A Grammar and Dictionary of Zaiwa (2 vols.)
 9004184899, 9789004184893

Table of contents :
Contents
List of tables
Abbreviations
Editorial Foreword
Chapter One Introduction
1.1 Acknowledgements
1.2 Research on Zaiwa until now
1.3 Zaiwa transcription systems
Chapter Two Summary of the Grammar
Chapter Three Phonology and Phonetics
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Characteristics of Zaiwa phonology
3.3 Reduced syllables and syllable reduction
3.4 Initials
3.5 Zaiwa post-consonantal glides
3.6 Vowel nuclei and final offglides
3.7 Final nasals and plosives
3.8 Combinations of vowel nuclei and finals: Rimes
3.9 Nuclei other than vowels
3.10 Tones
3.11 The allotones of tone /31/
3.12 Creaky voice and other phonation types
Chapter Four Tone Switching and the Factitive marker
4.1 Tone switching in synchronic and diachronic perspective
4.2 The morpho-phonology of tone switching
4.3 The morpho-phonology of the factitive marker
4.4
The meaning and use of the factitive marker
4.5 Special uses of tone /54/
4.6 The oblique genitive case marker (GEN)
4.6.1 Introduction
4.6.2 The oblique genitive case marker marking numerals
4.6.3 Family ties
4.6.4 The oblique genitive case marker marking time words
4.6.5 Other ways of using the oblique genitive case marker
4.7 The imperfective marker
4.7.1 Introduction
4.7.2 Dynamic situations
4.7.3 Stative situations
4.7.4 Aspectivising auxiliary verbs
4.7.5 The imperfective marker marking punctual verbs
4.7.6 Another type of temporal framework
4.7.7 No temporal framework
4.7.8 The imperfective marker in adverbs
4.7.9 The imperfective marker in other adverbs
4.7.10 Marking by the imperfective marker triggered by clause markers
4.7.11 The imperfective marker in negative clauses
4.7.12 The imperfective marker in passive constructions before the perfect clause marker
Chapter Five The indicative mood marker
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Clause markers: overt marking by the indicative mood marker
5.3 Clause markers: the indicative mood marker in combination with no longer retrievable roots
5.4 Attitude marking units
5.5 The evidential and the quotative
5.6 Indicative clause marking units in negative clauses
5.7 The exclamatory ending -ei31
Chapter Six The nominalising prefix
6.1 The nominalising prefix nominalising stative verbs
6.2 The nominalising prefix nominalising non-stative verbs
6.3 The nominalising prefix before locational markers
6.4 The nominalising prefix before bound nominal roots
6.5 The nominalising prefix converting nominal morphemes into adverbs
6.6 The nominalising prefix before indicative clause marking units
6.7 The nominalising prefix as part of conjunctions and stopgaps
6.8 The nominalising prefix in complex pronouns and other deictic forms
6.9 Initial syllables not analysed as the nominalising prefix
Chapter Seven Remaining matters of Morpho-phonology
7.1 Stress
7.2 Lexical final checked syllable tone raising
7.3 Reduced syllable lexical tone raising before tone /11/
7.4 Reduced syllable lexical tone raising before tone /55/
7.5 Vowel reduction
7.6 Morpho-phonological changes around forms with optional initial nasals
7.7 Morpho-phonological changes around markers without initial; the singular imperative clause marker (SIM)
7.8 Morpho-phonological alternation between /l/, /r/ and other initial phonemes
7.9 Bound form adjectives
Chapter Eight Reduplication
8.1 Overview
8.2 The reduplication of nouns
8.3 The reduplication of numeral noun phrases
8.4 Reduplication of verbs and ideophones, expressing iterativity and habituality
8.5 Reduplication expressing ‘very’ and related notions, forming complex adverbs
8.6 Reduplicated adverbs modifying nominal constituents
8.7 Reduplication of the augmentative morpheme
8.8 Reduplicated morphemes as noun-verb pairs
Chapter Nine Nominal Morphology
9.1 Overview
9.2 The typology of the Zaiwa noun phrases
9.3 Tones /35/ and /55/ vs. tone /31/; the demonstratives
9.4 Personal pronouns
9.5 The morpheme (3SG / in truth) and complex adverbs referring to ‘oneself'
9.6 Morphemes used as prefixed indicators of family ties: (1PO), (2SG.PO), (2REL) and (3SG / in.truth)
9.7 The actants of the Zaiwa clause; the object marker variants //
9.8 The topic of the clause and the general topic marker (TOP)
9.9 The agentive/instrumental suffix
9.10 The comitative suffix
9.11 The directive case suffix (DIR)
9.12 The ablative case suffix (ABL)
9.13 The general locative case suffix
9.14 The form ma54 (LOC+FCT) used in a literal way and as the description marker
9.15 The morpheme ‘lead, connect’ as the mediative case suffix
9.16 Overview of the locational case suffixes and other locational suffixes
9.17 Nouns used as locational suffixes, normally followed by a case suffix
9.17.1 The word gung11-gung31 ‘the middle’
9.17.2 The noun ‘between’
9.17.3 The morphemes ‘close vicinity’ and ‘near the house’
9.17.4 The morpheme ‘behind’
9.17.5 The word num11-tang55 ‘behind one’s back’
9.17.6 The morpheme ‘roots, base’
9.17.7 The noun ‘edge’
9.18 Adjectives used as locational suffixes
9.18.1 The morpheme ‘inside of’
9.18.2 The morpheme ‘under’
9.18.3 The morpheme ‘under, amongst’
9.18.4 The morpheme ‘near’
9.18.5 The morpheme ‘roll’
9.18.6 The morpheme ‘come out, above’
9.19 The morphemes ‘start’ and ‘before’; the prioritive adverb
9.20 The specificatory morpheme (SPEC)
9.21 ‘where’ and its bound form variants
9.21.1 The pronoun ‘where’
9.21.2 The general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q) ‘what/which/where’
9.21.3 The morpheme ‘where’(B)
9.22 The partitive pronominal suffix (PART) and the form gu54 (PART+FCT)
9.23 The differentiating pronouns ‘different’ and / ‘other’
9.24 The limitative pronoun ‘only this’
9.25 The bound form ‘much’(B)
9.26 The morpheme ‘far’(B) as a pronoun and an adverb
9.27 The suffix ‘generation’
9.27 The suffix ‘generation’ / ‘class, ranks’
9.28 Number Suffixes
9.29 Sex Suffixes
9.30 Augmentative and diminutive
9.31 The morpheme ‘each’
9.32 Nominalising suffixes
9.32 Nominalising suffixes
9.32.1 Overview
9.32.2 The singular nominaliser
9.32.3 The plural nominalising morpheme
9.32.4 The nominaliser ‘things for/to …’
9.32.5 The morpheme ‘time for, season’
9.32.6 The morpheme ‘(matter of) guilt’
9.32.7 The morpheme ‘place’ as a nominaliser ‘place to’, ‘place that’
9.32.8 The morpheme (truc) ‘implement, matter’ and other such nouns
9.33 Numerals
9.34 The typology of Zaiwa Specifier Nouns
9.35 Positional specifier nouns
9.36 ‘sort’, ‘kind’ and other morphemes; the same or not the same?
9.37 Bits and Parts; Nouns that are only used after the prefix ‘one’, and a comparison with ‘fold’
9.38 ‘one’ expressing special notion ‘the whole’
9.39 Expressing time / What’s the time?
9.40 Time adverbs with initial /a/
Chapter Ten Verbal basics: Adjectives and copula
10.1 Adjectives
10.2 The copula ‘to be’
10.3 The inchoative copula ‘become’
10.4 The verb ‘do’
Chapter Eleven Verba sentiendi et dicendi
11.1 Introduction and Overview
11.2 The verbs ‘speak’ and ‘talk (noise)’
11.3 The verb ‘talk’
11.4 Direct and Indirect Speech in Zaiwa
11.5 More on the verb ‘say’
11.6 The verb ‘perceive’
11.7 The morpheme ‘happen’ as a verb and as a clause marker
Chapter Twelve Motion Verbs
12.1 Overview
12.2 The four principal motion verbs, for coming and going
12.3 The principal motion verbs as adverbs
12.4 The verb ‘turn’ as a main verb and as part of the adverb dvau31 (turn(ipf)) expressing ‘back’ or ‘upside down’
12.5 The morphemes ‘walk, leave’ and ‘ride’ (vt) in adverbs
12.6 The morpheme ‘pursue’ as the adverb ‘go everywhere to do V’
12.7 The morpheme ‘jump’ in the adverb byam11 ‘jump’(ipf)
12.8 The principal motion verbs used as auxiliary verbs
12.9 The verb ‘let fly, fling’ as the aspectiviser of ferocity
12.10 The verbs ‘go down’ and ‘let go down’ as the downward and onward aspectivisers
12.11 The morpheme ‘turn/roll’ as the all-around aspectiviser
12.12 The aspectiviser ‘around’
12.13 The morpheme as the aspectiviser ‘wherever’
12.14 Combinations of two juxtaposed principal motion verbs
12.15 Other combinations of motion verbs
12.16 The verb ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker
Chapter Thirteen Verbs indicating ‘to be there’ and ‘to have’
13.1 Introduction
13.2 ‘be there’ (animate) and ‘be there’ (inanimate)
13.3 ‘be inside’ and ‘contain’
13.4 ‘lie down’, ‘sit’ and ‘stand’
13.5 ‘be attached’ and ‘attach’(vt)
13.6 ‘have’ as a main verb
13.7 The verb ‘have’ as the possibilitative adverb
13.8 ‘have left over’ and ‘have’ (low)
Chapter Fourteen Causative and directive verbs
14.1 Verb pairs and their meanings
14.2 Simplex-causative verb pairs
14.3 The way in which causative verb variants are used; the active involvement auxiliary (ACT)
14.4 Simplex-directive verb pairs
14.5 The verb pair ‘go up’ vs. ‘get up’
14.6 The diachronic background of the simplex-causative and simplex-directive distinctions in Zaiwa
14.7 Other exceptional morpheme pairs
Chapter Fifteen Auxiliary Verbs
15.1 Introduction and overview
15.2 The performative aspectiviser (PFM)
15.3 The morpheme ‘heap (vt/N)’ as a verb, a noun and an aspectiviser
15.4 The morpheme ‘be awake, miss’ as a main verb, an adverb and an aspectiviser
15.5 The morpheme ‘get rid of’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser
15.6 The verb ‘to give’ as a main verb and as the benefactive/malefactive auxiliary verb
15.7 The verb ‘lose’ as a main verb and as the aspectiviser of change
15.8 The aspectiviser of vehemence dam54 (VEH+FCT)
15.9 The verb ‘place’(vt) as a main verb and as the progressive aspectiviser
15.10 The verb ‘desolate’ as an aspectiviser
15.11 The morpheme ‘interrupt’ as the interruptive aspectiviser
15.12 The verb (extreme) ‘go to the limit’
15.13 The verb ‘put into’ as a main verb and as the effective aspectiviser
15.14 The verb ‘help’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser.
15.15 The verb ‘tuck away, polish off’ as the non-stop aspectiviser
15.16 The verb ‘take off, pluck’ as the aspectiviser ‘to no purpose’
15.17 The recreational aspectiviser ‘play’
15.18 The verb ‘wait’ as a main verb and as the expectant auxiliary
15.19 The reciprocal aspectiviser
15.20 The verb ‘cheat, fool’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser
15.21 The verb ‘let loose’ as a main verb and as the commissive auxiliary
15.22 The modal auxiliary ‘feel like’
15.23 The morpheme ‘need’ in various functions
15.24 The verbs ‘probably’ and ‘ought, address’
15.25 The verb ‘die’ as a main verb and as the tormentative aspectiviser
15.26 The verb ‘do to the utmost’ as an aspectiviser
15.27 The verb ‘look’ as a main verb and as the probative auxiliary
15.28 The auxiliary ‘to start’
15.29 The aspectiviser ‘finish’
15.30 The verb ‘take’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser
15.31 The aspectivisers ‘fixed’ and ‘move to one place’
15.32 The verbs ‘eat’ and ‘tasty’ as auxiliaries
15.33 The verb ‘try’ as an aspectiviser
Chapter Sixteen Adverbs
16.1 Introduction and Overview
16.2 Negation in Zaiwa; the negative prefix
16.3 The adverb ‘not go (away/down) and do V’
16.4 The prohibitive prefix
16.5 The adverb ‘almost’
16.6 The adverb variants , and ‘casually, carelessly, abominably, like a rascal’
16.7 The adverb ‘just’
16.8 The cooperative verb prefix ‘help’
16.9 The adverb ‘deliberately’
16.10 The adverb ‘again’
16.11 The adverb ‘categorically’
16.12 The morpheme ‘too’ as an adverb and as an auxiliary
16.13 The adverb ‘how?’
16.14 The adverb ‘all of it’
16.15 The contrastive prefix ‘but’
16.16 The adverb ‘even’
16.17 The adverb variants and ‘almost, soon, promptly’
16.18 The habitual adverb
16.19 The adverb ‘well’ and ‘thoroughly’
16.20 The suffix variants // ‘also’ (I): as adverbs
16.21 The suffix variants // ‘also’ (II): as clause markers and conjunctions
16.22 The suffix variants // ‘also’ (III): after items which are used in an indefinite way
16.23 The suffix variants // ‘also’ (IV): reduplicated
16.24 The adverb ‘indiscriminately’
16.25 The adverb ‘hard to’
16.26 The satisfactive morpheme ‘about enough’ and ‘about enough’
16.27 The manner adverb ‘unfortunately’ and the
ideophone ‘dollop’
16.28 The definite adverb
16.29 The adverbs ‘possibly’ and ‘maybe’
16.30 The attitudinal morpheme ‘what a pity, shucks’
16.31 The morpheme ‘au contraire’
16.32 The limitative morpheme ‘only’
16.33 The allomorph of the limitative morpheme as the compliative adverb
16.34 The adverb ‘all’
16.35 The adverb ‘rather’
16.36 The adverb ‘do V in passing’
16.37 The morpheme ‘use up’ as a main verb and as part of the completive adverb ban11 (use.up(ipf))
16.38 The morpheme ‘drive game’ as a main verb and as part of the collective adverb cyom31 / syom31 (drive.game(ipf))
16.39 The morpheme ‘respond, upright’ as a main verb and as part of the adverb dvu11 (respond/upright(ipf)) expressing ‘upright’
16.40 The morpheme ‘scoop’(vt) as a main verb and as the excessive adverb
16.41 The morpheme ‘big’ in the adverb
gvo11 (big(ipf))
16.42 The morpheme ‘prepared’ as a verb and as the investigative adverb
16.43 The morpheme ‘pass’ as a main verb and as part of the comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf))
16.44 The morpheme ‘await, take part, attend’ in the locative adverb lom11 (attend(ipf)) ‘to do on the spot’
16.45 The morpheme ‘redo, do all over again’ as a main verb and as part of the repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf))
16.46 The morpheme ‘strike’ as a main verb and as the unintentional adverb
16.47 The morpheme ‘exceed’ as a verb and as the superlative adverb
16.48 The abilitative adverb
16.49 The morpheme ‘all right’ as a verb and as part of the positive adverb
16.50 The morpheme ‘want to’ as a main verb and as part of the voluntative adverb
16.51 The morpheme ‘see, find’ as a main verb and as part of adverbs
16.52 The morpheme ‘dare’ as a main verb and as the venturesome adverb
16.53 The morpheme ‘know’ as a main verb and as part of the modal adverb sue31 (know(ipf))
Chapter Seventeen Clause Markers
17.1 Introduction
17.2 The factitive marker as a clause marker
17.3 The general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I)
17.4 The form lye54 (also+FCT)
17.5 The personal experience clause marker (PE)
17.6 The emphatic highlighting clause marking unit rvo55 (PE+HIGH) and the emphatic indicative rvo31 (PE+HIGH+I)
17.7 The finite clause marker ‘no more’
17.8 The continuous clause marker ‘still’
17.9 The perfect clause marker (P)
17.10 Conjunctional clause markers (1):
‘although’
17.11 Conjunctional clause markers (2): the opportunative (OPP)
17.12 Conjunctional clause markers (3): the clause marking unit lui31 ‘in this way’
17.13 Conjunctional clause markers (4): the suffix of the expected nvo31 (EXP+I)
17.14 Conjunctional clause markers (5): ‘to’
17.15 Conjunctional clause markers (6): ‘till’
17.16 Conjunctional clause markers (7): the conditional (CD)
17.17 The singular imperative clause marker
(SIM)
17.18 The plural imperative clause marker (PLIM)
17.19 The dual inclusive exhortative clause marker (DIE)
17.20 The exclusive exhortative clause marker
(EE)
17.21 The volitional clause markers and (VO)
17.22 The jussive clause marker (JUS)
17.23 The plural clause marker (PL) in various combinations
17.24 Indicative clauses without clause markers
Chapter Eighteen Conjunctions and attitude marker
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Various conjunctions, including ‘time’ and the general emphatic suffix (EMP)
18.3 The yes-or-no attitude marker (Y/N) and the general
interrogative suffix (GI)
18.4 The suffix ‘almost certain’ and
‘maybe’
18.5 The conceptual suffix (CC)
18.6 The reflective suffix (RFL)
18.7 The coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I)
18.8 The domineering suffix dvyo31 (DOM+I) and its variant dvye31 (DOM2+I)
18.9 The suggestive suffix kai31/hai31 (SUG+I)
18.10 The inciting suffix (INC)
18.11 The uncertainty suffix (UNC)
18.12 The final verification suffix (FV)
18.13 The mirative suffix (MIR)
18.14 The rousing suffix (ROUS)
18.15 The suffix of the obvious mai31 (OBV+I)
18.16 The suffix ‘to the contrary’
18.17 The insistive suffix ning31 (INS+I) as interjection and as attitude marking unit
18.18 The double-checking suffix ngva31 (DC+I)
18.19 The reference suffix (REF)
18.20 The highlighting suffix and the negative indicative suffix (N)o31
Chapter Nineteen The impressionistic morpheme
19.1 Introduction and allomorphs
19.2 Combinations with the full syllable allomorph of the impressionistic morpheme
19.3 The form su54 (like+FCT)
19.4 The allomorph of ‘like’ as the impressionistic prefix
19.5 The impressionistic prefix before the inchoative copula ‘become’
19.6 The impressionistic prefix before the verb ‘perceive’
19.7 The impressionistic prefix before the verb ‘seem’
19.8 The impressionistic prefix before the verb ‘happen’
Chapter Twenty Exclamatory expressions
Bibliography
Index of Zaiwa grammatical items
Index of Names and Grammatical terms
Contents
Introduction to Volume Two
Abbreviations
English index to the Dictionary
Zaiwa - English Dictionary
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
k
l
m
n
o
p
r
s
t
u
w
y
z
Text One On the Zitung
Zaiwa transcription with literal translation
Text Two On the Saqwa
Zaiwa transcription with literal translation
Text Three Rabbit Tales; free translation
Zaiwa transcription with literal translation
Songs
Song of Mount Mezyoisingra
When I Was Little
Mama and Papa
Our Native Land . . .
Fragments of speech
Plates

Citation preview

A Grammar and Dictionary of Zaiwa

Brill’s Tibetan Studies Library Edited by

Henk Blezer Alex McKay Charles Ramble

Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region Edited by

George L. Van Driem

VOLUME 5/11

A Grammar and Dictionary of Zaiwa Volume One: Grammar

By

Anton Lustig

LEIDEN • BOSTON 2010

On the cover: Leaders of Menau dance. Courtesy of Gísli Hvanndal Ólafsson. This book is printed on acid-free paper.

ISSN 1568-6183 ISBN 978 90 04 18489 3 (Set) ISBN 978 90 04 19221 8 (Volume 1) ISBN 978 90 04 19222 5 (Volume 2) Copyright 2010 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints BRILL, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change.

DEDICATION

I DEDICATE THIS BOOK TO MY PARENTS: ARRES, TOOS AND ILSE.

CONTENTS VOLUME ONE List of tables Abbreviations Editorial Foreword

............................................................................ xxi .......................................................................... xxiii ............................................................................xxv

Chapter One: Introduction .......................................................................1 1.1 Acknowledgements ...............................................................1 1.2 Research on Zaiwa until now................................................2 1.3 Zaiwa transcription systems..................................................6 Chapter Two: Summary of the Grammar ...............................................9 Chapter Three: Phonology and Phonetics.............................................21 3.1 Introduction ..........................................................................21 3.2 Characteristics of Zaiwa phonology ...................................21 3.3 Reduced syllables and syllable reduction...........................28 3.4 Initials ..............................................................................32 3.5 Zaiwa post-consonantal glides............................................39 3.6 Vowel nuclei and final offglides.........................................42 3.7 Final nasals and plosives .....................................................48 3.8 Combinations of vowel nuclei and finals: Rimes ..............49 3.9 Nuclei other than vowels.....................................................51 3.10 Tones ..............................................................................52 3.11 The allotones of tone /31/....................................................58 3.12 Creaky voice and other phonation types ............................62 Chapter Four: Tone Switching and the Factitive marker .....................65 4.1 Tone switching in synchronic and diachronic perspective .........................................................65 4.2 The morpho-phonology of tone switching.........................69 4.3 The morpho-phonology of the factitive marker.................74 4.4 The meaning and use of the factitive marker.....................78 4.5 Special uses of tone /54/......................................................82 4.6 The oblique genitive case marker (GEN) .............84

VIII

CONTENTS

4.6.1 4.6.2

4.7

Introduction..........................................................84 The oblique genitive case marker marking numerals ...............................................87 4.6.3 Family ties............................................................90 4.6.4 The oblique genitive case marker marking time words............................................................92 4.6.5 Other ways of using the oblique genitive case marker ..........................................................93 The imperfective marker .....................................................94 4.7.1 Introduction..........................................................94 4.7.2 Dynamic situations..............................................95 4.7.3 Stative situations..................................................97 4.7.4 Aspectivising auxiliary verbs .............................97 4.7.5 The imperfective marker marking punctual verbs ...................................................................100 4.7.6 Another type of temporal framework...............102 4.7.7 No temporal framework ....................................104 4.7.8 The imperfective marker in adverbs ................107 4.7.9 The imperfective marker in other adverbs .......109 4.7.10 Marking by the imperfective marker triggered by clause markers ..............................111 4.7.11 The imperfective marker in negative clauses....117 4.7.12 The imperfective marker in passive constructions before the perfect clause marker ........................................120

Chapter Five: The indicative mood marker ........................................125 5.1 Introduction........................................................................125 5.2 Clause markers: overt marking by the indicative mood marker ......................................................................126 5.3 Clause markers: the indicative mood marker in combination with no longer retrievable roots ..................130 5.4 Attitude marking units.......................................................131 5.5 The evidential and the quotative.......................................133 5.6 Indicative clause marking units in negative clauses........134 5.7 The exclamatory ending -ei31............................................136 Chapter Six: The nominalising prefix .......................................137 6.1 The nominalising prefix nominalising stative verbs .......................................................................137

CONTENTS

6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9

IX

The nominalising prefix nominalising non-stative verbs ................................................................139 The nominalising prefix before locational markers ............................................................................139 The nominalising prefix before bound nominal roots ............................................................................140 The nominalising prefix converting nominal morphemes into adverbs....................................................141 The nominalising prefix before indicative clause marking units ..........................................................143 The nominalising prefix as part of conjunctions and stopgaps .......................................................................149 The nominalising prefix in complex pronouns and other deictic forms ......................................................151 Initial syllables not analysed as the nominalising prefix ........................................................................154

Chapter Seven: Remaining matters of Morpho-phonology ...............157 7.1 Stress ............................................................................157 7.2 Lexical final checked syllable tone raising ......................158 7.3 Reduced syllable lexical tone raising before tone /11/....161 7.4 Reduced syllable lexical tone raising before tone /55/....162 7.5 Vowel reduction.................................................................164 7.6 Morpho-phonological changes around forms with optional initial nasals .........................................................165 7.7 Morpho-phonological changes around markers without initial; the singular imperative clause marker (SIM).............................................................169 7.8 Morpho-phonological alternation between /l/, /r/ and other initial phonemes ................................................173 7.9 Bound form adjectives.......................................................178 Chapter Eight: Reduplication...............................................................183 8.1 Overview ............................................................................183 8.2 The reduplication of nouns................................................183 8.3 The reduplication of numeral noun phrases .....................188 8.4 Reduplication of verbs and ideophones, expressing iterativity and habituality ..................................................189 8.5 Reduplication expressing ‘very’ and related notions, forming complex adverbs..................................................193

X

CONTENTS

8.6 8.7 8.8

Reduplicated adverbs modifying nominal constituents ........................................................................199 Reduplication of the augmentative morpheme ...201 Reduplicated morphemes as noun-verb pairs ..................203

Chapter Nine: Nominal Morphology ..................................................211 9.1 Overview............................................................................211 Part I 9.2 9.3

Important remarks The typology of the Zaiwa noun phrases .........................214 Tones /35/ and /55/ vs. tone /31/; the demonstratives .....222

Part II 9.4 9.5

Personal pronouns, relational morphemes and yourself Personal pronouns .............................................................227 The morpheme (3SG / in truth) and complex adverbs referring to ‘oneself’ ............................240 Morphemes used as prefixed indicators of family ties: (1PO), (2SG.PO), (2REL) and (3SG / in.truth) ..........................................244

9.6

Part III 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 Part IV 9.16 9.17

Case suffixes The actants of the Zaiwa clause; the object marker variants //............................................................248 The topic of the clause and the general topic marker (TOP ) .................................................253 The agentive/instrumental suffix ....................260 The comitative suffix ......................................263 The directive case suffix .................................266 The ablative case suffix ......................................268 The general locative case suffix ..273 The form ma54 (LOC+FCT) used in a literal way and as the description marker.......................................................274 The morpheme ‘lead, connect’ as the mediative case suffix .........................................................277 Spatial and deictic morphemes, excluding case suffixes Overview of the locational case suffixes and other locational suffixes..............................................................279 Nouns used as locational suffixes, normally followed by a case suffix ..................................................................281 9.17.1 The word gung11-gung31 ‘the middle’..............282

CONTENTS

9.17.2 9.17.3

9.18

9.19 9.20 9.21

9.22 9.23 9.24 9.25 9.26 Part V 9.27 9.28 9.29 9.30 9.31 Part VI 9.32

XI

The noun ‘between’ ..........................282 The morphemes ‘close vicinity’ and ‘near the house’ ...........................283 9.17.4 The morpheme ‘behind’ ....................284 9.17.5 The word num11-tang55 ‘behind one’s back’ ...286 9.17.6 The morpheme ‘roots, base’ ............287 9.17.7 The noun ‘edge’..................................288 Adjectives used as locational suffixes ..............................289 9.18.1 The morpheme ‘inside of’...................289 9.18.2 The morpheme ‘under’............................290 9.18.3 The morpheme ‘under, amongst’ ........291 9.18.4 The morpheme ‘near’....................291 9.18.5 The morpheme ‘roll’..........................294 9.18.6 The morpheme ‘come out, above’........295 The morphemes ‘start’ and ‘before’; the prioritive adverb ...........................................299 The specificatory morpheme (SPEC) ...............304 ‘where’ and its bound form variants ..........308 9.21.1 The pronoun ‘where’ ..................308 9.21.2 The general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q) ‘what/which/where’ ...........................................309 9.21.3 The morpheme ‘where’(B) ..........313 The partitive pronominal suffix (PART) and the form gu54 (PART+FCT)........................................................315 The differentiating pronouns ‘different’ and / ‘other’..................................................322 The limitative pronoun ‘only this’ ........................326 The bound form ‘much’(B) ..............................329 The morpheme ‘far’(B) as a pronoun and an adverb ............................................................................333 Noun suffixes The suffix ‘generation’ .......................................336 Number Suffixes ................................................................340 Sex Suffixes .......................................................................345 Augmentative and diminutive ..................347 The morpheme ‘each’.........................348 Nominalising suffixes Nominalising suffixes........................................................350 9.32.1 Overview ............................................................350 9.32.2 The singular nominaliser ............351

XII

CONTENTS

9.32.3 9.32.4 9.32.5 9.32.6 9.32.7

Part VII 9.33 9.34 9.35 9.36 9.37 9.38 9.39 9.40

The plural nominalising morpheme ....352 The nominaliser ‘things for/to …’ .......354 The morpheme ‘time for, season’ ...355 The morpheme ‘(matter of) guilt’.......356 The morpheme ‘place’ as a nominaliser ‘place to’, ‘place that’...................357 9.32.8 The morpheme (truc) ‘implement, matter’ and other such nouns............................358 Head nouns, specifier nouns and numerals Numerals ............................................................................361 The typology of Zaiwa Specifier Nouns ..........................366 Positional specifier nouns .................................................386 ‘sort’, ‘kind’ and other morphemes; the same or not the same? .................................................390 Bits and Parts; Nouns that are only used after the prefix ‘one’, and a comparison with ‘fold’ .......394 ‘one’ expressing special notion ‘the whole’ .........400 Expressing time / What’s the time?..................................403 Time adverbs with initial /a/ .............................................421

Chapter Ten: Verbal basics: Adjectives and copula ..........................427 10.1 Adjectives ..........................................................................427 10.2 The copula ‘to be’ ............................................428 10.3 The inchoative copula ‘become’..........................432 10.4 The verb ‘to do’ ..................................................443 Chapter Eleven: Verba sentiendi et dicendi ......................................449 11.1 Introduction and Overview ...............................................449 11.2 The verbs ‘speak’ and ‘talk (noise)’ ..449 11.3 The verb ‘talk’...................................................454 11.4 Direct and Indirect Speech in Zaiwa ................................460 11.5 More on the verb ‘say’ .....................................464 11.6 The verb ‘perceive’ ...............................................470 11.7 The morpheme ‘happen’ as a verb and as a clause marker .....................................................................485 Chapter Twelve: Motion Verbs ...........................................................495 12.1 Overview............................................................................495 12.2 The four principal motion verbs for coming and going............................................................................496 12.3 The principal motion verbs as adverbs.............................501

CONTENTS

12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 12.15 12.16

XIII

The verb ‘turn’ as a main verb and as part of the adverb dvau31 (turn(ipf)) expressing ‘back’ or ‘upside down’.....................................................................506 The morphemes ‘walk, leave’ and ‘ride’ in adverbs ...........................................................................507 The morpheme ‘pursue’ as the adverb ‘go everywhere to do V’.............................509 The morpheme ‘jump’ in the adverb byam11 ‘jump’(ipf) ................................................................512 The principal motion verbs used as auxiliary verbs ........515 The verb ‘let fly, fling’ as the aspectiviser of ferocity ...........................................................................521 The verbs ‘go down’ and ‘let go down’ as the downward and onward aspectivisers .....................523 The morpheme ‘turn/roll’ as the all-around aspectiviser.........................................................................527 The aspectiviser ‘around’...................................528 The morpheme as the aspectiviser ‘wherever’.529 Combinations of two juxtaposed principal motion verbs ............................................................................530 Other combinations of motion verbs ................................533 The verb ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker .............................537

Chapter Thirteen: Verbs indicating ‘to be there’ and ‘to have’.........541 13.1 Introduction ........................................................................541 13.2 ‘be there’ (animate) and ‘be there’ (inanimate) .........................................................................544 13.3 ‘be inside’ and ‘contain’........................547 13.4 ‘lie down’, ‘sit’ and ‘stand’ ...554 13.5 ‘be attached’ and ‘attach’(vt) ................558 13.6 ‘have’ as a main verb............................................563 13.7 The verb ‘have’ as the possibilitative adverb .....567 13.8 ‘have left over’ and ‘have’ (low) ..572 Chapter Fourteen: Causative and directive verbs …………… .........575 14.1 Verb pairs and their meanings ..........................................575 14.2 Simplex-causative verb pairs ............................................578 14.3 The way in which causative verb variants are used; the active involvement auxiliary (ACT) ....................580 14.4 Simplex-directive verb pairs .............................................585

XIV

14.5 14.6 14.7

CONTENTS

The verb pair ‘go up’ vs. ‘get up’ .........588 The diachronic background of the simplex-causative and simplex-directive distinctions in Zaiwa ....................592 Other exceptional morpheme pairs...................................596

Chapter Fifteen: Auxiliary Verbs ........................................................599 15.1 Introduction and overview ................................................599 15.2 The performative aspectiviser (PFM)...................602 15.3 The morpheme ‘heap (vt/N)’ as a verb, a noun and an aspectiviser ...................................................606 15.4 The morpheme ‘be awake, miss’ as a main verb, an adverb and an aspectiviser .................................608 15.5 The morpheme ‘get rid of’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser................................................611 15.6 The verb ‘to give’ as a main verb and as the benefactive/malefactive auxiliary verb ............................612 15.7 The verb ‘lose’ as a main verb and as the aspectiviser of change .......................................................614 15.8 The aspectiviser of vehemence dam54 (VEH+FCT) ...........616 15.9 The verb ‘place’(vt) as a main verb and as the progressive aspectiviser ..............................................617 15.10 The verb ‘desolate’ as an aspectiviser ............626 15.11 The morpheme ‘interrupt’ as the interruptive aspectiviser ....................................................627 15.12 The verb (extreme) ‘go to the limit’ ..........628 15.13 The verb ‘put into’ as a main verb and as the effective aspectiviser...................................................633 15.14 The verb ‘help’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser.........................................................................644 15.15 The verb ‘tuck away, polish off’ as the non-stop aspectiviser .........................................................645 15.16 The verb ‘take off, pluck’ as the aspectiviser ‘to no purpose’...................................................................647 15.17 The recreational aspectiviser ‘play’ ................648 15.18 The verb ‘wait’ as a main verb and as the expectant auxiliary ............................................................650 15.19 The reciprocal aspectiviser ................................652 15.20 The verb ‘cheat, fool’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser ...............................................................654 15.21 The verb ‘let loose’ as a main verb and as the commissive auxiliary ..................................................657

CONTENTS

15.22 15.23 15.24 15.25 15.26 15.27 15.28 15.29 15.30 15.31 15.32 15.33

XV

The modal auxiliary ‘feel like’.........................659 The morpheme ‘need’ in various functions..........664 The verbs ‘probably’ and ‘ought, address’..................................................................677 The verb ‘die’ as a main verb and as the tormentative aspectiviser...................................................682 The verb ‘do to the utmost’ as an aspectiviser.........................................................................688 The verb ‘look’ as a main verb and as the probative auxiliary .............................................................689 The auxiliary ‘to start’ ...........................................695 The aspectiviser ‘finish’......................................697 The verb ‘take’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser.........................................................................697 The aspectivisers ‘fixed’ and ‘move to one place’ ...........................................................700 The verbs ‘eat’ and ‘tasty’ as auxiliaries ...........................................................................702 The verb ‘try’ as an aspectiviser....................704

Chapter Sixteen: Adverbs ....................................................................707 16.1 Introduction and Overview ...............................................707 16.2 Negation in Zaiwa; the negative prefix ..................711 16.3 The adverb ‘not go (away/down) and do V’713 16.4 The prohibitive prefix .................................714 16.5 The adverb ‘almost’ ..................................715 16.6 The adverb variants , and ‘casually, carelessly, abominably, like a rascal’ .......................................................................716 16.7 The adverb ‘just’..................................................717 16.8 The cooperative verb prefix ‘help’ .......................720 16.9 The adverb ‘deliberately’ ........................724 16.10 The adverb ‘again’ .............................................724 16.11 The adverb ‘categorically’ ..................728 16.12 The morpheme ‘too’ as an adverb and as an auxiliary ............................................................................728 16.13 The adverb ‘how?’............................................732 16.14 The adverb ‘all of it’.........................................733 16.15 The contrastive prefix ‘but’ ...................................735 16.16 The adverb ‘even’ ............................................739

XVI

16.17 16.18 16.19 16.20 16.21 16.22 16.23 16.24 16.25 16.26 16.27 16.28 16.29 16.30 16.31 16.32 16.33 16.34 16.35 16.36 16.37 16.38 16.39 16.40 16.41

CONTENTS

The adverb variants and ‘almost, soon, promptly’............................................................................743 The habitual adverb .............................................744 The adverb ‘well’ and ‘thoroughly’ ...746 The suffix variants // ‘also’ (I): as adverbs ...........................................................................748 The suffix variants // ‘also’ (II): as clause markers and conjunctions..................................752 The suffix variants // ‘also’ (III): after items which are used in an indefinite way ..............758 The suffix variants // ‘also’ (IV): reduplicated........................................................................764 The adverb ‘indiscriminately’..........................765 The adverb ‘hard to’ ...........................................766 The satisfactive morpheme ‘about enough’ and ‘about enough’............................................767 The manner adverb ‘unfortunately’ and the ideophone ‘dollop’ ................................................769 The definite adverb .............................................772 The adverbs ‘possibly’ and ‘maybe’ ....774 The attitudinal morpheme ‘what a pity, shucks’..776 The morpheme ‘au contraire’ .............................778 The limitative morpheme ‘only’ ............................................................................781 The allomorph of the limitative morpheme as the compliative adverb ...........792 The adverb ‘all’ .................................................796 The adverb ‘rather’ .............................................799 The adverb ‘do V in passing’ .........................803 The morpheme ‘use up’ as a main verb and as part of the completive adverb ban11 (use.up(ipf))..........805 The morpheme ‘drive game’ as a main verb and as part of the collective adverb cyom31 / syom31 (drive.game(ipf)) .......................................809 The morpheme ‘respond, upright’ as a main verb and as part of the adverb dvu11 (respond/upright(ipf)) expressing ‘upright’........................811 The morpheme ‘scoop’(vt) as a main verb and as the excessive adverb ..............................................813 The morpheme ‘big’ in the adverb gvo11 (big(ipf))......................................................................815

CONTENTS

16.42 16.43 16.44 16.45 16.46 16.47 16.48 16.49 16.50 16.51 16.52 16.53

XVII

The morpheme ‘prepared’ as a verb and as the investigative adverb ...........................................................816 The morpheme ‘pass’ as a main verb and as part of the comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)) ..................819 The morpheme ‘await, take part, attend’ in the locative adverb lom11 (attend(ipf)) ‘to do on the spot’ ..............................................................821 The morpheme ‘redo, do all over again’ as a main verb and as part of the repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf))......................................................................824 The morpheme ‘strike’ as a main verb and as the unintentional adverb................................................828 The morpheme ‘exceed’ as a verb and as the superlative adverb .............................................................831 The abilitative adverb ............................................835 The morpheme ‘all right’ as a verb and as part of the positive adverb ............................................839 The morpheme ‘want to’ as a main verb and as part of the voluntative adverb................................847 The morpheme ‘see, find’ as a main verb and as part of adverbs ........................................................849 The morpheme ‘dare’ as a main verb and as the venturesome adverb.....................................................854 The morpheme ‘know’ as a main verb and as part of the modal adverb sue31 (know(ipf)).........................856

Chapter Seventeen: Clause Markers....................................................859 17.1 Introduction ........................................................................859 17.2 The factitive marker as a clause marker.................862 17.3 The general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I) .865 17.4 The form lye54 (also+FCT)..................................................870 17.5 The personal experience clause marker (PE) .873 17.6 The emphatic highlighting clause marking unit rvo55 (PE+HIGH) and the emphatic indicative rvo31 (PE+HIGH+I) ...............................................................875 17.7 The finite clause marker ‘no more’.......877 17.8 The continuous clause marker ‘still’ .....892 17.9 The perfect clause marker (P) ...................901 17.10 Conjunctional clause markers (1): ‘although’ ..................................................913

XVIII

17.11 17.12 17.13 17.14 17.15 17.16 17.17 17.18 17.19 17.20 17.21 17.22 17.23 17.24

CONTENTS

Conjunctional clause markers (2): the opportunative (OPP) ..............................916 Conjunctional clause markers (3): the clause marking unit lui31 ‘in this way’ ......................916 Conjunctional clause markers (4): the suffix of the expected nvo31 (EXP+I) ..........................920 Conjunctional clause markers (5): ‘to’ ................922 Conjunctional clause markers (6): ‘till’.............923 Conjunctional clause markers (7): the conditional (CD) ........................................925 The singular imperative clause marker (SIM) ............................................................932 The plural imperative clause marker (PLIM) .....932 The dual inclusive exhortative clause marker (DIE) .....................................................................933 The exclusive exhortative clause marker (EE).....................................................935 The volitional clause markers and (VO)...938 The jussive clause marker (JUS) ......................940 The plural clause marker (PL) in various combinations.........................................................943 Indicative clauses without clause markers .......................955

Chapter Eighteen: Conjunctions and attitude markers.......................963 18.1 Introduction........................................................................963 18.2 Various conjunctions, including ‘time’ and the general emphatic suffix (EMP) ................964 18.3 The yes-or-no attitude marker (Y/N) and the general interrogative suffix (GI) .........................................972 18.4 The suffix ‘almost certain’ and ‘maybe’ ..................................................................974 18.5 The conceptual suffix (CC)...................................977 18.6 The reflective suffix (RFL)...................................978 18.7 The coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I)........................................981 18.8 The domineering suffix dvyo31 (DOM+I) and its variant dvye31 (DOM2+I) ....................................................984 18.9 The suggestive suffix kai31/hai31 (SUG+I) ........................987 18.10 The inciting suffix (INC) ..........................989 18.11 The uncertainty suffix (UNC) .................................990 18.12 The final verification suffix (FV)...........................995 18.13 The mirative suffix (MIR) ......................................997

CONTENTS

18.14 18.15 18.16 18.17 18.18 18.19 18.20

XIX

The rousing suffix (ROUS) ......... 1000 The suffix of the obvious mai31 (OBV+I) ....................... 1004 The suffix ‘to the contrary’................. 1006 The insistive suffix ning31 (INS+I) as interjection and as attitude marking unit ........................................... 1006 The double-checking suffix ngva31 (DC+I) ................... 1009 The reference suffix (REF).............................. 1012 The highlighting suffix and the negative indicative suffix (N)o31 ............................. 1015

Chapter Nineteen: The impressionistic morpheme ........................ 1021 19.1 Introduction and allomorphs .......................................... 1021 19.2 Combinations with the full syllable allomorph of the impressionistic morpheme................................... 1022 19.3 The form su54 (like+FCT) ................................................ 1027 19.4 The allomorph of ‘like’ as the impressionistic prefix ............................................... 1030 19.5 The impressionistic prefix before the inchoative copula ‘become’ ................................................. 1033 19.6 The impressionistic prefix before the verb ‘perceive’......................................................................... 1035 19.7 The impressionistic prefix before the verb ‘seem’ ......................................................................... 1041 19.8 The impressionistic prefix before the verb ‘happen’ ......................................................................... 1042 Chapter Twenty: Exclamatory expressions ..................................... 1043 Bibliography

......................................................................... 1059

Index of Zaiwa grammatical items ................................................... 1061 Index of Names and Grammatical terms.......................................... 1071

LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 3.5 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 6.1 Table 6.2

Table 7.1 Table 7.2 Table 7.3 Table 9.1 Table 9.2 Table 9.3 Table 9.4

Zaiwa initials in the official and present transliteration systems Zaiwa syllable types Zaiwa tone switching (only in non-short open and nasal syllables) The Zaiwa syllable canonical form and all Zaiwa phonemes Zaiwa syllable types Illustration of the opposition between the Zaiwa initials Comparison between Burling’s forms and Loi11lung35 forms The Zaiwa rimes / the syllables looked at from behind Zaiwa tone switching (only in non-short open and nasal syllables) Suffixes which normally are combined with the oblique genitive case marker on the preceding nominal constituents The Zaiwa modal and voice auxiliary verbs The use of the nominalising prefix in clause marking units (1), non-plural The use of the nominalising prefix in clause marking units (2), clause marking units containing the plural clause marker

Vowel reduction Zaiwa function words consisting only of a syllabic /r/ and a tone Stative verbs and their bound form adjective variants Four main types of noun phrase and their subtypes The Zaiwa demonstratives Morphemes used in the Zaiwa personal pronouns Zaiwa personal and possessive personal pronouns

8 10 11 22 25 34 38 50 65 85 105 144

145 165 175 179 214 223 227 228

XXII

Table 9.5 Table 9.6 Table 9.7 Table 9.8 Table 9.9 Table 9.10 Table 9.11 Table 12.1 Table 12.2 Table 14.1 Table 14.2 Table 15.1 Table 16.1 Table 17.1 Table 17.2 Table 17.3 Table 17.4 Table 17.5

LIST OF TABLES

The singular personal pronouns of Zaiwa according to Xu & Xu (1984: 45) Zaiwa locational case suffixes and other locational suffixes: directions and positions The Zaiwa number suffixes The Zaiwa sex suffixes The Zaiwa nominalising suffixes Zaiwa numeral morphemes; regular numerals and numeral counting units Various time words referring to days and parts of days, in chronological order The four principal motion verbs of Zaiwa The four principal motion verbs as auxiliary verbs Simplex-causative verb pairs of which the causatives are aspirated Simplex-causative and simplex-directive verb pairs of which the marked variants are creaky The use of the morpheme ‘need’ in clause marking units, with or without the plural morpheme (PL) Constructions with the allomorph of the limitative morpheme

The Zaiwa clause markers The use of the finite clause marker ‘no more’ The use of the continuous clause marker (only non-plural forms) The use of the perfect clause marker (P) in clause marking units and other complex forms The use of the full syllable allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL), in the form gvo31 (PL+I), in clause marking units

236 280 340 346 351 362 414 496 515 576 576 673 793 860 880 894 903

949

ABBREVIATIONS

[…] /…/

Ø

phonetic transcription phonemic transcription notation for single morpheme1 zero-marker

person number categories: SG PL PO

singular plural possessive

only relevant for first person pronouns: DU dual ND non-dual (more than two) IN addressee included EX addressee excluded

other categories: ablative case suffix active involvement auxiliary (adj) adjective AG/I agentive/instrumental suffix anim animate AUG augmentative suffix B bound form BENEX benefactive exhortative clause marker CC conceptual suffix CD conditional clause marker ABL ACT

1 Combinations of morphemes are

written without brackets.

COM CX DC DIE

DIM DOM EE EMP EXCL EXP FV

comitative suffix coaxing suffix double-checking suffix dual inclusive exhortative clause marker diminutive suffix domineering suffix exclusive exhortative clause marker general emphatic suffix exclamatory ending suffix of the expected final verification suffix

XXIV GEN GI FCT HIGH +I INC INO INS

(ipf) JUS LOC MIR N NEG

nom OBJ OBV OPP P PART PE PFM PHB PL PLIM PNO Q REF 2REL

ABBREVIATIONS

oblique genitive case marker general indicative clause marker factitive marker highlighting suffix indicative mood marker inciting suffix inanimate nominaliser ‘things for/to …’ insistive suffix imperfective jussive clause marker general locative suffix mirative suffix noun negative prefix nominalising prefix object marker suffix of the obvious opportunative clause marker perfect clause marker partitive pronominal suffix personal experience clause marking unit performative aspectiviser prohibitive prefix plural clause marker plural imperative clause marker plural nominaliser general interrogative pronominal prefix reference suffix second person relational

RFL ROUS SIM SPEC SNO SUG TOP TS UNC V VEH VO

vi vt Y/N

prefix reflective suffix rousing suffix singular imperative clause marker specificatory morpheme singular nominaliser suggestive suffix general topic marker time suffix uncertainty suffix verb aspectiviser of vehemence volitional clause marker intransitive verb transitive verb yes-or-no suffix

EDITORIAL FOREWORD

Anton Lustig first visited the village of 雷弄 (Léinòng) as a student and continued to return to his friends in the Zaiwa area during his research fellowship with the Himalayan Languages Project at Leiden University. The stature of this contribution to the Zaiwa language community is not to be measured just in terms of the sheer girth of these two volumes. The author’s profound insight into the workings of the language is evident in the details. The most valuable achievement is perhaps the documentation of the conceptual universe expressed through the language. Such penetrating thoroughness in charting native categories of meaning is seldom seen in language descriptions, and this degree of mastery bears witness to the author’s finely honed semantic sensibilities. His years of assiduous work were not just aimed at ascertaining the precise meaning of numerous grammatical and lexical categories, for the author has striven to be holistic and all-encompassing. Lustig identifies typologically interesting Zaiwa morphemes that are purely suprasegmental in shape, such as the factitive marker. These tonal morphemes, though central to the grammar, might well have escaped the scrutiny and understanding of any lesser linguist. In the same painstaking detail, Lustig documents the intricate patterns of tone switching triggered by the agentive/instrumental, oblique genitive and imperfective suffixes, the latter two themselves tonal morphemes. Diachronic observations include the historical relationship between the factitive, oblique genitive and imperfective markers, which are shown to reflect an etymon of good Tibeto-Burman pedigree. The fine description of individual meanings and the sizeable corpus of natural discourse mirrors and preserves facets of Zaiwa culture and ethnopsychology. This grammar and dictionary will remain an enduring monument to Anton Lustig’s passion and perseverance. George van Driem, Amsterdam, 21 March 2010

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The dissertation finished nearly eight years ago has finally taken the shape of a real book. Continued annual visits to the Zaiwa/Jingpo community throughout these years have only served to strengthen my bond with this people. Therefore, in addition to preparing for the publication of this book, I am also organising these experiences and relationships into a project designed to address the broader aim of empowering the Jingpo community. This project, known as Prop Roots, will be based semi-permanently at its pilot site: the primary school of Yingpan village, and invite volunteers to work alongside the Jingpo people to promote the integration of education, linguistic and ethnological research, and intercultural exchange. More information can be obtained by emailing me at [email protected] or by visiting www.youtube/PropRoots. A website for Prop Roots is forthcoming. This work is the result of a total of about nine months of pleasant stays in the Zaiwa village Loi11lung35, spread over a period of almost ten years (from 1991 to 2001). First of all, I wish to thank for the hospitality and friendship of my main informant Le1-kun5-laq1 or Mo35pi55 ‘Beggar’, the brightest and most patient informant and teacher a researcher could wish for. It was Mo35pi55 who took me to the old dum11sa55 or witch doctor Pau11ki11-gam35, whose story-telling is included in this study. In the primary stages of my research, the ever so relaxed youngster Nong35zi11-gam35 was also of great help. I very much enjoyed being part of the family of Zeng11tong31-dvu31 and Pau11cung55-gvai55 and their two cute daughters. Last but not least, one of the very few remaining inhabitants of the old hilltop settlement of Loi11lung35: Pau11zyang11 Ka31dvom55 , also left a deep impression, as

2

CHAPTER ONE

did his precious knowledge of the old culture. Although still healthy, he seldom goes down, and lives there taking care of his household and cattle, surrounded by nature. His story-telling and songs are also included in this study. When thinking of this village, so many other nice people come to my mind, too many to all be included here. I always enjoyed and still remember the delicious, light and tasty Zaiwa cuisine. Because of my stays in the Jingpo area while learning the language, I also feel much connected to the Zaiwa/Jingpo community as a whole. Some of the most joyful occasions to feel and express that 2 is when attending the annual Me1nau11-zum31-go35 festivals in various locations down in the foothills. First taking part in the festival was one of the best experiences of my life, dancing with old and new friends for two days without sleep. I have included some of my photographs in the second volume. Despite having had such great informants and friends in the field, without my amiable and helpful teachers Frits Kortlandt and George van Driem, this study would not be what it is. I also thank Marianne Boere and my colleagues at that time for their advice and support. My friend and colleague Roland Rutgers let me have free use of the brilliant technical devices for gloss editing and aligning developed by him, and I also thank him for his patient assistance in using them. My family at that time has made enormous sacrifices in order for me to finish this work, especially considering that I, at the time of my PhD defence, had been carrying it with me for nearly ten years. My dissertation would never have taken the shape of this book without the organisation and support of George van Driem and the patience and skillful editing work of Atanu Majindar. 1.2

RESEARCH ON ZAIWA UNTIL NOW

Zaiwa, (Chinese: 载瓦 Zǎiwà) or Zai11wa31 in my Zaiwa transcription, is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken by approximately 100,000 people in the south-western corner of Yunnan province in China, as well as in neighbouring parts of Burma. Within China, most of the 2 In Chinese: 目瑙纵歌 Mùnǎozònggē

INTRODUCTION

3

Zaiwa people live in Dehong prefecture (Chinese: 德宏州 Déhóng zhōu) in south-western Yunnan. In 1982, about 59,000 Zaiwa people were counted (Xu 1994: 803). Burmese is the best known linguistic relative of Zaiwa. However, the closest linguistic relatives of Zaiwa are Achang, Maru, Lashi/Letsi and Bola. This study is the first full-scale grammar of this language, based on materials which I collected during a total of about nine months of fieldwork, spread across four separate field trips, in Loi11lung35 (雷弄 Léinòng), a mainly Zaiwa village in the municipality of Ruili (瑞丽市 Ruìlì shì), China. The Tibeto-Burman language of Zaiwa, spoken in Arunachal Pradesh, north-east India, shares the same name with the language in this book, but is not a Lolo-Burmese language, as pointed out by François Jacquesson (1996). The village Loi11lung35 consists of five different settlements spread around the original old hilltop settlement. From the hilltop, there is a fantastic view of hills and mountains, mainly belonging to Burmese territory, which surrounds the village on three sides. People began leaving the hilltop about fifty years ago, and now there are only three people left; the original foundations of the houses are gradually being recovered by the forest. This is a subtropical region, usually very hot but with summer monsoons and misty winter mornings. Loi11lung35 hill and the hills in the closest surroundings are rather low and still largely forested. The lower parts were originally malarious grasslands and are now used for growing rice and other crops for subsistence farming as well as sugar cane and tea for revenue. The Han Chinese from the numerous settlements of the nearby collective farm have greater agricultural expertise and more financial means and grow most of the cash crops around, such as rubber, pineapple and coffee. In the 1990s, the houses in Loi11lung35 were for most part made of bamboo and built in different traditional styles, but at date they have almost all been replaced by brick and wooden houses. Due to complicated historical factors which are as yet unclear, the speakers of Jingpo, Zaiwa, Maru, Lashi/Letsi and Bola - but excluding Achang - appear to share a great deal of their culture and cohabit the same villages. This all-encompassing ethnie is often referred to as Jingpo (Chinese: 景颇 Jǐngpō), in older texts Jinghpaw, or also: Kachin. The Zaiwa themselves often refer to this greater Jingpo as Wun11bvong55. Most of these people live in Burma, where the speakers

4

CHAPTER ONE

of Jingpo are in the majority, and speakers of Zaiwa in the minority. Within China itself, however, the situation is reversed in that speakers of Zaiwa are the largest part of the official Jingpo minority group, whereas the Jingpo speakers form a minority. Nevertheless, Zaiwa speakers consider themselves to belong to the greater Jingpo or Wun11bvong55. This situation has often baffled researchers, since the Jingpo language on one hand, and Zaiwa, Maru, Lashi/Letsi and Bola on the other, belong to totally different branches of the Tibeto-Burman language family. Jingpo belongs to the Nungish-Jinghpaw subgroup and the other languages belong to the Lolo-Burmese subgroup, according to the view of Van Driem (2001). When asked about their origin, the Zaiwa will always state that they, like the Jingpo proper, come from the Himalayas, via Mount Me1zyoi11sing11ra11. This would be contradictory to these different linguistic groupings, but I often get the impression that they do not really know whether this is true or not. I have briefly written down some of my own ideas about the matter in my earlier thesis (1995a), and I hope to return to the matter in a future publication. Recapitulating, my idea is that the Zaiwa, or the ethnic group that later split into Zaiwa, Maru, Lashi/Letsi and Bola, came from Sichuan in China, some time after the Burmese, and after coming southwest, became heavily influenced by the Jingpo. I suspect that research into the oral cultures of these different branches would reveal interesting differences and add much more dimension to this classification. Dai (1990: 244-58) and Xu (1994: 803-5) describe the ways people belonging to different branches of this Greater Jingpo ethnie make use of their different languages. They also describe the ways the people of the different branches name the other branches. Zaiwa is the ethnonym of the speakers of Zaiwa, and Atsi is the exonym used by the Lesser Jingpo and by some scholars. The related languages Maru, Lashi/Letsi, Bola and Achang are unwritten, or have been so until recently, but a Zaiwa transliteration system has been created in recent years, and this is used in various publications. During the 1990s is was also used in primary school education. During the first ten years of this century, howewer, Zaiwa

INTRODUCTION

5

education has disappeared from the curriculum again. Teachers say this was because more time was needed for other courses. 3 The Zaiwa transliteration system used conventionally is a Pinyin-like system based on a plan published in 1957, and has been in use since 1983 (Xu 1994: 806). The next subsection sets out this transliteration system and compares it to the system used in this study. Xu & Xu (1984) use their own, more or less phonetic transcription. Xu (1994: 804) states that Zaiwa has three dialects: the major Longjun dialect, (龙郡 Lóngjùn), also spoken in my village, and two smaller dialects named Tingzhu (亭注 Tíngzhù) and Bengwa (崩瓦 Bēngwǎ). Doqshi et al. (1985: 1) have a much different vision on Zaiwa dialectology, since they term Maru, Lashi/Letsi and Bola as dialects of Zaiwa, and Longjun, Tingzhu, Bengwa as well as another called Luqmyang (陆满 Lùmǎn) as different types of Zaiwa patois. My experiences are similar to Xu’s in that I would certainly refer to Maru, Lashi/Letsi, Bola and Zaiwa together as different languages of the Zai11-zo11 a1-myu31 (Zaiwa-child nom-sort/nationality), the term these groups all seem to use (when speaking Zaiwa) to differentiate themselves from the Jingpo proper. Very little research has hitherto been conducted on the Zaiwa language. Cheng Mo (1956) wrote a short preliminary sketch in Chinese in 1956. Burling (1967) did some comparative work on Proto-Lolo-Burmese, based on word lists and evidently rather scanty knowledge of the language. In 1982, the Japanese scholar Shiro Yabu wrote A Classified Dictionary of the Atsi or Zaiwa Language (Sadon dialect) with Atsi, Japanese and English indexes. As is natural for a dictionary, the latter work does not focus on the grammar, and, when grammatical words are listed, these often seem not to be very well understood. Doqshi Yongtang & Doqshi Roiseng (1985: 61-145) also made their contribution to our knowledge of the grammar of the language, apart from setting out basic knowledge for ethnic Zaiwa or Jingpo teachers, e.g. about the Roman alphabet. In 1984, Xu Xijian and Xu Guizhen published their description of Zaiwa grammar, which is not at all as limited in scope as its Chinese title would suggest, but still does leave quite some gaps. It is worth noticing that Xu Guizhen 3 The only exception is the ‘bilingual experimental’ primary school of Yingpan (营 盘 Yíngpán) village.

6

CHAPTER ONE

and Doqshi Roiseng are the Chinese and Zaiwa names respectively of the same person. Apart from these works, Dai Qingxia wrote several articles on Zaiwa and related languages, mostly on comparative issues, published together in one title (1990). Not long after my dissertation I was made aware of the existence of the Ph.D. thesis by Mark W. Wannemacher (1996), titled ‘Aspects of Zaiwa Prosody: An autosegmental account’. This generative account of the language is of limited utility, however, both because of its preoccupation with Chomskyan formalism and its highly restricted scope. Besides, Wannemacher made some concomitant errors in the presentation of data, e.g. omitting half of the Zaiwa initial consonant phonemes in his listing of consonant clusters on page 107. The first three times that I went to Loi11lung35, I was a student researching my undergraduate thesis. The last of these field trips was made possible by a travel grant from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO). After that, I became a research fellow with the Himalayan Languages Project at Leiden University, for a period of two years, from April 1997 until 1999. In spring of that last year I made a final field trip. This dissertation is the result of both that research fellowship and a period of about two years without a formal fellowship thereafter. The total amount of time spent in the field before finishing the 2002 dissertation was about nine months. I have been returning yearly ever since. 1.3

ZAIWA TRANSCRIPTION SYSTEMS

The official Zaiwa transcription system was formally acknowledged in 1987, after several periods of testing, and is based on an earlier attempt in 1955. Older Zaiwa transcription systems were made by French evangelists in China and by Zaiwa intellectuals in Burma in the first half of the 20th century, but have long since been abandoned. The official Zaiwa transcription system, set out by Doqshi & Doqshi (1985: 156-65) and Doqshi et al. (1992: 984-97), is largely based on Pinyin, as is most apparent when looking at the initials. Like Pinyin, the official Zaiwa transcription system is not phonological, whereas mine is, but I have stuck to it as far as it does not contravene with my phonological analysis. The changes I made are few and will

INTRODUCTION

7

not cause much trouble in getting used to. Where the official transcription uses the non-phonological and typically Pinyin-like initials j, q, x, I use the already existing symbols g, k, h, corresponding to the phonemes /g, k, h/, since phonologically the official initials j, q and x are in fact combinations of the latter initials and either /y/ or /i/. The other Pinyin-imitations zh, ch, sh I write as combinations of the already existing symbols z, c, s, corresponding to the phonemes /z, c, s/ and either /y/ or /i/. However, I do use the symbol sh, but only for combinations with the vowel /e/ in some specific loans from Chinese such as /dyen11she11/ [t̪jɛn 11ʃɘ11] ‘television’. As a result of these differences, my Zaiwa system contains less initials, making it more simple, but on the other hand also different from Pinyin, although this, of course, within China is an important standard. The first row in Table 1.1 below contains the pronunciation of Zaiwa initials of the Zaiwa transcription system and the second row contains these official Zaiwa initials themselves. The third row contains the equivalents in my system. The information in the first two rows stems from a table by Doqshi et al. (1992: 988-9). The contents of that table, however, were stripped of the combinations with /v/ indicating creak, and most of the combinations with medial /y/, since the inclusion of these combinations would not have added any information, and since these are the same as in my system. My system has both the combinations /ny/ and /ngy/, e.g. /nye11/ ‘bamboo thong’ vs. /ngye11/ ‘nicely warm’, where the official Zaiwa transcription system has only the symbol ny. Apart from these differences in the initials, there are only minor differences between the official system and my system. The medial y in the official system is the same as /y/ in my system. I have also incorporated the use of the letter v to indicate creak and the letter q for glottal stop. The other finals are also written in the same way. The vowels are also the same, exept for two cases: (1) I further distinguish a vowel /ue/, and (2) I refrain from the Pinyin-like mistake of using an i for a vowel sounding [ɘ], cf. zing vs. my /zeng31/ for [tsɘ ŋ31] ‘drum’, or for syllabic consonants, cf. re vs. my /r11/ for [ʐ11] ‘also’. Since my transcription is phonological, I suffice here by referring the reader to Chapter 3 on phonology.

8

CHAPTER ONE

Table 1.1 Zaiwa initials in the official and present transliteration systems A: the same: [p] b b my:

[pʰ] p p

[m] m m

my:

[ts] z z

[tsʰ] c c

[s] s s

my:

[k] g g

[kʰ] k k

[x] h h

[v] w w

[f] f f

[t] d d

[tʰ] t t

[l] l l

[ ʒ] r r [j] y y

B: combinations of phonemes instead of simple writing units: [ t ʃ] [ t ʃʰ] [ʃ ] [ʃɘ] zh ch sh -z+y/i c+y/i s+y/i she my: in loans [kj] [kʰj] [xj] j q x g+y/i k+y/i h+y/i my: C: partly the same: [n] n n my:

[ ŋ] ng ng

[ŋj] ny ny [n̪]/[n̪j] and ngy [ɲj]

CHAPTER TWO

SUMMARY OF THE GRAMMAR

This chapter offers an overview of the contents of the different chapters of this grammar and shows the most characteristic traits of Zaiwa. The most interesting characteristics of Zaiwa are as follows, in their order of discussion in this grammar. 1) First, Zaiwa has a phonological distinction between six tones, undergoing complex grammatical tone changes, and another phonological distinction between creaky voice phonation and zero clear phonation. 2) Typologically also of much interest is the functional versatility of many of the Zaiwa verbal morphemes, which, apart from being used as main verbs, can be used adverbially and as auxiliary verbs. 3) Compared to most other Tibeto-Burman languages, Zaiwa is rich in simplex-causative and simplex-directive verb pairs. 4) Another interesting trait is the extensive use of marking morphemes near the end of the clause, expressing numerous different mood categories as well as categories of tense, aspect and Aktionsart. In order to explain these marking morphemes, I distinguish two new word classes: the clause markers and the attitude markers. A first general remark is that I write morphemes and allomorphs between brackets, whereas combinations of morphemes are without, cf. ‘eat’ vs. zo31 ‘eat’(ipf). Chapter 3 on phonology and phonetics sets out the phoneme inventory. Zaiwa has one indigenous post-consonantal glide /y/, two final offglides /i/ and /u/, and plosives and nasals that can both be used as initials and as finals. Zaiwa also has a phonemic final glottal stop /q/, whereas initial glottal hiatus is not analysed as a phoneme. The /r/ phoneme is borrowed from Jingpo and mainly used in loans from that language. An important feature of Zaiwa phonology is that it has two independent distinctions between six tones on one side, and two phonation types, viz. creaky voice phonation and zero clear phonation, on the other. These two distinctions are independent, since, apart from tone /35/, all Zaiwa tones can co-occur with creaky voice phonation

10

CHAPTER TWO

and all tones can co-occur with clear phonation. All Zaiwa syllables have one of the following six tones: /11, 55, 35, 31, 54, 25/. Tones are indicated by numerals from 1 to 5 in superscript after every syllable. Numeral 1 indicates the lowest and 5 the highest pitch. A combination of two numerals indicates a level, rising or falling tone contour. The main distinction between different syllable types is between the short syllables and the non-short syllables. This and further distinctions are shown in Table 2.1. Table 2.1 Zaiwa syllable types I

II

III

Short syllables: 1. Reduced syllables 2. Checked syllables, ending in /p, t, k, q/ Non-short syllables: 1. Regular open syllables 2. Syllables ending in vowel offglides /i, u/ 3. Nasal syllables, ending in /m, n, ng/ The marginal type of syllabic consonants can both be short or non-short.

The reduced syllables have no finals and the use of vowels and the post-consonantal glide /y/ is also limited. The checked syllables end in the plosives /p, t, k, q/. The short syllables, i.e. both the reduced and the checked syllables, are further characterised by reductions in the range of tones, since they can only have tone /11/ or /55/. The tones of all short syllables are transcribed with single numerals in superscript, whereas the tones of the non-short syllables, having the full range of tones, are transcribed with double numerals, cf. short /loq1/ ‘hand, arm’ vs. non-short /lo11/ ‘tiger’. All Zaiwa syllables have a tone. Moreover, Zaiwa also has morphemes that consist of only a tone. These tonal morphemes are discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. Tone changes are an important issue within Zaiwa morpho-phonology and the most important type is tone switching, discussed in Chapter 4. Tone switching is a morphophonological process which can only occur in non-short syllables and affects all tones except tone /35/ and the marked tones /54/ and /25/. When morphemes are modified by a well-defined set of

11

SUMMARY OF THE GRAMMAR

morphemes - mostly tonal morphemes - the tones /11/ and /55/ are both switched to tone /31/, whereas tone /31/ is switched to tone /11/. These changes are indicated in Table 2.2. Tone switching is orthographically represented in my transcription by double underlining of the tone numerals, e.g. in the marked imperfective zo31 ‘eat’(ipf) instead of unmarked ‘eat’. Tone switching in the proper sense always takes place on the final syllables of words. Within bisyllabic words of which the final syllables undergo tone switching, there are some additional processes, involving either raising or lowering of the tones, as Section 4.2 will discuss in detail. Table 2.2 Zaiwa tone switching (only in non-short open and nasal syllables) tone /11/ tone /55/ tone /31/

both



tone /31/



tone /11/

Tone /35/ remains unchanged. Zaiwa’s most important tonal morpheme, causing tone switching in verbs, is the imperfective marker . Zaiwa verbs mostly are marked by the imperfective marker when used before other verbs. The Zaiwa imperfective marker nevertheless expresses a proper grammatical category which is not merely a verb-agglutinator and can grossly be translated as ‘V being the case’. The imperfective marker either expresses that the situation referred to by the marked verb is in a “state of effect” at a certain time and/or that this situation forms part of a process. For example, marking by the imperfective marker of the verb ‘carry on back’ before the verb ‘rock’ in the following sentence adds to the notion ‘carrying the child, the situation of rocking it occurs’, given the context that the rocking of the child takes place whilst it is carried on the back. 1

Zi1syang31 child

bau31 nvun55-aq5. (ipf) carry.on.back rock–SIM

12

CHAPTER TWO

Carry (SG) the child on your back and rock it. Section 4.3 discusses the many phonological shapes of the factitive marker (FCT), which mainly is a tonal morpheme either with or without an additional segmental part. The special tones /25/ and /54/ are two of the phonological shapes of the factitive marker (FCT). The special tones /25/ and /54/ are orthographically represented in my transcription by broken underlining of the tone numerals, e.g. in the factitive form zo54 (eat+FCT) as opposed to ‘eat’. When looked at from a synchronical perspective, the morpho-phonological process of tone switching underlies these two tones, and that is why the factitive marker (FCT) is discussed within Chapter 4 on tone switching. The factitive marker subordinates and nominalises nouns, pronouns, verbs and suffixes, as well as clauses as a whole, and either expresses genitive case or the notion of factuality. In the following noun phrase, the factitive marker marks the genitive case on the pronoun (3SG): yvang54 bu11 (3SG+FCT clothes) ‘his/her clothes’. Sentence (2) illustrates the notion of factuality expressed by the factitive marker when marking a clause as a whole. The modified verb in this clause is ‘eat’. 2

Nga35-moq1-o55 seng11-u31 zo54. 1PO–party–FCT liver–intestine eat+FCT You have eaten our (ND.EX) organs and intestines.

Chapter 5 discusses another important tonal morpheme, the indicative mood marker . The indicative mood marker does not mark verbs but clauses as a whole, as the final part of specific marking units. I term as marking unit any clause-final entity consisting of more than one morpheme, expressing various types of mood as well as other notions. The detailed discussion of these morphemes is much further on, in Chapters 17 and 18. As part of these marking units, the indicative mood marker causes the characteristic falling tone /31/ at the end, or near the end, of many Zaiwa clauses, expressing the fundamental and ubiquitous grammatical category of indicative mood. Zaiwa indicative mood excludes another important grammatical category in the language, i.e. the factitive category expressed by the factitive marker mentioned above. The indicative clause

SUMMARY OF THE GRAMMAR

13

marking units contrast to clause markers or clause marking units that express other modalities, such as imperative, volitional, exhortative, optative/jussive and conditional moods, all with final syllables in tones other than tone /31/. The discussion of the clause marking units and the attitude marking units is further on in Chapters 17 and 18 respectively. Chapter 5 discusses these forms only grossly and from a morpho-phonological point of view, focussing on their tones and arguing that whenever they have tone /31/ this is caused by the indicative mood marker . Chapter 6 discusses the nominalising prefix (nom-). Like many other languages, Zaiwa has various means of nominalising. The nominalising prefix (nom-) is basically a nominaliser with transpositional functions which can be explained in terms of its nominalising function. The central function of the nominalising prefix (nom-) is transpositional and to add a more concrete sense to the situation which is denoted by the root. Most of the other transpositional uses of the nominalising prefix are with root morphemes that never or seldom are used independently. For example, the morpheme ‘mother’ is never used as a word on its own, but only in combinations like: A5-nu11 (nom-mother) ‘Mum’ or nang35 nu11 (2SG.PO mother) ‘your mother’. Chapter 7 discusses all remaining morpho-phonological processes of Zaiwa. Included are some more tone changes and various distinctions between initials. Chapter 8 discusses reduplication, which in Zaiwa basically, but not always, expresses multiplicity. Section 8.8 discusses a characteristic phenomenon related to reduplication, viz. reduplicated morphemes of which the first functions as a noun, sometimes in combination with other morphemes, and the second as a verb, e.g. u31-sang55 sang55 (intestine-fill.up fill.up) ‘make sausages’. Chapter 9 offers an in-depth description of features in Zaiwa nominal morphology. Its introductory section analyses the different types of Zaiwa noun phrases. Other topics are: the demonstratives, the personal pronouns, case suffixes, a large group of specific spatial and deictic morphemes, noun suffixes and nominalising suffixes. Another important issue is the distinction between head nouns and specifier nouns, as well as the numerals which can be placed in between. For example, in mau11sau11 le1-buk1 (paper/book one-book) ‘a/one book’

14

CHAPTER TWO

the first word is the head noun and the last word is the specifier noun, with a numeral prefix. Chapter 10 discusses some basic categories and functions amongst the Zaiwa verbs, such as the adjectives and the copula. Zaiwa has two copula: ‘to be’ and ‘become’. Chapters 11 to 16 discuss the remaining verbal matters. Chapter 11 discusses some verbs that I have grouped together as the verba sentiendi et dicendi. These are discussed in a separate chapter since most of them are special for they can refer both to speaking and feeling. Another reason for discussing these verbs together is that several of them are used in subordinating constructions, including those used for quoting. Chapter 12 discusses the verbs that I have grouped together as the motion verbs. One Zaiwa clause may contain several motion verbs. One main purpose of Chapter 12 is to reveal the different functions of the motion verbs: as adverbs, as main verbs, or as auxiliaries. Apart from briefly discussing other Zaiwa motion verbs, this chapter mostly concerns the four principal motion verbs, referring to coming and going. Chapter 13 discusses a distinguished group of verbs expressing notions like ‘to have’ and ‘to be there’ and related notions. Chapter 14 discusses the simplex-causative and simplex-directive verb pairs. Zaiwa has a large number of verb pairs consisting of a non-creaky, non-aspirated variant and a variant which is creaky or aspirated. Most of these creaky or aspirated verbs are causative variants of what can be termed as simplex verbs. Some other creaky or aspirated verbs within these verb pairs could rather be labelled as directive variants. In regular cases of simplex-causative and simplex-directive verb pairs, the tones of both variants are the same, apart from cases where some predictable variations in tone occur. The verb pair ‘broken’ vs. ‘tear’ is an example of a simplex-causative verb pair of which the causative is aspirated. The verb pair ‘eat’ vs. ‘feed’ is an example of a simplex-causative verb pair of which the causative is creaky. Chapter 15 discusses the auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs normally are verbs that, apart from being used as a main verb, can also be used after a main verb, whereby its meaning is used in a periphrastic instead of a straightforward way, adding a specific notion to the

SUMMARY OF THE GRAMMAR

15

situation indicated by the main verb. For example, the verb ‘place’(vt) can both be used as a main verb and as an auxiliary expressing progressive Aktionsart. 3

Yvang11

yvup5 dvo11 3SG sleep place(vt) He is already asleep.

bue31. P+I

Most of the auxiliary verbs trigger marking by the imperfective marker of the preceding main verb, because of their specific meanings, and these auxiliary verbs therefore are also termed the aspectivisers for short. The aspectivisers trigger the marking by the imperfective marker on the preceding main verbs, unifying this group of verbs as the Zaiwa aspectivisers, because the situation indicated by the preceding main verb always forms the temporal background to the situations indicated by the aspectiviser, since the function and meaning of the aspectivisers is to specify the way in which the situations indicated by the preceding main verbs occur, as well as to focus on the fact that these situations take place. For quite a few aspectivisers there is another reason for triggering the marking by the imperfective marker of the preceding verb, which is that they specifically express that the situations indicated by the main verbs are processes or states. This is especially the case for the auxiliary ‘place’(vt) used in the sentence above. The latter form normally is termed the progressive aspectiviser for short. Chapter 16 discusses the Zaiwa adverbs. We can define adverbs in Zaiwa as forms which precede the verb in terms of linear syntactic element order, and modify the meaning of the main verb, as if to answer the question of how the situation denoted by the main verb is realised or effectuated. The Zaiwa adverbs are in principle an infinite set of forms, many of which have clear verbal origins and may in other contexts also occur as verbs. Some others may also occur as nouns or pronouns. Also included in this discussion of the Zaiwa adverbs are the negative prefix (NEG) and the prohibitive prefix (PHB). Chapter 17 discusses the Zaiwa clause markers. I use the term clause marker for a special word class in Zaiwa. Because of this, and because they are rather numerous, the clause markers form a

16

CHAPTER TWO

characteristic feature of Zaiwa. Clause markers are encountered in most Zaiwa clauses, mostly together with one or multiple other clause markers, as part of clause marking units after the predicate, simultaneously marking both the predicate and the clause as a whole for different categories of mood, aspect, tense, Aktionsart and number. The clause markers can be split into various groups, viz. 1) those that first of all express indicative mood, with some additional notions, 2) those that over and above that also give expression to categories of aspect, tense and Aktionsart, 3) a special group of clause markers that also function as conjunctions, and finally 4) all clause markers expressing mood types like imperative, exhortative, optative/jussive and volitional. The Zaiwa plural clause marker (PL) can be combined with clause markers of all groups, and indicates that either the subject or the addressee consists of more than one entity. Clause marking morphemes already discussed above are the factitive marker and the indicative mood marker . Some important clause marking units also contain the nominalising prefix , e.g. the continuous indicative clause marking unit a1-si31 (nom-still+I). The central clause marker in the latter form is the continuous clause marker ‘still’. The latter morpheme forms part of an important pair of clause markers, together with its counterpart: the finite clause marker ‘no more’. I shall briefly introduce three of the most commonly used clause markers and clause marking units, much before they are discussed in the appropriate sections, since these will be encountered in many Zaiwa sentences. The meaning of the first of them, the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I), in many ways is the opposite of that of the factitive marker . The latter, especially when used as a clause marker, expresses a notion of factuality, focussing on specific information in the clause such as where and when or exactly to what extent the situation in question takes place, as illustrated by sentence (4). Whereas the factitive marker refers to specific information which moreover is related to specific times, the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 refers in a broad and overall way to general information and which is not related to any specific time other than is naturally evident from the context. Therefore, the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 is often used for reference to matters of fact, such as in statements on what a

17

SUMMARY OF THE GRAMMAR

given person is doing himself, e.g. (5). Other matters of fact which as a rule are referred to by the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 are matters of general knowledge, as illustrated by sentence (6). 4

Nang31

ke5-nvam55 lo25 2SG Q–when come(back/up)+FCT lvang55 a1-sue55. even NEG–know I don’t even know when you (SG) came. tang11 ho31 lo35 1SG firewood look.for go(back/up) I am going up to collect firewood.

lu55, MIR

lye31. also+I

5

Ngo31

6

Li31-eq1 ge11 i1-tung11 puq5 lye31. plough#–AG/I TOP water–paddy turn.over(vt) also+I The plough is for turning the paddies.

The personal experience clause marker (PE ) indicates a specific type of epistemological mood that applies to the clause as a whole, such as can be expressed by saying ‘someone experienced this’, referring to the present relevance of personal assessments, such as caused by impressions or experiences. The meaning of the personal experience clause marker (PE ) becomes most clear when comparing it to the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I). Whereas sentence (7) below, containing the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I), refers to a general truth, sentence (8), containing (PE), refers to a specific experience of snow. In sentence (9), the personal experience clause marker also refers to an experience which specifically belongs to some person, in this case to the addressee. pyu11 lye31. (ipf) white also+I

7

Ngvan31 ge11 snow(N) TOP Snow is white.

8

Ngvan31 ge11 pyu11 r55. (ipf) snow(N) TOP white PE The snow was/is white.

18 9

CHAPTER TWO

Nang31

ke5-se55 ga31 r55 ? (ipf) 2SG Q–like perceive PE How are you (SG) feeling?

The perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I) simultaneously expresses indicative mood and the continuing present relevance of a situation at another time, mostly in the past, e.g. (10), but in some cases also in the future, e.g. (11). 10

11

Mau11 wo31 Sky rain It’s raining.

bue31. P+I

Mau11-mo35 rau35 wo31 sky–AUG promptly rain Heavy rain will soon come.

bue31. P+I

Chapter 18 discusses the conjunctions and attitude markers. I use the term attitude markers for a second special word class in Zaiwa, after the clause markers. The numerous Zaiwa conjunctions and attitude markers are used after the clause markers at utterance final position, and, like the clause markers, express several modal categories. Those attitude marking forms that consist of more than one morpheme, for they are marked by the indicative mood marker , are termed attitude marking units. There is also an evidential marking unit ga31 (perceive+I) and a quotative marking unit ngvu31 (say+I). The conjunctions and attitude markers need to be distinguished from the clause markers since they can be omitted without harming well-formedness, whereas most non-negative and non-prohibitive clauses are obligatorily marked by clause markers. The most important attitude marker is the yes-or-no attitude marker (Y/N), which is the general question suffix for yes-or-no questions, expressing ‘is it or isn’t it?’, like Mandarin 吗 ma. 12

Yvup5 gi11 bue31 luq1 ? sleep full/satisfied P+I Y/N Did you have enough sleep? / Did you sleep well?

SUMMARY OF THE GRAMMAR

19

Chapter 19 discusses the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’, which is a bound morpheme referring to all kinds of impressions. I discuss this morpheme in a separate chapter because of its use in different grammatical and syntactical categories. It is used in complex pronouns, e.g. in a5-se55 (nom-like) ‘like now, like this, like that’, and it can also embed the preceding nominal constituent, ideophone or complete clause into a larger syntagma, e.g. in the construction waq1-syo11 se5-ga11 (pig-meat like-perceive) ‘like pork’. Chapter 20 lists a large part of the rich inventory of Zaiwa exclamatory forms expressing agreement, surprise, pain, malicious pleasure, etc.

CHAPTER THREE

PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

3.1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter gives synchronic analyses of the phonology and phonetics of Zaiwa. Table 3.1 illustrates the canonical form of the Zaiwa syllable and gives an overview of all Zaiwa phonemes. The next chapter will separately discuss a multitude of morpho-phonological processes. 3.2

CHARACTERISTICS OF ZAIWA PHONOLOGY

• Initials There are four initial categories, viz. bilabial, dental, alveolar and velar. One of the characteristics of the initials of the dental category is that the use of the post-consonantal glide /y/ is restricted, as further discussed in Section 3.4. The alveolar initials /z, c, s/, which are normally realised [ts, tsʰ, s] respectively, have palatal allophones [cç, cçʰ, ʃ ] when followed by either /i/ or the post-consonantal glide /y/, cf. /zo11/ [tso 11] ‘eat’ vs. /zi11/ [cçi11] ‘ride’, and /zan35/ [ts ɐn̪35] ‘healthy’ vs. /zyan35/ [cçɐn̪35] ‘wife (of)’. Until the present study, these allophones were interpreted as representing a separate initial category, cf. Burling (1967: 16), Yabu (1982: 7) and Xu & Xu (1984: 6-7). There are two general observations to be made here, which are indicated by the canonical form of the Zaiwa syllable in Table 3.1. The first, which may seem to be quite obvious, is that only syllables containing an initial can have a post-consonantal glide. The other observation is that creaky voice can occur with every initial except the aspirated or voiceless fricative initials /p, t, c, k, f, s, h/ and the approximant /sh/. Table 3.1

The Zaiwa syllable canonical form and all Zaiwa phonemes:

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(

C ( G1 ) (P)

T

V

)

(

G2 / N / K

)

( ) indicates optionality. --------------------------------------------------------------

(C)

is an optional initial.

/f/, /sh/ and /r/ are loan phonemes. consonants which do not co-occur with creaky voice phonation type: (bilabial occlusives: fricatives: approximants:

p

dental

alveolar

velar)

d n

z

g ng h

t (f) (sh)

c

k s

consonants which can: occlusives: nasals: fricative: approximants:

b

m

w

l

(r)

y

( P ) is the optional creaky voice phonation type which is analysed as a feature of the initial. Creaky syllables are marked by a letter v after the initial. ( G1 ) A subset of the phonemes which also occur initially, viz. /y, r/, are used as optional post-consonantal glides, whereby /r/ is a loan phoneme.

y

(r)

PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

23

T

is an obligatory tone. Tone /11/ Tone /55/ Tone /35/ Tone /31/ Two more tones only occur as the result of certain morpho-phonological processes: Tone /54/ Tone /25/

V is an obligatory nucleus. Apart from the vowels, the phonemes /m, n, ng, r/ can also function as a nucleus of a specific type of syllable. The Zaiwa vowels are /i, e, a, o, u, ue/, of which /ue/ is a loan phoneme.

i

e

[ue] a

o

u

( G2 ) is an optional final offglide. final offglides: i u (N) (K)

is an optional final nasal. is an optional final plosive. bilabial

final nasals: final plosives:

m p

dental

n t

velar

ng k

glottal

q

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• Finals Zaiwa has the final plosives /p, t, k, q/, the final nasals /m, n, ng/ and the final offglides /i, u/. All Zaiwa finals, except the glottal stop phoneme /q/ and the two final offglides /i/ and /u/, can also occur initially. • General remarks about Zaiwa tones and creaky voice Zaiwa has a phonological distinction between six tones and a separate phonological distinction between creaky voice phonation and clear phonation. Creaky voice phonation acts as the marked member of a primitive opposition, as will be argued in Section 3.12. These two distinctions between tones and phonation types are independent, since, apart from tone /35/, all Zaiwa tones can co-occur both with creaky voice phonation and clear phonation. The Sections 3.10 to 3.12 will discuss the Zaiwa tones and creaky voice phonation. However, some remarks about both phenomena have to be made at this point. A first remark is that not only phonetically but also phonologically, Zaiwa tones are a feature of the nucleus, since in the marginal group of collapsed syllables without a nucleus, which will be discussed further below within this section, there is no tone, e.g. /k-mvyo55/ [kʰmjo̱55] ‘how much/many?’. Tones are indicated by numerals from 1 to 5 in superscript after every syllable. Numeral 1 indicates the lowest and 5 the highest pitch. A combination of two numerals indicates a level, rising or falling tone contour. It would also be possible to make use of autosegmental terminology and to place tones and creaky voice on separate tonal and phonation tiers. However, this would not result in a clearer analysis or increase the utility of the phonological analysis. Although creaky voice, like the tones, is phonetically most clearly manifest in the vowel, it can be simply shown that phonologically it is a feature of the initials, as will be discussed in Section 3.12. Creaky voice is indicated by adding a letter v after the initial, e.g. /bvyeq1/ [pj ɛʔ̪ ˺11] ‘freckles’ with creaky voice phonation vs. /byeq1/ [pjɛʔ˺11] ‘attached to the ground’ with clear phonation. Syllable types and restrictions on the occurrence of tones and vowels There are two main types of Zaiwa syllables, viz. the short syllables and the non-short syllables. The marginal type of syllabic consonants

PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

25

can both be short or non-short. This is diagrammed in Table 3.2 below. Table 3.2 Zaiwa syllable types I Short syllables 1. Reduced syllables 2. Checked syllables, ending in /p, t, k, q/ II Non-short syllables 1. Regular open syllables 2. Syllables ending in vowel offglides /i, u/ 3. Nasal syllables, ending in /m, n, ng/ III The marginal type of syllabic consonants can both be short or non-short. Short syllable are not only shorter but also have a reduced range of tones compared to the other syllables, viz. only /11/ or /55/. Short syllables are either checked syllables, i.e. ending in /p, t, k, q/, or reduced syllables, which are non-final syllables in polysyllabic forms. I use different ways of phonological tone notation to indicate either a reduced range or a full range of tones. I transcribe the tones of all short syllables, having the reduced range of tones, with single numerals in superscript. The tones of the non-short syllables, having the full range of tones, I transcribe with double numerals. The following examples illustrate the reduced range of tones from the viewpoint of the underlying neutralisation of tones, which Section 3.10 on the Zaiwa tones will discuss in further detail. The final syllables of the following two words are short syllables and belong to the subtype of the checked syllables. They constitute a minimal pair. Each one has a tone that falls within the reduced range of tones, as is indicated with single numerals in superscript. tone /11/ tone /55/

/le1gok1/ [l̪ә11 ̌ kɔʔk˺11] 5 /gok / [kɔʔk˺55]

‘stone’ ‘large box’

The final syllables of the following two words have a tone that falls within the full range of tones, as is indicated with double numerals in superscript. Both initial syllables are short syllables, belonging to the

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subtype of the reduced syllables. They constitute a minimal pair. Each one has a tone that falls within the reduced range of tones. tone /11/ tone /55/

/i1zvyam11/ /i5nu11/

[ʔǐ11cçɐ̱ m11] [ʔǐ55 n̪u11]

‘water’ ‘a mother’

• Collapsed syllables Section 3.3 will discuss the reduced syllables in full detail. One remark here is that a special type of reduced syllables, viz. the collapsed syllables, have no tone, despite Table 3.1 showing that a Zaiwa syllable always contains a nucleus and a tone. Initial syllables of polysyllabic forms with aspirated initial consonants may become collapsed syllables and so lose their tone-bearing vowel in allegro speech, e.g. /p-zyang35/ [pʰcçɐŋ35] ‘kind of fruit bearing tree’ (no Chinese translation), /t-zen35/ [tʰtsɘ >n̪35] ‘scissors’ and /t-kyun55/ [tʰkʰjun̪55] ‘bamboo water container’. Whereas the initial syllables of forms like these lack nucleus and tone, lento speech realisations occur with a staccato vowel, cf. lento /ke5mvyo55/ [kʰɘ55 ̌ mjo̱55] ‘how 55 55 much/many?’ vs. allegro /k-mvyo / [kʰmjo̱ ] ‘how much/many?’. These examples also illustrate that phonetically, collapsed syllables form initial consonant clusters. • Syllabic consonants The phonemes /m, n, ng, r/ can phonologically act as vowel nuclei. These syllabic consonants are marginal phenomena within Zaiwa phonology, forming part of only grammatical function words, interjections, apparent loans, or onomatopoeia, as Section 3.9 will discuss in more detail. The following forms may serve as illustration of the Zaiwa syllabic consonants. /m1m55/ /m1mo31/ /ng1gam11/

[m̌11 m:55] [m̌11 mo 52] [ŋ̌11 k ɐ m11]

/ng5nga31/ /r11/

[ŋ̌55 ŋɐ52] [ʐ11]

‘no’ ‘agreed! (giving in)’ ‘slope, abyss’ (probably a loan from Jingpo) onomatopoeia imitating whining a morpheme glossed ‘also’, both used as an adverb and as a clause marker

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27

• Glottal hiatus and syllables without initials In syllables which start with a vowel, the opposition between creaky voice phonation and clear voice phonation is neutralised, since creaky voice is a feature of the initial. Most syllables which start with a vowel are realised with glottal hiatus. In Zaiwa, glottal hiatus is the pre-vocalic glottal closure followed by abrupt stiff voice onset which is audible in most syllables which start with a vowel. Stiff voice is the phonation type between modal and creaky voice (Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996: 48-9, 55-6). Glottal hiatus occurs word-initially, e.g. /u55/ [ʔu55] ‘egg’ and word-internally, e.g. /zyang31gvon11um31/ [cçɐ ŋ31 k ɔ̱n 11 ̪ ʔum52] ‘termite nest’, /sun11au11/ [sun̪11ʔɐu11] ‘pan for vegetables’, /ze1au31/ [tsɘ11 ̌ ʔɐu52] ‘aunt’. Zaiwa also has a few markers or suffixes without an initial which are not realised with glottal hiatus, since these are directly linked to the preceding form. Such is the case with the singular imperative clause marker , as illustrated by the following examples. • no hiatus between an open syllable and the singular imperative clause marker /-aq5/: /Nang31lo35aq5./ (2SG go(back/up)-SIM) [n̪ɐŋ31 lo35ɐʔ˺55] ‘Go (sg.).’ Two adjacent identical vowels of which the second belongs to the singular imperative clause marker /-aq5/, are pronounced as one prolonged vowel, e.g. /Nang31 gva55aq5./ (2SG write-SIM) [n̪ɐ ŋ31 k ɐ̱:ʔ˺55] ‘Write (sg.).’ • no hiatus between a form ending in a nasal and the singular imperative clause marker /-aq5/: /Nang31 lo35 ngvap5 gvun55aq5./ (2SG go(back/up) read.aloud play-SIM) [n̪ɐ ŋ31 l̪o 35 ŋɐ̱ʔp˺55 ku̱55n̪ɐʔ˺55] ‘Go back and read aloud (sg.).’ There neither is glottal hiatus at the start of the exclamatory suffix /-ei31/, e.g. after /goi35/ ‘alas’ in /goi35ei31/ [kɔi35e52] ‘alas!’, an expression mostly used in songs. Also compare the form /oi55ei31ang35/ [ʔɔi55je52jɐŋ35], i.e. an untranslatable part of songs, like lalala but with more emotion. Here the exclamatory suffix /ei31/ is also produced without hiatus, after the exclamatory prefix /oi55/. The untranslatable suffix in this form is also produced without hiatus. The latter suffix seems only to be used for the metre of songs.

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• Vowel length Vowel length is not phonologically distinctive in Zaiwa. Nevertheless, there are four types of vowel length to be distinguished, which are phonetic correlates of certain tones or certain syllable types. 1. The reduced and checked syllable types are produced rather shortly. 2. The realisation of the tones /54/ and /25/ regularly involves vowel length as one of their phonetic correlates. 3. The realisation of syllabic nasals, as long as they are not unstressed, can be even longer. These kinds of syllabic nasals are used in exclamatory interjections like the following, which both have initial syllables that are short, e.g. /m1m31/ [m̌11 m:52] (expressing malicious pleasure) and /m1m35/ [m̌11 m:35] (expressing surprise). 4. All other non-short syllables, with tones other than /54/ and /25/, have normal vowel length. • Stress From a phonological point of view, stressing a syllable is nothing other than changing the tone of the syllable to tone /55/, often accompanied by weakening of the tone of a second syllable to tone /11/, e.g. when calling Le5-dvu11 instead of Le1-dvu31 ‘fourth brother’. Section 7.1 describes the stressing of words as a morpho-phonological process. Besides this, there are other morpho-phonological processes that also change a tone into tone /55/, as will be discussed in the Sections 7.3 and 7.4. 3.3

REDUCED SYLLABLES AND SYLLABLE REDUCTION

In reduced syllables, the occurrence of tones as well as vowels is bound to certain specific restrictions. Reduced syllables are mostly unstressed, but they can also be stressed by the morpho-phonological process of stress, to be discussed in Section 7.1. In most cases, reduced syllables are the initial syllables of polysyllabic words, e.g. the nominalising prefix in the indicative continuous clause marking unit /a1-si31/ [ʔɐ11 ̌ ʃi52] (NOM-still+I). In some forms, however, two or even three syllables are all reduced syllables, i.e. all except the

PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

29

last syllable. This is the case for some clause-final markers, like the two following, that are the result of contractions of several different morphemes, including the two morphemes in the previous example. 1. The second syllable /si1-/ in the following form is the result of syllable reduction, in the plural indicative continuous clause marking unit a1-si1-gvo31 [ʔɐ11 ̌ ʃĭ11ko̱52] (nom-still-PL+I), i.e. the combination of the nominalising prefix , the reduced allomorph of the continuous clause marker ‘still’ and the non-short syllable allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL), which is marked by the indicative mood marker . 2. Both the second and third syllables of the following form are the result of syllable reduction, in the further contraction of the above combination together with the suggestive suffix kai31, in a1-si1-gve5-kai31 [ʔɐ11 ̌ ʃĭ11kǝ55 ̱̌ kʰɐi52] (nom-still-PL-SUG+I). There are two exceptional forms where the reduced syllables are preceded by a non-short syllable, viz. the onomatopoeic gong11gve5rvang55 [kɔŋ11 kɘ55 ̱̌ ʐɐ̱ ŋ55] ‘husking machine’ and dik1ge1di11 11 11 11 [t̪iʔ˺ kɘ̌ t̪i ] ‘innumerable’. There are four types of reduced syllables, two of which are marginal. The marginal type of collapsed syllables has already been discussed in the previous section, e.g. /t-zen35/ [t̪ʰ tsɘ >n̪35] ‘scissors’. The other marginal type of reduced syllables is formed by the short syllabic nasals, e.g. /m1mo31/ [m̌11 mo 52] ‘agreed! (giving in)’. The two regular types of reduced syllables, which I shall discuss here, are open syllables. 1) The first type of reduced syllables is without an initial and can have only one of three vowels /i, a, u/, as illustrated by the following examples. /i5se55/ [ʔĭ55sɘ55] ‘like this’ 1 35 /a zeng / [ʔɐ11 ̌ tsɘ ŋ35] ‘thing, things, stuff’ 1 31 11 52 /u sam / [ʔǔ sɐm ] ‘hair of the head’ 2) The second type of reduced syllables contain an initial and as a vowel mostly either /e/ or /i/. In reduced syllables containing an initial, the most common vowel is /e/, e.g. /Le1gam35/ [l̪ǝ11 ̌ kɐ m35] ‘eldest

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brother’ and /Me1gvai55/ [mɘ11 ̌ k ɐ̱i55] ‘eldest sister’, and second is the 1 55 vowel /i/, e.g. /mi hang / [mĭ11 x ɐŋ55] ‘wedding’. Two marginal types of reduced syllables, containing a vowel /a/ or /u/, are cases of vowel harmony, when the reduced syllables are attached to non-short syllables containing one of the latter vowels, e.g. /za1 au31/ [ts ɐ55 ̌ ɐu31] ‘aunt’ and the village name /Hu5yup5/ [xu55 ̌ juʔp˺55]. • Syllable reduction The morpho-phonological process of syllable reduction underlies a large part of the Zaiwa reduced syllables. Syllable reduction is the reduction of the phonological shape of an original non-short or checked syllable to the shape of a reduced syllable. There are two types of Zaiwa reduced syllables, viz. one with initial and one without. Reduced syllables without initial that are known to be the result of the morpho-phonological process of syllable reduction are: • • •

the ‘water’ prefix , derived from ‘water, urine’, the prefix ‘go(away/down)’, derived from ‘go(away/down)’, and the ‘head’-prefix , apparrently derived from ‘head, top’.

The reduced syllables derived by the morpho-phonological process of syllable reduction always get either tone /11/ or /55/. An underlying tone /35/ becomes tone /11/, and an underlying tone /31/, depending on which of its allotones is normally used, either turns into tone /11/ or tone /55/. The deciding factor in these tone changes is the point of departure of the contours. A low-level [1] departure, like in tone /11/ [1-1], as well as a middle-level [3] departure, like in tone /35/ [3-5] or the regular allotone [3-1] of tone /31/, both lead to tone /11/ in the reduced syllables. A high-level [5] departure, like in tone /55/ [5-5] and in the sharp allotone [5-2] of tone /31/, both lead to tone /55/ in the reduced syllables. These regularities are illustrated by the following examples.

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31

underlying tone /11/ remains the same: /no11/ [n̯o 11] ‘cow’ vs. the ‘cattle’-prefix /ne1-/ e.g. ne1-nau35 [n̪ə11 ̌ n̪ɐu35] ‘cow’s milk’, 11 11 /um / [um ] ‘head, end’ vs. the ‘head’-prefix /u1-/ e.g. u1-lvum11 [ʔŭ55l̪u̱m11] (head-lump) ‘head’, /nuq1/ [n̪uq1] ‘bean’ vs. the ‘bean’-prefix /ne1-/ e.g. ne1-bup5 [n̪ɘ11 ̌ puʔp˺55] (bean-bad/fermented) ‘fermented soy beans’, /muq1/ [muq1] ‘headgear’ vs. /me1-/ e.g. me1-gvyup5 [mɘ11 ̌ kju̱ʔp˺55] (headgear-wear.on.head) ‘cap, hat’ underlying tone /55/ remains the same: the plural clause marker /gvo55/ [ko̱55] vs. /gve5-/ e.g. the plural volitional clause marking unit /gve5-raq5/ [k ɘ55 ̱̌ ʐɐʔ˺55], /lva55/ [l̪ɐ55 ̱ ] ‘moon’ (bound form) vs. /lve5-/ 5 e.g. lve -kui11-zo11 [l̪ә55 ̱̌ kʰui11 tso11] (moon-dog-eat) ‘eclipse of the moon’, /sek5/ ‘tree’ [sɘʔk˺5] vs. the ‘tree/wood’-prefix /se5-/, e.g. se5-poq5 [sə55 ̌ pʰɔʔ˺55] (tree-leaf) ‘tea’, 5 5 /poq / [pʰo ʔ˺ ] ‘leaf’ vs. the ‘leaf’-prefix /pe5-/ e.g. pe5-mung11 [pʰə̌55 muŋ11] (leaf-no.gloss) ‘leek’ underlying tone /35/ turns into tone /11/: the emphatic morpheme /wa35/ [wɐ35] vs. /we1-/ [wɘ11 ̌ ] e.g. we1-dvi31 [wɘ11 ̌ t ̪i52 ̱ ] (EMP-CX+I), before the coaxing suffix dvi31 underlying regular allotone [3-1] of tone /31/ turns into tone /11/: /mi31/ [mi31] ‘earth’ (bound form) vs. /mi1-/ e.g. mi1-gung31 [mĭ11 kuŋ52] (earth-body) ‘earth, ground’, /gue31/ [k ɘ>31] ‘male’ vs. /ge1-/ e.g. ge1-mang11 [k ə̌11 mɐŋ11] (male-elder.brother) ‘brothers’, underlying sharp allotone [5-2] of tone /31/ turns into tone /55/: /nvo31/ [n̪o 52 ̱ ] ‘nose’ vs. /nve5/ e.g. nve5-syoi55 [nə55 ̱̌ ʃɔi55] (nose-(S)nose.lock) ‘nose-lock (for livestock), the singular nominaliser /su31/ [su52] vs. /se5-/ e.g. se5-bvue55 [sə̌55pɘ >55] (SNO-PLN) ‘others’

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Many of the prefixes which are the result of syllable reduction are formative prefixes. These formative prefixes are mostly used as noun class prefixes, but in some cases are also used before verbs. For example, the cattle-prefix , derived from ‘cattle’, is used in many nouns, e.g. ne1-nau35 ‘cow’s milk’ and ne1-ki11 ‘cow dung’. In at least two cases, the latter formative prefix is also used in verbs, viz. in the verbs ne1-ho31 (cattle-look.for) ‘seek cattle’ and ne1-boi35 (cattle-ignore.someone) ‘ignore a specific piece of cattle’. Two cases have been attested of prefixes that are derived from verbs by syllable reduction and which form part of complex verbs, viz. in ze1-nvau31 ‘want/like to eat’, with the reduced variant of ‘eat’, and the verb gi1-nvau31 ‘want/like to hear’, with the reduced variant of ‘hear, smell’. The second syllable of both verbs is the verb ‘feel like’. Not all reduced syllables can be shown to be the result of syllable reduction, since in many cases it is not known what the underlying unreduced form may be, if there is one, e.g. the prohibitive prefix [kʰɘ̌55]/[xɘ̌55] in ke5-gvut5 ‘Don’t do it’, and the ‘buttocks’-prefix in ci5-nau35 (buttocks-milk/breast) ‘buttocks’ and in ci5-bvyang11 (buttocks-jolt/winnow) (in buses etc.) ‘buttock-jolting’. 3.4

INITIALS

Given below is an overview of the Zaiwa initials. Initial /b/ is a voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive [p]. Initial /p/ is a voiceless aspirated bilabial plosive [pʰ]. Initial /f/ is a voiceless labiodental central fricative [f] and is a rarely used phoneme for loans from Chinese. Initial /m/ is a voiced bilabial nasal [m]. Initial /d/ is a voiceless unaspirated denti-alveolar plosive [t̪]. Initial /t/ is a voiceless aspirated denti-alveolar plosive [t̪ʰ]. Initial /n/ is a voiced dental nasal [n̪]. Initial /l/ is a voiced laminal dental lateral approximant [l̪]. Initial /z/ is a voiceless unaspirated alveolar affricate [ts], except before /y/ or /i/ where it is a voiceless unaspirated prepalatal affricate

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33

[cç], e.g. /zo11/ [tso11] ‘eat’, /zyo11/ [cço11] ‘just, right’, /zi11/ [cçi11] ‘ride’. Initial /c/ is a voiceless aspirated alveolar affricate [tsʰ], except before /y/ or /i/ where it is a voiceless aspirated prepalatal affricate [cçʰ], e.g. /cu11/ [tsʰu11] ‘vinegar’, /cyu11/ [cçʰu11]‘warm source’, /ci11/ [cçʰi11] ‘wash’. Initial /s/ is a voiceless grooved alveolar fricative [s], except before /y/ or /i/ where it is a voiceless post-alveolar fricative [ʃ], e.g. /so11/ [so11] ‘walk’, /syo31/ [ʃo 52] ‘meat’, /si31/ [ʃi52] ‘die’. Initial /sh/ is a voiceless post-alveolar fricative [ʃ] and is only used before /e/ in recent loans from Chinese, e.g.: /dyen11she11/ [t̪jɛn11 ʃɘ11] ‘television’, 35 31 11 31 /Mang she / [mɐ ŋ ʃɘ ] ‘Mangshi’ (toponym) Initial /g/ is a voiceless unaspirated velar plosive [k]. Initial /k/ is a voiceless aspirated velar plosive [kʰ]. Initial /h/ is a voiceless velar fricative [x], except before /y/ or /i/ where it is a voiceless palatal fricative [ç], e.g.: /he31/ [xɘ52] ‘start’, /hye55/ [çe55] ‘that (same height)’, /hi55/ [çi55] ‘this’. Initial /ng/ is a voiced velar nasal [ŋ], except before /y/ or /i/ where it is a voiced palatal nasal [ɲ], e.g.: /ngvu31/ [ŋu̱52] ‘say’, 31 /ngyang / [ɲjɐŋ31] ‘straight’, /ngvi31/ [ɲi31] ‘be there (animate)’. Initial /w/ is a voiced labial-velar approximant [w]. Initial /r/ is a voiced retroflex (apico-postalveolar) fricative [ʐ] and is mainly used in loans from Jingpo. Initial /y/ is a voiced palatal approximant [j].

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Table 3.3 Illustration of the opposition between the Zaiwa initials: with vowel /a/ Ø /b/ /p/ (/f/) /m/ /d/ /t/ /n/ /l/ /z/ /c/ /s/ (/sh/) /g/ /k/ /h/ /ng/ /w/ /r/ /y/

with vowel /o/

/a11-/ negative prefix /o11/ ‘exchanged labour’ 11 /ba / ‘scattering’ (idiophone) /bo11lung31/ ‘ball’ /pa11seng55/‘wrap-around skirt’ /po11/ nominaliser /ma11/ ‘greedy’ /da11/ ‘(infants) walking’ /zi11ta11/ ‘chat’ /na11/ ‘crazy’ /la11/ ‘unknown’ /za11/ ‘only’ /cam31/ ‘hair’ /sa11/ ‘be stale’

/mo35/ augmentative suff. /do11/ ‘go on all fours’ /to31/ ‘speak ceremonial language’ /no11/ ‘cow, buffalo’ /lo11/ ‘tiger’ /zo11/ ‘eat’ /cu11/ ‘vinegar’ /so11/ ‘walk, leave’

/ga11/ ‘perceive’ /ka31/ ‘where’ /ha11/ ‘remorse’ /nga35/ ‘my’ /wa11/ ‘bamboo’ /ra11/ ‘need’ /ya11/ ‘medicine’

/le1go11/ ‘well’ (adv.) /ko11/ ‘bitter’ /ho11/ ‘search for’ /ngo11/ ‘fit into’ /wo31/ ‘to rain’ /ro11ro11/ ‘(sand) loose’ /yo11/ ‘ache’

• Non-aspirated/aspirated phoneme pairs An opposition between non-aspiration and aspiration exists between /b, d, z, g/ and their counterparts /p, t, c, k/. /b/ ~ /p/: /bam11/ [pɐm11] ‘dull-witted’ vs. /pam11/ [pʰɐm11] ‘stomach’ /d/ ~ /t/: /dong11/ [t̪ɔ ŋ11] ‘hole’ vs. /tong11/ [t̪ʰɔ ŋ11] ‘make holes’ /z/ ~ /c/: /zvau11/ [tsɐ̱u11] ‘officer’ vs. /cau11/ [tsʰɐu11] ‘old, rejected’ /g/ ~ /k/: /gau11/ [k ɐu11] ‘nine’ vs. /kau11/ [kʰɐu11] ‘steal’ • Nasals Zaiwa has three initial nasal phonemes: /m, n, ng/. The same nasals also occur in final position, as will be elaborated in Section 3.7.

PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

initial /m/ ~ /n/ ~ /ng/: /moq1/ vs. /noq1/ vs. [mɔʔ˺11] [n̪ɔʔ˺11] ‘dream’ ‘black’

/ngoq1gam31/ [ŋɔʔ˺11 k ɐm31] ‘banana tree’

/mai11/ vs. [mɐi11] ablative suffix

/ngai11/ [ŋɐi11] ‘give birth’

/nai11/ vs. [n̪ɐi11] ‘knead’

35

Compare the following forms with initial nasals in combination with the post-consonantal glide /y/. The dental nasal /n/, like the other dentals, only seldom combines with the post-consonantal glide /y/, viz. in the two particular forms shown below. The velar nasal /ng/ has a special allophone [ɲ] before /y/ or /i/. /m/: /n/:

/ng/:

/myet1/ [mjɛʔ t̪˺11] ‘sticky’ 5 /nvyet / [n̪iɛ̪̪ʔ t̪˺55] ‘peep’ (onomatopoeia imitating the sound of badly greased wheels etc.) /nvyep5/ [n̪iɛ̪ʔp˺55] ‘pinch (steal)’ /ngvyeq1/ [ɲɛ̪ʔ11] ‘(little children) defecate’

• The loan phonemes /f, sh, r/ Initial /f/ is realised as a voiceless labiodental central fricative [f]. Phoneme /f/ only occurs in loans from Chinese, but when different variants of one loanword exist, the phoneme /f/ is used alongside the regular Zaiwa phoneme /p/. For example, two variants of the Zaiwa word for ‘cent’, a loan from Chinese 分 fēn are /fun55/ and /pun55/. Different speakers of Zaiwa can produce three different variants of the word for 豆腐 dòufǔ ‘bean curd’, according to diverging levels of their knowledge of Chinese, viz. /du11pu31/ [t̪u11pʰu52], /do11pu31/ [t̪o11pʰu52] and /do11fu31/ [t̪o 11 fu52]. On the other hand, there are other loan words that only occur with /f/, e.g. the quantifier noun for letters /fung55/, from Chinese 封 fēng. Initial /sh/ is a voiceless post-alveolar fricative [ʃ], and is only used before /e/ in recent loans from Chinese, e.g. /dyen11she11/ [t̪jɛn 11ʃɘ11] ‘television’ (电视 diànshì) and /Mang35she31/ [mɐŋ11ʃɘ31] ‘Mangshi’ (name of a town, 芒市 Mángshì).

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Zaiwa phoneme /r/ is a voiced retroflex (i.e. apico-postalveolar) fricative [ʐ]. This phoneme /r/ seems to be mainly used for loans from Jingpo. Two-thirds of the Zaiwa forms with /r/ can also be found in the Jingpo-Chinese dictionary of Xu et al. (1983). Most of these loan words with /r/ seem to be quite recent borrowings from Jingpo, because of close appearance both in realisation and meaning. For example, compare the Zaiwa word /ra35/ ‘(floor, haircut etc.) even, complete’ with the Jingpo form ra [ʒa33] with the same meanings. As another example, compare the Zaiwa word /ram35/ ‘enough, will do’ with the Jingpo word ram [ʒam33] with about the same meaning. Section 7.8 will discuss the morpho-phonological alternations between /r/, /l/ and other consonant phonemes. • Mergers of /k/ and /h/, and of /c/ and /s/ Within Section 3.4 above it was shown that in Zaiwa several loans from Chinese with an original /f/ can be produced with either /p/ or /f/, depending on personal speaking habits. A similar but more radical process occurs for the phonemes /k/ and /c/, which merge with /h/ and /s/ respectively. In all these cases, the use of an aspirated phoneme alternates with that of a homorganic fricative, but significantly this merger is a one-way process which is not commutative. In the Zaiwa language of probably the whole of Ruili district, there is a merger of the phonemes /k/ [kʰ] and /h/ [x], and in the same way of /c/ [tsʰ] and /s/ [s], in the sense that forms which originally are realised with the aspirated initials /k/ and /c/ can also be produced with /h/ and /s/ respectively, whereas forms which are originally produced with /h/ and /s/ can not be produced with /k/ and /c/ respectively. For example, the Zaiwa word for ‘old, rejected’ can both be /cau11/ [tsʰɐu11] and /sau11/ [sɐu11], whereas the word /sau11/ [sɐu11] ‘sheep’ can not occur as */cau11/ *[tsʰɐu11]. The Zaiwa quantifier noun for members of a pair (eyes, shoes etc.) can both be /kon55/ [kʰɔn̪55] and /hon55/ [xɔn̪55], whereas the word /hon55/ [xɔn̪55] ‘hair top’ can not occur as */kon55/ [kʰɔn̪55]. The merger of /k/ and /h/ seems not to have taken place with forms containing the post-consonantal glide /y/ or the vowel /i/. For example, */hyup5/ does not exist and is not accepted as a variant of /kyup5/ [kʰjuʔp˺55] ‘sew’. Similarly, the form /hi31/ [çi52] can only express ‘this’ (free form) and can not be used as a variant of /ki31/ [kʰi52] ‘foot, leg’.

PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

37

In Loilung and probably the whole of Ruili district, each Zaiwa speaker merges these phonemes seemingly at random, and the distinction between the members of these pairs of phonemes seems to be lost. My principal informant was most aware of these two alternations, but in many cases he was unable to decide whether a particular form should be pronounced with [kʰ] or [x], or with [tsʰ] or [s] respectively. Forms about which my informant was unable to decide are considered to originally have had /k, c/, whereas forms where my principal informant found alternative pronunciations to be impossible are considered to originally have had /h/ or /s/. This treatment turns out to be correct in that the consequent analyses match their equivalents in the work of Burling (1967), Yabu (1982) and Xu & Xu (1984), who did not observe or record these two mergers in the dialects they studied. To illustrate this, Zaiwa forms which Burling (1967) used for his reconstruction, together with his reconstructed Proto-Lolo-Burmese or Proto-Burmese forms, are compared below with the Zaiwa forms found in Loilung. Forms between brackets are variants that are seldom used in Loilung, whereas forms marked with a question mark are those which have been rejected by the informant, but which have been claimed to be correct forms on other occasions or with other informants. The forms marked with an asterisk are ungrammatical. Note that Burling (1967) has analysed a separate palatal initial phoneme */ch/ instead of the prepalatal affricate allomorph [cç] of the alveolar /z/ before /y/ or /i/. In the case of the words /ho31/ ‘look for’ and /ko31/ ‘track’ (N), we have two morphemes that appear to have originally been one morpheme *. The latter could originally have been used both as a noun and as a verb, whereas in the language of today /ho31/ can only be a verb, and /ko31/ a noun. Similar cases may exist.

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Table 3.4 Comparison between Burling’s forms and Loilung forms Burling’s Proto-Lolo-Burmese or Proto-Burmese (his notation)

Burling’s Zaiwa (his notation)

Zaiwa of Loilung

merger between /k/ and /h/: 1) /kho2/ (P-L-B and P-B) /myìkhàu/ ‘smoke’ (noun) 2) /khwei2/ (P-B) ‘dog’ 3) --

/khùi/ --

/mi1kau55/ or /mi1hau55/ ‘smoke’ (n.) /kui11/ or /hui11/ ‘dog’ /a1kui31/ or /a1hui31/ ‘now’

no merger between /k/ and /h/: a. before post-consonantal glide /y/: 4) /khya1b/ (P-B) /khyó/ ‘road’ (classifier) b. originally with /h/, not with /k/: 5) /ha1b/ (P-L-B) /hô/ ‘search’-1 6) /hei3/ (P-B) /hī/ ‘in front’

/kyo31/, */hyo31/ ‘road’ /ho31/, not */ko31/ ‘seek, gather’ /he55/, not */ke55/ ‘in front’

merger between /c/ and /s/: 7) /tsham1b/ (P-B) /tshám/ ‘hair’ 8) /tshat/ (P-B) /tshat/ ‘deer (sambhur)’ 9) /tshaʔ1/ /tshoʔ/ ‘join’

(/u1cam31/), /u1sam31/ ‘hair of the head’ ?/cat5/, /sat5/ ‘deer’ ?/coq5/, /soq5/ ‘connect’

PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

39

also merger between the sequences /cy/ and /sy/: 10) 11)

/chaŋ2/ (P-B) ‘follow’ (/thlei2/?) (P-B) ‘wash’

/cháŋ/ /chî/

/cyang55/, /syang55/ ‘follow’ /ci11/ or /si11/ ‘wash’

no merger between /c/ and /s/, originally with /s/, not with /c/: 12) 13)

3.5

/swei2/ (P-L-B) ‘blood’ (/slit/?) (P-B) ‘eight’

/sùi/ /[sit/

/sui11/, not */cui11/ ‘blood’ */cit5/, /sit5/ ‘eight’

ZAIWA POST-CONSONANTAL GLIDES

• The post-consonantal glide /y/ The phonemic distinctiveness of the post-consonantal glide /y/ can be illustrated by the following minimal pairs. Ø ~ /y/:

/gvo31/

[ko̱52]

‘(cloth etc.) shuffle, (water from hands etc.) shake’ vs. /gvyo31/ [kjo̱52] ‘cooking tripod’, /pang31/ [pʰɐ ŋ52] ‘dodge, flee’ vs. /pyang31/ [pʰjɐ ŋ52] ‘direction’

The phoneme /y/ causes two special allophones of the vowel /e/, viz. [e] in open syllables, and [ɛ] in all checked and nasal syllables, e.g. /ye31/ [je31] ‘go’ and /yveng31/ [jɛ̪ŋ52] ‘cicada’. Also compare the following examples with /y/ as a post-consonantal glide: /be55/ [p ɘ55] exclusive exhortative clause marker vs. /bye31/ [pje52] ‘be a match for, master’ /beng35/ [pɘ ŋ35] ‘guest’ vs. /byeng35/ [pjɛŋ35] ‘fix’

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The post-consonantal glide /y/ does not occur before the front vowel /i/, and if it were to occur it would be neutralised. However, there is an allophonic rule that the latter vowel /i/ [ji ~ i] has a palatal onset when used without initial in checked or nasal syllables. For my orthography, I choose to write a /y/ whenever this [ji] allomorph of the vowel /i/ is used. This is illustrated by the following examples, which are divided into a left row and a right row. In the left row are all checked or nasal syllables with /i/ with an initial /y/ written for orthographical reasons. The right row is a selection of open syllables with the vowel /i/ and without an initial. Here, the regular [i] allomorph of the vowel /i/ is used, with the non-phonemic glottal hiatus [ʔ-] which naturally occurs when vowels are not preceded by initials. checked or nasal open: /yin35/ [jin̪35] (part of person names) /i11/ [ʔi11] ‘water, urine’ 11 35 11 35 /Yo yin / [jo jin̪ ] ‘Lisu’ /i55/ [ʔi55] ‘two’ 31 31 /yin / [jin̪ ] ‘lower arm/leg’ /i31pue11/ [ʔi52pʰɘ>11] ‘liquor’ /yit1/ [jiʔt̪˺11] ‘toothed saw’ /i1tong11/ [ʔĭ11 t̪ʰɔ ŋ11] ‘paddy’ 35 31 35 31 /yin yu / [jin̪ ju ] ‘English language’ /i5wa11/ [ʔĭ55wɐ11] ‘a father’ /lu11yin55zi55/ [l̪u11jin̪55cçi55] ‘tape recorder’ • The Zaiwa dental initials and the post-consonantal glide /y/ In all types of syllables except the reduced syllables, the post-consonantal glide /y/ regularly occurs when a dental initial /d, t, n, l/ is used together with the vowel /e/, as illustrated by the examples listed below. In open syllables with all dental initials except the aspirated /t/, however, the post-consonantal glide /y/ itself is not heard as a palatal onglide [j] as is the case elsewhere, although the vowel /e/ does have the allophone [e] regularly occurring after /y/ in open syllables. This is also illustrated by the following forms. regular open /dye31/ [t̪e31] ‘very’ /tye31/ [t̪ʰje52] ‘to block’ /nye31/ [n̪e31] ‘red’ /lye35/ [l̪e35] ‘come’

checked or nasal /dyem11/ [t̪jɛ m11] ‘make photographs’ /tyen11/ [t̪ʰjɛn̪11] ‘wrecked’ /nyep5/ [n̪jɛ˕ʔp˺55] ‘pinch (steal) /lyeng11/ [l̪jɛ˕ŋ11] ‘wheel’

PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

41

The two forms shown below are the only forms containing the dental initials and the vowel /e/, but without post-consonantal glide /y/ in between. /dek5syoi11/ [t̪ɘ ʔk˺55ʃɔi11] ‘ups-a-daisy’, ‘here we go’4 55 55 /deng / [t̪ɘŋ ] onomatopoeia imitating the tuning of guitars Between the dental initials and vowel nuclei other than /e/, the post-consonantal glide /y/ only occurs in the following forms. /dvyo31/ [t̪j o̱52] /lvyo31/ [l̪jo̱52] 1 31 /gyet tyu / [kjɛʔ t̪˺11t̪ʰju52] /a1lyu35/ /lyoq1/

‘all right?’ ‘all right?’5 onomatopoeia imitating the sound of trains 11 35 [ʔɐ̆ l̪ju: ] exclamation of intense surprise [l̪jɔʔ˺11] (to small children, inviting to be carried)

• Post-consonantal glide /r/ The loan phoneme /r/, apart from occurring initially, can also be used as a post-consonantal glide. Only two forms have been attested with this post-consonantal glide /r/. One is the onomatopoeic /gvrom31/ [k ʐɔ̱m52], which has a variant /gve1rom31/ [kɘ̱̌11ʐɔm52]. This onomatopoeia imitates the sound of breaking wood, bones, etc. The second is a loan from Jingpo, viz. /krak5/ [kʰʐɐʔk˺55] ‘(perfectly) suitable’, cf. Jingpo hkrak ‘suitable, exactly, directly, concrete’ in Xu et al. (1983: 249). This word has an alternative form /kyak5/ [kʰjɐʔk˺55]. It seems that the post-consonantal glide /r/ in underlying Jingpo forms is regularly changed into a post-consonantal glide /y/ in regular Zaiwa forms. In this respect, two other apparant loans from Jingpo need to be mentioned. The word /gyai11/ [kj ɐi11] ‘good’ appears to be a loan from Jingpo, cf. grai [k ʒai31] ‘good’ (Xu et al. 1983: 200). The

4 This form appears to be a loan from Jingpo, cf. the aspirated htekshoi [thek 55ʃɔi31] with the same meaning, in Xu et al. (1983:309). 5 Most of these Zaiwa forms with a dental initial /d/ or /l/ and a vowel nucleus other than /e/, and containing a post-consonantal glide /y/, belong to the set of pairs of forms, mostly suffixes, of which one is with /d/ and the other with /l/. One of these is the attitude marking unit dvyo31/lvyo31 [t̪ j o̱52]/[l̪ j o 52] (DOM+I) ‘all right?’.

