A grammar of Toba-Batak 0858832542
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Table of contents :
A grammar of Toba-Batak
Contents iii
Introduction viii
Introduction to the Thesis (1958): Chapters on Phonology xvi
Introduction to the Dissertation (1966): From Morphophonemics to Syntax xx
Maps xxiii
CHAPTER I - THE BATAK PHONEMES 1
1. Consonants 1
1.1. The Stops 2
1.2. The Fricatives 3
1.3. The Affricates 5
1.4. The Nasals 6
1.5. The Linguals 7
1.6. The Semivowels 8
1.7. The Glottal Stop 9
1.8. Concluding Remarks 11
2. Vowels 13
2.1. The Suprasegmental Phonemes 21
3. Stress 21
4. Juncture 29
5. Pitch 33
CHAPTER II - PHONOTACTICS 41
2.1. Word Patterns 41
2.2. Consonant Clusters 43
2.3. Vowel Clusters 50
CHAPTER III - MORPHOPHONEMICS 57
3.1. Words 57
3.2. External Sandhi 58
3.2.1. Examples of External Sandhi 59
3.3. Internal Morphophonemics 60
3.3.1. Regular Internal Alternations 60
3.3.2. Irregular Internal Alternations 61
3.3.3. Stress Alternation 63
3.3.4. Examples 63
3.4. Conclusion 64
CHAPTER IV - MORPHOLOGY 65
4.0. Introduction 65
4.1. Parts of Speech 65
4.2. Inflectional Categories 66
4.2.1. Substantive Class 66
4.2.2. Substantive Reference 66
4.2.2.1. Allocation 67
4.2.2.2. Actor 67
4.2.2.3. Object 68
4.2.3. Voice and Resolution 68
4.2.3.1. Voice 68
4.2.4. Mode and Aspect 68
4.2.4.1. Mode: Active Transitive 68
4.2.4.2. Passive Transitive 69
4.2.4.3. Aspect 70
4.2.5. Degree 71
4.2.6. Ordinal 72
4.3. Contentives 72
4.3.1. Nouns 72
4.3.2. Verbs 73
4.3.3. Adjectives 75
4.3.4. Adjuncts 75
4.3.5. Interjections 76
4.4. Functors 76
4.4.1. Substitutes 76
4.4.1.1. Pronouns 77
4.4.1.2. Proverbs 79
4.4.1.3. Pro-adjective 79
4.4.1.4. Pro-adjuncts 79
4.4.1.5. Pro-clauses 80
4.4.2. Directive Particles 80
4.4.2.1. Prepositions 80
4.4.2.1.1. Locative Prepositions 80
4.4.2.1.2. Instrumental Prepositions 81
4.4.2.1.3. Attributive Preposition 81
4.4.2.1.4. Possessive-Agentive Preposition 81
4.4.2.1.5. Objective Preposition 81
4.4.2.1.6. Comparative Prepositions 82
4.4.2.1.7. Resultative Prepositions 82
4.4.2.1.8. Some Phrases Function as Prepositions 82
4.4.2.2. Subordinating Conjunctions 82
4.4.3. Modal Particles 84
4.4.3.1. Predicative Particles 84
4.4.3.2. Imperative Particles 85
4.4.4. Connectives 86
4.4.5. Auxiliaries 86
4.4.5.1. Predicator Auxiliaries 86
4.4.5.2. Noun Auxiliaries 87
4.4.5.3. Adjective Auxiliaries 88
4.4.5.4. Adjunct Auxiliary 88
4.4.5.5. Substitute Auxiliary 89
4.4.5.5.1. Numeral Auxiliaries 89
4.5. Structure of Words 90
4.5.1. Composition 90
4.6. Structure of Stems 91
4.6.1. Secondary Derivation 91
4.6.2. Primary Derivation 91
4.6.2.1. Root Compounds 92
4.6.3. Noun Stems 93
4.6.3.1. Simple Noun Stems 93
4.6.3.2. Primary Derived Noun Stems 93
4.6.3.3. Secondary Derived Noun Stems 95
4.6.4. Verb Stems 97
4.6.4.1. Intransitive Verb Stems 97
4.6.4.1.1. Simple Intransitive Verbs 97
4.6.4.1.2. Primary Derived Intransitive Verbs 97
4.6.4.1.3. Secondary Intransitive Verbs 98
4.6.4.2. Transitive Verbs 101
4.6.4.2.1. Simple Transitive Verbs 102
4.6.4.2.2. Primary Transitive Verbs 102
4.6.4.2.3. Secondary Transitive Verbs 102
4.6.5. Stems of other Word Classes 104
4.7. Roots 104
CHAPTER V - SYNTAX 107
5.0. Introduction 107
5.1. Constructions 107
5.1.1. Endocentric Constructions 107
5.1.1.1. Attributive Constructions 107
5.1.1.1.1. Noun Phrase 108
5.1.1.1.2. Verb Phrases 109
5.1.1.1.3. Adjective Phrases 110
5.1.1.1.4. Adjunct Phrases 110
5.1.1.1.5. Substitute Phrases 111
5.1.1.2. Co-ordinate Constructions 111
5.1.1.2.1. Additive Constructions 111
5.1.1.2.2. Alternative Constructions 111
5.1.1.2.3. Appositive Constructions 112
5.1.2. Exocentric Constructions 112
5.1.2.1. Directive Constructions 112
5.1.2.1.1. Marked Directive Constructions 112
5.1.2.1.2. Verbal Directive Constructions 112
5.1.2.2. Predicative Constructions 113
5.1.2.2.1. Verbal Predicative Constructions 113
5.1.2.2.2. Equational Constructions 114
5.2. Clauses 114
5.2.1. Word Order 115
5.2.1.1. Direct Order 115
5.2.1.2. Inverted Order 116
5.2.2. Clause Types 117
5.2.2.1. Favourite Types 117
5.2.2.2. Minor Types 118
5.3. Sentences 119
Appendix I - SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF A TEXT 121
1. Introduction 121
2. Text 121
3. Free Translation 122
4. Analysis 123
Appendix II - SPECTROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF SOME BATAK PHONEMES 133
1. Vowel Length 133
2. Vowel Formants 135
3. Junctures 136
4. Pitch Contours 137
5. Phonotactics 138
Appendix III - THE BATAK ALPHABET 141
Bibliography 145
Citation preview
PACIFIC LINGUISTICS Series D - No. 37.
A GRAMMAR OF TOBA-BATAK
by P. W.J. Nababan
(MATERIALS IN LANGUAGES OF INDONESIA, No.6.)
W. A.L. Stokhof, Series Editor
Department of Linguistics Research School of Pacific Studies THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
Nababan, P.W.J. A grammar of Toba-Batak. D-37, xxiv + 170 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1981. DOI:10.15144/PL-D37.cover ©1981 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.
PACIFIC LINGUISTICS is issued through the Linguistic Circle of Canberra and consists of four series:
SERIES A - Occasional Papers SERIES B - Monographs SERIES C - Books SERIES D - Special Publications
EDITOR: S.A. Wurm ASSOCIATE EDITORS: D.C. Laycock, C.L. Voorhoeve, D.T. Tryon, T.E. Dutton EDITORIAL ADVISERS: John Lynch
B.W. Bender University of Hawaii David Bradley
University of Papua New Guinea K.A. McElhanon University of Texas H.P. McKaughan
University of Melbourne A. Capell
University of Hawaii
University of Sydney
P. MOhlhiiusler
S.H. Elbert
Linacre College, Oxford
University of Hawaii
G.N. O'Grady
K.J. Franklin Summer Institute of Linguistics W.W. Glover Summer Institute of Linguistics G.W. Grace
University of Victoria, B.C. A.K. Pawley University of Auckland K.L. Pike
University of Michigan;
Summer Institute of Linguistics
University of Hawaii
E.C. Polom�
M.A.K. Halliday
University of Texas
University of Sydney
Gillian Sankoff
A. Healey Summer Institute of Linguistics L.A. Hercus Australian National University
Nguy� n Bang Lit!m
University of Pennsylvania W.A.L. Stokhof
National Center for
Language Development, Jakarta; University of Leiden J.W.M. Verhaar Gonzaga University, Spokane
University of Hawaii
All correspondence concerning PACIFIC LINGUISTICS, including orders and subscriptions, should be addressed to: The Secretary PACIFIC LINGUISTICS Department of Linguistics Research School of Pacific Studies The Australian National University
Canberra, A.C.T. 2600
Australia.
Copyright
@
The Author.
First Published 1981.
The editors are indebted to the Australian National University for assistance in the production of this series. This publication was made possible by an initial grant from the Hunter Douglas Fund. National Library of Australia Card Number and ISBN 0 85883 254 2
TA B L E O F C O N TE N TS
Page viii
Introduction Introduction to the Thesis
(1958): Chapters on Phonology
Introduction to the Dissertation to Syntax
xvi
(1966): From Morphophone mics xx
Map�
xxiii
CHAPTER I -
THE BATAK PHONEMES
1
The Affricates
1 2 3 5
1. 4 .
The Nasals
6
1 . 5.
The Linguals
1 . 6.
The Semivowels
1.7.
The Glottal Stop
1.8.
Concluding Remarks
1.
Consonants
1.1.
The Stops
1.2.
The Fricatives
1.3.
2.
2.1.
Vowels The Suprasegmental Phonemes
3.
Stress
4.
Juncture
5.
Pitch
CHAPTER II -
2.1.
7 8 9 11 13 21 21 29 33 41 41 43 50
PHONOTACTICS
Word Patterns
2.2.
Consonant Clusters
2.3.
Vowel Clusters
57 57
CHAPTER III - MORPHOPHONEMICS
3.1.
Words
iii
1v
Page 3.2.
External Sandhi Examples of External Sandhi
3.2.1. 3.3.
Internal Morphophonemics
58 59 60
3. 3.1.
Regular Internal Alternations
60
3. 3.2.
Irregular Internal Alternations
61
3. 3. 3.
Stress Alternation
63
Examples
63
Conclusion
64
3. 3.4. 3.4.
CHAPTER IV
-
MORPHOLOGY
65
Introduction
65
4.1.
Parts of Speech
65
4.2.
Inflectional Categories
66
4.0.
4.2.1.
Substantive Class
66
4.2.2.
SUbstantive Reference
66 67
4.2.2.1.
Allocation
4.2.2.2.
Actor
67
4.2.2. 3.
Object
68
4.2. 3.
Voice and Resolution
'
Voice
4.2. 3.1.
Mode and Aspect
4.2.4.
68 68 68 68
4.2.4.1.
Mode: Active Transitive
4.2.4.2.
Passive Transitive
69
4.2.4. 3.
Aspect
70
4.2.5.
Degree
71
4.2.6.
Ordinal
72
Contentives
72
4. 3. 4. 3.1.
Nouns
72
4. 3.2.
Verbs
73
4. 3.3.
Adjectives
75
4. 3.4.
Adjuncts
75
4. 3.5.
Interjections
76
4.4.
Functors
4.4.1.
Substitutes
76 76
4.4.1.1.
Pronouns
77
4.4.1.2.
Proverbs
79
4.4.1. 3.
Pro-adjective
79
4.4.1.4.
Pro-adjuncts
79
Pro-clauses
80
4.4.1.5. 4.4.2. 4.4.2.1.
Directive Particles Prepos itions
80 80
v
Page Locative Prepositions
80
4.4.2.1.2.
Instrumental Prepositions
81
4.4.2.1. 3.
Attributive Preposition
81
4.4.2.1.4.
Possessive-Agentive Preposition
81
4.4.2.1.5.
Objective Preposition
81
4.4.2.1.6.
Comparative Prepositions
82
4.4.2.1.7.
Resu1tative Prepositions
82
4.4.2.1.8.
Some Phrases Function as Prepositions
82
4.4.2.1.1.
Subordinating Conjunctions
4.4.2.2.
Modal Particles
4.4. 3. 4.4. 3.1. 4.4. 3.2.
82 84
Predicative Particles
84
Imperative Particles
85
4.4.4.
Connectives
86
4.4.5.
Auxiliaries
86
4.4.5.1.
Predicator Auxiliaries
86
4.4.5.2.
Noun Auxiliaries
87
4.4.5. 3.
Adjective Auxiliaries
88
4.4.5.4.
Adjunct Auxiliary
88
4.4.5.5.
Substitute Auxiliary
89
Numeral Auxiliaries
4.4.5.5.1. 4.5.
Structure of Words Composition
4.5.1. 4.6.
Structure of Stems
89 90 90 91
4.6.1.
Secondary Derivation
91
4.6.2.
Primary Derivation
91
Root Compounds
92
4.6.2.1.
Noun Stems
4.6. 3.
93
4.6.3.1.
Simple Noun Stems
93
4.6.3.2.
Primary Derived Noun Stems
93
4.6. 3. 3.
Secondary Derived Noun Stems
95
Verb Stems
4.6.4.
Intransitive Verb Stems
4.6.4.1.
97 97
4.6.4.1.1.
Simple Intransitive Verbs
4.6.4.1.2.
Primary Derived Intransitive Verbs
97
4.6.4.1. 3.
Secondary Intransitive Verbs
98
Transitive Verbs
4.6.4.2.
97
101
4.6.4.2.1.
Simple Transitive Verbs
102
4.6.4.2.2.
Primary Transitive Verbs
102
4.6.4.2. 3.
Secondary Transitive Verbs
102
4.6.5. 4.7.
Stems of other Word Classes Roots
104 104
vi
Page SYNTAX
107
5.0.
Introduction
107
5.1.
Constructions
107
CHAPTER V
-
Endocentric Constructions
5.1.1.
Attributive Constructions
5.1.1.1.
107 107
5.1.1.1.1.
Noun Phrase
108
5.1.1.1.2.
Verb Phrases
109
5.1.1.1. 3.
Adjective Phrases
110
5.1.1.1.4.
Adjunct Phrases
110
5.1.1.1.5.
Substitute Phrases
111
Co-ordinate Constructions
5.1.1.2.
111
5.1.1.2.1.
Additive Constructions
111
5.1.1.2.2.
Alternative Constructions
111
5.1.1.2. 3.
Appositive Constructions
112
Exocentric Constructions
5.1.2.
Directive Constructions
5.1.2.1. 5.1.2.1.1. 5.1.2.1.2.
112
Marked Directive Constructions
112
Verbal Directive Constructions
112
Predicative Constructions
5.1.2.2.
112
113
5.1.2.2.1.
Verbal Predicative Constructions
113
5.1.2.2.2.
Equational Constructions
114 114
Clauses
5.2.
Word Order
5.2.1.
115
5.2.1.1.
Direct Order
115
5.2.1.2.
Inverted Order
116
Clause Types
5.2.2.
117
5.2.2.1.
Favourite Types
117
5.2.2.2.
Minor Types
118
5. 3.
Sentences
A pp end�x 1
SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF A TEXT
-
119 121
1.
Introduction
121
2.
Text
121
3.
Free Translation
122
4.
Analysis
123
A pp end�x 1 1
-
SPECTROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF SOME BATAK PHONEMES
133
1.
Vowel Length
133
2.
Vowel Formants
135
3.
Junctures
13 6
vii
Page 4.
Pitch Contours
5.
Phonotactics
A p p end�x 111 B�b.uogJtaph!f
-
THE BATAK ALPHABET
1 37 1 38 141 145
INTRODUCTION
1. I t p re sent s s omet hing of a problem t o wri te an introdu c t ion to one ' s the s i s and d i s s e rt at ion after a lapse of 22 and 14 years re s p e c t ive l y . However , in addit ion t o t he aspect o f n o s t algi a not much d i f fe rent from rev i s i t ing t he t own o f one ' s chi l dhood , i t a l s o has an evaluat i ve aspect which gives one a new persp e c t ive o f t hings remembered as b e ing d i f ferent from t he i r pre sent app earan c e . The t he s i s was researched and written in 1957 and 1958, t he culmi nat i ng p eriod of s t ru ctura l i sm in t he Uni t e d Stat e s , on the eve of the l ingu i s t i c uphe aval caused by t he t ran s format ional-generat ive approac h ; Chom s ky p re sented h i s mode l on a wider s c a l e at the Texas Conferenc e on Lingu i st i c s , in Austin in 1958. Nat urally , the l ingu i s t i c theory underlying t he t he s i s was s t ru c t ural i s m . The d i s sert a t i on w a s re s e arched in 19 64-19 65 and written u p in the latter half o f 19 65. The method and emp has i s in the analy s i s naturally re f l e c t t he ( preva i l ing ) s p i rit of t he t ime s , name ly (1) t he view of language a s a s y s t em governed by ru l e s that c an be present ed a s an ordered s e t , and (2) t he ground-gaining view t hat t he sentence i s not the upper limit o f l ingu i s t i c des cript ion . The first view was int i mat e l y related t o t he interest o f l i ngui s t s in t he expl orat ion o f the use o f comput ers in t he pro c e s s ing o f l ingu i s t i c data and the app l i c a t i on o f algorithmi c c omput e r t e chnique s t o t he unde r s t anding o f t h inking . The se c ond view was relat ed t o the theory t hat the s t udy of phonology an d morphol ogy h a d reached a s t able st age and the paradigms u s e d had att ained a degree o f ease in their app l i c at ion . I t was real i se d t hat the b roader study o f syntax would n e c e s sarily t ake one t o t he s t u dy o f meaning and the paraphras e . Thi s invo lve d not only t he h ierarch i c a l and const ru c t i onal relat ions between the e l ement s o f a s e nt enc e , i . e . the c on st i t uent st ruc ture o f t he sentenc e , but a l s o t he hori zontal relations o f sentence s that repre sent or real i se the s ame
vi i i
ix s eman t i c network , in other words , expre s s the same mean i n g . Thi s l e d t h e generat i vi s t s in t h e 1 9 6 0 s to p o s i t a ' base c omp onent ' o f t h e synt a c t i c st ru ct ure from w h i c h t h e surfac e or actual form o f t he sen t en c e could be ' derive d ' ; among the o t her terms used ( by di fferent people at diffe rent t ime s ) for a s imilar ( but di fferent ) concept were ' deep s t ru c t ure ' , ' s eman t i c network ' , ' conceptual s t ru c ture ' . under ly ing st ru c t ure ' . The chapter on Phonology , Chapter 1, i s a reprodu c ti on o f s ome chapters of my M . A . the s i s , ent i t l e d "A phonemi c anal y s i s of Batak and i t s b e aring on the t e a c hing of Eng l i s h pronunc i ati on to a speaker of Batak " , comp l e t e d a t t he Un iver s i t y of Texas , M ay 1 9 5 8 . T he chapters dealing with t he contrast i ve anal y s i s o f Batak and Engl i sh and with it s pedagogical imp l i cations are �e ft out ; however , the appendix d e s c ri b ing t he r e s u l t s o f the s p e c t rograph�c anal y s i s o f the Batak vowe l s and o f s ome j un c t ural fe atures are include d . The t e chn i que u s e d in ident i fying the phoneme s i s t o find out whe ther t wo minimal so und segmen t s are in contrast in ident i c a l or s imilar environment s . Whenever onl y one or n o i dent i cal envi ronments are found , t he pro c e s s be come s s omewhat c umbersome at t ime s . For examp l e , in t he cas e o f I�I and 101 and t hat o f lei and lEI, presented on pp . 1 3 ff , and in d iagrammat i c form on p . 1 6 , the argument appears overly long but doe s look fairly conc lus ive . The case o f t he glottal s t op i s a l s o quite comp l e x and merit s a l engthy treatment ( pp . 9 - 1 1 ) . The conclusion reached contrad i c t s the finding o f othe r re searchers ( e . g . Perc ival 1 9 6 4 ) who say that t he glottal stop i s a separate phoneme . In my analy s i s, the glottal stop i s an a l lophone o f /k/ in its obl igatory o c c urrence preceding a voi c e d consonan t ; i t i s not recogni s e d an a n al lophone in i t s opt i onal o c c u r ren c e as a vowe l onset at the beginning o f an utt erance and a vowe l coda at the end o f an utteran c e . The internal j unc t ure ( p . 3 1 - 3 3 ) has a l s o been given a good deal o f space as t h i s lingui s t i c phenomenon i s di ffi cult t o analyse in Batak ( as in any o t he r language ) . It i s p art ly a t empo phenomenon but the other features o f sound modi fi c ation ( ons et , lengt h , s t re s s , et c . ) s eem to b e more imp ort an t , resulting in a comp l i cated network o f interrelat ions . Therefore , the d i s c u s s i on on the p l u s j un c t ure ends in a s omewhat incon c l u s ive t one . At pres ent , I would more de fin i t e ly give a mu ch small e r role t o the pausal or b reak aspect of the plus j un c t ure , b e cause i t is in fac t a ' potent i a l ' rather t han an ' ac tual ' break i n between two phoneme s . Neverthe l e s s, it s t i l l remains a s t ubborn feature in t he de s cript ion of Batak phono logy . 2 .
x The phonota ct i c d e s c ript i on o f the Batak s ound s y s t em in whi ch s eve ral s equen c e s are repre s ented by only one example ( see Di agram on p . 4 9 ) indicat e s t he changing character o f the Batak l anguage through i t s contact with baha�a Indonesia, t he nat ional language of Indones ia . S ince t he comp l e t i on o f the t h e s i s ( 1 9 5 ? ) , I have heard other novel s e quenc e s o f phoneme s which now seem t o be e s t a b l i shed too and a l s o more ex amp l e s o f t h e sequence s des cribed a s unique ( i . e . single o c currenc e ) . I n t he 1 9 5 0 s and 1 9 6 0 s many s c ient i s t s took the analogy o f t he computer with t he mind s e riously . One c an s ee some in fluen c e o f t h i s thinking in t h e d i s sertation in t he de s c ript ion o f t h e morphophonemi c s o f Batak a s a n ordere d se t o f rule s . I f a t t h e t ime o f writ ing o f the rule s , I con s i dered t he exerc i s e as an expe riment in writ ing an i t em and-pro c e s s ( I P ) d e s c rip t i on , after 14 years , it s t i l l does not look s o b ad that I would l ike to rewri t e it in the more tradi t i onal ' item and-arrangement ' ( IA ) mode l . Thi s format i s more di ffi c ult to under s t an d and of course t o write t o o , but it is much more c on c i s e than the regu lar I A format . One way o f repre s�nting the morphophonem i c s o f Batak i s in t abular form . Th i s can be eas i ly done for the external sandhi phenomena as in Tab le 2 , p . 5 9 , where t he row head ings show the base form , i . e . phoneme , o f the final segment o f the first word and the c o lumn headings are t he base forms o f the init i a l phoneme of the s e c ond word . Howeve r , t he i rre gul ari t i e s o f the int e rnal s andhi make i t l e s s easy , o r rather impo s s ib l e , to pre sent the alt ernat i on s in t abular form . This was , as I reca l l , part o f t he attract ion of exp erimenting wi t h a rewrite rule mode l . I t d i d prove fea s i b l e alt hough it t ook many prec ious hours and days to make a working s et of rules . Any meri t , or interest ing aspect , of the model u s ing an ordered s e t o f rul e s i s brought o u t by the ab i l ity of t he rules t o handle the comp l e x i t y of t he internal sandhi , both regular and i rregular . Se c ondly , t he re i s a l so s upport for t h i s from t he fact that there als o s eems t o b e a fixed order in t h e appl i c at ion of the t hree types of rule s : I rregu lar Internal Sandhi ( I I S ) , Regular Internal Sandhi ( RI S ) , and Ext ernal San dhi ( ES ) , in t hat orde r . Thirdly , within each o f the s e subtype s t he re a l s o s e ems t o b e a fixed order of appl i cat i on o f the ru le s . 3 .
4. The chapter on Morpho logy follows the mains t re am o f s truc tural i s t grammar . The mo del u s e d for it w a s Bloomfield 1 9 6 1 , w i t h modi fi c at ions t o fit the s t ru c t ure o f the Bat ak language . The mo d i fi cat ions c on s i s t
xi in t he re-o rgan i sat ion o f the model for ' inflect ional cat egori e s ' and in the addit ion o f certain t e rms l i ke ' promi s s ory ' ( p . 7l ) , ' exp l i c i t p lural obj e c t ' ( p . 7 9 ) , ' intens ive- i n s t rument a l ' ( P . 7 0 ) , for concep t s t hat are spe c i fi c t o t he Batak l anguage . The t wo chart s on p . 7 4 are a summary repre sent at i on o f t he verbal infle ct ions o f Batak . The upper t ab l e does not only give the morpheme order s t ructure of t he verbal in fle c t i ons but als o the c orrela t i ve components of di s continuous morpheme s and t he mutual exc lus i on of s ome of those inflections . The lower' chart repre s ent s the aspectual forms o f the verb , indicat ing t he gap s in the pattern s , by means of dashe s . I n the choice o f t erms , the seman t i c or fun c t i onal aspe c t s o f the morpheme s have had s ome influenc e . Howeve r , the anal y s i s is a formal , not a s eman t i c , one . The s t ructure , though not ne cessari ly the form , o f per sonal pronouns is s imilar to the other members of t he I ndone s i an b ranch of the Austron e s i an family . The sub - c las s i fi c at i on s o f the prepo s it ion s i s grammat i c a l - func t i onal , and s o i s t hat o f the c onj unct ions and t he part i c le s . Thi s approach was taken a ft e r t ry i ng out other b a s e s of c l as s i fi cat ion , e . g . a purely s emant i c b as i s . The ( grammat i cal ) funct ional approach t urned out to b e a more s at i s fact ory b a s i s . The last s e c t i on o f the Morphology deals with the s t ru c t ure o f s t ems at some lengt h . There are t wo morphophonemi c s ymb o l s ( p . 9 2 ff ) us ed i n non-product ive pr imary derivat ion , i . e . [LJ and [+J. They fol low a pattern o f harmonious d i s s imi larit y real i s at i on . Thus [L] i s Irl b e fore a root , i . e . b ound base , c ontaining Ir/; otherw i s e it is repre sented b y Ill. The morphophoneme [+J i s lui b e fore roo t s w i t h the di s s imi lar non-back vowe l s Ii e E al in first s y l l ab le ; otherwi s e i t is real i s e d a s Iii. Thi s i s a neat morphophonemi c p at t ern o f phoneme harmony that does not e x i s t in the produc t ive morphophonem i c s o f Batak . An example is given o n p . 9 4 , item ( 5 ) ; o t hers are on p . 9 7 . A ctually , there is another e x amp l e on p . 10l, ( 1 2b ) and ( 12 c ) , that could b e i nc luded in t hi s rule . In this way , ru l e s ( 12b ) and ( 1 2 c ) could be c onflat e d into tar + s f + Root , w i t h the addit i onal ' c oales cence rule o f Iii + lui int o Iii' or ' t he l o s s o f lui i f immediat ely fol lowed by Iii". I opted for t he separat ion o f the t wo i n s t an c e s as there were no other examp l e s ( t hat I could fin d ) t o support s u c h a n analy s i s . Neverthel e s s , it s t i l l looks l i ke an at t ra ct ive alternat ive t o me , even at present . Another interest ing morphological phenomenon in Batak i s redup l i cat ion ; ful l redup l i cat ion i s c a l l e d ' doubling ' in t h e d i s s ertat ion . The d e s cr ipt ion of both t yp e s o f redup l i cat i on , fu ll and part ial , c an b e found from p age 9 2 onwards . The interesting thing t o men t i on here
xii a l s o is t he vow e l harmony ( i . e . dissimilarity ) pattern in s ome redup li cat ed b a s e s wit h a mon o syllabic root . It is of course a moot point whether it would not be better to analyse them as two- s y l l ab l e roo t s ( and thus follow the predominant s t ruc ture o f word base s ) that manife s t a patt ern o f vowel harmony rather than a case of redup lication . How ever one may ana lyse the phenomenon , the fact remains t hat vowel har mon y , wit h or wit hout con sonant change s , is common among the Indone sian language s ; in bahasa Indonesia, for examp l e , we have l e n g g a n g - l e n g g o n g ' sway i n g m o v e m en t ' , b o l a k - b a l i k ' ba c k and fo r t h ' , d e s a s - d e s u s ' rumours ' , t e t a rn u ' g u e s t s ' , l e l u h u r ' a n c e s t o r s ' ; in Javane se , we find w i r a - w i r i ' g o b a c k a n d fo r t h ' , b e n g a k - b e n g o k ' s h o u t i n c e s s an t l y ' , n o n g a s - n a n g i s ' e ry i n t e rm i t t en t ly ' , et c . Other l anguage s have t his phenomenon too ; for ex ampl e in English : ' cr i s s c r o s s , z i gzag, t i c k t o c k ' et c . As this vowe l harmony doe s not se em to be,produc tive at pres ent , it s ubiquit ous ness indic at e s t hat it might have been a universal feature in the past , p erhap s in the time s when language was exc lusive ly ora l . The int ere s t ing que stion would t h e n b e whether the pres ent- day unwrit ten l anguage s like t h o s e in the int e rior o f Irian would have vowe l harmony t o a gre ater exten t t han the more familiar ( written ) l anguage s , and e s p e cial ly whe ther i t c a n be found as a productive grammatical feature . 5. Chapt e r IV o f the dis se rtation , Syntax , here Chapter V, consis t s o f two main divisions : ( a ) the s t ructure of phra s e s ( Se ction 5 . 1 . ) and ( b ) t he s t ru c t ure o f c laus e s ( S e c t ion 5 . 2 . ) , and a s hort one ( c ) t he s t ruc ture o f sent e n c e s ( Se c tion 5. 3 . ) . In Section 5 . 1 . the verb a l dire c tive con s t ruction ( Se c tion 5 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 2 . ) is o f particular int e re s t a s t he constit uent forme d by t his construction are the main predic ators o f t he favourite c l au se t ype s containing a t ransitive verb , viz . ( a ) t he 'Verb + Agent + Obj e ct ' , ( VAO ) type and ( b ) ' Verb + Ob j e ct + Agent ' ( VOA ) typ e . Examp l e s o f t he se t wo typ e s c an be found in Section 5 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 2 . , ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) . An examp l e of t he VAO type is : [lJ n a s i d a rna hepeng i d i tongos that partic l e mon ey t h ey s e n t ( p a s sive ) ' t h e y s en t t h e mo n e y o r t h e m o n e y w a s s e n t b y t h em '
An e xamp l e o f the VOA type is : rna n u a n e rn e do i natta particle o u r m o t h e r r i ce t o plant
[2J
'Mo t h e r i s p l a n t i n g � i c e '
The s e two examp l e s wil l also exemp lify t he main functional s t ruct ure of the Batak sentence , name l y comment + topic, i . e . what is said o f s omet hing ( new information ) + t hing about which something i s s aid ( a s s ume d knowledge or old in formation ) . =
=
xiii I n t he analys i s o f t he syntax , t he in fluenc e i s s een o f t h e i n c ip ient view of the t heore t i cal n e c e s s i t y o f keep ing apart the two upper leve l s o f l ingui s t i c s t ructure o f t he c l ause , name ly t h e leve l s that later came t o b e called t he conceptual structure level and the syntactic structure l e ve l . The former re fers to the s eman t i c re lat ions o f the uni t s of i nformat ion in an ut teranc e , whi le the latter re fers t o t he formal re lations o f t he uni t s i n a c l au s e . Sydney Lamb ( 1 9 6 4 ) c a l l s t h e former t he sememic stratum a n d t h e latter t h e lexemic stratum. In Lamb ' s st rat i fi catlonal mode l , the s ememi c s t ruct ure o f t he informat ion carrie d by a c laus e l i ke ' t he man k i lZed t he t iger ' , or concept ually rep re sent e d : t h e -., man .. - -.,
ki Z Zed
+-�
tiger
+--
the
' man ' c on s i s t s o f t hree unit s : ' m a n . k i Z Z ' and ' t i g e r ' , relat e d t hus : i s t he ' ac t o r ' o f the ' ac t i on ' ex � re s s e d by ' k i Z Z ' and dire c t e d t owards ' t i g e r ' t he ' goal ' of that a c t i on . The s ame s ememi c relation i s repre sented b y the c l au se : t h e t ig e r
+
was k i Z Z e d
+
by t h e man
The di f feren c e between the two c laus e s l i e s in syntac t i c s t ructure and not i n c on c ept ual or seman t i c content . In t he synt a ct i c s e c t ion o f the d i s s e rtat ion one c an s e e the influence of t h i s s t i rring mode l in t he use of the not i ons of ' agentive ' from agent and ' ob j e c t ive ' from obj e c t ( be cause ' goal ' was t hought t o be t o o out landi sh at t h e t ime , a n d t he t e rm ' pat ient ' was c on s i dered not s o suitable ) i n the de s cript ion o f the verbal dire c t ive c ons t i t ut e s t hat make up t he comment c omponent o f the c lause ( Se c t ion 5 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 2 . ) . In t h i s way , I did not follow the convent ional model of analy s ing sentence [lJ as VSO and s entence [2J a s VOS , b e c aus e S i n [lJ is not really the s ynt act i c sub j e c t of t he s entence but the agent ive c omponent o f the c omment o f t he sentence ; l ikew i s e in [2J , S i s not the subj e c t of the sentence , but rather the topi c . I t was hoped that t he retention o f the t e rm ' ob j e ct ' would not b e t o o confus ing. as the t e rm is not used for any other purp o s e but t he ' goal ' of the conceptual leve l . In the analy s i s made in t he d i s s ertat ion , the c lause s : ma n u ra t b u k u do i bana [3J t o wri t e b o o k part i c l e he 'he i8 w r i t i n g a b oo k ' . w i l l b e VOA ; and buku [4J d i su rat i bana do part i c l e b o o k t o b e wri t t e n h e ' he h a s wri t t e n a b o o k ' . w i l l b e VA� . The two cl au s e s carry t he s ame i nfo rmat ion a s to the relat i onship s be tween ' wri t i ng . b o o k ' an d ' h e ' ; t he only di fference l i e s only in the ' aspe c t ' o f t he a ct ion : i n [3J the act ion of wri t ing is empha s i s e d , in
x iv [4 J t he c ompl e t i o n o f t he act ion i s foregrounded . There i s no imp l i c at i on o f , o r cont rast between , act ive and pas s ive here as in the corre sponding Engl i s h t rans lat ion , alt hough I us e the t e rms a s handy c omponent s of c omp l e x l ab e l s l ike ' p as s i ve tran s i t ive ' and ' ac t ive t ran s i t ive ' to di st ingu i s h those t wo types of c laus e s . In the d i s c u s s ion on the di fferent sub-types of t he maj o r c laus e t yp e s , S e c t i on 5 . 2 . , I use the t e rms ' ac t ive transit ive ' and ' pa s s ive t ran s i t ive ' . The se t e rms are b a se d only on the morphologi c al shap e s o f t he verb s , and shou ld n o t b e unde rRt ood in t h e s ame sen s e a s i n Engl i s h t o re fer t o t he who le c l ause or sentence , name ly t hat i n t h e act ive vo i c e the a c t o r o f t h e verb i s the subj e c t o f t h e sentence , and in the pas s ive voice t he ' p at ient ' of the verb is the s ubj e c t of t he s e ntenc e . A s ment ioned above t he re are no subj e c t s and obj e c t s in t he grammar o f Batak in the s ame s en se as in Engl i s h . ( In t h e Appendi x , however , t he t e rm i s u s e d inst ead o f ' t op i c ' ) . The s e c t ion on word order , S e c t ion 5 . 2 . 1 . , i s als o o f s ome interest . Two maj or t yp e s o f word order are re c ogn i s e d : ( 1 ) the direct word order and ( 2 ) the inve rt e d word order ( whi c h is further sub-divided into normal empha t i c and s e c on dary emphat i c ) . The main fun c t ion o f the invert e d order ment i on e d here is for empha s i s ; the e lement moved t o init ial p o s it i o n i s emphas i s e d . At present , w e would perhap s prefer to call t hi s moving o f an e lement t o a prominent ( here init i a l ) p o s i t ion ' foregrounding ' . The conceptual e ffe ct i s , however , the s ame , name ly t o put some e lement in sharpe r fo cus or t o bring out that e lement . Synt a c t i c al l y in Batak the foregrounded element b e come s the c omment o f t he c l aus e ; so we c o u l d perhap s als o c all t h i s pro c e s s ' c omment i sat ion ' , or ' commenta l i s at ion ' in analogy t o t o p i c a l i sat i on . The last p art o f the d i s se rt at i on i s an Appendix , in whi ch I have t r ie d to app l y the gramma r , or rather synt a c t i c analy s i s , to the regular text of a st ory . Thi s t ry-out of the s y s t em does work in t erms o f i t s obj e c t i ve s , name ly t o analyse t h e sent enc e s into their c on s t i tuent part s and to show t he grammat i ca l re lations of the part s to each othe r . Natura l l y , n o a t t empt has been made t o make a conceptual s t ruct ure analy s i s , a s , in s p i t e of the ' deep s t ructure ' - ' surfac e s t ructure ' dichotomy o f the t rans format i onal i st s , the notions relat ing to an underly ing conceptual s t ru c ture ( or s ememic or deep structure ) and the act ua l l ingu i s t i c ( or re a l i sate or surface ) s t ruc ture were s t i l l very vague and t entative . I t may be intere s t ing t o att emp t a d i s course analys i s ac cording t o P i ke ' s model ( 1 9 7 7 ) . I t would b e informat ive to attempt such an analy s i s on the re feren t i a l leve l ( or pragma t i c level as some would 6.
xv
call i t ) , and compare t he re sult s with t he d i s c our se s t ructure in some o t her language s . A simi lar compari s on of the grammat i cal s t ru c tures of di fferent language s wou ld also y i e l d intere st i ng re sult s . In c on c lu s i on , I would l ike t o repeat that t h e writ i ng s t y l e o f 7. t h i s d i s sert a t i on i s pure ly d e s c ript ive . I t d o e s not suit a pedagogical grammar o f which the obj ec t ive i s t o i n s t ru c t the learner t o use the grammar t o make acceptable l anguage ( i . e . sentenc e s ) for the purp o s e o f int erac t i on and c ommuni cat i on . There fore , the pre sentat ion in the di s s ertation is very s u c c i n c t t o the extent that i n p l a c e s i t gives a j erky impre s s i on . No statement is repeated or paraphrase d ; when n e c e s s ary , re ference is made to the part i cular s e c t ions at appropri ate p l ac e s . Howeve r , with s ome pat i en c e in reading , the s t ruc ture of t he Batak l anguage wi l l , I think , readily be apparent .
I N TRODU C T I O N TO TH E TH E S I S ( 1 9 5 8): C HA P TE RS O N P H O N O L O G Y
A s I ndone s i a and p art i c u larly Batak i s rather unfami l iar i n t h i s part o f t he wor l d , i t seems t o be proper t o b e g i n with a brief d e s c rip t i on o f t he two name s . I ndone s i a i s the i s land repub l i c t hat c ompri s e s some 3 , 00 0 i s lands l y ing b etween t he cont inent s of A s i a and Au s t ral i a . Up to 1 9 4 9 it was p o l i t i c al l y more w i de ly known t o the other parts o f the world a s The East Indi e s or The Dut ch East Indie s , due t o t he Dut ch c o lon i s at ion o f t he are a . In 1 9 4 2 t he Japan e s e c ap t ure d it from t he Dut ch and when the Japan e s e capitulated in Augus t 1 9 4 5 , the people of Indon e s ia s e i z e d the opportunity t o p ro c l aim their independence a n d fought f o r i t t i l l t h i s new nat ion obtained de jure recogn i t i o n o f i t s independen c e and nationhood in De c ember 1 9 4 9 . I ndon e s i a i s made up o f a po lyglot populat ion s p eaking s ome 2 0 0 l anguage s . To fac i l i t a t e int e rc ommun i cat ion and exert a uni fy in g in fluenc e , a c ommon language , Indonesian, w a s adop t e d as the o ffi c ial national language . The nu cleus o f i t i s Malay , t he language spoken natively i n cent ral East Sumat ra , the mo s t western and one o f the b igge s t i s lands o f Indon e s i a , and in the Malay Peninsula . This bahasa Indonesia, a s t he language i s c al l e d , i s s t i l l i n a rap i d s t age o f vocabulary growth t o mee t t he needs o f t he nat i on in t h e vari ous fields o f its a c t i v i t i e s . One of t he languages spoken in I ndon e s i a i s Batak, spoken by a p e o p l e d e s i gnated by the same name , Batak , who i nhab it the area around and south o f the Toba Lake in centra l Nort h sumat ra . l C o l l i e r ' s Encyclopedia ( 1 9 5 2 : 1 0-4 9 9 ) gives the number o f Bataks i n 1 9 4 9 as approximat e ly one m i l l i on , t hough two mi l lion wou l d b e a c l o s e r e s t imat e . 2 They are c l a s s i f i e d a s pure Indon e s i an s . l
See Map 1, p .
2 Figures published in 1981 indi c ate a total Batak populat ion of approximately 3� million with the Toba Batak population being around l� million.
xvi
xvii The Batak language has five maj or d i a l e ct s , v i z . Karo , Sime lungan , Dairi , Toba , Manda i l i ng . l O f these Toba-Batak has t he gre a t e s t number o f spe ake r s a n d when pe o pl e sp eak o f Batak they us ually refer t o Toba Batak . Thi s s tudy i s an att empt at de s c ribing the phonemic s t ruct ure o f Toba-Batak , and when the Batak language i s ment ioned in the body o f t h i s the s i s , t he Toba-Batak dialect w i l l b e meant , i f t here i s no statement to the contrary . The Bataks p o s s e s s a s c ript o f their own , which i s a form o f De vanagari alphab e t . 2 The wri t t e n l i t erature o f t h e Bataks c on s i s t s mainly o f works o n magi c , a s t rology and myt hology . Nowadays t h i s alphabet , though i t h a s no p rac t i cal value any more , i s s t i l l taught in J unio r High s choo l s as a cul tural feature . The Batak language i s now wri t t e n only i n Lat in chara c t ers . In pre-Inde denden ce day s Engl i s h already o c c up i e d the mo s t important place among the forei gn language s t aught in Indone s i a , that is after Dut ch o f cours e , whi ch was then t he medium o f i n s t ru c t i o n i n the so c a l l e d Dut c h s choo l s . During t he Japanes e oc c upat i on both Eng l i s h and Dut c h were s t ru ck off the curriculum. Aft e r the Proc lamat i on o f Independence i n 1 9 4 5 Engli sh was again t aught , i n a l l s chool s from Junior H i gh on . As Dut ch was no longer taught , Engl i sh b e c ame t he first fore i gn language i n t he curriculum . The t eaching o f Engl i s h was s t epped up due t o the need o f a widely understood fore i gn language s o n e c e s s ary f o r t he international c ommuni cat ion o f t he new- c reat ed nat ion , a s in p o l i t i c s and comme rc e , and for a means t o the sourc e s o f i nfor mat ion and educat i on . When i t was said above t hat Engli sh was the first fore i gn l anguage t aught i n s c hoo l s , it wa s not quite correct i n t he s t ri c t e s t sense for mo st part s o f Indon e s ia where Indone s i an is not spoken nat ively , for i n those areas bahasa Indon e s i a i s t aught from the s e c ond grade on and is t he me dium of i n s t ru c t ion from the fourth grade on . For the people in these areas Indone s ian is to b e regarded l ingu i s t i c ally as a ' fo re ign ' language , as the d i fferenc e between the various vernaculars and Indone s i an i s ab out a s great as the di fference betw een - s ay Eng l i sh and Ge rman . Thi s does not app l y t o t he maj or c i t i e s where a l l t he chi l dren are b il ingual , spe aking t h e mother t ongue at home and Indon e s ian out s i de , at p l ay or e l s ewhere . But in the c ountry s i de and mos t sma l l t own s t he vernacular i s spoken in and out s i de t he home and I ndone s ian i s heard only o c c a s i onally as in s choo l s and government offi c e s . However ,. du e t o the c lo s e s imilarity of the vernacular and 1
See Map 2 , p .
2
see Appendix I.
xvi i i Indon e s ian and the fact t hat Indon e s i an i s the me dium o f i n s t ru c t i on in s chool s from at least t he fourth grade on , t he c hi ldren acquire a maximum o f fluency in i t in a re lat ively s hort t ime and with a minimum o f e f fort . Yet for mo st such people I ndon e s i an i s a re cogn is ab l y a c c e n t e d a n d acquire d language . I t i s for the teaching o f Engl i s h t o t hi s category o f people t hat a comparison of t he s t ructure o f Engl i s h a n d t he ve rnacular i s import ant and n e c e s s ary . Thi s the s i s i s an att empt at making such a comp ari son on the phonemi c leve l , of Engl i sh and Batak . As l anguage i s , as a l l l ingu i s t s have been s t re s s ing e s p e c i a l ly the last few de c ade s , primarily spee ch , and as the Eng l i s h instru c t i o n in Indon e s i an s c ho o l s has a doub le obj e c t ive - i . e . mas t e ry o f the wri t t en and spoken l anguage , t hough the writ t en part o f i t i s s t i l l given priority in pra c t i c e - this study w i l l a l s o attempt t o arrive at s ugge s t ions for the t each ing- o f oral Engl i sh at s e c ondary s c hoo l s in Batak- speaking areas , though they c an e a s i ly b e mod i f i e d t o meet t he requiremen t s in other s imilar areas . Thi s s t udy pre suppo s e s a knowledge of t he p honemic sys tem of Engli s h ; there fore a de s cription of only t hat o f the Batak language is given . There has not been muc h done yet in the s t udy o f the s ound s y s t em o f Batak . Due t o t h i s fact and the s carcity o f books deal ing with the subj e c t and t he lack o f informant s , t h i s study must needs have a more or l e s s independent c haracter and t he c on c lus ions reac hed be tentat ive . The writer has analysed h i s own speech whi ch fortunat ely c annot b e s a i d t o b e t o o diale c t a l , as he hai l s from Humbang 1 , the central d i st ri ct o f the region where Toba-Batak is s poken , so that h i s speech may b e s aid t o b e what c ou l d b e t e rmed ' St andard Batak ' . Moreover he has l ived for many years in the other main d i s t ri c t s of t he Toba-Batak speaking area , name ly i n Silindung ( where he att ended e lementary and s e condary s choo l ) and in the Toba Valley ( where his parent s l ived during his s c hoo l y ears and where he t hus spent his vacat ions and also t hree years of his adult l i fe , part of the t ime as a t e acher ) s o t hat h i s speech has been influenced by the three key - though not much d i ffering - areas . A l s o it should be kept in mind that it is p honemi c s whi c h i s dealt with here rather t han phonet i c s , in whi c h i t would b e n e c e s s ary t o d e s c ribe i n det a i l t he dialectal variat i ons , both s o c i a l a n d geographi c a l . Two appendi c e s are inserted at the end . Appendix I I I i s a c on c i s e d e s cript ion o f t h e Batak a lphabe t . I t i s inc luded here mere ly as an i t em o f intere st . l
See Map 2 for the geographical name s .
xix Appendix I I g i v e s a brief d i s c u s s ion o f s ome o f t h e s p e c t rograms the writer has made in conne c t ion with t h i s st udy . It i s hoped that t h i s analy s i s o f the phonemi c s y s t em o f Batak may at le ast show that mu c h needs t o be done s t ill in the f i e l d o f the de s c ript i ve analys i s of Batak in part i cular , and t he Indon e s i an lan guages in general .
I NTRODU CT I O N TO TH E D I SSE RTAT I O N ( 1 96 6 ): F R O M M O R P H O P H ON E M I CS T O SY NTAX
1 .
A I M AND SCOPE
This s tudy is a de s cription of the Toba Batak dial e c t . I t c overs t he phonology , the morphophonemic s and the grammar of the language . I n the grammar , morphology is covered more ful ly than syntax . A s ample analy sis is given in Appendix I . 2.
T H E L A N GU A G E
Tob a Batak is a dialect o f t he Batak language . Batak is usually divide d into four diale ct s : Karo ( + Dairi and Pakpak ) ; Simalungun ; Tob a ; and Angkol a (+ Mandailing ) ; see e . g . the reproduction o f E s s er ' s linguistic map in Voorhoeve 1 9 5 5 . Toba and Angkola-Mandailing have a high degree o f mutual int e lligibilit y ; on the basis of a comparison o f 1 9 6 item s , Dyen lis t s them as a single 'language ' ( Dyen 1 96 5 : 2 7 ) , dis t inct from Karo and Simalungun . Toba Batak is spoken by about one million people living on Samo sir I s l and and to t he east , south and south-we st of Lake Toba and hen c e fort h in Nort h Sumatra ( see map ) . It is customary for t he speakers o f t he l anguage t o distinguish five maj or subdiale c t s : Samosir, on t he is land o f Samosir ; Toba Holbung, in the lowlands east and south o f Lake Toba ; Humbang or Toba na Sae, in the highlands south of Toba Holb ung ; Silindung, in and around t he valley south o f Humbang ; and Hullang, in the mount ainous regions s out hwe st o f Humbang down to Upp er Baru s . This study is based on the speech o f the writer , who is from Humbang but has had extensive contact with Toba Holbung and Silindung . To re fre s h his memory the following books were used : Loembantobing 1 9 2 0 ; Sihombing 1 9 5 9 and Van der Tuuk 18 6 1 .
xx
xxi
3.
E A RL I E R ST U DI E S
Alt hough many refere n c e s t o the language c an b e found in ethno graph i c art i c le s and t rave logue s , not many b ooks and art i c l e s have b e en wri t t en on Toba Batak . The first and the mo st import ant o f the o l der books i s Van der Tuuk ' s grammar ( Van der Tuuk 1 8 6 4 , 1 8 6 7 ) , whi ch deals with t he s ound s y s tem and p art s of speech ( + morphology ) re s p e c t i vely . The grammar is b a s e d o n Toba Batak as it w a s spoken in t h e are a o f Tapus ( S ibolga ) a n d Upp er Barus . The pr e sent w r it e r h a s foun d , not surp ri s ingly , that many o f t he forms c i t e d there d o n o t a c c ord w it h , or are not found in , h i s spee ch . T o dat e , Van der Tuuk ' s grammar i s s t i l l t h e mo s t e xhaus t i ve one wri t t e n on t ho s e aspe c t s o f t he language . I t a l s o furn i s hes mu ch comp arat ive mat erial o f Toba with Karo , Dairi , and Angkola-Manda i l ing , as we l l a s s ome with Malay and Javanes e . Van der Tukk ' s interpretat ion d i ffers from this st udy on the topic o f verb s , noun s , and some fun ct ors . H i s di s cu s s i o n o f t he soun d s y st em i s pre s ented with the Batak s c ript as the s t art ing point ; i t con s i s t s mostly o f rul e s o f pronun c i at i on of those symbo l s . Here , t o o , the de s c ript ion doe s not alway s a c c ord w i t h t he present writ e r ' s pronun c i at ion . The next b ook t o appear was Meerwaldt 1 9 0 4 . The l anguage i t d e s c r i b e s i s more in agreement with t he pre s e nt wri t e r ' s s p e e c h than Van der Tuuk ' s corpu s . It i s broader in s cope but mu ch l e s s exhau s t ive in treatment t han Van der Tuuk ' s grammar . The Lat in orthography of t he l anguage i s n o w t a k e n a s the s t art ing point o f the d i s c u s s ion of the s ound sys t em . I t s igni fi c antly d i ffers from Van der Tuuk ' s grammar in recogn i s ing mo st forms of t he p a s s ive verb as d i s t inct from a noun . However , i t does not have t he s c ho larly orient at i on o f Van der Tuuk ' s grammar s i n c e i t was intended for t he use o f m i s s ionar i e s who want e d t o l earn t h e language . Marck s 1 9 1 2 , contains s ome des cript ive material . It i s a manual for the le arning of t he language ; the grea t e s t part of t he book c on s i s t s o f exerc i s e s . The s c an t de s cript ive not e s b e tween the exerc i s e s c on tain s ome po int s not brought out in the earlier books . O f the more re cent studie s , t here are two unpub l i shed thes e s : t he present writer ' s ( Nabab an 19 6 6 ) whi c h i s the b a s e s o f the chapters o n p honology , a n d Percival 1 9 6 4 ( t h i s d i d not c ome t o the wri ter ' s at tent ion b e fore t he d i s sertation was nearing complet ion ) , whi c h covers the sound syst e m , morphophonemi c s , morphology , an d syntax of Toba Batak . This i s the most rec ent and the only de s c ript i on known t o t h i s writer whi ch is b a se d on modern me thods c overing t he central s ub s y s t ems of t he language . I t is b a se d on a speech t hat is prac t i c ally t he s ame a s
xxii t he o n e d e scribed in t h i s st udy . This s t udy differs o n s everal point s from the conclusions reached in Perc ival ' s d i s s ertat ion , e sp e c i ally in phonology and morphology ; t he di fference l i e s also in organ i sation and orientat i on of t he syntax .
MAP 1 I NDONE S I A,
INDIAN
SHOW I NG BATAK-SPEAKING AREA
OCEAN
110'
125'
140'
xxiv
MA P
2
THE BATAK D I ALEC T AREAS
ffi[[] Toba·Batak "
TOBA
,
Tob.
'::;:'"
-
.. ' ,' Medan ",
INDIAN
ANGKOlA· MANDAILING
OCEAN
/ '"
Nababan, P.W.J. A grammar of Toba-Batak. D-37, xxiv + 170 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1981. DOI:10.15144/PL-D37.cover ©1981 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.
speaking
Dialect name Sub·Dialect name
area
CHAPTER I
THE BATAK PHONEMES
1 .
C O N SO N A N TS
Phonemes are found by c omparing two di fferent utteran c e s in whi ch the di f ference i s s igna l l e d by only one s i gn i fi c ant feature . Two such ut t eran c e s are called a minimal pai r . Thus in the pair p � l a ' n u tm e g ' - b � l a ' p l a g u e ' , t he di fference in content i s re c ogn i s e d by any native s p eaker o f Batak a s c au se d by the initial sounds , or more s pe c i fi c al ly consonan t s , I p l and I b / . The phoneme s t atus o f I p l and I b l c an further be e s t ab l i shed by comparing other pairs, a s : p e g e ' gi n g e r ' - b e g e ' h e a r ' ; h � p i t ' c l amp, vb . ' - h a b i t ' s ymp a t h i 8 e ' ; 5 ( p a k ' ki c k ' - 5 ( b a k ' t ea r , vb . ' ; et c . By e xamining other ut t e rance s whi c h pair minimal ly with I p a l a l and whi ch d i ffer from it only in t he first c omponent , other phonemes c an be e s t ab l i s h e d . Thu s : I t I i s found from the p ai r : p a l a - t a l a ' p o n d ' I h l i s found from t he p ai r : p a l a - h a l a ' s corpion ' l s i i s found from t he pair : p a l a - s a l a 'mi s t ak e ' I j l i s found from t he pair : p a l a - j a 1 a ' n e t ' I I I i s found from the pair : p a l a - 1 a I a ' di s s o l v e ' I n l i s found from the pai r : p a 1 a - n a l a ' f l ame ' I m l i s found from t he pai r : p a l a - ma l � ' g i v e ' , th ough t h i s i s not exact ly a min imal pair due t o the d i ffering s t re s s e s . I g l i s found from t he pair : p a l a - g a l a ' a c hi l d ' s game ' I d l from the pair : p a t u ' de fea t e d ' - d a t u ' me d i c i n e man ' I c l from the pair : p a t u - c a t u ' ra t io n ' I r l from t he pair : p a r i k ' ea r t h e n wa l l ' - r � r I k ' 8 cra t c h , vb . , I k l from the pai r : p a t i ' e s s en c e ' - k a t i ' a m e a s u r e o f w e i gh t '
1
Nababan, P.W.J. A grammar of Toba-Batak. D-37, xxiv + 170 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1981. DOI:10.15144/PL-D37.1 ©1981 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.
2
, ' b oard ' - p a �a n ' e a t ' I�I from t he pai r : papan I w l from the pair : p a, p a n - pawa� ' fo reman ' I y l from the pair : h a p u r ' cha l k ' - s a y u r ' v e g e tab l e ' The last pair I h a p u r l and I s a y u r l i s not a min imal pair . A s no minimal pair c an b e found t o c ontrast I p l and I y / , t h i s near-minimal p ai r , in which two di ffering feature s are found , is u s e d . I h l and l s I c an b e shown b y many minimal pairs t o b e di fferent phoneme s , a s I h a l a l ' s co r p i o n ' - I s a l a l ' m i s t a k e ' , I h a l i l ' dig ' - I s a l i l ' b o rrow ' , I h 6 d o k l ' s w e a t ' - I s 6 d o k l ' s pade ' . I f t he di fferenc e in c ont ent was cau s e d b y the d i fference in t he init ial I h l and l s I , then I h a p u r l and I h a y u r l would b e ident i cal in content , whi c h they are not , as I h a y u r l doe s not e x i s t in Batak . I f the sequence I h Vp . . 1 were always contra s t e d by the s equence I s Vy . . 1 then the contrast I h f p u l ' hu rry ' - I s f p u l ' em b e r ' wou ld b e imp o s s ib l e , whi c h they are not , as those two forms are nat ive Batak words , and many pairs l ike t hem can be found . Iwl and I y l are found in Batak only in their consonantal funct ions , as there are no dipht hongs or comp l e x nuc l e i in the Batak l anguage . The above c ont ; ast ing pairs o f utt eran c e s e s t ab l i s h the Batak con s onant phoneme s , s eventeen in a l l . A more detai led d e s c ript ion o f these c on s onan t s fo l lows be low .
1.1.
T H E STO PS
I p l A v o i c e l e s s bi labial s top . I t oc curs initially as in I p a t l ' fo o t med i a l l y a s i n I d a p u r l ' ki t c h e n ' , and finally a s i n l a l a pl ' fe t c h ' . When final the I p l i s never released except when the fol lowing word begins w i t h a vowe l . A released final I p l sounds fore ign t o a Batak e ar , a s o ften oc curs when a fore i gner learn s Batak . Thi s language habi t of not releas ing a final I p l may be due to the fact that the corres p onding voi c ed stop I b l never o c curs finally , s o that no mis hearing can result from not releas ing the final b i labial s top . Nor i s the I p l ever asp irat ed in Batak . Because o f t h i s lack o f aspi rat i on t he Batak I p l very o ften sounds a s a I b l t o an American e a r . Thi s language hab it make s it hard for a Batak t o learn the non phonem i c but charac t eri s t i c asp i rat ed I p h / .
',
I b l A v o i c e d b i lab ial stop . I t oc curs in init i al and medial p o s i t ions ; init ially in I b a s a l ' ge n e ro u s ' , medially in l a b i t l ' c l o t h e s ' . I t never o c curs in final p o s i t ion . When a I b l oc curs in final p o s i t ion orig inally in b orrowed words , the t endency i s t o pre s e rve a b in spel l ing , but i t i s invariable pronounc e d as I p / , e . g . , b a b ' chap t e r ' , an Arab i c loanword , pronoun c e d I b a p / .
