 323 Viet people 72-73
Vietnam 2-3 Buddhism
Chinese culture 74-75 as
232-233 Dai Co Viet 44, 73
Company)
whale/whales 25, 156, 230 white elephants see elephants wives, authority of 15, 52-53
O.W. 46-47
Wolters,
109 Water of Allegiance see oaths
women, see
also female authority
trees 197,
263 founding of 187
mainland Southeast Asia 226,228-229,279 involvement in Maluku 210, 214,261-262,310 involvement in Timor 247, 263,312 Manila, attack on 185
in
Melaka, conquest
of,
199
monopoly
strategy 187, 200, 213, 218, 233, 253, 256,
285,306 plantation crops and 240,
252,292 relations with
Aceh 198
relations with Johor-Riau
199,253,298 Makassar
relations with
201,
203, 213, 262, 311 relations with
Mataram
291一292, 202, 248, 253 seapower of 233, 187, 189 slave trade 192, 205, 293
trade in deerskin 196, 226, in tortoiseshell 190; in teak 196, 243 volcanoes 36-37, 77-78, 106,
249,255,285-286,304
Wahabi285,292, 300 Wali Sanga see Nine 106-107
Wah
Wang Dayuan 20, 23, 26, 28, 32,
Yo岛,akarta, Sultan of
Y ongle, Emperor yoni stones 78
Yuan
d严1asty 16, 20, 74,
89-90
Yunnan
50-51, 67, 97-98, 109, 118,
Zambales 160, 207
167, 178,
wives 127, 151, 153, 221, 240,
Zamboanga
management 78
water wheels 195
wax 26, 29, 47, 79, 108, 148, 161, 163, 226,
weapons,
258
weapon可24, 47,
123, 126, 153, 157,
270,289
187,221, 231-232, 258,
Western
trade links 215, 313
fort 163,
209-210,
260,293 Zhao Ru凯Ia 29-30
Xavier, Francis 166-167
Zheng Chenggong187
Yangon
Zheng He, Admiral
Ocean directions 20
Y与ing 76
162
see
see also
western
boundary with Myanmar 244,294
weavers maritime route 230-231
wea由鸣,177, 58,
wet-rice agriculture 3, 36,
38, 40,
Yodaya Yazawin 268, 270-271 Yogyakarta 291, 301-302,
64-65, 79, 99, 104,
113-114, 192, 195,
267, 314-315
286
304-305
296
89-90, 92
abuse 72 gender roles 5, 8, 15, 60, 193, 208,288 polygamy 248 queens 225, 52, 198 royal women 101, 172, 270
water
272,277
Bandanese, massacre of 210 Batavia, headquarters of 202, 220 Chinese and 190, 255 collapse of 291, 302 compromise with indigenous customs 188, 291, 296 extermination of clove and
37, 80
150 and capture of people 51, between polities
Wajo 262 in 57
Christianity
warfare
geographic environment and development 72-73 Mongol invasion of 16 overlords 73 warfare 74-75 Vijaya see Cham village-based water management 78 世llage wars 304 Visayas 261, 290, 310 VOC (Dutch United East India
nutmeg
uplands/highlands in island Southeast Asia 25, 37-38, 40, 104, 106, 108-109, 150, 160, 162, 195, 199-200, 204-205, 207-209, 214, 234, 243, 251, 257-258, 260, 302, 304 in mainland Southeast Asia 3-4,24, 36, 39,45, 59, 64,67-68, 70一74, 81, 89, 99, 113-ll5, ll7, ll9,
Van Don
dominance of 239 且rearms 74
301, 324-325
301-302
123,
Thaton 62 Thien (Zen) meditation 74
Timor
Commerce
Treaty of Bungaya 213-215, 3ll Treaty of Giyanti 257-258,
210,218,221 Thai Due, Emperor 279
Thang Long 73-74,
Treaty of Amity and
Ko到nga 15,
89-90,
98, 105
Zhou Daguan 31, 67-68, 98 Zhuang people 67-68
the authors convey in remarkably clear terms the complexity of the dynamics during the early modern age. Their coherent narrative will no doubt help bring Southeast Asian developments into the flourishing field of world history.” “...
entire region's
Pierre-Yves Manguin, Emeritus Professor, Ecolej切m;aise d'Extreme-Orient I Centre Asiedu Sud-Est (EHESS-CNRS) “This is a stunningly ambitious, comprehensive, and insightful overview of pre- modern Southeast Asia. It will serve both to energize regional specialists and to introduce the region to a wider public. A landmark history greatly to be welcomed.”
Victor Lieberman, Raoul Wallenberg Distinguished U,.:ziversity Professor of History and Professor of Southeast Asian History, University ofMichigiαn “For once, the term magnum opus is truly appropriate for the Andayas’stunning achievement. An ambitious and sweeping history reflecting their vast learning, a sure grasp of both region-wide developments and local adaptations, and an eye for the telling detail. No history of early-modern Southeast Asia is likely to surpass this high intellectual standard for the foreseeable future. We are all in their debt.”
James C. Scott, Sterling Professor of Political Science and Anthropology, Yale University
Written by two experienced teachers with a long hist。可of research,出is textbook provides students with a detailed overview of developments in early modern Southeast Asia, wh_en the region became tightly integrated into the world economy because of international demand for its unique forest and sea products.
The authoritative yet accessible narrative features maps, illustrations, and timelines
to support student learning. A major contribution to the field, this text is essential reading for students and specialists in Asian studies and early modern world history.
Cover illustration: De l、1ieuwe Poort (Batavia) by Johan Nieuhoff. ? den Haag, Koninklijke Bibliotheek. 1049 B 13. 仁。、・er
design: Andrew飞气Tard