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word /gyai35/ [kjɐi35] ‘very, damned (well etc.)’ seems to be derived from /gyai11/ ‘good’ and is mainly used in Longchuan district. 1

Gyai35 heng11 lye31-o55. (ipf) rather long also+I–HIGH - It’s a very long story, I tell you! -

3.6

VOWEL NUCLEI AND FINAL OFFGLIDES

Zaiwa has six vowe phonemes /i, e, a, o, u, ue/. Compare: /hi55/ [çi55] ‘this’ 31 /he / [xɘ52] ‘start’ /ha55/ [xɐ55] ‘(mouth) open wide’ /ho31/ [xo 52] ‘seek, gather’ 55 55 /hu / [xu ] ‘that (above)’ /hue11/ [xɘ>11] ‘dirt’ The phoneme /i/ is normally realised as a close front unrounded vowel [i]. In a special group of forms, this vowel /i/ has a palatal onset in a special realisation [ji], which is used without initial in checked or nasal syllables. For my orthography, I choose to write a /y/ whenever this [ji] realisation of the vowel /i/ is used. Shown below are all Zaiwa forms so far attested where the initial /y/ is written for orthographical reasons whereas in fact there is no initial. These forms have also been shown above in Section 3.5. /yin35/ /Yo11yin35/ /yin31/ /yit1/ /yin35yu31/ /lu11yin55zi55/

[jin̪35] [jo11jin̪35] [jin̪31] [jiʔ t̪˺11] [jin̪35ju31] [l̪u11jin̪55cçi55]

(part of person names) ‘Lisu’ ‘lower arm/leg’ ‘toothed saw’ ‘English language’ ‘tape recorder’

The phoneme /u/ in combination with the final offglide /i/ is realised as [ɥe], whereas /u/ is realised as a close back rounded vowel [u] in the other environments.

PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

43

The vowel nucleus /a/ is realised as an open central vowel [ɐ] in all environments. • The vowel /e/ The allophones of the vowel phoneme /e/ are: Before the final offglide /i/ in the diphthong /ei/, or after /y/ in open syllables, the vowel /e/ is realised as a close-mid front unrounded vowel [e]. The diphthong /ei/ is used in only a few words, viz. /ei11/ [ʔei11] ‘right!’ and the exclamatory suffix /-ei31/ [e52] in /oi55ei31ang35/ [ʔɔi55je52jɐŋ35], i.e. an untranslatable part of songs, like lalala but with more emotionality. Also after /y/, but in checked or nasal syllables, the vowel /e/ is realised as an open-mid front unrounded vowel [ɛ]. Compare the three following syllables which are open, checked and nasal respectively. /kye31/ [kʰje52] ‘hush, soothe’

/kyet1/ [kʰjɛʔ t̪˺11] (matches) scratch’

/kyeng55/ [kʰjɛŋ55] ‘yellow’

The regular allophone of /e/ is a close-mid central unrounded vowel [ɘ], which is used in the remaining forms, e.g. /heng11heng11/ [xɘ ŋ11 xɘ ŋ11] ‘scarlet’, with one promise. In reduced syllables with dental initials, the vowel /e/ is in fact realised in a slightly different way, viz. as a central vowel [ә]. This is illustrated by the first of the two following forms. In the second form, the same vowel /e/ is also used in a reduced syllable but not after a dental initial. with dental initial: with bilabial initial:

/ne1nau35/ [n̪ə11 ̌ n̪ɐu35] 1 31 /me non / [mɘ11 ̌ n̪ɔ n̪31]

‘cow’s milk’ ‘envious’

• The vowel /o/ In syllables without initials, the vowel nucleus /o/ is realised as either [o] or as [ɔ], i.e. as a close-mid rounded back vowel [o] in open syllables, or as a open-mid rounded back vowel [ɔ] in checked or nasal syllables, cf. /o31/ [ʔo52] ‘select’ vs. /ong55/ [ʔɔŋ55] (war, trade) ‘win’. Apart from the close-mid rounded back vowel allomorph [o] in open syllables, however, in syllables containing an initial there is a tendency for the phoneme /o/ to be pronounced in a diphthong-like

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manner, as [ᵘɐ], e.g. /no11/ [n̪o11]/[n̪ᵘɐ11] (walking) ‘take a break’ and /noq1/ [n̪ɔʔ˺11]/[n̪ᵘɐʔ˺11] ‘black’. This gives the impression that /o/ may in fact be the result of a combination of two different phonemes. This impression is somewhat confirmed by the fact that the Zaiwa reduced syllables can contain all single vowels except /o/ and the loan phoneme /ue/. The fact that the reduced syllables also never have post-consonantal glides or finals indicates that these two latter vowel phonemes /o/ and /ue/ either are loan phonemes or could in some way be analysed as diphthongs. Also note that the Zaiwa diphthong /oi/ only occurs in loans, viz. /bvoi31/ [p ɔ̱i52] ‘festival’ cf. Jingpo poi [po̱i55] ‘festival’ (Xu et al. 1983: 665). There are no checked syllables without initials that contain /o/, whereas all nasal syllables containing /o/ without initials are loans from Jingpo, e.g. /a1 on11/ [ʔɐ11ʔɔn̪11] ‘queasy’ cf. Jingpo on-on [on 31 on 31] ‘queasy’ (Xu et al. 1983: 656). • The vowel /ue/ The vowel phoneme /ue/ is realised as a backed close-mid unrounded central vowel [ɘ>]. The phoneme /ue/ does not occur after the palatal phoneme /y/, except in /cyueng31/ ‘weigh’, which is a direct loan from Chinese 秤 chèng ‘balance, steelyard’ (N), ‘weigh’ (V). The vowel phoneme /ue/ in the Zaiwa language of today seems to be phonologised under pressure of loans from Jingpo, consisting of checked or nasal syllables. In an earlier stage of the Zaiwa language, a single vowel nucleus */e/ must have sufficed for open, checked and nasal syllables. At that time, a vowel like a schwa or the close-mid unrounded central vowel [ɘ], which is now the regular allophone of /e/, and a vowel like the backed close-mid unrounded central vowel [ɘ>] which is now the regular realisation of /ue/, might both have just been allophones of an older Zaiwa phoneme */e/, whereby the schwa or close-mid unrounded central vowel [ɘ] was used in checked or nasal syllables and possibly also in reduced syllables, whereas its backed variant [ɘ>] was used in open regular syllables. Then, by analogy with a group of borrowed checked or nasal syllables with a vowel like the backed [ɘ>], the regular open syllables in the language of today needed to be interpreted as containing the phoneme /ue/ [ɘ>]. This hypothesis largely explains the use of the vowel phoneme /ue/ as set out below.

PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

45

1. Of the minimal pairs illustrating the opposition between the vowels /e/ and /ue/ in open syllables, the forms of the vowel /e/ will always be a somewhat reduced variant of some other form. Either these forms are reduced prefixes, as a result of the morpho-phonological process of syllable reduction, or they are reduced variants of grammatical morphemes of which the vowel nucleus has been brought back to /e/ [ɘ] by the morpho-phonological process of vowel reduction, which I shall discuss in detail in Section 7.5. /e/ ~ /ue/: /se5/ [sɘ55 ̌ ] timber prefix vs. /sue55/ [sɘ>55] ‘bamboo as a building material’ /ge11/ [k ɘ11] general topic marker vs. /gue11/ [k ɘ>11] ‘can, may’6 be55/ [p ɘ55] exclusive exhortative clause marker vs. /bue31/ [p ɘ>52] perfect indicative clause marking unit 2. Most of the syllables containing the combination /ue/ are open syllables, but checked or nasal syllables with /ue/ also exist with the initials /z, s, r/, nearly all of which can be shown to be loans from Jingpo. Compare the following minimal pairs, illustrating the opposition between the vowels /e/ and /ue/. /e/ ~ /ue/: /zvet5/ [tsɘ̱ʔ t˺55] ‘squirt’ vs. /zuet1/ [tsɘ >ʔ t˺11] (sleep) ‘light’, cf. Jingpo zet [tset 31] ‘diligent (i.e. getting up and starting work early etc.)’ (Xu et al. 1983: 908) /seng11/ [sɘ ŋ11] ‘liver’ vs. /sueng55/ [sɘ>ŋ55] ‘little shop, store or inn’ cf. Jingpo seng [seŋ 33] ‘little shop, store or inn’ (Xu et al. 1983: 724) /ren35/ [ʐɘŋ35] ‘(livestock) grow well’ vs. /rueng35/ [ʐɘ>ŋ35] (things) ‘good’ cf. Jingpo reng [ʒen̪33] ‘delicate, effective, valuable’ (Xu et al. 1983: 688)

6 This form in fact is a combination of the verb ‘all right’ and the imperfective marker , and is used as the positive adverb, as Section 16.49 will discuss.

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3. Five other forms have been attested with the vowel /ue/ in checked or nasal syllables, with initials other than /z, s, r/. These forms are not loans and are rather special, not only because they are curious idiophones and interjections, but also because they show that in checked or nasal syllables with these four initials, the vowels /e/ and /ue/ are in fact complementarily distributed. • With initial /m/ in checked or nasal syllables, the only form with the vowel /ue/ ends in /t/, viz. the interjection /mvuet5/ [mɘ̱>ʔ t̪˺55] (expressing anger), whereas the various checked or nasal syllables with initial /m/ and with the vowel /e/ only end in either /k/ or /ng/, e.g. /mvek5/ [mɘ̱ʔk˺55] ‘shortly hold in fire’ and /meng11/ [mɘŋ11] ‘world, large area’. • With initial /b/ in checked or nasal syllables, the only form with the vowel /ue/ ends in /p/, viz. /bvuep5/ [p ɘ̱>ʔp˺55] ‘display’, whereas the various checked or nasal syllables with initial /b/ and with the vowel /e/ only end in either /k/ or /ng/, e.g. /bvek5/ [pɘ̱ʔk˺55] ‘kick’ and /beng35/ [pɘŋ35] ‘guest’. • With initial /w/ in checked or nasal syllables, the only form with the vowel /ue/ ends in /k/, viz. /wuek1/ [wɘ>ʔk˺11] ‘(buffaloes) turning horns around each other’, whereas the various checked or nasal syllables with initial /w/ and with the vowel /e/ only end in /ng/, e.g. /weng11/ [wɘŋ11] ‘soup’. • Except for one case, checked or nasal syllables with initial /n/ always have the post-consonantal glide /y/, as elaborated in Section 3.5. There is only one particular case of a nasal syllable with initial /n/ without the post-consonantal glide /y/, which contains the vowel /ue/, viz. /nueng31nueng31/ [n̪ɘ >ŋ52 n̪ɘ>ŋ52] i.e. the idiophone expressing the fierceness of forces of nature. • With initial /ng/ in checked or nasal syllables, there is only one checked or nasal syllable with the vowel /ue/, viz. /ngvuen11/ [ŋɘ̱>n̪11] ‘fetch from above’, whereas there are no other checked or nasal syllables with the vowel /e/, apart from those which also contain the post-consonantal glide /y/, e.g. /ngvyeq1/ [ɲɛ̪ʔ˺11] ‘(little children) defecate’. From the above can be seen that the Zaiwa vowel phoneme /ue/ could be phonologised under pressure of certain loans from Jingpo. In a similar way, the Dutch vowel phoneme /ɛ:/ is the result of loans

PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

47

from French, after which in some indigenous words an original short /ɛ/ was replaced by this new loan phoneme /ɛ:/. For example, the vowel of the indigenous word blèren /blɛ:ren/ [blɛ:rәn] ‘to whine’ had become long in analogy with French loans like serre /sɛ:re/ ‘(for plants) conservatory, glazed veranda’, from French serre. In Zaiwa, however, the loan phoneme /ue/ is much more numerous than the loan phoneme /ɛ:/ in Dutch. • The Zaiwa diphthongs The five Zaiwa diphthongs /ui, ei, oi, ai, au/ are formed by adding the final offglides /i,u/ to a limited set of vowel nuclei. /ui/ [ɥe] /ei/ [e] /oi/ [ɔi] /ai/ [ɐi] /au/ [ɐu] Restrictions in the combinations of these phonemes are the following: • No final offglides occur after the loan phoneme /ue/. • Final offglide /u/ only occurs after /a/. • The Zaiwa diphthong /ei/ has until now only been attested in two words, viz. /ei11/ [ʔe11] ‘right!’ and the exclamatory suffix /-ei31/ [e52]. • The Zaiwa diphthong /oi/ is only used in loans, viz. /bvoi31/ [pɔ̱i52] ‘festival’ cf. Jingpo poi [po̱i55] ‘festival’ (Xu et al. 1983: 665). The village name /Loi11lung35/ appears to be a loan from Shan, meaning ‘big mountain’, according to Anonymous (1987: 30). • As seems natural, there are no combinations of two identical vowel phonemes within one syllable, of which the first functions as a vowel nucleus and the second as a vowel offglide, e.g. */ii/ or */uu/. All Zaiwa diphthongs except the diphthong /ui/ can occur without an initial, e.g.: /ei11/ [ʔe11] ‘right!’ /oi31/ [ʔɔi52] ‘yes!’ (answering a call) /ai11/ [ʔɐi11] (word replacing coarse language) /au11/ [ʔɐu11] ‘pan’ The post-consonantal glide /y/ does not have influence on the realisation of the diphthongs, as illustrated by the following minimal pairs. I do not have a minimal pair containing the diphthong /ei/, since

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this diphthong is rather marginal and has until now only been attested in two words, viz. /ei11/ [ʔe11] ‘right!’ and the exclamatory suffix /-ei31/ [e52]. /kui11/ [kʰɥe11] ‘dog’ vs. 55 55 /soi / [sɔi ] ‘very hoarse’ vs.

/kyui11/ [kʰjɥe11] ‘bend’ /nve5syoi55/ [nə55 ̱̌ ʃɔi55] ‘(livestock) nose lock’ /zai35/ [ts ɐi35] ‘slow’ vs. /zyai35/ [cçɐi35] ‘give back’ /bau11/ [p ɐu11] ‘carry someone on back’ vs. /byau11/ [pjɐu11] ‘(meat, fish) string’ 3.7

FINAL NASALS AND PLOSIVES

The three Zaiwa nasals, apart from being used initially, can also be found in final position, as illustrated by the following examples. /m/ ~ /n/ ~ /ng/ (final): /dum11/ vs. /dun11/ vs. /dung11/ 11 11 [t̪um ] [t̪un̪ ] [t̪u ŋ11] ‘again’ ‘press, massage’ (quantifier noun for clothes) The four Zaiwa final plosives are: /p/ [ʔp˺], /t/ [ʔ t̪˺], /k/ [ʔk˺] and /q/ [ʔ˺]. The same phonemes, except /q/, also occur initially. When used in final position these plosives are unaspirated and unreleased, whereas the first three are also realised with a simultaneous glottal stop. In final position, the bilabial, dental, or velar components of the finals /p, t, k/ are in fact not pronounced, even though the corresponding articulatory positions are taken by the articulators. The phonemic distinctiveness of the four Zaiwa final plosives can be illustrated by the following forms. /p/ ~ /t/ ~ /k/ ~ /q/: • /zyap1/ [cçɐʔp˺11] ‘mince’ vs. /zyat1/ [cçɐʔ t̪˺11] ‘add’ vs. /zyak1/ [cçɐʔk˺11] ‘machine’ vs. /zyaq1/ [cçɐʔ˺11] ‘very’, • /mup1/ [muʔp˺11] ‘(rice) state of being husked’ vs. /mut1/ [muʔ t̪˺11] ‘blow’ vs. /muk1/ [muʔk˺11] ‘cake, cookies’ vs. /muq1/ [muʔ˺11] ‘tumble down’,

PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS





3.8

49

/pup5/ [pʰuʔp˺55] ‘foliage’ vs. /put5/ [pʰuʔt̪˺55] ‘roast in ashes’ vs. /puk5/ [pʰuʔk˺55] ‘touchy’ vs. /puq5/ [pʰuʔ˺55] ‘turn sth. around’, /tup5/ [t̪ʰup˺55] ‘wrap up’ vs. /tut5/ [t̪ʰuʔt̪˺55] ‘(pan) take off the fire’ vs. /tuk5/ [t̪ʰuʔk˺55] ‘(clothes) fit well to someone’ vs. /tuq5/ [t̪ʰuʔ˺55] ‘prop, support’ COMBINATIONS OF VOWEL NUCLEI AND FINALS: RIMES

Table 3.5 shows all possible combinations of vowel nuclei and finals and whether or not these combinations can occur without an initial. Combinations with post-consonantal glides, creaky voice and tones have been left out of the analysis. Empty spaces indicate non-existence. Brackets indicate that the combinations in question only occur in loanwords or rather marginal words such as idiophones/ onomatopoeia. For example, I have included in Table 3.5 the combination /uek/, i.e. the combination of these phonemes without initial, since Zaiwa has a verb /uek5/ ‘hiccup’(V), which is formed by analogy of the onomatopoeia /ge1uek5/ ‘hiccup’(N), as illustrated by the following examples. 2

Ge1uek5 uek5 r55. hiccup(N) hiccup(V) PE I have the hiccups. / Someone has the hiccups.

3

Ge1uek5 ke5-uek5. hiccup(N) PHB–hiccup(V) Don’t hiccup.

Yabu (1982: 9) made a table similar to Table 3.5, but failed to recognise a few features. First of all, his phonological analysis did not include the Zaiwa vowel /ue/ and the marginal combination /ei/. Although he correctly recognised the combinations /-en/, /-eng/, /-ip/ and /-uk/ as being marginal, he did not include /-em/ and /-im/ into this group of marginal combinations, whereas I have recorded numerous forms containing these two latter combinations, mostly loans and idiophones.

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Table 3.5 The Zaiwa rimes / the syllables looked at from behind finals → - p vowel nuclei ↓

a a-a-

a

e e-

e

ap -ap

t

-at

k

-ak

-e-

i i-i-

i

o o-o-

o

u u-u-

u

ue ue-ue-

ue

q

m

(aq)7 am -aq -am

n

ng

i

-an

ang -ang

ai au -ai -au

(eq)8 -eq (-em) (-en)

-eng

ei

(-ip)

-t

-ik

-iq

(-im)

-in

-ing

-op

-ot

-ok

-oq

-om

-on

(ong) oi -ong -oi

(up) -up

ut -ut

(-uk)

-uq

um -um

-un

ung -ung

(uek) (-uep) (-uet) (-uek) (-ueq)

u

-ui

(-uem) (-uen) (-ueng)

7 The combination /aq/, placed between brackets, is the singular imperative clause marker . The latter clause marker never appears in isolation and causes morphophonological changes to the preceding verb, as will be discussed in Section 7.7. 8 The combination /eq/ either belongs to the agentive-instrumental suffix or to the comitative suffix . These two forms never occur in isolation, and the morphophonological changes caused by these two morphemes on the preceding forms will be discussed in Section 7.6.

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3.9

51

NUCLEI OTHER THAN VOWELS

The phonemes /m, n, ng, r/ can phonologically act as vowel nuclei. Such consonant nuclei are not accompanied by initials, post-consonantal glides or finals, and as such can also be described as syllabic consonants. The opposition between creaky voice phonation and clear phonation is neutralised in this type of syllables, since they lack an initial, and none of these syllabic consonants are produced with creaky voice. Although glottal hiatus seems to be present in the realisation of the syllabic consonants, it is not as prominent, as it is not followed by a vowel. Consequently, in the phonetic transcriptions of the syllabic consonants, glottal hiatus is not represented. The marginal group of short syllabic nasals, functioning as unstressed initial syllables in polysyllabic forms, only form part of interjections, loans, or onomatopoeia. This syllable type has already been discussed in Section 3.2, and was illustrated by the following examples. /m1mo31/ /ng1gam11/ /ng5nga31/

[m̌11 mo52] [ŋ̌11 kɐ m11] [ŋ̌55 ŋɐ52]

‘agreed! (giving in)’ ‘slope, abyss’ (loaned from Jingpo) onomatopoeia imitating whining

Syllabic nasals are also attested in non-short forms. All of these are interjections, however, as illustrated by the following examples. /m1m55/ /m1m35/ /m1m31/

[m̌11 m:55] [m̌11 m:35] [m̌11 m:52]

‘no’ (expressing surprise) (expressing malicious pleasure)

A syllabic loan phonem /r/ is also attested in non-short forms, which are either important grammatical morphemes or, in one case, a loan from Jingpo. /r11/ [ʐ11] /r55/ [ʐ55]

‘also’, a morpheme which is used both as adverb and as clause marker, 1) The object marking suffix, 2) The time-suffix and

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3)

The personal experience clause marker /zeng11r11/ [tsɘŋ11ʐ11] ‘maltreat’, ‘annoy’ (loan from Jingpo), also as: /zeng11r31/ [tsɘŋ11ʐ52], modified by the imperfective marker , e.g. Ngo31 A5-nu11 r55 ze11 ngau11 zeng11r31 r55. 1SG nom–mother OBJ only weep(ipf) annoy(ipf) PE [I realised that] I was only annoying Mum with my crying.

4

The Zaiwa factitive marker is realised as a syllabic nasal /m, n, ng/ in tone /55/ when after the final plosives /p, t, k/, as illustrated by the following examples. This syllabic nasal is homorganic with the preceding plosive, which in turn is changed into a glottal stop /q/. These are matters of morpho-phonology to be discussed in Section 4.3. nasal nucleus /m/: 3SG attach+FCT /yvang11 dvaq5-m55/ 55 55 [jɐ̱ŋ11 t̪ɐ̱ʔ m ] ‘(that which) he/she has attached’ nasal nucleus /n/: 3SG beat+FCT 11 /yvang baq1-n55/ [jɐ̱ŋ11 p ɐʔ11 n̪55] ‘(that which) he/she has beaten’ nasal nucleus /ng/: 3SG weed+FCT /yvang11 kai31soq1-ng55/ 52 11 55 [jɐ̱ ŋ11 kʰɐi sɔʔ ŋ ] ‘(that which) he/she has weeded’ 3.10

TONES

Every Zaiwa syllable has one of six obligatory tones. Phonologically the tones are a feature of the nucleus, since there is no tone in the marginal group of collapsed syllables, discussed in Section 3.2, e.g.

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53

/k-mvyo55/ [kʰ mjo̱55] ‘how much/many?’. Tones are indicated by either one single numeral or a combination of two, from 1 to 5 in superscript after every syllable. Numeral 1 indicates the lowest and 5 the highest pitch, and a combination of two numerals indicates a level, rising, or falling tone contour. The four main Zaiwa tones are as follows. tone /11/ tone /55/ tone /35/

/syung11lvam11/ [ʃuŋ11l̪ɐ̱m11] ‘ivory’ /lvam55/ [l̪ɐ̱m55] ‘pasture’ (vt) /lam35/ [l̪ɐm35] ‘stroll, roam’

Tone /31/ has two allotones: regular allotone [3-1]: /lam31/ [l̪ɐm31] ‘broad’ sharp allotone [5-2]: /lvam31/ [l̪ɐ̱m52] ‘spear, lance’ In our transcription, the two special tones /54/ and /25/ are written with broken underlining. tone /54/ tone /25/

/yvang11 lvam54/ [jɐ̱ ŋ11 l̪ɐ55 ̱̆ ɐ̱m44] ‘let out to pasture by him/her’ 25 31 /lvam yvum seng31/ [l̪ɐ̱: m25 ju̱m52sɘ ŋ52] ‘the owner of the spear’

• The reduced range of tones; neutralisation rules The Zaiwa short syllables, i.e. the checked and reduced syllables, make use of the same limited set of two tones /11/ and /55/, whereas the non-short syllables have the full range of six tones. The tones of the reduced range are transcribed with single numerals in superscript, as shown in the examples below, in contrast to the double numerals of the tones of the full range. The second syllables of the following two words have a tone that falls within the full range of tones, whereas both initial syllables, which constitute a minimal pair, each have a tone that falls within the reduced range of tones. tone /11/ tone /55/

/i1zvyam11/ /i5nu11/

[ʔĭ11cçɐ̱m11] [ʔĭ55 n̪u11]

‘water’ ‘a mother’

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The second syllables of the following two words constitute a minimal pair, and each one has a tone that falls within the reduced range of tones. tone /11/ tone /55/

/le1gok1/ /gok5/

[lə11 ̌ kɔʔk˺11] [kɔʔk˺55]

‘stone’ ‘crest, crate’

The syllabic consonants that function as initial syllables in polysyllabic forms are all produced in an unstressed manner and have the same limited range of tones of either /11/ or /55/. Consequently, these tones are also transcribed with single numerals, as illustrated by the following examples. /m1mo31/ /ng5nga31/

[m̌11 mo52] ‘agreed! (giving in)’ [ŋ̌55 ŋɐ52] onom. imitating the sound of whining

• Neutralisation rule 1 Just as the three-way Burmese tonal distinction is neutralised before a final glottal stop, the distinction between Zaiwa tones /11/, /55/, /35/ and /31/ is neutralised in short syllables, i.e. in checked and reduced syllables. Many reduced syllables are the result of the morphophonological process of syllable reduction. The reduced syllables derived by the morpho-phonological process of syllable reduction always get either tone /11/ or /55/. An underlying tone /35/ becomes tone /11/. Underlying tone /31/, depending on which of its allotones is used, either turns into tone /11/ or tone /55/. These regularities have already been discussed and illustrated in Section 3.3. • Neutralisation rule 2 Neutralisation rule 2 states that, with few exceptions, neither tone /35/ nor the regular allotone [3-1] of tone /31/ ever occur in the following specific types of syllables: 1) 2) 3) 4)

without an initial with a voiceless fricative initial with an aspirated initial with a creaky voice initial

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55

There are three marginal forms that are exceptions to the above rule, since they bear tone /35/ even though they do not have an initial. The first exception is the negative initiative adverb which is a contraction of the negative prefix and the prefix ‘go (away/down)’. This adverb is regularly produced as /a35-/ [ʔɐ35], whereas the allomorph [ʔɐi35] is only used in very slow speech. The second exception is the second syllable of /m1m35/ [m̌11m:35] (expressing surprise). Another possible exception is the first allomorph of the suffix *, which seems to be only used for the metre of songs. • Neutralisation rule 3 Zaiwa tones /35/ and /55/, with rising contour [3-5] and level contour [5-5] respectively, are almost perfectly complementarily distributed, but nevertheless they are not allotones. All Zaiwa suffixes except those that function as a conjunction, do not have tone /35/, and so there are at least three minimal pairs, each consisting of a suffix and a word other than a suffix, viz. the exclusive exhortative clause marker /ba55/ [pɐ55] vs. /ba35zya55/ [pɐ35cçɐ55] ‘bagpipes’, the object marker /lye55/ [l̪e55] vs. the verb /lye35/ [l̪e35] ‘come (away/down)’ and the personal experience clause marker /ra55/ [ʐɐ55] vs. /ra35/ [ʐɐ35] ‘level’(vi). We could moreover argue that the following two forms also constitute a minimal pair, viz. /m1m55/ [m̌11 m:55] ‘no’ vs. /m1m35/ [m̌11 m:35] expressing surprise. Because of these minimal pairs in tones /55/ and /35/, the almost complementary distribution of tones /55/ and /35/ can also be interpreted as contributing to the following neutralisation rule. Neutralisation rule 3 states that except for all non-conjugational suffixes, which never have tone /35/, Zaiwa tones /55/ and /35/ are neutralised, and underlying tone /35/ is realised as tone /55/, in the four types of syllables given above. Tone /35/ occurs in the other phonological environments, as well as in the special group of the conjugational suffixes. • Tone sandhi rule 1 By the first tone sandhi rule of Zaiwa, tone /35/ changes into tone /55/, in the following environments.

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1) After a tone /35/. In the following sentence, the verb /wu35/ ‘look’ is used twice, once as a main verb and once as the probative auxiliary. The tone of the second has changed into /55/ by tone sandhi. 5

O55-yuq1 wu35 who–person look Who has seen it?

wu35 look

bue31? P+I

2) After a tone /25/. For example, the sequence pyu25 bo35 ge11 (white+FCT bloom TOP) ‘the white flower’ contains the variant by sandhi [bo55] instead of the underlying /bo35/ ‘bloom’ (quantifier for flowers). 3) After a reduced syllable in tone /55/. For example, in ke5-wu35 (PHB-look) ‘don’t watch’, the underlying tone /35/ of the same verb /wu35/ ‘look’ in the first example has changed into /55/ by tone sandhi after the prohibitive prefix /ke5-/. Note that the tone sandhi does not occur after a checked syllable in tone /55/, as illustrated by the following example, where tone /35/ of the auxiliary verb /yau35/ ‘finish’ stays unaltered after a checked syllable in tone /55/. 6

Ngo31 ke5-yoq1-bat1 mai11 gvut5 yau35 bue31. 1SG before–ago–week ABL do finish P+I I [had already] finished that job last week.

• The tones /54/ and /25/ The factitive marker subordinates and nominalises nouns, adverbs, verbs and grammatical function words, as I shall describe in detail in the Sections 4.3 to 4.5. The notation symbolises the polyformity of this morpheme, which in fact is basically a floating tone /55/ with a range of additional segmental realisations. Two of the many shapes which this morpheme can take on are the two further Zaiwa tones /54/ and /25/. These two tones are long, like the Mandarin dipping tone or the Burmese breathy tone. In my transcription, the tones /54/ and /25/ are written with broken underlining. The tone contours of the Zaiwa tones /54/ and /25/ can easily be explained. Theoretically, the Zaiwa tones /54/ and /25/ are combinations of tones, i.e. of the tones /31/ and /11/ respectively with the floating tone /55/, which in fact is the basic shape of the factitive

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PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS

marker . This explains both the relative length and the special contours of the tones /54/ and /25/. One more phenomenon underlying the forming of these two tones is the morpho-phonological process of tone switching, which will be discussed in Section 4.2. The morphophonological process of tone switching changes both tones /11/ and /55/ into tone /31/, whereas tone /31/ is changed into tone /11/. The factitive marker as a rule triggers the morpho-phonological process of tone switching on the syllable to which it is attached. The tones /31/ and /11/, which are the result of tone switching of the tones /11/ and /31/ respectively, melt together with the floating tone /55/ of the factitive marker . Then, underlying */31 + 55/ is realised with the contour [55-44] and results in the special tone /54/, and underlying */11 + 55/ is realised with the contour [2-5] and results in the special tone /25/. In scheme: tone /11/ changes into /31/ before tone /55/ changes into /31/ before tone /31/ changes into /11/ before

}

(underlying tones */31 + 55/) → /54/ [55-44] (underlying tones */11 + 55/) → /25/ [2-5]

The two following sentences illustrate the use of the factitive marker as a clause marker on the verbs /zo11/ ‘eat’ and /wui31/ ‘buy’, changing them into /zo54/ and /wui25/ respectively. The factitive marker as a clause marker expresses the notions of factuality and imperfect aspect. 7

Nang31 2SG

ke5-min31 zang11-sun11 ka55-hu55 before–evening rice/food–veg/dish Q–sort ta11?

zo54 eat+FCT GI What dishes did you (SG) have this evening? 8

Nang31

ka55-hu55 a1zeng35 2SG Q–sort thing What things did you (SG) buy?

wui25 buy+FCT

ta11? GI

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3.11

THE ALLOTONES OF TONE /31/

The contour of the regular allotone of Zaiwa tone /31/ is [3-1]. The sharp allotone [5-2] of tone /31/ is realised in a particular set of environments, the first set of which is the same as has been listed above in the context of neutralisation rule 2, i.e. in the following types of syllables: 1) without an initial 2) with a voiceless fricative initial 3) with an aspirated initial 4) with initials with creaky voice The left row of the following examples illustrate that the tone /31/ of forms with the latter types of initials is realised in the sharp allotone [5-2], contrasting to the right row, where the regular allotone [3-1] of that tone is used. /um31/ [ʔum52] ‘gun’ vs. /bum31/ [pum31] /sam31/ [sɐm52] ‘hair of the head’ vs. /zam31/ [ts ɐm31] /ko31/ [kʰo52] ‘track, trace’ vs. /go31/ [ko 31] 31 52 31 /bvo / [po̱ ] ‘embrace’ vs. /bo / [po31]

‘mountain’ ‘bridge’ ‘clums’ ‘contain’

The sharp allotone [5-2] of tone /31/ is moreover used in stressed syllables. The following sentence is uttered in an emphatic way, and here the second person singular pronoun , which is normally pronounced [n̪ɐ ŋ31] with the [3-1] allotone of tone /31/, is pronounced [n̪ɐ ŋ52], with the [5-2] allotone. 9

Nang31!

yvang11-yvang11 2SG in.truth–in.truth Do (SG) it yourself, I say!

gvun31-aq1-o55. do*–SIM–HIGH

Moreover, the sharp allotone [5-2] of tone /31/ is used in three types of specific expressions, as set out below, after syllables in tone /11/ that either are reduced or non-short, i.e. not checked. i. First, in proper names the sharp allotone [5-2] of tone /31/ is realised whenever after a reduced or non-short syllable in tone /11/, as

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59

illustrated by the following examples. Cf. the topographical name [k ɘ11 ̌ l̪ɐ31] ‘India’, where tone /31/ is realised in the regular allotone [3-1]. Le1-gun31 Le1gyon31 Bi1mun31 Zai11wa31

(male-5th-brother) [l̪ə11 ̌ kun̪52] ‘fifth brother’ (name) [l̪ə11 ̌ kjɔ n̪52] (a person name) (name) [pĭ11 mun̪52] (a person name) (Zaiwa) [tsɐi11wɐ52] ‘Zaiwa’

When syllables in tone /31/ are used in fixed expressions of which the first syllable is a checked syllable in tone /11/ instead of a reduced or a non-short syllable, the above regularities do not occur, and the regular allotone [3-1] of tone /31/ is used, as illustrated by the following examples. yuq1-gue31 (man/woman-male) [juʔ˺11kɘ >31] ‘man’ 1 31 wup -zyam (projection-mirror) [wuʔp˺11cçɐ m31] ‘mirror’ ii. Second, the sharp allotone [5-2] of tone /31/ is realised after a reduced or non-short syllable in tone /11/ in words consisting of several morphemes which are used as fixed terms, as illustrated by the following examples. mi1-gung31 (earth-body) ne1-zyung31 (cattle-zebu) ge1la31-si11 (India-fruit) mau11-mi31 (sky-earth) mau11-yam31(sky-cut/edge) and two longer forms: dvat5bung35-dyem11-zue31 [t̪ɐʔ̱ t˺55 puŋ35 t̪jɛm11 tsɘ>52] loq1-seng11-zuen11-zue31 [l̪ɔʔ˺11sɘ ŋ11 tsɘ>n 11 tsɘ >52]

[mĭ11 kuŋ52] ‘earth, ground’ [n̪ə11 ̌ cçuŋ52] ‘zebu’ [kɘ11 ̌ l̪ɐ52ʃi11] ‘passion flower, dahlia’ [mɐu11 mi52] ‘earth’ [mɐu11jɐm52] ‘horizon’ (photographs take.picture-truc) ‘photo-camera’ (hand/arm-nail-cut-truc) ‘nail cutter’

Note that the regular allotone [3-1] of tone /31/ still is being used in the morpheme [k ə11 ̌ l̪ɐ31] ‘India’ when in the word Ge1la31 11 31 ang -nam ‘Indian coriander’, since here it is used as a topographical name in a more or less analytical construction.

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In contrast to the above combinations of several morphemes, there is a special group of polysyllabic words consisting of only one morpheme, of which the first syllable is a reduced syllable in tone /11/ and the second syllable is in tone /31/. In these words, the tone /31/ of the second syllable is normally realised in the regular allotone [3-1], as illustrated by the following examples. The word [kə11 ̌ l̪ɐ31] ‘India’ may again serve as an example here, besides the two following forms. [sɘ11 ̌ pɔi31] [sɘ11 ̌ mɥe31]

(table) ‘table’ (sand) ‘sand’

Whereas tone /31/ of the final syllables in the latter group of words normally is realised in the regular allotone [3-1], the sharp allotone [5-2] nevertheless is realised when before a syllable in tone /55/. Cf. Se1boi31 a1-wo35. [sɘ̌11 pɔi31ʔɐ11 ̆ wo35] ‘We don’t have a table’ 1 31 55 11 52 vs. se boi me [sɘ̌ pɔi mɘ55] ‘on the table’. For unknown reasons, the tone of the second syllable of i1-ram31 (function-adolescent) ‘adolescent’ is realised in its [5-2] allotone, i.e. as [ʔĭ11ʐɐm52]. iii. The third type of forms where the sharp allotone [5-2] of tone /31/ is realised after a tone /11/, are those where syllables in tone /31/ are preceded by non-short grammatical prefixes in tone /11/, in constructions specifying the number or identity of certain entities. As a first example, the sharp allotone [5-2] of tone /31/ is used after the second person relational prefix (2REL), in nung11-lang31 (2REL-husband) ‘your husband’. In constructions of a specifier noun in tone /31/ after a numeral consisting of a non-short syllable in tone /11/, i.e. ‘three’, ‘four’, ‘five’, or ‘nine’, the tone /31/ of the specifier noun is realised in its [5-2] allotone, as illustrated by the following examples. sek5 ngo11-gam31

[sɘʔk˺55 ŋo 11 k ɐm52]

sum11-zan31

[sum11 tsɐn̪52]

(tree five-tree(B)) ‘five trees’ (three-summer/year) ‘three years’

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By contrast, the tone /31/ of the specifier noun is normally realised in its regular [3-1] allotone after the numeral prefix ‘one’, also in tone /11/ but a short syllable, as long as the specifier noun is not creaky, aspirated or voiceless fricative. sek5 le1-gam31 [sɘʔk˺55 l̪ə11 ̌ k ɐm31] (tree one-tree(Sp)) ‘a/one tree’ 1 31 le -zan [l̪ə11 ̌ tsɐn̪31] (one-summer/year) ‘one summer/year’ 1 le -dam31-dam31 [l̪ə11 ̌ t̪ɐm31 t̪ɐm31] (one-time(Sp)-time(Sp)) ‘sometimes’ 1 le -zyum31-mo35 [l̪ə11 ̌ cçum31 mo35] (one-crowd-AUG) ‘a large crowd’ In suffixes in tone /31/ after syllables in tone /11/, whether or not the sharp allotone [5-2] of tone /31/ is used is merely based on phonological reasons, i.e. on tone neutralisation rule 2 discussed at the head of this section. As a further example, tone /31/ of the suffix ‘generation’ is always realised in its regular [3-1] allotone, e.g. a5-wa11 wui31 [ʔɐ55wɐ11 wɥe31] (nom-father generation) ‘fathers’. • Tone sandhi rule 2 By the second Zaiwa tone sandhi rule, the sharp allotone [5-2] of tone /31/ is also realised either after a syllable in tone /35/ or /55/, i.e. directly after the highest point of the contour of a tone /35/ [3-5] or /55/ [5-5]. This is illustrated by the two following examples, both containing the morpheme ‘green/blue’, which in the first example is without sandhi after a tone /11/, whereas its tone undergoes sandhi after a tone /55/ in the second example. mue11-bu11 ngyui31 bvan55 ngyui31

[mɘ>11 pu11 ɲɥe31] [p ɐ̱n 55 ̪ ɲɥe52]

‘green/blue clothes’ ‘green/blue cloth’

Also compare the following village names, containing the morpheme ‘village’, which in the first two examples is without sandhi after the tones /11/ and /31/ respectively, whereas it undergoes sandhi in the last three examples, after the tones /35/ and /55/ respectively.

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without sandhi: Meng11mau11-wa31 Me1ko31-wa31 with sandhi: Loi11lung35-wa31 Man11mau35-wa31 Le1-sam55-wa31

[mɘ ŋ11 mɐu11wɐ31] ‘the old Ruili village’ [mɘ̌11kʰo52wɐ31 ] ‘part of Loilung village’ [l̪ɔi11l̪uŋ35wɐ52] ‘part of Loilung village’ [mɐn 11 mɐu35wɐ52] ‘part of Loilung village’ [l̪ə11 ̌ sɐm55wɐ52] ‘Dai village’

Also compare: Zai11wa31-wa31 [tsɐi11wɐ52wɐ31] ‘Zaiwa village’, where the contrast between the regular allotone [3-1] and the sharp allotone [5-2] of tone /31/ is clearly audible. In the following sentence, tone /31/ of the morpheme ‘make wall’ in the word se5-wam31 is realised in the sharp allotone [5-2] since it comes after a tone /55/, whereas in the second instance of the morpheme ‘make wall’, this time as a verb, tone /31/ is realised in the regular allotone [3-1]. 10

Se5-wam31 wam31 gveq5. tree–(make).wall (make).wall PLIM Make (PL) a wall.

The sharp allotone [5-2] of tone /31/ is also realised whenever syllables in tone /31/ are in fact complex forms marked by tonal morphemes. The tonal morphemes which can result in tone /31/, to be discussed elsewhere, are: • the imperfective marker (vide Section 4.7) • the oblique genitive case marker (vide Section 4.6) • the indicative mood marker (Chapter 5) 3.12

CREAKY VOICE AND OTHER PHONATION TYPES

From a phonetical point of view, there are three phonation types in Zaiwa, viz. modal, creaky and stiff voice. Of these three phonation types in Zaiwa, only creaky voice is phonemic, whereas modal voice is the realisation of clear phonation, and stiff voice occurs in syllables starting with a vowel, where the opposition between creaky voice phonation and clear phonation is neutralised. Stiff voice is the phonation type between modal and creaky voice (Ladefoged &

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Maddieson 1996: 48-9, 55-6). In Zaiwa, stiff voice accompanies glottal hiatus, i.e. the pre-vocalic glottal closure followed by abrupt stiff voice onset, which occurs before most syllables starting with a vowel, vide Section 3.2. In this study, creaky forms are marked by a letter v after the initial. Compare the following minimal pairs: /myang11/ [mj ɐŋ11] ‘horse’ vs. /mvyang11zeng31/ [mj ɐ̱ ŋ11 tsɘ ŋ31] ‘banyan tree’, /myang31/ [mj ɐ ŋ31] ‘see’ vs. /mvyang31/ [mjɐ̱ ŋ52] ‘high’, and /byeq1/ [pjɛʔ˺11] ‘attached to the ground’ vs. /bvyeq1/ [pjɛ̪ʔ˺11] ‘freckles’. Although phonetically creaky voice is most clearly manifest in the vowel, like the tones, it obviously is a feature of the initials, in view of the following phenomena. 1. Creaky voice does not occur with the aspirated initials, i.e. /p, t, c, k/, nor with the voiceless fricative initials, i.e. /s, h/. Neither has creaky voice been attested with the other voiceless fricative initials, i.e. the very rare loan phonemes /f/ and /sh/. 2. The opposition between creaky voice phonation and clear phonation is neutralised in the two types of syllables lacking an initial, i.e. 1) the syllables starting with a vowel and 2) the syllabic consonants. Most syllables which start with a vowel are pronounced with glottal hiatus and stiff voice, whereas all syllabic consonants are realised with modal voice. 3. Historically, creaky voice, and thereby the distinction between creaky voice and zero, is caused by special initial clusters or prefixes, which are lost in the language of today. Contrary to the restrictions on phonation types based on the initials, both creaky voice phonation and clear phonation seem to co-occur freely with all vowels and with or without post-consonantal glides, as well as with all finals.

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• Initial /w/ and creak Initial /w/ is combined with creaky voice in very few forms, viz. only in the three following forms out of the 72 forms attested with this initial. /wvui55/ ‘compare’ /wvue55wvue55/ expressing disapproval /a5-wvoi55/ ‘mother of one’s father’9

cf. /wui35/ ‘equal’ cf. /wue35/ ‘get stuck’

• Diphthong /ui/ and creak Note that all forms containing the post-consonantal glide /y/ before the diphthong /ui/, listed below, have initials that either are creaky voice or aspirated, except when the initial is a palatal consonant. The reason for this is not known yet. These facts indicate the tendency to have palatal initials in the languages of the region. either with creaky voice or an aspirated initial: /cyui11/ [cçʰjɥe11] ‘sweet’ /cyui31/ [cçʰjɥe52] ‘lead’ /cyui55/ [cçʰjɥe55] ‘orphan, widow(er)’ /gvyui31/ [kjɥe52 ̱ ] ‘frame for beanstalks’ 55 55 /gvyui / [kjɥe̱ ] ‘cook sth. for a long time’ /kyui11/ [kʰjɥe11] ‘bend’ /kyui31/ [kʰjɥe52] ‘horn(s), antlers’ /kyui55/ [kʰjɥe55] ‘day, half a day’ 11 11 /mvyui /[mjɥe̱ ] ‘swallow’ /pyui31/ [pʰjɥe52] (kind of bird) /pyui55/ [pʰjɥe55] ‘goose flesh’ neither with creaky voice nor with an aspirated initial: /syui11/ [ʃɥe11] ‘take care of someone’ /zyui11/ [cçɥe11] ‘rinse’ /zyui35/ [cçɥe35] ‘peep’

9 This form is a loan from Jingpo, cf. woi [wo̱ i44 ] with a similar meaning, vide Xu et al. (1983: 879).

CHAPTER FOUR

TONE SWITCHING AND THE FACTITIVE MARKER 4.1

Tone switching in synchronic and diachronic perspective.

Tone switching is a morpho-phonological process which can only occur in non-short syllables and affects all tones except tone /35/ and the marked tones /54/ and /25/. When morphemes are modified by a well-defined set of tonal morphemes, the tones /11/ and /55/ are both switched to tone /31/, whereas tone /31/ is switched to tone /11/. These changes are indicated in Table 4.1. Tone switching in the proper sense always takes place on the final syllables of words. Within bisyllabic words of which the final syllables undergo tone switching, there are some additional processes, involving either raising or lowering of the tones, as the next section will discuss in detail. 4.1.1 Examples The three Zaiwa morphemes that cause tone switching are: 1. in nominal constituents: the agentive/instrumental suffix 2. in nominal constituents: the oblique genitive case marker 3. in verbs: the imperfective marker Table 4.1 Zaiwa tone switching (only in non-short open and nasal syllables) tone /11/ → tone /31/ tone /55/ tone /31/ Tone /35/ remains unchanged.



tone /11/

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The Zaiwa factitive marker , which I gloss as (FCT), is also discussed in this chapter. Both from a morpho-phonological and a functional point of view, the factitive marker is etymologically related both to the oblique genitive case marker and the imperfective marker . The two latter were mentioned above as tonal morphemes causing tone switching. As a result of secondary developments, the Zaiwa factitive marker has incorporated the morpho-phonological process of tone switching into two of its manifold phonological shapes, viz. the special tones /25/ and /54/. To understand this process, two distinct stages or steps must be kept in mind. First, the basic shape of the factitive marker is in fact a floating tone /55/. Second, the tone of the syllable to which the factitive marker is attached as a rule undergoes the morpho-phonological process of tone switching, but the tones /31/ and /11/ which are the result of this coalesce with the floating tone /55/. Therefore, underlying */31 + 55/ result in the special tone /54/ with the contour [55-44], and underlying */11 + 55/ result in the special tone /25/ with the contour [2-5]. In scheme: tone /11/ changes into /31/ before tone /55/ changes into /31/ before tone /31/ changes into /11/ before

(underlying tones */31 + 55/) → /54/ [55-44] (underlying tones */11 + 55/) → /25/ [2-5]

One of my informants, the old dum11sa55 or witch doctor Pau11ki11-gam35, born in No11no35 in Longchuan county but living in Loilung, preserves an older form of the factitive marker , which in Zaiwa of Loilung is now mainly a floating tone /55/. In his speech, there is still proof for tone switching before the factitive marker . Moreover, in his speech the factitive marker is generally realised as a schwa suffix /e/ [ә] triggering tone switching in the preceding non-short syllables. The tone of his schwa suffix is either low /11/ or high /55/, in concordance to the tone level or the end of the tone contour of the previous syllable. For example, whereas my principal informant pronounces the form zo54 (eat+FCT) in the

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following sentence as [tso 55 o44], Pau11ki11-gam35 pronounces it as [tso52ә11]. 1

Nga35-moq1-o55 seng11-u31 zo54. 1PO–party–FCT liver–intestine eat+FCT “You have eaten our (ND.EX) organs and intestines.”

As an example of the use of the factitive marker after a checked syllable, my principal informant pronounces the form toq5-o55 (come.out/sharp-FCT) in the following sentence as [t̪ʰɔʔ55 o55], whereas Pau11ki11-gam35 pronounces it as [t̪ʰɔʔ55ә55]. 2

Saq1 wa11 ha55-me55 toq5-o55. spirit.type the/that–LOC come.out–FCT This was the beginning of the saqwa.

Another elder informant, Pau11zyang11 Ka31dvom55 from Loilung, in some cases also produces the factitive marker as a schwa suffix triggering tone switching, but always in tone /55/, i.e. as /e55/ [ә55], e.g. /din11-e55/ [t̪i n̪11ә55] (run+FCT) ‘run’(FCT) instead of the regular /din25/ [t̪i n̪25] as produced by my principal informant Mo35pi55, as illustrated by sentence (3). Pau11zyang11 Ka31dvom55 in some cases seems to use the different phonological shapes of the factitive marker more freely, since once he produced /ning25/ [n̪i ŋ25] (deep+FCT) ‘deep’(FCT) instead of the regular /nik1-ng55/ [n̪ i̪ʔk11ŋ55], i.e. with tone /25/ instead of a syllabic nasal in tone /55/, as illustrated by sentence (4). 3

Hei55! hoi55 nang31 mvyo55 din31 li11 (you.there!) snail1 2SG much(B) run also a1-wo35 din25. NEG–have run+FCT “Alas snail, no matter how hard you (SG) try, you won’t be able to run.”

4

Ngo31

hye31 zye11 1SG same.elevation exceed i5-hat5 ho11 lo31 (ipf) go–pursue look.for come(back/up)

ning25 zyang11 deep+FCT* place(B) be55 ngvu31 syeq1. EE say+I au.contraire

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He said: “I’ll go and chase him over there [at the same elevation], at the place where it is deepest.” Many Tibeto-Burman languages share a common imperfective or factitive category which is much but not completely like the imperfective in Russian, as expounded by Van Driem (1993). Whereas the indication of factuality or Gegebenheit, the so-called obšče-faktičeskoe značenie, only forms part of the meaning of the Russian imperfective, this forms the central part of the meaning of the Tibeto-Burman imperfective or factitive category. Rutgers (1998: 231-62) defines the Yamphu factitive category in an analogous way. In Limbu, the ending , etymologically a nominalising suffix, can also be used to indicate imperfective aspect (van Driem 1987: 106-17). Dumi , etymologically a copula, is also used as a nominaliser and imperfectiviser, especially in the sense of an obšče-faktičeskoe značenie or factuality (van Driem 1993: 177-190). This Tibeto-Burman imperfective or factitive category is expressed in Zaiwa by two different morphemes, viz. the imperfective marker and the factitive marker . The imperfective marker can roughly be translated as ‘V being the case’. The factitive marker is in many ways similar to the imperfective marker , but expresses a notion of factuality rather than imperfectivity. Especially when used as a clause marker, the factitive marker expresses a notion of factuality, focussing on certain information in the clause such as where and when or exactly to what extent the situation in question takes place. The use of factitive marker as a clause marker thus leaves without question that a given situation takes place at some time. The factitive marker in Zaiwa of Loilung is the result of the merger of two different morphemes. One underlying morpheme is an older genitive marker which also underlies the oblique genitive case marker in modern Zaiwa, which will be discussed in Section 4.6. The other was a suffix with a specifically factitive meaning and with a schwa-like shape triggering tone switching, such as appears to still exist in the Zaiwa of dialects other than that of Loilung. The Zaiwa factitive marker resembles the Lahu nominalising and universal unrestricted particle ve, as described by Matisoff (1982: 360-3, 663). Indeed, the two appear to be etymologically related, since

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Maru and Bola, closely related to Zaiwa, have equivalents which resemble both Lahu ve and the Zaiwa factitive marker . Maru has a clause marker va55 with additional imperfective meaning, and Bola has a clause marker vɛ55, with aspectually neutral meaning, as set out by Dai & Xu in Dai et al. (1991: 298, 348). The two following sections will separately discuss the morphophonology of tone switching and of the factitive marker . 4.2

THE MORPHO-PHONOLOGY OF TONE SWITCHING

Tone switching is a morpho-phonological process which can only occur in non-short syllables, with all tones except tone /35/ and the marked tones /54/ and /25/. When morphemes are modified by a well-defined set of tonal morphemes, the tones /11/ and /55/ of morphemes consisting of non-short syllables are both switched to tone /31/, and tone /31/ is switched to tone /11/. These changes have already been indicated in Table 4.1 given in the previous section. Tones that are the result of tone switching are orthographically represented in my transcription by double underlining of the tone numerals. In bisyllabic words, tone switching in the proper sense always takes place on the final syllables, whereas some additional processes may also take place in the tones of the initial syllables, involving raising of the tones, and in one marginal case also lowering. These additional processes only occur in derivational or lexical constructions, and mark the lexical unity between the constituent syllables. Different additional processes occur according to the type of the initial syllable, viz. whether it is a reduced syllable or a non-short syllable. In bisyllabic words consisting of non-short syllables with the tone pattern /11-31/ that are marked by tone switching, the tone of the initial syllable is raised either to tone /55/ or to tone /35/, according to the type of initial. The tone of the initial syllable changes into tone /55/ when there is no initial, or when the initial is creaky, aspirated, or a voiceless fricative. The tone of the initial syllable changes into tone /35/ with the other initials. These changes are illustrated by the following examples of bisyllabic words marked by the imperfective marker .

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/tyen11 nvau31/ (wrecked easy) ‘easily wrecked’, e.g. (5), becomes /tyen55-nvau11/ ‘easily wrecked’(ipf), e.g. (6), /reng11 nvau31/ ((plants/animals).grow feel.like) (crops/animals) ‘grow well’ becomes /reng35-nvau11/ ‘grow well’(ipf), e.g. (7), /mau11 yui31/ (sky/rain leak/stream) (roof) ‘leak’ becomes /mau35-yui11/ (roof) ‘leak’(ipf), e.g. (8), /wam11 syun31/ (belly spill.out) ‘have diarrhoea’ becomes /wam35-syun11/ ‘have diarrhoea’(ipf), e.g. (9), /wam11 no31/ (belly pain/ill) (belly) ‘hurt’ becomes /wam35-no11/ (belly) ‘hurt’(ipf), /kyong11 no31/ (throat pain/ill) (throat) ‘hurt’ becomes /kyong55-no11/ (throat) ‘hurt’(ipf), /sin11 ngi31/ (louse be.there.(animate)) ‘have lice’ becomes /sin55-ngi11/ ‘have lice’(ipf), /seng11 pyam31/ (liver palpitate) (heart) ‘throb’ becomes /seng55-pyam11/ (heart) ‘throb’(ipf), /gum11rong31/ ‘conceited’ becomes /gum35rong11/ ‘conceited’(ipf). 5

Lu11yin55zi55 hi31 ge11 a1-dye31 tape.recorder this TOP NEG–too This cassette recorder is quite sturdy.

tyen11 wrecked

nvau31. feel.like

6

Lu11yin55zi55 hi31 ge11 tyen55-nvau11 tape.recorder this TOP wrecked–feel.like(ipf) dik1 bue31. extreme P+I This cassette recorder is rather fragile.

7

Waq1-hup5 hi55-me55 waq1 zvo31 r11 ge11 (ipf) pig–pigsty this–LOC pig feed also TOP reng35-nvau11 dik1 r55. flourish–feel.like(ipf) extreme PE Pigs kept in a pigsty at this location would do very well.

8

Mau35-yui11 r55. (ipf) sky–leak/stream PE The roof is leaking.

TONE SWITCHING AND THE FACTITIVE MARKER

9

71

Nang31

i1-zvyam11 ngam35 ke5-syuq5, 2SG water–water chilly PHB–drink wam35-syun11 lye31. swollen/abdomen–spill(vt)(ipf) also+I Don’t (SG) drink cold water, you’ll get diarrhoea.

These tone changes additional to tone switching, in forms consisting of non-short syllables with the underlying tone pattern /11-31/, often occur in allegro style, whereas they do not occur when the utterances are made in a more thoughtful manner, as is illustrated by the two following pairs of sentences, forming minimal pairs. In sentence (10), spoken in allegro style, the underlying tone /11/ of ‘power’ is raised to /35/ before the verb ‘contain’ which undergoes tone switching, whereas such does not occur in utterance (11), which is spoken in a more thoughtful manner. A similar situation applies where the underlying tone /11/ of ‘give’ either is or is not raised to /35/ before the verb ‘go’, in sentences (12) and (13) respectively. 10

Byu31 hye55-yuq1 wum35-bo11 man/woman same.elevation–person power–contain(ipf) dik1 lye31. extreme also+I That person [at the same elevation] is quite strong.

11

Byu31 hye55-yuq1 wum11 bo11 man/woman same.elevation–person power contain(ipf) 31 1 dik lye . extreme also+I That person [at the same elevation] is quite strong.

12

Zvyum31-hu55 bi35-ye11 lye31. (ipf) present(N)–sort give–go(away/down) also+I I’m on my way to give someone a present.

13

Zvyum31-hu55 bi11 ye11 lye31. (ipf) present(N)–sort give go(away/down) also+I I’m on my way to give someone a present.

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The same tone change additional to tone switching occurs with numerals consisting of non-short syllables in tone /11/ before ‘ten’ or ‘hundred’. When the tone of ‘ten’ or ‘hundred’ switches to /31/, the underlying tones /11/ of these numerals in tone /11/ before them are raised to tone /35/, as illustrated by the following examples. The morpheme that triggers tone switching in these cases is the oblique genitive case marker which I shall discuss in Section 4.6. sum11-sue31 (three-ten) ‘30’ vs. sum35-sue11-ra11 (three(GEN)-ten(GEN)-one) ‘31’, mi11-sue31 (four-ten) ‘40’ vs. mi35-sue11-ra11 (four(GEN)-ten(GEN)-one) ‘41’, and gau11-cue31 (nine-ten) ‘90’ vs. gau35-cue11-ra11 (nine(GEN)-ten(GEN)-one) ‘91’, and gau35-cue11 le1-lvum11 (nine(GEN)-ten(GEN) one-lump) ‘the ninety-first’ Within bisyllabic words consisting of non-short syllables with the tone pattern /55-11/, another type of tone change additional to tone switching may occur, this time involving lowering of the tone. The underlying tone /55/ of the first non-short syllable is lowered to /11/ before an underlying tone /11/ that switches to /31/. Such has only been attested in the word /cyui55-zo11/ (orphan-child) ‘orphan’ when this word undergoes tone switching when marked by the oblique genitive case marker , such as before the dual suffix ‘duo’ in /cyui11-zo31-nvik5/ ‘the two orphans’. Within bisyllabic words with the tone pattern /31-31/ that are marked by tonal morphemes marking tone switching, the tone of the initial syllable remains the same. For example, the initial syllable of the word /lvang31-mui31/ (snake-snake) ‘snake’ remains the same in /lvang31-mui11-eq1/ ‘by a/the snake’, where the final syllable undergoes tone switching after the latter word being marked by the agentive-instrumental suffix . In reduced initial syllables of bisyllabic words, there is one more process additional to tone switching. In words that are marked by

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73

tonal morphemes causing tone switching, the original tone /11/ of the reduced initial syllable will change to /55/, as illustrated by the following examples. This occurs in all cases where the reduced initial syllable is in tone /11/ and the final syllable is in tone /11/ or /31/. No cases are known yet of bisyllabic words undergoing tone switching, where the underlying tone of the final syllable is tone /55/. final syllable originally in tone /11/ switching to /31/: ne1-sue11 [n̪ə11 ̌ sɘ>11] ‘cattle-stick’

vs.

ne5-sue31-eq1 [n̪ə55 ̌ sɘ>52әʔ11] ‘using the cattle-stick’

final syllable originally in tone /31/ switching to /11/: ne1-ho31 [n̪ə11 ̌ xo52] (cattle-look.for) ‘look for cattle’

vs.

ne5-ho11 [n̪ə55 ̌ xo11] (cattle-look.for(ipf)) ‘look for cattle’(ipf)

ze1-nvau31 vs. 11 52 [zə̌ n̪ɐ̱u̱ ] e.g. (14) (eat-feel.like) ‘want/like to eat’

ze5-nvau11 [zə̌55 n̪ɐ̱u11 ̱ ] e.g. (15) (eat-feel.like)(ipf)) ‘want/like to eat’(ipf)

gi1-nvau31 vs. [kĭ11 n̪ɐ̱u52 ̱ ] e.g. (16) (hear-feel.like) ‘want/like to hear’

gi5-nvau11 [kĭ55 n̪ɐ̱u11 ̱ ] e.g. (17) (hear-feel.like)(ipf)) ‘want/like to hear’(ipf)

14

A1-ze1-nvau31 luq1? NEG–eat–feel.like Y/N Do you want to eat it? / Do you like to eat it?

15

Ze5-nvau11 r55 luq1? (ipf) eat–feel.like PE Y/N Do you feel like eating it?

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16

A1-gi1-nvau31 luq1? NEG–hear/smell–feel.like Y/N Do you like/want to hear it?

17

Gi5-nvau11 r55. hear–feel.like(ipf) PE I’d like to hear it.

The latter process does not work in the opposite way. In bisyllabic words undergoing tone switching, the tone /55/ of the initial reduced syllables does not change to /11/. Such is illustrated by the following examples, where tone /55/ of the impressionistic prefix ‘like’ remains the same before the verbs ‘seem’ and ‘perceive’, which are marked by the imperfective marker .

4.3

+ ‘like’ + ‘seem’ se5-ngam31 vs. [sə55 ̌ ŋɐm31] ‘seem to be like’

+ ‘seem’ + ‘like’ + ‘seem’ + imperfective se5-ngam11 [sə55 ̌ ŋɐm11] ‘seem to be like’(ipf)

+ ‘like’ + ‘perceive’ se5-ga11 [sə55 ̌ k ɐ11] ‘feel like’

+ + ‘like’ + ‘perceive’ + imperfective se5-ga31 [sə55 ̌ k ɐ52] ‘feel like’(ipf)

vs.

THE MORPHO-PHONOLOGY OF THE FACTITIVE MARKER

The factitive marker subordinates and nominalises nouns, pronouns, verbs and suffixes, as well as clauses as a whole, and either expresses genitive case or the notion of factuality. The notation symbolises a polyform syllable in tone /55/. Phonologically, the syllabic realisations of the factitive marker are of several types, as will be set out below. The morpho-phonological processes underlying two of the phonological shapes of the factitive marker have already been discussed in Section 4.2. In that section it was shown that, when looking at these tones from a synchronic perspective, the morpho-

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75

phonological process of tone switching underlies the special tones /25/ and /54/. I. After all non-short syllables in tones /11/ or /55/, the factitive marker takes the shape of the special tone /54/, i.e. the original tone /11/ or /55/ of the syllable to which the factitive marker is attached, is changed into tone /54/. Tone /54/ is realised with the special tone contour [55-44], with a characteristic melody consisting of two legato notes [5-5] and [4-4]. Tone /54/, as well as tone /25/, which is another special allomorph of the factitive marker, are slightly longer than the other Zaiwa tones. When syllables with final offglides have this contour [55-44], only the nucleus of the diphthong is reduplicated, whereas the offglide follows the reduplicated vowel nucleus, as illustrated by the first of the following examples. tone /11/ + → with diphthong: cf. /sau11/ vs. [sɐu11] ‘sheep’ with final nasal: cf. /lung35lang11-bang11/ vs. [l̪uŋ35l̪ɐŋ11 p ɐ ŋ11] ‘everybody’

cf.

tone /55/ + → /u55/ vs. [ʔu55] ‘egg’

tone /54/ /sau54 si1-mi11/ [sɐ55ɐu44 ʃĭ11 mi11] ‘the sheep’s tail’ /lung35lang11-bang54 me1du35/ [l̪uŋ35l̪ɐŋ11 p ɐ55ɐ ŋ44 mə11 ̌ t̪u35] ‘the benefit of everybody’ tone /54/ /u54 a1-gvyap5/ [ʔu55u44 ʔɐ11 ̆ kjɐ̱ʔp˺55] ‘the egg’s shell’

II. After all non-short syllables in tone /31/, the factitive marker takes the shape of the special tone /25/, i.e. the original tone /31/ of the syllable to which the factitive marker is attached, is changed into tone /25/. Tone /25/, just like tone /54/ discussed above, is also slightly longer than the other Zaiwa tones.

76 cf.

cf.

CHAPTER FOUR

tone /31/ + → /ki31/ vs. [kʰi52] ‘save’

tone /25/ /yvang11 ki25 zi1syang31/ [jɐ̱ŋ11 kʰi:25 cçĭ11ʃɐŋ52] ‘the child saved by him’,

tone /31/ + → /wam31/ vs. [wɐm31] ‘bear’

tone /25/ /wam25 nvut5/ [wɐ:m25 n̪u̱ʔ t˺55] ‘the mouth of the bear’

The special contour [2-5] of tone /25/ is only slightly different from the contour [3-5] of tone /35/, as illustrated by the phonetic transcriptions of the forms in the two following columns. The first column contains the verb /lo31/ ‘come (back/up)’ (originally in tone /31/) marked by the factitive marker . The right column contains the verb /lo35/ ‘go (back/up)’ in tone /35/, zero-marked by the factitive marker . /kau31 lo25 a1zeng35/ vs. [kʰɐu31 l̪o:25 ʔɐ̆11 tsәŋ35] (steal(ipf) come+FCT thing) ‘things attained by theft’

/kau31 lo35 a1zeng35/ [kʰɐu31 l̪o35 ʔɐ11 ̆ tsәŋ35] (ipf) (steal go+FCT thing) ‘things lost because of theft’

When bisyllabic words consisting of a reduced initial syllable in tone /11/ and a regular open or nasal syllable or syllable with final offglide in tone /31/ are marked by the factitive marker , the tone /11/ of the reduced initial syllable is raised, cf. mi1-um31 (fire-gun) ‘gun’ vs. mi5-um25 syam31-si11 (fire-gun+FCT knife-drug) ‘the bullets of the gun’. Also compare the following sentence, where ze5-nvau25 (eat-feel.like+FCT) is used for ze1-nvau31 (eat-feel.like) ‘want/like to eat’. 18

A1kang31 zyaq1 ze5-nvau25 wa35 a1kui31 just.now rather eat–feel.like+FCT EMP now a1-ze1-nvau31 loq1. NEG–eat–feel.like no.more Although I really wanted to eat it a short while ago, I don’t feel like [eating] it anymore.

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77

III. After syllables in tone /35/, the zero allomorph of the factitive marker is used. cf.

/du35/ [t̪u35] (throw) ‘throw’

vs.

/nang31 du35 bo11lung31/ [n̪ɐ ŋ31 t̪u35 po11l̪uŋ31] (2SG throw+SN ball) ‘the ball thrown by you’

IV. After the final plosives /p, t, k/, the factitive marker takes the shape of a syllabic nasal in tone /55/. This nasal is homorganic with the preceding plosive, which in turn changes into a glottal stop /q/ [ʔ].

cf.

cf.

cf.

final /p/ + → /dvap5/ vs. [t̪ɐʔ̱ p˺55] ‘attach’

/q-m55/ /yvang11 dvaq5 -m55/ [jɐŋ11 t̪ɐ̱ʔ55 m55] ‘(that which) he has attached’

final /t/ + → /bat1/ vs. [p ɐʔ t̪˺11] ‘beat’

/q-n55/ /yvang11 baq1-n55/ [jɐ̱ŋ11 p ɐʔ11 n̪55] ‘(that which) he has beaten’

final /k/ + → /kai31-sok1/ vs. 31 11 [kʰɐi sɔʔk˺ ] ‘weed’

/q-ng55/ /yvang11 kai31-soq1-ng55/ [jɐ̱ŋ11 kʰɐi31sɔʔ11 ŋ55] ‘(that which) he has weeded’

V. After a final glottal stop, the factitive marker takes the shape of an echo vowel in tone /55/.

cf. and

/Vq/ + → /le1-laq5/ vs. 11 55 [l̪ə̌ l̪ɐʔ˺ ] ‘third brother’ /o55-yuq1/ vs. [ʔo 55juʔ˺11] ‘who?’

/Vq-V55/ /le1-laq5-a55 me1du35/ [l̪ə11 ̌ l̪ɐʔ55ɐ55 mə̌11 t̪u35] ‘the benefit of third brother’ /o55-yuq1-u55 / [ʔo 55juʔ11u55] ‘whose?’

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4.4

THE MEANING AND USE OF THE FACTITIVE MARKER

The factitive marker , which I gloss as (FCT), can mark nouns, pronouns, verbs and suffixes, and it can moreover mark the clause as a whole. All these functions will be discussed below. On nouns and pronouns, the factitive marker functions as a genitive marker, indicating the relation between the possessor and the possessed, e.g. marking ‘sheep’ in sau54 si1-mi11 (sheep+FCT flesh-tail) ‘the sheep’s tail’, and marking o55-yuq1 (who-person) in o55-yuq1-u55 (who-person+FCT) ‘whose’. The factitive marker also makes special possessive variants of personal pronouns, e.g. marking the third person singular pronoun in yvang54 (3SG+FCT) ‘his/her’. Using the factitive marker often makes the utterance more specific as to which entities are meant, as becomes clear from the following examples. 19

20

Ne1-lui11-nvo31 gvo31 dik1 cattle–water.buffalo–nose big(ipf) extreme The nose of a water buffalo is very big. Ne1-lui54 nvo31 gvo31 cattle–water.buffalo+FCT nose big(ipf) The nose of the water buffalo is very big. [and not someone else’s nose]

r55. PE

dik1 extreme

r55. PE

The factitive marker is often used for specific reference to features, times etc., as illustrated by the following examples where the factitive marker functions as a nominaliser. The form za54 (only+FCT) in sentence (22) is the combination of the allomorph of the limitative morpheme ‘only’ and the factitive marker and normally refers to prevalent features. 21 Ke5-i55 bo25 ta11? Q–SPEC contain+FCT GI How big? and the response:

TONE SWITCHING AND THE FACTITIVE MARKER

22

79

A1-sen55-zo11 za54. nom–thin–child only+FCT (There are only) tiny ones.

On verbs, the factitive marker functions as a subordinator, a nominaliser or a clause marker, expressing a notion of factuality. The notion of factuality as expressed by the factitive marker in its many versatile applications is tantamount to ‘this is knowable’. The factitive marker focuses on certain information in the clause such as where and when or exactly to what extent the situation in question takes place. Therefore, the use of the factitive marker leaves the actuality of the situation - i.e. that a given situation takes place at some time - without question, and for the same reason it is often used in clauses containing interrogative pronouns. The factitive marker most clearly expresses the notion of factuality when functioning as a clause marker. 23

Dung31-lvai31 zyoq1-o55 mai11 Bueq1gin35 wing–boat be.there(inan)–FCT ABL Beijing lo35 r11 ngai31 dik1 bue31. (ipf) go(back/up) also convenient/easy extreme P+I Now that there are aeroplanes, it has become very easy to go to Beijing.

24

Nang31

i5-wa11 le1-ga54 wa35 2SG function–father but–perceive+FCT EMP zo11 a1-gue11 mvoq5-o55 ge11. (ipf) child NEG–all.right learn/teach–FCT TOP Even though you (SG) are a father, you can’t raise children.

Since factuality as expressed by this morpheme adds a logical argument and a syntactic dimension to a verb, which by itself expresses the perfective or actualised sense of its lexical meaning, the factitive marker can express imperfective aspect, especially when used as a clause marker. Sentence (25) is an example of the factitive marker as a subordinator, modifying a nominal constituent after it. When the nominal constituent is omitted, the factitive marker becomes a nominaliser, which in many cases is also used as a clause marker, as illustrated by sentence (26).

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25

Hi31 ge11 sot1-neq1 rvang54 pyeng55 luq1? this TOP aluminium–AG/I make+FCT plate Y/N Is this dish made of aluminium? / (Lit.:) Is this a dish made of aluminium?

26

Mo35pi31 zvyang55 zo54. (GEN) beggar near eat+FCT I ate that at Beggar’s place.

In clauses containing the factitive marker, the notion of imperfective aspect can be made explicit by using forms that specifically give expression to continuity, such as the verb ‘place’(vt) when the latter is used as the progressive aspectiviser in dvo54 (place(vt)+FCT) or the continuous clause marker ‘still’ in si54 (still+FCT). The use of these two combinations is illustrated by yvang11 yap1 dvo54 zyang11 (3SG stand place(vt)+FCT place(B)) ‘the place where he’s standing’ and yvang11 zo31 a1-si54 zang11 (3SG eat(ipf) nom-still+FCT rice/food) ‘the food he is/was still eating’. The notions of factuality and imperfectivity expressed by the factitive marker contrast with the notion of perfect expressed by the perfect clause marker . The latter clause marker is mostly used in the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I), giving expression to the continuing relevance of some situation at another time. The perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I) refers to situations that either are still relevant or already relevant, whereas the factitive marker refers to situations that occur at other times. The first clause in sentence (28), containing the factitive marker as a clause marker, expresses the fact that the person in question was at home, irrespective of the question whether he still is at home or not. In the given context, he has in fact left again. The first clause of sentence (28) contrasts with the second clause and with sentence (28), both containing the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I) and simply expressing that this person is back. Sentences (28) and (29) are possible answers to sentence (27), where the speaker asks if Mopi or Beggar, my principal informant, had come back the previous night. Rutgers (1998: 238) uses similar examples to illustrate the use of the factitive category in Yamphu, which in many respects is similar

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81

to the factitive marker, since it can both nominalise and express factuality. 27

A1kang31 Mo35pi55 a1-lo31 luq1? just.now beggar NEG–come(back/up) Y/N Has Beggar come back just now?

and the response: 28 Lo25, dum11 lo35 bue31. come(back/up)+FCT again go(back/up) P+I He did come back but then he left again. / He came back but then he left again. or: 29

Lo31 come(back/up) He’s back.

bue31. P+I

Within the same context, another option is to mark the verb ‘come(back/up)’ by the imperfective marker , a distinct category with an essentially different meaning which is discussed elsewhere (vide Section 4.7). In the following sentence, the imperfective marker marks the situation indicated by the given verb as being temporally articulate and almost as a matter of fact, like ‘V being the case’, before the personal experience clause marker (PE), indicating that the speaker has seen the person in question coming back. 30

Lo11 r55 mai31, hye55-pyang31 (ipf) come(back/up) PE OBV+I same.elevation–DIR 11 35 ye lo bue31. go(away/down)(ipf) go(back/up) P+I He came back and he went in that direction [at the same elevation].

82 4.5

CHAPTER FOUR

SPECIAL USES OF TONE /54/

In forms that are marked by the factitive marker, an underlying tone /31/ normally becomes tone /25/, whereas underlying tones /11/ and /55/ become tone /54/, as already discussed in detail in Section 4.3. However, it is important to note that when the factitive marker marks important grammatical morphemes at the end of the clause, it normally takes the shape of tone /54/, even with an underlying tone /31/ which would normally trigger the use of tone /25/. The combination of the partitive suffix (PART)10 with the factitive marker is not realised in tone /25/, as would be expected for a form in tone /31/ marked by the factitive marker, but is only attested as gu54 in tone /54/. Like the factitive marker on its own, the form gu54 (PART+FCT) either is a subordinator, e.g. pyu31 gu54 bu11 ‘white clothes’, or a nominaliser, when the noun after it is omitted, e.g. pyu31 gu54 ‘white ones’. The same form gu54 (PART+FCT) can also be used as a clause marking unit expressing the notion that some feature or situation has been the case but is no longer, as well as some related notions. 31

Lo35 gu54 dum11 dvau31 go(back/up) PART+FCT again turn(ipf) lo11 lye31. (ipf) come(back/up) also+I I’m turning back instead of continuing on.

The combination of the verb ‘say’ with the factitive marker can both have tone /25/ and tone /54/. The variant in tone /25/ would be expected, given the underlying tone /31/ of the verb ‘say’, whereas the variant in tone /54/ is rather marked. I shall gloss the regular form ngvu25 as (say+FCT) and the special form ngvu54 as (say+FCT*). The special form ngvu54 (say+FCT*) is used after nouns, whereas the regular form ngvu25 as (say+FCT) marks whole clauses. The special form ngvu54 (say+FCT*) expresses the special notions ‘the one already mentioned’, e.g. (32), or ‘since things 10 No underlying forms * in tone /11/ or * in tone /55/ are known to exist, which could explain the use of tone /54/ in gu54 (PART+FCT). The only reasonable candidate is the partitive suffix (PART).

TONE SWITCHING AND THE FACTITIVE MARKER

83

are like this’, with a further notion of being sensible, e.g. (33) and (34). 32

Hi31 zi1tung11 Miq1-dvai55-dvu55 ngvu54 hi31 this spirit.type eye2–only–shining say+FCT* this 5 toq lo31 be1-ra31. come.out come(back/up) P–need+I The other zitung we talked about, named the one-eyed, was about to come out.

33

Byu31-eq5 byu31 ngvu54 ge11 man/woman–COM man/woman say+FCT TOP a1-gue11 wu35-syau31 lum11. (ipf) NEG–all.right look–less(ipf) reciprocal People who respect each other should not look down upon each other. / Between people there should be no looking down upon each other.

34

A1mu31 ngvu54 ge11 le1go11 gvut5 matter say+FCT* TOP well do ye11 lo35 ra31 dut1 lye31. (ipf) go(away/down) go(back/up) need+I become also+I Since it is a matter which has to be accomplished, we should get started with it.

The regular variant ngvu25 (say+FCT), in tone /25/, expresses the meaning ‘say’ of the constituent verb in a more or less literal way, referring to uttering specific words or thinking specific thoughts by oneself. 35

Ngo31 yvang11

r55

1SG

OBJ

3SG

yvup5 gvan31-aq1 ngvu25. sleep put.into*–SIM say+FCT

I told him to go to sleep. 36

A1-ngi35-nap1 dai54 ke5-ngi35 mu35 nom–day–morning speak+FCT before–day work(N) zui11 syang55 ngvu25 a1-dvyeng11 loq1. touch/work(V) JUS say+FCT NEG–true no.more

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They said that the work that we (ND.IN) agreed upon yesterday does not apply anymore today. 37

hau31 dai11 ra31 ngvu25 wa35 1SG the/that speak need+I say+FCT EMP yvang55-moq1 dang11 dai31 lum31 (ipf) 3PL–party words speak reciprocal(ipf) 31 11 1 bum a -gvo . (ipf) heap(vt/N) nom–PL+I I had in mind to say it, but they were having a discussion in quite a large group. [So I didn’t say it.] Ngo31

In the following sentence, the form ngvu25 (say+FCT) refers to a clause after it, like in ‘they said: …’ instead of referring to the preceding clause. 38

Gau11-zo11 Le1wui31 ngvu25 nine–child (name) say+FCT dving31 am55-aq5. (ipf) collect.water/flood(vt) PFM–SIM The nine Lewui brothers said: “Flood (SG) us, then.”

4.6

THE OBLIQUE GENITIVE CASE MARKER (GEN)

4.6.1 Introduction

The Zaiwa oblique genitive case marker (GEN) is a tonal morpheme that marks nominal constituents before other nominal constituents by means of the morpho-phonological process of tone switching. The oblique genitive case marker is orthographically represented in my transcription by double underlining of the tone numeral, as in all cases of tone switching.

TONE SWITCHING AND THE FACTITIVE MARKER

Table 4.2

85

Suffixes which normally are used in conjunction with the oblique genitive case marker on the preceding nominal constituents

the dual suffix ‘duo’ the plural suffix ‘group of …’ the suffix ‘the house/home of’ the morpheme ‘near’ as the orientational suffix

The Zaiwa oblique genitive case marker (GEN) is a now defunct genitive marker which has undergone semantic bleaching to the extent that it now is an oblique case. This section sums up the fixed combinations in which it is used. Even though its use is rather formalised, the oblique genitive case marker still has some meaning. In many cases, the oblique genitive case marker indicates that the entity indicated by the nominal constituent after it somehow belongs to the entity indicated by the marked nominal constituent, though not in a regular possessive sense. In other cases, marking by the oblique genitive case marker indicates that the marked form serves as a mere orientation point for the specification of the entity indicated by the nominal constituent after it. Table 4.2 shows all suffixes which are always used in conjunction with the oblique genitive case marker on the preceding nominal constituents. Below, I shall discuss the marking by the oblique genitive case marker before these suffixes, in order to illustrate the meaning of the latter category. After that I shall discuss some other instances of marking by the oblique genitive case marker . Nominal constituents are normally marked by the Zaiwa oblique genitive case marker before the dual suffix ‘duo’. The dual suffix normally refers to two similar entities, e.g. woq1-po31-nvik5 (chicken-male-duo) ‘(the) two cocks’, after the word woq1-po55 (chicken-male) ‘cock’, marked by the oblique genitive case marker . If the context permits, the dual suffix can also refer to a group of two entities including the entity indicated by the marked noun. For example, the noun ‘beggar’, which is

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used as a person name ‘Beggar’, is marked by the oblique genitive case marker in Mo35pi31-nvik5 ‘these two people, including Beggar’. In a similar way, the Zaiwa oblique genitive case marker normally is used before the plural suffix , indicating a number of more than two similar entities denoted by the preceding nouns, e.g. the word ‘soldier’ is marked by the oblique genitive case marker in gye11-bvue55 ‘group of soldiers’ and the word ‘Jingpo’ is also marked by the oblique genitive case marker in Si1dvung31-bvue55 ‘group of Jingpo people’. If the context permits, the plural suffix can also refer to a group of more than two entities including the entity indicated by the marked noun. For example, the name ‘Beggar’ is marked by the oblique genitive case marker in Mo35pi31-bvue55 ‘the group of people including Beggar’. Nominal constituents are unmarked by the oblique genitive case marker before the plural suffix when the latter forms part of the special construction bvue55-ka55 / bvue55-ha55, both glossed (PLN-where(B)). The latter construction, further containing ‘where’(B), expresses the notion ‘in those places’, e.g. bu11-bvue55-ha55 (clothes-PLN-where(B)) ‘on your clothes and everywhere’. Note that nominal constituents are unmarked by the oblique genitive case marker before another number suffix, viz. the manifold marker / ‘etcetera’, e.g. yvum31 a5rvang55 (house etcetera) ‘the house and thereabouts’. Nominal constituents before the manifold marker / ‘etcetera’ are unmarked by the oblique genitive case marker, since this marker merely marks an enumeration, rather than notions like those expressed by the suffixes listed in Table 4.2, i.e. that the entity denoted by the preceding nominal constituent belongs to the entity denoted by the suffix or that entity denoted by the suffix serves as an orientation point for the entity denoted by the preceding nominal constituent. In the following example, the manifold marker / ‘etcetera’ is preceded by the plural suffix within one single noun phrase, combining the meanings of the two.

TONE SWITCHING AND THE FACTITIVE MARKER

39

87

Le1-nong35-bvue55 a5rvang55 i5-syui11 gvoq1. (male)–2nd-brother–PLN etcetera go–take.along DIE Let’s take second brother and those other folks along with us (DU). / (Lit.:) Let’s take the group of second brother as well as the others along with us (DU).

Nominal constituents normally are marked by the Zaiwa oblique genitive case marker before the noun ‘house’ when the latter is used as a suffix denoting ‘the home of …’, e.g. ning11long31 yvum31 (demon(GEN) house) ‘the demon’s home’ and nga35-nvung31 yvum31 (1PO-1ND.IN(GEN) house) ‘our (nd.incl.) house’. In most cases, this suffix is preceded by the plural suffix , marking the notion that the given household comprises other persons as well, e.g. Me1-gvai31-bvue31 yvum31 (GEN) (GEN) ((female)-5th-sister -PLN house) ‘the home of fifth sister and the others’. Nominal constituents are also marked by the oblique genitive case marker before the morpheme ‘near’ when the latter is used as the orientational suffix, referring to the entity indicated by the preceding nominal constituent as a point of orientation, e.g. Le1-dvu11 zvyang55 ((male)-4th-male-sib(GEN) near) ‘(at) fourth brother’s’. Also compare the following example. 40

Mo35 pi31 zvyang55 Zai11wa31-ming35 (GEN) beggar near Zaiwa–language yu31 bue31. take P+I I’ve learned Zaiwa from Beggar.

mvoq5 learn/teach

4.6.2

The oblique genitive case marker marking numerals

The oblique genitive case marker (GEN) marks numerals in numeral compounds, i.e. before specifier nouns and in specific phonological environments, whereas it is defunct in most other environments, as will be set out below.

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• Tone switch /11/ → /31/ Numerals consisting of non-short syllables in tone /11/ are marked by the oblique genitive case marker (GEN) in the construction [main.noun + numeral-specifier.noun], i.e. between main nouns and specifier nouns. It should be noted, however, that the numeral counting units ‘ten’ and ‘hundred’ also serve as specifier nouns and are marked by the oblique genitive case marker in the same way. The numeral ‘five’ is exceptional for not undergoing this tone change. The following examples illustrate that the numerals ‘three’, ‘four’ and ‘nine’11 are marked by the oblique genitive case marker in the construction [main.noun + numeral-specifier.noun]. The morpheme ‘five’ is exceptional for the fact that it does not undergo tone switching because in most cases the original tone /31/ of this morpheme is realised as tone /11/, possibly to avoid homophony with the first person singular pronoun . zyo31syoq5 sum31-long11 (rice.cake three#-slice/plate) ‘three slices of rice cake’ zyo31syoq5 mi31-long11 (rice.cake four#-slice/plate) ‘four slices of rice cake’ zyo31syoq5 gau31-long11 (rice.cake nine#-slice/plate) ‘nine slices of rice cake’ whereas ‘five’ does not undergo tone change, e.g.: zyo31syoq5 ngo11-long11 (rice.cake five-slice/plate) ‘five slices of rice cake’ Also compare: no11 sum31-du11 (cattle three#-being) ‘three pieces of cattle no11 mi31-du11 (cattle four#-being) ‘four pieces of cattle’ no11 gau31-du11 (cattle nine#-being) ‘nine pieces of cattle’ whereas ‘five’ again does not undergo tone change, e.g.: no11 ngo11-du11 (cattle five-being) ‘five pieces of cattle’ 11 This appears not to happen when the main noun is omitted, as in gau11-zo 11 Le1wui31 ‘the nine Lewui brothers’.

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89

The following examples, containing ‘three’, illustrate that marking by the oblique genitive case marker does not occur before other tones. (three-hundred) ‘three-hundred’ (bean three-5pounds) ‘three 5-pound measures of beans’ sau55-hai11 sum11-kon55 (shoe-shoe three-one.of.a.pair) ‘three shoes’ sum11-syo31 nuq1 sum11-bye35

• Tone switch /31/ → /11/ Only in more complex noun phrases, the numeral counting units ‘ten’ and ‘hundred’ are marked by the oblique genitive case marker before any other numeral.12 41

Le1-sue11-le1-king55 zye35 syoq5 mvoq5 gvoq1. (GEN) one–ten –one–time arrive till learn/teach DIE Let’s (DU.IN) have our lesson until eleven o’clock. [me teaching you Zaiwa]

• Tone switch /11/ → /35/ In a tone change which is additional to tone switching, the tone /11/ of a numeral before either ‘ten’ or ‘hundred’ turns into tone /35/, as soon as the tones of the two latter counting units change into /31/ as a result of marking by the oblique genitive case marker , as illustrated by the following examples. sum11-sue31 (three-ten) ‘30’ sum35-sue11-ra11 (three(GEN)-ten(GEN)-one) ‘31’;

vs.

mi11-sue31 (four-ten) ‘40 ’ mi35-sue11-ra11 (four(GEN)-ten(GEN)-one) ‘41’; gau11-cue31 (nine-ten) ‘90’

vs. vs.

12 It is not clear yet whether or not marking by the oblique genitive case marker (GEN ) also occurs with the tones of ‘thousand/ten-cent’ and ‘ten thousand/Yuan’. This apparently does not occur in ngo11-mun11 ngo11-hing55 ‘55000’, but unfortunately the behaviour of the numeral ‘five’ is irregular whereas I do not have other combinations with ‘thousand/ten-cent’ or ‘ten thousand/Yuan’.

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gau35-cue11-ra11 (nine(GEN)-ten(GEN)-one) ‘91’ and gau35-cue11 le1-lvum11 (nine(GEN)-ten(GEN) one-lump) ‘the ninety-first’; sum11-syo31 (three-hundred) ‘300’ vs. sum35-syo11-le1-sue31 (three(GEN)-hundred(GEN) one-ten) ‘310’ In one special type of construction, time nouns are marked by the oblique genitive case marker before the pronoun ‘before’, e.g. (42), and before the versatile morpheme ‘behind’, e.g. (43). In these constructions, the oblique genitive case marker appears to clarify that the notion sum11-zan31 ‘three years’ functions as a point of orientation, since these constructions specifically express the notions ‘in three years’ when before the pronoun ‘before’, or ‘three years ago’ when before the versatile morpheme ‘behind’. When the two latter suffixes are omitted, the notion sum11-zan31 ‘three years’ is referred to as ‘during three years’, e.g. (44). 42

Sum35-zan11 he55-me55 ngo31 (GEN) (GEN) three –summer/year before–LOC 1SG Gunming lo35 ngi11-gvun54. Kunming go(back/up) be.there(anim)(ipf)–play+FCT Three years ago I went to Kunming just for fun.

43

Sum35-zan11 tang31 three(GEN)–summer/year(GEN) behind Gunming lo35 ra31. Kunming go(back/up) need+I I will go to Kunming in three years.

44

4.6.3

Ngo31

sum11-zan31 rvoq5 1SG three–summer/year DEF I have slept for three full years.

me55

ngo31

LOC

1SG

yvup5 sleep

bue31. P+I

Family ties

Marking by the oblique genitive case marker always takes place on names before the morpheme (3SG / in.truth) as the prefixed indicator of family ties, e.g. Mo35pi31 yvang11-pu11

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(beggar(GEN) 3SG-elder.brother) ‘Beggar’s elder brother’. Here, the oblique genitive case marker expresses the same weak genitive meaning as discussed above, since the names marked by the oblique genitive case marker can also be seen as orientation points or further specification, since the family ties of third persons are already being referred to by the morpheme (3SG / in.truth), since the combination of the name and the oblique genitive case marker can also be omitted, e.g. yvang11-pu11 (3SG-elder.brother) ‘his elder brother’. In many instances where the morpheme (3SG / in.truth) is used in this function, the same oblique genitive case marker can be used on this morpheme itself as well. Marking of (3SG / in.truth) by the oblique genitive case marker only occurs when family members of an elder generation are being referred to, such as one’s parents or one’s aunt and uncles, e.g. Mue11bung31 yvang31-wa11 ‘Muebung’s father’ and hau31 yvang31-ze1-au31 ‘his aunt’. Here, marking by the oblique genitive case marker of the morpheme (3SG / in.truth) as the prefixed indicator of family ties expresses a kind of honorific notion. By contrast, when reference is made to relatives of the same or a younger generation, e.g. one’s children, younger siblings or one’s spouse, the form (3SG / in.truth) is unmarked by the oblique genitive case marker , as illustrated by the last three forms of the following row of examples, in contrast to the first three. Mo35pi31 yvang31-nu11 Mo35pi31 yvang31-wa11 Mo35pi31 yvang31-nva55 Mo35pi31 yvang11-pu11 Mo35pi31 yvang11-gu11 Mo35pi31 yvang11-mi11

‘Beggar’s mother’ ‘Beggar’s father’ ‘Beggar’s elder sister’ ‘Beggar’s elder brother’ ‘Beggar’s younger sibling’ ‘Beggar’s wife’

It is not clear fully yet why one’s elder sister is being referred to in the same way as family members of an elder generation, whereas one’s elder brother is referred to in the same way as family members of the same or a younger generation. Probably, one’s elder sister is referred to in this way because elder sisters have more responsibilities for their younger siblings than elder brothers have.

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The other prefixed indicator of family ties besides (3SG / in.truth) is the second person relational prefix (2REL). The latter prefix is never marked by the oblique genitive case marker , e.g. nung11-zo11 (2REL-child) ‘your child’. When reference is made to relations between the addressee and family members which belong to an elder generation, the special second person possessive prefix is regularly used, e.g. nang35 wa11 ‘your father’. The morpheme is a noun expressing ‘native place’ and is also used in compounds, e.g. yvum31-mau11 (house-native.place) ‘home place’ and bum31-mau11 (heap(vt/N)-native.place) ‘hilly home place’. In the following sentence, the morpheme ‘Chinese’ is added as a kind of extra information or extra point of orientation within the construction i5-nvung55 mau11 ‘our home place’, and therefore is marked by the oblique genitive case marker . 45

Yvang55-moq1 mau11 ge11 i5-nvung55 3PL–party native.land TOP SPEC–1ND.IN 11 31 11 Mi wa -mau -eq5 lvang55 dui35 (GEN) Chinese –native.land–COM even see.difference lum31 lo35 lye31. reciprocal(ipf) go(back/up) also+I [with spread arms:] Their country and our (ND.IN) China lie THIS far apart.

4.6.4

The oblique genitive case marker marking time words

Marking by the oblique genitive case marker also takes place on time words when specifying other nominal constituents referring to time, as illustrated by the following examples, where it marks ‘now’. a1hui11 lving31 a1hui11 bvyat1 a1hui11 yvam31 46

(now(GEN) turn/roll) (now(GEN) lifetime) (now(GEN) time.for)

A1hui11-bvyat1 ge11 (GEN) now –lifetime TOP

mo35do35 dye31 car too

‘next time’ ‘this life’ ‘this very late time’ myo31 r55. (ipf) much PE

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Nowadays, there are too many cars. 47

A1hui11-yvam31 zye35-zye35 mu35 zui31 (GEN) now –time.for arrive–arrive work(N) touch/work(ipf) 31 1 a -gvo luq1? nom–PL+I Y/N Have you (ND) only just now arrived at work?

Marking by the oblique genitive case marker of such time words also takes place in the special construction lye31 r55 lvang55 lai31 V (also+I TS even pass(ipf) V). This construction consists of lye31 (also+I), the time suffix , the adverb ‘even’ and the morpheme ‘pass’ in the comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)). The latter construction is exclusively used between time words, marked by the oblique genitive case marker , and verbs, and expresses the notion ‘even more V than during …’. 48

A1kang11 lye31 r55 lvang55 lai31 (GEN) just.now also+I OBJ even pass(ipf) 31 55 ngvam r . tasty(ipf) PE It is even tastier now than it was a few minutes ago.

Certain words can be added in this construction, such as le1-wui35 ‘one fold’ , rendering the notion ‘twice as …’ (vide 9.37). 49

Mi1-dat5 hi31 ge11 a1man11 lye31 r55 fire–electricity this TOP last.night(GEN) also+I OBJ lvang55 le1-wui35 lai31 duq1 r55. (ipf) even one–equal pass burning PE The (electric) light is twice as strong as it was last night.

4.6.5

Other ways of using the oblique genitive case marker

There are also some special cases which can further illustrate the use of the oblique genitive case marker .

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The morpheme ‘week, weekend’ is marked by the oblique genitive case marker in i5ban31-ngi35 (week(end)(GEN)-day) ‘Sunday’. Some nouns are marked by the oblique genitive case marker before the plural nominalising morpheme (PNO) as part of fixed expressions, viz.: le1-yvum31-bang11 (GEN) (one-house -PNO) ‘the people of the house’ and lvung55lvang31-bang11 ‘everyone’. These forms are exceptional for the fact that the plural nominalising morpheme (PNO) normally is only used as a nominaliser after verbs. The word yo31-so11 (land-walk) ‘the wild open’ is marked by the oblique genitive case marker in forms like yo31-so31-sun11 (land-walk(GEN)-vegetable/dish) ‘wild vegetables’ and yo31-so31-no11 (land-walk(GEN)-cattle) ‘wild buffalo’. The first morpheme ‘body’ appears also to be marked by the oblique genitive case marker in gung11-gung31 (body(GEN)-body) ‘the middle’. Topographical names are marked by the oblique genitive case marker before the suffix ‘fold’, when this expresses ‘county’ or ‘prefecture’.











Long11cyon31-kung11 (Longchuan(GEN)-fold) Meng11mau31-kung11 (Ruili(GEN)-fold) Mang11si31-kung11 (Mangshi(GEN)-fold) 4.7

THE IMPERFECTIVE MARKER

4.7.1

Introduction

‘Longchuan county’ ‘Ruili county’ ‘Dehong prefecture’

The Zaiwa imperfective marker is a tonal morpheme which modifies verbs through the same morpho-phonological process of tone switching as discussed at the beginning of the chapter. The imperfective marker is orthographically represented in my transcription by double underlining of the tone numerals, as in all cases of tone switching. The zero allomorph of the imperfective marker is used on morphemes which have the phonological shapes of checked syllables as well as on verbs in tone /35/. For practical

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reasons, the zero allomorph of the imperfective marker will not be orthographically represented in the transcription. Zaiwa verbs mostly are marked by the imperfective marker when used before other verbs. The Zaiwa imperfective marker nevertheless expresses a proper grammatical category which is not merely a verb-agglutinator and can grossly be translated as ‘V being the case’. The imperfective marker either expresses that the situation referred to by the marked verb is in a “state of effect” at a certain time and/or that this situation forms part of a process. To be somewhat more specific, there furthermore are two levels on which the imperfective marker is used, i.e. the predicate level and the clause level. On the predicate level, i.e. in verbs before other verbs, the imperfective marker specifically indicates that the given situation forms a temporal background to the situation indicated by the verb after the marked verb, like ‘V1 being the case, V2 occurs’. On the clause level, i.e. in the context of the situation indicated by the clause as a whole, the imperfective marker marks the situation indicated by the given verb as being temporally articulate and almost as a matter of fact. Below I shall discuss the various uses of the Zaiwa imperfective marker , in order to illustrate its meaning. First I shall discuss some aspects of marking by the imperfective marker of verbs before other verbs, i.e. on the predicate level. I shall specifically focus on verbs referring to dynamic situations and stative verbs. 4.7.2

Dynamic situations

The imperfective marker either expresses that the situation referred to by the marked verb is in a “state of effect” at a certain time and/or that this situation forms part of a process, and can grossly be translated as ‘V being the case’. When the imperfective marker marks verbs that specifically indicate dynamic situations and that are used before other verbs, the imperfective marker can be more specifically translated, either as ‘while performing V1, V2 occurs’, or, with an additional notion of perfect, when the action already is completed, as: ‘having performed V1, V2 occurs’. In this sense, the Zaiwa imperfective fulfils a conventional imperfective

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function of depicting background information which helps define the context. As a first example, marking by the imperfective marker of the dynamic verb ‘carry on back’ before the verb ‘rock’ in the following sentence adds to the notion ‘with X carrying the child, the situation of rocking it occurs’, given the context that the rocking of the child takes place whilst it is carried on the back. 50

Zi1syang31 bau31 nvun55-aq5. (ipf) child carry.on.back rock–SIM Carry (SG) the child on your back and rock it.

Sentences (51) and (52) below form an exact minimal pair illustrating the opposition between the imperfective marker and zero. Several informants have insisted on the fact that both the tones and the meanings of these two sentences are different. In both sentences, the verb ‘buy’ is used before the motion verb ‘go(away/down)’. Sentence (51), where the verb ‘buy’ is unmarked for the imperfective, can be translated as ‘let us go and buy beer’, or more precisely: ‘let us go in order to buy beer’. Sentence (52), where the same verb ‘buy’ is marked by the imperfective marker , can be translated as: ‘let us go, after having bought beer’. Here, the imperfective marker indicates that there is an ongoing state of effect, i.e. of having purchased beer or also of beer being purchased. This situation moreover forms part of the process of ‘buying beer and-then-go’, forming the temporal background for the situation indicated by ‘go(away/down)’. The notion expressed by the imperfective marker on the dynamic verb ‘buy’ can be translated as: ‘having performed V1, V2 occurs’, expressing an additional notion of perfect. 51

Pi11zyo31 wui31 ye31 gvoq1. beer buy go(away/down) DIE Let’s (DU.IN) go and buy some beer!

52

Pi11zyo31 wui11 ye31 gvoq1. (ipf) beer buy go(away/down) DIE Let’s (DU.IN) buy some beer before visiting them.

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Another interesting example is the fixed combination dai31-gvyo11 ‘tell something to someone’, consisting of the verb ‘speak’, marked by the imperfective marker , and ‘let hear’, e.g. (53). The notion expressed by the imperfective marker on the verb ‘speak’ in the latter sentence can be translated as: ‘while performing V1, V2 occurs’. The situations expressed by the two verbs form part of one process. 53

Yvang11

r55

3SG

OBJ

dai31-gvyo11-aq5. speak(ipf)–let.hear–SIM

Tell (SG) it to her. 4.7.3

Stative situations

The imperfective marker can also be translated as ‘V1 being the case, V2 occurs’ when used in verbs that specifically indicate stative situations and that are used before other verbs, since here the imperfective marker also indicates that the situation indicated by the marked verb is in a state of effect, and that the given situation forms a temporal background to the situation indicated by the verb after it. In the following sentence, the stative verb ‘contain’, marked by the imperfective marker , is used in the context of: ‘there are, there even are plenty of them’, before the verb ‘heap’(vt) as an aspectivising auxiliary verb expressing ‘in large amounts’. 54

4.7.4

Bo11 bum11 (ipf) contain heap(vt/N)(ipf) There are plenty of them.

r55. PE

Aspectivising auxiliary verbs

Zaiwa verbs are marked by the imperfective marker in most cases when used before other verbs. In the verbs used as auxiliary verbs after the main verb, there is a clear dichotomy between auxiliaries that as a rule either do or do not trigger marking by the imperfective marker on the preceding main verb. On one side there is a large group of aspectivising auxiliary verbs, or aspectivisers

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for short, and on the other side there is a much smaller group of non-aspectivising auxiliary verbs. The aspectivising auxiliary verbs, termed the aspectivisers for short, trigger marking by the imperfective marker of the preceding main verbs because of their specific meanings. The main reason for their triggering the marking by the imperfective marker on the preceding main verbs, unifying this group of verbs as the Zaiwa aspectivisers, is that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb always forms the temporal background to the situations indicated by the aspectiviser, since the function and meaning of the aspectivisers is to specify the way in which the situations indicated by the preceding main verbs occur, as well as to focus on the fact that these situations take place. For quite a few aspectivisers there is another reason for triggering the marking by the imperfective marker of the preceding verb, which is that they specifically express that the situations indicated by the main verbs are processes or states. Such is the case with the progressive aspectiviser , as a first example of a Zaiwa aspectiviser. Apart from being used as a main verb, the verb ‘place’(vt) is used after the main verb as the progressive aspectiviser, expressing progressive aspect, i.e. the continuation of the situation indicated by the main verb. This is illustrated by the following examples where the verbs preceding ‘place’(vt), as always, are marked by the imperfective marker . 55

Ngun31 ling11 dvo31 a1-si31. (ipf) (ipf) silver turn/roll(vi) place(vt) nom–still+I The coin is still turning.

56

Pye31-ngvam31 dvo31 a1-gvo31. negotiate(ipf)–tasty(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) nom–PL+I They are chatting.

The verb ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser expresses that someone consciously brings about the situation indicated by the preceding main verb, and focuses on the effects of this situation, and not specifically on its process. The main verb before the effective aspectiviser is always marked by the imperfective marker , since the effective aspectiviser specifically refers to the

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effects of the situation indicated by the preceding marked main verb, these effects taking place within the temporal framework of the latter situation. This is illustrated by the following example, where the effective aspectiviser refers to the effects of the situation of laying one’s head down on one’s back, indicated by the main verb. 57

U1-lvum11 ngvang31 gvat5 (ipf) head–lump (neck).hang.backwards(vt) put.into wu35-aq5. look–SIM Try (SG) to bend your neck so that your head touches your back.

Whereas ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser emphasises the effect achieved by a certain action, the performative aspectiviser (PFM) focuses on aspects of the performance of that action. The performative aspectiviser (PFM) emphasises the fact that some situation, whether it be a command, a promise, a task, or some other kind of action, is being carried into effect. Therefore, it can be used in all kinds of contexts, such as that the situation in the context in fact should not take place or that taking place is not in keeping with expectations, or else that it is important that it take place. The main verb before the performative aspectiviser is always marked by the imperfective marker , since the performative aspectiviser (PFM) specifically refers to the situation indicated by the preceding marked main verb as being performed in some way, this actual performance naturally taking place within the temporal framework of that situation. This is illustrated by the following example, where the person in the context performed the situation indicated by the preceding main verb, even though he formerly did not dare to do so. 58

Ngo31 1SG

am55 PFM

a1-rup5 NEG–dare bue31.

dai11 speak

gu54 PART+FCT

dai31 speak(ipf)

P+I

I have talked about what I didn’t dare to discuss before.

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The two following sentences, which are taken from the text “On zitung”, further illustrate the marking by the imperfective marker of verbs before aspectivisers, given the meanings of the effective aspectiviser and the performative aspectiviser discussed above. In sentence (59), the god Ninggonwa threatens to raise the deluge. Sentence (60) is the fearless response to this threat by the blasphemous nine Lewui brothers. 59

De1wui31 dving31 gvat5 (ipf) deluge collect.water/flood(vt) put.into ra31-o55! need+I–HIGH I will flood [you all] in a deluge!

and the response: 60 Dving31 collect.water/flood(vt)(ipf) Flood (SG) us, then. 4.7.5

am55-aq5. PFM–SIM

The imperfective marker marking punctual verbs

According to Comrie (1976: 42), punctual situations are “situations that do not have any duration, not even duration of a very short period. Thus a punctual situation, by definition, has no internal structure, and in a language with separate imperfective forms to indicate reference to the internal structure of a situation, then clearly punctuality and imperfectivity will be incompatible.” However, the Zaiwa verbs ‘throw away’ and ‘throw, strike’, as examples of verbs with a punctual meaning, can be marked by the imperfective marker in the following special cases. In the following sentence, the punctual verb ‘throw away’ is followed by the performative aspectiviser (PFM), already discussed in the previous section. The performative auxiliary (PFM) emphasises the fact that some situation, whether it be a command, a promise, a task, or some other kind of action, is being carried into effect, in various different contexts. One type of context can be that the given situation in fact should not take place or that taking place is not in keeping with expectations, or else that it is

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important that it take place. In the two first examples, the imperfective marker does not at all indicate that the meaning of the verb ‘throw away’ were not punctual. Instead, the imperfective marker rather indicates that the situation indicated by the verb ‘throw away’ is in a “state of effect”, since the performative aspectiviser (PFM) directly refers to the actual performance of this situation. 61

Ban11 ngvyau31 am55 (ipf) (ipf) use.up throw.away PFM It has all been thrown out.

bue31. P+I

The following sentence is another case where a verb with a punctual meaning, viz. ‘throw, strike’, is marked by the imperfective marker . Here, marking by the imperfective marker expresses that the situation referred to by the marked verb is in a “state of effect” in some time and that it forms part of a process together with the situation indicated by the verb after it. On the predicate level, i.e. in verbs before other verbs, the imperfective marker specifically indicates that the given situation forms a temporal background to the situation indicated by the verb after the marked verb, like ‘V1 being the case, V2 occurs’. 62

Se5-gvoq5 mau31-eq1 tree–branch sky#–AG/I am55 bue31. PFM

gun11 kyui31 (ipf) fling/strike/wave bend(ipf)

P+I

The branch has been struck and bent by the lightning. The two latter sentences may also serve to illustrate the Zaiwa passive construction, consisting of the imperfective marker and the perfect clause marker (P), which will be discussed in detail in Section 4.7.12 below. The perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I), at the end of both above sentences, expresses the notion of perfect, i.e. to the ongoing present relevance of some situation at another time. In the following sentence, the same punctual verb ‘throw, strike’ as in the previous sentence is also marked by the imperfective

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marker , since the situation indicated by this verb is referred to both in an iterative and a passive sense, in a construction of // ‘also’ between two times the same predicate, expressing indifference. 63

A1-mvau55-o31, mau31-eq1 gun11 NEG–cheat/fool–HIGH+I sky#–AG/I fling/strike/wave(ipf) 11 11 r gun , a1-mvau55! (ipf) Also fling/strike/wave NEG–cheat/fool I’m not cheating! May lightning strike me, I’m not cheating. / (Lit.:) I’m not cheating! Even if I had to be struck by lightning [I would still say] I’m not cheating.

4.7.6

Another type of temporal framework

In some combinations of verbs, the situation indicated by the first verb takes place within the temporal framework of the situation indicated by the second verb instead of the other way around, and therefore the first verb is unmarked by the imperfective marker . For example, the verb ‘wait’ as the expectant auxiliary after the main verb expresses the notion ‘to perform V whilst waiting’, indicating that the situation indicated by the main verb takes place within the temporal framework of this auxiliary. Therefore, the main verb before ‘wait’ is never marked by the imperfective marker . 64

lvang55 zo11 lang35 bue31. 1SG even eat wait P+I I had to start the meal while waiting for you. Ngo31

A similar situation applies to the verb ‘give’ in the following sentence, which neither is marked the imperfective marker before ‘show’ in the combination bi11 sit5 ‘give something to someone in order to show it’. In this case, the reason for ‘give’ not being marked by the imperfective marker is that the situation indicated by this verb takes place within the temporal framework of the situation indicated by ‘show’, instead of the other way around.

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65

Ka31, nang35 dvat5bung35 ngo31 where 2SG.PO photographs 1SG sit5 wu35 raq5. show look VO Come, show me your (SG) photographs.

r55 OBJ

103

bi11 give

A similar situation applies to the two following motion auxiliary verbs, which also do not trigger marking by the imperfective marker on the preceding main verbs, because the situations indicated by the main verbs take place within the temporal frameworks of these auxiliary verbs instead of the other way around. These motion auxiliary verbs are: ‘go (away/down)’ as an auxiliary expressing: ‘be gone to do V, either in a downward direction or away from home’, and ‘go (back/up)’ as an auxiliary expressing: ‘be gone to do V, either in an upward direction or towards home’ The two following sentences have already been encountered above but will be discussed again within this context. Here, the motion verb ‘go (away/down) once is used in the above function as an auxiliary and once as a main verb with aspectivising function. In sentence (66), the verb ‘buy’ is marked by the imperfective marker expressing the notion ‘V being the case’, or, more specifically, ‘X having bought the beer’. The situation indicated by this marked verb wui11 (buy(ipf)) forms the temporal framework for the situation indicated by ‘go (away/down)’, since this sentence expresses ‘let’s go, after having bought beer’. In sentence (67) it is the other way around, since here the situation indicated by ‘go (away/down)’ forms the temporal framework for the situation indicated by ‘buy’. In this sentence, the verb ‘go (away/down)’ is used after the main verb as an auxiliary expressing the notion ‘be gone to do V, either in a downward direction or away from home’. 66

Pi11zyo31 wui11 ye31 gvoq1. (ipf) beer buy go(away/down) DIE Let’s (DU.IN) buy some beer before visiting them.

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Pi11zyo31 wui31 ye31 gvoq1. beer buy go(away/down) DIE Let’s (DU.IN) go and buy some beer!

The following sentence illustrates the use of the auxiliary ‘go (back/up)’ expressing: ‘be gone to do V, either in an upward direction or towards home’, i.e. with the main verb again not being marked by the imperfective marker , just like before ‘go (away/down)’ in sentence (67). 68

Ngo31

byo11 cyo11 lo35 1SG wasp/bee search go(back/up) I’m on my way to search for wasps/bees.

4.7.7

No temporal framework

ra31. need+I

In some combinations of verbs there is no temporal relationship whatsoever between the situations indicated by the two verbs, the situation indicated by the first verb neither taking place within the temporal framework of the second nor vice versa. Therefore, the first verbs of such combinations of verbs are unmarked by the imperfective marker , e.g. pi55 syuq5 ‘beg for drinks’, literally ‘beg to drink’ and pi55 zo11 ‘beg for food’, literally ‘beg to eat’ in sentence (69). A similar situation applies to the verb ‘give’ before ‘eat’ in sentences (70) and (71). 69

Ke5-dye31 lo11 pi55 (ipf) PHB–too come(back/up) beg Don’t beg for food [from me].

zo11. eat

70

Ngo31

bi11 give

71

r55

ge1lu11 le1-zvui55 1SG OBJ sweets one–bit Give me a bit of your sweets [to eat]. A1-wo35 yu31 zo11 ga31. NEG–have take eat perceive+I He couldn’t catch and eat him.

zo11 eat

raq5. VO

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The Zaiwa modal and voice auxiliaries after the main verb, listed in Table 4.3 below, also do not trigger marking by the imperfective marker of the preceding verbs. The reason why the main verbs before these auxiliary verbs normally are unmarked by the imperfective marker is that, given the meanings of these auxiliaries, the situations indicated by the preceding verbs are not viewed as temporally articulate situations. In order to illustrate this, all Zaiwa modal and voice auxiliary verbs will be briefly introduced. Chapter 15 will discuss the auxiliary verbs in more detail. Table 4.3 The Zaiwa modal and voice auxiliary verbs





‘ought, address’ ‘probably’ ‘give’ as the benefactive/malefactive auxiliary ‘let loose’ as the commissive auxiliary ‘feel like’ ‘need’

• The auxiliary verb ‘ought, address’ expresses the notion that it should be that the situation indicated by the preceding verb were the case. Since the situation indicated by the main verb does not take place within the temporal framework of ‘ought, address’, the latter auxiliary verb naturally does not trigger marking by the imperfective marker of the main verb, as illustrated by sentence (72). Sentence (73) is the only instance attested thus far of the main verb being marked by the imperfective marker before this auxiliary verb. The marking by the imperfective marker of the main verb ‘be there’(animate) in sentence (73) indicates that the given situation is a temporally articulate situation, the continuation of which moreover forms a reason for concern. 72

bi11 ang31 lye31. (ipf) 2SG 3SG OBJ give ought/address also+I You (SG) ought to give it to her. Nang31 yvang11 r55

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Woq1 puq1 r55, zun31 ngi11 chicken deter PE bird.of.prey be.there(anim)(ipf) ang31 r55. (ipf) ought/address PE The chicken is giving alarming cries, there must be a bird of prey chasing it.

• The modal auxiliary verb ‘probably’ expresses the notion that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb probably is the case. In a way similar to ‘ought, address’ discussed above, the situation indicated by the main verb does not take place within the temporal framework of ‘probably’, and the latter auxiliary verb therefore naturally does not trigger marking by the imperfective marker of the main verb. 74

Nap1-zang11 a1-zo11 sam31? morning–rice/food NEG–eat probably You haven’t eaten your brunch yet, have you?

75

A1-yvup5 dvo11 sam31 NEG–sleep place(vt) probably She isn’t still sleeping, I assume.

loq1. no.more

• Apart from being used as a main verb, the verb ‘give’ is used as the benefactive/malefactive modal auxiliary verb after a transitive main verb, with the meaning of ‘do something to someone’, i.e. with strong benefactive or malefactive connotations. 76

Nung31-kung31 me55 gvin31 bi11 raq5. upper.back–vault/ridge LOC scratch.against.itch give VO Scratch (SG) my upper back, please.

• The modal auxiliary verb ‘feel like’ gives expression to the urge, need or desire to perform a certain situation, which comes forth from something within the person himself. 77

Nang31

ye31 nvau11 r55 (ipf) 2SG go(away/down) feel.like PE Do you (SG) feel like going?

luq1? Y/N

TONE SWITCHING AND THE FACTITIVE MARKER

107

• The commissive auxiliary verb ‘let loose’ expresses the notion ‘to let someone do V’. 78

Ngo31 yvang11 li55

ye31 1SG 3SG OBJ go(away/down) I’ll send him. / I’m sending him.

nvang11 lye31. (ipf) let.loose also+I

• The verb ‘need’ as a modal auxiliary verb refers to the need for the future accomplishment of a certain situation. 79

Nang31

ka55-hu55 mi11 ra11 zyang35 2SG Q–sort ask need CD If you (SG) need to ask something, do so.

4.7.8

The imperfective marker in adverbs

mi11-aq5. ask–SIM

The imperfective marker marks most of the morphemes that are used adverbially, expressing that the situation indicated by the adverb forms a temporal framework for the situation indicated by the predicate after it. I know of most adverbs that they are marked, given the fact that their underlying morphemes are functionally versatile and can also be used as verbs. This section focuses on the modal adverbs, and the next section will discuss the other adverbs. As a first example of a modal adverb, the morpheme ‘know’ is marked by the imperfective marker when used in the adverb sue31 (know(ipf)) indicating ‘to know how to’, or more exactly: ‘the situation of X having knowledge being the case’. 80

A1-sue31 gva55. (ipf) NEG–know write I don’t know how to write it.

The morpheme ‘be all right’ is marked by the imperfective marker when used as an adverb termed the positive adverb. The positive adverb gue11 (all right(ipf)) functions more or less like English ‘can’, but expresses a rather wide range of notions which cannot all be discussed here, but will be discussed in Section 16.49. The positive adverb gue11 (all right(ipf)) can literally be translated as

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‘the situation of X being all right being the case’. In the context of the following sentence, the latter adverb can be translated as ‘to perform satisfactorily’. 81

Loq1-gun31 gue11 du35 (ipf) hand/arm–fling/strike/wave all.right throw I/we swim freestyle rather well.

lye31. also+I

The morpheme ‘see’ can be used as a modal adverb, in two different ways. In both types of use, the invariant meaning of this morpheme is used in the sense of ‘to have a chance / an opportunity’. The verb ‘to see’ is marked by the imperfective marker when used as the adverb myang11 (see(ipf)), expressing ‘X is lucky to be doing V’/ ‘X is being lucky to do V’. 82

Ngo31 1SG

mu35 work(N)

lo35 go(back/up)

be1-ra31. P–need+I I’m going to have a job to do.

myang11 see(ipf)

zui11 touch/work(V)

83

Zoye gvut5 yau35 zyang35 myang11 homework do finish CD see(ipf) 31 yvup5 be1-ra . sleep P–need+I When we finish your homework we can finally go to sleep.

84

Yvum31 myang11 lo35 be1-ra31. (ipf) house see go(back/up) P–need+I We will finally be able to go home soon.

The same morpheme ‘see’ can also be used as the facilitative adverb, expressing the notion ‘when X needs to use Y to do V, Y is there’, as illustrated by the following examples. The morpheme ‘see’ as the facilitative adverb is the only modal adverb which is unmarked by the indicative morpheme . The facilitative adverb is unmarked by the imperfective marker because the situation indicated by this adverb does not form a temporal framework for the situation indicated by the predicate after

109

TONE SWITCHING AND THE FACTITIVE MARKER

it, since the fact that the given facilities are there does not specifically imply that a situation of using them is the case. 85

Nung35-moq1 yvum31 i31-pue11 a1-myang31 2PL–party house distilled–booze NEG–see 5 5 1 syuq gve -luq ? drink PL–Y/N Do you have booze to drink at your (PL) home?

86

Nung35-moq1 yvum31 mue31-zyong35 a1-myang31 2PL–party house wrap–cover(N) NEG–see wut1 gve5-luq1? wear/dress PL–Y/N Do you have quilts to cover yourselves with at your (PL) home?

87

Nung35-moq1 ang11-noq5 a1-myang31 zo11 2PL–party petiole–black NEG–see eat Do you (PL) have black mustard to eat?

4.7.9

The imperfective marker in other adverbs

gve5-luq1? PL–Y/N

All other adverbs are marked by the imperfective marker , except the three following: the adverb ‘indiscriminately, very’, e.g. (88) and (89), the morpheme ‘too, impatient’ as the adverb ‘rather too’, e.g. (90), and the morpheme ‘exceed’ as the superlative adverb ‘most’, e.g. (91). The reason for the fact that these three adverbs are unmarked by the imperfective marker is that they do not form temporal frameworks for other situations. Rather than forming temporal frameworks for other situations, these forms express notions that merely modify the situations indicated by the verbs after it, which may have specific temporal frameworks of their own. 88

Yvang11

i31-pue11 lvum31 syuq5 3SG distilled–booze indiscriminately drink He’s drinking immoderately / with reckless abandon.

r55. PE

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89

Ngo31 Zai11-ming35 a1-lvum31 1SG Zaiwa–language NEG–indiscriminately dai11. speak I don’t speak Zaiwa very well.

90

Lai31 dye31 lo11 r55. (ipf) wind too come(back/up) PE The wind is blowing extremely/very hard.

91

Yvang11

zye11 3SG exceed She is tallest.

gue11 all.right(ipf)

mvyang11 lye31. (ipf) tall/high also+I

The morpheme ‘pass’ is always marked by the imperfective marker when used as the comparative adverb, whereas ‘exceed’ as the superlative adverb ‘most’ never is. The comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)) expresses the notion ‘more than’, or more exactly: ‘having surpassed this level’, indicating that the adverb forms a temporal framework for the situation indicated by the verb after it. By contrast, the superlative adverb ‘exceed’ is unmarked by the imperfective marker since the notion it expresses does not form a temporal framework for other situations. Rather than forming a temporal framework for another situation, the superlative adverb expresses a notion which merely modifies the situation indicated by the verb after it, which may have a specific temporal framework of its own. This also explains why ‘exceed’ as the superlative adverb in sentences like (91) can much easier be omitted than the comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)) in the following sentence. 92

Ngo31

yvang11

li55

1SG

3SG

OBJ

lai31 pass(ipf)

mvyang11 lye31. (ipf) tall/high also+I

I’m taller than her. Another example of a verbal morpheme used as adverb in a regular way, i.e. after being marked by the imperfective marker , is the Zaiwa collective adverb cyom31 / syom31. In this adverb, the original and invariant meaning ‘to drive game’ of the verb ‘drive game’, together with the meaning ‘V being the case’ of the imperfective marker , is used to express the notion: ‘X and Y doing V together with Z’. 93

Cyom31 gyo31 wu35 (ipf) (ipf) drive.game hear/smell look Let’s (ND.IN) listen together.

syang55. JUS

4.7.10 Marking by the imperfective marker triggered by clause markers Xu & Xu (1984: 14-16) and Doqshi et al. (1992: 995-7) give some very incomplete and largely incorrect rules for the occurrence of tone switching, whilst not revealing the morphemes or any meaning underlying this process. In the discussion below on the use of the imperfective marker as triggered by the meanings of clause markers, I shall not focus so much on rules deciding before which clause marker the imperfective marker occurs, unlike the latter scholars have at least pursued, since such does not enhance the comprehension of the meaning of the latter morpheme. Instead, I shall give some examples of clause markers that in particular ways either do or do not trigger marking by the imperfective marker on the preceding verbs, whilst focussing on the particular aspects of their meanings causing this. Verbs are always marked by the imperfective marker before the personal experience clause marker (PE), expressing the notion ‘X experienced that this situation is the case’, as illustrated by sentence (94). Marking by the imperfective marker also always takes place before the emphatic variant of the latter clause marker, viz. the emphatic highlighting clause marker , emphatically expressing the notion ‘I experienced that this situation is the case’, as illustrated by sentence (95). 94

Yo31-so11 me55 nat1 ngi11 r55. (ipf) land–walk LOC spirit be.there(anim) PE Out in the open there are spirits.