3 / t / A vo i c e d alveo-dental s t op . The t i p o f the t ongue t ouches t he back of the upper t e e t h and t he gum . It doe s not exactly c orre spond to / d / a s t o place o f art i culat i on a s the / d / is art i culated more to the back . I t o c c urs in a l l t hree p o s i t i on s ; i n i ni ti al p o s i t i on a s in / t a l i / ' ro p e ' , in medial p o s i t i on as in / I a t a / ' s e e d ' , and in final p o s it ion as in / h o t / ' fi x e d ' . Like t he / p / , / t / in final p o s i t ion i s as a rule not releas e d . I t i s never aspirat e d . The observat i on made about t h i s hab i t o f non-as p i rat i on for t h e / p / a l s o goes for t h e / t / in learning t he as p irated Eng l i s h [ t h ] . Howeve r , t h i s non-aspi rat ed / t / i s never mi s t aken for a / d /. / d / A voi c e d alveolar s t op . I t o c curs in init i al and medi al p o s i t ions only , as in / d a t u / 'medi c i n e man ' and / f d a / ' s e e ' . I n l oanwords where the / d / originally o c curs in final p o s i t ion , though s t i l l s pelled with a d , i t i s pronounced / t / in Batak , as in a b a d ' c e n t ury ' , an Arabi c loanword , which i s pronoun c e d / a b a t / , even t hough thereby a bomophone is creat e d with the nat i ve word / a b a t / ' o b s t acre ' . / k / A voi c e le s s ve lar stop . I t o c curs in a l l three p o s i t i on s , init ial ly a s in / k a t i / ' a m e a s u r e o f w e i g h t ' , medi ally a s i n / t � ko/ I t s oc currence i n init i al ' s ho p ' , and finally as in / ro t a k / ' di r t y ' . and medi a l p o s i t ion i s a recent deve lopment o f Batak through borrowings . For i t s relationship t o / h / , s ee under / h / . When a final / k / i s fol lowed b y a vowe l , e i t he r i n a s uffix o r a fol lowing word , i t i s changed into / h / . For examp l e : / ho d o k/ ' p e r s p i r a t i o n ' / ho d o h f / ' t h e p e r s p i ra t i o n ' / a n a k/ ' s o n ' / a n a h� n / ' t h i s s o n ' But in loanwords the / k / may b e pres erve d or not , thus for examp le / ko t a k f / is found b e s i de / ko t a h f / ' th e box ' . The / k / in final p o s i t i on , in contrast with the other two vo i ce l e s s s t op s / p / and / t / , i s always released . / g / A vo i c e d velar stop . It o c c urs on ly in init ial and medial p o s i t i on , as i n / g a d o�/ ' sw e e t p o t a t o ' and / I a g u / ' fa v o ur ' . 1 .2.
T H E FR I CAT I VES
/ s / A voi c e l e s s alveolar fri c at i ve . I t oc curs in all three p os i t ion s , i n i t i al ly i n / s a d a / ' o n e ' , medi ally in / h � s a / ' b r ea t h ' and finally in / h i p a s / ' h e ar t h y ' . The corresponding vo i c e d alve o lar fricat ive / z/ does not ordinarily o c cur in t he speech o f those who have the / j / phoneme in t he i r spee ch . Such people , amongst t hem the wri t e r , usually
4 sub s titute / j / for the /z/ in loanwords such as in za m a n t hey p ronounc e /j ama n / .
' e ra '
which
/ h / A voic e l e s s glottal fric ative . I t oc curs with a single exception only in initial and medial positions , as in / h o/ ' y o u ' , in / f h u r / ' ta i l ' , and / h o h os / ' b e l t ' . The only in s t ance in the writer ' s idio l e c t in which / h / is found in final position is / a h / ' an interj e ction of reluc t an c e or refusal ' , meaning something like ' O h , n o , I won ' t ' . S ome words , in which / h / o c curs in medial position b etween a pre c e ding s t r e s s e d vowe l and a fo llowing unlike and uns tre s s e d one , are in s t y listic free variation wit h forms wit hout a medial / h / , for examp le l a h u l which varie s wit h t a u t . The fir s t form , l a h u l , is us ed i n very formal sit uations , whereas t a u t is us ed in ordinary conversa tion . Other similar words are : 1 1 a h o/ 'V 1 1 a o/ ' g o ' / b a h E n / 'V / b a E n / ' do ' The writer him se l f invariab ly u s e s the form without / h / . This variant is being use d more and more ext en sively now als o in formal situation s . In older Batak t he / h / and / k / s eem t o have been in c omp lement ary dis t rib ution , thus making up one phoneme : / h / o c c urring in initial and medial p osition s , while / k / o c curred only finally . This c an s till b e s een from t he morphophonemic be haviour of t h e / k / i n word formations , a s in t he word base / dok/ ' s ay ' and the derivations : / d oh o n on / ' w i l l This theory is als o supp orted b e s a i d ' and / p a d d o h a n / ' w h a t i s s ai d ' . by the fact that the Batak s cript has only one symbol , n l , for both / h / and / k / . It c an b e safely inferred from this repres ent ation o f two different sounds , at least so to a modern Batak ear , by a single s ymbol , t hat no confu sion was caused by it becaus e those two sounds were in comp lement ary dist ribution . Thu s : / h6da/ 71 X ,.( ' ho rs e ' � T1 =t, ' ta i l ' ! f hu r/ V7 -on' ' so n ' / a n a k/ Lope z ( 19 3 9 ) rec ognis e s this fact b y s aying t hat "h and k are equiva l ent " . Trac e s o f t his once al lophonic arrangement o f / h / and / k / c an still b e o b served from t he morphophonemic alternation o f words ending in / k / wit h a form ending in / h / , as for examp le: / a n a k/ ' s o n ; i n t e r e s t ' / a n a h f / ' that son ' / a n a h a n / ' b o rrow a t i n t e r e s t '
l
See Appendix I, p .
5 From t h i s we se e t hat the variant with / h / i s taken when followed b y a s u ffi x beginning with a vowe l . Though we have not yet de s cribed what a junct ure i s , we may make the s t at ement that in a s equence of a word with a final / k / and one beginning w i t h a vowe l , there are t wo p o s s i b i l i t ie s , depending o n t he presence or ab s en c e o f a n intervening j uncture , repre s ented here by (*), t hus , for e xample , we have : / e I E h a Q g i mi/ / e I E k * a Q g i mi/ 'coax y o u k i d bro t h e r' The variant with / k/ i s taken when t here i s a j un c t ure aft er i t . There i s , however , one c on d i t i on when / k/ o c c urs med i ally ; that i s when the / k / i s doub l e d , a s i n / t o k k a / ' t ab o o', / d o k ko n/ ' t e � �', e t c . A c ontrast o f / h / and / k k / c an b e found i n the p ai r : / d o ho n o n / 'wi � � b e 8 a i d' and / d o k ko n o n / 'wi � � be i n v i t e d or t o � d to come' In current B at ak , maybe due to t he influence of other languages t hrough b orrowing s , the / k / c an now o c cur in medial p o s i t ion too as s hown above , in p . 3 . When t he / k / o c curs i n medial pos i t ion many , e sp e c i ally rus t i c , people s t i l l t end t o pronounce i t doub l e , e . g . : ( Javanese) / s a l i k u r / > ( Bt k . ) / s a l ( k k u r / 'a card g am e ; "B Z a c k Jack ' " (Indones ian) / t 6 ko/ > ( Bt k.) / d k k o / '8hop' Even i n e ducated and t rave l le d people t h i s tendency s t i l l pers i s t s somet ime s , s o t hat s ome people have , for example , / t o ko / b e s i de / t o k k o / . Where t he / k / o c curs in initial p o s i t ion many people from the c ount ry s ide sub s t itute / h / for it in fami l iar word s , as in / h a e a Q / for / k a e a Q / 'p eanu t' . Y et i n current Bat ak / h / and / k / are two di fferent phoneme s . Th i s c an be e s t ab l i shed b y t he e x i s t en c e o f minimal pairs l i ke : / h o s o Q / 'as t hma' / ko s o Q / 'emp ty' / t o h o / ' t o o n e's Z i k i ng' / t o ko / 's tore' -
-
-
1 .3.
T H E AFFRICA T E S
/ e / A voi ce l e s s alveo-palat e l affri c at e . I t has a defin i t e ly more front art i culat ion t han it s Engl i s h c ount erpart . I t i s found in init ial and medial p o s i t ions . In nat i ve B�tak words i t is found only i n medial p o s i t ion , a s in / p a e a / 'p Z a t form', / m a e a i / ' v e ry', e t c . I n init ial p o s i t ion it is found only in loanwords , as in : / e a t u / 'ra t i on', / c u k a / ' v i n egar', e t c . One p e c u liari t y of the / e / whi c h may we l l b e ment ioned here , i s the fact t hat in medial p o s i t ion i t has the e ffect o f a double cons onant on the preceding vowe l , i . e . , s hort ening it . The doub l ing o f ot her consonant s , as wi l l b e shown i n p . 4 4 , is a s igni fi c ant feature , as it contrast s with the s ingle cons onant in the s ame environment . However ,
6 t h i s does not se em t o be t he case with I c/, as , in t he first plac e , only one variety o f I cl e x i s t s in medial p o s i t ion , and s e c ondly , there i s no s u c h d i fference o f length between an init i al I c l and t he medial short ening Icl as there is in t he case o f the other c on s onant s . The re fore , in t h i s st udy only one I cl w i l l be u s e d to symb o l i s e the init i al a s we l l a s the me dial variety o f I c/ . Many speakers of Batak have 1 5 5 1 inst ead o f I cl in medial p o s i t i on , thu s : I p � s s al for I p a c a l ' p La tform ' I ma s s � i l for I m a c � i l ' v e ry ' , et c . But in the wri ter ' s o b servation t h i s type of pronunciation i s rus t i c and receding . T o h i s ear i t sounds loose and affe c t e d or feminine . Some people have I t s /, but t h i s i s not so frequent . Thi s I cl s ound i s not ment ioned in Lop e z ' s study ( 1 9 3 9 ) b ut then , i t i s t he result o f the analys i s o f the Bat ak language o f the 1 9 0 0 s . In modern Batak I cl i s a full-fl e dged and more and more extens ively u s e d p honeme . I j l A voi c e d alveo-palatal affri cat e . Thi s i s , in contrast w i t h I c / , a n original Batak phoneme . I t i s found in initial and final p o s i t ions , as in : I j a b u l 'ho u s e' /j a 1 a l ' a n d ' / r a j al ' t i r e d ' People who pronounce the I c l as 1 5 5 1 t end t o pronounce t he I j l a s I z/, e s p e c i al ly in medial p o s i t ion , thus : I za b u l for I j a b u /, 1 1 6zal for 1 1 oj a / . I n Bat ak t he affricat e s , I cl and I j /, do n o t oc cur in final p o s i t i on , hen c e the d i fficulty for a Batak t o learn the final I cl and I j l in other language s , such a s Engl i s h . 1 .4.
T H E NASALS
Iml
I nl
A voiced b i labial nasal . I m a l) anl ' e a t ' le m e l ' un h u s k e d r i a e ' la s ::Jml ' L ime'
It oc curs in all three p o s i t i on s , as i n :
A voiced alveolar nasal . Ina1al ' f L ame ' I g u n a l ' us e , n . ' I r p o n l ' to o t h '
It oc curs in all three p o s i t ions , as in :
7 IQI
A voiced velar nasal . I t o c curs in all three p o s i t ions , as i n : I Qa l ( 1 'aoZd ' I d � Qo l 'wake up ' I h E P E QI 'money ' The o c c urrence of I � I in init i a l p o s i t ion t ends t o be a l i t t l e t rouble some for people w i t h a language background i n whic h t he I Q I doe s not o c cur init ially , a s Eng l i s h for e x amp l e . I t may t here fore be worth noting t hat t here are t wo words i n each of which the / Q/ o ccurs i n all t hree p o s i t i on s , i . e . : I Qa Qa Q I 'open ' , and I Qo Q :S Q I ' i d Z e ' . The Batak alphabet , unlike Lat i n , has a symb o l for t h i s s o un d , i . e . I ' < ' . 1 .5.
T H E L I NGUA LS
I I I A voiced alveolar lat e ra l l i ngual . p o s i t ions , as in : / l a t al ' s e e d ' I s fJ l 1 1 'borrow ' I s ( h o 1 I ' Zonging, n . '
I t o c c ur s in a l l three
I rl A voiced alve o l ar t r i l l e d lingual . I t o c curs in all three p o s i t ions , as in : I d j a l ' k ing ' I m fJ r a l 'danger ' I s fJ rl ' w idespread ' In some area s , notably i n the mountain d i s t r i c t o f Humbang , a velar fri cat ive I RI o c c ur s . Thi s t yp e o f p ronunc i at ion has very l i t t l e pre s t ige and i s very rapi dly receding . Another noteworthy charact e ri s t i c o f I rl i s the fact that for mo s t p e o p l e i t c hanges into I I I when the fol lowing s o u n d i s I I I without a n int ervening j un cture , as f o r examp le i n : I p:S r + l a kl > I p:S l l � kl 'garden ' I m a r + l � g al > I m a l l � g al ' row, vb . ' I p a r + l fJ j j al > I p a l l fJ j j al 'pedd Z e r ' The influence o f the l inguals on each other c an be al s o s een i n the c ommon rus t i c p ronun c iation of words whi c h contain b o t h I I I and I r/ , in whi c h t h e I I I i s sub s t i t u t e d b y I r/ , a s i n : I s a r a :S a rl for : I s a r a :S a l / ' trousers ' I ra r a rl for : 1 1 fJ y a r i ' s a i Z , n . ' In t he last examp l e i t i s t o b e noted that the more rus t i c I i I i s lSee Appendix III.
8 sub s t ituted for the semivowel I y / . Lop e z ( 1 9 39 : 3 3 ) notes that Batak in some words has I r l for whi c h Primit ive Indone s i an had I I I or re t ro flex I l l , a s in : ( Bt k . ) : I r f p u rl from Pr o I n . : I I ( p u l l ' de s troy ' ( Btk . ) : I r u a r l from Pr o I n . : 1 1 u a l l ' come o u t ' 1 .6.
T H E S EMI V O W E LS
The s em ivowe l s Iwl and I y l o c cur in Bat ak only in their consonantal fun c t i on . The semi vowe l is a rather recent deve lopment in the Batak s ound-s t ru cture . Lope z ( 1 9 3 9 : 1 7 ) does not inc lude these two in h i s l i s t o f Toba-Batak sounds . The semivowe l c ame into Batak through loanwords and through t he contact of i t s speakers with other l anguage s . The I y l i s a regular feature in the Mandai l ing Batak dialec t , and t he I w l and I y l are common phoneme s in Modern Indone s i an . Brands t e t t e r ( 1 9 1 5 : 1 7 ) inc ludes both semivowe ls in t he sound sy s t em o f Primit i ve Indone s i an . The Toba-Bat ak dialect seems to have dropped them i n the c ourse of i t s deve lopment , and in rus t i c pronunc iat ion the Iwl s t i l l t ends t o b e sub s t i t ut e d b y I � I and t he I y l b y I i i . I w l A voi c e d b i lab i a l semivowe l . I t s mos t common oc currence i s in me d i a l p o s i t ion , as in : I b a w a 1) 1 ' on i o n ' I m awa s l ' oran g u t a n ' It also o c curs init i al ly in loanwrods not quite natural i sed yet , a s in : I wa k t u l ' t empo ' I w a r a s l ' s an e ' or in b orrowed pers onal name s , as i n : I wa l d e m a r / . I y l A voi c e d alveo-palat al semi vowel . I t o c curs in i n i t i a l and me dial p o s i t i on s , as in : I y u r a n i ' co n t r i b u t io n ' I s a y u r l ' v e g e tab t e gree n s ' 1 1 a y a rl 'sai t ' In the wri t e r ' s speech it oc curs what could be t erme d obtrus ively i n t h e s equence l a i l p lus l a m a l) l whi c h b e c ome : l a i y a m a l) l ' an int erj e c t ion ' , somet hing l i ke ' By g o t ty ' . The semivowe l s never o ccur i n final p o s it ion in Batak , a s in t he French / fami : y / , nor do they have a vocal i c fun c t ion whi c h wou ld cau s e their o c currence in final p o s i t ion at t h e e n d o f complex nucle i .
9 1 . 7.
T H E G L O TTA L STO P
I n words like [ � a ? � a t J ' de v o u r ' there i s a s t op aft er the first la t . This kind o f stop i s a l so found in [ d a ? da na k J ' c hi l d ' and [ l a ? l a p J . Orthograp h i c al ly t he first word i s ng a t ng a t , the s e cond word d a k d ana k and the third word l a p l a p . In t he produc t ion o f t h i s break in t he writer ' s spee c h , whi ch i s by c l o s ing the glotti s , the re i s a definite upward movement o f t he b ack of t he tongue t owards t he ve lum' without tou ching i t , howeve r , as i t would if /k/ is p ronounced . For re asons given be low it se ems t o b e more j us t i fi e d not t o give t o i t a phonemi c s tat us and t o c a l l i t a glot t a l i s e d /k/, whic h would be t rans cribed ? [ k J phonet i cally , and t o repre sent i t by /k/ in phonem i c notat ion . No confu sion w i l l ari se from t ran s c ri b ing those words /� a k � a t / and /d a k d ana k/, as it is normal not t o explode the /k/ in such p o s i t i on s , i . e . final i n the s y l l ab l e . We have se en above t hat the glottal i s e d /k/ i s u s e d for the glottal s t op that o c curs in ng a t ng a t and l a p l a p . We c an i nfer b y means o f Batak morphology i n whi ch redup l i cat ion i s a maj or devi c e , that the s e t w o word s are redup l i cations , in whi ch t he first p art s have [ ? J a s the as t he morphophonem i c alt ernant for /t/ and /p / . I n [ do ? d 6 k J i t is a morp hophon emi c alt e rnant for /k/. Due t o the l imitat ion o f i t s phonotac t i cal p o s s i b i l i t i e s , i . e . i t o c curs only a s the first c omponent of a med i al consonant c lu s t e r , we have he s i t a t e d t o give i t a phonemi c s tat us , and w i l l regard i t a s an allophone o f t he consonant whi ch i t can s ub s t i t ut e in morphophonemi c variat ion . The prob lem , now , i s , t o whi ch o f t h e t hree voi c e l e s s s t op s , /p , t , k/, w i l l i t b e a s s igned? We have pro po se d above t o a s s ign i t t o /k/, due t o its greater phone t i c s imi larity with /k/ t han wit h any other stop , and , s e condly , be cause in t he wri t e r ' s speech t he re i s some a c t i v i t y o f t he back o f t he t ongue in t h e general area of t h e /k/. W e w i l l now pre s ent another argument for i t o f a s t at i s t i cal nature . In re dupl i cat ions t he [ ? J i s found i n all i ns tan c e s o f words ending i n /p/, /t / , or /k/, i f t he in i ti al sound is a v o i c e d consonant , a s , for exampl e : [ga?g6kJ ' h eap e d ' [ g a?ga t J ' c hop ' [ga?gap J ' tr e a s o n ' In redup l i cat ions with a final /k/ and an i n i t i a l voi ce l e s s consonant we have /k/ c o n s i stently in a s imi lar p o s i t ion , and t h i s c annot be s a i d o f t he /p/ a n d t he I t t , a s c an be seen from t h e c omparat ive l i s t b e low . An a s t e r i s k b e fore a form ind i c a t e s that i t i s only hypothe t i cal , i . e . t hat that would b e t he form , i f such an utt eran c e e x i s t e d ( t hough t hey may some t ime s b e found i n chi l dren ' s speech ) . -
-
-
10 (1)
I kl
I p a k p a kl It�ktukl I s a k s a kl * /h a k k a kl I k l k k E kl -
-
(2)
' kn o c k ' ' snow-wh i t e ' ' g i gg l e '
I pl
I po p p o p l lt a t t a p l I s a c a pl I h o k k� pl * /k a k ka pl ( 3)
' cre s t '
' to o t of horn ' 'wash ' 's lice ' ' s a crifice for '
I tI
I p f pp i tl I t � t t u tl Isoss�tl I h � t d tl */ka k k a t l -
-
' c lose the eyes ' ' s o u n d of h o rn ' ' i n s i s t some t h i n g o n s o m e b o dy ' ' thick,
of b ro t h '
The above l i s t shows t hat t he I kl i s found i n all five instances o f co lumn one : t h a t the I pl o c curs o n l y once in t he s e cond c o lumn ; and that I t I i s found only twice in c o lumn t hree . Thi s means that the formulat ion of the condit ioning of the c omplementary di s tribut i on o f [ k J a n d [ ? J i s e a s i e r and s imp ler b e c au s e o f i t s c on s i s t ency t han it would be for I p l and I t / , whi ch is suffi c ient reason t o a s s i gn [ ? J to I k/. The glottal s t op , or ' h a rn z a h ' in Indone s i an , d o e s o c cur in other I n done s i an l anguage s , as for examp le i n Javane se : I t a t a ? a nl ' c o a s t e r ' . Lop e z ( 1 9 3 9 : 1 8 ) c a l l s t h i s s ound phenomenon a laryngeal and a s s ign s t o it t he s ymb o l s : ' and < , and says t hat it i s found very frequent ly in i n i t i a l , me dial and final p o s i t i on s . The example he gives i s I ' a s u< I . I n the wri t e r ' s speech t here s e ems t o be n o a c t i v i t y in the gl ot t i s b e fore lal e x c ep t t he normal narrowing of i t s opening in p rep arat i on o f t he p roduc t ion o f a s ound , but a ft e r lui t he re is a momentary c lo sure o f t he glot t i s . The first i s the normal tran s i t ion from s i lence t o s ound called ' vowe l onset ' and t he final laryngeal s e ems to be only a s omewhat abrupt stop a s a t ran s i t i on from s ound t o s i lence . 1 Thi s glottal act ivity has no p honemi c value s , a s we c an leave it out and drawl out the l u i and let i t die out without caus ing l The absence o f a distinct glottal stop c an be seen on the appended spectrogram No . 3b for the word 150/.
11 any change i n it s content . S e c ondly , i n Batak t h e final I kl i s s o ft ened into I h l i f followed by a vowe l , thus I l a p u k i 'mo t d ' b ec ome s I l a p u h o n l 'mo t dy ' b e cause o f the following suffix I - o n / . I f the laryngeal after , for examp l e , I h a l j < I ' dig ' i s a genuine glottal s t op I ? I and thus a c on s onant a s Lop e z c o n s i ders the laryngeal t o be , then , i t b eing homorgani c with I h / , it s eems natural that i t also wou l d b e s o ft ened int o I h l b y suffi x ing I - o n / , thus * / h a l r h o n / . But i t does not work that way , a s we have I h a l r o n l ' to be dug ' and not * / h a l r ho n / . I n such s ituat ions the glottal ac ti vi t i e s do e x i st , but t hey are at b e s t phonet i c phenomena , and are non-phonemi c a s their pres ence and absence are not s ign i fi c ant . Thi s ab rupt stop aft e r final vowe l s i s one o f the d i fference s between the Batak and Eng l i s h vowe l sy s t ems . From t he above de s c ript i on s o f the consonant s a s t ru c t ural arrange ment can be set up . In addit ion t o p o s i t ion , the s t o p s are d i s t in gui s h e d by vOi c ing . I f we inc lude l e i and I j l in the s t op s , we have t hen a set of four vo i c e l e s s s t o p s I p , t , e , k / , whi ch i s mat ched by a set of four vo ic e d s t op s I b , d , j , g / . Fo r t he nas a l s and s p i rant s the d i s t i n c t i on o f vO i cing i s mi s s in g , a s all the nas als are voi c e d and a l l t h e s p i rant s ( or fri cat ive s ) are vo i cel e s s . The s emivowe l s a l s o l a ck thi s d i s t in c t ion o f voi c ing . The lingual s are d i s t ingu i shed by t he manne r o f art i c ulat ion o f the t ongue , one is lateral and the other t ri l l e d . The re s u l t ing arrangement i s pre sented b e low . Voi c e le s s STOPS { Vo i c e d NASALS S P I RANTS ( Fri c a t i v e s ) SEMIVOWELS ( G l i de s ) Lat eral LINGUALS { Tri l l e d 1 . 8.
e j
t d
Ip b m
Q
n 5 w
k 9
h y rl
CON C L U VING R E M A R KS
I n general t h e art i culat i on o f t he Batak c on s onant s d o e s n o t d i f fe r t oo much from t hat o f Engl i s h . Notable d i fference s can b e s e e n i n t he p ronun c i a t i o n o f I rl and t he vo i c e l e s s s t op s . I n Batak t he I r l i s d i s t i n c t ly t r il le d , an d t he vo i ce le s s s t o p s are alway s unasp i rat e d . The d i s t ribut i on di f fe r s con s i de rab ly and i n p art i cular the consonant c lu s t e ring . The s e di fferenc e s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d furt he r i n another chap te r , a s a mean s to d i s cover the c au s e s for learning di ffi c ult i e s . A phonet i c c l as s i fi c a t ion o f t he consonan t s o f Batak ac cording t o manner a n d pl a ce o f art i culat ion i s presented on t h e a c c ompany ing chart .
t-' r\)
V I AGRAM 1 CON SONANT CHART
STOPS
FRICATIVES
AFFRICATES
NASALS
Bilab i a l
Alveodent al
Voi c e l e s s
P
t
Voi c e d
b
Alveolar
Alveopalatal
9
d
h
5
Voi c e le s s Vo i ce d
c
Voi c e le s s
j
Vo i ce d Voi ce d
m
I)
n
SEMIVOWELS
r
Tri l l , Vd . w
Glottal
k
Lat e ral , Vd . LINGUALS
Ve lar
y
13 2.
VOWEL S
Languages d i f fe r i n many re spect s , amongst others i n the number and art i cul at i on of t he consonant s . But the vowel s s how at least as w ell marked di f ference s . E v e n n a t i ve speakers o f the s ame language s how con s i de rab l e variations in their vowe l s depending on t he i r ge ographi c al and s o c i o logical s i t u a t i on s . I t i s t he vowe l s that gi ve learners o f t he spoken language one o f t h e great e s t di ffi c ult ie s . Batak a l s o di ffers from Engl i sh more i n t h e vowe l sounds than i n t h e c on sonant s . When we c ompare t he fol lowing minimal pairs : /m f ra l ' ma l e du a k ' Ime ral ' p u rp l e ' Ima ral ' da n ge r ' Imu ral ' e as i n e s s ' Im� ral ' ri ahn e s s ' five di f fe rent vowe l s are found contras t ing , namely : I i i , lE I , la l , lu i , 1 0 / . By c omparing : ' wha t ' I d f al I deal ' l u r e , vb . , I dual ' two ' I doal ' i nv o a a t e ' two other vow e l s are found , name ly , le i , 1 0 1 , thus making the numbe r o f vowe l s se ven . To e s t ab l i s h t he phonemi c status o f thes e seven each , one should b e contrast e d with the other s i x i n minimal pairs . Thi s i s already a c c omp l i shed for I i i and lu i i n the two gro up s o f minimal pairs ab ove . Minima l pairs t o contrast la l with lei and 101 follow be low : la l w i t h le i : I h f t a l - ' w e ' I h f t el - ' b ri dge ; l a dde r ' lal wi t h 1 0 1 : I t f b b a l - ' s aoop ' I t f b b o l - ' he i g h t ' Many other minimal pairs c an b e found like the above one s . But for t he c ontrast o f 101 with lE I , an d 101 with lei t he wri t e r has after a long s e arch been able t o find on ly one for each pai r , name ly : 'sin ' le i : I do s al 101 ' ru ra l v i l l a g e ' IM,sal ' fe e l a d i s l i k e , re l u a t an t ' lei : la l � 1 101 ' vocat ive , y o u ' la l e l Howeve r , t hey are suffic ient ly d i s s imi lar phonet i ca l ly to override s u s p i c i o n , a s 101 is a higher mid back tense vowe l , whi le lE I is lower mid front lax , and / 0 / is a lower mid back lax vowe l , whi le le i i s h i gher mid front tense . Two addit ional pairs for t he contrast o f each vow el - w i t h the above ex cep t ions - with t he ot her s i x are l i s t e d below . The case o f le i and
l e i , and t hat o f 1 0 1 and I � I w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d afterwards . l a l and I i i : l a l and l u i : l a l and 1 0 / : l a l and I � / : l a l and l e i : l a l and l e i :
l u I and 1 0 / : l u I and I � / : I u I and I i I : l u i and l e I : l u I and l e I :
Ihatal la l al
-
' w o rd '
-
' aa u s e '
Ihatal la l al
-
'word '
-
' aa u s e '
-
' re a e n t '
Iba rul Ida l i f I ta rul I ral
' s t r i n g b ea n s ' -
' aa rry '
-
' p robab L y '
Isegal labatl -
-
Ima t a l Ipa l al
I i I and I � / :
i i i and l e i : I i I and l e I :
' h i n dran a e '
-
'eye '
-
' n u tmeg '
luI il Ibu rul I t u kl I s a u rl luI aI Ihutal -
'beauty ' ' hu n t ' ' e no u g h ' 'suaaess ' , do ' 'vi Hage '
I begul Imuda r/-
' g ho s t '
I tuanl Isaul
' g e n t l eman '
-
-
I i I an d 1 0 / :
' defea t '
Is f l ul I � f l ul -
' b l oo d '
' a frui t ' ' hu rry ' ' a a i di ty '
I h f tal I f 1 aI
-
'we '
-
, s hame '
I h u tal l u l al -
' do ; w o r k '
I b6 r u l Ido l i l
-
' da u g h t e r '
-
'ma l e '
-
I t� rul I r�1 I segel leba tl Ima t e l I pa l e l 161 i l I bo r u l
' v i L La g e '
-
' u nder,
-
' aome '
-
' sieve '
-
'visi t '
-
' de a d '
n. '
-
'beat or work to dea t h '
-
'ma rry '
-
' da u g h t e r '
I tokl Isa� rl
' he a da a h e '
I f l al Ih r taI -
' s hy n e s s '
I be g e l I me d a r / -
' hear '
-
Idanl Isael
'mixe d '
'we '
' lost ' ' i n h e ri t '
-
' fi n i s he d '
I s c, 1 u l 1 �C, l u l
-
' b oa t '
-
' H fe '
Iril
-
'a kind of gra s s '
I r�1
-
' aome '
I t f ru l
-
' im i t a t e '
Id rul
-
' under '
Is fgel I f dal
-
' l adde r ' 'see '
I s eg e l ledal -
' s i ev e '
-
Ifsil Ib i hal
-
' fi l l '
-
' w i de o p e n '
I fsel Ib�hal -
' fema l e a o us i n ' 'who,
interr . '
' ho w '
The only minimal pairs that can b e found for 1 0 1 and l e i , and for I � I a n d l eI , and the reason why they are t o b e regarded a s di fferent phoneme s , have been given above . Thi s leave s u s s t i l l two s u s p i c ious pairs , name ly :
15 l e i - - l e i , and 1 0 1 - - 1 0 / . The se two pairs cons i s t o f members that have phone t i c s imi larity . I n art i c ulat ion , l ei i s d i fferent from l e i only in t ens ene s s and t he height o f the tongue - and t hi s di fference in t ongue p o s i t i on can b e very sma l l - and in t he same way i s 1 0 1 d i fferent from 1 0 / . Brands t e t t e r ( 1 9 1 5 : 1 8 ) not e s t hat in many liv ing Indone s i an language s s ome vowe l s have t wo shades ( ' Nuance n ' ) . This could be t he c as e in o lder Batak , but in modern Bat ak we have t o do , not with two s ha de s o f one vowe l , but with two d i f fe rent vowel phoneme s . Lop e z ( 1 9 3 9 : 1 7 ) agre e s wi t h Brand s te t t e r ' s finding· when he s ay s that there are five vowe l s i n Toba-Bat ak . When we e xamine the d i s tribut ion o f l e i and l e i , we s ee t hat our s u sp i c ions are not ent i re ly without ground . They are not condit ioned by a p re ceding phoneme , vowe l or consonant , a s we c an have almos t any consonant or vowel b e fore l e i and mo s t o f them c an a l s o precede l e i . But there se ems t o b e a pattern of d i s trit uion condit ioned by the fo l l owing consonant , l thus : ( 1 ) b e fore voi c e d s t o p s ( / b , d , g / ) and 1 1 1 , we have l e i , ( 2 ) b e fore vo i c e l e s s s t o p s ( / p , t , k / ) , fri c at ive s , nasals and I r l , we have l e i . Examp l e s : lei : I debal ' pa r t o f; p a r t Zy ' Ime d a rl - 'missing; Zost ' I s �g a l ' de fe c t ' I pe l e l 'worship ' l E I : I re p a k l , Z im p i n g ' Isetanl ' the devi Z ' I s e k k a l - ' han dke rchi ef ' I p e s a n l - ' de s troy e d ' Ihehel ' g e t up ' I n u . h 1) 1 - ' now ' /£me l ' un h u s k e d r i c e ' I mE n a kl ' c a Zm ' Ise rEpl ' humb Z e ' However , there are many exceptions t o t h i s d i s t ribut i on , a s for examp le : leddel ' s o n g ' , i n whi ch we wou l d expe ct l e i ' s o n - i n - Z aw ' , in whi ch we would expect l e i I h e l al Idesal ' comp a s s p o i n t ' , i n whi ch w e woul d e xp e c t l E I ' co m e ; Z e t u s ' , - i demIbetal I d e l)g a n l - , goo d ' , - i dem-
-
lSee Diagram 2 , p . 1 6 .
16 VIAGRAM 2 D I S T R I BUT I ONAL P ATTERN OF
lei - l E I ,
AND
101 - 101
Thi s t abu lation i s b a se d o n a corpus of 6 6 e-words ( o f whi c h 2 7 have l e i and 39 have l E I ) and 1 0 7 o -words ( o f whi c h 45 have 1 0 1 and 62 have 1 0 / ) , t aken from a st ory and a sermon in the 8atak Church ' s almanac o f 1 9 56 , p l u s a few word s t hat the wri ter has searched for t o i l lu strate s ome cas e s . Only word b a se s , except one derivat ional word ending in I - o n / , are inc luded in t he corpus . The , + , means ' found more than once ' , and the ' - ' means ' not found ' , the ' " means ' found in one word ' . [ cv ]
CONSONANT
Pre c eding lei /£1 +
+
+
+
[VC ] Following lei /£1 +
+
+
P b t d k 9
+
+
s
+
+
h
+
+
j
+
m
+
n
I)
+ +
+ +
CONSONANT [ CV ] [ VC ] Following Prec eding 101 101 101 101
+
+
+
+
P b t d k 9
+
+
s
+
h
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ + + +
c
+
+ +
+
1
+
r
+ + +* + +*
+
+ +
+ + +
c
+
+
+
+
j
+
+
m
+
+
+
n
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
I) 1
+
r
+ +
+ +
The s emivowel s are exclude d , due t o the rare o c c urrence with the s e vowe l s . *
Found only in weak st re s se d c l o s e d syllable s .
17 Except ions like t h e s e do not show any pat terning , hence t hey c annot b e formulated i n t o con d i t i oned exception s . The above patt ern o f d i s t ribut ion , i f it were ab s o lut e , would be enough t o j us t i fy conc luding t he l e i and l e i were allophone s . Yet in addit ion t o the irregulari t i e s already not e d , there are also t hree pairs in which l e i and l e i contrast minimal ly . They are : I be l ' eaah ' Ibel ' a ny m o r e ' Ide sal ' rura l v i l l a g e ' Idesal ' aomp a e e p o in t ' ' interj e c t ion o f di sgu s t ' Ipel Ipel ' kind o f adverb o f admi s s ion ' The forms I d e s a l and I d e s a l can o c cur in a phrasal minimal pair , t hu s : I t u d e s a d f a i ba n a l a � 1 ' In w h a t d i r e a t i o n did he go ? ' I t u d e s a d f a i bana l a� 1 ' To w h a t vi H a g e did h e go ? ' I b e l and I b e l a l s o oc cur in a non-minimal pair ( di fferent iated by stre s s ) , t hu s : I n u f) f)a 5 ) a b e l ' E a a h hae n i n e a l ready . ' ' Th e r e a r e n i n e a l r e a dy . ' I n u f) f) a 5 f a b e l From all t h i s it seems t o be b e s t t o consider l e i and l e i a s two d i f ferent phoneme s , be cause : ( 1 ) t he condi t i oned d i s t ribut ion a s shown above has except ion s , and new words t end to increase their number , and ( 2 ) minimal pairs e x i s t that s how their c ontrast ive di stribut i on . The case o f 1 0 1 and I � I i s very much like t hat o f l e i and l e i . The d i s t ribut ional pattern , as can be seen on the diagram on p . 1 6 , shows part ial s imilarity t o that o f l e i and l e i , and like t hat pattern , the d i s tribut ion o f 1 0 1 and I � I has except ions . There are , moreover , two minimal pairs in whi ch the 101 and I � I c ontra s t , namely : Ij 6 1 01 ' fro n t ' Ij � l �1 ' au x i l i ary word u s e d t o soften a reque st , as Engl i s h ' p l e a e e " I dol ' first tone o f a I d� 1 ' an aux i liary word u s e d in diatonic scale ' affirmat ive sentenc e s ' Henc e , a s in the case o f l e i and l e i and in para l l e l i sm t o it , it i s b e s t t o cons ider 1 0 1 and I � I a s two di fferent vowel phoneme s . Now that the number of vowe l phoneme s has been d e c i ded on , let u s compare o n e o f the vowe l s , I � / , in t he fo l lowing utt eran c e s whi ch repre s ent a l l the p o s s ib l e comb inat ions o f I � I with a fo l lowing d i f ferent phoneme , t o s e e how the vowel is influenced by i t s environment . ( 1 ) Ig� a r l ' name ' ( 2 ) Ig�tapl ' e e ver ' ( 3 ) Is�1 ' qu i e t ; mo t i on l e e e ' ( 4 ) I t� p l 'joined ' ( 5 ) I h� t l ' fixe d ' -
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- -
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18 I t o kl ' a ch i n g , ( o f h e a d ) ' ' la t e ' ( 7) I ho s l ' a lmo s t ' ( 8 ) I s o rI ' s p i n n i n g top ' ( 9 ) Ito ! 1 ( 10 ) ' b omb ' I bo m l ' o n credi t ' ( l l ) I bo n l ' i nac t i v e ; c e a s e a c t i o n ' ( 1 2 ) I go r] 1 ( 1 3 ) I mo s o s l ' rubbing ' In t he above examp les we see that t he 1 0 1 i s not alway s the s ame length in all t he utteran ce s . I t i s longe st i n 1 5 0 / , and s li ghtly short er than that in I g o a r / . There i s no perceivab le d i fference in length be tween the / o / ' s of I g o a r l and I g o t a p / . In 1 5 0 1 t he tran s i t ion t o s i lence is not gradual but rather abrupt , but there is no definite art i c ulat ion whi c h mi ght be called a glottal stop . There usually i s a c l osure o f the glo t t i s which i s a comp lement ary feature o f Batak final vowe l s . In Batak , with final vowe l s , one does not stop the breath by j ust ceasi ng the pres sure on t he che st cavity , but by obstruct ing the pas s age o f t he breath in the glott i s , nor does one let the vo i ce t ra i l o f f a s i n Engl i sh , where a n utt erance never ends in a monophthong but in a comp l e x nucleu s , at least under stre s s . 1 That t h i s kind o f stop i s not phonemi c has been shown in the s e c t ion dealing with consonan t s on p . l O . T o show impat ience w e lengthen t h e 1 0 1 t o at l e a s t doub le length and let it t rail o ff into breath without , however , produ c ing I h / , thu s only resemb l ing a complex nuc leu s . Thi s kind of lengthen ing of t he vowe l , accompanied by a r i s e in p i t c h , app l i e s t o all utteranc e s . The 1 0 1 i s short e s t in I t o p / , I ho t / , an d I t o k / , but any nat ive speaker o f Batak c an s t i l l re cogn i s e this 1 0 1 a s e s sent ially the s ame as t he 1 0 1 of I g o a r l and 1 5 0 / . In I t o s l the 1 0 1 i s a l i t t le longer than in the last three examp l e s . Thi s degree o f length i s also found i n the 1 0 1 of I bom/ , I b o n / , and I g o r] / . In I s o r l and I t o ! 1 the 1 0 1 i s again s l i ght ly longer than in I t o s / . Thi s greater length seems t o b e the result o f the relative ly longer t ime t he t ongue gives t o the art i culat ion of the following l ingual . The se di fference s o f lengt h are small and their product ion automat i c f o r a n at i ve speaker . The following five de gree s length o f 1 0 1 or any o t her vowel - are seen in the above e xample s : 2 In open sy llab le s : 1 . The 1 0 / , or , in fac t , any other vowel , i s longe st when it o c curs in (6)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
l 2
Dr . A . A . Hill in clas s lecture . See also Appendix I I , Spectrograms 1-6 .
19 final p o s i t ion . 2 . Next in length i s the 1 0 1 when followed by another vowel or cons on ant in open p o s i t ion . In c l o s e d sy l l ab l e s : 3 . When the 1 0 1 i s fol l owed by a final l ingual . 4 . When the 1 0 1 i s followed by a final 1 5 1 or a nasal . 5 . The 1 0 1 i s short e st when fol lowed by a final voi ce l e s s stop in the syllab l e . One other feature i s o b se rve d in the 1 0 1 o f I bo m / . I bo n / . I g o � / . and I mo s o s l , n ame ly , that it is s l i ght ly nas a l i s e d when pre c e d e d or fo l lowed by a n a sal . In the above examp l e s t he l e xi c al content i s not c hanged by the change i n expre s s i on , i . e . lengthening or na s ali sat ion . The o c c urrence o f a spec i fi c type o f 1 0 1 i s t o t a l ly predictable in t erms o f i t s environment . Hence we can conc lude t hat lengt h , or quantity , and nas ali s ati on in Batak vowel s are non-phonemi c , s o that the varie t i e s of 1 0 1 above are allop hone s . Thi s same kind o f compari s on c an be made for the other vow e l s w i t h s imilar re s u l t s regarding t h e length o f vowe l s a n d nasa l i s at i on , t hu s s upport ing t he ab o ve finding about their non-phonemi c c hara c t e r . O n t h e chart b e l ow , t h e so - c alled Vowel Triangle ( Gleason 1 9 5 5 : 2 0 1 ) , the seven vowels are shown in t he i r relative t ongue p o s i t i ons . l V I AGRAM 3
VOWEL
CHART
CENTRAL
FRONT
\ � \ e
BACK u
(a) a
0 0
HI GH MID LOW
Thu s t he vowe l s c an be c l a s s i fi e d a c cording to t he plac e and manner o f art i culat i on a s fo l l ow s : I i i : high front unrounde d , tens e l e i : higher mid front unrounded , tense l e i : lower mid front unrounded , lax l a / : low cent ral unrounded , lax 1 0 / : l ower mid b ac k , rounde d , lax l
See also Diagram 6, p . 136 .
20
1 0 1 : higher mid back , rounded , t ens e l u i : hi gh b ac k rounded , tense Based on t he se charac t e ri s t i c s of t he vowe l s , we c an s et up a s imp ler s t ructural arrangement than the one on the chart above . The d i s t in gu i shing fac tors are the front-back an d high-low p o s i t ion of t he high est po int o f t he t ongue in the art i culation o f the vowe l s , thus : e £
u o a
We s e e t hat t h i s arrangement i s a s ymmetrical one . In weak s tre s s e d p o s i t i ons t he vow e l s t end t o move t owards t he centre of symme t ry indicated here by t he hyphen , the weaker the s t re s s the nearer they come t o that p o s i t ion , without , howeve r , ever reaching it . I t may b e worth not ing here , t hat Batak i s deve lop ing a new vowe l phoneme t hrough the many loanwords from ' bahasa I ndone s i a ' , whi c h the Bataks more and more t e nd t o pronoun ce in the In done s i an manner . The vowe l meant here is l a / , or p e p e t I pa p a t / . The words with a p e p e t are there t o s t ay and t he i r numb er i s constant ly increa s ing . Examp l e s o f s u c h words are : I k a p a l t a r b a l) l ' fl y i n g machine ' ' un e q u i v o ca l ' I tagasl I taka t l ' B lo gan ' I k ame r d e ka + a n i ' i ndependen ce ' ( ' e v i den t l y ' , the corre sponding nat ive word I t a r a I) l I t :J r a l) l means ' c l e ar, l i g h t , e v i de n t ' , whi le t he loanword i s used t o mean only ' e v i de n t ' ) The p e p e t i s already a phoneme for those who use it , but they are s t i l l relatively few . For people who do not use i t act ively , and they con s t itute by far t he great e r maj ori ty , it i s obviously not a phoneme , t hough apparently it i s at least fami li ar . For t h i s re ason the wri t e r h a s not inc luded it in t h e l i s t o f vowe l phoneme s . I t may be wort h not ing here that the fami liarity with the ' c olorle s s vowe l ' as Bran d s t e t t er ( 1 9 1 5 : 4 ) calls it , i s an advant age in the s tudy o f fore i gn language s , in part i c ular Engl i s h , in whi ch i t s count erpart , the ' s chwa ' , i s an important vowe l . To conc lude t h i s s e c t ion on vowel phoneme s one more thing needs t o b e s aid about t he produc t i on o f Batak vowe l s , namely , that the Batak vowe l s are alway s pronounced in a rather c lipped way and that they are ent i re ly monophthongal in contrast w i t h Engl i s h in whi c h the vowe l s s how s i gn s o f t he t endency t o dipht hongi sat ion , whi c h i s c a l l e d drawl in everyday spee ch . -
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21 2.1 .
T H E S U PRA S EGM E NTA L PHON EM ES
In add i t i on t o the segmental phoneme s , c on sonant s and vowe l s , the re are other feature s that chara c t e r i s e a language , namely the supra seg ment al phoneme s . They include the s t re s s e s , p i t ches and j unc ture s , and are called suprasegment al , b ecause they can oc cur s imul t aneous ly with the s egmental phoneme s and with each othe r , though s t r i c t ly speak i ng the j un ct ure s should be e x c luded from t h i s t e rm . Hen c e t hey are u sual ly superimpo s e d over the s e gment al phoneme s in t ran s c ript ions . A fore ign speaker i s rec ongi s e d from a nat ive speaker o f that lan guage not only by h i s u s e o f t he allophones o f the s egmental phoneme s , but a l s o by h i s supra s e gment a 1 phoneme s , e sp e c i ally t he p i t c h c ontour . 3.
STRESS
Bran dst e t t e r ( 1 9 1 5 : 8 6 ) give s four s t r e s s sy s t ems ( ' Betonung s s y s t eme n ' ) for t he vari o u s bran c he s o f t he I ndone s ian s t o c k o f l anguage s . One o f t h e s e categori e s , name ly , t he one in whi ch t he word b a s e i s s t r e s s e d on t h e penult or ult ima a cc ording t o definite rul e s , h e c a l l s ' Toba Typus ' . He re fers here t o the Toba Batak dialect , the subj e c t of enquiry in this an aly s i s . When we compare the Batak utteran c e s I d b b o l - ' he i g h t ' and I t i bb61 ' hi g h ' , b o th o f whi ch are orthographi ca l ly a l ike : t i m b o , we find that a l l t he s egment al phoneme s are t he s ame . A s the s e two utt erances even in i solat ion denote di fferen t , t hough relat e d , things , t here mus t be s omething else whi ch s i gnal s this di fference . Here i t is t he di fference in p o s i t ion o f loudne s s o f the syllab l e s or ' s t re s s ' , a l s o called ' ac c ent ' i n everyday sppech . The first ut teran c e , whi ch is a noun , has t he s t ronger s t re s s on the first sy llable I t i b - / , whi le in the s e cond one , whi c h could b e t e rmed a predicat ive adj e c t ive or what i n Engl i sh wou l d be c a l l e d a group VI I mOdi fier , l t he s t ronger s t re s s i s on the s e c ond sy l lable I - b o l . From t h i s examp le it c an be s e en that i n Batak s t re s s i s d i s t i n c t ive and hence is a phoneme . In Batak the s t re s s generally fa l l s on the penult . When an u t t e rance with p enult imate s t re s s is e xpanded by means o f affixe s , the s t re s s , i f ne c e ss ary , move s t o the new penu l t . For exampl e : 'road ' Idal anl Ima rda 1 a n I 'wa L k , vb . ' -
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l
Term used by Dr . A . A . Hill in clas s lecture s .
22 Ida l a n i l ' wa l k , vb . t ran s i t ive ' Ida l annal ' h i s road, o r , way ' I p a r d a l a n f o n l - ' j o urney ' Ida l annas fdal ' t h e i r road, or, way ' et c . Except i ons t o t h i s general rule can be found in words derived from monosy l lab l e s when the base is the last sy l l ab l e , and in loanword s o f recent b o rrowing . In these words t h e s tre s s fal l s o n t h e ult ima , a s f o r examp le in : ( a ) word s forme d from monosy l lab l e s : from I d um l 'munah ' I m a r d um l ' to a h e w u n ao o k e d r i a e ' I p a s f p l - 'quieten ' from I s i p l - ' q u i e t ' Ipa tukl ' to make to fi l l t h e n e eds ' from I t u kl ' s u ffi ai e n t ' Spe c ia l ment ion should be made here o f the monosy l l ab i c pronouns and their derivat i ve s , e . g . : ' t ha t ' ( i . e . away from the hearer o r speaker ) lanl - ' t ha t ' ( i . e . near the hearer ) Iii ' this ' lonl I tusanl ' t he r e t o ' ( i . e . away from the hearer and speaker ) I d i s f l - ' t h e r e ' ( i . e . near the hearer ) I d i s :5 n l - ' h ere ' et c . ( b ) loanwords : Itakatl ' s l o gan ' , from I ndon e s i an I ka p a l t a r b a � 1 ' ai rp l a n e ' , from I ndone s ian - ' e ao nomy ' , from Dut ch l e ko n om f / ' p a r l i am en t ' , from Eng l i s h through Dut ch . Ipa r l emenl When othe rwi se t he s t re s s does not fa l l on the penu l t , it i s to s i gnal a change in content or as i n some cases as a result of an e l l ip s i s . One funct ion o f the shi ft o f stress i s , as above , to con t ra s t a noun with t he c orresponding ' group VI I ' modi fie r . Other e xamp l e s o f this are : I g a j j a � 1 - ' l e n g t h ' , and Igaj j a �1 ' l ong ' Im30 1 1 ' di ffi au l ty ' , and I m a :5 1 1 - ' di ffi au l t ' Another s imi lar contrast between a verb and i t s c orre sponding modifier i s a l s o e ffe c t e d by t he sh ift o f s t re s s p o s i t ion , e . g . : - ' t o smear ' , and I l apul I l apul - ' b e smeare d ' Ig,h tu�1 ' to hang ' , and Iga t tu�1 ' ha n g i n g ' -
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23 We c an find innumerab l e e x amp l e s l ike the s e . Thi s and the fact that t here se em t o be no e x cept ions tend t o s ugge s t that this phenomenon fo l l ows a rigorous pattern . Another kind of contrast i f s een in the following p ai r : / t a 8 amm u / and / t a 8 amm� / . Both mean ' y o u r han d ' in Engl i s h , but the ' y o u r ' i n t he first one i s informal o r famil i a r ' y o u r ' , o r the o b s o l e s cent ' thy ' ( German : d e i n ) , whi le t he ' y o u r ' o f the se c on d i s honor i f i c ' y o u r ' ( German : I h r ) . Here again t he contrast i s e ffe c t e d by the s t re s s p o s it ion . The s e cond ut t eranc e / t a 8 amm � / c ould b e cons i dered as the re sult o f an e l l ip s i s o f / - n a / from the form / t a 8 a mm � n a / ' y o u r h a n d ' . However , t here i s a di f ference between / t a 8 am m � / and / t a 8 a mm � n a / . The former is plain re spect ful spee ch , and t he latter is very formal if used for one person , and b o t h in formal and very formal in p lural ( German e u e r and I h r ) . A variat i on o f t h i s last phenomenon i s s een in : / b o r � m / - - / b o r um � / - - / b o r u m � n a / . A l l three mean ' yo u r daug h t e r ' . The first ' y o u r ' i s famil i ar , and the last t wo honorific ' y o u r ' , the t hird being very formal . Thi s variat i on can b e explained morp hophonemi cally by the fact that t h i s kind o f ' y o ur p lu s mod i f i e d noun ' c o n struct ion o c curs only when the word bas e , in thi s in st an c e / bo r u / ends in a vowe l . Thi s gives u s another t ype o f minimal pa i r s contrast e d by the p o s it i on o f t he s t rong s t re s s , as c an be seen from the fol lowing examp le s : / ( tom/ ' b l a c k dy e ' / i t�m/ ' y o u r s i s t e r , or b ro t h e r ' /� tom/ ' p l a n e ' i . e . carpent e r ' s tool / o t � m/ ' y o u r fo l ly ' In t h i s c onne c t i on it should be ment ioned t hat the personal pronoun / h a m � / ' y o u , p lura l or s i ngular honori fi c ' i s s t r e s s e d on the last s y llable and i s a variant o f the more formal and less frequently us ed / h a m� n a / . When we e xamine the s t re s s e s in a vo c ative word , we s ee that they are also not s t re s s e d on t he penult , but on the last s y l l ab l e . Thi s furn i s h e s another type o f contra s t , a s e . g . : - 'mo t h e r ' / ( na 8/ / i na8/ 'mo ther ! ' , a s i n : 0 1 0 , i n a n g . ' y e s , mo t h e r . ' /saha l a/ ' a boy ' s fi r s t name ' /saha l a/ a s in : Ro h o t u s o n , S a h a l a ' Come h e r e , Saha l a . ' Other categories o f words wh i c h have the s tre s s on the l as t s y llable are : -
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24 comparat i ve s ending in I - a n i , e . g . : l u I i an l 'more b e a u t i fu l ' Ihun i hanl 'more y e l low ' Thi s c ategory o f words c an be pa ire d minimally with words s t r e s s e d on the p enult . ( 2 ) adj e ct i v e s with the suffix I - h u l ' ex ce 8 s i ve ly ' , e . g . Ipadokdokkul ' to o h e a v y ' Ipahapa l hul ' to o t h i c k ' The s e adj e c t i v e s do not furn i sh us with minimal pairs . In a l l t he above words , mo st o f whi c h are d i s y l lab le s , only one s t re s s , i . e . t he s t rong s t re s s , is indicat e d , whi c h s hows that the other s y l lable ge t s a weaker s t re s s or no s t re s s at al l . A l l the examp l e s amount t o showing the fundamental fact that s t re s s in Batak is d i s t inct i ve , hence phonemi c . However , the absence o f a s t re s s mark on the other s y l l ab l e s i s not meant t o impl y that they get the same kind o f weak s t re s s . Let us , for e x amp le , e xamine t he utt erance : I b o r um u n a l - ' y o u r dau g h t e r ' . Here we can hear that l b o - I i s definitely louder t han I - r u l and I - n a / , b o t h o f whi ch get about t h� s ame degree o f loudne s s . This imp re s s ion o f l oudne s s is actually not only p roduced by the ene rgy o f art i culat ion of the s y l l ab l e s concerne d , but also by an e longation of t he vowel as t he s yl lable nucleus , such that t he s y l lable t hat i s louder also ge t s the greater e longa t i on . Howeve r , a s has been said earl i e r , length i s non-phonemi c i n Batak , an d the total predic tab ility o f t h i s kind o f lengthening a l so t ends t o support that s t a t ement . I f in the above e xamp l e we e x change t he p o s i t ion o f the s t re s s e s on the s y l lab l e s l b o - I and I r u - I , somet hing , whi c h , t hough unde rstandab le , i s not quite Batak wi l l re sult . Hence it i s obvious that a l s o thes e different degre e s o f s t re s s are s ignific ant features o f the language . Let us now c on s ider t h i s pentasyl lab i c utt erance : Iparda l an i onl ' j o urney ' . Here we a l s o encounter t hree di fferent degre e s o f s t re s s . The heav i e s t s t re s s , w h i c h we w i l l ca l l primary a n d repre sent b y 1 ' 1 , fal l s o n I - n i - I . The next l e s s heavy s t re s s fal l s on I p a r - I . Thi s kind o f s t r e s s we wi l l call tertiary and repres ent by 1 ' 1 . The other s y l lables have about t he s ame degree of weak s t re s s , whi c h we w ill de s ignate by weak and indi ca t e by IVI or absence o f any s t re s s mark . Thus we can t ran s c ribe our last examp l e by : I p a r d 3 1 a n f 5 n l or I p a r d a l a n f o n / . When we expand one o f our examp l e s , thus : Ipa rda l an 1 0nnas f dal ' t h e i r j o urney ' (1)
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25
we s e e that there are t wo t e rti ari e s , five weaks and one primary there . Ordinari ly the s t re s s on / p a r - / i s s l ight ly s t ronger than the one on / - n i - / , but t hey seem to be al lophones of the same s t re s s , a s , if we give b ot h the s ame amount of s t re s s or reverse t he p o s i t ion of t he s t re s se s , i t w i l l s t i l l s ound norma l . Let us now o b serve the st re s s phenomena in the word b a s e ' bo r u ' and a few de riva t i ve s : /b6ru/ - ' da u gh t e r ' /boruna/ - ' hi s daugh t e r ' /pa rb6 ru/ - ' p a re n t of a g i r t ' / b o r u n am i / - ' o u r dau g h t e r ' /pa rboruon/ - ' re L a t i v e on t h e di s ta ff s i de ' /parboru5nna/ - ' hi s re L a ti v e on t h e di s ta ff s i de ' / p a rbo r uo n nam i / - ' o ur re L a ti v e o n t h e di s taff s i de ' / p a r b o r uo n n a s f d a / - ' th e i r re L a t i v e on t he di s t aff s i de ' I n a l l the s e utteran c e s we s ee that the penult a lway s ge t s the primary s t re s s , and t hat the i n i t i a l s y l l able , if not penu l t imate or immediately pre ceding the penult , get s t he t e rt i ary . The other t e rt i ary s eems to be pl a c e d at such a plac e t hat the s t ronger s t re s s e s , namely , the p rimary an d t e rt i ary , are i n a rhyt hmic arrangement with the t ertiari e s in unit s o f t wo or thre e s y llab les removed from the primary . Thi s rhyt hm i c arrangeme nt , howeve r , i s not ab s o lut e , for , as we s ee in t he l a s t exampl e , t he uni t s can alt ernate from two or three i n one s ingle utt eran c e , if t he numb er of s y l l ab l e s be fore the penult i s not divi s i b le by two or thre e . Let us now con s i de r how the s t re s s phenomenon i s when we take an utt erance that consi s t s o f two part s , whi ch are ordinari ly c alled words : r u ma ' ho u s e ' and g o r g a ' aa r v i n g ' . Read s ep arately , both r u m a and g o r g a have a primary o n t he i r first s y l l ab l e s , and a weak o n the s e con d . But when we put t hem t o gether int o one uni fied c ons tru c t i on , thus : / r uma g 5 r g a / - ' a h o u s e w i t h a a r v e d o rname n ta t i o n s ' the s t rong s t re s s on r u m a b e c ome s much weaker than t he one on g o r g a . The s t re s s on the first s y l lable o f g o r g a remains a primary , but the one on t he first syl lab le o f r u ma is now tert i ary . I t is not p o s s ib l e t o give t ho s e t w o word s t h e s ame degree o f s t re s s a n d s t i l l mean t he s ame t hing . Thi s sequence o f two word s with a t ert i ary and a p rimary is t yp i ca l of c ompound nouns cons i s t ing of a noun plus a noun modi fie r . Other examp l e s o f thi s are : / ho d a p a c u / - ' raae h o r s e ' horse
ra a i n g
/ h a t a ba tak/
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' t he B a t a k L a n gu ag e '
26 I ha l a k c f nal ' a Chine s e ' I l os u Q �ekl ' wa t e rmi l l ' The s ame s t re s s patt ern is also found in compound verb s c on s i s t ing of a verb plus a noun , e . g . : Ima Qaj j u h u t l ' c e l e b ra t e a w e dding ' Ima b b u a t E m e l ' to harv e s t rice ' One comp ound noun expre s s ion t o b e c on s i dered now is : l a kka t 1 6bbaQI ' a k i n d o f draug h t s game ' . Thi s c ont ra s t s wit h : l a k k a t 1 6 b b a QI ' l e ap acro s s t h e g o rg e ' , i . e . with emphas i s on -
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' g o rge ' .