112 95

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Nang35 sun11-au11 ngye35 gyo35 2SG.PO veg/dish–pan burnt/hot go.down sing55 se5-ga54 ngam11 rvo55. (ipf) taste/smell(N) like–perceive+FCT seem PE+HIGH It smells like your (SG) dish [in the pan] is burning!

Verbs are always marked by the imperfective marker before indicative clause marking units that refer to situations that specifically are ongoing situations. Such naturally applies to the continuous indicative clause marking unit a1-si31 (nom-still+I), expressing the notion that the situation indicated by the predicate is still going on. 96

Yo31 a1-si31 luq1? itch3(ipf) nom–still+I Y/N Is it still itching?

Verbs before the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 are also always marked by the imperfective marker , since the latter refers to states that are a matter of fact. Such states can be what a given person is doing himself, e.g. (97), or a matter of general knowledge, e.g. (98). 97

Zyau31 ye11 lye31. (ipf) market go(away/down) also+I I am / we are going to the market.

98

Ang55dung35 ge11 Hueq1lan35 ma54 Anton TOP Holland LOC+FCT Anton is a Dutchman.

ngvut5 be

lye31. also+I

Verbs are normally unmarked by the imperfective marker before clause marking units that refer to future situations, since the situations in these contexts naturally are not the case yet. Therefore, verbs before the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I) or the perfect future indicative clause marking unit be1-ra31 (P+need+I) are never marked by the imperfective marker . 99

Gung31-ci11 body–wash

ci11 wash

ra31. need+I

TONE SWITCHING AND THE FACTITIVE MARKER

113

I am going to wash myself. 100

Yvum31 mau11 be1-ra31. house make.roof P–need+I We’re about to build the roof.

Amongst the various clause markers that are also used as conjunctions, there is much variation according whether or not the preceding verbs are marked by the imperfective marker . Verbs are never marked by the indicative morpheme before the clause marking unit mu31 (happen+I) which is used as a conjunction expressing ‘after’. The reason for this is that the notion ‘after’ expressed by mu31 (happen+I) excludes the possibility for the clause before mu31 (happen+I) to function as a temporal framework for the situation indicated by the clause after the clause marking unit. 101

Ye31 mu31 dum11 lo31 bue31. go(away/down) happen+I again come(back/up) P+I After I went, I came back again. / I went and came back again.

Verbs normally are also not marked by the imperfective marker before the conjunction-like clause marking unit lui31 ‘in this way’, except in cases where the latter clause marking unit in a very specific way refers to a situation that forms the temporal framework for the situation indicated by the clause after lui31 ‘in this way’. In the contexts of the following sentences, reference is made to certain traditional ways which are the proper way to perform the situations that are indicated by the clause after the clause marking unit, and therefore the verbs before lui31 ‘in this way’ are marked by the imperfective marker . 102

Nau11-bva54 tang31 syang31 Menau–dance.sideways+FCT behind follow(ipf) lui31 le1go11 go35 syang55. in.this.way+I well dance JUS Let us (ND.IN) follow the Naubva and do our best dancing.

103

I31-bvyung31 wun11 lui31 distilled–basket.for.provision carry/bring(ipf) in.this.way+I

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bui31num31 hui11 ye31 syang55. family make.way/meet go(away/down) JUS Let us (ND.IN) go and visit our relatives, carrying our [traditional] booze-basket. The following sentence illustrates that, apart from the above cases, verbs before the clause marking unit lui31 ‘in this way’ mostly are unmarked by the indicative morpheme . In this case, the verb ‘touch, work’ is unmarked by the imperfective marker because the state of being at work indicated by the clause before lui31 ‘in this way’ does not specifically form the temporal framework for the state of not being cold indicated by the other clause, even though the first situation does form the reason for the second taking place. 104

Ngo31

hi55-me55 a1mu31 zui11 1SG this–LOC matter touch/work(V) lui31, a5-mu31 a1-gyoq1. in.this.way+I nom–happen NEG–cold Since I have been working here, I don’t feel cold.

The clause marker ‘to’ is exclusively used in conjunction with the verb ‘need’ and can be translated as ‘that’ or ‘to’. Verbs almost never are marked by the imperfective marker before the latter clause marker, as illustrated by sentence (105). However, in the exceptional case of sentence (106), the imperfective marker marks the verb in order to emphasise the urgency of the given situation to take place, as if to say ‘I really should be feeding the pigs’. Sentence (107), which expresses the same meaning, illustrates that in such cases the progressive aspectiviser is mostly used, yielding the same effect. 105

Dvau55 pong55 no35 a1-ra11 inflate/bottle open(vt) to NEG–need It’s no longer necessary to open the bottle.

106

Ngo31 1SG

waq1-zang11 pig–rice/food

zvo31 feed(ipf)

no35 to

loq1. no.more

ra31 need(ipf)

r55, PE

TONE SWITCHING AND THE FACTITIVE MARKER

115

a1-wo35 ye31. NEG–have go(away/down) I have to feed the pigs. I can’t go. 107

Ngo31

waq1-zang11 zvo31 1SG pig–rice/food feed(ipf) 31 ra a1-si31. (ipf) need nom–still+I I still have to feed the pigs.

dvo11 place(vt)

no35 to

The suffix of the expected nvo31 (EXP+I) is a clause marking unit expressing that the situation denoted by the preceding clause was expected by someone. This clause marking unit nvo31 (EXP+I) is normally used as a conjunction in complex sentences. Since this clause marking unit refers to situations that are not matters of fact but only to expectations, the preceding verbs are unmarked by the imperfective marker . 108

no31 nvo31 3SG pain/ill/disease EXP+I He appears to be ill. Yvang11

dut1 become

r55. PE

The morpheme variants // ‘also’, when used after verbs as clause markers and conjunctions, express notions that are fully complementary to the meaning ‘V being the case’ of the imperfective marker , viz. the notions ‘also when this situation is the case’ or simply ‘when V-ing’, as the Sections 16.20 to 16.23 will discuss in more detail. The verbs preceding these clause markers therefore are always marked by the imperfective marker . 109

Bing55bang11 zo31 r11 zui31 gu35 dik1 r55. ice-cream eat(ipf) also tooth ice-cold extreme PE When eating ice cream, my teeth are ice-cold.

In this respect, the meaning of the morpheme variants // ‘also’ as clause markers is contrastive to that of the conditional clause marker (CD), which marks a circumstantial relationship between the situations expressed by the clauses on either side. The clause marker (CD) can be

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translated as ‘as soon as’ or simply as ‘if’ or ‘when’, bearing a much more optional meaning than // ‘also’, since the former does not express that the situation indicated by the preceding verb will actually occur. Therefore, the conditional clause marker never triggers marking by the imperfective marker . Sentence (110), containing the conditional clause marker in zo11 zyang35 (eat CD) may indicate that the given person will not eat chillies anymore, since they seem to cause pain. Sentence (111), containing the suffix ‘also’ in zo31 r11 (eat(ipf) also), expresses a slightly different notion, since this utterance is a specific statement on the simultaneity of the eating of chillies and the aching of the belly, and may in some cases even be used to specifically neglect the causal relationship that the chillies may have caused the pain, indicating that these situations just co-occur. 110

Si1-pik5 zo11 fruit–pungent eat wam35-no11

zyang35 CD (ipf)

swollen/abdomen–pain/ill/disease

r55. PE

If I eat chillies, I will get abdominal pain. 111

Si1-pik5 zo31 r11 (ipf) fruit–pungent eat also wam35-no11 r55. (ipf) swollen/abdomen–pain/ill/disease PE When eating chillies, my abdomen aches / will ache.

Verbs before the perfect clause marker (P) can either or not be marked by the imperfective marker . The combination of the imperfective marker before the perfect clause marker (P) forms the Zaiwa passive construction, which Section 4.7.12 will discuss in detail. Verbs that are posited directly before the perfect clause marker (P) in most cases are unmarked by the imperfective marker , since the situations indicated by the predicate normally are not the case, i.e. either no longer, e.g. (112), or not yet, e.g. (113).

TONE SWITCHING AND THE FACTITIVE MARKER

112

113

Hum11 mi11 bue31 door close P+I Is the door closed?

117

luq1? Y/N

Mau11-mo35 rau35 wo31 sky–AUG promptly rain Heavy rain will soon come.

bue31. P+I

4.7.11 The imperfective marker in negative clauses In some negative clauses, the imperfective marker is used on verbs at the end of the clause, neither with clause markers nor other verbs after it, expressing the regular notion ‘V being the case’. In the first example, the imperfective marker explicitly indicates that the state of not working expressed by the negated verb ‘touch, work’ is prolonged for a rather long time. 114

Mu35 r11 a1-zui31 ge11, hyem31 work(N) also NEG–touch/work(V)(ipf) TOP how a1-myung31 ra54 dvi55? NEG–poor need+FCT RFL If one doesn’t even work, how can one avoid becoming poor?

The uncertainty suffix is an attitude marker that expresses the ignorance of the speaker, further expressing the notion that it is not the speaker who is to decide on the matters in the context. Negative clauses ending in a verb which is marked by the imperfective marker and the uncertainty suffix express the notion ‘would it be that …?’, e.g. (115). When such a clause further contains the construction ka55-hu55 mu31 ‘why’, the notion ‘why would it be that …?’ is expressed, e.g. (116). 115

Ngo31

nang31

1SG

2SG

r55

A5-wvoi55 OBJ nom–grandmother la11?

a1-ang31 (ipf) NEG–ought/address UNC Shouldn’t I call you (SG) grandma?

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Byu31 ka55-hu55 mu31 man/woman Q–sort happen+I dang31 la11? fly(ipf) UNC Why is it that man can’t fly?

a1-gue11 (ipf) NEG–all.right

The auxiliary verb ‘ought, address’ normally expresses the notion that it should be that the situation indicated by the preceding verb were the case. Negative clauses ending in the auxiliary ‘ought, address’ which is marked by the imperfective marker normally express the notion of not knowing whether or not the given situation is the case. 117

Nap1-zang11 a1-zo11 ang31. morning–rice/food NEG–eat ought/address(ipf) They shouldn’t have eaten lunch yet. [since it is still early]

118

A1-yvup5 ang31 siq1. (ipf) NEG–sleep ought/address still They shouldn’t be asleep yet. [since it is still early]

119

A1-yvup5 dvo11 ang31 loq1. (ipf) NEG–sleep place(vt) ought/address no.more She shouldn’t be still sleeping, I presume.

Negative clauses ending in the auxiliary verb ‘ought, address’ that is marked by the imperfective marker can also refer to a situation where someone originally was mistaken in thinking that a given situation were the case, e.g. (120). A similar type of use of ‘ought, address’ marked by the imperfective marker is in the indicative clause in sentence (121), where the latter form is used before the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I). 120

Ngo31

ge11

nang31

1SG

TOP

2SG

ang31 ought/address(ipf) ngi11 be.there(anim)(ipf)

a1-ngi31 NEG–be.there(anim) zyang35 wa35,

ngvu31 say CD EMP 54 11 dvo ge . place(vt)+FCT TOP

TONE SWITCHING AND THE FACTITIVE MARKER

119

I thought you weren’t here, but you are. 121

Ngo31

ge11

nang31

zo11 eat wa35,

ang31 1SG TOP 2SG ought/address(ipf) 31 31 35 bue ngvu zyang a1-zo11 si1-luq1? P+I say CD EMP NEG–eat still–Y/N I thought you (SG) had eaten already, but you haven’t, have you?

The fixed expression zo31-mut5 (eat(ipf)-hungry) ‘hungry’ consists of the morphemes ‘eat’, marked by the imperfective marker , and mut1 ‘hungry’, e.g. (122). In this expression, marking by the imperfective marker is audible on the first syllable. This also occurs when the morphemes ‘eat’ and ‘hungry’ are separated by adverbs, e.g. (123) and (124). zo31-mut5 bue31. 1SG eat#–hungry P+I I’ve become hungry.

122

Ngo31

123

Zo31 dum11 mut1 bue31. eat# again hungry P+I I’m hungry again. / We are hungry again.

124

Zo31 a1-mut1 luq1? eat# NEG–hungry Y/N Are you hungry?

A similar situation applies to the apparently idiosyncratic expression in the following sentence, where the verb ‘tired’ is marked by the imperfective marker , referring to a state of being tired. Here, the form moi31 (tired(ipf)) appears to be used as a nominal constituent expressing ‘fatigue’. 125

Nang31

moi31 a1-wo35 gyo11 luq1? (ipf) 2SG tired NEG–have hear/smell Y/N Can you (SG) feel fatigue yet?

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4.7.12 The imperfective marker in passive constructions before the perfect clause marker The imperfective marker can also express passive voice, like ‘X being V-ed’, especially when before the perfect clause marker (P). The following examples illustrate that whenever verbs are being marked by the imperfective marker before the perfect clause marker (P) the meaning of the imperfective marker is used in a passive way. The latter clause marker is mostly used in the clause marking units bue31 (P+I) and its plural variant be1-gvo31 (P-PL+I). 126

Myang11 wui11 be1-gvo31 luq1? (ipf) (ipf) see buy P–PL+I Y/N Were you (PL) able to buy it? / (Lit.:) Is it being bought by you (PL)? [with much luck]

127

Myang11 wui11 bue31. see(ipf) buy(ipf) P+I We were able to buy it. / (Lit.:) It has been bought by us. [with much luck]

128

Ya31 gue11 be1-gvo31 (ipf) (ipf) cure all.right P–PL+I Are you (PL) cured yet?

luq1? Y/N

129

Yvup5 nvau11 se5-ga31 bue31. (ipf) (ipf) sleep feel.like like–perceive P+I I feel sleepy now.

130

Byu31 le1-yuq1 yom11 man/woman one–person decrease(ipf) There’s one person less/missing.

bue31. P+I

The verb ‘stew’ can be used in a special passive way in a gastronomical term referring to a state of being done as a result of stewing.

TONE SWITCHING AND THE FACTITIVE MARKER

131

121

Gvyui31 bue31. (ipf) stew1 P+I It has been stewed [well].

The verb ‘need’, which already has a rather passive meaning by itself, is marked by the imperfective marker before the perfect clause marker (P) in the following sentence. 132

Ngo31

ge11

nang31

r55

1SG

TOP

2SG

OBJ

ke5-se55 Q–like

ngvu31 say

ra31 bue31 la11? (ipf) need P+I UNC What should I call you (SG)? / (Lit.:) What is needed that I shall call you (SG)? It is worth mentioning that the special construction V(ipf) r11 V(ipf) (Verb(ipf) also Verb(ipf)) apart from indifference also expresses passive voice, even though without the perfect clause marker . This construction was discussed in Section 4.7.5. The two following sentences illustrate the contrast between the use of the imperfective marker and the factitive marker , both in constructions before the perfect clause marker . In the first clause in sentence (133), the imperfective marker indicates passive voice, and the meaning ‘perceive’ of the verb is used in the sense of ‘be called’. In sentence (134), the factitive marker marks the same verb in a rather similar way, but most of all adds a factual connotation, expressing the special notion that the name for a given entity is just on the tip of one’s tongue. ka55-hu55 ga31 bue31 (ipf) Q–sort perceive P+I 31 31 31 55 dvo mvi am bue . UNC 1SG forget(ipf) PFM P+I What was your (SG) name again, I forgot. / (Lit.:) What were you (SG) called again, I forgot.

133

Nang35 ming31 2SG.PO name 11 la , ngo31

134

I1sye11-i1sye11, (er/what’s.his.name)–(er/what’s.his.name)

ka55-hu55 Q–sort

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ga54 bue54 dvi55? perceive+FCT P+FCT RFL Er [let me think] what was it called? Sentence (134) above and the sentences (135) and (136) below illustrate the use of two times the factitive marker in one clause, once just before the perfect clause marker and once marking the latter, as bue54 (P+FCT). Such combinations only occur before attitude markers giving expression to some notion of diffusion or despair. In sentence (134) above, the latter construction was used before the reflective suffix , expressing the notion ‘well, I should think about this’. In the two following sentences, the combination of the factitive marker and the perfect clause marker is used before the mirative suffix , indicating that the speaker is wondering about something. 135

136

Ke5-se55 ga11 hon25 bue54 Q–like perceive sing+FCT P+FCT dvo31mvi31 am55 bue31. (ipf) forget PFM P+I How was it sung? I’ve forgotten. Nga35-moq1 gvut5 syut5-n55 1PO–party do wrong–FCT Were we (ND.EX) wrong?

lu55, MIR

bue54

lu55?

P+FCT

MIR

Zaiwa has two more passive constructions, where two different aspectivisers are used between the imperfective marker and the perfect clause marker , viz. the performative aspectiviser and the aspectiviser of vehemence dam54. In clauses containing these two passive constructions, specific emphasis is placed on the object, given the fact that there is either no subject or that the subject is specifically marked as the instigator of the given situation. The performative aspectiviser (PFM) emphasises the fact that some situation, whether it be a command, a promise, a task, or some other kind of action, is being carried into effect. Therefore, it can be used in all kinds of contexts, such as that the situation in the context in fact should not take place or that taking place is not in

123

TONE SWITCHING AND THE FACTITIVE MARKER

keeping with expectations or else that it is important that it take place. In clauses containing the passive construction of (PFM) before the perfect clause marker , specific emphasis is placed on the object, given the fact that there either is no subject, e.g. (137) to (139), or the subject is specifically marked as the instigator of the given situation by the agentive/instrumental suffix , e.g. (140) and (141). 137

Syam31 zan31 kang31 am55 (ipf) (ipf) knife hew notch PFM Someone notched this knife.

bue31. P+I

138

Ban11 du35 am55 bue31. use.up(ipf) throw PFM P+I It has all been thrown out.

139

Yvum31 ngvye31 kyo31 am55 (ipf) (ipf) house burn(vt) let.go.down PFM The house has been burnt down.

bue31. P+I

140

Waq1-eq1 ngve5-mvyuq1-gam31 gyung31 pig–AG/I banana–banana–tree(B) root(V)(ipf) 31 lvyeng am55 bue31. topple/roll(vt)(ipf) PFM P+I The banana tree has been made to fall by the rooting of some pig.

141

Yvang11 r55

mo35do35-eq1 nvye31 sat5 3SG OBJ car–AG/I press(ipf) kill He has been run over and killed by a car.

am55

bue31.

PFM

P+I

According to its form and meaning, the Zaiwa aspectiviser of vehemence dam54 is analysed as a bimorphemic entity consisting of a no longer retrievable root morpheme * or * in combination with the factitive marker . The form dam54 is only used as the aspectiviser of vehemence after the main verb, and expresses the notion that the action referred to by the preceding main verb is accomplished with vehemence, as illustrated by the following examples. In clauses containing the passive construction of the aspectiviser of vehemence dam54 before the perfect clause marker

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, specific emphasis is placed on the object, given the fact that there normally is no subject. 142

Gvyop5 zo31 dam54 bue31. (ipf) tuck.away eat VEH+FCT P+I [foodstuffs] It has all been tucked away, gobbled up.

143

Ban11 ngvyau31 dam54 bue31. (ipf) (ipf) use.up throw.away VEH+FCT P+I It has all been thrown out.

CHAPTER FIVE

THE INDICATIVE MOOD MARKER

5.1

INTRODUCTION

The indicative mood marker is a tonal morpheme in tone /31/ which expresses the fundamental and ubiquitous grammatical category of indicative mood. The indicative mood marker does not mark verbs but clauses as a whole, as the final part of specific marking units. I term as marking unit any clause-final entity consisting of more than one morpheme, expressing various types of mood as well as other notions. The indicative mood marker forms part of those types of marking units which I call: clause marking units, attitude marking units, the evidential marking unit and the quotative marking unit. The final syllables of many of the clause marking units, all attitude marking units, as well as the evidential marking unit and the quotative marking unit, are in tone /31/. Vice versa, all marking units with final syllables in tone /31/ express indicative mood, and it never occurs that marking units do not express indicative mood whilst their final syllables bear tone /31/. Therefore, I shall analyse all marking units with final syllables in tone /31/, i.e. all clause marking units of which the tone of the last syllable is tone /31/, all attitude marking units, as well as the evidential marking unit and the quotative marking unit, as marked by a special tonal morpheme expressing indicative mood, that I shall call the indicative mood marker . Comparison with Burmese may be fruitful, since the ends of many Burmese utterances also have a characteristic downward tonal effect. Zaiwa indicative mood excludes another important grammatical category in the language, i.e. the factitive category expressed by the factitive marker , discussed in the previous chapter. The indicative clause marking units contrast with clause markers or clause marking units

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that express other modalities, such as imperative, volitional, exhortative, optative/jussive and conditional moods, all with final syllables in tones other than tone /31/. Below is an overview of the sections of this chapter. The first of the following sections will illustrate the existence, form and meaning of the indicative mood marker , discussing the combination of this tonal marker with clause markers. Section 5.2 Section 5.3 Section 5.4 Section 5.5 Section 5.6 Section 5.7 5.2

Clause markers: overt marking by the indicative mood marker Clause markers: the indicative mood marker in combination with no longer retrievable roots Attitude marking units The evidential and the quotative Indicative clause marking units in negative clauses The exclamatory ending -ei31

CLAUSE MARKERS: OVERT MARKING BY THE INDICATIVE MOOD MARKER

Clause markers are used after the predicates of most Zaiwa clauses, mostly together with one or several other clause markers as part of clause marking units. Clause marking units simultaneously mark both the predicate and the clause as a whole for different categories of mood, aspect, tense, Aktionsart and number. Non-negative and non-prohibitive clauses, i.e. clauses that neither contain the negative prefix nor the prohibitive prefix , usually contain at least one clause marker. At least the following six clause markers can be overtly marked by the indicative mood marker . These are: •



The morpheme ‘need’, as part of the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need +I), simultaneously indicating future tense and indicative mood, the full syllable allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL), as part of the plural indicative clause

THE INDICATIVE MOOD MARKER







127

marking unit gvo31 (PL+I), simultaneously indicating the plurality of the given entities and indicative mood, the full syllable allomorph of the continuous clause marker ‘still’, as part of the continuous indicative clause marking unit si31 (still+I), simultaneously indicating the notion ‘still’, or related notions, and indicative mood, the full syllable allomorph of the finite clause marker ‘no.more’, as part of the finite indicative clause marking unit lo31 (no.more+I), simultaneously indicating the notion ‘no more’, or related notions, and indicative mood, the full syllable allomorph of the perfect clause marker (P), as part of the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I), simultaneously indicating the continuing present relevance of some situation at another time and indicative mood.

Below I shall show some minimal pairs illustrating the opposition between the indicative mood marker and zero, which may also illustrate that the indicative mood marker is always used on the last syllable. The morpheme ‘need’ can both be used as a verb ‘need’, e.g. (1), and as part of the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I), simultaneously indicating future tense and indicative mood, when combined with the indicative mood marker , e.g. (2). 1

Gvut5 no35 a1-ra11 loq1. do to NEG–need no.more It’s no longer necessary to do that.

2

Ka55-hu55 gvut5 ra31? Q–sort do need+I What are you going to do?

The continuous clause marker expresses the notion ‘still’. The full syllable allomorph of the latter morpheme marked by the indicative mood marker functions as the continuous indicative clause marking unit si31 (still+I), simultaneously giving expression to the notion ‘still’ and to indicative mood. This form si31 (still+I) always has a prefix, mostly the nominalising prefix

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(nom-), e.g. (3). The nominalising prefix (nom-) substantivises and actualises the notions expressed by clause markers to which it is attached. In this case, the prefix (nom-) substantivises and actualises the notions ‘still’ and indicative mood expressed by si31 (still+I). 3

Nang31

zo31 a1-si31 luq1? (ipf) 2SG eat nom–still+I Y/N Are you (SG) still eating?

When the plural clause marker (PL) is suffixed to the same clause marking unit a1-si31 (nom-still+I) used above, the indicative mood marker moves over from the latter form to the plural clause marker, resulting in the form a1-si1-gvo31 (nom-still-PL+I), as illustrated by the following sentence. The clause marking unit a1-si1-gvo31 (nom-still-PL+I) simultaneously gives expression to the notion ‘still’, the plurality of the given entities and indicative mood. These notions are substantivised and actualised by the nominalising prefix . 4

Nung35-moq1 zo31 a1-si1-gvo31 luq1? 2PL–party eat(ipf) nom–still–PL+I Y/N Are you (PL) still eating?

The emphatic indicative clause marking unit rvo31 (PE+HIGH+I) simultaneously expresses ‘hear what I’m saying!’ and indicative mood, e.g. (7), and can be seen as the indicative and affirmative variant of the emphatic highlighting clause marking unit rvo55 (PE+HIGH), e.g. (6). The latter clause marking unit needs to be discussed first, since this form on its own already is a contraction of two morphemes, uniting the meanings of the two, viz. the personal experience clause marker (PE) and an attitude marker (HIGH) termed the highlighting suffix. The personal experience clause marker (PE) indicates a specific type of epistemological mood that applies to the clause as a whole, such as can be expressed by saying ‘someone experienced this happening/taking place’, referring to the present relevance of a certain personal assessment, such as caused by impressions or experiences,

THE INDICATIVE MOOD MARKER

129

e.g. (5). The highlighting suffix (HIGH ), which forms the other component of the emphatic highlighting clause marking unit rvo55 (PE+HIGH), adds strength to the words of the speaker. 5

6

Le1-zvui55-zo11 one–bit–child I’m a bit tired.

moi31 tired(ipf)

r55. PE

Yvum31 lyeng31 lo35 rvo55. house fall(vi)(ipf) go(back/up) PE+HIGH The house is tumbling over!

The following clause, containing the emphatic indicative clause marking unit rvo31 (PE+HIGH+I), may serve as a response to sentences like (6). 7

Ngvut5 rvo31! be PE+HIGH+I Yes it is! / Yes they are!

Another clause marking unit containing the indicative mood marker is the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I). The general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I) in a broad and overall way refers to general information that is not related to any specific time other than that which is naturally evident from the context, as illustrated by sentences (8) and (9). I tentatively analyse the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I) as a combination of the morpheme ‘also’ and the indicative mood marker . Some caution has to be observed when making this statement, since Zaiwa has rather many important function words with initial /r/ or /l/. In other environments, the morpheme variants // ‘also’ either are used as conjunctions specifically relating certain situations to other situations in the context, in which case they can almost be translated as ‘-ing’, e.g. (10) and (11), or as adverbs expressing ‘also’ or ‘too’, e.g. (11) and (12). 8

Ngvyau55 ge11 nge5-zo11 cat TOP fish–child As for cats, they eat fish.

zo31 eat(ipf)

lye31. also+I

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9

Nang31

ka31 lo35 lye31? 2SG where go(back/up) also+I Where are you (SG) going?

10

Nang31

11

Ki31-lyeng31 zi31 r11 no11 r55. (ipf) (ipf) leg/foot–wheel ride(vt) also pain/ill/disease PE It also hurts when I ride a bicycle.

12

Ngo31

5.3

CLAUSE MARKERS: THE INDICATIVE MOOD MARKER IN COMBINATION WITH NO LONGER RETRIEVABLE ROOTS

mue31-bu11 ci31 r11 ge11 2SG wrap–clothes wash(ipf) also TOP 55 5 a -mvyo myang35 ge11. nom–much (time).long TOP You (SG) took a very long time to wash your clothes.

r11 zyong11 1SG also school I go to the school too.

ye31 ra31. go(away/down) need+I

The two following clause marking units are analysed as bimorphemic entities consisting of clause markers that are no longer retrievable root morphemes in combination with the indicative mood marker . These are: the clause marking unit nvo31 (EXP+I) termed the suffix of the expected, e.g. (13), and the clause marking unit lui 31 ‘in this way’, glossed (in.this.way +I), e.g. (14). 13

Yvang11

kau11 nvo31 dut1 r55. 3SG steal EXP+I become PE He looks/seems like someone who would steal.

14

No31 lui31 yak1 r55. pain/ill/disease in.this.way +I difficult2 PE Because of his illness he is having hard times.

It is possible, of course, that the original or underlying tones of the clause marking units nvo31 (EXP+I) and lui31 (in.this.way +I) were already in tone /31/, so that addition of the indicative mood marker

THE INDICATIVE MOOD MARKER

131

yielded a homophonous form. Such is the case for the clause marking unit mu31 (happen+I), consisting of the verb ‘happen’ and the indicative mood marker . The latter clause marking unit simultaneously expresses the notion ‘after’ and indicative mood. 15

Zang11 zo11 mu31 rice/food eat happen+I Leave (PL) after the meal.

5.4

ATTITUDE MARKING UNITS

lo35 gveq5. go(back/up) PLIM

The group of attitude marking units are optionally used at the end of the sentence, either or not preceded by clause markers, and signal the degree of commitment the speaker has to the truth of the proposition. Monosyllabic attitude marking units mostly are analysed as bimorphemic entities consisting of no longer retrievable root morphemes and the indicative mood marker . When I say that these roots are no longer etymologically retrievable, I mean that they are synchronically bound morphemes which are attested only in combination with the indicative mood marker . The Zaiwa suggestive suffix kai31/hai31 (SUG+I) consists of a no longer retrievable root morpheme combined with the indicative mood marker and gives expression to certain assessments, like ‘isn’t it?’ or ‘I guess that …’. 16

A1-si31 kai31. NEG–die SUG+I He’s not dead, is he?

In sentence (18), the suggestive suffix is combined with clause markers. The plural perfect indicative clause marking unit a1-be1-gvo31 (nom-P-PL+I) consists of the nominalising prefix , the perfect clause marker , the plural clause marker and the indicative mood marker , e.g. (17). When the suggestive suffix kai31/hai31 (SUG+I) is used after a1-be1-gvo31 (nom-P-PL+I), the indicative mood marker in the latter clause marking unit is

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omitted, since kai31/hai31 (SUG+I) already contains one. This results in the form a1-be1-gve5-kai31 (nom-P-PL-SUG+I), e.g. (18). 17

A1hui31 ge11 i5-mvyup5 am31 a1-be1-gvo31. (ipf) now TOP go–bury PFM nom–P–PL+I We are on our way to bury him now.

18

Yvang55-moq1 lo35 ngi11-gvun31 3PL–party go(back/up) be.there(anim)(ipf)–play(ipf) a1-be1-gve5-kai31. nom–P–PL–SUG+I They (PL) have gone off to amuse themselves for a while, I suppose.

The suffix of the obvious mai31, glossed (OBV+I) consists of a no longer retrievable root morpheme and the indicative mood marker and stresses the truth, the urgency or the exceptional nature of a certain situation, by referring to the fact that it is obvious in some way. 19

Le1-zvui55 lvang55 one–bit even It’s not heavy at all!

a1-lai11 mai31. NEG–heavy OBV+I

The insistive suffix ning31 (INS+I) also consists of a no longer retrievable root morpheme and the indicative mood marker . This form ning31 (INS+I) is used as an attitude marking unit or as an interjection, emphatically drawing the attention of the addressee to the given situation, as if to express notions akin to ‘really!’ or ‘no way!’. 20

Yvang11

son31 dik1 3SG stingy(ipf) extreme He is terribly stingy!

lye31 also+I

ning31. INS+I

The double-checking suffix ngva31 (DC+I) consists of a no longer retrievable root morpheme in combination with the indicative mood marker . The double-checking suffix ngva31 (DC+I) is used for double-checking situations that already are obvious, just to be sure, and is often translated like ‘I see that you …?’.

THE INDICATIVE MOOD MARKER

21

Nang31

22

Yvup5 be1-ra31 ngva31? sleep P–need+I DC+I So are you about to go to sleep?

133

a1-dong35 ngva31? 2SG NEG–agree DC+I So you (SG) disagree with this, do you?

Whereas the other monosyllabic attitude marking units are combinations of no longer retrievable root morphemes and the indicative mood marker , in one case the underlying morpheme may be a morpheme that already is used as an attitude marker itself. I analyse the negative indicative marking unit (N)o31 (HIGH+I) as the combination of the highlighting attitude marker (HIGH) and the indicative mood marker . The highlighting suffix adds strength to the words of the speaker, without suggesting that the situation is current, and sometimes even excluding the latter notion. By contrast, the negative indicative suffix (N)o31 insists on a situation that is current, and mostly negative or prohibited. The opposition between the two suffixes is illustrated by the following minimal pair, consisting of prohibitive clauses. Sentence (23) containing the negative indicative suffix (N)o31 refers to a current situation, whereas sentence (24) containing the highlighting suffix has a pre-emptive connotation. 23

Ke5-gvut5-no31. PHB–do–HIGH+I What are you doing!? / But you can’t do that!? [spoken whilst actually doing it]

24

Ke5-gvut5-no55. PHB–do–HIGH Don’t do that. [spoken before actually doing it]

5.5

THE EVIDENTIAL AND THE QUOTATIVE

The combination of the verb ‘perceive’ and the indicative mood marker functions as the Zaiwa evidential marking unit

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ga31 (perceive+I), which expresses ‘I know this from someone else’. The evidential marking unit ga31 is used in most cases where statements are being made about third persons. 25

Yvang11 waq1-syo11 mak1 dik1 r55 3SG pig–flesh crazy.about extreme PE She is crazy about pork.

ga31. perceive+I

The combination of the verb ‘say’ and the indicative mood marker functions as the Zaiwa quotative marking unit ngvu31 (say+I), mostly used in narratives and simply translated as ‘X said’. 26

5.6

Ke5-kau31 wu35-o55 ngvu31. (ipf) PHB–steal look–HIGH say+I “Don’t look on the sly!” she said. INDICATIVE CLAUSE MARKING UNITS IN NEGATIVE CLAUSES

Zaiwa clauses can be negative and nevertheless contain the indicative mood marker . This section discusses the use of clause marking units containing the indicative mood marker in negative clauses. In the previous sections, the use in negative clauses of the attitude marking units, the evidential marking unit ga31 (perceive+I) and the quotative marking unit ngvu31 (say +I), have already been encountered. The finite indicative clause marking unit lo31 (no.more+I) is often used in negative clauses. The finite indicative clause marking unit lo31 (no.more+I) consists of the finite clause marker ‘no.more’ and the indicative mood marker , simultaneously indicating the notion ‘no more’, or related notions, and indicative mood, as illustrated by the following examples. The familiar suffix ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) consists of the general topic marker , the finite clause marker and the indicative mood marker and expresses familiarity or the fact that something is evident, much like English ‘of course’, e.g. (28). 27

A1-zo11 lo31 a5be11. NEG–eat no.more+I almost.certain

135

THE INDICATIVE MOOD MARKER

I don’t think he’ll eat anymore. 28

Sue55 zyang35 ge11 lui31-lui31 ze11 ge1-lo31. know CD TOP easy–easy only TOP–no.more+I If you know how to do it, it is easy.

Another indicative clause marking unit which can be used in negative clauses is the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I), consisting of the morpheme ‘need’ and the indicative mood marker , simultaneously indicating future tense and indicative mood. The combination of the latter clause marking unit with negation only occurs in interrogative clauses. 29

Hyem31 a1-myung31 ra54 dvi55? how NEG–poor need+FCT RFL How can they not become poor?

30

Nang31 Zum31-go35 a1-ye31 ra31 luq1? 2SG consort–dance NEG–go(away/down) need+I Y/N Are you (SG) going to go to the Menau festival [or not]?

31

Ngo31

ge11

zang11 1SG TOP rice/food ge11 a1-zo11 ra31 TOP NEG–eat need+I [after drinking booze] I’m some?

zo31 eat(ipf) luq1?

lye31, also+I

nang31 2SG

Y/N

having rice, won’t you (SG) have

Another indicative clause marking unit which can be used in negative clauses is the clause marking unit nvo31 (EXP+I), consisting of an irretrievable root morpheme and the indicative mood marker , and expresses that the situation denoted by the preceding clause was expected by someone. This clause marking unit has already been encountered above, and was illustrated by sentence (13). 32

A1-ye31 nvo31. NEG–go(away/down) EXP+I He didn’t show up.

136 5.7

CHAPTER FIVE 31.

THE EXCLAMATORY ENDING -ei

The exclamatory ending -ei31 (EXCL+I) emphatically gives expression to feelings such as despair or longing, as illustrated by the following examples. The exclamatory ending -ei31 could be analysed as consisting of a no longer retrievable root morpheme and the indicative mood marker . Sentences (34) and (35) are both taken from songs. In opening phrases of songs, the exclamatory ending -ei31 can also be used as a mere vocative ending. The exclamatory ending -ei31 is homophonous to the Zaiwa word ‘yes, right!’. 33

Goi35-ei31, a5-se55 wa35 dut1-n55 alas–EXCL+I nom–like EMP become– FCT ga54 ge1-dvi31-ei31. perceive+FCT TOP–CX– EXCL+I My God, why did it have to be like this!

34

Zyai11-ei31 yvum31-mau11 lo35 (regretting)–EXCL+I house–native.land go(back/up) nvau11 ra55. (ipf) feel.like PE Oh, how I want to return to my native land!

35

Goi35-ei31, Me1zyoi11sing11ra11 Bum31 me55 alas–EXCL+I Mezyoisingra heap(vt/N) LOC cyoq5-pit5-n55 num11nang35 wui31-ei31. navel.string–cut.in.two–FCT friend generation–EXCL+I Oh, old friends who were born at Mount Mezyoisingra!

CHAPTER SIX

THE NOMINALISING PREFIX Like many other languages, Zaiwa has various means of nominalising. The nominalising prefix (nom-) is basically a nominaliser with transpositional functions which can be explained in terms of its nominalising function. The factitive marker , which has already been discussed in Chapter 4, is another important nominaliser in Zaiwa. Whereas the central function of the factitive marker is reification of an argument as such, the central function of the nominalising prefix (nom-) is transpositional, and adds a more concrete sense to the situation which is denoted by the root. Quite obviously, the Zaiwa nominalising prefix is cognate to Burmese ǎ. Okell (1969: 243-8) describes the latter Burmese equivalent as a formative prefix that either in a productive way makes nouns from verb bases, or in an unproductive way is prefixed to noun bases. Below, I shall discuss the various syntactic functions of the nominalising prefix (nom-) in separate sections.

t

6.1

THE NOMINALISING PREFIX NOMINALISING STATIVE VERBS

A first function of the nominalising prefix (nom-) is that of nominalising stative verbs to exemplify their adjectival function, e.g. after ‘green/blue’ in a1-ngyui31 (nom-green/blue) ‘green/blue, the colour green/blue’ and after ‘new’ in a1-sek5 (nom-new). New shoes can both be referred to as sau55 hai11 sek5 (shoe new) and sau55hai11 a1-sek5 (shoe nom-new). In cases like the latter example, the nominalising prefix adds a more concrete sense to the situation which is denoted by the root. In cases like the following sentence, the omission of the copula ‘to be’ after the nominalised stative verb was rejected, thus indicating that these forms syntactically have a status as nominal constituents, rather than verbs.

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A1-sek5 ngvut5 nom–new be Is it still new?

a1-si31 luq1? nom–still+I Y/N

Stative verbs that are nominalised by (nom-) are often modified by the form ma54 (LOC+FCT). The latter form consists of the locative case marker and the factitive marker . This form can be used in two different ways. First, it can be used in a literal way, nominalising or subordinating a locational notion indicated by a preceding noun, e.g. mue31-bu11 ma54 pui11-lvup5 (wrap-clothes LOC+FCT dust/chaff-be.dusty) ‘the dust on the clothes’. The second function of the form ma54 (LOC+FCT) is of more interest here, since it is used after nominalised stative verbs, many of which are nominalised by (nom-). Here, the form ma54 (LOC+FCT) is used as the Zaiwa description marker, serving as a descriptive means for indicating that a given entity or situation bears the characteristics of the preceding nominalised stative verb. 2

Ngo31

a1-nye31 1SG nom–red I cut red ones.

ma54 zuen54. LOC+FCT cut/clip+FCT

3

Mue31-bu11 hau31 a1-ngyui31 ma54 wrap–clothes the/that nom–green/blue LOC+FCT a1-ngvut5 luq1? NEG–be Y/N Were those clothes green/blue ones?

4

A1-bvyen55 ma54 luq1, a1-lvum11 ma54 luq1? nom–flat/slice LOC+FCT Y/N nom–lump LOC+FCT Y/N The flat one or the round one?

Combinations of two nominalised stative verbs more often than not go unaccompanied by ma54 (LOC+FCT), as illustrated by the following sentence. 5

A1-bvik5 a1-bai35 dut1 nom–turn/grind nom–wind become [rope] It is all tangled up.

dvo31 r55. (ipf) place(vt) PE

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139

Stative verbs nominalised by (nom-) can also be modified by the morpheme ‘lead, connect’ as the mediative case suffix when the meaning of this form is used in an abstract instead of a literal way, expressing that things are done in the way or fashion indicated by the preceding form. 6

A1-bvai11 dong31 ke5-wun31. nom–left lead/connect PHB–carry/bring [a bag] Don’t carry it on your left side.

6.2

THE NOMINALISING PREFIX NOMINALISING NON-STATIVE VERBS

The nominalising prefix can also nominalise non-stative verbs. Such has been attested before the verbs ‘burp’(V), ‘yawn’(V) and ‘sneeze’(V ), as part of the nouns a5-gue11 ‘burp’(N), e.g. (7), a5-ham11 ‘yawn’(N), e.g. (8), and a5-cyo11 ‘sneeze’(N), e.g. (9). 7

A5-gue11 gue11 r55. nom–burp burp PE He is burping. / You are burping.

8

A5-ham11 lvang55 ham11 nom–yawn even yawn nvau11 dik1 bue31. feel.like(ipf) extreme P+I I’m yawning, I’m very sleepy.

bue31, P+I

yvup5 sleep

9

A5-cyo11 ke5-cyo11. nom–sneeze PHB–sneeze Don’t sneeze.

6.3

THE NOMINALISING PREFIX BEFORE LOCATIONAL MARKERS

The nominalising prefix (nom-) turns locational markers into nouns, in the way indicated below.

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‘inside’ → ‘under’ → ‘underneath’ → ‘come out, above’→

a1-kau31‘the inside’ a1-o31 ‘the underside’ a1-tye11 ‘the underneath’ a1-toq5 ‘the above side’

The four nouns shown above are in all cases modified by one of the locational case markers, viz. mostly by the locative case marker . In these combinations, the locative case marker is often marked by the factitive marker in a subordinating or nominalising function. 10

Mi1-kyom55 a1-toq5 ma54 ge11 myam31zui11. fire–fireplace nom–come.out LOC+FCT TOP rack.above.fire The thing above the fireplace is known as a myamzui drying rack.

The following sentence illustrates the use of one of these special nouns before the directive case marker . Unfortunately, suitable examples containing these special nouns before the ablative case marker are not available, even though such forms are very likely to exist. 11

cya35cyang31 a1-toq5 pyang31 tea.factory nom–come.out DIR in the direction of the houses before the tea factory

6.4

THE NOMINALISING PREFIX BEFORE BOUND NOMINAL ROOTS

The nominalising prefix (nom-) is also used before bound nominals which otherwise occur as suffixes to other nouns. For example, the morpheme ‘picture, poster’ is either used as a suffix, e.g. byu31-lvo31 (man/woman-picture) ‘picture or poster with some person or persons on it’, or in the form a1-lvo31 (nom-picture) indicating a picture or poster which can have anything on it. In this use, the nominalising prefix (nom-) indicates that the type of entity indicated by the given noun is used in a more concrete sense, as is further illustrated by the following forms.

THE NOMINALISING PREFIX

141

‘roots’ in a1-mit1 (nom-roots) ‘its root/roots, the root/roots’ and sek5-mit1 (tree-roots) ‘roots of a tree’, ‘leaf’ in a1-haq5 (nom-leaf) ‘its leaf/leaves, the leaf/leaves’ and mvan11-haq5 (grass/leaves-leaf) ‘leaf/leaves’, ‘edge’, in a1-yam31 me55 (nom-edge LOC) ‘at the edge’ and in pyeng55-yam31 (dish-edge) ‘edge of the dish/plate’, and ‘ball, seed’ in a1-zi35 (nom-ball/seed) ‘its seed/seeds, the seed/seeds’, hum31-zi35 (melon/gourd-ball/seed) ‘seeds of melon/gourd’ and myoq1-zi35 (eye-ball/seed) ‘eye, eye-ball’.

The nominalising prefix (nom-) is also used in kinship terms and certain proper names, mostly with its tone being raised to /55/ by the morpho-phonological process of stress. The nominalising prefix (nom-) is added to enable the use of the nominal root independently as a vocative, and for specific reference to certain persons. Like the other nouns above, these morphemes for kinship terms and family names normally are bound forms. For example, the morpheme ‘mother’ is never used as a word on its own, but only in combinations like: A5-nu11 (nom-mother) ‘Mum’ or nang35 nu11 (2SG .PO mother) ‘your mother’. As an example of the use of the nominalising prefix (nom-) in proper names, the name A1-kun55 (nom-Kun) contains the family name . Family names like the latter are also bound forms, since they are mostly used in complex names, e.g. Le1-kun55 ‘the Kuns’ and Le1-kun55-laq1 (male-(name)-3rd.male.sib), the full name of my main informant. 6.5

THE NOMINALISING PREFIX CONVERTING NOMINAL MORPHEMES INTO ADVERBS

The nominalising prefix (nom-) also converts nominal morphemes into adverbs. I shall first discuss the use of (nom-) after nominal morphemes. • The noun expresses ‘row, array’, e.g. (12). In combination with (nom-), this morpheme is also used in the adverb a1-yan35 ‘often’, or, more literally: ‘in a row, one after the other, by rows’, e.g. (13).

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12

Nang31 ngo31

13

Yvang11

r55

le1-yan35 2SG 1SG OBJ one–row Read (SG) one line of text to me. myoq1 a1-yan35 3SG eye nom–row He often blinks his eyes.

ngvap5 gvyo11 raq5. read.aloud let.hear VO pyap1 blink

r55. PE

• The noun means ‘stalk’, e.g. pung11syui31 le1-yang11 (sugar.cane one-stalk) ‘one stalk of sugar cane’. The adverb a1-yang11 (nom-stalk) expresses ‘often’, or more literally ‘by bushels’, e.g. (14). The derivation of the meaning is analogous to that of a1-yan35 (nom-row) ‘often’. 14

A1-yang11 ngun31 ke5-dye31 dung11-o31. nom–stalk silver PHB–too demand–HIGH+I Don’t always ask for [loads of] money.

• The noun means ‘day’, e.g. i55-sum11 ngi35 (two-three day) ‘a couple of days’. When combined with (nom-) and ‘morning’, this noun ‘day’ is also used as part of the form a1-ngi35-nap1 ‘yesterday’. • In the same way, the nominalising prefix (nom-) is used before the morpheme ‘the other year’ in a1-nvik5/a5-nvik5 ‘next year’. When not combined with (nom-), the morpheme ‘the other year’ is only used as a suffix in other complex forms, e.g. sang31-nvik5 ‘next year’ (beginning-the.other.year) ‘next year’, nuq1-nvik5 (after-the.other.year) ‘the year after next year’ and he5-nvik5 (before-the.other.year) ‘the year before last year’. • The nominalising prefix (nom-) turns the verb ‘turn over’(vt), e.g. (15) and (16), into the noun a1-puq5 (nom-turn.over(vt)) which either expresses ‘inside out’, e.g. (17), or (furniture etc.) ‘upside down’, e.g. (18), before the mediative case suffix ‘lead, connect’. 15

Li31-eq1 ge11 plough#–AG/I TOP

i1-tung11 water–paddy

puq5 lye31. turn.over(vt) also+I

THE NOMINALISING PREFIX

143

The plough is for turning the paddies. 16

Puq5 ngop1 gvan31-aq1. turn.over(vt) face put.into*–SIM Turn around and face (SG) this way.

17

A1-puq5 nom–turn.over(vt) r55 mai31. PE

dong31 wut1 lead/connect wear/dress

dvo31 place(vt)(ipf)

OBV+I

You are wearing it inside out! / He is wearing it inside out! 18

6.6

Dvang55kuq5 a1-puq5 dong31 dvo11-aq5. stool/chair nom–turn.over(vt) lead/connect place(vt)–SIM Place (SG) the stool/chair upside down. THE NOMINALISING PREFIX BEFORE INDICATIVE CLAUSE MARKING UNITS

The nominalising prefix (nom-) also combines with indicative clause marking units, where it has the function of substantivising and actualising the different notions expressed by these forms. Clause marking units are polymorphemic forms that are used after the predicate of most Zaiwa clauses and simultaneously mark both the predicate and the clause as a whole for mood, tense, aspect, Aktionsart and number. All clause marking units in tone /31/ are indicative since these are all marked by the indicative mood marker , as I have already discussed in Chapter 4. All clause marking units containing the nominalising prefix (nom-) are also marked by the indicative mood marker , as appears from Tables 6.1 and 6.2 below. The nominalising prefix in clause marking units is thus always used in conjunction with the indicative mood marker , as I shall illustrate in the following discussion of clause marking units. Both of the following examples contain the continuous clause marker ‘still’. In the negative clause in sentence (19), the latter clause marker is used without additional clause markers. Neither the indicative mood marker nor the nominalising prefix are used here, since the situation is not

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indicative. In sentence (20), the same continuous clause marker is used in the continuous indicative clause marking unit a1-si31 (nom-still+I), further containing both the nominalising prefix (nom-) and the indicative mood marker . The two latter morphemes are used here since an indicative situation is referred to which is actual at the given moment. Here, the nominalising prefix substantivises and actualises the notions of continuous Aktionsart and indicative mood expressed by the clause marking unit si31 (still+I). Table 6.1 The use of the nominalising prefix in clause marking units (1), non-plural form and gloss

constituent clause markers

meanings and functions

• nominalising prefix • allomorph of perfect clause marker • indicative mood marker

• substantivising and actualising • perfect • indicative mood

a1-lo31 (nomno.more+I)

• nominalising prefix • finite clause marker • indicative mood marker

• substantivising and actualising • ‘no more’ • indicative mood

a1-si31 (nom-still+I)

• nominalising prefix • continuous clause marker

• indicative mood marker

• substantivising and actualising • ‘still’ • indicative mood

a1-bue31 (nom-P+I)

-

THE NOMINALISING PREFIX

145

The use of the nominalising prefix in clause marking units (2), clause marking units containing the plural clause marker : constituent clause markers

a1-gvo31 (nom-PL+I)

• nominalising prefix , • allomorph of plural clause marker , • indicative mood marker 1 1 31 a -be -gvo • nominalising prefix , (nom-P-PL+I) • allomorph of perfect clause marker , • allomorph of plural clause marker , • indicative mood marker a1-le1-gvo31 • nominalising prefix , (nom• allomorph of finite no.more-PL+I) clause marker , • allomorph of plural clause marker, • indicative mood marker a1-si1-gvo31 • nominalising prefix , (nom• allomorph of continuous still-PL+I) clause marker , • allomorph of plural clause marker , • indicative mood marker

19

A1-zo11 siq1. NEG–eat still I haven’t eaten yet. / I won’t eat yet.

20

Nang31

zo31 a1-si31 luq1? (ipf) 2SG eat nom–still+I Y/N Are you (SG) still eating?

meanings functions

and

• substantivising and actualising • plurality • indicative mood • substantivising and actualising • perfect • plurality • indicative mood • substantivising and actualising • ‘no more’ • plurality • indicative mood • substantivising and actualising • ‘still’ • plurality • indicative mood

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The two following examples can be compared in a similar way. Both sentences contain the allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL), indicating the plurality of the entities in the context. In the prohibitive sentence (21), the indicative mood marker is not used, since the situation is not indicative, and therefore the nominalising prefix neither is used. Sentence (22) is indicative and contains the plural indicative clause marking unit a1-gvo31 (nom-PL+I), containing both the nominalising prefix (nom-) and the indicative mood marker . Here, the nominalising prefix substantivises and actualises the notions of plurality and indicative mood expressed by the clause marking unit gvo31 (PL+I). 21

Me1-byoq1 he5-ho31 gvo55. words–quarrel PHB–look.for PL Don’t (PL) pick fights.

22

Kim31 lum31 si11 a1-gvo31. bicker(ipf) reciprocal(ipf) die(ipf) nom–PL+I They are quarrelling ferociously.

The nominalising prefix (nom-) also forms part of the determinant clause marking unit a1-bue31 (nom-P+I). The latter clause marking unit expresses the continuing present relevance of a situation in future, from the moment of inception or completion onwards, as well as indicative mood. 23

Zyong11 ye11 a1-bue31 luq1? (ipf) school go(away/down) nom–P+I Y/N Are you going off to school? [to stay there for some while]

24

A1kui31 ban31-syoq5 gva31 yau35 a1-bue31. now use.up–till write(ipf) finish nom–P+I Now I’m finishing up writing the whole thing.

The latter determinant clause marking unit a1-bue31 (nom-P+I) forms a minimal pair with the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I), since both clause marking units contain the perfect clause marker and the indicative mood marker , the only difference being whether or not they contain the nominalising prefix

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147

. The perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I), without (nom-), expresses the notion of perfect, i.e. the continuing present relevance of a situation at another time, as well as indicative mood. This meaning is illustrated by sentence (25), where bue31 (P+I) refers to the eating of a meal at some other time. When the nominalising prefix (nom-) is attached to this clause marking unit bue31 (P+I) in the determinant clause marking unit a1-bue31 (nom-P+I), the prefix has the function of nominalising and actualising the notions of perfect and indicative mood indicated by bue31 (P+I) by referring to a specific moment of inception or completion. The two following examples may further illustrate the use of these two clause marking units, i.e. the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 and the determinant clause marking unit a1-bue31. 25

Zang11 zo11 bue31 rice/food eat P+I Have you eaten already?

luq1? Y/N

and the response: 26

A1hui31 zo31 a1-bue31. now eat(ipf) nom–P+I I have just begun eating.

The nominalising prefix (nom-) is not used before the three following indicative clause marking units, since these express notions that are incompatible with the substantivising and actualising function of (nom-). First, the nominalising prefix (nom-) is not used before the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I), since this form refers to general and non-specific situations rather than to actual situations, e.g. (27). The nominalising prefix (nom-) is also not used before the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I), since this form refers to situations that still lie in the future, e.g. (28). Finally, the nominalising prefix (nom-) is not used before the suffix of the expected nvo31 (EXP+I), since this form merely refers to expectations, rather than to actual situations, e.g. (29).

148 27

CHAPTER SIX

Ngo31 1SG

sue31 know(ipf)

lye31. also+I

I know. 28

Le1-king11 r55 zo11 ra31. one–halt/rest TS eat need+I We will eat in a little while.

29

Ngvut5 nvo31 be EXP+I It could be.

ngam11 seem(ipf)

r55. PE

In negative clauses like sentence (30), there is no nominalising prefix (nom-) before the finite indicative clause marking unit lo31 (no.more+I), even though the latter is marked by the indicative mood marker . In the following sentence, the nominalising prefix is not used because the situation indicated by the predicate is not relevant at the actual moment. Also compare sentence (31), where, by contrast, the nominalising prefix is being used before the same finite indicative clause marking unit lo31 (no.more+I), because the situation which is referred to by the predicate is relevant at the actual moment. 30

A1-yvup5 lo31 a5be11. NEG–sleep no.more+I almost.certain I don’t think that she is still sleeping.

31

I55-ngi35 ze11 ngi11 a1-lo31. (ipf) two–day only be.there(anim) nom–no.more+I Only two more days. / We stay two more days.

The nominalising prefix (nom-) is not used before the clause marking units lo31 (no.more+I) and gvo31 (PL+I) in two special constructions containing the allomorph of the limitative morpheme ‘only’, which has a special function of the Zaiwa compliative adverb. The first construction is: zaq1 V lo31 r11 ge11 (only Verb no.more+I also TOP) expressing: ‘V is the only situation left to occur, in compliance with some situation’, e.g. (32). The second construction, viz. zaq1 ngvut5 gvo31 r11 ge11

THE NOMINALISING PREFIX

149

(only be PL+I also TOP) expressing: ‘it can only be X (plural), in compliance with some situation’, is the plural variant of the first construction, e.g. (33). The nominalising prefix (nom-) is not used in these constructions, because there is no reference to a substantivised and actualised situation, since the latter combination r11 ge11 (also TOP) indicates that a certain option is referred to, as if to say ‘if this situation were the case’. In these constructions, the general topicaliser functions as a conjunction with the clause after it having been left out. 32

Zaq1 zo11 lo31 r11 ge11. only eat no.more+I also TOP The only thing we can do is start eating.

33

Bvan31-pai55 zaq1 ngvut5 gvo31 r11 ge11. hearts–cards/game only be PL+I also TOP It can only be the hearts cards again. [i.e. a lazy and unreliable person]

The nominalising prefix (nom-) is also not used in the following sentence that contains the clause marking unit lo31 (no.more+I). This can be related to the negative nature of this type of construction, even though the negative prefix is in the clause after lo31 (no.more+I). 34

6.7

O55 gue31 ra31 lo31 a1-gue11 bat1. (ipf) who all.right need+I no.more+I NEG–all.right beat Beating on it is no longer allowed by anyone. THE NOMINALISING PREFIX AS PART OF CONJUNCTIONS AND STOPGAPS

The nominalising prefix is also used in various complex conjunctions, as I shall set out below. The nominalising prefix is combined with the verb ‘happen’ in two conjunctions. The form a5-mu31 (nom-happen) can be translated as ‘and after this happened’ or ‘and because this happened’, e.g. (35). The form hau55-mu31 (the/that-happen) is a variant on the latter form and can be translated as ‘and after that happened’, e.g. (36).

150 35

36

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A1hang31 ze11 zo11 lui31, a5-mu31 just.now only eat in.this.way +I nom–happen a1-ze1-nvau31. NEG–eat–feel.like Because I just ate, I don’t feel like eating it. Kyo31 he5-so54, hau55-mu31 mo35do35 zi54. road before–walk+FCT the/that–happen car ride(vt)+FCT First I walked and then I went by bus.

The nominalising prefix is combined with the ablative case marker in two other conjunctions. The form a5-mai11 (nom-ABL) can be translated as ‘and from this time onwards’ or simply as ‘after this’, e.g. (37). The form hau55-mai11 (the/that-ABL) is a variant on the latter form and can be translated as ‘and from that time onwards’ or simply ‘after that’, e.g. (38). 37

A5-mai11 yvang11-mi11 syui31 cyong31. (ipf) nom–ABL 3SG–wife take.along lead.away And after that, he led his wife away.

38

Hau55-mai11 lo31 bue31 the/that–ABL come(back/up) P+I And after that she came back home.

ga31. perceive+I

Another conjunction containing the nominalising prefix is a5-su54 (nom-like+FCT), which can be translated as ‘but nevertheless’ or ‘even though things are like this’, as illustrated by the following sentence. This form a5-su54 (nom-like+FCT) consists of the nominalising prefix , the impressionistic morpheme (like) and the factitive marker . 39

Zai11wa31-ming35 ge11 ngvut5 r55, a5-su54 Zaiwa–language TOP be PE nom–like+FCT ngo31 a1-sue31-gyo11. (ipf) 1SG NEG–know –hear/smell It’s Zaiwa but nevertheless I can’t understand it.

THE NOMINALISING PREFIX

151

The word a1-kun31 (nom-time) functions rather like a stopgap and can be translated as ‘well then’ or ‘in that case’, e.g. (40). The morpheme ‘time’ in the latter word appears to be a bound nominal root that is only used as a conjunction expressing ‘at the time when’, after clauses that have been subordinated to this morpheme by the factitive marker , e.g. (41). 40

A1-kun31 zyang35 sang31-pe1-nap5 nom–time CD beginning–after.tomorrow–morning 31 1 ye gvoq . go(away/down) DIE Well then, let us go the day after tomorrow.

41

Nang31

6.8

THE NOMINALISING PREFIX IN COMPLEX PRONOUNS AND OTHER DEICTIC FORMS

lo25 kun31 ge11 ngo31 2SG come(back/up)+FCT time TOP 1SG lvang55 yvup5 dvo31 a1-si31. even sleep place(vt)(ipf) nom–still+I When you (SG) came, I was still asleep.

The nominalising prefix (nom-) also forms part of complex pronouns and other deictic forms, where it has the function of making a central issue of the given situation. • The nominalising prefix is used before the impressionistic morpheme (like), in a5-se55 (nom-like) which can be translated as ‘like now’, ‘like this’ or ‘like that’. 42

Gvo11 bang11 wui25 he5-me55 big PNO generation+FCT before–LOC 5 55 1 5 a -se a -gvut po11. nom–like NEG–do INO These things cannot be done in front of the adults. / One cannot act like this/that in front of the adults.

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43

Se5gvan11 a5-se55 gvut5 spit/phlegm nom–like do ke5-zvet5-no31. PHB–spit.through.the.teeth–HIGH+I Don’t spit through your teeth like this/that.

44

Nang31

45

A5-se55 mu31 zyang35 i31-pue11 nom–like happen CD distilled–booze 1 11 5 1 11 a -gue syuq , ge lu a5rvang55 (ipf) NEG–all.right drink sweets etcetera 1 11 a -gue zo11. (ipf) NEG–all.right eat Because of this [influenza], you can’t drink liquor and you can’t eat sweets and the like.

ge11

a5-se55 ga11 dai54 ge11 2SG TOP nom–like perceive speak+FCT TOP 5 55 se -bvue ge11 a1-gyo31 yo31 hai31-ma11. (ipf) SNO–PLN TOP NEG–hear/smell right SUG+I–ROUS If you (SG) say it like that, other people will naturally feel revulsion upon hearing it.

• The same form a5-su54 (nom-like+FCT) which was mentioned in sentence (39) of the previous section, where it functioned as a conjunction, can also be used as one of the Zaiwa impressionistic pronouns, modifying nominal constituents. This form a5-su54 (nom-like+FCT) can be translated as ‘X like this’ or ‘X like that’. 46

Nga35-nvung55 r11 a5-su54 byu31 1PO–1ND.IN also nom–like+FCT man/woman 31 31 ra dvo r55. need(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE We (ND.IN) also need people like him/her/them.

• The nominalising prefix can also be used before two bound form adjectives ‘much’(B) and ‘far’(B). In the two following sentences, the nominalising prefix (nom-) is used before the bound form adjective ‘far’(B), in a1-hue55 (nom-far(B)) or stressed a5-hue55 (nom-far(B)), both of which can

THE NOMINALISING PREFIX

153

either be translated as ‘that far’ in a literal sense, e.g. (47), or ‘as overdone as now’ in a more idiosyncratic sense, e.g. (48). In sentence (47), reduplication expresses the notion ‘very’. 47

A1-hue55-hue55 a1-wue11. nom–far(B)–far(B) NEG–far It’s not that far.

48

A5-hue55 he5-dai31 hek1. nom–far(B) PHB–speak(ipf) huge Don’t make such a big deal out of these matters.

• The other bound form adjectives before which the nominalising prefix (nom-) is used, is ‘much/many’(B). The forms a1-mvyo55 and its stressed variant a5-mvyo55 both are glossed (nom-much(B))13 and can be translated as ‘as much as now’/’’as much as then’, as illustrated by the following examples. In these cases, the reduplication expresses the notion ‘very’. 49

Zang11 zo11 be1-ra31, ngo31 a1-mvyo55-mvyo55 rice/food eat P–need+I 1SG nom–much–much a1-syuq5 loq1. NEG–drink no.more We’re about to eat, so I won’t drink so much anymore.

50

A5-mvyo55-mvyo55 ke5-gvat5 nom–much(B)–much(B) PHB–put.into Don’t put in so much.

yu31. take

13 The only difference between the forms a1-mvyo55 and a5-mvyo55, both glossed

(nom-much(B)), is that the tone of (nom-) of the last variant is raised to tone /55/ by the morphophonological processes of stress or reduced syllable lexical tone raising before tone /55/, both occurring in allegro speech. These morphophonological processes are discussed in Sections 7.1 and 7.4 respectively.

154 6.9

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INITIAL SYLLABLES NOT ANALYSED AS THE NOMINALISING PREFIX

The Zaiwa exclamatory expressions normally have a first syllable which resembles the nominalising prefix (nom-), but which is analysed as part of these expressions, as illustrated by the following examples. The Zaiwa exclamatory expressions are discussed in Chapter 20.

(painful/emphatic)

(very hot!) 1 5 5

(very very hot!)

‘right!’ The initial syllables of the adverbs listed below could theoretically be analysed as the nominalising prefix (nom-), but I analyse these forms as single morphemes since their second syllables are never found in isolation.

‘quite, very’ (in Zaiwa of Longchuan county) 1 31 1 31 ‘long ago’ ‘just now’

‘in a while’ ‘now’

‘last night’

‘long ago’

‘constantly’ Similarly, the initial syllables of the manifold marker ‘etcetera’ and the attitude marker a5be11 ‘almost certain’, e.g. (51), may appear to be a raised nominalising prefix (nom-), but these forms as a whole are analysed as single morphemes since the second syllables of these forms are never found in isolation. 51

Ngvut5 lye31 be also+I It should be.

a5be11. almost.certain

Etymologically speaking, the initial syllables of some nouns also appear to be the nominalising prefix (nom-), but, since the second syllables are never found in isolation, these forms are also

THE NOMINALISING PREFIX

155

analysed as single morphemes. Examples of such forms are: ‘thing’, ‘merit’ and ‘elephant’. The following nouns are also not analysed as containing the nominalising prefix (nom-), since these forms as a whole appear to be borrowed from Jingpo. ‘temperament’ Jingpo: Xu et al. (1983: 22) akyang ‘temperament, attitude’ ‘promise’ Jingpo: Xu et al. (1983: 25) ama hkam ‘promise’ ‘matter’ Jingpo: Xu et al. (1983: 27) amu ‘job, matter’ ‘sort, nationality’ Jingpo: Xu et al. (1983: 28) amyu ‘sort, nationality’ ‘illness’ Jingpo: Xu et al. (1983: 28) ana ‘illness’ ‘basic capital’ Jingpo: Xu et al. (1983: 38) arang ‘basic capital’ ‘age’ Jingpo: Xu et al. (1983: 41) asak ‘age’

CHAPTER SEVEN

REMAINING MATTERS OF MORPHO-PHONOLOGY This chapter discusses all remaining morpho-phonological processes in Zaiwa. 7.1

STRESS

A characteristic way of calling out people’s names in Zaiwa is calling the name twice with a staccato calling prefix ‘hey!’ in between, as illustrated by the following examples. Here, the reduplicated name moreover undergoes the morpho-phonological process of stress, causing a typical contrastive high-low pattern of the tones /55-11/, e.g. Mo55pi11 instead of Mo35pi55 ‘Beggar’. Both raised and lowered tones are indicated by single-underlined tone numerals. the person named ‘Beggar’ being called: 1

Mo55pi11, e5-Mo55pi11! beggar! VOC–beggar! Beggar! Hey, Beggar!

the person named Le1-dvu31 ‘fourth brother’ being called: 2

Le5-dvu11, e5-Le5-dvu11! (male)–4th-brother VOC–(male)–4th-brother Fourth brother! Hey, fourth brother!

Utterances like those above mostly are responded to by shouting , expressing the notions ‘yes!’ or ‘I’m here!’. In the following cases of the morpho-phonological process of stress, the raising of tones to tone /55/ is not accompanied by the lowering of other tones to tone /11/. In the first two examples, the stressed syllable is the first syllable of the clause, e.g. the prefixed adverb ‘but’ in sentence (3), and the stressed variant of the

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nominalising prefix in a5-mvyo55-mvyo55 ‘so very much’ in sentence (4). In sentence (5), the same form is used without stress. 3

Le5-zo11 gvoq1-o31, min35 r55 mut1 ra31. but–eat DIE–HIGH+I night-time TS hungry need+I But let us (DU.IN) eat something, in the evening we will get hungry.

4

A5-mvyo55-mvyo55 syuq5 r11-r11 i31-pue11 nom–much(B)–much(B) drink also–also distilled–booze wut1-n55 a1-wo35 gyo11 luq1? drunk–FCT NEG–have hear/smell Y/N Even when you drink so much, don’t you feel any intoxication?

5

I1-zyum11 a1-mvyo55-mvyo55 ke5-pyun11 water–salt nom–much(B)–much(B) PHB–strew Don’t add so much salt.

loq1. no.more

In a limited group of words, the tone of the first syllable is somehow always raised, but not for reasons of stress or emphasis, but simply because raised tones have somehow become part of their lexical shape. In the form au55-bung11 ‘kind of convex shaped pan’, the first syllable bears a raised tone, whereas the underlying form is ‘pan’ in tone /11/. In a similar way, the tone of the first syllable of the words hum55-zeng31 (door-trunk) ‘pillar’ and hum55-dvot5 (door-short) ‘veranda’ are always raised, whereas the underlying form is ‘door’ in tone /11/. 7.2 LEXICAL FINAL CHECKED SYLLABLE TONE RAISING

In combinations of two monosyllabic morphemes within one word of which the first morpheme has the shape of a non-checked syllable in tone /11/ or /31/ and the second morpheme has the shape of a checked syllable, the original tone /11/ of the latter checked syllable will

REMAINING MATTERS OF MORPHO-PHONOLOGY

159

change to /55/, as illustrated by the following examples.14 I shall term this morpho-phonological process as lexical final checked syllable tone raising. Raised tones of short syllables are orthographically represented by single underlined tone numerals. 1. The two following forms both contain ‘saw’ as second syllable. Tone /11/ of ‘saw’ becomes tone /55/ after a non-checked syllable within one word, in zai31-yit5 (grass?-saw) ‘toothed saw’15, whereas this morpheme remains the same after a checked syllable within one word, in sek5-yit1 (tree-saw) ‘saw’. 2. As another example, tone /11/ of ‘powder’ (bound form) becomes tone /55/ in mvan11-mop5 (grass/leaves-powder) ‘powder of grass/leaves’, but not after a checked syllable, e.g. sek5-mop1 (tree-powder) ‘sawdust’. 3. Other examples of bisyllabic words of which both syllables are checked, and of which the tone of the second syllable thereby remains tone /11/, are ‘bad, fermented’ in guq1-bup1 (unhusked-rice-bad/fermented) ‘fermented unhusked rice’ and mik1-bup1 (bamboo.shoots-bad/fermented) ‘fermented bamboo shoots’. These forms can be contrasted to bisyllabic words of which the first is a reduced syllable and of which the tone of the second syllable therefore is raised, e.g. ne1-bup5 (bean-bad/fermented) ‘fermented beans’ and si1-bup5 (flesh-bad/fermented) ‘fermented meat’. Within polysyllabic words that are single morphemes, the morphophonological process of lexical final checked syllable tone raising does not occur, e.g. neither in the word ‘ear-shaped alga’, which could be borrowed from Jingpo ongrot (Xu et al. 1983: 656), nor in the indigenous Zaiwa word ‘stone’. The following examples of lexical final checked syllable tone raising are listed according to the following types of words: 1)

14 It should be noted that up to the present moment no bisyllabic words have been attested of which the first is non-short and in tone /35/ or /55/, with the second syllable being checked. 15 The first syllable of this form zai31-yit5 (grass?-saw) ‘toothed saw’ resembles

‘cogon grass’ in tone /11/.

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noun-noun constructions, 2) noun-verb constructions, 3) verb-verb constructions and 4) fixed constructions of a prefix and a verb. Noun-noun constructions: Tone /11/ of ‘clip, tongs’ becomes tone /55/ in sam31-ngyap5 (hair-clip/tongs) ‘hairpin’. Tone /11/ of ‘bite’ becomes tone /55/ in bau11-ngat5 (insect-bite) ‘eaten by insects’. Tone /11/ of ‘black’ becomes tone /55/ in ang11-noq5 (petiole-black) ‘black mustard’. Tone /11/ of ‘spirit’ becomes tone /55/ in mau11-nat5 (sky-spirit) ‘spirit of the sky’. Tone /11/ of ‘corner’ becomes tone /55/ in kum11-zyut5 (door-corner) ‘corner of the door’. Tone /11/ of ‘wrap up’ becomes tone /55/ in zang11-gyeq5 (rice/food-wrap.up) ‘food parcel’. Tone /11/ of ‘hand’ becomes tone /55/ in be1-loq5 (clothes-hand) ‘sleeve’. Noun-verb constructions: Tone /11/ of ‘scrape off’ becomes tone /55/ in ban11-gyet5 (flower-scrape.off) ‘layer of dirt’. Tone /11/ of ‘pee’ becomes tone /55/ in i1-zit5 (urine-pee) ‘to pee’. Tone /11/ of ‘stopped up’ becomes tone /55/ in nvo31-zit5 (nose-stopped.up) ‘have a stuff up’. Tone /11/ of ‘be attached’ becomes tone /55/ in gvyam11-dap5 (luck-be.attached) ‘lucky’. Tone /11/ of ‘wrap around’ becomes tone /55/ in ling31-yup5 (neck-wrap.around) ‘shawl’. Tone /11/ of ‘shoot’ becomes tone /55/ in lai11-bek5 (bow-shoot) ‘archery, shooting the bow’. Verb-verb constructions: Tone /11/ of ‘hungry’ becomes tone /55/ in zo11-mut5 (eat-hungry) ‘be hungry’. Tone /11/ of (ideophone) ‘pressing down tightly’ becomes tone /55/ in zung11-byeq5 (sit(ipf)-(tight.to.the.ground)) ‘sit with crossed legs’.

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fixed constructions of a prefix and a verb: Tone /11/ of the verb ‘become’ becomes tone /55/ in se5-dut5 (like-become) ‘appear to be so’ and in ze1-dut5 (only-become) ‘appear only to be so’. In numeral-specifier noun constructions, the tones /11/ of the checked specifier nouns are changed into tone /55/ by the same morphophonological process of lexical final checked tone raising, but only when the numeral is a non-short syllable in tone /11/, as illustrated by the following examples, counting from one up to ten. le1-yuq1 i55-yuq1 sum11-yuq5 mi11-yuq5 ngo11-yuq5 kyuq5-yuq1 ngvit5-yuq1 sit5-yuq1 gau11-yuq5 le1-sue31 yuq1

(one-person) ‘one person’ (two-person) ‘two people’ (three-person) ‘three people’ (four-person) ‘four people’ (five-person) ‘five people’ (six-person) ‘six people’ (seven-person) ‘seven people’ (eight-person) ‘eight people’ (nine-person) ‘nine people’ (one-ten person) ‘ten people’

Section 9.33 will discuss other aspects of the Zaiwa numerals and numeral morpho-phonology. 7.3 REDUCED SYLLABLE LEXICAL TONE RAISING. BEFORE TONE /11/

In words consisting of a reduced syllable before a non-short syllable, both of which have tone /11/ and that are produced in allegro speech, the tone of the reduced prefix will change into /55/, as illustrated by the following examples. I shall term this morpho-phonological process as reduced syllable lexical tone raising before tone /11/. Raised tones of short syllables as a rule are orthographically represented by single underlined tone numerals.

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slow, well articulated speech more regular, allegro speech   11 nge1-zo11 [ŋə̌11 tso 11] nge5-zo11 [ŋə55 ̌ tso ] (fish-child) ‘fish’ 11 11 me1nau11 [mə11 ̌ n̪ɐu ] me5nau11 [mə55 ̌ n̪ɐu ] ‘Jingpo spring festival’ 11 11 ne1-cyong11 [n̪ə11 ̌ cçʰɔ ŋ ] ne5-cyong11 [n̪ə55 ̌ cçʰɔ ŋ ] (cattle-throat) ‘throat of a cow’ 11 11 ne1-ki11 [n̪ə11 ̌ kʰi ] ne5-ki11 [n̪ə55 ̌ kʰi ] (cattle-faeces) ‘cow dung’ mi1-zvue11 [mĭ11 tsɘ >11] mi5-zvue11 [mĭ55 tsɘ >11] (earth-soil) ‘earth, soil’ ki1-dong11 [kʰĭ11 t̪ɔ ŋ11] ki5-dong11 [kʰĭ55 t̪ɔ ŋ11] (faeces-(have).hole) ‘anus’ Fruit names are regularly produced with the ‘fruit’ prefix , which has undergone the same morpho-phonological process of reduced syllable lexical tone raising before tone /11/. si5-ho11-si11 si5-hum11-si11 si5-bing11-si11

(fruit-plum-fruit) ‘plum’ (fruit-peach-fruit) ‘peach’ (fruit-persimmon-fruit) ‘persimmon’16

It should be noted that the tones /11/ of inflectional or free grammatical morphemes used as prefixes never change by morphophonological processes, e.g. the negative prefix in a1-ra11 [ʔɐ11 ̆ ʐɐ11] (NEG-need) ‘It is not needed’. 7.4 REDUCED SYLLABLE.LEXICAL TONE RAISING BEFORE TONE /55/

Reduced syllables with an underlying tone /11/ tend to get tone /55/ when they are attached to non-short syllables in tone /55/. This seems to always occur when the morphemes represented by these reduced syllables are used in a lexical way, i.e. as noun class prefixes or in

16 The first two syllables of this form may in fact be borrowed, cf. Mandarin 柿饼 shìbǐng dried persimmon’.

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names, whereas this normally does not occur when such forms are used in a free grammatical way. Raised tones of short syllables are orthographically represented by single underlined tone numerals. Compare the two following sets of examples. • with a reduced syllable /u1-/ or /u5-/, which either is the Zaiwa ‘head’-prefix or forms part of bisyllabic morphemes: tone raising in reduced syllables with underlying tone /11/ before non-short syllables in tone /55/: u5-song55 (head-dandruff) [ʔǔ55sɔŋ55] ‘dandruff’ 5 55 55 u dvyeng (village.name) [ʔu55 ̌ t̪jɛ̪ ŋ ] (village name) 55 u5dvong55 (peacock) [ʔu55 ̌ t̪ɔ̱ ŋ ] ‘peacock’17 no tone raising in reduced syllables with underlying tone /11/ before other syllables: 11 before /11/: u1-lvum11(head-lump) [ʔu11 ̌ l̪u̱m ] ‘head’ 1 35 before /35/: u -dum (head-cut/be.missing.a.stretch) 35 [ʔu11 ̌ t̪um ] ‘haircut’ 1 31 52 before /31/:u -sam (head-hair) [ʔu11 ̌ sam ] ‘hair of the head’ 1 5 55 before checked /55/: u -huq (head-rest.head) [ʔu11 ̌ xuʔ˺ ] ‘pillow’ • with the ‘faeces’-prefix as /ki1-/ or /ki5-/: tone raising in reduced syllables with underlying tone /11/ before non-short syllables in tone /55/: ki5-tong55 (faeces-jail) [kʰĭ55 t̪ʰɔ ŋ55] ‘toilet’ (but also as: ki1-tong55 ) no tone raising in reduced syllables with underlying tone /11/ before other syllables: before /11/: ki1-pam11 (faeces-stomach) [kʰĭ11phɐm11] ‘stomach’ before /35/: ki1-bum35 (faeces-heap(vi/N)) 11 35 [kʰĭ pum ] ‘heap of shit’

17 This form appears to be loan from Jingpo, cf. Xu et al. (1983: 857): utong, ‘peacock’.

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ki1-syo31 (faeces-defecate) 11 52 [kʰĭ ʃo ] ‘defecate’ before checked /55/: ki1-bvuq5 (faeces-explode(vt)) [kʰĭ11pu̱ʔ˺55] ‘fart’ before /31/:

The tones /11/ of inflectional or free grammatical morphemes used as prefixes never change by morpho-phonological processes, e.g. the negative prefix in a1-sue55 [ʔɐ11 sɘ>55] ‘(I) do not know’. Another example is the nominalising prefix when nominalising adjectives, e.g. a1-bvyen55 ma54 (nom-flatten LOC+FCT) ‘flat, the flattened one’ and a1-lvum11 ma54 (nom-lump LOC+FCT) ‘round, lump-shaped; the round or lump-shaped one’. 7.5

VOWEL REDUCTION

The forms in Table 7.1 illustrate the morpho-phonological process of vowel reduction, which takes place during allegro speech on various grammatical morphemes consisting of non-short open syllables. This mostly occurs with grammatical morphemes in vowel /a/, but in one case also with vowel /u/, viz. in the case of the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’. I analyse the syllabic consonant allomorph of the personal experience clause marker as a result of the same morpho-phonological process, even though it does not contain the vowel /e/. This can be explained by the fact that in open syllables this vowel /e/ is never used after /r/ [ʐ], since here the regular allophone [ɘ] of /e/ becomes redundant because of its acoustic similarity to the latter fricative. The phonological shape of the personal experience clause marker will also be discussed in Section 7.8 below, from another point of view.

On the next page: Table 7.1 Vowel reduction

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general topic marker 18 (TOP) locative case marker (LOC) exclusive exhortative clause marker (EE) personal experience clause marker (PE) impressionistic morpheme ‘like’

7.6

MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL CHANGES AROUND FORMS WITH OPTIONAL INITIAL NASALS

The Zaiwa forms with optional initial nasals can be arranged into two groups, since these forms are realised in two different ways. Moreover, one group does not trigger morpho-phonological changes on the forms to which they are attached, whereas the other does. • two forms with an optional initial nasal /(N)/ and the vowel /o/ The first group of Zaiwa forms with an optional initial nasal /(N)/ is formed by two forms which both contain the vowel /o/ and clearly are etymologically related. This group consists of an attitude marker, viz. the highlighting marker , and an attitude marking unit, viz. the negative indicative marking unit (N)o31 (HIGH+I) ‘not at all’. Section 5.4 argues that the negative indicative marking unit (N)o31 (HIGH+I) ‘not at all’ is a combination of the highlighting marker and the indicative mood marker . The optional initial nasals /(N)/ of these forms are homorganic with the final plosives of the forms to which they are attached. After checked syllables ending in /p/ these forms have an initial /m/, after checked syllables ending in /t/ they have an initial /n/ and after checked syllables ending in /k/ they have an initial /ng/. After checked syllables ending in glottal stop /q/ as well as after non-short syllables, i.e. after regular open and nasal syllables, these forms do not have an initial. The optional initial nasals /(N)/ of these forms cause the final plosives /p, t, k/, which in other 18 The first allomorphs of the general topic marking suffix (TOP) and the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’ are the result of the morphophonological process of syllable reduction, which is not relevant in this discussion.

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environments are realised in an unreleased manner and together with a glottal stop, to be produced in a normally released manner, closely attached to the initial nasals of these two forms. In a similar way the final glottal stop /q/ is no longer unreleased before these two forms. Compare the following examples, where the negative indicative marking unit (N)o31 ‘not at all’ is attached to checked syllables ending in /b/, /d/, /g/ and /q/ respectively. 6

Nang31 ke5-yvup5-mo31. 31 55 [n̪ɐ ŋ kʰɘ̌ ju̱p55 mo52] 2SG PHB-sleep-HIGH+I Don’t (SG) sleep!

7

A1-wut1-no31. [ʔɐ11 ̆ wut11 n̪o 31] NEG-drunk-HIGH+I I’m not drunk!

8

Ke5-bek1-ngo31. 11 31 [kʰɘ55 ̌ pәk ŋo ] PHB-shoot-HIGH+I Don’t shoot.

9

I1kyet1rung31 rvo31, ke5-dai11 loq1-o31. 11 11 52 52 55 11 11 31 [ʔi kʰjɛt ʔ ʐuŋ ʐ o̱ kʰɘ̌ t̪ɐi l̪ɔʔ o ] dislike(ipf) PE+HIGH+I PHB-speak no.more-HIGH+I How disgusting, stop talking about it!

When attached to non-short syllables, i.e. regular open and nasal syllables, the two forms with optional initial nasal /(N)/ and vowel /o/ are realised without hiatus glottal stop, as illustrated by the following examples, where the negative indicative marking unit (N)o31 ‘not at all’ is attached to a nasal syllable and to a non-short open syllable respectively. 10

A1-dvyeng11-o31. [ʔɐ̆11 t̪jɛ ŋ11 o31] NEG-true-HIGH+I It’s not true.

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167

Sye31, yau11 bue31-o31. 52 11 52 52 [sjɛ jɐu pɘ > o ] pity let.pass P+I-HIGH+I Oh, never mind.

• The agentive-instrumental case marker and the comitative case marker The second group of Zaiwa forms which have an optional initial nasal is formed by two case markers with vowel /e/ and ending in glottal stop /q/. These are the agentive-instrumental case marker and the comitative case marker ‘and, with’. Like in the group of two forms with the vowel /o/ discussed above, the symbol (N) of these two latter case markers indicates an optional nasal which is homorganic with the final plosive of the form to which these forms are attached. However, the agentive-instrumental case marker and the comitative case marker both are realised in a way which is rather different from the forms discussed above. After syllables ending in the plosives /p, t, k/, both the agentive-instrumental case marker and the comitative case marker can be realised in two different ways. In the first way, the final plosives /p, t, k/ before these case markers are changed into a released glottal stop /q/, whereas at the same time the optional initial (N) of the case markers is realised as a nasal which is homorganic with the latter final plosives, as illustrated by the left row of the following examples. In the second way, the final plosives /p, t, k/ are omitted and not even changed into glottal stop /q/, whereas the initial (N) of these case markers still is realised as a nasal which is homorganic with the latter final plosives, as illustrated by the right row of the following examples.

/ngyaq1-meq1/ /ngya1-meq1/ [ɲɐʔ11 mәʔ˺11] [ɲɐ11 mәʔ˺11] ‘with use of the/a pair of tongs’

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/mang11-laq5-neq5 rvat5-lat1/ /mang11-la5-neq5 rvat5-lat1/ [mɐ ŋ11l̪ɐʔ55 n̪әʔ55 ʐɐ̱ t ˺55l̪ɐ t̪˺11] [mɐ ŋ11l̪ɐ55 n̪әʔ55 ʐɐ̱ t 55l̪ɐ t̪˺11] ‘my second elder brother and his wife’

/gvaq5-ngeq5 pyeng55/ /gva5-ngeq5 pyeng55/ 55 55 55 [kɐ̱ʔ ŋәʔ phjɛŋ ] [kɐ̱55 ŋәʔ55 phjɛŋ55] ‘large spoon and plate’ An underlying final glottal stop /q/ is omitted both before the agentive-instrumental case marker and before the comitative case marker .

/lo11eq1/ [l̪o11әʔ˺11] ‘by hand’

/o55-yu1-eq5/ [ʔo 55ju11әʔ˺55] ‘with whomʔ’

In cases where the agentive-instrumental case marker is attached to forms with a final glottal stop /q/ in tone /55/, the latter final is omitted, as already discussed above. However, the original tone /55/ moreover turns into tone /31/, in order to bridge the distance between the high tone /55/ and low tone /11/.

/bau11wo31-eq1/ [p ɐu11wo31әʔ˺11] ‘by the ant’

/se5-gvo31-eq1/ 31 11 [sə55 ̌ ko̱ әʔ˺ ] ‘with use of a branch’

After non-short syllables, the agentive-instrumental case marker and the comitative case marker are produced without an initial nasal and also without initial hiatus glottal stop, e.g. /nang31-eq1/ [n̪ɐ ŋ31ɛʔ˺11] ‘by you (sg.)’ and saq1wa11-eq5 sueng54 [sɐʔ11wɐ11ɛʔ55 sɘ>55ɘ>ŋ44] ‘about the saqwa’. It should be noted here that the agentive-instrumental case marker triggers the morpho-phonological process of tone switching

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on preceding non-short syllables, as can be illustrated by the following example, where ‘this’ is changed into /hi11/ ‘by this’. 12

Hi11-eq1 ki31 bam35-aq5. this#–AG/I leg/foot bandage–SIM Bandage (SG) the leg with this.

7.7

MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL CHANGES AROUND MARKERS WITHOUT INITIAL; THE SINGULAR IMPERATIVE CLAUSE MARKER (SIM)

The singular imperative clause marker (SIM) expresses the notion ‘do this!’, exclusively referring to singular main actants. The allomorph in tone /11/ of the singular imperative clause marker (SIM) is used after checked syllables and syllables in tone /31/, whereas the allomorph in tone /55/ is used after non-checked syllables in the tones /11/, /35/ or /55/. The singular imperative clause marker (SIM) causes morphophonological changes to the checked forms to which it is attached, whereas the non-short syllables remain unchanged. The fact that the non-short syllables remain unchanged can be illustrated by the following examples, containing the verbs ‘hear, smell’ and ‘go (back/up)’ respectively. 13

Ngo31

dai54 gyo11-aq5. 1SG speak+FCT hear/smell–SIM Listen (SG) to what I say.

14

Yvo55-mai11 lo35-aq5. leisurely–ABL go(back/up)–SIM Please go at your (SG) own pace. / Take your (SG) time going. / Take (SG) it easy.

In verbs before the singular imperative clause marker (SIM), the final occlusives /p, t, k/ normally are turned into the homorganic nasals /m, n, ng/ respectively, and the final glottal stop /q/ is omitted. The same phenomena optionally occur on verbs before clause marking units containing the nominalising prefix . Such

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variant shapes of verbs are special allomorphs that I shall mark with an asterisk after the gloss. Moreover, before (SIM) the tones /55/ of originally checked syllables turn into tone /31/, in order to bridge the distance between the high tone /55/ and the low tone /11/ of the allomorph of the clause marker. The following examples illustrate how the final occlusives /p, t, k/ of the checked syllables turn into the homorganic nasals /m, n, ng/ respectively, before the allomorph of the singular imperative clause marker (SIM). The underlying tone /55/ of these checked forms turns into tone /31/, whereas tone /11/ remains the same. • p→m In sentence (15), the special allomorph (stand*) of the verb ‘stand’ is used before (SIM). In sentence (16), the special allomorph (sleep*) of the verb ‘sleep’ is used before the same clause marker. 15

Dvoq5 yam11-aq1. get.up stand*–SIM Stand up (SG) .

16

Hi55-me55 yvum31-aq1. this–LOC sleep*–SIM Sleep (SG) here.

• t→n In sentence (17), the special allomorph (beat*) of the verb ‘to beat’ is used before (SIM). In sentence (18), the special allomorph (put.into*) of the verb ‘put into’ is used before the same clause marker. 17

Zyang31gvung11 ban11-aq1. Jew’s.harp beat*–SIM Play (SG) the Jew’s harp.

18

Wum11 gvan31-aq1. power put.into*–SIM Apply (SG) [some more] force.

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• k → ng In sentence (19), the special allomorph (shoot*) of the verb ‘to shoot’ is used before (SIM). In sentence (20), the special allomorph (turn.round(vt)*) of the verb ‘turn round’(vt) is used before the same clause marker. 19

Le1go11 weng25 mai11 beng11-aq1. well aim+FCT ABL shoot*–SIM Aim (SG) well and then shoot.

20

Gung31-du11 lving31-aq1. body–being turn.round(vt)*–SIM Turn (SG) around.

• q→Ø The first syllable of the imperative clause /pan31-aq1/ [pʰɐ n̪52ɐʔ11] could either be the verb ‘vomit’ in the utterance ‘(you) vomit (sg.)’, or the verb ‘create’ in the utterance ‘(you) create (sg.)’. Minimal pairs like the latter are caused by the same factors as discussed above. A first cause is that the final stops /p, t, k/ change into homorganic nasals before (SIM) whereas nasal syllables remain unchanged. Second, different allomorphs of this clause marker are used, according to the underlying tones of the preceding verbs. The following sentences are similar minimal pairs, caused by the fact that the final glottal stop /q/ is omitted before (SIM) whereas open syllables remain unchanged, and since in these two environments different allomorphs of this clause marker are used. In sentence (21), the special allomorph of the verb ‘to lock’ is used before the allomorph of (SIM), whereas in sentence (22), the verb ‘eat’ retains its original same shape before the allomorph of (SIM). 21

Zoq1 zo11-aq1. lock lock*–SIM Lock (SG) it.

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Syo11 kin31 zo11-aq5. flesh choose eat–SIM Pick (SG) the meat out of it [and eat it].

In a similar way, the special allomorph (get.up*) of the verb ‘get up’ is used before the allomorph of (SIM) in sentence (23), whereas in sentence (24) another verb ‘place’(vt) retains its original shape before the allomorph of (SIM). 23

Yvup5 dvo31-aq1 hoi11. sleep get.up*–SIM INC Get up (SG).

24

Nang31 2SG

sem31 ze1-gvut5 [in.quietness] only–do hoi11.

yvup5 sleep

dvo11-aq5 place(vt)–SIM INC Sleep (SG) . [said to someone who has taken ill] After syllables ending in nasals and in the tones /11/, /35/ or /55/, the allomorph of (SIM) is used, without causing morpho-phonological changes on these syllables, as illustrated by sentences (25) to (27). After syllables ending in nasals and in tone /31/, the allomorph of (SIM) is used, also not causing morpho-phonological changes on these syllables, as illustrated by sentence (28). 25

Mo35 do35 lye35 be1-zvyun11-aq5. car come(away/down) help–push–SIM Help (SG) us to push the car.

26

Nang31

27

Sun11 ngvyo31 veg/dish mix(ipf) Mix (SG) the dish.

ngi31 lang35-aq5. 2SG be.there(anim) wait–SIM Bye. / (Lit.:) You (SG) stay [and wait] here. am55-aq5. PFM–SIM

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Pang31-aq1. dodge/flee–SIM Make (SG) way.

Morpho-phonological changes like those discussed above optionally occur in checked syllables before clause marking units containing the nominalising prefix , especially in more allegro speech. However, checked syllables especially tend to remain unchanged when in tone /11/, e.g. (29), whereas checked syllables especially tend to change when in tone /55/, e.g. (30). Both examples contain the plural indicative clause marking unit a1-gvo31 (nom-PL+I). In sentence (29), the verb ‘difficult’ is realised in its regular allomorph before the latter clause marking unit, whereas in sentence (30) the special allomorph (do*) of the verb ‘to do’ is used. 29

I1gvun11 zyaq1 yak1 a1-gvo31. household rather difficult2 nom–PL+I They are having rather difficult times.

30

Se1ra35-bvue55 ka55-hu55 gvun31-a1-gvo31? teacher–PLN Q–sort do*–nom–PL+I What are the teachers doing?

7.8

MORPHO-PHONOLOGICAL ALTERNATION BETWEEN /l/, /r/ AND OTHER INITIAL PHONEMES

There are some interesting regularities in the use of initials of important grammatical morphemes, as I shall separately discuss below. The factors underlying these variations appear to be rather complex, and probably differ for each speaker. A first general remark is that up to one-third of all Zaiwa markers, adverbs and affixes either have an initial /l/ or an initial loan phoneme /r/, indicating that these two phonemes play an important role. One special group of indigenous grammatical morphemes listed below are those which have a kind of “free style” variants with the initial /l/ instead of other initials, as specified below.

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1. The ablative case marker has a variant /lai11/. 2. The locative case marker has variants /-la55/ and /-le55/. After the short allomorphs and of the general interrogative pronominal prefix , the locative case marker and its variants /-la55/ and /-le55/ can thus either be used in /ke5-ma55/, /he5-ma55/, /ke5-me55/ and /he5-me55/, but also in /ke5-la55/, /he5-la55/, /ke5-le55/ or /he5-le55/, which all will be glossed (Q-LOC) ‘where, in what place’. 3. Furthermore, there are three pairs of etymologically related forms where such variants in /l/ also occur, albeit seldom in Loilung. This group consists of one attitude marker, viz. the reflecting marker with its variant /lvi55/, as well as two attitude marking units, viz. the coaxing suffix dvi31 with its variant lvi31 and the domineering suffix dvyo31 with its variant lvyo31. There is a group of important Zaiwa function words, listed in Table 7.2, which all have at least one variant or allomorph consisting of only a syllabic /r/ and a tone, and many of which moreover have variants with initial /l/. The table also lists Jingpo forms that may underlie possible Zaiwa loan morphemes. Most members of this group are indigenous Zaiwa morphemes, whereas it may only be the morpheme variants , and ‘also’ which could be loan phonemes. It is not clear yet whether the personal experience clause marker is a loan from Jingpo. My principal informant considers the variant ‘also’ to be the only correct variant, in contrast to ‘also’ and (seldom) ‘also’. Nevertheless I have found cases where he uses the variant ‘also’ and even, though very seldom, ‘also’. 19 19 Compare the two following sentences, both of which express the same meaning. My principal informant considers the first not to be the Zaiwa of Loilung proper, but rather that of Longchuan.

1

hai31 li11 what also I can eat everything.

dat1 able

zo31 eat(ipf)

lye31. also+I

Ngo31

dat1 able

zo31 eat(ipf)

lye31. also+I

Ngo31 1SG

2

ka55-hu55 r11 1SG Q–sort also I can eat everything.

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As an equivalent to my morpheme ‘also’ in its specific function of an adverb, Yabu (1982: lemma 444) only mentions a form in /l/, viz. -le22, whereas Xu & Xu (1982: 94, 103, 115) mention variants in both initials, viz. lê21 and retroflex ʒê21. According to the Jingpo-Chinese dictionary of Xu et al. (1983) and the Jingpo grammar by Dai & Xu (1992), Jingpo does not have an equivalent which could be borrowed into Zaiwa and which could have resulted in the morpheme ‘also’. Quite remarkably, Hanson (1954: 567) mentions a Jingpo adverb ri ‘also, too, even’, as a variant of the adverb mung, with the same meaning. Possibly, his adverb ri ‘also, too, even’ stems from a Jingpo dialect with Zaiwa influences.

Table 7.2 Zaiwa function words consisting only of a syllabic /r/ and a tone • the Zaiwa morpheme variants , and (seldom) ‘also’: 1. As the Zaiwa adverb ‘also’: Jingpo: Hanson (1954: 567): the adverb ri, ‘also, too, even’, neither in Xu et al. (1983) nor in Dai & Xu (1992) 2. As clause markers: Jingpo: neither in Hanson (1954) nor in Xu et al. (1983), nor in Dai & Xu (1992) 3. The Zaiwa morpheme variant ‘also’ in the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I)20: Jingpo: neither in Hanson (1954), nor in Xu et al. (1983), nor in Dai & Xu (1992) • the Zaiwa object marker variants , and (seldom) : Jingpo: neither in Hanson (1954) nor in Xu et al. (1983), nor in Dai & Xu (1992) 20 The underlying morphology of this form is not clear yet. This form consists of a root morpheme which either is no longer retrievable or, perhaps, the morpheme ‘also’ and the indicative mood marker .

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CHAPTER SEVEN

• the Zaiwa time suffix : Jingpo: neither in Hanson (1954) nor in Xu et al. (1983), nor in Dai & Xu (1992) • the Zaiwa personal experience clause marker , possibly of Jingpo origin: Jingpo: Hanson (1954: 567): the verb re ‘to be, exist; (lit. it is)’, Xu et al. (1983: 687-8): copula re, ‘to be’ Dai & Xu (1992: 63-4): copula re2 (re55) ‘to be’, re3 (reʔ52) emphatic ‘to be’ and re2 (re55) in interrogative clauses

Apart from being used as an adverb, the same morpheme variants , and ‘also’ can also be used as clause markers with an additional conjunction-like function. Neither Yabu (1982) nor Xu & Xu (1984) explicitly mention this particular function of these morphemes, although the latter scholars in fact use a retroflex equivalent ʒe21 in several Zaiwa sentences in the book in what appears to be such conjunction-like use (Xu & Xu 1984: 132, 149 etc.). However, Xu & Xu (1984: 115) do state that this form ʒe21 is used to indicate a pause within an utterance, thus resembling the function of the morpheme variants , and ‘also’ as conjunctions. The general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I) consists of a root morpheme which either is no longer retrievable or, perhaps, the morpheme variant ‘also’ and the indicative mood marker . Other scholars do not mention this possibility. The variant appears to be the most commonly used of the three variants of the Zaiwa object markers , and (OBJ), even though the former is the most “Jingpoish”. My principal informant considers this variant to be the only correct one, even though I have found cases where he used the variant and, though very seldom, the variant . As equivalents of the Zaiwa object markers , and 55

  • (OBJ), Yabu (1982: lemma 436a) only mentions a form in /l/, viz. -le44. Xu & Xu (1984: 108-9) mention variants in both initials,

    REMAINING MATTERS OF MORPHO-PHONOLOGY

    177

    viz. -lĕ55 and retroflex –ʒĕ55. According to the dictionaries by Hanson (1954) and Xu et al. (1983) and the grammar of Jingpo by Dai & Xu (1992), Jingpo does not have any equivalent of these morphemes which could have been borrowed into Zaiwa. The allomorph of the personal experience clause marker appears to be the result of the morpho-phonological process of vowel reduction, which occurs on all function words ending in the vowel /a/, changing this vowel into /e/. In Zaiwa dialects other than that of Loilung and in all other sources (Cheng 1956, Yabu 1982, Xu & Xu 1984), the allomorph is used instead of the allomorph . Some informants in Loilung claim the allomorph to be standard, since it appears as such in publications and radio broadcasting. However, my main informant prefers the allomorph , using the allomorph rather seldom and as a kind of slow speech variant. As I already argued in Section 7.5, I consider this form to be a variant of the personal experience clause marker , as a result of morpho-phonological process of vowel reduction, even though this morpho-phonological process may in this case be restricted to the Zaiwa of Loilung. On the other hand, even though as yet there are no strong arguments for stating so, I could also hypothesise that the Zaiwa personal experience clause marker is based on one of the Jingpo copula which Dai & Xu (1992: 63-4) mention as re2, with tone contour [5-5], re3 with tone contour [5-2], or - somewhat less suitable for my hypothesis - re2 with tone contour [5-5] and final glottal stop. Note that whereas Dai & Xu (1992: 63-4) mention three variants of this Jingpo copula, Hanson (1954: 567) and Xu et al. (1983: 687-8) mention only a form re. Unfortunately, neither Hanson (1954) nor Xu et al. (1983) or Dai & Xu (1992) give detailed phonetic transcriptions, therefore making it uncertain whether the Jingpo copula re2/re3/re2 actually is a syllabic consonant. If the latter would be a syllabic consonant, I might further hypothesise that the Zaiwa clause marker /ra55/ were the result of hypercorrection of the morpho-phonological process of vowel reduction.

    178

    CHAPTER SEVEN

    7.9

    BOUND FORM ADJECTIVES

    Zaiwa has a distinctive morpho-phonological process that turns stative verbs into bound form adjectives, that are used in various complex pronouns and other deictic forms. The full name of this process is bound form adverbial and pronominal formation. This morphophonological process consists of the following changes in tone and initial. 1) 2)   

    the tone changes into tone /55/ changes in the initial, viz. either: the phonation type is changed into creaky voice, or the initial either is changed into /h/, in the case of ‘far’ vs. ‘far’(B), or the initial remains /h/, in the case of (space/time) ‘long’ vs. (space/time) ‘long’ (B).

    The alternation between creaky voice and initial /h/ as separate results of this single morpho-phonological process may be partly explained by the fact that the phoneme /h/ is incompatible with creaky voice. Historically, the form ‘far’ may have had no initial, its bound form variant ‘far’(B) being the result of adding an */h/. The basic stative verbs and their bound form adjective variants are listed in Table 7.3. The following sentences illustrate the basic forms of each of the adjectives in Table 7.3. 31

    Heng31 r11 heng31 long also long It’s both long and wide.

    32

    Nang31

    33

    Yvang11

    lam31 wide

    r11 also

    lam31. wide

    dye31 weng11 myang35 bue31. (ipf) 2SG too aim (time).long P+I You (SG) took too much time in aiming. a1kui31 mai11 gue11 mvyang11 lye31. (ipf) 3SG now ABL all.right tall/high(ipf) also+I He will grow very tall [from now onwards].

    REMAINING MATTERS OF MORPHO-PHONOLOGY

    179

    Table 7.3 Stative verbs and their bound form adjective variants basic forms

    bound form variant

    ‘wide’ vs. (time) ‘long’ vs. ‘tall, high’ vs.

    ‘much’ vs. (space/time)‘long’22 vs.

    ‘far’ vs.

    34

    35

    ‘wide’(B) (time) ‘long’(B) ‘tall, high’(B) ‘many/much’(B)21 (space/time)‘long’(B) ‘far’(B)

    Pui11-lvup5 myo31 dik1 (ipf) dust/chaff–be.dusty much extreme There’s a lot of dust flying around.

    r55. PE

    Zyong11 wue31 lye31. (ipf) school far also+I The school is far away.

    These bound form adjectives form part of complex pronouns and other deictic forms after the following prefixes:

    21 It is important to note here that this form ‘many/much’(B) can also be

    used as the Zaiwa modest adverb. Section 9.25 discusses the use of this adverb in detail. 22 The adjective normally expresses ‘long’ in a spatial sense, e.g. (1). It can also refer to ‘long’ in the sense of ‘long-lasting’ or ‘long-winded’, e.g. (2) and (3).

    1

    2

    3

    Nvut5-mui11 zyaq1 mouth–beard rather His beard is quite long.

    heng31 long

    Min35 r11 i5-mvyo55 night-time also SPEC–much(B) And the nights are also quite long! Gyai35 heng11 lye31-o55. rather long(ipf) also+I–HIGH - It’s a very long story, I tell you! -

    bue31. P+I

    heng25 long+FCT

    ge11. TOP

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    CHAPTER SEVEN

    1. after the short allomorphs or of the general interrogative pronominal prefix , e.g. ke5-lvam55 ‘how wide’ e.g. (36), ke5-mvyang55 (time) ‘how long’, e.g. (37), ke5-mvyang55 ‘how tall, how high’ and ke5-mvyo55 ‘how much/many’, e.g. (38), ke5-heng55 (space/time) ‘how long’, e.g. (39) and ke5-hue55 ‘how far’, e.g. (40), 2. after the allomorph of the specificatory morpheme , e.g. (41)23 3. after the nominalising prefix : only for ‘many/much’(B) and ‘far’(B), which can be both in single and reduplicated form, e.g. (42) and (43), 4. only for ‘many/much’(B): after the demonstrative pronominal prefixes, e.g. (44), 5. only for ‘many/much’(B): after the nominalising prefix of unquantified amount ‘lot’, e.g. (45). 36

    Kyo31 ke5-lvam55 bo11 r55? (ipf) road Q–broad(B) contain PE How broad is the road?

    37

    Ke5-mvyang55 zvyoq5 be1-gvo31? Q–(time).long(B) cook P–PL+I How long has it been cooking?

    38

    Nang35 a1sak1 ke5-mvyo55 2SG.PO age Q–much(B) How old are you (SG)?

    39

    He5-heng55 bo11 r55 (ipf) Q–long(B) contain PE How long is it?

    40

    He5-hue55 me55 Q–far(B) LOC How far is it?

    zan31 bue31? summer/year P+I ta11? GI

    ta11? GI

    23 Combinations of the specificatory prefix with ‘wide’ (B), (time) ‘long’ (B) and ‘tall, high’ (B) have not been attested yet, but seem to be possible.

    REMAINING MATTERS OF MORPHO-PHONOLOGY

    41

    I5-heng55 bo11 r55. (ipf) SPEC–long(B) contain PE It is this long.

    42

    Nang31

    43

    A1-hue55-hue55 a1-wue11. nom–far(B)–far(B) NEG–far It’s not that far.

    44

    Hu55-mvyo55 ze11 zui31 mvau31 above–much(B) only bear.fruit(ipf) cheat/fool(ipf) a1-lo31 ngvut5 r55. nom–no.more+I be PE This tree bears only this tiny bit of fruit.

    45

    Ngo31

    181

    a5-mvyo55 ze11 wut1-n55 ge11 2SG nom–much only call–FCT TOP a1-wo35 gyo54 ge1-lo31. NEG–have hear/smell+FCT TOP–no.more+I If you shout with such a soft voice, they won’t hear you.

    geq1-mvyo55 a1-o31. 1SG lot–much(B) NEG–want/take I won’t take very much.

    I shall further discuss the bound form adjectives ‘many/much’(B) and ‘far’(B) in Sections 9.25 and 9.26 respectively in the chapter on nominal morphology. This is because these forms can also be used in various special ways, as pronouns and as adverbs. Section 9.25 on ‘many/much’(B) also discusses the use of the latter morpheme in constructions with the other bound form adjectives listed in Table 7.3. The same morpho-phonological process that makes bound form adjectives also underlies the distinction between the free form variant ‘where’, e.g. (46), and the morpheme ‘where’(B). The latter is only used after the nominal plural marker (PLN), e.g. bum31 hye55-bvue55-ha55 (heap(vt/N) same.elevation-PLN-where(B)) ‘those hills over there’.

    182 46

    CHAPTER SEVEN

    Nang31

    ka31 lo35 lye31? 2SG where go(back/up) also+I Where are you (SG) going?

    There may be a similar type of relationship between the bound form pronoun ‘when’, which is only used in ke5-nvam55/ he5-nvam55 (Q-when) ‘when’, e.g. (47), and the noun ‘close vicinity’, e.g. (48). 47

    Ke5-nvam55 lo25 ta11? Q–when come(back/up)+FCT GI When did you arrive?

    48

    A5-nu54 nam31 me55 nom–mother+FCT close.vicinity LOC dvo31 lye31. (ipf) place(vt) also+I It is near Mum.

    zyoq1 be.there(inan)

    Zaiwa has some more bound forms in tone /55/ and with creaky voice. The non-dual plural inclusive pronoun (1 ND.IN) appears to be the creaky variant of an older Zaiwa second person pronoun *nung31, like the Maru second person singular pronoun nuŋ31. This morpheme (1ND.IN) either is used after the specificatory morpheme or after the first person possessive pronoun , in two complex pronominals, viz. the first person non-dual plural inclusive pronoun nga35-nvung55 and its specificatory variant i5-nvung55 (SPEC-1ND.IN).

    CHAPTER EIGHT

    REDUPLICATION

    8.1

    OVERVIEW

    Reduplication in Zaiwa basically expresses multiplicity. Section 8.2 discusses the reduplication of nouns and Section 8.3 discusses the reduplication of numeral noun phrases. After that, Section 8.4 discusses the reduplication of verbs and certain ideophones, in order to express multiplicity in the specific sense of iterativity. Section 8.5 discusses the reduplication of stative verbs and nominals, in order to express ‘very’ and related notions, and in forming complex adverbs. Section 8.6 discusses the use of reduplicated adverbs ‘just’ and ‘all’ after nominal constituents. Section 8.7 discusses the reduplication of the augmentative morpheme , after the main verb of a clause. Finally, Section 8.8 discusses another important phenomenon which is related to reduplication, viz. the phenomenon of reduplicated morphemes of which the first functions as a noun and the second as a verb, e.g. u31-sang55 sang55 (intestine-fill.up fill.up) ‘make sausages’. 8.2

    THE REDUPLICATION OF NOUNS

    In nouns, the broad meaning of reduplication of expressing multiplicity can be used in very different senses. In the two following sentences, the reduplication of nouns expresses the notion ‘every’ or ‘all of it’. 1

    Bum31-bum31 bva55-bva55 heap(vt/N)–heap(vt/N) flatlands–flatlands ngi11 ngon35 zi1wo31 bau35. (ipf) be.there(anim) pleasant place just There are lots of nice places in all those hills and flatlands.

    184 2

    CHAPTER EIGHT

    No11 le1-du11-du11 ung54 ngun31 ge11 cattle one–being–being sell+FCT silver TOP a1-ban11 syung31 siq1 ge1-lo31. (ipf) NEG–use.up use still TOP–no.more+I You (SG) can’t have spent all the money you earned by selling the cow yet, right?

    The latter notions ‘every’ or ‘all of it’ can also be used in a negative context, referring to the lack of achievements of the entities involved. In the context of sentence (3), the reduplicated noun ‘person’ refers to a group of people who should be able to carry a lot, whereas they do not. In the context of sentence (4), the reduplicated noun ‘lifetime’ refers to someone’s whole life, in the course of which some situation never took place, whereas this would not at all have been hard to achieve. 3

    Byu31 i55-yuq1-yuq1 wa35 i5-mvyo55 man/woman two–person–person EMP SPEC–much(B) ze11 wo35 waq1 gvo54 ge11. only have lift PL+FCT TOP That two people are only able to carry such a little bit of stuff [is puzzling me]

    4

    Nang31

    le1-bvyat1-bvyat1 zue11 2SG one–lifetime–lifetime live.as.human(ipf) 11 lo r11 Meng11mau11-cin11 ze1-r11 (ipf) come(back/up) also Ruili–county.town only–also 1 35 35 a -zye wu si1-luq1? NEG–arrive look still–Y/N So you (SG) haven’t even once in your whole life visited the county town Ruili?

    The pronoun ‘different’ expresses the notion ‘different, other’. A reduplicated pronoun ‘different’ expresses the notion ‘in different ways, differently’. 5

    Yuq1-gue31 mi1-wue11 de1kya31-de1kya31 person–male wife–female different–different

    ming31 name

    185

    REDUPLICATION

    bo11 lye31. (ipf) contain also+I Men and women are named in different ways. 6

    De1kya31-de1kya31 gvut5 ra31 different–different do need+I It should be done differently.

    dut1 become

    r55. PE

    The reduplication of nouns can also express that a certain multitude somehow is limited, when these nouns refer to limited entities, and especially when these nouns are preceded by the limitative morpheme ‘only’. The form le1-dam31-dam31 (one-time(Sp)-time(Sp)) expresses the notion ‘sometimes’, as illustrated by the following examples. In sentence (7), the limitative morpheme ‘only’ is added, but not in sentence (8). 7

    Le1-dam31-dam31 ze11 one–time(Sp)–time(Sp) only It only hurts sometimes.

    no11 r55. (ipf) pain/ill/disease PE

    8

    Zo31 syut5 zyang35 le1-dam31-dam31 (ipf) eat wrong CD one–time(Sp)–time(Sp) gue11 no11 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) all.right pain/ill/disease also+I If you eat it under the wrong circumstances, you may get ill.

    In a similar way, the reduplicated form le1-nvut5-nvut5 (one-mouth-mouth) ‘one bite’ in the following sentence refers to only one mouth full of some foodstuff for each of the persons of a certain group. 9

    Yvang55-moq1 r11 le1-nvut5-nvut5 ze11 zo31 3PL–party also one–mouth–mouth only eat(ipf) a1-si1-gvo31. nom–still–PL+I They (PL) have also only taken one mouthful so far.

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    CHAPTER EIGHT

    In the following sentence, the reduplication of the noun ‘ball’ expresses the notion ‘some’. 10

    Le1-cyam11-cyam11 ge11 cyui31 (ipf) one–ball–ball TOP sweet 1 11 11 1 11 le -cyam -cyam a -cyui . one–ball–ball NEG–sweet Some are sweet, while others are not.

    lye31 also+I

    The amount which is referred to by the reduplicated form le1-zvyui55-zvyui55 (one-bit-bit) ‘a little bit’ is considered to be smaller than the amount which is referred to by the non-reduplicated le1-zvyui55 (one-bit) ‘a bit’. 11

    Ngo31

    le1-zvui55-zvui55 1SG one–bit–bit I’m a little bit sleepy.

    12

    Ngo31

    le1-zvui55 1SG one–bit I’m a bit sleepy.

    yvup5 sleep

    yvup5 sleep

    nvau11 r55. (ipf) feel.like PE

    nvau11 r55. (ipf) feel.like PE

    The reduplication of the noun ‘time for’ expresses multiplicity or iterativity, in the context of repeatedly wondering whether the given person would still come or not. 13

    A1man31 hau55-yvam31-yvam31 li11 a1-gyo35 last.night the/that–time.for–time.for also NEG–go.down lo31, ngo31 ge11 cyang31 mit1 zvang11 (ipf) come(back/up) 1SG TOP follow think worried 35 35 mo -mo . AUG–AUG Last night you never came home, I was very worried about you.

    In the following sentences, nouns referring to sorts, types, and kinds are reduplicated before the form za54, which is the limitative morpheme ‘only’ marked by the factitive marker . In these cases, reduplication also expresses multiplicity

    187

    REDUPLICATION

    or iterativity, in the specific sense of reoccurring of the same characteristics. 14

    Byu31-nvik5 ga31 r11 ge11 (ipf) man/woman–duo perceive also TOP 1 1 1 54 le -pok pok za . one–identical only+FCT Those two people are birds of a feather. [the same bad habits]

    15

    Zang11-sun11 hi55-nvik5 ge11 rice/food–veg/dish this–duo TOP le1-zyung11-zyung11 za54 luq1? one–kind–kind only+FCT Y/N Are these two dishes the same?

    16

    Zang11-sun11 hi55-nvik5 ge11 rice/food–veg/dish this–duo TOP za54 luq1? only+FCT Y/N Are these two dishes the same?

    le1-hu55-hu55 one–sort–sort

    The reduplication of the root morpheme ‘cube’ in the noun a1-ki55 (nom-cube) ‘expresses that the action of cutting into cubes is to be performed on ‘all of it’. 17

    A1-ki55-ki55 ma54 gvun31-aq1 nom–cube–cube LOC+FCT do*–SIM Cut (SG) all of it into cubes.

    ma11. ROUS

    The combination of the nominalising prefix of unquantified amount ‘lots’ with a single bound form adjective ‘much’(B) can be translated as ‘much’ or ‘not so much’, as illustrated by sentences (18) and (19). When the latter form ‘much’(B) is reduplicated, this yields the meaning ‘very much’, e.g. (20), or ‘not very much’, e.g. (21). 18

    Nga35-nvik5 geq1-mvyo55 a1-wo35 syuq5. 1PO–duo lot–much(B) NEG–have drink Neither of us (DU) can drink very much.

    188

    CHAPTER EIGHT

    19

    Ngo31

    geq1-mvyo55 a1-o31. 1SG lot–much(B) NEG–want/take I won’t take very much.

    20

    Le1-zvui55-zvui55 ze11 ke5-kon31, one–bit–bit only PHB–sing geq1-mvyo55-mvyo55 kon31-aq1. lot–much(B)–much(B) sing–SIM Don’t sing with such a soft voice, sing (SG) loudly.

    21

    Ngo31

    8.3

    THE REDUPLICATION OF NUMERAL NOUN PHRASES

    geq1-mvyo55-mvyo55 1SG lot–much(B)–much(B) I’m not such a big eater.

    a1-wo35 zo11. NEG–have eat

    The reduplication of numeral noun phrases containing ‘one …’ also expresses multiplicity or iterativity, in the context of divisions. 22

    Le1-sue11 le1-sue11 gvun31-aq1 ma11. one–segment one–segment do*–SIM ROUS [fruit] Divide (SG) it into pieces. / (Lit.:) Cut (SG) it into slices.

    In each of the following sentences there is no reduplication in the strict sense, but there nevertheless are two numeral noun phrases containing ‘one …’. This type of expression indicates that a certain situation, albeit a partition or a certain change, reoccurs for both or all of the given entities. 23

    Le1-sue31-mun11 r55 le1-yuq1 one–ten–ten.thousand/Yuan OBJ one–person gam31 gvoq1. divide/share DIE Let’s (DU.IN) share that ten Yuan fifty-fifty.

    24

    Syo11 flesh

    hau31 the/that

    ge11 TOP

    le1-zyap1 one–chop.up

    le1-wui35 one–equal

    le1-yuq1 one–person

    189

    REDUPLICATION

    dut1 bue31 ga31. become P+I perceive+I Every bit of that flesh had changed into a human being. 8.4

    REDUPLICATION OF VERBS AND IDEOPHONES, EXPRESSING ITERATIVITY AND HABITUALITY

    The reduplication of verbs, especially when these refer to actions instead of states, can be used to express iterativity or habituality. 25

    Yvang11

    dum11 lye35 zo11-zo11. 3SG again come(away/down) eat–eat He often comes here to eat.

    Reduplicated verbs expressing iterativity or habituality are often combined with the copula ‘happen’, which in these cases expresses a notion like English ‘go like’, as illustrated by the following sentence. The reduplicated form in the following sentence is the performative aspectiviser , which emphasises the fact that some situation, whether it be a command, a promise, a task, or some other kind of action, is being carried into effect. 26

    Yvang54 ming31 ngo31 a1-yan35 3SG +FCT name 1SG nom–row am55-am55 mu11 r55. (ipf) PFM–PFM happen PE I always forget his name.

    dvo31mvi31 forget(ipf)

    The habitual adverb ‘repeatedly, every time, as always’ can modify reduplicated verbs, expressing that the repeated situations occur as part of a fixed pattern. Reduplicated verbs after the habitual adverb normally are followed by the copula ‘happen’. 27

    Le1-gam35 ning31 a5-se55 lvaq5 gvut5 (male)–eld-brother INS+I nom–like HAB do gvut5 mu11 lye31 ning31. do happen(ipf) also+I INS+I They say that eldest brother acts like that all the time.

    190

    CHAPTER EIGHT

    28

    Nang31

    ge11

    i31-syuq5 wut1 zyang35 2SG TOP distilled–drink drunk CD lvaq5 wui11-wui11 mu11 lye31-o55. (ipf) HAB difficult–difficult happen also+I–HIGH When you (SG) are drunk, you become troublesome each and every time.

    29

    A5-nu11 ge1lu11 lvaq5 ze1-nvau31-nvau31 nom–mother sweets HAB eat–feel.like–feel.like mu11 lye31, wui11 lo35 gvoq1. (ipf) (ipf) happen also+I buy go(back/up) DIE Mum wants to eat sweets all the time, so let’s (DU.IN) buy her some.

    The combination of a reduplicated verb and the copula ‘to do’ expresses the notion of often doing things in a certain way. 30

    Nang31

    a1kui31 dum11 bi11 zyang35-eq1 dum11 2SG now again give CD–AG/I again dung11 r55 dum11 dung11-dung11 gvut5 be1-ra31. demand TS again demand–demand do P–need+I If you give it to her this time, she will always keep asking you for more.

    31

    Nang31

    32

    Hi31 r55 le1-king11 zui11-zui11 this OBJ one–halt/rest touch/work(V)–touch/work(V) 5 gvut r55. do PE [about an infant:] He will put his hands on this in a while.

    33

    Nang31

    a1-yan35 lye35 yu31-yu31 2SG nom–row come(away/down) take–take gvun31-aq1 me1-lo31. do*–SIM ROUS–no.more+I You (SG) can come here and borrow it as often as you want.

    2SG

    Nong35dau31-zyau31 Nongdao–market

    me55 LOC

    ka55-hu55 Q–sort

    191

    REDUPLICATION

    i5-sep1-sep1 gvut5 lye31? go–buy.stock–buy.stock do also+I What kind of stock do you (SG) normally buy down at Nongdao market? In some cases both the verb and the clause marker are omitted after reduplicated verbs, as illustrated by the following examples. In some other cases, however, there is a clause marker but no other verb after the reduplicated verb, as illustrated by sentence (37). 34

    Zai11wa31-ming35 ngyo31 zyang35 yvang11 Zaiwa–language talk CD 3SG 35 35 5 35 35 bau zang mvoq lo -lo . Just strike learn/teach go(back/up)–go(back/up) When I speak [more] Zaiwa, the language teaches itself unto me all the time.

    35

    Nang31, ngo31 r55

    36

    Nga35

    37

    Zai11 wun11 lui31 soq5-soq5 r55. cogon.grass carry/bring(ipf) in.this.way +I itch2–itch2 PE It itches when carrying cogon grass.

    lye35 mvau55-mvau55. 2SG 1SG OBJ come(away/down) cheat/fool–cheat/fool You (SG), you are cheating me all the time. gung31-du11 me55 byo11 1PO body–being LOC wasp/bee Bees/wasps were swarming all around me.

    pyu11pyu11. [swarming]

    Monosyllabic ideophones, or at least some onomatopoeia and one non-onomatopoeic form, can also be reduplicated in order to express iterativity. In the following pair of sentences, the onomatopoeia , imitating the sound of tearing, is used in single form in the first sentence, and in reduplicated form in the second, in order to express iterativity. 38

    Bvyet1 gvut5 [sound.of.tearing] do Tear (SG) it off.

    lang31 pin31-aq1. pull/yank(ipf) cut.in.two*–SIM

    192 39

    CHAPTER EIGHT

    Bvyet1-bvyet1 gvut5 lang31 [sound.of.tearing]–[sound.of.tearing] do pull/yank(ipf) cye31-aq1 ma11. tear*–SIM ROUS Tear (SG) it into pieces.

    Similarly, in the following pair of sentences, the onomatopoeia , imitating the sound of jerking or tearing, is used in single form in the first sentence, and in reduplicated form in the second, in order to express iterativity. 40

    Pe5-zvang11 rut1 gvut5 belt–(wear).trousers [jerk/tear] do kyo31 am55 bi11-aq5. (ipf) let.go.down PFM give–SIM Pull down (SG) his trousers in one go.

    41

    Rut1rut1 gvut5 sye11 din31-aq1. (ipf) [jerk/tear] do pull run–SIM Pull (SG) it/him/her along.

    lang31 pull/yank(ipf)

    The ideophone ‘thoroughly’, which is only used in combination with the adverb ‘well’, can both be used in single form, e.g. (42), and in reduplicated form, e.g. (43), in order to express iterativity. 42

    Nga35

    dyen11she11di35 le1go11 tyep1 1PO television well thoroughly i5-rvang31 am55 bue31. go–make(ipf) PFM P+I My television has been repaired very well.

    43

    A1mu31 zui31 r11 ge11 le1go11 (ipf) matter touch/work also TOP well tyep1-tyep1 gvut5 ra31 dut1 lye31. thoroughly–thoroughly do need+I become also+I When working, you have to do things very thoroughly

    REDUPLICATION

    193

    The construction of a reduplicated verb before ga31 r55 (perceive(ipf) 11 PE), i.e. the verb ‘perceive’ marked by the imperfective marker before the personal experience clause marker , expresses the notion that the speaker feels ‘a bit V’. Here, reduplication refers to slight impressions that nevertheless repeatedly reoccur. In these cases, the reduplicated verbs can be analysed as being nominalised, e.g. as referring to notions such as ‘some sleepiness’ in sentence (44), ‘some fatigue’ in sentence (45), ‘some urge to eat it’ in sentence (46) and ‘a light hunger’ in sentence (47). 44

    Ngo31

    yvup5 nvau31-nvau31 ga31 r55. (ipf) 1SG sleep feel.like–feel.like perceive PE I’m feeling a bit sleepy.

    45

    Moi11-moi11 ga31 r55. (ipf) tired–tired perceive PE I’m feeling a bit tired.

    46

    Ze1-nvau31-nvau31 ga31 r55. (ipf) eat–feel.like–feel.like perceive PE I sort of feel like eating it.

    47

    Mut1-mut1 ga31 r55. hungry–hungry perceive(ipf) PE I’m feeling a bit hungry.

    8.5

    REDUPLICATION EXPRESSING ‘VERY’ AND RELATED NOTIONS, FORMING COMPLEX ADVERBS

    The process of reduplication of nouns and stative verbs can be used to form complex adverbs. The reason why the reduplication of nominals does not express iterativity, unlike with many other verbs, is that the latter notion is not very compatible with the stative or abstract notions expressed by these forms. Therefore, this type of reduplication rather expresses the notions ‘very Vadj’, ‘utterly Vadj’ and sometimes ‘so that it becomes (quite) Vadj’, as I shall illustrate below.

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    • A reduplicated stative verb ‘much’ expresses ‘as much as you want’. 48

    Myo11-myo11 zo11-aq5. much–much eat–SIM Eat as much as you (SG) want.

    • A reduplicated stative verb ‘all right’ expresses ‘really’. 49

    50

    Nang31

    dai54 dang11 hau55-bvue55 2SG speak+FCT words the/that–PLN gue31-gue31 dvyeng31 lye31 luq1? (ipf) all.right–all.right true also+I Y/N Are those things you (SG) said really true?

    ge11 TOP

    Mi11-wue11 a1-wo35 si1-luq1 ngvu31 lok1 zyang35 wife–female NEG–have still–Y/N say ferret.out CD wa35, gue31-gue31 dai31-gvyo31 r55 (ipf) (ipf) EMP all.right–all.right speak –let.hear PE 31 mai . OBV+I

    While I was trying to ferret out whether he had a woman or not, he just told me about it! 51

    Mvuet5! gue31-gue31 luq1? (what!?) all.right–all.right Y/N [angry:] What!? Really?

    • A reduplicated stative verb ‘quick’ expresses ‘quickly’, e.g. (52) and (53). Sentence (54) illustrates the use of the same morpheme in single form and as a main verb. 52

    I31-pue11 wui25 mai11 han31-han31 distilled–booze buy+FCT ABL quick–quick dvau31 lo31-aq1-o55. turn(ipf) come(back/up)–SIM–HIGH After buying the booze, come back (SG) quickly.

    dum11 again

    195

    REDUPLICATION

    53

    Yvang11

    han31-han31 a1-wo35 gvut5 3SG quick–quick NEG–have do He couldn’t do it quickly.

    54

    Hye55-yuq1 han11 dik1 same.elevation–person quick(ipf) extreme He [at the same elevation] is very fast.

    toq5. come.out r55. PE

    • A reduplicated stative verb ‘clear’ expresses ‘clearly’, e.g. (55). Sentence (56) illustrates the use of the same morpheme in single form and as a main verb. 55

    Le1go11 kyang31-kyang31 well clear–clear Speak (SG) clearly.

    56

    Kyang31-dik5 clear–extreme It’s very clear.

    dai11-aq5. speak–SIM

    bue31. P+I

    • A reduplicated stative verb ‘fine’ expresses ‘so that it becomes (quite) fine’, e.g. (57). Sentence (58) illustrates the use of the same morpheme in single form and as a main verb. 57

    58

    Le1go11 nuq1-nuq1 nvye11-aq5 well fine–fine chew–SIM Chew (SG) it very well.

    ma11. ROUS

    A1-nuq1 luq1? NEG–fine Y/N Is it [chewed/crushed] fine?

    • A reduplicated stative verb ‘hard’ is a complex adverb or ideophone expressing the sensation of hardness. 59

    Tan31-tan31 ga31 r55. hard–hard perceive(ipf) PE It feels quite hard.

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    • A reduplicated stative verb ‘tough, rough, viscous’ is a complex adverb or ideophone expressing the sensation of toughness, e.g. (60). Sentences (61) and (62) illustrate the use of the same morpheme in single form and as a main verb. 60

    Nye11 hi31 ge11 nvai55-nvai55 bamboo.thong this TOP tough/viscous–tough/viscous ze1-ga31 r55. (ipf) only–perceive PE This bamboo thong feels very rough.

    61

    Nye11 hi31 ge11 nvai31 dik1 ra55. (ipf) bamboo.thong this TOP tough/viscous extreme PE This bamboo thong is very rough.

    62

    Mi1-zvue11 hi31 ge11 nvai31 dik1 r55, earth–soil this TOP tough/viscous(ipf) extreme PE 1 55 zve -lvin wo35 lvin55 ra31 dut1 ra55. soil–screw/roll have screw/roll need+I become PE This soil is very viscous, it’s suitable for turning clay bullets.

    • The stative verb means ‘straight’ and its regular tone is /31/, as illustrated by sentences (63) and (64). A reduplicated ‘straight’ also exists, but in this case it is marked by the imperfective marker , as a complex adverb or ideophone ngyang11-ngyang11 (straight(ipf)-straight(ipf)) expressing a state of lying straight, e.g. (65). 63

    Ne1-sue11 hi55-kat5 a1-ngyang31. cattle–stick this–long.object NEG–straight This stick is not straight.

    64

    Kyo31-ngyang31 so11 gveq5. road–straight walk PLIM Walk (PL) via the short road. (lit.: via the straight road)

    65

    Le1go11 ngyang11-ngyang11 lye11-aq1. well straight(ipf)–straight(ipf) lie.down*–SIM Lie (SG) straight.

    REDUPLICATION

    197

    • The reduplicated morpheme ‘put into’ is used as part of a complex adverb wum11 gvat5-gvat5 (power put.into-put.into) ‘with force, heavily’. In the following example, reduplication also expresses the notion ‘very’, or rather: ‘so very Vadj’. 66

    Wum11 gvat5-gvat5 ke5-so11, rong31rong31 power put.into–put.into PHB–walk [onom] ga11 dye31 ming11 r55. (ipf) perceive too sound(vi) PE Don’t walk so heavily, it’s too noisy.

    Another example of complex adverbs or ideophones formed by reduplication of stative verbs is the following sentence. 67

    Zvin31-zvin31 syui11-syui11. sour–sour sweet–sweet It’s both sour and sweet.

    • The stative verb or adjective means ‘hairy’ and is used as an adjectival suffix in nvut5-mui11 zuk5-mo35 (mouth-beard hairy-AUG) ‘a huge beard’. A reduplicated ‘hairy’ is used as a complex adverb or ideophone expressing hairiness. 68

    Loq1-bu35 bvue55-ha55 si1-mau35 hand/arm–pimple/convex PLN–where(B) flesh–body.hair zuk5-zuk5. hairy–hairy He has hair all over his arms.

    • In the following sentence, the stative verb ‘fine’ is reduplicated in order to express the notion ‘very’, like in the cases above. However, the reduplicated ‘fine’ in this sentence is not an adverb but a main verb, since it is followed by a clause marker. This type of use of a reduplicated form has only been encountered in this case. 69

    Waq1-zang11 zyap1 zvai55-zvai55-aq5. pig–rice/food chop.up fine–fine–SIM Chop (SG) the pig’s fodder very fine.

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    • The morpheme (3SG / in.truth) is a special morpheme that both functions as the third person singular pronoun and as the adverb ‘in truth’. When in adverbial function, the morpheme (3SG / in.truth) can both occur in single form and reduplicated. When used as an adverb and in single form, the morpheme (3SG / in.truth) expresses the notion ‘in truth’, in the construction V yvang11 V, as illustrated by sentence (70). In this example, the same morpheme (3SG / in.truth) is used in two instances, once as a personal pronoun and once as an adverb. A reduplicated morpheme (3SG / in.truth) expresses the notions ‘by oneself’, ‘in person’ or ‘without any help of others’, e.g. (71). The morpheme (3SG / in.truth) is discussed in Section 9.5. 70

    Yvang11

    71

    Nang31

    gyai11 yvang11 3SG TOP excellent in.truth She is really diligent indeed. 2SG

    ge11

    yvang11-yvang11 in.truth–in.truth luq1?

    gyai31 r55. (ipf) excellent PE

    gva54 ngvut5 write+FCT be

    lye31 also+I Y/N Did you (SG) write that by yourself? • The reduplicated nouns gung31-gung31 (body-body) function as an adverb expressing the notion ‘oneself’ and related notions like ‘myself’, ‘yourself’ etc. In this special use of reduplication, the notion ‘oneself’ expressed by this form is analogous to the notions ‘very Vadj’, ‘utterly Vadj’ and sometimes ‘so that it becomes (quite) Vadj’, that are normally expressed by the reduplication of stative verbs and adverbs. Whenever reference is made to the speaker himself, this adverb is combined with the verb ‘take’ in its function as an aspectivising auxiliary verb expressing ‘do for oneself’ or ‘do to oneself’. 72

    Le1-ka31

    i1-lang31 me55 (male)–7th-brother water–river LOC

    yvang11 gung31-gung31 3SG body–body

    199

    REDUPLICATION

    i5-mvyu31 si11 byuq1 bue31 (ipf) (ipf) go–float/drown(vt) die lose P+I Seventh brother has drowned himself. 73

    Ngo31 1SG

    gung31-gung31 body–body bue31.

    son31 gyuq1 calculate(ipf) afraid

    ga31. perceive+I yu11 take(ipf)

    dik1 extreme P+I I’m afraid of myself when I think of it. [I wouldn’t dare to do it again.] 74

    Nang31

    gung31-gung31 ze11 le1-gvyuq5 yu11 2SG body–body only but–scare(vt) take(ipf) 1 31 31 lye ge -lo . also+I TOP–no.more+I You (SG) are only frightening yourself.

    75

    Ngo31

    gung31-gung31 loq1 1SG body–body hand/arm yam31 yu31 bue31. cut.off(ipf) take P+I I have accidentally cut my hand.

    me55 LOC

    zang35 strike

    Note that the same morpheme ‘body’ is used in the complex noun gung11-gung31 (body(GEN)-body) ‘the middle’, referring to the exact middle between two entities. 76

    Kyo31 gung11-gung31 ke5-yap1. (GEN) road body –body PHB–stand Don’t stand in the middle of the road.

    8.6

    REDUPLICATED ADVERBS MODIFYING NOMINAL CONSTITUENTS

    The Zaiwa adverbs ‘just’ and ‘all’ can be reduplicated, modifying nominal constituents, mainly at the end of elliptic clauses. The adverb ‘just’ indicates that a given entity is in isolation or acts in isolation, as illustrated by sentence (77) where it is

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    used in single form. The reduplicated adverb ‘just’ expresses ‘there’s only’, i.e. the notion that there is only the given entities or mass noun entity, as illustrated by the following examples. The reduplicated adverb ‘just’ is mostly used in elliptic sentences. 77

    Hi31 bau35 this just Just this?

    luq1? Y/N

    78

    Mue31-bu11 me55 pui11-lvup5 bau35-bau35. wrap–clothes LOC dust/chaff–be.dusty just–just Our clothes are very dusty.

    79

    Byu31 bau35-bau35 man/woman just–just bum11 a1-gvo31. heap(vt/N)(ipf) nom–PL+I It’s full of people.

    80

    Gvo11 bang11 bau35-bau35. big PNO just–just There were plenty of adults.

    ngi11 be.there(anim)(ipf)

    The adverb ‘all’ expresses that a certain characteristic or identity applies to all entities in question, like ‘all’ or ‘all of’, much like the Chinese adverb 都 dōu, e.g. (81). A reduplicated adverb ‘all’ expresses the notion that the given entity or entities completely have a certain quality or completely are in a certain state, e.g. (82). 81

    Bui31num31 zvyat5 a1-ngvut5, num11nang35 family all NEG–be friend ngvut5 lye31. be also+I None of them are relatives, they’re all friends.

    82

    Hye55-poq5 bang11 ge11 same.elevation–foreign PNO TOP

    nvo31 nose

    REDUPLICATION

    201

    suen11-suen11 ma54 zvyat5-zvyat5. pointed–pointed LOC+FCT all–all Foreigners all have pointy noses. 8.7 REDUPLICATION OF THE AUGMENTATIVE MORPHEME

    The augmentative morpheme (AUG) is an important and unique Zaiwa morpheme with a broad scale of uses. I shall discuss this morpheme here since it often tends to be reduplicated. In short, when the augmentative morpheme is used after nouns, it expresses the notions ‘big’ or ‘elder’ and is seldom reduplicated. When used after verbs, the latter morpheme normally is reduplicated and expresses the notion ‘very much’. When the augmentative morpheme is used after nouns, it is seldom reduplicated. When used after nouns, the augmentative morpheme often expresses the notion ‘big’, e.g. lva55-mo35 (moon-AUG) ‘moon’, mau11-mo35 (sky-AUG) ‘a huge rain’. After nouns, the augmentative morpheme can in some cases also be reduplicated, in order to emphasise largeness. 83

    Hau55-nvik5-dvang31 r55 ge11 zeng31 the/that–duo–siblings OBJ TOP trunk mo35-mo35 lvung55, lvung54 mai11 ge11, AUG–AUG let.inside let.inside+FCT ABL TOP Brother and sister were then put into a huge chest, and after they were put into the chest

    The augmentative morpheme can also be used as a ranking suffix in kinship terms, referring to the eldest in line, e.g. nva55-mo35 (elder.sister-AUG) ‘eldest sister’. Moreover, the augmentative morpheme can express polite esteem, i.e. not specifically referring to the eldest in line. As a first example, the word A5-nu11-mo35 (nom-mother-AUG) is a polite way to address women of the same generation as one’s mother. Similarly, the word A5-wa11-mo35 (nom-father-AUG) is a polite way to address men of the same generation as one’s father. The reduplicated form mo35-mo35 (AUG-AUG) after the main verb expresses a notion like ‘enormously’ or ‘very’, as illustrated by the

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    following examples. From a syntactical point of view, the latter way of using (AUG) is unique within Zaiwa grammar and cannot be described within the patterns of reduplication set out above. In a way, the form mo35-mo35 (AUG-AUG ) seems to nominalise the preceding main verb, but there are no real proofs for this assumption. If this were true, this could partly explain why the preceding verbs normally are not marked by the imperfective marker . Clause markers after mo35-mo35 (AUG-AUG) often are omitted, e.g. (88) and (92) to (94). 84

    85

    86

    87

    Pik5 mo35-mo35 pungent AUG–AUG It’s very pungent. Ngo31

    nang31

    r55. PE

    r55

    lang35 mo35-mo35 1SG 2SG OBJ wait AUG–AUG I’ve been waiting for you (SG) for ages. U1-lvum11 no31 mo35-mo35 head–lump pain/ill/disease AUG–AUG My head is hurting like hell. Zo11 mo35-mo35 eat AUG–AUG I ate a ton.

    bue31. P+I

    r55. PE

    bue31. P+I

    88

    Myang35 mo35-mo35 se5-ga31 r55. (ipf) (time).long AUG–AUG like–perceive PE It feels like such a long time.

    89

    Hye31 ge11 din31 mo35-mo35 ra55. same.elevation TOP run AUG–AUG PE This one [this horse, at the same elevation] runs great.

    90

    Yvup5 nvau31 mo35-mo35 bue31, sleep feel.like AUG–AUG P+I a1-gue11 gvut5. (ipf) NEG–all.right do I’m so sleepy, I can’t do anything.

    ke5-se55 Q–like

    203

    REDUPLICATION

    91

    Zo31 gi11 mo35-mo35 (ipf) eat full/satisfied AUG–AUG a1-wo35 zo11 loq1. NEG–have eat no.more I’m so full, I can’t eat any more.

    bue31,

    ngo31

    P+I

    1SG

    The form mo35-mo35 (AUG -AUG) and the preceding verb can also form a construction that functions as an adjunct to a main clause. 92

    Ke5-ngi35 ge11 long35 mo35-mo35 ngun31 before–day TOP profit AUG–AUG silver le1-syo31-mun11 myang11 guq1-u55. one–hundred–ten.thousand/Yuan see(ipf) pick.up–FCT Today, to my great advantage, I had the good fortune of picking up one hundred Yuan.

    93

    A1ga31! mai11 mo35-mo35 gva31 (difficulty) strain(vi) AUG–AUG write(ipf) gvyop5-m55 ga11. tuck.away–FCT TOP Oh yeah, that was extremely straining, writing all the time.

    The form mo35-mo35 (AUG-AUG ) can only be used after a negated verb when in interrogative clauses. The following sentence was rejected when without the yes-or-no attitude marker (Y/N) marking yes-or-no questions. 94

    8.8

    A1-pik5 mo35-mo35 NEG–pungent AUG–AUG Isn’t it very pungent?

    luq1? Y/N

    REDUPLICATED MORPHEMES AS NOUN-VERB PAIRS

    A very characteristic trait of Zaiwa is that a single morpheme often is reduplicated, with the first one functioning as a noun and the second as a verb. In most of these cases it is not possible to determine which of the two functions, i.e. as noun or as verb, is the most basic. In the following forms, the first of the reduplicated morphemes in noun-verb

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    pairs form the final syllable of complex nouns, as occurs in most of these cases. me1-kon31 kon31 (words-sing sing) ‘sing songs’ wui31-li11 li11 (water-swim swim) ‘to swim’ 11 11 11 bui -syum syum (broom-sweep sweep) ‘sweep with the broom’ mau11-kup5 kup5 (sky-clouded/stuffy clouded/stuffy) ‘be cloudy’ 31 55 55 u -sang sang (intestine-fill.up fill.up) ‘make sausages’ sun11-tung11 tung11 (veg/dish-grind/crush grind/crush) ‘grind/crush vegetables’ u1-tup5 tup5 (head-envelop/wrap/veil envelop/wrap/veil) ‘bind up the hair’ myoq1-bvi31 bvi31 (eye-crooked2 crooked2) ‘have squinting eyes’ king31-tui11 tui11 (thread-(roll.into.a).ball (roll.into.a).ball) ‘roll thread into balls’ yvum31-wang31 wang31 (house-enter enter) ‘initiate the new house’ yvum31-toq5 toq5 (house-come.out/above come.out/above) ‘to start to live on oneself’ 5 31 31 moq -wang wang (party-enter enter) ‘to enter one’s husband’s family’ wang11-bung11 bung11 (malaria-steam(vt) steam(vt)) ‘have a steam bath against malaria’ 11 31 31 wang -gvyo gvyo (malaria-separated.by separated.by) ‘have a certain type of malaria’ The following sentences illustrate noun-verb pairs yet other than those listed above, further illustrating the frequent and broad use of such constructions in Zaiwa. 95

    Ngo31 1SG

    syo31-dvui11 dvui31 lye31. (ipf) tongue–rope(N/vt) rope(N/vt) also+I

    I stutter. 96

    Pui11-lvup5 dust/chaff–be.dusty

    he5-ge1-zyam11, PHB–random–fiddle

    205

    REDUPLICATION

    pui11-lvup5 lvup5 r55. dust/chaff–be.dusty be.dusty PE Don’t fiddle with the dust. It gets so dusty. 97

    Ne1-boi35 boi35 bue31. cattle–ignore.smn ignore.smn P+I We ignore that cow.

    98

    Zang11-bvong31 bvong31 zo11 syang55. rice/food–coincide coincide eat JUS [the people of two households:] Let’s (ND.IN) cook and eat together.

    99

    Mik1-bup1 bup1 bue31. bamboo.shoots–bad/fermented bad/fermented P+I The bamboo shoots are fermented already. / The bamboo shoots have already gone bad.

    100

    Wam11-bvung11 swollen/abdomen–swollen My abdomen is swollen.

    bvung31 swollen(ipf)

    r55. PE

    101

    Nang31

    mi11-bui35 bui35-aq5. 2SG fire–warm.oneself warm.oneself–SIM You (SG) sleep next to the fireplace.

    102

    Wui31-bvuq5 bvuq5 zo11 syang55. water–explode(vt) explode(vt) eat JUS Let’s (ND.IN) make some rice gruel to eat.

    103

    Te5-bvun11 (bamboo)–cook.in.bamboo We are cooking in bamboo.

    104

    Zyoq1bvoi55 bvoi55-aq5. (hair).tie (hair).tie–SIM Tie (SG) your hair back.

    105

    Nge1-nvong31 me55 nge1-dvui11 i5-dvui11 syang55. fish–pond LOC fish–rope(N/vt) go–rope(N/vt) JUS

    bvun31 lye31. (ipf) cook.in.bamboo also+I

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    Let’s (ND.IN) go fishing in the pond. 106

    I31-syuq5 wut1 lui31 distilled–drink drunk in.this.way +I go11-bvyaq5 bvyaq5 r55. clumsy/silly(ipf)–perform perform PE Because he’s drunk he is performing silly dances.

    107

    Ci5-bvyang11 bvyang31 buttock–jolt/winnow jolt/winnow(ipf) It was very much buttock-jolting.

    dik1 r55. extreme PE

    108

    Loq1-soq5 soq5 mu31 hand/arm–connect connect happen+I gvun55 gvoq1. play DIE Let’s (DU) walk hand in hand.

    so31 walk(ipf)

    109

    Ke5-gyo35 gyo35 gve5lvang11 gyo35 steep–go.down go.down although go.down lo35 gvoq1. go(back/up) DIE Even though it is rather steep, let’s (DU) still go down.

    110

    Ngun31-kong31 a1-gue11 kong31. (ipf) silver–save NEG–all.right save I have a hole in my pocket.

    111

    Meng11-lam35 ke5-lam35 loq1. world–ramble PHB–ramble no.more Stop travelling around.

    112

    Mi1-um31 hi31 um31-ting55 ting31 fire–gun this gun–kick kick(ipf) This gun has a rather strong recoil.

    113

    r55. PE

    Zyang11-gyu35 gyu35 dik1 r55. place(B)–(terrain).level (ground).level extreme PE The ground here is very flat.

    REDUPLICATION

    207

    The following cases are exceptions to the observation that the first of reduplicated morphemes in noun-verb pairs mostly forms the final syllable of a complex noun.24 114

    Zoq1 zo11-aq1. lock lock*–SIM Lock (SG) it.

    115

    Wun11 wun31 r55. dizzy dizzy(ipf) PE I feel dizzy.

    116

    Wun11 wun11 ra31 se5-ga31 r55. (ipf) dizzy dizzy need+I like–perceive PE I feel that I’m getting dizzy.

    Adverbs can be inserted in between of the noun-verb pair, as illustrated by the following examples, containing the short action adverb byam11 (jump(ipf)) in sentence (117) and the adverb lom11 (interfere(ipf)) indicating the notion ‘on the spot’ in sentence (118). 117

    Zang11-tun11 byam11 tun31 yu11 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) (ipf) rice/food–shine(vt) jump shine(vt) take also+I I quickly put something in my stomach to still the worst hunger. / I quickly eat something to take the edge off my appetite.

    118

    Nga35-nvik5 yvang11 r55 byo31-dvan55 1PO–duo 3SG OBJ spirit3–give.a.fright 11 55 lom dvan gvoq1. attend(ipf) give.a.fright DIE Let’s (DU) give him a fright there.

    24 The following sentence illustrates another way of referring to locking up. This is yet another case of reduplication in a construction consisting of a complex noun and a verb.

    1

    Zoq1-si11 lock–tie/lock Lock (SG) it.

    si11-aq5. tie/lock–SIM

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    CHAPTER EIGHT

    Noun-verb constructions consisting of one and the same morpheme are used to form new verbs, as appears from the use of loan morphemes in such constructions. For a first example, the final syllable of the word sau55-hai11 ‘shoe’ has been turned into a verb ‘wear/put on shoes’, as illustrated by the following examples. The last syllable of the word sau55-hai11 ‘shoe’ apparently is a loan from a form like Southwest Mandarin 鞋子 háizi ‘shoe’.25 119

    Sau55hai11 hai55-aq5. shoe (shoes).wear/put.on–SIM Put on your (SG) shoes.

    120

    Ngo31 sau55-hai11 hai31 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) 1SG shoe–shoe (shoes).wear/put.on place(vt) also+I I’m putting on my shoes.

    121

    Ke5-ngi35 ngo31 before–day 1SG sau55-hai11 ka31 shoe–shoe where Where are my shoes today gone off to?

    hai54 (shoes).wear/put.on+FCT lo35 bue31 la11? go(back/up) P+I UNC today? / (Lit.:) Where have my shoes

    The morpheme ‘incest’ could be borrowed from Jingpo, cf. jauwong with the same meaning (Xu et al. 1983: 346). The final syllable of the morpheme is used in the noun-verb construction zyau11wong11 wong11 (incest have.incest) ‘have incest’, ‘be a case of incest’. 122

    I5-nvung55 meng11-gvan11 toq5 me55 SPEC–1ND.IN world–dried.out come.out LOC zyau11wong11 wong31 lye31. (ipf) incest incest also+I Everything in our (ND.IN) world is incestuous.

    25 In Loilung, the latter form is more often used than the indigenous word ki31-zvung11 (leg/foot-put.on) ‘shoe’.

    REDUPLICATION

    209

    The morpheme ‘week, weekend’ could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. laban with the same meanings (Xu et al. 1983: 386). The final syllable of the morpheme is used in a noun-verb construction, with a newly formed morpheme ‘to pass Sunday’. 123

    I5ban11 ban31 lye31. (ipf) week(end) pass.Sunday also+I We are passing our Sunday.

    CHAPTER NINE

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    9.1

    OVERVIEW

    This chapter offers an in-depth description of features in Zaiwa nominal morphology. Within this section, an analysis will be given of the different types of Zaiwa noun phrases. Apart from this introductory section, this chapter is divided into seven main parts. Below I have listed the sections within these main parts and their different subsections, giving a general overview of the contents of this chapter. Part I 9.2 9.3

    Important remarks The typology of the Zaiwa noun phrases Tones /35/ and /55/ vs. tone /31/; the demonstratives

    Part II Personal pronouns, relational morphemes and yourself 9.4 Personal pronouns 9.5 The morpheme (3SG / in truth) and complex adverbs referring to ‘oneself’ 9.6 Morphemes used as prefixed indicators of family ties: (1PO), (2SG.PO), (2REL) and (3SG / in.truth) Part III 9.7

    Case suffixes The actants of the Zaiwa clause; the object marker variants , and 9.8 The topic of the clause and the general topic marker (TOP) 9.9 The agentive/instrumental suffix 9.10 The comitative suffix 9.11 The directive case suffix 9.12 The ablative case suffix

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    9.13 The general locative case suffix 9.14 The form ma54 (LOC+FCT) used in a literal way and as the description marker 9.15 The morpheme ‘lead, connect’ as the mediative case suffix Part IV Spatial and deictic morphemes, excluding case suffixes 9.16 Overview of the locational case suffixes and other locational suffixes 9.17 Nouns used as locational suffixes, normally followed by a case suffix 9.17.1 the word gung11-gung31 ‘the middle’ 9.17.2 the noun ‘between’ 9.17.3 the morphemes ‘close vicinity’ and ‘near the house’ 9.17.4 the morpheme ‘behind’ 9.17.5 the word num11-tang55 ‘behind one’s back’ 9.17.6 the morpheme ‘roots, base’ 9.17.7 the noun ‘edge’ 9.18 Adjectives used as locational suffixes 9.18.1 the morpheme ‘inside of’ 9.18.2 the morpheme ‘under’ 9.18.3 the morpheme ‘under, amongst’ 9.18.4 the morpheme ‘near’ 9.18.5 the morpheme ‘roll’ 9.18.6 the morpheme ‘come out, above’ 9.19 The morphemes ‘start’ and ‘before’; the prioritive adverb 9.20 The specificatory morpheme (SPEC) 9.21 ‘where’ and its bound form variants 9.21.1 the pronoun ‘where’ 9.21.2 the general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q) ‘what/which/where’ 9.21.3 the morpheme ‘where’(B) 9.22 The partitive pronominal suffix (PART ) and the form gu54 (PART+FCT) 9.23 The differentiating pronouns ‘different’ and / ‘other’

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    213

    9.24 The limitative pronoun ‘only this’ 9.25 The bound form ‘much’(B) 9.26 The morpheme ‘far’(B) as a pronoun and an adverb Part V 9.27 9.28 9.29 9.30 9.31

    Noun suffixes The suffix ‘generation’ Number Suffixes Sex Suffixes Augmentative and diminutive The morpheme ‘each’

    Part VI Nominalising suffixes 9.32 Nominalising suffixes 9.32.1 Overview 9.32.2 The singular nominaliser 9.32.3 The plural nominalising morpheme 9.32.4 The nominaliser ‘things for/to …’ 9.32.5 The morpheme ‘time for, season’ 9.32.6 The morpheme ‘(matter of) guilt’ 9.32.7 The morpheme ‘place’ as a nominaliser: ‘place to’, ‘place that’ 9.32.8 the morpheme (truc) ‘implement, matter’ and other such nouns Part VII 9.33 9.34 9.35 9.36

    Head nouns, specifier nouns and numerals Numerals The typology of Zaiwa Specifier Nouns Positional specifier nouns ‘sort’, ‘kind’ and other morphemes; the same or not the same? 9.37 Bits and Parts; Nouns that are only used after the prefix ‘one’, and a comparison with ‘fold’ 9.38 ‘one’ expressing the special notion ‘the whole’ Partly within this realm lies the discussion of all words used for expressing time, in: 9.39 Expressing time / What’s the time? 9.40 Time adverbs with initial /a/

    214 9.2

    CHAPTER NINE

    THE TYPOLOGY OF THE ZAIWA NOUN PHRASES

    Based both on morpho-phonological and morphosemantic grounds, four main types of Zaiwa noun phrases can be distinguished, which moreover can be divided in various subtypes, as shown in Table 9.1. This section briefly discusses and illustrates each of these types. Table 9.1 Four main types of noun phrase and their subtypes

    I Simple noun phrases: • single noun phrase noun pronoun (free form) • juxtaposed noun phrases (a noun with a pronominal suffix) noun + pronoun (free form) • reversed noun phrases, used when pointing pronoun (free form) + noun II Complex noun phrases: • basic types of complex noun phrases a) head noun +

    numeral

    +

    b) head noun +

    pronominal prefix

    specifier noun + specifier noun

    • complex noun phrase: variant with head noun omitted a)

    ---

    +

    numeral

    +

    b)

    ---

    +

    pronominal prefix +

    specifier noun specifier noun

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    • complex noun phrase: variant with both head noun and specifier omitted --+ bound form pronoun + --• complex noun phrase: variant with head noun in anterior position bound form pronoun

    +

    specifier noun hu55 or zyung11 + (sort) (kind)

    head noun

    (FCT)

    +

    noun

    + +

    noun noun

    III Genitive noun phrases a)

    (pro)noun

    b)

    +

    (1PO) (2SG.PO)

    IV Special constructions indicating family ties a) b)

    (2REL) (name or pronoun)*

    +

    noun (child, mother, aunt etc.)

    * noun +(3SG / in truth) +(child, mother, aunt etc.)

    * = either marked or unmarked by the oblique genitive case marker (GEN)

    I Simple noun phrases • the basic type of simple noun phrase The basic type of simple noun phrase consists of a single noun or pronoun. The following three sentences are examples of single noun phrases within clauses, e.g. ‘this, here’ in sentence (1), the first person singular pronoun in sentence (2) and both the second

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    person singular pronoun and the pronoun ‘where’ in sentence (3). 1

    Hi31 luq1? this Y/N This one?

    2

    Ngo31

    luq1?

    1SG

    Y/N

    [Are you talking about] me? 3

    Nang31

    ka31 lo35 2SG where go(back/up) Where are you (SG) going?

    lye31? also+I

    • the juxtaposed noun phrases The juxtaposed noun phrases consist of a noun with a pronominal suffix. This type of noun phrase is termed the juxtaposed noun phrase since its components are morpho-phonologically unmarked and can also appear, in similar shape, as single noun phrases, as in sentence (3) above. a1zeng35 hu31(thing that.above) byu31 hau31 (man/woman the/that)

    ‘the thing there above’ ‘that person (you know)’

    • the reversed noun phrases The regular order a juxtaposed noun phrase can only be reversed when the speaker is actually specifically pointing at the given object. This results in another subtype of the simple noun phrases, viz. the reversed noun phrases. hu31 a1zeng35(that.above thing) hi31 bvong55dvin55 (this pen)

    ‘there, that thing above’ ‘this pen here’ (pointing)

    II The complex noun phrases : • the main type of complex noun phrase; two subtypes The main type of complex noun phrase has two basic constructions, both of which contain a head noun and a specifier noun. The first subtype contains a numeral between the head noun and the specifier

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    217

    noun, whereas the other subtype contains a pronominal prefix instead of a numeral in this position.26 In the complex noun phrases, the noun after the pronominal prefix or numeral functions as a specifier noun, whereas the noun before it functions as the “head noun”, i.e. the noun denoting the general entity which is being specified. Specification here implies adding the following notions to the entity denoted by the head noun: 1) number, 2) position, or 3) the highlighting of specific versions. There is a subtle but important difference in meaning between a regular complex noun phrase and juxtaposed noun phrases. A complex noun phrase like mau11sau11 hi55-buk1 (paper/book this-book) ‘this book’ more specifically refers to a certain specimen instead of others, whereas juxtaposed noun phrases like mau11sau11 hi31 (paper/book this) ‘this book’ have a more neutral connotation. The following noun phrases are examples of complex noun phrases. I will further discuss the numerous Zaiwa specifier nouns in the Sections 9.34 to 9.37. mau11sau11 hi55-buk1 (paper/book this-book) ‘this book (in contrast to other books)’ mau11sau11 le1-buk1 (paper/book one-book) ‘a/one book’ byu31 hi55-yuq1 (man/woman this-person) ‘this man/woman’ 31 11 5 byu sum -yuq (man/woman three-person) ‘three men/women’ In an analogous way, the complex pronoun ke5-mvyo55 (Q-much) ‘how much’ is used as another type of bound pronominal prefix. byu31 ke5-mvyo55 yuq1 ? (man/woman Q-much person)

    ‘how many people?’

    • variant of complex noun phrases: with head noun omitted The noun phrases with omitted head noun only contain either a numeral or a pronominal prefix in combination with a specifier noun. The head noun is omitted under the following circumstances. 1. The head noun becomes optional when mentioning of the identity of the omitted head noun has become superfluous for just having been 26 Section 9.22 discusses the pronoun ‘different’ which is special by the fact that it is used in many different types of complex noun phrases.

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    mentioned, like when answering questions. This is illustrated by sentence (5), as a response to sentence (4). zang11 ke5-mvyo55 koq5 wo35 zo31 lye31? 2SG rice/food Q–much(B) bowl have eat(ipf) also+I How many bowls of rice can you (SG) eat?

    4

    Nang31

    5

    Le1-koq5 ze11 wo35 one–bowl only have I can only eat one bowl.

    zo31 eat(ipf)

    lye31. also+I

    2. The complex pronoun ka55-hu55 (Q-sort), e.g. (6), can also be analysed as a complex noun phrase consisting of a pronominal prefix and a specifier noun, with a head noun that is omitted. 6

    Ka55-hu55 haq5 lye31? Q–sort hide also+I What are you hiding?

    3. As a rule, there is no head noun before the pronoun variants / ‘other’, and the front position of these pronouns emphasises differences. The head noun can either appear in anterior position, as illustrated by the first of the following examples, or be omitted, as illustrated by the two other examples. go35-hu55 ming35 ga35-yuq1 7

    (other.sort language) ‘another language’ / ‘other languages’ (other-person) ‘someone else, other people’

    Ga35-dung11 a1-wo35 le1-luq1? other–piece(Sp) NEG–have no.more–Y/N Don’t you have any other clothes?

    4. In the following circumstances the head noun can be omitted from the complex noun phrases, so that the noun phrases contain only a bound form demonstrative pronoun and a specifier noun. First, the head noun can be omitted when it is clear from the context what kind of things are concerned. This especially occurs when the choice of specifier noun already clarifies what kind of matters are concerned.

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    For example, when the specifier ‘person’ is used, head nouns like ‘man/woman’ are mostly superfluous. The pronoun ‘who’ never appears with a head noun, and ‘person’ is the only specifier noun to which it can be attached. (byu31) ke5-mvyo55 yuq1 (man/woman Q-much person) ‘how many people?’ o55-yuq1 (who-person) ‘who?’ The head noun ‘man/woman’ is omitted before ‘the/that (we know)’ in hau55-yuq1 (the/that-person), expressing ‘he/she’ or ‘that fellow’, i.e. the person of whom both speaker and listener have been talking already. A similar case is the noun phrase mvo55-yuq1 (below-person) ‘that person below’ in the following sentence. 8

    Mvo55-yuq1 ge11 nga35 bui31num31 ngvut5 below–person TOP 1PO family be That person [below] is a relative of mine.

    lye31. also+I

    5. The head noun is also omitted in idiosyncratic constructions with the numeral prefix ‘one’, which I shall discuss in the Sections 9.33 to 9.38. The construction le1-zyung11 ze11 (one-sort only) ‘(just) the same, similarly’ in the following sentence may serve as an example. 9

    Yvang55-nvik5 le1-zyung11 ze11 3PL–duo one–kind only 31 31 1 a -gvo ga . nom–PL+I perceive+I They (DU) are in just as much pain.

    no11 pain/ill/disease(ipf)

    • a variant of the complex noun phrases, with both head noun and specifier omitted Under the following circumstances, bound form interrogative pronouns can appear without both head noun and specifier. 1) Head noun and specifier can be omitted when ‘who’ is used, as illustrated by the two following examples.

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    10

    O55 ta11? who GI Who? / Who are you (SG)?

    11

    Nang31

    o55 ta11? 2SG who GI Who are you (SG)?

    2) Complex interrogative pronouns like ke5-mvyo55 ‘how much/many’ and ke5-nvam55 ‘when’ can also be used without both head noun and specifier. 12

    Ke5-mvyo55 ta11? Q–much(B) GI How much/many [was it]?

    13

    Ke5-nvam55 ta11? Q–when GI When [was it]?

    • a variant of the complex noun phrases, with head noun in anterior position In another variant of the complex noun phrases, the head nouns appear in anterior position, in noun phrases containing hu55 ‘sort, clan’ and zyung11 ‘kind’. The difference in use of the specifier nouns hu55 ‘sort, clan’ and zyung11 ‘kind’ as compared to the other specifiers also reflects that these two words have rather different meanings. These constructions specifically refer to other sorts or kinds of the given entity, instead of other specimen. The first examples contain the pronoun variants / ‘other’ already discussed above. As a rule, there is no head noun before / ‘other’, and the front position of these pronouns emphasises differences. The following examples illustrate that the head noun, instead of being omitted before these pronouns, can also appear in anterior position. go35-hu55 ming35 (other-sort language) ‘other languages’ ga35-zyung11 zang11-sun11 (other-kind rice/food-veg/dish) ‘other kinds of dishes’

    221

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    The following sentence also contains a head noun after a pronoun, viz. after ‘this (here)’, in combination with the specifier noun ‘sort, clan’. The speaker of this sentence suggested that the addressee might not be used to Zaiwa food. 14

    Hi55-hu55 sun11 nang31 gue11 zo31 lye31 luq1? this–sort veg/dish 2SG all.right(ipf) eat(ipf) also+I Y/N Do you (SG) eat these kinds of dishes?

    In the following sentences with ‘sort, clan’ and ‘kind’, the head noun appears in standard position, since here reference to classification or differentiation is made in only rather neutral way. rvang31 make(ipf)

    lye31? also+I

    15

    Zang11-sun11 ke5-mvyo55 hu55 rice/food–veg/dish Q–much(B) sort How many dishes are you preparing?

    16

    Se5-gam31 hi55-zyung11 ge11 si11 gue11 tree–tree(B) this–kind TOP fruit all.right(ipf) zui31 lye31. (ipf) bear.fruit also+I This kind of tree bears fruit. [is good at bearing fruit]

    III Genitive noun phrases : Genitive noun phrases either contain 1) the factitive marker (FCT), causing the specific morpho-phonological processes already discussed in Section 4.3, or 2) special possessive pronouns, viz. the first person possessive pronoun and the second person singular possessive pronoun . Both types of genitive noun phrases are illustrated by the following noun phrases. yvang54 mau11sau11 (3SG+FCT paper/book) ‘his paper/book’, Please note that the morpheme underlying the first syllable in the above construction is (3SG / in.truth) as the third person singular pronoun. dung25 si1-mau35(wing+FCT flesh-body.hair) ‘the wing’s feathers’ Please note that the morpheme underlying the first syllable in the above construction is dung31 ‘wing’.

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    nga35 mau11sau11 nang35 mau11sau11

    (1PO paper/book) (2SG.PO paper/book)

    ‘my book’ ‘your (sg.) book’

    IV Special constructions indicating family ties : In Section 9.6 I shall describe the way in which family ties are indicated, using the morphemes (1PO), (2SG.PO), (2REL) and (3SG / in truth). The two latter morphemes are used in special genitive noun phrases for family ties, as illustrated by the following examples. Section 4.6 has described the oblique genitive case marker (GEN), marking the nouns before (3SG / in truth) and often also marking the latter morpheme itself. nung11-mi11 (2REL -wife) ‘your wife’ nung11-lang31 (2REL-husband) ‘your husband’ nung11-zo11 (2REL-child) ‘your child/children’. Mo35pi31 yvang31-nu11 (beggar(GEN) 3SG(GEN)-mother) ‘Beggar’s mother’ Mo35pi31 yvang11-mi11 (beggar(GEN) 3SG(GEN)-wife) ‘Beggar’s wife’ 9.3

    TONES /35/ AND /55/ VS. TONE /31/; THE DEMONSTRATIVES

    Table 9.2 lists the Zaiwa demonstrative pronouns. Most of the demonstratives belong to pairs of morphemes that clearly reflect the same etymon. Therefore, there is a clear distinction between two groups of demonstratives. One group consists of bound form pronominal prefixes in tone /55/. The other group consists of pronouns in tone /31/ which are either used as free form pronouns or as pronominal suffixes. The previous section has already discussed the various types of noun phrases in which the demonstratives in their various forms and functions are used. The variants in tone /55/ are used as bound form pronominal prefixes in complex noun phrases, whereas the variants in tone /31/ are used as free form pronouns or pronominal suffixes in simple noun phrases. The same type of distinction between a bound form in tone /55/ and a free form in tone /31/ can also be found with other Zaiwa pronouns, such as between the general interrogative pronominal prefix

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    223

    , a pronominal prefix, and ‘where’, a free form pronoun. These two morphemes will be separately discussed in Section 9.21. Table 9.2 The Zaiwa demonstratives bound form pronominal prefix in tone /55/ ‘this (here)’

    free form pronoun or pronominal suffix in tone /31/ ‘this’

    ‘the, that ‘the, that (we know)’ (we know)’ ‘before’ ‘that on the same height’

    -- ‘that on the same height’

    ‘that above’ ‘that above’ 55 (cf. the verb ‘face towards’) ‘that below’

    ‘that below’

    There are also bound form pronominals in tone /35/ instead of tone /55/. The tones /35/ and /55/ are near allotones, and the initial type and the phonation type decide which of them is used. The second person singular possessive pronoun has a free form variant in tone /31/, viz. the second person singular pronoun , which appears to be borrowed from Jingpo. Within the first person pronouns there are no such pairs of morphemes. The first person singular pronoun resembles the first person possessive pronoun but both forms have a different vowel. Also within the Zaiwa personal pronominal morphemes, there is a similar distinction between the second person relational morpheme and the second person plural pronominal prefix

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    (2PL), which forms part of complex personal pronouns. Similar but incomplete distinctions exist for other Zaiwa pronominals as well, as I shall set out below. The pronominal ‘who’ is special since it can both be used as a free form pronoun, e.g. (17), and as a pronominal prefix. In the latter function it is always combined with the specifier noun for human beings ‘person’, e.g. (18). 17

    18

    Nang31

    ge11

    o55 2SG TOP who Who are you (SG)? O55-yuq1 who–person Who?

    ta11? GI

    ta11? GI

    The pronominal prefix variants / ‘other’, both in tone /35/, are special, for they have no free form pronoun or pronominal suffix variants in tone /31/. Neither has the morpheme ‘before’. The latter morpheme underlies the demonstrative pronominal prefix ‘that … in front’. The latter morpheme, however, does share the same etymon with a form in tone /31/, viz. the auxiliary verb ‘start’. Section 9.19 will separately discuss the morpheme ‘before’ and its use as the prioritive adverb ‘first’. • and ‘this (here)’ The use of the two first types of demonstratives, i.e. the pronominal prefixes in /35/ or /55/ and the free form pronouns or pronominal suffixes in /31/, can be illustrated by and its variant , both expressing ‘this (here)’. The pronominal ‘this (here)’ in tone /31/ is a free form pronoun, used as an independent nominal constituent, e.g. (19), and its variant ‘this (here)’ is a pronominal prefix, used before certain locational case suffixes or pronominal suffixes, e.g. in hi55-me55 ‘here’ before the locative case suffix in sentence (20), or in hi55-bvue55 ‘these’ before the plural suffix in sentence (21). The pronominal prefix ‘this (here)’ is also used before specifier nouns, either

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    225

    with or without head nouns before it, cf. in byu31 hi55-yuq1 (man/woman this-person) and hi55-yuq1 (this-person), which both can be translated as ‘this person’. 19

    Hi31 luq1? this Y/N This one?

    20

    Hi55-me55 zyum31-aq1. this–LOC dip(vt)–SIM Dip (SG) it in here.

    21

    Ngo31 hi55-bvue55 hye55-me55 gvat5 ra31. 1SG this–PLN same.elevation–LOC put.into need+I I’ll put these in there.

    • and ‘the, that (we know)’ Another example of a demonstrative pronominal morpheme pair is formed by and , both translated as ‘the, that (we know)’ and glossed (the/that). The latter morphemes both refer to entities that are not specifically in the vicinity of the speaker or the addressee but that somehow already are known from the context. This is illustrated by the following sentences, where or ‘the, that (we know)’ refer to entities which are opposed to other entities in the vicinity of the speaker, referred to by or ‘this’. 22

    Hi55-dong31 a1-ngvut5, hau55-dong31 this–lead/connect NEG–be the/that–lead/connect syeq1 le1-ngvut5 r55. au.contraire but–be PE It’s not this way, you need to go that way.

    23

    Ngo31 hau31 a1-zo11, hi31 syeq1 zo11 ra31. 1SG the/that NEG–eat this au.contraire eat need+I I won’t eat that, but I’ll have this instead.

    The allomorph of ‘the, that (we know)’ is only attested in combination with the locative case suffix in the word

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    CHAPTER NINE

    ha55-me55, which either expresses ‘there (a place we know)’, e.g. (24), or is used, especially in storytelling, as a kind of conjunction ‘thereupon’, ‘from then onwards’, e.g. (25) and (26). The word ha55-me55 (the/that-LOC) in the latter function has always been attested in combination with the morpheme ‘come out, above’. 24

    Ap5 ha55-me55 zvuq5 needle the/that–LOC insert Insert (SG) the needle there.

    25

    E11,

    26

    dvo11-aq5. place(vt)–SIM

    saq1wa11 ge11 ha55-me55 toq5 VOC spirit.type TOP the/that–LOC come.out Yes, this was the beginning of the saqwa.

    bue31. P+I

    Hau55-mai11 saq1wa11 ha55-me55 dum11 the/that–ABL spirit.type the/that–LOC again toq5 lye31. come.out also+I After this, more saqwa’s arose.

    • Other demonstrative pronouns The remaining demonstrative pronominals ‘that … in front’, or ‘that … on the same height’, / ‘that … above’ and or ‘that … below’ are used in ways which are similar to those discussed above. The following examples illustrate the use of and , both expressing ‘that … below’. 27

    Mvo31 bvong55dvin55 be1-guq1 gvan31-aq1. below pen help–pick.up put.into*–SIM Pick up (SG) that pen down there.

    28

    Byu31 mvo55-yuq1 ka31 man/woman below–person where Where has the person below gone?

    lo35 go(back/up)

    lye31? also+I

    29

    Mvo55-yuq1 ge11 nga35 bui31num31 ngvut5 below–person TOP 1PO family be That person [below] is a relative of mine.

    lye31. also+I

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    227

    In the following sentence, the pronominal demonstrative prefix ‘that … on the same height’ is used before the ablative case suffix . According to the informant, in this sentence the pronominal demonstrative prefixes ‘that … above’, ‘that … below’, ‘this’ and ‘the, that (we know)’ can also be used in the same position as ‘that … on the same height’. 30

    Hye55-mai11 o55-yuq1 kyong11 tye31 same.elevation–ABL who–person throat sound mu11 lai31 lo25 ta11? happen(ipf) pass(ipf) come(back/up)+FCT GI Who is that there [at the same elevation] whom I hear clearing their throat?

    9.4

    PERSONAL PRONOUNS

    Table 9.3 lists the individual morphemes that form part of Zaiwa personal pronouns, and Table 9.4 lists the Zaiwa personal pronouns as a whole. Table 9.3 Morphemes used in the Zaiwa personal pronouns

    Pronominal morphemes used in the Zaiwa personal pronouns: the first person singular pronoun

    (1SG) 31 the second person singular pronoun (2SG) the third person singular pronoun and adverb ‘in truth’ (3SG/in truth) the first person possessive pron. (1PO) the second person singular possessive pron (2 SG.PO) the second person plural pronoun (2PL) first person non-dual plural inclusive pron. (1ND.IN) the third person plural pronoun (3PL) the specificatory morpheme

    (SPEC)

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    CHAPTER NINE

    two morphemes also used outside the realm of pronominal morphology: ‘duo’ as the dual suffix, and ‘party’ as the plural suffix also used in complex pronouns: ‘couple’

    Table 9.4 Zaiwa personal and possessive personal pronouns first person:

    regular forms

    first person singular: ngo31 (1SG) first person dual:

    regular forms special modified by the possessive factitive marker morphemes (FCT) --

    nga35 (1PO)

    nga35-nvik5 (1PO-duo)

    nga35-nvik5-ng55 (1PO-duo-FCT)

    --

    specificatory first person dual: i5-nvik5 (SPEC-duo)

    i5-nvik5-ng55 (SPEC-duo-FCT)

    --

    first person non-dual plural inclusive: nga35-nvung55 nga35-nvung54 (1PO-1ND.IN) (1PO-1ND.IN+FCT)

    --

    specificatory first person non-dual plural inclusive: i5-nvung55 i5-nvung54 (SPEC-1ND.IN) (SPEC-1ND.IN+FCT)

    --

    first person non-dual plural exclusive: nga35-moq1 nga35-moq1-o55 (1PO-party) (1PO-party+FCT)

    --

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    second person: second person singular: nang31 (2SG)

    --

    second person dual: nung35-nvik5 (2PL-duo)

    nung35-nvik5-ng55 (2PL-duo-FCT)

    second person plural: nung35-moq1 (2PL-party)

    nung35-moq1-o55 -(2PL-party-FCT)

    nang35 (2SG.PO) --

    third person: third person singular: yvang11 yvang54 (3SG / in truth) (3SG / in truth+FCT)

    --

    third person dual: yvang55-nvik5 (3PL-duo)

    yvang55-nvik5-ng55 (3PL-duo-FCT)

    --

    third person plural: yvang55-moq1 (3PL-party)

    yvang55-moq1-o55 (3PL-party-FCT)

    --

    According to both Xu et al. (1983: 533) and Dai & Xu (1992: 23), the second person pronoun could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. Jingpo nang [naŋ 33] bearing the same meaning. The former has a special possessive variant (2SG.PO). These two forms are not cognate to the second person plural pronoun (2PL) and the first person non-dual plural inclusive pronoun (1ND.IN), which form part of several complex personal pronouns, as shown in Table 9.4. The two latter morphemes appear to be remnants of an older Zaiwa second person pronoun, resembling the Maru. second person singular pronoun nuŋ31. Table 9.4 lists the Zaiwa personal pronouns, including the possessive personal pronouns. Many of the non-possessive pronouns are complex forms. All personal pronouns have variants that are used as possessive personal pronouns. The Zaiwa possessive pronouns

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    either are combinations of already existing pronouns with the factitive marker (FCT) or, in two cases, special possessive morphemes. The first of these special possessive forms is the first person possessive prefix , which differs from the first person singular pronoun both in tone and in vowel. The other special possessive form is (2SG.PO), already discussed above, which shares the same vowel as the second person singular pronoun . I shall now discuss some aspects of the meaning of the first person possessive pronoun . The meaning of the latter can also be used in an indefinite way, as ‘one’s’, as illustrated by the following sentence. 31

    Mang11-zo11 ngi31 zyang35 nga35 ngi11 aged–child be.there(anim) CD 1PO penis nga35 zyuq1 a1-gue11 dai11. 1PO vagina NEG–all.right(ipf) speak When the old folks are there, one cannot talk about one’s penis or one’s vagina.

    In the following sentence, there is no nominal constituent attached to the first person possessive pronoun , which here expresses a meaning like ‘to me’. 32

    Hi31 nga35 he55-ma54 gu31 o31 ra31. this 1PO before–LOC+FCT PART want/take need+I I’ll have those in front of me.

    The Zaiwa personal pronouns are combinations of the morphemes listed in Table 9.3, two of which are also used outside the realm of pronominal morphology, viz. the dual suffix and the plural suffix . The latter is also a bound form noun expressing the notion ‘party’, e.g. in ze1-moq5 (child.party) ‘relatives of the husband’ and moq1-pung31 (party-gathering) ‘public gathering’. Between the Zaiwa first person pronomina there is a distinction between inclusiveness and exclusiveness of the addressee. In the Zaiwa first person non-dual plural pronouns, inclusiveness of the addressee is expressed by the first person non-dual plural inclusive

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    pronoun (1ND.IN). Exclusiveness of the addressee is expressed by the plural suffix ‘party’. The difference between inclusiveness and exclusiveness of the addressee is illustrated by sentence (33), containing the first person non-dual plural inclusive pronoun nga35-nvung55 (1PO-1ND.IN) on the one hand, and on the other the sentences (34) to (36), containing the first person non-dual plural exclusive pronoun nga35-moq1 (1PO-party). 33

    Nga35-nvung55 wa31 bang11 le1go11 pom31 1PO–1ND.IN village PNO well unite ra31 dut1 lye31. need+I become also+I We (ND.IN) village people have to stand together.

    34

    Nga35-moq1 yvum31 me55 mau11-yui31 1PO–party house LOC sky–leak/stream 11 55 yui r . leak/stream(ipf) PE There’s a leak in our (ND.EX) house.

    35

    Nang31

    36

    Nga35-moq1 yvang31-nu11 ngvut5 bue31 (GEN) 1PO–party 3SG –mother be P+I [in disbelief:] “If you were our mother” …

    a1-zo11 gve5lvang11 nga35-moq1 2SG NEG–eat although 1PO–party gvyop1gvyop1 le1-zo31 dam54-o55. [tuck.away] but–eat(ipf) VEH+FCT–HIGH You (SG) may not want to eat it now, but we (ND.EX) will finish it anyway. r11 ge11, also TOP

    In the context of the following sentence, the addressee is asked to climb a tree, since the other persons, including the speaker and excluding the addressee, do not dare to do so. 37

    Nga35-moq1 o55 r11 a1-rup5 doq1-o55 ga11. 1PO–party who also NEG–dare go.up–HIGH TOP None of us (ND.EX) dares to go up.

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    The specificatory morpheme in personal pronouns expresses the notion that all persons that are present are included, in contrast to some others in the context, which is complementary to inclusiveness of the addressee. The Zaiwa specificatory morpheme is a kind of deictic pronoun which places specific emphasis on a particular situation, as I shall discuss in Section 9.20. The latter morpheme resembles the Proto-Tibeto-Burman root *i which, according to Bauman (1975: 131-3), commonly indicates the inclusive category in Tibeto-Burman. The first person non-dual plural inclusive pronoun nga35-nvung55 discussed above has a specificatory variant, i.e. the specificatory first person non-dual plural inclusive pronoun i5-nvung55. The use of this specificatory personal pronoun is often accompanied by certain gestures with the arms or hands. In many other cases, the specificatory category is a mere complement of the notion of inclusiveness of the addressee as is already expressed by the first person non-dual plural inclusive pronoun (1ND.IN). To be more precise, the specificatory morpheme in i5-nvung55 (SPEC-1ND.IN) often expresses that all persons who are present are included, mostly in contrast to some other persons in the context, e.g. (38). In this respect, also compare i5-nvung55 Mi11wa31 mau11 (SPEC-1ND.IN Chinese(GEN) native.place) ‘our China’. To move ahead somewhat, the specificatory morpheme expresses a similar meaning in the dual i5-nvik5 (SPEC-duo), cf. (39). Whether i5-nvung55 (SPEC-1ND.IN) or nga35-nvung55 (1PO-1ND.IN) is used, seems to depend on personal speaking habits or, more possibly, on dialectal differences. People from Longchuan appear to prefer i5-nvung55 (SPEC-1ND.IN) above nga35-nvung55 (1PO-1ND.IN), whereas the opposite is the case in Loilung. Section 9.20 discusses the specificatory morpheme in further detail. 38

    Yvang55-moq1 r55 a1-wo35 lang35, i5-nvung55 3PL–party OBJ NEG–have wait SPEC–1ND.IN zo11 lang35 syang55. eat wait JUS We can’t wait for them, let’s (ND.IN) eat while we’re waiting.

    39

    Yvang55-moq1 3PL–party

    r55 OBJ

    a1-wo35 lang35, NEG–have wait

    i5-nvik5 SPEC–duo

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    zo11 lang35 gvoq1. Eat wait DIE We can’t wait for them, let’s (DU.IN) eat while we’re waiting. The following examples further illustrate that i5-nvung55 (SPEC-1ND.IN) expresses that all persons who are present are included. ga31. perceive+I

    40

    Hau31 i5-nvung55 si1-ngai11 su31 the/that SPEC–1ND.IN flesh–give.birth SNO That’s the one who gave birth to us all.

    41

    I5-nvung55 ge11 yvum31-seng31 zvyat5-zvyat5 SPEC–1ND.IN TOP house–host all–all We (ND.IN) are all hosts. [So help yourselves.]

    42

    bue31. P+I

    I5-nvung55 Zum31-go35 ban31-syoq5-bang11 SPEC–1ND.IN consort–dance use.up–till–PNO lo35 ra31 kai31-me1-dvi31. go(back/up) need+I SUG+I–ROUS–CX+I We (ND.IN) are all going to the Menau festival, aren’t we?

    When the first person dual pronoun nga35-nvik5 is used, inclusiveness or exclusiveness of the addressee are not relevant factors. The latter pronoun can be used both in contexts where the addressee is inclusive, e.g. (43), as well as in contexts where the addressee is exclusive, e.g. (44). 43

    44

    Nga35-nvik5 kyo31 i5-so31 gvun55 (ipf) 1PO–duo road go–walk play Let’s (DU) walk around for a while.

    gvoq1. DIE

    A1-ngi35-nap1 nga35-nvik5 Le1-dvu31 nom–day–morning 1PO–duo (male)–4th-brother Le1-gam35 zvyang55 zang11 i5-be1-zo54. (male)–eld-brother near rice/food go–help–eat+FCT Yesterday, fourth brother and I were at first brother’s place to share a meal.

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    Apart from nga35-nvik5 (1PO-duo), there is also the Zaiwa specificatory first person dual pronoun i5-nvik5, which is only seldom used, e.g. (39) above and (45) below. In i5-nvik5 (SPEC-duo), the initial specificatory morpheme , like in i5-nvung55 (SPEC-1ND.IN) above, apparently also expresses that all persons who are present are included, in contrast to others in the context. 45

    I5-nvik5 lo35 ra54 yvang55-moq1 SPEC–duo go(back/up) need+FCT 3PL–party 1 55 1 a -sue luq ? NEG–know Y/N Do they know that we are going [back/up] there?

    The above cases with i5-nvik5 (SPEC-duo) or i5-nvung55 (SPEC-1ND.IN) can be contrasted to cases where there is a group of people of which only a limited part are being referred to, including the speaker, whilst the utterance is directed towards the remaining persons. The use of the specificatory morpheme in i5-nvik5 (SPEC-duo) or i5-nvung55 (SPEC-1ND.IN) is prohibited in such cases, since these forms would express that the addressee is also included. Instead of these pronouns, the pronouns nga35-nvik5 (1PO-duo) and nga35-nvung 55 (1PO-1ND.IN) are used. 46

    Mo35pi55 nga35-nvik5 beggar 1PO–duo Beggar and I

    47

    Mo35pi55 Zyang11mo35-gvai55 nga35-nvung55 sum11-yuq5 beggar (name)–5th-sister 1PO–1ND.IN three–person Beggar, fifth sister Zhang, the three of us (ND.IN)

    The noun ‘couple’ is used either as a regular noun, e.g. (48) and (49), or in complex pronouns, e.g. yvang55-nvum31 ‘the two of them as a couple’, e.g. (50), and nga35-nvik5-nvum31 ‘the two of us, as a couple’, e.g. (51). 48

    Nung35-nvik5 r11 nvum31 zo11 gveq5 2PL–duo also couple eat PLIM It’s about time for you two to become a couple.

    hoi11. INC

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    49

    Nung35-nvik5 r11 nvum31 zo11 2PL–duo also couple eat Have you two also become a couple?

    be1-gvo31

    luq1?

    P–PL+I

    Y/N

    50

    Yvang55-nvum31 ge11 nam11lo11-pe1zyang35 3PL–couple TOP tree.name–tree.name lo11 pyoq5 zo11. (ipf) come(back/up) break.off/down(vt) eat The couple had come to pick from the pezyang tree.

    51

    Nga35-nvik5-nvum31 i55-yuq1 rvoq5 gung31-ci11 1PO–duo–couple two–person DEF body–wash i5-wo35 ci11 ra31 la11? go–have wash need+I UNC Would it be okay for the two of us, as a couple, to go and wash together?

    • Xu & Xu (1984) about the Zaiwa personal and possessive pronouns Since Xu & Xu (1984) distinguish only three Zaiwa tones, they give other tones for several personal pronouns. Xu & Xu (1984: 13) make no distinction between the tones /35/ and /55/, nor do they distinguish the special tones /54/ and /25/ caused by the factitive marker . Therefore they interpreted my third person singular possessive pronoun yvang54 as having the falling tone /31/, probably because of the close appearance between the tones /31/ and /54/ during fast articulation. Like their predecessor Cheng Mo (1956: 44), Xu & Xu (1984: 45) describe three cases for Zaiwa pronominal morphosyntax, i.e. three different forms for the singular personal pronouns of Zaiwa instead of two, i.e. a form for when the pronoun is used as a subject, a form for when the pronoun is used as an object, and a possessive form. As far as it is not caused by possible dialectal differences, I presume that this distinction is based on a misunderstanding caused by interpreting stress phenomena as tonal phenomena, whilst over and above that the obscurity might have been increased by their not differentiating between the [31] and [52] allotones of Zaiwa tone /31/. Their interpretation of the pronouns used as subject as having tone /31/ must be caused by the fact that these forms have relatively more stress, while their interpretation of the pronouns used as object as bearing

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    tone /11/ must be caused by the fact that these forms have relatively less stress. Table 9.5 The singular personal pronouns of Zaiwa according to Xu & Xu (1984: 45) The tone contours of these forms of Xu & Xu (1984: 45) are written according to both the orthography and the specific descriptions of Xu & Xu (1984: 13-4), with my numeral tone notation. first person sg. second person sg. subject ŋo 51 naŋ 51 31 (my /ngo /) (my /nang31/) 21 object ŋo naŋ 21 31 (my /ngo /) (my /nang31/) possessive ŋa55 naŋ 55 35 (my /nga /) (my /nang35/)

    third person sg. y a̱ ŋ21 (my /yvang11/) y a̱ ŋ21 (my /yvang11/) y a̱ ŋ51 (my /yvang54/)

    • The pronoun ‘who’ The pronoun ‘who’ can be used both in an interrogative way, e.g. (52) and (53), and in an indefinite way, e.g. (54) to (56). 52

    53

    Nang31

    ge11

    o55 2SG TOP who Who are you (SG)?

    ta11? GI

    Nang31

    o55 r55 i5-hun11 gvat5 2SG who OBJ go–send(ipf) put.into To whom have you (SG) sent a letter?

    bue31? P+I

    54

    O55 sue55 o55 gvat5 yu31 syang55. who know who put.into take JUS Every man (ND.IN) for himself. [at a meal] / Everybody (ND.IN) dig in.

    55

    A1-myu31-zo11 ge11 o55 nom–sort/nationality–child TOP who

    r11 also

    o54 who+FCT

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    tung31-keng11 wo35 lye31. tradition–outfit have also+I Every minority has its own traditions. 56

    O55 r11 a1-lye35. who also NEG–come(away/down) Nobody came.

    There is also a longer form o55-yuq1 (who-person), expressing the same meaning as the basic form , further containing the specifier noun for people ‘person’. The long form appears to be only used in an interrogative way, not in an indefinite way. 57

    Nang31

    o55-yuq1 2SG who–person Who are you (SG)?

    ta11? GI

    58

    O55-yuq1-eq5 ngyo11 lum54 ta11? (ipf) who–person–COM talk reciprocal+FCT GI With whom were you talking?

    59

    Byu31-po55 hye55-yuq1 ge11 man/woman–male same.elevation–person TOP o55-yuq1 ta11? who–person GI Who’s that man?

    60

    O55-yuq1 ang11 bue31? who–person ought/address P+I Whose turn is it?

    The form o54 (who-FCT), marked by the factitive marker , is the possessive variant of ‘who’. This possessive form can also be used both in an interrogative way, e.g. (61), and in an indefinite way, e.g. (62) and (63). 61

    Hau31 ge11 o54 syam31-byang31 the/that TOP who+FCT knife–scabbard Whose knife and scabbard are these?

    ta11? GI

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    62

    A1-myu31-zo11 ge11 o55 r11 o54 nom–sort/nationality–child TOP who also who+FCT tung31-keng11 wo35 lye31. tradition–outfit have also+I Every minority has its own traditions.

    63

    O54 r11 a1-ngvut5. who+FCT also NEG–be It belongs to nobody.

    Finally, there is also a plural form o31-bvue55 (who(GEN)-PLN), most of all used in an interrogative way. 64

    Hau55-bang11 ge11 o31-bvue55 ta11? (GEN) the/that–PNO TOP who –PLN GI Who are those people?

    • The complex pronoun se5-bvue55 ‘others’ The form se5-bvue55 (SNO-PLN) ‘others’ is a combination of the reduced syllable allomorph of the singular nominaliser and the plural nominal suffix . This form can be used instead of regular personal pronouns and expresses ‘other people’, both indefinite on number and identity. (Chin.: 人家 rénjiā). 65

    Se5-bvue55 hue55 ngun31 le1-wo35 r11, SNO–PLN far(B) silver but–have also 5 31 1 31 ke -dye me non . PHB–too envious You don’t have to be envious if others have more money than you.

    66

    Ngo31

    67

    Hau55-me1zyoq1 the/that–cause(N)

    se5-bvue55 r55 ci11 a1-rup5 1SG SNO–PLN OBJ drug NEG–dare 11 11 tau bi . sew/insert give I don’t dare to give an injection to anyone other than myself. mai11 ABL

    se5-bvue55 SNO–PLN

    nga35-nvung55 1PO–1ND.IN

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    wu35-syau31 lye31. (ipf) OBJ look–less also+I That’s the reason why others disparage us (ND.IN). r55

    68

    Hi55-me55 ge11 se5-bvue55 lye35 this–LOC TOP SNO–PLN come(away/down) ngi11-gvun55 zyang11. be.there(anim)(ipf)–play place(B) This is some people’s place for amusing themselves.

    • The complex personal pronoun and manner adverb ra35-ruen11 (level(vi)-one.by.one) The form ra35-ruen11 is a combination of the borrowed verb ‘level’(vi), cf. the Jingpo form ra [ʒa33] with the same meanings (vide Xu et al. 1983: 681-86), and an adverb ‘one by one’. The latter morpheme is a loan, cf. the Jingpo adverb ren [ʒen 31] with about the same meaning (vide Xu et al. 1983: 688). The Zaiwa form ra35-ruen11 (level(vi)-one.by.one) is either used as a manner adverb or simply as a personal pronoun. As a manner adverb, the form ra35-ruen11 (level(vi)-one.by.one) expresses ‘equally’ or ‘uniformly’, in the context of social occasions involving rather many people, e.g. (69). As a personal pronoun, the form ra35-ruen11 (level(vi)-one.by.one) expresses the same notions ‘equally’ or ‘uniformly’ and above that ‘everybody’, e.g. (70). In sentence (71), the form ra35-ruen11 (level(vi)-one.by.one) can both be interpreted as a manner adverb and as a personal pronoun. 69

    70

    71

    Mue31-bu11 ra35-ruen11 ra31 wrap–clothes level(vi)–one.by.one need(ipf) They are dressed uniformly. I31-pue11

    ra35-ruen11 r55 distilled–booze level(vi)–one.by.one OBJ Pour (SG) booze for everybody. Ra35-ruen11 dvoq5 level(vi)–one.by.one get.up Everybody get up.

    gveq5. PLIM

    a1-gvo31. nom–PL+I

    gvat5 bi11-aq5. put.into give–SIM

    240 9.5

    CHAPTER NINE

    THE MORPHEME (3SG / IN TRUTH) AND COMPLEX ADVERBS REFERRING TO ‘ONESELF’

    The Zaiwa morpheme (3SG / in truth) has three different functions. The first function is as the third person singular pronoun, and the second as the adverb ‘in truth’. The third function of (3SG / in truth) is as the regular indicator of family ties between third persons or in an analytic way between all persons. This third function will be discussed in the next section, together with the other morphemes indicating family ties. The Zaiwa third person singular pronoun is not an old Tibeto-Burman pronoun, as is clear from Bauman (1975). Third person pronouns can arise from a wide range of sources. The exact semantic link between the different uses of this morpheme is impossible to find, but one possible explanation for the choice of (3SG / in truth) as the third person singular pronoun is that the use of a form indicating a notion like ‘in truth’ on behalf of a third person indicates that the speaker really knows something about the given matter, even though this matter does not belong to the direct context of the speech participants. The following sentence illustrates that the morpheme (3SG / in truth) is not only used for referring to humans, but also to other entities such as plants. 72

    Nang31

    yo31-so31-sun11 r55 ke5-wu35-syau11, (GEN) 2SG land–walk –veg/dish OBJ PHB–look–less yvang11 ge11 ya11ya35 le1-ngvut5 lye31 ga11. 3SG TOP medicine but–be also+I TOP Don’t (SG) look down upon wild vegetables. They’re medicine, you know.

    The Zaiwa morpheme (3SG / in truth) as an adverb can be used both in a single and a reduplicated form, and in both forms it can express two different meanings. When placed between a reduplicated verb, the morpheme (3SG / in truth) functions as an adverb expressing ‘in truth’. In this function, the morpheme (3SG / in truth) itself cannot be reduplicated, since reduplication was rigidly rejected in sentences (73) and (74) below. When in another function, expressing the notion ‘by oneself’, the morpheme (3SG / in

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    truth) can both be single and reduplicated. When expressing the latter notion, the reduplicated form is preferred above the single form. The following sentences exemplify the use of (3SG / in truth) between a reduplicated verb, expressing the specific notion ‘in truth’. 73

    74

    Nong35dau31 ge11 wue11 Nongdao TOP far Nongdao is really far indeed.

    yvang11 in.truth

    wue31 far(ipf)

    r55. PE

    Le1-gam35 ge11 hok1 yvang11 (male)–eld-brother TOP dull-witted in.truth hok1 r55. dull-witted PE Eldest brother is really dull-witted indeed.

    The following sentences are examples of the use of (3SG / in truth) expressing the specific notions of ‘by oneself’, ‘in person’ or ‘without any help of others’, cf. 亲自 qīnzì in Chinese. In all these cases, the informant also accepted a single (3SG / in truth), but preferred the reduplicated. 75

    Nang31!

    yvang11-yvang11 2SG in.truth–in.truth Say (SG) it yourself!

    76

    Nang31 yvang11-yvang11 gva54 ngvut5 2SG in.truth–in.truth write+FCT be Did you (SG) write that by yourself?

    77

    Ngo31

    yvang11-yvang11 1SG in.truth–in.truth I made it myself.

    dai11-aq5. speak–SIM

    rvang54 make+FCT

    lye31 luq1? also+I Y/N

    ngvut5 be

    lye31. also+I

    Zaiwa has three other adverbs expressing meanings that are somewhat related to that of the reduplicated (3SG / in truth). I shall discuss them below.

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    • The adverb ‘just’ indicates that the entity referred to by the topic or subject is in isolation or acts in isolation. The adverb ‘just’ can both refer to a group, e.g. (78) and (79), or to a single entity, e.g. (80). 78

    Nga35-nvik5 bau35 ze1-lo31. 1PO–duo just only–no.more+I Only the two of us are here.

    79

    Yvang55-nvik5 bau35 ze1-lo31. 3PL–duo just only–no.more+I There are only the two of them.

    80

    Nang31

    bau35 a1-ngi11 dye31 (ipf) 2SG just NEG–be.there(anim) too Weren’t you (SG) annoyed being there alone?

    luq1? Y/N

    The adverb ‘just’ can also be used in the context of movements or other situations occurring by themselves, without interference by humans. Such is the case in the following sentence, referring to a mug falling ‘all by itself’. 81

    Yvang11

    bau35

    muq1 3SG just It tumbled off all by itself.

    byuq1 tumble

    bue31. lose

    P+I

    • Another adverb to be discussed in this context is the form yvum31-seng31 (house-host), which is a construction of two nouns ‘house’ and ‘host’. When the latter word is used as a noun, it means ‘host’, as illustrated by sentence (82). The same word yvum31-seng31 (house-host) expresses the special meaning of ‘(by) oneself’ when used as an adverb, as illustrated by sentences (83) to (86). Note that the special notions of ‘in person’ or ‘without any help of others’ expressed by the reduplicated (3SG / in truth) is not relevant for this adverb yvum31-seng31 (house-host), since the latter form simply expresses the notion of ‘do for oneself’. 82

    Hi55-yvum31 this–house

    ma54 LOC+FCT

    yvum31-seng31 house–host

    ge11 TOP

    243

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    o55-yuq1 ta11? who–person GI Who is the host of this house? 83

    Nang31

    84

    Yvum31-seng25 mu31 yvum31-seng31 house–host+FCT matter house–host ra31 dut1 lye31. need+I become also+I Everyone should do his own work.

    85

    Yvum31-seng31 zvyoq5-o55 zang11 house–host cook–FCT rice/food yvum31-seng31 zo11 ge1-lo31. house–host eat TOP–no.more+I Everyone cooks for himself.

    86

    yvum31-seng31 2SG house–host Do (SG) it yourself.

    Nang31

    yvum31-seng31 2SG house–host Don’t (SG) do it alone.

    gvun31-aq1. do*–SIM gvut5 do

    ge11 TOP

    ke5-gvut5. PHB–do

    • Section 8.5 already has discussed the adverb gung31-gung31 (bodybody), consisting of a reduplicated noun ‘body’ and expressing ‘V to oneself’. The following sentence contains both adverbs yvum31-seng31(house-host) and gung31-gung31 (body-body). 87

    Nang31

    yvum31-seng31 gung31-gung31 ze11 2SG house–host body–body only le1-gvyuq5 yu11 lye31 ge1-lo31. but–scare(vt) take(ipf) also+I TOP–no.more+I You (SG) are only frightening yourself.

    244 9.6

    CHAPTER NINE

    MORPHEMES USED AS PREFIXED INDICATORS OF FAMILY TIES: (1PO), (2SG.PO), (2REL) AND (3SG / IN.TRUTH)

    Zaiwa has some specific means for referring to one’s family members, especially when referring to the family members of persons other than the speaker himself. This section discusses four Zaiwa pronominals that function as prefixed indicators of family ties. • (1PO) The first person possessive prefix is regularly used when reference is made to family ties between the speaker himself and family members. 88

    Nang31

    ning31

    nga35

    nu11 2SG INS+I 1PO mother You (SG) are not our mother at all!

    a1-ngvut5. NEG–be

    • (2SG.PO) The second person singular possessive prefix is regularly used when reference is made to family ties between the addressee and family members belonging to an elder generation, e.g. nang35 wa11 ‘your father’. • (2REL) The second person relational prefix (2REL) functions as the prefixed indicator of family ties to the addressee, of family members belonging to either the same or a younger generation, thus with a certain collective connotation, e.g. nung11-mi11 ‘your wife’ and nung11-lang31 ‘your husband’. The expression nung11-zo11 ‘your child/children’ also refers to the addressees in a kind of collective way, as is logical since always more than one person of an elder generation are being responsible for their children. • (3SG / in.truth) The previous section has already discussed the use of the morpheme (3SG / in.truth) as the third person singular pronoun and the adverb ‘in truth’. This morpheme, however, has two more functions.

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    The morpheme (3SG / in.truth) can also be used as a prefix functioning as the regular indicator of family ties between third persons, e.g. yvang31-nu11 ‘his/her mother’ and yvang55-moq1 yvang11-zo11 ‘their child/children’. Another function of (3SG / in.truth) is to indicate family ties to all persons, also to the speaker or the addressee, in a specifically analytic way. The two following examples both refer to family ties to the speakers themselves, the perspectives of the children and the mother respectively. 89

    Nga35-moq1 yvang31-nu11 ngvut5 bue31 (GEN) 1PO–party 3SG –mother be P+I [in disbelief:] “If you were our mother…”

    90

    Ngvut5 lye31-o55, ngo31 nung35-moq1 be also+I–HIGH 1SG 2PL–party 31 55 31 11 5 yvang -nu ngvut lye -o ngvu31. (GEN) 3SG –mother be also+I–HIGH say+I “But I am! I am you mother!” she said.

    r11 ge11, … also TOP

    The following sentence can either be responded by (92) or (93). 91

    Hi31 ge11 o55-yuq1 this TOP who–person Whose child is this?

    yvang11-zo11? 3SG–child

    responded by: 92 A5-rvat5 yvang11-zo11 nom–elder.M 3SG–child [It’s] the child of my cousine. or: 93

    Yvang11-zo11 ngvut5 3SG–child be [pointing: It’s] her child.

    lye31. also+I

    Also compare the following sentence containing two juxtaposed nouns which both are prefixed by (3SG / in.truth) in order to express reciprocity. This construction yvang11-mi11-eq5 yvang11-lang31

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    (3SG-wife-COM 3SG-husband) could also simply be translated as ‘(they were) a couple’. 94

    A1kang31, yvang11-mi11-eq5 yvang11-lang31, long.ago 3SG–wife–COM 3SG–husband 11 11 11 1 yvang -mi ge myoq -gvyeq5, o11ka11, 3SG–wife TOP eye–cake (correcting) a1-ngvut5-no31. NEG–be–HIGH+I Long ago, there was a couple; the woman was a crust-eyed. no, she wasn’t -

    The morpheme (3SG / in.truth) as the prefixed indicator of family ties can also be used before ‘house, home’. 95

    Yvang31

    yvum31, Ning11gon35wa35 yvang31 yvum31 (GEN) 3SG house (name) 3SG house lo31, mau11 bat1 su31 yvum31 me55 lo31. come(back/up) sky beat SNO house LOC come(back/up) His home, Ninggonwa came back home, the beater of the earth, he came back home. (GEN)

    Nominal constituents preceding the morpheme (3SG / in.truth) as the prefixed indicator of family ties normally are marked by the oblique genitive case marker (GEN), e.g. Mo35pi31 yvang11-pu11 (beggar(GEN) 3SG-elder.brother) ‘Beggar’s elder brother’. In some cases, however, the noun before (3 SG / in.truth) in the latter function can also be marked by the factitive marker instead of the oblique genitive case marker , as illustrated by the following example. Such seems to occur in order to clarify a certain relation in a more analytical way. 96

    Hau55-mai11 hau31 zyau11wong11 the/that–ABL the/that incest hau55-nvik5-dvang25 yvang11-zo11 the/that–duo–brothers+FCT 3SG–child yvang11-syu31-bvue55 zvyat5 bue31. (GEN) 3SG–grandchild –PLN all P+I

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    247

    By them, by the two of them being incestuous; we all are the children and grandchildren of the two of them. The same oblique genitive case marker can also be used on (3SG / in.truth) itself as well. Such occurs in many instances where the morpheme (3SG / in.truth) functions as the prefixed indicator of family ties, as discussed in Section 4.6.3. Marking of (3SG / in truth) by the oblique genitive case marker only occurs when family members of an elder generation are referred to, such as one’s parents or one’s aunt and uncles, e.g. Mue11bung31 yvang31-wa11 ‘Muebung’s father’ and hau31 yvang31-ze1-au31 ‘his aunt’. Marking by the oblique genitive case marker of the morpheme (3SG / in.truth) as the prefixed indicator of family ties here expresses a kind of honorific notion. By contrast, when reference is made to relatives of the same or a younger generation, e.g. one’s children, younger siblings or one’s spouse, the morpheme (3SG / in truth) is unmarked by the oblique genitive case marker , as illustrated by the last three forms of the following row of examples, in contrast to the first three. Mo35pi31 yvang31-nu11 Mo35pi31 yvang31-wa11 Mo35pi31 yvang31-nva55 Mo35pi31 yvang11-pu11 Mo35pi31 yvang11-gu11 Mo35pi31 yvang11-mi11

    ‘Beggar’s mother’ ‘Beggar’s father’ ‘Beggar’s elder sister’ ‘Beggar’s elder brother’ ‘Beggar’s younger sibling’ ‘Beggar’s wife’

    It is not fully clear yet why one’s elder sister is referred to in the same way as family members of an elder generation, whereas one’s elder brother is referred to in the same way as family members of the same or a younger generation. One’s elder sister is probably referred to in this way because elder sisters have more responsibilities for their younger siblings than elder brothers. The same morpheme (3SG / in.truth) as the prefixed indicator of family ties is also used before clan names, in which case it is also marked by the oblique genitive case marker (GEN).

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    9.7

    CHAPTER NINE

    Lue11 ge11 yvang31 (name) TOP 3SG(GEN) Le is his clan name.

    hu55 sort

    ngvut5 be

    lye31. also+I

    THE ACTANTS OF THE ZAIWA CLAUSE; THE OBJECT MARKER VARIANTS //

    This and the two coming sections discuss the different suffixes marking the actants. Zaiwa is a SOV language with a morphosyntax hardly bearing any ergative traits. As with accusative languages, in Zaiwa it is much more suitable to distinguish subjects and objects rather than agents and patients. The object of the clause may precede the subject in order to express emphasis on the identity of the object. 98

    Hye55-yuq1 r55 ngo31 a1-raq1-o31. same.elevation–person OBJ 1SG NEG–like–HIGH+I I don’t like that person. [at the same elevation]

    This section discusses the Zaiwa object markers, consisting of three variants that can be varied freely, viz. , and (OBJ). In Zaiwa clauses there are two types of objects, viz. direct objects and indirect objects. Whereas the subject is the actant who “does the action”, the direct object is the “undergoer” of the action referred to by a transitive verb. The indirect action has a direct relationship to the transitive action performed by the subject on the direct object, and in many cases is the “benified” or “goal” of that action. In Zaiwa, the indirect object always precedes the direct object, since the latter is more closely related and therefore put nearer to the predicate. In the following example, the person giving the child its name is the subject, the construction ka55-hu55 ming31 ‘what name’ is the direct object, and the child to whom the name is given is the indirect object. 99

    Nang31

    yvang11

    r55

    2SG

    3SG

    OBJ

    ka55-hu55 Q–sort

    ming31 name

    249

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    mving55 bi11 ra31? sound/name(vt) give need+I What name will you (SG) give her? / (Lit.:) With what name will you (SG) name her? When the Zaiwa object markers , and are used after the direct or indirect object, they mark the special relation which the subject has to the given entity, by way of the action or situation indicated by the predicate. Since these can be all kind of relations, the object markers can mark both direct and indirect objects. Sentence (99) above illustrates that when a clause contains both a direct object and an indirect object, the object markers usually mark the indirect object, whereas the direct object remains unmarked. There can only be one object marker within one Zaiwa clause. If the object marker were used more than once it would probably lose its function. In sentence (100), the indirect object is marked by the object marker, whereas in sentence (101) it is the direct object which is marked, whilst the indirect object has been omitted. Please note that in the English translation of sentence (101) there nevertheless is an indirect object, because the volitional clause marker always refers to an action which is performed on behalf of the speaker. 100

    101

    Dang11 hi55-hun11 ngo31 r55 byan35-gvyo31 words this–sentence 1SG OBJ explain–let.hear(ipf) 35 5 wu raq . look VO Try to translate this sentence for me, please. Dang11 hi55-hun11 r55 byan35-gvyo31 words this–sentence OBJ explain–let.hear(ipf) Try to translate this sentence for me/us, please.

    wu35 look

    raq5. VO

    The object markers always appear after animate objects, both direct and indirect, whereas they are mostly absent after inanimate objects. I shall first concentrate on direct objects. Sentence (102) is a straightforward example of an object marker marking an animate direct object. In sentence (103) there is a direct object functioning as topic - i.e. the first actant - and this sentence illustrates that inanimate

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    objects are mostly unmarked by object markers. Sentences (104) and (105) also illustrate the marking of animate direct objects. 102

    A5-nu11 ngo31 nom–mother 1SG Mum often hits me.

    r55 OBJ

    a1-yan35 nom–row

    103

    Dvyeng55 dvyeng55 bat1 mving31 Bell beat sound/name(vt)(ipf) Ring (SG) the bell.

    104

    Nang31

    105

    nvuq5 r55. pound.fine PE gvan31-aq1. put.into*–SIM

    yvang11 r55

    a1-ung31 2SG 3SG OBJ NEG–be.a.match.for2 You (SG) can’t beat him, can you?

    kai31. SUG+I

    Yvang55-moq1 ngo31 r55 me1-hon31 3PL–party 1SG OBJ words–sing lye35 be1-lu11-aq5 ga31 a1-gvo31. (ipf) come(away/down) help–record–SIM perceive nom–PL+I They (PL) asked me to come to record some songs.

    Marking by the object markers of inanimate objects either occurs in order to emphasise or to mark the benefactive or malefactive aspect of the given situations. When used for emphasising, this can be for several different reasons. Either it is for reasons of clarity, since otherwise the utterance is not readily understood, or the object in question is not the one which normally would be expected. In sentence (106), the direct object is marked by an object marker because it is unusual for this entity to be used in this context, since mostly bamboo, not vines, are used to make thongs, cf. (107). The object marker in sentence (108) seems to add clarity to some money deal. The object marker in sentence (109) adds to the notion of specifying which object is to be purchased. 106

    Nui31 r55 sing31 vine OBJ split.(bamboo)(ipf) Make (SG) thongs out of vines.

    gvan31-aq1. put.into*–SIM

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    107

    Nye11 sing31 lye31. (ipf) bamboo.thong split.(bamboo) also+I I am / we are splitting bamboo thongs.

    108

    Le1-sue31-mun11 r55 le1-yuq1 le1-wui35 one–ten–ten.thousand/Yuan OBJ one–person one–equal gam31 gvoq1. divide/share DIE Let’s (DU.IN) share that ten Yuan fifty-fifty.

    109

    Hi31 bvong55dvin55 lye55 this pen OBJ Sell this pen to me, please.

    byam11 ung11 jump(ipf) sell

    bi11 raq5. give VO

    In the following clauses, the object marker clearly emphasises the benefactive or malefactive aspects of the situation, since both of these clauses contain only one nominal constituent. 110

    Si1-gam31 r55 le1go11 gon11-aq5. fruit–tree(B) OBJ well bother.about–SIM Take (SG) good care of that fruit tree.

    111

    Kui11-zo11 r55 ke5-lu11. dog–child OBJ PHB–tease Don’t tease the little dog.

    The object markers are of special interest when marking indirect objects. A Zaiwa indirect object is any nominal constituent which is not a direct object and which bears a special relation to the subject and - if there is one - to the direct object, by way of the action or situation indicated by the verb. There are many types of nominal constituents which can function as indirect object, and object markers have a very broad use indeed. For each of the following examples I shall specify the special relations, by way of the action or situation indicated by the verb, of the indirect objects to the subject and - if there is one - to the direct object. In some cases, the verbs used in fact should be termed intransitive, but are used in what seem to be idiomatic constructions. The subject of the first example makes a promise on a certain matter.

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    A1mu31 hi31 r55 ge11 a5maq5 kam11 matter this OBJ TOP promise promise ra31 dut1 lye31. need+I become also+I You have to make a promise on this matter.

    The subject of the following sentence is indebted to someone. 113

    Nang31

    ngo31

    r55

    zvin31 2SG 1SG OBJ debt Do you (SG) owe me money?

    a1-dap1 luq1? NEG–be.attached Y/N

    The subject of the following sentence either is afraid of someone, in which case the verb ‘afraid’ would be intransitive, or the subject fears someone, in which case this verb would be transitive. 114

    Nang31

    dung31sang11 r55 gyuq1 2SG caterpillar OBJ afraid Are you (SG) afraid of caterpillars?

    r55

    luq1?

    PE

    Y/N

    The object marker in the following sentence adds to the notion that the water is higher than someone. Probably, this sentence literally expresses ‘did the water dip you?’, in which case the verb ‘dip, get a ducking’ would more or less be a regular transitive verb. 115

    Nang31

    r55

    a1-zvem55 luq1? 2SG OBJ NEG–dip/duck Y/N Was the water higher than you (SG)?

    The subject of the following sentence feels attached to something. 116

    Nang31

    ka55-hu55 r55 nan31 r55 (ipf) 2SG Q–sort OBJ feel.attached PE What things do you (SG) feel attached to?

    ta11? GI

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    9.8

    THE TOPIC OF THE CLAUSE AND THE GENERAL TOPIC MARKER (TOP)

    On top of the distinction between the subject and direct object, another important distinction needs to be discussed, which is more or less purely semantic, viz. that of the topic or ‘logical subject’. The topic of a Zaiwa clause always is the first nominal constituent of the clause. Topics are optionally marked by the general topic marker (TOP ). In discussing the general topic marker and the specific use of its allomorphs, functions other than as topic marker need to be discussed as well, viz. as an attitude marker and as a conjunction. I shall do this further on within the same section. Since the subject mostly precedes the object, it mostly also functions as the topic. As has already been argued above, however, an indirect or direct object can also be the topic, which could result in combinations of the Zaiwa object marker variants , or with the general topic marker , as illustrated by sentences (118) and (119) below. An indirect or direct object can be placed at the absolute beginning of the clause, in order to put stress on its identity. In most of these cases the subject is omitted, because its identity mostly is clear from the context. In the three following sentences the subject nevertheless is still explicit, since the information it embodies still bears some value. 117

    Hi55-hu55 sun11 nang31 gue11 zo31 this–sort veg/dish 2SG all.right(ipf) eat(ipf) 31 1 lye luq ? also+I Y/N Do you (SG) eat these kinds of dishes?

    118

    Nang31

    r55

    ge11

    2SG

    OBJ

    TOP

    o55-yuq1 who–person

    pan11 create(ipf)

    toq5-o55 ta11? come.out–FCT GI [angry:] Who on earth has created you (SG)? 119

    Me1-gvai55 r55 (female)–5th-sister OBJ

    ge11

    nang31

    TOP

    2SG

    kum31 let.stay(ipf)

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    kyo31 dvo31 lye31 luq1? (ipf) (ipf) let.go.down place(vt) also+I Y/N Did you (SG) invite fifth sister to stay here? In the following sentence, the indirect object is placed at the front, followed by the direct object. 120

    Ngo31 r55

    r11 syo11 le1-zvui55 yam11 1SG OBJ also flesh one–bit cut.off Cut off a bit of meat for me too.

    bi11 raq5. give VO

    The general topic marker (TOP) can be used as a topic marker, an attitude marker and a conjunction. The allomorph of (TOP) is only used in a specific set of combinations, as I shall discuss near the end of this section. The allomorph of (TOP) is always used in sentence-final position, either as an attitude marker or as a topic marker in elliptic clauses, but never as a conjunction. The allomorph of (TOP) is always used before other words, i.e. either words of the same clause, when used as a topic marker, or before another clause to which it serves as a conjunction. As a topic marker, the allomorph of the general topic marker normally expresses the notion ‘and what about …?’. When the context permits, it can also express the notion “where is …?”. 121

    Nang31

    ga11?

    2SG

    TOP

    And you (SG)? 122

    123

    A5-zvi11, ka31, zi1syang31 nom–grandfather where child “Grandpa, now, where’s the child?” No11 ga11? cattle TOP What about the cow? / Where’s the cow?

    ga11? TOP

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    The other allomorph in the function of a topic marker expresses a much less specific notion, merely indicating a slight pause, and isolating the topic from the other words of the clause in order to express a notion like ‘as for …’. 124

    zang11 zo31 lye31, 1SG TOP rice/food eat(ipf) also+I 31 11 nang ge a1-zo11 ra31 luq1? 2SG TOP NEG–eat need+I Y/N [after drinking booze] I’m having rice, won’t you(SG) have some?

    125

    Ngvyau55 ge11 nge5-zo11 cat TOP fish–child As for cats, they eat fish.

    Ngo31 ge11

    zo31 eat(ipf)

    lye31. also+I

    The allomorph of the general topic marker can also be used in another way, in the context of things that were lost but have been found at last. 126

    Hu31 ga11, no11. above TOP cattle Up there it is at last, the cow.

    127

    Hye31 ga11 mai31. same.elevation TOP OBV+I But look, there it is. [at the same elevation, spoken to the person who couldn’t find it]

    In discussing the general topic marker and the specific use of its allomorphs, functions other than as topic marker also need to be discussed, in more complex utterances, viz. as an attitude marker and a conjunction. The allomorph of the general topic marker as an attitude marker expresses a general emphatic notion which can be used for expressing various types of emotional or in other ways emphatical attitudes, ranging from annoyance, complaint or anger, e.g. (128), to respect or admiration, e.g. (129) and (130), and compliance, e.g. (131).

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    128

    I5-se55 gvut5 am55 bue31 SPEC–like do PFM P+I What a pity that it is done like that.

    129

    Yvang11

    ge11

    ya11ya35 3SG TOP medicine It’s medicine, you know.

    ga11. TOP

    le1-ngvut5 but–be

    lye31 also+I

    130

    Ang55dung35 ge11 Zai11wa31-ming35 Anton TOP Zaiwa–language bye11 dik1 lye31 ga11. (ipf) be.a.match.for/master extreme also+I TOP Anton has really mastered the Zaiwa language.

    131

    Yau11 bue31 ga11, ha55-me55 ho11 let.pass P+I TOP the/that–LOC look.for(ipf) 35 1 byai byuq syang55-gaq1. recompense lose JUS–CC Just let it be, let it find recompensation for us there.

    ga11. TOP

    The allomorph of the general topic marker in the following sentences expresses specific attitudes of the speaker towards all kinds of difficulties. 132

    Nga35-moq1 o55 r11 a1-rup5 1PO–party who also NEG–dare None of us (ND.EX) dares to go up.

    133

    A1zeng35 hi55-bvue55 le1man35 ze11 thing this–PLN with.much.effort only myang11 wui25 ga11. see(ipf) buy+FCT TOP These things have been purchased with much effort and luck.

    134

    Yau11 bue31 let.pass P+I Just let it be.

    ga11. TOP

    doq1-o55 ga11. go.up–HIGH TOP

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    257

    The following sentences illustrate the use of the other allomorph of the general topic marker , as a conjunction indicating that the topic functions as the topic/background for the contents of the next clause. 135

    Zi1syang31 wa35 dang11 i5-mvyo55 wa35 child EMP words SPEC–much(B) EMP a1-gyo54 ge11, mau35 dik1 bue31. NEG–hear/smell+FCT TOP stare/bewildered extreme P+I That a child can listen so poorly, it really amazes me!

    136

    Nang31

    137

    Sau55-hai11 bvyeq1bvyeq1 lyeq1 shoe–shoe [all.over.the.place] lie.down bum25 ge11, o31-bvue55 lung35 heap(vt/N)+FCT TOP who(GEN)–PLN be.inside 31 11 1 bum a -gvo ta11? (ipf) heap(vt/N) nom–PL+I GI It’s full of shoes everywhere, who (PL) could be inside?

    138

    Yvum31 wo35 wang31 ra54 ge11, house have enter need+FCT TOP zoq1-si11 syeq1 a1-wun31. lock–tie/lock au.contraire NEG–carry/bring Right when I was about to go into my house, I found out that I didn’t bring my key.

    139

    Nang31

    a1-ngyui11 ma54 dut1-n55 2SG nom–dried.out LOC+FCT become–FCT ge11, no11 r55 luq1? (ipf) TOP pain/ill/disease PE Y/N You (SG) look dried out. Are you sick?

    mvyang11 lye31 ge11, hu31 a1zeng35 (ipf) 2SG tall/high also+I TOP above thing be1-yu31 bi11 raq5 ma11. help–take give VO ROUS Since you (SG) are tall, grab that thing up there for me, please.

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    Bui11-syum11 hi55-me55 zyoq1 bum11 broom–sweep this–LOC be.there(inan) heap(vt/N)(ipf) lye31 ge11, nang31 bui11-syum11 zyang31 also+I TOP 2SG broom–sweep in.passing syum11-aq5 hoi11. sweep–SIM INC There are enough brooms here, you (SG) might as well sweep the floor.

    In many cases, the allomorph of the general topic marker in its function as a conjunction modifies clause markers expressing notions like ‘if’, e.g. in sentence (141) after the conditional clause marker (CD), and in sentences (142) and (143) after the clause marker ‘also’. 141

    Nang31 2SG

    o31-nvau31 zyang35 ge11 yu11 want/take–feel.like CD TOP take(ipf)

    lo35-aq5. go(back/up)–SIM If you (SG) like it, you can take it. 142

    Yvang11

    zaq1 a1-ngi11 dvo31 (ipf) 3SG only NEG–be.there(anim) place(vt)(ipf) r11 ge11, nang31 ke5-wang31. also TOP 2SG PHB–enter If he’s not there, don’t go inside.

    143

    Zang11 mvit5-mvit5 r11 ge11, wum11 rice/food leave.over–leave.over also TOP power mvit5-mvit5 r55 ga31. leave.over–leave.over PE perceive+I If you have the habit of not finishing your food, you aren’t able to use your full energy.

    The following remarks of my principal informant indicate that there is a clear difference between the function of the allomorphs and of the general topic marker . According to him, if the allomorph of the general topic marker in sentence (144) were to be replaced by the allomorph ,

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    this morpheme would be used as a kind of topic marker expressing the notion ‘as for’, after a nominalised phrase. This would render a different translation like, ‘as for the person who took away the food Akun was still eating …’. 144

    A5-kun11 zo31 a1-si54 zang11 ning31 nom–(name) eat(ipf) nom–still+FCT rice/food INS+I yu11 am55 bi54 ga11. (ipf) take PFM give+FCT TOP You took away the food that Akun was still eating!

    Also according to my principal informant, the part of the utterance after the allomorph of the general topic marker in sentence (145) cannot be omitted. By contrast, omitting the clause after the other allomorph of (TOP) in sentence (146) would not harm well-formedness. 145

    A1kui31 mau11 wo31 bue31 ge11, le1-king11 now sky rain P+I TOP one–halt/rest r55 mau11-i1-zvyam31-eq1 mue31-bu11 ci11 ra31. TS sky–water–water#–AG/I wrap–clothes wash need+I Now that it’s raining, we can wash our clothes with rainwater in a while.

    146

    A1kui31 mau11 wo31 bue31 ga11, now sky rain P+I TOP ke5-se55 gvut5 lo35 ra31? Q–like do go(back/up) need+I It’s raining now, how do we get home?

    yvum31 house

    The allomorph of the general topic marker is used in the following combinations. • in the familiarity marker ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) (vide Section 17.7), further consisting of the finite clause marker ‘no more’ and the indicative mood marker , which expresses familiarity and evidentness, e.g. (147), • before the combination of the coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I) and the exclamatory ending -ei31 (EX+I) in ge1-dvi31-ei31 (TOP-CX+I-EX+I), e.g. (148),

    260 •

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    before the reflective suffix dvi55 (RFL), in ge5-dvi55, e.g. (149). The tone of the allomorph of the general topic marker is often raised by the morpho-phonological process of stress. ge1-lo31. 1SG TOP–no.more+I It’s [only] me.

    147

    Ngo31

    148

    Goi35-ei31, a5-se55 wa35 dut1-n55 alas–EXCL+I nom–like EMP become–FCT ga54 ge1-dvi31-ei31. perceive+FCT TOP–CX–EXCL+I My God, why did it have to be like this!

    149

    I31-pue11 ge11 a1-syuq5 ge5-dvi55? distilled–booze TOP NEG–drink TOP–RFL Aren’t you (PL) drinking booze?!

    9.9

    THE AGENTIVE/INSTRUMENTAL SUFFIX

    The symbol (N) of the agentive/instrumental suffix indicates an optional initial nasal which is homorganic with the final plosive of the preceding form. Section 7.6 has already discussed the morpho-phonology of the morphemes with this optional initial nasal. The agentive/instrumental suffix triggers the morphophonological process of tone switching on any preceding form, except on the conjunctions. In the case of the agentive/instrumental suffix , tone switching is treated as inherent to the form of this morpheme and not as caused by a separate tonal morpheme. The agentive/instrumental suffix has three main functions. 1) After the subject, it emphasises the agentive role of the subject. 2) After nominal constituents referring to inanimate entities, it indicates that this entity is used either as an instrument or as material. 3) After conjunctions, it emphasises certain causes.

    261

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    After the subject, the agentive/instrumental suffix emphasises the agentive role of the subject. This normally happens when the subject is inanimate, as illustrated by the following sentences. 150

    151

    Mau31-eq1 mi11 bat1 sat5 sky#–AG/I fire beat kill The rain will put out the fire.

    ra31 need+I

    dut1 become

    r55. PE

    Mue31-bu11 i1-lang11-eq1 bvyung31 gyo35 (ipf) wrap–clothes water–river#–AG/I flush/drive go.down lo35 byuq1 bue31. go(back/up) lose P+I The water has washed away the clothes.

    Marking by the agentive/instrumental suffix also occurs when the subject is animate. The use of this suffix apparently emphasises the fact that the subject really performed the given action, for example when this was done on the sly, e.g. (152). Also compare sentence (153), where emphasises the fact that it was this particular person and not anyone else. 152

    Ngo31 zyong11 ye11 byuq1 zyang35 (ipf) 1SG school go(away/down) lose CD yvang31-eq1 zo31 am55 be1-ra31. 3SG#–AG/I eat(ipf) PFM P–need+I When I would go to school, he would eat it on the sly.

    153

    Yvang31-eq1 hoi55 pyuq5 am55 3SG#–AG/I maybe make.lost PFM Perhaps it’s him who has mislaid it.

    bue31. P+I

    2) After nominal constituents referring to inanimate entities, the agentive/instrumental suffix either indicates (i) that this entity is used as an instrument, e.g. (154) to (156), or (ii) that it is used as material, e.g. (157). 154

    I55-loq1-eq1 ham31-aq1. two–hand/arm–AG/I receive/fetch–SIM

    262

    CHAPTER NINE

    Take (SG) it with both hands. 155

    Mai35roi35-eq1 syo11 zyoi35-aq5. string.for.threading–AG/I flesh thread(vt)–SIM Tie (SG) the meat together with a string.

    156

    Ngo31

    157

    ne5-sue31-eq1 yvang11 1SG cattle–stick#–AG/I 3SG I am/was hitting him with the stick.

    r55

    bat1 beat

    OBJ

    lye31. also+I

    Hi55-bvue55 ge11 ngun11-eq1 rvang54 this–PLN TOP silver#–AG/I make+FCT a1-ngvut5-n55 la11? NEG–be–FCT UNC Would these be made of silver?

    The agentive/instrumental suffix is also used after conjunctions or conjunctional clause markers, in most cases emphasising certain causes. It is only after the conjunctions or conjunctional clause markers that the agentive/instrumental suffix does not trigger the morpho-phonological process of tone switching on the preceding forms. As a first example, in sentence (158) the agentive/instrumental suffix is added to the conjunctional clause marking unit lui31 (in.this.way +I), in order to mark or emphasise the causal ties between the two situations. 158

    Gung31-du11 ci11 lui31-eq1 gyoq1 body–being wash in.this.way+I–AG/I cold nan35nan35 si11 r55. (ipf) [shiver.from.cold] die PE Because of the washing, I am shivering from cold.

    The morpheme ‘time’ is normally used as a conjunction expressing ‘at the time when’. After the latter form, the agentive/instrumental suffix can also be added, in order to express that the situation in the context took place right at that time. 159

    Ngo31 1SG

    zang11 rice/food

    zo54 eat+FCT

    kun31-eq1 time–AG/I

    ka55-hu55 Q–sort

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    263

    a1zeng35 lyeng31 gyo35 lo25 lu55. (ipf) thing fall(vi) go.down come(back/up)+FCT MIR Just when I was eating, some kind of stuff started falling down on me. In the following examples, the morpheme (AG/I) is suffixed to the ablative case suffix used as conjunction. On the one hand, the agentive/instrumental suffix is used here to place emphasis on certain causes, as illustrated by the two following sentences. On the other hand, the use of the agentive/instrumental suffix after (ABL) is purely to add some more clarity, viz. to emphasise the chronology of the situations in the context. This is especially the case in sentence (161). 160

    Le1-gam35-Ø me1zyoq1 mai11-eq1 ngo31 (male)–eld-brother–FCT cause(N) ABL–AG/I 1SG tang31 gyo35 bue31. behind go.down P+I It is because of eldest brother that I came behind the others.

    161

    Sun11 lo11 dvo31 dvo54 (ipf) (ipf) veg/dish come(back/up) place(vt) place(vt)+FCT mai11-eq1 mu35 zui11 ye25. ABL–AG/I work(N) touch/work(V) go(away/down)+FCT After leaving the vegetables at home, I went to work.

    9.10

    THE COMITATIVE SUFFIX

    The symbol (N) of the comitative suffix indicates an optional initial nasal which is homorganic with the final plosive of the preceding form, as Section 7.6 has already discussed and as also is the case for the agentive/instrumental suffix in the previous section. The comitative suffix is either put: (i) between two nominal constituents, expressing the notion ‘and’, (ii) after a nominal constituent and without another nominal constituent after it, expressing the notion ‘with’, or

    264

    CHAPTER NINE

    (iii) after a verb which is marked by the factitive marker , in which case is used as a conjunction expressing ‘as soon as’. (i) The following sentences illustrate the use of (COM) between two nominal constituents, expressing the notion ‘and’. 162

    Me1-gvoq5-eq5 Me1-luq5 kim31 (female)–eld-sister–COM (female)–2nd-sister bicker(ipf) lum31 si11 a1-gvo31. reciprocal(ipf) die(ipf) nom–PL+I Eldest and second sister are bickering ferociously.

    163

    Mi1 wa54 a1gvyang31-eq5 Zai35wa25 Chinese+FCT temperament–COM Zaiwa+FCT a1gvyang31 ge11 syai11 lye31. (ipf) temperament TOP differ/not.fit also+I The Chinese and the Zaiwa have different temperaments.

    (ii) The following sentences illustrate the use of (COM) after a nominal constituent and without another nominal constituent after it, expressing the notion ‘with’. 164

    A1mu31 hi31 yvang11-eq5 bong35 matter this 3SG–COM talk.over wu35-aq5. look–SIM Try (SG) to talk this matter over with him.

    165

    Nang31 2SG

    yvang11-eq5 3SG–COM luq1?

    man35 acquainted

    lye31 also+I Y/N Are you (SG) acquainted with her? 166

    Nang31

    lum31 reciprocal(ipf)

    lum31 reciprocal(ipf)

    me1-byoq1 he5-ho31, 2SG words–quarrel PHB–look.for 31 5 nang -eq a1-gvam31 byoq1 (ipf) 2SG–COM NEG–want.to quarrel

    ngo31 1SG

    lum11. reciprocal

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    265

    Don’t pick fights, I don’t want to argue with you (SG). 167

    Gvau55-gyap1 se5-wam31-eq5 stand/rack–stand/rack tree–(make).wall–COM a1-tyep5 siq1. NEG–closely.att still The cupboard is not attached to the wall yet.

    168

    O55-yuq1-eq5 ngyo11 lum54 ta11? (ipf) who–person–COM talk reciprocal+FCT GI With whom were you talking?

    169

    Ngo31

    yvang11-eq5 tai31 lum54. (ipf) 1SG 3SG–COM exchange reciprocal+FCT I swapped it with hers/his.

    Also compare the use of (COM) before the special form sueng54 ‘bear reference’, where it adds to notions like ‘about…’, ‘having to do with…’, ‘…being the topic’, as illustrated by the following examples. The form sueng54 ‘bear reference’ is only used in constructions with (COM) and could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. Jingpo seng (verb) expressing the same meaning (Xu et al. 1983: 724). 170

    Zai11wa31-ming35-eq5 sueng54 mau11sau11 Zaiwa–language–COM bear.reference+FCT paper/book le1-buk1 wu35-Ø. one–book look–FCT I’ve read a book on the Zaiwa language.

    171

    A1mu31 hi31 ge11 nga35-nvung55-eq5 matter this TOP 1PO–1ND.IN–COM 1 54 a -sueng . NEG–bear.reference+FCT This matter doesn’t have anything to do with us (ND.IN).

    (iii) The following sentences illustrate the use of (COM) as a conjunction after a verb which is marked by the factitive marker

    266

    CHAPTER NINE

    . Here, the comitative suffix (COM) expresses the notion ‘as soon as’. 172

    Dai31 yau35-Ø-eq5 lo35 (ipf) speak finish–FCT–COM go(back/up) He left as soon as he finished speaking.

    bue31. P+I

    173

    Tim31 dang31 lo25-eq5 (ipf) (ipf) pounce.upon fly come(back/up)+FCT–COM ling31-zeng11 me55 rvuet5 bue31 ga11. neck–neck LOC [grab.hold.of] P+I perceive As soon as it threw itself upon me, I grasped its throat.

    174

    Yvang11

    9.11

    THE DIRECTIVE CASE SUFFIX (DIR)

    a5-se55 gvut5 tui31 3SG nom–like do hit.with.fist(ipf) 5 55 5 31 gvat -n -eq ngo loq1-eq1 i5-se55 put.into–FCT–COM 1SG hand/arm–AG/I SPEC–like gvut5 bat1 dvye11 am54. do beat receive(ipf) PFM+FCT When he tried to hit me like that, I blocked his blow like this.

    This section as well as the three following sections will discuss the Zaiwa locational case suffixes. The directive case suffix (DIR) refers to the movement towards the entity referred to by the preceding noun. 175

    Ngo31

    ke5-ngi35 bum31 pyang31 tang11 1SG before–day heap(vt/N) DIR firewood ho31 lo35 lye31. look.for go(back/up) also+I Today I’m going up the hill to collect firewood.

    In the following sentences, the directive case suffix is used in an interrogative way, since it is preceded by the general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q) ‘what/which/where’.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    176

    Myoq1-dong11 ka55-pyang31 eye–(have)hole Q–DIR Whither should I direct my face?

    177

    Nang31

    ka55-pyang31 lam35 2SG Q–DIR ramble Whither are you (SG) rambling?

    267

    hu31 ra31? (ipf) face.towards need+I lye31? also+I

    The form tang31-pyang31 (behind-DIR), where (DIR) is attached to ‘behind’, refers to what is behind, either in a spatial sense as ‘at the back’, e.g. (178), or in the temporal sense of ‘later, in future’, e.g. (179) and (180). 178

    179

    180

    Mo35do35-Ø tang31-pyang31 be1-wu35 gvat5 wu35-aq5. car–FCT behind–DIR help–look put.into look–SIM Take (SG) a look at the back of the car. [outside, not inside the car] Tang31-pyang31 dum11 hui31 lum11 gvoq1. behind–DIR again make.way/meet(ipf) reciprocal DIE Farewell (DU) / Let’s meet each other again later. Yvang11

    a1kui31 a1-o31-nvau31 3SG now NEG–want/take–feel.like gve5lvang11 tang31-pyang31 o31-nvau31 although behind–DIR want/take–feel.like ra31 ngvut5 lye31. need+I be also+I Although he doesn’t want to have it now, he will want it later on.

    A similar situation applies to he55-pyang31 (before-DIR), where (DIR) is attached to the morpheme ‘before’. The expression he55-pyang31 (before-DIR) refers to what is in front, either in a spatial sense, e.g. (181), or in the temporal sense of ‘before, in the past’, e.g. a1kang31 he55-pyang31 ‘long ago, in the past’ and he55-pyang31 lye54 Zai11wa31 ‘the Zaiwa of the past’.

    268

    CHAPTER NINE

    181

    Mo35do35 he55-pyang31 he5-ye31. car before–DIR PHB–go(away/down) Don’t walk in front of the car.

    9.12

    THE ABLATIVE CASE SUFFIX (ABL)

    The ablative case suffix can be used in either a spatial or in a temporal context and indicates whence a given situation occurs. Used in a spatial context, the ablative case suffix expresses that a situation occurs from a certain place or direction. Used in a temporal context, the ablative case suffix expresses that the given situation occurs from a given point in time onwards as indicated by the preceding form. The following examples illustrate the use of (ABL) in a spatial context. 182

    Mvo55-mai11 lo25. below–ABL come(back/up)+FCT I come from down below.

    183

    Nga35-nvik5 Loi11lung35-bum31 mai11 lo35 1PO–duo Loilung–heap(vt/N) ABL go(back/up) gang11 bue31. split(vi) P+I We (DU) split / were split apart from the Loilung hill onwards.

    184

    No11 mvo55-kung11 mai11 i5-lvam31 gvan31-aq1. (ipf) cattle below–fold ABL go–let.walk put.into*–SIM Take (SG) the cow out to pasture in the valley below.

    When used in a spatial context, the ablative case suffix can also express the notion ‘via’, in several different senses. In sentences (185) to (188), the ablative case suffix is used in the context of containers that are used to perform a certain action. In sentence (189), the ablative case suffix refers to a tape recorder by means of which a certain sound is made audible. In sentence (190), the ablative case suffix refers to a string going round the forehead, in order to carry a wicker basket borne on the back.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    185

    Koq5 mai11 gvat5 syu31-aq1. bowl ABL put.into drink*–SIM Drink (SG) it from the bowl.

    186

    Bung11-kyung31 mai11 bung31 lye31. steam(vt)–steamer ABL steam(vt)(ipf) also+I I/we steam with the steamer.

    187

    269

    Te5-bvun11

    mai11 bvun11 zo11 syang55. (bamboo)–cook.in.bamboo ABL cook.in.bamboo eat JUS Let’s (ND.IN) cook things in bamboo in order to eat.

    188

    I1-syang11 mai11 i1-zvyam11 water–water.tube ABL water–water 5 11 31 1 i -kam lo -aq . go–receive/fetch(ipf) come(back/up)–SIM Go (SG) and bring back water, using these water containers.

    189

    Nang35 lu11yin55zi55 mai11 lvoq5 2SG.PO tape.recorder ABL ACT mving31 wu35 gvoq1. sound/name(vt)(ipf) look DIE Let’s (DU) try and play it with your (SG) tape recorder.

    190

    Tung55-gva55 ge11 u1-lvum11 mai11 wickerwork–variegated1 TOP head–lump ABL wun11 lye31. (ipf) carry/bring also+I A tunggva is carried across the head.

    In the following examples, the ablative case suffix is used in a temporal instead of a spatial sense, marking a period or point in time whence some situation occurs or originates. Also compare the expressions ke5-nvam55 mai11 (Q-when ABL) ‘since when’ and a1-dviq5 ze1-mai11 (nom-little only-ABL) ‘from childhood onwards’. 191

    Le1-zan31 mai11 lva55-mo35 i55-kyap5 bue31. one–summer/year ABL moon–AUG two–leaf/sheet P+I It has been one year and two months now.

    270 192

    CHAPTER NINE

    Ngo31

    a1hang31 mai11 zyan31 dvo11 (ipf) 1SG just.now ABL endure place(vt) Just now I was already restraining myself.

    bue31. P+I

    In the following cases, where it is used after the noun ‘cause’, the ablative case suffix (ABL) refers to a reason or a cause leading to a certain situation. In these cases, the ablative case suffix is optionally marked by the agentive/instrumental suffix . 193

    Nang35 me1zyoq1 mai11-eq1 yvang11 no31 bue31. 2SG.PO cause(N) ABL–AG/I 3SG pain/ill/disease P+I It’s because of you that he has fallen ill.

    194

    Nang35 me1zyoq1 mai11-eq1 ngo31 a1-wo35 lo35. 2SG.PO cause(N) ABL–AG/I 1SG NEG–have go(back/up) It was because of you (SG) that I couldn’t go.

    195

    Hau55-me1zyoq1 mai11-eq1 se5-bvue55 the/that–cause(N) ABL–AG/I SNO–PLN nga35-nvung55 r55 wu35-syau31 lye31. (ipf) 1PO–1ND.IN OBJ look–less also+I That’s the reason why others disparage us (ND.IN).

    In the remaining cases of this section, the ablative case suffix is used in contexts which are more abstract, i.e. not strictly spatial or temporal. The expression a1-bvun31 mai11 (nom-(single).root ABL) expresses ‘once again, from the start’.27 Sentence (196) illustrates that the ablative case suffix can also express ‘besides …’ or ‘on top of …’. Sentence (197) illustrates that (DIR) can also express ‘from that onwards’, referring to a certain point in a story. In sentence (198), the ablative case suffix is used in the context of words stemming from a certain language.

    27 This noun a1-bvun31 (nom-(single).root) expresses ‘root’, in the sense of one

    single root, unlike , referring to ‘roots’ in a multiple sense. Cf. ang11-kyi31-bvun31 (petiole-leg/foot-(single).root) ‘(long white) radish’ and sek5-myit1 (tree-roots) ‘roots of a tree’. Please note that the morpheme ‘roots’ refers to ‘roots’ in a more abstract sense, more like ‘fundament’.

    271

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    196

    Hi55-mai11 lai54 ge11 de1kya31 bo11 a1-si31. (ipf) this–ABL pass+FCT TOP different contain nom–still+I Beside these, there are also others.

    197

    Hau55-mai11 dai31 lo31 the/that–ABL speak(ipf) come(back/up) dut1 ra55. become PE I have to tell from there onwards.