Here we have a sequence o f a st re s s that i s s tronger than a tert iary whi c h we w i l l c a l l secondary, and a primary , whe reas in the c ompound noun exp re s s ion the pattern is tertiary-primary . The normal imperat ive ' L e ap a c r o s s the gorge ' i s : I � k k a t l o b b a QI with p rimary on t he first syl lable o f I � k k a t l and t ertiary on the first s y l lab le of I l o b ba Q/ . The expre s s ion with the sequence s e condary p rimary is u s e d when one wan t s to empha s i s e 1 1 6 b b a Q I in meaning that the hearer is not expected to j ump over the shrub, but acro s s the gorge . This se condary s t re s s is marked by IA / . Other such imperatives are : Ibuat onl ' ta k e THIS ' la l l a Q i dd�hanl ' e a t RICE ' , said for examp le t o a child who eats only h is fi s h . -
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' fe t c h FISH '
This last e xpre s s ion shows minimal , or near minimal contrast w ith the comp ound noun , a s more o ft e n t han not the pitch o f the last syl lable will vary : l a l a p i k k� u l ' honori fic t e rm for ' to n g u e " , whi c h con s i s t s o f a verb and i t s obj e c t noun . The o c currence o f t he s e c on dary c an als o be seen in phra s e s like the fo l lowin g : I g a n u p l a o m� s u k s a i ma r E d d e d o n a s i d a l I n t h i s sentence a break o c curs between Im� s u k l an d I s a i / . Wit hin the first hal f o f thi s sentence t here are one primary , one s ec ondary , one t ert i ary , and t hree weak s ; and in the s e cond half , one primary , two t ertiaries and s ix weak s . In c itat ion form each word would get one primary , but in a context t h i s primary may be re duc e d to a s ec ondary or t e rt iary acc ording to the interre lat ionship of t he words , exc ept the fun c t i on word I do l whi ch always ge t s weak s tre s s in context . In Batak the primary se ems t o fal l on the item o f maximum information -
27 as c an b e seen from the fo l l owing different rend i t ions o f a s i ngle sentenc e : ' He has GONE a l r eady ' 1. / n u 8 8 a l �o i b a n a / ' He � S gone A LREA DY ' 2 . / n � 8 8a l ao i ba n a / ' HE has g o n e a l r e a dy ' . 3 . / n u 8 8 a l ao i b � n a / The normal rendi t ion for a s imp le statement i s t he first one . In ord inary se nt en c e s i n Batak , cont rary t o t he Eng l i s h patt ern whi ch t ends t o put t he primary at the end o f each phra s e , the primary tends t o fal l on a word at t he b eginning of a phras e . Thi s c an b e s e en in the following phra s e s whi ch happen t o b e sentences too : I n a mo r a d o a m a n i mo p u l / 'Mo p u l ' s fa t h e r is r i c h ' /dak k�a i ba n a m a rs i I E O I I �on/ 'He n e v e r g i v e s p re s e n t s ' / n u 8 8 a m� s a k E m E n a / ' Hi s r i c e is r i p e ' ' He has no t b egun to harv e s t y e t ' /da8 d i p�kka dopE manab i / On e other t hing needs t o be said about the nature o f the s t re s s in Batak . I t has been stated earlier t hat s t re s s is the relat ive loudn e s s t hat a syllab l e ( o r rathe r , a vowe l as i t s nucleu s ) ge t s which contra s t s i t from other s y l l ab l e s in t h e utteranc e . However , o t her things t han mere amp l itude are a l s o invo lved in producing t h i s e ffec t of loudne s s ; one o f t hem , a s has a l so been said earlier , i s length . In the s e c t ion on vowe l s i t has been stated t hat quan t i t y of a vowe l depends on the fac t whether it is in an open or c lo s e d s yl lable . Here it should be added that , e verything else being equal , a vowel with a s t ronger s t re s s i s a l s o longer than one w i t h a weaker s t re s s ; al s o , that the weaker t he s t r e s s a vowel get s t he more the art i culat ion t ends t o shift t o a cent ral p o s i t ion w i t hout , howeve r , ever reaching the central p o s i t ion of a ' s chwa ' . But , a s t h i s kind o f lengthening i s als o t o t ally p re d i c t ab l e , it is non-phonemi c . The allophon i c lengthening and s h i ft o f art i culation o f a vowe l l can be s een in the fol lowing phonet i c t ran s c r ip t i on , in whi ch a dot ( . ) after t he vow el w i l l indicate e longat ion , and « ) means fronting : [o · t� J ' foo l i s h ne s s ' [� t o · J ' foo l i s h ' In t he pre c e ding pages s ome ment ion has b e en made about s t re s s pat t ern ; name l y , t he s t re s s patt erns o f a c ompound noun and a uni fied verb p l u s obj ec t co n st ru c t ion , both o f w hic h are tert i ary-primary . The former will s t rike an Eng lis h speaker learning Batak , a s it i s exac t ly t he reve rse o f the c orresponding c ompound noun s t re s s patt ern in Engl i sh , wh ich is pr imary-tert iary for mo s t of t he Americ an people . -
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l
see also Appendix I I , Spectrogram 7a and 7b .
28
Another important st re s s patt ern that may be worth me nt i oning i s that o f a ' noun p lus mod i fier ' constru c t i on ( in Engl i s h the c orre spond ing construct ion is ' modi fier p lu s noun ' ) , whi ch is s e condary-primary , as for examp l e : / j a b u n a d b bo / ' a ta.Z l h o u s e ' /ha l a k n a b u rj u/ ' a good p e r s o n ' / a l) i n n a u l i / ' go o d a i r ' ( Thi s last expre s s ion c ontrast s with : / a l) i n n a u l i / ' name of a p la c e ' in the s t re s s on / a l) i n / . ) The s t re s s pattern s are alike , but the word orders are revers ed . The imp l i c a t i on of these phenomena for language learning w i l l be d i s c u s s e d in Chap t e r I V ( o f the original t he s i s ) . In conclus ion o f t h i s s e c t ion a word should be s ai d about the writer ' s o b servat i on o f four d i s t inct ive st re s s e s and hence h i s propo s it ion o f a four- s t re s s notation . When we o b serve s ingle and c ompound utt eran c e un i t s , w e c an e a si l y d i st ingu i s h t hree contrast ive s tre s s e s : s t rong , me dium and weak . The s e c ondary st re s s has been introduced above by comparing the s t re s s e s in this pair : ja l a p i kkau/ ' fe t ch FISH ' / a l a p i k ka u / ' tongue ' The e xp re s sio n for t ongue c annot b e pronoun c e d otherwi s e , but the ' fe t c h fi s h ' expre s s i on , t hough with a di fferent content , c an be read with a p rimary on /� l a p/ and t erti ary on / i k k a u / , t hus : ja l a p i k ka u / . Thi s i s i n fac t the mo st frequent pronun c iat i on , a s the c ontext i s t he more common be cause t h i s i s the normal imperat ive . Thi s i s a l s o the cas e for t he other s imilar exampl e s . The ' F e t c h fi s h ' ( with empha s i s on ' fi s h ' ) ut terance c an a l s o be p ronoun c e d , as many people do , with a sequence primary-s e condary , thus : ja l ap i kkau/ . For t ho s e people the sec ondary wou ld b e e s t a b l i shed from t he contra s t in t he s e c o n d member o f t h e utteran c e s , tertiary in o n e a n d s e condary in the o t he r . It should b e we l l t o state a t t h i s point that the s e c ondary s t r e s s has a far smaller funct ional l o a d than t h e t e rt iary , and t hat it seems to be t he least important of t he four s t re s s e s . A t hree s t re s s notat i on would result from an anal y s i s ( Brands tetter 1 9 1 5 : 9 2 ) along the lines o f Van der Tuuk ' s finding t hat Batak has no s ent ence s t re s s ( ' Sat z ak z ent ' ) . B ut as c an b e seen from the above e xamp l e s , t h i s sentence s t re s s does e x i s t in the writer ' s spe e c h , by -
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29 whi c h t h e i t em o f maximum in format ion t ends t o ge t t h e primary and b y whi c h t h e sy llab l e s get t ing a primary in words as c itat ion forms o ft en get a redu c e d s t rong s t re s s , namely , a s e c ondary or a t e rt i ary . How ever, i t wou l d be easy to have a broad t rans c ription with t hree dif ferent s t re s s e s by c ombining the s e condary and t e rt iary into one ' medium ' s t re s s , whi ch would b e suffi c i ent for a l l prac t i c a l purpo s e s . Thi s woul d be more easy t o do for Batak than for Engl i s h , be cause in Batak the s e c on dary s t r e s s does not have a great contra s t ive funct ional load . But in t he wri t e r ' s opinion a four s t re s s phonemi c notat ion i s n o t a n unnece s s ary c omp l i cat ion , o n t h e c ont rary more c larity i s gained by i t . Moreove r , i n Batak s t re s s , a c c ompanied by pit c h , i s u s e d , though not s o e x t en sively as in Engl i s h , t o s how prominence in a sen t en c e or to indicate emp ha si s , as more o ften word orde r , but always acc ompan i e d b y s t re s s , is u s e d t o achi eve them in Batak . In Engl i s h only s t r e s s i s more o ften u s e d t o produce t h e s ame e ffec t s . 4.
JUNCTURE
Most o f the e xamp l e s c it ed above are s i ngle words . Let u s now take utteranc e s that c on s i s t of more than one word , and written c onvent ion ally in t wo or more separat e unit s . A d o n g rna n a d j o l 0 s a d a h a l a k n a rn a r g o a r s l P o srn a ' Th e r e w a s o n c e a man ,
ca l l e d Posma '
We can d i s t in c t ly hear t wo breaks , or ' j unc tures ' , in this senten c e . The first and longe s t b reak o c curs after h a l a k . I t s durat ion i s at least twice as long a s that of a normal vowel sound , and it i s a c c ompani e d b y a r i s e i n tone ( pi t c h ) o n t h e pre c eding s yll ab le . We w i l l ca l l t hi s , to borrow the English t e rminology ( as in H i l l 1 9 5 8 ) , a ' double b ar ' , and repre sent it b y I I I I . The s e c ond b reak o c curs aft er rna r g o a r . Thi s b re ak i s short e r than t he I I I I , and t here i s no apprec iable change in the p i t c h of the pre c e ding s yl lable perce ivab l e . Thi s j un c ture w i l l b e c a l le d , again a ft er the Engl i sh termino l ogy , a ' s ingle b ar ' , or I I I. The above sentence c an a l s o b e read with a I I I after n a dj o l 0 . At the end o f t he s entence there i s an other break , t he longe s t variety of j uncture s . I t i s a c c ompanied b y a fall i n pit c h . This j un c ture w i l l b e ca l l e d a ' double c r o s s ' , and repre sented b y 1#1 . The above se nt ence c an now b e tran s cribed t hu s : l a d ;) !) rn a n a j o l 0 s a d a h a l a k I I n a rn a r g ;) a r I s i p ;) s rn a # 1 The wri t e r has , unfortunat e ly , n o t been able t o measure t he exac t rat io o f t he du ra t i on o f these j unc ture s , but it c an b e pre t t y s afely as sume d t h a t the I I I i s at least a s long a s t he t ime it takes to pro nounce a short vowe l , whi c h is about e ight cent i s e conds ; the I I I I a s long a s t w o normal vowe l s , i . e . appro x imately twenty cent i sec onds ; and
30
l the lUI more t han two vowel s ounds . The s e j uncture s are chara c t e r i s e d by p i t c h ; t he I I I by leve l p i t c h , t h e I I I I b y ri s i ng p i t ch , and the lUI by fall i ng p i t ch . The lUI , by t he fall in p i t c h , gives an impre s s i on o f final i t y , and wi l l normally be found at p l ac e s where in ort hography we would expect a peri o d , but this c orre s pondenc e is far from exact . The other two j unctures by the nat ure o f their p i t ch give an e f fe c t o f suspen s e . The ut t e ranc e s b ounded by t h e se j unc ture s are c al l e d phras e s ; and as t h e i r o c currence is at the end of phras e s , they are called ' t erminal j uncture s . ' A t yp i ca l p lace where a I I I w i l l b e found i s in normal c ount ing , as for e x amp l e : I s a d a I d u a I t o l u I 6 p a t U I - ' o n e , two , t hr e e , four . ' But when we want t o c ount down , as for example , in s t art ing a ra ce , the s i ngle bars w i l l be rep laced b y doub le bars , t hus : I s a d a II d u a II t 6 1 u 11 6 p a t # 1 . The I I I I i s norma lly found at the p lace where in ordinary spelling we would expect a comma , but here again the c orre lation is not exac t . Be low follow a few senten c e s t o s how the o c currence o f t he t erminal j un c t ure s : ( 1 ) I d u k s a l p u p h u a r i I I r:, b e rn a n a s a p i d o l) I rn a d d a po t t o n l a l i #1 ' aft e r s e v e n day s a l l t h e b irds came t o t h e c h i c k e n e a g l e '
(2)
l a l a i I d U I) a d 6 1) d u a a r i I I l a o rna b a b ) a t i I rn a n 3 p o p b o d a t # 1
(3)
I h a l a k n a p o g o s I I a l a i n a b u rj u I j lI l a n a r f n g a s I d:, s i p 6 srn a # 1
' Bu t aft e r two day s t h e t ig e r w e n t t o v i s i t t h e don k e y . ' ' Po sma i s a p o o r , b u t a g o o d and i n t e l l i g e n t man . '
Other o c currences o f t he t e rminal j unc tures w i l l b e further shown in t he s e c t ion on p i tc h , a s i t i s p i t ch sequence together with a t erminal j un c t ure t hat make s intonat ion . In t he original Batak writings the terminal j unc ture s are not marked . But s ince the intro du c t i on o f the Lat i n a lphabet the e x i s t en c e o f the t e rminal j unc ture s has been recogn i s ed a s evidenced by t he us e of punctuat ion marks a s t he comma , t he peri od , the que s t ion mark , e t c . Howe ve r , a s mentioned above , many j uncture p o s i t ions have b e en m i s s e d , and t he u s e o f those punctuat ion marks i s not c on s i s t ent phono log i c a l l y . Let u s now cons ider another type o f j uncture whi c h i s l e s s recogn i s e d b y Batak ort hography . When we se e the fo l lowing phonemi C transcript i on c ons i s t i ng o f s eg mental phonemes only , I r i l) g a s n a s i d a l , l
See also Appendix I I , Spectrograms 10 and 11 .
31
we cannot know with c e rt ainty what i s meant by it , but when we supply the s tre s se s , t he utt e ranc e t ake s on meaning . There are two s t re s s patt erns p o s s i b le , name l y : I r i n g � s n a s l d a H I ' t hey are di l i ge n t ' and I r 1 n g a s n a s ( d a H I ' t h e i r di l i g e n a e ' When we l i st e n carefu l l y , the s e two utt eran c e s do not di ffer in the s t re s s e s only , but also in the linear s e gment s . We c an hear t hat the tran s i t ion from l s i t o I n l in t he first ut teranc e is di fferent from t hat in the s e c ond . In the se cond e xample we hear what i s t e rmed a smooth t ran s i t i on , where a s in the first one we hear s ome e longation o f the l s i with a diminut ion o f energy , which a Batak speaker woul d interpret a s s ome kind o f break . This i s c alled open tran s i t ion ( Gleason 1 9 5 5 : 4 2 ) and i s rendere d in phonemi c notation by /+/ . Thi s i s cal l e d a ' p lu s j un c ture ' . Thi s j unc ture , in c ontrast w i t h t he t e rminal j uncture s , i s ca l l e d an internal j un c ture , l s i n c e it oc curs only within a phrase . I t s main o c c urrence i s at the boundari e s o f l exi cal i t ems or word s , although it c an and d o e s o ften o c cur within words conventionally wri t t e n a s unit s , and conversely it i s o ft en ab sent be tween words ort hographically wri t t en a s two unit s . For e xamp le : h o d o k n a I ho d o k+ n a l ' hi 8 8 w ea t ' t u n g ko k i I t u k ko t ( I ' t h e 8 t i a k ' A contrast a l s o o c cas ioned by the di fferent p o s i t ion o f the /+/ , i s seen i n t he fo llowing ut t e ran c e s : l a s a m + u l i + j u m8 l o H I ' E s t im a t e t h e b ea u t y fi r8 t . ' l a s a + m u l i + j um8 l o H I ' In o rder to marry fi r8 t . ' In ordinary speech we can hear an elongation and a laxer c l o s ure o f t he I m l o f l a s am l in t he first sentence compared with the I m l o f I m u l i l in t he s e cond one . Though in ordinary c onversat ional speed a Batak t ends t o c onnect a f i n a l consonant with a following initial vowe l , the t rans it ion bet ween I ml and l u i in the two s entence s is not i c eably dif ferent . There is a l so some di fferen ce not icable in the qual i t y o f the l a l preceding I m / . The l a l in t he s e c ond ut terance is higher and l e s s open . The s e t wo u t t e ranc e s are t h u s cont ras t e d n o t only b y t he di ffer ent s t re s s pattern s , but a l s o by the di fferent p o s i t ion o f one /+/ in the �inear sequence o f phoneme s . A c ontrast c an a l so be s ee n in the fo llowing pair : l o p a t s a + t a l i H I ' Bi n d a l l fo ur ' I � p a t + s a t a l i H I ' F o u r fo r a q u ar t e r . ' In t he s e c ond u t te rance the I t I and l s i are more d i s t in c t l y pronoun c e d , whe reas in t he first the t ran s i t ion i s s o smooth that they re s emb le t he I
Dr . A . A . Hill in class lecture s .
32 s o und o f t he a l veopalatal a ffri cate l e i , but s till remain di fferent from it . The t endency o f the /+/ t o o c cur at the tradit ional word divis ions without having an exact corre lat ion , has been mentioned above . The phono logi cal arb i t rarin e s s of t he Batak orthography can a l s o be seen from t he following p ai r : d i s u ra t I d i s u r a t H I ' i n a l e t t e r ' d i s u r a t I d i s u r a t H I 'wri t t en ' The s e two ut t e ranc e s are exac t homophones , but in c onvent ional s pel ling one is separat e d and other j oine d . It i s , howeve r , t rue that they have di fferent seman t i c cont ent . In I r u ma + g 6 r g a H I ' ca r v e d h o u s e ' t he /+/ s eems t o have the e ffect o f increas ing the force o f the ex p l o s ion o f the following I g l o f I g o r g a / . Thi s c an b e c ompared w ith the I g l in , f o r e x amp l e , l a g o a n H I ' m i s s in g som e t hi n g ' . In redup l i cat ion s an d interative words whi ch are in tradit ional spe l l ing writ t en a s uni t s , we usually have a /+/ s eparating t he two e lement s , for e xampl e : h o l a n g ho l a n g I h o l a k + k6 1 a � H I ' in t e rs t i c e ' h u l i n g h u l i n g I h u l i k + k u l i � H I ' h ide, n . ' p a r i k p a r i k I p a r i k + p � r i k H I ' sma l l e a r t h e n wa l l ' s i u k s i u k I s ) u k + s f u k H I ' sma l l l a d l e ' From t h e s e e xamp l e s one feature of t he /+/ c an be not e d , namely , that as s imi lat ion c an take p l ace ac ro s s a /+/ , s o that t he plus j unct ure is s i tuated i n between the a s s imilated and the a s s imilat ing sound s . Thi s c an be c l e arly seen in c a s e s where the final sound o f a word i s a s s imilated with t he initial s ound o f a fo llowing one , for example : I s u m a n l ' r e s emb l e ' and I t u s f ! ' to i t ' become : I s uma t + t u s f H I ' l ike i t ' l o p a t l ' fo u r ' and I r a t u s l ' hu n dr e d ' b e c ome : I � p a k + ra t u s H I ' fo u r hundre d ' I m f a n l ' dwe l l ' and I s a d a + h a l a k l ' a man ' become : I m f a s + s a d a + h a l a k H I 'a man dwe l l s ' In t he writ e r ' s spee c h , in words with a doub le consonant a s a result of a ffixat ion , t here are t wo p o s s i b l e rendi t i on s , one with, and t he o t her without a plus j un ct ure in between the two ident i c a l consonant s . Thus he can have : I p a t t u l or I p a t + t u l 'my foo t ' I r o h a k k f l or I r o h a k + k f l 'my m i n d ' l a s o m m a l or l a s 6m + m a l ' h i s l im e ' The above examp l e s have shown t hat t he nature o f the pl us j unct ure
33 can b e seen i n e longation o f a pre c e ding phoneme , and a s a break in be tween two phoneme s . The s e fac t s t end to s how that the /+/ i s a t empo phenomenon . But it i s not only that , as it produ c e s a l s o a modi ficat ion i n the art i culation of the b ordering s egmental phoneme s , a s for t he examp l e , the more e nerge t i c onset o f the fo l lowing phoneme . The writer has not been a b l e t o c o l l e c t enough evidence o f other mani fe s t a t i on s o f t h e e x i s t ence o f t he p lu s j un c ture , b u t he s u s p e c t s t hat there are s t i l l other det a i l s that have mi s s ed his obs ervat ion . 5.
P ITCH
P i t c h has o ft e n been mentioned i n the previous s e c t ions . P i t c h i s the mu s i cal tone o f t he voice in spee c h . Thus only t h e voi c e d sounds o f an utt e rance c an have pit ch , e sp e c ially the vowe l s , alt hough s ome of t he consonan t s can have p i t c h too . In t h i s analy s i s the p i t c he s , a s the s t re s se s have b ee n , will be attached only t o t he vowe l s . I n spe aking about p i t c h here , we think of the re lat ive high and low of the t one s o f a vo i c e rather t han t he absolute t one-p i t c h in terms o f frequenc i e s . The normal p i t c h - normal , taken here in i t s quant i t at ive me aning of t he voice o f a speaker w i l l b e c alled p i t c h /2/ . The lowes t p i t c h t he v o i c e h a s in ordinary conversation w ill be c alled p i t c h / 1 / , and t he p i t c h e s higher t han /2/ w i l l be c a l l e d respect ively p i t ch / 3 / and p i t c h / 4 / . The mo st fequent ly o c c urring p i t c he s are /1/ , / 2 / , and / 3 / . I n the fol lowing utt eran c e we s ee t he o c c urrenc e o f the three lower p i t c he s : I d i j a b u + d � + i b a n a # 1 ' H e i s a t hom e . ' The ut teranc e s t art s with t he normal p i t c h /2/ ; r i s e s t o / 3 / for t he I - j a - I ; fal l s again t o about a l i t t le above t he level o f /2/ ; keeps gradual l y falling t o about p i t ch /2/ on I d� / , and a l i t t le b e low /2/ on I I - I ; ri s e s again sharp ly t o a l i t t le above t he initial pit c h , but not re aching t he pitch o f I - j a - I ; t hen falls rap idly t o 1 1 1 for t he l a s t I - n a l and on t o s i lenc e . When we us e the symbol [ + J a ft e r the p i t ch numbe r for a higher degree , and a [ - J for a lower degree o f pit c h , and t he s ymb o l [ � J for the rap id final fal l , w e can t ran s cribe the above ut t eran c e , phon e t i ca l ly as regards the p i t c h , a s follow s : 2 3 2+ 2 2-2 +1 '.a [ d i j a b u + d� + i b a n a # J The tran s it ion from one p i t c h level t o another i s not abrup t l ike s t e p s b u t rather l ike that found in wave s , with di ffering degrees o f s t eep n e s s , but never perpendi cular . B e fore p roving t he validity o f the phonemi c status o f t he p i t c h e s by t h e i r contra s t ive d i s t ribution , a statement w i l l b e made here , that t he re are only t hree phonemi c pit ches in the above ut t e ran c e , b a s e d
34 on t he fact that t h e wri ter as a native speaker o f Batak d o e s n o t find any s i gn i f i c ant di fference between the p i t c h e s of the syllables marked with variet i e s o f /2/ , s o t hat now we may t ran s cribe the above examp le phonemical l y , t hu s : 2 3 2 1 I d i j � b u + d� + i ba n a HI or 2 3 2 1 I d i j � b u + d� + i b a n a H I or 2 3 2 2 1 I d i j � b u + d� + i b a n a HI The s e cond not at ion seems t o be p re ferab le , and wi ll b e u s e d furt her in this s t u dy , b e cau s e it i s s imp le and s hows better t he c l o s e re lat ionship between s t re s s and p i t c h by marking the p i t c h o f the last s t ronger s t re s s e d s y l l ab l e . In t h i s notation the first p i t c h point i s the first s y l l ab le , the s e cond pitch poi nt the syllable with primary , the third come s on the syl lable with the last s e condary or t e rt iary , and t he fourth on the last syl lab l e ; with the understanding that a fter the first p it ch / 3/ , the p i t c h always fal ls back on /2/ , except , i f the fo l lowing p i t c h p oint has a l so a /3 / . Thi s kind o f immediate fall ing a fter reaching the peak is al s o t rue when the peak is p i t c h /4/ . Thi s number o f four p i t c h point s may be reduc e d t o three or two depending o n concurren c e s o f t w o o r t hree o f t h e s e p i t ch point s , as c an b e s e e n i n some o f t he e xamp l e s i n the fo ll ow ing pages . In the above e xamp le we have seen t hat the p i t c h sequence or p i t c h pattern i s / 2 3 2 1 / . A p i t c h sequence followed by a te rminal i s c alled a ' p i t ch contour ' or intonat ion . This p i t c h contour / 2 3 21 H/ i s typical o f s t a t ement s en t en c e s , a s i l l u s t rated in the following examp l e s : 2 2 1 3 l I m a rmE � m i + do + n a s i d a H I ' Th e y are p Z ay ing , 2 2 1 3 I m a d d u d a + e m E + d � + i n a t t a H I 'Mo t h e r is pounding r i c e ' 2 1 3 I d � a + d � + h o d a n a H I ' H e has two h o r s e s ' 3 1 1 6 1 � H I ' Ye s ' Let u s t ake t h i s last e xamp le and give it di fferent p i t c h s equence and s ee what i t doe s t o t he content . The examp le above i s a s t a t ement l
See also Appendix I I , Spectrogram No . 14 .
35 o f w i l lingne s s , or a n affirmat ive answer . When w e give a p i t c h /2/ o n the s e c ond syllab l e , usually accompan i e d b y a prolongat i on o f the last phoneme and sustension of the pitch level marked here by the s ingle bar , thus : 3 2 /0 1 0 1 / , i t wi l l mean some t hing l i ke ' Y e s , I know, s to p b o t h e r i n g m e ' , o r ' I s a i d y e s a l r e a dy , h a v e a l i t t l e more p a t i e n ae ' . I t expre s s e s s ome , though sort o f gOOd-humoure d , impat ience or irritat ion . Real impatience or irritat ion would b e expre s sed thu s : 32 32 32 32 1 0 ' #/ . /;) I 0 I / , or /0 The great er the impat ience or irritat ion , the stronger the s t re s s on t he / - 1 0 / would be , and t he more it would be prolonge d . Another p o s s ib l e p i t c h cont our i s : 3 3 /0 I 0 I I / . Thi s means ' D i d y o u say y e s ? ' . The /3/ on / - 1 / i s a c c ompan i e d by a s li ght ri s e in p i t c h , here indicated by the doub le bar . Thi s i s typ i c a l o f a que s t i on t o veri fy an answer b y repeating it . Thi s c on tour can also expre s s a mild surpri se at the answe r . A great surpri se l i ke ' DID y o u say y e s ? ' , introdu c e s us t o another p i t c h leve l , higher t han /3/, name ly , p i t c h /4/, whi ch is o ft en a c c ompan i e d by overloudne s s , t hus : 4 3 /0 I 0 II / . The di fferent renditions o f / 0 1 0 / above show that in Batak a di ffer ence in p i t c h produ c e s a di fference in c ontent , in other words , that p i t ch is d i s t inct ive or phonemi c , and that four p i t c h leve l s are adequat e to s i gnal these di fferenc e s . They have furni shed min imal cont ras t s of t he four p i t ches to e s t ab l i s h their phonem i c statu s . Pit ch i s the most overt feature o f t he suprasegmenta l phoneme s . P i t ch cont our hab i t s seem t o b e the most pers i s t ent o f the language hab i t s , and p i t c h cont ours w i l l p o s e one of the harde st o b s t a c l e s i n adult language learning . Consequent l y , a thorough knowledge o f t h e p i t c h contours i s very important , a l s o f o r pedagogi c a l reason s . A s ment ioned b e fore , some p i t c h cont ours are t yp i c al for some kinds of sent e n c e s or phra s e s . We have seen that / 2 3 2 1#/ i s typical o f statement sentenc e s . The typ i cal p i t c h contour o f an ordinary que s t i on can be seen from the fol lowing int errogat ive sentenc e s : 2 3 2 3 l / d i j a b u + d o + i b a n a 1 1 / ' I s he a t hom e ? , l
See also Appendix I I , Spectrogram No . 1 5 .
36 The p i t c h c on t our i s / 2 3 2 3 1 1 / . Other illus trative sentence s , taken from the previous examp l e s for statement s , are : 3 2 2 3 / m a r m d m i + do + n a s 1 d a 1 1 / ' A r e t h e y p L a y i ng ? ' 2 3 2 3 / m a d d u d a + t m e + d o + i n a t t a 1 1 / ' I s mo t h e r p o u n di n g r i ce ? ' 3 2 3 / d u a + d o + h o d a n a 1 1 / ' D o e s he have two h o r s e s ? ' The answer t o the first ques t ion c an be : 2 3 1 / d i j a b u # / 1 ' Y e s , he i s ' , or l it era l ly , ' i n t h e h o u s e ' Thi s i s a re duc e d notation of t he typical statement c ontour / 2 3 2 1 #/ , becaus e t he s y l lable with t he primary , the normal p i t c h p oint o f /3 / , i s al s o t he last s t re s se d syl lab le in the utteran c e . Another reduct ion o f t he s t a t ement c on t our has been s hown in one o f the renditions of / � I o / with a p i t c h contour / 31#/ , due t o the c oncurrence of t he first t hree p i t c h p o int s on /0 -/ . The first int errogat ive s entence c an a l s o be read in t h i s way : 3 3 2 2 / d i j a b u + d o + i b a n a 1 1 / 2 ' Is HE a t home ? ' Here the p i t c h contour i s / 2 2 3 3 1 1 / , the first five s y l lables being level on /2/ , t hough the primary s t i l l remains on / - j a - / . The / - b a - / o f / i b a n a / has a p i t ch / 3/ , and the s t re s s mus t b e a s e c ondary , whe reas i n the /2 3 2 3 I I / c ontour i t c ould have a t e rtiary s t r e s s without o c cas ioning any di f ference in c on t ent . As ment ioned above , the s y llable with a p rimary s t re s s , where we woul d normally expect a /3/, get s a p i t c h /2/ . Thi s t ype o f contour put s the / i b a n a / into re l i e f , and thereby s i gnals the emphas i s pl a c ed on it . I n the ordinary que st ion c on t our prominence i s given to / d i j a b u / . I f we want t o put the special empha s i s on ' home ' , the contour be c ome s /2 3 3 3 I I , t hu s : 2 3 3 3 / d i j a b u + d o + i b a n a I I / 3 ' Is he a t HOME ? ' Here t he p i t ch remains on / 3/ from / - j a - / t o the end . Thi s p i t c h con tour c an also expre s s mild surprise . The answer t o t h i s que st ion can have the /23 1#/ cont our or the
I 2
See also Appendix I I , Spectrogram No . IB . See also Appendix I I , Spectrogram No . 16 .
3
See al s o Appendix II , Spectrogram No . 17 .
37 emphat i c /2 4 1 #/ , t hu s : 2 3 1 2 4 1 I d i j a b u # 1 , or I d i j a b u # 1 . When we want t o show doubt a s to the verac ity o f the answer we u s e t hi s contour : 2 4 3 3 I d l j a b u + d :> + i b a n a I I I ' IS he i n t h e h o u s e ? ' in which the p eak i s p i t c h /4/ on I - j a - I and falls t o /3/ on I - b u / , and remai n s on that level t o the end . The answer to t h i s wou ld normal ly b e emphat i c , thus : 2 4 1 I d i j a b u # / 1 ' He IS . ' Further doub t t o t h i s answe r , or irony , c ould b e expre s se d with a / 2 4 2 1 / c ontour , t hu s : 2 4 2 2 I d i j a b u 1 / ' R ea l t y ? ' Thi s type o f cont our c an b e o ft en heard a l s o in l i t t le girl s ' s pee c h , when they want t o show o ff somet hing and t e a s e another child w ith it . I f t hi s would o c cur in a s ituat ion in which the child has a new toy in t he hou s e , t he n it wou l d expre s s s omething l ike ' We l l , I do h a v e i t , b u t i t i s i n o u r hou s e .
Y O U don ' t h a v e o n e , a n d Y O U may n o t s e e i t, b u t I
The difference be tween irony an d a l i t t l e girl ' s t e a sing w i l l b e mo s t ly s ignal led b y t he context and t h e paralingu i s t i c kine s i c s . In a s t a t ement sentence t hat cons i s t s o f more than one phra s e , we have l inked contours . For e xample : 2 3 2 1 2 2 2 3 I d i j a b u + d :> + i b a n a I a l a i + d a k + k a r e j o # 1 can go in a n d p l ay w i t h i t as much as I l i k e t o . '
' S h e i s i n t h e h o u s e , b u t s he i s n o t worki n g . '
Here the end p i t c h o f t he fi r st phrase i s the s ame a s t he p i t c h at t he beginning o f the s e c ond phras e , with the s ingle bar in b e tween . The s ingle bar j unc ture w i l l be o ften found between two ident ic al p i t c he s . In ut t e ran ce s , t radit iona l l y s pelled a s s i ngle sentenc e s , we c an have more t han one # , for examp l e : 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 I d i j a b u + d :> + i n a t t a # n 1 n n a + i b a n a # 1 , Mo t h e r i s a t h o m e ,
he says . '
l
See also Appendix II , Spectrogram No . 19 .
2
See al so Appendix I I , Spectrogram No . 1 9 .
I f we t urn t h i s s entence around , we c an get the s ame p i t ch contours , 2 1 2 3 2 3 1 I n i n n a + i ba n a H d i j ab u + d� + i n a t t a H I . When we give another contour t o the first part , thus : 3 2 2 3 2 1 2 I n ) nna + i bana i t means 'HE s ay s , t h a t mo t h e r i s a t home ' , with t he s t re s s o n ' he ' , with or without the imp l i cat i on that the speaker knows t hat i t i s not t rue , but b y whi c h , at any rat e , the speaker wan t s t o indicate that he doe s not want to c ommit hims e l f . An e x ampl e o f linked contours w i th a que s t i on i n the first part i s : 2 3 2 3 3 1 2 n i nna + i bana HI ' Is mo t h e r a t home, a s k e d h e . '
Linked p i t c h contours o f a ques t i on are foun d , for examp l e : 3 2 3 3 n f mmu + d o I I I ' D i d y o u s a y y e s ? ' lob To expre s s surpri se at t he ' Ye s ' answer given the que s t i on woul d have t he fo l lowing contour ( se e a l so p . 3 5 ) : 3 3 3 3 l o l � I n f m m u l ' DID y o u say y e s ? ' When we cons ider t he fol lowing p o s s ib le answer t o a ques t i on l i ke ' Wh a t are you doing t h e re ? ' ,
3 1 1 21 I d a � + a d o � I a �g i a H I ' N o t h i n g , b r o t h e r ' , w e s e e that t he p i t ch contour i s c ont inue d i n a monotone beyond the s ingle bar in the vocative material . Here t he vocat i ve material has a c ont i nuous p i t c h /1/ , with a s l i ght upt urn on I - g i - I and I - a / , fo l l owed b y a fal l s o rap i d t hat t he voi c e van i s h e s and we hear only breat h . Voc at ive material , monotonous e xcept for the p i t ch fall o f t he # j un c t ure , c an b e seen in this impat ient answer : 32 2 2 2 I da � + a d o � I r a j a n am i H I ' N o t h i n g , SIR ' But the vocat ive mat erial c an a l s o have a two-pi t ch contour . Thi s i s t he t ype o f p i t c h c ontour o f a p o l i t e ans we r . 2 3 22 2 / d a � + a d 5 � I r a j a n am i # 1 'No t h i n g , s i r . Here t he p i t c h gradually fall s from / 2 / o n I r a - I t o /1/ o n t h e last s y l lable I - m i l . I n ordinary reque s t s the p i t ch contour ends in /1/ , fol lowed b y a /#/ , a s , for e xamp le :
39 3 21 I ro + h a m u + t u s o n H I ' P � ea e e , aome h e r e . ' The d i f ference o f t h i s p i t ch contour from that o f a peremptory c ommand is that t he fall at the last s yllable is more gradual in a reque s t , whic h tends t o cause a pro longat ion o f that s y l l ab l e . Other means are emp l oyed to s o ften a reque st , as the us e of funct ion word s , as I j o l � / , and t he t on i ng down o f t he s t re s s e s . A corresponding c ommand to the above requ e st wou l d be : 21 3 f rO + h � + t u s o n H I ' Come h e re ! ' with a much short er last s y l l ab l e . Above we have se e n e xamp l e s o f t he oc curre n c e s and fun c t ions of some categories of s en t en c e s . Two more vari e t i e s w i l l be d i s cu s s e d be low . One i s the contour o f a que s t i on , with an interrogat ive word helping to s i gnal t he que st ion . 2 3 2 I m a r h � a + h a m u + d i s i H I ' Wha t are y o u doi n g t h e re ? ' 2 3 2 I b e h � + d � + u l a omm u n a i H I 'How ie y o u r work g e t t in g o n ? ' This i s the ordinary contour for a c i vi l que s t i on , / 2 3 2 # / or / 2 3 2 2 # / . A p erempt ory que st i on w i l l have a / 2 3 2 1 # / , for· examp le : 21 2 3 I m a r h � a + h � + d i s o n H I ' Wh a t are y o u do i n g h e re ? ' The b ru squene s s w i l l a l so depend on overloudne s s o f I - h u l and the short ne s s o f t he syl lab le I - � n / . A l t hough we c an redu c e both the first que s t ion above and t he last one into a one-word que s t ion , they w i l l s t i l l have the same cont our , if t he imp l i ca t i on i s the same , t hu s : 2 32 2 321 I m a r h u a H I and I m a r h u a H I . The se cond que s t ion c an a l s o b e redu c e d t o : 2 31 2 32 I b e h � # 1 ' how ' ( po l it e ) and I b e h a # 1 ' how ' ( bru sque ) Thi s brings us t o an e xpre s s i on o f m i ld s urpri s e c ommonly employed i n conversat i on , somet ime s a s a polite interj e c t i on , 2 32 I b e h� i I I whi ch would mean s omet hing l ike , ' Wh y , ie t ha t e o ? ' . We have already seen a few charac t eri s t i c p i t c h contours o f Batak . O f c ourse not e ve ry p o s s i b i l i t y has been explored above , as t here are s t i l l o t he r type s of sentenc e s , other context s , and s ome other shades o f t he ones ment ioned above , whi ch have not been s hown . However , the
40 more import ant and frequent p i t c h cont ours have been inc luded in the d i s c u s s ion .
CHAPTER I I
PHONOTACT I CS
The t erm phonot act i c s i s defined a s the " area o f phonem i c s whi ch covers t he s t ructural characteri s t i c s o f seque n c e s " ( H i l l 1 9 5 8 : 6 8 ) . Spe c ial att ent ion w i l l b e given t o s e quence s of phonemes o f t he s ame cat egory , a l so c a l l e d c l u s t ering , i . e . consonant s fol lowed by c onson ant s , vowe l s followed by vowe l s , et c . The gre ater p art o f thi s s e c t ion w i l l concern c lu s t ers o f s egment al phoneme s . In the appropriate s e c t i on s we have s een that t he four p i t c he s cluster with each o t he r and with t hems elve s , and t hat a l s o the four s t re s s e s fre e l y c lu st e r with each other and themselve s , except the pr imary whi c h does not c lu st e r with another primary in the s ame phra s e . 2. 1 .
WORV PATT E R NS
The word pat t e rn s o f Batak w i l l be cons idered here only in terms of t he s egmental phoneme s . When we us e V for vowel and C for c on son ant , we can summarise t he s y l lable and word pat terns of Batak , giving a few examp l e s o f each , a s fo llows : SYLLABLE PATTERNS ( The hyphens indicate s y l lable divi s i ons . ) ( 1 ) V ; a s in : I h a - u l ' tr e e ' l u - J a l ' do ' l a - i l ' fo r , c onj unc t ion ' ( 2 ) C V ; a s in : ( se e above ) . ( 3 ) V C ; a s in : Im f - a n l ' dw e t t ' l a - i n l ' a dop t ' ( 4 ) C V C ; a s in : I p a s - t a p l ' s t ap ' WORD PATTERNS . Only the patt erning o f the s egmental phoneme s o f word b a s e s w i l l b e given : ( 1 ) V ; a s : I i i ' t h a t , near t he hearer ' 1 0 1 ' Oh ! ' l e i ' He y ! '
41
42 The s e are t he t hree monophonemic word s and minimal utteranc e s i n Batak . ( 2 ) VC ; a s : / a n / ' t h a t , away from hearer and speaker ' f o n t ' this ' / a k / ' hip ' / t u / ' to ' C V ; as : (3) / s o / ' qui e t ' / r a t ' p e rhaps ' ( 4 ) C V C ; a s : / p a t / ' fo o t ' / g o k/ ' fu l l ' / s a r / ' w i de l y known ' ( 5 ) V C V ; a s : / r 1 a / ' s hame ' / a d u / ' overtake ' / u p a / ' reward ' ( 6 ) C V V ; a s : / h a u / ' tr e e ' / s f a / ' n i ne ' / p f o / ' in v i t e ' ( 7 ) C V VC ; a s : / t f o p / ' h o l d ' / t a i t / 'pul l ' / s u a n / ' p l a n t , vb . , ( 8 ) C V C V ; as : / d u d a / ' p o u n d ' / d o s a / ' s in ' / b a t u / ' s tone ' ( 9 ) V CC V ; a s : / u mma/ ' k i s s ' / a r t a / ' treasure ' / 6 p p u / ' grandpare n t ' ( 1 0 ) C V C V C ; a s : / h u do n / ' po t ' / p f d o l) / ' b i r d ' / p o g o s / ' p o v e r ty ' ( 1 1 ) C V C C V ; a s : / b u rj u / ' go odn e s s ' / s o r t a / ' i n n o c en t ' / p a k s a / ' compe l ' ( 1 2 ) C V CC V C ; a s : / t f k t i l) / ' banns ' / p i s t a r/ ' clever ' / p a 1 t a k/ ' c l ear ly v i s i b l e ' Tri s y l l ab l e s are not s o numerou s . The ext reme patt ern wou ld be C V C C V CC V C , but t he writ e r has not been able t o find such a word . The e x i s t ing words have one or more , up to five , of the consonant p o s i t ions l e ft vacant . A minimal t r i s y l l ab le cons i s t s o f three vowe l s and one cons onant , for exampl e : C V V V , a s : / b a o a / 'ma l e p e r s o n ' V C V V , a s : / a g f a / ' ho w e v e r, adv. ' V VC V , a s : / a u g a / ' y o ke ' .
43 The form V V VC doe s not s eem t o e x i s t . A few more examp l e s o f t r i s y l lab l e s are the fol lowing : C V C V C V , a s : I s a h a l a l 'migh t , VCCVC V , a s : l a pp a r a l 'brother ' V C VC V , as : l a l o g o 1 ' wi n d ' C V C V V , a s : I s a t u a l ' fi e l d m o u s e ' C V V V C , as : I n u a e r) 1 ' n o w ' . Tet ras y l lab i c word b a s e s do not seem to b e a regu lar feature o f Batak structure . The writer has been able t o find only one e xample , n ame l y , C V C V V VC , I s a r a o a l 1 ' tr o u s e r s ' , whi ch word he o ften p ronoun c e s I s a raw a l / , t hus making a tri s y l lable o f i t . H e i s , unfortunate l y , not acquainte d w i t h i t s h i s t ory . 2.2.
C O NSONANT C L UST E RS
From t he examp le s we have had s o far , we can see that any consonant s eems to be able t o have any vowe l after i t , alt hough , a s we have seen in t he s e c t ion on vowe l s on p . 1 5 f f . , s ome consonan t s s how a pre ference but incons i stent ly , for l e i or l e i , and for 101 and I � / . But there are l imitat ions as to the sequence vowe l-con s onant in the s ame syllable , b e c au s e , as ment ioned in the s e c t ion on consonant s , there are consonan t s whi ch never o c cur finally in a word . Summing up t he phono t a c t i cal d i s t ribut i on o f the consonant s a s ment ioned in t h e s e c t i on on cons onant s , w e have : ( a ) a l l the con s onan t s can o ccur initially and medial ly , ( b ) t he con s onan t s that c an oc cur in final p o s i t i on are : I p , t , k , 5 , ( h ) , m , n , r) , r l ( c ) t he con s onan t s t hat d o not o c cur i n final p o s it i on in a word are : ( 1 ) the voi c ed s t op s : I b , d , g / ; ( 2 ) the affricat e s : I e , j / ; and ( 3 ) the semivowe l s : I w , y , h i , w i t h t he pro v i s i on that I b , d , j l c an o c cur finally in a non- final s y l lab le , when t he following syl lab le begins w i t h I b , d , j l re s p e c t i vely . The above d i s t ribut ional characteri s t i c s o f the consonant s w i l l b e s een i n t he c l u s t ers . The most frequent ly oc curring syl lab le in Batak i s t he C V - type . Thi s fact i s refle c t e d , apparent ly , in the b iphonemi c charac ter o f t he Batak alPhab e t . l In Batak the consonan t s do not c luster in one s y l l ab l e . There s eems
l See Appendix TIl .
44 t o b e a re lat ion ship between thi s fact and ( 1 ) the Batak language hab i t o f pronoun cing t h e vowel s rather c learly and distinctly ; t h e centering o f uns t re s sed vowe l s never coming so close to the central neutral vowe l r a J , t o cause t hem t o lose their i dent ity , whi c h woul d have meant one step towards the c lust ering of consonant s through a s lurring and event ua l dropp ing o f a vowe l , an d , ( 2 ) the s yllabic charac ter o f the Batak alphabet , whi ch t ends t o help preserve the great syllabi c i ty of the Batak language . Another way of de s c ribing the c lust ering hab it of Batak consonant s , i s by saying t hat the consonan t s do not c luster init ially and finally . This fac t i s a l so re fle cted in the Batak language hab it in b orrowing fore ign words whi c h have such c lust ers , namely , by insert ing some vowe l in between the c omponent consonant s ; for example : Dut ch : ' s t oker ' be comes Bat ak : / 5 i t o k k a r / ' bu s conducto :r> ' Dut ch : ' klas ' be come s Batak : / k a l a s / ' c Z a s s ' or b y omit t ing one o f the consonant s , as : Dut ch : ' mot orfiet s ' become s Batak : /mo t o r p f s / 'mo t o :r>cy c Z e ' Dut ch : ' band ' be come s Batak : / b a n / ' t i:r>e ' . This means then that in Batak there are only medial , or intervocali c , c lust ers , for exampl e : / p a s t a p / ' s lap ' . All t he intervoc a l i c con sonant c lust ers con s i s t of only two components and t he clustering i s always to be regarded as a s equence of the final consonant of one syl lable and the initial consonant of the fol l owing one . I f any combinat ion of any t wo consonants were pos sible , but taking into con s i deration the limitation o f the non-occ urrence in final p o s i t ion of seven of the con s onant s , we would have 1 7 0 di fferent clusters . But the numbe r o f actual c lusters is much sma l l e r , name ly 69 . In Batak t here are 1 1 ident i c al c onsonant c lusters , i . e . c lus ters con s i s t ing o f two i denti cal consonant s . They are phonemi c , as c an be seen from the fo l l owing pairs , s o that they are not to be regarded ] mere ly as an e l ongat i on . Tho se pairs are : / t u l a l) / ' un c l e ' and / t u l l a l)/ ' s tab ' , / h a d a l) / ' ca:r>ry s u spended f:r>om t h e s ho u Z de:r> ' and / h a d d a l) / ' fe n c e ' , / u m a / ' :r>i c e fie l d ' and / um m a l ' ki s s ' , / d p a / ' forge, (wo:r>k o f a smi t h ) ' and / d p p a / ' c:r>ea te ' . l
See also Appendix I I , Spectrograms No . 20 and No . 2 l .
45 Another evidence t hat shows that they are c lusters and not e longat i on i s t rying to segme nt them by insert i ng a j un cture , a 1+1 or I I I. Let us take the t hird p a i r , thus : l um + a l or l u mmmmm + a I , or lu + m a l or lu + mmmm m a / . We could make the I ml in both s egmentations very long , but they would never be taken as l umm a l by a nat ive speake r , even though the durat ion o f the s i ngle Iml is longer t han the doub le I m / . Only i f the s egment s are l u m + m a l w i l l they mean ' k i s s ' . A l i st o f t he i nt e rvo c a l i c c lusters as found mo s tly in word b a s e s i s given be low . Other c omb ina t i ons are p o s s ib l e , at l e a s t in c areful spee ch , but alway s with a d i s t inct 1+1 int ervenin g . S u c h c l u s t e r s are not include d . The ones l i s t e d below are what is called genuine c lusters , i . e . c lu s t ers that c an oc cur without an intervening 1+1 . The examp l e s given are a l l native words with the e x c ept i on of a few we l l -e s t ab l i shed fore i gn ones if their inclus ion i s inevitable . The ' fore i gn ' , that i s , not origina l but well-establi shed and unive rsally u se d , c lu st e r s w i l l b e enclosed between parenthe s e s . If the writer has b een able to find on ly one word where the cluster oc curs , it will be ind i cated by an asterisk placed t o the right o f the cluster , thus , ( / - n c - / ) mean s ' fo r e i g n , b u t w e l l - e s tab l i s h e d ' , I - n t - I * means ' o n e o ccurrence ' , and ( / - n t - / ) * mean s ' fo r e i g n , o n e o c c u rr e n c e ' . The c lust ers are : I-bb-I It�bbal ' in c r e as e d ' I - dd - I I h � d d a l) l ' fe n c e ' I-kb-I I b ukb akl ' throb b i n g ' I - kd - I I d a k d � n a k l ' ch i l d ' I - kg - I Igukgukl ' he a p e d up ' 1- kj - I I j u kj u k l ' t o u c h wi t h a s t i c k ' I-kp-I I p u kpakl 'noisy ' I-kt-I I t f k t i l) l ' ba n n s ' I- kk-I Idakkal ' b ra n c h ' I - km - I Im:> kmo k l ' fa t ' I - kn - I InEknEpl ' pa c i fi e d ' I - k l) - I I I) � k l) a t l ' de v o u r ' I-k l -I I l �k l akl ' ri n d ' I-kr-I I re k rE kl ' s he l f ' I-ks-I Ip�ksal ' comp e l ' ( /-pt -/) * Is�ptul ' S a t u rday ' I-pp-I 16ppul ' g randp a re n t ' I-ps-I* I :> n o p s a l ' a l l- s ix ' I-tt-I Ip� t ta rl ' fl- o o r '
46 /-ts -/* / - s p- / /-st-/ ( / - s k - I ) ,� /- sm-/ /-sn-/ / - s fj - / ( / -m p - / ) * / - mm - / (/-n t -I) * (/-nc-I) /-nn-/ / - fj b - / / - fj d - / / - fj g - / ( / - fj k - / ) ( / - fj t - I ) * / - fj m - / * / - fj n - / / - fj fj - / * / - fj l - / * / - fj r - / ( / - fj S - 1 ) / - fj j - / /-j j -/ /- l b-/ /- l d-/ /- l g- / /- l j -/ /- l p-/ /- I t -/ / - l m- / / - l fj - / /- 1 5- / / - l h-/ /- 1 1 -/ /- rb-/ /- rd-/ / - rg - / /- rp-/ /- rt-/ / - rm - /
/o p a t s a / / p u s pa s / /pas tap/ /pas ka/ / p fJ s m a / /asna/ / fj O S fj fJ s / / l ampu/ / u mma/ / t f nta/ /panc i l In fnnal I b u fj b u fj l / d a fj d a fj l / t a fj g a l I b a fj k u l I s o fj t f l I m a fjma l) l I n 6 fj n o fj l / n u fj fj a l l 1 a fj l a fj l / r f fj r i fj l / b a fj s i / / j fJ fj j o fj l It j j a kl I t u l basl Ida l da l / /ba l gal /j a l j a l l I t a l pe/ Ipa 1 takl I j fJ l ma / I t a l fj a l Id l so l l Ipu l hal I t u l l a l) l Isu rbul I s fJ r d a k l / g fJ r g a / /garpu/ / fJ r t a l / d rm i n l
' a l l fo ur ' 'noi s i ly busy ' ' s l ap ' 'Eas t e r ' 'a b o y ' s name ' 'a gi r l ' s name ' 'worry i n g ' ' l amp ' ' ki s s ' ' ink ' ' pan ' ' h e says ' ' w i de o p e n ,
v e r t i ca l ly '
' pay h e a v i l y ' , l adde r ' 'bench ' ' a w e - in s p i r i n g ' ' vow , ' immers e ' ' a l re ady ' ' un i n h ab i t e d p la c e ' 'joint ' ' adz ' , s tand ' ' m o u n t some t h i n g ' ' rep l e n is h ' 'bee ' ' b ig ' ' chop ' ' o n t h e bri n k ' ' c l e a r l y v i s ib l e ' 'man,
generi c '
' un e v e n ' ' re p e n t a n c e ' ' br e a k dam to dra i n ' ' s tab ' ' b urn ' ' lock ' ' carve ' ' fo r k ' ' tr e a s u re ' ' re f l e c t '
47 I- rn-I I b u r n a l) l ' puffe d up ' I s f r l)o m l I-r -I ' l o s t , unfo l' t un a t e ' ' S O l'l'OW ' I- rs-I larsakl I d rhal I - rh - I ' s p in n i ng w h e e l ' I - rj - I I b u rj ul ' good, k i n d ' I - r r-I* I p f r r i kl ' wh i s t l e , n . , (1- rk-/) I p a r k h a s l ' too l ' . One cluster has been exc luded above , be cause it needs s ome expla nation , name l y : 1 - 5 5 - 1 * : Imas s a d i l , cease ' Thi s i s the only o c currence o f i t i n the writer ' s i d i o l e c t , b ut i n t he speech o f many people i t w i l l b e found i n words where t he speaker a l s o u s e s I - e - I in me dial p o s i t ion . A tabulat ion o f t h e se c lusters i s pre sented i n p . 4 g . I t give s us an overall view o f t he intervo c a l i c c lus t ering patterns o f Batak . Treating al l the c lusters , native or fore ign , frequent o r rare , on the s ame leve l , we c an o b serve s evera l t hings from t he table . The patt erning i s not so regular as to be e a s i ly redu c e d to neat formulas , but the fo l lowing s t ructural statemen t s c an b e made . In t e rms o f the s e l e c t ion of the s e cond c omponent , t he pattern i ngs s eem t o b e a s follow s : ( 1 ) Vo i c e d s t o p s can have only an i dent i c a l voi c e d s t op i n p o s i t ion 2. ( 2 ) Vo i c e l e s s s t ops can take only an ident i c a l voi ce l e s s stop , 1 5 1 , or a I t l , as a s e c on d c omponent , with the e x c ept ion o f I k / , whi c h a l s o t ake s other c on sonant s ( se e b elow ) . ( 3 ) The fri cat ive 1 5 1 t akes any voi c e l e s s s t op , the fri cat ive 1 5 1 , and a l l the nasal s . ( 4 ) The nasa l s take only a homorgani c vo i c e l e s s s t op , w i t h the e x c ep t i on of ( / - n e - / ) and t he s ingle oc curren c e of I - I) t - I * . ( 5 ) The nasals take only an ident i c al nasal a s a s e cond c omponent , with the e x cept ion o f 1 1) 1 , which c an take the other nasal s als o . ( 6 ) Clusters with a lingual i n p o s i t i on 1 constitute the b igge st c l as s . They se em t o b e more e a s i l y s t a t e d i n t erms o f the phoneme s they do not t ake in p o s i t ion 2 : ( i ) 1 1 1 t ake s all c on sonant s , except I k/ , l e i , I n l , and I r / . The non o c curre nce of I kl here is phonot a c t i c ally evident , as i t doe s not o c cur nat ively in in i t ia l p o s it ion . The non- o c c urren c e o f l e i c an b e under stood b e cause of the pecul iarity o f i t s d i s t ri but ion , i . e . in medial p o s i t i on i t a c t s a s a doub le consonant , and in initial p o s i t i on only in loanwords . The non-oc curren c e o f I n l and I r l after 1 1 1 c an perhap s be e xp lained by their phone t i c s imilari t y , whi ch s eems t o ac c ount for the
-I 48 ease o f their a s s imi lation . Thi s i s in fact what happens when in a s e quence o f I n l and I I I an int e rven ing /+/ i s droppe d , so that I - I + n - I b e c ome s I - I I - I , and l - n + I - 1 be c ome s I - I I - I ; for example : I ba l +nal > I ba l l al ' hi s b a t t ' I l a o n + l a o n l > I l a o l l a o n i ' e v e n t u a t ty ' Thi s i s a l s o t rue in the case o f I r l and I I I , so that l - r+ I - 1 be c ome s I - I I - I , for exampl e : I po r + l a k l > I po l l a k l ' garden ' I m a r+ l a j j a l > Im a l l aj j a l ' carry w i t h a po t e ' But i n the c a se o f I r l and I I I , the intervening /+/ i s more frequently p res erve d . ( ii ) I r l t ake s any consonant except I I I ( see above ) , and I c / , t hough in very re cent b orrowings we c an s ee words like ( / a r c a l ) ' m u s e um ' . But due t o the highly s p e c i a l i s e d charac ter o f such words and hence t he i r rare o ccurrence i n everyday spee ch , this cluster is not inc luded in t he l i s t . Moreove r , in popular words , I - r s - I is sub s t ituted for i t , as in : e le gant : I k a r c i s l > ordinary : I k a r s i s l ' t i c ke t ' ( 7 ) Anothe r b ig c l a s s i s made up o f t he ve lars I k l and I � I in p o s i t ion 1 . They t ake a l l consonan t s a s a s e c ond component e x c ept I c l and I h / . I t should b e ment i oned here that i n clust ering b e fore v o i c e d conson an t s - i . e . voi ce d s t op s , nas als and l ingua l s - only the ? glot t a l i s e d a l l ophone o f I k / , i . e . [ k ] , oc curs . 1 Another thing about the l - k X - I c lu s t ers ( here /X/ s t ands for any p o s s ib l e consonant ) , is the fact that mo s t of the examp l e s are redup l i c a t i on s , due t o the f a c t t hat t he glo t t a l i s e d I k l i s a regular morpho phonemi c alternant for t he voi ce l e s s s t ops I p l and I t I be fore vo i ced consonant s , an d f o r the ve lar nasal I� I b e fore voi c e l e s s consonant s . I n t erms o f the phoneme s which c an occ upy p o s i t ion 2 , we can make t hes e statement s : ( 1 ) The mos t frequently o c curring c on s onant s in p o s i t ion 2 are the voi c e l e s s s t op s , the fri cat ive l s i , and t he nasal s . (2) The v o i c e d stops o c cur only in i dent i cal c lu s t ers , and after I � I and t he lingua l s . ( 3 ) I c l o c curs only after I n / , i . e . : ( / - n c - I ) . ( 4 ) The glottal fri cat ive I h l o c curs only aft er a lingua l . ( 5 ) The l ingual s oc cupy p o s i t ion 2 only in i dent i c a l c lu s t ers .