    198

    Hi55-bvue55 ge11 Mi11wa11-ming35 mai11 this–PLN TOP Chinese–language ABL toq5 gvat5-n55 ngvut5 lye31. come.out put.into–FCT be also+I These [words] stem from the Chinese language.

    ra31 need+I

    byan35 explain

    The ablative case suffix can also be used as a conjunction expressing ‘after that …’, after clauses marked by the factitive marker . 199

    Sun11-mo35 he5-zvyoq5-o55 mai11 sun11-zo11 veg/dish–AUG before–cook–FCT ABL veg/dish–child 11 55 dum rvang . again make After making the main dishes we make the side dishes.

    200

    Lau35 ye25 mai11 lau35 promptly go(away/down)+FCT ABL promptly lo31 syang55. come(back/up) JUS Let’s (ND.IN) go there and back quickly.

    The use of the ablative case suffix in yvo55-mai11 (leisurely-ABL) appears to be rather idiosyncratic. The expression yvo55-mai11 (leisurely-ABL) expresses the notions ‘at leisure’, ‘easily’

    272

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    and ‘carefully’. 28 Sentence (202) is spoken when people are leaving. Sentence (204) is spoken when the speaker has finished the meal before others have done, and is an equivalent of Mandarin 慢慢吃 mànmàn chī. 201

    Yvo55-mai11 gau35 lye35 leisurely–ABL clamber come(away/down) Climb down (SG) carefully.

    lo35-aq1. go(back/up)–SIM

    202

    Yvo55-mai11 lo35 gveq5. leisurely–ABL go(back/up) PLIM Please go at your (PL) own pace. / Take (PL) your time going. / Take (PL) it easy.

    203

    Ke5-dye31 han31, yvo55-mai11 lo35 gvoq1. PHB–too quick leisurely–ABL go(back/up) DIE Don’t walk so fast, let’s (DU.IN) walk [back/up] leisurely.

    204

    Yvo55-mai11 zo11-aq5 dvyo31. leisurely–ABL eat–SIM DOM+I Take your (SG) time eating.

    The above expression yvo55-mai11 (leisurely-ABL) ‘at leisure, easily, carefully’, as well as another idiosyncratic expression zyau35-mai11 (early-ABL) ‘by long’ / ‘by early’, are both unique for the fact that the ablative case suffix is placed after a verb. The latter expression is illustrated by the following examples. 205

    Zyau35-mai11 zo11 early–ABL eat I ate some time ago.

    bue31. P+I

    28 This form ‘leisurely’ is only attested as part of this combination, apart from where it is used in a special reduplicated form. The following sentence illustrates this use in reduplicated form. Like sentence (191) above, this sentence was uttered when the speaker had finished the meal before others had done.

    1

    Nang31 yvo55-yvo55 2SG leisurely–leisurely Take your (SG) time eating.

    zo11-aq5. eat–SIM

    273

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    206

    Bin11 wue11 so31 lye31, zyau35-mai11 so11 syang55. (ipf) way far walk also+I early–ABL walk JUS It’s a long journey. Let’s (ND.IN) leave early.

    The ablative case suffix has a free variant in initial /l/, which is only attested in the form ke5-lai11 (Q-ABL) ‘from where’, which is used in rather allegro speech instead of ke5-mai11 (Q-ABL). 9.13 THE GENERAL LOCATIVE CASE SUFFIX

    The general locative case suffix expresses the notions ‘in, at, on, under’ etc., in all kinds of contexts, which can be both spatial, e.g. (207), and temporal, e.g. (208) and (209). The meaning of this suffix is just as broad as the Mandarin prefix/ preposition 在 zài. 207

    Dvang55kuq5 me55 zung31-aq1. stool/chair LOC sit–SIM Take (SG) a seat on the stool/chair.

    208

    Zan31 me55 mau11 summer/year LOC sky In summer there’s lots of rain.

    209

    Nang31

    myo31 r55. (ipf) much PE

    zyong11 ke5-mvyo55 king55 2SG school Q–much(B) time 31 35 gyo lye ? go.down also+I At what time is your (SG) class finished?

    me55 LOC

    The general locative case suffix has three allomorphs. In Section 3.10, it was explained that all suffixes except those which function as a conjunction as a rule do not have tone /35/, and therefore the allomorph also has a limited use, i.e. only in slow or poetic speech, and in the fixed expression naq1-ma35 (tomorrow-LOC) ‘tomorrow’. The vowel /a/ of the other allomorph is normally replaced by /e/, resulting in the allomorph , by the morpho-phonological process of vowel reduction, except when

    274

    CHAPTER NINE

    this morpheme is marked by the factitive marker , since there is no *me54 (LOC+FCT), only ma54 (LOC+FCT). The latter form ma54 (LOC+FCT) can be used in various different senses, as I shall set out in the following separate section. 29 9.14

    THE FORM ma54 (LOC+FCT) USED IN A LITERAL WAY AND AS THE DESCRIPTION MARKER

    The form ma54 (LOC+FCT) consists of the general locative case suffix and the factitive marker , and can be used in a literal sense after nouns and nominalised stative verbs, or in a special sense after nominalised stative verbs. First, the meanings of its two constituent morphemes, the general locative case suffix and the factitive marker , can be combined and used in a literal sense, nominalising or subordinating the locational notion indicated by a preceding noun or nominalised stative verb. The following sentences illustrate the use of ma54 (LOC+FCT) after nouns. The only difference between the first two sentences is that in sentence (210) the form ma54 (LOC+FCT) is a 29 It was only after completing fieldwork that I found that Cheng Mo (1956: 43) had already briefly mentioned the following construction containing the locative case suffix . It appears that another allomorph of the latter morpheme is used here, viz. the short allomorph , which in this special type of construction is used as a kind of infix. The construction V - me5- V expresses either ‘all that V’ or ‘all that are V(adj)’. This construction needs to be further investigated. Sentences (1) and (2) below are from Cheng Mo (1956: 43), but in my transcription and glosses.

    1 2

    Ci11 mving55-me5-mving55 pyoq5 fruit ripe–LOC–ripe break.off/down(vt) Pick and eat (PL) whatever fruit is ripe. Myo11-me5-myo11 yuq1-gue31 much–LOC–much person–male For most part they are/were men.

    zo11 eat

    gveq5. PLIM

    zvyat5. all

    In my material, this construction has only been attested in the following sentence.

    3

    Meng11-gvan11 me55 ngi11-me5-ngi11, world–dried.out LOC be.there(anim)(ipf)–LOC–be.there(anim)(ipf) 31 1 5 byu dut -me -dut1 … man/woman become–LOC–become All people living in this world, whatever people…

    275

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    nominaliser, whereas in sentence (211) it is a subordinator, before the noun ‘man, woman’. 210

    Ngo31 ge11 i11zyo31ci11ue55 nyen11 ma54 ngvut5 lye31. 1SG TOP 1972 year LOC+FCT be also+I I was born in 1972. / (Lit.:) I’m one from the year 1972.

    211

    Ngo31

    ge11

    i11zyo31ci11ue55

    1SG

    TOP

    1972

    nyen11 year

    ma54 LOC+FCT

    byu31 ngvut5 lye31. man/woman be also+I I was born in 1972. / (Lit.:) I’m a person from the year 1972. 212

    Ong11lot1 ge11 i1-lang31 ma54 le1gok1 water.fungus TOP water–river LOC+FCT stone me55 yuq1 lye31. LOC grow also+I Ear-shaped water fungi grow on stones under water.

    213

    Dvau55 ma54 zyum11-dui11 inflate/bottle LOC+FCT salt–[sweet] ngat5 am55 gveq5. take.out.to.make.room PFM PLIM Take (PL) the white sugar out of the bottle to make room.

    214

    Ang55dung35 ge11 Hueq1lan35 ma54 ngvut5 Anton TOP Holland LOC+FCT be Anton is a Dutchman.

    lye31. also+I

    The following sentences illustrate the use of ma54 (LOC+FCT) after nominalised stative verbs. 215

    No11 hi31 ge11 a1-gvong55 ma54. cattle this TOP nom–variegated2 LOC+FCT This cow has a variegated hide.

    216

    Yvang11

    wam11-bvung11 ma54. 3SG swollen/abdomen–swollen LOC+FCT He has a round belly.

    276

    CHAPTER NINE

    The form ma54 (LOC+FCT) is often used as the Zaiwa description marker, a special category which serves as a descriptive means for indicating that a given entity or situation bears the characteristics of the preceding noun or nominalised stative verb. In the first example there is no noun after ma54 (LOC+FCT) referring to any specific entity. 217

    Zi1syang31 gung31-cin31 child body–naked dvo31 r55. place(vt)(ipf) PE The child is/was naked.

    ma54 LOC+FCT

    ngi11 be.there(anim)(ipf)

    The Zaiwa description marker ma54 (LOC+FCT) is often followed by copula, such as ‘to do’, ‘become’, or ‘to be’, as illustrated by the following examples. Here, the description marker specifically refers to a situation instead of an entity, indicating that the characteristics of the preceding noun or nominalised stative verb count for the given situation. 218

    Gung31-gvung31 ma54 gvut5 body–hunch LOC+FCT do Run (SG) with your back hunched.

    din31-aq1. run–SIM

    219

    Mue31-bu11 a1-ngyui31 ma54 wrap–clothes nom–green/blue LOC+FCT ngvyui11 dvo31 r55. (ipf) (ipf) dye place(vt) PE She is dying the clothes green.

    220

    Myoq1 a1-ci11 lui31-eq1 myoq1 eye NEG–wash in.this.way+I–AG/I eye gvyeq5 ma54 dut1 r55. cake LOC+FCT become PE Because of not washing his face, he has crusts on his eyes.

    gvut5 do

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    9.15

    277

    THE MORPHEME ‘LEAD, CONNECT’ AS THE MEDIATIVE CASE SUFFIX

    The morpheme ‘lead, connect’ is either used as a verb expressing ‘lead, connect’, or as the mediative case suffix. I shall first discuss the use of the morpheme ‘lead, connect’ as a verb. The morpheme ‘lead, connect’ as a verb expresses the intransitive notions ‘leading towards somewhere’ or ‘leading between two points’, as illustrated by the following examples. Sentence (221) can either be responded to by A1-dong31. (NEG-lead/connect) ‘there’s no way’ or by Dong11 lye31. (lead/connect(ipf) also+I) ‘(Yes) there’s a way’. 221

    Hi55-dong31 kyo31 this–lead/connect road Is there a road from here?

    a1-dong31 luq1? NEG–lead/connect Y/N

    222

    Le1-ko31 ze11 dong11 r55. (ipf) one–track only lead/connect PE There’s only one footprint. / There’s only one track.

    The verb ‘lead, connect’ can also refer to the writing abilities of fountain pens and ball-points.30 223 Nang31 bvong55dvin55 a1-dong31 le1-luq1? 2SG pen NEG–lead/connect no.more–Y/N Does your (SG) pen work? The same morpheme ‘lead, connect’ can also be used as the mediative case suffix. The latter suffix often literally expresses the notion of following a certain course or direction. 30 Especially when ‘lead, connect’ is used in this context, it is clear that

    it forms part of a simplex-directive verb pair together with (clearly). The latter is an auxiliary verb expressing that the action indicated by the preceding verb is performed in a distinctive way, such as when writing or making footprints.

    1

    Bvong55dvin55-si11 a1-bo31 loq1, a1-wo35 pen–drug NEG–contain no.more NEG–have gva31 dvong31 loq1. write(ipf) clearly no.more There’s no more ink, I can’t write clearly anymore.

    278 224

    CHAPTER NINE

    Bva55 dong31 lo35 ra31 luq1, flatlands lead/connect go(back/up) need+I Y/N bum31 dong31 lo35 ra31 luq1? heap(vt/N) lead/connect go(back/up) need+I Y/N Shall we go by the flatlands or by the hills?

    The morpheme ‘lead, connect’ as the mediative case suffix can also be used in a more abstract sense, expressing that things are done in the way or fashion indicated by the preceding form, e.g. Le1-sam31-bveu55 dong31 ((male)-Shan-PLN lead/connect) ‘like the Shan do’. This meaning is further illustrated by the following examples. 225

    Pung11syui31-haq5 syam31 dong31 toq5 sugar.cane–leaf knife lead/connect come.out dik1 lye31. extreme also+I The leaves of sugar cane are sharp as knives.

    226

    Zang11 zo54 hun31 ge11 he55-pyang31 rice/food eat+FCT time TOP before–DIR lye54 Zai11wa31 wui31 dong31, koq5 also+FCT Zaiwa generation lead/connect bowl a1-cyung31 koi55zvue11 a1-cyung31, ban31-syoq5-bang11 NEG–use chopsticks NEG–use use.up–till–PNO loq1-eq1 cyom31 lap1 zo11. (ipf) hand/arm–AG/I drive.game scoop/fish.out eat When eating, we do like the Zaiwa in the past, without bowls, without chopsticks, all of us eating everything with our hands.

    227

    A1-dvau11 dong31 ke5-dvo11. nom–turn lead/connect PHB–place(vt) Don’t put it upside down.

    The mediative case suffix can also refer to speaking or writing in a certain language. 228

    Yin35yu31 dong31 a1-dap1 dvi31? English.language lead/connect NEG–be.attached CX+I There’s no English written on it, is there?

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    229

    279

    Zai11-ming35 dong31 dai11-aq5. Zaiwa–language lead/connect speak–SIM Say (SG) it in Zaiwa.

    The mediative case suffix is often preceded by pronominal prefixes. 230

    O11, hi55-dong31 lu11? (realising) this–lead/connect RHT Oh, it’s like this.

    231

    Hi55-dong31 a1-ngvut5, this–lead/connect NEG–be le1-ngvut5 r55. but–be PE It’s not this way but that way.

    hau55-dong31 the/that–lead/connect

    The combinations hi55-dong31 (this-lead/connect) ‘this way’ and hau55-dong31 (the/that-lead/connect) ‘that way (we already know)’, used in the two above sentences, can both specifically refer to directions as well as, in a general way, to ways of doing things. The following four other combinations are used exclusively used for indicating directions. hu55-dong31 hye55-dong31 ka55-dong31 mvo55-dong31 9.16

    (above-lead/connect) ‘that way (above)’ (same.elevation-lead/connect) ‘that way (at the same elevation)’ (Q-lead/connect) ‘what way?’ (below-lead/connect) ‘that way (below)’

    OVERVIEW OF THE LOCATIONAL CASE SUFFIXES AND OTHER LOCATIONAL SUFFIXES

    In this and following sections, I shall discuss the various other ways in which Zaiwa speakers refer to directions and positions in relation to other entities. While doing so, I make a distinction between versatile and non-versatile morphemes used as locational suffixes, as shown in Table 9.6. The forms that are non-versatile are fully grammaticalised,

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    whereas the versatiles are etymologically transparent and mostly grammaticalised to a lesser degree. The group of non-versatile morphemes used as case suffixes have been discussed in the preceding sections. Of these case suffixes, only the mediative case suffix is a versatile morpheme, since it is also used as a verb ‘lead, connect’. The case suffixes are rather basic locational suffixes since they, except the mediative case suffix , are often used after the versatile locational suffixes. The non-versatile morphemes used as locational case suffixes are listed in the upper part of Table 9.6. Other marginal forms may exist with a function resembling that of the case suffixes, but which are only used in idiosyncratic expressions. One of these is the morpheme ‘outside’, which is only used after yvum31 ‘house’. 232

    Yvum31-bvan55 me55 zung11 gvun55 syang55. (ipf) house–outside LOC sit play JUS Let’s (ND.IN) sit outside the house just for fun.

    233

    Yvum31-bvan55 me55 o31-bvue55 ge1ru31 (GEN) house–outside LOC who –PLN talk(noise)(ipf) a1-gvo31 ta11? nom–PL+I GI Who (PL) is that talking outside the house?

    Table 9.6

    Zaiwa locational case suffixes and other locational suffixes: directions and positions

    • locational case suffixes: Section 9.11: Section 9.13: Section 9.14: Section 9.15:

    The directive case suffix The ablative case suffix The general locative case suffix

    The morpheme ‘lead, connect’ as the mediative case suffix

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    281

    • locational suffixes other than the locational case suffixes: Section 9.17: nouns that can also be used as locational suffixes 9.17.1: 9.17.2: 9.17.3: 9.17.4: 9.17.5: 9.17.6: 9.17.7:

    gung11-gung31

    num11-tang55

    ‘(in) the middle’ ‘between’ ‘close vicinity, besides of, next to’ ‘behind’ ‘behind one’s back’ ‘roots, base’ ‘edge (N)’

    Section 9.18: adjectives used as locational suffixes 9.18.1: 9.18.2: 9.18.3: 9.18.4: 9.18.5: 9.18.6:

    9.17



    le1-zan31 tong11

    ‘inside’ ‘under’ ‘underneath’ ‘near’ ‘the year round’, ‘come out, above’

    NOUNS USED AS LOCATIONAL SUFFIXES, NORMALLY FOLLOWED BY A CASE SUFFIX

    I shall now continue my discussion of the locational morphemes shown in Table 9.6 in the previous section. This section discusses the nouns that are used as locational suffixes and refer to certain specific positions and directions in relation to other entities. The forms preceding these nouns are either marked by the factitive marker or are special possessive pronouns. These special possessive pronouns are the first person possessive pronoun (1PO) and the second person singular possessive pronoun (2SG.PO) respectively, as well as the form yvang31 (3SG(GEN)), which is the third person singular pronoun marked by the oblique genitive case marker . In most cases, one of the locational case suffixes is attached to

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    these nouns, viz. the locative case suffix , the directive case suffix , or the ablative case suffix . The morpheme ‘lead, connect’ as the mediative case suffix is the only locational case suffix not to be used in combination with these nouns. 9.17.1 The word gung11-gung31 ‘the middle’ The noun gung11-gung31 ‘the middle’ consists of a reduplicated morpheme ‘body’, of which the first is marked by the oblique genitive case marker . This form refers to the exact middle between two entities, unlike ‘between’, which is the next topic of discussion. 234

    235

    Nang31

    yvang55-nvik5-ng55 gung11-gung31 2SG 3PL–duo–FCT body(GEN)–body 5 31 1 i -zung -aq . go–sit–SIM Go (SG) sit right between the two of them.

    me55

    Gung11-gung31 ma54 yvum31 body(GEN)–body LOC+FCT house It’s the house right in the middle.

    lye31. also+I

    ngvut5 be

    LOC

    9.17.2 The noun ‘between’ The morpheme ‘between’ refers to a position somewhere between two entities, not in the exact middle. The meaning of this form differs from gung11-gung31 ‘the middle’ discussed above, which refers to the exact middle between two entities. Another difference between these two forms is that the entities referred to by ‘between’, and between which the given entity is put, need to be explicitly mentioned, as illustrated by the following sentences. Sentences (236) and (237) below contrast to sentences (234) and (235) above, containing gung11-gung31 ‘the middle’. Sentence (238) was rejected by the informant because there should be a noun before ‘between’.

    283

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    236

    Nang31

    yvang55-nvik5-ng55 ge1ro11 me55 i5-zung31-aq1. 2SG 3PL–duo–FCT between LOC go–sit–SIM Go (SG) sit amidst those two.

    237

    Yvang55-moq1 yvum31 yvang55-nvik5 yvum31 3PL–party house 3PL–duo house ge1ro11 ma54 su31 ngvut5 lye31. between LOC+FCT SNO be also+I Their house is somewhere amidst the houses of these two families.

    238

    * Ge1ro11 ma54 yvum31 between LOC+FCT house It’s the house between.

    ngvut5 be

    lye31. also+I

    The expression hi31 ge1ro11 (this between) expresses ‘these days’, as illustrated by the following example. A variant hi 31 ge1ro31, also glossed as (this between), with tone /31/ on the last syllable, is also often attested. 239

    Hi31 ge1ro11 sam31mvi11 zyaq1 this between (common).cold rather 11 bum a1-gvo31. heap(vt/N)(ipf) nom–PL+I These days many people have a cold.

    wang11 enter(ipf)

    9.17.3 The morphemes ‘close vicinity’ and ‘near the house’ The morpheme ‘close vicinity’ is a noun that adds to the notion ‘beside of, next to’, after possessive pronouns, e.g. (240), personal pronouns marked by the genitive marker, e.g. (241), or nominal constituents which can either be marked, e.g. (242), or unmarked by the factitive marker , e.g. se1boi31 nam31 me55 (table close.vicinity LOC) ‘near the table’. 240

    Gom35 mug

    nang35 2SG.PO

    nam31 close.vicinity

    me55 LOC

    zyoq1 be.there(inan)

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    dvo31 r55. (ipf) place(vt) PE The mug is right next to you (SG). 241

    Yvang31

    nam31 ma54 su31 ge11 (GEN) 3SG close.vicinity LOC+FCT SNO TOP 1 ze -lat1-n55 ngvut5 lye31. child–halfway–FCT be also+I The one next to that is my second uncle’s.

    242

    Bui11-syum11 a5-nu54 nam31 me55 broom–sweep nom–mother+FCT close.vicinity LOC zyoq1 dvo31 r55. (ipf) be.there(inan) place(vt) PE The broom is right next to Mum.

    The morpheme ‘close vicinity’ has a variant in tone /11/ which is only used in the form yvum31-nam11 ‘near the house’. 243

    Le1-nong35-bvue31 yvum31 ge11 (GEN) (male)–2nd-brother–PLN house TOP nga35-moq1 yvum31-nam11 ze1-me55 ngvut5 lye31. 1PO–party house–near.the.house only–LOC be also+I The house of second brother and the others is right by our (ND.EX) house.

    9.17.4 The morpheme ‘behind’ The morpheme ‘behind’ is functionally versatile. When used as a verb, it either expresses ‘to block’, e.g. (244) and (245), or ‘to prepare for/up to’, e.g. (246) and (247). 244

    245

    Kum11 lyeng31 lo11 r55, (ipf) (ipf) door fall(vi) come(back/up) PE The door is starting to fall. Stop (SG) it. Tang31 behind

    zyang11 place(B)

    a1-zyoq1. NEG–be.there(inan)

    le1go11 tang31-aq1. well behind–SIM

    285

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    There is no place to brace oneself to. 246

    Mi1-hang55 ra54 ngvut5 zyang35 zo11-syuq5 wife–marry need+FCT be CD eat–drink 31 1 11 11 31 le go wui tang ra dut1 r55. well buy(ipf) behind need+I become PE Before a wedding, one has to prepare the food and drinks very carefully.

    247

    Ngo31

    a1-wo35 tang31 1SG NEG–have behind I’m not prepared yet.

    siq1. still

    The same morpheme ‘behind’ can also be used as a noun or case suffix expressing ‘behind of’ or ‘after’. Sentences (248) and (249) illustrate that ‘behind’ can also be used after possessive pronouns. 248

    Nga35

    tang31 ke5-cyang55. 1PO behind PHB–follow Don’t (SG) go with me.

    249

    Nang35 tang31 a1-gvam31 syang55. (ipf) 2SG.PO behind NEG–want.to follow I don’t want to go with you (SG).

    250

    Nang31

    251

    Nang31

    252

    Mau11-mi31 ge11 bui31 sky–earth TOP sun 31 11 ling lye . turn/roll(vi)(ipf) also+I

    tang31 me55 cyang31 lo31-aq1. 2SG behind LOC follow(ipf) come(back/up)–SIM You (SG) follow from the rear. tang31 gyo35-aq5 dvyo31. 2SG behind go.down–SIM DOM+I You (SG) stay in the rear, all right? tang31 behind

    cyang31 follow(ipf)

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    The earth turns around the sun. The morpheme ‘behind’ can also be used as a conjunction expressing ‘after’ in a temporal sense, after a clause marked by the factitive marker . 253

    i1-zvyam11 kam25 tang31 water–water receive/fetch+FCT behind after fetching water

    me55. LOC

    In the following sentence, the morpheme ‘behind’ expresses the same temporal notion ‘after’, but not as a conjunction, since here it is put after a noun referring to some event in time. 254

    Zum31 tang31 ngo31 yvum31 lo35 consort behind 1SG house go(back/up) After the Harmony dance I will go back home.

    ra31. need+I

    The forms bum31-weng11-tang31 (heap(v/N)-foothills-foothills) ‘foothills’ and zum31-tang31 (stairs-stairs) ‘stairs’ probably contain the same morpheme ‘behind’. In these forms, the morpheme ‘behind’ apparently expresses some different but related meanings, and is glossed according to these meanings, viz. as ‘foothills’ or as ‘stairs’. 9.17.5 The word num11-tang55 ‘behind one’s back’ The noun num11-tang55 expresses ‘behind one’s back’. 255

    Nang35 num11-tang55 me55 2SG.PO back–last LOC dvo31 r55. place(vt)(ipf) PE It’s behind your (SG) back.

    256

    Nang31

    nga35

    2SG

    1PO

    num11-tang55 back–last

    zyoq1 be.there(inan)

    me55 LOC

    lo35 go(back/up)

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    287

    zi11-aq5. ride(vt)–SIM Go sit (SG) behind me. [in a bus] 257

    Num11-tang55 pyang31 le1-zvui55 hui11-aq5. back–last DIR one–bit make.way/meet–SIM Move (SG) a bit backwards.

    The noun num11-tang55 ‘behind one’s back’ is a combination of the morpheme ‘back’ and the morpheme ‘last (in succession)’. The first morpheme is tentatively glossed ‘back’ since it is exclusively used in this combination. The morpheme ‘last (in succession)’ clearly is etymologically related to the morpheme ‘behind’ discussed in the previous section. The morpheme ‘last (in succession)’ is also used in words such as loq1-tang55-ngyui11 (hand/arm-last-finger/toe) ‘little finger’, as well as in various kinship terms, e.g. tang55-zo11 (last-child) ‘uncle’. 9.17.6 The morpheme ‘roots, base’ The morpheme ‘roots, base’ appears to be a noun and is always used as a suffix expressing ‘at the roots of’, ‘at the base of’, to be glossed ‘at base’. This morpheme refers to what is at the base of something, e.g. at the base of a large pillar in sentence (258), not to what is underneath. I reach this conclusion in view of the following example, since here ‘roots, base’ adds to the notion ‘at your feet’ or also ‘beside your feet’, not ‘underneath your feet’. nang35 ki31 wang11 me55 (2SG.PO leg/foot at.base LOC) ‘at your feet’ 258

    Me1nau11 wang11 pyang31 le1-so31 Menau at.base DIR but–walk(ipf) ye11 lo35 syang55. (ipf) go(away/down) go(back/up) JUS Let us (ND.IN) walk towards the foot of the [pillars of the] Menau.

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    The morpheme ‘roots, base’ is also used in the idiosyncratic expression dang11-wang11 (words-at.base) ‘the truth of someone’s words’. In the following example, the meaning of the morpheme ‘roots, base’ is used in a more abstract sense, referring to the foundings of what someone is saying. 259

    Se5-bvue55 dang11-wang11 SNO–PLN words–at.base zyang35, nang31 ke5-se55 CD 2SG Q–like What will you (SG) do when evidence?

    cyo31 lo31 (ipf) search come(back/up) gvut5 ra31? do need+I someone starts to search for

    9.17.7 The noun ‘edge’ The noun ‘edge’ is normally used as a locational suffix after nouns, referring to the edge of things. a1-yam31 me55 (nom-edge LOC) ‘at the edge’ mi1-kyom55-yam31me55 (fire-fireplace-edge LOC) ‘at the fireplace’ kyo31-yam31 (road-edge) ‘edge of the road’ 55 31 pyeng -yam (dish-edge) ‘edge of the dish’ 260

    Wui31-yam31 cyang55 lui31 zyang31 water–edge follow in.this.way+I in.passing 35 35 5 gyo lo -aq . go.down go(back/up)–SIM Follow (SG) the stream. / Lit.: Follow (SG) the river bank.

    The noun ‘edge’ appears to be etymologically related to the verb ‘cut’. The following examples may serve to illustrate the use of the latter morpheme. 261

    Guq1 yam11 ye11 unhusked.rice cut.off go(away/down)(ipf) I’m on my way to cut rice.

    lye31. also+I

    289

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    262

    Sek5-bvyen55 yam31 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) tree–flat/slice cut.off place(vt) also+I I’m cutting the boards. (?)

    9.18

    ADJECTIVES USED AS LOCATIONAL SUFFIXES

    I shall now continue my discussion of locational morphemes shown in Table 9.6 of Section 9.16, discussing adjectives used as locational suffixes. Unlike the nouns used as locational suffixes discussed above, adjectives like ‘under’ are directly linked to the preceding noun, without the latter being marked by the factitive marker. 9.18.1 The morpheme ‘inside of’ The suffix expresses ‘inside of’, e.g. gung11 kau31 (coffin inside) ‘inside the coffin’. The suffix ‘inside of’ is often combined with the general locative case suffix , e.g. si1long35 kau31 me55 (forest inside LOC) ‘inside the forest’ and the following sentence. 263

    Bui35-mo35 kau31 me55 warm.oneself–AUG inside LOC Don’t fart inside of the quilt.

    ki11 ke5-bvuq5. faeces PHB–explode(vt)

    The morpheme ‘inside of’ can also be nominalised by the nominalising prefix in a1-kau31 (nom-inside). 264

    Gve5syang11 a1-kau31 ma54 plant.name nom–inside LOC+FCT 1 55 dik r . extreme PE The inside of a gvesyang-bean stinks.

    nam11 smelly(ipf)

    The combination yvum31 kau31 (house inside) can literally express ‘inside the house’ but is also used as the word for ‘living room’.

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    265

    Yvum31-kau31 me55 lo35 zung31-aq1. house–inside LOC go(back/up) sit–SIM Go up (SG) and sit down inside the living-room.

    266

    Yvum31-kau31 lam11 dik1 house–inside wide(ipf) extreme The living-room is quite wide.

    r55. PE

    9.18.2 The morpheme ‘under’ The morpheme is an adjective expressing ‘under’. This morpheme normally is followed by a case suffix. 267

    Mvo31, a1-o31 me55. below nom–under LOC Down there.

    The morpheme ‘under’ is mostly marked by the nominalising prefix . In the following noun phrase, the morpheme ‘under’ was both accepted either with or without the nominalising prefix , although the variant a1-o31 (nom-under) is more usually used. Both noun phrases were conceived as equal in meaning. cya35cyang31 a1-o31 me55 (tea.factory nom-under LOC) ‘(at) the first house/houses after the tea factory’ The following sentences further illustrate the use of ‘under’ and a1-o31 (nom-under). 268

    269

    Sau55-hai11 se1boi31 o31 me55 dvo31 dvo11-aq5. shoe–shoe table under LOC place(vt)(ipf) place(vt)–SIM Put (SG) the shoes under the table. nang35 a1-o31 ma54 2SG.PO nom–under LOC+FCT the one below you (SG)

    su31 SNO

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    9.18.3 The morpheme ‘under, amongst’ The morpheme ‘under, amongst’ as a rule is either used as a locational suffix, e.g. (270) and (271), or nominalised by the nominalising prefix as a1-tye11 ‘under (it), amongst (it)’ or ‘below’, e.g. (272). 270

    Si1-pik5 i1-zyum11 tye11 me55 fruit–pungent water–salt underneath LOC bum11 r55. (ipf) heap(vt/N) PE There’s lots of chillies amidst the salt.

    lung35 be.inside

    271

    Mi31 tye11 me55 mi31-zo11 le1zvai55 earth underneath LOC earth–child goblin ngi11 lye31 ga31. be.there(anim)(ipf) also+I perceive+I Under the earth is where the goblins live.

    272

    A1-tye11 me55 lung35 nom–underneath LOC be.inside There’s lots of it/them underneath.

    bum11 r55. (ipf) heap(vt/N) PE

    9.18.4 The morpheme ‘near’ The morpheme ‘near’ is either used as a regular adjective expressing ‘near, be nearby’, or as the Zaiwa orientational suffix. The two following sentence illustrate the use of as an adjective ‘near’. dik1 extreme

    lye31. also+I

    273

    Meng11mau11 zvyang31 Ruili near(ipf) Ruili is very near by.

    274

    A1-wue11-o31, zvyang55-zvyang55 ze11 ngvut5 lye31. NEG–far–HIGH+I near–near only be also+I It’s not far at all, it’s very near by.

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    The morpheme ‘near’ can also be used as the Zaiwa orientational suffix, referring to the entity indicated by the preceding nominal constituent as a point of orientation. In many but not all cases, the orientational suffix refers to the home of the entity referred to by the preceding noun, like in French ‘chez X’, i.e. a household that naturally comprises other persons as well, whereby the entity referred to by the preceding nominal constituent serves as a mere point of orientation, as illustrated by the following examples. These examples also illustrate that the orientational suffix ‘near’ either is used after special possessive pronouns, e.g. (275), or after other personal pronouns that do not specifially indicate possession, e.g. (276), or after nouns that are marked by the oblique genitive case marker , e.g. (277). The morpheme ‘near’ in its function as the Zaiwa orientational suffix is never followed by locational case suffixes, since its meaning already includes the notions ‘at’, ‘from’ or ‘towards’. 275

    Nang35 zvyang55 gu35 ke5-mvyo55 gu35 2SG.PO near bed Q–much(B) bed zyoq1 lye31? be.there(inan) also+I How many beds do you have at your (SG) place?

    276

    Nung35-moq1 zvyang55 ka55-hu55 bvoi31 2PL–party near Q–sort festival zyoq1 a1-gvo31? be.there(inan) nom–PL+I What kind of festivals do you have in your (PL) country?

    277

    Le1-dvu11 zvyang55 (GEN) (male)–4th-brother near I’m off to see fourth brother.

    ye11 lye31. (ipf) go(away/down) also+I

    The orientational suffix does not necessarily refer to homes, and can also be translated as: ‘at the place where X is’, referring to the place where at least the entity referred to by the preceding noun is put.

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    278

    Nga35

    zvyang55 ngop1 lyeq1 gvan31-aq1. 1PO near face lie.down put.into*–SIM [to a child in one’s arms:] Lie (SG) with your face against me.

    279

    Lyoq1lyoq1lyoq1, a5-wa31 zvyang55 lo31-aq1. (inviting.a.child) nom–Dad(GEN) near come(back/up)–SIM Come (SG) to Daddy.

    280

    Hye31 Mo35pi31-nvik5 zvyang55 i5-bi11-aq5. (GEN) same.elevation beggar –duo near go–give–SIM Go bring (SG) this to Beggar and the person with him. [the two of them]

    The noun phrase no31 zvyang55 ‘to the cattle’ could literally be interpreted as ‘at the place where the cattle is’. In the context of sentence (281), this noun phrase refers to ‘somewhere on the skin of the cattle’, but in the context of sentence (282) it refers to ‘along with the cattle’. 281

    No31 zvyang55 laq1-ham55 (GEN) cattle near leech–leech dvo31 r55. place(vt)(ipf) PE There’s a leech on the cow.

    dap1 be.attached

    282

    Ne1-zo11 hi31 nga35-nvung55 no31 cattle–child this 1PO–1ND.IN cattle(GEN) 55 1 1 zvyang a -dap . near NEG–be.attached This little calf does not get along with our (ND.IN) cattle.

    The orientational suffix in the following sentence appears to be used in a more or less idiosyncratic sense, and can be translated as ‘from’, in the context of learning something from a certain person. 283

    Mo35pi31 zvyang55 (GEN) beggar near

    Zai11wa31-ming35 Zaiwa–language

    mvoq5 learn/teach

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    yu11 lye31. (ipf) take also+I I’m learning Zaiwa from Beggar. 9.18.5 The morpheme ‘roll’ The morpheme ‘roll’ is functionally versatile, and can be used as a verb, a locational suffix and a specifier noun. As a specifier noun, the morpheme expresses ‘roll’, like a roll of cloth etc. bvan55-gva55 le1-tong11 (cloth-variegated one-roll) ‘one roll of (variegated) cloth’ The same morpheme ‘roll’ could also form part of the word tong11-gva11 (roll-dance.(circle)) ‘circle dance’, used in the following example. 284

    Tong11-gva11 gva11 syang55. roll–dance.(circle) dance.(circle) JUS Let’s (ND.IN) dance the tonggva.

    The morpheme ‘roll’ can also be used as a locational suffix after the morpheme ‘year, summer’, adding to the meaning ‘the year round’. 285

    286

    Le1-zan31-tong11 me55 zye11 gyoq1-o55 one–summer/year–roll LOC exceed cold–FCT gyoq1-myo31 bue31. cold–winter P+I Winter is the coldest season of the whole year. Le1-zan31 tong11-tong11 ngvut5 one–summer/year roll–roll be ka55-hu55 r11 a1-wo35 gvut5. Q–sort also NEG–have do I couldn’t do anything all year.

    r11 also

    ge11 TOP

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    295

    9.18.6 The morpheme ‘come out, above’ The versatile morpheme ‘come out, above’ can be used as a regular verb, an auxiliary verb, an adjective and a locational suffix. When used as a regular verb, the morpheme expresses ‘to come out’, as illustrated by the following examples. Sentence (290) illustrates that ‘come out, above’ can specifically refer to the start of spring, after the noun ‘spring’. Sentence (291) illustrates that ‘come out, above’ can also specifically refer to sunrise and moon-dawn, such as is also the case in the nouns lve5-toq5 (moon-come.out) ‘moon-dawn’, and bui31-toq5 (sun-come.out) ‘sunrise’. 287

    288

    Woq1-zo11 up5 toq5 chicken–child brood come.out The chicks have hatched. Ban35 toq5 lo31 sprout1 come.out come(back/up) New sprouts have come out.

    bue31. P+I

    bue31. P+I

    289

    Gyoq1 r11 ge11 i11 toq5, gyuq1 cold also TOP water/urine come.out afraid r11 ge11 ki11 toq5. also TOP faeces come.out When you’re cold, urine comes out; when you’re scared, shit comes out.

    290

    Sung11 spring zyang35

    291

    Bui31 toq5 lo31 bue31. sun come.out come(back/up) P+I The sun has just risen. / The sun has just appeared from behind the clouds.

    toq5 mau11 bo35 lo31 come.out sky open.itself come(back/up) dum11 lo31-aq1. CD again come(back/up)–SIM Come back (SG) at the beginning of the spring.

    296

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    In sentence (292), the morpheme ‘come out, above’ refers to coming out to public places, and in sentence (293) it refers to leaving home to start to live on oneself. 292

    Moq1-pung31 toq5 zyang35 i31-pue11 party–gathering come.out CD distilled–booze ke5-dye31 syuq5. PHB–too drink Do not drink too much at social gatherings.

    293

    Yvum31-toq5 toq5 bue31. house–come.out come.out P+I He has started to live by himself.

    In the two following sentences, the morpheme ‘come out, above’ specifically expresses ‘(money) take out, spend’, after ‘silver, money’. Somewhat related is the use of this verb in the context of taking out cards, as illustrated by sentence (296). 294

    Ngo31

    r55

    ngun31 1SG OBJ silver They won’t let me pay.

    a1-bi11 toq5. NEG–give come.out

    295

    Ngo31

    r55

    a1-toq5 bi11. NEG–come.out give

    296

    Ngo31

    ngun31 1SG OBJ silver They won’t pay for me.

    yvek5dva55 sum31-dong11 toq5 1SG diamonds three–(have)hole come.out I’ll play a three of diamonds.

    lye31. also+I

    In the following sentence, the morpheme ‘come out, above’ refers to earning back invested money, after ‘investment’. 297

    A1rang31 lvang55 a1-toq5. investment even NEG–come.out I haven’t even able to earn back the invested money.

    297

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    Auxiliary verbs normally are verbs that, apart from being used as a main verb, can also be used after a main verb, whereby their meanings are used in a periphrastic instead of a straightforward sense, adding a specific notion to the situation indicated by the main verb. In the following sentences, the morpheme ‘come out, above’ could therefore also be termed an auxiliary verb, and an aspectivising auxiliary verb too, since its meaning is used in a periphrastic sense. In this function, the morpheme ‘come out, above’ refers to becoming clear of certain situations as a result of mental activity. 298

    299

    A1-wu35 toq5 NEG–look come.out Do you see?

    luq1? Y/N

    A1-dat1 mit1 toq5 loq1 NEG–able think come.out no.more I can’t find a way of figuring this out.

    mai31. OBV+I

    The morpheme ‘come out, above’ can also be used as an adjective expressing ‘to be on top’, ‘to be above’. 300

    Se1boi31 toq5 ma54 o31 table come.out LOC+FCT want/take I’ll take those that are on the table.

    ra31. need+I

    The morpheme ‘come out, above’ often adds to the meaning ‘to exist in the world’, either or not in combination with the noun meng11-gvan11 ‘world’, in the context of creations and inventions. When used after meng11-gvan11 ‘world’, the morpheme ‘come out, above’ rather serves as a locational suffix, as illustrated by the following examples, and by meng11-gvan11 toq5 me55 ngi11 lye54 byu31 (world-dried.out come.out LOC be.there(anim)(ipf) also+FCT man/woman) ‘the people living on the earth’. 301

    I5-nvung55 meng11-gvan11 toq5 me55 SPEC–1ND.IN world–dried.out come.out LOC zyau11wong11 wong31 lye31. (ipf) incest incest also+I Everything in our (ND.IN) world is incestuous.

    298 302

    CHAPTER NINE

    Meng11-gvan11 toq5 me55 ka55-hu55 gvut5 world–dried.out come.out LOC Q–sort do gve5lvang11 lui11 r55, byu31 although easy(ipf) PE man/woman 11 zue zo11 ra54 ze11 yak1 r55. (ipf) live.as.human eat need+FCT only difficult2 PE It is easy to live as any creature in this world, it is only very difficult to live as a human.

    In the following sentence, the morpheme ‘come out, above’ adds refers to creations and inventions, but without the word meng11-gvan11 ‘world’. Here, the morpheme ‘come out, above’ is used as a verb, not as a locational suffix. The expression ha55-me55 toq5 bue31 (the/that LOC come.out P+I) used in sentence (303) is often encountered in story-telling, and expresses that something is being created or otherwise has come into existence and has become a matter of fact. 303

    A1kui31 bvau31 zan54 li11 ha55-me55 now raft/cluster hew+FCT also the/that–LOC 5 toq bue31. come.out P+I Now, the making of rafts exists from then onwards.

    304

    Mi1-dat5 ge11 o55-yuq1 fire–electricity TOP who–person toq5-o55 la11? come.out–FCT UNC Who did invent electricity?

    pan11 create(ipf)

    The meaning of ‘come out, above’ can also be used idiosyncratically as ‘sharp’ as for knives etc.. 305

    306

    Syam31 hi31 toq5 knife this come.out This knife is very sharp. Pung11syui31-haq5 sugar.cane–leaf

    syam31 knife

    dik1 extreme

    bue31. P+I

    dong31 toq5 lead/connect come.out

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    299

    dik1 lye31. extreme also+I The leaves of sugar cane are sharp as knives. In the form a1-toq5 ‘(on) top’, the morpheme ‘come out, above’ is nominalised by the nominalising prefix . In the form a1-toq5 ‘(on) top’, the meaning of ‘come out, above’ is also used in the sense of ‘above’. The form a1-toq5 (nom-come.out) thus both expresses ‘be on top of’, like an adjective, and ‘the one on top’, like a noun, as illustrated by the following examples. Note that the informant rejected the clause *cya35cyang31 toq5 me55, i.e. without the nominalising prefix , instead of the first example below. cya35cyang31 a1-toq5 me55 (tea.factory nom-come.out LOC) ‘the last house/houses before the tea factory’ cya35cyang31 a1-toq5 pyang31 (tea.factory nom-come.out DIR) ‘in the direction of the house/houses before the tea factory’ 307

    Mi1-kyom55 a1-toq5 ma54 ge11 fire–fireplace nom–come.out LOC+FCT TOP myam31zui11. rack.above.fire The thing above the fireplace is known as a myamzui drying rack.

    9.19

    THE MORPHEMES ‘START’ AND < he5- ~ he55 ~ ke5-> ‘BEFORE’; THE PRIORITIVE ADVERB

    The morpheme ‘before’ is both used in complex pronominal forms as well as in the function of an adverb termed the Zaiwa prioritive adverb. When used in complex pronominal forms, the meaning of ‘before’ can be used both in a spatial and a temporal sense, and is contrary to that of the morpheme ‘behind’ discussed in Section 9.17.4.

    300

    CHAPTER NINE

    The morpheme ‘before’ appears to be etymologically related to the verb ‘start’. The latter verb ‘start’ is only used as an auxiliary verb, expressing that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb is initiated. The use of the verb ‘start’ is illustrated by the following examples. 308

    Zai11wa31-ming35 syeq1 mvoq5 he11 Zaiwa–language au.contraire learn/teach start(ipf) 31 35 lo lye . go(back/up) also+I I’ve just started learning Zaiwa.

    309

    Nang31

    gva31 he31 zyang35 i55-kok1 2SG write(ipf) start CD two–line.of.writing 5 mvit ra54 ke5-dvo31mvi55. leave.over need+FCT PHB–forget When you (SG) start writing, don’t forget to leave two blank lines.

    Apart from the use of the verbal morpheme ‘start’ as an auxiliary verb, the same morpheme, but marked by the oblique genitive case marker , is used in the complex adverb sang31-he11 (beginning-start(GEN)), expressing ‘in the beginning’ or ‘originally’. The first syllable of this word is tentatively glossed as ‘beginning’ and is only attested as part of this word. Sentences (312) to (313) illustrate the use of the form sang31-he11 (beginning-start(GEN)) as a noun expressing ‘the beginning’, in time adverbs such as ‘in the beginning’ or ‘originally’. In the two following sentences (310) and (311), however, the function of the form sang31-he11 (beginning-start(GEN)) resembles that of auxiliary verbs. lye31. also+I

    310

    Sang31-he11 zo31 lo35 beginning–start(GEN) eat(ipf) go(back/up) We have just started the meal.

    311

    A1hui31 syeq1 sang31-he11 gvut5 (GEN) now au.contraire beginning–start do lo35 lye31. go(back/up) also+I

    301

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    We’re just getting started. 312

    Sang31-he11 r55 ngo31 Zai11wa31-ming35 (GEN) beginning–start TS 1SG Zaiwa–language 1 11 11 1 31 a -gue dai , a hui ngo31 gue11 (ipf) NEG–all.right speak now 1SG all.right(ipf) 31 31 35 dai lo bue . speak(ipf) go(back/up) P+I In the beginning, I could not speak the Zaiwa language, but now I’m starting to be able to speak some.

    313

    Sang31-he11 mai11 (GEN) beginning–start ABL I’ve said it from the start.

    314

    ngo31 1SG

    dai11 speak

    bue31. P+I

    Zai11-yvum31 ge11 sang31-he11 me55 (GEN) cogon.grass–house TOP beginning–start LOC kyeng31 lye31, myang35 zyang35 mui35 ra55. yellow(ipf) also+I (time).long CD grey PE Houses with grass roofs start yellow, but they are grey in the end.

    The morpheme , glossed (before2) and only used in he31-bat1 (before2-week) ‘the week before last week’, is clearly etymologically related to ‘before’. The short allomorph of ‘before’ is the result of the morpho-phonological process of syllable reduction of its non-short allomorph . The short allomorph is a variant of the allomorph by way of hypercorrection. Each of the three different allomorphs of the morpheme ‘before’ is used in a different way, as set out below. • The short allomorph is used as a prefix in time words, in most cases denoting presentness in time, e.g. he5-ngi35 (before-day) ‘today’ and he5-nap1 (before-morning) ‘this morning’. Section 9.39 discusses more time expressions containing the short allomorph . • The same short allomorph is also used as an adverbial prefix termed the Zaiwa prioritive adverb, expressing ‘first do V’.

    302 •



    CHAPTER NINE

    The short allomorph is not used as an adverb, but as another prefix in time words, e.g. ke5-ngi35 (before-day) ‘today’ and ke5-nap1 (before-morning) ‘this morning’. This short allomorph of the morpheme ‘before’ appears to be a result of hypercorrection of the allomorph . The non-short allomorph either is used (i) as a more emphatic variant of the allomorph as the Zaiwa prioritive adverb, e.g. (317) to (318) further below, or (ii) as a bound form directive pronoun, before case suffixes, e.g. he55-me55 (before-LOC) ‘before, in front, first’ and he55-pyang31 (before-DIR) ‘in front, in the past’.

    • The prioritive adverb: The Zaiwa prioritive adverbs and ‘first’ both express that a certain situation occurs prior to another. Normally it is the short allomorph of ‘before’ which is used as the Zaiwa prioritive adverb, e.g. (315) and (316). Sentences (317) to (318) illustrate the use of the non-short allomorph of ‘before’ as the Zaiwa prioritive adverb, as a more emphatic variant of the allomorph . The short allomorph : 315

    316

    Kyo31 he5-so54, a1-mu31 mo35do35 zi54. road before–walk+FCT nom–happen car ride(vt)+FCT First I walked and then I went by bus. Nang31 num11nang35-Ø kung55ga11 raq1 zyang35 2SG friend–FCT respect like CD num11nang35 r55 he5-kung55ga11 ra31 dut1 friend OBJ before–respect need+I become In order to be respected and liked by your friends, first have to respect your friends.

    The non-short allomorph : 317

    Nga35-nvik5 1PO–duo

    he55 before

    zo11 eat

    lang35 wait

    be55. EE

    ge11, TOP

    lye31. also+I you (SG)

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    303

    We (DU) will start eating first. [without you] 318

    Bvong55dvin55 he55 yu11 pen before take(ipf) First pick up (SG) the pen.

    319

    Nang31

    gvan31-aq1. put.into*–SIM

    he55 pang31 gvan31-aq1. (ipf) 2SG before make.a.start put.into*–SIM You (SG) start singing.

    The short allomorph of ‘before’ is homophonous to the prohibitive prefix (PHB). The homophony to this short allomorph , used as the prioritive adverb, does not cause confusion, since the prohibitive prefix (PHB) can co-occur with only a few clause markers, whereas clauses containing ‘before’ always have one of a large range of other clause markers. The following examples both contain a homophonous prefix /he5-/ before the same verb ‘go (away/down)’. Sentence (320) contains the short allomorph of ‘before’, whereas sentence (321) contains the prohibitive prefix (PHB). 320

    Ngo31 1SG

    i1-zit5 he5-ye11 water–pee before–go(away/down)(ipf) be55.

    lo31 come(back/up) EE I’m going for a pee first. 321

    He5-tuq5 lvyeng31 am55. (ipf) PHB–cut.(trees) topple/roll(vt) PFM Don’t cut this tree.

    The allomorph of the morpheme ‘before’ before the general locative case suffix expresses the notion ‘in front’ in a locational sense, e.g. nang31 he55-me55 (2SG before-LOC) ‘before you’ and zye11 he55 ma54 yvum31 (exceed before LOC+FCT house) ‘the foremost house’. In the following sentence, however, the same combination of morphemes apparently expresses

    304

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    ‘first’, just like normally expressed by the short allomorph of ‘before’ as the prioritive adverb. 322

    He55-me55 i1-zvyam11 i5-kam31. before–LOC water–water go–receive/fetch First he went to fetch water.

    The form he55-pyang31 consists of the full syllable allomorph of ‘before’ and the directive case suffix . This expression can both express ‘in front of’ or ‘before’ in a spatial sense, e.g. (323), as well as ‘before’ and ‘in the past’ in a temporal sense, e.g. he55-pyang31 lye54 Zai11wa31 ‘the Zaiwa of the past’. 323

    He55-pyang31 wu35-aq5. before–DIR look–SIM Look (SG) in front.

    9.20

    THE SPECIFICATORY MORPHEME (SPEC)

    The specificatory morpheme is a pronoun which places specific emphasis on a particular situation from a deictic point of view. Especially when spatial features are being referred to, the use of this morpheme naturally is often accompanied by gestures of arms or hands. The specificatory morpheme has two allomorphs. Its short syllable allomorph is used as a prefix. The non-short syllable allomorph of (SPEC) is a pronominal suffix which is attached to pronominal prefixes. The first type of use of the short syllable allomorph of (SPEC) to be distinguished is in two personal pronouns, viz. the specificatory first person dual pronoun i5-nvik5 (SPEC-duo) and the specificatory first person non-dual plural inclusive pronoun i5-nvung55 (SPEC-1ND.IN). In these personal pronouns, the specificatory morpheme expresses a notion which is complementary to inclusiveness of the addressee, viz. the notion that all persons who are present are included, in contrast to some others in the context. This morpheme resembles the root *i which, according to Bauman (1975: 131-3), commonly indicates the inclusive category in Tibeto-Burman.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    305

    The prefix (SPEC) can also be used as a part of adverbs, e.g. in i5-se55 (SPEC-like) ‘in this particular way’, e.g. (324) and (325), and i5-su54 (SPEC-like+FCT), e.g. (326). The latter form can, like the former, also be translated as ‘in this particular way’ but bears a more factual connotation, which is caused by the fact that it contains the factitive marker . 324

    A1ra31, i5-se55 gvut5 Right! SPEC–like do Right, do (PL) it like that.

    gveq5. PLIM

    325

    Ci5-hung11 i5-se55 gvut5-n55 me1nai31 buttock–fold SPEC–like do–FCT twist/screw(ipf) am55 bi54 ga31. PFM give+FCT perceive+I He twisted his bottom [the snail’s bottom] like this.

    326

    Nvut5 i5-su54 ha31 dvo11 (ipf) mouth SPEC–like+FCT (mouth).open.wide place(vt) 31 1 mu syeq . happen+I au.contraire He had opened his mouth wide, like this ....

    The prefix (SPEC) can also be used in another type of adverb, as a kind of emphatic prefix modifying at least two morphemes, viz. ‘much’(B) and ‘far’(B), as I shall set out below. 1) The morpheme ‘much’(B) forms part of many complex adverbs, including i5-mvyo55 (SPEC-much) ‘this much’, ‘so much’, as illustrated by the following examples. The morpheme ‘much’(B) will be further discussed in the separate Section 9.25. 327

    Wam11-pam11-mo35 zang11 ning31, swollen/abdomen–stomach–AUG rice/food INS+I i5-mvyo55 wo35 zo54 ge11. SPEC–much(B) have eat+FCT TOP You’re such a big eater! / (Lit.:) You with your belly consisting only of a stomach, you can eat so much!

    306 328

    CHAPTER NINE

    Min35 r11 i5-mvyo55 heng25 night-time also SPEC–much(B) long+FCT And the nights are also quite long!

    ge11. TOP

    The morpheme ‘much’ can also be used as the Zaiwa unassuming adverb, expressing ‘not as much as’, e.g. (329). The form i5-mvyo55 (SPEC-much) can be used as a kind of emphatic variant of the unassuming adverb, e.g. (330). The difference in meaning between i5-mvyo55 (SPEC-much) and simply ‘much’ as the unassuming adverb is that the former places more emphasis on the qualities of the given situation. For example, the specificatory morpheme before the unassuming adverb in sentence (330) expresses that the given dish was rather more tasty. 329

    Ngo31

    nang31

    mvyo55 1SG 2SG much(B) I am not as tall as you (SG).

    a1-mvyang31. NEG–tall/high

    330

    Hi55-hu55 zang11-sun11 hye55-hu55 this–sort rice/food–veg/dish same.elevation–sort zang11-sun11 i5-mvyo55 a1-ngvam11. rice/food–veg/dish SPEC–much(B) NEG–tasty This dish is not as tasty as that dish. [at the same elevation]

    2) The specificatory prefix can also be attached to the morpheme ‘far’(B), in i5-hue55 ‘so far’. The morpheme ‘far’(B) can be used as a bound form pronoun and as an adverb, as I shall discuss in the separate Section 9.26. The morpheme ‘far’(B) in the following sentence is reduplicated. 331

    M1m55! i5-hue55-hue55 (wonder) SPEC–far(B)–far(B) Oh, it’s that far!

    ma54 we1-dvi31! LOC+FCT EMP–CX+I

    The non-short syllable allomorph of the specificatory morpheme is a pronominal suffix used after pronominal prefixes, e.g. ke5-i55 (Q-SPEC) ‘to what extent’, e.g. (332), and hi55-i55 (this-SPEC) ‘this much’, e.g. (333) and (334). These forms containing the non-short syllable allomorph of the specificatory morpheme

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    307

    indicate specific lengths, widths or circumferences, as mostly indicated by the length between the palms of both hands, between bowed arms, or between two fingerpoints, or by the length of one outstretched finger. Sentence (334) further contains the limitative morpheme ‘only’ and is used when the given object is small. 332

    Ke5-i55 bo11 r55 (ipf) Q–SPEC contain PE How big was it?

    ta11. GI

    and the response: 333 Hi55-i55 bo11 r55. this–SPEC contain(ipf) PE [with gestures:] It’s this big. / It was this big. or: 334

    Hi55-i55 ze11 bo11 r55. (ipf) this–SPEC only contain PE [with gestures:] It was this small.

    Also compare the following sentence, containing the prefixed allomorph of the specificatory morpheme . The form i5-heng55 (SPEC-long) ‘this long’ here indicates a specific length between the hands of either two outstretched arms or one outstretched arm and one bowed arm. 335

    I5-heng55 bo11 r55. (ipf) SPEC–long(B) contain PE It is this long.

    Note the exclamatory and rather emphatic use of the specificatory morpheme in the following sentences. In both sentences, the specificatory morpheme is used after pronominal prefixes and is marked by the factitive marker . In the first sentence, the specificatory morpheme is furthermore reduplicated, expressing a notion of shock, because of rather excessive measures. Also compare the phrase nvong31-mo35 geq1-i54 (pond-AUG lot-SPEC+FCT) ‘a huge

    308

    CHAPTER NINE

    pond’, where the specificatory morpheme is used after the Zaiwa nominalising prefix of unquantified amount ‘lot’. 336

    He5-i55-i54 Q–SPEC–SPEC+FCT It’s this big!

    ge11! TOP

    337

    A1lyu35, lvang31-mui31 wa35 (discovery) snake–snake EMP Wow, what a big snake is this!

    hi5-i54 ge11! this–SPEC+FCT TOP

    9.21

    ‘WHERE’ AND ITS BOUND FORM VARIANTS

    This section discusses the morpheme ‘where’ and two bound forms to which it is etymologically related. These two bound forms will only be briefly introduced here and be discussed further below, after the discussion of ‘where’ itself. The general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q) is the pronominal prefix variant of ‘where’, in the same way as the bound form demonstrative prefixes listed in Table 9.2. The morpheme ‘where’(B) is only used after the nominal plural suffix (PLN). The morpheme ‘where’(B) is a bound form variant of ‘where’, as a result of the morpho-phonological process discussed in Section 7.9. Bound forms of this kind only occur as final syllables in specific combinations. 9.21.1 The pronoun ‘where’ The free form pronoun ‘where’ can both be used in an interrogative way, e.g. (338), and in an indefinite way, e.g. (339). 338

    Bui11-syum11 ka31 lo35 broom–sweep where go(back/up) Where’s the broom [gone off to]?

    bue31

    la11?

    P+I

    UNC

    309

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    339

    Ka31 r11 a1-dat1 wang31. where also NEG–able enter There was nowhere they could go inside.

    The following sentence is often used as an informal hello. 340

    Nang31 ka31 lo35 lye31? 2SG where go(back/up) Where are you (SG) going?

    also+I

    The same morpheme ‘where’, or at least its aspirated allomorph , is also used as an interjection expressing either demands to have something done or proposals to do something oneself. In both uses, the morpheme ‘where’ is used in a spatial context, almost as if literally asking ‘where is it?’. 341

    342

    Ka31, ngo31 zok1 wu35 where 1SG search.around look Let me nose around.

    be55.

    Ka31, ngo31 r55 bi31 wu35 (ipf) where 1SG OBJ give look Give it to me so I can have a look at it.

    raq5.

    EE

    VO

    9.21.2 The general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q) ‘what/which/where’ In this subsection, I shall discuss all forms containing the general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q) ‘what/which/where’. First, both short allomorphs or at least the allomorph of the general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q) can be prefixed to the specificatory morpheme . The two following sentences illustrate that such combinations can be used both in an interrogative way, e.g. (343), and in an indefinite sense, e.g. (344). 343

    He5-i55 Q–SPEC

    bo11 r55 (ipf) contain PE

    ta11? GI

    310

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    How big is it? 344

    He5-i55-i54 ge11! Q–SPEC–SPEC+FCT TOP It’s this big!

    All four allomorphs of the general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q) can be used before the three following locational case suffixes, forming very commonly used complex pronouns. The case suffixes before which the general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q) can be used are: the directive case suffix the ablative case suffix the general locative case suffix



    1) The general interrogative pronominal prefix is most commonly used before the general locative case suffix , in complex pronouns that either serve as actants or as adverbs. Sentences (345) and (346) illustrate that the combination of the general interrogative pronominal prefix and the general locative case suffix is not only used in an interrogative way but also in an indefinite sense. 345

    Ke5-me55 zang35 r11 ke5-me55 Q–LOC strike also Q–LOC It itched wherever it touched their skin.

    yo11. itch3

    The difference in meaning between the simple pronoun ‘where’ and the complex pronouns ka55-me55/ ha55-me 55 etc., glossed (Q-LOC), is that the latter complex pronouns refer to places in a more specific way, like ‘at what places’, whereas ‘where’ refers to places in a more general way. Sentence (346) containing ke55-me55 (Q-LOC) is a further specification on the situation in sentence (339) further above, on the difficulty of the main actants at finding a safe place to stay.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    346

    311

    Ke5-me55 r11 a1-dat1 wang31. Q–LOC also NEG–able enter They didn’t feel up to going inside anywhere.

    The following sentence is often used as an informal hello, like sentence (340) further above. 347

    Ka55-mai11 lo25 Q–ABL come(back/up)+FCT Where do you come from?

    ta11? GI

    There are many possible combinations of the various allomorphs and variants of both the general interrogative pronominal prefix and the general locative case suffix . These combinations not only include ka55-me55, ha55-me55, ke5-ma55, all glossed (Q-LOC), but also allegro variants where the general locative case suffix is realised with an initial /l/: ke5-la55 (Q-LOC), etc. The non-short syllable allomorphs and in combination with the general locative case suffix is only used in rather well-articulated speech and is therefore not combined with the allegro lateral variant of the latter. This appears to be the only restriction on the combinations of the allomorphs and variants of these two morphemes. 2) The non-short syllable allomorphs and of the general interrogative pronominal prefix are used in various different environments. First, these allomorphs are used productively before any specifier noun. In the following example, the allomorph of the general interrogative pronominal prefix is used for the specifier noun (leaf/sheet), used for thin sheets. 348

    Ka55-kyap5 zye11 zvyoi31 r55? Q–leaf/sheet exceed beautiful(ipf) PE Which one is the most beautiful? [picture]

    3) The two non-short allomorphs and of the general interrogative pronominal prefix are also most commonly used as

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    pronominal prefixes before the noun ‘sort’ in the very common complex pronouns ka55-hu55 and ha55-hu55 ‘what’. 4) The short allomorphs and of the general interrogative pronominal prefix are used as part of complex forms, before a group of bound form adjective variants. Most of these complex forms function as adverbs, whereas those with ‘much’(B) function as complex pronouns. Examples of such combinations are: ke5-lvam55/ he5-lvam55 ‘how wide’, ke5-heng55/ he5-heng55 ‘(space/time) how long’ and ke5-mvyo55/ he5-mvyo55 ‘how much/many’. The latter is very commonly used, both in an interrogative and an indefinite way. 349

    350

    Nang31

    zang11 ke5-mvyo55 koq5 2SG rice/food Q–much(B) bowl How many bowls of rice did you (SG) eat?

    zo11 eat

    bue31? P+I

    Ke5-mvyo55 ngvut5-n55 ngo31 a1-sue55. Q–much(B) be–FCT 1SG NEG–know I didn’t know how many there were. / I didn’t know how much it was.

    5) The short allomorphs and of the general interrogative pronominal prefix are also used in the special combination ke5-nvam55 ‘when’, as illustrated by the following example. The morpheme ‘when’ is only attested in these particular combinations with the short allomorphs and of the general interrogative pronominal prefix. 351

    Ke5-nvam55 gyo35 lo25? Q–when go.down come(back/up)+FCT When did you come back?

    5) The short allomorphs and of the general interrogative pronominal prefix are also used before the allomorph of the impressionistic morpheme , forming ke5-se55/he5-se55 ‘how’.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    352

    Ke5-se55 gvut5 Q–like do What can one do?

    313

    ra31? need+I

    9.21.3 The morpheme ‘where’(B) The morpheme ‘where’(B) is the result of the morphophonological process of bound form adverbial and pronominal formation, and is morpho-phonologically related to its free form variant ‘where’. The Zaiwa bound form adverbs /pronominals only occur as final syllables in specific combinations. The morpheme ‘where’(B) is only used after the plural nominal suffix (PLN), in bvue55-ka55/ bvue55-ha55 (PLN-where). The latter construction expresses ‘in those places’ and is a bound form itself, used either after nouns, e.g. (356) to (358), or after the following pronominal prefixes. 1) directive pronominal prefixes, including ‘this’, e.g. hi55-bvue55-ha55 (this-PLN-where), e.g. hi55-bvue55-ha55 ma54 bum31 (this-PLN-where(B) LOC+FCT heap(vt/N)) ‘the hills around here’, or ‘there, at the same elevation’, e.g. (353), 2) the prefix ‘the, that (we know)’, e.g. hau55-bvue55-ka55 (the/that-PLN-where), e.g. (354), 3) the non-short syllable allomorphs and of the general interrogative pronominal prefix , e.g. ka55-bvue55-ha55, e.g. (355). 353

    Hye55-bvue55-ha55 Bve1lvong11 same.elevation–PLN–where(B) Deang.people ngi11 r55 kai31 dvi31? (ipf) be.there(anim) PE SUG+I CX+I In those places over there [at the same elevation] live the Deang, don’t they?

    354

    Hau55-bvue55-ka55 zok1 wu35-aq5. the/that–PLN–where(B) search.around look–SIM Search around (SG) there.

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    The construction hau55-bvue55-ka55 (the/that-PLN-where) like in the last sentence refers to places that are somehow known from the context, which can be in any direction. The combinations of the non-short syllable allomorphs and of the general interrogative pronominal prefix and bvue55-ka55/ bvue55-ha55 (PLN-where) normally express ‘wherever’ in an emphatical sense. 355

    Ka55-bvue55-ha55 r11 byeq1-byeq1 gvut5 Q–PLN–where(B) also [ideo] do He just sticks his ass all over the place.

    zung11 sit(ipf)

    r55. PE

    The construction bvue55-ka55/ bvue55-ha55 (PLN-where) is also productively used after nouns, where it expresses ‘all over …’. 356

    Loq1-bu35

    bvue55-ha55 si1-mau35 zuk5-zuk5. hand/arm–pimple/convex PLN–where(B) flesh–body.hair hairy–hairy He has hair all over his arms.

    357

    Gve5-nva11 he5-ge1-zyam11 loq1, mud–(regular)mud PHB–random–fiddle no.more bu11 bvue55-ha55 a1-gva54-gok1 clothes PLN–where(B) nom–variegated1+FCT–flamboyant ban11 dut1 bue31. use.up(ipf) become P+I Don’t play with mud. Your clothes have become dirty all over.

    358

    Bum31 bvue55-ha55 lo35 hat5 heap(vt/N) PLN–where(B) go(back/up) pursue gvun31 lye31. play(ipf) also+I I am /we are rambling around the whole area.

    lam35 ramble

    At least the allomorph and probably also the allomorph of ‘where’(B) also appear in the special construction le1-ha55 ze1-me55 ‘just near by’. In this construction, the morpheme ‘where’(B) is in fact used as a noun, since it is preceded by the numeral prefix ‘one …’.

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    359

    Dai35wan55-eq5 Hue11lan35 le1-ha55-ze1-me5-luq1? Taiwan–COM Holland one–where(B)–only–LOC–Y/N Are Taiwan and Holland near by?

    360

    Mang35she31-eq5 Meng11mau11 le1-ha55-ze1-me5-luq1? Mangshi–COM Ruili one–where(B)–only–LOC–Y/N Are Mangshi and Ruili near by?

    9.22

    THE PARTITIVE PRONOMINAL SUFFIX (PART) AND THE FORM gu54 (PART+FCT)

    • The partitive pronominal suffix (PART) The partitive pronominal suffix refers to a specific part of a group of entities and could be translated as ‘a particular part’ or ‘this particular part’. The partitive pronominal suffix on the one hand is used like a noun, whereas on the other it resembles the free form pronouns or pronominal suffixes in tone /31/, like ‘this’, ‘that above’ and ‘where’. The partitive pronominal suffix is used in the following ways. 1. after a noun, e.g. (361), or after a clause that is nominalised by the factitive marker , e.g. (362), 2. after a noun but reduplicated for emphasis on the large quantity, e.g. (363), 3. after bound form pronominal prefixes, e.g. hi55-gu31 (this-PART) ‘these’, ‘this part’, hau55-gu31 (the/that-PART) ‘those’, ‘that part of it’ and ka55-gu31 (Q-PART) ‘which ones’, ‘which part’, e.g. (364). 361

    Syo11 flesh me55

    gu31 ge11

    hye31 Gau11-kyo31-gvang11 PART TOP same.elevation nine–road–split(vt) i5-zyap1 san31 dvo11. LOC go–chop.up scatter(ipf) place(vt) The remainder of the flesh was scattered at the crossing of the nine roads.

    362

    Hi31 nga35 he55-ma54 this 1PO before–LOC+FCT I’ll have those in front of me.

    gu31 PART

    o31 ra31. want/take need+I

    316 363

    CHAPTER NINE

    Mi11wa11-ngun31 Chinese–silver am55 bue31. PFM

    gu31-gu31 PART–PART

    ban31-syoq5 use.up–till

    pyuq5 make.lost

    P+I

    We have lost all the Chinese money. [But we still have the Burmese money.] 364

    ka55-gu31 o31 ra31? 2SG Q–PART want/take need+I Which of these do you (SG) want? Nang31

    4. The combination of the partitive pronominal suffix and the factitive marker as gu54 (PART+FCT) has several other grammatical functions, as I shall discuss now. • gu54 (PART+FCT) The form gu54 (PART+FCT) either functions as a subordinator or nominaliser after both stative and action verbs or as a clause marking unit. Like the factitive marker by itself, the form gu54 (PART+FCT) after verbs is a subordinator when followed by a noun, e.g. pyu31 gu54 bu11 ‘white clothes’, and it is a nominaliser when the noun after it is omitted, e.g. pyu31 gu54 ‘white ones’, syuq5 gu54 ‘drinks that were drunk from’. As a subordinator or nominaliser after stative verbs, the form gu54 (PART+FCT) focuses on certain features and can, moreover, express an additional notion of partitiveness. Either as a subordinator, a nominaliser or a clause marking unit, the form gu54 (PART+FCT) can express a further additional notion ‘initially’, i.e. that a certain situation had been the case but no longer is. The latter notion is primarily expressed by gu54 (PART+FCT) when functioning as a clause marking unit, apart from some related notions. This function I shall discuss further below. Now I shall compare phrases containing gu54 (PART+FCT) after the stative verbs with those with only the factitive marker , as well as with simple noun-stative verb constructions containing neither gu54 (PART+FCT) nor the factitive marker. To give some examples, apart from nye31 gu54 ban11 (red PART+FCT flower) ‘red flowers’, the phrase nye25 ban11 (red+FCT flower) ‘red flowers’ could also be used, whereas in most cases the construction ban11 nye31 (flower red) ‘red flowers’

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    317

    would be sufficient. If the context permits, the phrase nye31 gu54 ban11 (red PART+FCT flower) could also express ‘the flowers that used to be red’ instead of ‘red flowers’, as will be discussed next. In constructions that less specifically refer to certain features, the use of gu54 (PART+FCT) is also accepted, though not that common, e.g. nye31 gu54 ban11 (red PART+FCT flower) ‘red flowers’. In the phrase sing11sing11 ngyui31 gu54 mue31-bu11 (bright.green/blue green/blue 54 PART+FCT wrap-clothes) ‘bright green/blue clothes’, the form gu (PART+FCT) is preferred above the construction with only the factitive marker , since this noun phrase is rather specific on certain features. The following examples further illustrate the same three types of phrases, i.e. 1) those containing gu54 (PART+FCT) after the adjective, 2) those with only the factitive marker and 3) simple noun-stative verb constructions containing neither gu54 (PART+FCT) nor the factitive marker. noq1 gu54 bu11 (black PART+FCT clothes) ‘black clothes’, ‘clothes that are black’, ‘clothes that were once black’ noq1-o55 bu11 (black+FCT clothes) ‘the black clothes’ or simply: be1-noq5 (clothes-black) ‘(the) black clothes’ Both of the following sentences are about the colours of ban11-bo35 (flower-open.itself) ‘flower’. In sentence (365), the phrase pyu31 gu54 ban11-bo35 (white PART+FCT flower-open.itself) expresses ‘any flowers that are white’ or ‘any white flowers’, thus focusing on the colour in an analytical way (Chinese: 白的花 bái de huā). In sentence (366), the phrase ban11-bo35 pyu31 (flower-open.itself white) expresses ‘the white flowers’, without being very specific on the identity or on the colour (Chinese: 白花 bái huā). 365

    Pyu31 gu54 ban11-bo35 kin11 (ipf) white PART+FCT flower–open.itself choose toq5 gveq5. come.out PLIM Pick (PL) out any flowers that are white. / Pick (PL) out any white flowers.

    318 366

    CHAPTER NINE

    Ban11-bo35 pyu31 kin11 flower–open.itself white choose(ipf) Pick (PL) out the white flowers.

    toq5 come.out

    gveq5. PLIM

    Also compare the following sentence, where the stative verb ‘big’ is marked only by the factitive marker, in i55-yvum31 ge11 gvo54 ge11 (two-house TOP big+FCT TOP), literally expressing ‘(of) these two houses, the big one’, thus focusing both on its identity and on its features. Instead of that phrase, the phrase i55-yvum31 ge11 gvo31 gu54 ge11 (two-house TOP big PART+FCT TOP), where the same stative verb ‘big’ is marked by gu54 (PART+FCT), was rejected by the informant. If the latter phrase were to be used within the following sentence, the meaning expressed would be something like ‘(of) these two houses, any big one’. Such a phrase was rejected since the sentence in its original sense primarily focused on the features of the house and not on its identity. 367

    Gvo54 ge11 nga35 ze1-mo35-Ø ngvut5 big+FCT TOP 1PO child–AUG–FCT be lye31, yvang31 nam31 ma54 su31 ge11 (GEN) also+I 3SG close.vicinity LOC+FCT SNO TOP ze1-lat1-n55 ngvut5 lye31. child–halfway–FCT be also+I The big one is my first uncle’s, whereas the one next to that is my second uncle’s.

    The following sentences further illustrate the use of gu54 (PART+FCT). 368

    Ngo31

    yvang11

    se5-dut5 lo35 1SG 3SG like–become go(back/up) gu54 le1-yuq1 myang25. PART+FCT one–person see+FCT I’ve seen someone who looks just like him.

    369

    A1-ngvut5, noq1 gu54 ngvut5 NEG–be black PART+FCT be They weren’t. They were black ones.

    r55. PE

    319

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    370

    Ngve5-noq1 ge11 cyot1cyot1 noq1 bird–black TOP [pitch.black] black ngvut5 lye31. be also+I Crows are pitch black.

    gu54 PART+FCT

    According to my main informant Mopi, the word i1sam31 ‘colour’ is a recent innovation which is seldom used. This partly explains the garrulousness of the following interrogative clause on colours. 371

    Yvang54 bu11 ke5-su54 ta11, pyu31 3SG+FCT clothes Q–like+FCT GI white 54 1 31 54 gu luq ? ngyui gu luq1? PART+FCT Y/N green/blue PART+FCT Y/N What were his clothes like? White ones? Green/blue ones?

    The form gu54 (PART+FCT) after stative verbs can, if the context permits, also express a complementary notion of partitiveness. Sentences (372) and (373) are examples of the use of gu54 (PART+FCT) as a subordinator. In sentences (374) to (377), where the nouns after gu54 (PART+FCT) are omitted, the latter form functions as a nominaliser. 372

    Nye31 gu54 le1-cyam11 pyu31 red PART+FCT one–ball white le1-cyam11 zuen11 bue31. one–ball cut/clip P+I I’ve cut one red and one white flower.

    gu54 PART+FCT

    373

    Pyu31 gu54 ban11-bo35 kin11 (ipf) white PART+FCT flower–open.itself choose 5 5 toq gveq . come.out PLIM Pick (PL) out any flowers that are white. / Pick (PL) out any white flowers.

    374

    Yvang11 gvo11 3SG big

    gu54 PART+FCT

    o31 ra31 want/take need+I

    ga31. perceive+I

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    CHAPTER NINE

    He wants big ones. 375

    Ngam35 gu54 luq1? chilly PART+FCT Y/N Is this the chilly water?

    376

    Mue31-bu11 dvyeq5 gu54 wrap–clothes wet PART+FCT Are these the wet clothes?

    377

    luq1? Y/N

    Nye31 gu54 luq1? red PART+FCT Y/N Is it red? / The red one[s]?

    • gu54 (PART+FCT) as a clause marking unit I shall now discuss the function of gu54 (PART+FCT) as a clause marking unit, expressing that some feature or situation had been the case but is no more, or ‘despite the fact that something else took place beforehand’, as well as some related notions. In this function, the form gu54 (PART+FCT) can be used both after stative and action verbs. I shall first discuss the use of gu54 (PART+FCT) as a clause marking unit after action verbs. In most cases where the form gu54 (PART+FCT) is used as a clause marking unit after action verbs, this form expresses that a certain activity or state of affairs had initially been going on, either simultaneously or just before another situation. By analogy to the latter meaning, the notion ‘at first’ is sometimes also expressed, e.g. ‘at first (actually) I was sleeping, but then I rose again’, or ‘actually, I had to pee all the time that I was standing there’. 378

    Zit1 nvau31 gu54 zyan31 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) pee feel.like PART+FCT endure place(vt) also+I I had to pee all the time, but I kept on holding my water.

    379

    Yvup5 gu54 dum11 doq1 sleep PART+FCT again go.up I had gone to bed, but got up again.

    lye31. also+I

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    380

    Lo35 gu54 dum11 dvau31 go(back/up) PART+FCT again turn(ipf) lo11 lye31. (ipf) come(back/up) also+I I’m turning back instead of continuing on.

    381

    Ngo31 1SG 31

    dang11 words am55

    a1-rup5 NEG–dare bue31.

    dai11 speak

    gu54 PART+FCT

    dai speak(ipf) PFM P+I I have talked about what I didn’t dare to discuss before. 382

    Ze1-nvau31 gu54 eat–feel.like PART+FCT I want to eat but I don’t.

    a1-zo11. NEG–eat

    In the two following examples, the form gu54 (PART+FCT) is also used after action verbs and expresses that some situation had been the case but is no more, but here it is a nominaliser, not a clause marking unit. 383

    Yvang11 syuq5 gu54 ngo31 a1-gvam31 syuq5. (ipf) 3SG drink PART+FCT 1SG NEG–want.to drink I don’t want to drink from his drink.

    384

    Zo11 gu54 ngvut5 lye31. eat PART+FCT be also+I Those are things that have been eaten of.

    In the following examples, the use of gu54 (PART+FCT) renders the same effect, even though it is used after a stative verb. Whenever the form gu54 (PART+FCT) modifies stative verb and is combined with the adverb sang31-he11 (beginning-start(ipf)), it expresses the notion ‘initially’. The latter form can both express ‘in the beginning’ and ‘initially’. In many of these cases, the form gu54 (PART+FCT) holds between a clause marking unit and a mere nominaliser. 385

    Noq1 black

    gu54 PART+FCT

    syeq1 dum11 au.contraire again

    pyu11 white(ipf)

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    byuq1 bue31. lose P+I The black ones have turned white again. 386

    Ban11-bo35 hi31 sang31-he11 r55 ge11 flower–open.itself this beginning–start(GEN) TS TOP nye31 gu54, a1hui31 pyu11 byuq1 (ipf) red PART+FCT now white lose 31 35 lo bue . go(back/up) P+I This [plastic] flower used to be red, but now it has started to turn white.

    387

    Ban11-bo35 pyu31 hi31 ge11 flower–open.itself white this TOP 31 11 55 sang -he r nye31 gu54 beginning–start(GEN) TS red PART+FCT This white flower used to be red.

    9.23

    ngvut5 lye31. be also+I

    THE DIFFERENTIATING PRONOUNS ‘DIFFERENT’ AND / ‘OTHER’

    The forms and are the two variants of the Zaiwa pronominal prefix expressing ‘other’, and are both glossed as such. These two forms are freely varied, apparently without difference in meaning. The Zaiwa differentiating pronoun ‘different’ is discussed together with the two above forms, since the meaning of these forms have much in common, and since the exact difference in meaning between them only becomes clear through comparison. The variant ‘other’ may be a loan from Jingpo, cf. Xu et al. (1983: 31 146) gaga [ka31 ̌ ka ] ‘different, other’. Yue et al. (1981: 403) translate the Chinese word 另 lìng ‘the other’ into Jingpo as the same word gaga. According to Yabu (1982: lemma 456) the differentiating pronoun ‘different’ is a loan from Burmese. I shall first discuss the five different syntactic uses of / ‘other’ and ‘different’. In short, the morpheme ‘different’ is used in a rather all-round way, in functions which are comparable to both the free form demonstratives

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    or pronominal suffixes in tone /31/ and to the pronominal demonstrative prefixes in /55/, e.g. with and , both glossed ‘this, here’, whereas / ‘other’ is always prefixed to a specifier noun. • as a free form pronoun The first function, viz. as a free form pronoun can only be fulfilled by ‘different’. 388

    Hi55-mai11 lai54 ge11 de1kya31 bo11 a1-si31. this–ABL pass+FCT TOP different contain(ipf) nom–still+I Beside these, there are also others.

    • between a head noun and a specifier noun The second function, viz. between a head noun and a specifier noun, can also only be fulfilled by ‘different’. sau55-hai11 de1kya31 zum35 (shoe-shoe different pair) ‘another pair of shoes’ sau55-hai11 hi55-zum35 (shoe-shoe this-pair) ‘this pair of shoes’ • after a head noun The third function, viz. after a head noun, can also only be fulfilled by ‘different’. byu31 de1kya31 (man/woman different) ‘another man/woman’, ‘someone else’ cf. byu31 hi31 (man/woman this) ‘this man/woman’ • in a special construction with specifier nouns referring to sorts The fourth function is reserved to / ‘other’, in the special construction: / - “sort” specifier noun - head noun. In this construction, only ‘kind’ and ‘sort’ can be used as specifier nouns. go35-hu55 ming35 ga35-hu55 ming35

    (other-kind language) (other-kind language)

    ‘another language’ ‘another language’

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    ga35-hu55 sek5 (other-kind tree) ‘another kind of tree’ ga35-zyung11 zang11-sun11 (other-sort rice/food-veg/dish) ‘another kind of vegetable’ • before a specifier noun, without a head noun The fifth function, viz. before a specifier noun and without a head noun, can be fulfilled by both / ‘other’ and ‘different’. de1kya31 lvum11 (different lump) de1kya31 du11 (different being) ga35-yuq1 ga35-dung11

    ‘another one’ ‘another one (animal/motorcycle etc.)’ (other-person) ‘other people’, in sentence (389) (other-piece) ‘another piece of clothes’, ‘other clothes’, in sentence (390)

    389

    Ga35-yuq1 a1-ngi31 other–person NEG–be.there(anim) Weren’t there any other people?

    le1-gve5-luq1? no.more–PL–Y/N

    390

    Ga35-dung11 a1-wo35 le1-luq1? other–piece(Sp) NEG–have no.more–Y/N Don’t you have any other clothes? (1)

    The meaning of / ‘other’ in the two above sentences could be expressed in a similar way with use of ‘different’, as illustrated by sentences (391) and (392) respectively. Whereas ‘other’ is prefixed to the specifier nouns in the sentences above, the form ‘different’ is suffixed to the head nouns in the sentences below. 391

    392

    Byu31 de1kya31 a1-ngi31 le1-gve5-luq1? man/woman different NEG–be.there(anim) no.more–PL–Y/N Weren’t there other people? Mue31-bu11 de1kya31 a1-wo35 le1-luq1? wrap–clothes different NEG–have no.more–Y/N Don’t you have any other clothes? (2)

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    325

    Sentence (393) containing ‘different’ and sentence (394) containing / ‘other’ both express about the same meaning. 393

    Me1-kon31 de1kya31 a1-sue55 le1-luq1? words–sing different NEG–know no.more–Y/N Do you know other songs?

    394

    Go35-hu55 me1-kon31 a1-sue55 le1-luq1? other–sort words–sing NEG–know no.more–Y/N Do you know other songs?

    Now I shall point out what specific difference in meaning there is between / ‘other’ and ‘different’, postulating that the differences in formal use discussed above are the result of differences in meaning. Both categories refer to versions of the object other than the one in question, but in different ways. The prefix / ‘other’ appears to specifically refer to versions of the object other than the one in question, in a rather analytical way, like ‘not this one, not these ones, but (an)other’, regardless of the question whether or not they bear the same characteristics. Depending on the context, the pronoun ‘different’ can either specifically refer to other characteristics or features, or to versions of the object other than the one in question. These differences in meaning, however, can also be seen as the result of the way these forms are used syntactically. For example, there is no strict difference in meaning known yet between go35-hu55 yo31-so31-sun11 (other-kind land-walk(GEN)-veg/dish) and yo31-so31-sun11 de1kya31-hu55 (land-walk(GEN)-veg/dish different-kind), both expressing ‘other kinds of wild vegetables’, neither is there any strict difference in meaning between the sentence pairs (391)-(392) and (393)-(394). In the following examples there is some more specific difference in meaning between / ‘other’ and ‘different’. The prefix ‘other’ before the specifier noun ‘kind’ in sentence (395) refers to specific types of rice, e.g. glutinous rice, red rice, etc. The pronoun ‘different’ after the head noun ‘unhusked rice’ in sentence (396) refers to ‘other unhusked rice’, in a very broad sense, i.e. either in the sense of size, cleanness and

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    freshness, or also in the sense of specific types of rice, e.g. glutinous rice, red rice, etc., like in sentence (395). 395

    Ga35-hu55 guq1 a1-wo35 le1-luq1? other–sort unhusked.rice NEG–have no.more–Y/N Aren’t there any other types of unhusked rice?

    396

    Guq1 de1kya31 a1-wo35 le1-luq1? unhusked.rice different NEG–have no.more–Y/N Isn’t there any other unhusked rice?

    A reduplicated ‘different’ is used to express the meaning ‘in different ways, differently’. 397

    Yuq1-gue31 mi1-wue11 de1kya31-de1kya31 person–male wife–female different–different bo11 lye31. (ipf) contain also+I Men and women are named in different ways.

    ming31 name

    398

    De1kya31-de1kya31 gvut5 ra31 different–different do need+I It should be done differently.

    r55.

    9.24

    dut1 become

    PE

    THE LIMITATIVE PRONOUN ‘ONLY THIS’

    The allomorph of the limitative morpheme normally functions as the Zaiwa limitative pronoun, expressing ‘only this’. The Zaiwa limitative pronoun is only attested in forms which are marked by certain tonal morphemes, viz. as za31 in za31-eq1 (only#-AG/I) before the agentive-instrumental marker , and in the limitative adverbial marker za54 (only+FCT) ‘only of a certain kind’, after being marked by the factitive marker . I shall briefly introduce the other allomorphs of the limitative morpheme , which, because of their different grammatical functions, are all discussed in separate sections. The vowel /e/ of the allomorphs and of the same

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    limitative morpheme is the result of the morpho-phonological process of vowel reduction. The two latter allomorphs and their many different grammatical functions will be discussed in Section 16.32. The allomorph of the limitative morpheme normally functions as the Zaiwa compliative adverb, and will be discussed in Section 16.33. The following sentences illustrate the use of the limitative pronoun before the agentive-instrumental marker as za31 in za31-eq1 (only#-AG/I). These examples illustrate that this form za31 (only#), as a real pronoun, is either used after pronominal prefixes, e.g. after ‘this, here’ in sentence (399) to (401), or as a free form pronoun or a pronominal suffix after a noun, e.g. (402). 399

    Ngun31 r11 a1-wo35 ge11, hi55-za31-eq1 silver also NEG–have TOP this–only#–AG/I zaq1 ye11 r11 ge11. only go(away/down)(ipf) also TOP Since I don’t have money, I can only go with this [bit of money].

    400

    Hi55-za31-eq1 zaq1 this–only#–AG/I only Only this will do.

    401

    402

    ngvut5 be

    Hi55-za31-eq1 zaq1 gvut5 this–only#–AG/I only do We can only do it with this.

    lo31 no.more+I lo31 no.more+I

    r11 also r11 also

    ge11. TOP

    ge11. TOP

    Zang11 li11 a1-wo35 zo31 kyo55, (ipf) rice/food also NEG–have eat let.go.down 1 11 31 1 1 31 a -weng za -eq le -bvyung nom–broth only#–AG/I but–flush/drive(ipf) kyo31 a1-lo31. (ipf) let.go.down nom–no.more+I If you can’t get it down your throat with rice, you can only flush it down with some soup.

    The sentences (399) to (402) above also contain the allomorph of the limitative morpheme , functioning as

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    the Zaiwa compliative adverb, which will be discussed in Section 16.33. The limitative pronoun ‘only’ is often marked by the factitive marker as za54 (only+FCT), which can have various different functions. Just like the factitive marker by itself, the form za54 (only+FCT) can function as a subordinator, but more often as a nominaliser and a clause marker. The form za54 (only+FCT) normally refers to prevalent features, like ‘only like this/that/these/those’. The phrase gyuq1 nvo31 za54 i5moq1 (afraid EXP+I only+FCT dream) ‘frightening dreams, dreams that only/purely frighten’ illustrates the use of za54 (only+FCT) as a subordinator and the following sentence illustrates the use of za54 (only+FCT) as a nominaliser. 403

    Rang11rang11 za54 wui11 medium-sized only+FCT buy(ipf) Just buy (SG) middle-sized ones.

    lo31-aq1. come(back/up)–SIM

    As a clause marker, the form za54 (only+FCT) often also refers to prevalent features, just like when it is used as a subordinator or nominaliser, but over and above that it marks the clause as a whole as a matter of fact. 404

    ge11 a1-zvai55-zvai55 za54 mai31. rat/mouse–black–tooth TOP nom–fine–fine only+FCT OBV+I The teeth of a mouse/rat are very very fine. Nge1-noq1-zui31

    The form za54 (only+FCT) can also be used as a clause marking unit in a special construction, after a main verb which is preceded by the contrastive prefix ‘but’ and followed by the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I). This construction expresses regret, like ‘if only …’. 405

    A5-se55 ngvu31 le1-ngvu31 nom–like say but–say If only I had said it that way.

    ra31 need+I

    za54. only+FCT

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    9.25

    THE BOUND FORM ‘MUCH’(B)

    The morpheme ‘much’ is the bound form variant of the stative verb ‘much’, by the morpho-phonological process of bound form adverbial and pronominal formation, discussed in Section 7.9. This morpheme ‘much’(B) has a much broader use than the other bound form variants, as I shall set out below. I shall briefly introduce the forms in which the bound form variant ‘much’(B) can be used, before discussing them in more detail further below. The morpheme ‘much’(B) is used after the general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q) ‘what/which/where’, resulting in ke55-mvyo55 and he55-mvyo55 (Q-much) ‘how much/many’. The bound form variant ‘much’(B) is also used in a1-mvyo55 (nom-much) ‘this/that much/many’, after the nominalising prefix . The form i5-mvyo55 (SPEC-much) ‘so much/many’ is a combination of the same morpheme with the reduced prefix allomorph of the specificatory morpheme . The Zaiwa nominalising prefix of unquantified amount ‘lot’ is mainly used before ‘much’(B), resulting in geq1-mvyo55 (lot-much) ‘very much’ and the reduplicated geq1-mvyo55-mvyo55 (lot-much-much) ‘very very much’. Of all bound form adverbs/pronominals, the bound form variant ‘much’(B) is the only one which can be used after the demonstrative pronominal prefixes. This results in forms like: hi55-mvyo55 (this-much) ‘as much as this’, hu55-mvyo55 (above-much) ‘as much as above there’, and probably also in ha55-mvyo55 (this-much) ‘as much as this/that we know’ and mvo55-mvyo55 (below-much) ‘as much as there below’. The complex forms containing ‘much’(B) are mostly used as pronouns before a noun. In periphrastic clauses, the latter noun can also be omitted, e.g. (406) with hi55-mvyo55 (this-much) ‘as much as this’ and (407) with hu55-mvyo55 (above-much) ‘as much as above there’. 406

    Nang31

    wun11 lo25 (ipf) 2SG carry/bring come(back/up)+FCT 55 55 1 1 hi -mvyo ze -luq ? this–much(B) only–Y/N

    ge11 TOP

    330

    CHAPTER NINE

    Did you (SG) only bring this amount? 407

    Hu55-mvyo55 ze11 zui31 mvau31 (ipf) above–much (B) only bear.fruit cheat/fool(ipf) 31 1 5 55 a -lo ngvut r . nom–no.more+I be PE This tree bears only this tiny bit of fruit.

    Complex forms containing ‘much’(B) can also be used as adverbs before stative verbs, where they indicate the grade up to which the quality referred to by the stative verb counts. This is illustrated by sentences (408) and (409), containing ke5-mvyo55 (Q-much) ‘how much/many’, and sentence (410) containing a5-mvyo55 (nom-much) ‘this/that much/many’. 408

    I1-lang31 hi25 mun31 ge11 water–river this+FCT upper.course TOP ke5-mvyo55 heng11 lye31 la11? (ipf) Q–much(B) long also+I UNC How long would the upper course of this river be?

    409

    Nang31

    410

    ke5-mvyo55 2SG Q–much(B) How tall are you (SG)?

    mvyang11 lye31 (ipf) tall/high also+I

    ta11? GI

    Nang31

    mue31-bu11 ci31 r11 ge11 2SG wrap–clothes wash(ipf) also TOP 5 55 a -mvyo myang35 ge11. nom–much (time).long TOP You (SG) took a very long time to wash your clothes.

    The morpheme ‘much’(B) can also be used as the Zaiwa unassuming adverb, between the object of the sentence and the negative prefix , where it expresses ‘not as much V as’. The label ‘unassuming’ may be somewhat misleading, since there may not always be a self-effacing attitude involved. For example, there is nothing unassuming in saying that one is not as sleepy as the addressee. The unassuming adverb ‘much’(B) expresses the notion that, whereas a certain quality very much counts for the object,

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    331

    i.e. the nominal constituent before ‘much’(B), such does not count that much for the subject. 411

    Ngo31

    ge11

    nang31

    mvyo55 1SG TOP 2SG much(B) I am not as sleepy as you (SG).

    a1-yvup5 nvau31. NEG–sleep feel.like

    412

    Ngo31

    ge11

    nang31

    a1-go31. NEG–clumsy/silly

    mvyo55 1SG TOP 2SG much(B) I’m not as silly as you (SG).

    The form i5-mvyo55 (SPEC-much) is a combination of the reduced prefix allomorph of the specificatory morpheme . This form i5-mvyo55 (SPEC-much) can be translated as ‘that much’ and is a kind of emphatic variant of the regular unassuming adverb . The difference in meaning between i5-mvyo55 (SPEC-much) and simply ‘much’ as the unassuming adverb is that with i5-mvyo55 (SPEC-much) there is more emphasis on the qualities of the situation to which the situation which is at stake is being compared. The use of the form i5-mvyo55 (SPEC-much) is illustrated by the following examples. In the first example, the use of the specificatory morpheme before the unassuming adverb adds to inferring that the other festival of the other year was rather pleasant. Sentence (330) above is a similar example. 413

    Ke5-zan11 lye54 Me5nau11 (GEN) before–summer/year TS+FCT Menau 31 35 31 Zum -go bvoi a1-nvik5 lye54 consort–dance festival nom–the.other.year TS+FCT i5-mvyo55 a1-ngon35. SPEC–much(B) NEG–pleasant This year’s Menau festival wasn’t as nice as last year’s.

    The Zaiwa nominalising prefix of unquantified amount ‘lot’ is only used before the bound form ‘much’(B), with only one minor exception which I shall mention further below. (The form ‘much’(B) was discussed in Section 7.9.) The nominalising prefix of unquantified amount ‘lot’ both substantivises and relativises the amount indicated by ‘much’(B). The

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    combinations geq1-mvyo55 (lot-much) and the reduplicated geq1- mvyo55-mvyo55 (lot-much-much) are mainly used in negative clauses, expressing ‘not so much’ and ‘not so very much’ respectively, e.g. (416) and (417), and seldom in affirmative clauses, expressing the notions ‘very much’ and ‘very very much’ respectively, e.g. (414) and (415). 414

    Ngo31

    geq1-mvyo55-mvyo55 1SG lot–much(B)–much(B) I want to eat a lot.

    415

    Le1-zvui55-zvui55 ze11 ke5-kon31, one–bit–bit only PHB–sing geq1-mvyo55-mvyo55 kon31-aq1. lot–much(B)–much(B) sing–SIM Don’t sing with such a soft voice, sing (SG) loudly.

    416

    Ngo31

    417

    Ngo31

    geq1-mvyo55-mvyo55 1SG lot–much(B)–much(B) I’m not such a big eater.

    ze5-nvau11 r55. (ipf) eat–feel.like PE

    a1-wo35 zo11. NEG–have eat

    geq1-mvyo55 a1-o31. 1SG lot–much(B) NEG–want/take I won’t take very much.

    The only construction containing the Zaiwa nominalising prefix of unquantified amount ‘lot’ but not further containing ‘much’(B) is geq1-i54 (lot-SPEC+FCT) ‘this large’, ‘one as huge as this’, attested in the following sentence. The last syllable in the latter construction is the combination of the specificatory morpheme (SPEC) and the factitive marker . 418

    Hu31 gvong11-mo35-mo35 nang31 lung35 above hill–AUG–AUG 2SG be.inside ra54 nvong31-mo35 geq1-i54 zyoq1 need+FCT pond–AUG lot–SPEC+FCT be.there(inan) lye31 ngvu31 syeq1. also+I say+I au.contraire

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    333

    “Up there, on top of the large hill, that’s where this huge huge pond is, for you (SG) to stay in.” 9.26

    THE MORPHEME ‘FAR’(B) AS A PRONOUN AND AN ADVERB

    The morpheme ‘far’(B) is the bound form adverbial/ pronominal variant of the verb ‘far’, by the morphophonological process of bound form adverbial and pronominal formation, which I have already discussed in Section 7.9. The following example illustrates the use of the verb ‘far’. 419

    Zyong11 wue31 lye31. (ipf) school far also+I The school is far away.

    The morpheme ‘far’(B) is a versatile morpheme that can both be used as an adverb and as a bound form pronoun. Whenever the morpheme ‘far’(B) functions as a pronoun, it is always combined with one of the following prefixes: 1. mostly in reduplicated form, with the nominalising prefix , e.g. (420) and (421), 2. mostly in reduplicated form, with the specificatory morpheme (SPEC), e.g. (331) above, 3. with the short allomorphs or of the general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q), e.g. (422) to (424). 420

    A5-hue55-hue55! nom–far(B)–far(B) [It’s] that far!

    421

    A1-hue55-hue55 a1-wue11. nom–far(B)–far(B) NEG–far It’s not that far.

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    There is a subtle difference in meaning between the combination ke5-me55 (Q-LOC) ‘where’, consisting of the interrogative prefix and the allomorph of the general locative case suffix on one hand, and the combination ke5-hue55-me55 (Q-far(B)-LOC) on the other, where the morpheme ‘far’(B) is placed in between the two latter morphemes. Whereas ke5 -me55 (Q-LOC) expresses ‘where’, the combination ke5-hue55-me55 (Q-far(B)-LOC) simultaneously expresses ‘how far’ and ‘where?’, thus asking for a certain position in a more concrete way. The informant translated the form ke5-hue55-me55 (Q-far(B)-LOC) in the three following sentences into Chinese 哪里才是? nǎlǐ cái shì? “after how long a distance can it be found?”, implying that it may be far. 422

    423

    424

    Nung35-moq1 yvum31 2PL–party house Where is your (PL) house? Nong35dau31 ge11 Nongdao TOP Where is Nongdao?

    ke5-hue55 Q–far(B)

    ke5-hue55 Q–far(B)

    Ke5-hue55 me55 ngvut5 Q–far(B) LOC be Where is it to be found?

    me55

    ta11?

    LOC

    GI

    me55

    ta11?

    LOC

    GI

    lye31 also+I

    ta11? GI

    The following clause contains both the verb ‘far’ and its bound form adverbial/pronominal variant ‘far’(B). The uncertainty suffix expresses that the speaker is unsure about something, and the use of the latter form in combination with ke5-hue55 ‘how far’ adds to the notion that the given place may be quite far to go. 425

    Ke5-hue55 wue31 lye31 (ipf) Q–far(B) far also+I How far would it be then?

    la11? UNC

    The following sentence differs from the one above by the fact that not ke5-hue55 ‘how far’ is used before ‘far’, but ke5-mvyo55 ‘how much’ instead. Therefore, the following sentence refers to exact

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    335

    distances, rather than with the question whether the given place could be conceived as far. 426

    Ke5-mvyo55 wue31 Q–much(B) far(ipf) How far is it?

    r55

    ta11?

    PE

    GI

    • ‘far’(B) as an adverb The morpheme ‘far’(B) can also be used as an adverb, marking the illogicality or unreasonableness of a certain way of thinking - mostly by the addressee - and which, according to the speaker, does not bear any significance to some other situation in the context. As such, the morpheme ‘far’(B) as an adverb expresses ‘what on earth do these matters have to do with each other?’, or in other words ‘these matters lie miles apart’. The function of ‘far’(B) as an adverb can also be simply characterised as mocking narrow-mindedness. This function of ‘far’(B) is illustrated by the following examples. 427

    Ngo31

    hue55 le1-yvup5 r11, 1SG far(B) but–sleep also I’m only sleeping, don’t be envious.

    428

    Ngo31

    429

    Nang31

    ke5-dye31 PHB–too

    me1non31. envious

    dvu31 bue31 mai31, nang31 1SG respond/upright P+I OBV+I 2SG hue55 a1-wo35 gyo11 le5-mu25 wa35. far(B) NEG–have hear/smell but–happen+FCT EMP I answered your call, it’s only that you (SG) didn’t hear my reply. hue55 a1-wo35 le5-mu11 li11, 2SG far(B) NEG–have but–happen(ipf) also 31 nang ke5-dye31 me1non31. 2SG PHB–too envious Don’t be so envious, it’s only that you don’t have it. [while others do]

    The morpheme ‘far’(B) in its function as an adverb is mostly modified by the contrastive prefix ‘but’, as can be exemplified

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    by the sentences above, except in cases like the following. An explanation for the fact that the contrastive prefix ‘but’ is not used in the following sentence is that this is an elliptic clause, given the fact that the contrastive prefix ‘but’ is always prefixed to the predicate. The following sentence is spoken to a child that was wondering what the speaker was holding in his hand, thinking that it was something very special. 430

    Hi31 wu35-aq5 ma11, bvong55dvin55 this look–SIM ROUS pen Look here then, it’s just a pen!

    hue55 far(B)

    ning31. INS+I

    In rather short utterances, the morpheme ‘far’(B) can be combined with the nominalising prefix (nom-), in the form a5-hue55 (nom-far(B)). 431

    A5-hue55 he5-dai31 hek1. nom–far(B) PHB–speak(ipf) huge Don’t make such a big deal out of these matters.

    9.27

    THE MORPHEME ‘GENERATION’ / ‘CLASS, RANKS’

    The morpheme ‘generation’ is basically a noun and is either used as a suffix to an open class of nouns or forms part of a limited set of complex nouns and adverbs. When used in a productive way as a suffix to nouns, the morpheme ‘generation’ either refers to groups of representatives of specific generations within the community to which the speaker belongs, or to the total of generations thereof, i.e. the community as a whole. In the following examples, the form ‘generation’ refers to groups of representatives of specific generations within the community to which the speaker belongs, e.g. A5-nu11 A5-wa11 wui31 (nom-mother nom-father generation) ‘mothers and fathers’ and ge1-mang11 nvik5-dvang31 wui31 (male-elder.brother duo-brothers generation) ‘brothers and sisters’ in sentence (432). In sentences (433) to (435), the form ‘generation’ is used in a similar way, after the words

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    337

    ‘child’, ‘adolescents’ and gvo11 bang11 ‘adults.31 432

    A1-zyo54 zyang11 me55 ge11 hi55-me55 NEG–right+FCT place(B) LOC TOP this–LOC ngi11 dvo54 A5-nu11 A5-wa11 (ipf) be.there(anim) place(vt)+FCT nom–mother nom–father wui31 ge1-mang11 nvik5-dvang31 wui31 generation male–elder.brother duo–siblings generation myo11-myo11 dai31-gvyo11 gve5-raq5. (ipf) much–much speak –let.hear PL–VO As for the places that are not correct, please could all the mothers and fathers and all the brothers and sisters present here please let me know all about it.

    433

    I1-ram31 wui31 cyong11 lum31 (ipf) function–adolescent generation frolic reciprocal(ipf) 31 31 31 1 gvun a -gvo ga . play(ipf) nom–PL+I perceive+I The adolescents of the village are playing around.

    434

    Zi1syang31 wui31 tong11 bek1 child generation bamboo.banging.toy shoot The children are shooting with their tongs.

    a1-gvo31. nom–PL+I

    31 In many cases, the function of the suffix ‘generation’ is contrastive to the suffix ‘child’ when the latter refers to individuals of a certain nationality, e.g. Zai11wa31-zo11 ‘(a/the) Zaiwa (individual)’, as illustrated by the two following sentences. In sentence (1), using the suffix ‘generation’ instead of the suffix ‘child’ was rejected, because of reference to individuals in a group, since the verb ‘contain’ was used here. In sentence (2), containing ‘child’ instead of ‘generation’, was rejected because reference was made to Zaiwa people in general, not to specific individuals, since the verb ‘be there’(anim.) was used. Other uses of the morpheme ‘child’ will be discussed in Section 9.30.

    1

    Zai11wa31-zo11 a1-bo31 gve5-luq1? Zaiwa–child NEG–contain PL–Y/N Are there Zaiwa amongst them? [individuals]

    2

    Zai11wa31 wui31 a1-ngi31 gve5-luq1? Zaiwa generation NEG–be.there(anim) PL–Y/N Are/were there any Zaiwa? [of whatever generation]

    338 435

    CHAPTER NINE

    Gvo11 bang11 wui31 a1-bo31 gve5-luq1? big PNO generation NEG–contain PL–Y/N Were there any adults amongst you?

    My principal informant rejected the use of ‘generation’ after the words zyong11-zo11 (school-child) ‘pupils’ and ‘teachers’, apparently since these groups are not considered as generations. Groups of these entities normally are referred to in a more concrete way, with number suffixes, i.e. the dual suffix or the plural suffix . The form ‘generation’ can also refer to the total of generations within the community to which the speaker belongs, e.g. Zai11wa31 wui31 ‘(the) Zaiwa’ in sentence (436). The use of ‘generation’ after other words, referring to other communities, such as ‘Jingpo’ and Le1-sam55 ‘Shan’, is rejected by my principal informant, apparently, because these words do not refer to the community to which the Zaiwa speaker belongs. Groups of people belonging to other ethnic groups can only be referred to by the number suffixes, i.e. the dual suffix or the plural suffix , as illustrated by sentence (437) and Ge1la11-bvue55 (India(GEN)-PLN) ‘Indians’. 436

    Zai11wa31 wui31 mu35 dat1 zui11 Zaiwa generation work(N) able touch/work(V) lui31-eq1 yvum31 i1gvun11 doq1 in.this.way+I–AG/I house household go.up bum31 bue31. heap(vt/N) P+I Because we Zaiwa are hard-working, our living standard has risen significantly.

    437

    Yvang55-moq1 Si1dvung31-bvue55 3PL–party Jingpo(GEN)–PLN They (PL) are Jingpo.

    ngvut5 be

    a1-gvo31. nom–PL+I

    • The word ze1-wui31 (child-generation) The word ze1-wui31 (child-generation) is a combination of the reduced form of ‘child’ and the morpheme ‘generation’. This

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    339

    word ze1-wui31 (child-generation) can be used in three different ways. In its first function, ze1-wui31 (child-generation) expresses ‘children of a certain generation’, as illustrated by sentence (438). In its second function, ze1-wui31 (child-generation) the same meaning is used in the sense of ‘your generation’ referring to elderly people, expressing that they are not young anymore, as illustrated by sentence (439). In its third function, ze1-wui31 (child-generation) refers to the total of generations, in the word Le1-sang31 ze1-wui31 ((male)-humans child-generation) ‘humans’. 32 438

    Ze1-wui31 li11 dai54 child–generation also speak+FCT These children are not listening.

    a1-gyo11 gvo55. NEG–hear/smell PL

    439

    Ze1-wui31 gvo11 bue31, nang31 ge11 child–generation big P+I 2SG TOP 35 11 35 1 11 1 mu zui no a -ra le -kai31. work(N) touch/work(V) to NEG–need no.more–SUG+I You are getting old, I guess you (SG) don’t have to work anymore.

    • The morpheme ‘generation’ in other complex nouns The morpheme ‘generation’ is also used in the following complex nouns. The word meng11-byu31-wui31 (world-man/womangeneration) expresses ‘the people’. 440

    He55-pyang31 ge11 zvau11-bvue31 before–DIR TOP officer–PLN(GEN) wui31 r55 zek1 zo31 generation OBJ (op)press eat(ipf)

    meng11-byu31 world–man/woman gvyop5. tuck.away

    32 The word Le1-sang31 ((male)-humans) ‘humans’ is only used in stories and refers to ‘humans’ in contrast to other creatures, some of them man-eating, which used to exist in former days.

    1

    Ning11long11-po55 lo31, ng55! demon–male come(back/up) (sudden.shift) ke5-min31 le1-sang31 sing55 nam11 rvo55! before–evening (male)–humans taste/smell(N) smelly(ipf) PE+HIGH The demon came back and said: “Huh? tonight I smell humans!”

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    In the early days, the land-owners oppressed the people endlessly. The word mung31 wui31 ‘wife’s family’ refers to the clans of the wives of any members of one’s own clan. Especially in former days, these people had to be treated with much respect. 441

    Yvang55-moq1 ge11 mung31 wui31 ngvut5 lye31. 3PL–party TOP wife.givers generation be also+I They (PL) are from the wife’s family.

    • The morpheme ‘generation’ in time words The morpheme ‘generation’ is used more idiosyncratically after nouns referring to periods of time, where it expresses the notion ‘every’, apparently referring to how things take place within the same category of time periods, e.g. zan31-wui31 ‘every summer/year’, min31-wui31 ‘every night’, e.g. (442), and ngi35-wui31 ‘every day’, e.g. (443). 442

    Mi1-dat5 min31-wui31 lo11 fire–electricity evening–generation come(back/up)(ipf) lye31 ning31, nga35-nvik5 a1-lang35 dye31 gvoq1. also+I INS+I 1PO–duo NEG–wait too DIE The electricity comes back on every evening, let’s (DU) not be anxious.

    443

    Ngi35-wui31 zang35 ngyo11 day–generation strike talk(ipf) These words are used every day.

    9.28

    NUMBER SUFFIXES

    lye31. also+I

    This section discusses the Zaiwa number suffixes listed in Table 9.7 below. Table 9.7 The Zaiwa number suffixes:

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    the dual suffix the plural suffix the manifold suffix

    341

    ‘duo’

    (PLN) a1rvang55/a5rvang55 ‘etcetera’

    only as part of complex personal pronouns and a limited set of words:

    ‘party’

    • the dual suffix (duo) The dual suffix (duo) is either used in a productive way, after pronominal prefixes or after nouns, or in an unproductive way, in personal pronouns as well as in one or two complex nouns. The following example illustrates the use of the dual suffix after pronominal prefixes. zang11-sun11 hi55-nvik5 ‘these two dishes’. The following example illustrates the use of the dual suffix after nouns, in woq1-po31-nvik5 (chicken-male(GEN)-duo) ‘the two cocks’. The nouns before the dual suffix as a rule undergo tone switching triggered by the oblique genitive case marker (GEN). 444

    Woq1-po31-nvik5 tye31 lum31 a1-gvo31, (GEN) (ipf) (ipf) chicken–male –duo peck reciprocal nom–PL+I bvin11 am55 gveq5. mediate(ipf) PFM PLIM The two cocks are pecking at each other, stop (PL) them.

    After proper names, the dual suffix can also express ‘the two of them’ i.e. ‘… and the person with him/her’. 445

    Hye31 Mo35pi31-nvik5 zvyang55 i5-bi11-aq5. (GEN) same.elevation beggar –duo near go–give–SIM Go bring (SG) this to Beggar and the person with him. [the two of them]

    The same morpheme ‘duo’ is also used in one special form, viz. nvik5-dvang31 ‘siblings’, before the noun ‘siblings’.

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    446

    Yvang55-nvik5 ge11 nvik5-dvang31 seng11-seng11 3PL–duo TOP duo–siblings liver–liver ngvut5 lye31. be also+I The two of them are closely related. [close brothers/sisters]

    447

    Ge1-mang11 nvik5-dvang31 du11 lye31. (ipf) male–elder.brother duo–siblings namesake also+I We are like siblings. [from the point of view of our names]

    The dual suffix is also used in the following complex personal pronouns: the first person dual pronoun nga35-nvik5 (1PO-duo), the specificatory first person dual pronoun i5-nvik5 (SPEC-duo), the second person dual pronoun nung35-nvik5 (2PL-duo) and the third person dual pronoun yvang55-nvik5 (3 PL-duo). The Zaiwa personal pronouns are discussed in Section 9.4. • the plural suffix (PLN) The plural suffix is only used after nouns and pronouns, where it indicates any number larger than two. The plural suffix is either used in a productive way, after nouns, in a semi-productive way, after pronominal prefixes, or else in an unproductive way, in some fixed expressions. I shall first discuss the use of the plural suffix in a productive way after nouns. The nouns to which the plural suffix is added as a rule are marked by the oblique genitive case marker (GEN), as illustrated by the following examples, just like before the dual suffix discussed above. 448

    Zam31 lai11 zyang35 gye11-bvue55 bridge pass CD soldier(GEN)–PLN 31 11 55 55 gung -du -me lvang sop5 a1-gvo31. body–being–LOC even wipe/rummage nom–PL+I The soldiers even do body searches on people crossing the bridge.

    449

    Yvang55-moq1 3PL–party

    Si1dvung31-bvue55 Jingpo(GEN)–PLN

    ngvut5 be

    lye31. also+I

    343

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    [It is true that] they (PL) are Jingpo. The following examples illustrate the use of the plural suffix after pronominal prefixes: zang11-sun11 hi55-bvue55 ‘these (nd.) dishes’, and after ‘who’ in o31-bvue55 (who(GEN)-PLN) ‘who’(plural). The pronoun ‘who’ is also marked by the oblique genitive case marker (GEN) before the plural suffix , as further illustrated by the following example. 450

    Nung35-moq1 o31-bvue55 ta11? (GEN) 2PL–party who –PLN GI Who are you (PL)?

    After time expressions, the plural suffix expresses a notion of proximity. naq1-ma35-bvue55 (tomorrow-LOC-PLN) ‘one of these days (in future)’ a1ku55-bvue55 (in.a.while-PLN) ‘some other time’ After proper names, the plural suffix refers to the group of people including the person with the given name. This use of the plural suffix is analogous to the way the dual suffix is used in sentence (445) above. 451

    Le1-nong35-bvue55 Bueq1gin35 lo35 (male)–2nd-brother–PLN Beijing go(back/up) be1-gvo31 ga31. P–PL+I perceive+I Second brother and the others have been to Beijing.

    Also after proper names or pronouns, the plural suffix can also express a certain condescending attitude, as if the speaker does not even want to mention the given people. In the following examples, the plural suffix does not express plurality in the first place, as illustrated by sentence (452), referring to a single entity. 452

    Le1-nong35-bvue55 (male)–2nd-brother–PLN

    ka55-hu55 Q–sort

    dye31 too

    344

    CHAPTER NINE

    gvun31-a1-gvo54 lu55? do*–nom–PL+FCT MIR What, in fact, does this second brother of ours do? 453

    Yvang55-moq1-bvue55 ka55-hu55 se5-ngam11 3PL–party–PLN Q–sort like–seem(ipf) 31 31 1 54 mvau dvo a -gvo lu55? (ipf) (ipf) cheat/fool place(vt) nom–PL+FCT MIR Who do those guys think they are?

    The plural suffix is also used in the construction: noun or pronominal prefix + (PLN) + / ‘where’(B), expressing ‘in those places’. 454

    Mau11 yui31 lui31-eq1 sky leak/stream in.this.way+I–AG/I bui35-mo35 bvue55-ha55 mau11-i1-zvyam11 warm.oneself–AUG PLN–where(B) sky–water–water yui35yui35. soaking.wet Because of the leak, the quilt and thereabouts have become soaking wet from the rain.

    • the manifold suffix a1rvang55/a5rvang55 (etcetera) The manifold suffix a1rvang55/a5rvang55 expresses the notions ‘etcetera’, ‘and the rest’, ‘and so on’ etc. si1-pik5 a5rvang55 (fruit-pungent etcetera) ‘chillies and-so-on’ yvum31 a5rvang55 (house etcetera) ‘the house and thereabouts’ (jobs in and around the house) 455

    Sek5 a1rvang55 a1-ngvyo55 a1-si31 tree etcetera nom–mix nom–abundantly.green yuq1 ra55. grow PE The trees and such are so abundantly green.

    456

    Ke5-se55 Q–like

    su54 like+FCT

    myoq1-dong11 eye–(have)hole

    a1rvang55? etcetera

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    345

    What does he look like, his face and such? 457

    Saq1 wa11 zi1tung11 a5rvang55 zyau35 lye31. spirit.type spirit.type etcetera serve also+I We are keeping saqwa and zitung spirits and-so-on.

    458

    Yvang11

    459

    Le1-nong35-bvue55 a5rvang55 i5-syui11 gvoq1. (male)–2nd-brother–PLN etcetera go–take.along DIE Let’s take second brother and those other folks along with us (DU). / (Lit.:) Let’s take the group of second brother as well as the others along with us (DU).

    yvum31 a5rvang55 gue11 sueng31 (ipf) 3SG house etcetera all.right clear.out(ipf) dik1 lye31. extreme also+I She is very good at clearing out the house.

    • ‘party’ Another morpheme marking plurality of persons is ‘party’. The morpheme ‘party’ is only used in an unproductive way, mostly in the tree following complex personal pronouns, where it functions as the (non-dual) plural exclusive suffix. • • •

    the first person non-dual plural exclusive pronoun nga35-moq1 (1PO-party), the second person plural pronoun nung35-moq1 (2PL -party), the third person plural pronoun yvang55-moq1 (3PL-party).

    Besides in the above forms, the morpheme ‘party’ is only attested in the form ze1-moq5 ‘husband’s family’. 9.29

    SEX SUFFIXES

    Zaiwa has three suffixes denoting sex of people and animals, listed in Table 9.8 below.

    346

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    Table 9.8 The Zaiwa sex suffixes the noun ‘tiger’ as the masculine suffix for animals the adjective as the feminine sex suffix the adjective as the masculine sex suffix 33

    I shall first discuss the use of sex suffixes after nouns referring to humans. In the following examples, instead of Mi11wa11 ‘Han Chinese’, also Le1-sam55 ‘Shan’ can be used. Mi11wa11-mvi55 (Chinese-female) ‘a/the Chinese woman’ Mi11wa11 mang11-zo11-mvi55 (Chinese elder-child-female) ‘an/the elderly Chinese woman’ Mi11wa11-po55 (Chinese-male) ‘a/the Chinese man Mi11wa11 mang11-zo11-po55 (Chinese elder-child-male) ‘an/the elderly Chinese man’ 11 5 55 sum zvoq -mvi (court-female) ‘fiancée’ sum11zvoq5-po55 (court-male) ‘fiancé’ The feminine sex suffix is also used as a sex suffix for a wide range of animals, e.g. after ‘chicken’ in woq1-mvi55 ‘hen’,34 after ‘pig’ in waq1-mvi55 ‘sow’, after ‘bear’ in wam31-mvi55 ‘she-bear’, after ‘silkworm’ in lai11-mvi55 ‘(female) silkworm’, after ‘horse’ in myang11-mvi55 ‘mare’, and after the reduced form of ‘cattle’ in ne1-mvi55 ‘cow’. The adjectives and can also be preceded by the nominalising prefix in a1-mvi55 ‘(a) female’ and a1-po55 ‘(a) male’. It is important to notice that in Maru apho expresses ‘father’ and ami expresses ‘mother’, according to a native speaker of Maru living in Loilung. The feminine sex suffix is also used after 33 Another form for indicating male sex is the adjective ‘male’, which is

    only attested in a few complex nouns: yuq1-gue31 n. man, men, and ze1-gue31 waq1ngan31 (child-male young.people) n. young men, male youngsters. 34Also compare woq1 -up1-mvi55 (chicken-dominate-female) ‘breeding hen’.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    347

    ‘iron’ in dvoq5-mvi55 ‘magnet’ and after ‘script’ in lai11gva55-mvi55 ‘letter, Chinese character’. My informant claims that the latter word is a direct translation of Chinese 字母 zìmǔ ‘letter of an alphabet’. The morpheme ‘tiger’ can, apart from literally expressing ‘tiger’, also be used as the regular male sex suffix for animals, e.g. after the reduced form of ‘cattle’ in ne1-lo11 ‘bull’, as well as after ‘dog’, ‘horse’ and ‘cat’. Whereas most male animals have ‘tiger’ as a sex suffix, at least one kind of animal appears to have the male sex suffix , viz. ‘chicken’ in woq1-po55 ‘cock’. The masculine sex suffix may be specially used for cocks because of their macho behaviour. 9.30

    AUGMENTATIVE AND DIMINUTIVE

    Zaiwa has an augmentative suffix (AUG) and a diminutive suffix ‘child’. sun11-mo35 vs. sun11-zo11 kui11-mo35 vs. kui11-zo11 u31-mo35 vs. u31-zo11

    (veg/dish-AUG) ‘main dish’ (veg/dish-child) ‘additional dish’, (dog-AUG) ‘the big dog’ (dog-child) ‘the little dog’, and (intestine-AUG) ‘the small intestine’35 (intestine-child) ‘duodenum’

    The morpheme can be used as a noun or as an adjective. The morpheme as a noun either expresses ‘child’, e.g.: nung11-zo11 (2REL-child) ‘your child’ and cyui55-zo11 (orphan-child) ‘orphan’, or it refers to members of a certain community or generation: e.g.: mang11-zo11 (aged-child) n. ‘elderly person’ Zai11(wa31)-zo11 (Zaiwa-child) n. ‘a Zaiwa’. As an adjective, expresses ‘small’, e.g. i1-lang31-zo11 (water-river-child) n. ‘brook, little river’. Because of its broad use, the latter adjectival function is also termed the diminutive suffix.

    35 The word expresses ‘the large intestine’.

    348

    CHAPTER NINE

    Its counterpart, the augmentative suffix also holds between a noun and an adjective. Another special way of using (AUG) is in reduplicated form after the main verb, expressing a notion like ‘enormously’ or ‘very’, e.g. (460). This use of (AUG), which has a special place within Zaiwa grammar, has been discussed in Section 8.7. The augmentative morpheme cannot be used as a main verb in a verb clause, unlike ‘big’, e.g. (461). 460

    461

    Cyui11 mo35-mo35 sweet AUG–AUG It’s very sweet.

    r55. PE

    Yvang54 ci5-nau35 gvo31 3SG+FCT buttock–milk/breast big(ipf) His buttocks are huge.

    dik1 extreme

    r55. PE

    The augmentative suffix is also used as a ranking suffix in kinship terms, where it refers to the eldest in line, e.g.: Nva55-mo35 (elder.sister-AUG) ‘eldest sister’. The augmentative suffix is also used as a polite way of addressing people of the same generation as one’s parents, viz. A5-nu11-mo35 (nom-mother-AUG) for women and A5-wa11-mo35 (nom-father-AUG) for men. The augmentative suffix is also used in many idiosyncratic and ornate expressions, after stative verbs, e.g. ki11-ngvyaq1-mo35 (faeces-watery/thin-AUG) ‘thin faeces’, nvut5-mui11 zuk5-mo35 (mouth-beard hairy-AUG) ‘a huge beard’ and gung31-du11 byen11-long11-mo35 (body-being flat-slice/plate-AUG) ‘a flat, thin body’. In this use, augmentative suffix more or less expresses largeness.

    9.31

    THE MORPHEME ‘EACH’

    The morpheme ‘each’ expresses ‘each’ and can be used after both nouns and verbs. This morpheme is mostly used in conjunction with the augmentative suffix . The following sentences illustrate the use of ‘each’ after nouns. The same morphemes ‘each’ and the augmentative

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    349

    suffix can also be used as separate suffixes after reduplicated nouns, e.g. (463) and (464). In these two latter cases, reduplication emphasises the multiplicity of the given entities. 462

    Yvum31 hang11-mo35 wo35 hat5 ge1-ruet1 r55. house each–AUG have pursue random–restless PE All he can do is wander restlessly around whatever houses there are.

    463

    Ka55-hu55 r11 a1-gue11 gvut5, (ipf) Q–sort also NEG–all.right do yvum31-hang11 yvum31-mo35 wo35 ge1-ruet1 house–each house–AUG have random–restless lving11 r55. turn/roll(ipf) PE He is not good at doing anything, all he can do is restlessly make his way from house to house.

    464

    Hoi31-bvue55 ngvut5 zyang35 hung11-hang11 (GEN) snail1 –PLN be CD fold–each hung11-mo35 ngi11 lye31 ngvut5-n55. (ipf) fold–AUG be.there(anim) also+I be–FCT Like all snails, he was slowly moving himself from trench to trench.

    The combination lving31-hang11 (turn/roll-each) expresses ‘every time in succession’. Here, the functionally versatile morpheme ‘turn, roll’ is used as a noun ‘time, turn’. It is only in this particular form that ‘each’ is not combined with the augmentative suffix . The morpheme ‘each’ is partly homonymous to the morpheme ‘half a day’s labour’, which I have discussed in Section 9.39. 465

    Lving31-hang11 byon31-byon31 ga11. turn/roll–each [ideo] perceive I shot my projectile through the circle every time.

    350 466

    CHAPTER NINE

    Yvang11

    lving31-hang11 ngo31 r55 zi31 3SG turn/roll–each 1SG OBJ invite gve5lvang11 ngo31 a1-ye31. although 1SG NEG–go(away/down) Each time she invited me I didn’t go.

    The combination hang11-mo35 (each-AUG) can also be used after verbs, where it expresses the notion ‘whenever’. 467

    Yvang11

    ngo31

    r55

    3SG

    1SG

    OBJ

    zi31 hang11-mo35 invite each–AUG

    ngo31 1SG

    a1-ye31. NEG–go(away/down) Whenever she invites me I decline. 468

    Le1-nong35 lye35 hang11-mo35 (male)–2nd-brother come(away/down) each–AUG ngo31 a1-ngi31 lang35. 1SG NEG–be.there(anim) wait Whenever second brother comes, I’m not at home.

    9.32

    NOMINALISING SUFFIXES

    9.32.1 Overview Zaiwa has quite a few morphemes with a nominalising function. This section focuses on the nominalising suffixes. Chapter 4 has already discussed the factitive marker , and Chapter 6 has already discussed the nominalising prefix . Table 9.9 lists the Zaiwa nominalising suffixes.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    Table 9.9

    351

    The Zaiwa nominalising suffixes:

    the singular nominaliser (SNO) the morpheme as the plural nominaliser (PNO) nominaliser ‘things for/to …’ the morpheme ‘time for’ the morpheme ‘(matter of) guilt’ the morpheme (truc) ‘implement, matter’

    9.32.2 The singular nominaliser The singular nominaliser (SNO) basically expresses the notions ‘someone that …’ or ‘the one that …’. The singular nominaliser not only refers to people, as illustrated by the three following noun phrases, but can also refer to inanimate entities, e.g. (469) and (470). These two sentences also illustrate that when (SNO) is used as part of certain descriptions after nominalised stative verbs, the latter normally are marked by the factitive marker . kau11 su31 (steal SNO) ‘thief’ mau11-mi31 bat1 su31 (sky-earth beat SNO) ‘the beater of the earth’ i5-nvung55 si1-ngai11 su31 (SPEC-1ND.IN flesh-give.birth SNO) ‘the one that gave birth to us’ 469

    470

    Gvo54 su31 wa11-aq1 big+FCT SNO lift*–SIM Take (SG) the big one.

    ma11. ROUS

    Zye11 tu25 su31 yu11 exceed (make).thick+FCT SNO take(ipf) lye35 lo31-aq1. come(away/down) come(back/up)–SIM Bring (SG) the thickest one.

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    The reduced allomorph of the singular nominaliser is only used in the form se5-bvue55 (SNO-PLN), in combination with the plural nominal suffix , e.g. (471). The form se5-bvue55 (SNO-PLN) can be used instead of regular personal pronouns and expresses ‘other people’, indefinite both in number and identity (Chin.: 人家 rénjiā). 471

    Hi31 ge11 se5-bvue55 li55 ke5-lum31, this TOP SNO–PLN OBJ PHB–depend.on 31 31 31 31 nang yvum -seng gvun -aq1. 2SG house–host do*–SIM As for this job, don’t depend on others, do (SG) it yourself.

    The singular nominaliser (SNO) and the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’, used in the following sentence, obviously share the same etymon. The latter morpheme is discussed in Chapter 19. 472

    Se5-ngam11 r55. (ipf) like–seem PE It seems to be so.

    9.32.3 The plural nominalising morpheme The Zaiwa plural nominaliser (PNO) appears to be cognate to Chinese 帮 bāng ‘gang, band, clique’, yet not necessarily a loan. The plural nominaliser (PNO) always refers to a plural group of animate beings. Whenever a plural amount of inanimate objects is referred to, either the plural suffix is used, or the factitive marker , e.g. (473), but not (PNO). Sentence (473) could refer both to singular or plural objects. 473

    Se1boi31 toq5 ma54 o31 table come.out LOC+FCT want/take I’ll take those that are on the table.

    ra31. need+I

    After verbs or clauses as a whole, the morpheme (PNO) functions as the Zaiwa plural nominaliser, nominalising the clause and

    353

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    referring to a plural group of animate beings. This is illustrated by wo35 bang11 (have PNO) ‘rich people’ and mu35-zui11 zo11 bang11 (work(N)-touch/work(V) eat PNO) ‘the workers’ as well as by the following sentences. 474

    Pi11 wo35 bang11 r55 gyuq1 ra31 evil.eye have PNO OBJ afraid need+I dut1 lye31. become also+I You have to watch out for those that have the evil eye.

    475

    Hu31 above nga35

    476

    Dviq5 bang11 ge11 gvo11 bang11 r55 little PNO TOP big PNO OBJ dang11 a1-gue11 dvu31. (ipf) words NEG–all.right respond/upright The little ones cannot reply defiantly to the adults.

    477

    guq1 ho31 dvo11 bang11 (ipf) unhusked.rice cultivate place(vt) PNO bui31num31 zvyat5 ngvut5 lye31. 1PO family all be also+I Those people transplanting rice seedlings up there are all relatives of mine.

    Byu31 sue31-lum11 bang11 a1-ngi31. (ipf) man/woman know –reciprocal PNO NEG–be.there(anim) There are/were no people that I know.

    The plural nominaliser (PNO) can also be used after a limited set of nouns, where it refers to a plural group of animate beings, e.g. wa31 bang11 (village PNO) ‘the people of the village’ and hye55-poq5 bang11 (same.elevation-foreign PNO) ‘foreigners’. The plural nominaliser (PNO) also forms part of the fixed expression ban31-syoq5-bang11 (use.up-till-PNO) ‘everyone’, after the adverb ban31-syoq5 (use.up-till) ‘totally, entirely’, discussed in Section 16.37.36 The plural nominaliser is also used in combination with the 36 The people of Longchuan (everyone(GEN)-PNO) instead.

    county

    use

    lvung55lvang31-bang11

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    CHAPTER NINE

    prefix ‘a/one’, expressing the notion ‘the whole’ here, e.g.: le1-yvum11 bang11 (one-house(GEN) PNO) ‘the whole family’. The plural nominaliser (PNO) can also be used after pronominal prefixes, where it forms part of complex pronouns referring to a plural group of animate beings, e.g. hau55-bang11 (the/that-PNO) ‘those people’ and hi55-bang11 (this-PNO) in the following sentence. 478

    Byo11 hi55-bang11 ka55-pyang31 bui31 wasp/bee this–PNO Q–DIR (insects).move(ipf) lo35 a1-gvo54 lu55? go(back/up) nom–PL+FCT MIR Where would these bees/wasps have moved to?

    9.32.4 The nominaliser ‘things for/to …’ The notions expressed by the nominaliser ‘things for/to …’ differ according the type of verb after which it is used, as I shall set out below. The verbs preceding ‘things for/to …’ are always marked by the oblique genitive case marker (GEN). The nominaliser ‘things for/to …’ expresses the following notions. After action verbs, the morpheme ‘things for/to …’ nominalises the clause and expresses ‘things for doing V’, e.g. zo31 po11 (eat(GEN) things) ‘things to eat’. After stative verbs, the morpheme ‘things for/to …’ nominalises the clause and expresses the notions ‘things that are Vadj’, e.g. ngvam31 po11 (tasty(GEN) things) ‘tasty stuff’, or ‘things for being Vadj for’, e.g. hoq5 po11 (shy things) ‘disgraceful talking’, lit. ‘things for being shy of’. Only after negative verb clauses, the morpheme ‘things for/to …’ both nominalises the verb clause and expresses ‘things one cannot V’ or ‘things one should not V’. These constructions are translated as full clauses like ‘one cannot do this’ or ‘one should not do this’, thus making a statement on certain morals or rules. Whether or not clauses containing ‘things for/to …’ refer to certain morals and rules fully depends on the context. The first example could both bear a neutral connotation and be concerned with certain rules.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    355

    479

    Zi1syang31 a1-zo31 po11. (GEN) child NEG–eat INO A child should not eat these things. / things a child cannot eat

    480

    Hum55-dong11 mai11 a1-zyui35 wu35 po11. door–(have)hole ABL NEG–peep look INO It is no good to peep through chinks in the door.

    481

    Zi1syang31 gvo11 bang11 r55 child big PNO OBJ a1-syai11 po11. (GEN) NEG–loud-mouthed INO Children shouldn’t loud-mouth adults.

    482

    A1-syai11 lum31 po11. (ipf) (GEN) NEG–loud-mouthed reciprocal INO Don’t quarrel.

    483

    Gvo11 bang11 wui25 he5-me55 big PNO generation+FCT before–LOC a5-se55 a1-gvut5 po11. nom–like NEG–do INO These things cannot be done in front of the adults. / One cannot act like this/that in front of the adults.

    9.32.5 The morpheme ‘time for, season’ The noun ‘time for, season’ is mostly used as a nominaliser after verbs, where it expresses ‘time for …’,37 in the sense of ‘the right period for …’, or ‘season’, as illustrated by the following examples. Another example is the form lai31-dvoq5 yvam31 (wind-get.up time.for), which is the regular word for ‘autumn’. 484

    Zang11 zo11 yvam31 rice/food eat time.for It’s time for the meal.

    zye35 arrive

    bue31. P+I

    37 Its meaning thus differs from the noun a1-king55 (nom-time) expressing ‘time for …’, in the sense of ‘have time for …’, vide Section 9.39.

    356 485

    486

    CHAPTER NINE

    Ge1yveng31 ming31 yvam31 zye35 cicada sound(vi) time.for arrive It’s the season of the singing of the cicada. Yvup5-dvoq5 yvam31 sleep–get.up time.for It’s time to get up.

    zye35 arrive

    bue31. P+I

    bue31. P+I

    The noun ‘time for, season’ is not a nominaliser when forming part of the expression yvam31 wu35 ‘to tell fortunes’, before the verb ‘look’, as illustrated by the following sentence. 487

    Ngo31

    yvam31 gue11 wu35 (ipf) 1SG time.for all.right look I can tell fortunes.

    lye31. also+I

    The following sentence illustrates that the morpheme ‘time for, season’ can also be used after pronominal prefixes, in this case the general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q) ‘what/which/where’. The complex time expression ha55-yvam31 (Q-time.for) used here can be translated as ‘what time’, or literally as ‘the time for what’. 488

    A1hui31 ge11 ha55-yvam31 bue31 la11? now TOP Q–time.for P+I UNC [after waking up:] What time would it be now?

    9.32.6

    The morpheme ‘(matter of) guilt’

    The morpheme is a noun expressing ‘(matter of) guilt’38, e.g. (489). The same noun can also be used as a nominaliser expressing 38 Apart from ‘(matter of) guilt’, Zaiwa has another word for ‘guilt’. The form ‘guilt’ is borrowed from Jingpo, cf. Xu et al. (1983: 489) mara ‘mistake, guilt’. Unlike ‘(matter of) guilt’, Zaiwa ‘guilt’ does not have a nominalising function.

    1

    Nang31

    ka55-hu55 me1ra11 bo31 zyang35 ka55-hu55 Q–sort guilt/sin contain CD Q–sort Whatever guilt you (SG) feel, just say it. 2SG

    dai11-aq5. speak–SIM

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    357

    ‘the guilt of having performed V’, e.g. (490) and mi1-wue11 lu35 yui11 (wife-female rob guilt) ‘the guilt of having stolen a wife’. 489

    Nang31

    yui11 a1-gue11 byat1. (ipf) 2SG guilt NEG–all.right solve You (SG) are not good at solving issues of guilt.

    490

    Yvang11

    kau11-yui11 3SG steal–guilt I am guilty of stealing.

    bo11 lye31. (ipf) contain also+I

    9.32.7 The morpheme ‘place’ as a nominaliser ‘place to’, ‘place that’ The noun ‘place’ is mostly used as a nominaliser expressing either ‘place to’, after transitive verbs, or ‘place that’, after intransitive verbs. 491

    Num11syang11 me55 ge11 Zai11wa31 wui25 place.of.worship LOC TOP Zaiwa generation+FCT 31 1 55 11 5 nat rvang zyang ngvut lye . spirit worship place(B) be also+I The Numsyang is the place where the Zaiwa people worship spirits.

    492

    Tang31 zyang11 a1-zyoq1. behind place(B) NEG–be.there(inan) There is no place to brace oneself to.

    493

    Ngue31 zyang11 dap1 gu54 dvang55kuq5 lean(vi) place(B) be.attached PART+FCT stool/chair waq1 lye35 lo31-aq1. lift come(away/down) come(back/up)–SIM Bring (SG) the chair with the back over here.

    When ‘place’ is used after stative verbs or otherwise refers to situations that are rather stative, the preceding verbs normally are marked by the factitive marker . This is illustrated by a1-zyo54

    358

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    zyang11 (NEG-right+FCT place) ‘points which are not correct’ as well as by the two following sentences. 494

    495

    Bui31 zvo25 zyang11 me55 sun shine+FCT place(B) LOC Let’s (DU) go and sit in the sunshine.

    i5-zung31 go–sit

    Yvang11

    yap1 dvo54 zyang11 3SG stand place(vt)+FCT place(B) Loi11lung35-bva55 ngvut5 lye31. Loilung–flatlands be also+I Where he’s standing is lower Loilung.

    gvoq1. DIE

    ge11 TOP

    The morpheme ‘place’ also forms part of the complex noun zyang11-gyu35 (place-flat), where it is not a nominaliser. 496

    Zyang11-gyu35 zye35 bue31. place(B)–(terrain).level arrive P+I We have reached the flat ground.

    9.32.8 The morpheme (truc) ‘implement, matter’ and other such nouns The morpheme ‘implement, matter’ can both be used as a free noun and a nominalising suffix. In a strict sense, its meaning is ‘implement for doing something’. Its other uses will be discussed further below. 497

    Hi31 ge11 ka55-hu55 gvut5 this TOP Q–sort do What is this thing for?

    lye54 also+FCT

    zue31 truc

    ta11? GI

    There is a clear difference in meaning between ‘implement, matter’ and ‘things for/to…’ (9.32.4), as their translations already indicate, since the first most of all refers to the instrument, i.e. the thing which ‘does the action’ and the latter, amongst other functions that are irrelevant here, to the object or the nominalised adjective, i.e. the ‘undergoer’ or the thing that bears the indicated

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    characteristics, e.g. zo31 po11 (eat(GEN) things) ‘things to eat’ and ngvam31 po11 (tasty(GEN) things) ‘tasty stuff’. The morpheme (truc) ‘implement, matter’ rather often functions as a suffixed nominalising noun expressing ‘implement for doing V’; e.g.: soq5-tu31-zue31 (air-(make).thick-truc) n. ‘tyre pump’, dvat5bung35-dyem11-zue31 (photographs-take.picture-truc) n. ‘photo camera’; dvau55-pong55-zue31 (inflate/bottle-open(vt)-truc) n. ‘bottle opener’, loq1-seng11-zuen11-zue31 (hand/arm-nail-cut/clip-truc) n. ‘nail clippers’, pyoq5-zue31 (break.off/down(vt)-truc), also sut5-zue31 (wipe/polish-truc) n. ‘eraser’, syung11-gvun55-zue31 (use(ipf)-play-truc) n. ‘toy’, zui31-zvyap5-tau11-zue31 (tooth-squeeze/tight-sew/insert-truc) n. ‘toothpick’. Note also seng11-zue31 (go.with.liquor-truc) vt+n. ‘snacks for helping down liquor’, which strictly spoken is not an implement but appears to be treated as such. The word Sam55 zue31 (Shan ‘truc’) ‘market goods (for resell)’ may be a similar case. The morpheme ‘implement, matter’ can also function as an abstract deictic form, like English ‘thing, matter’, or French truc, or Chinese 玩意儿 wányìr, and sometimes like a kind of stopgap. 498

    Zue31 r11. truc also That bloody thing.

    499

    Zue31 nang31 dvyo31! truc 2SG DOM+I You bloody bastard!

    500

    … zue31 ngvut5 ngyo11 … truc be talk(ipf) It is like that [from hearsay].

    501

    ra55. PE

    Zue31 hau31 ge11 zon31 truc the/that TOP concurrence ze1-a1-dut1-n55-o55. only–NEG–become–FCT–HIGH There’s something wrong with this.

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    At the end of a story: 502 Bang11dvai31 lye11 rabbit also The rabbit is like this. 503

    a1-su54 zue31. nom–like+FCT truc

    Zi1syang31 ke5-dye31 kong31 gvo55, yvang11 child PHB–too save PL 3SG wo35 gvut5-n55 zue31 ge11 yvang11 r55 have do–FCT truc TOP 3SG OBJ gvut5 nvang31 gveq5. do let.loose PLIM You (PL) shouldn’t spoil a child too much. Let (PL) it do the things it can do.

    I will now compare ‘implement, matter’ with two other free nouns: first with ‘matter, job’ and second with ‘thing, things, stuff’. Both and ‘matter, job’ can refer to matters, whereas does so rather in a loose sense as illustrated above, and ‘matter, job’ in a strict sense. 504

    Yvang55-moq1 a1mu31 dai31 a1-gvo31. (ipf) 3PL–party matter speak nom–PL+I They are negotiating on a certain matter.

    But ‘implement, matter’ cannot refer to jobs or tasks, whereas ‘matter, job’ is the appropriate word for that.39 505

    Ngo31 1SG

    a1mu31 matter

    myo11 much

    lui31-eq1 a1-wo35 in.this.way+I–AG/I NEG–have

    lye35. come(away/down) I couldn’t come because I had much to do. 506

    Ngo31

    a1mu31 a1-bo31. 1SG matter NEG–contain I have nothing to do.

    39 For that matter, the proper noun for ‘work’ is ‘work, task’, mostly used in the fixed noun-verb construction mu 35 zui11 (work(N) touch/work(V)) n+vt. ‘work’.

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    Instead of ‘matter, job’, the noun ‘thing, things, stuff’ can also be used when referring to jobs or tasks in a very loose or deictic sense. In the following example, the use of ‘implement, matter’ would be less correct. 507

    Ka55-hu55 a1zeng35 gvut5 Q–sort thing do What are you going to do?

    ra31? need+I

    The most important difference between ‘implement, matter’, as a free noun, and ‘thing, things, stuff’, is that ‘implement, matter’ as a free noun cannot refer to objects in a strict sense. Sentence (508), on eating, would be less correct when containing ‘implement, matter’ instead of ‘thing, things, stuff’. Sentence (509), on shopping, would be erronous when containing ‘implement, matter’. 508

    Ka55-hu55 a1zeng35 Q–sort thing What are you eating?

    509

    Yvang11

    9.33

    zo31 eat(ipf)

    lye31? also+I

    a1zeng35 wui31 ye31 3SG thing buy go(away/down) He is off to do some shopping.

    bue31. P+I

    NUMERALS

    Table 9.10 shows the segmental morphemes that form part of Zaiwa numerals.

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    Table 9.10

    Zaiwa numeral morphemes; regular numerals and numeral counting units

    ‘one …’ is only used before counting units and other specifier nouns regular numerals ra11 one i55 two sum11 ~ sum31 three mi11 ~ mi31 four 11 ngo five kyuq5 six ngit5 seven 5 sit eight gau11 ~ gau31 nine

    numeral counting units cue31 ~ sue31 ten syo31 hundred hing55 thousand mun11 ten-thousand

    ‘innumerable’: dik1ge1di11

    • Numeral compounds In numeral compounds, I make a distinction between numbers or regular numerals on the one hand, i.e. 1 to 9, and numeral counting units on the other. Both categories are shown in Table 9.10. The counting units are: ‘ten’, ‘hundred’, ‘thousand’ and ‘ten-thousand’. The counting units are always preceded by a numeral that defines their amount, and therefore they in fact are a kind of specifier nouns, cf. sum11-sue31 ‘30’ and sum11-yuq5 ‘three persons’. In more complex numeral compounds, larger counting units precede smaller ones, e.g. ngo11-hing55 ngo11-syo31 ‘five-thousands five-hundreds’ i.e. ‘5500’. The Zaiwa morphemes and are not only used as the numerals ‘thousand’ and ‘ten-thousand’ respectively. The morpheme , besides expressing ‘thousand’, is also used as the word for ‘ten-cent piece’ (Chinese: 角 jiǎo). The morpheme , besides expressing ‘ten-thousand’ (cf. Chinese 万 wàn ten-thousand’), is also used as the equivalent of the Chinese basic currency 元 Yuán.

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    363

    When ‘thousand/ten.cent’ and ‘ten.thousand/Yuan’ are used as numerals, the augmentative suffix is often added to them, for making explicit that these two forms are used as numeral counting units and do not refer to money, cf. le1-hing55 ‘one ten-cent piece’ vs. le1-hing55-mo35 ‘one thousand’ and le1-mun11 ‘one Yuán’ vs. le1-mun11-mo35 ‘ten-thousand’. • Tonal phenomena Concerning the tonal features of the numerals, there are two phenomena to be mentioned. First, the numerals ‘three’, ‘four’ and ‘nine’, all non-short syllables with basic tone /11/, get tone /31/ before specifier nouns in tone /11/,40 e.g.: no11 sum31-du11 (cattle three-being) ‘three pieces of cattle’. Numeral ‘five’, even though it is also a non-short syllable with basic tone /11/, does not act in this way, e.g.: no11 ngo11-du11 (cattle five-being) ‘five pieces of cattle’. A second phenomena are the tone changes for numerals by the oblique genitive case marker (GEN), e.g.: sum35-syo11 le1-sue31 (three(GEN)-hundred(GEN) one-ten) ‘310’. This matter was already discussed in Section 4.6.2. • Zaiwa ‘one’ Zaiwa has two numerals for ‘one’. The numeral ‘one’ normally is only used for counting out ‘one’, whereas the reduced prefix ‘one’ is used in numeral compounds, as a prefix before counting units. Many informants claim that in numeral compounds like le1-sue31/ le1-cue31 ‘ten’, the morpheme ‘one’ can be used besides ‘one’. My informant claims that, whereas expressions like ra11-cue31 ‘ten’ seem unnatural and overly scholarly to the ears of Loilung people or at least to his ears, the Zaiwa of neighbouring Longchuan do use ‘one’ here instead of ‘one’. Such resembles Zaiwa of Sadon, the speakers of which only use the prefix /ra*/, according to Yabu (1982: lemma 394). In the following sentence, the prefix ‘one’ is prefixed to the complex numeral i55-sue31 (two-ten). The exact meaning it expresses 40 An exception is Gau11 -zo 11 Le1wui31 (nine-child (name)) ‘the nine Lewui brothers’, apparently because this is a name with a specific status in old stories.

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    here is not known yet. Possibly, the prefix ‘one’ expresses that the sum of money the speaker wishes to borrow is only the sum in question. 510

    Ngun31 le1-i55-sue31 a1-gvyem11 silver one–two–ten NEG–left.(over)(ipf) Do you have twenty Yuan left for me?

    dvo11 luq1? place(vt) Y/N

    Combinations of two numerals, expressing approximation Two different numerals before one noun express approximation, e.g. mi11-ngo11 ‘four or five’ in sentence (511). The construction i55-sum11 (two-three) often vaguely expresses ‘some’, e.g. (512), rather than specifically ‘two or three’, e.g. (513). lye31. also+I

    511

    Mi11-ngo11-koq5 zo31 four–five–bowl eat(ipf) I eat four or five bowls.

    512

    I55-sum11-ngi35 bue31 ga31 a5-se55 mu31 two–three–day P+I perceive+I nom–like happen dut1. become It went on like that for a couple of days.

    513

    I55-sum11-koq5 wo35 zo31 two–three–bowl have eat(ipf) I can eat two or three bowls.

    lye31. also+I

    • ‘one …’; a preview The prefix ‘one …’ has more functions than merely expressing singularity, and the Sections 9.36 to 9.38 will separately discuss some of its idiosyncratic uses. • Ordinal numbers and the ordinal prefix Zaiwa ordinal numbers normally are indicated by putting a numeral between the ordinal prefix ‘number’ and the general specifier noun ‘lump’.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    514

    515

    516

    517

    518

    519

    520

    365

    nam35bat5 le1-lvum11 number one–lump number one nam35bat5 i55-lvum11 number two–lump number two nam35bat5 sum31-lvum11 number three–lump number three nam35bat5 ngo11-lvum11 number five–lump number five nam35bat5 gau31-lvum11 number nine–lump number nine nam35bat5 le1-syo31-lvum11 number one–hundred–lump number hundred nam35bat5 le1-sue31-lvum11 number one–ten–lump number ten

    In constructions like the above, the use of specifier nouns other than the general specifier noun ‘lump’ is rejected. 521

    * nam35bat5 i55-yuq1 number two–person person number two

    The Zaiwa ordinal prefix ‘number’ is borrowed from Jingpo, cf. nambat (Xu et al. 1983: 549) with the same meaning and functions, whilst the ultimate origin of this word lies in English number. When Zaiwa ordinal numeral constructions are used within clauses, a suffix marked by the factitive marker is needed after it. 522

    Nam35bat5 number

    mi31-lvum11 four–lump

    ma55 LOC

    zyaq1 rather

    gyo31 hear/smell(ipf)

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    ngon35 gvat5 bue31. pleasant put.into P+I [stories] The fourth one was received with great enthusiasm. 523

    Nam35bat5 i55-lvum11 lye54 lvum11 number two–lump OBJ+FCT lump le1-bvong55dvin55. one–pen The one with number two gets a fountain pen.

    The following clause illustrates that Zaiwa ordinal numbers can also be indicated in other ways, without ‘number’, when it is clear from the context that there is a certain enumeration or numeral order. The phrase sit5 cyam11 lye54 cyam11 (eight ball also+FCT ball) in the following sentence literally expresses ‘the one that was the eighth’. 524

    Ngvit5 cyam31-eq1 bek1 li11 a1-zang35, sit5 seven ball#–AG/I shoot also NEG–strike eight 11 54 cyam lye cyam31-eq1 syeq1 zang35 ball also+FCT ball#–AG/I au.contraire strike bek1-ng55. shoot–FCT The first seven bullets didn’t hit the target, but the eighth finally did.

    The noun ‘number’ can also express ‘prize’ such as in a contest. bau35 kon31 zyang35 nam35bat5 wo35 lye31. 2SG just sing CD number have also+I If you (SG) sing alone you will recieve a prize.

    525

    Nang31

    9.34

    THE TYPOLOGY OF ZAIWA SPECIFIER NOUNS

    As in most if not all languages of the region, within Zaiwa noun phrases there is a distinction between head nouns and a class of nouns which are normally termed as classifiers. Within this study, the latter

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    367

    are termed specifier nouns or, for short, specifiers. The distinction between head nouns and specifier nouns has already been encountered in Section 9.2, describing the use of head nouns and specifier nouns in various types of noun phrases. In that section, I showed that Zaiwa specifier nouns are also used together with numerals and pronominal prefixes. The class of the specifier nouns also includes specific measure units, such as pounds and litres, as well as parts of numeral compounds, such as tens and hundreds. This section offers an extensive discussion of the typology of Zaiwa specifier nouns, illustrating their large number and variety. Section 9.35 below discusses a group of nouns that refer to certain positions, and which, like normal specifier nouns, can also be combined with the demonstrative prefixes. The latter group of nouns I shall call the positional specifier nouns. The discussion in Section 9.39 of the nouns used for specifying actions and matters of time also includes some specific specifier nouns. • Nouns that can function both as specifier and as head noun : Most Zaiwa nouns that function as specifiers can also be used as head nouns. For example, the noun expresses ‘carrying pole’ and as a head noun appears with the general specifier noun ‘lump’, e.g. hap1 le1-lvum11 ‘a/one carrying pole’. In other noun phrases, the same morpheme ‘carrying pole’ is a specifier noun, denoting turns of carrying things by use of the carrying pole. 526

    I1-zvyam11 le1-hap1 ham31 bue31. water–water one–carrying.pole receive/fetch P+I I have fetched one carrying pole [i.e. one turn] of water.

    There are also nouns that within one noun phrase can be used both as head noun and as specifier noun, as illustrated by the following examples. In sentence (527), the noun ling31-zeng11 ‘neck’ is also used both as head noun and specifier noun. kum11‘door’ gok1 ‘room’ gok5 ‘big box’ gvok5‘small box’

    in: in: in: in:

    kum11 le1-kum11‘a/one door’, gok1 le1-gok1 ‘a/one room’, 5 1 5 gok le -gok ‘a/one big box’, gvok5 le1-gvok5‘a/one small box’,

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    koq5 ‘bowl’ in: koq5 le1-koq5 ‘an/one (empty) bowl’ 1 loq ‘hand’ in: loq1 le1-loq1 ‘a/one hand’, mang31‘corpse’ in: mang31 le1-mang31 ‘a/one corpse’ bvoi55‘(hair) tie’ in: bvoi55 le1-bvoi55‘a/one (hair) tie’ 11 tum ‘pool’ in: tum11 le1-tum11 ‘a/one pool’, wa31 ‘village’ in: wa31 le1-wa31 ‘a/one village’, 55 hon ‘crown (of the head)’ in: hon55 le1-hon55 ‘a/one crown’. 527

    Ngo31

    ling31-zeng11 le1-ling31-zeng11 rvoq5 1SG neck–neck one–neck–neck DEF o31 ra31. want/take need+I I’ll take the whole neck. [spoken to the butcher]

    In some instances, the head noun is modified by a prefix but is otherwise identical to the specifier noun used within the same phrase, as in the two following examples. In the noun phrase i1-syang11 le1-syang11 (water-bamboo.water.container onebamboo.water.container) ‘a/one bamboo tube of water’, the head noun i1-syang11 (water-bamboo.water.container) contains the prefix ‘water, urine’, and the morpheme ‘bamboo water container’ is both used as part of the head noun and as the specifier noun. In the noun phrase mi1-kyom55 le1-kyom55 (fire-fireplace one-fireplace) ‘a/one fireplace’, the head noun mi1-kyom55 contains the prefix ‘fire-’, and the morpheme ‘fireplace’ is both used as part of the head noun and as the specifier noun. • Specifiers as results of certain actions: Many morphemes used as specifier nouns are functionally versatile because they can also be used as verbs. When such versatile morphemes are used as specifiers, they refer to the result of the action which they would indicate when used as a verb. The listing of examples given below is not meant to be exhaustive. • The morpheme (in field) ‘(make) ridges’ can both be used as a verb expressing ‘to make ridges (for cultivating crops etc.)’ and as a noun expressing ‘ridge’, i.e. the result of ridging.

    369

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    528

    Si1-pik5 le1-dvik5 ho31 fruit–pungent one–(make).ridges cultivate(ipf) dvo31 lye31. (ipf) place(vt) also+I We are cultivating one ridge of chillies.

    529

    Nuq1-gvyui31-dvik5 dvik5 lye31. bean–French.bean–(make).ridges (make).ridges also+I We are making a ridge for cultivating French beans.

    • The morpheme as a verb expresses ‘to chop up’, e.g. (530). As a specifier noun, the same morpheme expresses ‘(a) piece of something (the result of chopping up)’, e.g. (531). 530

    531

    Gau11-kyo31-gvang11 me55 i5-zyap1 san11 ra31-o55. nine–road–split(vt) LOC go–chop.up scatter need+I–HIGH “I’ll chop you up and scatter you at the nine crossroads.” Nang31

    zui31 me55 ang11-noq5-zyap1 2SG tooth LOC petiole–black–chop.up dap1 dvo31 r55. (ipf) be.attached place(vt) PE You have some pieces of black mustard on your teeth. / There is black mustard stuck between your teeth.

    • The morpheme as a verb expresses ‘tie up (in leaves)’. As a specifier noun, the same morpheme expresses ‘little packet, sachet of something (the result of tying up in leaves)’.41 532

    Zang11-gyeq5 zvyuq5 gvan31-aq1. rice/food–parcel tie put.into*–SIM Tie (SG) a food parcel. [using leaves]

    533

    Ngo31

    r55

    le1-zvyuq5-zo11 1SG OBJ one–tie–child Make me a little packet of it.

    bi11 give

    raq5. VO

    41 The size of le1-zvyuq5 ‘little packet, sachet’ normally is smaller than that of le1-zyok5 ‘a packet’ or the even larger le1-gyeq 1 ‘a parcel’.

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    • The morpheme as a verb expresses ‘tear, peel’, e.g. si1-gvyap5 cyeq5 ‘to peel (rinds of) fruit’ and (534). As a specifier noun, the same morpheme ‘tear’ expresses ‘(a) shred of something’, e.g. mau11sau11 le1-cyeq5 ‘a shred of paper’, bvan55 le1-cyeq5 ‘a shred of textile’. 534

    Ngve5-mvyuq1-gvyap5 cye31-aq1. banana–banana–shell/crust tear*–SIM Peel (SG) the banana.

    • The morpheme ‘(dig) pits’ as a verb expresses ‘make pits’, e.g. ke5-kai31 kop5 (PHB-dig(ipf) (dig).pit) ‘don’t dig pits’. The same morpheme ‘(dig) pits’ as a specifier noun expresses ‘(a) pit (as a result of one deep cut)’, e.g. syam31-kop5 le1-kop 5 (hoe-(dig).pit one-pit) ‘a/one pit with the hoe’. • The morpheme ‘(make) bunch’ as a verb expresses ‘(flowers, leaves) make bunches’, e.g. ban11-bo35 mat1 lye31 (flowers-open.itself (make).bunch also+I) ‘I am/we are making bunches of flowers.’, poq5 mat1 lye31 (leaf (make).bunch also+I) ‘I am/we are making bunches of leaves.’ The same morpheme ‘(make) bunch’ as a specifier noun expresses ‘(flowers, leaves) bunch’, e.g. ban11-bo35 le1-mat1 ‘a/one bunch of flowers’. • The morpheme ‘sprout’(N/V) as a verb expresses ‘(shoots) to come out’, e.g. mik1-ban35 ban35 bue31 (bamboo.shoot-sprout(N/V) sprout(N/V) P+I) ‘the bamboo shoots have come out’. The same morpheme ‘sprout’(N/V) can also be a noun ‘sprout’, e.g. ban35 toq5 lo31 bue31 (sprout(N/V) come.out come(back/up) P+I) ‘the young shoots have begun to come out.’. The same morpheme can also be used as a specifier noun for bamboo shoots, e.g. mik1 le1-ban35 ‘a/one bamboo shoot’. • The morpheme ‘open itself’ as a verb expresses ‘(flowers) open itself’, e.g. ban11-bo35 bo35 lo35 bue31 ‘the flowers are starting to open themselves.’ The same morpheme ‘open itself’ is the specifier for flowers, e.g. ban11-bo35 le1-bo35 ‘a/one flower’. The morpheme ‘open itself’ is also used in the compound ban11-bo35 ‘flower’, together with ‘flower’ (‘pollen’?). • The morpheme ‘inflate(vt), bottle(N)’ expresses ‘inflate’ (vt) when used as a verb, e.g. (535). The same morpheme is also used

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    as the noun ‘bottle’, which is both used as a head noun, e.g. (536), and as a specifier denoting the standard measure unit for one pound of liquids, e.g. i31-pue11 le1-dvau55 ‘a/one pound-bottle of liquor’ and i55-sue11-ngo11 dvau55 wang25 i31-pue11-bvung31 (two-ten(GEN)-five inflate/bottle enter+FCT distilled-booze-bucket/jerrycan) ‘a bucket/jerrycan suitable for 25 pounds of liquor’. 535

    Si1-bong35 be1-mut1 dvau55 raq5. flesh–bladder help–blow inflate/bottle VO Please blow up this balloon for me.

    536

    Hi55-bvue55 ge11 dvau55 zvyat5 ngvut5 this–PLN TOP inflate/bottle all be These are all bottles.

    lye31. also+I

    • The morpheme ‘roll up’ as a verb expresses ‘roll up’ e.g. tan31 dving31 am55-aq5 (mat roll.up(ipf) PFM-SIM) ‘roll up (sg.) the mat.’ The same morpheme ‘roll up’ as a specifier noun expresses ‘(a) roll of something’, e.g. tan31-dving11 le1-dving11 ‘a rolled-up mat’. As can be seen from the last example, the morpheme ‘roll up’ is also used as part of the compound tan31-ding11 (mat-roll.up) ‘rolled-up mat’. • The morpheme ‘(roll.into.a).ball’ as a verb expresses ‘roll something into a ball’, e.g. king31-tui11 tui31 lye31 ‘I am/we are rolling the thread into (thread)balls.’ As a specifier noun, the same morpheme ‘(roll into a) ball’ expresses ‘(a) ball of something’, e.g. ngo31 king31-tui11 i5-tui11 o31 ra31 ‘I want two (balls) of thread-balls.’ As can be seen from the last example, the morpheme ‘(roll into a) ball’ also appears in the compound king31-tui11 ‘thread-ball’ (i.e. thread rolled into balls), together with ‘thread’. • The morpheme ‘envelop, wrap, veil’ as a verb expresses ‘pack up’ e.g. (537). As a specifier noun, the same morpheme expresses ‘package’, e.g. ge1lu11 le1-tup5 ‘a/one package of sweets’. 537

    Ge1lu11 hi31 sweets this bi11 raq5. give VO

    mau11sau31-eq1 paper/book#–AG/I

    tup5 envelop/wrap/veil

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    Wrap these sweets up with paper for me. • The morpheme ‘interrupt’ can both be used as a verb and as a noun. When used as a verb, the morpheme ‘interrupt’ functions as an aspectivising auxiliary verb termed the interruptive aspectiviser, expressing that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb is being interrupted, e.g. (539). I shall discuss this specific use of this morpheme in Section 15.11. 42 In nominal use, the morpheme ‘interrupt’ expresses ‘separate stretch of something’, ‘half end, stump of’ and can be used after another noun,43 e.g. (i) and (ii), or after a pronominal prefix like a measure noun, e.g. (iii) and (iv). In the two latter noun phrases, the word ‘waist’ can also be omitted. The morpheme ‘interrupt’ can also be used after a numeral, e.g. (v) and (538). i syam31-dvum55 (knife-interrupt) ‘broken knife’ 55 55 ii ngvya -dvum (tobacco-interrupt) ‘butt/stub’ iii pi1dum11 mvo55-dvum55 (waist below-interrupt) ‘the lower part of the body’ iv pi1dum11 hu55-dvum55 (waist above-interrupt) ‘the upper part of the body’ v mi1-zo35 le1-dvum55 (fire-burning.firewood one-interrupt) ‘a burning stump of wood’ 538

    Le1-dvum55 ze11 gyo31 gvat5 wu35 syang55. one–interrupt only hear/smell(ipf) put.into look JUS Let’s (ND.IN) listen to only one piece [of recording].

    539

    Si5gvyam55 gva31 dvum31 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) (ipf) greetings write interrupt place(vt) also+I I interrupted my letter writing.

    42 This morpheme (v.t.) ‘interrupt’ forms part of a simplex-directive verb-pair, together with (adj.) ‘be cut off for a large part’; (vt.) ‘have something cut off for a large part’. 43 Also compare its use as part of te5-dvum55 (bamboo-interrupt) ‘bamboo tube for cooking (still unused)’.

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    373

    • Specifier nouns for people and/or animals • The morpheme ‘person’ specifies individual people (man, spirits etc.), e.g. ning11long11 le1-yuq1 ‘a/one demon’. Also compare the use of this morpheme in yuq1-gue31 (person-male) ‘man’. • The morpheme ‘being’ specifies individual animals of every kind, e.g. le1-bvo55dvye55 le1-du11 ‘a/one leopard’, ngvoq5 le1-du11 ‘a/one bird’, bau11 le1-du11 ‘an/one insect’. The same specifier is also used for animal-shaped objects such as ships and aeroplanes, e.g. lvai31 le1-du11 ‘a/one ship’, dung31-lvai31 le1-du11 ‘a/one aeroplane’. Motorcycles and cars can both be specified by ‘being’ and ‘ball’, which is used for all objects with “body”. The noun gung31-du11 ‘body’ appears to be a combination of ‘body’ and ‘being’. • The morpheme ‘troop, crowd’ can be used both for people and animals, e.g. byu31 le1-zyum31-mo35 (man/woman one-crowd-AUG) ‘a large crowd of people’. Also compare the compound myuq1-zyum31 ‘ape troop’. • The morpheme ‘group, band’ refers to groups of individuals. This word ‘group, band’ can also be used for animals. The two following expressions are conceived as referring to about as much cattle: no11 le1-zyum31-mo35 (cattle one-crowd-AUG) and no11 le1-pung55 (cattle one-group). Note that, whereas the augmentative suffix can be used after le1-zyum31 (one-crowd), it cannot be used after le1-pung55 (one-group). 540

    Byu31 le1-pung55 lai31 lo35 be1-gvo31. man/woman one–group pass(ipf) go(back/up) P–PL+I A crowd/group of people has passed.

    • Plant specifiers The specifiers used for plants or parts of plants can mostly also be used as head nouns, since they refer to certain concrete forms or parts of plants. • The morpheme expresses ‘stalk’ or ‘long stem’, e.g. sek5 le1-yang11 (tree one-stalk) ‘a (rather high and narrow) tree’ and pung11syui31 le1-yang11 (sugar.cane one-stalk) ‘a/one sugar cane’. • The morpheme expresses ‘tree’, e.g. sek5 le1-gam31 ‘one tree’.

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    The original meanings of some specifiers which refer to plants and which are not used as head nouns are not totally clear. • The morpheme probably expresses ‘straight branch’ or ‘side branch’, e.g. mvan11-ding35 le1-ding35 ‘a branch with many leaves (used as besom)’. • The morpheme expresses ‘branch’, e.g. se5-gvoq5 le1-gvoq5 (tree-branch one-branch) ‘one branch of a tree’. • The morpheme expresses ‘shrub, tree’ and appears to be a loan from Jingpo, cf. Xu et al. (1983: 76) byap ‘clump, thicket’. It is not known to what specific types of plants the original Jingpo form refers to, but its Zaiwa loan ‘shrub, tree’ appears to specifically refer to branched and complex plants such as shrubs and also to the huge banyan trees, with their many trunks. si1-pik5 le1-byap1 (fruit-pungent one-shrub/tree) ‘one shrub of the chilli plant’ he5lvam11 le1-byap1 (aubergine one-shrub/tree) ‘one shrub of the aubergine plant’ 1 31 1 1 si -gam le -byap (fruit-tree(B) one-shrub/tree) ‘one fruit tree’ ban11-gam31 le1-byap1 (flower-tree(B) one-shrub/tree) ‘one flower tree’ mvyang11-zeng31 le1-byap1 (banyan-trunk one-shrub/tree) ‘one banyan tree’ • The specifiers ‘(bananas) small bunch’ and ‘raft, (bananas) cluster’ are exclusively used for bananas, e.g. ngve5mvyuq1 le1-mvye11 ‘a/one small bunch of bananas’, ngve5mvyuq1 le1-bvau31 ‘a/one cluster of bananas’ and singular ngve5mvyuq1 le1-cyam11 ‘a/one banana’. The basic meaning of the morpheme is ‘raft, cluster’, e.g. bvau31 le1-lvum11 ‘a/one raft’. Note that the shape of a raft is similar to that of a banana cluster. • The specifier ‘(bamboo) shoot’ appears to be exclusively used for bamboo, e.g. mik1 le1-ban35 ‘a/one bamboo shoot’. Two other specifiers that seem to be exclusively used for bamboo are denoting ‘group of bamboo trees, inclusive of foliage’ and denoting ‘group of bamboo trees, exclusive of foliage’. wa11 le1-bvung55 ‘a/one group of bamboo trees, inclusive of foliage’ wa11 le1-bang31 ‘a/one group of bamboo exclusive of foliage’

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    we1-bang31

    375

    ‘group of bamboo exclusive of foliage’

    Nouns referring to mushrooms are modified by specifier nouns referring to specific shapes which will be discussed further below, viz. either by ‘long object’, e.g. mi1-gye11-mau31 le1-kat5 ‘one “charcoal-mushroom”’, or by ‘slice/plate’, e.g. mau31-gyon11 le1-long11 ‘one piece of a kind of edible fungus’, probably Auricularia auricularia-judae’. • Specifiers for containers and concrete measuring • The morpheme ‘wide, cubit’ can both be used as a verb ‘broad’ and as a noun expressing ‘armspan’, i.e. the length between the fingertops of two outstretched arms (about one yard or meter). This noun is both used as a specifier noun and as part of the noun compound loq1-lam31 ‘armspan’, e.g. loq1-lam31 le1-lam31 ‘an/one armspan’. • The morpheme expresses (fruit) ‘segment’. 541

    Le1-sue11 le1-sue11 gvun31-aq1 ma11. one–segment one–segment do*–SIM ROUS [fruit] Divide (SG) it into pieces. / (Lit.:) Cut (SG) it into slices.

    • The regular specifier noun for the noun ‘bowl’ is the specifier noun for slicy objects , as illustrated by koq5 le1-kyap5 (bowl one-leaf/sheet) as in sentence (543). The same noun ‘bowl’ itself can also function as a specifier for empty bowls, probably in a more practical sense, e.g. (544) to (546). 542

    Hau31 koq5 le1-kyap5 zang35 zvung11 the/that bowl one–leaf/sheet strike set(vt)(ipf) 31 31 55 yvon dvo r . (ipf) (ipf) oblique place(vt) PE One of those bowls has not been put level.

    543

    Koq5 le1-koq5 ra31 a1-si31. bowl one–bowl need(ipf) nom–still+I We need another [empty] bowl.

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    544

    Le1-koq5 ra31 a1-si31. (ipf) one–bowl need nom–still+I We need another bowl. [with a dish in it]

    545

    Sun11 le1-koq5 ra31 a1-si31. veg/dish one–bowl need(ipf) nom–still+I We need yet another bowl of this dish.

    546

    Le1-koq5 ze11 wo35 one–bowl only have I can only eat one bowl.

    zo31 eat(ipf)

    lye31. also+I

    • The specifier noun expresses ‘packet’ and normally refers to packets that are made of folded leaves, but also to small plastic bags, e.g. ne1-bup5 le1-zyok5 ‘a/one packet of fermented beans’. The size of le1-zyok5 ‘a packet’ normally holds between that of the larger le1-gyeq1 ‘a parcel’ and the smaller le1-zvyuq5 ‘little packet, sachet’. • The specifier noun ‘1/3 meter’ is the standard measure for 1/3 metre and is a loan from Chinese, cf. 尺 chǐ. 547

    Bvan55 le1-ci11 gvo31 a1-wo35 luq1? (ipf) cloth one–1/3.mtr big NEG–have Y/N Does this piece of cloth measure at least one third of a metre?

    • The noun ‘25 kilo’ is the measure unit for 25 kilograms, e.g. (548). The latter form should not be confused with creaky ‘bucket, jerrycan’, e.g. i31-pue11-bvung31 ‘liquor bucket’ and i1-zvyam11-bvung31 ‘water bucket/jerrycan’. 548

    Guq1 sum11-bung31 o31 unhusked.rice three–25.kilo want/take I’ll take 75 kilos of unhusked rice.

    ra31. need+I

    • The noun ‘5 pound’ is the measure unit for 2 1/2 kilograms. This is illustrated by nuq1 sum11-bye35 ‘15 pounds of (soy)beans’ and, in the professional language of farmers: i55-bye35 wang31 (two-5pounds enter) ‘(a paddy big enough) for 10 pounds of rice seeds’. Also compare the following sentence.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    549

    377

    I1-tung11 hi31 ge11 guq1 ngo11-bye35 water–paddy this TOP unhusked.rice five–5pounds wang11 lye31. (ipf) enter also+I This paddy is big enough for five baskets of rice seeds.

    • The noun ‘half a pound’ is the measure unit for half a pound of liquid, e.g. i31-pue11 le1-pak1 ‘half a pound of liquor’. This form also appears in the head noun pak1-zo11 ‘a bottle large enough for half a pound’, together with the diminutive suffix ‘child’. • The morpheme can both express ‘inflate’(vt) and ‘bottle’(N), as has already been discussed above. As a specifier noun, this morpheme is the standard measure unit for one pound of liquids, e.g. i31-pue11 le1-dvau55 ‘a/one pound-bottle of liquor’. • The morpheme ‘yard’ is a specifier noun denoting a yard of length, e.g. (550), and is also used as the specifier of French beans, e.g. nuq1-gvyui31 le1-dung35 ‘a/one French bean’. 550

    Sum11-dung35 a1-bo31 luq1? three–cubit NEG–contain Y/N Is it three cubit?

    • The noun ‘arm-width’ already discussed above is another example of a specifier for containers and concrete measuring, e.g. loq1-lam31 le1-lam31 ‘an/one arm-width’. • The specifier noun ‘half’ either specifically refers to halves, e.g. he5-syau55 le1-kyam11 ‘half a water-melon’, or is used as the specifier noun for knifes, e.g. syam31 le1-kyam11 ‘one knife’. The same morpheme ‘half’ is also used in the word we1-kyam11 (bamboo-half), referring to a halved stretch of bamboo. The objects referred to by we1-kyam11 (bamboo-half) resemble knives and could be used as such. The morpheme ‘half’ is also used in the two following words. bui31-toq5-kyam11 (sun-come.out-half) ‘East’ bui31-wang31-kyam11(sun-enter-half) ‘West’ In the discussion of ‘equal’ in Section 9.37, the morpheme ‘half’ is compared to ‘equal’.

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    • Specifiers referring to specific shapes Below I discuss a range of Zaiwa morphemes that are used as specifier nouns by their specifically referring to certain shapes. • The morpheme ‘ball’ is the specifier noun used for objects with “body”, which can either be massive, e.g ‘stone’, or are used as container. Nouns referring to different types of baskets and other containers naturally have ‘ball’ as a specifier noun, for they all have body, e.g. tung55-gva55 ‘regular basket (hanging at the forehead)’, woq1-koq5 ‘bamboo chicken cage for ritual use’, ‘basket used in pairs on a pole’, ‘chest’ and ‘container for unhusked rice’. The morpheme ‘ball’ is also used as the specifier noun for objects with a specific value, e.g. ‘precious stone’, or objects encompassing a specific meaning, e.g. lai11ga55 le1-cyam11 ‘a/one letter/character’. The latter word refers to both letters of alphabet and Chinese characters. The same specifier is also used for wheeled vehicles, such as bicycles, e.g. ki31-lyeng31 le1-cyam11 (leg/foot-wheel one-ball), or cars, e.g. mo35do35 le1-cyam11 (car one-ball), and motor bikes: moq1toq1 le1-cyam11 (motorcycle one-ball). The two latter words can also be modified by the specifier noun for animals ‘being’. The word si1-bong35 (flesh-bladder) ‘bladder, balloon’ can both have the specifier noun ‘ball’ and the general specifier noun ‘lump’, and the choice of specifier noun renders different meanings. The phrase si1-bong35 le1-cyam11 (flesh-bladder one-ball) expresses ‘an/one inflated bladder (or balloon)’, but si1-bong35 le1-lvum11 (flesh-bladder one-lump) expresses ‘an/one uninflated bladder (or balloon)’. This illustrates the fact that the specifier noun ‘ball’ refers to objects that are round or otherwise have body, whereas the general specifier noun ‘lump’ is mostly used for objects without a specific shape. The specifier noun ‘ball’ is used for all musical instruments except those that have no “body’, like ‘Jew’s harp’, which goes with ‘lump’, or specifically long-shaped instruments like flutes, which go with ‘long object’, which is the specifier noun for long objects. Further examples of nouns which have ‘ball’ as their specifier noun are listed below.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    kyung31 ‘steamer’ ngve5mvyuq1 ‘banana’ bing31 ‘boil’ mi1-sueng55‘lamp’ sueng55 ‘precious stone’ pe5-hum55‘pumpkin/ cushaw’ le1gok1 ‘stone’ nvik5-lvum11 ‘heart’ ban11-bo35 ‘flower’ he55-syau55 ‘watermelon’ se1-mui31 (sand-turbid) ‘grain of sand’

    379

    lyeng31 ‘wheel’ bom11 ‘bomb’ yvum31 ‘house’ syam31-si11 ‘bullet’ se1-dyek1 ‘case’ yam11 ‘jar’ gom35 ‘mug’ ngoq5-u55 ‘egg’ byat1 ‘birthmark’ u1-huq5 ‘pillow’ dang55kuq5 ‘stool’ (originally box-like)

    The morpheme ‘ball’ also forms part of head nouns like zang11-syam11 (rice/food-ball) ‘grain of rice’. 551

    Zang11-syam11 dap1 dvo31 r55. (ipf) rice/food–ball be.attached place(vt) PE There’s a grain of rice sticking on your face.

    • The noun ‘long object’ is the specifier noun for long objects, e.g. ap5 gau11-kat5 ‘nine needles’, king31 le1-kat5 ‘a/one thread’, kyo31 le1-kat5 ‘a/one road’, si1-gi11 le1-kat5 ‘a/one tendon’, si1-wui11 le1-kat5 ‘a/one rib’, dui11 le1-hat5 ‘a/one rope’, hong11 le1-kat5 ‘a/one gully’ and zui31 le1-hat5 ‘a/one tooth’. • The noun ‘slice, plate’ functions as a specifier noun for flat but not too thin objects, (cf. the specifier noun for slicy objects ). Compare for example: wa31-long11 le1-long11 ‘a/one roof-tile’ (cf. Chinese 瓦 wǎ ‘tile’), sek5-pye11 le1-long11 ‘a/one board of flattened bamboo’, mut5-mau35 le1-long11 ‘a/one fog bank’. • The noun is the specifier noun for slicy objects such as leaves and sheets and also bowls, e.g. si1-gyam55 le1-kyap5 ‘a/one letter’, mau11sau11 le1-kyap5 ‘a/one sheet of paper’, dat5-bung35 le1-kyap5 ‘a/one photo’ and koq5 le1-kyap5 ‘a/one bowl’. This specifier noun is also used for suns and moons and for the months of the year, e.g. lva55-mo35 sum11-kyap5 ‘three months’. • The noun expresses ‘drop’ or ‘heeltap’.

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    Le1-bvoq5-zo11 gvat5 one–drop/heeltap–child put.into Put in (SG) one more drop.

    si1-aq5. still–SIM

    • The noun expresses ‘cube-shaped bit of something’, e.g. syo11 le1-ki55 ‘a little cube of meat’. • The noun ‘lump’ is used as a specifier noun expressing ‘lump, turd, thick coin’. It is not certain whether the verb ‘grind, tamp’ underlies the specifier noun ‘lump’. cyui31-tung11 le1-tung11 (lead-lump one-lump) ‘a/one thick coin/lump of lead’ 11 1 11 syo le -tung (flesh one-lump) ‘a/one lump of meat ki11 le1-tung11 (faeces one-lump) ‘a/one thick turd’ • The noun expresses ‘pile/heap’, e.g. ki11 le1-zung31 ‘a/one heap of shit’. (Also compare ki11 le1-tung11 (faeces one-lump) ‘a thick turd’, containing the noun ‘lump, turd, thick coin’.) • The noun expresses ‘row, array, queue, line’, e.g. yvum31 le1-yan35 ‘a/one row of houses’, lai11gva55 le1-yan35 ‘a/one line of writing’ ( expresses ‘letter, Chinese character’) and zye11 tang31 le1-yan35 (exceed behind one-row) ‘the last line’. • The general specifier noun The morpheme ‘lump’ is normally used as the Zaiwa general specifier noun. The general specifier noun is used in complex noun phrases with head nouns that have no specific specifier noun, since these either refer to objects with complex shapes, or to objects without shape that are distinctive according to the existing specifiers used for object with specific shapes, discussed above. For example, a mirror in general, without a specific shape, is referred to as wup1-zyam31 le1-lvum11 (projection-no.gloss one-lump) ‘a/one mirror’, whereas a big rectangular mirror is referred to as wup1-zyam31 le1-long11 (projection-no.gloss one-lump) ‘a/one mirror’, containing the specifier noun for flat but not too thin objects ‘slice, plate’. The following forms are examples of nouns that normally have ‘lump’ as their specifier noun.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    bvau31 ‘raft’ bvyap5 ‘little bamboo basket worn on back’ bvye11 ‘comb’ cye11 ‘waterfall’ gun31 ‘fishing net’ gvong11‘coffin’ gvyo31 ‘tripod’

    381

    hap1 ‘carrying pole’ 31 kum ‘door’ lai11 ‘bow’ mvyang55 ‘(set of) bellows’ mvyuq5‘town’ ngyap1 ‘pair of tongs’ zyong11‘school’ syam31byang31‘scabbard-and-knife’

    • The morpheme ‘lump’ specifically refers to a lump-like or heart-like shape, like that of a human heart, e.g. a1-lvum11 ‘heart-like shape’ in a1-lvum11 ma54 (nom-lump LOC+FCT) ‘having a heart-like shape’. 553

    A1-bvyen55 ma54 luq1, nom–flat/slice LOC+FCT Y/N The flat one or the round one?

    a1-lvum11 ma54 luq1? nom–lump LOC+FCT Y/N

    This morpheme ‘lump’ often refers to lump-shaped organs, considering its use in the nouns u1-lvum11 (head-lump) ‘head’ and nvik5-lvum11 (heart-lump) ‘heart’. The former noun only appears with the same morpheme ‘lump’ in its function as the general specifier noun, e.g. u1-lvum11 le1-lvum11 ‘a/one head’. It may be interesting to note here that the noun nvik5-lvum11 (heart-lump) ‘heart’ only takes the specifier ‘ball’, e.g. nvik5-lvum11 le1-cyam11 ‘a/one heart’. Zaiwa also has a homophonous morpheme ‘(meat:) lean, heart’ in nvik5-lvum11 ‘heart’, nvik5-yo11 (heart-ache) ‘be angry’, nvik5-kik5 ‘be anxious’ and si1-nvik5 ‘lean meat’. In two following noun phrases on balloons, the noun ‘ball’ is used when the balloon is inflated and round, whereas the general specifier noun ‘lump’ is used when the balloon is uninflated and thus shapeless. si1-bong35 le1-cyam11 (flesh-bladder one-ball) ‘an/one inflated balloon’ si1-bong35 le1-lvum11 (flesh-bladder one-lump) ‘an/one uninflated balloon’

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    Most musical instruments are referred to by the specifier nouns ‘ball’ or ‘long object’, because of their specifically round or long shape. An exception is zyang31gvung11 le1-lvum11 ‘a/one Jew’s harp’. Also compare bvi55 le1-lvum11 ‘a/one wind-instrument’, which can have any shape, as contrasted by the rather long-shaped sam55-bvi55 le1-kat5 ‘a/one bamboo flute’. • ‘one of a pair’ and ‘pair’ The morphemes ‘pair’ and ‘one of a pair’ form an interesting pair of specifier nouns, since they both refer to any kind of objects that normally appear in two, e.g. shoes and socks, chopsticks, as well as body parts such as arms and ears. koi55zvue11 le1-zum35 (chopsticks one-pair) ‘one pair of chopsticks’ dung31 le1-kon55 (wing one-one.of.a.pair) ‘one wing’ In the noun phrase sau55-hai11 le1-zum35 (shoe-shoe one-pair) ‘one pair of shoes’, the specifier ‘pair’ refers to shoes in pairs. The noun phrase sau55-hai11 sum11-kon55 (shoe-shoe three-one.of.a.pair) ‘three shoes’, however, refers to three individual shoes, thus possibly each belonging to different pairs. Also compare the following examples. 554

    Nang35 sau55-hai11 le1-kon55 ha31 2SG.PO shoe–shoe one–one.of.a.pair where lo35 bue31? go(back/up) P+I Where has [the other] one of your (SG) shoes gone?

    555

    Yvang54 myoq1-zi35 i55-hon55 rvoq5 3SG+FCT eye–ball/seed two–one.of.a.pair DEF 1 zit byuq1 bue31. stopped.up lose P+I She has gone blind in both eyes.

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    383

    • Time and action specifiers The discussion in Section 9.39, of the nouns used for specifying actions and matters of time, also includes some specific specifier nouns. • Money Money in Zaiwa is referred to as , which literally expresses ‘silver’ and is also glossed as such. When making statements on specific amounts of money, the specifiers

    11 ‘thousand/ten.cent’ and ‘ten.thousand/Yuan’ are used, referring to ten-cent pieces, in Chinese 角 jiǎo and to the Chinese basic currency 元 Yuán respectively. Mi11wa11-ngun31 le1-hing55 ‘one Chinese ten-cent’ Myen31-ngun31 le1-hing55 ‘one Burmese ten-cent’ The morphemes ‘thousand/ten.cent’ and ‘ten.thousand/Yuan’ are also used as numeral counting units. The morpheme ‘thousand/ten.cent’ can also express ‘thousand’, and the morpheme ‘ten.thousand/Yuan’ can also express ‘ten-thousand’. When the two latter morphemes are used as numerals, the augmentative suffix is often added to them, making explicit that these two forms are used as numerals and do not refer to money. Cf. le1-hing55 ‘one ten-cent piece’ vs. le1-hing55-mo35 ‘one thousand’ and also le1-mun11 ‘one Yuán’ vs. le1-mun11-mo35 ‘ten-thousand’. 556

    Nang31

    ngo31

    r55

    ngun31 le1-mun11 2SG 1SG OBJ silver one–ten.thousand/Yuan byam11 zvi11 bi11 raq5. jump(ipf) borrow/lend give VO Lend (SG) me one Yuan please.

    • remaining specifier nouns The remaining Zaiwa specifier nouns are listed below. • The morpheme ‘sentence’ is the measure noun for sentences or strophes, e.g. dang11 le1-kun11 ‘one sentence’ ( ‘words’) and me1-kon31 le1-kun11 (words-sing one-sentence) ‘one stanza out of a song’.

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    Dang11 hau55-hun11 r55 ngo31 i1kyet1rung31 words the/that–sentence OBJ 1SG dislike(ipf) dik1 r55. extreme PE I am very much unwilling to hear that phrase.

    • The morpheme expresses ‘track’ or ‘trace’. 44 In sentence (558), the morpheme is used as a specifier noun, after the numeral prefix ‘one’. It is not sure whether this word and ‘look for’, e.g. (559), are one morpheme. 558

    Le1-ko31 ze11 dong11 r55. (ipf) one–track only lead/connect PE There’s only one footprint. / There’s only one track.

    559

    Nang31

    ka55-hu55 ho11 lye31? 2SG Q–sort look.for(ipf) also+I What are you (SG) looking for?

    • The noun is specifically used as specifier noun for guns, e.g. mi1-um31 le1-pu11 (fire-gun one-gun(Sp)) ‘a/one gun’. • The morpheme expresses ‘line of writing’ and has only been attested as a specifier without a head noun. 560

    I55-kok1 mvit5 ra54 two–line.of.writing leave.over need+FCT Don’t forget to leave two blank lines.

    ke5-dvo31mvi55. PHB–forget

    44 The word kyi31 -ko31 (leg/foot-track/trace) expresses ‘footprint’, as illustrated by

    the following examples, and dam31-ho31 (wound-track/trace) expresses ‘scar’. 31

    1

    No11 ki31-ko31 dvai31 lye . cattle leg/foot–track follow.tracks(ipf) also+I I am following the tracks of some cattle.

    2

    Ki31-ko31 nang31 dvong11 wu35-aq5. leg/foot–track tread(ipf) clearly(ipf) look–SIM Tread firmly (SG) so that your footprints are easy to see.

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    • The morpheme expresses ‘spot, place’. This word is also used as a specifier noun. The morpheme ‘spot, place’ is never used with a head noun. 561

    Ke5-mvyo55 wo31 lvoq5 cyeq5 Q–much(B) spot ACT tear At how many spots are you wounded?

    am54? PFM+FCT

    562

    Le1-wo31 ze1-me55 syut5 r55. one–spot only–LOC wrong PE I had only one mistake. / (Lit.:) I had a mistake at only one spot.

    The idiosyncratic expression wui31-wo31 ho31 (laugh-spot look.for) ‘make jokes’, containing the same morpheme ‘spot, place’, expresses ‘make jokes’. 563

    Wui31-wo31 ke5-ho31 loq1-o31, ngo31 laugh–spot PHB–look.for no.more–HIGH+I 1SG 1 35 a -wo wui31 loq1. NEG–have laugh no.more Stop making jokes, I can’t stand laughing anymore.

    564

    Wui31-wo31 ke5-ho31. laugh–spot PHB–look.for Don’t make jokes. [also: How funny!]

    • The noun is the Zaiwa measure noun for books and exercise-books etc. and appears to be a loan from English ‘book’, e.g. mau11sau11 le1-buk11 (paper / book one-book) ‘one book / exercise - book, etc’. • The morpheme expresses ‘(meat, fish:) (a) string of …’ (pierced onto a bamboo strip), e.g. syo11 le1-byau11 ‘one string of meat (lumps)’, nge5-zo11 le1-byau11 ‘one string of fish/fishes’. • The morpheme dung11 is the measure noun for pieces of textile such as clothing, mats etc., e.g. bu11 le1-dung11 (clothes one-piece(Sp)) ‘one piece of clothing’, sai55-tung55 le1-dung11 (mat-wickerwork one-piece(Sp)) ‘one mat’.

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    • The morpheme ‘small end’ is a measure noun which seems to be specifically used for the tip of the tongue, e.g. syo31 le1-dvut5-zo11 (tongue one-small.end-child) ‘a little tip of the tongue’. Section 9.36 below discusses the specifier nouns ‘kind’ and ‘sort’. Some other nouns used as specifier nouns will be discussed in Section 9.37 on the numeral prefix ‘one …’. First, Section 9.35 below discusses a group of nouns that refer to certain positions, and which, like normal specifier nouns, can also be combined with the demonstrative prefixes. I shall call these nouns the positional specifier nouns. 9.35

    POSITIONAL SPECIFIER NOUNS

    The Zaiwa positional specifier nouns are a group of nouns that all refer to certain positions, and which, like normal specifier nouns, can also be combined with the demonstrative prefixes. The following positional specifier nouns have been attested. • the morpheme ‘area’, e.g. in sentence (565), in se1boi31 hi55-long31 (table this-area) ‘somewhere near this table’ as well as in Loi11lung35 hi55-long31 me55 (toponym this-area LOC) ‘in the area around Loilung’ 565

    No11 hi55-du11 ge11 hi55-long31 me55 up1 cattle this–being TOP this–area LOC dominate zo31 lye31. eat(ipf) also+I This buffalo dominates the other buffaloes in this area.

    • The morpheme ‘hill’, e.g. hye55-gvong11 (same.elevation-hill) ‘on the opposite hill’. • The morpheme ‘crossroads’, e.g. mvo55-kyet1 (below-crossroads) ‘the crossroads below there’ and hye55-kyet1 (same.elevation-crossroads) ‘the crossroads there at the same elevation’.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    387

    • The morpheme ‘corner’ can both be used after a demonstrative prefix, e.g. (566), or after other nouns, expressing ‘the corner of …’, e.g. (567). 566

    Hau55-zyut1 me55 ho31-aq1. the/that–corner LOC look.for–SIM Look (SG) for it in that corner.

    567

    Kum11-zyut5 me55 ho31-aq1. door–corner LOC look.for–SIM Look (SG) for it in the corner of the doorway.

    • The morpheme ‘(go to the) opposite side’ can both be used as an intransitive verb ‘to go to the opposite side of a certain place’ or as a positional specifier noun expressing ‘the opposite side of some place’. The sentences given below illustrate both functions, except sentence (572), where it is only used as a verb. The position referred to by the morpheme ‘(go to the) opposite side’ is more specific than ‘behind’, since any side of a certain object can be referred to, depending on which demonstrative prefix is used. Also compare Meng11mau11 hu55-lut1 byu31 (Ruili above-(go.to).opp.side man/woman) ‘a person from the opposite side of Ruili’. 568

    Hye55-lut1 pyang31 ye31 same.elevation–(go.to).opp.side DIR go (away/down) gvoq1. DIE Let’s (DU.IN) go towards the other side [of the building, at the same elevation].

    569

    Se5-gam31 hi55-lut1 pyang31 tree–tree(B) this–(go.to).opp.side DIR lut1 lo35 bue31. (go.to).opp.side go(back/up) P+I He went in the direction of the side of the tree facing us.

    570

    Se5-gam31 tree–tree(B)

    mvo55-lut1 pyang31 below–(go.to).opp.side DIR

    388

    CHAPTER NINE

    lut1 lo35 bue31. (go.to).opp.side go(back/up) P+I He went in the direction of the lower side of the back of the tree. 571

    Me1-gvoq5 hye55-lut1 (female)–eld-sister same.elevation–(go.to).opp.side lut1 lo35 bue31. (go.to).opp.side go(back/up) P+I Eldest sister went over to the other side [at the same elevation].

    572

    Nga35-nvik5 U5dvyeng55-bva55 lut1 1PO–duo (village.name)–flatlands (go.to).opp.side lo35 gvoq1 ma11. go(back/up) DIE ROUS Let’s (DU) go to Udvyeng-dale [on the other side of the hill].

    and the reply: 573 Nang31

    lut1 lo35-aq5, ngo31 2SG (go.to).opp.side go (back/up)–SIM 1SG a1-lut1 lo31 loq1. NEG–(go.to).opp.side come(back/up) no.more You (SG) go to the other side, I am not going [back there] anymore.

    The morpheme ‘(go to) the opposite side of a certain place’(vi) is the simplex member of a simplex-directive verb pair, together with ‘move to the opposite side of a certain place’(vt). 574

    Hi55-lut1 du35 lvut5 this–(go.to).opp.side throw move.to.opp.side gvan31-aq1. put.into*–SIM Throw it over to this side.

    575

    Du35 lvut5 gvan31-aq1. throw move.to.opp.side put.into*–SIM Throw (SG) it over to this side.

    389

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    576

    Du35 lvut5 lye31-o55. throw move.to.opp.side also+I–HIGH I’m now throwing it to your side!

    The morpheme ‘attach’(vt) is either used as a regular verb or as a positional specifier noun. When used as a verb, the morpheme ‘attach’(vt) either expresses the notion ‘attach’(vt), e.g. (577), ‘mingle with’, e.g. (578), or ‘reach the other side of a river’, e.g. (579) and (580). When ‘attach’(vt) is used as a positional specifier noun after ‘that on the same height’, it refers to specific river sides, e.g. (580) and (581). lye31. also+I

    577

    Yo35pyau11 dvap5 postage.stamp attach I’m sticking stamps.

    578

    Ne1-zo11 lye35 dvap5 cattle–child come(away/down) attach Let (PL) the calf join the other cattle.

    579

    Gu31 dvap5 (ipf) wade attach Wade (PL) across.

    gvat5 put.into

    gveq5. PLIM

    gveq5. PLIM

    580

    Nang31

    hye55-dvap5 pyang31 2SG same.elevation–attach DIR dvap5 ye31-aq1. attach go(away/down)–SIM Wade (SG) from this side to the other.

    gu31 wade(ipf)

    581

    Ngo31 hye55-dvap5 pyang31 lo35 1SG same.elevation–attach DIR go(back/up) ra31 dut1 bue31. need+I become P+I I have to get back to the other side of the river.

    390 9.36

    CHAPTER NINE

    ‘SORT’, ‘KIND’ AND OTHER MORPHEMES; THE SAME OR NOT THE SAME?

    In this section I compare the meaning and use of various Zaiwa nouns for sorts and kinds, and particularly ‘sort’ and ‘kind’. The noun ‘kind’ focuses on comparison between certain entities, whereas ‘sort’ focuses on their categorisation. This explains the difference between sentences (582) and (583), which form a minimal pair. This also explains why ‘sort’ would be considered incorrect in sentence (584), where ‘kind’ is used instead. The use of ‘sort’ in sentence (584) would render the odd meaning: ‘is it the same sort of tastiness?’. These sentences also illustrate the fact that the noun phrases containing ‘one …’ and either ‘sort’ or ‘kind’ are always combined with the limitative morpheme ‘only’. 582

    Yvang55-nvik5 le1-hu55 ze11 no11 3PL–duo one–sort only pain/ill/disease(ipf) a1-gvo31 ga31. nom–PL+I perceive+I They (DU) have exactly the same disease.

    583

    Yvang55-nvik5 le1-zyung11 ze11 3PL–duo one–kind only 31 31 1 a -gvo ga . nom–PL+I perceive+I They (DU) are in just as much pain.

    584

    Le1-zyung11 ze11 one–kind only Is it just as tasty?

    ngvam31 tasty(ipf)

    no11 pain/ill/disease(ipf)

    r55

    luq1?

    PE

    Y/N

    Since ‘sort’ focuses on categorisation, it can also be used as a specifier noun for all kinds of complex units, such as sorts of crop, e.g. (585), animals, e.g. (586), types of liquor or specific dishes, e.g. (587), but also clans, e.g. (588), and nationalities, e.g. a1myu31 mi11-hu55 (nationality four-sort) ‘four nationalities’, and also songs, e.g. me1-kon31 le1-hu55 ‘a/one song’, curses, e.g. long31 le1-hu55 (curse

    391

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    one-sort) ‘a/one curse’, languages, e.g. ga35-hu55 ming35 (other-sort language) ‘other languages’, and films, e.g. (589). 585

    Ga35-hu55 guq1 a1-wo35 le1-luq1? other–sort unhusked.rice NEG–have no.more–Y/N Aren’t there any other types of unhusked rice?

    586

    Ga35-hu55 du11sat5 ge11 byu31 r55 other–sort animal TOP man/woman OBJ gyuq1 lye31, lo11 ze11 a1-gyuq1. afraid also+I tiger/bull only NEG–afraid The other animals are afraid of man, only the tiger is not afraid.

    587

    Zang11-sun11 ke5-mvyo55 hu55 rice/food–veg/dish Q–much(B) sort dvo31 lye31? place(vt)(ipf) also+I How many dishes are you preparing?

    588

    Lue11 ge11 yvang31 (name) TOP 3SG(GEN) Le is his clan name.

    589

    Dvaq5sin55 ke5-mvyo55 hu55 bvyaq5 a1-gvo31 ga31? movie Q–much(B) sort perform nom–PL+I perceive+I How many movies are they playing?

    hu55 sort

    rvang31 make(ipf)

    ngvut5 be

    lye31. also+I

    In the Zaiwa of Loilung, the normal word for ‘what’ is ka55-hu55 or ha55-hu55, i.e. the combination of the general interrogative pronominal prefix and ‘sort’. The following sentences exemplify the use of ka55-hu55/ ha55-hu55 ‘what’. Sentence (590) illustrates that the latter word can also can be used in an indefinite way, apart from in an interrogative way, e.g. (591). In sentences (595) and (596), where ‘sort’, more specifically, refers to certain clan names. 590

    Ka55-hu55 Q–sort

    r11 also

    a1-bo31 loq1. NEG–contain no.more

    392

    CHAPTER NINE

    There is nothing in it anymore. 591

    Nang31

    ka55-hu55 a1zeng35 2SG Q–sort thing What things did you (SG) buy?

    wui25 buy+FCT

    592

    Ka55-hu55 o11? Q–sort REF What? / What did you/she/he/they say?

    593

    Ke5-ngi35 ge11 ha55-hu55 before–day TOP Q–sort What would today’s date be?

    ta11? GI

    bui31-ngi31 sun–date

    594

    Ka55-hu31-eq1 sut5 ra31? Q–sort#–AG/I wipe/polish need+I What shall we use to wipe/polish it?

    595

    Nang31

    596

    Nang31

    la11? UNC

    ka55-hu55 zo11 ngvut5 lye31? 2SG Q–sort child be also+I What family [name] do you (SG) belong to? ka55-hu55 zyan35 ngvut5 2SG Q–sort wife be The wife of which family are you?

    lye31? also+I

    In Longchuan, and probably in some other areas as well, the regular word for ‘what’ is either ‘what’ or hai31-zyung11 (what-kind). The exact difference in the use of these two latter Longchuan forms is not known yet. Other interesting constructions containing ‘sort’ and ‘kind’ in Zaiwa of Loilung are: le1-hu55-hu55 za54 (one-kind-kind only+FCT) and le1-zyung11-zyung11 za54 (one-sort-sort only+FCT), consisting of the prefix ‘one’, a reduplicated ‘sort’ or ‘kind’ and the form za54 (only+FCT). Both constructions apparently express the same meaning, viz. ‘one and the same’, since my principal informant claimed that sentences (597) and (598) express exactly the same meaning. The form za54 (only+FCT) in these two constructions is the combination of the limitative morpheme

    393

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    ‘only’ and the factitive marker and normally refers to prevalent features. Sentence (599) is another example of the same construction with ‘kind’. 597

    Zang11-sun11 hi55-nvik5 ge11 rice/food–veg/dish this–duo TOP le1-zyung11-zyung11 za54 luq1? one–kind–kind only+FCT Y/N Are these two dishes the same?

    598

    Zang11-sun11 hi55-nvik5 ge11 rice/food–veg/dish this–duo TOP 54 1 za luq ? only+FCT Y/N Are these two dishes the same?

    599

    Byu31-nvik5 ga31 r11 ge11 (ipf) man/woman–duo perceive also TOP le1-zyung11-zyung11 za54. one–kind–kind only+FCT These two people are exactly the same.

    le1-hu55-hu55 one–sort–sort

    The noun ‘kind’ also has a stressed variant . Both variants are used in the following sentence. 600

    Hi55-zyung31 a1-o31, hi55-zyung11 this–kind NEG–want/take this–kind syeq1 o31 ra31. au.contraire want/take need+I I don’t want this one, I’ll have this one instead.

    • The morpheme can not be translated. This morpheme appears to be only used in the construction le1-pok1-pok1 za54 ‘(to be) birds of a feather’, referring to bad habits shared by certain persons. 601

    Le1-pok1pok1 one–identical a1-gvam31 (ipf) NEG–want.to

    za54, mu35 ge11 only+FCT work(N) TOP zui11 gvo54. touch/work(V) PL+FCT

    394

    CHAPTER NINE

    They are birds of a feather, both unwilling to work. • The noun ‘appearance’ is used in similar contexts and focuses on misleading appearances. 602

    Nga35

    dyen11she11 nang35 dyen11she11 1PO television 2SG.PO television le1-suen31 ze11 a1-ngvut5 kai31? one–appearance only NEG–be SUG+I My television and yours (SG) aren’t the same, are they?

    603

    Yvang55-nvik5 ge11 le1-suen31 ze1-bue31 ga31. 3PL–duo TOP one–appearance only–P+I perceive+I Those two people look the same. [whereas one of them is a bad one disguised as a good one]

    604

    Nga35-nvung55 ge11 le1-suen31 za54 1PO–1ND.IN TOP one–appearance only+FCT 31 11 5 bang ngvut lye . PNO be also+I We (ND.IN) appear to be just the same. [the same family name but not really related] / We (ND.IN) are of the same kind. [character, nationality, occupation, etc.]

    9.37 BITS AND PARTS; NOUNS THAT ARE ONLY USED AFTER THE PREFIX ‘ONE’, AND A COMPARISON WITH ‘FOLD’

    This section discusses the Zaiwa nouns that refer to ‘bits’ and ‘parts’ or that refer to certain specific grades or multitudes. These nouns have as a common feature that they are only used after the prefix ‘one’, just like some of the nouns discussed in the previous section. This section discusses the following morphemes.



    ‘(a) bit’ ‘considerable part’ ‘tiny little bit’ ‘patch’ ‘equal’

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY



    395

    ‘half’ ‘fold’

    • The noun ‘bit’ is only used in le1-zvui55 (ze11) ‘(only) a bit’, as illustrated by the following examples, or also reduplicated in le1- zvui55-zvui55 (ze11) ‘(only) a little bit’, e.g. (608). 605

    606

    Le1-zvui55 zyat1 bi11 one–bit add give Add a little more, please.

    raq5. VO

    Le1-zvui55 r11 a1-zo11. one–bit also NEG–eat I won’t eat anything. / I didn’t eat anything.

    The noun le1-zvui55 ‘a bit’ can also be used as an adverb. 607

    Ngo31

    le1-zvui55 1SG one–bit I’m a bit sleepy.

    608

    Ngo31

    yvup5 sleep

    le1-zvui55-zvui55 1SG one–bit–bit I’m a little bit sleepy.

    nvau11 r55. (ipf) feel.like PE yvup5 sleep

    nvau11 r55. (ipf) feel.like PE

    The morpheme ‘bit’ can also be reduplicated. 609

    Gai31, le1-zvui55 hui11-aq5. (come.on!) one–bit make.way/meet–SIM Come on, make (SG) some way.

    • The following examples illustrate the use of the noun ‘considerable part’ in le1-wam11 ‘a considerable part’. The morpheme ‘considerable part’ may be the same as the noun ‘belly’ or otherwise is homophonous. 610

    Nga35 i31-pue11

    le1-wam11 be1-syu31-aq1. 1PO distilled–booze one–considerable.part help–drink*–SIM Drink (SG) some of my booze.

    396

    CHAPTER NINE

    611

    Le1-wam11 lo35 be1-gvo31. one–considerable.part go(back/up) P–PL+I Many [about half] of them have left.

    612

    Le1-wam11 a1-ban11 sue55, one–considerable.part NEG–use.up(ipf) know myo11-pyang31 ge11 sue31 lye31. (ipf) much–DIR TOP know also+I There is a lot of it I don’t know but the greater part of it I do know.

    • According to my informant, the noun ‘tiny little bit’ refers to amounts that are less than ‘bit’. 613

    Le1-pyek1-zo11 bi11 one–tiny.bit–child give Give me a tiny little bit.

    raq5. VO

    • The expression le1-dvong55-zo11 expresses ‘a/one (little) patch’, e.g. mau11sau11 le1-dvong55-zo11 ‘a patch of paper’, and the following sentence. 614

    Ngo31 si1-gvyoq5-si11-yo31 le1-dvong55-zo11 wo35 lye31. 1SG fruit–mango–fruit–land one–patch–child have also+I I have a little patch of mango trees.

    • The morpheme ‘equal’ can both be used as a verb and as a noun. When used as a verb, it expresses ‘be in balance’, in a fixed combination with the noun ‘balance’. The latter noun is either only used in this construction or could be the same morpheme as ‘loom’. 615

    Gan11 a1-wui35. balance NEG–equal I’m not in balance. / It’s not in balance.

    616

    Gan11 wui35 bue31. balance equal P+I I’m well in balance. / It’s well in balance.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    397

    The morpheme ‘equal’ forms part of a simplex-causative verb pair, together with ‘compare’. 617

    Nang35 loq1-ngyui11-eq5 nga35 2SG.PO hand/arm–finger/toe–COM 1PO 1 11 loq -ngyui , o55-yuq1 zye11 heng11 hand/arm–finger/toe who–person exceed long(ipf) lye54 lu55 wvui31 wu35 gvoq1. (ipf) also+FCT MIR compare look DIE Let’s (DU) compare whose fingers are longer. / (Lit.:) My fingers and your fingers, whose would be the longest, let’s (DU) compare.

    The expression le1-wui35 (one-equal) refers to a quantity which is equal to a quantity in the given context. The meaning of this form can either be used in a noun-like sense, like ‘equals, equal parts’, or in an adverbial sense, like ‘just as much’. The most interesting thing about this expression is that its meaning can also be used in various other senses, viz. ‘half’ and ‘twice as much’, as will be explained below. When the form le1-wui35 (one-equal) refers to certain portions, it can naturally only be translated as ‘half’, since equal portions are always halves, e.g. (618) and (619). Whenever le1-wui35 (one-equal) refers to halves, these are the halves of certain quantities/amounts. Zaiwa has another noun, viz. ‘half of one single entity’, that only refers to halves of single entities, for example as the result of cutting or tearing, e.g. he5-syau55 le1-kyam11 ‘half a watermelon’. The difference between these two morphemes is illustrated by sentence (619), containing le1-wui35 (one-equal), and (620), containing le1-kyam11 (one-half) ‘one half of one single entity’. 618

    Nang31

    yvang11 r55

    2SG

    3SG

    OBJ

    le1-wui35 gam31 bi11-aq5. one–equal divide/share give–SIM

    Give (SG) her half of it. 619

    Le1-sue31-mun11 one–ten–ten.thousand/Yuan gam31 gvoq1. divide/share DIE

    r55 OBJ

    le1-yuq1 one–person

    le1-wui35 one–equal

    398

    CHAPTER NINE

    Let’s (DU.IN) share that ten Yuan fifty-fifty. 620

    Le1-sue31-mun11 r55 le1-yuq1 one–ten–ten.thousand/Yuan OBJ one–person le1-kyam11 gam31 gvoq1. one–half divide/share DIE Let’s (DU.IN) both take one half of that ten Yuan note. [after tearing it in two]

    The combination of le1-wui35 (one-equal) with the comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)) refers to the double of a given quantity and can be translated as ‘twice as much’, or literally as ‘one equal part more than …’. 621

    Ngo31

    nang31

    r55

    1SG

    2SG

    OBJ

    a1sak1 age

    gvo31 lye31. (ipf) big also+I I’m twice as old as you (SG). 622

    Yvang11 3SG 11

    yvang11

    r55

    3SG

    OBJ

    le1-wui35 one–equal

    le1-wui35 one–equal

    lai31 pass(ipf)

    lai31 pass(ipf)

    55

    mvyang r . tall/high(ipf) PE He’s twice as tall as her. 623

    Yvang11

    yvang11

    r55

    3SG

    3SG

    OBJ

    ngun31 silver

    lai31 wo35 lye31. (ipf) pass have also+I He has twice as much money as him.

    le1-wui35 one–equal

    When certain qualities are referred to, such as relative strength and age, the form le1-wui35 (one-equal) is used in a sense which holds between a nominal constituent that can be translated as ‘equals, equal parts’, or an adverb translated as ‘just as much’. The form le1-wui35 (one-equal) in this use is normally followed by the limitative morpheme ‘only’, unless the main verb is omitted, e.g. (625). In sentence (626), le1-wui35 (one-equal) forms part

    399

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    of an adverbial clause le1-wui35 ze1-gvut5 (one-equal only-do) ‘doing it in equal ways’. ze11 gvo31 lye31. only big(ipf) also+I

    624

    Nga35-nvung55 a1sak1 le1-wui35 1PO–1ND.IN age one–equal We (ND.IN) are the same age.

    625

    Nung35-nvik5 wum11 le1-wui35 2PL–duo power one–equal You (DU) are just as strong.

    626

    Le1-wui35 ze1-gvut5 one–equal only–do Divide (SG) it equally.

    a1-gvo31. nom–PL+I

    gam31-aq1. divide/share–SIM

    Matters such as shoe size and body length are not qualities but rather a kind of more complex quantities and cannot be referred to by le1-wui35 (one-equal), considering the rejection of sentences (627) and (629). In such cases, the use of le1-zyung11 (one-kind) ‘the same kind’, is preferred, cf. (628) and (630). 627

    * Yvang55-nvik5 sau55-hai11 le1-wui35 3PL–duo shoe–shoe one–equal gvo31 a1-gvo31. big(ipf) nom–PL+I Their (DU) shoes are of an equal size.

    ze11 only

    628

    Yvang55-nvik5 sau55-hai11 le1-zyung11 3PL–duo shoe–shoe one–kind 31 31 1 gvo a -gvo . big(ipf) nom–PL+I Their (DU) shoes are just as big.

    629

    * Yvang55-nvik5 le1-wui35 3PL–duo one–equal They (DU) are just as tall.

    ze11 only

    630

    Yvang55-nvik5 le1-zyung11 3PL–duo one–kind

    ze11 mvyang11 a1-gvo31. only tall/high(ipf) nom–PL+I

    ze11 only

    mvyang11 a1-gvo31. tall/high(ipf) nom–PL+I

    400

    CHAPTER NINE

    They (DU) are just as tall. • ‘fold’ vs. ‘equal’ The only numeral to be combined with ‘equal’ is ‘one …’. The morpheme ‘equal’ cannot be used in too mathematical a sense, since when notions like ‘twice or thrice as much’ are to be expressed, another noun ‘fold’ is used instead, e.g. (631) and (632). In this meaning, this morpheme ‘fold’ has only been attested in i55-sum11 dvu55 (two-three fold) ‘twice or trice as much’, i.e. neither with the numeral prefix ‘one’ nor with the limitative adverb ‘only’ after it.45 631

    Meng11mau11 ge11 Nong35dau31 r55 Ruili TOP Nongdao OBJ i55-sum11-dvu55 lai31 wue31 lye31. two–three–fold pass(ipf) far(ipf) also+I Ruili is two or three times as far as Nongdao.

    632

    Meng11mau11 ge11 Nong35dau31 r55 Ruili TOP Nongdao OBJ i55-sum11-dvu55 lai31 ngon35 r55. two–three–fold pass(ipf) pleasant PE Ruili is two or three times more fun than Nongdao.

    9.38

    ‘ONE’ EXPRESSING THE SPECIAL NOTION ‘THE WHOLE’

    The Zaiwa numeral ‘one …’ normally indicates the singularity of the entities denoted by the nouns to which it is prefixed, but can also express an additional notion ‘the whole’, as I shall set out below. 45 The same morpheme ‘fold’, however, is also used as a specifier noun indicating a stretch of sugar cane, bamboo etc., i.e. what is between two of the many ribs of the stalk. 1

    Pung11syui31 le1-dvu55 lang31 kyui11 bi11 raq5. sugar.cane one–fold pull/yank(ipf) bend give VO Break off one stretch of sugar cane for me. [A stretch is what is between two ribs]

    401

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    In the construction le1-bvyat1 (one-lifetime) ‘one’s whole lifetime’, the numeral ‘one …’ expresses the additional notion ‘the whole’. 633

    Nga35-nvik5 i5-mvyo55 zum11 ngon35-Ø (ipf) 1PO–duo SPEC–much(B) consort pleasant–FCT ge11 le1-bvyat1 lvang55 a1-dat1 dvo31mvi31 (ipf) TOP one–lifetime even NEG–able forget 31 55 am kai . PFM

    SUG+I

    I guess that I will never ever forget how the two of us got along so well. The numeral ‘one …’ also expresses the additional notion ‘the whole’ in the construction le1 - Noun bang11 (one-Noun PNO), containing the plural nominaliser . This is illustrated by: le1-yvum11 bang11 ‘all the people of the house’, le1-zyong11 bang11 ‘all people of the school’, le1-ci1-rung31 bang11 ‘all people of the hospital’. It is only in this particular type of construction that the plural nominaliser is not used after verbs but after nouns. The additional notion ‘the whole …’ expressed by the numeral ‘one …’ is also relevant in the constructions le1-nap1-bui31 (one-morning-sun) ‘the whole morning’ and le1-ngi35-bui31 (one-day-sun) ‘the whole day’. The latter construction either literally expresses ‘the whole day’, e.g. (635), or, metaphorically, ‘for a long time’, e.g. (636). 634

    Le1-nap1 bui31 bat1 gve5lvang11 one–morning sun beat although a1-gue11 ren31. (ipf) NEG–all.right win Even though I played the whole morning, I didn’t win.

    635

    Ngo31 a1-ngi35-nap1 le1-ngi35-bui31 1SG nom–day–morning one–day–sun Yesterday I slept the whole day.

    636

    Le1-ngi35-bui31 one–day–sun

    mut1 blow

    gve5lvang11 although

    yvup5 gvyop5. sleep tuck.away

    a1-wo35 NEG–have

    402

    CHAPTER NINE

    mut1 dvang11. blow let.fly I’ve blown at it quite a while, but I couldn’t blow it up into the air. The construction le1-meng54, consisting of ‘one …’ and the noun ‘world’, marked by the factitive marker, expresses ‘in the whole area of …’, as illustrated by the following sentences. 637

    Long11cyon11 le1-meng54 lo35 Longchuan one–world+FCT go(back/up) gvun55 gvoq1. play DIE Let’s (DU.IN) travel around in Longchuan.

    lam35 ramble

    638

    Le1-meng54 byeq1-byeq1 one–world+FCT tight.to.the.ground–tight.to.the.ground gvut5 ke5-zung31. do PHB–sit Don’t stick your ass into all places in the world. / Don’t stick your ass into each and every place.

    639

    Le1-meng54 ke5-hat5 dai31 wun35. one–world+FCT PHB–pursue speak(ipf) wherever Don’t go around telling things everywhere.

    The construction le1-zan31, consisting of ‘one …’ and ‘year, summer’, expresses ‘the (whole) year’. 640

    Le1-zan31-tong11 me55 zye11 ngon35 ge11 one–summer/year–roll LOC exceed pleasant TOP sung11 bue31. spring P+I Of all seasons of the year, spring is the most pleasant.

    The construction le1-zyum31-mo35, consisting of ‘one …’ before ‘crowd’ and the augmentative suffix , expresses ‘as one big crowd’.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    641

    403

    I5-nvung55 le1-zyum31-mo35 gvut5 ye31 syang55. SPEC–1ND.IN one–crowd–AUG do go(away/down) JUS Let’s (ND.IN) go there in one big group.

    Also compare the following sentence, where ‘one …’ is used in le1-bvo31 ‘as wide as my arms indicate’. Here, the morpheme ‘embrace’ specifically refers to arm gestures indicating sizes. 642

    le1-bvo31 bo11 r55 mai31! 2SG one–embrace contain(ipf) PE OBV+I You (SG) are as fat as my arms can embrace now! Nang31

    In the two following sentences, the construction le1-gu35 (one-bed) expresses ‘the whole bed’, referring to one bed for the given person himself. 643

    Nang31

    le1-gu35 yvum31-aq1. 2SG one–bed sleep*–SIM Sleep (SG) on a bed of your own.

    644

    Ngo31

    9.39

    EXPRESSING TIME - WHAT’S THE TIME?

    le1-gu35 me55 yvup5 1SG one–bed LOC sleep I will sleep on a bed of my own.

    ra31. need+I

    • ‘time, hour’ and a1-king55 (nom-time) ‘time’ The noun ‘time, hour’ is used in three different ways. (1) First, ‘time, hour’ forms part of the noun a1-king55 (nom-time) expressing ‘time’, ‘time for doing something’. 645

    646

    Yvup5-dvoq5 a1-king55 zye35 sleep–get.up nom–time arrive It’s time to get up.

    bue31.

    Ngo31

    gve5lvang11 although

    1SG

    gvam31 ye31 (ipf) want.to go(away/down)

    P+I

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    CHAPTER NINE

    a1-king55 a1-bo31. nom–time NEG–contain Although I want to go, I have no time. Apart from when it is used in a1-king55 ‘time’, ‘time for doing something’, the noun can both be translated as ‘time’ and ‘hour(s)’. (2) When is used after numerals, it expresses ‘hour’, either in the sense of specific lengths of time (“it lasted four hours”) or for specifying hours in clock time, like English o’clock (“it’s four o’clock”). 647

    Mi11-king55 bue31. four–time P+I It’s four o’clock.

    (3) The third type of use of the noun ‘time, hour’ is in the expression ke5-mvyo55 king55 (Q-much(B) time). The latter mostly expresses ‘what (is the) time?’, thus referring to clock time, but in cases like sentence (648), containing vt. ‘need’, it refers to a specific length of time. In cases like this, depending on the context, the noun ‘time, hour’ could both be translated as ‘time’ and ‘hour(s)’. Matters of clock time are disussed further below, in the subsection entitled Clock Time. 648

    Na35i55 ke5-mvyo55 king55 ra31 r55 ta11? (ipf) clock Q–much(B) time need PE GI How much time did it take? / How many hours did it take?

    • Other important morphemes glossed ‘time’ or ‘when’ Apart from the noun ‘time, hour’, Zaiwa has various other words for expressing notions of ‘time’. The noun ‘the time that/when …’ is mostly used in conjunctions, as will be discussed in Section 18.2. The morpheme ‘when’ is a bound form pronoun only used in ke5-nvam55 (Q-when) ‘when’. The noun expresses ‘time, turn’ and is often used as specifier noun, e.g. sum11-dam31 (three-time(Sp)) ‘three times’. The morpheme is a nominalising noun expressing ‘time for …’, in the sense of ‘the

    405

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    right period for …’, or ‘season’ and is discussed in Section 9.32.5, e.g. yvup5 yvam31 (sleep time.for) ‘time to go to sleep’. • The morphemes ‘before’ and ‘behind’ in contexts of time In Zaiwa, the past is viewed as what is clearly before one, whereas the future is hidden behind present and future factors. This can be illustrated by the use of the morphemes ‘before’ and ‘behind’ in the following examples. Please note that Sections 9.17.4 and 9.19 respectively have already discussed the use of the morphemes ‘behind’ and ‘before’ in contexts of time. 649

    Sum35-zan11 he55-me55 ngo31 three(GEN)–summer/year(GEN) before–LOC 1SG Gunming lo35 ngi11-gvun54. Kunming go(back/up) be.there(anim)(ipf)–play+FCT Three years ago I went to Kunming just for fun.

    650

    Sum35-zan11 tang31 (GEN) (GEN) three –summer/year behind Gunming lo35 ra31. Kunming go(back/up) need+I I will go to Kunming in three years.

    me55

    ngo31

    LOC

    1SG

    • time suffix The time suffix expresses the notion ‘during’, i.e. that the situation indicated by the clause occurs during the period of time referred to by the time noun preceding the time suffix . E.g.: after ‘night-time’ in min35 r55 ‘at night, in the evening’ and in nuq1-poi31-nap5 lye54 nap1-gvyo55 r55 (after-no.gloss-morning also+FCT morning-morning.of.other.day TS) ‘in the morning of the day after tomorrow’. In the special construction dum11 Verb r55 dum11 Verb-Verb (again Verb TS Verb-Verb), the time suffix may also be used after verbs, as a kind of conjunctional clause marker. In the latter construction, reduplication expresses iterativity. The meaning expressed by the following example is that the act of demanding

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    things will be repeated incessantly from the very moment onwards the subject starts giving. 651

    Nang31

    a1kui31 dum11 bi11 zyang35-eq1 dum11 2SG now again give CD–AG/I again 11 55 11 11 11 5 1 dung r dum dung -dung gvut be -ra31. demand TS again demand–demand do P–need+I If you give it to her this time, she will always keep asking you for more.

    The allomorph of the time suffix is only used when this morpheme is marked by the factitive marker , as lye54 (TS+FCT). This combination is used twice in the following sentence, where the factitive marker turns the time suffix into a subordinator and a nominaliser respectively. 652

    Ke5-zan11 lye54 Me5nau11 before–summer/year(GEN) TS+FCT Menau Zum31-go35 bvoi31 a1-nvik5 lye54 consort–dance festival nom–the.other.year TS+FCT i5-mvyo55 a1-ngon35. SPEC–much(B) NEG–pleasant This year’s Menau festival wasn’t as nice as last year’s.

    basic nominal morphemes in complex time words; larger time units: • The morpheme is a specifier noun expressing ‘generation’. 653

    Sum11-zai35 byu31-gue31 rau35 three–generation man/woman–all.right promptly zue31 syang55. live.as.human JUS Let us (ND.IN) three generations of good people, live together!

    • The morpheme ‘year, summer’ is the specifier noun for years. When referring to years, no head noun is needed. • Months are referred to by noun phrases with lva55-mo35 ‘moon’ as a head noun and ‘leaf, sheet’ as a specifier noun, e.g. lva55-mo35

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    407

    le1-kyap5 ‘one month’ in sentence (654), lva55-mo35 hi55-kyap5 ‘this month’ and lva55-mo35 mvo55-kyap5 ‘next month’. 654

    Lva55-mo35 le1-kyap5 ngi11 lye31. (ipf) moon–AUG one–leaf/sheet be.there(anim) also+I I am staying one month.

    • The morpheme ‘week’ is the specifier noun for ‘week’ that normally is used together with the head noun ‘week, weekend’, e.g. (655). The morpheme ‘week’ appears to be a direct loan from Jingpo, cf. bat in Xu et al. (1983: 58), which as a noun expresses ‘go there and back’ and as a specifier noun ‘circle’ or ‘week’. The word ‘week, weekend’ is an indirect noun from Jingpo, cf. laban in Xu et al. (1983: 386), expressing ‘holiday, day of rest’ or ‘week’. 655

    I5ban11 ke5-mvyo55 week(end) Q–much(B) How many weeks ago?

    bat1 week

    bue31? P+I

    • Present prefixes and The reduced prefix allomorphs and of the morpheme ‘before’ before a time noun indicate that the given situation takes place on this ‘very’ day or in this ‘very’ year etc., e.g. ke5-nap1 ‘this morning’, ke5-min31 ‘this evening, tonight’, ke5-ngi35 ‘today’ and ke5-zan31 ‘this year, this summer’. The morpheme ‘before’ has already been discussed in Section 9.19. In he31-bat1 (before2-week) ‘the week before last week’, a special form is used, in tone /31/, which appears to be an idiosyncratic variant of the morpheme ‘before’. The use of reduced prefix allomorphs and of the morpheme ‘before’ instead of (no.gloss.yet) is prohibited. The reduced prefix allomorphs and of ‘before’ can also refer to some time in the past. The form he5-nvik5 expresses ‘the year before last year’. The form ke5-yoq1/he5-yoq1 (before-ago) ‘some time ago’ can be used in several

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    ways, mostly before specifier nouns. The morpheme ‘ago’ is only used in this combination. he5-yoq1 le1-ngi35 (before-ago one-day) ‘the day before yesterday’ he5-yoq1-ngi35 (before-ago-day) ‘some days ago’ (three days before or earlier) he5-yoq1-lving31 (before-ago-(turn).round) ‘last time’ 656

    Ngo31 he5-yoq1-bat1 mai11 sue55 1SG before–ago–week ABL know But I already knew about it last week!

    bue31

    ning31.

    P+I

    INS+I

    In the following sentence, the form ke5-yoq1/he5-yoq1 ‘some time ago’ is used as a nominal constituent in an elliptic clause. 657

    He5-yoq1 bue31. before–ago P+I [That was] some time ago.

    • last, next etc. Apart from the morpheme ‘before’ expressing present time and related notions, there are other devices for positing certain periods within time. The notions ‘this month’ and ‘this week’ are expressed with use of the prefix ‘this’ before the classifier noun, e.g. lva55-mo35 hi55-kyap5 (moon-AUG this-leaf/sheet). The pronominal prefix ‘below’ refers to coming periods, e.g. mvo55-bat1 ‘next week’ and lva55-mo35 mvo55-kyap 5 ‘next month’. This is also illustrated by the following examples. 658

    Ngo31

    mvo55-bat1 gvut5 yau35 1SG below–week do finish I am about to finish that next week.

    659

    Mvo55-bat1 ge11 yau35 below–week TOP finish It will be finished next week.

    be1-ra31. P–need+I

    be1-ra31. P–need+I

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    409

    • The four seasons In Zaiwa, the four seasons are: sung11 zan31 lai31-dvoq5-yvam31 gyoq1-myo31

    (spring) ‘spring’ (summer/year) ‘summer, year’ (wind-get.up-time.for) ‘autumn’ (cold-winter) ‘winter’

    The morpheme can both express ‘summer’, e.g. (660), and ‘year’, e.g. (661). For the same reason, the expression ke5-zan31 (before.summer/year) can both express ‘this year’ and ‘this summer’. The Zaiwa word for ‘autumn’, i.e. lai 31-dvoq5-yvam31 (wind-get.up-time.for) clearly refers to the relatively strong winds occurring in that season, as illustrated by sentence (662). The initiation of spring is referred to by the verb ‘come out’, e.g. (663). The initiation of the three other seasons is referred to by the verb ‘enter’, e.g. (664) to (666). 660

    Zan31 r55 mau11 myo31 r55. (ipf) summer/year TS sky much PE In summer there’s lots of rain.

    661

    Yvang11 a1sak1 ke5-mvyo55 zan31 bo31 bue31? 3SG age Q–much(B) summer/year contain P+I How old is she now?

    662

    Lai31 dvoq5 bue31, mi11 le1go11 gvut5 wind get.up P+I fire well do The wind is kicking up, be (PL) careful with fire.

    663

    664

    Sung11 toq5 spring come.out It’s spring. Zan31 wang31 summer/year enter It’s summer.

    bue31. P+I

    bue31. P+I

    gveq5. PLIM

    410

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    665

    Lai31 dvoq5 yvam31 wang31 bue31. wind get.up time.for enter P+I It’s autumn. / (Lit.:) It’s the time of the winds to kick up.

    666

    Gyoq1-myo31 cold–winter It’s winter.

    wang31 enter

    bue31. P+I

    • The morpheme ‘the other year’ The morpheme ‘the other year’ is used in the following expressions. a5-nvik5 (nom-the.other.year) ‘last year’ he5-nvik (before-the.other.year) ‘the year before last year’ sang31-nvik5(beginning-the.other.year) ‘next year’ nuq1-nvik5 (after-the.other.year) ‘the year after next year’ Please note that the morpheme ‘after’ in the last form is only attested as part of the latter expression and in nuq1-poi31 (after-after.tomorrow) ‘two days after tomorrow’. Other time expressions: Below I shall discuss some remaining miscellaneous Zaiwa nominal morphemes that are used for giving expression to matters of time, other than the four seasons and other larger time units. • Basic nominal morphemes in complex time words: ‘night-time’ and ‘evening’ In the below examples, two clearly etymologically related morphemes ‘night-time’, e.g. (667) and (668), and ‘evening, night’, e.g. (669), are contrasted. Whereas ‘evening, night’ is only used in complex time expressions, the morpheme ‘night-time’ forms a time expression on its own. The difference between ke5-min31 ‘this evening, tonight’ and min35 r55 ‘during night-time’ is that ke5-min31 refers to a position in time of a specific night, whereas min35 r55 rather refers to night-time in general as

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    opposed to daytime, like English ‘in the evening’, and possibly also bears a more durative connotation. 667

    Min35 zye35 bue31. night-time arrive P+I It has become evening.

    668

    Min35 r55 syeq1 wu35 syang55. night-time TS au.contraire look JUS Let’s (ND.IN) watch that in the evening. [instead of now]

    669

    He5-min31 zang11 zo11 zyang35 syuq5 before–evening rice/food eat CD drink Let’s (DU.IN) drink that at dinner.

    gvoq1. DIE

    • basic nominal morphemes in complex time words: ‘day’ and ‘day, date’ In ways that are parallel to ‘night-time’ and ‘evening’ just discussed, the morphemes ‘day’ and ‘day, date’ clearly are also etymologically related. The morpheme ‘day’ is mainly a bound form used after pronouns, e.g. in ke5-ngi35 (before-day) ‘today’, e.g. (674) further below, or as a head noun after numerals, as well as in some fixed expressions, as will all be discussed in the following subsections. In the following sentences, the morpheme ‘day’ is used after the pronoun ke5-mvyo55 (Q-much) ‘how much/many’ and after the numerals ‘two’, ‘five’ and the prefix ‘one’ respectively. ke5-mvyo55 ngi35 ngi31 si1-ra31? 2SG Q–much(B) day be.there(anim) still–need+I How many more days will you (SG) stay?

    670

    Nang31

    671

    I55-ngi35 ze11 ngi11 a1-lo31. (ipf) two–day only be.there(anim) nom–no.more+I Only two more days. / We stay two more days.

    672

    Ngo11-ngi35 le1-zyau31. five–day one–market The market is every five days.

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    The morpheme ‘day, date’ is only used in the word bui31-ngi31 (sun-date) ‘day, date’. The latter word refers to days in succession such as in specific dates. 673

    Bui31-ngi31 ge11 le1-ngi35 le1-ngi35 lye31 sun–date TOP one–day one–day also+I lai31 lo35-Ø, a1mu31 ge11 ka55-hu55 (ipf) pass go(back/up)–FCT matter TOP Q–sort r11 a1-wo35 gvut5. also NEG–have do The days have passed one by one and I haven’t been able to do anything.

    674

    Ke5-ngi35 ge11 ha55-hu55 before–day TOP Q–sort What would today’s date be?

    and the answer: 675 Bang11dvai31 bui31-ngi31 Rabbit sun–date It’s rabbit-day.

    bui31-ngi31 sun–date

    ngvut5 be

    la11? UNC

    lye31. also+I

    • The days of the week The morpheme ‘day’ is also used for indicating the days of the week, listed below. In the terms for the days of the week, the morpheme ‘week, Sunday, weekend’ is always used. The word for Monday is ‘the first day after Sunday’, and Tuesday is ‘the second day after Sunday’, etc. The morpheme ‘behind’ as a suffix expresses ‘behind’ or ‘after’. Saturday can only be referred to with use of more complex phrases like (676) and (677) below. i5ban31-ngi35 (week(end)(GEN)-day) ‘Sunday’ 5 31 31 1 35 i ban -tang le -ngi (week(end)(GEN)-behind one-day) ‘Monday’ i5ban31-tang31 i55-ngi35 (week(end)(GEN)-behind two-day) ‘Tuesday’ i5ban31-tang31 sum11-ngi35 (week(end)(GEN)-behind three-day) ‘Wednesday’ 5 31 31 i ban -tang mi11-ngi35 (week(end)(GEN)-behind four-day) ‘Thursday’ 5 31 31 11 35 i ban -tang ngo -ngi (week(end)(GEN)-behind five-day) ‘Friday’

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    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    676

    Kyuq5-ngi35 zye35 bue31. six–day arrive P+I We’ve come to Saturday. [the sixth day]

    677

    Kyuq5-ngi35 bue31. six–day P+I It’s Saturday. [the sixth day]

    As already discussed above, the word ‘week, weekend’ appears to be an indirect noun from Jingpo, cf. laban in Xu et al. (1983: 386), which expresses ‘holiday, day of rest’ or ‘week’. This form can both express ‘week’, e.g. i5ban11 sum11-bat5 ‘three weeks’, and ‘Sunday’, e.g. (678), and is also used in the words for Monday to Friday, as listed above. The same word ‘week, weekend’ can also express ‘weekend’, e.g. (679). Also borrowed from Jingpo is the verb ‘pass Sunday’. The latter word should be compared with Jingpo ban ‘be unoccupied, rest, have holiday, pass Sunday’ and laban ban ‘pass Sunday, pass day of rest’, in Xu et al. (1983: 56, 387). The Zaiwa expression i5ban11 ban11 (weekend pass.Sunday), in sentence (680), has a religious undertone. 678

    Ke5-ngi35 ge11 i5ban31-ngi35 ngvut5 (GEN) before–day TOP week(end) –day be Today it’s Sunday.

    679

    I5ban11 ka55-hu55 ngi11-gvun55 week(end) Q–sort be.there(anim)(ipf)–play What shall we do for fun this weekend?

    680

    I5ban11 ban31 lye31. week(end) pass.Sunday(ipf) also+I We are passing our Sunday.

    lye31. also+I

    ra31 la11? need+I UNC

    • basic nominal morphemes in complex time words Table 9.11 lists the complex time words expressing notions like ‘today’, ‘yesterday’, ‘tomorrow’ etc. in Zaiwa, as well as complex time words referring to parts of those days, in chronological order. Further below, I shall list all constituent morphemes.

    414 Table 9.11

    CHAPTER NINE

    Various time words referring to days and parts of days, in chronological order:

    bo11-wa31-ngi35 ‘the day that was two days before yesterday’ bo11-wa31-nap1-gvyo55 ‘the morning of the day that was two days before yesterday’ bo11-wa31-min31-tang31 ‘the afternoon of the day that was two days before yesterday’ bo11-wa31-min31 ‘the evening/night of the day that was two days before yesterday’ he5-wa31-ngi35 ‘the day before yesterday’ he5-wa31-nap1-gvyo55 ‘the morning of the day before yesterday’ he5-wa31-min31-tang31 ‘the afternoon of the day before yesterday’ he5-wa31-min31 ‘the evening/night of the day before yesterday’ a1-ngi35-nap1 ‘yesterday’ a1-ngi35-nap1-gvyo55 ‘yesterday morning’ a1man31-tang31 ‘yesterday afternoon’ 1 31 a man ‘last night’ ke5-ngi35 / he5-ngi35 ‘today’ ke5-nap1 / he5-nap1 ‘this morning’ ke5-min31-tang31/ he5-min31-tang31 ‘this afternoon’ ke5-min31 / he5-min31 ‘this evening, tonight’ naq1-ma35 naq1-ma35-gvyo55 naq1-min31-tang31 naq1-min31

    ‘tomorrow’ ‘tomorrow morning’ ‘tomorrow afternoon’ ‘tomorrow evening/night’

    sang31-pe1-nap5 ‘the day after tomorrow’ 31 1 5 55 sang -pe -nap -gvyo ‘the morning of the day after tomorrow’ nuq1-poi31-min31-tang31 ‘the afternoon of the day after tom.’ nuq1-poi31-min31 ‘the evening/night of the day after tom.’ nuq1-poi31-nap5 ‘two days after tomorrow’ nuq1-poi31-nap5 lye54 nap1-gvyo55 r55 ‘in the morning of

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    415

    two days after tomorrow’46 nuq -poi -min -tang ‘the afternoon of two days after tom.’ nuq1-poi31-min31 ‘the evening/night of two days after tom.’ 1

    31

    31

    31

    • The morpheme ‘two days ago’ is only attested before the morpheme

    ‘two/three days ago’, in bo11-wa31 (2.days.ago-2/3.days.ago), which forms part of time expressions referring to the day that was two days before yesterday. • The morpheme ‘two/three days ago’ is only attested as part of he5-wa31 (before-2/3.days.ago), in time expressions referring to the day before yesterday, and in bo11-wa31 (2.days.ago-2/3.days.ago), which is used in time expressions referring to the day that was two days before yesterday. • The morpheme expresses ‘day’, e.g. ke5-ngi35 (before-day) ‘today’. • The morpheme expresses ‘morning, e.g. ke5-nap1 (before-morning) ‘this morning’. • The suffix ‘the morning of some other day’ refers to the mornings of certain days other than the present day. • The morpheme expresses ‘evening’, e.g. ke5-min31 (before-evening) ‘this evening’. • The morpheme ‘behind’ as a verb expresses ‘to block something’ or ‘to prepare for’, as a noun expresses ‘stairs’, whereas as a suffix it expresses ‘behind, after’. In time expressions, the morpheme ‘behind’ is only used after ‘evening, night’ in min31-tang31 ‘afternoon’. • The morpheme ‘before’ has been discussed above in Section 9.19. In time expressions, the two short allomorphs and of the latter morpheme express ‘the present day’, ‘the morning of this day’, etc.

    46 This expression is periphrastic since the morpheme ‘morning’ in nuq1-poi31-nap5 ‘two days after tomorrow’ forms part of the latter fixed expression and does not specifically refer to the morning part of that day. Therefore, a second morpheme ‘morning’ is needed.

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    • The time expression a1-ngi35-nap1 ‘yesterday’ consists of the nominalising prefix and the nouns ‘day’ and ‘morning’. • The morpheme expresses ‘last night’. • The word naq1-ma35 ‘tomorrow’ consists of the morphemes ‘tomorrow’ and the allomorph of the general locative case suffix . The form ‘tomorrow’ in glottal stop /q/ is a variant of the morpheme ‘morning’ and is only used in expressions concerning ‘tomorrow’, such as naq1-ma35 ‘tomorrow’ and naq1-min31 ‘tomorrow evening/night’. • The combination sang31-pe1 (beginning-after.tomorrow) consists of ‘beginning’ and the morpheme which is tentatively translated as ‘after tomorrow’ and is only used in the following time words referring to the day after tomorrow: sang31-pe1-min31 (beginning-after.tomorrow-evening) ‘the evening of the day after tomorrow’ and in sang31-pe1-nap5 ‘the day after tomorrow’. • The morpheme ‘after’ is only attested as part of the time expressions nuq1-poi31- (after-after.tomorrow) and nuq1-nvik5 (after-the.other.year) ‘the year after next year’. • The morpheme ‘2.days.after.tomorrow’ is only attested as part of the time expression nuq1-poi31- (after-2.days.after.tomorrow) and refers to the next day. The following forms containing this form have been attested. nuq1-poi31-nap5 ‘the day after tomorrow’ 1 31 31 nuq -poi -min -tang31‘the afternoon of the day after tomorrow’ nuq1-poi31-min31 ‘the evening/night of the day after tomorrow’ • Other uses of the morpheme ‘day’ Apart from the many forms introduced above, the morpheme ‘day’ is also used in the following fixed expressions. The form ngi35-zang11 (day-rice/food) expresses ‘supper’, i.e. the meal which is eaten at 4 or 5 PM. The form ngi35-kyui55 (day-half.a.day) expresses ‘daytime, at daytime’, e.g. (681). The expression ngi35-gvung31 (day-hunch) refers to the position of the sun at the zenith, e.g. (682). 681

    Nga35-nvik5 1PO–duo

    ngi35-kyui55 r55 day–half.a.day TS

    Zai11wa31-ming35 Zaiwa–language

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    417

    mvoq5 lye31. learn/teach also+I We (DU) study Zaiwa by day. 682

    Ngi35-gvung31 dvu31 bue31. day–hunch respond/upright P+I The sun is at its zenith.

    In the following sentence, the morpheme ‘day’ is used in a fixed expression ‘every day’, where it is followed by the suffix ‘generation’. 683

    Ngo31

    ngi35-wui31 yvup5 hang11-mo35 1SG day–generation sleep each–AUG i5-moq1 myang11 dik1 r55. go–dream see(ipf) extreme PE Every day when I sleep I always have many dreams.

    • ‘half a day’s labour’ and ‘half a day’ Zaiwa has two nouns which both refer to specific stretches of time of half a day, viz. ‘half a day’s labour’ and ‘half a day’. The morpheme ‘half a day’ mostly refers to the afternoon, except in the form ngi35-kyui55 (day-half.a.day), expressing ‘daytime, at daytime’, e.g. (681) above. The morpheme ‘half a day’s labour’ is used in the following sentences. 684

    Nang35 yo31 ke5-mvyo55 hang11 puq5 bue31? 2SG.PO land Q–much(B) half.a.day turn.over(vt) P+I How many half days have you spent ploughing your field?

    and the response: 685 Sum31-hang11 puq5 bue31. three–half.a.day turn.over(vt) P+I [I’ve spent] one and a half days ploughing. 686

    Nga35-nvik5 mu35 le1-kyui55 zui11 bue31. 1PO–duo work(N) one–half.a.day touch/work(V) P+I We (DU) have laboured half a day. [one afternoon]

    418 687

    CHAPTER NINE

    O11 le1-kyui55 sap5 bue31. labour.exchange one–half.a.day exchange.labour P+I We have returned half a day of labour. [one afternoon]

    In the following sentence, the noun ‘morning’ is used in a way similar to ‘half a day’s labour’ in the last sentence. 688

    O11 le1-nap1 sap5 bue31. labour.exchange one–morning exchange.labour P+I We have returned one morning of labour.