1
See page
9 .
49 V I AGRAM 4 D I A G RAMMAT I C TABLE O F THE CONS ONANT CLUS TERS
Underlining , e . g . !!.,£ , mean s ' fo r e i g n , b u t e s tab l i s h e d ' . An a s t e ri s k , e . g . t s ,'t , mean s ' s i ng l e o ccurrence ' . se cond c omponent . Horizontal index first c omponent . Vert i c al index =
=
b b
d
9
j
k
c
m
n
s
h
P
t
pp
£.!.*
ps*
tt
ts*
I)
r
bb
d
dd
9 jj
j p t k
kb
kd
kg
kj
kp
kt
kk
km
kn
k l)
ks
k1
kr
1) 1
I) r
c m
nt*
n I)
mm
�* I) b
I) d
I) g
nn
.2.!.* �
I)m
I) n
1) 1)
�
sp
st
sm
sn
5 1)
55*
1 1)
1
r l)
rs
I) j
s
nc
5 k*
h
r
1b
1
d
19
1j
1p
1t
rb
rd
rg
rj
rp
rt
1m rk
rm
rn
s
1
h
rh
11 r r*
The st ructural st atement s above contain some e x cept ions and s how s ome patterning imbalan c e s . Howeve r , t h i s is not very unc ommon in language analys e s , as t he re s e em t o b e few , if any , one hundred per cent rigorously s ymme t r i c a l s t ructural patterns in language . But on the whol e t he st ruct ural patt erning of t he Batak c on s onant c l u s t e r s can be sa i d t o b e rather regular .
50
2.3.
V O W E L C L UST E RS
A s we have seen above t he Batak consonant c lusters are rathe r l imi t e d , not s o much in varie ty , but in their actual oc currence in word b a s e s a n d e s p e c i al l y in type , as t he re i s only one type , name ly the two c on s onant intervo c a l i c c lu st e r . Consonant c lus t ering i s a much more frequent , more compl e x and more imp ortant feature in Engl i s h . But on the o t her hand vowe l s do not cluster in Engli s h , whereas in Batak vowe l c lu s t ering i s a frequent and important l ingui s t i c feature . In t he se gme ntal pattern ing o f words at the beginning o f t h i s chapter we have seen that in Batak t he re are s equenc e s o f two or three vowe l s i n one word . In t h i s s e c t i on the two -vowe l c lus te rs w i l l be d i s c u s s e d firs t . A s with consonant c lu s t ers above , we w i l l concern ourse lve s only with genuine vowel c lu st e r s , i . e . sequenc e s of vowe l s without an intervening /+/ . By t he i r very nat ure a s s y l lable nuclei the vowe l s w i l l b e i n di fferent syllab le s . A l i st o f the two vowel c lusters i s pre sented below . Only original c l u s t e r s , i . e . c lusters found in word base s , are l i s t e d ; the c l u s t e r s re s ult ing from affixat ion w i l l be d i s c u s s e d later . T h e examp l e s are chosen in such a way that they w i l l s how the di fferent oc c urrenc e s o f t he c lus ter s with regard to their p o s i t ion in the word , i ni ti al , me dia l , or final . One e xamp l e w il l be given for each type o f vowe l c lus ter a c c ording t o p o s i t ion . I f no examp le i s found for s ome p o s i t ion , it will b e indicated in t h i s way : ( i ) * b e fore a c lu st e r mean s ' non-o c c urrence i n initial p o s i t i on ' , ( i i ) * after the c lu s t e r means ' non-o c currence i n final p o s i t i on ' , ( i i i ) p arenthe s e s ( . . ) means ' non- o c c urrence in medial p o s i t ion ' . L I ST OF TWO-VOWEL CLUSTERS : / a / in p o s i t i on 1 : /au/ /aup/ ' w a s h away ' / ra u t / ' kn i fe ' /bau/ ' o do u r ' * ( /ao/) / dao/ ' fa r ' /a�/ /a� r/ ' sp r ea d ' /ma� s / ' re p e a t e d l y ' / ta�/ ' la k e ' fa i l /a i t/ ' pu l l t oward /ra i t/ ' s t ru o t ure ' /da i / ' taste ' * ( /ae/) /dae/ ' imprope r ' /a€/ /ae k/ 'water ' /da€ k/ ' g a t he r ' /sa€/ ' fi n i s h e d '
onese lf '
51 / i / i n p o s i t ion 1 : / s f u k/ */ i u/ / p f u/ / t fop/ * I i 0/ /p fo/ / d f o r/ */ i o/* / i fH/ I i a/ / b f a l) / /p fa/ / e / i n p o s i t i on 1 : /peut/ */eu/ /ma h e u / /e i ! (le i !) /deak/ leal I deal / E / in p o s i t ion 1 : */co/ / pe o p / / I eo/ /ea l / lEa/ /me a t / /gea/ / u / i n p o s i t ion 1 : * ( luo/) / t uo / /tu i t/ */u i /* f uel (fuel) /bue/ /uas/ /ua/ / tuak/ /dua/ / 0 / in p o s i t ion 1 : /6u/ foul / k6 u m / /j6u/ /6 i / /0 i f / d6 i t / / b6 i / / b6 a n / */oa/ /d6a/ { lo e l } joel / 0 / i n p o s i t i on 1 : * (o i /* / s!:, i t / */O E / * / b e l) / / g :S a r / */oa/ / ro / d
vb . '
, ladle, ' twi s t ' ' ho l d ' 'invite ' ' s ea I' c h ' ' c Z ea n ' ' dog ' ' k i dn e y ' ' fa Z Z '
' exhaus t e d ' ' Hey ! ' 'a Zot ' , luI'e ' ' keep ' ' k i nd o f wa t e I' p l an t ' ' ga i t ' ' p e I' c h ' ' w o I'm ' ' to s s up c o i n ' 'vanity ' 'A lack ! ' ' ab u n da n t ' , t h i I's t ' 'pa Zm w i n e ' ' two ' ' Ye s ,
comi ng .
' k i nsman ' 'cal l ' ' He y !
or
Ah! '
, s ting ' 'may , , take,
or
can '
b I'i n g '
' i n v o ca t i o n ' ' A h , me ! ,
i n de s p a i I' . '
' hi p ' ' v e I'y u g l y ' ' name ' ' ug Zy ,
bad '
52 T o sum u p t he vowe l inventory , we have : 3 front vowe l s I i , e , E / ; one low central vowe l l a / ; and 3 back vowe l s l u , 0 , 0 / . Two are high , name ly I i , u / ; two are higher mid I e , 01 ; two are lower mid I E , 0 / ; and one i s low l a / . Several things can be ob served about the combinat orial s t ructure o f t h e vowe l s . In t e rms o f t he phon eti c qua l i t i e s o f t h e vowe l s and the s e l e c t i on o f t he s e c ond component s , we can s ee the fol lowing c lu s t e ring patterns ( see Di agram 5 b e l ow ) : ( 1 ) The high front vowe l I i I takes only the central and back vow els i n p o s i t ion 2 , thus : l i a , i u , i o , i o / . ( 2 ) The higher mid front vowel l e I t akes only l a l and l u I in p o s i t ion 2 , with a s i ngle oc currenc e of I i I in t he interj e c t ion l e i / , t hu s : l e a , e u , e i / . ( 3 ) The lower mid front vowel l E I takes only l a l and 1 0 1 in p o s i t i on 2 , thus : l E a , E o / . ( 4 ) The central vowe l l a l i s the only vowe l t hat c an take any other vowel in p o s it i on 2 , t hu s we have l a i , a e , a E , a o , a o , a u / . ( 5 ) The lower mid back vowe l 1 0 1 only takes l a l and the front vowe l s I i , E / , thus : l o a , o i , o E / . V I AGRAM 5 D I A G RAM OF
THE
TWO - VOWE L C LUSTE R I N G
PATTERNS
Hori zontal Index Se cond Component . Vert i c al Index First Component . Bold Line from t op l e ft corner t o bot tom ri ght corner i s the Line o f Symmetry . =
=
e
E
1
a
0
0
u
ia
io
io
iu
1
eu
ao
au
e
ea
E
Ea
a
ai
0
oi
0
o
u
ui
Note :
i
ae
ao
aE OE
EO
oa
(oe)
oa
ue
ua
ou uo
The c lu st ers i n parenthe s e s are found only i n one interj e c t ion . The que st ion mark ( 1 ) indicat e s a m i s s ing counter c lu s t e r .
53 ( 6 ) The h i gher mid b a ck vowe l 1 0 1 t ake s I i , e , a , u l in p o s i t i on 2 , t hus : l o i , o e , o a , o u / . ( 7 ) The high back vowe l l u i t ake s I i , e , a , 0 1 in p o s i t i on 2 , thus : l u i , ue , ua , uol . ( 8 ) Vowe l s on the s ame s t ruc tural level c an c lus ter , name ly l i u , e � , but not l eo l . (9) The only s t ru c turally vert i c a l c ombi nat ions t hat oc c ur are le i , ou/ . ( 1 0 ) The clust ering hab i t s o f the vowe l s in the s e l e c t ion o f the s e cond c omponent seem t o be recipro c a l , i . e . if X c an take Y , then Y c an als o take X ; with the e x cep t i on o f the c l u s t ering o f t he interj e c t i on s l e i l and l o e / . Thi s fact can b e s e e n in the s ymme t r i c a l charac ter o f Di agram 5 , p . 5 2 . DERIVED TWO VOWEL CLUSTERS . The term derived i s us ed here for t he non-original c l u s t e r s b e cause they are ' derive d ' from affixat i on . In Batak as a membe r of the Indone s i an b ranch of the poly synthet i c Malayo Po lyne s i an fami ly of language s , a ffixation is the maj or morpho logical devi c e . The most u se d are the pre fix and the suffi x . The addit ion o f p re f i x e s and suffi x e s t o a word re sul t s i n the format i on o f vowe l c lu st e r s . Thus , a pre fi x ending in a vowe l ( e . g . I d i - / ) added t o a word beginn ing with a vowe l ( e . g . l a d u / ) produ c e s a vowe l cluster ( i . e . : l i a l in I d i a d u / ) ; and a suffix b eginn ing with a vowe l ( e . g . I - � n / ) added t o a word ending in a vowe l ( e . g . l a d u / ) produ c e s a vowe l c l u s t e r ( i . e . l u � 1 : l a d u � n l ' to b e o v e r ta k e n ' ) . The vowe l s t hat oc cur at the end of a prefix are I i , u , a I , as in I d i - I , I h u - I , I t a - I , e t c . The re i s no need t o dwe l l on the prefi x ending i n l a / , a s l a l already c l u s t e r s originally with a l l other vowe l s , and because we wi l l c onfine our s e lve s only to the d i s c u s s ion of new c l u s t er type s forme d , i . e . by a I C i - 1 an d I C u - 1 pre fi x ( C s t ands here for ' c on s onant ' ) . It s hould be added here , that i n the case when the end vowe l of a pre fix is ident i cal t o the init ial vowe l of the follow ing word , no c lu s t e r result s , as in such a sequence the re i s a lway s a /+/ intervening . The n ew c lu s t e r types derived from affi xat i on , w i t h a few examp l e s , are l i s t e d b e low : Id i ebat i l ' visited ' l i el I d i e b a k b n l ' s how n off ' I d i e t o l) l ' ca l cu la t ed ' l i el I d i e l al 'p ers uade ' I h u e t o l) l luel ' I ca l c u la t e ' Ihue l e kl ' I coax ' .
The new c l u st e r t ype s t hat are forme d by t he add i t i on o f the s u f f i x e s I - a n , / - � n / , and I - i f a r e a s fol l ow s : / e � / : / l e l e� n / ' to b e c h a s e d ' ' to b e wors hippe d ' /pe l e�n/ / pa d do b 6� n / ' fraud ' /o�/ / p a t i b b 6� n / ' ra i s e ' ' to b e o v e r ta k e n ' /adu�n/ /u�/ ' to b e hun t e d ' . /bu ru�n/ THREE-VOWEL C LUSTERS . There are two kinds o f three- vowe l c lus ters , n amel y t he c lusters found in word b a s e s and those re sult ing from a ffixat i on . As with t he two vowe l c lusters we w i l l c a l l the former ' original c lu st e r s ' and the latter ' derived c lus ters ' . The original t hree-vowel c lu st ers are ve ry few . We c an d i s t ingu i sh two s t ruc tura l type s , name ly : ( 1 ) The c lu s t e r that cons i s t s o f a sequence o f a bac k vowe l , a central vowe l , and a front vowe l . The only exampl e the wri t e r has been able t o find i s : / n u a e r] / ' n o w ' ( 2 ) The c lu st e r that c on s i s t s o f a sequence o f a central vowe l , a b ack vowe l , and aga i n the central vowe l . Three examp l e s o f t h i s have been found : /ba6a/ ' m a l e p er s o n ' / s a fJ a n / ' v ia l ' / s a r a fJ a l / ' t r o u s e r s ' There are for s ome speakers more examp l e s o f t h i s type , name ly for tho s e s p eakers who have / � / f o r t h e commoner / w / i n s u c h words as : / b a fJ a r] / for / b a w a r] / ' o n i o n ' / m a fJ a s / for /ma w a s / ' ap e ' The wri ter u s e s only the variant with /w/ for these words . But as men t i oned earl ier , for / s a r a fJ a l / he o ften has / s a r aw a l / . Thi s kind o f free variat ion never o c curs in h i s speech for the other two examp l e s . The sub j e c t o f derived t hree- vowe l c l us ters w i l l b e t ouched only l ight l y , a s they ari s e under the same condit i ons as t he derived two vowe l c lus t ers , and on the cons ide rat ion of spac e , b e c aus e t here are f i ft y types o f those c lu st er s . There are here a l s o two c l a s s e s : ( 1 ) The c lusters formed by t he addit ion o f a pre fix ending i n a vowe l b e fore a word with an i n i t i a l two-vowe l c lu s t e r , for e xamp l e : / h u a u h � n / ' I a c c ep t ' / d i e ah i / 'go after ' / d i p a f a s / ' c l e a ne d '
55 ( 2 ) The clusters formed by t he addi t i on o f a suffix beginning with a vowel to a word ending in a two-vowel c lu s t e r , for e xample : / j o u � n / ' to b e aa t t e d ' /du' i / ' to do ub t e ' / b u e a n / ' i n abundan a e ' The suffixes that c an be u se d here are I - a n I , / - � n / and I - i / o I n con c l u s i on it should b e mentioned that the derived c l a s s e s c ons ti tute t he maj ority o f the vowe l c lu s t ers .
N O T ES
1 . For ease o f typing during the preparat ion o f the d i s s ertat ion manus cript , the vowe l symb o l s I t I and I � I were rep laced by l E I and 101 re s p e c t ively . The latter symb o l s are retained in this edition . The refore , in Chapters I I I , I V , and V and in App endix I , only l E I and 101 w i l l be u s e d . 2 . T h e d i s se rt a t i on ( Chap t ers I I I , I V , and V ) u s e s a s imp l i fi e d 3 s t re s s notat ion , the primary s t re s s s ymbol 1 ' 1 s t anding for both pri mary s t re s s and s e c ondary s t re s s s ymb o l i s e d 1 ' 1 and IAI in Chapt ers I and I I . The c onflated primary s t re s s s ymb o l 1 ' 1 i s t o b e read primary [ ' ] when it i s the first 1 '1 in the macro s e gment , otherw i s e it i s t o be read [ A ] .
CHA P T E R I I I
MORPHOPHONEM I CS 3.1 .
WORVS
Beginning at t h i s point we wri te a ( non-phonemi c ) space b etween s u c c e s si ve words . The b eginnings and ends o f words show alte rnat i on s o f phonemic s hape depending on environment . The basic s hape of the end of a word , from which a l l alt e rnations can be predi c t e d , appears when the word i s fo l lowed b y nothing ( in the s ame int onat i on s egment ) ; t h e b as i c s hape of the b eginning of the word appears when the word is i ni ti al . In terms o f their b a s i c s hape s , words c on s i st of one or more s yllab le s : the word may b egin with a vowe l , o r with any c on s onant ( ex cept that / y / and /w/ are rare , found only in loanwords ) , or w i t h t he c lu s t e r / d d / ; i t may end with a vowe l or w i t h / p t k 5 m n I) r 1 / . Word-media l consonant i sms include ( underlining indicat e s t he involvement of a loanword ) : TA B L E 1
bb dd
dj pp
kb
kd md
kg
I') d sd 1d rd
I) g sg 19 rg
kj
kp
£.!. tt kt
ps kk
!!!£.
nt I) b sb 1b rb
tc kc
I) j 1j rj
!l!
sp 1p rp
st 1t rt
km mm
nc I) k sk rk
rc
I)m sm 1m rm
57
kn
k l)
ks
kl
kr
nn I)n sn 1n rn
1) 1) 5 1) 1 1) r l)
1) 5 55 15 rs
1) 1 51 11
I) r sr
1h rh
rr
ry
58
3. 2.
E X T E R N A L S A NV� I
The alt ernat ions of s hape where words c ome together are sub s umed by the following ten rule s , which must be app l i ed in the order given : ESl . h - � pafter - p , - m aft e r - t tafter - k , - n , - I) kafter - 5 5� cafter - t ES2 . 5� be fore 5 ES 3 . - n -5 b e fore r -r be fore 1 -1 ES 4 .
ES5 .
-P}
-m
�
-n
�
- I)
�
-k
-t
�
-p
Es 6 .
- n
�
ES7 .
-m
�
Es 8 .
-m
�
- t
-k -m - I)
- n
�
ES9 .
-k
�
ES 1 0 .
-p - t
-k( [k])
- I)
-b -d -h
)
-
be fore
p- ,
be fore b e fore be fore b e fore b e fore b e fore be fore b e fore
p-
k( [q] )
t-
,
c- ,
5-
k- ,
kb - , mg - , 1) gbd- , j v - ( any vowe l )
be fore b - , d - , j -
,
9-
, m- ,
n-
,
I) - ,
r- , 1 -
B e c au s e o f the de c i s i on t o treat s y l l ab le - fj nal [ q ] as an al ternant of t he / k / phoneme , one part o f ES 1 0 . i s a sub-phonemi c alternat i on . Tab l e 2 summar i s e s t he re sults of these alternat i on rule s . The row head ings show the base form of the end of the first word , the c o l umn headings show the base form o f the beginning of the s ec ond word , and the ent ries show what i s actually pronoun c e d ( t he word space i s omi t t e d for c l arity ) . Cases actually affe c t e d by the rule s ( inc luding the s ub-phonemi c e ffe ct o f part o f ES 1 0 . ) are underl ined .
59
TA B L E 2
p
t
c
k
5
h
b
d
j
9
m
n
f)
r
p
pp
pt
pc
pk
ps
p 'p'
kb
kd
�j
�9
km
kn
� f)
kr
kl
pV
t
'p'p
tt
tc
kk
tc
tt
kb
kd
�j
�9
km
kn
�f)
kr
kl
tV
k
kp
kt
kc
kk
ks
kk
kb
kd
�j
�9
km
kn
� f)
ke
kl
hV
5
Sp
st
sc
sk
55
55
sb
sd
sj
59
sm
sn
S f)
sr
sI
sV
m
'p'p
.p.t
.p.C
'p'k
'p'S
.P..P.
bb
md
mj
.2.9
mm
mn
m f)
mr
ml
mV
n
'p'p
tt
tc
kk
ss
kk
bb
dd
�j
.2.9
mm
nn
.22
rr
1 1
nV
f)
�p
kt
kc
kk
ks
kk
f) b
f) d
f) j
f) 9
I)m
I) n
1) 1)
f) r
nI
nV
V
( no alt ernat i on s with other word-final phoneme s )
3.2.1 .
E x am p l e s o f E x t e r n a l S a n d h i
The l i st c ompri s e s only those t hat man i fe s t alternation s . / � I a p p a l a h ( / ' fe t c h t h em ' . from / � I a p / and / h a l a k ( / ; -p h/ r a k m o d o m / ' s L e ep t o g e t h er ' ; m/ � I a k n a { d i h u t a 0 / ' g e t t h e o n e ( i n t h e vi Bag e ) ' ; n/ r a k f) 6 t / ' g e t up t o g e t h e r ' ; f) / r a k r 6 / ' come t o g e t he r ' ; r1/ ra k I �O / ' g o together ' ; b/ � I a k b a t u i / ' fe t ch t h e s t o n e ' ; d/ � I a k d a k d a n a h ( i ) / ' fe t c h t h e c h i L dren ' ; / ma n a r u k j a b u / ' to r o o f a h o u s e ' ; j/ m a f) a l a k j a d O f) / ' to g e t y am ' . 9/ r a u p p a r n � b u f) / ' a v ery s harp k n ife ' . from / r a u t / and / p a r n � b u f) / ; - t p/ h u h � k k O t O r / ' di r t y a t t h e same t i m e ' ; kh/ h u h � t t � t u r / ' s h a ke a t t h e same t im e ' ; 5/ h u h � t c E a t / ' c u t a t t h e s ame t ime ' ; m/ h u h � k m� r s a k / ' s a d a t t h e s ame t im e ' ; n/ h u h � k n O l n O I / ' s tare ( a t i t ) a t t h e same t ime ' ; / h u h � k f) O t / ' r i s e at t h e s ame t i m e ' ; f) r/ j � k r O h a n a / ' h e i s exa s p e ra t e d ' ; 1/ h u h � k l a O / ' g o a t t h e s ame t im e ' ; b/ h u h � k b o l a / ' s p L i t a t t h e s ame t im e ' ; d/ h u h � k d O k / ' s ay a t t h e s am e t im e ' ; / h u h u k j o u / ' ca B a t t h e same t im e ' ; j/ h u h u k 9 0 t a p / ' b r e a k a t t h e s ame t i m e ' . 9/ O n O p p E l ' j us t s i x ' ; -m p,
,
60
-m t ck5-
b g-n p tck h5-
mr1b d g- I) p tck h5-
-k h v-5 h3.3.
I h O h O p t a b � a t l �t e t ' s t a k e ( i t ) s t e a t th i t y I h O h 6 p c E t l ' p a i n t ( i t ) s i t en t t y ' ; / l a p k O t O r l ' ( b e com e ) more di r t y ' ; I ho 1 6 p s a O t i k l ' s omewhat dark ' ; I l a b b a l g a l ' b ecome b i gg e r ' ; I l a l) g o g 6 1 ' b e come s t ron g e r ' . I b u l a p p u r n a m a l ' fu t t moon ' ; I s 1 a t t O r u l ' from b e t o w ' ; I s a b u t c � c i l ' t aundry s oap ' ; I s O I) O k k � l i f ' H k e a c o o ly ' ; I s ) a k k � t a l ' from t h e v i t t a g e ' ; I s ) a s s � I)E I ' from t h e r i v e r ' ; I s O I) O m m a n u k l ' H k e a c h i c k en ' ; I h O l a l) I) a l � k n a l ' o n ty t h e m i s e r y ' ; I s ) a r r � r a l ' from t h e o a t l e y ' ; 1 5 0 1) 0 1 l 6 b u u l ' H k e a cow ' ; I s O I) O b b a t u l ' H k e a s t o n e ' ; I s O I) O d d 6 l o k l ' l i k e a m o u n t a i n ' ; 1 5 0 1) 0 1) g E a l ' H k e a worm ' . I d a k p 6 l a l ' n o t n e c e s s ary ' ; I d a k t a b 6 1 ' n o t de H ci o u s ' ; I d a k c � k k u p l ' n o t enough ' ; I d a k k O t 6 r l ' n o t dirty ' ; I d a k k E b b a l) 1 ' n o t spread ' ; I d a k s a l) a l ' n o t e n ou g h time ' ; I h a l a k k � t a l 'vi Hager ' ; I h a l a h O n l ' t h i s p e rs o n ' ; I l a O s s u d O k ( ma ) 1 'and I said ' .
';
I N T E RN A L M O R PH O P H O N E M I CS
We p rovide for the ( ba s i c ) shap e s o f words by s ett ing up b a s i c shap e s for t he i r con s t i t uent morpheme s and s pe c i fying t he alternat ions of s hape that t he s e morphemes undergo in the various environment s , with i n the word , in whi c h they c an o c c ur . Inso far a s t h i s doe s not involve e i ther t he ment ion of s p e c i f i c morphemes or t he introduct ion o f s p e c i a l s ymb o l s ( that i s , symb o l s n o t u se d in t h e phonemi c t rans c ript ion ) , the alt ernat ions are regular ; other a lternat i ons are irregular . 3.3. 1 .
R e g u l a r I n t e rn a l A l t e r n a t i o n s
B y and l arge the internal alternat ions follow the s ame rul e s a s ex t e rnal s andhi . For internal comb inations we will write a hyphen at
61 morpheme boundary , and a dash for un completed forms . The rul e s given below apply spe c i fi c ally to internal comb inat ions not covered by the irregular alternat i ons , and are to be app l i e d in the orde r given ; the output i s then run through the ES rul e s , with the addi t ional provi s ion that at the end of the whole p ro c e s s the hyphens are de leted . I S 1 . - Q � - n b e fo re cons onant s , except Q - , h I S 2 . - n � - t b e fore S - , h I S 3 . - r � - I b e fore 1 Examp l e s : I p a Q - dang u r - h O n l � I pan - da Q g u r - h O n l ( IS1 ) I p a d - d a Qg u r - h O n l ( ES 8 ) I p a d d a Q g u r h O n l ' t hro w ( t h e m ) ' Id i -dal an-hOnl ( 1S 2 , ES1 ) ' ( h e ) aarri e s o u t ' � I d i da l a t tOnl Ima r- l a QEI ( I S 3 ) ' to swim ' � Ima l l a Q E / 3.3.2.
I rregu l ar I n ternal
A l t e rn a t i on s
The following rules ( l IS ) app ly on ly t o part i c ular morpheme s , whi ch are here l ab e l l e d by means o f sub s crip t s or cap i t a l letters . l I S rul e s are app l i e d b e fore I S and E S rule s : the output i s s t i l l t o b e run through the latter two set s of rul e s . I m a Q - I i s an act ive pre fix in t rans i t i ve verb s ; I m a Q - I i s a derivat ional pre fi x i n intran s i t ive I verb s ; I U M I i s , amongst ot hers , the comp arat ive affix in adj e c t i ve s ; INII i s a c omp le t ive-part i c ip i a l affix in t ran s i t ive verb s ; I - h u / , I - m u / , I - n a / , I - t a l are p o s s e s s ive pronominal suffixes , re spec t i ve ly , 'my ' , ' t he y ' , ' h i s , h e r, i t s ' , ' o u r ( inc l . ) ' ; I s a l i s an i n c lus ive l . ' ) ; I - s a l l is an agentive or obj e c t ive s uffix after nume rals ( ' a L L suffi x . -
.
IISL
maQ-
pV-{ mV - - }
maQ-
tV-{ sV-- }
{ } rv-l V- nV--
.
�
mam V - -
�
ma n V - -
-+
maQa-
{
rV-IV nV--
-
Ex cept i ons t o thi s rule are found with s ome s t ems beginning with I b l y i e l ding I m a m V - - I ; name ly , I b u n u l ' ki L L ' , I b u r i l 'wa s h ' , I b E r E Q I ' s e e ' , I b6 d i l l ' s ho o t ' , I b u r O I ' s aare away b i r ds from a r i a e fi e L d ' , and a few other derived t ran s i t ive verb s .
62
m a l] l - h V - - � m a n V - - b V - - � mamV - - s V - - � ma n - s V - otherwi s e , I I S l appli e s . Except ions are : / m a k k u l i 1] / / m a l] l - h u l i l] / /ma l] i a m u n / / m a l] l - s i a m u n / / m a l] l - s i l]g a l a k / / m a n i l]g a l a k / lIS2 .
' to s p e a k ' ' t o t u rn r i g h t ' ' t o l i e on o n e ' s back '
I IS3 . U M - i s infixed / < u m > / after the first consonant in morpheme s b eginning with / t c k s d j 9 r hI . UM- � unb e fore n - - , 1] - umm- be fore v - There i s variation between t he two rules with / n E a l] / ' l ig h t (no t h e a vy ) y i e lding b o t h / n u m E a l] / and / u n n E a l] / ' l igh t e r ' . I IS4 . N l - i s infixed / < i n > / after the first consonant in morphemes beginning with /p t k c b j 9 s h / -- v � - - V n be fore m / - t a / , m I - s a l t lIS5 . m - - I] � --k be fore m / - t a / , / - s a 2 / lIs6 .
-- v � - V I] b e fore m / _ h u / --Vn} There are three morpheme s ending i n / n / that show variat i on b etween regular ( I S 2 ) and irregular alt ernat i on ( I I S 7 ) ; name l y , / s 6 b a n / ' fi r e w o o d ' , / u b a n / ' grey h a i r ' , and / n a p u r a n / ' b e t e l ' . One morpheme , / f p O n / ' to o t h ' , alway s fol lows the regular alternat ion , y i e l ding / i p O t t u / 'my lIS7 .
-
too th ' . lIs8 .
--na
�
l IS 9 .
-hu +
-mu
IIS1 0 .
- mu
+
{� {�
n an n an
�
- ra -1a -ma - I]a � � �
� � �
-m
after - - r aft er - - 1 aft e r - - m after - - I] -h i - h On -han -mi - mO n -man after - - v
',
63 3.3.3.
S t re s s A l t e r n a t i o n
There are five special ru l e s pertaining t o s t re s s t hat are t o b e app l i e d after al l the other rule s . SRI . In a word containing suffi xe s , ex cept for those c a s e s c o vered by SR3 and SR4 be low , the heavi e s t s t re s s fal l s on the penult imat e ; in I IS I O the deleted vowel is count e d . SR2 . The heavi e s t s t re s s i n a n uninfl e c t e d adj e c t i ve , whi ch other wise falls on t he final s y l lab l e , s h i f t s t o the penult imate ( a ) a ft e r I n a l ' at t ribut ive part i c l e ' , and I n a sa i I ' 8 0 ' ; ( b ) when affixed with I U M I ' c omparat ive affix ' ; ( c ) b e fore I h ( a n l ' ex treme L y ' . •
•
•
S R3 . The heav i e s t s t r e s s in t he word ( adj e c t i ve ) move s t o the suffixes ( a ) I - h u l l ( in c omb inat i on with I p a - I forms t he e x c e s s ive degree infle c t i on , 1. e . ' t o o '); ( b ) I - a n I ( anothe r comparat i ve morpheme ) . .
•
.
SR4 . In a vo c a t i ve form , the heavi e s t s t r e s s i s p l a c e d on the final s y l l ab l e . SR5 . In an att ribut ive phra s e or a c ompound , the primary s t re s s falls o n t he l a s t determine r , inc luding the enc l i t i c demons trat ive s I i i , 1 0 n / , l a n / ; the s t re s se d s yll ab le o f the first word carr i e s a s e c on dary s t re s s . 3.3.4.
E xamp l e s
I n t he first few e x amp l e s t he app l i cat ion o f the rul e s are s hown s tep by s t e p ; the others give only the input and output with a spe c i fi cat ion o f the rules app l i e d ; the s lant ing l i ne s are omi t te d . U M - n a l ( + u n - I)a l ( ( I I S 3 ) u l) - I) a l r ( Es 6 ) u l) l) a l ( ( Hyphen De let ion ) u l) l) a l i ( SR2 ) ' c o L de r ' p a - l u l) u n - h u l + p a - l u l) u t - h u ( IS2 ) p a - l u l) u t - t u ( ES l ) p a l u l) u t t u (H.D. ) pa l u u t t u ( SR3 ) ' to o L on e Ly ' p a l) - s u a n - h O n
+
pan - s ua n - hOn pa t - s ua t - hOn pa t - s u a t - t O n pat-cuat- tOn patcua t tOn pat cua t tOn
( lS I ) ( IS 2 , twi c e ) ( ES l ) ( ES 2 ) (H. D. ) ( SRI ) ' p L a n t
( them) ,
64 ,
ma n - s O h O t ma t - s O h O t ma t - c O h O t
( lIS2 ) ( IS 2 ) ( ES 2 ) ( H . D . ) ' s top ' ( l I S l ) 'wri t e ' ( l I S 7 , l IS 9 , E S 4 , H . D . , SR5 )
,
,
,
matcOhOt m a l) - s u r a t rOha- hu
manu rat rOhakkf
' th a t m i n d
of mine '
d i - p a l) - d a l) g u r - h O n b a l - n a f a l a p b a r a l) - t a i
+
+
d i p a d d a l) g u r h O b b a l l a f ( I I S 8 , l S I , ES6 ,
ES 8 , SR5 ) ' ( h e ) t h rows h i s ( II S 6 , E S I O , SR3 , SRI )
a l a k b a ra k t a
baHs ' ' g e t our
t h ings '
rOha-mu
+
r O h a m ( II S I O , SRI ) ' yo u r m i n d '
m a l) l - h O n a d O u b a t - h u
+
ma l) O n a d O u b a t t f ( 11S 1 , 11S8 , ESl , SR5 ) 'my m e di c i n e is e ffi caci o u s '
m a l) - p f o + m a m f o ( I I S l ) ' t o i n vi t e ' m a l) - I e l e + m a l) a l e l e ( I I S l ) ' to chas e ' U M - d e l) g a n + d um e l) g a n ( I I S 3 , SR2 ) ' b e t t e r ' U M - u l f + u mm u l i ( I I S 3 , SR2 ) 'more b e a u t i fu l ' d u a - s a l + d u a t c a ( I I S 5 , I S 2 , ES2 , SRI ) ' b o t h ' t a r - d u l) d u l) - s a + t a r d u l) d u k s a ( I I S 6 , SRI ) ' ca n be rea c h e d by him ' 2 d O l) a n - m u a n + d O l) a m m a n ( I I S 9 , ES 6 , SR5 ) ' y o ur fr i e n d t h e r e ' . 3.4.
C O N C LUS I O N
The instances o f internal alternat i on me ntioned above have some genera l i t y and pro ductivit y ; o t he r ( sporadic ) c a s e s of internal alternat ion will be ment ioned when the o c ca s ion ari s e s .
CHAPTER I V
MORPHOLOGY 4.0.
I NTROVU CT I ON
Hence fo rt h , in ci t i ng words or morpheme s we w i l l give t hem in their base forms , ( § 3 . 1 . ) , in bold t ype ; when u s e ful for c lari t y , the ac t ual phonemic shape o f t he word or phrase w i l l be added between s l ant l ines . 4. 1 .
PARTS O F S P E E C H
The part s o f s p e e c h are : CONTENTIVES : Noun s : j a b u ' h o u s e ' ; s u k k u t c u k k u n ' qu e s t i o n ' . Verb s : m 6 d o m ' s l e e p ' ; p a s a k ' b e a t ' . Adj e c t ive s : d e Q g a n ' go o d ' ; d a 6 ' fa r ' . A dj unct s : a n n O n 'pre s e n t ly ' ; t O k t O Q ' a lways ' . Interj e c t ions : d a g 6 ' o op s ' ; n a ' h e r e y ou are ' . FUNCTORS : Sub s t i t ut e s : Pronoun : a u ' I ' ; O n ' t h i s ' . Proverb : m a r h u a ' do w h a t ' . Pro-adj e c t ive : b E h a ' o f w h a t s o r t ' . Pro-adj unc t : d i s 6 n ' he r e ' ; a d d ( g a n ' w h e n ' . Pro-c lause : d a O Q ' n o ! ' ; ( p E ' t h e r e fo r e ' . Dire c t ive Part i c le s : d i ' a t ' ; m 6 1 0 ' if ' . Modal Part i c l e s : d O ; rn a . Connec t i ve s : a l a i ' b u t ' ; m a n a Q ' or ' . Aux i liari e s : s O r ' a lmo s t ' ; h O l a n ' o n ly ' . Some o f t h e se fa l l into sub - c l a s s e s in terms o f di fferenc e s o f infl e c t i on or syntax ; s e e b e low . Noun s , verb s , and adj e c t i v e s are d i s t i ngui shed b y d i f ferent types of inflect ion and syntax , t he o t hers by syntax .
65
66
4.2.
I N F L E CT I ONA L CATEGO R I ES
Inflect ion i s made for s i x type s o f categori e s : person , number ; Substantive Reference : allocat ion , actor , obj e c t ; Voice and Resolution: act ive , p a s s ive , rec iprocal ; intran s it ive , t ran s i t ive ; Mode and Aspect : imperat ive , s imple , c omp let ive ( -part i c ipial ) , d i s t ribut ive , promi s sory , pot ent ial , s imp le , iterat ive , exp l i c i t p lura l , intensive - i n s t rumental ; Degree ( in adj e c t ives ) : comparat ive , e x c e s s ive ; Ordinal ( in numera ls ) : s imple , ranking . One and t he s ame infl e c t ional affix may reflect more than one category . Substantive Class :
4.2. 1 .
S u b s t an t i ve C l a s s
There are two c ategories o f sub s t an t ive clas s : Person : first ( speaker ) , se cond ( hearer ) , third , and inde finite ; Numb e r : s i ngular and p lural . The categories o f sub s tant ive c las s appear i n pe rsonal pronouns , and through pronominal affixes in the inflect i on of nouns ( for allocat i on ) and o f verb s ( for actor and obj e c t ) : p a t ' Z e g ' : p a t t u 'my Z eg ' ; b u a t O n 'wi Z Z b e taken '
:
b u a t O n n a rn i
'wi Z Z b e t a k e n b y u s ' .
Some t ran s i t i ve verb s are infl e c t e d with p a � - for exp l i c i t p lural obj e c t : d a � g u r h O n ' t hrow ' : d i p a d d a � g u r h O n i b a n a ( rn a b a t u f ) ' ( t h e s t o n e s ) a r e t h rown by him ' ; these
l E a n 'give '
:
pa l l E a n On ( t u n a s f da )
'give
( t o them) ' .
Some intran s i t i ve verb s are infle c t e d with rna r - a n for e x p l i c i t p lural subj e c t : h u d d u l ' s i t ; s i t down ' : rna r h u d d u l a n ( rn a n a s f d a ) •
' ( t h e y ) are s i t t i n g down ' ;
p E a k ' Zie '
.
•
rn a r p E a h a n ( d O b u k k u f )
' ( the
b o o ks ) a r e Z y i n g abou t ' . 4. 2 . 2 .
S u b s t a n t i v e R e fe r e n c e
The categorie s of sub st ant ive re ference are : p o s s e s s o r of a noun ( allocat ion ) , actor of a pas s ive tran s i t ive verb , and obj e c t of an act i ve t rans i t ive verb . The reference is personal-anaphori c ; in the case o f a l l ocat i on or of the actor o f a promi s sory p a s s i ve verb i t spe c i fi e s t he person a n d numb er of t h e po s se s s o r or actor ; in t h e ot her cas e s of actor reference and in the case of obj e c t re ference , the spec i fi cat i on is defect ive a s t o person and number . The a c t or re ference in s imp le p a s s ive verb s indi cat e s : first person e x c lus ive , first person inc lus ive , and non- first-person actor : b u a t ' ta k e ' : h u b u a t ' ta k e n b y me, o r
67 by persons inc luding me , e x c luding you ' , t a b u a t ' ta k en b y u s ( i n c l u s i ve ) ' , d i b u a t ' ta k e n b y p e rs o n s e x cluding me ' . The actor reference in potential pa s s ive verb s ( and in a small s et o f verb s n o t inflected for mode ) d i s t ingu i shes only between inde finite and t h i rd person s in gular , - s a : t a r h i d d a t ' ca n b e t i ft e d ' : t a r h i d d a t c a ' can b e t i ft e d b y h im ( he r , i t ) ' ; d a p O t ' (b e ) fo und ' : d a p O t ca ' fo u n d by him ' .
The obj e c t re fe rence i n simp l e and c ompl et i ve act i ve verb s a l s o make s onl y t h i s t wo-way d i s t inct ion : m a k k f d d a t ' to t ift ' : m a k k i d d a t c a ' t ift him ( h e r , i t ) ' ; u p p O p pa r ' ha v e a s d e s c en dan t ( sa i d o f mal e s ) ' : u p p O p p a r s a ' ha v e him as de s c e ndan t ' . 4.2.2. 1 .
A ll o c.at� o n
A l l nouns o ccur in unpo s s e s s e d form , a n d mo s t noun s oc cur in p o s s e s se d forms . The p o s s e s s e d forms show the person and numbe r o f t he p o s s e s sor b y means o f pronominal suffixe s : j a b u ' ho u s e ' : j a b u n a ' h i s ( h e r ) h o us e ' , j a b u m u n a ' y o ur ( p l . ) h o u s e ' , j a b u t t a ' o u r ( i nc l . ) hou s e ' .
With s ome nouns o f re lat i on s hip , a prefix infle c t ion , d a - , i s u s e d f o r f i r s t pe rson s i ngular p o s s e s s or : f n a J) 'mo t h e r ' : d a f n a J) ' m y m o t h e r ' . 4.2.2.2.
A c.tOll
Pas s ive verb s contain inflect ional reference t o an ac tor . S imp le p a s s i ve verb s have pre fi x e s re ferring t o first p e rson e x c l usive actor , h u - ; first person inc lus ive , t a - ; n on - fi r s t person , d i - . The actor , i f expre s se d by a s eparate word , c ome s immediately after the verb : b u a t ' t a k e ' : d i b u a t ' ta k e n (by non- first person ) ' , d i b u a t h a J a k ( ' ta k e n b y t h e man ' . When t he actor i s first person s ingular , the actor morpheme is z ero : h u b u a t ' ta k e n b y me ' ; when the actor is first pe rs on inclus ive , the actor morpheme i s z ero : t a b u a t ' t a k e n by us ( in c l . ) ' ; when the actor i s third person s i ngular , the actor morpheme can be repre se n ted by z ero : d i b u a t or d i b u a t i b a n a ' ta k e n b y him ( h e r ) ' .
Promi s so ry p a s s i ve verb s are inflected for pronoun ac tor : b u a t O n t o b e t a k en ' : b u a t O k k u ' wi t t b e t a k e n b y me ' , b u a t O n n am i ' w i n b e t a k e n b y u s ( ex c l . ) ' , b u a t O t t a ' wi t t b e t a k e n b y u s ( in c l . ) ' . Compl e t ive p a s s i ve verb s , i n nominal c lau s e s , are infl e c t e d for p ronoun acto r : b i n u a t ' has b e e n t a k e n ' : b i n u a k n a m i ' has b e e n t a k e n b y u s ( ex c l . ) ' in n a b i n u a k n a m i ' w h a t has b e e n t a k e n b y u s ( ex c l . ) ' . ' wi t t b e t a k e n ;
68
4. 2 . 2 . 3 .
0 b j e ct
In non-initial p o s i t ion in the sentence , act ive tran s i t ive verb s are inflect e d , with - s a , for third person s ingular obj e c t . Thi s inflect ion i s opt ional in the s imp le mode , obl igatory in the comp l e t ive mode : m a b b e g e ' h e a r ' : m a b b e g e s a ' he a r i t ( him, h e r ) ' ; u b b e g e ' ha v e h e a r d ' u b b e g e s a ' ha v e h e ard i t ( h im, h e r ) ' ; t a d d a ' know ( re cogni s e ) ' : m a n a d d a s a or m a n a d d a i b a n a ' know him ( h e r ) ' , t um a d d a s a ' ha v e known ( know ) him ( he r , i t ) ' . =
=
4. 2 . 3.
V o i c e a n d Re s o l u t i o n
Verb s are int rans it ive or t ran s i t ive : m a r d a 1 a n ( d O i b a n a l ' h e m a n u h O r b u k k u ( d O i b a n a ) ' ( he ) i s b u y i n g a b oo k ' ; d i b u a t i b a n a ( d O b u k k u f ) , ( t he b o o k ) i s t a k e n by him ' .
wa L k s ' ;
4.2.3.1 .
V o .i. c e
Tran s i t ive verb s are inflected f o r act ive ( m a Q - , et c . ) , pas s ive ( d i - , et c . ) , and reciprocal ( m a s i - . . . - a n ) : j o u ' ca l l ' : m a d j 6 u ' t o ca l l ( s om e b o dy ) ' ; d i j 6 u ' b e ca l Z e d (by s o m e b o dy ) ' ; ma s i j o u a n ' ca Z Z e ac h o t h e r ' . When t he st em ends in the suffix - i , the suffix i s dropped for the re cip ro cal inflect ion ; e . g . p u d f i ' t urn o n e ' s back t o ' ( from p u d i ' b a c k p a r t ' + - i ) : m a s i p u d f a n d O n a s f d a ' t hey a r e s tandi ng w i t h t h e i r b a c k s t o e a c h o t h e r ' ; r O a i ' de fame ' ( from r o a ' ug Zy ' + - i ) : m a s i r O a a n ' de fame e a c h o th e r ' . 4.2.4.
Mode and A s pect
Tran s i t ive verb s are inflec t e d for mode and aspe c t . 4.2.4. 1 .
M o d e : A ct.i. v e T�an¢ .i.t.i. v e
Act ive t ran s i t ive verb s appear in four mode s : imperat ive ( wi t h no infle c t ional a ffixe s ) , s imp le ( m a Q - ) , c omp l e t ive ( -part i c ip i a l ) ( U M - ) , and d i s t rib ut ive ( m a s i - ) . The third i s rarer than the others . j 6 u ' ca l l ' : j 6 u ( i b a n a ) ' ca Z Z ( hi m ) ! ' ; m a d j o u ( d O Q a n ) ' ca l l (a fri e n d ) ' ; j umo u ( d O Q a n ) , have ca l l e d ( a fri end) ; c a l l i ng (a fri e n d ) ' ;
ma s i j o u ( d O Q a n n a )
' ea c h ca l l s ( h i s own fri end) ' .
69 4.2.4.2.
Pa4 4 � v e T4an4 �z� v e
Pas s ive t ransit ive verb s are infle c t e d for a d i f ferent s e t o f mode s : s imp le , comp l e t i ve ( -part i cipial ) , promi s sory and potent i al . The s imp le mode shows infl e c t ion for pe rson o f t he actor : h u - ' first person e x c l u s i ve ' ; t a - ' first person inc lus ive ' ; d i - ' non-first person ' . The actor i s placed immediat e ly aft e r the verb ; when the actor i s first person s i ngular or first person inclus i ve , i t is repre sented b y z e ro ; when the actor i s third pers on s i ngular , i t i s op t i onally repre sented by zero : b u a t ' ta k e ' h u b u a t ' ta k e n by me ' ; h u b u a t h a m i ' ta k e n b y u s ( exc l . ) ' ; t a b u a t ' ta k e n by us ( in c l . ) ' ; d i b u a t h O ' ta k e n by t h e e ' ; d i b u a t h a m u ' taken by you ' ; d i b u a t or d i b u a t i ba n a ' ta k e n b y him ( h e r ) ' ; d i b u a t n a s f d a ' ta k e n b y t h em ' ; d i b u a t h a l a k f ' ta k e n b y t h e man ' . The c omplet ive mode shows a di fferent inflect ion for person o f the actor : h u - ' first person s i ngular ' ( c f . s imp le mode above ) ; t a - ' fi r s t person inc lus ive ' ; N I - ' ot her p e r s o n s ( inc luding inde finite person ) ' . The verb , furthe r , has an infle c t i onal ending for pronoun actor ; i n the c a s e o f h u - ' fi rst person s ingular ' and t a - ' first per son inc lus ive ' , the actor i s repre s ented by zero ; noun a c tors are marked by n i : b u a t ' ta k e ' : ( n a ) b i n u a t ' (w ha t ) has b e e n t a k e n ' ; ( n a ) h u b u a t ' (wha t ) has b e e n t a k en b y me ' ; ( n a ) b i n u a k n a m i ' (wha t ) has b e en t a k e n b y u s ( e x c l . ) ' ; ( n a ) t a b u a t ' (wha t ) has b e e n t a k e n by us ( inc l . ) ' ; ( n a ) b i n u a k m u ' (wha t ) has b e e n t a k e n by t h e e ' ; ( n a ) b i n u a k n a ' (w ha t ) has b e en t a k e n b y him ( he r , i t ) ' ; ( n a ) b i n u a k n a s f d a ' (wha t ) has b e e n t a k e n b y t h e m ' ; ( n a ) b i n u a kn f b a ' (wha t ) has b e e n t a k e n b y o n e ' ; ( n a ) b i n u a t n i h a l a k f ' (w ha t ) h a s b e e n t a k e n b y t h e ,
man ' .
When the s t em ends in t he suffix - i , t h i s i s rep l a c e d b y - a n for t he in fle c t ion o f the comp let ive-p art i c ip i a l mode ; e . g . u 1 6 5 i ' c o v e r ( w i t h a b la n k e t ) ' ( from u 1 Os ' b 1- a n k e t ' ) + - i : n i u 1 G s a n ' ha v e b e e n
N1-
covered ' .
The mo st frequent u s e s o f t he comp l e t i ve are : when the actor i s inde fini t e ; i n ab so lute pass ive forms ( i . e . when n o actor i s expre s s e d ) ; and as t he verbal e lement in a nominal c lause ( int roduced by n a as above ) . The p rom i s s ory has the mode marker - O n ( - a n , when the underlying forms ends in the suffix - i ) , and t ake s t he inflect ional ending t o show
70 the a c t o r , a noun a c t o r i s marked by n i : b U a t ' t a k e ' : b u a t O n ' wi 'l 'l be t a k en ' ; b u a t O k k u ' wi 'l 'l b e t a k e n by me ' ; b u a t O n n a m i ' wi n b e t a k e n b y u s ( e xc l . ) ' ; b u a t O t t a ' w i n b e t a k e n by us ( inc l . ) ' ; b u a t Ommu ' wi 'l 'l b e t a k e n by t h e e ' ; b u a t O mm u n a ' w i 'l 'l b e t a k e n b y y o u ' ; b u a t O n n a ' w i n b e t a k e n b y him ( he r , i t ) ' ; b u a t O n n a s f d a ' wi 'l 'l b e t a k e n b y them ' ; b u a t O n n f b a ' w i 'l 'l b e t a k en b y o n e ' ; b u a t O n n i h a l a k f ' w i n b e t a k e n b y t h e man ' . 6 u 1 s i ' co v e r w i t h a b 'l a n ke t ' u l 0 s a n 'w i 'l 'l b e c o v e r e d w i t h a b 'la n ke t ' ; u l 0 s a k k u ' wi 'l 'l be c o v e r e d w i t h a b 'l an k e t by me ' ; e t c . The p romi s sory expre s s e s a promi s e , a dut y , or future execut i on o f somet hing : b u a t O k k u d O f ' i t w i 'l 'l b e t a k e n b y me ' ' I wi 'l 'l t a k e i t ' ; 'one ( ) k k O n ) o l o a n d O n a t O r a s n f b a ' o n e ' s pare n t s mus t b e o b e y e d ' 1 0
=
=
s ho u 'l d o b e y o n e ' s pare n t s ' .
The p romi s sory i s a l s o u se d ab solut e ly : j o u O n d O i b a n a ' he w i 'l 'l b e When t h e underlying form ends in - h O n , t h e inflect ional ending in ab solute use has the form - O t t O n ( in s t ead o f - O n ) ; g u r u h O n ' 'l e arn ' : g u r u h O n O t t O n ( d O n a s a n a t u r E ) ' ( a 'l 'l wha t i s p rop e r ) i s t o ca l 'l e d ' .
b e 'l ea r n e d ' .
A pot ent ial p a s s i ve verb i s infle c t e d for mode wit h t a r - ( h a - . . . - a n , when t he unde rlying form ends in the suffix - i ) ; i t further , opt i onally , has an inflect ional ending for third pe rson s i ngular a c t o r , - s a ; the actor is p laced immediately aft e r the verb : b U a t ' ta k e ' : t a r b u a t ( a u ) ' can b e t a k e n (by m e ) ' ; t a r b u a t h O ' can b e t a k e n b y t h e e ' ; t a r b u a t c a ' ca n b e t a k e n by h i m ( he r , i t ) ' ; t a r b u a t i b a n a ' can b e t a k en b y him ( h e r ) ' ; t a r b u a t h a l a k f ' can b e t a k e n by t h e man ' . d a k d a t i ' c o n t i n u e ' : h a d a k d a t a n ( a u ) ' can b e c o n t i n u e d ( b y me ) ' , h a d a k d a t a n h O ' can b e c o n t i n u e d b y t h e e ' , e t c . 4.2.4.3.
A� p e cz
Trans it ive verb s are infle c t e d for three aspect s : i t e rative ( - i ) , exp l i c it p lural obj e ct ( p a � - ) , and intensive-instrumental ( - h O n ) ; a t ran s i t ive verb without any o f these inflections has s imp le aspect : p a s a k 'beat ' pasah i ' b e a t rep e a t e d l y ' ; b U a t ' ta k e ' p a b b u a t ' t a k e ( p lural obj e c t ) ' ; p a s a k k O n ' b e a t w i t h ( s o m e t h i ng ) ; DO b e a t ( s ome t h i ng ) p a s a k 'beat '
'.
71
The e x p l i c i t pl ural ob j ect aspect can oc cur with the intens ive-ins tru ment al : p a s a k 'beat '
pa p p a s a kkOn ( n a s f d a )
' DO b e a t
pappasakkOn ( ba l obas
()
( t h em ) ' ;
' b ea t w i t h ( t h e ru l e rs ) '
or ' b e a t w i t h t h e r u l e r many t i m e s ' . From the last examp le we se e that it i s somet imes not easy t o t e l l whether w e have t o d o w i t h s omething done many t ime s o r w i t h many things u se d indivi dual ly . Modal inflect ion i s supe rimpos e d on aspe c t ual inflect ion . The modal infle c t ions of the i terat ive aspect are given b e l ow in the s e cond column , the first column is the s imple aspect : Act ive :
impe rat ive s imp le compl et ive d i s t ribut ive
j o u ' ca l Z ."
jou i
madj ou j um6u ma s i j o u
madj ou i
e . g. Pas s ive : s imple complet ive e . g .
h u j au j i nou
' ca Z Z repea tedly ! ' ; ' ( t o ) ca Z Z r e p e a t e d l y ' ;
j u m o u i ' ha v e ca l l e d r e p e a t e d ly ' ; m a s i j o u i ' e a c h ca l l s r e p e a t e d l y ' ; h u j o u i ' c a l l e d rep e a t e d l y b y m e ' ; j i n o u a n ' ha v e b e e n ca l l e d repea t e d l y ' ;
promi s sory e . g . potential
j ouOn t a rj a u
j o u a n ' w i l l b e ca l l e d rep e a t e d l y ' ; h a j o u a n ' can b e ca l l ed r e p e a t e d l y ' .
The modal inflect ions are di fferent i n the last three mode s ( s ee § 4 . 2 . 4 . 2 . ab ove ) . An exampl e o f the modal inflect i on o f the intens ive-ins trumental aspe c t : j o u ' c a Z Z ' : j i n o u ( d O i b a n a l , ( h e ) has b e e n ca Z Z e d ' , j i n o u h O n ( d O i b a n a ) ' ( h e ) HAS b e en ca l l e d ' . The infle ct ion for the promi s s ory mode in abso lute use ( - O n ) appears in a d i fferent form ( - O t t O n ) with the inten s i ve - i n s t rumental aspect : j o u O n d O i b a n a ' h e wi l l b e ca l l ed ' j o u h O n O t t O n d O i b a n a ' h e WILL b e ca l l e d ' ( s ee also § 4 . 2 . 4 . 2 . above ) . The exp l i c i t plural ob j e ct aspect i s infl e c t e d for mode in a regular fashion ; e . g . , p a l l E a n ' g i v e (many t h i n g s ) ' ; imperat i ve act ive l E a n ' g i v e ' h u p a 1 1 E a n ' ( p I . ) are g i v e n b y m e ' ; s imp le p a s s ive hul Ean t a r p a l l E a n ' ( pl . ) can b e g i v en ' ; potential p a s s ive t a l l E a n p i n a l l E a n ' ha v e b e en g i v e n ' . compl et ive pa ss ive n i l E a n 4.2.5.
Degree
The c at e gory o f degree appears in adj e ct i ve s ; it fal l s into two clas s e s : c omparat ive ( UM - or - a n ) , and e x c e s s i ve ( pa - . . . - hu ) : b a l g a ' b i g ' : u b b a l g a or b a l g a a n 'bigger ', p a b a l g a h u ' too b ig ' ; r O a ' ug l y ' : r u m O a o r r O a a n ' u g l i e r ' , p a r O a h u ' too ug ly ' ;
72 d a o ' far ' : d u m a o or d a o a n ' fa r t h e r ' , p a d a o h u ' t oo far ' ; p a d d i t a ' pr e a c h er l i k e ' : u p p a d d ( t a o r p a d d i t a a n 'more prea c h e r l i k e ' . p a p a d d i t a h u ' t oo p r e a c h e r l i k e ' . With ordinary adj e c t ive s like the first three examp l e s the U M - com parat ive i s mo re common ; " M ith forms wh i c h are only oc cas ionally us ed as adj e c t ive s l ike t h e last example , the - a n c omparat ive i s preferre d . I n c o l l oquial spee c h , we s omet ime s find a comb inat ion o f the two comparat ive infle c t ions ; u p p a d d i t a a n 'more p r e a ch e r l i k e ' . 4.2.6.
Ordi nal
This c at e gory appears in nume ral s ( a sub - c l a s s o f pronouns ) . There are two ordinal categorie s : s imp le ( p a - . . . - h O n ) and ranking ( p a i - ) . S imple ordinal indicates a pl a c e in a serie s ; rank ing ordinal i s u s e d when there i s s ome j udgment o f exce llence o f pre s t ige invo lved in the s et ( e . g . i n a race ) . d u a ' two ' : p a d u a h O n ' s e cond ' , p a i d u a ' t h e s e cond; numb e r two ' ; t o l u ' t hr e e ' : p a t o l u h O n ' t hird ' , p a i t o l u ' t h e t h i rd; numb e r t h r e e ' . I rregularly , we have the s imple ordinal p a r j o l o ' fi rs t ' ( from p a r + j 0 1 0 ' fron t ' ) . The ordinal a ffixes are I . C . partners to c omplex numera l s ; the immediate const ituent s o f p a O p a t p u l u s a d a h O n ' fo r t y - fi r s t ' are p a - . . . - h O n and O p a t p u l u s a d a ' fo r t y o n e ' ; p a i s a p p u l u p ( t u ' t h e s e v e n t e e n t h ' con s i s t s o f pa i - and s a p p u l u p ( t u ' s ev e n t e en ' . S imp le ordinal i n fl e c t i on i s als o made with expre s s ions o f measure : pa t o l u m a k k u k k O n ' t he th ird c up fu l ' , pa O p a t h a l ( h O n ' t h e fo u r t h t i m e ' . For b i rth rank among s i b l i ng s , it i s more c ommon t o use spec ial forms ( nouns ) : s i a h a a n ' e l d e s t ' ( s i - + h a h a ' o lder s i b l i n g same s e x ' + -an) , 5 i appudan ' y o un g e s t ' ( presumab ly , 5 i - + U M - + p u d i 'ba c k ' + - a n ) , and , i f the number i s odd , s i l i t O l) a ' t he midd l e ' ( s i - + d i - + t O l) a ' m i dd l e ' ) . 4.3. 4.3. 1 .