    The morpheme ‘half a day’s labour’ is partly homonymous to the morpheme ‘each’, which has been discussed in Section 9.31. • Clock Time The noun ‘watch, clock’ appears to be a loan from Jingpo, cf. nayi ‘clock’, ‘watch’ in Xu et al. (1983: 559). According to my informants, the noun ‘clock’ most of all refers to wrist-watches, but also to clocks in general. This form ‘clock’ is also used as a head noun in a special type of noun phrase concerning the amount of time on the clock used for performing a certain situation. In such expressions, the nouns ‘hour’, ‘minute’ as well as ‘half’ in le1-kyam11 ‘one half’ are used as specifier nouns, as illustrated by each of the following sentences. 689

    Nang31

    le1-king55 byam11 2SG one–time jump(ipf) Get yourself one hour of sleep.

    yvup5 sleep

    690

    Mu35 hi31 na35i55 i55-king55 zui11 bue31. work(N) this clock two–time touch/work(V) P+I This job took two hours.

    691

    Mi11-king55 le1-sue31-fuen55 four–time one–ten–minute It’s ten past four.

    mit1 left.over

    gvan31-aq1. put.into*–SIM

    bue31. P+I

    419

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    The noun ‘time, hour’ was already discussed at the beginning of the section. Its use in the noun a1-king55 (nom-time) ‘time’ was also discussed there. In the sentences (689) to (691) above as well as in (695) to (698) below, the noun should be translated as ‘hour’, whereas it should be translated as ‘time’ in the sentences (692) to (694). In statements on the time on the clock, illustrated by the following sentences, the verbs to be used are either ‘contain’, ‘left over’. In elliptic clauses containing the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 no verb is used at all. In statements on the time on the clock, the noun ‘hour’ functions like English ‘o’clock’. 692

    Ke5-mvyo55 king55 bo31 bue31? Q–much(B) time contain P+I What’s the time? / (Lit.:) How many hours are in it now?

    693

    A1kui31 ke5-mvyo55 now Q–much(B) What’s the time now?

    694

    695

    king55 time

    bue31? P+I

    Nang31

    zyong11 ke5-mvyo55 king55 2SG school Q–much(B) time 31 35 gyo lye ? go.down also+I At what time is your (SG) class finished? Mi11-king55 le1-sue31-fuen55 four–time one–ten–minute It’s ten past four.

    mit1 left.over

    696

    Mi11-king55 mit1 bue31. four–time left.over P+I It’s already past four o’clock.

    697

    Gau11-king55 a1-bo31 si1-luq1? nine–time NEG–contain still–Y/N Is it eight o’clock yet?

    me55 LOC

    bue31. P+I

    420

    CHAPTER NINE

    698

    Le1-sue11-i55-king55 le1-kyam11 (GEN) one–ten –two–time one–half It’s half past twelve.

    bue31. P+I

    • Times and turns The specifier noun ‘time, turn’ refers to the quantity of situations, e.g. (699). The morpheme ‘turn, roll’ is either used as a transitive verb ‘turn, roll’47 or as a specifier noun ‘turn’, which can be used like ‘time, turn’. In the two following examples, both ‘time, turn’ and ‘turn, roll’ can be used. The difference between these two specifier nouns is that ‘turn, roll’ intrinsically refers to going towards and back from a certain place, for example to and from the well when fetching water, e.g. (700) and (701). 699

    Nang31

    i1-lang31 ke5-mvyo55 dam31 2SG water–river Q–much(B) time(Sp) ye11 a1-si31? go(away/down)(ipf) nom–still+I How many times do you (SG) still have to fetch water?

    700

    Nang31

    i1-lang31 ke5-mvyo55 lving31 2SG water–river Q–much(B) turn/roll 31 11 1 ye a -si ? go(away/down)(ipf) nom–still+I How many more rounds do you still have to go to fetch water?

    responded by: 701 Sum11-lving31 ye11 three–turn/roll go(away/down)(ipf) I am going three more rounds.

    a1-si31. nom–still+I

    The morpheme ‘turn, roll’ as a specifier noun ‘turn’ is also used in the following forms: he5-yoq1-lving31

    (before-ago-turn/roll)

    ‘last time’

    47 The morpheme ‘turn, roll’ is etymologically related to the verbs ‘turn, roll’(vi) and ‘round’.

    421

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    a1hui11-lving31 hi55-lving31

    (now(GEN)-turn/roll) (this-turn/roll)

    ‘next time’ ‘this time’

    The reduplicated form le1-dam31-dam31 (one-time(Sp)-time(Sp)) expresses ‘sometimes’. The process of reduplication underlying this form has been discussed in Section 8.2. 702

    Le1-dam31-dam31 ze11 lo31 gvo54, one–time(Sp)–time(Sp) only come(back/up) PL+FCT zang11 zo11 mu31 lo35 gveq5. rice/food eat happen+I go(back/up) PLIM You (PL) only come seldom, so don’t leave (PL) until after having had a meal.

    9.40

    TIME ADVERBS WITH INITIAL /a/

    This section discusses the numerous Zaiwa time adverbs with initial /a/. Many of these time adverbs contain the nominalising prefix . This may also count for the initial syllables of the adverbs listed below but I analyse these forms as single morphemes since their second syllables are never found in isolation. The following time adverbs belong to the latter group and will be discussed within this section, as far as they have not already been discussed in previous sections.





    ‘long ago’ ‘just now’ ‘in a while’ ‘now’ ‘last night’ ‘long ago’ ‘constantly’

    • The time adverb a1man31 ‘last night’, ‘long ago’ and a5-nvik5 (nom-the.other.year) ‘last year’ have already been discussed in the previous section, as well as the bound form a1-ngi35- ‘yesterday’. The latter form is only used before ‘morning’ in a1-ngi35-nap1 (nom-day-morning) ‘yesterday’ and

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    CHAPTER NINE

    a1-ngi35-nap1-gvyo55 ‘yesterday morning’.

    (nom-day-morning-morning.of.other.day)

    • The word a1kui31 / a1hui31 expresses ‘now’. The expression a1kui31 zyang35 / a1hui31 zyang35 ‘in a minute, in a second’ is discussed below under a1hu55 ‘in a while’. 703

    A1hui31 ge11 ha55-yvam31 bue31 la11? now TOP Q–time.for P+I UNC [after waking up:] What time would it be now?

    704

    A1kui31 zvo11 be1-ra31. now feed P–need+I I will feed them right now.

    • ‘just now’ and ‘long ago’ Zaiwa has two homophonous morphemes of which the one expresses ‘just now’, e.g. (705), and the other ‘long ago’, e.g. a1kang31 he55-pyang31 (long.ago before-DIR) ‘long ago, in the past’ and sentence (706). 705

    706

    Nang31

    a1kang31 ka55-hu55 dai54 2SG just.now Q–sort speak+FCT What were you (SG) saying just now?

    ta11? GI

    I5-nvung55 a1kang31 meng11-gvan11 me55 SPEC–1ND.IN long.ago world–dried.out LOC byu31 lye35 zue31 ga31 ning31. man/woman come(away/down) live.as.human perceive+I INS+I We (ND.IN) [i.e. mankind], long ago mankind came to live on earth, as is said.

    • The word expresses ‘long ago’, e.g. a1kang 31 a1nam11 ma54 (long.ago long.ago LOC+FCT) ‘long, long ago’. • The word a1hu55 expresses ‘in a while’, e.g. (707). The expression a1ku55-bvue55, containing the aspirated variant of a1hu55 ‘in a while’, has the plural nominal suffix and expresses ‘some other time’.

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    707

    A1hu55 syeq1 zo11 in.a.while au.contraire eat I will eat it in a little while.

    423

    ra31. need+I

    The period of time referred to by a1hu55 ‘in a while’ is conceived as longer than the periods of time normally referred to by le1-king11 r55 (one-halt/rest TS) or le1-king11 me55 (one-halt/rest LOC), which both express ‘in a little while’. 708

    Le1-king11 r55 zo11 ra31. one–halt/rest TS eat need+I We will eat in a little while.

    709

    Le1-king11 me55 lye35 lo31 ra31. one–halt/rest LOC come(away/down) come(back/up) need+I I’ll come in a minute.

    The combination of a1kui31/ a1hui31 ‘now’ and the conditional clause marker expresses ‘in a minute’, ‘in a second’. 710

    A1kui31 zyang35 lye35 lo31 be1-ra31. now CD come(away/down) come(back/up) P–need+I I’m coming, I’m coming.

    The following sentence contains le1-king11 r55 (one-halt/rest TS) ‘in a little while’, in contrast to a1kui31 zyang35 ‘in a minute, in a second’ in sentence (710) above. 711

    Le1-king11 r55 zvu31 be1-ra31. one–halt/rest TS boil/rise P–need+I It will boil in a little while.

    712

    A1kui31-zyang35 now–CD It’s about to boil.

    zvu31 be1-ra31. boil/rise P–need+I

    The expression le1-king11 me55 (one-halt/rest LOC) used in sentence (709) above can also express ‘after a while’ instead of ‘in a while’.

    424 713

    CHAPTER NINE

    Le1-king11 me55 ge11 zang11 zo11 zang11 one–halt/rest LOC TOP rice/food eat rice/food zo11 ngvu31. eat say+I And after a little while, she said: “It’s about time to eat.”

    • The word expresses ‘constantly’. 714

    Pi1dum11 a1num11 no11 r55. (ipf) waist constantly pain/ill/disease PE The small of my back is constantly hurting.

    715

    Nang31

    a1num11 mau35-Ø ge11, 2SG constantly stare/bewildered–FCT TOP ka55-hu55 dye31 son31 gvun31 lye31 ta11? (ipf) (ipf) Q–sort too calculate play also+I GI You (SG) are staring into the distance all the time, what are you thinking about?

    • The words a1-yan35 (nom-row) ‘often’(1) and a1-yang11 (nom-stalk) ‘often’(2) can be varied freely and both seem to either express ‘often, frequently’, or, in a more emphatical sense, ‘all the time, always’. 716

    Kui11 hi31 a1-yan35 wap1 dog this nom–row bark This dog barks frequently.

    r55. PE

    717

    A5-wa11 i31-syuq5 wut1 zyang35 nom–father distilled–drink drunk CD na31 r55. (ipf) insane PE Dad often goes mad when he is drunk.

    718

    Yvang11

    719

    Yvang54 3SG+FCT

    a1-yan35 nom–row

    a1-yan35 lvum31 dai31 r55. (ipf) 3SG nom–row indiscriminately speak PE He always mentions these matters indiscriminately. ming31 name

    ngo31 1SG

    a1-yan35 nom–row

    dvo31mvi31 forget(ipf)

    NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY

    425

    am55-am55 mu11 r55. (ipf) PFM–PFM happen PE I always forget his name. 720

    Woq1-po55 hi31 a1-yang11 chicken–male this nom–stalk This cock is always crowing.

    dvun11 r55. crow(V)(ipf) PE

    Both a1-yan35 (nom-row) ‘often’(1) and a1-yang 11 (nom-stalk) ‘often’(2) contain nouns that originally refer to length in a spatial sense, thus explaining their use in a temporal sense. The word a1-yan35 ‘often’(1) consists of the noun ‘row, line’ and the nominalising prefix , e.g. yvum31 le1-yan35 (house one-row) ‘one row of houses’ and lai11gva55 le1-yan35 (script one-row) ‘one line of writing’. The word a1-yang11 ‘often’(2) consists of the nominalising prefix and the noun ‘stalk’. The latter noun in reduplicated form gives expression to a state of being both long and thin. 721

    Loq1-ngyui11 yang11-yang11 hand/arm–finger/toe stalk–stalk She has long and thin fingers.

    ze1-dut5 r55. only–become PE

    CHAPTER TEN

    VERBAL BASICS: ADJECTIVES AND COPULA This chapter discusses some basic facts about Zaiwa verbs, such as their use as adjectives, the two Zaiwa copula ‘to be’ and ‘become’, and ‘to do’, another important verb. Chapters 11 to 16 discuss the remaining verbal matters. 10.1

    ADJECTIVES

    In this study, Zaiwa morphemes are only termed as adjectives when they are placed after nominal constituents, adding a certain description to the entities referred to by the latter, like ‘white’ in bvan55 pyu31 (cloth white) ‘white cloth’. Another example is the idiomatic expression u1-pyu31 zui31 nye31 (head-white tooth red) ‘live peacefully to one’s old age’ lit.: ‘white hair and red teeth’. The same morphemes can also be used just as regular intransitive verbs, as illustrated by the following example containing ‘white’ as a main verb. 1

    Pyu11 byuq1 lo35 bue31. (ipf) white lose go(back/up) P+I It has started to turn white.

    Section 9.18 has discussed some morphemes that were termed as adjectives since they are used as locational suffixes, such as ‘inside of’ and ‘under’. The forms that can function as adjectives share some other uses with the stative verbs as a whole. Section 6.1 already has discussed that the nominalising prefix (nom-) can nominalise stative verbs to exemplify their adjectival function, e.g. after ‘green/blue’ in a1-ngyui31 (nom-green/blue) ‘green/blue, the colour green/blue’ and after ‘new’ in a1-sek5 (nom-new). New shoes can both be referred to as sau55-hai11 sek5 (shoe-shoe new) and sau55-hai11 a1-sek5 (shoe-shoe nom-new). In cases like the latter example, the nominalising prefix adds a more concrete sense to

    428

    CHAPTER TEN

    the situation denoted by the root. In cases like the following sentence, the omission of the copula ‘to be’ after a1-sek5 (nom-new) was rejected, thus indicating that these forms syntactically have a status as nominal constituents rather than verbs. 2

    A1-sek5 ngvut5 nom–new be Is it still new?

    a1-si31 luq1? nom–still+I Y/N

    Section 6.1 also discussed some frequent constructions containing stative verbs that are nominalised by (nom-) before ma54 (LOC+FCT) and before the morpheme ‘lead, connect’ as the mediative case suffix. That discussion need not be repeated here. Stative verbs also tend to be reduplicated, to form complex adverbs expressing the notions ‘very Vadj’, ‘utterly Vadj’, and sometimes ‘so that it becomes (quite) Vadj’. Such has already been discussed in Section 8.5. For example, the reduplicated stative verb ‘full, satisfied’ expresses ‘nicely full’, as illustrated by the following sentence. 3

    Gi11-gi11 zo11-aq5. full/satisfied–full/satisfied eat–SIM Eat (SG) as much as you want.

    10.2

    THE COPULA ‘TO BE’

    Copula are verbs that directly refer to identity. Zaiwa has two copula: ‘to be’ and ‘become’. The copula ‘to be’ equals two entities or two situations. In sentences (4) to (7), the two given entities or situations both are made explicit by nominal constituents, but in sentences (8) to (11) only one is. 4

    Yvang11

    mo35pi55 3SG beggar He is a beggar.

    ngvut5 be

    5

    Nga35-nvung55 ge11 1PO–1ND.IN TOP

    bui31num31 zvyat5 ngvut5 family all be

    lye31. also+I lye31. also+I

    VERBAL BASICS: ADJECTIVES AND COPULA

    429

    We (ND.IN) are all family. 6

    Hi31 ge11 pi11zyo31 luq1, a1-ngvut5 this TOP beer Y/N NEG–be 11 31 5 31 lui ge i -pik luq1? in.this.way +I TOP distilled–pungent Y/N Is this beer or booze? / (Lit.:) Is this beer? And if not, is it booze?

    7

    Nang31

    8

    Hi55-dong31 a1-ngvut5, this–lead/connect NEG–be le1-ngvut5 r55. but–be PE It’s not this way but that way.

    9

    M1m55! ngvut5 (wonder) be Huh? Is it like that?

    10

    ke5-su54 byu31 ngvut5 2SG Q–like+FCT man/woman be [angry:] What kind of a fellow are you (SG) ?

    lye31 also+I

    lye31? also+I

    hau55-dong31 the/that–lead/connect

    luq1? Y/N

    Ngvut5 be1-kai31. be P–SUG+I I guess so. / Isn’t it?

    In cases like sentences (2) as well as (8) to (11) above, instead of stating that the copula ‘to be’ equals two situations of which only one is explicit, one could also say that ‘to be’ is simply expressing the existence of some entity or situation in some specific form. Such a definition also applies when ‘to be’ is used after adverbs or other constructions with adverbial function. 11

    Ngo31 bau35 ngvut5 zyang35 sim55sim55 1SG just be CD [slightly.afraid] ga31 r55. perceive(ipf) PE When I’m alone, it feels a bit scary.

    430

    CHAPTER TEN

    12

    Hi55-mvyo55 yuq1 ze11 this–much(B) person only Only this few people remain.

    ngvut5 be

    a1-lo31. nom–no.more+I

    13

    Hi55-kyo31 mai11 ye11 r11 this–road ABL go(away/down)(ipf) also 11 11 ngai -ngai ze11 ngvut5 r55 mai31. convenient/easy–2x only be PE OBV+I When going via this road, it is very light.

    14

    Nang35 loq1-ngyui11 a1-ngvyai55-ngvyai55 2SG.PO hand/arm–finger/toe nom–immature–immature ze11 ngvut5 r55 mai31. only be PE OBV+I My, your (SG) fingers are so tiny and immature!

    15

    Ram35-gvyo55 ngvut5 about.enough–about.enough be That’s about enough.

    r55. PE

    In the following sentences, the copula ‘to be’ is used after adverbials. 16

    Ke5-nvam55 ngvut5-n55 ngo31 Q–when be–FCT 1SG I didn’t know when it would be.

    17

    Ke5-le55 ngvut5-n55 ngo31 Q–LOC be–FCT 1SG I didn’t know where it was.

    a1-sue55. NEG–know

    a1-sue55. NEG–know

    The copula ‘to be’ can also be used for reifying the situation indicated by the preceding clause as a whole. 18

    A5bvyot1! ki1-syo31 bue31 ngvut5 r55 mai31. (sudden.shock) faeces–defecate P+I be PE OBV+I [on a child in one’s lap:] Shit! she is shitting! or: Shit! she has shit!

    VERBAL BASICS: ADJECTIVES AND COPULA

    19

    20

    Syeq1 he5-yvup5 gvat5 ra31 au.contraire before–sleep put.into need+I I’ll first go to sleep instead.

    431

    ngvut5 be

    Zi1syang31 si1-ngai11 ra31 dut1 child flesh–give.birth need+I become ngvut5 r55. be PE The time has come for the baby to be born.

    r55. PE

    bue31 P+I

    In the following sentence, the copula ‘to be’ also reifies the situation indicated by the preceding clause as a whole. Here, it adds the notion ‘and that’s it’, reifying the condition expressed by the preceding clause, ending in the conditional clause marker ‘when, if’. 21

    Yam11-bu35 kam11 bving55 zyang35 (ipf) pot–pimple/convex receive/fetch fill CD ngvut5 bue31. be P+I Fetch water till the pot is filled and then you’re finished.

    The copula ‘to be’ is often combined with the conditional clause marker ‘when, if’, already used in the above sentence. This combination ngvut5 zyang35 (be CD) can serve both as conjunction and as stopgap. 22

    Wu55syuq1 r11 mvoq5 ra31 ngvut5 martial.arts also learn/teach need+I be zyang35 ge11 le1go11 si1gvun11-aq1. CD TOP well endeavour*–SIM When learning martial arts, do (SG) your very best.

    23

    Saq1 wa11 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 i5-su54 spirit.type be CD TOP SPEC–like+FCT ngvut5 ra55. be PE As for the saqwa, the story goes like this.

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    CHAPTER TEN

    Another clause marker often combined with ‘to be’ is ‘although’. 24

    Ngo31

    ye31 ge11 ye31 nvau11 1SG go(away/down) TOP go(away/down) feel.like(ipf) 55 r ngvut5 gve5lvang11 a1-wo35 ye31. PE be although NEG–have go(away/down) Despite the fact that I feel like going, I can’t go.

    The copula ‘to be’ can also be used for expressing ‘yes’ and ‘no’. 25

    Ngvut5 lye31. be also+I Yes. / It is.

    26

    A1-ngvut5. NEG–be No. / It isn’t.

    10.3

    THE INCHOATIVE COPULA ‘BECOME’

    The copula , which I gloss as ‘become’, basically expresses the inchoative notions ‘take shape, form, become like, change into’. This basic meaning can be used in many different senses, depending on whether reference is made to 1) concrete entities, 2) situations, or 3) personalities. 4) A fourth context, which is quite specific and in which ‘become’ is used to a rather limited extent, is that of the place taken by people within their family or society. I shall first discuss cases where ‘become’ refers to concrete entities. In such cases, the copula ‘become’ can refer to changing into other entities or to changes of form, shape or state. Sentences (27) and (28) refer to changing into other entities, i.e. complete metamorphoses, and the remaining sentences refer to changes of form and shape or to attaining certain states, such as diseases or states of mind.

    VERBAL BASICS: ADJECTIVES AND COPULA

    27

    Yvang11

    ning11long11 dut1 3SG demon become He has become [like] a demon.

    byuq1 lose

    433

    bue31. P+I

    28

    Syo11 hau31 ge11 le1-zyap1 le1-yuq1 flesh the/that TOP one–chop.up one–person dut1 bue31 ga31. become P+I perceive+I Every bit of that flesh had changed into a human being.

    29

    Wui31-bvuq5 hi31 ge11 water–explode(vt) this TOP gvai55-gvai55 ze11 dut1 bue31. thick/concentrated–2x only become P+I This porridge has become very thick.

    30

    Nung35-moq1 i1-zvyam11 ge1-zyam11 2PL–party water–water random–fiddle 5 31 gve -lui mau11sau11 bvue55-ha55 PL–in.this.way+I paper/book PLN–where(B) yui35yui35 ban11 dut1 bue31. (ipf) soaking.wet use.up become P+I Because of your (PL) fiddling with water, all the paper and everything has now become soaking wet.

    31

    Mo35do35 lai31 lo31 zyang35 car pass(ipf) come(back/up) CD 5 lvup nueng31nueng31 dut1 r55. be.dusty [forces.of.nature] become PE When a car passes, it becomes dusty as hell.

    32

    I31-pue11 dye31 syuq5 lui31 distilled–booze too drink in.this.way +I u1-ngun11 ma54 dut1 r55. head–hang.down LOC+FCT become PE After drinking too much booze, his head slumped.

    33

    Nang35 2SG.PO

    myoq1-dong11 eye–(have)hole

    pui11 dust/chaff

    a1-hui31 ma54 nom–sallow LOC+FCT

    434

    CHAPTER TEN

    dut1 r55, no11 r55 luq1? (ipf) become PE pain/ill/disease PE Y/N Your (SG) face has become pale, are you ill? 34

    Ngo31

    35

    Waq1-wum35 dut1 pig–pest become There’s swine fever.

    36

    bin11syui11 anaemia

    dut1 lui31 1SG become in.this.way +I 1 11 mik -sun gam35 lye31. bamboo.shoots–veg/dish abstain also+I Because I have anaemia, I abstain from eating dishes containing bamboo shoots. r55. PE

    Byu31 hi55-yuq1 me5gon11 dut1 ra55. man/woman this–person careless/abominably3 become PE This person is rather careless.

    The first ‘become’ in the following sentence broadly expresses the notion ‘change’. The second ‘become’ is used in a sense which I shall discuss further below. 37

    Dut1 byuq1 ra31 become lose need+I They will have to change.

    dut1 become

    a1-gvo31. nom–PL+I

    The following sentences illustrate the construction ze1-dut5 (only-become), containing the limitative morpheme . This construction expresses that a certain feature is predominantly characteristic of the given entity. 38

    Wam35pun31-ngvyaq1 not1not1 pea.flour.cake–watery/thin [like.jelly] dik1 r55. extreme PE Pea flour mush is just like jelly.

    ze1-dut5 only–become

    VERBAL BASICS: ADJECTIVES AND COPULA

    39

    435

    Si1-ling35-si11 hi31 ge11 ut1-ut1 fruit–round–fruit this TOP over-ripe–over-ripe ze1-dut5 dik1 r55. only–become extreme PE This piece of silingsi fruit is over-ripe.

    The following examples illustrate the use of ‘become’ in reference to situations instead of concrete entities. Here, the copula ‘become’ expresses ‘to be’, in the context of either the way things are developing, e.g. (40) and (41), or the way they already have developed, often as in the English expression ‘what’s the matter’. 40

    Zye35 lo31 ra54 bvyat1 me55 ge11 arrive come(back/up) need+FCT lifetime LOC TOP he5-se55 dut1 ra54 nga35-nvung55 a1-sue55. Q–like become need+FCT 1PO–1ND.IN NEG–know We (ND.IN) do not know what the near future will bring.

    41

    Waq1 puq1 r55, ka55-hu55 dut1 a1-gvo31 ta11? pig deter PE Q–sort become nom–PL+I GI The pigs are giving alarming cries. What could be the matter with them?

    42

    Ka55-hu55 dut1 Q–sort become What’s the matter?

    ra55?

    Ka55-hu55 dut1 Q–sort become What’s happened?

    bue31?

    43

    PE

    P+I

    44

    Ke5-se55 dut1 bue31? Q–like become P+I How is the situation?

    45

    A5-se55 dut1 nom–like become That’s how it is.

    lye31. also+I

    436

    CHAPTER TEN

    46

    A5-se55 dut1 ra31 ngvu31 bue31. nom–like become need+I say P+I I told you that things were going to get like this.

    47

    A5-se55 dut1 lui31-eq1 a1-wo35 nom–like become in.this.way +I–AG/I NEG–have lo31 loq1. come(back/up) no.more I couldn’t come because of the situation being like that.

    In the following examples, the copula ‘become’ also refers to situations instead of concrete entities, and its meaning is used almost in the same sense, but more metaphorically, in more general contexts of either being all right or not all right. 48

    U1-nvuq5 a1-dut1 loq1. head–brains NEG–become no.more My brain is not all right anymore.

    49

    A1-dut1 loq1. NEG–become no.more It’s not possible anymore. / Oh, no. / The devil!

    50

    A1-dut1 zyang35 ge11 hi55-pyang31 NEG–become CD TOP this–DIR 31 lo gveq5. come(back/up) PLIM If there’s a problem, come back (PL) here.

    51

    A1-dut1 luq1? NEG–become Y/N Is that all right?

    52

    Dut1 lye31. become also+I That’s all right.

    53

    A1-dut1. NEG–become

    VERBAL BASICS: ADJECTIVES AND COPULA

    437

    It’s not all right. 54

    A1-dut1 siq1. NEG–become still It’s not all right yet.

    55

    A1-dut1 kai31. NEG–become SUG+I It’s not all right, is it?

    56

    Dut1 be1-kai31. become P–SUG+I This must be enough, I assume/presume.

    The last example illustrates that the combination of ‘become’ and the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 often expresses a secondary notion ‘be enough’. Third, the copula ‘become’ can be used in two idiosyncratic expressions, in both cases before the personal experience clause marker and once with and once without the adverb ‘too’. Of these two expressions, the one containing the adverb ‘too’ is deprecatory about a certain person, whereas the one without is rather favourable. Sentence (57) illustrates the expression dye31 dut1 ra55 / dye31 dut1 r55 (too become PE), expressing that a given person generally goes ‘too far’. Sentence (58) forms a minimal pair together with sentence (57) and illustrates the other expression, without the adverb ‘too’. This sentence expresses that the given person has rather good qualities indeed. 57

    58

    Byu31 hye55-yuq1 dye31 dut1 man/woman same.elevation–person too become That person [at the same elevation] goes too far. Byu31 hye55-yuq1 dut1 man/woman same.elevation–person become That person [at the same elevation] is great.

    r55. PE

    r55. PE

    438

    CHAPTER TEN

    The following sentences illustrate that the copula ‘become’ can also express ‘to be’, in the context of being part of a family, a society or a pantheon of spirits and gods. 59

    Meng11-gvan11 me55 ngi11-me55-ngi11, world–dried.out LOC be.there(anim)(ipf)–LOC– be.there(anim)(ipf) byu31 dut1-me55-dut1 … man/woman become– LOC–become All people living in this world, whatever people…

    60

    Byu31 dut5-me55-dut1 ma54 hau31 man/woman become– LOC–become LOC+FCT the/that si1-zyap5 hau31 bue31. flesh–chop.up the/that P+I Whatever people, they all stem from these pieces of flesh.

    61

    Nvik5-bo31-zo11 nung11-zo11 ngo31 dut1 heart–contain–child 2REL–child 1SG become As a heartful one, I will be your [true] child.

    62

    Yvang55-nvik5-dvang31 yvang11-mi11 yvang11-lang31 3PL–duo–siblings 3SG–wife 3SG–husband 1 25 dut lo . become come(back/up)+FCT The two siblings became each other’s spouses.

    63

    Gvue31toq5 Le1bung11 nat1 a1-dut1. upper.smoking.rack (name) spirit NEG–become Lebung of the upper smoking rack is not a [real] spirit.

    ra31. need+I

    The special combination se5-dut5 (like-become) is discussed in Section 19.5. The first syllable of this combination is the reduced allomorph of the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’, also called the impressionistic prefix for short. The impressionistic prefix specifically refers to impressions, as Chapter 19 will discuss in detail. The copula ‘become’ is often modified by the impressionistic prefix. In short, the combination se5-dut5 (like-become) refers to appearances in a general way, as if to say ‘have become like’ or ‘appear to be’.

    VERBAL BASICS: ADJECTIVES AND COPULA

    64

    439

    Se5-dut5 r55. like–become PE It appears to be so.

    The two following sentences form a minimal pair, illustrating the contrast between the impressionistic prefix and zero. According to the informant, adding the impressionistic prefix in sentence (66) indicates a certain emphasis on the appearance of the person, without inferring that he or she has really become a demon. 65

    66

    Yvang11

    ning11long11 dut1 3SG demon become He has become [like] a demon.

    byuq1 lose

    Yvang11

    bue31. P+I

    ning11long11 se5-dut5 byuq1 3SG demon like–become lose He now looks just like a demon.

    bue31. P+I

    The copula ‘become’ can also be used as part of constructions modifying the suffix of the expected nvo31 (EXP+I). The latter is a clause marking unit expressing that the situation denoted by the preceding clause was expected by someone. The combination of ‘become’ and the suffix of the expected nvo31 (EXP+I) expresses the notion of ‘on the face of things, it is quite possible that …’, e.g. (67), or, in the negative, of ‘on the face of things, it is quite impossible that …’, e.g. (68). 67

    Yvang11

    kau11 nvo31 dut1 r55. 3SG steal EXP+I become PE He looks/seems like someone who would steal.

    68

    Yvang55-moq1 3PL–party

    wo35 have

    a1-dut1-no31. NEG–become–HIGH+I They can’t drink that!

    syuq5 drink

    gve5-nvo31 PL–EXP+I

    440

    CHAPTER TEN

    In the two following sentences, the copula ‘become’ is also used as part of a construction that modifies the clause marking unit termed the suffix of the expected nvo31 (EXP+I), but here ‘become’ is preceded by the impressionistic prefix. Sentence (67) above and sentence (69) below form a minimal pair. Sentence (69), containing the combination se5-dut5 (like-become), expresses a mere impression, whereas sentence (67), without the impressionistic prefix, is more general in meaning and can be less evasive. 69

    Yvang11

    kau11 nvo31 se5-dut5 r55. 3SG steal EXP+I like–become PE He looks like someone who would be able to steal.

    70

    Ngvam11 nvo31 se5-dut5 r55. tasty EXP+I like–become PE It looks like it will be tasty.

    • ra31 (need+I) and ‘become’ The copula ‘become’ is especially often used as part of special constructions that modify the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I). The latter clause marking unit simultaneously indicates future tense and indicative mood. These constructions consisting of ‘become’ and other clause markers, add to the meaning of the morpheme ‘need’ underlying the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I), since they express that the situation referred to by the clause ending in ra31 (need +I) is either necessary or unavoidable, or sometimes both. Both latter notions can be illustrated by the following sentences, which form a minimal pair. Sentence (71) contains ‘fire’, and here the construction dut1 r 55 (become PE) expresses necessity, whereas sentence (72) contains the homophonous ‘wife’, the construction dut1 r55 (become PE) rather expressing unavoidability. 71

    72

    Yvang11

    mi11 lvoq5 3SG fire ACT He has to put out the fire. Yvang11-mi11 3SG–wife

    lvoq5 ACT

    sat5 kill sat5 kill

    ra31 need+I ra31 need+I

    dut1 become dut1 become

    r55. PE

    r55. PE

    VERBAL BASICS: ADJECTIVES AND COPULA

    441

    He is going to kill his wife. The following sentences further illustrate constructions consisting of ‘become’ and clause markers after the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I), in the context of necessity. 73

    Pi11 wo35 bang11 r55 gyuq1 ra31 evil.eye have PNO OBJ afraid need+I 1 31 dut lye . become also+I You have to watch out for those that have the evil eye.

    74

    Mi1-gung31 hi31 cyot1 rva55 ra31 earth–body this hoe level(vt) need+I The ground here needs to be hoed level.

    dut1 r55. become PE

    75

    Ngo31

    ra31 need+I

    76

    77

    waq1-zvang11 zvo31 1SG pig–fodder feed(ipf) 1 1 dut a -si31. become nom–still+I I still have to feed the pigs.

    dvo11 place(vt)

    I5-wa11 r55 kung55ga11 ra31 function–father OBJ respect need+I One has to respect one’s father. Myoq1-dong11 o31 eye–(have)hole want/take You should save face.

    ra31 need+I

    dut1 lye31. become also+I

    dut1 become

    lye31. also+I

    The following sentences further illustrate constructions consisting of ‘become’ and clause markers after the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need +I) expressing unavoidability rather than necessity. 78

    Ngo31 1SG

    ra31 need+I

    yvum31 house dut1 become

    pyang31 DIR

    bue31. P+I

    dvau31 turn(ipf)

    lo35 go(back/up)

    442

    CHAPTER TEN

    It’s time to go back home. lang31-doq5 be1-ra31 dut1 1SG husband–go.up P–need+I become I’m about to marry. [spoken by a woman]

    bue31.

    80

    Si11 hi31 bup1 byuq1 fruit this bad/fermented lose a1-gvo31-o55. nom–PL+I–HIGH These fruits will get bad.

    dut1 become

    81

    Ngo31

    79

    82

    Ngo31

    kyo31 so11 1SG road walk I still have to walk.

    ra31 need+I

    si1-ra31 dut1 still–need+I become

    P+I

    r55. PE

    Yuq1-gue31 ga54 ning31 i31-pue11 person–male perceive+FCT INS+I distilled–booze syuq5 ra31 dut1 lye31. drink need+I become also+I Men are supposed to drink. / Real men should drink.

    The copula ‘become’ can also be used as part of constructions that modify another clause marking unit: the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I). The general indicative clause marking unit lye31 refers to general information in a broad and overall way, and which is not related to any specific time other than what naturally is evident from the context. This clause marking unit is mostly used for reference to states that are a matter of fact. The constructions containing ‘become’ add to the notion of unavoidability or irreversibility. 83

    Nang31

    lyeng31 lye31 dut1 be1-ra31. 2SG fall(vi)(ipf) also+I become P–need+I You (SG) are going to fall. [if you don’t watch out]

    84

    A1zeng35 byuq1 lye31 thing lose also+I Things have been lost.

    dut1 become

    bue31. P+I

    VERBAL BASICS: ADJECTIVES AND COPULA

    443

    85

    Yvum31 me55 gin11 lye31 dut1 rvo31, (ipf) house LOC busy also+I become PE+HIGH+I lau35 ye25 mai11 lau35 promptly go(away/down)+FCT ABL promptly lo31 syang55. come(back/up) JUS Since there’s lots of work to be done at home, let’s (ND.IN) make it brief over there and come back soon.

    10.4

    THE VERB ‘DO’

    One of the most important Zaiwa verbs is ‘do’ and this section discusses the main ways of its use. First of all, the verb ‘do’ often expresses ‘to do’ in its broadest meaning. 86

    A5-se55 gvut5 le1-gvut5 nom–like do but–do If only I had done it like that.

    87

    Mi11 le1go11 gvut5 gveq5. fire well do PLIM Be (PL) careful with fire.

    ra31 need+I

    za54. only+FCT

    The verb ‘do’ can also express ‘act as’ or ‘serve as’, such as in gye31 gvut5 (soldier do) ‘serve as soldier’ and in the following sentences. Note that sentence (88) does not express that the given person is a beggar, like when the copula ‘to be’ would be used, but rather that he only in specific cases is a beggar or acts as a beggar. 88

    Yvang11

    mo35pi55 gvut5 3SG beggar do Sometimes he is a beggar.

    89

    Beng35 gvut5 ye31 syang55. guest do go(away/down) JUS Let’s (ND.IN) pay a visit to them.

    lye31. also+I

    444

    CHAPTER TEN

    The verb ‘do’ is very often used for linking all kinds of phrases - or even subordinate clauses - of a descriptive nature to the remaining part of the clause. The constructions preceding ‘do’ describe the ways or fashions in which the given situations take place. These constructions can be 1) onomatopoeia and other idiophones, 2) reduplicated noun phrases, 3) descriptive expressions ending in ma54 (LOC+FCT), 4) adverbial forms containing the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’, or 5) subordinate clauses describing certain situations. In all of these uses, ‘do’ could be translated as ‘doing’, ‘going’ or ‘being’ or rather be left untranslated. The following sentences illustrate the use of ‘do’ after onomatopoeia and other idiophones. 90

    Son11 gvut5 yvup5 dvo11 gveq5, [sleep.peacefully] do sleep place(vt) PLIM suk1suk1sak1sak1 ke5-gvut5 gvo55. [move.restlessly] PHB–do PL Sleep (PL) peacefully, don’t (PL) move about restlessly.

    91

    Syo31 lop1lop1 gvut5 sye31-aq1. tongue [move.tongue.in.and.out] do pull–SIM Move your tongue in and out.

    92

    Ngvyeq1-ngvyeq1 big.job–big.job Do (SG) a big job.

    93

    Rvaq5 gvut5 zung31-aq1. [legs.downwards] do sit–SIM Sit (SG) down in a straddling position.

    gvun31-aq1. do*–SIM

    The verb ‘do’ can also be used after reduplicated noun phrases, which often also function as idiophones. 94

    Le1-sue11 le1-sue11 gvun31-aq1 ma11. one–segment one–segment do*–SIM ROUS [fruit] Divide (SG) it into pieces. / (Lit.:) Cut (SG) it into slices.

    VERBAL BASICS: ADJECTIVES AND COPULA

    445

    The verb ‘do’ after idiophones can also be combined with the limitative morpheme ‘only’. Either the allomorph of the latter morpheme is put in between of the idiophone and ‘do’, or its prefix allomorph attached to ‘do’. The limitative morpheme ‘only’ refers to limitations to the reach or amount of all kinds of situations, much like the English word ‘only’. The limitative morpheme ‘only’ is discussed in Section 16.32. In this particular type of use, the limitative morpheme emphasises the importance of the notion expressed by the idiophone, like English ‘just’ or ‘right’ in ‘keep your mouth still’ in sentence (95). Nevertheless, the limitative morpheme in this kind of use can often remain untranslated.48 95

    96

    Nvut5 dvyem55 ze11 gvun31-aq1. mouth (face).still only do*–SIM Keep (SG) your mouth still. Man31-zyam31 san11-san11 ze1-gvut5 sut5 am55-aq5. glass–mirror clean–clean only–do wipe/polish PFM–SIM Wipe (SG) the glass very clean.

    The following sentences illustrate the use of ‘do’ after ma54 (LOC+FCT). Section 9.14 has already discussed this particular type of use of ma54 (LOC+FCT), where it is termed the description marker. The form ma54 (LOC+FCT) as the description marker serves as a descriptive means for indicating that a given entity or situation bears the characteristics of the preceding noun or nominalised stative verb. 97

    A1-bvi31 nom–crooked

    ma54 gvut5 LOC+FCT do

    dvo11-aq5. place(vt)–SIM

    48 The function of the limitative morpheme in the following sentence apparently is to turn the nominalised stative verb a1-dviq5 (nom-little) ‘little’ into a kind of idiophone.

    1

    Tung55-gva55 a1-dviq5 ze1-gvut5 wickerwork–variegated1 nom–little only–do Make me a tiny tunggva basket, please.

    rvang55 bi11 raq5. make give VO

    446

    CHAPTER TEN

    Put it down in a crooked way. 98

    Ngo31 r55

    myoq1-duq1 ma54 gvut5 1SG OBJ eye–burning LOC+FCT do Don’t look at me with such big shining eyes.

    99

    Yvang11 3SG

    ki31 rueq5 leg/foot lame r55.

    so31 walk(ipf) PE He walks with a limp.

    ma54 gvut5 LOC+FCT do

    ke5-wu35. PHB–look kyo31 road

    The following sentences illustrate the use of ‘do’ after various adverbial forms containing the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’. The verb ‘do’ is one of a limited set of verbs that are always combined with the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’, except when the latter is nominalised. Many more examples of this use of ‘do’ can be found in Chapter 19, which offers a detailed discussion of the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’. The following examples are selected in order to specifically illustrate that ‘do’ can be used for linking all kinds of phrases, or even subordinate clauses, of a descriptive nature to the remaining part of the clause. The word ke5-se55/he5-se55 (Q-like) before ‘to do’, used in the sentences (101) and (102), can be translated as ‘what’ or ‘how’. 100

    Yvang11

    a5-se55 gvut5 tui31 3SG nom–like do hit.with.fist(ipf) 5 55 5 31 1 gvat -n -eq ngo loq -eq1 i5-se55 put.into–FCT–COM 1SG hand/arm–AG/I SPEC–like gvut5 bat1 dvye11 am54. do beat receive(ipf) PFM+FCT When he tried to hit me like that, I blocked his blow like this.

    101

    Byu31 hau31 ke5-se55 man/woman the/that Q–like ngi11 r55 ta11? (ipf) be.there(anim) PE GI How is that fellow at home?

    gvut5 do

    VERBAL BASICS: ADJECTIVES AND COPULA

    102

    A1kui31 mau11 wo31 bue31 ga11, now sky rain P+I TOP ke5-se55 gvut5 lo35 ra31? Q–like do go(back/up) need+I It’s raining now, how do we get home?

    103

    A5-se55 gvut5 ke5-wue11 mai31. nom–like do PHB–sweep.away OBV+I Don’t wipe in this way!

    447

    yvum31 house

    In the following sentence, the verb ‘do’ links a subordinate clause that describes a way of doing to the rest of the sentence. 104

    Yvang55-nvik5 zang11 zo31 lye31 lai11gva55 (ipf) 3PL–duo rice/food eat also+I script 35 31 1 31 31 wu lye gvun -a -gvo . look also+I do*–nom–PL+I They (PL) are eating and reading at the same time.

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    11.1

    INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

    Zaiwa has a number of verbs which I have grouped together as the verba sentiendi et dicendi, which clearly form a natural class. Most of these Zaiwa verbs can refer both to speaking and feeling. Others, such as ‘speak’, only refer to speaking but are included in order to illustrate certain differences in meaning, such as between English speak, talk and say. The possibility of verbs referring to both speaking and feeling may be an aerial feature. Dai & Xu (1992: 66-7) have described two Jingpo verbs that are somewhat similar. One of these Jingpo verbs appears to have been borrowed into Zaiwa as ‘say’ and is described in this chapter. Another reason for discussing these verbs together is that several of them are used in subordinating constructions, including those used for quoting. This chapter discusses all Zaiwa verba sentiendi et dicendi together, in the following sections. 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7

    11.2

    The verbs ‘speak’ and ge1-ru11 (random-talk.(noise)) ‘talk (noise)’ The verb ‘talk’ Direct and Indirect Speech in Zaiwa More on the verb ‘say’ The verb ‘perceive’ The morpheme ‘happen’ as a verb and as a clause marker

    THE VERBS ‘SPEAK’ AND ge1-ru11 ‘TALK (NOISE)’

    The verb ‘speak’ refers to speaking in the most general sense, i.e. to passing on specific information via speech.

    450

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    1

    Zai11wa31-ming35 dong31 a1-sue31 dai11. (ipf) Zaiwa–language lead/connect NEG–know speak I don’t know how to say it in Zaiwa.

    2

    Nang31!

    yvang11-yvang11 2SG in.truth–in.truth Say (SG) it yourself!

    dai11-aq5. speak–SIM

    3

    Le1go11 kyang31-kyang31 well clear–clear Speak (SG) clearly.

    dai11-aq5. speak–SIM

    The verb ‘speak’ can also be used in the context of speaking specific languages. 4

    Ngo31 Zai11-ming35 a1-lvum31 dat1 dai11. 1SG Zaiwa–language NEG–indiscriminately able speak I don’t speak Zaiwa very well.

    The verb ‘happen’ is another verb that is used in the context of speaking languages. The latter verb in this use, however, specifically refers to speaking one’s mother tongue, as will be discussed in Section 11.7. The verb ‘speak’ cannot be used for reporting speech. In such cases either the verb ‘say’ or the verb ‘perceive’ is used instead. The verb ‘speak’ is often used in certain fixed combinations. The combination of the noun ‘words’ and ‘speak’ is the common way of referring to speaking in a general sense. 5

    Yvang11 3SG

    dai54 dang11 speak+FCT words luq1?

    nang31 2SG

    lye31 also+I Y/N Do you (SG) believe what he says? 6

    Yvang11 3SG

    dai54 dang11 speak+FCT words

    ngo31 1SG

    zing35 believe

    451

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    a1-sue31-gyo11. (ipf) NEG–know –hear/smell I don’t understand what he says. 7

    Syo55yin55zi55 me55 dai54 dang11 radio LOC speak+FCT words dik1 r55. extreme PE What is said on the radio is very true.

    dvyeng31 true(ipf)

    8

    Dang11-wang11 a1-bo25 dang11 words–at.base NEG–contain+FCT words ke5-dai11. PHB–speak Don’t (SG) say things that are unfounded.

    nang31

    9

    2SG

    Hau55-yuq1 wa35 dang11 dai31 r11 (ipf) the/that–person EMP words speak also 1 35 1 31 11 a -bye , a -sue -gyo . (ipf) NEG–intelligible NEG–know –hear/smell She doesn’t speak clearly. I can’t understand her.

    Also frequently combined with ‘speak’ are the verb ‘hear, smell’ and its causative variant ‘let hear’. The combination of ‘speak’, marked by the factitive marker as dai54 (speak+FCT), with ‘hear, smell’ refers to heeding to what is said. 10

    Dai54 gyo31 dik1 r55. (ipf) speak+FCT hear/smell extreme PE He does as he is told. / He behaves himself.

    11

    Zi1syang31 hi31 ge11 dai54 a1-gyo11, child this TOP speak+FCT NEG–hear/smell le1go11 sin11-aq5. well spank/give.beating–SIM This child is disobedient, give (SG) him a proper beating.

    452

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    Whenever ‘speak’ is followed by the causative verb ‘let hear’, the former is marked by the imperfective marker , i.e. in the word dai31-gvyo11 (speak(ipf)-let.hear), a fixed expression expressing ‘to tell’. 12

    Ma11-lum31-eq1 pok5 ze11 (name.prefix)–(in.names)#–AG/I [give.away] only i5-dai31-gvyo31 am55 bue31. (ipf) (ipf) go–speak –let.hear PFM P+I Malum has divulged the secret.

    13

    Yvang11

    14

    Mi11-wue11 a1-wo35 si1-luq1 wife–female NEG–have still–Y/N wa35, gue31-gue31 CD EMP all.right–all.right 55 31 r mai .

    a1-ngi35-nap1 ngo31 li55 3SG nom–day–morning 1SG OBJ dai31-gvyo54 ngo31 gung35zo11 myang11 (ipf) speak –let.hear+FCT 1SG work see(ipf) 5 1 31 31 gvut be -ra ga . do P–need+I perceive+I Yesterday he told me that I will soon have a job.

    PE

    ngvu31 lok1 say ferret.out dai31-gvyo31 speak(ipf)–let.hear(ipf)

    OBV+I

    While I was trying to ferret out whether he had a woman or not, he just told me about it! The combination of ‘speak’ with ‘difficult’ expresses the notion ‘difficult to persuade’. 15

    Me1-luq5 r55 dai11 wui31 r55, (ipf) (female)–2nd-sister OBJ speak difficult PE dai54 dang11 a1-gyo11. speak+FCT words NEG–hear/smell Second sister is difficult to persuade, she will never listen.

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    453

    • ge1-ru11 (random-talk.(noise)) ‘talk (noise)’ The verb ge1-ru11 (random-talk.(noise)) ‘talk (noise)’ refers to the noise of talking rather than the contents of it. This verb could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. garu with the same meaning (Xu et al. 1983: 175). The ge1-ru11 (random-talk.(noise)) ‘talk (noise)’ needs to be used instead of ‘speak’ whenever reference is made to the noise of talking rather than the contents. In sentence (16), both the verb ‘speak’ and the combination dang11 dai11 (words speak) ’speak’ are rejected and the verb ge1-ru11 (random-talk.(noise)) ‘talk (noise)’ is used instead. The remaining sentences further illustrate the use of ge1-ru11 (random-talk.(noise)) ‘talk (noise)’. 16

    Yvum31-bvan55 me55 o31-bvue55 ge1ru31 (GEN) house–outside LOC who –PLN talk(noise)(ipf) a1-gvo31 ta11? nom–PL+I GI Who (PL) is that talking outside the house?

    17

    Ke5-ge1ru11. PHB–talk(noise) Shut up.

    18

    Moq1-pung31 me55 ke5-dye31 ge1ru11. party–gathering LOC PHB–too talk(noise) When you’re at social functions, don’t make too much noise.

    19

    Nvut5 me55 bve5-sau55 sau55 gveq5, mouth LOC plug–cork cork PLIM 5 31 1 11 55 ke -dye ge ru gvo . PHB–too talk(noise) PL Put (PL) the cork [i.e. rice] into your mouth, don’t (PL) talk too much.

    20

    Ke5-dye31 ge1ru11, ngo31 PHB–too talk(noise) 1SG Shut up, I don’t want to hear it.

    a1-gi1-nvau31. NEG–hear/smell–feel.like

    454 11.3

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    THE VERB ‘TALK’

    The verb ‘talk’ can both be used as a main verb and after a main verb as an auxiliary. Whenever the verb ‘talk’ is used as a main verb, it is used in active voice, and whenever it is used as an auxiliary, it is used in passive voice. When used as main verb, the verb could be translated as ‘talk’, not specifically referring to people telling each other certain matters, but rather to communication as a whole, whatever the topic. In the context of sentence (21), the addressee is requested to say something instead of remaining silent, whatever the topic. 21

    22

    Dang11 ngyo31-aq1 words talk–SIM Say (SG) something.

    ma11. ROUS

    Nang31

    ngyo31-aq1 ma11. 2SG talk–SIM ROUS Say (SG) something. / You (SG) have a word with them.

    In contexts of passing on specific information, the verb ‘speak’ is used instead of the verb ‘talk’. This becomes clear from the comparison of sentences (22) above and (23), and from the fact that both in (24) and (25) the use of ‘talk’ was rejected and ‘speak’ is used instead. 23

    24

    25

    Nang31

    dai11-aq5 2SG speak–SIM You (SG) tell it.

    ma11. ROUS

    Ngo31 dang11 le1-hun11 dai31 gvat5 1SG words one–sentence speak(ipf) put.into I’ll say something now. / (Lit.:) I’ll say one sentence. Nang31

    be55. EE

    zyang31 dai31 gyo35 lo35-aq5. (ipf) 2SG in.passing speak go.down go(back/up)–SIM Since you (SG) are already talking about this subject, tell the whole thing.

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    455

    The following sentences further illustrate the use of the verb ‘talk’ as a main verb. 26

    O55-yuq1-eq5 ngyo11 lum54 ta11? (ipf) who–person– COM talk reciprocal+FCT GI With whom were you talking?

    27

    Gai31, nang31 i5-ngyo11 wu35-aq5. (ipf) (come.on!) 2SG go–talk look–SIM Come on then, go (SG) and try to talk with him.

    28

    Ngo31

    29

    Nga35-nvung55 dang11 a1-ngyo31 1PO–1ND.IN words NEG–talk Let’s (ND.IN) not talk anymore.

    30

    Myang11 r11 lvang55 a1-ngyo31, rueng35 see(ipf) also even NEG–talk first-rate dik1 r55. extreme PE Even when they see each other, they don’t say a thing; they’re treating each other so high-handedly.

    Le1-gam35-eq5 a1-ngyo11 (ipf) 1SG (male)–eld-brother– COM NEG–talk 31 35 1 lum wu siq . reciprocal(ipf) look still Eldest brother and I have never talked with each other. le1-syang55. no.more– JUS

    The following sentence, also containing ‘talk’, can be compared to sentence (32) containing ge1-ru11 (random-talk.(noise)) ‘talk (noise)’. Whereas the latter verb, discussed in the previous section, merely refers to the sound of talking, the verb ‘talk’ refers to the activity of talking, whatever the topic. 31

    Nang31

    dang11 words

    ke5-ngyo31 loq1, yvang11 2SG PHB–talk no.more 3SG 1 11 11 miq -toi toi be1-ra31. no.gloss–speak.in.trance speak.in.trance P–need+I Stop (SG) talking now, he’s about to speak while in a trance.

    456 32

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    Nang31

    ke5-ge1ru11 loq1, yvang11 2SG PHB–talk(noise) no.more 3SG miq1-toi11 toi11 be1-ra31. no.gloss–speak.in.trance speak.in.trance P–need+I Stop (SG) talking now, he’s about to speak while in a trance.

    Whenever the verb ‘talk’ is used as an auxiliary, it is used in passive voice. The verb ‘talk’ as an auxiliary verb is labelled the well-aware aspectiviser. This aspectiviser indicates that the occurrence of certain situations in some way has been perceived by the speaker, thus implying or reassuring that the situations expressed by the preceding main verbs actually occur. The well-aware aspectiviser ‘talk’ has two rather different functions, according to its use in two main types of contexts. These functions are: 1) to express certain situations within the speaker’s own mind or body, which naturally would not be knowable to others otherwise, and 2) bringing certain situations of hearsay to the attention of the addressee. The two different functions of the verb ‘talk’ as the well-aware aspectiviser can be illustrated by the two following sentences, both of which contain the stative verb ‘first-rate’. In sentence (33), the latter verb is used in a literal sense and in sentence (34) it is used in a periphrastic sense of ‘arrogant’. In sentence (33), the speaker uses the verb ‘talk’ for referring to certain situations within his own mind or body, whereas in sentence (34) the speaker relates a situation known by hearsay. 33

    Sun11 hi55-lvum11 ge11 veg/dish this–lump TOP This dish is really great.

    34

    Nang31

    rueng35 dik1 ngyo11 r55. first-rate extreme talk(ipf) PE

    rueng35 dik1 ngyo11 2SG first-rate extreme talk(ipf) They say you (SG) are rather arrogant.

    r55. PE

    The two following sentences form a minimal pair, since they are similar apart from the fact that in sentence (36) the verb ‘talk’ is added, functioning as the well-aware aspectiviser. In the latter sentence, the speaker uses the well-aware aspectiviser ‘talk’

    457

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    in order to express a certain situation within his own mind or body, whereas sentence (35) simply refers to the situation as it is. 35

    Yvup5 gi11 bue31. sleep full/satisfied P+I I slept well.

    36

    Yvup5 gi31 ngyo31 (ipf) sleep full/satisfied talk Well, I slept well.

    bue31. P+I

    The following examples further illustrate the use of the verb ‘talk’ as the well-aware aspectiviser, in the special function of expressing certain situations within the speaker’s own mind or body. 37

    38

    I31-pue11 syuq5 distilled–booze drink I feel drunk.

    Ngye35 ngyo11 burnt/hot talk(ipf) It still feels hot.

    40

    Le1gon31 ngyo11 (ipf) lazy talk(ipf) I’m feeling lazy.

    42

    ngyo31 talk

    Wam11 ngvyom31 ngyo31 (ipf) swollen/abdomen soft/weak talk I am hungry. / (Lit.) My belly feels soft.

    39

    41

    wut1 drunk

    Ngo31

    P+I

    bue31. P+I

    a1-si31. nom–still+I r55. PE

    zo31-mut5 ngyo31 1SG eat#–hungry talk I’ve become hungry. Ngo31

    bue31.

    bue31. P+I

    yvup5 nvau11 ngyo11 (ipf) 1SG sleep feel.like talk(ipf) I’m feeling sleepy.

    r55. PE

    458 43

    44

    45

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    A1gva31, no11 dik1 (ipf) (painful) pain/ill/disease extreme Aah, its aching! Ngo31

    i1-zvyam11 syuq5 1SG water–water drink I feel like drinking water.

    ngyo11 talk(ipf)

    r55. PE

    nvau11 ngyo11 feel.like(ipf) talk(ipf)

    U1-lvum11 no11 dik1 (ipf) head–lump pain/ill/disease extreme My head hurts very much.

    ngyo11 talk(ipf)

    r55. PE

    r55. PE

    The following sentences illustrate the use of the verb ‘talk’ as the well-aware aspectiviser in the other function, i.e. of bringing certain situations rumoured or known by hearsay to the attention of the addressee. 46

    Le1-gam35

    47

    Nang31

    48

    a5-se55 gvut5 ngyo11 (male)–eld-brother nom–like do talk(ipf) They say that eldest brother acts like that. ke5-ngi35 yvup5 ngyo11 2SG before–day sleep talk(ipf) They say you (SG) were sleeping today. Nang31 2SG

    A5-wa11 r55 nom–father OBJ r55 mai31.

    mang11-zo11 aged–child

    ngyo11 talk(ipf) PE OBV+I They say that you (SG) called Dad oldie.

    lye31 ning31. also+I INS+I r55

    mai31.

    PE

    OBV+I

    ngvu11 say(ipf)

    The well-aware aspectiviser ‘talk’ is used in a rather special way when forming part of the construction ngvut5 ngyo11 ra55 (be talk(ipf) PE), i.e. when it is marked by the imperfective marker and placed between the copula ‘to be’ and the personal experience clause marker . The latter construction is always used after a clause ending in the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need +I). This construction is used for narrating certain experiences of people other than the speaker and the addressee,

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    459

    expressing both the notion of hearsay and the notion of empathising with these persons. Future investigations may reveal whether such sentences are also possible with singular subjects. Sentence (49), containing this construction ngvut5 ngyo11 ra55 (be talk(ipf) PE), narrates a situation in which the speaker himself did not participate, and which was depicted to him by one of the participants, using sentence (50) without this construction ngvut5 ngyo11 ra55 (be talk(ipf) PE). 49

    A1-ngi35-nap1 Mo35pi55-eq5 Le1-dvu31 nom–day–morning beggar–COM (male)–4th-brother Le1-gam35 zvyang55 zang11 i5-be1-zo11 (male)–eld-brother near rice/food go–help–eat 54 1 31 gvo syeq , yvang -nu31-eq1 (GEN) PL+FCT au.contraire 3SG –mother#–AG/I 11 11 lo ta gvyop5 ra31 ngvut5 (ipf) (ipf) come(back/up) scold tuck.away need+I be 11 55 ngyo ra . talk(ipf) PE Yesterday, Beggar and fourth brother were at first brother’s place to share a meal, when his mother came and cursed them incessantly.

    50

    A1-ngi35-nap1 nga35-nvik5 Le1-dvu31 nom–day–morning 1PO–duo (male)–4th-brother Le1-gam35 zvyang55 zang11 (male)–eld-brother near rice/food i5-be1-zo54 syeq1, yvang31-nu31-eq1 go–help–eat+FCT au.contraire 3SG(GEN)–mother#–AG/I lo11 ta11 gvyop5. (ipf) (ipf) come(back/up) scold tuck.away Yesterday, fourth brother and I were at first brother’s place to share a meal, when his mother came and cursed us incessantly.

    The two following sentences are further examples of the construction ngvut5 ngyo11 ra55 (be talk(ipf) PE).

    460

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    51

    Lo11 a31na35 wun35 gve5-ra31 (ipf) come(back/up) ill.at.ease wherever PL–need +I ngvut5 ngyo11 ra55. (ipf) be talk PE They (PL) were feeling ill at ease wherever they came.

    52

    Hau55-nvik5-dvang31 ge11 i5-cyang31 gyo11 (ipf) the/that–duo–siblings TOP go–follow hear/smell 5 5 11 55 31 gve -ra ngvut ngyo ra . PL–need +I be talk(ipf) PE The two siblings then, they must have decided to go and follow him and listen.

    11.4

    DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH IN ZAIWA

    The only Zaiwa verbs to be used for indicating direct speech are ‘perceive’ and ‘say’. The meanings of these two verbs will be discussed in more detail in the following sections, whereas I shall confine myself here to making some general remarks on their meanings, and discuss their function as indicators of direct and indirect speech. A related topic is their use after onomatopoeia, where they have different functions. The verb ‘perceive’ after onomatopoeia refers to perceiving certain sounds, e.g. (53). The verb ‘say’ after onomatopoeia is used in active voice and refers to emitting certain sounds or words, often intentionally, e.g. (54). 53

    Le1-gam35 sun55 hau31 me55 bak1bak1 (male)–eld-brother garden inside LOC [onom] ga11 sun55 hai31 lung35 dvo31 r55. (ipf) (ipf) perceive garden shovel be.inside place(vt) PE Eldest brother is “bak-bak” weeding the garden.

    54

    Lai31-dun11 lo31 zyang35, wind–press.into/spear come(back/up) CD tung55-sum31 duk5duk5 ngvu31 tung31 mving55-aq5. pound–mortar [onom] say crush(ipf) sound/name(vt)–SIM

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    461

    When the storm comes, you (SG) must crush your [empty] mortars, going “dukduk” [in order to let the storm pass sooner]. In line with the above findings, wherever ‘perceive’ and ‘say’ refer to situations which directly or indirectly have to do with speaking, the former refers to the speaker himself as the receiver and the latter to other persons as the receiver. Sentences (55) and (56) pertain to a third person in pain, and both contain the reduplicated exclamatory interjection a1gva31-a1gva31 ‘aah!’. In the latter form, reduplication has turned the interjection ‘aah!’ into an adverb expressing the notion ‘wildly screaming’. The speaker of sentence (55) witnessed the situation himself, and therefore marks the form a1gva31-a1gva31 ‘aah!’ with ‘perceive’, whereas the speaker of sentence (56) did not witness the situation and therefore marks the form a1gva31-a1gva31 ‘aah!’ with ‘say’. The evidential marking unit ga31 (perceive+I) which ‘perceive’ forms part of at the end of sentence (56), indicates that the speaker knows about this from others, as I shall describe further on. 55

    Yvang11

    ki31 zan31 am55 lui31-eq1 3SG leg/foot hew(ipf) PFM in.this.way +I–AG/I 1 31 1 a gva -a gva31 ga11 no11 si11 r55. (ipf) (ipf) (painful)–(painful) perceive pain/ill/disease die PE After having chopped off his foot, he had terrible pains, wildly screaming. [I witnessed it.]

    56

    Yvang11

    ki31 zan31 am55 lui31-eq1 3SG leg/foot hew(ipf) PFM in.this.way +I–AG/I 1 31 1 a gva -a gva31 ngvu31 no11 si11 (ipf) (painful)–(painful) say pain/ill/disease die(ipf) 55 r ga31. PE perceive+I After having chopped off his foot, he had terrible pains, wildly screaming. [according to someone else]

    Complex Zaiwa sentences embedding clauses - including their clause markers - before ‘perceive’ or ‘say’ often falsely appear to indicate direct speech. The contents of the embedded

    462

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    phrases in fact are often referred to in a general way, not specifically as for what someone could have said literally. An example is sentence (57), where ‘say’ modifies an exhortative clause ending in the exhortative inclusive clause marker , which is embedded within a larger clause. Whereas sentence (57) could theoretically be literally translated as ‘even though we said “let’s go to Ruili”, they didn’t come’, on the other hand ‘let’s go to Ruili’ clearly is not direct speech. A similar example is sentence (58), where the time indicator is modified. If the latter sentence were direct speech, the word naq1-ma35 ‘tomorrow’ would have to be used instead of ke5-ngi35 ‘today’. 57

    Meng11mau11 lo35 syang55 ngvu31 Ruili go(back/up) JUS say 35 35 1 11 zyang wa , a -lo gvo54 ge11. (ipf) CD EMP NEG–come(back/up) PL+FCT TOP Although we said “Let’s (ND.IN) go to Ruili”, they didn’t come.

    58

    A1-ngi35-nap1 dai54 ke5-ngi35 mu35 nom–day–morning speak+FCT before–day work(N) zui11 syang55 ngvu25 a1-dvyeng11 loq1. touch/work(V) JUS say+FCT NEG–true no.more They said that the work that we (ND.IN) agreed upon yesterday does not apply anymore today.

    The grammatical modification of Zaiwa personal pronouns may also obscure a proper distinction between direct and indirect speech. When referring to the speech of other persons, first person pronouns will always be omitted. Another remark is that when referring to the speech of others than the speaker, i.e. with second or third person subjects, some natural constraints modify the use of personal pronouns. In Zaiwa, direct speech cannot be used in utterances about what the addressee has said or should say, since in these cases the speaker will always refer to the addressee in the second person, e.g. (59). Sentence (60) illustrates that, at least in story-telling, a second person pronoun can be used for quoting what someone said to someone else.

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    59

    Yvang11

    60

    Nang31

    nang31

    463

    r55

    mi11 zyang35 nang31 3SG 2SG OBJ ask CD 2SG r11 a1-sue55 ngvu31-aq1. also NEG–know say–SIM If she asks you (SG) , tell her that you also don’t know it. mvau31 ra55 ngvu31. (ipf) 2SG cheat/fool PE say+I “You (SG) are cheating me”, the other one said.

    In the following sentences, the clauses or single words before ‘say’ could be referred to both as direct and indirect speech. 61

    Nang31

    m11-m11 ngvu31 ze11 yau11-aq5. 2SG (yes)–(yes) say only let.pass–SIM Just say (SG) “hum” [yes] to them in a non-committal fashion.

    62

    Zang11 zo11 syang55 ngvu31-aq1. rice/food eat JUS say–SIM Say (SG) that we (ND.IN) are going to eat.

    63

    Nga35-nvik5 ka55-hu55 sun11 i5-wui31 1PO–duo Q–sort veg/dish go–buy ra54 lu55 ngvu31 meng31 gvun31 (ipf) need+FCT MIR say chat1 play(ipf) 31 dvo lye31. (ipf) place(vt) also+I We (DU) were chatting about which vegetables to buy.

    In the following sentences, the clauses before the verb ‘perceive’ can only be referred to as indirect speech. 64

    Yvang55-moq1 lo31 gveq5 ga54 3PL–party come(back/up) PLIM perceive+FCT lo35 be1-gvo31 luq1? go(back/up) P–PL+I Y/N After they asked you (PL) to come back, did you (PL) go back then?

    464

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    65

    Yvang55-moq1 ngo31 r55 me1-hon31 3PL–party 1SG OBJ words–sing lye35 be1-lu11-aq5 ga31 a1-gvo31. (ipf) come(away/down) help–record–SIM perceive nom–PL+I They (PL) asked me to come to record some songs.

    66

    Nang31

    lo11 r55 myang25 ga54 2SG tiger/bull OBJ see+FCT perceive+FCT 11 ge dvyeng31 lye31 luq1? (ipf) TOP true also+I Y/N Is it true that you (SG) saw a tiger? / Is it true what you (SG) said about having seen a tiger?

    The following sentence is interesting since it contains three of the Zaiwa verba sentiendi et dicendi: both ‘say’ and ‘perceive’, as well as dai31-gvyo11 (tell-let.hear) ‘to tell something to someone’. The form ga54, which is the verb ‘perceive’ marked by the factitive marker , refers to a fact or a state of affairs, i.e. not a situation which is made up by the speaker. As I shall discuss in Section 11.6, the verb ‘perceive’ never refers to words that are from the mouth of the speaker himself. In this sentence, the verb ‘say’ therefore refers to something the addressee should say. 67

    Ngun31 lau35 lye35 bi11 raq5 silver promptly come(away/down) give VO ga54 ngvu31 i5-be1-dai31-gvyo11-aq5. perceive+FCT say go–help–speak(ipf)–let.hear–SIM Tell him that he must return the money soon.

    4.60

    MORE ON THE VERB ‘SAY’

    The verb ‘say’ normally refers to things said to people other than the speaker himself, or to things the speaker thinks to himself, and so often has a quotative function. The Zaiwa verb ‘say’ appears to have been borrowed from Jingpo, cf. ngu ‘say (to him)’, ‘be called’, ‘feel’ in Xu et al. (1983: 581). As is made evident in the study by Dai & Xu (1992: 67), Jingpo ngu differs from Zaiwa ‘say’, since the latter, apart from expressing ‘say, speak,

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    465

    sing, call’ etc., also expresses the notions ‘feel’ and ‘sense’. Much of the use of the Zaiwa verb ‘say’ has already been discussed above, in the discussion of direct and indirect speech in Zaiwa. I shall discuss other aspects below. The form ngvu31 (say+I), i.e. the combination of the verb ‘say’ and the indicative mood marker , is used as the quotative marking unit, expressing ‘this is the case, since X says this’. This form is mostly used in narratives. As long as there is no grammatical modification of the personal pronouns or of the time indicators, the quotative marking unit ngvu31 (say+I) can refer to direct speech, in which case this marking unit could be translated as ‘X said’, e.g. (69) to (71). Such does not apply when this form is used after the general truth indicative clause marking unit lye31, since this combination normally refers to facts, such as those that everyone should or is presumed to know, e.g. (68). 68

    Ke5-min31 kai55hui31 lye31 ngvu31 (ipf) before–evening hold.meeting also+I say+I yvang11 r55 dai31-gvyo11-aq5. (ipf) 3SG OBJ speak –let.hear–SIM Tell (SG) him that there’s a meeting this evening.

    69

    Nung11-zo11 si31 bue31 ngvu31. 2REL–child die P+I say+I They said: “Your children are dead.”

    70

    Bvau31 le1-zvuq5-o55 lvai31 le1-zvuq5-o55 raft/cluster but–insert–HIGH boat but–insert–HIGH ngvu31, ngvu11 lum31 ngyo31 be1-gvo31. (ipf) (ipf) say+I say reciprocal talk P–PL+I “But we’ll make rafts and we’ll make ships!” they then argued.

    71

    Eiq5

    ngvu31, a1-wang31-o31 ngvu31. VOC say+I NEG–enter–HIGH+I say+I “What? “ the other one said, “they didn’t enter.”

    Whereas the verb ‘say’ normally refers to saying things to others, in the following construction it refers to speaking to oneself.

    466

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    The combination gaq1 ngvu31, consisting of the conceptual suffix (CC) and the quotative marking unit ngvu31 (say+I), refers back to the situation denoted by the preceding clause and indicates that the speaker was thinking to himself. In the two following sentences, the Zaiwa conceptual suffix (CC) indicates that only a thought of the speaker is being expressed and that the situation as such is not specifically a real situation. 72

    Ngo31

    ge11

    nang31

    ha31 lo35 byuq1 1SG TOP 2SG where go(back/up) lose bue54 lu55 gaq1 ngvu31. P+FCT MIR CC say+I I was wondering where you (SG) had disappeared to.

    73

    Ngo31

    ge11

    nang31

    1SG

    TOP

    2SG

    gaq1

    zang11 rice/food

    zo11 eat

    bue54

    lu55

    P+FCT

    MIR

    ngvu31. CC say+I I was wondering whether you (SG) had eaten yet. The meaning of ‘say’ can also be used in a performative sense, indicating ‘be destined to’, ‘to have in mind to’, ‘to intend to’, i.e. all ways of thinking things by oneself, especially when this verb is combined with the progressive aspectiviser ‘place’(vt). 74

    Le1-laq5-a55 me1dvu55 ngvu31 (male)–3rd-brother–FCT share/portion say mvit5 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) leave.over place(vt) also+I This is being saved for third brother.

    75

    Ngo31

    lvang55 nang31 r55 lye35 1SG even 2SG OBJ come(away/down) wut1 ra31 ngvu11 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) call need+I say place(vt) also+I In fact, I was just thinking of coming to your (SG) place to call on you.

    467

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    76

    Ke5-ngi35 Meng11mau11 zye35 before–day Ruili arrive dvo31 lye31. place(vt)(ipf) also+I Today we are bound to get to Ruili.

    syoq5 till

    ngvu11 say(ipf)

    The combination of the verb ‘say’ and the conditional clause marker (CD) normally expresses a notion like ‘even though’, i.e. rendering explicit a discrepancy between what was taken for granted and some other situation. 77

    Sat5 bvyam31 dvo11 bue31 ngvu31 zyang35 wa35. (ipf) kill rid.of place(vt) P+I say CD EMP I was sure that I had thoroughly extinguished the fire. [But now it’s burning again.]

    78

    Nga35-nvung55 ban31-syoq5-bang11 syom31 1PO–1ND.IN use.up–till–PNO drive.game(ipf) 31 55 31 35 hon syang ngvu zyang , zye11 tang31 sing JUS say CD exceed behind ma55 ngo31 bau35 ze1-lo31. LOC 1SG just only–no.more+I Whereas they said let’s (ND.IN) all sing together, in the end I was the only one.

    The following sentence illustrates that the combination ngvu31 zyang35 (say CD) can also connect separate clauses without expressing notions like ‘even though’. The exact meaning of this construction in this case is not clear to me yet. 79

    Pik5-mun31 mut1 dvang31 gvat5 lye31 (ipf) pungent–powder blow let.fly put.into also+I ngvu31 zyang35, nga35 myoq1-zi35 ze1-me55 say CD 1PO eye–ball/seed only–LOC 5 5 1 bvak -rap , a ga31! lap5 mo35-mo35! [flinging.a.dollop]–dollop (difficulty) suffer AUG–AUG With the chilli powder being blown into the air and coming right into my eyes, aah, it felt terrible!

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    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    The verb ‘say’ can also be used after various onomatopoeia. The verb ‘say’ in this function often expresses that the sound indicated by the onomatopoeia is caused by the performance of the main verb of the clause after it. 80

    Loq1 bvyuq5 bvyeng31bvyeng31 hand/arm clap/slap [onom] bat1 mving55 gveq5 ma11. beat sound/name(vt) PLIM ROUS Clap (PL) your hands, going bang bang.

    81

    Pyop1pyop1 ngvu31 [slurping] say Don’t slurp like that.

    82

    Sok1sok1 ngvu31 ke5-so31 mving55. (ipf) [onom] say PHB–walk sound/name(vt) Don’t walk with so much rustling.

    ke5-syuq5 PHB–drink

    ngvu31 say

    mving55. sound/name(vt)

    • ‘say’ and the factitive marker The combination of the verb ‘say’ with the factitive marker can both have tone /25/ and tone /54/, as Section 4.5 has already discussed in detail. The variant in tone /25/ would be expected, given the underlying tone /31/ of the verb ‘say’, whereas the variant in tone /54/ is rather marked. I have glossed the regular form ngvu25 as (say+FCT) and the special form ngvu54 as (say+FCT*), with asterisk. The special form ngvu54 (say+FCT*) is used after nouns, whereas the regular form form ngvu25 (say+FCT) marks whole clauses. The special form ngvu54 (say+FCT*) expresses the special notions ‘the one already mentioned’, e.g. (83), or ‘since things are like this’, with a further notion of being sensible, e.g. (84) and (85). 83

    Hi31 zi1tung11 Miq1-dvai55-dvu55 ngvu54 hi31 this spirit.type eye2–only–shining say+FCT* this 5 toq lo31 be1-ra31. come.out come(back/up) P–need+I The other zitung we talked about, named the one-eyed, was about to come out.

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    469

    84

    Byu31-eq5 byu31 ngvu54 ge11 man/woman–COM man/woman say+FCT* TOP a1-gue11 wu35-syau31 lum11. (ipf) (ipf) NEG–all.right look–less reciprocal People who respect each other should not look down upon each other. / Between people there should be no looking down upon each other.

    85

    A1mu31 ngvu54 ge11 le1go11 gvut5 matter say+FCT* TOP well do ye11 lo35 ra31 dut1 lye31. (ipf) go(away/down) go(back/up) need+I become also+I Since it is a matter which has to be accomplished, we should get started with it.

    The regular variant ngvu25 (say+FCT), in tone /25/, expresses the meaning ‘say’ of the constituent verb in a more or less literal way, referring to uttering specific words or thinking specific thoughts to oneself. 86

    Ngo31

    yvang11 r55

    yvup5 1SG 3SG OBJ sleep I told him to go to sleep.

    gvan31-aq1 ngvu25. put.into*–SIM say+FCT

    87

    A1-ngi35-nap1 dai54 ke5-ngi35 mu35 nom–day–morning speak+FCT before–day work(N) zui11 syang55 ngvu25 a1-dvyeng11 loq1. touch/work(V) JUS say+FCT NEG–true no.more They said that the work that we (ND.IN) agreed upon yesterday does not apply anymore today.

    88

    Ngo31

    hau31 dai11 ra31 ngvu25 wa35 1SG the/that speak need+I say+FCT EMP 55 yvang -moq1 dang11 dai31 lum31 3PL–party words speak(ipf) reciprocal(ipf) 11 1 31 bum a -gvo . heap(vt/N)(ipf) nom–PL+I I had in mind to say it, but they were having a discussion in quite a large group. [So I didn’t say it.]

    470

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    In the following sentence, the form ngvu25 (say+FCT) refers to a clause after it, like in ‘they said: …’ instead of referring to the preceding clause. 89

    Gau11-zo11 Le1wui31 ngvu25 nine–child (name) say+FCT dving31 am55-aq5. (ipf) collect.water/flood(vt) PFM–SIM The nine Lewui brothers said: “Flood (SG) us, then.”

    11.6

    THE VERB ‘PERCEIVE’

    The verb ‘perceive’ rather passively refers to the perception of certain sensations and to the way people or things are being called. In a remarkably broad and transparent way, the verb ‘perceive’ can express the following notions: 1) ‘to say’, but not by the speaker of the sentence itself but rather like ‘to hear from a certain person’, or ‘to know from a certain person’, and 2) ‘be called’, as for names. 3) The same verb is also the word to express the notion ‘to feel’. The broadness of meaning of this verb is not too surprising, since Zaiwa has one more verb with just as broad a meaning, viz. the verb ‘talk’, which can also both refer to speaking and feeling. The verb ‘perceive’ is partly homophonous to the topic marking morpheme (TOP). Much of the use of the verb ‘perceive’ has already been discussed above, during the discussion of direct and indirect speech in Zaiwa. Other aspects I shall discuss below. I shall first discuss the meaning of the verb ‘perceive’ in some more detail.49 After that, I shall discuss the use of the verb ‘perceive’ modifying complete clauses, embedding these into larger frames. Finally, I shall 49 The exact meaning of the construction ga31 r11 ge11 (perceive(ipf) also TOP) after nominal constituents is not clear yet. Apparently, the sentence below expresses ‘but as for their behaviour …’, thus indicating a contrast to other aspects of the given persons.

    1

    Byu31 ga31 r11 ge11 le1-pok1pok1 za54. man/woman perceive(ipf) also TOP one–identical only+FCT Those people are birds of a feather. [having the same bad habits]

    471

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    discuss the use of the verb ‘perceive’ after ideophones. In the following examples, the verb ‘perceive’ refers to impressions or sensations. 90

    Nang31

    ke5-se55 ga31 r55? (ipf) 2SG Q–like perceive PE How are you (SG) feeling?

    91

    Su31 sing55 nam31 lui31 oil taste/smell(N) smelly in.this.way +I a1-on11 ma54 ga31 r55. (ipf) nom–feel.like.vomiting LOC+FCT perceive PE I’m feeling dizzy because of the smell of petrol.

    92

    Ngo31

    wo35 syuq5 nvo31 a1-ga11. 1SG have drink EXP+I NEG–perceive I can’t drink it. / I don’t feel that I can drink it.

    Sentences (93) and (94) illustrate the use of ‘perceive’ in contexts of discussing the meanings of certain words. Much in line with these uses of ‘perceive’ are cases where it can be translated as ‘be called’, in the context of people’s names, as illustrated by sentences (95) and (96). The meaning of ‘perceive’ is only used in the sense of ‘be called’ when this verb is marked by the imperfective marker , as ga31 (perceive(ipf)). 93

    94

    Ka55-hu55 le1zvyum55 Q–sort meaning What’s the meaning?

    ga31 lye31 (ipf) perceive also+I

    ta11? GI

    Zai11wa31-ming35 dong31 ke5-se55ga31 lye31 (ipf) Zaiwa–language lead/connect Q–like perceive also+I la11? UNC

    How do you say that in Zaiwa? 95

    Nang35 ming31 ka55-hu55 2SG.PO name Q–sort What’s your (SG) name?

    ga31 lye31? (ipf) perceive also+I

    472 96

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    Ngo31

    Mo35pi55 1SG beggar I’m called Beggar.

    ga31 lye31. (ipf) perceive also+I

    In the following sentence, the verb ‘perceive’ is used in the form ga54 (perceive+FCT), not in ga31 (perceive(ipf)). Unlike the preceding examples, reference is made here to the name for a certain entity, not specifically a person. 97

    I1sye11,

    ka55-hu55 ga54 bue54 dvi55? (er/what’s.his.name) Q–sort perceive+FCT P+FCT RFL Er [let me think] what was it called?

    The meaning of the verb ‘perceive’ is used in the sense of ‘to feel’ in the following types of expression, viz. either when ‘perceive’ is used as a main verb but without a first person subject, like in the examples above, or when certain devices are used to indicate that a certain feeling is referred to. Such devices can be the prefixed allomorph of the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’50 or the reduplication of the preceding verb. The impressionistic prefix is the reduced allomorph of the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’. The latter morpheme, which I shall discuss in detail in Chapter 19, indicates certain impressions, as illustrated by the following examples where it is combined with ‘perceive’. 98

    Ngo31 1SG

    a31na35 se5-ga31 r55. (ipf) ill.at.ease like–perceive PE

    50 In Section 19.6, I shall discuss the use of ‘perceive’ in the construction se5-a1-ga11 (like-NEG-perceive), which can be translated as ‘don’t feel like’ or ‘is not perceived as’, e.g. (1), as well as the special construction se5-ge1-a1-ga11 (likeperceive-NEG-perceive).

    1

    2

    Nang31 i31-pue11 syuq5 2SG distilled–booze drink Do you (SG) feel intoxication? and the response: A1-ga11. NEG–perceive I don’t feel it.

    wut1-n55 drunk–FCT

    se5-a1-ga11 luq1? like–NEG–perceive Y/N

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    473

    I’m feeling ill at ease. 99

    Ngo31 li11 lo35 nvau25 se5-ga31 r55. (ipf) 1SG also go(back/up) feel.like+FCT like–perceive PE In fact I also feel like going.

    The construction Verb(2x) ga31 r55, consisting of a reduplicated verb, the verb ‘perceive’ marked by the imperfective marker , and the personal experience clause marker (PE), expresses the notion that the speaker feels ‘a bit V’. In these cases, the reduplicated verb can be analysed as being nominalised. For example, the reduplicated verb ‘tired’ in sentence (100) expresses ‘some tiredness’ and the reduplicated verb ‘hungry’ in sentence (101) expresses ‘a light hunger’. In the same way, the reduplicated verb in the fixed combination yvup5 nvau31 (sleep feel.like) ‘be sleepy’ in sentence (102) adds to the notion ‘some sleepiness’, just as the reduplicated second syllable in the complex verb ze1-nvau31 (eat-feel.like) ‘like to eat, want to eat’ in sentence (103) adds to the notion ‘some urge to eat it’. 100

    Moi11-moi11 ga31 r55. (ipf) tired–tired perceive PE I’m feeling a bit tired.

    101

    Mut1-mut1 ga31 r55. (ipf) hungry–hungry perceive PE I’m feeling a bit hungry.

    102

    Ngo31

    103

    Ze1-nvau31-nvau31 ga31 r55. eat–feel.like–feel.like perceive(ipf) PE I sort of feel like eating it.

    yvup5 nvau31-nvau31 ga31 r55. (ipf) 1SG sleep feel.like–feel.like perceive PE I’m feeling a bit sleepy.

    Now I shall discuss cases where ‘perceive’ is used in contexts which have to do neither with speaking nor with feeling, but where the meaning of ‘perceive’ is used in an even more abstract and

    474

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    passive way. In the following sentences, the verb ‘perceive’ can be translated as ‘have the approximate value of’, e.g. (104), or either ‘want a certain price’ or ‘offer a certain price’, e.g. (105). 104

    Nga35

    mue31-bu11 hi31 ke5-mvyo55 ga31 1PO wrap–clothes this Q–much(B) perceive(ipf) lye31 dvot1 wu35-aq5. also+I estimate look–SIM Try and guess (SG) how much these clothes of mine are worth.

    105

    A5-mvyo55-mvyo55 ga11 zyang35 ge11 nom–much(B)–much(B) perceive CD TOP 31 1 31 dye hek bue . too huge P+I If you want/offer such a high price, it’s just madness.

    In following sentence, the verb ‘perceive’ can be translated as ‘to be distinguished’. It appears that in cases like this, the verb ‘perceive’ can only be used in a negative way. 106

    Zai11wa31 mi1-wue11 wui31, gvo11 bang11 Zaiwa wife–female generation big PNO zi1syang31 a1-ga11, tung31-keng11 child NEG–perceive tradition–outfit mue31-bu11 syung11 yu31 lui31 (ipf) wrap–clothes use take in.this.way +I Zum31-go35 bum11 a1-gvo31. (ipf) consort–dance heap(vt/N) nom–PL+I These Zaiwa women of all ages are all dancing the Harmony dance, wearing traditional clothes.

    The verb ‘perceive’ can also be used in a context which somehow has to do with speaking, but where most of all a certain notion of remoteness is expressed, either caused by shortness of memory, e.g. (107), by feeling unacquainted with someone, e.g. (108), or by not having heard very well what someone shouted, e.g. (109). In the latter sentence, the verb ‘perceive’ is moreover used for embedding the preceding complete clause into a larger frame.

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    475

    107

    Ke5-se55 ga11 hon25 bue54 lu55, Q–like perceive sing+FCT P+FCT MIR dvo31mvi31 am55 bue31. (ipf) forget PFM P+I How was it sung? I’ve forgotten.

    108

    Bui31num31 ga11 gve5lvang11 zyaq1 a31na35 r55. family perceive although rather ill.at.ease PE Even though we are relatives, we are quite ill at ease with each other.

    109

    Zo11 be1-ra31 ga11 ang31 r55. (ipf) eat P–need+I perceive ought/address PE It seems that they are calling us to the meal. [I didn’t hear it clearly.]

    Witch doctors sometimes use the verb ‘perceive’ in the sense of ‘say’, in the specific context of the traditional ways in which they speak when dealing with ghosts. In sentences (111) and (112), the verb ‘perceive’ is furthermore used for embedding the preceding complete clause into a larger frame. 110

    I5-se55 dum11 SPEC–like again It is thus told.

    ga11 perceive

    bue31. P+I

    111

    Le1gok1 gau31-kum11 me55 wang31-aq1 ga11 bue31. stone nine–door LOC enter–SIM perceive P+I “Enter (SG) the nine stone doors”, they say.

    112

    Ke5-me55 Q–LOC zyang35

    bvun31 lye54 lu55 ga11 (ipf) lead.away also+FCT MIR perceive 11 5 55 ge , ke -me bvun31 lye54 CD TOP Q–LOC lead.away(ipf) also+FCT 55 11 35 lu ga zyang ge11. MIR perceive CD TOP Where to lead them away to? Where to lead them away to? What to say?

    476

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    • the form ga54 (perceive+FCT) : The factitive marker expresses factuality and forms part of the special form ga54 (perceive+FCT). The word ga54 (perceive+FCT) could be translated as ‘being called …’, or literally ‘having perceived …’, and is often used as a device to refer to certain words and their meanings as well as to other abstract situations when further statements are made on them. In the constructions used in the two following sentences, any word can be filled in before ga54 (perceive+FCT). 113

    … ga54 ge11 ka55-hu55 perceive+FCT TOP Q–sort ga31 lye31? perceive(ipf) also+I What is the meaning of …?

    le1zvyum55 meaning

    114

    … ga54 ge11 Zai11-ming35 me55 perceive+FCT TOP Zaiwa–language LOC 1 31 1 a -bo luq ? NEG–contain Y/N Does Zaiwa have a word for …?

    In other cases, the word ga54 (perceive+FCT) expresses the notion ‘X is perceived to be … (but …)’, or ‘X is supposed to be Y (but …)’, in contexts where there are questions whether or not a given person has behaved in the way expected. 115

    Yuq1-gue31 ga54 ning31 i31-pue11 person–male perceive+FCT INS+I distilled–booze syuq5 ra31 dut1 lye31. drink need+I become also+I Men are supposed to drink. / Real men should drink.

    116

    I5-pu11 function–elder.brother r11 a1-gyo11 also NEG–hear/smell

    ga54 wa35 perceive+FCT EMP ge11. TOP

    dai54 speak+FCT

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    477

    Even though he is an elder brother, he is disobedient. / Even though you are an elder brother, you are disobedient. 117

    Lang31-sek5 ga54 wa35 sek5 gvat5 husband–new perceive+FCT EMP pinch2 put.into wu35 syang55. look JUS Since he is the bridegroom, let’s (ND.IN) pinch him.

    118

    Nang31

    i5-wa11 le1-ga54 wa35 2SG function–father but–perceive+FCT EMP 11 1 zo a -gue11 mvoq5-o55 ge11. child NEG–all.right(ipf) learn/teach–FCT TOP Even though you (SG) are a father, you can’t raise children.

    A similar use of ga54 (perceive+FCT) is illustrated by the following examples, where, instead of words, specific situations are being referred to. Here, the form ga54 (perceive+FCT) could also be translated literally as ‘having perceived …’ and is also used for embedding the preceding complete clause into a larger frame. 119

    Ke5-min31 kai55hui31 lye31 ga54 (ipf) before–evening hold.meeting also+I perceive+FCT nga35-moq1 r11 a1-sue55. 1PO–party also NEG–know We (ND.EX) also didn’t know that there was a meeting this evening.

    120

    Yvang55-moq1 lo31 gveq5 ga54 3PL–party come(back/up) PLIM perceive+FCT lo35 be1-gvo31 luq1? go(back/up) P–PL+I Y/N After they asked you (PL) to come back, did you (PL) go back then?

    121

    Nang31 2SG

    ge11

    TOP

    lo11 r55 myang25 tiger/bull OBJ see+FCT dvyeng31 lye31 luq1? (ipf) true also+I Y/N

    ga54 perceive+FCT

    478

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    Is it true that you (SG) saw a tiger? / Is it true what you (SG) said about having seen a tiger? • ‘perceive’ referring to situations of speech; the evidential marker ga31 (perceive+I) The verb ‘perceive’ forms part of the evidential marker ga31 (perceive+I), expressing ‘I know this from someone else’, after being marked by the indicative mood marker . Informants often translate the evidential marker ga31 (perceive+I) as ‘he/she said’ or plural ‘they said’, or also ‘(but) you said’, whereas on the other hand they also admit that the persons in the context often may not have said anything at all. It would be much more correct to state that the evidential marker ga31 (perceive+I) is needed whenever statements are made about third persons. The evidential marker ga31 (perceive+I) is especially needed in cases like the three following sentences, where things are viewed from the perspective of other persons. In many of these cases, the evidential marker ga31 (perceive+I) is preceded by the personal experience clause marker (PE), which explicitly refers to personal experiences or assessments. 122

    Yvang11 nang31 r55 gue31-gue31

    zvit5 r55 ga31. 3SG 2SG OBJ all.right–all.right love PE perceive+I She really loves you (SG) .

    123

    Yvang11 waq1-syo11 mak1 dik1 r55 3SG pig–flesh crazy.about extreme PE She is crazy about pork.

    124

    Yvang11

    ga31. perceive+I

    dving55dving55 a1-zo11 ga31. 3SG categorically NEG–eat perceive+I He categorically refuses to eat.

    The evidential marker ga31 (perceive+I) is mostly needed whenever statements are made about third persons. In the following sentence, this is not the case, since the given person is viewed as belonging to the same group as the speaker. 125

    Yvang11 3SG

    hang31 lye31. (ipf) drive also+I

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    479

    He drives. In some contexts and only after a predicate which is marked by the factitive marker , the evidential marker ga31 can also have an accusing undertone. 126

    Nung35-moq1 a1zeng35 i5-kau11 gvo54 ga31. 2PL–party thing go–steal PL+FCT perceive+I I’ve heard that you (PL) have stolen things.

    127

    Nang31

    zo54 ga31. 2SG eat+FCT perceive+I I’ve heard that it was you (SG) who ate it.

    The construction X ga31 r11 … ga31 consists of the verb ‘perceive’, marked by the imperfective marker , one of the morpheme variants // ‘also’, and the evidential marking unit ga31 (perceive+I). This construction specifically indicates indirect speech and, rather simply, expresses that the situation denoted by this complex clause occurs within the same context as some other situation, like ‘and he said …’. The fact that this construction indicates indirect speech explains why my principal informant claimed that sentence (128) below would be incorrect when containing the exclamatory interjection ‘aah!’ before no11 (pain/ill(ipf)). 128

    Yvang11 3SG

    r55

    ga31 r11 perceive(ipf) also

    no11 dik1 pain/ill/disease(ipf) extreme

    ga31. PE perceive+I He said it hurt very much. 129

    Yvang11

    ga31 r11 dvo31 dvo31 (ipf) (ipf) 3SG perceive also place(vt) place(vt)(ipf) lye31 ga31 ning31. also+I perceive+I INS+I He himself also says he put it there!

    480

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    The following sentences contain the sentence-final construction ga31 r55 (perceive(ipf) PE), consisting of the verb ‘perceive’, marked by the imperfective marker , and the personal experience clause marker (PE). This construction, in indirect speech, refers to what third persons have said and embeds whole clauses into a larger quotative sentence. 130

    Le1-gam35 ngo31 r55 i31-pue11 (male)–eld-brother 1SG OBJ distilled–booze 5 1 31 55 syuq wut ra -o ga31 r55. drink drunk need+I–HIGH perceive(ipf) PE Eldest brother said to me that he was going to get himself drunk.

    131

    Yvang11 3SG 1

    5

    r55

    1SG

    OBJ

    me1-hon31 lye35 words–sing come(away/down) r55.

    be -lu -aq ga31 help–record–SIM perceive(ipf) PE She asked me to come to record some songs. 132

    11

    ngo31

    Yvang11

    a1-dong35, a1-gvam55 ga31 r55. (ipf) 3SG NEG–agree NEG–want.to perceive PE He doesn’t agree, he says he doesn’t want to do it.

    When sentences are rather long, the same construction ga31 r55 (perceive(ipf) PE) can also be used before the quoted clause. In cases like the following sentence, the verb ‘perceive’ is used once more, in the shape of an evidential marking unit ga31 (perceive+I). 133

    Yvang55-moq1 ga31 r55 ngo31 r55 (ipf) 3PL–party perceive PE 1SG OBJ mu35 le1-ngi35 lye35 work(N) one–day come(away/down) be1-zui11-aq5 ga31. help–touch/work(V)–SIM perceive+I They are asking me to come and help them another day.

    The following sentences are examples of the combination ga31-o11 (perceive+I-REF), consisting of the evidential marker ga31 (perceive+I)

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    481

    and the reference suffix . The reference suffix expresses a wish of the speaker to ascertain something about a certain situation, either with an undertone of disbelief, incomprehension or not knowing exactly. Consequently, the combination ga31-o11 (perceive+I-REF) expresses a wish to ascertain something about a certain situation, with the undertone described specifically vis-à-vis the addressee (disbelief, incomprehension, etc.). 134

    Nang31

    zuen35 dik1 lye31 ga31 o11. 2SG intelligent extreme also+I perceive+I REF People say that you (SG) are very intelligent. [But I don’t believe it.]

    135

    Hi31 ki31-ko31 hi31, nang35 yvum31 me55 this leg/foot–track this 2SG.PO house LOC dong31 wang31 bue31 ngvu31 ga31 o11. lead/connect enter P+I say perceive+I REF “These tracks lead into your (SG) house” he said.

    136

    Ke5-mvyo55 gya35 wo35 zo31 lye31 (ipf) Q–much(B) prepared have eat also+I ga31 o11? perceive+I REF How much exactly did you say you can eat?

    137

    Ka55-hu55 ga31-o11, lvang31-mui31 ga31 Q–sort perceive+I–REF snake–snake perceive+I o11, lo11 lo35 tung31 hui11 (ipf) REF tiger/bull go(back/up) crush make.way/meet 54 11 31 gvo ga o ? PL+FCT perceive+I REF What did you say? Was it snakes or was it tigers that you ran into?

    The two following sentences both contain the verb ‘perceive’ before the reference suffix . The difference between these two sentences is that sentence (138) normally refers to the words of the addressee, whereas sentence (139) normally refers to the words of a third person. Sentence (138) contains the combination of the verb

    482

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    ‘perceive’ as the evidential marker ga31(perceive+I) and the reference suffix (REF), a combination which is known to mostly directly refer to the words of the addressee. In sentence (139), the verb ‘perceive’ is marked by the factitive marker , indicating factuality. The latter sentence normally refers to the words of a third person. 138

    Ka55-hu55 ga31 o11? Q–sort perceive+I REF What did you say?

    139

    Ka55-hu55 ga54 o11? Q–sort perceive+FCT REF What did he/they say?

    The construction ga11 dai31 gvat5, consisting of the verb ‘perceive’, the verb ‘speak’, marked by the imperfective marker , and the verb ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser, embeds an imperative clause into a complex clause, expressing that the speaker is passing on to the addressee a certain request by others, e.g. (140). The same construction can also be used to merely inform the addressee about a request, directed to some other person, e.g. (141). In this construction, the verb ‘perceive’ indicates that the words of others are referred to, instead of one’s own intentions. 140

    A5-nu11 A5-wa11 ga31 r11, (ipf) nom–mother nom–father perceive also dvat5bung35 lo11 be1-dyem11 photographs come(back/up)(ipf) help–take.picture 1 5 11 si -aq , ga dai31 gvan31-a1-gvo31. (ipf) still–SIM perceive speak put.into*–nom–PL+I Mum and Dad are asking you (SG) , by way of me, to come and make some more pictures of them.

    141

    Ang55dung54 mau11sau11 be1-yu11 Anton+FCT paper/book help–take(ipf) 31 1 11 lo -aq ga dai31 gvat5 (ipf) come(back/up)–SIM perceive speak put.into

    r55. PE

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    483

    They told me ask to him to take your [i.e. Anton’s] books with him. • ‘perceive’ after ideophones The verb ‘perceive’ is often used after onomatopoeia or other ideophones, indicating how certain situations are perceived. When used after ideophones, the verb ‘perceive’ either functions as the main verb of a simple clause, or it embeds the ideophone, as part of an adverbial clause, into a larger frame. In the following examples, the verb ‘perceive’ is the main verb of a simple clause containing an ideophone. Naturally, there can be no first person subject in these cases, and the verb ‘perceive’ can mostly be simply translated as ‘feel’. 142

    Zang11 hi31 ge11 dak1dak1 ga31 r55. (ipf) rice/food this TOP [like.half.done.rice] perceive PE This rice feels half-done.

    143

    Nu35-nu35 ga31 r55. (ipf) young/tender–young/tender perceive PE It feels soft and pliable. [like the skin of an infant]

    144

    Gyet5gyet5 ga31 r55. [tough.and.leathery] perceive(ipf) PE It feels tough and leathery. [like rubber]

    145

    Lum35-lum35 ga11 tepid–tepid perceive It already feels tepid.

    146

    147

    bue31. P+I

    Nip5nip5 ga31 r55 (ipf) [spooky] perceive PE It has a spooky feel about it. Ngo31 1SG

    bau35 ngvut5 just be r55.

    mai31. OBV+I

    zyang35 CD

    ga31 perceive(ipf) PE When I’m alone, it feels a bit scary.

    sim55sim55 [slightly.afraid]

    484 148

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    Mau11 cyut5 dvu55dvu55 sky dark [pitch-dark] The sky is as black as coal!

    ga31 r55 (ipf) perceive PE

    mai31! OBV+I

    Ideophones can also form part of an adverbial clause, with ‘perceive’ embedding them into a larger frame. 149

    150

    Ngap5 ga11 king31 byuq1 (ipf) stop.suddenly perceive halt/rest lose The noise has suddenly stopped. Mvyet1mvyet1 [nod.into.sleep] r55 mai31. PE

    ga11 perceive

    yvup5 sleep

    mvi31 trap(ipf)

    bue31. P+I

    lo35 go(back/up)

    OBV+I

    Just now I was nodding off to sleep! 151

    Yut1yut1 ga11 yvup5 [starved] perceive sleep si1-lo35 r55. (ipf) die –go(back/up) PE I’m dying to go to sleep.

    nvau11 feel.like(ipf)

    Variants of the latter type are elliptic clauses where clause markers after ‘perceive’ are omitted. 152

    Ke5-yoq1-ngi35 ge11 nga35 zvyang55 before–ago–day TOP 1PO near Ang55dung35 byon31 ga11. Anton [pierce/shoot.through] perceive The day before yesterday, Anton [came], like a bolt out of the blue.

    The ideophones in the following sentences are onomatopoeia. In these cases too, the verb ‘perceive’ embeds the adverbial clause into a larger frame. 153

    Waq1-mvi55 pig–female

    ngut1ngut1 [onom]

    ga11 perceive

    ming11 r55. (ipf) sound(vi) PE

    485

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    The sow is grunting. 154

    Nge1-noq1 zit5zit5 ga11 rat/mouse–black [(mice/rats).squeak] perceive ming11 r55. (ipf) sound(vi) PE The rats/mice are squeaking.

    155

    Na35i55 tyek1tyek1 ga11 dye31 ming11 clock [onom] perceive too sound(vi)(ipf) 55 1 35 5 r , a -wo yvup . PE NEG–have sleep The clock is ticking too loudly, I can’t sleep.

    156

    Ng5nga31 ng5nga31 ga11 wo35 [onom] [onom] perceive have dik1 r55. extreme PE This baby is very much a cry-baby.

    157

    Zui31 tooth am55

    ke1rok1 [onom] bue31.

    PFM

    P+I

    ga11 perceive

    ngat1 bite

    ngau11 weep(ipf)

    kyo31 let.go.down(ipf)

    The tooth was bitten loose with a crack. 158

    11.7

    Seng11 duk1duk1 ga11 pyam11 han11 r55. (ipf) (ipf) liver [onom] perceive palpitate quick PE My heart [lit.: my liver] is throbbing very fast. THE MORPHEME ‘HAPPEN’ AS A VERB AND AS A CLAUSE MARKER

    The morpheme ‘happen’ can be used in rather many ways, as I shall set out below. First, the morpheme ‘happen’ can be used as a verb in what appears to be its regular meaning: ‘to happen because of some situation’.

    486

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    159

    Lyeng31 si11 lye31 mu31 ra31-o55. (ipf) (ipf) fall(vi) die also+I happen need+I–HIGH If you act like that, you will fall down.

    160

    Byu31 hau55-yuq1 lang11dang35-si31 man/woman the/that–person childbirth–die bue31 ga31. P+I perceive+I They say that that person died in childbirth.

    161

    Byu31 hau55-yuq1 mue11 si31 man/woman the/that–person death.by.accident die mu31 bue31. happen P+I That person has died in an accident.

    162

    I31-pue11 syuq5 distilled–booze drink It’s because of boozing.

    163

    Ngo31

    164

    Nang31

    mu31 happen+I

    dut1 become

    mu31 happen

    r55. PE

    dvu31 bue31 mai31, nang31 1SG respond/upright P+I OBV+I 2SG hue55 a1-wo35 gyo11 le5-mu25 wa35. far(B) NEG–have hear/smell but–happen+FCT EMP I answered your call, it’s only that you (SG) didn’t hear my reply. hue55 a1-wo35 le5-mu11 li11, (ipf) 2SG far(B) NEG–have but–happen also nang31 ke5-dye31 me1non31. 2SG PHB–too envious Don’t be so envious, it’s only that you don’t have it. [while others do]

    • In an analogous way, the morpheme ‘happen’ is also used for expressing the notion ‘why?’, after the complex pronoun ka55-hu55 (Q-sort).

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    165

    Ka55-hu55 Q–sort Why?

    166

    Byu31 ka55-hu55 mu31 man/woman Q–sort happen+I dang31 la11? fly(ipf) UNC Why is it that man can’t fly?

    487

    mu31? happen+I a1-gue11 (ipf) NEG–all.right

    • The morpheme ‘happen’ is also used as a verb when it expresses a secondary meaning ‘to speak’, referring to the use of one’s mother tongue, e.g. (167), or, in combination with the noun ‘gossip’, ‘to gossip’, e.g. (168) and (169). 167

    Nga35-moq1 yvum31 me55 ge11 1PO–party house LOC TOP Zai11wa31-ming35 mu11 lye31. Zaiwa–language happen(ipf) also+I At home we (ND.EX) speak Zaiwa.

    168

    Se5-bvue54 lu31 SNO–PLN +FCT gossip(N) Don’t gossip about others.

    169

    Yvum31 ma54 bang54 lu31 mu11 lye31. (ipf) house LOC+FCT PNO+FCT gossip(N) happen also+I We are gossiping about the people of our house.

    ke5-mu31. PHB–happen

    • The verb ‘happen’ can also modify reduplicated verb phrases and other ideophones, somewhat like English ‘go like’. In sentence (170), the verb ‘happen’ is combined with the ideophone ‘[all over the place]’, and in sentence (171) it is combined with the ideophone ‘stop suddenly’. 170

    Myoq1-dong11 eye–(have)hole mu31 yuq1 happen grow

    me55

    mun11-sui11 LOC luck–freckle bum11 r55. (ipf) heap(vt/N) PE

    bvyeq1bvyeq1 [all.over.the.place]

    488

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    The face is full of freckles. 171

    Mi1-dat5 le1-dam31-dvaq5 ngap5 fire–electricity one–time(Sp)–suddenly stop.suddenly mu31 si11 byuq1 bue31. (ipf) happen die lose P+I All of a sudden, there was a black-out.

    The following sentences are examples of the use of the verb ‘happen’ modifying reduplicated verbs. The reduplication of verbs normally expresses iterativity or habituality. 172

    Nang31

    ge11

    i31-syuq5 wut1 zyang35 2SG TOP distilled–drink drunk CD lvaq5 wui11-wui11 mu11 lye31-o55. (ipf) HAB difficult–difficult happen also+I–HIGH When you (SG) are drunk, you become troublesome each and every time.

    173

    A5-nu11 ge1lu11 lvaq5 ze1-nvau31-nvau31 nom–mother sweets HAB eat–feel.like–feel.like mu11 lye31, wui11 lo35 gvoq1. (ipf) (ipf) happen also+I buy go(back/up) DIE Mum wants to eat sweets all the time, so let’s (DU.IN) buy her some.

    174

    Yvang54 ming31 ngo31 a1-yan35 3SG+FCT name 1SG nom–row am55-am55 mu11 r55. (ipf) PFM–PFM happen PE I always forget his name.

    dvo31mvi31 forget(ipf)

    • The meaning of ‘happen’ is also used in the same sense, like English ‘go like’, when used as part of the combination ze1-mu31 (only-happen), further consisting of the allomorph of the limitative morpheme ‘only’. As far as I have been able to ascertain, the construction ze1-mu31 (only-happen) always refers to colours and expresses the predominance of a certain colour.

    489

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    175

    Zam11zam11 ze1-mu31 ngi11 ra55. (ipf) [crimson] only–happen be.there(anim) PE Look at her [being] there, having her lips done as red as crimson.

    176

    Bo11bo11 ze1-mu31 pyu11 dik1 (ipf) [very.white] only–happen white extreme It’s pale white.

    r55. PE

    • The form kyong11 tye31 mu31 (throat sound happen) is a fixed expression for ‘to cough’. 177

    Mvo55-mai11 o55-yuq1 kyong11 tye31 below–ABL who–person throat sound mu11 lai31 lo25 ta11? (ipf) (ipf) happen pass come(back/up)+FCT GI Who is that down there whom I hear clearing their throat?

    • The verb ‘happen’ can also be used in two fixed expressions, modifying two complex pronominals containing the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’. In sentence (178), the verb ‘happen’ is used after hi55-se55 (this-like) ‘as this’. More often, the verb ‘happen’ is used after a5-se55 (nom-like) ‘like this/that’, as illustrated by sentences (179) to (181). 178

    A1mu31 wa35 hi55-se55 mu31 bin35 matter EMP this–like happen take.shape dvo54 ge11. place(vt)+FCT TOP That this simple matter could develop into something as complicated as this!

    179

    A5-se55 mu31 ngo31 i5-dye35 nom–like happen 1SG go–see.off In that case, I will go and see him off.

    180

    I55-sum11-ngi35 bue31 ga31 a5-se55 mu31 dut1. two–three–day P+I perceive+I nom–like happen become It went on like that for a couple of days.

    gvat5 put.into

    lye31. also+I

    490 181

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    Yvang11

    u1-nvuq5 me55 a1na11 bo11 r55 (ipf) 3SG head–brains LOC illness contain PE a5-se55 mu31 na31 byuq1 bue31. nom–like happen insane(ipf) lose P+I He has a defect in his brains, therefore he has gone insane.

    When the context permits, the expression a5-se55 mu31 (nom-like happen) can also be used in a mere temporal context, expressing ‘after’. 182

    A5-se55 mu31 zang11 lo11 zvyo31-aq1. nom–like happen rice/food come(back/up)(ipf) cook*–SIM After that, you (SG) come and prepare the meal.

    • The verb ‘happen’ is used as a kind of copula in the form se5-mu31 (like-happen), after the prefix allomorph of the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’. This form se5-mu31 (like-happen) is only used for expressing that the entity in the context bears the colour indicated by the verb after it, to the extent denoted by the preceding nominal constituent, as when saying ‘grass-green’ instead of ‘green as grass’, or ‘coal-black’ instead of ‘black as coal’. 183

    Sek5-haq5 se5-mu31 ngyui11 ra55. tree–leaf like–happen green/blue(ipf) PE It’s green like tree leaves.

    184

    Mi1-gye11 se5-mu31 noq1 fire–coal like–happen black It’s as black as coal.

    ra55.

    Mi1-wap5 se5-mu31 mui35 fire–ash like–happen grey It’s as grey as ashes.

    ra55.

    185

    PE

    PE

    The verb preceding se5-mu31 (like-happen) and indicating what the given entity looks like can also be omitted.

    491

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    186

    Ne1-ki11 se5-mu11 r55. (ipf) cattle–faeces like–happen PE It looks like cow dung. [stated as an observation]

    187

    Ne1-ki11 se5-mu11 lye31. (ipf) cattle–faeces like–happen also+I It looks like cow dung. [stated as a general fact]

    • The morpheme ‘happen’ is also used as part of complex conjunctions hau55-mu31 (the/that-happen) ‘and after that’, e.g. (188), and a1-mu31 (nom-happen), e.g. (189). The latter can express both ‘and after that’, e.g. (189), and ‘because of this’. The form a5-mu31 (nom-happen) in sentence (190) is the stressed variant of the former and expresses ‘because of this’. 188

    Kyo31 he5-so54, road

    hau55-mu31

    mo35do35 zi54.

    before–walk+FCT the/that–happen car

    ride(vt)+FCT

    First I walked and then I went by bus. 189

    Ngo11-ngi35 five–day a1-mu31 nom–happen “Go (SG) and over with it.”

    190

    Ngo31

    ngo11-min31 lo35 sui11-aq5, five–evening go(back/up) whet/grate–SIM lye35 lo31-aq1. come(away/down) come(back/up)–SIM whet it for five days and then come on back

    hi55-me55 a1mu31 zui11 1SG this–LOC matter touch/work(V) lui31, a5-mu31 a1-gyoq1. in.this.way +I nom–happen NEG–cold Since I have been working here, I don’t feel cold.

    The two latter conjunctions should not be confused with the homophonous noun a1 mu31 ‘matter’ used in sentence (190) above. The latter could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. amu (Xu et al. 1983: 27). • The morpheme ‘happen’ can also be used as part of the clause marking unit mu31 (happen +I), i.e. when marked by the indicative mood marker . This clause marking unit mu31

    492

    CHAPTER ELEVEN

    (happen+I) functions as a conjunction and can be translated as ‘after’, e.g. (191) and (192). It can also refer to a relationship between two situations such as that the situation referred to by the clause before mu31 (happen+I) is a prerequisite for the situation referred to by the clause after it, e.g. (193) and (194). 191

    Zang11 zo11 mu31 lo35 gveq5. rice/food eat happen+I go(back/up) PLIM Leave (PL) after having a meal.

    192

    Ye31 mu31 dum11 lo31 bue31. go(away/down) happen+I again come(back/up) P+I After I went, I came back again. / I went and came back again.

    193

    I31-pue11 syuq5 mu31 distilled–booze drink happen+I It must be because of boozing.

    194

    kai31. SUG+I

    Loq1-soq5 soq5 mu31 hand/arm–connect connect happen+I gvun55 gvoq1. play DIE Let’s (DU) walk hand in hand.

    so31 walk(ipf)

    • In several of its functions, the morpheme ‘happen’, already discussed in this section, can be used before the clause marking unit lui31 ‘in this way’. In these cases, the morpheme is analysed as unmarked by the indicative mood marker , since the following clause marking unit lui31 ‘in this way’ already contains the latter tonal morpheme. 195

    Ngye35 mu31-lui31-eq1 bing55bang11 burnt/hot happen+I–in.this.way+I–AG/I ice-cream byong35 byuq1 bue31. melt(vi) lose P+I The ice cream has melted because of the heat.

    196

    Ngo31 1SG

    dye31 too

    yvup5 sleep

    nvau31 feel.like

    VERBA SENTIENDI ET DICENDI

    493

    mu31-lui31-eq1 zang11-sun11 le1go11 happen+I–in.this.way+I–AG/I rice/food–veg/dish well a1-wo35 gai35. NEG–have prepare.food Because I was too sleepy, I couldn’t prepare the meal in a proper way. The expression a5-se55 mu31 lui31 (nom-like happen in.this.way +I) can be used in several different ways, viz. either as ‘because of this’, e.g. (197) and (198), or as ‘after that’, e.g. (199). 197 Hau55-hun31 dai54 dang11 a5-se55 mu31 the/that–time speak+FCT words nom–like happen 1 1 1 1 31 lui -eq a -dut loq . in.this.way +I–AG/I NEG–become no.more That matter has been spoilt because of this. 198

    A5-se55 mu31 lui31-eq1 nang31 nom–like happen in.this.way +I–AG/I 2SG ka55-hu55 dut1 lye54 lu55? Q–sort become also+FCT MIR What’s the point of doing it like that?

    199

    A5-se55 mu31 lui31 zang11 nom–like happen in.this.way +I rice/food lo11 zvyo31-aq1. (ipf) come(back/up) cook*–SIM After that, you (SG) come and prepare the meal.

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    MOTION VERBS

    12.1

    OVERVIEW

    A single Zaiwa clause may contain several motion verbs. One main purpose of this chapter is to reveal the different functions of the motion verbs: as adverbs, as main verbs, or as auxiliaries. Apart from briefly discussing other Zaiwa motion verbs, this chapter mainly concerns the four principal motion verbs shown in Table 12.1, referring to coming and going. This chapter contains the following sections. 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 12.15 12.16

    The four principal motion verbs for coming and going The principal motion verbs as adverbs The verb ‘turn’ as a main verb and as part of the adverb dvau31 (turn(ipf)) expressing ‘back’ or ‘upside down’ The morphemes ‘walk, leave’ and ‘ride’(vt) in adverbs The morpheme ‘pursue’ as the adverb ‘go everywhere to do V’ The morpheme ‘jump’ in the adverb byam11 ‘jump’(ipf) The principal motion verbs used as auxiliary verbs The verb ‘let fly, fling’ as the aspectiviser of ferocity The verbs ‘go down’ and ‘let go down’ as the downward and onward aspectivisers The verb ‘turn/roll’ as the all-around aspectiviser The aspectiviser ‘around’ The morpheme as the aspectiviser ‘wherever’ Combinations of two juxtaposed principal motion verbs Other combinations of motion verbs The verb ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker

    496

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    12.2

    THE FOUR PRINCIPAL MOTION VERBS, FOR COMING AND GOING

    Table 12.1 shows the four principal motion verbs of Zaiwa. These four motion verbs differ from each other by two different distinctions of direction. The first distinction is between coming and going, and the second distinction is between moving either 1) in a downward direction and/or away from home, or 2) in an upward direction and/or back home.51 Table 12.1 The four principal motion verbs of Zaiwa come

    go

    away/down

    ‘come (away/down)’ ‘go (away/down)’

    back/up

    ‘come (back/up)’

    ‘go (back/up)’

    The coming of guests is referred to as ‘come (away/down)’, i.e. as coming from their own place, and their leaving is referred to as ‘go (back/up)’, i.e. as going back to their own place. Returning to one’s own place is referred to as ‘come (back/up)’, whereas leaving one’s own place is referred to as ‘go (away/down)’, i.e. as going away to somewhere else. Sentence (1) concerns the arrival of a guest to the house. The use of ‘come (away/down)’ in this sentence is only correct when the subject does not live in that house. The verb ‘come (back/up)’ in sentence (2) refers to the returning home of the pivot of the family. The latter verb, besides referring to moving in an upward direction, may also further refer to one’s own people, as illustrated by sentences (3) to (5). 1

    Mue11bung11 (name)

    lye35 come(away/down)

    bue31. P+I

    51 The principal motion verbs are also used in expressions like: puq5 ye31 puq5 lo 31 (turn.over(vt) go(away/down) turn.over(vt) come(back/up) ) ‘toss and turn (in bed)’.

    497

    MOTION VERBS

    Muebung has come. [She does not live here.] 2

    A5ni55! A5-nu11 lo31 (very.happy) nom–mother come(back/up) Hooray, Mum is back!

    bue31. P+I

    3

    Lyoq1lyoq1lyoq1, a5-wa31 zvyang55 lo31-aq1. (GEN) (inviting.a.child) nom–Dad near come(back/up)–SIM Come (SG) to Daddy.

    4

    Ye31 ge11 ye31 bue31, go(away/down) TOP go(away/down) P+I a1-lo31 siq1. NEG–come(back/up) still She went all right, but she didn’t come back yet.

    5

    Lau35 ye25 mai11 lau35 promptly go(away/down)+FCT ABL promptly lo31 syang55. come(back/up) JUS Let’s (ND.IN) go there and back quickly.

    There is a logical link between moving down and moving away on one side, and between moving up and moving back on the other, since, at least in former days, villages are at the top of the hill and the fields are below. Sentences (6) and (7) are ungrammatical, as indicated by an asterisk, since these would yield either the contradictory meaning that the speaker goes to his own home as a guest, or that he goes downwards to reach the top of the mountain. Instead of sentence (7), sentences (8) or (9) should be used. lye31. also+I

    6 *

    Yvum31 ye11 house go(away/down)(ipf) I’m going away home.

    7 *

    Bum31 ye11 lye31. heap(vt/N) go(away/down)(ipf) also+I I’m going down to the mountain.

    498

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    8

    Bum31 lo35 lye31. heap(vt/N) go(back/up) also+I I’m on my way back to the mountain. / I’m on my way to the mountain.

    9

    Bum31 doq1 lye31. heap(vt/N) go.up also+I I’m climbing the mountain.

    As explained above, it is important to distinguish whether the place one comes from or goes towards is one’s home or not. When reference is made to going to or coming from places that are not one’s home or one’s village, the verbs ‘come (back/up)’ and ‘go (away/down)’ are used, e.g. (10) and (11) respectively, uttered to someone from Beijing. When reference is made to going to or coming from places that are someone’s home or village, the verbs ‘come (away/down)’ and ‘go (back/up)’ are used, e.g. (12) and (13) respectively. 10

    Meng11mau11 mai11 lo25 Ruili ABL come(back/up)+FCT ga54 ge11 dvyeng31 lye31 luq1? (ipf) perceive+FCT TOP true also+I Y/N Is it true that you come from Ruili? [from shopping etc. there]

    11

    Naq1-ma35 nang31 Nong35dau31 ye31 tomorrow–LOC 2SG Nongdao go(away/down) ra54 dvyeng31 lye31 luq1? need+FCT true(ipf) also+I Y/N Is it true that you (SG) are going to Nongdao tomorrow?

    12

    Myen31-meng11 mai11 lye35-Ø Burma–world ABL come(away/down)–FCT a postcard coming from Burma

    13

    Bue11gin35 lo35 Beijing go(back/up) lo31-aq1. come(back/up)–SIM

    mu31 happen+I

    dum11 again

    ming11hin55 postcard dvau31 turn(ipf)

    499

    MOTION VERBS

    After going back to Beijing, come back (SG) here again. The verb , further to be glossed as ‘go down’, either expresses ‘go down’ or ‘come down’ and is neutral in respect of movement towards or away of the speaker. Because the verb ‘come (back/up)’ in the following sentence is used in combination with ‘go down’, it indicates ‘going back’ and not ‘going up’. The verb ‘go down’ will also be discussed in Section 12.10 on its use as the Zaiwa permanent aspectiviser after main verbs. 14

    Gyo35 lo31 gveq5 go.down come(back/up) PLIM Come back (PL) down now.

    hoi11. INC

    The verb , further to be glossed as ‘go up’, expresses ‘rise, go up, come up’. The two latter translations are both possible since the meaning of this verb is neutral with respect to movement towards or away from the speaker. Because the verb ‘come (back/up)’ in sentence (15) is used in combination with ‘go up’, it indicates ‘going up’ and not ‘going back’. 15

    Doq1 lo31-aq1. go.up come(back/up)–SIM Come (SG) back up. / Come up (SG).

    and the response: 16 Ngo31 doq1 lo35 be1-ra31. 1SG go.up go(back/up) P–need+I I’m going back up in a minute. / I’m going up in a minute. Sentence (16) above and sentence (18) below differ in the choice of the principal motion verb. In sentence (18), the verb ‘come (back/up)’ is used instead of ‘go (back/up)’ since the speaker views the situation from the perspective of the addressee, in reply to a request to come in sentence (17). 17

    Doq1 lo31-aq1 koi11. go.up come(back/up)–SIM INC Come (SG) back up now. / Come (SG) up now.