C O N T EN T I V ES Nouns
Nouns fa l l into severa l c l a s se s . Nouns whi ch c an t ake the p lural aux i l iary a k k a w i l l be c alled common nouns ; others are personal proper noun s , non-personal proper noun s , measure noun s , and mas s noun s , whi ch b e s ides not t aking the plural aux i l iary have t he following character istics . Personal proper nouns are marked by a preposed part i c l e s i or are formed with the ( t eknonymous ) format ives n a i 'mo t her of ' , a m a n i ' fa t h e r
73 o p p u n i ' grandp a r e n t o f ' ; e . g . s i s a h a t ; n ll i b a d f a 'Mo t h e r o f Badia ' . In direct addre s s , the part i c l e s i i s not us ed ; thus s a h a t ' S a h a t ! ' . s i i s not used with fami ly name s ( a s ub- c las s o f personal proper nouns ) beginning with s i - ; e . g . s i h 6 b b i � . S ince the s i - o f fam i ly names i s not an aux i l iary , it i s retained in t he vo cat ive . Non-personal proper noun s are not inflected for allocat i on ; e . g . b u t a r , b a l f g e ' p lace names ' . Measure nouns take a pre c e d ing attribut ive nume ral . The numeral s a d a ' o n e ' appears b ound to a free measure noun in the form s a - : d u a h f r a � ' two b a s k e t fu l s ' , s a h f r a � ' o n e b a s k e t fu l l ' . Irregularly , w e have s a d a r i ' o n e day ' ( a r i ' day ' ) . Bound measure nouns are l i nked by an accretive I �I to a numeral ending in a vowel : s a - + s a � - , d u a ' two ' + d u a � - ; e . g . - h a r i p p a � ' p i e a e ( o f warty ro o t , l i k e g i n g e r ) ' : s a k ka r f p p a � ' o n e p i e a e ' , d u a k k a r r p p a � ' two p i e ae s ' . A mas s noun does not t ake a bare numeral ; i t i s quant i fied only by the c omb inat ion numeral + mea sure noun : s a m a k k u k k 6 p i 'a aup o f a o ffe e ' , d u a t a k k a r d a h a n O n ' two aans (me a s u r e ) o f r i a e ' . Some nouns o f re lat i onship have di fferent forms , o b l i gatory , or opt i onal , in the vocat ive , i n the fo llowing l i s t , the s e c ond is the vocat ive : f n a 'mo t h er ' i n a � 'mo t h er ! ' ( ob l igatory ) ; a m a ' fa t he r ' a m a � ' fa t h e r ! ' ( ob li gatory ) ; o p p u 'grandpare n t ' o p p u � ' grandparen t ! ' ( ob l igatory ) ; a n g i a ( op t i onal ) ; a n g i ' y o u n g e r s i b l i n g same age ' h a h a ' o l d e r s ib l ing same s ex ' h a h a � or a k k a � ( ob l igat ory ) ; I t 6 ( ob l i gatory ) . i b 6 t o ' s ib l in g o th e r s ex ' In p o l i t e spee c h , the vocat ive forms ( except for a n g i a ) are u s e d for non-vo c at ive fun c t ions , pre sumab ly be cause of the un favourab le conno tat ion o f the common forms t hrough t he i r us e in curs ing : e . g . i n am ' t h e y m o t h e r ! ' (a very rude and insult ing exc lamat i on ) . With a noun from t he set above , the p o s s e s s i ve prefix d a - 'my ' is attached only t o t he vo cat i ve form . of ' ,
4. 3.2.
Verbs
T o summari ze the di s c u s s ions o n t he categories o f verb s w e present a morpheme order table o f t he inflect i on o f t ran s i t i ve verb s on t he fol lowing page . In t he t ab le , p o s i t i on s - 2 and +2 are mutually ex c lus ive or b ot h are o c cupied by the part s o f a d i s c ont inuous morpheme ; p a � - ( - 1 ) i s mutually e x c l u s ive with - i ( +1 ) ; aspect suffixes bear s ub s c ript numerals : t he mode infle ct ion with a c orre sponding s ub s cript numeral ( i f any ) is to be chosen in t he case o f an aspe c t ual underlying form ; d i s cont inuous morpheme s are indicated by parenthe s e s and dot s .
74 TA B L E 3
-1 -2 Mode/ Actor re f . Aspect s t em ASPECTS : I t e rat i ve I nt ens ive inst rument al Exp l i c i t p lural ACTIVE MODES : S imple Comp l e t i ve part i c i p i al Dis t ribut ive PASS IVE MODES : S imp le
Comp let ive part i c ipial
+1 +2 Aspect Mode
+3 Act or/Obj e c t
-il -hOn2 p a l) ma l) -
- s a ( Obj . )
UM-
- s a ( Ob j . )
mas i huta di- n a m i , etc . ( ac t o r ,
huta-
except 1st s g . & 1 s t incl . )
NI ( NI
-an) -On
Promi s sory
1
-anl
- h u , - n a m i , etc .
( A ct . )
- O t t O n 2 ( ab s olute use )
tar( ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - an) l RE CI PROCAL VOI CE : ( ma s i - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - a n )
Potent i a l
Examp le s :
p a s a k ' b e a t ' ; b u a t ' ta k e '
ACTIVE : Imp erat ive S imple Comp l e t i vepart i c ipial D is t ribut ive PASSIVE : S imple Compl e t i vepart i cipial Promi s s ory Potential REC I PROCAL :
S imEle
A S P E C T S I t erat ive Intensive-ins t r . EXEl i c it El ural
pasak mama s a k u p pa s a k ma s i p a s a k
pasah i mamas a h i uppasah i mas i pa s a h i
p a s a kkOn mama s a kkOn uppas a kkOn mas i pasakkOn
mas i pabbuat
d l pasak p i nasak pasahOn ta rpasak mas i pasahan
d i pasah i p i nasahan pasahan hapasahan
d i pasakkOn pi nasakkOn pasakkOnOn t a r pa s akkOn
d i pa b b ua t p i nabbuat pabbua tOn ta rpabbuat
pabbuat
75 A sma l l s e t o f verb s are i n fl e c ted for actor in the s ame way a s the potential pas s ive ; t he s e verb s have a pas s ive denot at ion : s u d a ' fi n i s hed; u s e d up ' : s u d a s a ' fi n i s h ed by him ' ; j u p p a Q ' found ( a f t e r a s ea r c h ) ' : j u p p a k s a ' fo u n d b y him ' ; d a p O t ' found; g o t ' : d a p O t c a ' found b y him; ob t a i n e d b y him ' ; t O l a p ' capab l e o f do i n g ' : t O l a p s a ' c an b e done b y h im ' . One verb forms the promi s sory p a s s i ve i n an irregular way : d O k ' sa y ; t e H ' : d O h O n O n ' w i H b e s a i d ' .
One t rans i t i ve verb has a defect ive i n fl e c t ion as to mode and i s pe cul i ar in other way s . The s t em i s n i Q - ' s a y ( quotat i ve ) ' . The o c c urring forms are : n f k k u 'I say ( s a i d ) ' , n f t t a 'we ( in c l . ) s a i d ' ; n f n n a or n ) n n a i b a n a ' h e s a i d ' , n ) n n a h a m i ' w e ( e xc l . ) s a i d ' , n ,l mm u o r n ) n n a h O ' thou said ' , n ) n n a h a m u 'you said ' , n ) n n a n a s f d a ' they said ' , n) nna h a l ak ' t he p e r s o n s a i d ' . The phrase n ) n n a h a m u i s u s e d as a t o ken o f high formali t y : n U Q Q a r 6 i b a n a ' he has come ' ( an ordi nary statement ) , n U Q Q a rO i b a n a n ) n n a h a m u ' he has come ' ( s ai d to a person w i t h whom one i s on a very formal re lat ionship ) . I ntran s i t ive and t ran s i t ive ve rbs do not only di ffer in syntax and i n fl e c t i on , but a l s o in de rivational patt erns ( see § 4 . 6 . 4 . b e low ) . 4.3.3.
A dj e c ti v e s
Adj e c t ives are s impl e st ems . Syntact i cally they behave li ke i n s t ran s i t ive verb s . They d i f fer i n that they are inflected for degree ( see § 4 . 2 . 5 . above ) . Predi cat ive adj e c t i v e s not infle c t e d for degree are s t r e s s e d on the last s y l l ab l e ; e . g . t i b b 6 ' hi g h ' in t i b b o ( d O j a b u O n ) ' ( t h i s h o u s e i s ) ta l l ' ; compare with t u m f b b o d O j a b u 6 n s i a n a n ' t h i s h o u s e i s ta l l e r t h a n t h a t ' , and j a b u na d b b o dO 6n ' t h i s i s a ta l l h o u s e ' . An att ribut ive adj e c t ive c ome s a ft e r the noun head and i s marked by t he prep o s it io n n a ( se e a l s o the previous examp le ) : j a b u n a b u r u k n a t ) b bo f ' t h e ta l l o l d h o u s e ' . In h a l a k n a h a t 6 p m a r d a l a n 'a p e r s o n who wa l k s fa s t ' , h a t 6 p ' q u i c k; fas t ' i s predi cat ive i n t h e at tribut ive c lause (note the s t re s s pattern ) . 4.3.4.
A dj u n c t s
An adj unc t i s a s t em which i s not a noun , a verb , or an adj e ct i ve , d O l a O i b a n a , or and whi ch o c curs in the frame s l a O d O i b a n a I
a O d O i b a n a ' he g o e s
There are two t yp e s o f adj unc t s : verb aJj unc t s , whic h are attribut ive t o verb s , and c lau se adj un ct s , which are attribut ive t o clauses ( ex amp l e s b e l ow ) . Verb adj unc t s are di fferent from pre dicator
76 aux i l i ar i e s ( § 4 . 4 . 5 . ) in that t he latter are alway s next t o the ve rb head , whe reas t he former usually o c c upy a d i f ferent p o s i t i on . Verb adj unc t s fall into two c l a s se s , which we w i l l call time adjuncts and adverb s . Time adj un c t s have a fre er d i s t ri but i on than adverb s : o f t h e three frame s above , t he last c annot be oc cupied b y a n adverb . T ime adj unc t s are morphologi cally c omp le x and are morphophonemi c ally irregular ; e . g . n a k k i n f f) ' j u s t now ' ( from na + i + i ) , b o d a r i ' ( i n t h e ) e v e n i n g ' ( from b O t + d i + a r i ) , a n n O n ' pr e s en t l y ' ( from a n + O n ) . Adverb s are s imple s t ems . They share s ome syntac t i cal privileges of o c c urrence with adj e c t i ve s , b u t a r e not i nflec ted for degree . Examp l e s : Time Adj un ct s : a n n O n 'pre s e n t l y ' in a n n 6 n d O i b � n a m U l a k ' h e w i l l aome b a a k p re s en t ly ' ; n a m a s a h a ( ' t h e o t h e r da y ' in p a j u p p a f) d O h a m i n a m a s a h a ( ' w e m e t t h e o th e r day ' ; n a s o g 6 t ' t h i s ( past ) m o r n i n g ' in n a s o g 6 t dO i b a n a l a O ' he w e n t t h i s morning ' . t O k t 6 f) ' a lway s ' in t O k t O f) d O i b a n a m a r p 6 g o s ' he i s a lways s a u t ' g o through ( o f a p l a n ) ' in s a u t dO i b a n a r O ' h e aame a s p l ann e d ' ; d O h O t ' do some t h in g toge t h e r w i t h a n o t h e r ' in d O h O t dO i b a n a m a r E d d E ' h e is s i n g i ng too (a l o n g w i t h o t h e rs ) ' . C l ause A dj unc t s : r a ' p robab l y ' in r a r 6 d 6 i b a n a ' h e wi l l probab l y
A dverb s :
( = rema i ns )
aome ' ;
poor ' ;
u l a n i f) ' I wonde r ' in r 6 d O i b a n a u l a n i f) ' I wonder w h e t h e r he t O t t u ' ae r t a i n ly ' in t O t t u r O d O i b a n a ' i t i s a e r t a i n t h a t
w i l l aome ' ;
he wi l l aome ' . 4.3.5.
I n te rj e c t i o n s
Interj e c t i on s are e x c lamat ory words ( words used i n curs ing , animal c a l l word s , words for the attract ion of attent ion , and the l ike ) and other words whi ch regu larly o c cur a s one-word c lauses (minor c lause type s ) . Examp l e s : Exc lamat ory words : b u r i a p u s or a p u s ' I ' l l be damne d ' ; b a y a or p u a f) ' b uddy ' ; h u r r e e ' chi cken call ' ; h u d j e e ' pi g cal l ' ; s e h ' t o drive away dogs ' ; p e h ' ex c lamat i on of d i sgust ' . Many of these words ( e . g . the last four examp le s ) man i f e s t deviant phonologi cal behaviour . Ot hers : b e t a ' aome ( i . e . Z e t ' s go ) ' ; b O h a i ' in d e e d ? ' ; t 6 1 E ' aome o n ! ' ; h 6 r a s ' gree t ing , usable at any t ime ' , s f u ' p Z e a s e ' ( us ed at t he end o f a s entenc e , only t o ch i l dren ) . 4.4. 4.4. 1 .
F U N C TO RS Substi tutes
The sub st i t ut e s fall into several c l a s s e s acc ording t o their domain- t i e : pronoun , proverb , pro-adj e c t ive , pro-adj unct and pro- c lau s e .
77
4.4. 1 . 1 .
P It O no un.6
The s e fall into s e veral type s : personal , demon s t rati ve , int erroga t i ve , inc lus i ve , part i t ive , and indefinite pronouns , and numeral s . The p ersonal pronouns are : S ingular Free form Bound form First person : exc l . inc l . S econd person Third person Inde finite person
,
au
hu- , -hu
hO i bana f ba
-mu -na - n i ba
Plural Free form Bound form ham i h f ta ham� nas fda
- nam i ta- , - ta -muna - na s i da
The b ound forms are u s e d in i nfl e c t i onal re feren c e to p o s s e s s or , actor , and obj e c t ( c f . § 4 . 2 . 1 . 2 . ) . The p lura l o f t he s e c on d person ( h a m � ) and o f the third person ( n a s f d a ) are also used to refer t o one person t o show respect to the person re ferred t o ; the amb iguity is usua l ly re s o l ved by the c ontext . This i s a mat t e r o f s t y l i s t i c s ; l ikewi s e , t he inde fini t e person ( f b a ) i s us ed i n s ome s it uat ions t o re fer t o t he speaker ; e . g . when a c hi ld makes a n obj e c t ion t o h i s paren t s : n U Q � a 1 6j a f b a ' o n e i s a t r e a dy t i r e d ' , t hat i s ' I am a t re a dy t i r e d ( s o don ' t ma k e me do any more wo r k ) ' . With noun s o f rela t i on ( and others like j a b u ' ho m e ; h o u s e ' ) , t he first person inc lusive suffix ( - t a ) re fers t o the speaker or the hearer depending on the context . The demonstrative pronouns fall into two s e t s . The first se t cons i s t s o f O n ' t h i s ' , ' th a t ' , a n ' t h a t ( yonder ) ' , a d u or a d u i ' t ha t ( o v e r t h e re ) ' ; O n i s c l o s e r t o speaker t han t o heare r , i i s c l o se r t o hearer t han t o s peaker , a n i s f a r from both , a d � ( i ) i s very far from bot h . Examp l e s : m 6 t O r d O O n ' t h i s i s a c a r ' ; umma r g a d O f s i a n a n ' t h a t i s more exp e n s i v e t h a n t h a t ( yonder ) ' . The s e demon s t ra t iv e s are a l so us ed attribut ively : j a b u 6 n ' t h i s ho u s e ' , d o l o k a n ' t ha t m o u n t a i n ( yonder ) ' , do l o k a d � ' t ha t m o u n t a i n ( o v e r there) ' . 'it '
i s a l s o u se d without any definite demonstrat ive force ( much l ike and t he definit e art i c le in Engli s h ) : n U � Q a d i t u h O r i b a n a b u k k u
d a � h u b 6 t O ) ' I don ' t know i t ' . i , a n are en c l i t i ca l ly l i nked t o a noun i nflec t e d for first and s e cond pe rson s ingular p o s s e s sor : j a b � k k u 'my h o u s e ' + i � j a b u k k f ' he a t re ady b o u g h t t h e b o o k ' ;
On ,
'my h o u s e t h e r e ' ;
d O � a m m u ' t hy fri e n d '
+
O n � d O � a m m 6 n ' t hy fri e n d
( cf. § 3. 3 . 2 . ) . The s e c on d se t o f demonstrative s c on s i s t s o f d d i 6 n ' t h a t o n e ' , d d i a n ' t ha t o n e y o n d e r ' , d d a d � or d d a d � i
here '
' this one ' ,
dd i
' t hat one over
78 there ' . The s e are more empha t i c than the first s e t . Morphologically , t hey s e em t o have deve l oped from * n a + d i + O n ( i , a n , a d u , a d u i ) ' t ha t w h i c h i s here ( t h e r e , e t c . ) ' . The interrogative pronouns are f s E ' w h o ' , a h a ' w ha t ' , d f a ' w h i c h ' ; s a d f a ' how much ( pric e ) ' : f s E m a n u h O r O n 'who b o u g h t t h i s ? ' ; f s E g O a r m u ( = wh a t )
is y o u r name ? ' ; a h a d O 6 n 'wha t i s t h i s ? ' ; a h a 'wha t d f a d u m e l) g a n ' wh i c h is b e t t e r ? ' ; j a b u d f a n a t u m r b b o ' wh i c h h o u s e i s ta l l e r ( o r ta l l e s t ) ? ' ; s a d f a O n ' how m u c h ( p ri c e ) i s t h i s ' . ' who
is i t ? ';
s u d e d O r O ' e v e ry b o dy came ' ; t u h O r m a s U d e ' b uy a l l ' ; s U d e j 6 1 m a ) k k O n m a t E d O ' a l l m e n m u s t
The
inclusive pronoun
i s s U d e or s a s u d e
partitive pronoun
is deba
'a l l ' :
di e ' .
The
' s ome ' :
d e b a d O rO ' s ome came ' ;
t u h O r m a d e b a ' b uy s o m e (pa r t ) o f i t ' . The indef inite pronouns are s a O t i k or O t i k ' a Z i t t Z e ; s om e ; a few ' ; ( s i ) a n u ' s o - a n d- s o ' ( a h a i s a l s o u s e d for this purpo s e ) ; a h a ' s u c h and- s u c h a t h i n g ' ; g o d a l) 'many ( p e o p l e o r t h i n gs ) ' . Examp l e s : t u h O r m a s a O t i k ' b u y a few ( a Z i t t l e ) ' ; 1 � a n O n t u s i a n u ' g i v e t h i s t o s o and- s o ' ; t u h O r ma a h a f ' b uy t h e wha t - do - y o u - ca l l - i t ' ; t u h O r m a g o d a l) ' buy many (mu c h ) ' . The inde fin i t e personal pronoun f b a ' o n e ' i s men t i oned above : ) k k O n g a r a r O n d O u t a l) l) f b a ' o n e ' s deb ts mus t b e p a i d ' , that i s ' o n e mu s t pay o n e ' s deb t s ' . Numerals. There are two c las s e s of nume ral s , cardinal and ordinal. The s imp le cardinal nume ral s are : s a d a ' o n e ' , d u a ' two ' , t 6 1 u ' t h r e e ' ,
6 p a t ' fo u r ' , 1 r m a ' fi v e ' , 6 n Om ' s ix ' , p f t u ' s e v e n ' , u a 1 u ' e ig h t ' , s f a ' n i n e ' , p u 1 u ' te n ' , r � t u s ' hu n dre d ' , r f b u ' t h o u s an d ' , 1 6 k s a ' t e n t h o u s an d ' ( t hi s i s going out o f u s e ) , j u t a 'mi l l i o n ' . Higher numbers
are formed by the patt ern numb er o f uni t + uni t + number o f next lower un it + ( next lower ) un it + . . . + digit ( i f any ) ; when the number o f unit i s one , the shortened form s a - of s a d a ( s a l) - b e fore p u 1 u ' t e n ' ) i s prefixe d t o the unit ; otherwi se , the full forms are preposed to the uni t ; t hu s , s a p p u 1 u ' t e n ' , d u a p u 1 u ' tw e n t y ' , s a p p u 1 u p f t u ' s e v e n t e en ' , d u a p u 1 u p ) t u r f b u t o 1 u r a t u s u a 1 u p u 1 u ' tw e n t y s e v e n t h o u s a n d t h r e e hundred a n d e i g h t y ' .
The lowe r c ardinal nume ra ls beginning with d u a ' two ' ( rare ly higher t han e i ght ) t ake an i n c lu sive su ffix - s a , in whi c h case the nume rals ending in a vowel have the a c cret ive ending / 1) / ( see also § 3 . 3 . 2 . ) . Thu s , d u a t c a ' b o t h ' , O p a t c a ' a l Z fo ur ' , o n 6 p s a ' a l Z s i x ' . With higher numb e r s , inclus i vene s s is e xpre s s e d by s U d e ' a l Z ' + na ' p rep o s i t i on ' + numb er + demonstra t i ve pronoun : s U d e n a O p a t p u 1 u f ' a l Z for ty ' , s u d e n a s a p p u 1 u O n O m O n ' a Z Z t h e s e s i x t e e n ( 1 . e . a Z Z s i x t e e n h e re ) ' . Perhap s , we a l s o have the inc lus ive suffi x - s a in s a s a d � s a ' ( a Z l ) b y hims e Z f ' ; t he morphemi c s t ru ct ure se ems t o b e s a - ' on e ' ( b ound form ) + s a d a ' o n e '
79 + - s a ( in c lus ive s u ffix ) .
A s ub - c l a s s o f the cardinal numeral s i s the interrogative p ( g a ' ho w p ( g a b u k k u n a ' how many a r e h i e b o o k e ( how many b o o k e do e e h e ha v e ? ) ' ; p ) g a h � l i ' ho", many t im e e ' . I t i s regularly inflected for ordinal : p a p i g a h O n ' t he howma n i e t h ( wha t n um b er ) ' , p a i p r g a 'wha t
many ' :
=
n umb e r ? ' .
For ordinals , s e e § 3 . 5 . 4.4.1 .2.
P�o v e�b¢
The proverb s are formed from the root I- h u a : act ive intran s i t ive m a r h u a 'do ( i n g ) w ha t ' , s t at ive int ran s it i ve m a h u a ' w h a t hap p e n e d t o i t ' , and t ran s i t ive h a h u a ' do e om e t hi n g t o ( eo m e t h i ng ) ' . Example s : ma r h ua i b a n a d i s f 'wha t i e h e do i n g t h e re ? ' ; d a � ma r h u a h f t a t u s f ' w e a r e n o t do i n g an y t h i n g t h e r e ( i . e . w e h a v e n o b u e i n e e e g o i n g t h e re ) ' ; m a h u a i ba n a 'wha t happe n e d t o h i m ? ' ; d a Q m a h u a i b � n a ' n o t hi n g happ e n e d t o h i m ' ; ( s E m a k k a h u a h O 'who hae don e w h a t t o y o u ? ' ( ac t ive vOice , s impl e mode ) ; i n the fo l lowing e x amp l e s o f t h e p a s s ive , the t rans lat ions are by nece s si t y i n the act ive : d l h a h u a i b a n a h O 'wha t did he do to y o u ? ' ; d a Q h a h u a 6 n n a h � m i ' h e won ' t do a n y t h i n g t o u e ( ex c l . ) ' ; d a Q h i n a h u a d a Q t a r h a h u � s a ) ' h e can n o t do The above examp l e s s how that the t ran s i t ive s t em h a h u a i s regularly infle c t e d for a l l t h e modes in t he p a s s ive an d for the s imp le mode in the act ive . The re ciprocal m a s i h a h u � a n ' do w h a t to e a c h o th e r ' does o c cur in the interrogat ive , but it i s rare ; s o i s the d i s t ribut ive act ive m a s i h a h u a ' e a c h do e e w h a t ' ; the c omp let ive act ive * h um a h u a does not se em t o oc cur . i b� n a
' n o t hi n g hae b e en don e t o h i m ' ;
a n y t h i n g t o ( o r , a bo u t ) i t ' .
4.4.1 .3.
P�o - ad j e c� v e
The pro-adj e c t i ve i s b E h a ' o f w h a t e o r t ' : b E h � d O p a k k i l a l a a m m u ' o f ( i . e . h o w do y o u fe e l ? ) ' ; j a b u n a b E h a ' w h a t k i nd o f h o ue e ? ' ; b E h a u l f n a ' of w h a t e o r t i e i t e b e a u ty ( i . e . how
w h a t e o r t i e y o u r fe e l i n g b e a u t i fu l ie i t ? ) '
4.4.1 .4.
P�o - ad j u n c�¢
Interrogat ive pro-adj unc t s are a d d ( g a n ' w h e n ( future ) ' and n a d d f g a n ' w h e n ( in t he p a st ) ' : a d d f g a n h O l a O ' w h e n a r e y o u g o i ng ? ' ; n a d d f g a n h O I � O ' w h e n did y o u g o ? ' Pro-adj unc t s o f l o c at i on are formed from the propos it ions d i ' a t ' , t u ' t o ' and t h e demonstrative pronouns O n ' th i e ' , ' th a t ' , a n ' th a t y onder ' , a d u ( i ) ' t ha t o v e r t h e r e ' w i t h a linking l s i : d i s 6n 'here ' O ( d i + l s i + O n ) ; t u s n ' ( t o ) here ' ; d l s f ' there ' ; t u s a n ' ( to) there
80 y o n d e l" ;
etc . P�o - clau� e�
4.4.1 .5.
The pro-c lause s are 6 1 0 ' y e s the negat ive part i c l e d a � ' no t ;
d a O � ' n o ' ( note the di fferen c e from n o ' ) , b O a s a 'why ' ( s ome s ay b E a s a ) , , , a s a ' s o ' , j a d i ' s o ; t h e l'efol'e ' , f p E ' s o now ' or O p p E ( from I + p E and , l aO O n + p E ) , a t t O � ' 8 0 now ' : a s a I l a O rn a h f t a ' s o l e t ' s g o ' ; j a d i , rn a i b a n a ' t h e l'efol'e he w e n t ( away ) ' ; ( p E I b O r h a t rna h O ' s o now, go t h o u ' ; a t t O n I m a r E d d E rn a h f t a ' s o n o w , l e t ' s s i ng ' . ',
D i re c t i ve P a rt i c l e s
4.4.2.
The dire c t i ve part i c le s fall into two c l a s s e s : prepositions and The ax i s o f a prepo s i ti on is a word ( mo s t ly nomina ls ) , and t hat of a s ubordinat ing c onj unct ion a c lause . subordinating conj unctions.
4.4.2.1 .
P� e p o � itio n�
The prep o s i t i on s fall int o s everal groups according t o their c ommon me aning or funct ion : l o cat ive , instrumental , attribut ive , p o s s e s s i ve agent i ve , ob j e ct i ve , c omparat ive , and resultat i ve . 4.4.2.1 .1 .
di
'at ' :
Loca t i ve Prepo s i t i ons d i j a b u ' i n t h e h o u s e ; a t home ' ; d i b u t a r ' a t B u t al' ( p lace
name ) ' ; d i i b a n a
'wi t h him ( a t h i s p el's on ) ' .
t u ' to ' :
t u O n a n ' t o t h e mal' k e t ' ; t u i b a n a ' t o him ' ; t u g f d j a � ' to t h e t o p ; upwal'd ' ; t u a h a ' w h a t fol'; to what ' . s f a n ' fl'om ' : s ) a n j a b u ' fl'om t h e h o u s e ' ; s ) a n t O r u ' fl'om t h e b o t t om; fl'om b e l o w ' ; p a u l i t f t t i n s ) a n m a s ' t o make a l'ing out of go l d ' .
S ome prep o s i t i onal phra s e s function as a who le as prepo s i t ions o f l o c at i on . The s e phra s e s are made up o f the prep o s i t i on d i o r t u fol lowed b y a noun ; e . g . d i a t a s ' o n ( t o p ) ' , t u b a g a s a n ' i n t o ' : d i a t a s m e j a d O b u k k u f ' t h e b o o k i s o n t h e t ab l e ' ; d i b a g a s a n l a m a r i d O b u k k u f ' t h e b o o k i s i n t h e cupboal'd ' . Some phrasal prep o s i t i ons are formed by d i , t u , s f a n + a noun + n i ' o f ' ( po s s e ssive prep o s i t i on ) ; e . g . d i t O r u n i m e j a ' a t t h e b o t tom of ( unde l' ) t h e t ab l e ' ; d i l a b b u � n i j a b u f ' a t t h e s i d e of ( b e s i de ) t h e h o us e ' ; the s t ruct ure i s =
' lo c at ive prep o s i t i on + p o s s e s s e d noun + p o s s e s s ive prep o s it ion ( marker ) + p o s s e s s o r noun ' . When the p o s s e s sor i s a personal pronoun , it appears i n i t s b ound form s uffixed t o the p o s s e s s e d noun : d i l a b b u k k u ( I a b b u � + - h u ) ; d i p u d 1 m 'behind you ' ( p u d i d i j o l 6 t t a ' i n fl' o n t of u s ' ( j o l o ' fl'o n t ' + - t a ) . ' b e s ide me '
'back ' + - m u ) ;
81 Some locat ive prepos i t ions are derived from verb s : h um a l i a l) ( U H - + Ih a l i a l) , root o f h a l i a l) i ' su rround ' )
'around ' a d O I)
d O h a u h um a l ) a l) j a b u f ' t h er e a r e t r e e s a r o u n d t h e h o u s e ' . m a d d a pO t t O n ' t o ' ( m a l) - + d a pO t t O n ' g o t owards ' ) i s used in letter addres s e s also ; r 6 m a I b a n a m a d d a p O t t O n a u ' h e c a m e towards m e ' . ma d d O k ' to ' ( m a l) - + d O k ' say ' ) i s u s e d only with s ome form of d O k ' say '
preceding in t he sentenc e :
4.4.2.1 .2.
I n s t r umen t a l
d I d O k m a m a d d O k a u ' ( h e ) s a i d to me . . . '
P r epos i t i o n s
d O h O t 'by m e a n s of; w i t h ' :
d i I ) t c i I) i b a n a d O a u d O h O t b a 1 6 b a s ' I
was b ea t en b y h i m w i th a r u l er ' .
m a r h i t e ' b y m e a n s of; t h rough ' : m a r h h e h a p O r s E a O n d O j O l m a b o l marh) te pOs m a l u a ' th r o u g h fai th � man c a n b e s a v e d ' : h u t 6 � O s p E I n t he last examp l e , s f a n can be s ub s t i t ut e d ' I w i l l s end i t b y mai l ' .
for ma rh f t e . 4.4.2.1 .3.
A t t r i b u t i ve P r e p os i t i o n
There i s one at tributive prep o s i t ion , n a ; it links a noun head with an attributive adj e c t ive , verb , numeral , or a phras e : h a u na t f b b o 'ta l l tree ' ;
h a l a k n a m o d om f ' t h e s l e ep i ng man ' ; d a k d a n a k n a d u a f h a l a k n a m a n u h O r b u k k u f ' t h e man w h o b o ug h t t h e
' t h e two c h i l dr e n ' ; b oo k ' ;
j a b u n a d l h u t a f ' t he h o u s e i n t he v i l l a g e ' .
4.4.2.1 .4.
p o s s e s s i v e - A g e n t i ve P r e po s i t i on
This prepo s it ion , n i , marks p o s s e s s ion when it i s p re ceded by a noun : t a r u p n l j a b u ' ro o f o f a h o u s e ' ; j a b u n l f s E ' w h o s e h o u s e ' ; j a b u n l d O l) a n ' a fri en d ' s h o us e ' ; in these phra s e s t he p o s s e s sor fol lows the prep o s it i on . When n l i s preceded b y t he c omp let ive-part i cipial or the promi s s o ry mode o f a p a s s ive verb , it marks t he noun fol lowing it as actor o f the verb : t u h O r O n n i s i O n d O d O f ' i t w i l l b e b o ug h t b y Ondo ( boy ' s name ) ' ; O n d O t i n u h O r n l d O l) a t t a 4.4.2.1 .S.
' t h i s i s ( w h a t i s ) b o ugh t b y o u r fri e n d ' .
Ob j e c t i ve p r ep o s i t i on
Thi s prepos it ion , d l , marks t he goal of a tran s i t ive verb in con s t ru c t i ons in whi c h the obj e c t does not immediat e ly follow the verb : m a n u k k u n m a a u d i h O ' I am a s k i n g y o u ( n o w ) ' ; n a m a d j u k k a t
I
dO hO d i au
( in t h i s style , more emphas i s i s given t o ' t eas ing ' than in t h e ordi nary n a m a d j u k k a t i a u d O h O ) . Apparent ly , d i performs the s ame fun c t ion ( goal marker ) with spe c ial expre s sions l ike I Om O r O h a ' l i k e ' in I O m O d O r O h a n a d i h O ' h e l i k e s y o u ' , in which ' a r e y o u t ea s i n g m e ? '
82 I O mU i s a n adj e c t ive ( i t can be inflected for degree ) , and r O h a n a
' h is
mind ' .
s a m a marks rec ipro c i t y ; it se ems t o be long in thi s c la s s . It i s found , i n most case s , between two i dent i c al pronouns , and i s often precede d by a reciprocal verb : m a s i s u k k u n a n m a h a m i s a m a h a m i ' w e asked each o t h e r ' ;
m a r b a d a d O n a s ( d a s a m a n a s ( d a ' t h ey are q u a r r e Z i n g h 1 t a s a m a h ( t a m a ( ' Z e t i t b e b e tw e e n u s ' .
amo n g s t t h ems e Z v e s ' ; 4.4.2.1 .6.
Comp a ra t i ve p r e p o s i t i o n s
Of the t hree prepo s i t ions in t h i s c las s , the last two are int er changeab le , s t a n b e ing the more common . s 6 1) O n ' Z i k e ' : a ng e Z ( ' s )
"
s O I) O n s u r u s u r u a n d O u l ( n a ' h e r b e auty is Z i k e an
that i s ,
s i a n ' t han ' :
' s h e is as b e a u t i fu Z as an ang e Z ' .
h u m a t O p d O 6 n s i a n m 6 t O r ' t h i s i s fa s t e r t ha n a m o t o r
car ' .
a s a ' t han ' : d u m e l) g a n d O 6 n a s a a n ' t h i s i s b e t t e r t h a n t h a t y onder ' . 4.4.2.1 .7.
R e s u l t a t i ve P r e p os i t i o n s
There are t w o pre po si t ions in t h i s group : g a b e ' for; as ' , b a E n ' fo r ; as ' . The latter i s a l s o a verb , meaning 'ma k e; p u t ' ; when i t o c curs in t h e c l ause , the prepo s i t ion g a b e i s us ed : b a E n m a i b a n a g a b e d O l) a m m u ' m a k e him ( fo r ) y o u r fri en d ' ; t u h O r d E:k k E ( b a E n p a l) a n 6 t t a ' b u y t h e fi sh fo r o u r foo d ' ; i b a n a d O d i t o d o n a s ( d a g a b e k a p a l a k a p p u l) ' h e was c h o s e n by t h em for v i Z Z a g e c h i e f ' . 4.4.2.1 .8.
ala ni
Some Phra s e s
F u n c t i on
as
prepo s i t i on s
( a l a ' re a s o n ; c a u s e ' ) i s a phras e that c an funct ion as a prep o s i t ion : a l a n i a h a l a O i b a n a ' b ecaus e of what ( why ) did h e go ? ' ; h u p a s ( d i l) dO i b a n a a l a n i j u k k a k n a 'he i s avoided ' b e caus e of '
=
b y m e b e caus e of h i s naug h t i n e s s ' .
t a r f l) O t t u ' co n c er n i n g ' ( t a r - + ( I) O t ' rememb e r ' ) : i b a n a t a r 1 1) O t t u p a r d a l a n a k k ( 4.4.2.2.
' I toZd
h u pa boa d O t u
( t o ) him abo u t my trav e Z ' .
S ub a�dina�ing C a n j u nc�i a n�
In t he t ran s c ri p t i on s be low and in the fo llowing s e c t i on s , we w i l l u s e add i t i onal symbo l s : . repre sent s a fall ing terminal contour , , a sustained T . C . , ? a rising T . C . m 6 1 0 ' i f; w h e n ' ( th i s has a more general fun c t i on than the other words for ' i f ' b e l ow ) : ( l a O d O a u , ) mO I O r6 i b a n a ' ( I wi Z Z g o , ) w h e n h e comes ' .
a l) g O or ( a or i a l) g O ' if ( condit i onal ) ; as for ' ; there i s usually a
83 negat ive i n one o f the c laus e s :
l aO d O a u , a �g O s O r O i b a n a ' I wi l l
g o , i f h e do e s no t aome ' ; a � g O s a O n n a r i , I won ' t o b ey
d a � o l o a k k u b E h O ' a s for now ,
t h e e any more ' .
a u t or a u t c u r a ' i f ' ( cont rary t o fac t ) : l a O d O a u , a u t a d 6 � h E pE k k U i f I h a d m o n ey ( l i t eral ly , ' i f my m o n e y exi s t e d ' ) ' . The s ame e ffe ct i s produc e d by means of the verb aux i l i ary s u g a r i ( contrary to fact ) , or the comb i nation a u t s u g a r i : l a O d O a u , s u g a r i a d 6 � h E p E k k u ' I would go,
' I wou l d g o ,
had I money ' . \
n a � ' a l t h o ugh ' : n a � r O i b a n a , l a O d O a u ' a l t h o u g h h e comes (may aome ) , I w i' l l go ' ; l a O d O a u , n a � s O r O i b a n a ' I w i l l g o , a l t h o u g h h e ,
,
· do e s n o t aome ' .
a g f a ' e v e n i f ' ( s t ronger t han n a � ) ; i t i s mos t ly us ed with a negat ive : l a O d O a u , a g ) a s O s a E h E p E k k u 'I wi l l g o , e v e n i f I h a v e n o t e n o u g h money ' .
d i d ' as s o o n as ' :
h uj 6 u p E h O , d i s ) s a h a t i b a n a
' I wi n a a n you,
as s o o n as h e a r r i v e s ' .
d k k i o r t a g a n ' w hi l e ' ( d k k i as a noun means ' time ' ) : b O r h a t rn a h am i , t ) k k i m a k k a t a i n a s f d a d i j a b u ' w e l eft , w h i l e t h e y w e r e t a l k i n g
In a special style , t h i s word can o c cur be fore an independent c l au s e , in whi c h case t he other c lause i s dependent : t ) k k i
in the house ' .
ma k k a t a i d O n a s f d a d i j a b u , b O r h a t h a m l i n t h e hous e ,
' i t i s w h i l e t he y w e re t a l k i n g
t h a t w e l e ft ' .
d u � ' aft e r ' : b O r h a t rn a h a m i , d u � r 6 i b a n a ' w e l e f t , a f t e r h e aame ' . p a ( t t E or p a r m a ' u n t i l ' ( b oth oc cur as verb s , meaning ' wa i t ' ) : u n a � m a r f s a p h O , p a ) m a s a h a t h f t a t u j a b u ' do n ' t smo k e u n t i l we a r r i v e a t home ' .
ma r a d u 'so that ' ; l a l a p d O i b a n a m a rm E a m i , m a r a d u s O d i f � O t m U l a k t u j a b u ' h e i s s o a b s o r b e d i n p la y i n g , t h a t h e forg e t s to go b a a k home ' .
u b b a E n ( or d i b a E n ) usually fo llowed b y n a introdu c e s a re sultat ive c l aus e ; t he pre ce ding clause is also us ually intro du c e d b y n a : n a h O n a u d a n d O i b a n a , u b b a E n n a m a r s a h i t ' ( i t was b e aa u s e ) h e wa s a a ug h t i n t h e ra i n ,
t ha t h e i s s i a k ' .
We a l s o find both c l aus e s introduced b y
u b b a E n n a : u b b a E n n a h O n a u d a n d O i b a n a , u b b a E n n a ma r s a h i t ( s ame meaning ) . a I a ' b e aa u s e ' : rn a r s a k d O i b a n a , a I a s O a d O � h E p E � � a ' he i s sad, b e aa u s e h e h a s n o m o n e y ' .
d a � ta l l E an a u f t u hO , a i s O b ukkukku f 'I aan ' t g i v e i t to t h e e , for i t is n o t m i n e ' ; u n a � p O l a m a b l a r h O , a i n a j f n a k d O b ) a � f ' t h o u n e e dn ' t b e afra i d , b e aa u s e t h e do g i s a t ame o n e ' . a p a l a ' n o t . . . , b u t . . . ' ( s i gnals c ontrast ) : a p a l a i b a n a m a n u h O r b u k k u f , a u d O ' i t i s no t he (who ) b o ug h t t h e b o o k , b u t I (did) ' . ai
' fo r ; b e aa u s e ' :
,
"
,
84 s O t u rJ ' l e s t ' : u n a rJ s e g a i b u k k u ( , s O t u rJ d i rn u r u h i h O ' do n ' t ru i n t h e book,
l e s t y o u b e reb u k e d ( b y h i m ) ' .
a s a ' s o that ' :
t i b u rn a h O r O , a s a r a p l a O h ( t a ' come e a r l y , so t h a t
w e go t o g e t he r ' .
I
rn a n a rJ ' w h e t he r ' :
d O rn a n a rJ n a u rJ r O i b a n a ? ' do y o u know
w h e t h er h e has come ? '
s a rJ a ' b e fo r e ( i t is t o o l a t e and . . . ) ' : b u r f rn a p ) rJ g a n f , s a rJ a r O i n a t t a ' w a s h t h e d i s h e s b e fo r e ( i t i s t o o l a t e a n d ) m o t h e r c o m e s ' . Thi s imp l i cat ion o f t hreat i s also seen in : s a rJ a d i b a E n h O f s a h a l i n a r i ' if y o u do i t o n c e a g a i n ( y o u wi l l s u ffe r t h e c o n s e q u e n ce s ) ! ' ; s a rJ a s O t i b u h O r O ' i f y o u don ' t come ear ly ! ' 4.4.3.
Moda l
Parti c l es
The modal part i c l e s fall into two c l a s se s : predicative particles and imperative particles. Predi c at ive part i c le s are found in non imperat ive c laus e s . Each o c curs w i t h a certain predicat ion mode . Imperative p art i c l e s are found in imperat ive c laus e s ; they ind i c a t e various shade s o f t he imperat i ve . I f no tran s lat ion i s p o s s i b le , we will indicate the mode with whi ch t he part i c l e s are a s s o c i at e d . 4.4.3.1 .
P�ediea�i v e Pa��iele�
The first t hree c ome between the predicator and the subj e c t , the next two o c cur at the b eginning o f the c laus e . d O ' a ffirmat ive ' : rn 6 d o rn d O i b a n a ' he is s l e e p i ng ' ; h u f d a d O i b a n a ' h e i s s e e n by me ' ;
i ba n a rn a i bana pE
h O d O rna b b a E n O n ? ' d i d .YOU do t h i s ? ' ; r i rJ g a s d O g u r u d O i b a n a 'he i s a teacher ' . rn a r s i a j a r rna i b a n a ' ( and s o ) he s t udied ' ; d i t u h O r
' h e i s di l i g en t ' ;
' narrat ive ': rn a b u k k u
r
' ( and t h e n )
' conc e s s ive ' :
he b o u g h t t h e b o o k ' .
huga ra r p E bukku f
b o o k ' ; rn a r d a l a n p a t p E a u
' ( I prom i s e )
I wi l l pay fo r t h e
' ( i t ' s a l l rig h t ) I w i l l wa l k ' ; O n p E h u l E a n
' I wi l l jus t give this
( i . e . , t h ere i s n o n e e d t o find a n o t h e r ) ' . The first e xamp le can b e expre s s e d by the promi s sory mode o f t he verb : g a ra r O k k u d O b u k k u f ' I wi l l pay for t h e b o o k ' ; the u s e of p E i s felt to e xpre s s a s t ronge r commitment . d a rJ ' n o t ; n o ' ( d a d a and d a t u rJ are more emphat i c ne gat ive part i c l e s ; c f . s O b e l ow ) : d a rJ h u f d a i b a n a ' he is no t s e e n by me ( I don ' t s e e =
d a rJ g u r u i b a n a ' h e is no t a t e a c h e r ' . n U rJ rJ a ' a l ready ' ( exp l i c i t comp l e t ive ) : n U rJ rJ a l a O i b a n a ' h e has a l ready g o n e ' ; n U rJ rJ a h u j 6 u i b a n a ' h e has a lready been ca l l e d by me ! ' him) ' ;
The above predicative part i c l e s are mutually exc lus ive . negat i ve ( corre sponding to p E ) is d a rJ p O l a : d a rJ p O l a rO h O
A conc e s s ive 'you need
85
n o t come ' ; it) ' .
da8 pO l a h u b u a t
(
' i t won ' t be taken b y m e (= I won ' t take
The negat ive c orre sponding to n U 8 8 a ' comple t ive ' is d a 8 b E
longer ' :
'no
d a 8 bE j u k k a t i b a n a ' he i s no l on g e r n a u g h t y ' .
Except in s p e c i a l s t y le s , t hes e part i c l e s o c cur only i n independent c lau s e s . In subordinate c laus e s or phras e s , the negat ive p art i c le i s s o : l a O d O a u , m a l O s O r O i b a n a ' I w i l l g o , w h e n h e do e s n o t come ' ;
t he comp le t ive i s d U 8 ( n a u 8 in nominal c laus e s ) :
l aO d O a u , ma l O d U 8
r O I b a n a ' I w i l l g o , w he n h e has come ' ; b E r E 8 j O I O ma n a 8 n a U 8 r O i b a n a ' g o s e e w h e t h e r h e has come ' .
s O i s also u s e d in independent c laus e s as an emphat i c negat ive ; c f . d a 8 a d 0 8 h E p E k k u ' I h a v e n o money ' and s O a d 0 8 h E p E k k u ' I HA VE n o mon e y ' .
d O p E ' s t i l l ' ( p rogre s s ive ) :
m a k k a d i d O p E n a s f d a ' they are s t i l l
Thi s be longs marg inally t o thi s c l as s , be c au s e i t i s mutual ly e x c lu s ive with t he non-negat ive p art i c l e s above ; however , i t c an o c cur with t he negat ive d a 8 : d a 8 m a 8a n d O p E n a s f d a ' t h e y h a v e n o t l a O rna h f t a , m O I O y e t e a t e n ' , and i t i s found in subordinate c lause s : t a l ki n g ' .
m a k k a t a i d O p E n a s f d a ' l e t ' s g o , i f t hey are s t i l l ta l k in g ' . 4.4.3.2.
I mp e�a�iv e Pa��i cle�
An imperat i ve c lause o c curs without a part i c l e : r O 1, 0 ' come ( t h o u ) ! ' ; Other shade s o f the imperat ive contain a part i c l e . The first two come after the verb ( j O I O c an c ome after the subj e c t hO ' t h o u ' ) , and the last three oc c ur i ni ti ally i n the c lause . j 6 1 0 ' mi ld impe rat ive ' : r O j O I O h a m u t u s O n ' come ( y o u ) h e r e , p l e as e ' ; b u a t j O I O bu kku ' ta k e t he b o o k , p l e a s e ' ; r O j O I O h O or r O h O j 6 1 0 g a r a r u t a 8 m ( 'pay y o u r deb t ! ' .
'p l ease,
come ' .
rn a ' po l i t e impe rat ive ; re que s t ' : h u d d u l rn a h a m u ' p l ea s e , h a v e a s ea t ' ; t u h O r rna b u k k u f ' (w i l l y o u ) b u y t h e b o o k , p l e a s e ' . n a 8 g 0 ' sugge s t ive ' : n a 8 g 0 m a r d a l a n p a t h O 'why don ' t y o u wa l k ( o n fo o t ) ' , n a 8 g 0 m a r s 6 g o t h O r O ' w hy don ' t y o u c o m e tomorrow ! ' u n a 8 ' do n ' t ' ( ne gat ive imperat ive ) : u n a 8 r O h O t u s O n ' do n ' t come h e r e ' ; u n a 8 t u h O r b u k k u f ' do n ' t b u y the b o o k ' . M i l der shades o f p rohi b i t ions are e ff e c t e d b y a comb inat i on o f u n a 8 and rn a o r j O I O : u n a 8 rn a r O h O t u s O n or u n a 8 j O I O r O h O t u s O n ' p l ea s e , don ' t come h e r e ' . Like d a 8 ' n o t ' above , u n a 8 c ombi nes with p O l a and b E : u n a 8 p O l a r O h O t u s O n ' y o u don ' t h a v e t o come h e re ! ' ; u n a 8 b E r O h O t u s O n ' do n ' t come h e r e any m o re ! '
s O t u 8 ' do n ' t ' ( emphat i c n egat ive imperat ive ) : s O t u Q r O h O t u s O n Unl i ke u n a � above , i t appears with an inflected t ran s i t ive verb with t he subj e c t e xpre s s ed : s O t u Q d i t u h O r 'don ' t come here b y any mean s ! ' .
h O b u k k u ( ' don ' t b u y t h e b o o k by a n y m e a n s ' .
86 Connec t i ves
4.4.4.
Conne c t i ve s are part i c l e s that function a s markers o f e l ements in co -ordinate construc t ion . The first three mark c lauses only . d � !) i (he )
'and;
said
.
t h en ' :
ma s u k m a i b a n a , d u !) i d i d O k m a , ' h e came i n , and i b a n a t u H b u , d u !) i h a r � a r m a i b a n a m u s E ' h e
. . '; ma s u k ma
w e n t i n t o t h e h o u s e , a n d he came o u t aga i n ' .
alai
'but ' :
h u j o u d O i b a n a , a l a i d a !) 0 1 0 r O
' I ca L Z e d him,
but
(he)
d i d n o t w a n t t o come ' .
h a p E ' bu t ' ( s t ronger t han a l a i , and c onnote s surpri s e or i rri tat i on ) : d a !) h E a h u u r � p l i b a n a , h a p E 0 1 0 d O i b a n a m a !) u r u p i a u ' I had n e v e r h e lp e d h i m , b u t he w a s w i l l ing t o h e lp me ' .
j a l a ' a n d ' : b u r j � j a l a r i !) g a s d O i b a n a ' h e i s good and di l i g e n t ' ; d l b � k k a m a p ) t t u f , j a l a h a r � a r m a i b a n a ' h e o p e n e d t h e do o r , a n d he came o u t ' .
h u h u t ' a n d a t t h e same time ' :
h � d d u l m a i ba n a , h u h � t m E k k E l 'he l oj a h u h u t m a l E d O
s a t down, a n d ( a t t h e same time h e ) smi l e d ' ;
d i h i l a l a i b a n a ' h e fe e l s t i red and hungry ' . m a n a !) ' 0 1" : O n d O t u h O r O mm u 7 m a n a !) a n . ' are y o u g o i n g to b u y t h i s 0 1' t h a t ? ' ; g a r a r 6 m m u d O u t a !) m f 7 m a n a !) h u a l � h O n m a h 6 . ' a r e y o u g o i n g t o pay y our deb t , 0 1' s ha l l I s u e y ou ? ' ; a !)g f m m a n a !) a k k a !) m u dO 6 n . ' i s this (
=
h e ) y o ur y o un g e r (bro t h e r )
0 1'
y o ur o l der b ro t he r ? '
l aO dO a u d O h O t i b ana t u O n a n d 6 h O t ' and ' ( does not mark c l aus e s ) : d i b O t O h O d O m a n � r a t d O h O t m a d j a h a 7 ' do y o u know ( how t o ) wri t e and r e a d ? ' ; b � a t ma n a d i g f d j a !) d O h O t n a d i t O r u n i m e j a ( 'p l e a s e , t a k e w h a t i s o n and under t h e tab l e ' . ' h e and I w e n t t o t h e mark e t ' ;
4.4.5.
Auxi l i ari es
Aux i liaries are att ribut ive part i c l e s . They fal l into s e veral c l a s se s . The first cons i s t s o f part i c l e s that mod i fy any form- c l a s s whi c h c an fi l l t h e po sit ion be fore t h e predicat ive part i c l e d O in t he c l au s e . In the direct word order , t h i s p o s i t ion i s fi lled by the predi c a t o r , whi c h , in mo st c a se s , is a verb . We will call them predicator auxiliaries . The other c l a s s e s c on s i s t of part i c l e s mod i fying one form- c las s . W e w i l l group them ac c ording t o t he head .
They are placed immediately be fore or a fter the head . p ( t t O r ' immedi a t e ly ' : p ) t t O r b O r h a t ma i b a n a ' h e l e ft imme d i a t e ly ' ; p 1 t t o r k a p a 1 a d O i b a n a ' h e imm edi a t e ly ( b e came ) a c h i e f ' . ( k k O n ' mu s t ' : ) k k O n l a O d O h 6 t u h � t a ' y o u mus t go t o t h e v i L Z ag e ' ; ) k k O n d O k t O r d O h O ' y o u mus t ( b e come; b e ) a do c t o r ' ; ) k k O n m a t c a i mO r a
87 d O i b a n a ' h e mu s t ( b e ) v ery r i a h ' . s O r ' a lmo s t ' : s O r l a O m a i b a n a ' h e a lmo s t l eft ' ; s O r g u r u m a i b a n a ' h e a lmo s t ( b eaam e ) a t ea a h e r ' ; s O r s a p p � l u m a d i l E a n i b � n a ' h e a lmo s t g a v e t en ' .
g a b e 'b e aome; r e s u l t i n ' : g a b e m E k k E 1 d O i b a n a ' h e w i nds up l a u g h g a b e gu ru dO i b a n a ' h e b e aame a t e a a h e r ( i n t h e e n d ) ' ; n lJr) rJ a g a b e b u r j u i b a n a ' h e h a s b e aome n i a e ' . Thi s part i c le a l s o o c c urs as
ing ' ;
a prepos i t ion ( see § 4 . 4 . 2 . 1 . 7 . above ) . s a i ' a lway s ' : s a i m a r d a 1 a n p a t d O i b a n a t u waZks
( o n fo o t )
s t i Z Z a Zw a y s (
=
to s ah oo Z ' ;
5 i k kO l a ' h e a Zway s s a i j u k k a t d O p E d a k d a n a k f ' t h e ahi Zd i s
s t i Z Z rema i n s ) naug h t y ' .
n a E rJ 'want t o ( b e aome ) ' : n a E rJ 1 a O d O i b a n a ' h e wan t s to go ' ; n a E rJ t u k k a rJ d O i b a n a ' he wan t s ( t o b e aom e ) a aarp e n t er ' . b e ' di s t ribut ive ' : l a O b e d O n a s f d a ' ea a h o f t h em w e n t awa y ; t h e y w e n t e a a h h i s o w n way ' ; g u r u be d O n a s [ d a ' t h e y are t e a a h e r s , e a a h o f t h em ' ; m O r a be dO n a s f d a ' t h e y are r i a h , e a a h o f t h em ' . I t also oc curs
with t he d i s t ribut ive mode o f a t rans i t ive verb aft e r t he obj e c t : m a s i g a r a r u t a rJ rJ a b e m a h f t a ' Z e t e a a h of u s pay h i s own d e b t ' . When t here i s a numeral in the c lau se , b e usua l ly come s aft e r the numeral : t o l u b e d O n a s [ d a h u l E a n or h u l E a n d O n a s f d a t o l u b e ' I g a v e t h em t hr e e e a a h ' .
m u s E ' ag a i n ' ; l a o m u s E m a i b a n a ' ( s o ) h e w e n t again ' ; d i j o u m u s E m a d O rJ a n n a ' h e aa Z Z e d h i s fri e n d again ' . Thi s aux i l iary can a l s o o c c upy another p o s i t ion : l a O m a i b a n a m u s E or l a O m a m u s E i b a n a ( same me aning
as above with a s l ight di fference in empha s i s ) . h i a n ' u s ed t o ( b e ) ; p r e v i o us Zy ' : m o d o m h i a n d O i b a n a ' h e was a s Z e ep g u r u h i a n d O i b a n a ' h e u s e d to be a t ea a h e r ' ; m O r a h i a n d O i b a n a ' h e u s e d to b e r i a h ' . t a r ' p r e t end t o ' ( th i s i s u s e d with a verb head only ; s e e b e l ow for a homophonous form with an adj e c t i ve ) : t a r t a rJ i s d O i b a n a ' h e p r e t e nd e d t o a ry ' ; t a r d i 1 f t c i rJ m a a rJ g ) n a f ' ( s o ) h e pre t ended t o b e a t h i s y o u n g e r
previous Zy ' ;
brother ' .
4.4.5.2.
N o un A uxilia�ie4
They a l l come b e fore the noun head . a k k a ' p lural ' : a k k a j a b u ' ho u s e s ' ; l E a n m a O n t u a k k a d O rJ a m m f ' g i v e I t a l s o plura l i s e s nominal phra s e s l E a n O n d O t h i s to y o u r fri e nds ' . O n t u a k k a n a p 6 g o s ' t h i s w i Z Z b e g i v e n t o t h e p o o r ' . The p lural aux i l iary is omi t t e d , when there are other c lues c onc erning the numb er i n the cont e xt : g o d a rJ d O j a b u d i s 6 n ' t h ere are many h o u s e s h e r e ' . n a s a 'a Z Z ' : n a s a j O l ma ' a Z Z men (persons ) ' ; d i p ) o i b a n a d O n a s a d O rJ a n n a ' a Z l h i s fri e n ds a r e i n v i t e d b y him ' .
88 hO l a n 'onty ' :
h O l a n r O t i d O d i p ill) a n n a s f d a ' o n t y b re a d i s e a t e n
( i . e . , t h e y e a t o n t y b r e ad) ' ; when t h i s aux i l i ary e n t e r s in con s t ru c t ion with a p lural-marke d noun , it precedes a k ka : h O l a n a k k a
b y t h em
d O Q a n n a d O d i p 1 0 i b a n a ' o n ty h i s fri e n ds are i n v i t e d b y him ' . g a n u p ' e a c h ( e v e ry ) ' : m a r s i k k O l a d O i b a n a g a n u p a r i ' h e g o e s t o s ch o o t e v e r y day ' ; g o d a Q d O d i l E a n i b a n a t u g a n u p h a l a k ' h e g a v e much t o each p e rs o n ' .
a p a l a ' rea t ' i s u s e d only with nouns o f relat ionship t o indicate primary relat ionship : a p a l a a Q g ( n a d O f ' t ha t i s h i s r e a t y o u n g e r bro t h e r ( o r , h e r rea t y o u n g e r s i s t e r ) ' , that i s , ' not j u s t a person cal l ed by that t e rm ' . s i i s u s e d be fore per sonal proper nouns , but not in direct addre s s : s i t i o ' T i o ( girl ' s name , meaning ' c lear ' ) ' . I t i s a l s o not u s e d with t e knonymous proper noun s : n a t t f o ' Mo t h e r of Tio ' . 4.4.5.3.
A d j ec�i v e Au xilia�ie�
A l l these aux i l i aries indi cat e degree . m a t c a i ' v ery ' : ma t c a i t i b b 6 ' v e ry h i g h ' ; m a t c a i d e Q g a n ' v e ry g o o d ' . s a h a l i ' v e ry ' ( from s a - + h a l i ' t ime ' ) : t i b b o s a h a l i ' very h i g h ' . s i t u t u ' v ery ' ( from s i - + t u t u ' true ' ) : t i b b o s i t u t u ' v e ry ( tr u t y ) high ' .
t U Q u 1 ( d O i b a n a ' s h e i s e x t r eme l y b e a u t i fu l ' . t U Q ' ex trem e l y ' : l o b i t i b b 6 ' hi g h e r ' . This i s u s e d for s ty l i s t i c 1 6 b i 'more ' : purp o s e s ( empha s i s ) instead o f the inflected comparat ive : t um ( b b o ' hi g h e r ' .
We a l s o find t he c omb inat i on l o b i t u m ( b b o
' s ti l t higher;
much higher ' .
l a m 'more and more ' :
l am mO r a d O i b a n a ' h e i s ( b e com i n g ) r i c h e r
l a m l e l e Q , l a m p o g 6 s ' t he t on g e r , t h e p o o r e r ' . a p a l a ' rea t l y ; tru ty ' ; more common ly found with att ribut ive a dj e c t ive s : j a b u a p a l a n a t f b b o 'a r e a l ly t a l l h o u s e ' . h ( a n ' ex trem e l y ' : u l i h ( a n d O i b a n a ' s he i s e x t r em e l y b e a u t i fu l ' ; t h i s expre s se s a higher degree t han t U Q above . t a r ' s omewha t ' : t a r m O r a d O i b a n a ' h e is somewha t r i c h ' . and r i c he r ' ;
A very high degree o f s ome quali t y i s als o expre s s e d by p re p o s e d b 6 1 a t n i ( l i t eral l y , ' t he 'L im i t o f ' ) : b o l a t n i u l i i b a n a ' s h e i s e x t r em e t y b e a u t i fu t ' ; a n d a l so by n a s a i ( s a - + i ' a s tha t ' ) : na sa i g 6 g o i b a n a ' h e is so s trong ' ; in whi c h u l i and g 6 g o are noun s . 4.4.5.4.
A d j u n c� A u xilia�y
m a r E a k ' t oward; n e a r l y ' :
m a rE a k b O t a r i dO i b a n a m u l a k ' he came
b a c k t oward t h e e v e n i n g ' ; n U Q Q a m a rE a k m a n 6 g o t morning ' .
' i t is
( a l r e ady ) n e a r t y
89 4.4.5.5.
SUb4�i�u� e Au xilia�y
Of the noun aixi liaries ab ove , h 6 1 a n are a l s o used with s ome pronoun s :
g a n u p ' e a c h ' , and a p a l a h O l a n i b a n a 'on l y h e ' ; g a n u p h r t a ' each o f u s ' ; a p a l a i b a n a ' h e hims e l f ( n o t s om e b o dy e l s e ) ' ; h O l a n a h a ' o n l y w h a t ' ; h O l a n t 6 1 u ' t hr e e o n ly ' . 'only ',
' re a l '
4.4.5.5 . 1 .
N u m e r a l A u x i l i a r i es
n a r i (or na i ) : a da !) d O I ) m a n a i
b ua t J O I O t o l u n a r i
' ta k e t h r e e more , p l e as e ' ;
' t h er e a r e fi ve more ' .
n a !) g O ' a t l ea s t ' : t u h O r m a n a !) g O 6 p � t ' p l e a s e , b uy a t l ea s t fo u r ' ; d a !) a d a !) h E p E k k u n a !) g O s a r u p r a ' I don ' t e v e n h a v e o n e rupi a h ( money ) ' ; ( c f . n a !) g O as an imperat ive part i c l e , § 4 . 4 . 3 . 2 . ) . h i r a h ( r a ' approxima t e ly ' : h i r a h ) r a s a r a t u s ' ab o u t o n e h undre d ' ; t h i s
i s a l s o used w i t h pro-adj unc t s :
h i r a h ) r a t u s O n d O m a d a b u ' ( i t ) fe l l
approxima t e ly h e r e ' .
Two aux i l i ar i e s are used with interrogat ive sub s t i t ute s ( pronoun , p roverb ) . They come b e fore the head and make i t emphat i c : a g r a : b 6 i d O m a s u k a g ) a ( s E ' a n y b o dy may e n t er ' ; d a !) a d 6 !) a g ) a a h a ( o r a g i a h a ) ; ' t he r e i s n o t h i n g wha t s o e ve r ' ; t h i s i s more emphat i c than m a n a !) b elow ; m a n a !) : d a !) a d 6 !) h u ( d a m a n a !) a h a ' I don ' t s e e any t h i n g w h a t e v e r ' ; b u a t m a m a n a !) d ( a ' p l ea s e t a k e w h i c h e v e r ( y o u l i k e ) ' ; d a !) d i b O t O m a n a !) m a r h u a ' h e doe s n ' t know to do wha t e v e r
(= he do e s n ' t know how
to do
any thing what e v e r ) ' .
Two aux i l iarie s func t ion as at tribu t e s t o negat ive modal part i c l e s : p 6 1 a and b E ( se e e xamp l e s ab ove § 4 . l . ) . 4.4.5.6.
Some part i c le s , or comb i nat i ons o f them , seem t o mod i fy the c l ause rat her than j ust part o f it . They expre s s s ome emot ion or a t t i tude o f the speake r , or a shift i n predication mode . t U !) ( . . . d O ) ' amazement ' : t lJ !) d i a l O d O n a t O r a s n a r ' he DID ( h a v e 4.4.5. 7 .
t h e h ea r t t o ) o ppo s e h i s pare n t ! ' . ' DO t a k e t h e b o o k ! ' ; u a ( . . . d O ) ' impatience ' : u a b u a t d O b u k k u u a 5 0 d O h O ' DO b e s t i l l .' ' . t a h E ' denial ' : b u k k u n a d O t a h E ' i t I S h i s b o o k ( a l t ho ug h h e s a i d it was n o t ) ' .
l a O d O I b a n a n i a n ' h e a c t ua l l y did go n i a n ' regret ; emphas is ' : ( b u t t o n o avai l ) ' ; l a O m a hO n i a n ' DO go now ' . ( s O t U !) . . . ) m a O n ' doubt ' : s O t U !) m u r u k i b a n a m a O n ' h e MIGHT g e t angry ' .
90
a s a l n a ' derogat ory ; d i s c repancy betwe en name and re ality ' : a s a l n a p a r a g a rn a d O i b a n a ' h e i s j u s t by name a re l i gi o u s man ! ' . p 6 l a rn a ' mi l d d i s approval ' : p O l a rn a d i rn u r u h i h O a n a krn f ' t h o u n e e dn ' t h a v e s co l de d t h y so n ! ' .
( rn a . . . ) a t t O r) ' s at i s fact ion ' :
h u t f d j u rn a i b a n a a t t O r) ' ( and s o ) I
p u n c h e d h i m ( w h i ch s e rv e s him rig h t ) ' .
4.5.
S T R U C T U R E O F W O RDS
Words cons i s t of a s ingle morpheme , an unde rly ing form ( stem ) p l u s inflect ional a ffixe s , a n underlying form ( ba s e ) plus derivational affixe s , or t wo forms in comp o s i t ion . Inflect i on i s d i s c u s s e d above ( § 4 . 2 . ) , and deri vat ion b e l ow ( § 4 . 6 . ) . 4.5.1 .
Compo s i t i on
There are four types o f comp o s i t ion : the first involves a demon s t rat ive pronoun , the s e c ond involve s a numeral , the t hird t ype i s found i n t eknonymous personal proper nouns , t h e fourth involves two nouns in att ribut ive or co-ordinat e construc t ion . ( 1 ) The c a s e o f enc l it i c demon st rat ives i s ment ioned i n § 3 . 3 . 2 . , 1139 : j a b u k k f ' ( t h a t ) my h o u s e ' , from j a b u k k u ' my h o u s e ' p l u s i ' t h a t ; the ' .
In the format ion of pro-adj unct s of locat i on , the prep o s i t ions d i and t u ' t o ' are l inked by l s i t o a following demon s trative ( O n ' this ' , ' t h a t ' , a n ' t h a t y o n de r ' , a d u ( i ) ' th a t o v e r t h e re ' ) : e.g. d i s O n ' h e re ' ; ( se e § 4 . 4 . 1 . 4 . above ) . The demonstrat ive ' t hat ' o c curs linked t o a pre c e ding d i s i ' t h e r e by I n / : ( n a ) d i s i n f ' t h a t ( w h a t i s ) t h e r e ' . This word without the c onn e c t ing phoneme s i s d i + i + i . The demons t rat ive O n ' t h i s ' i s c onnected w i t h a pre c e d ing i ' t h a t ' b y I n / : n a h u d O k f ' ( th a t ) wha t 'at '
I s ai d ' house '
: :
'
n a h u d O k i n 6 n ' ( t ha t ) what I j u s t s a i d ' ; j a b u k k f ' ( t h a t ) my j a b u k k i n 6 n 'my h o u s e j u s t m e n t i o n e d ' . It may , h i s t orically
b e this t ype o f c omb inat ion t hat we have in s ome adj unc t s of t ime ( see also .§ 4 . 3 . 4 . ) ; e . g . n a h i n a n ' fo rm e r l y ' , from na + i + a n . ( 2 ) The l inking o f numerals t o free and bound nouns o f measure i s ment i oned above ( § 4 . 3 . ) : s a k f l o ' o n e k i l o gram ' ; t O l u k k a b b O n a ' t hre e pieces
( u s e d for p l an t s ) ' .
Teknonymous pe rsonal proper nouns are formed by prep o s ing n a i 'mo t h e r o f ' , a rn a n i ' fa t h e r o f ' , 6 p p u n i ' g randp a re n t o f ' to a name ( s ee § 4 . 3 . 1 . ) . When the name begins with Is t d j / , the format ives are pro c l i t i ca l l y l inked t o the name in the s hap e s n a n - , a rn a n - , and o p p u n re s p e c t i ve l y ; thus : n a d d a u l a t ' Mo th e r o f Da u la t ' , a rn a t c a h a t 'Fa t h e r o f (3)
91 Sahat ' ,
o p p u d j � l u k ' Grandp a r e n t of Ja l u k ' .
( 4 ) Sporadi cally , we find two noun s l inked in comp o s i t i on by coale s cence o f l ike vowe l s : e . g . k a r € t a ' aarriage ' + � p i ' fi re ' + k a r E d p i ' t ra i n ' ; h lr h a ' o l de r b ro th e r ( s ibl ing same sex ) ' + � rJg i ' y o u n g e r b ro t h e r ( s ibl ing same s ex ) ' + h a h a rJ g i ' b r e t h r e n ' . Doub led words make up one wo r d , man i fe st ing internal s andhi ; e . g . s u k k u t c u k k u n ' q u e s t i o n ' from s u k k u n ' t o a s k ' . Other sporadic mis c el laneous it ems have been mentioned ab ove i n the di s cu s s ions of part i c l e s ( § 4 . 4 . 2 . - 5 . ) . 4.6.
STRUCTURE O F ST EMS
Comp l e x s tems are formed by s e c ondary and primary de rivat ion . 4.6. 1 .
S e c o n d a ry D e r i v a t i o n
S e c ondary de rivat ives are formed from s t ems b y affixat i on ( i n c lu di ng redup l i cat ion and s uh s t i tut ion ) or by compo s i t ion o f type ( 4 ) above . A ffi xat ion and sub st i t ut ion are found in the fol lowing e xamp l e s : ( noun ) d a l a n ' p a t h ; roa d ' m a r d a l a n ' to wa l k ' ( intran s i t ive verb ) ; d a L � n i ' wa l k o n ' ( t rans i t ive verb ) ; ( ve rb ) m o d o m ' s l e e p ' p o d � m a n ' b e d ' ( noun ) ; h a rJo l u a n ' l i v e l i h o o d ' ( noun ) ; ( noun ) rJo l u ' l ife ' m � rJ a n ' e a t ' ( intran s i t ive verb ) ; ( tran s . verb ) p a rJ a n ' e a t ' p a g � d j a rJ ' l en g t h e n ' ( t rans i t ive verb ) ; ( adj e c t ive ) g a d j � rJ ' lo n g ' m a r g a d j a rJ ' e l o n g a t e ' ( intrans . ve rb ) ; h a g a d j a rJ O n ' l e n g t h ' ( no un ) . Some s t ems contain several layers of deri vat ion : n l p i ' dream ' ( noun ) ( from N I - + I p i ) ; ( t rans . verb ) I P .I ' dr e am ' m a r n l p i ' dr e am ' ( intran s i t ive verb ) ; p a r n f p i ' dreamer ' ( ac t o r noun ) ; p a r n i p f O n ' dreaming ' ( ab s t ract noun ) . ,
4.6.2.
P r i m a ry D e r i v a t i o n
Comp o s i t e s t ems whi c h are not s e con dary derivat i v e s are formed by primary tle rivat ion . Primary deri vat i ve s are forme d from root s and affixes , by compounding o f roo t s , and b y a c omb inat ion o f affixat i on and root compo s i t ion . When t here are two pre fixe s i nvolve d , we w i l l c a l l t hem initial a n d medial . The suffixe s o f primary derivat ion are the same as those in s e c ondary deri vat i on , and in many c a s e s w i t h the s ame meaning , e . g . : h u d d u l a n ' s ea t ' ( p lace noun ) ; h u d d u l 'to sit ' IbO r t i b O r d a n ' womb ' ( p lace noun ) ;
92 o f which h u d d u l a n i s a se c ondary a nd b O r t f a n i s a primary deri vat ive . The morphophonemi c symb o l s u s e d in the fo llowing examp l e s are exp lained in § 4 . 6 . 3 . b e l ow : Pre fix + root : h a - + Is u b b a
h a s u b b a ' i ndigo p l.an t ' ( noun ) ;
a n - + Id a l u
a d d a l u ' p o u n de r (made of wo od) ' ( noun ) ; m a � a p p i r ' fe e l. oramp ' ( intran s i t i ve verb ) ; m a � - + la p p i r Part ial re dup l i cation + root : cv- + Ita r i � t a t a r l � ' he ar t h ' + Is a g u n
s a s a g u n ' sn a o k made of rioe fl.our, o o o o n u t , and sugar '
( noun ) ;
Init ial + me dial + root : s a - + L f n - + Ip E p E
s a r u p p E p E ' a ore epe r p l. an t ' ( noun ) ;
s i - + m a � - + Ih u d a p
5 i m a k k u d a p 'mou t h ' ( noun ) ; g u m a l u t c a � ' b e i n v i o l. e n t wavy m o t i o n '
U M - + a L - + Ig u t c a �
( in t r . verb ) ; ma- + h f - + 11 0 1 0�
m a h i l 0 1 6 � ' de s e r t h u s b an d ' ( intran s . verb ) ;
Root + s u f fi x : It i b a l + - a n t i b a l a n ' s he a f ( o f r i oe ) ' ( noun ) ; Iba t a � + - i b a d � i ' ( r i o e fi e l. d ) di k e ' ( noun ) ; b e u h a n ' ro t ( s a i d o f egg s ) ' ( intran s i t ive verb ) ; Ib e u k + - a n Prefix + root + suffi x : p a r - + Ib a d d a + - a n : p a r b a d d a a n 'graveyard ' ( noun ) . 4.6.2. 1 .
R o o t C o m p o u nd4
There are two types o f root compounds : doubl ing ( fu l l re dup l i cat i on ) and a compound o f two di fferent root s . Doub l ing o f root s : l a p p u l a p p u ' b u t t e rf l. y ' ( noun ) ; R + /l appu u � u t U l) u t ' oomp l. a i n t ' ( noun ) ; IU l) u t h E a h E a ' p an t ' ( intran s i t ive verb ) ; Ih E a Ij a l a k
j a l a k j a l a k 'wander a b o u t s e a r o h i n g fo r s ome t h i n g '
( in t ran s it i ve verb ) . Compound o f t wo d i fferent root s : la t t a + /j a u : a t t a j a u ' t ree bearing pearlike fruit ' ( noun ) . Root Comp ounding and Affixat i on : R + /u l i l) + - a n h u l i k k u l f � a n ' ri dd l. e ' ( noun ) ; + /u t i + - a n : u t i u t f a n ' m a o h i na t i o n s ; t r i o k s ' ( noun ) .
93
4.6. 3.
Noun Stems
Noun s are s imp le s t ems , primary derivative s , or s e condary deriva t i ve s . De rived nouns fall into c la s s e s depending on the affix ; when u s e fu l , we sub-c l a s s i fy on the bas i s o f meaning . The morphophonemi c symb o l s found in thi s and the fol lowing s e c t ions ( and not in § 3 ) are : L I r l be fore a root containing I r / ; I I I othe rwi s e . t l u i be fore a root with I i e E a l ( non-back vowe l s ) in first syl lab le ; I i i otherwi se . a parenthe s i s e d s ymbol may b e repre s e n t e d by z ero . () 4.6.3.1 .
Simple N o u n S� em4
Examp le s : j a b u ' ho us e ' ; d O l) a n ' fr i e n d ' ; t a l) a n ' ha n d ' ; b f a l) ' do g ' ; 6 d a n ' ra i n ' ; p a t ' fo o t ; "l e g ' . 4.6.3.2.
P�ima�y Ve�iv ed N o u n S � em4
Three or four e xamp l e s are given for each type or c l a s s ; i f there is le s s t han t hre e , i t mean s t hat the writ e r has not b e en able t o think of ( or find ) other exampl e s . ( 1 ) Root Doub l ing : ( an imal s ) : b O r O l) b O r O I) 'wasp ' , l a p p u l a p p u ' b u t t erf"ly ' , u t t u l) 6 t t u l) ' a non- s t ringing kind o f beetle ' . ( othe r ) : h a b a h a b a ' t hun de r s t o rm ' , u l) u t 6 1) u t ' comp "l a in t ' , O s a l) O s a l) s E r a s E r a ' b u dding j a c k frui t ' . h u l i k k u l f l) a n ' ri dd "l e ' , u t i u t i a n ' tr i c k , m a c h i n atio n s � u n i I) u n f I) a n ' (mu s i c a l-) i n s t rume n t ' . ( 2 ) Redup l i cat ion + Root : t a t a r i l) ' he a r t h ' , s a s a g u n ' de "l i cacy m a de ' ch i n ' ,
Doub l i ng + - a n :
o f r i c e f "l o u r ,
coconut,
and s u g a r ' .
(3) Root Compo un ds : a t t i l) a l) O ' w i n g e d i n s e c t fo u n d i n r i c e fi e Z ds ' , a d d a l f m a n ' a p "l a n t ' , j U l) g u l m E O I) ' b e e t "l e o f t e n fo u n d i n dung h e ap s ' . ( 4 a ) s i - + Root :
( an imal s ) : s i g a k ' ra v e n ' , s i p E t ' w o o dp e c k e r ' , s i j O b b i l) ' s p i de r ' , s i p a s i l) ' a wa t e r i n s e c t ' . ( plan t s ) : s i h 6 p i , s i a l a , s i p O r h O t ( means al s o ' ha i r b u n ' from the an c ient c u s t om o f put t ing the fragrant leaves o f the p lant in women ' s hair buns ) . ( fami ly name s ) : s i h 6 b b i l) , s i r a i t ;' s i t 6 r u s . ( p la ce name s ) : s i p f r O k , s i p 6 1 t a k , s i i f d d u l) , s i g 6 t O m .
94 ( o t he r ) : s i r a b u n ' a s h ' , s i l 6 1) i l) ( 4b ) s i - + comp l e x root :
' comp l e t e si l e r lC e ' .
s i t a p a l) i ' drainage c u t i n a rice fi e l d d i k e ' , ( from I- t a p a l) + - i ) ; s i m a l O I O I) ' ey e ' ( from - m a - + 1- 1 0 1 0 1) ) , s i p a r i a m a ' p lace name ' , s i m a k k � d a p 'mou t h ' ( from - m a l) - + I- h u d a p ) . ( 5 ) ( s ) + ( n ) - + Root : s i b b O r a ' l e a d ' , I b b � l u ' b o dy h a i r ' , s u l a b b a k ' an imal l ike a porcup ine ' , s u b b f a ' a rrow ' . ( 6 ) p a - + Root : p a h a l a ' go o d fo r t u n e ' , p a r a p a t ' p lace name ' ;
( 6 a ) p a - ( h ) + - + Root : p a u s E a l) ' dowry ' , p a h i l 6 1 0 1) ' de s e r t e r o f t he corre sponding verb s begin with m a - ( h ) + - . ( 7 ) p a r - + Roo t : p a r b � e ' frui t ' . ( 7a ) p a r - + Root + Suffix : p a r b a d d a a n ' g ra v e y a rd ' , p a r u h a O n ' fami l y re l a t i o n s hip ' ( from p a r - + Ih u a + - O n , with me tathe s i s ) . ( 8 ) p a l) - + Root : p a k k � l i l) ' s ound ' , p a l) a p p l r ' cramp ' , p a t c a d i 'way o f c e a s i n g ' ; these nouns have a c orre sponding verb with the pre f i x
h u s b an d ' ;
m a l) - .
( 9 ) h a - + Root : h a s � b b a ' indigo ' , h a l f o ' p lant bearing pearl ike fru i t ' , h a d O r ' p lant y i e lding s p i c e ' , h a � m a 'rice fi e l d ' , h a l f l u ' s h a dow ' .
( 9 a ) h a - + Root + - a n : h a m i s a r a n and h a l u a a n ( symb o l s in Batak s c ript ) , h a l u a O n ' fr e e dom, s a l va t i o n ' ( t he corre sponding verb is m a l � a ' b e fre e ' ) .
( l O a ) < a l > + Root ( a l i s infixed after the first consonant o f the fo l lowing syl lable ) : b a l a t u k ' l adder ' , b a r E r a l) ' s u lp h u r ' , a l 6 g o ' wi n d ' , s a l E d d a l) ' s carf ' , h a d h i r ' n o s e ring ( o f an ima l s ) ' . ( l ab ) + ( h ) l - + Root : h a l i s � k s u l) ' w h i r lw i n d ' , h a r i a r a ' a
b anyanl ike t re e ' . ( l a c ) < a l - > + ( h ) i + Root + - a n : h a l i b u t 6 1) a n ' ra i nbow ' . ( 1 1 ) l a n - + Root : l a k k f t a l) ' sn a i l , s h e l l ' , l a b b f a k ' b e l l y ' , l a t t e u l) ' a thorny plant b e aring round eggp lant- li ke frui t ' . ( 12 ) a n - + Root : ( b i rd s ) : a p p 6 r i k ' sparrow ' , a b b a r � b a ' b i rd with yel low b re a s t ' , a d d � h u r ' pi geon- l ike b i rd ' . ( other ) : a b b a l a l) ' s Z i n g (as weapon ) ' , a d d a l u ' p e s t l e ( fo r p o u n di n g a d d O r a ' c h e s t (b ody par t ) ' . Root + - a n : t i b a l a n ' s heaf ( o f r i ce ) ' ; l a p a t a n ' m e a n i n g ' ; s i b a r a n ' fa t e ' ; d a l f h a n ' t ripod p o t s t a n d ( i n c o o k i n g ) ' ; b O r t f a n ' womb ' . ( 1 4 ) Root + - i : b a t a h i ' s taff ( o f a s h e p h e r d ) ' ; b a t a l) i ' di k e ( i n
r i ce ) ' ,
( 13 )
a r i c e fi e l d) ' ;
t he s e shoul d , pe rhap s , be c a l l e d s e c ondary derivat ive s :
b a t a k i s an o b s o l e scent ve rb , meaning ' ri d i n g on h o r s e b ac k ' ; b a t a l)
o c curs as a noun , me aning
' co ffi n ;
trunk
(of a tree ) ' .
95 S e e o n da4Y V e4i v e d N o u n S�em�
4.6.3.3.
I n the fol lowing e xample s : N noun , Vi intran s i t ive verb ; Vt t ran s i t ive verb , A adj e c t ive . ( l a ) Doub ling o f noun ; t h e mean i ng i s ' something re s emb l i ng the bas e ' or a diminut ive : h o d a ' ho rs e ' , h o d a h o d a ' some t h i ng r e s emb l i n g ( o r u s e d a s ) a h o r s e ( i . e . a saw hors e ) ' ; d6 1 0 k ' m o u n t a i n ' , do l o k d6 1 o k =
=
=
'hi l l ' ;
1 � l) i t ' s k y ' ,
l a n i k l � l) i t ' ce i l i ng ' .
( lb ) Doub ling o f t ransit ive verb s tem ; the meani ng i s ' s omething with whi ch the a ct ion e xpre s se d by the verb i s c arri e d out ( in s t rument ) ' : g u g a g u g a ' s t i r r i n g l a d l e ' ( g u g a ' s t i r ' ) ; l i t e i l) l f t e i l) ' wh i p ; whippi ng ( 1 f t e i l) ' t o w h i p ' ) ; s u k k u t e u k k u n ' q u e s t i o n ' ( s u k k u n ' a s k ' ) ;
ro d '
t o g u t o g u ' ro p e ( 2a) s i - + s i l a l) g E ' place ( 2b ) s i - +
( t og u 'pu l l ' ) . N : s i t u a k ' ho n e y ; swe e t e s s e n ce ' ( t u a k ' p a l m w i n e ' ) ; name ' ( 1 � l) g E ' a p lant o f s ame family a s ginge r ' ) . A : s i l E p E ' (w a t e r - b uffa lo ) w i t h down t u rn e d h o r n s ' by w h i c h o n e l e a ds an an ima l ;
leash '
( I E p E ' dro o p i n g ' ) ; s l h u n i k ' (yam) w i t h y e l l o w me a t ' ( h u n f k ' y e l l ow ' ) ; s i b a d a r ' a n a l b in o ' ( b a d � r ' cre amy (w h i te ) ' ) . ( 2 c ) s i - + Phrase : s i p e l e b e g u ' he a t h e n ' ( p e l e ' to w o r s h i p ' , b e g u ' sp i r i t ; g h o s t ' ) ; s i p O l) g O l u l u ' headhu n t e r ' ( p O l) g O I ' c u t ' , u l u ' h ea d ' ) ; s i b O t t a r m a t a 'a w h i t e p e rs o n (Europ e an ) ' ( b O t t a r ' w h i t e ' , m a t a ' e y e ' ) . ( 2 d ) s i - + Prom i s s ory mode o f Vt : s i j o u O n ' (p e r s o n ) to b e ca l l e d ' ( j o u O n ' w i l l b e ca l l e d ' ) ; s i t u h 6 r O n ' ( t h i n g s ) to b e b o ug h t ' ( t u h O r O n ' wi l l b e b o u g h t ' ) ; s i p a l) a n O n ' foo d ' ( p a l) a n O n ' wi l l b e e a t e n ' ) . ( 3a ) p a r - + N ; it has the meaning ' ac tor ' o r ' owner ' ( c f . Vi b e gi nning in m a r - ) : p a r g u r u 'pupi l ' ( g u r u ' t e a c h e r ' , ma r g u r u ' t o s tu dy ( Vi ) ' ) ; p a r d a l a n 'wa l k e r ' ( d � l a n ' road; p a t h ' , m a r d a l a n ' to wa l k ' ) ; p a r h a u m a ' o w n e r o f r i c e fi e l d ' ( h a u m a ' r i c e fi e l d ' ) ; p a r d E k k E ' fi s h e rman ' ( d E k k E ' fi s h ' ) . ( 3b ) p a r - + Vi : p a rm ( n um ' a hab i t u a l dri n ke r ' ( m f n u m ' to dri n k ' ) ; p a r m a b u k 'a ha b i t u a l dru nkard ' ( m a b u k ' b e drunk ' ) ; p a r h u d d u l 'a p e rs o n who l i ke s t o s i t i dl e ' ( h u d d u 1 ' s i t ' ) . ( 3 c ) p a r - + Vt : p a r 6 p p a ' s l i n g fo r ( o r p e rs o n ) carry i n g a c h i l d o n t h e b a c k ' ( O p p a ' ca rry a c h i l d o n b a c k ' ) ; p a r t f d j u ' p u g i l i s t ' ( t f d j u 'punch ' ) ;
p a r f s a p ' sm o k e r ' ( f s a p ' to smo k e ( s ome t h i n g ) ' ) .
( 3d ) p a r - + Numeral ( c f . homophonous Vt ) ; t he s e s e rve as denomin ators o f fract ion s : p a r O p a t ' fo u r t h ' ( O p a t ' fo u r ' ; t o l u p a r O p a t ' t hre e - fo u r t h s ' ) .
pa r- + N pa r j a b ua n ( 4b ) p a r - + N l i fe ' ; p a r d O l) a n O n
( 4a )
fi e l d ' ;
p a r g a d O l) a n ' y am p a r d E k k E a n 'fishing p lace ' . + - O n ; i t make s ab s t ract noun s : p a r l)o l u O n 'way o f ' fri e n ds h i p ' ; p a r d E k k E O n ' (way o f) fi s hi ng ' .
+ - a n ; i t make s noun s o f plac e : ' s i te o f hous e ' ;
96 ( 4 c ) p a r- + Vt + - a n ; deno t e s p lace or act ; the s e noun s have corre sponding intran s i t ive verb s of the form m a r - + Vt : p a r i d f a n , b a t h i ng p l-ace ' ( from d r d i ' to b a t h e (a p e rson ) " whi c h probab ly deve loped from * d i i d i with stem i d i ) ; p a r a 1 6 a n ' fi gh t , s t rife ' ( from a l O ' o ppo s e ' ) ; p a r d e g e a n ' ( ri c e ) t h r e s h ing p l- ace ' ( from d e g e ' t read ' ) . ( 5a ) h a - + N + - O n ; deno t e s quali ty : h a g u r u O n ' t ea ch e r s h i p ' ; h a r a j a O n ' k ings hip; k i ngdom ' ; h a d a t u O n 'magi cian s hip ' . ( 5b ) h a- + A + - O n : h a u l f O n ' b e a u t y ' ; h a r O a O n ' ug l- i n es s ' ; h a O t O O n ' fo l- l-y , fo o l- i s h n e s s ' . ( 5 c ) h a - + Vi + - a n : h a s u d d u t a n ' we s t ( p lace o f sun set ) ' ; h a b i t ca r a n ' e a s t ( place o f sunri se ) ' ; h a r O a n ' fea s t ( p lace o r event to whi ch many people come ) ' ; h a l a O a n ' exp endi t ure (of mon e y ) ' . ( 6 ) h a + R + Vi : h a b O b 6 r h a t ' departure ' ( b 6 r h a t ' depart ' ) ; h a t u t u b u ' b i r t h ' ( t u b u ' b e born ' ) ; h a s a s a h a t ' a rriva l- ' ( s a h a t ' a rri v e ' ) . ( 7 ) N l - + Vt : s i n a O k ' sma l- l- s nack made of ro a s t e d r i c e ' ; p i n a h a n ' ( ho u s e h o l- d ) anima l- ' ( p a h a n ' fe e d (an an ima l- ) ' ) ; s i n O d d u k ' husban d ' ( s O d d u k ' k eep in t h e house ' ) ; i d d a h a n ' c o o k e d rice ' has an i rregular
form ( regular would b e * n i d a h a n ) from d a h a n ' to c o o k ' . (8) N l - + ha- + A: deno t e s degree o f s ome qual i t y :
h i na u l i ' ( degree of) b eauty ' ; h i n a d a o ' ( e x t e n t of) dis tan c e ' ; h i n a m a l O ' ( degree
of) c l- e v e rne s s ' . ( 9a ) p a D - + N :
denot e s actor ; mo st o f these nouns have a corre s ponding Vi verb o f the form m a D - + N : p a n O r t O r ' danc er ' , p a n u r a t 'wri ter ' , p a n u h O r ' b uy er ' , p a D a l e l e ' chas e r ' . ( 9b ) p a D - + Vt + - a n : p a D O m 6 a n 'profi t ' ( from OmO ' g a i n ' ) ; p a n u r a t a n ' p l-ace fo r writ ing ' ; p a D a 1 O p p a a n ' p l-ace fo r cooking ' ; p a d d e g e a n ' fo o t p ri n t ' . ( l Oa ) N + - a n : p a g a r a n ' o u t l-ying s e t tl- emen t ; paris h ' ( from p a g a r ' fe n c e ' ) ; p a r a D a n ' fo n ower; s ub o rdina t e ' ( from p O r a D 'war ' with a vow e l change ) ; b a t a D a n 'main support ' ( from b a t a D ' t ree trunk ' ) . ( l Ob ) V + - a n : p O p p a r a n ' d e s c e n dan t ' ( from p 6 p p a r ' have as des c e n dan t ' ) ; t u d 6 s a n ' p arab l- e ' s imi l-ari ty ' ( from t u d 6 s 'be s imi l-ar t o ' ) ; h u d d u l a n ' s ea t ' ( from h u d d u l ' s i t ' ) ; p a D a n a n ' di s h ; p l- a t e ' ( p a D a n ' ea t ' ) ; t a n O m a n 'grave ' ( d n O m ' b ury ' ) ; g O b b a r a n ' p i c t ure ' ( g O b b a r ' draw (a p i c t ure ) ' ) . ( 1 1 ) Vt + - O n : g O t f l O n ' harv e s t ' ( from g O t i l ' to harve s t ' ) ; s a b u r O n ' s owing s e a s o n ' ; u l a O n 'work; feas t ' ( from u l a ' t o work ' ) ; h a l E O n ' famin e ' ( presumably from h a l i ' di g ' ; s o , a t ime when digging
yam i s n e c e s s ary , be cause there i s not eno ugh ri ce s t o ck ) . When the verb ends in t he suffix - i , the nominal i s ing s uffix has the shape - a n : h a p O s a n ' a trus two r t hy person ' ( h a p O s i ' t o tru s t ' , p O s ' t ru s t ' ) ; h a b i a r a n ' fear; s om e t hing t o b e feare d ' ( h a b i a r i
' t o fear ' ,
97 b f a r ' fe a r ' ) ; i l) a n a n 'p l a a e ; dwe l l i n g ' ( i l) a n i
' dwe l l i n ; i nhab i t from
l i l) a n ) .
( 12 )
Mi s c e l laneous :
si-
+
h a - + b u n f ' h i dden ' + - a n :
s i habun fan
p a r - + s i - + t f j u r 'spi t t le ' + - a n : pa rs i t i j u ran p a r - + t a - + b u n f ' hi dden ' + - a n : p a r t a b u n f a n ' hi d i n g
' s e ar e t p l a a e ' ; 'spit toon ' ;
The last two examp l e s without the suffix are normal noun forms c orresponding t o verb forms in m a r - ; in the s e c ase s , m a r s i t f j u r ' t o s p i t ' , and m a r t a b u n l ' to h i de ( o n e s e l f ) ' ; p a l)a l a h O ' ao n du a t ; b e h a v i o u r ' ( pre s umab ly from l a h O , an o l d e r form of l a O ' go ' ) ; p a r u l a n ' b e h a v i o u r , a a t ' ( from p a r - + u l a ' do ' + - a n with a coal e s cence o f vowel ) . p la a e ' .
4.6.4.
V e rb S tems
The t wo c l a sse s o f verb s , intran s i t ive and tran s i t ive , a l s o di ffer in derivat ion . 4.6.4.1 .
I n��an6��� v e V e�b S�em6
I ntran s i t i ve verb s are s imp le s t em s , primary derivat ive s , or s e condary derivative s . They fall into two c las s e s . The first c la s s con s i s t s o f those derived verb s beginning i n I m l , which c orre spond t o noun s begi nning in I p l denot ing actor , a c t i on , or ins trument ; e . g . m a r d a l a n ' to w a l k ' : p a r d a l a n 'wa l k e r ' . We w ill c all these verb s Ot her intran si t ive verb s are then stative. Th i s c la s s i fi cat i on active . interse c t s the divis ion into primary and s e c ondary derivat ive s . 4.6.4. 1 . 1 .
Examp le s : 4.6.4. 1 .2.
S i mpl e I n t ra n s i t i ve
Verbs
l a O ' go ' ; 1) 0 t ' w a k e up ' ; h a b a l) ' fl y ' ; h q d d u l Primary
De ri ve d I n t r a n s i t i ve
'sit ' .
Verbs
Active Intran s i t i ve Verb s : ( la ) m a l) - + root : ma k k u l i l) ' s p e a k ; m a k e a s o u n d ' ( from Ih u l i I) , als o found in h u l i k k u l f l) a n ' ri dd l e ' ) ; m a t c a d i ' a e a s e ' ( from Is a d i , a l s o in p a s a d i ' s t o p ' Vt ) ; m a l) f t c u ' fa k e ; a a t m i s l ea d i ng ly ' ( from l i t c u , p re sumably the s ame morpheme as in i t c u a t c a , a chal lenging e x c lamat ion in a riddle game meaning s omething like ' g u e s s wha t ' ) . ( lb ) m a l) - + + n - + root : m a l) u t c a l l) a l) ' s p raw l ' ( from I- s a l l) a l) ) ; m a l) i t c u r u t 'wi t hdraw ' ( from I- s u r u t , a l s o found in the s tative verb s u m u r u t ' re t r e a t ' ) ; m a l) i d d O r a p ' s u ffe r deep l y ' ( from l- d O r a p ) . ( 2 ) m a - + ( h ) + - + root : m a h u E p p E ( from I- E p p E ) , m a h i l 0 1 0 l) ( from 1- 1 0 1 0 1) ) , both mean ' d e s e r t h u s b and ' ; ma h u s a E m ' s a a r i fi a e i n order t o a v e r t mi s fo r t un e ' ( from l- s a E m ) ; m a i t u r u n ' l e a v e paren t s ' h o m e a n d
( sa i d o f a girl , who wants to force her paren t s t o agree with her choice of future husband ) ' , from I- t u r u n
s tay w i t h fu t u re i n - laws ' g o down ' .
l ( 3 ) m a r - + LV ' - + e v e ( from onomat opo e t i c ro o t s o f the form e v e ; t he meaning i s ' m a k e s u c h and s u ch a s o u n d ' ; L i s a morphophoneme a s in § 4 . 6 . 3 . ; V I ind i c a t e s t hat t h e vowel i s the same as in t h e root ) :
m a l l i t f k ; ma l l a s a k ; m a r d a p a r ; m a r d u b u r .
S t at i ve Intran s i t ve Verb s : ( 4 ) m ( a ) - + root : m a b a l u
' b e a w i dow or widower ' ( from I- b a l u ) ; m f t t o p ' e x t i n g u i s hed, go o u t ' ( from I- i t t o p with a l o s s o f vowe l in the pre fix ; the same root i s found in the t ran s i t ive verb I t t 6 p i ' ex t i n g u i s h ' ) ; m u l l o p ' emerge ' ( from I- u l l o p , als o found in the t rans it i ve verb p a u l l o p ' m a k e t o emerge ' ) ; m f j u r ' d e s c e n d ' ( from
/ i j u r , a l s o found in p a f j u r ' t o l ow e r ' ) . The fol lowing verb s s eem to b e l ong here : m a s u k ' e n t e r ' , m a t E ' di e ' , m a s a k ' b e d o n e ( o f s om e t hi n g co o k ed ) ' , perhap s with a loss of vowel or syllable . ( 5 ) U M - + root : h u m O r d i t 'make a s l i g h t movemen t ' ( from /- h O r d i t ) ; h u m f t i r ' t remb l e ' ; h u m f s i k ' m a k e a ru s t l ing s o u n d ' ; there seems t o be a relat ionship b etween thi s format ive UM- and the c omplet ive modal a ffix U M - in t rans i t ive verb s . ( 6 ) U M - + h a - + root : h um a t f l t a l 'prance a b o u t ' ( from root /- t i l t a l
; h u m a t f o l) ' ru n to and fro exc i t e d l y ' ; h u m a s E O k 'run a b o u t
fran t i ca l ly ' .
(7)
Redup l i cat ion + root + - O n :
h E h E a m O n ' y awn ' ( from root /- h E a m ) ;
s O s O b bO p O n 'sob ' .
root : h a s € a ' b e u s e fu l ' ( from /s E a , presumab ly the same morpheme found in p a r h a s E a l) ' to c o n s i der va luab l e ; s a v e from b e i n g (8)
ha-
+
h a r u a r ' em e r g e ; come fo r t h ; b e o v e r ( s a i d of s c ho o l 0 1' from r u a r , who se status a s a root has become doub t fu l s ince r u a r h a s be come t o be used for d u r u ' o u t side p a r t ' pre sumab ly t hrough t he influence of Indon e s i an l u a r ' o u t s i de p a r t ' . t hrown away ' ) ;
c h u r c h s e r v i ce ) ' ,
4.6.4. 1 . 3.
S e c o n d a r y In t r a n s i t i v e
Verbs
Act ive Intran s i t i ve Verb s : ( l a ) m a l) - + N : ma l) a b b f r a l) ' tu rn l e ft ' ( from h a b b f r a l) ' l e ft ' ) ; m a n O r t O r ' t o dan c e ' ( from t a r t O r ' dance ( N ) ' ) ; m a l) i a m u n ' t urn r i g h t ' ( from s i a m u n ' r i g h t ( hand) ' . ( lb ) m a l) - + A : ma l) f b u l ' b e come hard; b e come as o f o n e p i e ce ' ( from h i b u l 'who l e , of o n e p i e c e ' ) ; m a l) E b b a l) ' to spread; de v e l o p ' ( from h E b b a l) ' spread o u t ' ) ; m a m a t t a r ' b e come w h i t e ; p a l e ' ( from b O t t a r 'whi te ' ) .
9 9-
( lc )
m a � - + re dup l i cat i on + Vt : m a t c i s u l u or m a t c u s u l u ' b a s a k ( from s u l u ' t i g h t ( Vt ) ' ) . ma � - + t n - + Vt : m a n u t c a d d E ' l ean ( a g a i n s t some t h i ng ) ' , from
( b e fo l' e a fil'e ) '
( ld )
s a d d E ' S UP P 0 l' t ( Vt ) ' ; ( c f . § 4 . 6 . 4 . 1 . 2 . , ( la » . m a n i s f o ' s e e k c o v e l' fl'om l'a i n ' , from s i 6 ' s h e l t e l' e d fl'om l'a i n ' ; m a n i h 6 r t a � ' s i t w i t h s tl' e t c h e d l e g s ' , from h O r t a � ' s tl' e t c hed; a l o n g a t e d ' . ( 3a ) m a r - + N : t hi s i s t he most produ c t ive derivat ion o f int ran
(2)
ma- + n i - + A :
s i t ive verb s ; the meanings are : ( i ) make u s e o f what i s expre s s e d b y t he noun base , ( i i ) own or have what i s expre s s ed b y t he noun base . ( i ) m a r d a l a n 'wa l k , go o n foo t ' , from d a l a n ' l' o a d, p a t h ' ; m a r b a j u ' b e dl'e s s e d ' , from b a j u ' c l o t h i n g ' ; m a r s i k k 6 l a ' g o to s c ho o l ' , from s i k k 6 l a ' s choo l ' ; m a r t a h u l u k ' w e a l' a ha t ' , from t a h u l u k ' h a t ' ; ma r s a h i t ' b e s i c k ' , from s a h i t ' s i c k n e s s ' ; ma r h a t a ' co n fe l' ; ho l d t a l k s ' , from h a t a 'wol'd ' . ( i i ) m a r h E p E � 'po s s e s s money ' , from h E p E � 'money ' ; m a r t a � a n ' ha v e hands ' , from t a � a n ' hand ' ; ma r t u a ' b e fO l' t una t e ' , from t u a ' go o d fOl' t u n e ' ; m a r j E a ' b e u n fop t un a t e ' , from j E a 'mi s fo p t u n e ' . ( 3b ) m a r - + Vt : t he se have c orre sponding infle c t e d t ran s i t ive verb s , e . g . with ma � - : m a r ( s a p ' sm o k e ( i . e . h a v e hab i t o f smo k i n g ) ' , from f s a p ' sm o k e ( s ome t h i n g , e . g . a cigape t t e ) ' , m a r t f d j u ' fi gh t ; b e i n a figh t ' , from t ( d j u ' p u n c h ' , m a l 1 6 j o � ' pu n ' , from 1 6 j o � ' p u n aft e l' ( s o m e b o dy ) ,
.
( 3c ) m a r - + A : m a r h u n i k ' gpow (or, b e ) y e l low ' , from h u n f k ' y e l l o w ' ; m a r p 6 g o s ' b e POOl" , from p o g 6 s ' P O O l" ; m a r u n E ' come t o t el'm s ; b e i n agl' e em e n t ' , from u n E ' c o n v e n i e n t ; appl'opl' i a t e ' . (4) m a r - + medial + b a se : m a r t a b O n i ' h i d e ; b e i n h i d i n g ' , from b u n f ' h i dden ( A ) ' ; m a r s i a j a r ' s t u dy ' , from a j a r ' t e a c h ( Vt ) ' ; m a r s i a d u ' p u n i n a l'ac e ; b e i n a comp e t i t i o n ' , from a d u ' c ha s e ; o v e p t a k e ' ; m a r s i t f j u r ' sp i t ' , from t f j u r ' s a l i v a ' ; m a r t a l u k k u p ' s l e ep w i t h o n e ' s h e a d c o v e l' e d ' , from l u k k u p ' comp l e t e ly c o v el'e d ' ; m a r b i n O t O ' kn o w ; b e cogni z an t ' , from b 6 t O ' know ( s om e th i n g ) ' ; m a r b i n e g e ' ha v e s e n s e o f h e a p i n g ; h ea l" , from b e g e ' h eal' ( s ome t h ing) ; l i s t e n t o ( some t h i ng ) ' ; m a r h u j f � j a � ' p pan c e ; j ump u p a n d down ' , from j f � j a � ( o r , more c ommonly , h a j f � j a � ) ' ppan c i n g m o v em e n t s ' ; ma r h u r a j a ' e n t p ea t ' , from r a j a ' k i n g ' ; m a r h u a s i ' b e fopg i v i n g ; pe l e n t ' , from a s i ' p i t y ; g l'a c e ' ; m a r n a 1 6 j a ' t i l' e ' , from 1 6 j a ' b e t i l' e d ' ; m a r n a s a E ' s t o p ' , from s a E ' fi n i s h e d ; ovep '
( t he l a st t wo e x amp l e s are only found in the negat ive :
e . g.
d a � m a r n a l 6 j a i b a n a ma r m E a m ' h e do e s n o t g e t t i p e d of p la y i n g ' ) .
In these examp l e s the s egment s c on s i s t ing of t he medial and t he base follow the pattern of nouns i n this derivat ion , but , except for b i n 6 t o ' kn o w l e dge ' ( usually i n a derogatory s ens e ) , they do not oc cur as nouns in
100 that form . Verb s like m a r g a l a s a 'wri t h e ' ( m a r - + < a l > + Ig a s a ) are not inc luded here , b ecause i t i s covered by ( 3a ) above , g a l a s a 'wri t h ing m o v e m e n t ' formed in the pattern of § 4 . 6 . 3 . 2 . , ( 1 0 ) . ( 5a ) m a - + s i - + N ( t he meaning i s ' t ry to obtain what i s expre s s e d b y t he noun b a se ) : m a s i h 6 d a ' s earah fo r , o r try t o b u y , a h o r s e ' , from h 6 d a ' ho rs e ' ; m a s i h E p E I) ' try to earn, or b o rrow, money ' , from h E p E I) ' m o n e y ' ; m a s i b6 r u ' b e in s earah for a w i fe ' , from b6 r u , s hort for t U l) g a n E b 6 r u ' wi fe ; fema Le s p o u s e ' . ( 5b ) m a - + t u - + N : m a t u b a b a ' ha v e s h o r t a g e o f fo o d; s u ffe r fami n e ' , from b a b a 'mou t h ' ; m a t u mO n a ' e a t fi r s t fru i t of arop ' , from b 6 n a ' b e g i n n i n g ' with a change of consonant . ( 6 ) m a r - + s i - + A + - i ; used with a p lural subj e c t , the mean ing is ' b e unequal in what is expre s sed by the adj e c t ive base ' : m a r s i t i b b6 i ' b e o f u n e q u a L h e i gh t ' , from t i b b 6 ' hi g h ' ; m a r s i g a d j a l) i ' b e of un e q u a L L e n g t h ' , from g a d j a l) ' L ong ' ; ma r s i p o g 6 s i ' b e o f u n equa L p o v e r ty ' , from p o g 6 s ' p o o r ' . The corre sponding noun has the form p a r - + s i - + A + - i ;
i t means ' t he d i fference in t he quali ty expre s s ed by the adj e c t ive ' . S t at ive Intran s i t ive Verb s : ( 7a ) m ( a ) - + N : m a b u g a l) ' s u ffe r w o u nds ; b e wounde d ' , from b u g a l) ' w o u n d ' ; m a t O r a s ' ripe ; m a t u r e ' , from t O r a s ' ri p e n e s s ; m a t u r i t y ' ; m a s f h O l ' y e a r n ; b e hom e s i a k ' , from s f h O l ' home si a kn e s s ; L o n g i n g ' ; m a r s a k ' b e s a d ' from a r s a k ' sa dn e s s ' ; m E k k E l ' to L a ug h ' , from E k k E l ' a Laugh ' .
( 7b )
m a - + Vt :
m a d a b u ' fa U ' , from d a b u ' drop; L e t fa U ' ; ma b a O r from b a O r ' wa s h away ' ; m a r f b a k ' b e
' f L o a t down s t ream; b e was h e d away ' ,
from r f b a k ' t ear ( s ome t hi n g ) ' . ( 8a ) p a - + V ; u se d with a p lural s ub j ect : p a s f t i k ' b e a t o dds ' , from s f t i k ' b e i n a n i rri tab L e mood ' ; p a g a t t i ' b e exahanged b y m i s t a k e from g a t t i ' a hange ' ; p a j u p p a l) 'me e t w i t h ( s om e b o dy ) ' , from j u p p a l) t o rn ' ,
' ( b e ) found,
',
reaovered ' .
( 8b ) p a - + t u - + V ; ( e xpre s se s a high degree o f something unde s ir abl e ) : p a t u r a p a r ' s u ffe r extreme fam i n e ; s tarve ' , from r a p a r ' g o w i t h o u t food; s u ffer h u n g e r ' ; p a t u l) O I) O I) ' s tand aomp L e t e L y i d L e ' , from 1) 0 1) 0 1) ' do n o t h i n g ' ; p a t u s � O k ' b e i n u t t e r a o n fu s i o n ' , from s a O k ' fry wi t h o u t fa t ;
t urn o v e r and o v e r as in s u a h fry i n g ' .
h u m u t u r ' b e s h a k i ng ' , from h u t u r ' s ha k e ( s o m e g u m O r s i l) ' ( has ) b e aome brown ' , from g O r s f l) ' b rown ' ; h u m u r t i k ' ma k e a s L i g h t movemen t ' , from h u r t i k ' m o v e s L i g h t L y ; di s t urb, t o u a h ' ; h u m a l a p u t ' b e i n a hurry ' , from h a l a p u t ' ha s t e ( N ) ' . ( 1 0 ) N + - O n ( rare l y , - a n ) ; the meaning i s ' s uffer from what i s e xp re s s e d by the noun b a se ' : b a t u h O n ' h ave a a o L d ' , from b a t u k ' a ao L d ' ; r u a l) O n ' ha v e ho L e s ' , from r u a l) ' ho L e ; a a v i t y ' ; I) a l f a n ' fe e L a o L d ' , from
(9)
t h i ng ) ' ;
U M - + base :
101 I) a l i ' c o ldne 8 8 ' ; h a l i ma t a O n ' ha v e e y e di 8 e a 8 e ' , from h a l i m a t a ' kind o f eye d i s ease c hara c t e r i s e d b y redne s s ' . ( 1 1 ) h a - + N + - a n ; it expre s s e s ' be ing overt aken by s omething undes irable , e xpre s s e d b y the noun base ' : h a u d a n a n ' b e c a u g h t in rain ' , from u d a n ' r a i n ' ; h a b O r l) f n a n ' b e o v e r t a k e n b y n i g h t ' , from
b O r l) i n ' n i g h t ' ; h a s i a l) a n ' o v e r t a k e n b y day l i g h t ; g e t up l a t e ' ; h a p a n a k k 6 a n ' 8 uffer burg lary o r t h eft ' , from p a n a k k O ' t h i e f ' ; h a b u b u h a n , the only one o f t h i s kind ( h a - + redup licat ion + base + - a n ) , ' b e n o l o n g e r a v i r g i n ' , seems t o be long in this group , from b u h a ' op e n ( Vt ) ' with a coale s c en c e o f vowe l . ( 12a ) t a r - + Vt ( or , N ) ; i t means ' ac c i dentally s u f fer from what i s expre s s e d b y the base ' : t a r d e g e ' b e trod upo n a c c i d e n t a l ly ' , from
d e g e ' t read on ( 8 0m e t hi ng ) ' ; t a r t O b b O m ' b e ramm e d ; co l l ide a g a i n 8 t 8 0 m e t h i n g ' , from t 6 b b O m ' ram; 8 tr i k e for c e fu l l y w i t h b o dy ' ; t a r a r i ' b e v i c t im o f a bad day ' , from a r i ' day ' ; t a r p 6 s 0 ' b e b o rn t o o y o u n g ; b e i n a 8 ta t e i n w h i c h t he r e are n o e l der p e o p l e
( said o f a family
group ) ' , from p O s O ' y oungn e 8 8 ' ( or p O s 6 ' y o u n g ' ) ; t a r s u g a ' b e p r i c k e d from s u g a ' t horn ' . ( 12b ) t a r - + s u - + A : t a r s u l a d d i t ' 8 l i p ; 8 k i d ' , from l a d d f t
b y a t horn ' ,
,
8 l i p p e ry , .
In t a r s f l) O t ' rememb e r ; come to m i n d ' , from f l) O t ' r ememb e r ( 80me t h i ng ) ' , t here i s a n intru s ive l s i , i f i t be longs t o ( 1 2a ) above , or there i s a l o s s o f vowe l l u i , i f it b elongs t o ( 1 2b ) . The form t a r f l) O t ' can be r ememb e r e d ' is the potential mode of t he tran s i t ive verb f l) O t ' rememb e r ' ; i t a l s o o c curs in the phrasal prep o s i t i on ( 12c )
t a r f l) O t t u ' co n c e r n i n g ' .
( 1 3 ) There are two int ran s i t i ve verb s beginning w i t h I m l mat ched by forms beginning in I p / : m a l) a n ' ea t ' , p a l) a n ' e a t ( 8 0m e t h i ng ) ' ; m 6 d o m ' 8 l e ep ' , p a p 6 d o m ' p u t t o 8 l e e p ' , p o d 6m i
' 8 l e e p upon
( 8 0me t h i ng ) '
Doub ling : p E a k p E a k ' l i e i d l e ' , from p E a k ' l i e ' ; h u d d u l h u d d u l from h u d d u l ' 8 i t ' ; m o d o m m 6 d o m ' l i e ( without really going t o s leep ) ; l i e down f o r 80me r e 8 t ' , from m6dom ' 8 l e ep ' ; t a l) i s t a l) f s ' cry p i t e o u 8 l y ' , from t a l) i s ' cry ' ; m E k k E 1 E k k E l ' l augh for a l o n g t ime ' , from E k k E l ' l augh ( N ) ' ( c f . m E k k E l ' l augh ( Vi ) ' ; m i t t o p f t t o p ' f l i c k e r ' , from m f t t o p ' g o o u t ' ( w ith root l i t t o p ) ; j o u j o u 'make a 8 0 u n d l i k e o n e c o n t i n uo u s l y ca l l in g ' , from j 6 u ' c a l l ' . ( 14 )
'8it idle ' ,
4.6.4.2.
T�an� �z� v e V e�b�
Tran s i t ive verb s are s imp l e s t ems , primary derivat ive s , or s e c ondary derivat i ve s .
102 4.6.4. 2. 1 .
S i mp l e
T r a n s i t i ve
Verbs
p . b a k ' b ea t ' ; s E a t ' c u t ' ; d O k ' s ay ' ; b U a t ' t a k e ' ; j 6 u ' ca L L ' ; a l a p ' fe t c h ' . 4.6.4.2.2.
P r i ma r y
T r a n s i t i ve
Verbs
There are few primary derivat ives among the tran s i t ive verb s . ( 1 ) p a r - + root : p a r m E a m 'p Lay wi t h ( s ome t hi ng ) ' . from l - m E a m , which i s a l s o found in m E amm E a m ' to y ' and ma r m E a m ' p Lay ( Vi ) ' ; p a r s i t t a ' w i s h for ; d e s i re ' . from I- s i t t a , a l s o found in s i t t a s i t t a 'wish ( N ) ' . ( 2 ) p a - + root : p a b6a ' te L L ' . from I - b o a , als o found in b o a b 6 a 'pro c Lama t i o n ; announcem e n t ' ; p a s f d i � ' a v o i d ' . from I- s i d i � , als o found in m a r s i d i k s ( d i � ' ke ep on e s e l f away from a n y c o n t ac t ' ; p a u l l o p ' m a k e to 9merge ' . from I- u l l o p , a l s o found in m u l l o p ' emerge ' . ( 3 ) root + - h O n : t a r u h O n ' ta k e ( s ome t h i n g s om e w h e re ) ' . from I t a r u a l s o found in p a t a r u ' t a k e ( i . e . a c c ompany a p e r s o n ) ' ; l u a h O n ' carry away ' . a l s o found in m a � a l u a ' e l o p e ' ; a g O h O n ' l o s e ( s ome t h i ng ) ' . from lag O , als o found in m a g O ' b e l o s t ( Vi ) ' . ( 4 ) root + - i : i t t 6 p i ' ex t i n g u i s h ' . from l i t t o p , a l s o found in m f t t o p ' g o o u t ; e x t i n g u i s h e d ' ; p o d 6m i ' s l e ep o n ( s ome t h i ng ) ' . from I p o d o m , als o found in p a p 6 d om 'pu t to s l e ep ' ; d a k d a t i ' co n t i n u e ( d o i n g ) ' . from Id a k d a t - . ( 5 ) p a � - + roo t + - i ( c f . intran s i t ive m a � - + root ) : p a k k u l f � i ' t o addr e s s ( a p e r s o n ) ' . from Ih u l i � ; p a � i h u t i ' to fo l l ow (a p e r s o n ) ' . from l i h u t ( a l so found i n i h u t t O n ' fo L l ow ' ) . 4.6.4.2. 3.
Secondary
T r a n s i t i v e Verbs
( la ) p a r - + N ; t he meaning i s ' make use o f , or do somet hing in c onnect ion wit h , what i s expre s se d b y the noun base ' : p a r d O � a n ' b e fr i e n d; a c company ' . from d O � a n ' fri e n d ' ; p a r a b i t ' w e ar; dr e s s o n e s e L f w i t h ' . from a b i t ' c l o t h i n g ' ; p a r g u r u ' a s k for (or. fo l l o w ) t h e a dv i c e o f ' . from g u r u ' t e a c h e r ' . ( lb ) pa r - + N + - i ; the I . C . s tructure i s ( p a r - + N ) + - i , ( c f . ( 9 ) b e low ) : p a r r O h a i 'make w i s e ' g i v e w i sdom to ' . from p a r r 6 h a ' w i s e man ' . r O h a 'mi n d ' ; p a r b a d i a i ' m a k e ho ly ' . from p a r b a d f .. ' ho ly b e i ng ' . b a d f a ' ho L i n e s s ' ; p a r a b f t i ' dr e s s ( s o m e b o dy ) ' . from p a r a b i t ' o n e who has c l o t h e s ' . a b i t ' c l o t hi n g ( N ) ' .
p a r - + N + - h O n ; the c on s t ituent s tructure s eems t o be ( p a r - + N ) + - h O n , ( c f . ( 1 0 ) be low ) : p a r r O h a h O n 'pay a t t e n t i o n to ' . r O h a ' m i n d ' ; p a r d e b a d h O n 'wors h ip (or. c o n s i d e r ) a s a g o d ' . d e b a d ' god ' ; p a r b a d a h O n ' quarre l a b o u t ' . from b a d a ' quarre l ' . ( lc )
103 pa r - + h a - + A :
p a r h a t u t u ' ao nfe 8 8 ' , from t u t u ' t ru e ' ; rn a 6 1 ' dear; diffi a u l t ' ; p a r h a s E a l) ' fi n d a U 8 e for; n o t th row away ' , s E a l) ' ( i t i 8 a ) pi ty ' . ( l e ) p a r - + numeral ; the meaning i s ' di vi de int o such and s uc h a number o f parts ' : p a r d u a ' di v i de i n two ' , d u a ' two ' ; p a r t 6 1 u ' d i v i de
( ld )
p a r h a rn a O l
' a h e ri 8 h ; va l u e ' ,
i n t o t h r e e par t 8 ' ,
t6 1 u ' t h r e e ' .
p a r - + s i - + Vt : p a r s i a j a r i ' 8 t u dy ; l earn ' , from a j a r i ' t ea a h ' ; p a r s i g a t t u l) ' s u 8 p e n d o n e 8 e lf from ' , from g a t t u l) ' hang ' . ( 3 a ) p a - + A , Vi : t he meaning i s ' make or cause what i s expre s s e d by t he b ase : p a g a d j a l) ' l e n g t h en ; make l o n g e r ' , g a d j a l) ' l o n g ' ; p a b a l g a
(2)
b a l g a ' b i g ' ; p a d b b o ' rai 8 e ' , t i b b 6 ' h i g h ' ; p a p E a k p E a k ' t i e ' ; p a h u d d u l ' s e t ( down ) ; make t o 8 i t ' , h u d d u l ' 8 i t ' ; p a j O l) j O I) ' ma k e t o 8 t and ( up ) ' , j O l) j O I) ' 8 tand ' ; p a ( n u rn ' g i v e to drin k ' , rn ( n u rn ' dr i n k ( Vi ) ' , ( n u rn ' dr i n k ( Vt ) ' . The s imp le mode in the act ive vo� c e is not formed by pre fixing rn a l) - , but by s uffix ing - h O n ; thus , p a j O l) j O k k O n j a b u d O i b a n a ' h e i 8 b ui l di ng ( e r e a t i n g ) a h o u 8 e ' . ( 3b ) p a - + N : p a b a r a ' p u t i n 8 tab l e ' , from b a r a ' 8 tab l e ' ; p a s a r u l) ' 8 he a t h e (a k n i fe ) ' from s a r u l) ' 8 h e a t h ' ; p a d u r u ' exomm u n i ca t e ' , d u r u ' ma k e b ig g e r ' , ' lay ( down ) ' ,
' t h e o u t s i de ' .
p a t u k k a k k O n ' h a v e ( 8 0m e t h i n g ) fix e d b y a carp e n t e r o r m e ah a ni a ' , from t u k k a l) ' aa rp e n t e r; me chan i c ' ; p a d a t u h O n ' ha v e ( 8 0m e t h i n g ) aured b y a m a g i a i a n ' , from d a t u ' 8 0rae rer; medi a i n e
(4)
pa- + N + - hon :
man ' .
( 5 ) p a - + Vt- doub l i n g ; the meaning i s ' do repeatedly what i s expre s se d by t he base in a p layful or i rre spon s ib l e manne r ' : p a d O k d a k d O k ' 8 ay ' ; p a i l) O t f l) O t ' k e ep rememb e ri ng ' , f 1) 0 t ' rem emb e r ( 8 0me t h i n g ) ' ; p a h i d d a t t f d d a t ' t i ft u p p l a y fu Z Z y and rep e a t e d ly ' , h f d d a t ' l ift ' . ( 6 a ) N + - i : t O r t a r i ' danae b e fo r e (or, around) s o me t hi n g ' . t a r t O r 'danae ' ; u l a s i ' a o v e r w i t h a b la n k e t ' . u l 0 s ' b l a n ke t ' ; p u d ( i ' 8 ta n d w i t h ( o r, t u rn ) o n e ' 8 b a a k to ' , p u d i ' b a a k ( p a r t ) ' ; r u a l) i ' m a k e a ho l e i n ' , r u a f) ' h o l e ' . 'ahatter about
( 6b )
( 80 m e t h i n g ) ' ,
Vi + - i :
h u d d u l i ' 8 i t o n ( 8 0m e t h i ng ) ' , h u d d u l ' 8 i t ' ; I) a t i 'l O t ' b e awake ' ; r a p a r i ' m a k e hungry; 8 t arve ' ,
'wake up ( a p e r 8 0n ) ' ,
r a p a r ' g o w i t h o u t foo d ' . ( 7a ) N + - h O n ; the meaning i s ' do what i s appropriate w i t h ( o r , use ) the ob j e ct e xpre s se d b y the noun bas e ' : a b ( t t O n 'wrap a r o u n d ( l i k e a dre s 8 ) ' , a b i t ' a l o t h i n g ' ; t O r t O r h O n ' u 8 e , o r g i v e , i n dan a i n g ( e . g . a a e remo n i o u 8 b l an k e t ) ' , t O r t O r ' da n a e ' ; g u r u h O n ' l earn; 8 tu dy ' , g u r u ' teaaher ' . ( 7b ) Vi + - h O n : p E a k k O n ' p u t down ' , from p E a k ' l i e ' ; g a t t u k k O n ' ha n g up ( 8 0 m e t h i ng ) ' , from g a t t u l) ' 8 u 8 p ended; b e h u n g ' .
104 ha- + N + - i :
h a s i h O l i ' l o n g fo r ' , s f h O I ' l o n g i n g ' ; h a b i a r i ' fe a r ; fe e l fear for ' , b f a r ' fe a r ' ; h a p O s i ' t ru s t ' , p O s ( n i r O h a )
( Ba )
' t rus t ( o f h e a r t ) ' .
h a - + Vi + - i :
( Bb )
hapO rsE a i
' b e l i e v e i n ( s om e t h i n g ) ' ,
from
p O r s E a 'b e l i e v e ; h a v e fai t h ( Vi ) ' j h a s i a t i ' b e symp a t h e t i a towards (a from s f a t ' fi t ( i n to som e t h i ng ) ' . a ) h a - + Vi + - h O n : (9 h a m a t � h O n . ' d i e of; k e e p do i n g some t h i n g t i l l o n e d i e s o f i t ' , m a t E ' di e ' ; h a r O h O n ' aome fo r ' , r O ' aome ' ; h a j O l) j O k k O n
p e r s on ) ' ,
j 6 1) j O l) ' s tand ' . ( 9b ) h a - + N + - h O n : h a l u f) u t t O n ' y earn fo r ' , I U f) u n ' l o n g i n g ; s o l i tude ' ; h a b u r j u h O n 'p ers e v e r e i n ' , b U r j u ' s e r i o u s n e s s ; goodn e s s ' ; h a d e f) g a t t O n ' a a a e p t ( a s g o o d ) ' , d e f) g a n ' go o d n e s s ' . ' b e a r w i tn e s s o f ' ,
S t e m s o f O t h e r W o rd C l a s s e s
4.6.5.
There i s no extensive derivat ion in the o t her word c l as s e s . The few derive d s t ems found have been ment ioned passim ( § 4 . 3 . 2 . - 4 . 5 . ) . ROOTS
4.7.
I n § 4 . 6 . above , we make men t i on of root s : It a r i f) in t a t a r i l) ' t ripod p o t s t a n d ' ; Ib a d d a in pa r b a d d a a n ' g r a v e y a rd ' ; Ig a k in s i g a k ' ra v e n ' . By and large , roo t s c on s i s t o f t wo s y l l ab l e s , as do the maj ority o f s imp l e s t ems . Pairs o f words like h a b a l) ' to fly ' : h a b O I) ' w i ng ' j m O s O k ' b ur n t ( i . e . i n a o o k i ng ) ' : m a s a k ' do n e ( i n a o o k i n g ) ' , wh i c h s how a s imi l a�ity in form and meaning , rai s e t he que s t ion whether one may not be derived from t he othe r . There are other such pairs , but t o o few f o r any c on c lu s i on s : s a k k O p ' l i d of e a r t h e n p o t ' : l a k k O p ' a a o v e r 4.7. 1 .
';
d u p a f) ' Y- s ha p e d branah ' : s f p p a l) ' i n t ers e a ti o n ' ; h O p f t ' narrow ' : h a p i t , s q u e e z e ( Vt ) ' ; t a d d a ' k now ( r e aogni s e ) ' : t a d d f ' di ffe r e n t ; s ta n d o u t ' ; m u l a k ' r e t urn ( Vi ) ' : t U l a k ' r e j e a t ' ; b O r a t ' heavy ' : s O r a t ' s uffer
ma t E ' di e ' : p a t E ' un r e d e emab l e ( o f s a l e ) ' ; a l a f) ' n o t q u i t e r e a a h t h e end ' : h a l a f) ' ba r ( Vt ) ' : h O l a l) ' di s tan t ' .
under a h e a vy l oad ' ;
De s c r ipt ively , we c on s i de r s uch words as not relat e d . 4.7.2. Many o f the d i s y l lab i c s imp le s t ems and root s seem c l e arly t o b e t h e r e s u l t o f redup l i cat ion : d o k d o k ' he a v y ' ; t a t t a p ' ( lt a p - I t a p )
s a t c a p ' ( /s a p - Is a p ) ' s l i ae a l e a n ' ; l a k l a k ' ba r k ; s k i n ( o f fru i t ) ' ; d a f) d a f) ' p a y a h e avy s um ' ; Is O s o in s O s 6 i ' urge ' ; Id a k d a k ( /d a t - Id a t ) a s i n d a k d a t i ' ao n t i n u e ' ; Ib a k b a k a s i n m a b a k b a k ' s t ream 'wash ' ;
down
(e . g.
tears ) ' .
Some of these man i f e s t peculiar alt ernat ion
105 p at t ern s , whi ch are n o t covered b y § 3 . I n our d i s c u s s i on s o n de rivat ion , we t reat the se redup l i c at ion forms as s imp le s t ems or root s without men t ioning t he i r inner s t ructure . Other types o f s uch redup l i c at i on are : ( 1 ) re dup l i c at i on o f onset and peak ; e . g . t ,1 t a p ' p e e r ( a t some t h i n g d i s t a n t ) ' ; t u t U I) ' b urn ( Vt ) ' ; 1 1 0 1 0 1) a s in m a h i l O I O I) ' de s e r t h u s b a n d ' ; s u s u n ' arra n g e i n a row o r p i l e ' ; an d ( 2 ) with a d i f fe rent vowe l ; e . g . p f p O t ' gu i l t ; s i n ' ; d o d a k ' in n e r s k i n o f ri c e , ' quarre l ' ;
s h e d through p o u n di n g ' ;
s u k s a t) ( /s u f) - Is a f)
' i n d i s array ; c ri s s c ro s s ' ;
s 6 s a ' e ras e ' ; t u l t a l (of a chicken ) ' ; s u r s a r
' cur l y fea t he rs
g u g a ' s t i r ' ; d u d a ' p o und ( r i ce ) ' .
C H A PT E R V
SYNTAX 5.0.
I NTROVU C T I ON
In s e c t ions § 5 . 1 . 1 . - 2 . , construct i on markers , pure and impure , w i l l b e p l a c e d b etween b racket s f o r c l ari t y . Intonat i on w i l l not b e t rans cribed ; when intonat ion is re levant , the phra s e with t he intonation i s given b etween s lant l i ne s , b u t w e retain ( non-phonemi c ) space s as word boundari e s . When u s e fu l , the immediate con s t it uent cut w i l l be indicated wit h a vert i c a l s t roke . 5. 1 .
CONST R U C T I ONS
Phras e s are exocentric and endocent ric . Exocentric phrase s are predicat ive o r directive. Fo r e x ample , h u d d u l [ d O ] i b a n a ' h e i s s i t t i n g ' i s pre di cative : m a � a l l a � g a d O � ' e a t yam ' i s dire c t i ve . Endocentri c phrase s are attributive or coordinate . For example , m a t c a i u l f ' v e ry pre t ty ' i s at t ributive ; t a O t 6 b a ' L a k e Toba ' i s co-ordinate . Many phrase s contain a marker . For example , d O in t he pre di cat ive phrase l a O [ d O ] i b a n a ' he w e n t ' ; m a n a � ' or ' in t he co-ordinate phra s e 1 6 b b u [ m a n a � ] h 6 d a ' cow o r h o r s e ' . 5. 1 . 1 . 5.1 . 1 . 1 .
E ndocen tri c Constructions
A���l b u�lv e C o n� ��ue�i o n�
At t ri b ut i ve con s t ruct ions fall into several con s t ru ct ions ac cording t o the head . Thi s c l as s i fi cat ion int e r s e ct s t he c l as s i fi cat ion ac cord ing to the re lat ive p o s i t i on of head and at t ribut e . An attribute phrase w i l l b e called after the head ; thus , j a b u [ n a ] b a l g a ' b ig h o u s e ' i s a n oun phrase ; m a r d a l a n p a t ' wa t k o n foo t ' i s a verb phra s e .
107
108 5. 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 .
N o un Phrase
The c l as s i fi cat ion be low i s ac co rding t o the attribute ; the s i xth and e i ghth are d i s t ingui shed by the head and t he relative order o f head an d attribut e . In the first se ven c la s s e s the re lative order i s fix e d ; i n t he e ighth , the order i s not fixe d . Head first : ( 1 ) N + N ( first noun i s he a d ) : h O r b O p a d a t i ' draft wa t e r- b uffa l o ' ( h O r b O 'wa t e r - b uffa l o ' , p a d a t i ' ca r t ' ) ; h u d O n d n O ' e a r t h en po t ' ( h 6 d O n ' p o t ' , t ol n O ' ea r t h ' ) ; g u r u k a p a l a ' p r i n c i pa l ' ( g 6 r u ' t ea c h e r ' , k a p a l a ' he a d; l e a der ' ) ; t a r u p [ n i ] j a b u ' ro o f o f a h o u s e ' ( t a r u p ' roo f ' , j a b u ' h o u s e ' ) ; s u h u l [ n i ] r a u t ' s h e a t h of a knife ' ( s 6 h u l ' s h ea t h ' , r a u t ' kn i fe ' ) . ( 2 ) N + V : k a p a l h a b a l) ' a i rp l a n e ' ( k a p a l ' b oa t ' , h a b a l) ' to fly ' } ; h o d a p a t c u ' ra ce h o rs e ' ( h 6 d a ' ho r s e ' , p a t c u ' o v e r t a k e ; race ' ) ; h a l a k r n a ] p i n t o ' an i n v i t e d p e r s o n ' ( h a l a k ' p e rs o n ' , p i n' f o ' have b e en i n v i t e d ' ) ; d a k d a n a k r n a ] m 6 d o m ' a s l e ep i n g c h i l d ' ( d a k d a n a k ' c h i l d ' , m 6 d o m ' s l e ep ' ) . ( 3 ) N + A : j a b u r n a ] b a l g a ' a b i g h o u s e ' ( j a b u ' h o us e ' , b a l g a ' b i g ' ) ; h a l a k r n a ] g 6 g o ' a s trong p e rs on ' ( g o g o ' s t ro n g ' ) . ( 4 ) N + Pronoun : j a b u t ' t h a t h o u s e ' ( i ' t ha t ' ) ; m e j a d t a ' w h i ch t ab l e ' ( d ( a ' wh i c h ' ) ; b u k k u r n a ] t o l u ( O n ) ' a l l ( t h e s e ) t h r e e b o o k s ' ( t 6 1 u ' t hr e e ' ) ; b a t u r n a ] d 6 a ' two s t o n e s (a p l ace name ) ' ( d 6 a ' two ' ) ; d e s a r n a ] u ol l u ' t he e ig h t di r e c t i on s ' ( d e s a ' compass p o i n t ' , u � l u ' e igh t ' ) .
N + Prepos i t ional Phrase :
j a b u r n a ] d i h u t a ( f ) ' ( th e ) house h 6 t a ' vi l lage ' ) ; s u r a t r n a ] s 1 a n i b a n a ( f ) ' ( t h e ) l e t t e r from him ' ( s 6 r a t ' l e t t e r ' , s t a n ' from ' , i b a n a ' h e ; s h e ' ) .
(5)
i n t h e vi l lage '
(di
'at ',
Att ribute fi rst : ( 6 ) Pronoun + Noun o f Measure :
t o l u m a k k u k ' t h r e e capfu l s ' ( t 6 1 u ' t hre e ' , m a' k k u k ' c up ' ) ; p i g a h f r a l) ' how many b a s k e t fu l s ' ( p ( g a ' h ow many ' , h ( r a l) ' b as k e t ' } ; d u a b O r l) i n ' two n i g h t s ( l o n g ) ' ( d u a ' tw o ' , b O r l) i n ' n i g h t ' ) .
( 7 ) Aux i l i ary + N : a k k a j a b u ' ho u s e s ' ( a k k a i s p l ural marker ) ; g a n u p h a l a k ' e v e ry p er s o n ' ( g a n u p ' e v e r y ; e a ch ' ) ; n a s a j O l m a ' a l l m e n ' ( n a s a ' a l l ' , j 6 1 m a ' human b e i ng ' ) . Order not fixe d : ( 8 ) Noun and Quan t i fier ( i . e . numeral or a phrase o f type ( 6 ) above ) : h 6 d a t 6 1 u or t 6 1 u h 6 d a ' t h r e e h o r s e s ' ; d u a ma k k u k I k O p i or kO p i I d u a m a k k u k ' two cups o f coffe e ' . There seems t o be no hard an d fast rule det ermining the orde r . However , in enumerat i ons , the more common order is nume ral + noun ; e . g. d 6 a 1 6 b b u . t 6 1 u h 6 d a . . . . ' two oows, t hr e e hors e s , . ' . The he ad in t h i s cons truct i on i s a noun .
.
109 other than a meas ure noun . The s t re s s pat t e rn i n t h i s type o f numeral + noun constru ction is primary-primary ; in type ( 6 ) , it is s e c ondary primary : t 6 1 u m a k k u k ' t h r e e cups ' , t o l u m a k k u k ' t hr e e cupfu l s ' . I t i s p o s s ib l e t o have more than one at tribute t o one noun head . For example : h u d O n d l n o r n a ] b a l g a f ( p o t , e a r t h , b i g , t ha t ) ' t h e b i g e ar t h e n p o t ' ; rich,
tha t )
s ude ha l a k hu t a r n a ] mOra
' a l l t h e r i c h vi l la g e r s ' .
r
( a l l , person,
vi l l a g e ,
The nest ing o f the first phrase
is ( ( ( ( h u d O n ) t a n O ) na b a 1 g a )
1234 4 3 2 and that o f t he se cond phrase
f)
1
( s u d e ( ( ( ( h i l1 a k ) h u t a ) na m O r a )
f» .
1 2345 5 4 3 21 P o s t p o s e d modi fiers fall into s i x p o s i t ion c l a s s e s : ( a ) unmarked verb , ( b ) unmarked noun , ( c ) n i -attri b ut e , ( d ) n a -attribut e , ( e ) pronoun ( demo n s t rat ive or interro gat i ve ) , ( f ) quant i fier a s found in type ( 8 ) . Fo r e xamp le , head + ( a ) + ( b ) + ( c ) + ( d ) + ( e ) + ( f ) : ( ( ( ( ( ( ( s E d d O k ) m a l) a n ) p E r a k ) n i s i p ) t t O r ) n a i b b a r u )
1234567
7
spoon
6
eat
5
si lver
Pi t t o r
4 ( name )
3
new
f) dua)
2
1
t h a t two
' two o f Pi t t or ' s new s i l v e r tab l e sp o o n s ' .
I t i s p o s s ib l e t o have more than one n a-at t ribute t o one hea d . example , d a k d a n a k n a m O k m O k na m o d o m ( chi l d, fa t , s l e ep , t ha t )
For
' t h e fa t c h i l d who i s s l e e p i n g ' .
We also find two or more n i -phra s e s in s u c c e s s ion ; e . g . p a t [ n i ] s a r a O a l [ n i ] s i p f t t O r ' t he l e g o f Pi t t o r ' s t r o u s e rs ' . I t i s s ome t imes difficult t o tell t o whi ch noun t he se cond ( t hird , et c . ) n i - phrase is attribut ive ; e . g . l a p p a k [ n i ] b u k k u [ n i ] s i p f t t O r ( co v e r , b o o k , Pi t to r ) can mean ' P i t t o r ' s b o o k c o v e r ' or ' t he c o v e r o f Pi t to r ' s b o o k ' . How eve r , in mo st case s , a n i -phrase is at t ri b ut ive t o the noun in the pre ceding n i -phra s e ; e . g . i n a r g a [ n i ] t a r u p [ n i ] j a b u [ n i ] s i p f t t o r (pri c e , 5.1 . 1
.1
r o o f, .2.
house, Pittor)
' t h e price o f t h e r o o f o f Pi t to r ' s h o u s e ' .
Verb P h r a s e s
O f the c l a s s e s o f verb phras es be low , t he order i s fixed i n ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) , ( 4 ) , and ( 7 ) . The con s t ru c t i ons in ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) have a highly l imited product ivity ; phra s e s built b y t hem c an b e regarde d a s idio mat i c . In t he other c l a s s e s , th e orde r may b e reversed depending on the s t ru c t ure of t he sentence i n wh i ch t hey oc cur ; t he order given in the e x amp les is t hat found in direct order ( see § 5 . 2 . ) when the ve rb and i t s att ribute are cont iguous .
110 H e a d first : (1) V + N:
m a r d a l a n p a t ' w a H on fo o t ' (wa l k , fo o t ) ; ma r b a d a b o l a k ' ha v e a b i g quarr e l ; fe ud ' ( quarre l, v a s t n e s s ) ; ma l l a l) E p u d i ' swim o n one ' s baok '
( swim, ba o k ) .
ma r r O h a a u ' b e s e l fi s h ' ( ha v e m i nd, I ) ; ma r r O h a s a d a ' b e s t ubborn ' ( ha v e mind, o n e ) ; rna I I a k k a d u a ' t o ga l l o p ' ( to s t e p ,
(2)
V + Pronoun :
two ) .
( 3)
V + Adj unct ( P ro-adj un ct ) :
I a O rna r s o g o t ' g o tomorrow ' ; p E a k
d i s a n ' "li e t he r e ( y onde r ) ' ; t a r u h O n t u s O n ' b ri n g here ' ; ma l l a l) E d i s U I) E ' sw im in t h e r i v e r ' .
(4)
V + Aux i l iary :
l a O h i a n 'we n t pre v i o u s l y ' ; l a O b e ' ( e a o h ) g o e s
i n d i v i dua l l y ' ; m o d om m u s E
' s leep again ' .
Att ribute first : ( 5 ) A + V : ( h a l a k n a ) h a t O p ma r d a l a n ( d a l) d e l) g a n ) g o d a l) ma r f s a p ( 6 ) Adj unct + V : s a u r s a u t m a r s a h i t ' g o t s i ok as m o d om ' s l e ep oon t in u o us l y ;
(7)
Aux i l i ary + V :
rO ( d O i ba n a )
' ( a man who ) wa l k s fa s t ' ;
' ( i t is n o t good)
to smo k e muoh ' .
m a t u a ' re a o h o l d age ' ( s u o o e s s fu l , b e o l d ) ; expe o t e d ' ( a s exp e o t e d, b e s i o k ) ; t O r u s k e e p s l e ep i n g ' .
n a E I) l a O ( d O i b a n a ) ' ( h e ) wan t s to go ' ; p l t t O r s O r m a t E ( rn a i b a n a ) ' ( h e ) a lmos t
' ( h e ) oame imm e di a t e ly ' ;
died ' .
A verb head c an have more than one attribut e ; s ee § 5 . 2 . b e low . 5 . 1 . 1 . 1 .3.
A d j e c t i v e P h ra s e s
The order in adj e c t ive phra s e s i s fixed . The aux i l iari e s whic h modi fy a n adj e c t i ve t hu s fal l i n t o prepo s e d and p o s t p o s e d c l as s e s . Head first : ( 1 ) A + Aux i l i ary : d e l) g a n s a h a l l ' v ery good ' ; d a o s i t u t u ' tr u l y a r g a h f a n ' e x treme l y exp e ns i v e ' . Aux i l i ary + A : ma t c a i u l ( ' v ery pre t t y ' ; t a r m u r a ' s omewhat e a s y ' ; I am m a O I 'more and more diffi o u l t ' .
far ' ;
(2)
I n c o l l oquial speech , we often find more than one aux i l i ary ( rarely more t han two ) modi fying an adj e c t ive ; e . g . ma t c a i u l l s a h a l i ' ve r y v e ry p r e t ty ' ; 5 . 1 . 1 . 1 .4.
t U I) m a t c a i b a l g a ' v e ry ex treme l y b i g ' .
A d j un c t
Phrases
The relat ive order in these phras e s is fixed . Head first : ( 1 ) Adj un c t + Numera l : n a t t O a r i s a d a ' t he day b e fo r e y e s t e rday ( n a t t O a r i ' y e s t e rday ' ; s a d a ' o n e ' ) . This i s the only one in t h i s c la s s .
'
111 Attribute first : (2) Aux i l iary + Adj unc t : 5.1 . 1 . 1 .5.
marEak bOta r i
' t oward e ve n i n g ' .
s u b s t i t u t e phrases
I n the three c la s s e s o f sub s t i t ute phra s e s b e l o w , the order is fixed . Head first : ( 1 ) Numeral + Aux i l i ary : d u a n a r i ' two more ' ; l ) m a n a r i ' fi v e more ' . Att ribute first : ( 2 ) Auxil iary + Pronoun : ma n a Q f s E ' wh o e v e r ; anybody ' ( f s E ' w ho ' ) ; a g ) a d f a ' w h i c h e ve r ' ( d l a ' w h i c h ' ) .
(3)
Aux i l iary + Numeral :
n a Q g O t 6 l u ' a t Z e a s t t hre e ' ; n a Q g O s a d a
' a t Z eas t o n e ' .
C o - o�d� nate C o n4 t�uct�o n4
5.1 . 1 .2.
A co-ordinate construct ion i s 5. 1 . 1 .2 . 1 .
A ddi t i ve
additive ,
alternative ,
or
appositiv e .
Con s t r u c t i o n s
An addit ive construct ion often involves a marker ( conn e c t i ve ) . ( 1 ) N + N : j a b u [ d O h O t ] h a uma ' ho u s e a n d r i ce fi e Z d ' ; m a s [ d O h O t ] p i nahan (dO bol fna)
(2)
N + Pronoun :
' ( h e r bride p r i c e co n s i s t s of) go Z d and Z i v e s to c k ' .
( g a r a r rn a ) b u k k u
d O h O t O n ' (p Z ea s e pay fo r )
the book and this ' .
( 3 ) Pronoun + Pronoun : a u [ d O h O t ] i b a n a ' I and he ( he and I ) ' ; O n [ d O h O t ] � n ' t h i s a n d t h a t ( yonder ) ' . ( 4 ) A + A : h i pa s [ j a l a ] m O k m O k ( d O i ba n a ) ' ( he i s ) heaZ thy and =
robus t ' .
( d i j a b u n am i d O i b a n a ) m a Q a n [ d O hO t ] m6dom I (he) eats a n d s Z e e p s ( i n o ur hous e ) ' ; m E:k k E I t a Q i s ( d O d a k d a n a k f ) ' ( t h e c h U d )
(5)
is
V + V:
Zaughing and cry ing ' .
(6)
Prepo s i t ional Phras e s :
( n i mej a f )
( l u l u i rn a ) d l g ) d j a Q [ d O h O t ] d i t O r u
' ( Z o o k ) o n and under ( t h e t ab Z e ) ' ;
t u d6 l ok I t u t o r u a n
' upward a n d downwards ' .
s a p p u l u p i t u ' s e v e n t e e n ' ( t e n , s e ve n ) ; s a r a t u s I d u a p � l u ' o n e hundre d and t w e n t y ' ; t 6 l u [ t a b b a ] 6 p a t ' t h r e e p Z u s fo ul" .
( 7)
Numeral s :
5 . 1 . 1 .2.2.
A l t e rn a t i ve Con s t r u c t i o n s
A n alternat ive c on s t ruct i on involves t h e marker m a n a Q ' 0 1" . (1) Noun s : h 6 d a [ m a n a Q ] 1 6 b b u ' a h o r s e 0 1' a cow ' . (2) Noun and Pronoun : h f t a [ m a n a Q ] m u s u t t a 'we 0 1' o u r e n e m i e s ' . ( 3 ) SUb s t i t ut e s : h O [ m a n a Q ] i b a n a ' y o u 0 1' h e ' ; t 6 l u [ m a n a Q ] O p a t ' t hr e e
0 1'
fo ur ' ;
d i s O a [ m a n a Q ] d i s a n ' he r e
0 1'
there
( y o nd e r ) ' .
112 ,
Verb s : ma r d a I a n [ m a n a !) ] m a rmO t O r ' g o on foo t or go by car ' . Adj e c t i ve s : a r g a [ m a n a !) ] m u d ' expen s i v e or cheap ' . Prepos it ional Phras e s : d i g f d j a !) [ m a n a !) ] d i t O r u ( n i m e j a f )
(4)
(5) (6) , on
0 1'
under ( t he tab l e ) , .
5 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 3.
A ppos i t i ve Con s t r u c t i on s ,
t a O t o b a ' L a k e Toba ' ; p u l o s a m O s i r ' Samo s i r Is l and ' ; a E k s i g E a O n ' S i g e a o n R i v e r ' ; s a h a l a d i a p a r i ' two personal names ' ; s a h a t s i h O b b i n ' personal name and family name ' ; s i p f t t O r I a n a k n i a m a d j a l u k ' Pi t t o r , t h e s o n o f Amadja l u k ' .
Examp l e s :
5.1 .2.
E xocentri c Constructi ons
5 . 1 . 2 . 1 .
V��ect� v e C o n� t�uct� o n�
There are two types o f dire c t i ve cons t ru c t i ons . In the first t he director i s a part i c le ; we wi l l c all it marked . The s e c ond cons i s t s o f a verb and i t s agent or obj e c t ; w e w i l l call it verbal. 5. 1 . 2. 1 . 1 .
M a r k e d Di r e c t i ve Co n s t r u c t i on s
The s e fall into two c l as s e s according to the form- c l a s s o f the dire c t o r : preposit ional an d conjunctive. ( 1 ) Prepositional Constructions. The ax i s in a prepo s i t ional cons truct ion i s a non-c laus e , most ly a nominal ( noun , noun phrase , or pronoun ) . Examp l e s : d i h u t a ' i n t h e ( t a r u p ) n i j a b u ' ( roof) o f a h o u s e ' ; s O !) O n m a s ' l i k e g o l d ' ; ( h a u ) n a t f b b o ' a t a n ( t re e ) ' .
vi n a g e ' ;
( 2 ) Conjunctive Const ructions. The ax i s in a conj un c t i ve con s t ru c t i on i s a c lause . Examp le s : ( r O m a h O , ) m O I O I s O a d O !) u l a O m m u ' (p l e a s e come ) w h e n y o u have n o t h i n g to do ' ; ( t i b u m a h O rO , ) a s a I r a p h f t a l a O ' (p l e a s e come ear l y , ) s o t h a t we go t o g e t he r ' ; ( u n a !) g a d i s b u k k u n a f , ) s C H u !) I d i m u r u h i i b a n a h 6 ' (don ' t s e l l h i s b o o k ) 5 . 1 . 2 . 1 .2.
Ve r b a l
l e s t t h o u b e r e b u k e d b y him ' .
Di r e c t i ve
Con s t r u c t i o n s
There are t w o types o f verbal direct ive con s t ru c t ion s : agentive ( con s i s t ing o f a pas s i ve t ran s i t ive ve rb and i t s agent ) and objective ( c on s i st ing o f an act ive tran s it ive verb and i t s obj e ct ) . In both the verb come s first . ( 1 ) Agentive Constructions : h u j o u h am i ( d O i b a n a ) ' ( h e ) wa s ca n e d d i t O !) O s n a s f d a ( m a h E p E !) f ) ' ( s o t h e money ) w a s s e n t b y t hem ' ; t a r h ) d d a t i b a n a ( d O p O t i n a b O r a t f ) ' ( t h e h e a v y ch e s t ) can b e l i ft e d
b y us ' ;
113 by him ' ;
g a ra rOn [ n i ] n a t O r a s n a ( dO u t a � � a
s u de )
' ra Z Z h i 8 deb t 8 )
w i l l b e p a i d b y h i 8 pare n t 8 ' .
(2)
Objective Constructions :
t i l l i n g t h e r i c e fie l d ' ; p l a n t i ng r i c e ' ;
m a � u l a h a u m a ( do i b a n a )
ma n u a n E m E ( d O I n a t t a )
' ( he ) i 8
' ( our mo t h e r ) i 8
( r i �g a s d O i b a n a l m a n a p u j a b u ' ( h e ) 8wept t h e hou8e
(di l ig e n t ly ) ' . 5. 1 .2.2.
P4 �di cati v � C o n�t4ucti o n�
A predi cat i ve co n st ruct i on c on s i s t s o f a predicator and a subj ec t , whi ch may be l inked by a predi cat ive part i c l e . When the predi c ator con s i s t s o f , or contain s , a verb , we w i l l c all the construct i on
modom [ d O ] i b a n a ' h e i8 8 l e ep i ng ' ( 8 l e e p , h e ) . Otherwi se , we wi l l ca l l t he construct ion equationa l : g u r u [ d O ] i b a n a verbal predicative :
In t he examp l e s b e l ow , only t he ' he i 8 a t e a c he r ' ( t e a c h e r , h e ) . dire ct word order i s repre s ente d ; other t ypes o f word o rde r are i l lu s t rat e d in § 5 . 2 . 1 . 5. 1 . 2 . 2. 1 .
Ve r b a l
P r e d i ca t i ve Con s t r u c t i on s
Verbal pre d i c a t i ve construction s fal l into four types ac cording t o t h e predicat o r . ( 1 ) The pre dicator i s a n intran s i t ive verb with o r wit hout att ri bute s . W i t hout attribut e : t a � i s [ d O ] i b a n a ' he i s cry i ng ' ; h U d d u l [ m a ] n a s f d a ' t h e y 8 a t down ' ; m a r f d i [ p E ] a u ' ( I p romi s e ) I wi Z Z t a k e a b a t h ' ; ( u n a � p r o i b a n a , m l)1 0 ) b a t u h O n i b a n a ' ( don ' t i n v i t e him if) h e has a co l d ' ; ( l a O ma h am i d u � ) modom i b a n a ' (we l e ft aft e r ) he was a 8 l e ep ' . With at t ribut e : n a E � m o d o m [ d O ] i b a n a ' h e wan t 8 to 8 l e e p ' ; m a r d a l a n p a t [ d O ] h a m i 'we ( e x c l . ) w a l k e d o n foo t ' ; modom b e [ m a ] n a s f d a ' t h e y a l l went to bed '
(each 8 leep8,
they) .
(2)
The predi cator i s an agentive con s t itute ( without attribut e ) : h u j o u h a m i [ d O ] i b a n a ' h e was ca Z Z e d by U8 ( ex c l . ) ' ; d i t O � O s i b a n a [ m a ] s u r a t ( ' t h e n t h e l e t t e r Was 8 e n t b y him ' ; t a r t u h O r s i j 6 h a n [ d O ] ' i t can b e b o u g h t b y J o h n ' .
I n t h i s t ype o f pre d i c a t ive con s t ruct ion , the subj e ct may a l s o b e a verb , a verb phrase , or a n obj e c t ive cons t i t ute : d i m u l a i n a s f d a [ ma ] m a r E d d E ' to 8 i ng was b e g u n by t h em ( t h e y b e gan to 8 i n g ) ' ; d i u l a h i i b a n a [ m a ] t a � l s ' to cry wa s rep e a t e d a g a i n b y him ( = h e again 8 ta r t e d t o cry ) ' ; d i t O r u s s O n i b a n a [ d O ] m a n u r a t s u r a k n a r ' to wri t e h i s l e t t e r =
Thi s type o f c on s t ru c t ion is found only with a sma l l s et o f t ran s i t ive verb s whi ch e xpre s s some t emp oral d i s t ribut ion o f a n event ; e . g . m u l a i
w a s con t i nu e d b y h im (
=
h e con t i n u e d wri t i n g h i 8 l e t te r ) ' .
114 'begin ';
p a s O ' c e a s e ' ; t O r u s s O n ' co n t i n u e ' ; d a k d a t i
' do r e p e a t e d Ly ' .
In t he se exampl e s , the verb i s a p a s s ive verb . We als o find pas s ive t ran s i t ive verb pred i c ators without a s eparat e a c t o r ; e . g . h u j o u [ d O ] n a s f d a ' t h e y were ca n e d by me ' ; p i n r o [ d O ] i b a n a ' h e was i n v i t e d ' .
(3)
The pre di cator i s an obj e c t ive cons t itute ( wi thout at t ri b ut e ) :
m a d j a h a b u k k U [ d O ] i b a n a ' he was reading a b o o k ' ; s u m O l s O l b a g i [ d O ] i b a n a ' he has regre t t e d h i s fa t e ' ; ma s i g a r a r u t a l) l) a [ d O ] n a s f d a ' t h e y each paid his debt ' .
(4)
The predicator i s a re c iprocal verb ( wi thout attribut e ) :
m a s i s u k k u n a n [ m a ] n a s f d a ' ( th e n ) t h e y as ked each o t h e r ' ; ( d a l) h U b O t O n a ) m a s i h O s Om a n n a s r d a ' (I did n o t know tha t ) t h e y h a t e d e a c h o t h e r ' . 5 . 1 .2.2.2.
E qu a t i on a l
Con s t r u c t i on s
There are four types o f e quat ional constru c t i ons ac cording t o the ir c on s t i t uent s . ( 1 ) Both the predic ator and the s ubj e c t are nouns or noun phras e s ; the first c on s t i t uent i s the pre d i c at e : g u r u [ d O ] t u l a l) ' (my ) m a t e rn a l. u n c L e is a t e a c h e r ' ; i b O t O k k u [ d O ] s i d o ' Ti o ( n ame ) is my s i s t e r ' ; t u k k a l) n a ma l O [ d O ] s i p r t t O r ' P i t t o r ( name ) i s a s k i l. l. e d carp e n t e r ' . ( 2 ) The predicator i s a noun or noun phra s e , the subj e c t a pronoun : s u p i r m 6 t O r [ d O ] i b a n a ' h e is a chauffe u r ' ; h a u [ d O ] p a r E d d E [ d O ] a u ' I am a s i n g e r ' .
( 3)
' i t is a t r e e ' ;
The pre di cator i s a numeral , the subj e c t a noun or pronoun :
t o l u [ d O ] h o d a n a ' h i s h o r s e s are t hr e e ( he has t h r e e h o r s e s ) ' ; I r m a [ d O ] O n ' t h i s i s fi v e ' ; s a p p u l u [ d O ] n a s r d a ' t h e y are t e n ( =
=
there
are ten o f them) ' .
( 4 ) The predicator i s an adj e c t i ve , a prepo s i t ional phrase , or a pro-adj unc t o f locat ion , the sub j ect a noun or a pronoun : t i b b o [ d O ] h a u r ' t he t r e e i s t a 1.1. ' ; j u k k a t [ d O ] i b a n a ' h e i s na u g h t y ' ; d i b r l u t [ d O ] n a s r d a ' t h e y are in t he room ' ; d i d [ d O ] ama t t a ' o ur fa t h e r i s there ' .
The examp le s given in § 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 . 1 . - 2 . are t he oc current type s when t here i s no comp l ement in the c laus e ( see below ) . 5.2.
C LAUS ES
A p re di cat ive c on s t itute is a clause. A c lause may a l s o c ontain one or more complements. In ma r p E s t a d O n a s ( d a n a t t O a r i ' t h e y had a fea s t y e s t e rday ' ( ha v e a fea s t , p ar t i c L e , t h e y , y e s t e rday ) , n a t t O a r i i s a c omp lement . Clau s e s are independent or dependent. An independent c lause contains a predicat ive part i c l e , except when
115 it i s interrogat ive c on t aining an interrogat ive pronoun or proverb . For example : m a r p E s t a d O n a s ( d a ' t hey had a fe a s t ' ; m a r d a l a n p E a u , I w i l l wa l k ' ; ( s E ma b b u a t b u k k u k k ( 'who t o o k my b o o k ? ' ; a h a d i b a E n i b a n a ' w h a t did h e do ? ' ; ma r h u a i b a n a ' w h a t is he do i n g ' ( do w h a t , h e ) .
A dependent c l ause i s introdu ced by a subordinat ing conj unc t ion or a nomina l i s ing part i c l e . For examp le : ( h u j o u pE h 6 ) mO I O r 6 i b a n a ( l a O d O i b a n a ) a � g O s O I E a n 6m m u h E p E � � a ( , (he is going) if his money is n o t given by thee ' ; ( d a � ' ( I w i l l ca l l t he e ) w h e n h e come s ' ;
hubOtO) na ma�ap i I
i b a n a ' ( I did n o t k n o w ) t h a t h e was s tu dy i n g ' .
Other type s o f c lauses are o f the minor t ype ( see § 5 . 2 . 2 . b e low ) . Limi t ing ourse lves t o the pre d i c at o r- s ubj e c t variety o f verbal pre d i c a t ive c laus e s , we have four t yp e s ac cording t o the verb : (1)
m a r p E s t a d O n a s f d a n a t t O a r i ' t h e y had a fe a s t b a t u h O n d O i b a n a ' he h a s a co l d ' ; c f . § 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 . 1 . ( 1 ) .
intransitive :
y e s t e rday ' ;
(2)
active transitive :
m a d j a h a b u kk u d O i b a n a d i p a r p u s t a ka a n
' h e w a s reading a b o o k i n t he l i b rary ' l ib rary ) ; m a � u l a h i rn a aga i n ,
part i c le,
(3)
he,
( re a d b o o k , par t i c l e ,
h e , i n the
i b a n a ma r m E a m ' h e s ta r t e d p la y i n g a g a i n ' ( s ta r t p l ay ) ;
passive transit ive :
cf. § 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 . 1 . ( 3 ) . d i g a r a r i bana dO uta��a ( t u n a s ( d a
' h i s deb t was p a i d b y him t o t hem '
( b e p a i d b y him,
h i s deb t ,
t o t h em ) ;
( s E d i p ) o i b a n a 'who was i n v i t e d by him ' . ( 4 ) reciprocal : m a s i l e l e a n d O d a k d a n a k ( d i p 6 1 l a k ' t h e c h i ldren w e r e c ha s i n g e a c h o t h e r i n t h e garden ' ; ma s i b E r E � a n rna n a s f d a ' ( t h e n ) they looked a t each o ther ' . Word O rd e r
5.2. 1 .
The exampl e s i n § 5 . l . 2 . l . -2 . and § 5 . 2 . above are i n direct orde r . A c lause whi c h i s not i n dire c t order i s i n inverted order . 5.2. 1 . 1 .
V��ec� O�de�
The most common patt ern o f a c l ause in direct order i s predicator ( P ) � modal part i c l e ( Mp ) + Subj e c t ( S ) � comp lement ( C ) . For example : m o d o m d O i b a n a d i b ( l u t ' s l e ep ( Mp ) he i n - r o om ' ' he is s l e e p i n g i n t he room ' ; h a t 6 p d O i b � n a ma r d a l a n ' fa s t ( Mp ) h e wa l k ' ' h e wa l k s =
=
fa s t ' ;
m a r h u a i b a n a d i s C ' do - w h a t h e t he r e '
=
' w h a t i s he do i n g t h e re ? ' .
When the subj e c t contains an interrogat ive pronoun , t he word o rder is S � Mp + P + C . For examp l e : ( s E ma n a r u h O n 6 n ' w h o b r o ug h t t h i s ? ' ; a n a k n i ( s E O n 'whose son i s this ? ' ; a h a d i t u h O r h O d i t O k k O ( 'what w a s b o u g h t b y t h e e i n t h e s h op ? ' .
When the c lause contains an adverb , the adverb i s t he predi c ator ; e . g . t O k t 6 � d O i b a n a r i � g a s ' he is a lways di l i g e n t ' (a lways Mp h e
116 s o3 u t d O i b o3 n a m a r s i k k O l a ' h e w e n t t o s c ho o l a s p lann e d ' ( a s
di l ig e n t ) ;
Mp, h e , go to s ch o o l ) . When the c l ause contains an adj e c t ive as a cons t i t uent ( and no adverb ) , the adj e c t ive is the predi cator ; e . g . h a t O p dO i b a n a m a r d a l a n ' h e wa l k s fas t ' ( fa s t , Mp, h e , wa l k ) ; r i I) g o3 s d O h a I a k f m a r s i a j a r ' t h a t p e rs o n s t ud i e s di l ig en t l y ' (di l i g e n t , Mp, t h e p e r s o n , s t udy ) . When the predicator i s an adj e c t ive or an adverb and the complement is an agentive con st i t ut e , the latter come s b e fore the sub j e ct , i . e . P :.t Mp + C + S ; e . g . h a t 6 p d O d i g a r a r i b a n a u tal) l) a f ' q u i c k , Mp , b e - pa i d p l a n n e d,
by he,
h i s - de b t t ha t '
' h i s deb t was p a i d by him q u i c k ly ' .
=
The negative and comp let i ve modal part i c l e s come b e fore the predi cator in the direct orde r ; e . g . d a l) h a t O p i b a n a ma r d a l a n ' he do e s n o t (no t,
wa l k fa s t '
g o n e to s c h oo l ' not a c lerk ' 5.2. 1 . 2.
fas t ,
h e , wa l k ) ;
( a l ready,
(not,
c lerk,
go,
he,
n U l) l) a l a O i b a n a t u s i k k O l a ' he has d a l) k a r a n i i b a n a 'he i s
to s choo l ) ;
he) .
I n v e��ed O�de�
In a c lause in i nvert ed orde r , some e lement other than those in direct order o c cup i e s the in i t i al p o s it ion . When t h i s happens , that e l ement is emp has i s e d . For example : Dire c t Order : m a r p E s t a d O n a s f d a n a t t O a r i ' t h e y had a fea s t y e s t e rday ' .
Invert e d Orde r : ( 1 ) n a s f d a d O m a r p E s t a n a t t O a r i ' THEY had a fea s t y es t e rday ' ; ( 2 ) n a t t O a r i d O n a s f d a m a r p E s t a ' YESTERDA Y t h e y had a fe as t ' ; In ( 3 ) n a t t O a r i d O m a r p E s t a n a s f d a , the verb ma r p E s t a ' ha v e a fea s t ' a l s o ge t s s ome emphas i s , but t o a much l e s s e r degree . Likewi se , n a t t O a r i ' y e s t erday ' in ( 4 ) m a r p E s t a d O n a t t O a r i n a s f d a . Inve r s i on s like ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) are more common ; the emphat i c e ffect is de fin it e . We will call these normal emphat ic orde r ; ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) secondary emphatic orde r . Another set of normal emphat i c order i s a s follows : Direct Order : h a t O p d O i b a n a m a r d a l a n t u h u t a ' he wa l k e d home fa s t ' . Normal Emphat i c Order : ( 1 ) i b a n a d O h a t O p m a r d a l a n t u h u t a ' HE wa l k e d home fa s t ' ; ( 2 ) m a r d a l a n d O i b a n a h a t O p t u h u t a ' h e WA LKED home fa s t ' ; ( 3 ) t u h u t a d O i b a n a h a t O p m a r d a l a n ' he wa l ke d HOME fa s t ' . A spe c i al inverted order o f the above c lause i s somet ime s found : i b a n a h a t O p d O m a r d a l a n t u h u t a whi ch w i l l normally be rendered with a s u s t ained T . C . between i b a n a ' he ' and h a t O p ' fa s t ' ; it seems t o b e b e s t regarded as two minor ( e l l ipt i cal ) clauses ( a l) g O ) i b a n a , h a t O p ,
,
d O ( i b a n a ) m a r d a l a n t u h u t a ' (a s fo r ) him,
( h e ) wa l k e d home fa s t ' .
117 It i s hard t o t e l l whe t he r t here i s a di fference i n degree o f emph a s i s from ( 1 ) ab ove ; what i s c lear i s that t h i s i s a s p e c i a l s tyle o f spee ch . In a noun-noun equat ional c l ause ( s ee § 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 . 2 . ( 1 ) ) , the s ub j e c t i n direct order i s a noun that i s more ' de fi ni te ' . The s c a l e o f ' de finitene s s ' from high t o low s eems t o b e : noun with a demon s t rative attribut e , proper noun , noun o f re lat i onsh ip , a more s p e c i f i c noun , a more generi c noun . In a normal emphat i c orde r , the ro les are revers ed , t he more definite noun i s t he predi cator . Examp l e s : Dire c t orde r : ( 1 ) 5 1 p f t t O r d O h il1 a k f ' t h a t p e r 8 0 n i 8 Pi t t o r ' ; ( 2 ) I b O t 6 k k u d O 5 1 d o ' Tio i 8 my s i s t e r ' ; ( 3 ) g u r u d O t u l a � ' ( my m a t e rn a Z ) u n c Z e i 8 a t ea c h e r ' ; ( 4 ) h a l a k n a s a b a r d O p a r awa t ' a n u r 8 e i 8 a p a t i e n t p e r s o n ' . Normal Empha t i c Orde r : ( 1 ) h,a l a k f d O 5 1 p f t t O r ' P i t t o r is THA T PERSON ' ; ( 2 ) 5 1 d o d O I b O t 6 k k u 'my s i 8 t e r i s TIO ' ; ( 3 ) t u l a � d O g u r u ' UNCLE i s a t e a c h e r ' ; ( 4 ) p a r a w a t d O h a l a k n a s a b a r ' a NURSE i s a p a t i e n t p e r s o n ' . The s e c la u s e s c ou l d be t ran slated in t h i s way : ' i t is t h a t p e r s o n who is Pi t to r ' ; ' i t is T i o w h o i8 my 8 i s t e r ' , e t c . C l a u s e Types
5.2.2.
C la u se s are o f t h e 5.2.2.
f avourite
or
minor
type .
F a v o u�i�e T y p e4
1 .
The favourite c lause-type centres on the predi cat ive const i t ut e w i t h or without compl ement s . I t fall s i n t o three c l a s se s : declarative , interrogative , and intransitive imperative. Examp le s : m a r s l k k 6 1 a d O I b a n a g a n u p a r l ' h e g o e s to s c ho o Z e ve r y ma � a l 0 p p a I d d a h a n dO i n a t t a d i d a p u r ' o u r ( ex c l . ) m o t h e r i 8
Declarat ive :
day ' ;
cooking rice in the k i tchen ' .
r s E ma m E a k k O n b u k k u O n t u s O n ' who p u t t h i s b o o k p i s t a r d O i b a n a ma r E t O � 7 ' do e s he do ari t hme t i c c Z e v e r Zy ?
Interrogative :
h e re ? ' ;
From t he last examp le we s e e that a (= i s he g o o d a t ari t hm e ti c ? ) ' . y es- or-no que st ion has t he s ame word order as a de c l ara t i ve ; the di f ference l i e s in intonat i on : H 2 2 3 2 / p l s d r d O i b a n a m a r E t O � / ' h e i s g o o d a t ari thme t i c '
2
/p i
3
5d
2
3,
3+
r d O i b a n a m a r E t O � / ' i s he good at ari thme t i c ? ' .
118
Intransitive Imperative :
r6 h O ' come ( t h o u ) ' ; h U d d u l rna h a rn u d i s 6 n
When uttered i n great emot ion ( impa tience ) , an intran s i t ive imperat ive may be o f the minor type , i . e . with no sub j e c t : h u d d u l 'SIT DOWN ! ' . ' p l ea s e ( y o u ) b e s ea t e d h e r e ' .
5.2.2.2.
Mino� T y p e&
Minor c lause-type s fall into several c las s e s : transitive imperative , vocative, aphorist i c , and fragments . A transitive imperative c laus e c on s i s t s o f an obj e c t ive c on s t i t ut e with or w i t hout a modal part i c l e , or o f a verb only with o r w i t hout a modal part i c l e : b u a t ) ' ta k e i t ' ; s a p u j O I O 6 n ' wi l l ( y o u ) s w e e p t h i s ' ; p a s a k kOn u I u n a ' do b e a t h i s head ' ; t a k k u p ' ca t c h ( i t ) ' ; p a l) a n ' ea t ( i t ) ' or p a l) a n ma ' p l e a s e e a t ( i t ) ' . I n very poli te spee ch , a tran s i t ive imp erative c lause may be of the favourite type ; in this case , h a m u ( s e cond person p lural ) i s used t o refer to the addres s ee : t O I) O s h a m u m a h E p E I) f ' wo u l d y o u s end t h e money ' . Vocative t ype : i n � 1) 'mo t h e r ! ' ; l a E ' co u s i n ! ' ( al s o used c ommonly
between males t o a st ranger o f about the s ame age as the speake r ) ; I i n E ' girl ' s name ' ; a l e a k k a d O l) a n ' fr i e nds ! ' . The s tronge s t s t r e s s a lway s fal l s on t h e last s y l lab le in a vocative . C l au s e s o f t he aphoristic type are numerous . I t i s c ommon pra c t i c e among adult speakers t o intersperse t h e i r speech w i t h aphorisms , whi ch usua l l y come in b a lanc e d pairs . In this type of sentence , subordinating conj un c t ions and modal part i c l e s are o ft en omi t t e d ; when these are supp l ie d , the c l ause are o f t he favouri t e type . In the examp l e s be low , we w i l l first give a l iteral tran s lat ion ( additions in the t rans lat i on are put in parenthe s e s ) , and t hen the meaning in normal Engl i s h : m a t a g u r u , r 6 h a s i s E a n ' e y e s (are ) t e achers ,
(and)
t h e mind ( i s ) t h e p u pi l '
I) a l r a E k d i i l) a n i d E k k E , d o l g f d a k k a d i i l) a n i b o d a t ' wa te r ( i s ) co l d , ( y e t i t )
=
' on e s ho u l d t a k e a l e s s o n from what o n e s e e s or exp e r i e n c e s ' ;
i s i n h ab i t e d b y fi s h ; a branch ( i s ) hard, monkeys '
=
' home swe e t home ' ;
'flying without wings,
( y e t i t ) i s i n hab i t e d b y
h a b a l) sO rna r h � b O I) , s 6 1) g O p sO rn a r E a t a n
p e rc h i n g wi t h o u t a p e r c h '
( s aid of a person who
b rags without any foundat ion ) . Often , only t he first part i s uttere d ; e . g . rn a d a b u j a r u m t u n a p 6 p p O t ' a n e e d l e fa l l s i n den s e (gra s s ) ' , omi t t ing d a l) d i ) d a m a t a , d i ) d a r 6 h a ' t ho u g h ( i t ) i s n o t s e en b y t h e e y e s , ( i t ) i s s e en b y t h e m i n d ' ( sa i d when it i s obvious t o a t hinking person what t h e real s i t uat ion i s ) . F ragment c lause s fa l l into t wo typ e s : completive and exclamatory . Examp l e s : t u O n a n ' to t h e marke t ' ( e . g . in answer t o the quest ion Completives :
119 t u d i a h O ' to w h e r e t h o u (= where a r e y o u g o i n g ) ' ; m a r m E a m ' p l a y i n g '
( e . g . in answer t o ' w h a t a r e y o u do i n g t h e re ? ' ) ; d � 0 8 ' no ! ' ; d a 8 � h a ' n o t wha t ( n o t h i ng ) ' ( e . g . i n answer t o ' w h a t are y o u do i n g t h e re ? ' ) ; m 6 d o m d O ' s l e e p i n g ' ( e . g . in answer t o ' i s h e s l e e p i ng ? ' ; ' y e s , he i s ' ) ; m O I O a d 0 8 ' if exi s t ( i f t he r e is some t h i ng ) ' . Exclamatory c lause s : h 6 r a s ' gre e t ing ' ; m � t t E h ' t ha t s e r v e s y o u rig h t ! ' ; � y a m a 8 ' as t on i shment or di sappointment ' ; b O h � i ' re a l ly ? ' ( surpri se or d i s b e l i e f ) ; t 6 l E ' come o n ! ' . =
=
5.3.
S E NTE N C ES
Sentence s are simple, complex , or compound. A s imp le sentence con s i s t s o f a s i ngle c l ause ; a complex c lause con s i s t s of one c laus e with a wor d , a phrase , or a c lause attribut ive to i t ; a compound s entence c ons i s t s o f two or more c laus e s in co-ordi nat e c on s t ruct ion , with or without attribut e s . Examp le s : Simple Sentences : m � r s a k d O i b � n a ' h e i s sad ' ; r i 8 g � s d O n a s f d a m a r s l a J a r g a n u p a r l ' t h e y s tu dy di l ig en t ly e v e ry day ' ; m a s i u r u p a n d O a k k a d a k d a n a k n a r d i u l � O n d O h O t p a r h E p � 8 0 n ' hi s c h i l dr e n h e lp e a c h
o t h e r i n w o r d and fi nanc e s ' .
t u h O r m a b u k k u f , m O I O s a E h E p � 8 m u ' p l e a s e , buy
Complex Sentences :
the book,
if
thy
money i s s uffi c i e n t
( 1 . e.
i f t h o u has t e n o u g h mo n e y ) ' ;
� s a , d i p l o i b � n a ma s u d e d 0 8 � n n a f t u p E s t a n a f ' s o h e i n v i t e d a l l h i s fri en ds t o h i s fea s t ' ; t i b u p E a u r O , m O I O b 6 i ' I w i l l c o m e e a r l y , i f possib le ' . Compound Sentences :
was i n v i t ed b y t h em,
d i pl o n a s ( da dO i b�na , a l a i d a 8 rO i b�na 'he pa rj uj i 1 � 8 i s d O i ba n a , j a l a
b u t h e d i d n o t come ' ;
p a r j u j i t � d d a 8 ' h e was an i n v e t e r a t e gamb l e r , and ( h e wa s ) an i ti ne r a n t gamb l er
(i. e.
a gamb l e r who g o e s from o n e gamb l i n g p la c e t o ano t he r ) ' ;
m � s u k m a i b � n a t u b r I u t , l a O s m 6 d o m m a i b a n a ' h e wen t i n t o t h e room, and h e s l e p t ( 1 . e . and he w e n t to b e d ) ' ; j a d i , l a O m a i b a n a t u d � p u r , j a l a d i p a b b o l a h O n m a p ) 8 g a n n a d i s i n f ' an d s o h e w e n t t o t h e k i t c h e n , and b r o k e t h e di s h e s t h a t w e r e t h e r e ' .
A P PE N v r x 1
SYNTACT I C ANALYS I S OF A TEXT
1 .
I NT R O D U C T I O N
The t e x t i s given i n t he u s ual t ransc ript i on . Commas , periods , and quest ion marks repre sent terminal contours . A word-for-word t rans l at ion is gi ve n int e r l inearly . A free t ran s lat i on is given in § 3 ; t he anal y s i s in § 4 . The text i s taken from T . M . S ihomb ing Pabidang k o n do h o t Pabaga� h o n , Pemat an g S i antar ( Sumatra ) , 1 9 5 9 ( ? ) , p . 4 7 . It i s a fragment ( t he beginning) of a s t o ry whi c h narrate s how Jonaha , a legendary figure who could alway s e s cape from pre d i c amen t s t hrough his resour c e fulnes s , fre e d himse l f from h i s debt s t o a cert ain Amaddorap ( Father o f Punc hing ) , so c a l l e d for h i s phenomenal s t rengt h . 2 .
Sl S2
T EXT
u l top
n i s i j Onaha .
b L ow g u n o f
Jonaha
( name )
p a r j u j i l a l) i s d O s i j O n a h a , j a l a p a r j uj i d d d a l) ,
g amb1 e r addi c t
Jonaha
and
a l a i pe rj uj i
gamb l e r wande r i n g b u t
gamb l er
dIu.
lose
S3 S4
asa ,
d a l) n a h O l a l)
t h e r e fo r e n o t
s O I) O n ( Like
that
i b a n a rn a r u t a l) .
i n t e rmi t t e n t h e
rn a a d 6 1)
h a v e deb t
,
s a h a I i p a r u t a l) a n n a , na rn a r g O a r
exi s t o n c e
his creditor
h a v e n ame
a rn a d d O r a p .
Fa t h e r o f Punc h i n g
S5
n U l) l) a
p1 ga
a rna d d O r a p
h a l i d i t U l) g u
r
a l r ea dy how many t ime b e demanded b y Fa t h e r of Pun c h i n g t h a t
s i l) 1 r n a
(,
a l a i h O l an bagabaga dO dOhOt j adj i
h i s c re d i t t h a t b u t
only
p romi s e
s i j Onaha . Jonaha
121
and
d i baEn
p l edge b e made b y
122 s6
d i na s a da r i , d i tOpOt
at
a f) g O
rn a m u s E
again
5
i j On a h a
Jo naha
I
I
m a n U f) g u s i f) l r n a
demand
S7
ama d d 6 r a p
o n e day b e v i s i t e d b y Fa t h e r o f Punching h i s credi t tha t I
5
d a f) a d O f)
aha I i On ,
a s for o n c e
i daOn
bE
hasab� rOn d i
t h i s n o t exi s t any more wi l l. b e s e e n p a t i e n c e
at
d i boh f n a .
a t h i s fa c e
S8
I
m a k k u l i f) rna i b a n a , d i d O k he
speak
S9
n U f) f) a
m a l e l e k k u sO
a l r e ady t o o l o n g
S 1 0 j a l a n U f) f) a and 5 I
,
rn a t u s i j O n a h a , a l e
b e said b y him
d i ga ra r
Jonaha
to
hO
I aE .
I say c o u s i n
u t a f)m f .
no t b e p a i d b y t h o u t ha t t h e y d e b t
1 6j a
au pabegebege
a l ready b e t i r e d I
bagabaga sO
hear r e p e a t e d l y promi s e
mahap
n o t s t opp i n g
an h6 .
from t h o u
Sl1 6 ppE ,
g a r a r u t a f) m u
t h e r e fo r e pay
S 1 2 m O I O sO if
f,
saOnna r i .
t hy deb t now
d i aOmmu
n o t t h a t wi l l b e t as t e d b y t h e e
S13 d i bOto
hO dO a l an a ,
b e known b y t h o u
rna p o h u l po h u l h O n . t h i s my fi s t
ubbaEn
m a r l b b a f)
gOar
i t s r e a s o n ( h a s made ) have riva l name
amadd6 rap a u .
A maddorap I
S 1 4 d a d a n a u f) not
I
g O s t O f)
sO
ma r h a s O h O t a n d O p E
for n o t b e marr i e d
s t i ll.
au.
I
n i bOtOhOkku dO.
b e c a u s e o f s tr e ng t h o f m y arm
S 1 6 a f) g O p O l a d O h u d O r a p if
,
a l re ady have t e knonymy I
S15 a l a i a I a n i but
a u , a .l
ma raman i a h a
ni
h i r l mOn
,
I
bE
h a I a k , d a f) n a b 6 i
b e p un c h e d b y me p er s o n n o t
jus t
b E r E f) 6 n n a
capab l e any more
ma t a n i a r i .
wi n b e h o p e d b y t h a t wi l l b e s e en b y him sun 3.
F R E E T RA N S L AT I O N Jonaha ' s Blow Gun Jonaha was an i n v e t era t e gamb l er,
t o an o t h e r ,
b u t w h o a lways lo s t .
who we n t gamb l i n g from o n e p l a c e
T h e re fo r e he was con t in u o u s ly i n
deb t . So i t was t h a t h e o n c e had a c r e d i t o r w h o s e name was A maddorap ( Fa t h e r of P u n c h i n g ) . s e ve r a l t im e s ,
Amaddo rap had a l ready deman ded his credi t
b u t Jonaha had o n l y made promi s e s and p l e dg e s .
Amaddorap again wen t to Jonaha to demand h i s credi t . w a s n o l o n g e r a n y p a t i en c e o n h i s fac e . "I say , debts.
co u s i n .
One day
T h i s time t h e r e
H e s p o k e and s a i d to Jo naha :
I t ' s a l re a dy t o o long t h a t y o u h a v e n o t p a i d y o u r
And I am a l r eady t i red o f h e aring promi s e s and p l edges from y o u
a g a i n and agai n .
The r e fo r e , pay y o ur d e b t now .
t o fe e l my fi s t .
Y o u know t h e r e a s o n why I am ca l l e d Fa t h e r o f
If n o t ,
y o u are g o i n g
123 Punch i n g .
I t ' s n o t b e ca u s e I h a v e a chi l d a l re ady ,
marr i e d y e t .
for I a m n o t
B u t i t ' s b e c a u s e o f t h e s t r e n g t h o f m y arm .
punch a p e r s o n ,
If I do
i t w i l l no l o n g e r be p o s s i b l e for h i m to h o p e to s e e
t h e s un . "
Cont inua t i on o f the story :
Jonaha w h o was no mean fi g h t e r h i m s e l f,
k n ew very we l l t h a t he was no m a t c h fo r A maddorap . i n t o s ta y i n g for d i n n e r w i t h h im,
He ta l k e d Amaddorap
and a s k e d him t o g o b i rd h u n t i n g
w h i l e h i s m o t h e r , w h o m Jonaha h a d to l d t o k i l l s ix sma l l c h i c k e n s , wo u l d prepare t h e dinn e r . t i m e h e saw a b i g b i rd, g u n and s a i d :
Jonaha t o o k h i s b l ow gun w i t h him .
he aimed h i s b l ow gun a t it,
" B i rd, f l y t o m y m o t h e r ' s k i t c h en . "
Every
b l ew o n t h e b l ow After having shot
e n o u g h b i rds t h e y w e n t b a c k to Jonaha ' s h o u s e t o fi nd t h a t t h e fo o d was r e a dy and the b i rds c o o k e d . t h e b l ow g u n ,
o f a l l h i s deb t . t o do s o ,
Amaddorap wa s s o impr e s s e d by t h e mag i c o f
t h a t he b e g g e d J o n a h a to g i v e him t h e b l ow gun i n paymen t Pre t ending a t fi r s t t o b e re l u c t a n t , Jonaha a g r e e d
b u t warn e d Amaddorap t h a t t h e po s s e s s i on o f t h e b l ow gun
e n tai l e d t h e o b s e rv a n c e o f a taboo,
name l y ,
t h a t a n an t wou l d n o t en t e r i t s p l a c e . furi o u s l y t o Jonaha,
that h e s ho u l d see t o i t
When l a t e r Amaddo rap came
the l a t t e r p r o v e d b e fo re the c o u n c i l of c h i e fs
t h a t A maddo r ap had m i s un de r s t o o d t h e tab o o .
A maddorap had t a k e n g o o d
c a r e tha t n o an t w o u l d e n t e r t h e c o n t a i n e r o f t h e g l ow g u n , w h e r e a s t h e t a b o o ' s pro v i s i on was t h a t a n an t s h o u l d n o t e n t e r t h e a n t ' s n e s t . 4.
ANALY S I S
Numbe r s in parent h e s e s re fer t o s e c t ion numbers . S l . u l t o p n i s i j O n a h a ' J o n a h a ' s b low gun ' i s a noun phras e ( 5 . 1 . 1 . 1 . ) . T h e h e a d i s u l t o p ' b l o w g u n ' ; n i ' o f ' i s t he po s s e s s ive p rep o s i t i on ( 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ) marking the following noun as the p o s s e s s o r ; s i i s an aux i l i ary ( 4 . 4 . 5 . ) whi c h marks t he fol lowing word as a personal proper noun ; j O n a h a ' personal proper noun ' ( 4 . 4 . 1 . ) . S2 . pa rj u j i l a l) i s d O s i j O n a h a . j l,ll a p a rj u j i d d d a l) . a l li i p a rj u j i t a l u ' Jo n a h a is an i n v e t e r a t e gamb l e r , and an i t i n e ra n t gamb l e r , b u t a l o s e r ( gamb l e r ) ' i s a compound sentence ( 5 . 3 . ) c on s i s t ing o f one subj e c t , s i j O n a h a , st anding in equat i onal c on s t ru c t i on s w i t h the three co o rdinat e predicators ( 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 . ) p a r j u j i l a l) i s ' i n v e t e r a t e gamb l e r ' , p a r j u j i d d d a l) ' i t i n e ran t gamb l e r ' , and p a r j u j i d I u ' l o s e r gamb l e r ' , whic h are l inked by the conne ct ives ( 4 . 4 . 4 . ) j a l a ' a n d ' and a l a i ' b u t ' . p a r j u j i l a l) i s ' in v e t e r a t e gamb l e r ' i s a noun phras e . The head i s p a r j u j i ' gamb l e r ' , formed from p a r - ( ac t or noun format ive ; 4 . 6 . 3 . ) + t he noun base j u j i ' gamb l i n g game ' ; l a l) i s ' addi c t ; o n e who knows n o bounds ' is a noun a t t ri b ut i ve t o p a rj u j i .
124 d O i s a predicative part i c le ( 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) . s i j O n a h a ' name ' ; ( se e S l ) . p a r j u j i t a d d a � ' i t i n e ran t gamb Z e r ' i s a noun phrase . The head i s p a r j U j i ( s ee ab o ve ) ; t he at tribute i s the noun t a d d a � 'wandering ' .
( The noun t a d d a � i s only found in attribut ive p o s i t ion or as a b a s e in s e c ondary derivat i on s , e . g . in the intran s i t i ve verb m a r t a d d a � ' vi s i t another p Zaae ' ) .
p a r j u j i t a l u ' Z o s e r gamb Z e r ' i s a noun phrase . The head i s p a r j u j i ( s ee above ) ; the attribute i s the intran s i t ive verb t a l u ' Z o s e ' . S 3 . a s a , d a � n a h O l a � i b a n a ma r u t a � ' t h e refore h e a o n t i n u o u s Zy h a d d e b t s ' is a c omplex sentence ( 5 . 3 . ) with attribute a s a ' s o ; t h e r e fore ' ( a p ro - c l au se ; 4 . 4 . 1 . 5 . ) . The head c l ause c on s i s t s o f d a � ' n o t ' , a negative predi cate part i c l e ( 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . and 5 . 2 . 1 . ) ; n a h O l a � ' i n t e rmi t t e n t ' , the pre di c ator ( 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 . ) ; n a i s a prepos it ion that make s t he fol lowing predi cat i ve adj e c t ive emphat i c ( 4 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) : h O l a � ' d i s t an t ; i n t e rmi t t en t ' ; i b a n a ' he ' ( t hird person s i ngular pronoun ; 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ) , t h e subj e c t ; m a r u t a � ' ha v e a d e b t ' , the comp lement ( 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 . ) ; it i s formed
from m a r - ' in t ran s i t ive verb format ive ' ; 4 . 6 . 4 . 2 . ) + noun bas e u t a � ' de b t ' .
S4.
m a a d 6 � sah'a l i p a r u t a � a n n a , n a m a r g O a r a m a d d O r a p ' s o
i t w a s t h a t h e o n a e had a aredi t o r w h o was aa Z Z e d Fa t h e r o f P u n a h i n g '
i s an equat ional c laus e ( 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 . ) . The predicator i s the pre p o s i t i onal phras e ( 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 . and 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 . ) s O � O n ( ' Z i k e t h a t ' cons i s t ing of t he prepo s i t i on s 6 � O n ' Z i k e ' + the demon s trat ive pronoun i ' t ha t ' ; ma i s t he narrat ive predicat ive part i c l e ( 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) ; the s ub j e ct i s the inc luded c lause a d 6 � s a h a l i p a r u t a � a n n a , n a m a r g O a r a m a d d O r a p 'he onae had a aredi t o r w h o was aa Z Z ed Fa t h er o f Pun a h i n g ' . Thi s in c luded c lause cons i s t s o f : a d O � s a h a l i ' e x i s t o n a e ' , the pre d i c a t o r ; i t cons i s t s o f the int ran s i t i ve verb a d O � an d the attribute s a h a l i ' o n a e ' , an adj un ct forme d from s a - ( b ound form o f s a d a ' o n e ' ) + the measure noun h a l i ' t ime ( as in t hr e e t i m e s ) ' ; p a r u t a � a n n a n a m a r g O a r a m a d d O r a p ' h i s ared i t o r who w a s aa Z Z e d
t he subj e c t ; i t i s a noun phrase with head p a r u t a � a n n a ' hi s aredi t o r ' and att ribute the re s t ; p a r u t a � a n n a is made up o f p a r - . . . - a n ( noun format ive of locat ion ; 4 . 6 . 3 . 3 . ) + u t a � ' deb t ' ( p a r u t a � a n ' p e rs o n to whom o n e has a d e b t ' ) + - n a ' hi s ' ( third person p o s s e s s ive suffix ; 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ) ; n a i s the att ribut ive prep o s i t ion ( 4 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) ; m a r g O a r ' ha ve n ame ' i s made up of m a r - ( intran s i t ive verb format i ve ; 4 . 6 . 4 . 3 . ) + g O a r ' name ' ( noun ) ; a m a d d O r a p ' Fa t h e r o f P u n a h i n g ' i s a t e knonymous proper noun make up o f a m a n - ' fa t h e r of ' Fa t h e r o f P u n a h i n g ' ,
125 ( 4 . 5 . 1 . ) + d O r a p ( a proper n oun from a verb w i t h t h e s ame shape , mean ing ' p u n a h ; s tr i k e for a e fu l l y ' ) . S 5 . n U f) f) a p ) g a h a l i d i t u f) g u a m a d d O r a p t s i I) l r n a t , a l l d h C)J a n b a g a b a g a d O d O h O t j a d j i d i b a E n s i j O n a h a i s a c ompound s entence ( 5 . 5 . ) c ons i s t ing o f t wo c laus e s l inked by t he c onne ct ive a l a i ' b u t ' . The first c laus e n U f) f) a p ) g a h a l i d i t u f) g u a m a d d O r a p t s i f) ) r n a ' h i s are di t has b e e n demanded s e v e r a l t i m e s a l re ady b y Amaddo rap '
is
pas s i ve t ran s i t ive ( 5 . 2 . ) . I t c on s i s t s o f : n U f) f)a ' a l re a dy ' , the c ompl e t ive pre d i c at i ve part i c l e ( 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) ; p ) g a h a l i ' ho w many t i m e s ; ( h e r e ) s e v e ra l t i m e s ' , pre di c ator ; i t i s made up o f p ( g a ' how many ' ( interrogat ive pronoun ; 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ) + h a l i ' t im e ' ( se e S 4 ) ; i t i s attribut i ve t o : d i t u f) g u a m a d d O r a p f ' b e demanded b y ( t ha t ) Amaddorap ' , c omp lement ; it i s an agent ive const i t ut e ( 5 . 1 . 2 . 1 . 2 . ) made up o f the p a s sive s imple mode non-first actor ( d i - ; 4 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) of t U f) g u ' demand ' , the actor ama d d 6 r a p , and i ' t h a t ' ( at t ribut i ve t o a m a d d O r a p ) ; s i f) ' r n a f ' ( t h a t ) h i s aredi t ' , the subj e c t ; it i s a noun phrase w i t h h e a d s i f) f r n a ' h i s aredi t ' , made up of s f f) i r ' aredi t ' + - n a ' hi s ' , and attribute i ' t h a t ' . The s e c on d c lause h O l a n b a g a b a g a d O d O h O t j a d j i d i b a E n s i j O n a h a ' o n l y p rom i s e s a n d p l e d g e s w e r e made b y Jonaha ' i s p a s s ive t ran s i t ive ( 5 . 2 . ) i n normal emphat i c order ( 5 . 2 . 1 . 2 . ) . I t cons i s t s o f : ) d O h O t j a d j i ' o n l y prom i s e s and p l edg e s ' , t he hO l an bagabaga ( subj e c t ; t h i s i s a noun phrase with att ribute h 6 l a n ' on l y ' ( an aux i l iary 4 . 4 . 5 . ) and co-ordinate head b a g a b a g a d O h O t j a d j i whi ch c on s i s t s of b a g a b a g a ' p romi s e ' ( from Iba g a ; 4 . 6 . 2 . 2 . ) and j a d j i ' p l e dge ' , l i nked b y t he c onn e c t ive ( 4 . 4 . 4 . ) d O h O t ' and ' ; d O ( a ffirmat ive pre d i c a t ive part i c le ; 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) ; i t i s p l a c e d after the first membe r of the co-ordinate phras e ; this o ften happens . A more common ( an d more emphat i c ) order i s t o place d O a ft e r the whol e subj e c t . d i b a E n s i j O n a h a ' b e made by Jonaha ' , the predi cator ; i t i s an agent ive c on s t i t ut e made up o f the p a s s ive s imple mode non- first p ers on a c t o r b a E n ' m a k e ' and actor s i j O n a h a . s6. d i n a s a d a r i , d i t O p O t a ma d d O r a p m a m u s E s i j O n a h a ma n U f) g u s i f) ) r n a f ' o n e day Jonaha wa s a g a i n v i s i t e d b y Amaddorap t o demand h i s aredi t ' i s a c omp l e x se n t e n c e c on s i s t ing o f attri bute d i n a s a d a r i ' o n e day ' and t he head c lause ( t he re s t ) . . d i n a s a d a r i ' ( a t ) o n e day ' i s a c ommon e xpre s s ion in storyt e l l ing ; i t c on s i s t s o f t he locat ive p repo s i t ion d i ' a t ' + t he attribut ive prep o s i t ion n a , o c c urring here without head ( 4 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) + s a d a r i ' o n e day ' , a quan t i fier made up o f s a d - ( an irregular bound form o f s a d a •
.
.
126 c f . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) + a r i ' day ' . d i t O p O t ama d d 6 r a p ma m u s E s i j O n a h a m a n u � g u s i n l r n a f ' Jo n a ha was again v i s i t e d by Amaddorap to demand his credi t ' is a pas s ive t ran s i t ive c lause . It cons i s t s o f : d i t O p O t a m a d d O r a p ' b e v i s i t e d b y Amaddo rap ' , the predi cator ; i t i s a n agent ive con s t i t ut e con s i s t ing of the pas s ive s i mp le mode non- first actor o f t O p O t ' v i s i t ' and actor a m a d d O ra p ; m a ( narrat ive predicative part i c le ; 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) ; m u s E 'agai n ' , a predicator at tribute ; it i s an auxi l i ary ( 4 . 4 . 5 . ) ; s i j O n a h a , the subj e c t ; m a n u � g u s i � l r n a f ' demand h i s credi t ' , the c omp lement ; it i s an obj e c t ive con s t i t ut e con s i s t in g o f the ac t ive s imp le mode ( p re fix m a � - ; 4 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) o f t he t ran s i t i ve verb t u � g u ' demand ' ( see also 3 . 3 . 2 , I I S 1 ) and t he obj e c t s i � l r n a f ' ( tha t ) h i s deb t ' ( see S 5 ) . Thi s c lause i s in inve rt e d order ( o f the se condary emphat i c orde r ; 5 . 2 . 1 . 2 . ) ; that i s , t he pre d i c ator attribute m u s E ' ag a i n ' pre cedes the subj e c t , thus making m u s E emphat i c . The direct order is d i t O p O t ama d d O r a p ma s i j O n a h a m u s E m a n u � g u s i � ) r n a f . Note : Pas s ive c lauses are found very frequently in Toba Batak . In a free t ran s lat ion , many o f those are translated into the corre sponding act ive c l au s e s in Engl i s h . S7. a � g O s a h a l i O n , d a � a d O � b E i d a O n h a s a b a r O n d i b o h f n a ' a s for , one ' ;
this time,
t he r e was no � o n g e r any pa t i e n ce to be s e en on h i s fa ce '
i s a c omp lex c lause cons i s t ing of the minor c lause ( 5 . 2 . 2 . 2 . ) a � g O s a h a l i O n ' as for t h i s time ' a s at t ribute and the head c lause the re s t . a � g O ' i f; as for ' i s a subordinating c onj un ct ion ( 4 . 4 . 2 . 2 . ) . s a h a l i O n ' t h i s ( o n e ) t ime ' i s a noun phrase ( 5 . 1 . 1 . 1 . ) c on s i s t ing o f head s a h a 1 i 'one t im e ; o n c e ' ( s ee S 4 ) and attribute On ' t h i s ' ( a demo n s t rat i ve pronoun ; 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ) . The head c lause con s i s t s o f : d a � ' n o t ' ( ne gat ive predi cat ive p art i c l e ; 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) + aux i l i ary ( 4 . 4 . 5 . ) b E funct ion as the modal part i c l e ; the comb inat ion means ' no � o n ge r ' ;
a d O � ' exi s t ' , t he predi cator ; i t i s an intran s i t ive ve rb ; i d a O n ' wi � � b e s e e n ; to b e s e en ' , the c omp lement ; it i s the p romi s s ory mode o f f d a ' s e e ' ; h a s a b a r O n ' p a t i e n c e ' , t he subj e c t , a noun made up o f h a - . . . - O n ( noun format ive ; 4 . 6 . 3 . 3 . ) + adj e c t ive base s a b a r ' p a t i en t ' ; d i b oh f n a ' o n h i s fac e ' ; attribute t o the c omp lement i d a O n ; i t i s a prep o s i t ional phrase con s i s t ing of the prepos i t i on d i ' a t ' + the noun b6h i ' fa c e ' + - n a ' h i s ' ( t hird person s ingular p o s s e s s ive suffi x ) . A more l i t e ral t ran s l at ion o f thi s c lause i s ' pat ience no longer
127 e x i s t s t o b e seen on his face ' . s8. rn a k k u l i l) rn a i b a n a , d i d O k rna t u s i j O n a h a , a l e l a E ' h e s p o k e ; he s a i d to Jonaha : "I s a y , a o u s i n " . ' i s a compound s entence con s i s t ing o f rn a k k u l i l) rna I b a n a ' h e spo k e ' a s first member and the rest the se cond memb e r . The first c lause cons i s t s o f : rn a k k u l i l) ' sp e a k ' , the predi cator , an intran sit ive verb made up o f rna l) - ( intran s it ive verb formative ; 4 . 6 . 4 . 1 . 2 . ) + Ih u l i l) ; rna ( narrative predicative part i c l e ; 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) ; i b a n a ' h e ' , t he subj e c t , third p erson s ingular pronoun . The s e c ond c l ause c on s i s t s o f : d i d 6 k ' s a i d b y him ' , t he predi cat o r , the pas sive s imple mode non first person actor ( 4 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) of d O k ' say ' ; rna ( narrat ive pre d i c at ive part ic l e ; 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) ; t u s i j O n a h a ' t o Jo naha ' , t he comp lement , a pre p o s i t ional phrase made up of the prepo sit ion tu ' to ' + s i j O n a h a ( see S l ) ; it i s attribut ive t o the predicator; a l e l a � ' I say , a o u s i n ' , t he subj e c t , a vo c at ive minor c lause ( 5 . 2 . ( 5 . 2 . 2 . 2 . ) made up o f the interj e c t ion a l e ' I say ' + noun l a E ' ao u s i n ' ( fo r s t r e s s alternat i o n , see 3 . 3 . 3 . , SR4 ) . S 9 . n U l) l)a rna l e l e k k u s O d i g a r a r h 6 u t a l)rn f ' i t ' s a l re ady t o o l on g t h a t t h y deb t has n o t b e en p a i d b y t h e e ' i s an e quat ional c lause ( 5 . 1 . 2 . 2 . ) . I t con s i st s o f : n U l) l) a ' a l re ady ' , c omplet ive predicative part ic le ( 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) ; rn a l e l e k k u ' to o l o n g ' , t he pre d i c at o r , t he exce s s ive degree o f t he a dj e ct i ve l e l e l) ' l o n g ( t ime ) ' made up o f rn a - . . . - h u + l e l e l) ( 4 . 2 . 5 . ; rn a - h u i s used by s ome speakers for our p a - . . . - h u ) ; s O d i g a r a r h O u t a l)rn f ' t hy deb t has n o t b e e n p a i d by t h e e ' , the subj e c t , an inc luded c l ause . Thi s c lause con s i s t s o f : s O ' n o t ' , t he negat ive predicative p art i c l e i n dependent c lauses (4. 4 . 3.1. ) ; d i g a r a r h O ' b e p a i d b y t h e e ' , the predi c a t o r , an agent ive const itute made up o f the pas s ive s imp le mode non- first person actor o f g a r a r ' pay ' + actor h O ' th o u ' ( se c ond person s ingular pronoun ; 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ) ; u t a l)rn f ' ( t h a t ) t h y d e b t ' , t he sub j e ct ; it i s made up o f noun u t a I) ' d e b t ' + - rn u ' t hy ' ( s e cond person s ingular p o s s e s s ive suffi x ; 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ) + e n c l i t i c demonst rative p ronoun i ' th a t ' ( 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . and 3 . 3 . 2 . , I IS 9 ) . S l O . j a l a n U l) l) a 1 6 j a a u p a b e g e b e g e b a g a b a g a s O rn a h a p s i a n h O ' an d .
.
•
I am a l ready t i r e d o f repe a t e d l y h e a r i n g u n a e a s i n g p rom i s e s from t h e e '
c on s i s t s o f the c onnect ive ( 4 . 4 . 4 . ) j a l a ' a n d ' and a c l ause ( t he rest ) . The conn e c t i ve l inks the c l ause with the pre c e ding sentence .
128 The c l ause i s equat i onal ; i t c on s i st s o f : n 6 Q Q a ' a l re ady ' , the complet ive pre di cat ive part i c le ( 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) ; 1 6 j a ' b e t i r e d ' , the predi c at o r , an intran s i t ive verb ; a u ' I ' , the subj e c t , first person s ingular pronoun ( 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ) ; p a b e g e b e g e b a g a b a g a s O m a h a p s ) a n h O ' h e a r u n c e a s i n g p romi s e s from t h e e ' , the comp l ement . Thi s phras e cons i s t s of the obj e c t ive c ons t i t ute p a b e g e b e g e b a g a b a g a s O ma h a p ' h ear u n c e a s i n g p r om i s e s ' as head and the prepo s i t i onal phrase s ) a n h O ' from t h e e ' as at tribute . The obj e c t i ve con s t i t u t e cons i s t s o f : p a b e g e b e g e ' he a r r e p e a t e d l y ' , a t ran s i t i ve verb made up o f p a ( format ive ; 4 . 6 . 4 . 2 . 3 . , ( 5 » + doub ling of the tran s i t ive verb b e g e ' h ear ' ;
b a g a b a g a s O m a h a p ' un ce a s i n g prom i s e s ' , the ob j e ct o f p a b e g e b e g e ; i t i s a noun phrase con s i sting o f head b a g a b a g a ' p romi s e ( N ) ' ( see S 5 ) and attribute s O m a h a p ' un c e a s i n g ' made up o f s O ( negative part i c l e in s ub ordinat e phras e s ; 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) + m a h a p ' b e s a t i a t e d; fe e l s a t i s fa c t i o n ' , a n intran s i t i ve verb ; t he meaning ' unceasing ' i s a tran s fe rred meaning : one s t o p s eat ing when one i s ful l or s at i s fied . The attribute s ) a n h 6 con s i s t s o f : s t a n ' fr om ' , a lo cat ive prep o s i t ion ( 4 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) ; h O ' t h o u ' , s e cond person s i ngular pronoun ( 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ) . S l l . O p p E , g a r a r u t a Q m u s a O n n a r i ' th e r e fore pay t h e y deb t n o w ' i s a comp l e x sentence ( 5 . 3 . ) . It con s i s t s o f at t ribute O p p E ' t he r e fo r e ; s o n o w ' , a pro-c l au se ( 4 . 1 . 4 . 5 . ) a n d t h e h e a d c lause ( the re s t ) . This c lause i s a t ran s it ive imperat ive minor c lause ( 5 . 2 . 2 . 2 . ) . I t con s i s t s o f : g a r a r ' pay ' , the imperat ive mode o f g a r a r ( 4 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) ; u t a Qm u ' t hy deb t ' , the ob j e ct , made up of noun 6 t a Q ' de b t ' + - m u ' t hy ' ;
s a O n n a r i ' now ' , the complement , an adj unct ( 4 . 3 . 4 . ) . S 1 2 . m O I O s O ( , d a i O mmu m a po h u l po h u l h O n ' i f n o t ( t ha t ) , ( t h i s ) m y fi s t w i l l b e tas t e d ( fe l t ) b y t h e e ' i s a comp l e x sentence con O s i sting o f attribute m I O sO ( and head c l ause ( the rest ) . m O I O s O ( ' i f n o t t h a t ' i s a subordinate minor c lause int rodu c e d b y t he s ubordinat ing c onj unc t ion m O I O ' wh e n ; i f ' ( 4 . 4 . 2 . 2 . ) ; s O ' n o t ' ( ne gat i ve pre di c at ive part i cle in s ubordinat e phras e s ; 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) ; ' t h a t ' , a demons t rat ive pronoun , the pre d i c ator o f the minor c laus e . d a i O m m u m a po h u l po h u l h O n ' t h i s my fi s t w i l l b e t a s t e d by t h e e ' con s i s t s o f : d a i O m m u ' w i l l b e t a s t e d b y t h e e ' , t he pre d i c ator , made up o f t he pass ive p romi s sory mo de ( - O n ; 4 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) o f d a i ' ta s t e ' + - m u ( s e c ond pers on s ingular actor suffi x ; 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ) ; =
129 rn a ( narrat i ve predi cat ive part i cle , 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) ; here it make s the t hreat imp l i e d in the p romi s s o ry mode more imminent ; p o h u l po h u l h O n ' t h i s m y fi s t ' , t h e subj e c t ; i t i s made u p o f the noun p o h u l p 6 h u l ' fi s t ' ( a noun o f inst rument formed by doub l ing from Vt p 6 h u l ' m a k e i n t o a b a H by t h e hand ' ; 4 . 6 . 3 . 3 . , ( lb » + - h u ' my ' ( first person s ingular p o s s e s s ive suffi x ; 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . ) + e n c l i t i c demons t rat ive p ronoun O n ' t h i s ' ( 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 . an d 3 . 3 . 2 . , 1 1 3 9 ) . 3 1 3 . d i b O t O h O d O a l a n a , u b b a E n rn a r g O a r arna d d O r a p a u ' t h e r e a s o n i s k nown b y t h e e w h y I a m aa l l e d Fa t h e r o f P u n a h i n g ' i s a comp lex sentence c on s i s t ing o f the head c l au s e d i b O t O h 6 dO a l a n a ' t h e r e a s o n i s k nown b y t h e e ' and the attribut ive c lause ( t he rest ) introdu c e d by the s ub ordinat ing conjunct i on u b b a E n ( in t roducing a c lause o f re s u l t ; 4 . 4 . 2 . 2 . ; morphemi cally , the act ive comp l e t ive-part i c ip i a l mode ( U H - ) o f b a E n ' m a k e ; do ' ; ( 4 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) . d i b O t O h O d O a l a n a ' t he r e a s o n i s known b y t h e e ' c on s i s t s o f : d i b O t O h O ' b e k nown b y t h e e ' , the predi c at o r , an agentive cons t i tute made up o f the pas s i ve s imp le mode non- first p e rson actor ( 4 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) o f b O t O ' kn o w ' + h O ' t h o u ' ( se e 3 9 ) ; d O ( affirmat ive predi c at i ve p art i c l e ; s e e 3 2 ) ; a l a n a ' i t s r e a s o n ' , the s ub j e c t ; i t i s made up o f noun a l a ' re a s on ; a a us e ' + - n a ' i t s ' ( t hird p erson s ingular p o s s e s s ive suffix ) . The dependent c laus e m a r g O a r a rna d d O r a p a u ' I am a a l l e d Fa t h e r of Pun a h in g ' cons i s t s o f : rn a r g O a r am a d d O r a p ' ha v e t h e name Fa t h e r o f P u n a h i n g ' , t he predi c at o r ; it c on s i s t s o f head ma r g 6 a r ' ha v e n ame ' ( s e e 3 4 ) and at t ribute a ma d d O r a p ' Fa t h e r o f Pun a h i ng ' ( s e e 3 4 ) . 3 1 4 . d a d a n a u 8 rn a r am a n i a h a a, u , a i s O rn a r h a s O h O t a n d O p E a u ' i t ' s n o t t ha t I a l ready h a v e a t e k n on ymy ( = h a v e a ah i l d) ,
fo r I am n o t
i s a comp lex sentence . The head c l au s e i s d a da n a u 8 rna r a ma n i a h a a u ' i t ' s n o t t h a t I a l r e a dy have a t e knonymy ' and attribute the re s t int rodu c e d b y t he sub ordinat ing conj unct ion a i ' fo r ; b e aa u s e ' (4.4.2.2. ) . The head c lause i s an equat i onal c l aus e ; i t c on s i s t s o f : d a da ' n o t ' ( emphat i c negative p re di cat ive part i c l e ; 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) ; n a u 8 rn a r a ma n i a h a ' ( o n e ) h a v in g ' a t e knonymy ' , the predi cator ; i t i s a nomina l i s e d intran s i t i ve verb phrase c on s i s t ing o f n a U 8 ' a l re a dy ' ( the c omp l e t ive pre d i c at ive p art i c le in nominal p hras e s ; 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) and the intran s i t ive verb rn a r am a n i a h a ' ha v e a t e k no nymy ' , made up of rn a r ( intran s i t ive verb format ive ) + proper noun a rn a n i a h a ' fa t h e r o f S o - and s o ' ( from a m a n i ' fa t he r o f ' ; 4 . 3 . 1 . + a h a ' w ha t ' , here ' S o - a n d - s o ' ; 4.4.1.1. ) ; a u ' I ' , t he subj e c t . A more l i t e ral t ran s lation o f t h i s c laus e i s
marr i e d y e t '
130 'I
a m NOT (a p e r s o n ) who h a s a t e knonymy a � ready ' .
The dep endent c l au se s O m a r h a s O h O t a n d O p E a u ' I am n o t marr i e d y e t ' c on s i s t s o f : s O ' n o t ' ( t he negat ive predicat ive part i c l e i n dependent c laus e s ; 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) + d O p E ' s t i Z � ' ( progre s s ive pred i cat ive part i c l e ; 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) ; t he c omb inat ion means ' n o t y e t ' ; m a r h a s O h 6 t a n ' b e marri e d ' , the pre d i c ator ; it i s an intran s i t ive verb made up of ma r - ( format ive ) + noun base h a s O h O t a n ' ma rr i e d s ta t e ' , wh i c h i n turn i s made up o f h a - . . . - a n ( n oun format ive ; 4 . 6 . 3 . 3 . , ( 5 c ) + intran s i t i ve verb base s O h O t ' b e n o � o n g e r s i ng �e ; s top ' ; a u ' I ' , t he subj e c t . S 1 5 . a l a i a l a n i g O s t O I) n i b O t O h O k k u d O ' b u t b e c a u s e of t h e s tr e n g t h o f my arm ' i s a minor c lause introdu c e d by t he connect ive a I a i ' b u t ' (4.4.4. ). a l a n i g O s t O I) n i b O t O h O k k u ' b e c a u s e o f t h e s t r e n g t h o f my arm ' i s the predicator o f the minor c laus e ; it i s a prepos i t ional phrase ( s ee below) ; d O ( a ffirmat ive predi cat ive part i c l e ; 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) . The p repo s i t i onal phras e above cons i s t s o f : a l a n i ' b e ca u s e o f ' , a phras e that funct ions as a p rep o s i t i on ( 4 . 4 . 2 . 1 . 8 . ) ; i t i s made up o f t he noun a l a ' re a s o n ; caus e ' + n i ( p o s s e s s i ve prepo s i t i on ; 4 . 4 . 2 . 1 . ) ; g a s t O I) n i b O t O h O k k u ' t he s tr e n g t h o f my arm ' i s a noun phrase c on s i s t ing o f head g O s t O I) ' s t r e n g t h ' + n i ( po s s e s s i ve prep o s it ion ) + b O t O h O k k u ' my arm ' , whi c h in t urn i s made up o f b O t O h O n ' a rm ' + - h u 'my ' ( s ee S 12 ) . S 1 6 . a l) g O p O l a d O h u d O r a p h a l a k , d a l) n a b 6 i b E h i r � m O n n i b E r E I) O n n a m a t a n i a r i ' if I do punch a p e r s o n , i t WILL no � o n g e r b e p o s s i b � e for h i m t o exp e c t to s e e t h e sun ' i s a c omplex sentence c on s i s t ing o f attribute a l) g O p O l a d O h u d O r a p h a l a k and head the rest . a l) g O p O l a d O h u d O r a p h a l a k ' if a p e r s o n IS p u n c h e d by me ' c on s i st s of: a l) g O ' i f ' , a subordinating c onj unc t i on introduc ing the dependent c lause ( 4 . 4 . 4 . 2 . ) ; p O l a , p re d i c a t o r ; i t i s an auxi l i ary whi ch has many meanings ( c f . 4 . 4 . 5 . and 5 . 2 . 1 . ) . Here i t mak e s the pred i c ator emphat i c ; h u d O r a p ' IS p u n c h e d b y me ' ( s e e b e l ow ) ; h u d O r a p ' b e p u n c h e d by m e ' , the predi cator; it i s the p a s s ive s imple mode first person actor ( 4 . 2 . 4 . 1 . ) of d O r a p ' p u n c h ' ; d O ( affirmat ive pre d i c a t i ve part i c le ; 4 . 4 . 3 . 1 . ) ; when i t o c curs in a dependent c laus e , it makes t he predic at ion emphat i c ; h a l a k ' a p e r s o n ' , the subj e c t .
131 b E r E �6n n a m a t a n i a r i 'it cons i st s d a � ( negat ive predicative part i c le ) + b E ( auxili ary ) ; the comb inat i on means 'no l on g e r ' ; n a b 6 i ' capab l e; p o s s ib l e ' , predi cator ; b 6 i ' capab l e ; p o s s ib l e ' i s a n adj e c t ive made emphat i c by the prep o s e d n a ( see 3 3 ) ; h i r ) mO n n i r ' w i n b e h o p e d b y him ' , the complement ( for i t s po s i t ion s e e 5 . 2 . 1 . 1 . ) ; i t i s an agent ive const i t ut e c on s i s t ing o f the promis sory mode o f h r r i m ' exp e c t ' + n i ( p rep o s i t i o n that marks a separate a c t o r ) + i ' t h a t ' ( the actor ) , a demon s t rat ive pronoun u s e d here t o re fer t o h a l a k ; ( ordinari l y , i i s not u s e d t o re fer t o a person ; the connotat ion here i s the speake r ' s cont empt for the punched person ) ; b E r E � 6 n n a ma t a n i a r i ' t he s u n w i l l b e s e e n by him ' , the subj e c t ; it i s an inc luded c lause con s i s t ing o f : b E r E � 6 n n a ' wi l l b e s e e n b y him ' , the predi cat o r ; i t i s made up o f the promis sory mode ( su ffix - O n ) o f b E r E � ' s e e ' + - n a ( t hird p e r s o n The head c lause d a � n a b 6 i b E h i r ) mO n n i
WILL n o l on g e r b e p o s s i b l e for h i m t o exp e c t t o s e e t h e s u n '
s in g u l a r a c t o r s u ffix ) ;
ma t a n i a r i ' su n ' , t he subj e c t ; i t i s made up o f ma t a ( po s s e s s ive prepo s i t ion ) + a r i ' da y ' . A more l i t eral trans lat ion o f the sentence i s ' if a punched by me,
'eye ' +
ni
p e r s o n IS
t h a t t h e sun wi l l be s e e n b y him CAN n o l on g e r b e
e xp e c te d b y him ' .
APPENVIX 1 1
SPECTROG RAPH I C ANALYS I S OF SOME BATAK PHONEr1ES
The analy s i s of Batak pre s ented in t h i s s t udy i s primarily based on theoret i c al reasoning . The met ho d emp loyed con s i s t s ent irely i n s e arching for contras t s . Art i c ulat ory charac t e r i s t i c s are t aken into account in the appropriate place s . Another procedure that can help analys t s get t he an swers i s by making use of the me t hods of acous t i c phonet i c s . One such metho d i s the use o f the sound s p e c t rogrpah , wh i c h can make c hart s o f the utteran c e s fe d into the machine . Thi s kind o f chart i s called a s p e c t rogram . The sound s p e c t rogram i s e s p e c i ally u s e ful for measure ment s of p i t c h and durat ion . It is al s o succe s s fully u s e d in the ana ly s i s of phoneme qualit i e s , e sp e c ially of t he vowe l s . The writer has a l s o made s ome use o f sp e c t rograms , both narrow an d b road b an d , not so much in analy z ing h i s spee c h , but rather as a means o f t e s t ing the conc lu s i ons he had made . Most o f the con c l u s i o n s he h a d arrive d at have been veri fied by t he s p e c t ro graphi c readings , but s ome have been contrad i c t e d , s o that he had t o modi fy h i s first c on c l u s i o n s in the l i ght o f the new evi denc e , or t o s e arch for o t her e vi denc e s t o sub s t ant iate h i s earlier findings . Some o f the more u s e ful pertinent spe ct rograms w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n brie f b e l ow . Tho s e s p e c t rograms are inc lude d in the the s i s , b u t a s there i s only one copy o f eac h , the spe c t rograms cannot b e inc luded i n e very copy of t h i s st udy . 1 .
VOWEL LENGTH
A compari son o f vowe l- lengths , in thi s c a s e t h e / � / i s made w i t h Spe ct rograms No . 1- 7 a . The a seri e s are in b r o a d b and repre sentat i on , and t he b s e r i e s are t he corre sponding narrow band s p e c t rograms . The durat ion s in t h i s d i s cu s s i on w i l l be in cent i s e conds ( c s ) . Howeve r ,
133
1 34 all numberings for durat i on on t he grams themselves are in mi l l imeters (mm ) •
S p e c t rogram No . l a : Ut t erance s : Durat i on of I � / :
I g :5 a r l 13 . 6
I g :5 t a pl 12 . 2
Is�1 14 . 3
It�pl 8.4
Although the di fference in the durat i on of the I � I o f I g :5 a r l and that of I g :5 t a p l is gre at e r t han the di fference be tween those of I g :5 a rl and I s � / , t he f ir st t w o a r e grouped t ogether due t o their phonotac t i c s imilari t y , i . e . o c currence i n me dial open s yllab le s , and the fact t hat the difference is apparently caus e d by the di fferen c e in the fol lowi ng phoneme s , name ly a vowel ve rsus a vo i ce l e s s stop . The mai n di f feren ce b e t ween t h e I � I in 1 5� 1 on t h e one hand and t he I � I i n I g :5 a r l a n d I g :5 t a p l o n t h e other hand i s t h e fact that as a rule I s � 1 w i l l b e fol lowe d b y a 1+1 , whi ch w i l l t end t o pro long i t , but neverthe l e s s i t can b e short er t han the I � I of I g :5 t a p / , if the latt e r ge t s a s t ronger s t re s s ( s e e Spe c t rogram No . 2 ) . Another thing that accoun t s for the greater lengt h o f 1 5� 1 i s , as ob s erve d by P i ke ( 1 9 4 5 : 1 1 ) f o r American Engl i s h , the fac t that t he en t i re pit ch con t our fal l s on it . That the I � I in I t � p l i s much s hort er than the others i s obvious from the s p e c t rogram . Spe c t rogram No . lb i s a narrow band repre sentation of the above ut t e ran ce s . Spectrogram No . 2 : I s � + h u g :5 t a p l Durat ion o f I � / : 9 . 9 1 1 . 4 S ee c omment above under Spe ctrogram No . la . Spect rogram No . 3a : I g � t a p l I t� s l Is�1 It�pl 8. 4 Duration o f I � / : 15 . 6 9.1 9.5 Thi s demons t rat e s t he fact that the I � I in I b s l i s l onger than that in I t � p / . S p e c t rogram No . 3b :
Narrow b and repre sentat ion o f No . 3 a .
Spec trogram No . 4 a : I g :5 t a p l Ih�tl It�pl Is�1 11 . 0 17 . 1 Durat ion o f I � / : 8.4 9.5 The greater d i fference between I t � p l and I h � t l may be due t o the more rap i d p i t c h fa l l in I h � t l ( see Spe c trogram No . 4 b ) . Spe ctrogram No . 5a� / g :5 a r l I t � pl Is�1 I s� rI Durat ion of I � / : 10 . 7 9.1 14 . 3 15 . 2 I l lus trat i on o f the greater length o f t he I � I in I s � r l than in I t � p / .
135 Spect rogram No . 6a : I g o a r l I t ::> 1 1 I b ::> m l 1 5 ::> 1 16 . 0 14 . 3 20 . 5 12 . 8 Durat ion o f 1 ::> 1 : I l lustrat ing the fact that the /::>1 i s longer in I t ::> 1 1 t han in I b::> m / . I ::> t 0 1 Spectro gram No . 7a : 1 0 t ::> 1 7 . 6 15 . 2 Durat i on of /::> 1 : 12 . 2 9 . 9 Durat ion o f 1 ::> 1 : 2 0 . 1 1 4 . 3 9 . 9 18 . 6 Th i s i l lustrat e s the fac t that the stronge r s t re s se d vowe l under comparab le condit ions t ends t o be longer than a weaker s t r e s s e d one . The numbers on the first line indicate the durat ions without the g l i de s . Tho s e on the s e c ond line indicate the durat ion s o f the vowe l 1 ::> 1 with the on- and o f f-g l i de s . I ::> 01 Spe ct rogram 7b : 10 t ::> 1 t 550 First formant : 600 625 550 1050 1000 Se cond fo rmant : 1 0 0 0 1 0 5 0 T h i s demon s trat e s , though pretty faint ly , the centering tendency of a weak- s t re s se d vowe l . The first formant indicates the height o f the tongue p o s i t i on , the greater the formant the lower the p o s i t ion . The s e cond formant indicat e s t he hori zontal p o s i t ion of t he highe st part o f the t ongue , the greater t he formant the more front wi l l b e the tongue . 2.
V O W E L F O RMA N T S
The first and se cond forman t s of the seven vowe ls are measured from t he spect rograms No . 8 and No . 9 . The re s u l t s are a s fo l l ow s : Spe c t rogram No . 8 : First formant : S e c on d fo rmant :
e
350 2250
425 2 100
e:
500 1 82 5
a 700 1325
a 0 u Spectrogram No . 9 : ::> 325 500 625 750 First formant : 825 825 875 S e c ond formant : 1 3 2 5 T h e vowe l s are pronoun c e d with a pre c e d i ng I b - I , and these s y l l ab l e s are pronoun c e d as t he first part s of : ba ral Ib fsa b e r e: I) beta b u t a r/ . b6 1 a bo t a and I b a r a
136 From these formant s a c hart i s made b elow whi c h s hows a stri king r e s emblance t o the vowel chart on p . 1 2 . V I AGRAM 6
The The
VOWEL CHART is t he frequency of t he Second Formant . index i s t he frequency of the First Formant .
vertical index horiz ontal
.
4 00
1200
1800
2400 200
600 .
i
u
• e �
600
• .
;)
a
800 3.
J U N CT U R E S
Spectrogram No . l Q. Only one gram i s made t o i l l u strat e the fact t hat t he t erminal j un c t ures are t empo phonomena . The b lank space on the gram repres ent s / k / and I I I � Their total durat i on , 12 . 2 c ent i s e c onds , i s c ompared here with t hat o f a normal vowe l , i n t h i s c a s e the fol lowing vowe l /a/ o f / n a / , with durat i on i s 4 . 6 . cent i s e cond s . The s e durat ions are very low , due t o t he rap id speed in which the u t t e rance i s pronounced so that t he who l e s entence may b e a c commodated in t he gram , b ut it does not t ake too much from the re sult s , as the obj e c t ive is to get the rat io between the durat ion of a normal vowel and the 1 1 1 / . S p ectrogram No . 1 1 . Thi s i s int ended t o i l lu strate the p i t c h r i s e for t he I I I � here on t he s y l lable / - l a k / . Alt hough it does not s how wel l on t he spec t rogram , t he aural impre s s ion is of a defini t e p i t ch ri s e . The p i t ch fall for the 1#1 also does not s how wel l , perhaps due t o the speed o f the utt eran c e . Howeve r , t he s e inflect ion feat ures o f t he t erminal j un c t ure s c an b e s een very c learly on t he p i t c h spect rograms ( se e Nos . 1 4 - 19 ) . An att empt t o compare t he influence of the pre s ence and ab s en c e o f a 1+1 i s made w i t h Spectrograms No . 12 and No . 1 3 , alt hough t h e p i t c h and s tres s c on d i t i on s are n o t alike . The durat ions of t he phoneme s
137 f a , p , + , i / o n No . 12 are comp ared w i t h tho s e o f f a , p , i / o n No . 1 3 , thus : Durat ion o f :
No . 12 : No . 1 3 :
/ f s a p+ i . . / : / i sapi . . ./ :
total utt eran c e
a
p ( +)
75 . 6 80 . 9
5.3 12 . 1
9.9 8.7
6.6 4.2
Not much can b e c onc luded from these grams , but we s e e that / p+ / i s longer t h an / p / . S e c ondly , that t he final / p / i s represented b y a s o l i d b lank , whereas t h e medial / p/ i s ind i c a t e d by s ome s t r i a t i on s . Thi s seems to sugge st that a final / p / i s more voi c e l e s s than a me dial / p / , or , that a medial / p / is not so s i lent . It is di fficult for the wri t e r to make c on c lus ions ab out t h i s in view o f his very limi t e d experience with spect rograms and insuffi c iency o f mat erial . Corre sponding narrow band spectrograms are added t o b ot h , re s p e c t i v e l y numbered 12a and 1 3a . 4.
P I T C H CONTO URS
The spectro grams dealing with p i t c h contours w i l l not a l l b e measured as t o t h e fundamental p i t c h o f their sy l lable s , but o n each one the hei ght of t he t ent h harmonic of the p i t c h pOint s will be indicated by means of vert i c a l l i ne s , from who s e relat ive heigh t s the p i t ch rat ios can be inferred . Phonemic p i t c h i s d i fferent from abs olute p i t ch , so that , s ome t ime s , rather d i f ferent p i t ches w i l l be re garded a s ' allophone s , and there fore c l a s s ed into one p i t c h phoneme , and on the other hand s l ight ly d i ffering p i t ches may b elong t o d i f ferent p i t c h phoneme s . When the fundamentals are indicate d , they w i l l only b e for t he p i t ch po int s indicated by s t r e s s mark s . The numb ers indicate c y c l e s per s e c ond ( cp s ) , and are measured b y means of t he t enth harmoni c . Not much comment w i l l be given , as t he s p e c t rograms wi l l speak for thems e l ve s , and when ne ce s s ary we can always re fer back to the appropriate p a s s age s in t he s e c t ion on p i t c h ( p . 33 ff) . The suspended l i ne s on the grams are the phonemi c divi s i on s . 2 1 2 3 Spectrogram No . 1 4 : / d l j a b u + d � + i b a n a H / Fundamentals : 140 95 145 175 Ordinary statement p i t c h cont our . ( Se e p . 3 4 . ) 2 3 2 3 Spe c t ro gram No . 1 5 : / d i j a b u + d� + T b a n a 1 1 / .r J. \0 1 4 0 162� 1 8 0 175 Fundamen t a l s : Ordinary que s t i on contour .
138 3 3 2 2 Spect rogram No . 1 6 : I d i j a b u + do + i b a n a I I I 160 Fundament a l s : 195 200 Ques t ion p i t c h contour with emphas i s o n l i b a n a / , s e e p . 3 6 . 2 3 3 3 S p ectrogram No . 1 7 : I d i j a b u + d o + i ba n a I I I 2 30 2 30 Fundamental s : Pit ch contour with emphas i s on I - j a b u / , or i f t he answer given i s rep e a t e d in the q ue st ion . 2 3 3 Spectro gram No . 1 8 : I d Tj a b u l Fundamental s : 175 215 230
2 3 1 I d Tj a b u H I 190 2 3 0 125
The fir s t one i s t he s ame t ype a s t h e one o n Spectrogram No . 1 7 , i . e . repeating t he answer in the que s t ion t o verify it or t o expre s s mi l d s urpri s e . The se cond utteranc e i s the normal contour , here a s an ans we r . 2 4 2 4 2 1 S p ect rogram No . 1 9 : I d T j a b u Id T j a b u H I I Fundamental s : 2 3 5 300 2 3 5 2 3 5 312 . 5 1 6 0 The first c ontour i s one o f gre at doub t o r irony . The s e cond one is an emphat i c answer to t h i s or in general . ( see p . 3 7 . ) 5.
PHONOTACT I CS
One feat ure d i s c u s s ed in the s e c t ion on Phonota c t i c s i s i l lu s t rat ed here by a c ouple o f grams , namely , the phenomenon o f doub le c on s onant s . The i r phonemi c s t atus has b e en demon s t rated on p . 4 4 by mean s o f c ont ra st s . Here the c ontrast ing qualit i e s c an b e seen a s approximately doub l e durat ion and t he shortening influence o f the doub le consonan t s o n t h e pre c e ding vowe l s . Spec t rogram No . 2 0 : Duration in c s . o f vowe l and fol lowing med ial consonant Spe c trogram No . 2 1 : Durat ion in c s . and Durat i on in c s .
I t u l l a l) l 6 . 1 13 . 6 I h a d d a 1) 1 6 . 8 11 . 4 I t :5 p p a l 6 . 1 13 . 6
I p f ttul
I p f t ul
3 . 8 19 . 7
6 . 8 10 . 3
' do o r '
8.4 6.8
,
Beven '
I h a d a 1) 1 12 . 5 4 . 9 I t :5 p a l 12 . 2 8 . 4
I n conclus ion it should be ment ioned that the frequenc i e s and durat ions in di fferent spectrograms are di fferent in absolute numerical value s , t hough t hey may b e classed in the s ame phoneme s . That i s a
139 thing that c an n o t b e avoide d , as the speech o f a n individual fluctu ates in rap i dity and p i t ch from utt eran c e t o utterance . However , the relat ive conne ct ions between the various it ems can b e ob s e rved from the grams individual ly . Ke eping t hi s in mind , the sound s p e c t rogram is a u s e ful tool in t he hands of language anal ys t s , and muc h more c an s t i l l be expected from the spe c i a l i s t s in acous t i c phone t i c s that can b e o f he lp t o the l ingui s t s an d ult imat e ly t o language learn i ng .
A P PENV I X I I I
THE BATAK ALPHABET
A s ment i oned i n t he Introdu c t i on , the Bat ak alphabe t i s one o f t he forms o f t he Devanagari alp habe t i n Indone s i a . Other forms are : t he Javan e s e alp habet on J ava , the Lampung alphabet in South Sumat ra , l t he Bugis alphab e t on the i s land o f S ulawe s i . Mos t o f t he lit e rature i n the Batak alphabet i s works on magic , a s t ro logy , an d mythol ogy . The writ ing was done by i n s c rib ing marks w i t h an i ron s t y l u s on a p i e c e of bamb o o s t e m . The s e bamboo s t ems , about one foot in lengt h , were u s e d as letters and sent b y me s s enger or given t o a p a s s ing t rave l l e r who would also go by t he vi l lage o f t he addre s se e . More important wri t in g s , as mag i c formulas , legen d s , and a s t rological ' s c ience ' , were inscribed on a long strip o f b ark , whi c h could b e folded and unfolded ac cordion- l i ke , w i t h a thorn- l ike part of t he b a g o t pa lmt ree , c al l e d t a r u g i . Black dye was u s e d as ink . Thi s kind o f book i s called p u s t a h a . S ince the introdu c t ion o f paper , ink and pen , some b oo k s have been writ t en containing narrat ive s , Bible s t o ri e s an d h i s tori cal ac count s , b ut nowaday s wri t in g books in t he Batak alphabet has been d i s continue d , and all writ ings are done i n Lat in charac ters . The Batak alphab e t i s s t i l l t aught i n Junior High S choo l s i n the Batak speak i ng are as a s a cultural feature only . The Batak alphabet i s s y l lab i c ( or b ip honemic except the vowe l s , s e e b e l ow ) . The charact ers with t he corresponding Lat i n l e t t e r s orthographi c a l l y a r e l i s t e d b e l ow . There are twent y d i fferent s ymb o l s and s i x diacri t i c s .
l For geographical names , see Map I .
141
142 The vowe l s are : f./7
=
= =
=
a u e 0
The letters e an d 0 are formed by u s ing an addi t i onal mark or diacri t i c with t he a ; for t h e e a hori zontal short line , called h a t a d i n g a n , i s p l aced above i t to t h e l e ft ; and , for t h e 0 a c ro s s -l i ke mark , called s i a l a , i s pl aced t o its right . A spec ial variety o f u can also b e made by p lac ing a hook- l ike mark , cal led h a bo r u a n , to the right of t he a , t hus : or 1./'7. = u . £/77 A s p e c i al variety o f I can also be formed by pl acing a smal l c ircle , called h a u l i a n , t o t he right o f t he a , thus : £/70 i. =
The consonant s without any addi t i onal mark contain the pert inent con s onant plus the vowe l a . To make a comb inat ion of a consonant and another vowel a mark is superimp o s e d or j uxtaposed t o it , for example : r. a -0 = n e ( 1 . e . n a plus h a t a d i n g a n ) -0 n i ( i . e . n a plus h a u l i a n ) 00 n o ( 1 . e . n a plus s i a l a ) oX n u ( i . e . n a plus h a b o r u a n ) -;; > When a small hori zontal line , called h a m i s a r a n , i s placed above the character to i t s right , the velar nasal I � / , ort hographically n g , i s added t o the whole character , thu s : ang nang U7 0 i ng (/70 n i ng -0 0 r:ri eng neng -0 ong l./7X nong 0 )( ung n ung . u-Z cb =
-
-
A s imp le consonan t symbol can be formed by p lacing an ob lique ac c ent , called p a n go l a t , t o the right o f t he charac t e r , thus : -0 ' n s o t hat (/7 -0 \ = a n (/7 0'0\ i n , et c . and nan 0 0\ non , etc . o -o X \ =
=
143 The c on s onant al charac t e r s are : a:> ba pa --< ta da � h a o r ka l ga 77 � rna 0< d j a ( phonemi cally : / j a / ) � � E ra na D w a n g a GU < sa � = j a ( phonemi c al ly : I y a / ) � 1a � = t j a ( phonemi cally : l e a / ) � 2 I n y a / ) ( phonemi c al ly : n j a � c
c =
In t hi s alp hab et t here i s only one character for the t wo phonem i c ent i t i e s l e I a n d l E I , name ly iT? , e t c . ; an d ' a l s o o n e for 1 0 1 a n d 1 0 / , name l y : (/7 ,)< , e t c . The pres ent Batak Lat in spe l ling does not deviate very much from t he original Batak s p e l l ing , except the change s that had to be made as a c on s equence of t he c onver s i on from a s y l l ab i c to a l e t t e r alphabet .
l
About the original allophonic distribut ion of page 4 .
Ihl
and
Ik/ ,
s ee Chapter I , S e ct i on 1 ,
2 Used only in Angkola-Batak , as this sound does not oc cur in Toba-Bat ak .
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