    500

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    and the response: 18 Ngo31 doq1 lo31 be1-ra31. 1SG go.up come(back/up) P–need+I I’m coming back up to you in a minute. The following sentence illustrates that different motion verbs within one sentence can refer to motions from different points of view. This sentence contains a quoted phrase marked by the word ga54 (perceive+FCT), i.e. the verb ‘perceive’ marked by the factitive marker , which can be translated as ‘having perceived’. Within this phrase, the verb ‘come (back/up)’ refers to coming back to one’s own place, i.e. from the point of view of both the addressees and the speakers of the quoted clause. The verb ‘go (back/up)’ in the second phrase, however, refers to the addressees leaving from the place where both speaker and addressees were. 19

    Yvang55-moq1 lo31 gveq5 ga54 3PL–party come(back/up) PLIM perceive+FCT lo35 be1-gvo31 luq1? go(back/up) P–PL+I Y/N After they asked you (PL) to come back, did you (PL) go back then?

    In line with the above discussion of the meaning of ‘come (away/down)’, the combination of this verb with the verb ‘call’ in the following sentence does not express ‘to call you to come over’ but ‘to come to your place in order to call you’, i.e. from the perspective of the addressee. 20

    Ngo31

    lvang55 nang31 r55 lye35 1SG even 2SG OBJ come(away/down) 31 1 11 31 wut ra ngvu dvo lye31. call need+I say(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I In fact, I was just thinking of coming to your (SG) place to call on you.

    The notions ‘above’ and ‘below’ referred to by ‘go up’ and ‘go down’ respectively, can also refer to difference in status. In cases like sentence (21) below, the verb ‘go down’

    MOTION VERBS

    501

    in a humble way expresses the notion of coming from the town towards one’s own lowly place. In a similarly humble way, the verb ‘go up’ in sentence (22) expresses leaving one’s own family, in the context of entering the family of one’s husband by marriage. 21

    Me1-ngvyeq5 Meng11mau11 mai11 gyo35 (female)–baby Ruili ABL go.down lo31 zyang35 le1-yvum11 bang11 r55 (GEN) come(back/up) CD one–house PNO OBJ dvat5bung35 dyem31 dvo11 bi11 raq5. photographs take.picture(ipf) place(vt) give VO When Mengvyeq comes up back from Ruili, please take pictures of the whole family.

    22

    Ngo31

    12.3

    THE PRINCIPAL MOTION VERBS AS ADVERBS

    lang31-doq5 be1-ra31. 1SG husband–go.up P–need+I I’m about to marry. [spoken by a woman]

    Zaiwa verbal morphemes that are used before the main verb can usually best be interpreted as adverbs, especially when their meanings are used in the latter function in a marked way. Most of these adverbs are marked by the imperfective marker . This matter was discussed in Chapter 10, and illustrated by the verb ‘to drive game’ functioning as the Zaiwa collective adverb expressing ‘X and Y doing V together with Z’. In the same way, whenever a Zaiwa motion verb is used before a main verb that is not a motion verb itself, its function can best be described as a directional adverb. Some principal motion verbs and especially the four principal motion verbs, however, pose a problem, since they are used as adverbs in a comparable way, whereas on the other hand their meaning is not that much used in a marked way to be called adverbs. The four principal motion verbs used as adverbs before the main verb are listed below. ‘come (away/down)’ in ‘come (away/down) to do V’ ‘go (away/down)’ in ‘go (away/down) to do V’

    502

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    ‘come (back/up)’ in lo11‘come (back/up) to do V’ ‘go (back/up)’ in ‘go (back/up) to do V’ The Zaiwa motion verbs naturally are an open class and so are the other adverbs based on motion verbs.52 The clearest cases of motion verbs used as adverbs are discussed in separate sections within this chapter. These are listed below. Others will be discussed within Chapter 16 on the other adverbs. ‘turn’ in dvau31 ‘back’ or ‘upside down’, vide Section 12.4 ‘walk, leave’ in so31 ‘go on foot to do V’, vide Section 12.5 11 ‘ride’(vt) in zi31 ‘to go by some vehicle to do V’, vide Section 12.5 ‘jump’ in byam11 ‘jump’(ipf) as an adverb, vide Section 12.7 5 5 ‘pursue’ as the adverb ‘go everywhere to do V’, vide Section 12.6 This group of directional adverbs can be compared with the use of the morpheme ‘interfere’ in lom11 ‘interfere’(ipf) as the locative adverb expressing ‘to do on the spot’, as will be discussed in Section 16.44. 23

    Yvang11-mi31-eq1 paq1zvi31 lom11 3SG–wife#–AG/I knowledge attend(ipf) 31 54 dai -gvyo ge11. (ipf) speak –let.hear+FCT TOP That’s where she told him her idea.

    The remaining part of this section discusses the use of the four principal motion verbs as directional adverbs.

    52 For example, should ‘to drive game’ in the Zaiwa collective adverb cyom 31/syom31 (drive.game(ipf)) expressing ‘X and Y doing V together with Z’ be included or not?

    503

    MOTION VERBS

    • the allomorph of ‘go (away/down)’ as the adverb ‘go (away/down) to do V’ The form is the reduced allomorph of the motion verb ‘go (away/down)’, which is derived by the morpho-phonological process of syllable reduction. It functions as an adverb expressing ‘go away/down to V’. In the following example, this adverb plainly refers to going down to the flatlands, where the shops are. 24

    Nga35

    dyen11she11di35 le1go11 tyep1 1PO television well thoroughly i5-rvang31 am55 bue31. go–make(ipf) PFM P+I My television has been repaired very well.

    The following examples further illustrate the use of the reduced allomorph of ‘go (away/down)’ as the adverb ‘go away/down to V’. 25

    No11 mvo55-kung11mai11 i5-lvam31 gvan31-aq1. (ipf) cattle below–fold ABL go–let.walk put.into*–SIM Take (SG) the cow out to pasture in the valley below.

    26

    Bui31 zvo25 me55 i5-zung31 sun shine+FCT LOC go–sit Let’s (DU.IN) go and sit in the sunshine.

    27

    gvoq1. DIE

    Nang31

    pi11zyo31 i5-wui11 lo31-aq1. (ipf) 2SG beer go–buy come(back/up)–SIM Go (SG) and buy some beer [and come back with it].

    • as the adverb ‘come (away/down) to do V’ The morpheme ‘come (away/down)’ can be used as an adverb expressing ‘come (away/down) to do V’. 28

    Nga35-moq1 yvum31 me55 lye35 1PO–party house LOC come(away/down) ngi11-gvun55-aq5. be.there(anim)(ipf)–play–SIM Come (SG) and amuse yourself in our (ND.EX) house.

    504

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    29

    Zun31 woq1-zo11 lye35 bird.of.prey chicken–child come(away/down) zvup5 zo31 r55. (ipf) (clench).fist eat PE The bird of prey has come to eat a chick.

    30

    Nang31

    ngo31

    r55

    2SG

    1SG

    OBJ

    35

    31

    Nong35dau31 Nongdao raq5.

    me55 LOC

    lye dvye come(away/down) receive VO Come (SG) and catch me up in Nongdao. 31

    Byu31 ge11 o55-yuq1 lye35 man/woman TOP who–person come(away/down) pan25 la11? create+FCT UNC Who could have [come down and] created mankind?

    Since the morpheme ‘come (away/down)’ normally refers to coming from a place which is not one’s own, therefore, when used as an adverb it often refers to a certain attitude, e.g. of hindering someone in sentences (32) to (34), or of helping someone, e.g. (35). 32

    Ki31 ke5-lye35 nvye31 zek1 dvo11. (ipf) leg/foot PHB–come(away/down) press (op)press place(vt) Don’t press against me with your leg/foot.

    33

    Mo35pi55 ke5-dye31 lye35 beggar PHB–too come(away/down) Don’t come here begging like a beggar.

    34

    Ngo31

    35

    Kum11 lye35 door come(away/down) I’ll open the door.

    pi55-o31. beg–HIGH+I

    r55

    ke5-dye31 lye35 1SG OBJ PHB–too come(away/down) Don’t check up on me all the time. pong55 open(vt)

    bi11 give

    zong31. guard(V) r55. BENEX

    MOTION VERBS

    505

    The special use of the same morpheme ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker are discussed in Section 12.16. • lo11 as the adverb ‘come (back/up) to do V’ The following sentences are examples of the morpheme ‘come (back/up)’ in the form lo11 ‘come (back/up)(ipf)’, which is used as an adverb expressing ‘come (back/up) to do V’. 36

    Nang31

    Loi11lung35 me55 lo11 2SG Loilung LOC come(back/up)(ipf) 25 5 55 ngi ke -mvyo zan31 bue31? be.there(anim)+FCT Q–much(B) summer/year P+I How many years has it been since you (SG) came to live in Loilung?

    37

    Nang31

    mau11sau11 hi31 i5-bi11 lui31 2SG paper/book this go–give in.this.way+I lai11gva55 lo11 ngvap5 gvun55-aq5. (ipf) script come(back/up) read.aloud play–SIM [Said to a younger student] First take (SG) these books away and then come back and read aloud.

    • as the adverb ‘go (back/up) to do V’ The following sentences are examples of the morpheme ‘go (back/up)’ as an adverb expressing ‘go (back/up) to do V’. 38

    Syo11 hat5 yau35 zyang35 tang11 flesh pursue finish CD firewood lo35 ho31 syang55. go(back/up) look.for JUS When we have finished hunting, let’s (ND.IN) go and collect firewood.

    39

    Nga35-nvik5 Loi11lung35-bum31 mai11 lo35 1PO–duo Loilung–heap(vt/N) ABL go(back/up) gang11 bue31. split(vi) P+I We (DU) split / were split apart from the Loilung hill onwards.

    506

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    40

    Yvum31-kau31 me55 lo35 zung31-aq1. house–inside LOC go(back/up) sit–SIM Go up (SG) and sit down inside the living-room.

    12.4

    THE VERB ‘TURN’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS PART OF THE ADVERB dvau31 (TURN(IPF)) EXPRESSING ‘BACK’ OR ‘UPSIDE DOWN’

    The verb ‘turn’ can both be used as a main verb expressing ‘turn’, and, after being marked by the imperfective marker , in the adverb dvau31 (turn(ipf)) expressing ‘back’ or ‘upside down’. The following example illustrates the use of the verb ‘turn’ as a main verb expressing ‘turn’ or ‘turn back’. 41

    Mo35do35 hi55-me55 dvau11-aq5. car this–LOC turn–SIM You (SG) can turn the car here.

    The following sentences illustrate the use of the verb ‘turn’ as part of the adverb dvau31 (turn(ipf)) which here expresses the notion ‘back’. This adverb is mostly combined with either the verb ‘come (back/up)’, e.g. (42), or ‘go (back/up)’, e.g. (43). 42

    Dum11 dvau31 lo31-aq1. again turn(ipf) come(back/up)–SIM Come (SG) back again.

    43

    Ngo31

    yvum31 pyang31 1SG house DIR ra31 dut1 bue31. need+I become P+I It’s time to go back home.

    dvau31 turn(ipf)

    lo35 go(back/up)

    The following sentence illustrates the use of the adverb dvau31 (turn(ipf)) expressing ‘upside down’. 44

    Dvau31 turn(ipf)

    zvung31-aq1. set(vt)–SIM

    507

    MOTION VERBS

    Put (SG) it upside down. The same morpheme ‘turn’ can also be used as a noun a1-dvau11 (nom-turn) ‘upside down’, referring to the state of being upside down, after the nominalising prefix and before the morpheme ‘lead, connect’ as the mediative case suffix. 45

    A1-dvau11 dong31 ke5-dvo11. nom–turn lead/connect PHB–place(vt) Don’t put it upside down.

    12.5

    THE MORPHEMES ‘WALK, LEAVE’ AND ‘RIDE’(VT) IN ADVERBS

    The verb ‘walk, leave’ can both express ‘walk’, e.g. (46) and (47), and ‘leave’, e.g. (48) and (49). When expressing ‘walk’, this verb is often combined with the noun ‘road’, e.g. (46) and (47). 46

    Byu31 hau55-yuq1 kyo31 man/woman the/that–person road dik1 r55. extreme PE He walks very slowly.

    so11 walk

    47

    Kyo31 zvyut5 r55 le1go11 so11-aq5. road slippery PE well walk–SIM The road is slippery, so mind (SG) your step.

    48

    So11-aq5. walk–SIM Go then (SG).

    49

    So11 bue31. walk P+I He left.

    zai35 slow2

    This morpheme ‘walk, leave’ also forms part of the fixed expression yo31-so11 (land-walk) meaning ‘wild’ in the sense of not

    508

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    belonging to the cultivated lands, e.g. (GEN) (land-walk -veg/dish) ‘wild vegetables’ and sentence. 50

    yo31-so31-sun11 the following

    Yo31-so11 me55 nat1 ngi11 r55. (ipf) land–walk LOC spirit be.there(anim) PE Out in the open there are spirits.

    After being marked by the imperfective marker , the morpheme ‘walk, leave’ can also be used as an adverb expressing ‘to go on foot to do V’. 51

    So31 ye11 walk(ipf) go(away/down)(ipf) She went on foot.

    lo35 go(back/up)

    bue31. P+I

    52

    Muen11lyen11 hi31 ge11 so31 ye31 (ipf) door.curtain this TOP walk go(away/down) so31 lo11 zyang35 tye11 r55. (ipf) (ipf) (ipf) walk come(back/up) CD be.in.the.way PE This door curtain obstructs the way in walking in and out.

    53

    Bva55 mai11 kyo31 so31 lo35 r11 flatlands ABL road walk(ipf) go(back/up) also 1 5 55 zyaq nak r . rather tough/difficult PE To walk through the flatlands back upwards is rather tough.

    54

    Kyo31 i5-so31 yong31 gvun55 (ipf) (ipf) road go–walk stroll play Let’s (ND.IN) take a little walk.

    syang55. JUS

    In a similar way, the morpheme ‘ride’(vt) can be used in the adverb zi31 (ride(ipf)) ‘to go by some vehicle to do V’. 55

    Mo35do35 zi31 ye11 lo35 (ipf) (ipf) car ride(vt) go(away/down) go(back/up) She went by bus.

    bue31. P+I

    509

    MOTION VERBS

    56

    57

    58

    Yvang11

    moq1toq1 zi31 lo11 (ipf) 3SG motorcycle ride(vt) come(back/up)(ipf) She came by motorcycle. Mo35do35 zi31 lo35 car ride(vt)(ipf) go(back/up) She left by bus. Yvang11

    r55. PE

    bue31. P+I

    mo35do35 car

    zi31 lye35 (ipf) 3SG ride(vt) come(away/down) lo25 ga31. come(back/up)+FCT perceive+I She came by bus. [from a place at about the same elevation]

    As a main verb, the morpheme ‘ride’(vt) can refer to all means of transportation, including swinging. 59

    Nang31

    nga35 num11-tang55 me55 lo35 zi11-aq5. 2SG 1PO back–last LOC go(back/up) ride(vt)–SIM Go sit (SG) behind me. [in a bus]

    60

    Ang55goi11 zi11 zyang35 swing(N) ride(vt) CD ngyom31-ngyom31 ga31 dik1 (ipf) [heart-in-throat]–[heart-in-throat] perceive extreme When I am swinging, my heart beats in my throat.

    61

    Nang31

    12.6

    THE MORPHEME ‘PURSUE’ AS THE ADVERB ‘GO EVERYWHERE TO DO V’

    r55. PE

    dung31-lvai31 zi11 ra54 ge11 2SG wing–boat ride(vt) need+FCT TOP dvyeng31 lye31 luq1? true(ipf) also+I Y/N Is it true that you (SG) are going to fly an aeroplane?

    The morpheme as a verb bears the meaning of ‘pursue, hunt’.

    510

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    62

    Woq1 i5-hat5 bvyo11 chicken go–pursue spread(ipf) Chase away (SG) the chickens.

    63

    Hat5 pang11 am55 pursue dodge/flee(ipf) PFM I’ve chased them away.

    64

    Ngo31

    nang31

    r55

    1SG

    2SG

    OBJ

    gvan31-aq1. put.into*–SIM bue31. P+I

    cyang31 kat5 (ipf) follow pursue

    ra31. need+I

    I’ll chase you (SG). The general word for hunting is si1-kat5 or si1-hat5 (flesh-pursue), further containing the flesh-prefix . Another word for hunting is si1-gyeq5 (flesh-chase), containing another verb ‘chase’, which refers to chasing the prey all the way down, as dogs do, e.g. (66). This contrasts with the meaning of si1-kat5/si1-hat5 (flesh-pursue), or simply ‘pursue, hunt’ as in sentence (65), since these forms refer to hunters shooting their prey from a certain distance. Sentence (66) contains both si1-gyeq5 (flesh-chase) and ‘pursue, hunt’. The verb ‘drive game’ is yet different, since it expresses ‘to drive game’, e.g. (67). 65

    Hi31 ge1ro11 a1mu31 zin31 zyang35 zi1si31 this between matter ready CD muntjac 5 35 55 hat lo syang . pursue go(back/up) JUS One of these days when the work is finished, let’s (ND.IN) go hunting muntjac.

    66

    Syuk5syuk5syuk5 woq1 i5-si1-gyeq5 han31-aq1. (spurring.a.dog) chicken go–flesh–chase pursue*–SIM [to a dog:] Go on, chase (SG) the chicken!

    67

    Si1-cyom55 flesh–drive.game syok5-syok5 [putting.up.game]

    lo35 zyang35 ge11 go(back/up) CD TOP ngvu31 ra31 dut1 lye31. say need+I become also+I

    511

    MOTION VERBS

    When driving game, you have to shout “shok shok”. Used as an adverb, the morpheme ‘pursue, hunt’ expresses the notion ‘go everywhere to do V’, apparently always in combination with other adverbs or auxiliary verbs. Two adverbs modified by ‘pursue, hunt’ are motion verbs used as adverbs, viz. ‘go (away/down)’ expressing ‘go (away/down) to do V’, e.g. (68), and ‘go (back/up)’ expressing ‘go (back/up) to do V’, e.g. (69). Two auxiliary verbs modified by ‘pursue, hunt’ are ‘do V wherever’, e.g. (70) and (71), and ‘turn/roll’ as the all-around aspectiviser, e.g. (72). 68

    A5-wa11 r55 i5-hat5 ho11 wu35 (ipf) nom–father OBJ go–pursue look.for look I’ll go look everywhere for Dad.

    be55. EE

    69

    Bum31 bvue55-ha55 lo35 hat5 heap(vt/N) PLN–where(B) go(back/up) pursue gvun31 lye31. play(ipf) also+I I am /we are rambling around the whole area.

    lam35 ramble

    70

    Yvang11-lang31 ge11 kat5 ho11 wun35. (ipf) 3SG–husband TOP pursue look.for wherever Her husband was going after her everywhere.

    71

    Le1-meng54 ke5-hat5 dai31 wun35. (ipf) one–world+FCT PHB–pursue speak wherever Don’t go around telling things everywhere.

    72

    Yvang31-nu11 ge11 i5-kat5 zyup5 lving31. (GEN) 3SG –mother TOP go–pursue catch/wring.out turn/roll Their mother tried to catch them everywhere around her.

    512 12.7

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    THE MORPHEME ‘JUMP’ IN THE ADVERB byam11 ‘JUMP’(IPF)

    The morpheme ‘jump’ can be used as a regular verb and as part of an adverb. The invariant meaning of the morpheme is ‘jump’, as illustrated by the following sentences, where this morpheme is used as a main verb. 73

    Byam11 gyo35-aq5. jump(ipf) go.down–SIM Jump (SG) downwards.

    74

    Byam11 do11-aq1. jump(ipf) go.up*–SIM Jump (SG) upwards.

    75

    Dvui11-byam31 byam31 rope(N/vt)–jump jump Skip (PL) rope.

    gveq5. PLIM

    After being marked by the imperfective marker , the morpheme ‘jump’ can also be used as an adverb, either expressing temporality or a notion which translates approximately like ‘if you don’t mind’. The meaning of this adverb cannot be interpreted as ‘jump up to do V’. In the following sentences, this form byam11 (jump(ipf)) expresses temporality, i.e. that the movement denoted by the main verb takes a short time. 76

    Naq1-ma35 Meng11mau11 tomorrow–LOC Ruili gvoq1 dvyo31. DIE

    byam11 jump(ipf)

    lo35 go(back/up)

    DOM+I

    Let’s (DU) pay a short visit to Ruili tomorrow, okay? 77

    Nang31 2SG

    A5-nu11 r55 nom–mother OBJ

    i5-byam11 dvye11 (ipf) go–jump receive(ipf)

    lo31-aq1. come(back/up)–SIM Go (SG) catch up with Mum for a while.

    513

    MOTION VERBS

    78

    Nang31

    byam11 zo31 gvan31-aq1. (ipf) (ipf) 2SG jump eat put.into*–SIM Quickly eat (SG) this up. / Eat (SG) this to take the edge off your appetite. / Quickly eat (SG) this to still the worst hunger.

    In a more periphrastic way, the form byam11 (jump(ipf)) can also express politeness, in the sense of ‘if you don’t mind’ or ‘please’, in the context of polite demands. In the latter function, the shortness and temporality which are inherent to the meaning of the morpheme ‘jump’ are referred to in a periphrastic way, as in English ‘for a second’, thus insinuating that the situation referred to would not be too much of a bother for the addressee to do. Many of the situations referred to by the adverb byam11 (jump(ipf)) are not at all short in time, considering situations like in sentences (80) and (81) below, where, according to the informant, it is not at all implicitly intended that the borrowed objects will be returned soon. Borrowing a bicycle, for example, will always last for some time since it is for going to more faraway places. In such cases, the adverb byam11 (jump(ipf)) therefore is more like English ‘if you don’t mind’ or ‘please’. In this grammar, imperative sentences containing the adverb byam11 (jump(ipf)) are the only sentences where the word ‘please’ would be used in the English translations. To use this word ‘please’ in every translation of a Zaiwa imperative sentence would obscure the broadness of meaning of the Zaiwa imperative category. 79

    Hi31 bvong55dvin55 lye55 byam11 ung11 (ipf) this pen OBJ jump sell Sell this pen to me, please.

    80

    Nang31

    81

    Ki31-lyeng31 byam11 zvi31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) leg/foot–wheel jump borrow/lend also+I I’m borrowing your bike for a second.

    ngo31

    bi11 raq5. give VO

    r55

    ngun31 le1-mun11 2SG 1SG OBJ silver one–ten.thousand/Yuan 11 11 11 5 byam zvi bi raq . jump(ipf) borrow/lend give VO Lend (SG) me one Yuan please.

    514

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    In contexts where both politeness and certain movements are concerned, the adverb byam11 (jump(ipf)) can refer to short actions and express politeness at the same time.53 82

    Nang31

    ngo31

    r55

    mu35 zui11 2SG 1SG OBJ work(N) touch/work(V) lye35 byam11 ge1rum35 raq5. (ipf) come(away/down) jump help VO Please help (SG) me for a while with the work. [one or two days]

    83

    Le1-zvui55 byam11 zun11-aq1. (ipf) one–bit jump move.while.seated*–SIM Please scoot over (SG) a little bit.

    84

    Gu35 byam11 waq1 tot1 gvoq1. bed jump(ipf) lift move/shift DIE Let’s move (DU) the bed for a second.

    The functions of neither the adverb byam11 (jump(ipf)) nor the cooperative prefixed adverb is primarily to express politeness. The adverb byam11 (jump(ipf)) may, however, express politeness and mostly refers to actions that the addressee must perform himself. The cooperative prefix refers to all kinds of cooperation. The cooperative prefix could also be translated as ‘help, join’, and this morpheme is discussed in Section 16.8. The two following sentences contain both forms. In sentence (85), the adverb byam11 (jump(ipf)) expresses a request, viz. for the addressee to kindly close the door, whereas the cooperative prefix indicates that this action is to take place on behalf of several people, probably including the addressee himself. Sentence (86) refers to a similar situation. 85

    Kum11 byam11 be1-mvi31 gvan31-aq1. (ipf) (ipf) door jump help–close(vt) put.into*–SIM Close (SG) the door, please.

    53 Sentences (80) and (81) illustrate that the verb vt. ‘borrow, lend’ can be used in both an active way, translated as ‘lend’, and in a passive way, translated as ‘borrow’, where the owner of the borrowed object does something to the borrower.

    MOTION VERBS

    86

    515

    Byam11 be1-gvun31-aq1. jump(ipf) help–do*–SIM Assist (SG) me for a second, please.

    12.8 THE PRINCIPAL MOTION VERBS USED AS AUXILIARY VERBS

    At least three of the four principal motion verbs of Zaiwa can be used after the main verb as auxiliary verbs, as shown in Table 12.2. The combination of two principal motion verbs lye35 lo31 (come(away/down) come(back/up)), as a whole placed after a main verb, in fact also has an aspectivising function, expressing ‘to perform V and come here with the results of it’. The latter combination is discussed in Section 12.14, which deals with combinations of the principal motion verbs. Table 12.2

    The four principal motion verbs as auxiliary verbs

    the preceding main verb is not modified by the imperfective marker : • the allomorph of ‘go (away/down)’ as an auxiliary expressing: ‘be gone to do V, either in a downward direction or away from home’ • ‘go (back/up)’ as an auxiliary (I) expressing: ‘be gone to do V, either in an upward direction or towards home’ • ‘come (back/up)’ as an auxiliary (I) expressing: ‘come back after’ the preceding main verb is modified by the imperfective marker : • ‘go (back/up)’ as an auxiliary (II) expressing: ‘to start V’ (not towards a particular completion or goal) • ‘come (back/up)’ as an auxiliary (II) expressing: ‘to start V’ (towards a particular completion or goal) • lye35 lo31 (come(away/down) come(back/up)), as an auxiliary expressing: ‘come back doing V’

    516

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    The following motion verbs, all having an aspectivising function, can be added to this list of motion verbs used as auxiliary verbs after the main verb. Section 12.9 Section 12.10 Section 12.11 Section 12.12 Section 12.13

    The verb ‘let fly, fling’ as the aspectiviser of ferocity The verbs ‘go down’ and ‘let go down’ as the downward and onward aspectivisers The morpheme ‘turn/roll’ as the all -around aspectiviser The aspectiviser ‘around’ The morpheme as the aspectiviser ‘wherever’

    • the allomorph of ‘go (away/down)’ as an auxiliary verb expressing ‘be gone to do V, either in a downward direction or away from home’ The full syllable allomorph of the verb ‘go (away/down)’ can be used after the main verb as an auxiliary expressing the notion ‘be gone to do V, either in a downward direction or away from home’, further expressing a connotation that the situation in the context may take quite some time. 87

    88

    89

    U1-lvum11 cyu11 ye31 ra31. head–lump spring/wash.hair go(away/down) I am going to wash my hair. Wui31-li11 li11 ye31 water–swim swim go(away/down) Let’s (DU) go swim, all right? Ngvoq5-mvi55-mvi55 ye31 bird–trap–trap go(away/down) Let’s (ND.IN) go to catch birds.

    need+I

    gvoq1

    dvi31.

    DIE

    CX+I

    syang55. JUS

    517

    MOTION VERBS

    90

    Yvang11

    a1zeng35 wui31 ye31 3SG thing buy go(away/down) He is off to do some shopping.

    bue31. P+I

    • ‘go (back/up)’as an auxiliary verb (I), expressing ‘be gone to do V, either in an upward direction or towards home’ In a way similar to the verb ‘go (away/down)’ as an auxiliary verb expressing ‘be gone to do V’, the verb ‘go (back/up)’ can be used as an auxiliary verb expressing ‘be gone to do V, either in an upward direction or towards home’, also further expressing a connotation that the situation in the context may take quite some time. 91

    Mik1 yu31 lo35 lye31. bamboo.shoots take go(back/up) also+I I am on my way up to fetch some bamboo shoots. / I am on my way to my parents’ house to fetch some bamboo shoots.

    92

    Zi1si31 cyom55 lo35 syang55. muntjac drive.game go(back/up) JUS Let’s (ND.IN) go uphill and drive muntjac.

    93

    Ngo31

    ke5-ngi35 bum31 pyang31 tang11 1SG before–day heap(vt/N) DIR firewood ho31 lo35 lye31. look.for go(back/up) also+I Today I’m going up the hill to collect firewood.

    • ‘come (back/up)’ as an auxiliary verb (I), expressing ‘come back after’ The verb ‘come (back/up)’ can also be used after the main verb as an auxiliary verb expressing ‘come back after’. 94

    Ang55dung54 mau11sau11 be1-yu11 lo31-aq1. Anton+FCT paper/book help–take(ipf) come(back/up)–SIM Take (SG) Anton’s books with you.

    95

    No11 cattle

    r55 OBJ

    i1-zyum31-eq1 i5-lvyen31 water–salt#–AG/I go–lure(ipf)

    518

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    lo31 gvoq1. come(back/up) DIE Let’s (DU.IN) lure the cow back with salt. • ‘come (back/up)’ and ‘go (back/up)’ as auxiliary verbs, both expressing ‘to start V’ Both ‘come (back/up)’ and ‘go (back/up)’ as auxiliary verbs can express another notion, viz. ‘to start V’. When expressing this notion, these two auxiliary verbs are also always used in conjunction with the imperfective marker on the preceding verb. In this type of use, the verb ‘come (back/up)’ further expresses that there is a development towards a specific goal or completion, whereas ‘go (back/up)’ further implies a lack thereof, as illustrated by the following sentences. Growing taller is a development which can be seen as leading towards a certain goal, i.e. being grown-up and healthy, whereas getting shorter is a development without a goal, leading to whatever old age may bring. Therefore, ‘come (back/up)’ in sentence (96) is used as the auxiliary, whereas sentence (97) contains ‘go (back/up)’. The use of ‘come (back/up)’ in sentence (98) and ‘go (back/up)’ in sentence (99) can be compared in a similar way. 96

    97

    98

    99

    Ngo31

    mvyang11 lo31 (ipf) 1SG tall/high come(back/up) I’ve started growing taller. Ngo31

    ngyup1 lo35 1SG low go(back/up) I’ve started to become shorter.

    bue31. P+I

    bue31. P+I

    Si1-gam31 hi31 reng31 lo31 fruit–tree(B) this flourish(ipf) come(back/up) This fruit tree has started to flourish. Mang31 byuq1 lo35 bue31. (ipf) aged lose go(back/up) P+I He is getting old. / He is starting to get old.

    bue31. P+I

    519

    MOTION VERBS

    To writhe with pain is not a development towards a certain goal, and therefore ‘go (back/up)’ is used as the auxiliary instead of ‘come (back/up)’ in the expression gvun11 zung11 lo35 bue31 (be.stuck(ipf) sit(ipf) go(back/up) P+I) ‘writhe with pain’. The start of a hurt in the belly in the case of sentence (100), and nodding into sleep while in sitting position in the case of sentence (101), as well as, notably, the opening of flowers in the case of sentence (102), are not seen as achievements of certain goals, in view of the use of ‘go (back/up)’ in these cases. By contrast, coming to boil of water and getting dry of clothes are clearly developments towards a certain goal, and therefore the verb ‘come (back/up)’ is used in sentences (103) and (104). A similar case is (105), where the process of falling of the door needs to be prevented before its completion. 100

    Zang11-sun11 zo31 syut5 lui31-eq1 (ipf) rice/food–veg/dish eat wrong in.this.way+I–AG/I no11 lo35 ga31. (ipf) pain/ill/disease go(back/up) perceive+I It started hurting after eating a dish I should not have eaten.

    101

    Mvyet1mvyet1 [nod.into.sleep] r55 mai31. PE

    ga11 perceive

    yvup5 sleep

    mvi31 trap(ipf)

    lo35 go(back/up)

    OBV+I

    Just now I was nodding off to sleep! 102

    Ban11-bo35 bo35 lo35 bue31. flower–open.itself open.itself go(back/up) P+I The flower has begun to open up. [The flowers have begun to open up.]

    103

    Hui31 lo31 (ipf) dry(vi) come(back/up) It has started to get dry.

    104

    Zvu11 lo31 (ipf) boil/rise come(back/up) It’s starting to boil.

    bue31. P+I

    bue31. P+I

    520 105

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    Kum11 lyeng31 lo11 r55, (ipf) (ipf) door fall(vi) come(back/up) PE tang11 dvo11-aq5. behind(ipf) place(vt)–SIM The door is starting to fall. Stop (SG) it.

    le1go11 well

    The use of ‘come (back/up)’ in the following sentence refers both to the inception and the recurrence of a certain allergic reaction. 106

    Hau55-zyung31 zo11 zyang35 gung31-du11 me55 the/that–kind eat CD body–being LOC pun11 lo11 r55. attack(ipf) come(back/up)(ipf) PE If I eat those things, I will have an allergic reaction.

    The two following sentences form a minimal pair illustrating the use of ‘come (back/up)’ and ‘go (back/up)’ as auxiliary verbs. In sentence (107), the verb ‘come (back/up)’ refers to a certain goal, viz. the mastering of Zaiwa language. In sentence (108) ‘go (back/up)’ is used, probably in order to modestly express that it would still be a long way to ever learn Zaiwa properly. 107

    Sang31-he11 r55 ngo31 Zai11wa31-ming35 (GEN) beginning–start TS 1SG Zaiwa–language a1-gue11 dai11, a1hui31 ngo31 gue11 (ipf) NEG–all.right speak now 1SG all.right(ipf) 31 31 31 dai lo bue . (ipf) speak come(back/up) P+I In the beginning, I could not speak the Zaiwa language, but now I’m starting to be able to speak it.

    108

    Sang31-he11 r55 ngo31 Zai11wa31-ming35 (GEN) beginning–start TS 1SG Zaiwa–language a1-gue11 dai11, a1hui31 ngo31 gue11 (ipf) NEG–all.right speak now 1SG all.right(ipf) dai31 lo35 bue31. (ipf) speak go(back/up) P+I In the beginning, I could not speak the Zaiwa language, but now I’m starting to be able to speak some.

    MOTION VERBS

    521

    The form si1-lo35 ‘terribly’ is a fixed combination consisting of the verb ‘die’, which is both reduced by the morpho-phonological process of syllable reduction and marked by the imperfective marker , and the verb ‘go (back/up)’, functioning as an aspectiviser. Here, the verb ‘die’ is used as the tormentative aspectiviser, expressing that some situation takes place in a rather severe way. The combination of these two aspectivisers renders the meaning ‘more and more severely’, as for processes, or ‘terribly’ as for states. 109

    Si1-pik5 pik5 lui31 lap5 fruit–pungent pungent in.this.way+I suffer si1-lo35 r55. (ipf) die –go(back/up) PE Because of the chillies I’m suffering terribly.

    In the following sentence, the verb ‘go (back/up)’ appears to emphasise a certain distance, in the sense of ‘endlessly far away’, in a way which is somewhat similar to the cases above, where it is used after the tormentative aspectiviser si1- (die(ipf)). 110

    Yvang55-moq1 mau11 ge11 i5-nvung55 3PL–party native.land TOP SPEC–1ND.IN Mi11wa31-mau11-eq5 lvang55 dui35 (GEN) Chinese –native.land–COM even see.difference lum31 lo35 lye31. reciprocal(ipf) go(back/up) also+I [with spread arms:] Their country and our (ND.IN) China lie THIS far apart.

    12.9

    THE VERB ‘LET FLY, FLING’ AS THE ASPECTIVISER OF FEROCITY

    The verb expresses ‘let fly’, ‘blow up into the air’ or ‘fling’, as illustrated by the following examples of its use as a main verb.54 54 The verb ‘let fly, fling’ is the causative or directive variant of ‘fly’.

    522

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    111

    Ngvoq5 i5-dvang31 am55-aq5. (ipf) bird go–let.fly PFM–SIM Let (SG) the bird loose.

    112

    Lai11-eq1 a1zeng35 wind#–AG/I thing am55 bue31. PFM

    ban11 use.up(ipf)

    mut1 blow

    dvang31 let.fly(ipf)

    P+I

    The wind has blown it all away. 113

    Dvat5bung35-dyem11-zue31 ke5-dvang11 loq1. photographs–take.picture–truc PHB–let.fly no.more Don’t throw the camera around.

    114

    Mau11sau11 be1-dvang31 gvan31-aq1. (ipf) paper/book P–let.fly put.into*–SIM Throw (SG) the books over to me.

    The verb ‘let fly, fling’ is often used after the main verb as the Zaiwa aspectiviser of ferocity, expressing that the action denoted by the preceding main verb takes place in a ferocious and punishing way. In this type of use, the verb is always followed by the Zaiwa effective aspectiviser ‘put into’. The latter aspectiviser expresses that someone deliberately causes the situation indicated by the preceding main verb, viewing this situation from the perspective of its effects, not specifically as a process. The verb ‘let fly, fling’ before the same effective aspectiviser can also serve as a main verb, e.g. (114) above. 115

    Syang11-gvyak5 gvyak5 dvang31 ginger–beat.with.knuckles beat.with.knuckles let.fly(ipf) gvat5 ra31-o55. put.into need+I–HIGH I’ll hit you! [with my knuckles on your head]

    116

    Le1-dvu31 r55 ai11 ze11 ta11 (male)–4th-brother OBJ RCL only scold(ipf) gvyop5 dvang31 gvat5 bue31. (ipf) tuck.away let.fly put.into P+I

    523

    MOTION VERBS

    A flood of profanity is being flung at fourth brother. 117

    Be1-sop5 sop5 dvang31 cheek–wipe/rummage wipe/rummage let.fly(ipf) gvan31-aq1. put.into*–SIM Give (SG) him a cuff on the ears.

    118

    Tui31 lyeng31 dvang31 (ipf) (ipf) hit.with.fist fall(vi) let.fly(ipf) I knocked him down.

    119

    gvat5 put.into

    bue31. P+I

    Ning11gon35wa35 ge11 de1wui31 dving31 (name) TOP deluge collect.water/flood(vt)(ipf) 31 dvang31 gvat5 ra son55. (ipf) let.fly put.into need+I calculate And when Ninggonwa was still planning to raise the deluge

    In the following sentence, the verb ‘let fly, fling’ as the aspectiviser of ferocity adds a certain suspense in view of the perceived effects of the demon peering into the place where the two orphans are hiding. 120

    I5-zyui35 wu35 dvang31 gvat5-neq5 (ipf) go–peep look let.fly put.into–COM 1 1 35 syeq myoq -zi me55 [ba11…]. au.contraire eye–ball/seed LOC (a.cloud.of.dust) Right at the moment as he peeped inside, [they flung the ashes] right into his eyes.

    12.10

    THE VERBS ‘GO DOWN’ AND ‘LET GO DOWN’ AS THE DOWNWARD AND ONWARD ASPECTIVISERS

    The verbs ‘go down’ and ‘let go down’ form a simplex-causative verb pair. Apart from being used as main verbs, both verbs can also be used as auxiliaries. Their meanings are parallel and only differ in their reference to transitive and intransitive situations.

    524

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    • ‘let go down’ and ‘go down’ as main verbs The verb ‘let go down’ in fact is almost only used as an aspectivising auxiliary verb after the main verb, apart from where it is used in the sense of ‘to lay eggs’. 121

    Ngvoq5-u55 kyo55 bue31. bird–egg let.go.down P+I She has laid an egg.

    The verb ‘go down’ has already been encountered in Section 12.2. Its meaning ‘go down’ is illustrated by the following sentences, where it is used as a main verb. 122

    Ngo31 bum31 me55 a1-ngi31 loq1, 1SG heap(vt/N) LOC NEG–be.there(anim) no.more bva55 gyo35 byuq1 bue31. flatlands go.down lose P+I I do not live on the hill anymore, I have come to live on the flatlands.

    123

    Ngvan31-pyu31 snow(N)–white It’s snowing.

    gyo35 go.down

    r55. PE

    124

    Le1-lat1 me55 gyo35 gyam11 byuq1 bue31. (ipf) one–halfway LOC go.down be.suspended lose P+I It got stuck somewhere halfway.

    125

    Ke5-gyo35 gyo35 dik1 steep–go.down go.down extreme The road goes down steeply.

    r55. PE

    The verb ‘go down’ can also refer to ‘leave school’. 126

    Nang31

    zyong11 ke5-mvyo55 king55 2SG school Q–much(B) time 31 35 gyo lye ? go.down also+I At what time is your (SG) class finished?

    me55 LOC

    525

    MOTION VERBS

    The verbs ‘let go down’ and ‘go down’ both can be used after the main verb as aspectivising auxiliary verbs in parallel ways, in transitive and intransitive situations respectively. Both aspectivisers either express ‘downward’ or ‘onward’. • ‘let go down’ and ‘go down’ as the downward aspectivisers The verb ‘let go down’ can be used as the transitive downward aspectiviser and ‘go down’ as the intransitive downward aspectiviser, expressing that the situations indicated by the preceding main verbs take place in a downward direction. This is illustrated by sentences (127) to (129) containing ‘let go down’, illustrating transitive situations, and sentences (130) to (132) containing ‘go down’, illustrating intransitive situations. 127

    Tung11-ngvuen31-eq1 ngvuen31 crush–take.down.with.hook#–AG/I take.down.with.hook(ipf) kyo31 gvan31-aq1. (ipf) let.go.down put.into*–SIM Take (SG) it down with the long hooked stick.

    128

    Bui35-mo35 rut1 gvut5 warm.oneself–AUG [jerk/tear] do kyo31 am55 bi11-aq5. (ipf) let.go.down PFM give–SIM Pull down (SG) his quilt in one go.

    129

    Sop5 kyo31 am55-aq5. wipe/rummage let.go.down(ipf) PFM–SIM Wipe (SG) it off. [with your hand]

    lang31 pull/yank(ipf)

    and with ‘go down’: 130

    Byam11 gyo35-aq5. jump(ipf) go.down–SIM Jump (SG) downwards.

    131

    Mue31-bu11 myu31 gyo35 lo35 bue31. wrap–clothes float/drown(vi)(ipf) go.down go(back/up) P+I

    526

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    The clothes have floated away. 132

    Mue31-bu11 i1-lang11-eq1 bvyung31 gyo35 (ipf) wrap–clothes water–river#–AG/I flush/drive go.down 31 35 1 lo byuq bue . go(back/up) lose P+I The water has washed away the clothes.

    • ‘let go down’ and ‘go down’ as onward aspectivisers The verb ‘let go down’ can be used as the transitive onward aspectiviser and ‘go down’ can be used as the intransitive onward aspectiviser, both expressing that the situations indicated by the preceding main verb are prolonged from a certain moment in time onwards. This is illustrated by sentence (133) containing ‘let go down’, illustrating a transitive situation, and sentences (134) to (136) containing ‘go down’, illustrating intransitive situations. 133

    Me1-gvai55 r55 ge11 nang31 kum31 (female)–5th-sister OBJ TOP 2SG let.stay(ipf) 31 31 31 1 kyo dvo lye luq ? let.go.down(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I Y/N Did you (SG) invite fifth sister to stay here?

    and with ‘go down’: 134

    Nang31

    hi55-me55 ngi11 gyo35 (ipf) 2SG this–LOC be.there(anim) go.down dvo11 ra31 luq1? place(vt) need+I Y/N Are you (SG) going to stay here?

    The purpose of the following sentence is to let the addressee go on with his topic without further interruptions. 135

    Nang31 2SG

    zyang31 dai31 in.passing speak(ipf)

    gyo35 lo35-aq5. go.down go(back/up)–SIM

    527

    MOTION VERBS

    Since you (SG) are already talking about this subject, tell the whole thing. In the following sentence, the verb ‘go down’ is also used as the onward aspectiviser rather than as a main verb, since it does not refer to going down but to remaining in a certain disposition. 136

    Tang31 gyo35-aq5. behind go.down–SIM You (SG) stay in the rear.

    The verbs ‘let go down’ and ‘go down’ can also be used in two idiosyncratic combinations of verbs, with the transitive verb ‘burn’(vt) and its intransitive variant ‘burnt/hot’ respectively, expressing the notions ‘burn down’ and ‘be burnt down’ respectively. 137

    138

    139

    12.11

    Yvum31 ngvye31 kyo31 am55 (ipf) (ipf) house burn(vt) let.go.down PFM The house has been burnt down. Yvum31 ngye35 gyo35 house burnt/hot go.down The house has burnt down.

    byuq1 lose

    Pung11syui31-yo31 ngye35 gyo35 sugar.cane–land burnt/hot go.down The sugar cane field has been burnt down.

    bue31. P+I

    bue31. P+I

    bue31. P+I

    THE MORPHEME ‘TURN/ROLL’ AS THE ALL-AROUND ASPECTIVISER

    The morpheme ‘turn/roll’ as a verb forms part of a simplex-causative verb pair, together with the intransitive verb ‘turn, roll (vi)’. 140

    Ngun31 silver

    ling11 dvo31 a1-si31. (ipf) (ipf) turn/roll(vi) place(vt) nom–still+I

    528

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    The coin is still turning. 141

    Lyeng31 lving31-aq1. wheel turn/roll–SIM Turn (SG) the wheel.

    In a few cases, ‘turn/roll’ is used after the main verb as an aspectivising auxiliary verb, expressing the notion ‘to perform V all-around’. In sentence (142), the verb is preceded by the morpheme ‘pursue, hunt’ as an adverb expressing the notion ‘go everywhere to do V’ (vide Section 12.6). 142

    Yvang31-nu11 ge11 i5-kat5 zyup5 lving31. (GEN) 3SG –mother TOP go–pursue catch/wring.out turn/roll Their mother tried to catch them everywhere around her.

    143

    Ka55-hu55 r11 a1-gue11 gvut5, Q–sort also NEG–all.right(ipf) do 31 yvum -hang11 yvum31-mo35 wo35 ge1-ruet1 house–each house–AUG have random–restless 11 55 lving r . turn/roll(ipf) PE He is not good at doing anything, all he can do is restlessly make his way from house to house.

    The morpheme ‘turn/roll’ is also used as a measure noun ‘(one) round’ in various expressions, as is discussed in the dictionary. Part of its use is also illustrated by the two examples of the next section. 12.12

    THE ASPECTIVISER ‘AROUND’

    The verb ‘around’ is only used after the main verb as an aspectivising auxiliary verb, expressing the notion ‘to perform V in a way that one returns at the point of departure’. 144

    Le1-lving31 tau31 kyuq1 one–turn/roll sew/insert(ipf) around

    bue31. P+I

    MOTION VERBS

    529

    I have sewed one round. 145

    Le1-lving31 din11 kyuq1 (ipf) one–turn/roll run around I have run one round.

    bue31. P+I

    12.13 THE MORPHEME AS THE ASPECTIVISER ‘WHEREVER’

    The morpheme ‘wherever’ has only been attested in a function as an aspectiviser expressing ‘do V wherever’. 146

    Yvum31 me55 ngo31 a1-gyuq1, sing11gvan11 house LOC 1SG NEG–afraid outside 55 11 me ngi wun35 zyang35 ze11 (ipf) LOC be.there(anim) wherever CD only gyuq1 r55. afraid PE In the house I’m not afraid, I’m only afraid anywhere outside.

    147

    Syoi31syoi31 ga11 ho11 wun35 rvo31. (ipf) [onom] perceive look.for wherever PE+HIGH+I I would hush-hush search everywhere.

    The aspectiviser ‘wherever’ also forms part of the construction kat5/hat5 V wun35, where the morpheme ‘pursue, hunt’ functions as an adverb expressing ‘go everywhere to do V’. This construction has been illustrated by sentences (70) and (71). The aspectiviser ‘wherever’ can also form part of the construction lo11 V wun35, where the verb ‘come (back/up)’ functions as an adverb expressing ‘come (back/up) to do V’. 148

    Lo11 a31na35 wun35 gve5-ra31 (ipf) come(back/up) ill.at.ease wherever PL–need+I ngvut5 ngyo11 ra55. (ipf) be talk PE They (PL) were feeling ill at ease wherever they came.

    530 12.14

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    COMBINATIONS OF TWO JUXTAPOSED PRINCIPAL MOTION VERBS

    Two motion verbs are often used in conjunction. Whenever this is the case, the first of the two indicates the initial movement, whereas the second indicates the final direction or the result thereof. This section discusses all such combinations involving the four Zaiwa principal motion verbs, and the next section discusses such combinations involving other motion verbs. Of all theoretical juxtaposed combinations of the four principal motion verbs, only the following three seem to be possible. lye35 lo31 ye11 lo35 ye11 lo31

    come(away/down) come(back/up) go(away/down)(ipf) go(back/up) go (away/down)(ipf) come(back/up)

    In the two latter combinations, the verbs ‘go (back/up)’ and ‘come (back/up)’ could also be seen as aspectivisers expressing the notion ‘to start V’, in the way that has been discussed above in Section 12.8. • lye35 lo31 ‘come over ‘/ ‘come this way’ The two verbs expressing the notion ‘come’, i.e. ‘come (away/down)’ and ‘come (back/up)’, can be combined as lye35 lo31 (come(away/down) come(back/up)). When the clause contains second or third person subjects, the latter combination refers to coming over from some other place to the position of the speaker. 149

    Naq1-ma35 nap1-sun31 tomorrow-LOC morning-dawn lye35 lo31-aq1. come(away/down) come(back/up)-SIM Come back (SG) tomorrow at dawn.

    150

    Hui31 lye35 (ipf) make.way/meet come(away/down) Come (SG) a bit closer.

    lo31-aq1. come(back/up)–SIM

    MOTION VERBS

    151

    531

    Ang55dung11, mi1-wue11 lye35 Anton! wife–female come(away/down) lo31 bue31-o55! come(back/up) P+I–HIGH Anton, there are women coming! [spoken whilst bathing]

    When the clause contains a first person subject, the combination lye35 lo31 (come(away/down) come(back/up)) refers to ‘coming over’ to the position of the addressee. 152

    A1kui31 zyang35 lye35 lo31 be1-ra31. now CD come(away/down) come(back/up) P–need+I I’m coming, I’m coming.

    This combination lye35 lo31 (come(away/down) come(back/up)) as a whole can also be used as one single aspectiviser, expressing ‘to come back doing V’. 153

    Yu11 lye35 (ipf) take come(away/down) Bring (SG) it here.

    lo31-aq1. come(back/up)–SIM

    • ye11 lo35 ‘go on one’s way’ The combination ye11 lo35 (go(away/down)(ipf) go(back/up)) refers to going away from a certain position towards some other place. This combination, which could be translated as ‘go on one’s way’, thus serves to emphasise aspects of the process of going. For example, in sentence (154) this combination emphasises the fact that the journey takes some time. In sentences (155) to (157), this combination emphasises the means of travelling, e.g. on foot, by bus, or with one’s chair. The verb ‘go (back/up)’ could also be seen as an aspectiviser expressing the notion ‘to start V’, in the way discussed above in Section 12.8. 154

    Ban11-bo35 nye31 yu11 lye35 flower–open.itself red take(ipf) come(away/down) 31 5 lo gveq . come(back/up) PLIM Fetch (PL) red flowers and bring them over here.

    532 155

    156

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    Ye11 lo35 (ipf) go(away/down) go(back/up) She went on her way. So31 ye11 walk(ipf) go(away/down)(ipf) She went on foot.

    bue31. P+I

    lo35 go(back/up)

    bue31. P+I

    157

    Mo35do35 zi31 ye11 lo35 bue31. (ipf) (ipf) car ride(vt) go(away/down) go(back/up) P+I She went by bus.

    158

    Ka55-pyang31 zut1 ye11 Q–DIR move.while.seated go(away/down)(ipf) 31 lo35 lye ? go(back/up) also+I Watch out where you’re moving your chair.

    • ye11 lo31 ‘go there and come back again’ Another combination of principal motion verbs is the combination ye11 lo31 (go (away/down)(ipf) come (back/up)), referring to going somewhere to do something and then coming back again. In the following sentences, the verb ‘come (back/up)’ is used as an aspectiviser expressing ‘to start V’, in the way discussed above in Section 12.8. 159

    Ngo31 1SG

    i1-zit5 he5-ye11 water–pee before–go(away/down)(ipf) be55.

    lo31 come(back/up) EE I’m going for a pee first. 160

    Ngo31

    ye11 lo31 be55. (ipf) 1SG go(away/down) come(back/up) EE I’ll go then. [since the others have no time]

    The meaning of the latter combination ye11 lo31 (go (away/down)(ipf) come (back/up)) differs from another combination of these two verbs. The construction i5- V lo31 consists of a verb between the reduced

    533

    MOTION VERBS

    allomorph of of the same verb ‘go (away/down)’ as an adverb and the verb ‘come (back/up)’ as an aspectiviser. The latter construction expresses the notion ‘to go somewhere to perform V and then come back again’. 161

    Nang31

    pi11zyo31 i5-wui11 lo31-aq1. (ipf) 2SG beer go–buy come(back/up)–SIM Go (SG) and buy some beer [and come back with it].

    162

    Waq1-zo11 i5-bvyung31 lo31 (ipf) pig–child go–flush/drive come(back/up) Drive (PL) the piglets back home.

    gveq5. PLIM

    163

    I1-syang11 mai11 i1-zvyam11 water–water.tube ABL water–water 5 11 31 1 i -kam lo -aq . go–receive/fetch(ipf) come(back/up)–SIM Go (SG) and bring back water, using these water containers.

    12.15

    OTHER COMBINATIONS OF MOTION VERBS

    The statement made at the start of the previous section - i.e. that when two motion verbs are used in conjunction the first of the two normally indicates the initial movement and the second indicates the final direction or the result thereof - applies for all motion verbs, not only the four principal ones. Apart from these four principal motion verbs referring to coming and going, there are three more types of Zaiwa motion verbs. Below I shall discuss the use of these verbs in combination with other motion verbs. Group 1: The first group of motion verbs to be distinguished consists of verbs specifically referring to movements, which can more aptly be characterised as action verbs. Whenever they are combined with a real motion verb, the verbs of this group normally precede the motion verb. Examples are: ‘wade’, ‘swim’, ‘walk, leave’ (vide Section 12.5), ‘fly’, ‘turn’ (vide Section 12.4), ‘run’, (non-humans:) ‘walk, crawl, ride’, (humans:) ‘crawl’, ‘cross’(vt) and ‘move

    534

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    oneself while being seated’. Of these verbs, only the morphemes ‘walk, leave’, ‘ride’(vt) and ‘jump’ are regularly used as adverbs, as discussed in the Sections 12.5 and 12.7. To this group further belong transitive verbs like screw/roll(vt), ‘throw’, ‘pull, yank’, ‘pull’, ‘move to the opposite side’(vt), ‘pounce upon’, ‘let fly, fling’, ‘let go down’ and ‘turn/roll’. The three latter verbs are also used as aspectivising auxiliary verbs after the main verb, as discussed in the Sections 12.9, 12.10 and 12.11 respectively. Group 2: The second group of motion verbs are real motion verbs that refer to specific directions. These are: ‘go up’, ‘go down’, ‘come out, above’, ‘enter’ and ‘(go to) the opposite side’. Section 9.18.6 has discussed the morpheme ‘come out, above’ and its various functions. Section 16.43 discusses the verb ‘pass’, which is also used as the comparative adverb. Group 3: Another group of motion verbs consists of verbs which refer to prolonged states of motion, e.g. ‘turn/roll’(vi), ‘stroll’, ‘ramble’, ‘travel’, ‘follow’, ‘take someone along’, ‘lead away’, ‘take along’ and ‘follow tracks’. Action verbs referring to specific movements (group 1 above) are often combined with verbs specifically referring to directions (group 2). This is illustrated by sentence (164), where ‘fly’ is combined with ‘enter’. Whenever used within one clause with one of the four principal motion verbs, the latter always functions as an auxiliary verb, e.g. (165), where ‘come (back/up)’ is used as the auxiliary verb ‘start V (with a specific destination or goal)’ after ‘fly’. 164

    Lvop5 gvut5 dang31 [plunge] do fly(ipf) Plunge (SG) into it.

    wang31-aq1 enter–SIM

    me11. ROUS

    535

    MOTION VERBS

    165

    Tim31 dang31 lo31 (ipf) pounce.upon fly(ipf) come(back/up) lui31-eq1 nga35 ling31-zeng11 me55 in.this.way+I–AG/I 1PO neck–neck LOC lo11 mvik5 r55. come(back/up)(ipf) massage/clutch PE As soon as he threw himself upon me, he started to clutch my throat.

    In the three following sentences, one of the motion verbs specifically referring to directions (group 2 above) is placed between an action verb referring to a specific movement (group 1 above) and one of the four principal motion verbs functioning as auxiliary verbs. The three following sentences each contain similar combinations of three motion verbs. The verbs ‘fly’, ‘run’ and ‘walk, leave’ respectively are each first within these combinations, and indicate the initial movement. The verbs ‘go up’, ‘go down’ and respectively are each second within these ranges, indicating the final directions or the results of the initial movements. In all three sentences, the verb ‘go (back/up)’ is used at the end as the aspectivising auxiliary verb ‘to start V (without a specific destination or goal)’. 166

    Dung31-lvai31 dang31 doq1 (ipf) wing–boat fly go.up The aeroplane has taken off.

    lo35 go(back/up)

    bue31. P+I

    167

    A1-kun55 duk1duk1 ga11 ming11 nom–(name) [onom] perceive sound(vi)(ipf) 11 35 35 din gyo lo bue31. (ipf) run go.down go(back/up) P+I Akun ran back, accompanied by the loud banging of his bare feet.

    168

    Mvat5mvat5 gvut5 so31 toq5 lo35 bue31. [highly.irritated] do walk(ipf) come.out go(back/up) P+I He walked out, highly irritated.

    536

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    The verb ‘arrive’ belongs to none of the above groups of motion verbs, since this verb refers to a direction towards a specific goal, whereas it can nevertheless be preceded by as an adverb expressing ‘come (away/down) to do V’. In sentence (169), the verb ‘arrive’ is used as the only verb of the clause. In sentence (170), the verb ‘arrive’ is used as the first verb in a combination of motion verbs, whereas it is used as the last verb in sentence (171). In sentence (170), the arrival is both initial movement and goal at the same time. In sentence (171), the movement denoted by ‘come (away/down)’ is the initial situation, resulting in the arrival denoted by ‘arrive’. Here, emphasis is placed in a rather polite way on the trouble the addressee has taken to come and visit the speakers. 169

    Bum31-zvyung31 zye35 bue31. heap(vt/N)–top arrive P+I We’ve reached the top of the hill.

    170

    Rem11rem11 ga11 zyang35 [evening.dusk] perceive CD lo31 gve5-ra31 kai31. come(back/up) PL–need+I SUG+I They will probably get back at dusk.

    171

    Nang31

    zye35 arrive

    nga35-moq1 zvyang55 lye35 2SG 1PO–party near come(away/down) zye35-Ø nga35-moq1 ge1bu35 dik1 lye31. arrive–FCT 1PO–party glad/happy extreme also+I We’re (ND.EX) so glad you (SG) came to visit us.

    In the following sentence, the verb ‘arrive’ refers to reaching a certain time instead of a certain place. 172

    Le1-sue11-le1-king55 zye35 syoq5 mvoq5 gvoq1. (GEN) one–ten –one–time arrive till learn/teach DIE Let’s (DU.IN) have our lesson until eleven o’clock. [me teaching you Zaiwa]

    537

    MOTION VERBS

    12.16

    THE VERB ‘COME (AWAY/DOWN)’ AS THE BENEFACTIVE EXHORTATIVE CLAUSE MARKER

    The verb ‘come (away/down)’ can also be used in a rather special way, as the benefactive exhortative clause marker expressing, in a rather considerate way, the willingness to do something on behalf or in the place of someone else, as part of a favour. 173

    Ngo31

    Nong35dau31 zye35 syoq5 1SG Nongdao arrive till 35 35 lye dye gvat5 lye35. come(away/down) see.off put.into come(away/down) I’ll see you off to Nongdao [but no further].

    174

    Ngo31 nang31 r55 lye35 ki31 lye35. 1SG 2SG OBJ come(away/down) rescue come(away/down) I’m coming to rescue you (SG).

    The two above sentences further illustrate that the use of as the benefactive exhortative clause marker is often accompanied by the same morpheme as an adverb, either in a regular way expressing the notion ‘come (away/down) to do V’ or, periphrastically, expressing willingness. In sentence (175) below, the same morpheme ‘come (away/down)’ is used as an adverb and in combination with another exhortative clause marker, viz. the exclusive exhortative clause marker (EE). 175

    Ngo31

    waq1-zvang11 lye35 zvo11 1SG pig–fodder come(away/down) feed I’ll feed the pigs. / I’m coming to feed the pigs.

    be55. EE

    The difference between ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker and the exclusive exhortative clause marker (EE) is that the former refers to the willingness to do a certain favour, whereas (EE) refers to the willingness to perform certain situations in general, without specifically referring to favours, like ‘let me do V’ or ‘I’ll do V’. It is also possible to say that, whereas (EE) emphasises what the speaker does, the morpheme ‘come

    538

    CHAPTER TWELVE

    (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker places more emphasis on the benefiting persons. The plural clause marker (PL) expresses plurality of certain entities in the context, but never of the group to which the speaker belongs. The morpheme ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker can be combined with the plural clause marker, as illustrated by the following examples, whereas (EE) cannot. This can be explained by the fact that ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker places more emphasis on the benefiting persons, whereas (EE) rather emphasises what the speaker does. 176

    Ngo31

    bi11 zo11 gve5-lye35. 1SG give eat PL–come(away/down) I will give it to them to eat.

    177

    Ngo31

    waq1-zvang11 lye35 zvo11 bi11 1SG pig–fodder come(away/down) feed give gve5-lye35. PL–come(away/down) I will feed your (PL) pigs. / I will feed the pigs for you (PL).

    The remaining sentences below further illustrate the use of ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker. 178

    Baq1, A5-nu11 bau11 [horseback] nom–mother carry.on.back Come, Mum will carry you on her back.

    lye35. come(away/down)

    179

    Zang11 gvat5 bi11 si1-lye35. rice/food put.into give still–come(away/down) Let me put more rice into your bowl.

    180

    Ha31, A5-nu11 hut5 lye35. where nom–mother dress/tuck.in(vt) come(away/down) Let Mummy dress you up.

    181

    Ngyam31, loq1-wa11 ham31-aq1 (take.from.my.hand) hand/arm–palm/sole receive/fetch–SIM

    539

    MOTION VERBS

    bui31-ban11 gvat5 bi11 lye35. sun–flower put.into give come(away/down) Come here (SG) with your hands, I’ll give you sunflower seeds. The Zaiwa people of Longchuan, like their descendents that came to live in Loilung, seem to use a clause marker , to be glossed (BENEX), instead of ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker. In the following sentences, the use of a clause marker in /r/ might be a kind of hypercorrection, or a way to add a flair of Jingpo. Section 7.8 has discussed the specific use of the phonemes /l/ and /r/ in Zaiwa function words. 182

    Nang31

    a1-ban11 syuq5 zyang35 ngo31 (ipf) 2SG NEG–use.up drink CD 1SG be1-syuq5 r55. help–drink BENEX If you (SG) can’t finish this drink, I’ll help you.

    183

    Kum11 lye35 pong55 door come(away/down) open(vt) I’ll open the door.

    bi11 give

    r55. BENEX

    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    13.1

    INTRODUCTION

    Like most languages, Zaiwa distinguishes a group of verbs expressing notions like ‘to have’ and ‘to be there’ and related notions. For the sake of convenience, this chapter discusses these verbs together, in the following sections. 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8

    ‘be there’ (animate) and ‘be there’ (inanimate) ‘be inside’ and ‘contain’ ‘lie down’, ‘sit’ and ‘stand’ ‘be attached’ and ‘attach’(vt) ‘have’ as a main verb The verb ‘have’ as the possibilitative adverb ‘have left over’ and ‘have’ (low)

    The auxiliary verb ‘place(vt)’ can express the related notions ‘to be somewhere’ and ‘to be left somewhere’. In the first sentence it is used after the main verb ‘swell’, and in the two other examples it is used after the main verb ‘put into’. 1

    Hi55-me55 a1-bu35-zo11 bu35 this–LOC nom–pimple/convex–child pimple/convex dvo31 r55. place(vt)(ipf) PE There’s a little pimple just right here.

    2

    Ngo31

    se1dyek5 me55 1SG case LOC dvo31 lye31. place(vt)(ipf) also+I

    mau11sau11 paper/book

    gvat5 put.into

    542

    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    I’m keeping the paper inside the case. / I’m putting the paper into the case. 3

    Se1dyek5 me55 mau11sau11 gvat5 case LOC paper/book put.into The paper has been put into the case.

    dvo11 bue31. place(vt) P+I

    I shall discuss the use of verb ‘place(vt)’ as a main verb and as an aspectivising auxiliary verb further on in Section 15.9. This auxiliary verb is labelled the progressive aspectiviser, for it expresses progressive aspect, i.e. the continuation of the situation indicated by the preceding main verb. As a main verb, the verb ‘place(vt)’ expresses ‘to place something somewhere’. The progressive aspectiviser ‘place(vt)’ expresses the same notions ‘to be somewhere’ or ‘to be left somewhere’ whenever used after another instance of the same verb functioning as a main verb, literally expressing ‘to place something somewhere’. 4

    Sau55-hai11 gyam11 me55 dvo31 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) shoe–shoe storey LOC place(vt) place(vt) also+I The shoes are on the floor (upstairs).

    5

    A1-su31, ngo31 hi55-me55 dvo31 dvo54 nom–SNO 1SG this–LOC place(vt)(ipf) place(vt)+FCT 1 35 31 a zeng ka lo35 bue31 ta11? thing where go(back/up) P+I GI Well, where has the thing that I put here gone off to?

    6

    Bui11-syum11 ka55-me55 dvo31 dvo31 lye31? (ipf) (ipf) broom–sweep Q–LOC place(vt) place(vt) also+I Where’s the broom?

    When the progressive aspectiviser ‘place(vt)’ is used in non-indicative clauses such as imperatives, it in fact expresses a similar notion, i.e. ‘to leave somewhere’ or ‘to stay somewhere’. The imperative clause (8) contrasts to the indicative clause (6) above. 7

    Dvo31 dvo11-aq5. (ipf) place(vt) place(vt)–SIM

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    543

    Just leave (SG) it there. 8

    Gvau55-gyap1 me55 stand/rack–stand/rack LOC Put (SG) it in the cupboard.

    9

    Nang31

    zvung11 set(vt)(ipf)

    dvo11-aq5. place(vt)–SIM

    bau35 lung35 dvo11-aq5. 2SG just be.inside place(vt)–SIM Stay (SG) in there [in the kitchen] on your own.

    When the progressive aspectiviser ‘place(vt)’ is used after main verbs that already indicate states of being somewhere, it simply expresses progressive aspect, i.e. that the latter states are carried on for a longer time. This is illustrated by the indicative sentence (10) and the imperative sentences (11) and (12). 10

    No11 ke5-me55 cattle Q–LOC la11?

    ngi11 dvo31 lye31 (ipf) (ipf) be.there(anim) place(vt) also+I

    UNC

    Where could the cow be? 11

    Ya11ya35 ngum11 dvo11-aq5. (ipf) medicine keep.in.mouth place(vt)–SIM Keep (SG) the medicine in your mouth [for a while].

    12

    Loq1 me55 syung11 hand/arm LOC use(ipf) Keep (SG) it in your hand.

    dvo11-aq5. place(vt)–SIM

    To walk ahead somewhat, in a way similar to the three examples above, the progressive aspectiviser ‘place(vt)’ can express the same notions ‘to be somewhere’ or ‘to be left somewhere’ after the special causative variants of other verbs indicating ‘being there’ also to be discussed within this chapter. In sentence (13), the verb ‘place(vt)’ is used after ‘let inside’, i.e. the causative variant of ‘be inside’, and in sentence (14) it is used after ‘cause to be there’ (animate), i.e. the causative variant of ‘be there’ (animate).

    544

    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    13

    Sa11 me55 lvung31 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) basket LOC let.inside place(vt) also+I It’s inside the basket.

    14

    Kui11-zo11 ke5-me55 ngvi11 dog–child Q–LOC cause.to.be.there(anim)(ipf) 31 31 dvo lye ? place(vt)(ipf) also+I Where did you put the puppy?

    13.2

    ‘BE THERE’ (ANIMATE) AND ‘BE THERE’ (INANIMATE)

    The verb ‘be there’ (animate) exclusively refers to animate entities and refers to being or staying at a certain place. 15

    No11 hi55-me55 ngi11 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) cattle this–LOC be.there(anim) place(vt) also+I The cattle are here.

    16

    Ngo31

    17

    Le1-yuq1 bau35 ngi11 zyang35 (ipf) one–person just be.there(anim) CD 55 55 31 55 zvem zvem ga r . [deathly.quiet] perceive(ipf) PE When I’m on my own [there], it is deathly quiet.

    18

    Zi1syang31 ngi31 zyang35 child be.there(anim) CD suk1suk1sak1sak1 ga31 r55. (ipf) [move.restlessly] perceive PE When there are children around, there’s always a lot of fuss.

    bau35 just

    sem31 ze1-gvut5 1SG [in.quietness] only–do ngi11 gvat5 nvau11 r55. (ipf) (ipf) be.there(anim) put.into feel.like PE I would like to be left in peace and quiet for a while.

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    545

    19

    Byu31 sue31-lum11 bang11 (ipf) man/woman know –reciprocal PNO a1-ngi31. NEG–be.there(anim) There are/were no people that I know.

    20

    Hye55-bvue55-ha55 Bve1lvong11 same.elevation–PLN–where(B) Deang.people ngi11 r55 kai31 dvi31? (ipf) be.there(anim) PE SUG+I CX+I In those places over there [at the same elevation] live the De’ang, don’t they?

    21

    A1-myu31-zo11 mi11-hu55 ngi11 lye31. (ipf) nom–sort/nationality–child four–sort be.there(anim) also+I There are four minority nationalities living there.

    22

    Byu31 hau31 ke5-se55 man/woman the/that Q–like ngi11 r55 ta11? (ipf) be.there(anim) PE GI How is that fellow at home?

    gvut5 do

    and the response: 23 A1-byaq1 ma54 gvut5 ngi11 r55. (ipf) nom–slovenly LOC+FCT do be.there(anim) PE He lives there in a very slovenly fashion. 24

    Nang31

    Loi11lung35 me55 lo11 2SG Loilung LOC come(back/up)(ipf) 25 5 55 ngi ke -mvyo zan31 bue31? be.there(anim)+FCT Q–much(B) summer/year P+I How many years has it been since you (SG) came to live in Loilung?

    25

    Nang31

    ke5-mvyo55 ngi35 ngi31 si1-ra31? 2SG Q–much(B) day be.there(anim) still–need+I How many more days will you (SG) stay?

    546

    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    The intransitive verb ‘be there’ (animate) forms part of a simplex-causative verb pair, together with ‘cause to be there’ (animate). 26

    Kui11-zo11 ke5-me55 ngvi11 dog–child Q–LOC cause.to.be.there(anim)(ipf) dvo31 lye31? (ipf) place(vt) also+I Where did you put the puppy?

    In contrast to ‘be there’ (animate), the verb ‘be there’ (inanimate) also refers to being at a certain place but exclusively of inanimate entities. 27

    Cye11 le1-lvum11 zyoq1 r55. waterfall one–lump be.there(inan) PE There’s a/one waterfall.

    28

    Muk1 de1kya31 a1-zyoq1 le1-luq1? cake/cookies different NEG–be.there(inan) no.more–Y/N Are there no other cakes/cookies?

    29

    Nang35 num11-tang55 me55 2SG.PO back–last LOC dvo31 r55. place(vt)(ipf) PE It’s behind your (SG) back.

    30

    Nung35-moq1 zvyang55 ka55-hu55 bvoi31 2PL–party near Q–sort festival zyoq1 a1-gvo31? be.there(inan) nom–PL+I What kind of festivals do you have in your (PL) country?

    31

    Nang35 zvyang55 gu35 ke5-mvyo55 gu35 2SG.PO near bed Q–much(B) bed 1 31 zyoq lye ? be.there(inan) also+I How many beds do you have at your (SG) place?

    zyoq1 be.there(inan)

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    547

    32

    Nung35-moq1 zvyang55 sueng55 2PL–party near shop/eating.place a1-zyoq1 gve5-luq1? NEG–be.there(inan) PL–Y/N Are there shops/eating places at your (PL) place?

    33

    Hye55-me55 r11 zyoq1 r55. same.elevation–LOC also be.there(inan) PE [on booths at the market] Over there [at the same elevation] they have it too.

    34

    Bui11-syum11 broom–sweep r55 ta11? PE

    he5-ma55 Q–LOC

    zyoq1 dvo31 be.there(inan) place(vt)(ipf)

    GI

    Where did you say the broom was? The same verb ‘be there’ (inanimate) is also used as a specifier noun specially referring to the quantity of tables to be set, such as on large feasts. 35

    Ke5-mvyo55 zyoq1 gvut5 ra31 la11? Q–much(B) be.there(inan) do need+I UNC How many tables should we set? (lit.: should we do)

    13.3

    ‘BE INSIDE’ AND ‘CONTAIN’

    The verbs ‘be inside’ and ‘contain’ can refer both to animate and inanimate entities and express contrastive notions that in Zaiwa are strictly separated. Whereas ‘be inside’ refers to what is contained, the verb ‘contain’ refers to the container. The following examples illustrate this strict distinction between ‘be inside’ and ‘contain’. According to the informant, the verb ‘be inside’ cannot be used instead of ‘contain’ in sentence (36), whereas in sentence (37) the situation is reversed.

    548

    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    36

    Dvau55 me55 i31-pue11 a1-bo31 le1-luq1? inflate/bottle LOC distilled–booze NEG–contain no.more–Y/N Is there any booze left in the bottle?

    37

    Nang31

    bau35 lung35 dvo11-aq5. 2SG just be.inside place(vt)–SIM Stay (SG) in there [in the kitchen] on your own.

    The following sentences further illustrate the difference between ‘be inside’ and ‘contain’. Whereas ‘be inside’ in sentence (38) refers to what is contained, the verb ‘contain’ in sentence (39) refers to the container. 38

    Mi31 tye11 me55 earth underneath LOC It’s under ground.

    lung35 be.inside

    39

    Tung31 tye11 me55 bo11 lye31. (ipf) bag underneath LOC contain also+I It’s in the bag. [amidst other stuff]

    lye31. also+I

    In the following sentence, the verb ‘be inside’ cannot be used instead of ‘contain’, since reference is made to a group one forms part of, rather than to the individual in question. 40

    Nang31

    zang11 zo11 i5-be1-bo31-aq1. 2SG rice/food eat go–help–contain–SIM Go (SG) and share the meal.

    • The verb ‘be inside’ The verb ‘be inside’ refers to being inside of certain places, such as rooms, caves and cages, but also to being in hospital or in jail. 41

    Nge1-zo11 a1-lung35 luq1? fish–child NEG–be.inside Y/N Is there fish in it?

    42

    Nvye31 chew(ipf)

    nvuq5 zyang35-syeq1 le1-wo35 pound.fine CD–au.contraire but–have

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    549

    zo31 lung35 gvat5 lye31. (ipf) eat be.inside put.into also+I Only after chewing it up can you swallow it. 43

    Si1-pik5 i1-zyum11 tye11 me55 fruit–pungent water–salt underneath LOC bum11 r55. (ipf) heap(vt/N) PE There’s lots of chillies amidst the salt.

    44

    Yvang11

    45

    Yvang11

    ci1-rung31 lung35 3SG drug–institution be.inside She is lying in hospital. tong55

    3SG

    lung35 jail

    lung35 be.inside

    dvo31 r55. (ipf) place(vt) PE

    bue31. be.inside P+I

    He is in gaol. The verb ‘be inside’ is the simplex verb variant within one of the many simplex-causative verb pairs in Zaiwa, together with the verb ‘let inside’. In sentences (46) to (48), the verb ‘let inside’ refers to inanimate objects, whereas in sentence (49) it refers to animate objects. 46

    Hi55-me55 lvung55-aq5. this–LOC let.inside–SIM Put (SG) it inside of this.

    47

    Lvin31 lvung55-aq5. screw/roll(ipf) let.inside–SIM Screw (SG) it in.

    48

    Soq5 sye11 lvung55-aq5. (ipf) air pull let.inside–SIM Inhale (SG).

    49

    Hau55-nvik5-dvang31 the/that–duo–siblings

    r55

    ge11

    OBJ

    TOP

    zeng31 trunk

    550

    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    mo35-mo35 lvung55, lvung54 mai11 ge11, AUG–AUG let.inside let.inside+FCT ABL TOP Brother and sister were then put into a huge chest, and after they were put into the chest • the verb ‘contain’ The verb ‘contain’ can be used in many different ways. In the following sentence, the verb ‘contain’ expresses the notions ‘contain’ or ‘include’ in the broadest way. 50

    Hi55-mai11 lai54 ge11 de1kya31 bo11 a1-si31. (ipf) this–ABL pass+FCT TOP different contain nom–still+I Beside these, there are also others.

    The verb ‘contain’ normally expresses concrete objects that serve as containers, such as bottles, pockets, pans and the body, as well as abstract objects such as words in a text. 51

    Ngo31

    nvik5-lvum11 me55 1SG heart–lump LOC I have a defect in the heart.

    a1na11 illness

    bo11 r55. (ipf) contain PE

    52

    Ngun31 a1-bo25 lu55, lap1 wu35-aq5. silver NEG–contain+FCT MIR scoop/fish.out look–SIM Go through your (SG) pockets whether you have any money in them.

    53

    A1-bvat5 a1-bo31 nom–dregs/ferment(vt) NEG–contain Are there any dregs left?

    54

    Ki31-lyeng31 soq5 leg/foot–wheel air The bike’s tyre is flat.

    55

    Nga35-moq1 Zai11wa31 lai11gva55 a1-bo31 luq1? 1PO–party Zaiwa script NEG–contain Y/N Isn’t any of our (ND.EX) Zaiwa script in it?

    le1-luq1? no.more–Y/N

    a1-bo31 loq1. NEG–contain no.more

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    551

    The verb ‘contain’ can also refer to groups including certain people, as illustrated by the following example and by sentence (40) above. 56

    Gvo11 bang11 a1-bo31 gve5-luq1? big PNO NEG–contain PL–Y/N Were there any adults amongst you (PL)?

    The verb ‘contain’ can also refer to distinctive measures such as indicated by the hands etc. 57

    Nang35 loq1-yin31 nga35 le1-zvup5 2SG.PO hand/arm–lower 1PO one–(clench).fist bo11 r55. contain(ipf) PE Your (SG) lower arm is as thick as the distance between my thumb and index finger.

    58

    Ke5-i55 bo11 r55 (ipf) Q–SPEC contain PE How big was it?

    ta11. GI

    and the response: 59 Hi55-i55 bo11 r55. (ipf) this–SPEC contain PE [with gestures:] It’s this big. / It was this big. In the following sentence, the verb ‘contain’ also refers to a certain measurement, but in an abstract way. 60

    Ngo31

    nang31

    mvyang31 1SG 2SG tall/high I’m not as tall as you (SG) .

    a1-bo31. NEG–contain

    The verb ‘contain’ can also refer to containing or possession of many kinds of abstract matters such as power, guilt, interest, things to do, words and meanings in a language and time for doing things.

    552

    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    61

    Byu31 hye55-yuq1 wum35-bo11 man/woman same.elevation–person power–contain(ipf) dik1 lye31. extreme also+I That person [at the same elevation] is quite strong.

    62

    Yvang11

    63

    Ngo31

    64

    Zo11-mun11 bo11 r55. eat–luck contain(ipf) PE I have a lucky mouth.

    65

    Dang11 hi55-hun11 Zai11-ming35 me55 words this–sentence Zaiwa–language LOC a1-bo31 luq1? NEG–contain Y/N Do you have this expression in Zaiwa?

    66

    Ngo31

    kau11-yui11 3SG steal–guilt I am guilty of stealing.

    bo11 lye31. (ipf) contain also+I

    a1mu31 a1-bo31. 1SG matter NEG–contain I have nothing to do.

    gvam31 ye31 gve5lvang11 1SG want.to(ipf) go(away/down) although 1 55 a -king a1-bo31. nom–time NEG–contain Although I want to go, I have no time.

    The verb ‘contain’ forms part of a noun-verb pair together with the noun ‘meaning’.55 In a way similar to the use of the Mandarin word 意 思 yìsi ‘meaning’, the word ‘meaning’ can both be used in a literal sense expressing ‘meaning’, e.g. (67), and in a more idiosyncratic sense as ‘interest’ in the sense of

    55 Zaiwa ‘meaning’ could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. lachyum

    ‘meaning, contents’ (Xu et al. 1983: 389).

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    553

    ‘to be of interest’, e.g. (68) and (69), like Mandarin 有意思 yǒu yìsi ‘(be) interesting’. 67

    De1kya31 le1zvyum55 a1-bo31 luq1? different meaning NEG–contain Y/N Does it have any other meaning?

    68

    Mau11sau11 hi55-bvue55 paper/book this–PLN This book is uninteresting.

    69

    Zai11wa31-ming35 mvoq5 r11 le1zvyum55 Zaiwa–language learn/teach also meaning zyaq1 bo11 r55. (ipf) rather contain PE Learning the Zaiwa language is very interesting.

    le1zvyum55 meaning

    a1-bo31. NEG–contain

    The verb ‘contain’ is also often used in combination with the noun ‘merit’.56 70

    71

    I31-pue11 got1 syuq5 li11 a1gvyu31 distilled–booze scoop(vt) drink also merit There’s no merit in excessive drinking.

    a1-bo31. NEG–contain

    Zam31 rvang31 dvo11 zyang35 ge11 (ipf) bridge make place(vt) CD TOP lvung55lvang31-bang54 me1dvu55 a1gvyu31 everyone(GEN)–PNO+FCT share/portion merit bo11 lye31. (ipf) contain also+I It would be good for everyone to build a bridge here.

    The verb ‘contain’ can refer to even more abstract matters such as time or, literally, to the containing of amounts of time within a certain continuum.

    56 Zaiwa ‘merit’ could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. akyu ‘merit, interest,

    benefit use’ (Xu et al. 1983: 22).

    554 72

    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    Yvang11 a1sak1 ke5-mvyo55 zan31 bo31 bue31? 3SG age Q–much(B) summer/year contain P+I How old is she now?

    and the response: 73 Sit5-zan31 bo31 eight–summer/year contain She is eight years old.

    bue31. P+I

    74

    Ke5-mvyo55 king55 bo31 bue31? Q–much(B) time contain P+I What’s the time? / (Lit.:) How many hours are in it now?

    75

    Gau11-king55 a1-bo31 si1-luq1? nine–time NEG–contain still–Y/N Is it eight o’clock yet?

    The verb ‘embrace’ is the causative variant of ‘contain’. In sentence (77), the same morpheme ‘embrace’ is used as a noun which is used for indicating the amount of space between the arms. 76

    77

    13.4

    Bvo11 lum11 (ipf) embrace reciprocal Let’s (DU.IN) hug. Yvang11

    gvoq1. DIE

    le1-bvo31 bo11 r55 (ipf) 3SG one–embrace contain PE He is as fat as my arms can embrace now!

    mai31! OBV+I

    ‘LIE DOWN’, ‘SIT’ AND ‘STAND’

    • ‘lie down’ The verb ‘lie down’ refers to lying of both animate and inanimate entities. The two following sentences illustrate the use of ‘lie down’ in reference to inanimate entities.

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    555

    78

    Sau55-hai11 hi55-mvyo55-mvyo55 lyeq1 shoe–shoe this–much(B)–much(B) lie.down bum25 ge11, o31-bvue55 lung35 heap(vt/N)+FCT TOP who(GEN)–PLN be.inside 11 1 31 bum a -gvo ta11? (ipf) heap(vt/N) nom–PL+I GI There are so many shoes lying here, who (PL) could be inside?

    79

    Bvong55dvin55 a1-lyeq1 dvo11 pen NEG–lie.down place(vt) Is the pen lying there?

    luq1? Y/N

    The following sentences illustrate the use of ‘lie down’ in reference to animate entities. 80

    Ngo31 1SG

    hi55-dong31 gvut5 this–lead/connect do

    lyeq1 lie.down

    r11 also

    a1-yo35. NEG–convenient When I lie down in this way, it doesn’t feel right. 81

    Nga35

    zvyang55 ngop1 lyeq1 gvan31-aq1. 1PO near face lie.down put.into*–SIM [to a child in one’s arms:] Lie (SG) with your face against me.

    82

    Lyeq1 ngyang35 gvan31-aq1. lie.down stretch(vr) put.into*–SIM Stretch yourself (SG) whilst lying.

    The verb ‘lay down’(vt) is the causative variant of ‘lie down’. 83

    Mue31-bu11 hau31 gu35 me55 wrap–clothes the/that bed LOC dvo11-aq5. place(vt)–SIM Put (SG) the clothes on the bed.

    lvyeq5 lay.down(vt)

    556 84

    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    Ang11-noq5 hau31 bvyo31 me55 bvyo11 petiole–black the/that spread LOC spread(ipf) lvyeq5 gvan31-aq1. lay.down(vt) put.into*–SIM Spread (SG) the black mustard out on the spreading-mat.

    • ‘sit’ The verb ‘sit’ refers to remaining in a sitting position of exclusively animate entities. 85

    Nang31

    le1-zvui55 zvyum31 zung31-aq1. 2SG one–bit legs.tight(ipf) sit–SIM Please sit (SG) more tightly.

    86

    Zung31 zyang35 dye31 bvyang31 r55, yam11-aq1. (ipf) sit CD too jolt/winnow PE stand*–SIM When sitting there feels too bumpy, just stand (SG) .

    87

    Yvep5yvep5 zung31 gveq5. [tight.to.each.other] sit PLIM Sit (PL) close to each other.

    88

    Sai55-tung55 me55 mat–wickerwork LOC Sit (SG) on the mat.

    89

    Bui31 tan11 r55, bui31-syum31 me55 sun hard(ipf) PE sun–shady/shade LOC 5 gvat gvoq1. put.into DIE It’s hot, let’s (DU.IN) sit in the shade.

    90

    Ke5-dye31 dvuq5 zung31. PHB–too light(vt) sit Don’t just sit there brooding.

    91

    Zung31-ngung11 sit–squat

    zung31-aq1. sit–SIM

    ngung31 squat(ipf)

    r11 also

    zung11 sit(ipf)

    a1-ngon35 zyang35 NEG–pleasant CD

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    557

    zung11-byeq5 bye11-aq1. (ipf) sit –tight.to.the.ground tight.to.the.ground*–SIM If squatting [also] feels uncomfortable, why don’t you (SG) sit cross-legged. 92

    Yvang11

    r55

    bi11 3SG OBJ give Offer (SG) her a seat.

    zung31-aq1. sit–SIM

    93

    Dvang55kuq5 hi31 ge11 zung31 a1-ngon35. stool/chair this TOP sit NEG–pleasant This stool/chair doesn’t sit comfortably.

    The verb ‘sit’ has a causative variant ‘set’(vt), which appears to be only used for inanimate objects that are long and upright, such as candles and bottles. 94

    Dvau55 se1boi31 o31 me55 inflate/bottle table under LOC Put (SG) the bottle under the table.

    zvung11 am55-aq5. set(vt)(ipf) PFM–SIM

    95

    La11zyu11 dvu11 zvung31-aq1. (ipf) candle respond/upright set(vt)–SIM Stand (SG) the candle upright.

    96

    Gom35 dvu11 zvung31-aq1. (ipf) mug respond/upright set(vt)–SIM Stand (SG) the mug upright.

    97

    Dvang55kuq5 le1go11 ding35-ding35 stool/chair well straight.(branch)–straight.(branch) zvung31-aq1. set(vt)–SIM Put (SG) the stool/chair down on its four legs.

    98

    Dvang55kuq5 zvung11 dvo11-aq5. (ipf) stool/chair set(vt) place(vt)–SIM Put (SG) the stool/chair there.

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    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    99

    Mi1-kyom55 me55 zvung11 dvo54 ge11 (ipf) fire–fireplace LOC set(vt) place(vt)+FCT TOP gvyo31 ngvut5 lye31. tripod be also+I The thing placed next to the fireplace is the tripod.

    100

    Dvau31 zvung31-aq1. turn(ipf) set(vt)–SIM Put (SG) it upside down.

    • ‘stand’ The verb ‘stand’ expresses ‘to stand’ as for animate entities, e.g. (101) to (103), as well as for long objects that are planted in the ground such as plants and poles, as illustrated by the first example. 101

    Dye31 yap1 ran35 a1-gvo31. too stand scattered nom–PL+I Those have been planted in too scattered a fashion.

    102

    He55-me55 he5-yap1 me1rong11 before–LOC PHB–stand disturb Don’t (PL) stand in the way like that.

    gvo55. PL

    103

    Zung11 r11 a1-ngon35 yap1 r11 (ipf) sit also NEG–pleasant stand also 1 35 a -ngon . NEG–pleasant Sitting doesn’t feel comfortable, and neither does standing.

    13.5

    ‘BE ATTACHED’ AND ‘ATTACH’(VT)

    The verb expresses ‘be attached’, in several different ways. First, it can express the notion of being attached, as for any concrete object. 104

    Nang31 2SG

    zui31 tooth

    me55 LOC

    ang11-noq5-zyap1 petiole–black–chop.up

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    559

    dap1 dvo31 r55. (ipf) be.attached place(vt) PE You have some pieces of black mustard on your teeth. / There is black mustard stuck between your teeth. 105

    Nang35 bu11-bai11 me55 dung31sang11 2SG.PO clothes–lappet LOC caterpillar dap1 dvo31 r55. be.attached place(vt)(ipf) PE There’s a caterpillar on the tail of your (SG) shirt.

    106

    Se5-gvoq5 me55 lvang31-mui31 bai35 tree–branch LOC snake–snake wind dap1 dvo31 r55. be.attached place(vt)(ipf) PE There’s a snake twisted around the branch.

    107

    Mue31-bu11 me55 hue11 wrap–clothes LOC dirt The clothes are very dirty.

    108

    Nang35 sau55-hai11 me55 ne1-ki11 dap1 2SG.PO shoe–shoe LOC cattle–faeces be.attached 31 55 dvo r . place(vt)(ipf) PE There’s cow dung on your (SG) shoe.

    nai31 knead(ipf)

    dap1 dik1 bue31. be.attached extreme P+I

    The verb ‘be attached’ can also refer to text on paper. The following sentence has two possible translations, of which the second is the most literal. 109

    Yin35yu31 dong31 a1-dap1 dvi31? English.language lead/connect NEG–be.attached CX+I There’s no English written on it, is there?

    The following idiosyncratic expression also illustrates the use of ‘be attached’.

    560 110

    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    Byu31 hi55-yuq1 me1-gva55 dap1-m55. man/woman this–person words–write be.attached–FCT This person brings only trouble. / (Lit.:) There’s a stigma attached to this person.

    The verb ‘be attached’ can also express the notion of forming a constituent part of something. 111

    Ngue31 zyang11 dap1 gu54 dvang55kuq5 lean(vi) place(B) be.attached PART+FCT stool/chair waq1 lye35 lo31-aq1. lift come(away/down) come(back/up)–SIM Bring (SG) the chair with the back over here.

    The following forms and sentences illustrate the use of the verb ‘be attached’ in reference to body parts, e.g. ki31-dvye11 dap1 (leg/foot-single be.attached) ‘one-legged’ and loq1-dvye11 dap1 (arm/leg-single be.attached) ‘one-armed’. 112

    113

    Loq1 le1-loq1 me55 ge11 hand/arm one–hand/arm LOC TOP loq1-ngyui11 ngo11-ngyui11 dap1 hand/arm–finger/toe five–finger/toe be.attached On one hand there are five fingers.

    lye31. also+I

    Nong35dau31 me55 myoq1-dvye11 dap1 Nongdao LOC eye–single be.attached ma54 byu31 le1-yuq1 ngi11 r55. (ipf) LOC+FCT man/woman one–person be.there(anim) PE In Nongdao there lives a one-eyed person.

    The verb ‘be attached’ is also used in reference to wounds, in the expression dam11-dap5 (wound-be.attached) ‘have a wound’. A wound is neither a constituent part of the body nor something which is purely attached to it on the outside. 114

    Yvang11

    dam11-dap5 lye31 3SG wound–be.attached also+I Is he wounded?

    luq1? Y/N

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    561

    The verb ‘be attached’ is also used in reference to abstract notions to which a person is bound, such as friendship, addictions, etc., as illustrated by the following sentences as well as by the expression zvit5-dap1 (love-be.attached) ‘beloved’. 115

    Yvang11

    i31-pue11-yin31 dap1-n55 3SG distilled–booze–addiction be.attached–FCT ngo31 a1-sue55. 1SG NEG–know I didn’t know that she was addicted to alcohol.

    116

    Yvang11

    ngo31 r55

    3SG

    1SG

    OBJ

    ngun31 silver

    zvin31 dap1 r55. debt be.attached PE

    He owes me money. 117

    Nang31

    a1zeng35 pyuq5 am55 ra54 2SG thing make.lost PFM need+FCT gvyam11-dap5 r55. fate–be.attached PE You (SG) seem to have the fate of misplacing things all the time.

    The verb ‘be attached’ can also express ‘to catch fire’. 118

    Mi11 a1-dap1 luq1? fire NEG–be.attached Y/N Does the fire kindle?

    At least as for cattle, the verb ‘be attached’ can also express the notion of binding oneself to a certain group. 119

    Ne1-zo11 hi31 nga35-nvung55 no31 cattle–child this 1PO–1ND.IN cattle(GEN) 55 1 1 zvyang a -dap . near NEG–be.attached This little calf does not get along with our (ND.IN) cattle.

    The causative variant of the verb ‘be attached’ is ‘attach’(vt), expressing the notion of attaching certain entities, in

    562

    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    several different ways. In the first way of use, the verb ‘attach’(vt) refers to concrete objects. 120

    Byu31-lvo31 dvap5 lye31. man/woman–picture attach also+I I’m hanging up a poster [with some person or persons on it].

    The verb ‘attach’(vt) can also express the notion of binding a certain entity to a certain group, at least as for cattle. The use of the causative verb ‘attach’(vt) in the following sentence can be compared to that of its simplex variant ‘be attached’ in sentence (119) above. 121

    Ne1-zo11 lye35 dvap5 cattle–child come(away/down) attach Let (PL) the calf join the other cattle.

    gvat5 put.into

    gveq5. PLIM

    The causative verb ‘attach’(vt) can also express the notion of getting across to the other side of the river. 122

    Gu31 dvap5 syang55. (ipf) wade attach JUS Let’s (ND.IN) wade across.

    123

    Gu31 dvap5 ye31-aq1. (ipf) wade attach go(away/down)–SIM Wade (SG) across [away from here].

    When used in the same context, the same morpheme ‘attach’(vt) can also be used as a noun expressing the notion of ‘other side of the river’. 124

    Nang31

    hye55-dvap5 pyang31 2SG same.elevation–attach DIR dvap5 ye31-aq1. attach go(away/down)–SIM Wade (SG) from this side to the other.

    gu31 wade(ipf)

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    125

    Ngo31

    13.6

    ‘HAVE’ AS A MAIN VERB

    563

    hye55-dvap5 pyang31 lo35 1SG same.elevation–attach DIR go(back/up) ra31 dut1 bue31. need+I become P+I I have to get back to the other side of the river.

    The invariant meaning of is ‘have’ in a very broad sense. The latter verb thus very much resembles Mandarin 有 yǒu, which can both refer to possession and, in a general sense, to existence. The main difference between Zaiwa ‘have’ and Mandarin 有 yǒu ‘have’, is that ‘have’ can be used as a modal adverb, whereas yǒu ‘have’ cannot. Below, all plausible senses of Zaiwa ‘have’ are discussed separately. 1. The first sense of ‘have’ is ‘to possess’ in the context of possession. The possessions referred to by ‘have’ can be either alienable, such as things and houses, or inalienable, such as spouses, children and guiding spirits. 126

    Yvang11

    yvum31 3SG house He has a big house.

    gvo54 le1-syam11 big+FCT one–ball

    127

    Yvang11

    tau11zvi31 wo35 bue31. 3SG male.guiding.spirit have P+I He has got a [male] guiding spirit now.

    128

    Mi1-wue11 a1-wo35 si1-luq1? wife–female NEG–have still–Y/N Does he have a wife/girlfriend?

    129

    Zi1syang31 le1-yuq1 child one–person They got a child.

    wo35 have

    bue31. P+I

    wo35 have

    r55. PE

    564

    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    130

    Nung35-moq1 yvum31 ma54 ngun31 2PL–party house LOC+FCT silver ke5-mvyo55 wo35 a1-gvo31 ta11? Q–much(B) have nom–PL+I GI How much money do you (PL) have at your place?

    131

    Nga35-nvung55 ke5-mvyo55 wo35-Ø r11 1PO–1ND.IN Q–much(B) have–FCT also 5 55 11 55 ke -mvyo bi syang . Q–much(B) give JUS Let’s (ND.IN) give whatever we have.

    2. Another sense of ‘have’ is ‘receive, get’, i.e. ‘come into possession of’, in the context of certain transactions. 132

    Ngo31

    a1-ngi35-nap1 si5gvyam55 1SG nom–day–morning greetings wo35 yu25. have take+FCT Yesterday I received a letter.

    le1-kyap5 one–leaf/sheet

    3. Somewhat like the above sense of ‘receive, get’, two other senses of ‘have’ are: ‘fetch’, when in the direct context there are things which someone finally succeeds in obtaining, and ‘keep’, when in the direct context there are things which someone, after obtaining, tries to hold on to. An example of the secondary meaning ‘fetch’ is the first ‘have’ in the following sentence. The second ‘have’ is used as the possibilitative adverb, which here expresses the notion ‘X is able to do V’, as I shall discuss in the next section. 133

    Le1man35 ze11 i5-wo35 zvi31 with.much.effort only go–have borrow/lend(ipf) lo35-Ø wa35, a1-wo35 bvyaq5 r11 go(back/up)–FCT EMP NEG–have perform also 11 5 35 1 ge , se lai dik bue31. TOP pity extreme P+I It was only with much effort that we could go there and fetch it [i.e. the videotape], and now we can’t play it, such a pity!

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    565

    An example of the secondary meaning ‘keep’ of ‘have’, is the first ‘have’ in the following sentence. The second ‘have’ - again - is used as the possibilitative adverb, which here expresses ‘X is able to do V’. 134

    Mvyet1mvyet1 ga11 wo35 r11 a1-wo35 [stuck.to.something] perceive have also NEG–have lang31 kyo55. (ipf) pull/yank let.go.down Hanging all my weight to it, I still couldn’t pull it down.

    In the following sentence, the morpheme ‘have’ is also a main verb with the secondary meaning of ‘keep’. This main verb ‘have’, together with the verb ‘catch, wring out’, thus forms part of a resultative construction expressing ‘to keep in one’s hands’. 135

    Ngo31

    woq1-zo11 le1-du11 wo35 1SG chicken–child one–being have zyup5 bue31. catch/wring.out P+I I have managed to keep the little chicken in my hand.

    4. Another meaning of ‘have’ is ‘contain’ in the sense of ‘minimally measure’, in the direct context of things being measured. 136

    Bvan55 le1-ci11 gvo31 a1-wo35 luq1? (ipf) cloth one–1/3.mtr big NEG–have Y/N Does this piece of cloth measure at least one third of a metre?

    5. The following sentence shows that the invariant meaning of ‘have’ can also be used in the sense of ‘emanate’. 137

    A1gvyu31 wo35 be1-ra31. merit have P–need+I Merit will emanate [from this].

    6. Another meaning of ‘have’ is ‘be available’, in the context of things which can be achieved by anyone, e.g. at the market. The

    566

    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    following sentence could be directly translated into Mandarin as: 这种 菜随时都有 zhèzhǒng cài suíshí dōu yǒu, again using 有 yǒu ‘have’. 138

    Zang11-sun11 hi55-bvue55 ke5-nvam55 li11 rice/food–veg/dish this–PLN Q–when also 35 31 wo lye . have also+I [The vegetables for] these dishes are always available.

    139

    Guq1 de1kya31 a1-wo35 le1-luq1? unhusked.rice different NEG–have no.more–Y/N Isn’t there any other unhusked rice?

    7. The following sentence indicates that another, rather special use of ‘have’ is possible, in the sense of both ‘have’ and ‘exist’, in the context of entities that logically are impossible to exist. 140

    Wa11-lai35 a1-wo35. father–deviate NEG–have There are no substitutes for fathers.

    As in the last sentence, the following sentence contains the same words wa11-lai35 (father-deviate) and ‘have’. However, the morpheme ‘have’ in the sentence below bears the sense of ‘possess’, discussed under point 1 above, and not the special meaning of ‘to exist’ as in the sentence above. This is because the word wa11-lai35 (father-deviate) in the sentence below bears another meaning, referring to entities which can really exist, viz. different fathers for one group of siblings. 141

    Nung35-moq1 wa11-lai35 wo35 a1-gvo31, 2PL–party father–deviate have nom–PL+I a1-ngvut5 luq1? NEG–be Y/N [spoken to a group of children:] You (PL) have different fathers, don’t you?

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    567

    13.7 THE VERB ‘HAVE’ AS THE POSSIBILITATIVE ADVERB

    The verb ‘have’ can also be used before the main verb as the possibilitative adverb, using the invariant meaning ‘have’ of this verb in yet other senses. The morpheme ‘have’ as the possibilitative adverb relates the possibility for the given situation to certain underlying factors in the context, such as physical abilities or other circumstances. When ‘have’ as the possibilitative adverb refers to specific main actants, its meaning ‘have’ is used in the sense of ‘X is able to do V’. When the main actants in the context are indefinite, like in English ‘one’, the meaning ‘have’ of is used in the other sense, as ‘it is possible for V to occur’. The first sense in which the meaning of ‘have’ as the possibilitative adverb can be used, in reference to specific main actants in the context, is ‘X is able to do V’. 142

    Se5-gam31 le1-gvue55 ze11 wo35 doq1 r55, tree–tree(B) one–measure only have go.up PE si11 r11 a1-wo35 pyoq5. fruit also NEG–have break.off/down(vt) I could only climb the tree part of the way and I also couldn’t pick any fruits.

    143

    Le1-ngi35-bui31 mut1 gve5lvang11 a1-wo35 one–day–sun blow although NEG–have mut1 dvang11. blow let.fly I’ve blown at it quite a while, but I couldn’t blow it up into the air.

    144

    Myang11 hi55-du11 wo35 din11 dik1 r55. (ipf) horse this–being have run extreme PE This is a very fast-running horse. / If this horse runs, it runs very fast.

    145

    Ng5nga31 ng5nga31 ga11 wo35 ngau11 dik1 [onom] [onom] perceive have weep(ipf) extreme This baby is very much a cry-baby.

    r55. PE

    568

    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    146

    A5-gu11 wo35 ye11 lye31. (ipf) nom–younger.sibling have go(away/down) also+I My younger sister/brother can go.

    147

    Zi1syang31 ke5-dye31 kong31 gvo55, yvang11 child PHB–too save PL 3SG wo35 gvut5-n55 zue31 ge11 yvang11 r55 have do–FCT truc TOP 3SG OBJ 5 31 5 gvut nvang gveq . do let.loose PLIM You (PL) shouldn’t spoil a child too much. Let (PL) it do the things it can do.

    148

    Nang31 zang11 ke5-mvyo55 koq5 wo35 2SG rice/food Q–much(B) bowl have How many bowls of rice can you (SG) eat?

    149

    Ngo31

    150

    Kom55-sing55

    151

    Kui11-wap5 tye31 wo35 gyo31 r55. (ipf) dog–bark sound have hear/smell PE I can hear the sound of barking dogs.

    152

    A1kang31 ngo31 nang31 r55 wut1-n55 just.now 1SG 2SG OBJ call–FCT a1-wo35 gyo11 luq1? NEG–have hear/smell Y/N Didn’t you (SG) hear that I called you just now?

    153

    Yvang11

    zung31-ngung11 1SG sit–squat I can’t squat.

    zo31 lye31? eat(ipf) also+I

    a1-wo35 ngung11. NEG–have squat

    nam35 a1-wo35 gyo11 luq1? fragrant–taste/smell(N) smell NEG–have hear/smell Y/N Can you smell the fragrance? (Lit.:) Can you sense the smell of fragrance? / Can you sense the appetising smell?

    yvup5 zyaq1 wo35 3SG sleep rather have He can do well without sleep.

    zyan31 r55. (ipf) endure PE

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    154

    Ngo31

    zo31-mut5 a1-wo35 zyan11 1SG eat#–hungry NEG–have endure I can no longer put up with being hungry.

    155

    A1-wo35 mvi11 gvat5. (ipf) NEG–have swallow1 put.into I can’t swallow it.

    569

    loq1. no.more

    Whenever ‘have’ is used before the main verb as the possibilitative adverb, the most important part of its meaning is to indicate that the possibility for the given situation to occur is linked to certain underlying factors, such as physical abilities or other circumstances in the context. According to the informant, the circumstances for the achievements by the main actant in the context of the following sentence were not favourable, whereas it is not that the person in question lacked certain abilities or did not try hard. 156

    Le1-zan31 tong11-tong11 ngvut5 one–summer/year roll–roll be 55 55 11 1 35 ka -hu r a -wo gvut5. Q–sort also NEG–have do I couldn’t do anything all year.

    r11 also

    The first ‘have’ in the following sentence is used in a similar way, since the circumstances this adverb refers to are luck or fate, whereas it is not the case that the person in question lacked certain abilities, nor that he did not try hard. Whereas the first ‘have’ in this sentence is used as the possibilitative adverb, the second ‘have’ at the end of the sentence is a main verb referring to possession, in the way discussed above. 157

    Nang31 2SG

    syo11 flesh

    wo35 have

    bek1 shoot

    ra54 gvyam11 need+FCT fate

    a1-wo35. NEG–have You (SG) don’t have much luck in shooting game.

    When referring to indefinite main actants, the morpheme ‘have’ as the possibilitative adverb is used in the second sense as ‘it is

    570

    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    possible for V to occur’. In the following examples, the reasons for not being able to perform the given actions are explicitly indicated within the sentences. 158

    Dye31 syau11 bue31, a1-wo35 bi11 too less P+I NEG–have give It’s too few, we can’t offer it to them.

    159

    Wui31-kung11 nop1 dik1 water–fold sink.away/squishy extreme a1-wo35 lai11. NEG–have pass It’s very squishy in the dale, you can’t pass.

    160

    Ngo31

    waq1-zang11 zvo31 no35 (ipf) 1SG pig–rice/food feed to a1-wo35 ye31. NEG–have go(away/down) I have to feed the pigs. I can’t go.

    zo11. eat r55, PE

    ra31 need(ipf)

    r55, PE

    In the following sentence, the morpheme ‘have’ as the possibilitative adverb expresses that the action can be performed in spite of certain circumstances. 161

    Mung11zung35 mould(N) r55 dvi31? PE

    zui11 gve5lvang11 bear.fruit although

    wo35 have

    zo31 eat(ipf)

    CX+I

    So, you say one can still eat it, even though it is mildewed / mouldy? The following sentences similarly further illustrate the use of ‘have’ as the possibilitative adverb in reference to indefinite main actants. 162

    A1-wo35 ya31 gue11 siq1. (ipf) (ipf) NEG–have cure all.right still It cannot be cured yet.

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    571

    163

    Nvik5-dvang31 a1-wo35 du31. duo–siblings NEG–have namesake You cannot be called siblings.

    164

    Le1-dam31-dvaq5 a1-wo35 one–time(Sp)–suddenly NEG–have pit5. cut.in.two It cannot be cleaved in one blow.

    zvye31 cleave.in.one.blow(ipf)

    165

    Hi55-zyung31 i1-lang31 me55 this–kind water–river LOC myu31 lye31 la11? (ipf) float/drown(vi) also+I UNC Would this float on water?

    wo35 have

    In the following cases, the main actants referred to by ‘have’ as the possibilitative adverb are of other types than in the cases above. The following two sentences refer to the things any person can do with certain tools, viz. a kind of machine and rope. In these contexts, the morpheme ‘have’ as the possibilitative adverb refers to the possibilities one has to use certain inherent qualities of the instruments in question. In these sentences, the instruments are marked by the agentive/instrumental case marker . 166

    Gong11gve5rvang31-eq1 zyo31bva55 wo35 tung11 husking.machine#–AG/I rice.cake have crush zo31 lye31. eat(ipf) also+I With the husking machine you can tamp rice cake for eating.

    167

    Nui11-eq1 a1zeng35 wo35 pui31 r55. (ipf) vine#–AG/I thing have bind.by.twisting PE With vines you can bind things.

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    CHAPTER THIRTEEN

    13.8 ‘HAVE LEFT OVER’ AND ‘HAVE’ (LOW)

    The verbs ‘have left over’ and ‘have’ (low) express meanings which are somewhat similar to that of ‘have’. • ‘have left over’ The Zaiwa verb ‘have left over’ could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. kyem or kyim (Xu et al. 1983: 381), with the same meaning. The Zaiwa verb ‘have left over’ is mostly combined with the verb ‘place(vt)’ when the latter is used as the progressive aspectiviser. 168

    Ngun31 le1-i55-sue31 a1-gvyem31 luq1? silver one–two–ten NEG–left.(over) Y/N Do you have twenty Yuan left for me?

    169

    Ngun31 le1-i55-sue31 a1-gvyem11 dvo11 luq1? (ipf) silver one–two–ten NEG–left.(over) place(vt) Y/N Do you have twenty Yuan left for me?

    170

    I31-pue11 a1-gvyem11 dvo11 (ipf) distilled–booze NEG–left.(over) place(vt) Do you have booze left?

    171

    luq1? Y/N

    Gvyem11 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) left.(over) place(vt) also+I Yes, I have.

    • ‘have’ (low) The Zaiwa verb ‘have’ (low) is the low variant for ‘to have in possession’, such as would normally be expressed using the verb ‘have’. 172

    Ngun31 a1-ngya31 si1-luq1? silver NEG–have(low) still–Y/N Do you have money yet?

    VERBS INDICATING ‘TO BE THERE’ AND ‘TO HAVE’

    173

    174

    Mi11-wue11 ngya31 bue31 wife–female have(low) P+I Do you have a woman yet?

    573

    luq1? Y/N

    A1-ngya31. NEG–have(low) I/we don’t have it.

    An idiosyncratic sense of using the verb ‘have’ (low) is in ngya31 bue31 (have(low) P+I), which also conveys the connotation ‘that’s what you get’. In sentence (176), the latter construction can be used both idiosyncratically and in a literal way as ‘I have’. 175

    M1m31, got1 cyong11 lye31 su31 ge11 (ipf) (malicious) scoop(vt) frolic also+I SNO TOP 31 31 ngya bue . have(low) P+I That’s what you get when you always go around playing the fool!

    176

    Ngya31 bue31. have(low) P+I Yes I have. / That’s what you get.

    CHAPTER FOURTEEN

    CAUSATIVE AND DIRECTIVE VERBS

    14.1

    VERB PAIRS AND THEIR MEANINGS

    Zaiwa has a large number of verb pairs consisting of a non-creaky, non-aspirated variant and a variant which is creaky or aspirated.57 Most of these creaky or aspirated verbs are causative variants of what can be termed simplex verbs, whereas some other creaky or aspirated verbs within these verb pairs could more suitably be labelled directive variants. All regular cases of Zaiwa simplex-causative and simplex-directive verb pairs hitherto attested are listed in the Tables 14.1 and 14.2 below. Table 14.1 lists verb pairs of which the marked variants are aspirated. Such verb pairs, which are fewer in number, are only to be found amongst the simplex-causative verb pairs, not amongst the simplex-directive verb pairs. Table 14.2 lists verb pairs, both simplex-causative and simplex-directive, of which the marked variants are creaky. In regular cases of simplex-causative and simplex-directive verb pairs, the tones of both variants are the same, apart from cases where some predictable variations in tone occur. Whenever the simplex variant is in tone /35/, the causative or directive variant is in tone /55/, since the former tone does not occur in creaky or aspirated forms. In all verb pairs consisting of checked syllables, the simplex variant is in tone /11/ and the causative or directive variant is in tone /55/. Some simplex-causative and simplex-directive verb pairs with aberrant tones will be discussed near the end of this chapter.

    57 Not all creaky verbs are causatives or directives, and neither is it that all creaky verbs are always transitive. The native Zaiwa adjectival verb ‘tall, high’ is both intransitive and does not belong to any verb pair. The latter verb appears to be somehow related to (time) ‘long’.

    576 Table 14.1

    CHAPTER FOURTEEN

    Simplex-causative verb pairs of which the causatives are aspirated

    bong35 bit1 byoq1

    open (vi) be split in two (vi) weathered

    byuq1 dong11 gyo35 gyop1 zyeq1

    lose (have) a hole go down in pieces broken

    Table 14.2 bek1 bo31 bu35 bup1 buq1 bik1 bing35 byong35 byoq1 dang11 dap1 dau35 doq1 dui31 dum35 dun11 duq1

    pong55 open (vt)58 pit5 cut in two (vt) pyoq5 break off, break down (vt) pyuq5 make lost tong11 pierce kyo55 let go down kyop5 break into pieces (vt) cyeq5 tear

    Simplex-causative and simplex-directive verb pairs of which the marked variants are creaky shoot contain (grow) pimple bad, fermented explode (vi) shake off full melt (vi) weathered fly be attached puffy go up move (vi) be missing a stretch press burning

    bvek5 kick bvo31 embrace bvu55 cause a bump bvup5 ferment, let decay bvuq5 explode (vt) bvik5 turn, grind bving55 fill bvyong55melt (vt) bvyoq5 lop off dvang11 let fly, fling dvap5 attach dvau55 inflate (vt) dvoq5 get up dvui31 move (vt) dvum55 interrupt dvun11 point (vt) dvuq5 light (vt)

    58 These two verbs have yet another variant , aspirated but with low tone,

    expressing ‘(sky) clear up, stop raining’(vi.).

    CAUSATIVE AND DIRECTIVE VERBS

    ding35 gang11 gek1

    be flooded split (vi) wrench off

    gue35 gup1 gyam31 gyo11 gyuq1 gyuq1 lam35

    fit inside curved be suspended hear, smell afraid dry (vi) ramble

    lung35 lut1 lyeng lyeq1 ling31 man35

    be inside (go to) the opposite side fall (vi) lie down turn, roll (vi) acquainted

    mau35 mui11 muq1 mi11 mi35 min31 mit1 na11 nop1 noq1 nun35 nuq1 nye31

    stare, be bewildered be poisoned, poison tumble closed trapped scattered left over insane sink away, squishy black wobble (pounded) fine red

    11

    577

    dving55 catch water gvang11 split (vt) gvek5 cross legs, trip up someone gvue55 measure gvup5 contract gvyam31suspend gvyo11 let hear gvyuq5 scare (vt) gvyuq5 dry (vt) lvam55 let go to pasture, let walk lvung55 let inside lvut5 move to the opposite side lvyeng11topple, roll (vt) lvyeq5 lay down (vt) lving31 turn, roll (vt)59 mvan55 form habit, loosen muscles mvau55 cheat, fool mvui11 poison (vt) mvuq5 let tumble mvi11 close (vt) mvi55 trap mvin31 disperse mvit5 leave over nva11 ply with drink nvop5 plod in the mud nvoq5 blacken (vt) nvun55 rock nvuq5 pound fine nvye31 add colour, fry

    59 There is also another transitive verb lvik5 vt. ‘turn round’. This refers to turning around one’s body or some object for one time, whereas lving31 vt. ‘turn, roll’ refers to putting things like wheels or balls into a continuous rolling or turning movement. See also Section 12.11.

    578

    CHAPTER FOURTEEN

    ngop1 ngue31 ngye35 ngi31 ngin35 ngyoq1 ngyui31 ngyun11 ra35 rueq5 rui35 wui35 zo11 zum35 zung31 zup1 zuq1

    face lean (vi) burned, hot be there (anim) beam heat done green, blue steeped level(vi) limp itch (vi) equal eat pair pile up, sit come together be inserted

    ngvop5 cover (vt) ngvue31 lean (vt) ngvye55 burn (vt) ngvi31 cause to be there (anim) ngvin55 roast ngvyoq5make done ngvyui31dye ngvyun11steep (vt) rva55 level (vt) rvueq5 sprain rvui55 tickle (vt) wvui55 compare zvo11 feed zvum55 make a pair zvung31 set (vt) zvup5 clench fist, fist zvuq5 insert

    The verb ‘dent, dented’ is special for it can both be seen as simplex and causative, and both as intransitive and transitive. 1

    2

    14.2

    Gom35 zvyop5 am55 mug chip/chipped PFM Someone chipped the mug.

    bue31. P+I

    Gom35 zvyop5 byuq1 mug chip/chipped lose The mug is chipped.

    bue31. P+I

    SIMPLEX-CAUSATIVE VERB PAIRS

    The simplex variants of simplex-causative verb pairs mostly indicate an intransitive state which is the result of the action indicated by the causative variant. For example, on the process of fermenting, the situation indicated by the verb ‘bad, fermented’ is the result of ‘ferment, let decay’. Both verbs are illustrated by the

    579

    CAUSATIVE AND DIRECTIVE VERBS

    following sentence. In this example, the morpheme ‘bad, fermented’ forms part of a noun mik1-bup1 ‘fermented bamboo shoots’. 3

    Mik1-bup1 bvup5 bamboo.shoots–bad/fermented ferment/let.decay dvo31 lye31. (ipf) place(vt) also+I We’re making fermented bamboo shoots.

    Even though the causative variants are always transitive and the simplex variants are in most cases intransitive, the labels intransitive and transitive are indeed not exact enough. For one reason, the two verbs of a simplex-causative verb pair can both be transitive, e.g. ‘hear, smell’, e.g. (4), vs. ‘let hear’, e.g. (5). Moreover, the causative variants specifically express the notion of letting someone else perform a certain action, e.g. ‘eat’ vs. ‘feed’. 4

    5

    Nam35 a1-wo35 gyo11 smell NEG–have hear/smell Can’t you smell it? Nang31 ngo31

    r55

    luq1? Y/N

    mau31mi11 kai31 2SG 1SG OBJ story narrate(ipf) Tell (SG) me a story.

    gvyo11 raq5. let.hear VO

    Looked at in another way, simplex-causative verb pairs in Zaiwa incorporate two ways of viewing situations. The simplex variant views the situation indicated by the verb as somehow happening to the given entity, whereas the causative variant specifically views the situation indicated by the verb as being caused by some entity specified in the context. This can be illustrated by the same verb pairs discussed above, i.e. ‘hear, smell’ vs. ‘let hear’ and ‘eat’ vs. ‘feed’. Another rather clear example of this distinction is the simplex-causative verb pair consisting of ‘explode (vi)’, e.g. (6) and (8), vs. ‘explode’ (vt), e.g. (7) and (9). 6

    Zya11yoq1 ning31! ga11 buq1 bue31. dynamite [sound.of.explosion] perceive explode(vi) P+I The dynamite exploded with a big bang.

    580 7

    CHAPTER FOURTEEN

    Nang31

    gong11dop5 bvuq5 bue31 2SG firecrackers explode(vt) P+I Have you (SG) exploded the firecrackers yet?

    8

    A1-buq1 si1-luq1? NEG–explode(vi) still–Y/N Did it explode yet?

    9

    A1-bvuq5 si1-luq1? NEG–explode(vt) still–Y/N Did you explode it yet?

    luq1? Y/N

    This morpheme ‘explode (vi)’ in sentences (6) and (8) above is homophonous to the morpheme ‘crunch, flatten’ indicating the transitive action of flattening bamboo, e.g. (10). The latter verb may be a loan from Jingpo, cf. bu [puʔ31] ‘clap with stick or hands’ in children’s language (Xu et al. 1983: 69). 10

    Sue55 buq1 lye31. flattened.bamboo crunch/flatten We’re flattening bamboo.

    also+I

    14.3 THE WAY IN WHICH CAUSATIVE VERB VARIANTS ARE USED; THE ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT AUXILIARY (ACT)

    Zaiwa causative verbs tend to be used as the last verbs in combinations of two or more verbs, especially when they naturally refer to the result of the situation indicated by the preceding verb. The verb preceding these causative verbs can either be the active involvement auxiliary verb or a verb that specifically indicates the way in which the implied result is reached. The active involvement auxiliary verb , glossed (ACT), indicates that the main actant is actively involved or otherwise responsible for the situation indicated by the main verb after it. The basic function of (ACT) is therefore not to form periphrastic causative constructions, since in most cases it is used in combination with verbs which are already overtly causative.

    CAUSATIVE AND DIRECTIVE VERBS

    581

    11

    Dvau55 lvoq5 kyop5 am55 bue31. inflate/bottle ACT break.into.pieces(vt) PFM P+I Someone has smashed the bottle.

    12

    Se5-poq5-gom35 lvoq5 tree–leaf–mug ACT I’ve let the mug fall over.

    mvuq5 let.tumble

    bue31. P+I

    13

    Zi1syang31 ke5-lvoq5 ngvau55. child PHB–ACT let.weep Don’t make the child cry.

    14

    Ke5-lvoq5 mvan55. PHB–ACT form.habit/loosen.muscles Don’t let him make a habit of it.

    15

    Ki31 loq1 lvoq5 mvan31 leg/foot hand/arm ACT form.habit/loosen.muscles(ipf) gvun55-aq5 ma11. play–SIM ROUS Now loosen up your (SG) arms and legs.

    16

    Nang31 ke5-ye31, lvoq5 syun31 ra31. 2SG PHB–go(away/down) ACT spill(vt) need+I Don’t go, you (SG) will spill the water.

    The verb ‘sound, name’(vt) is another illustration of the fact that many Zaiwa causative verbs tend to be used as the last in a combination of two or more verbs, especially those which naturally refer to the result of the situation indicated by the preceding verb. Whenever the verb ‘sound, name’(vt) expresses the meaning ‘to sound’(vt), it is always either preceded by an action verb specifically indicating how the sound is produced, e.g. (17) to (19), or preceded by (ACT), e.g. (20). 17

    Dvyeng55dvyeng55 bat1 bell beat Ring (SG) the bell.

    mving31 gvan31-aq1. sound/name(vt)(ipf) put.into*–SIM

    582

    CHAPTER FOURTEEN

    18

    Mi1-um31 bek1 mving31 fire–gun shoot sound/name(vt)(ipf) A gun sounded.

    gvat5 bue31. put.into P+I

    19

    Pyop1pyop1 ngvu31 [slurping] say Don’t slurp like that.

    mving55. sound/name(vt)

    20

    Lvoq5

    ke5-syuq5 PHB–drink

    mving55 zyang35 ka55-lvum11 ACT sound/name(vt) CD Q–lump dun31 lye31? press.into(ipf)/spear(GEN) also+I [cassette recorder] Which button is to make it play?

    When the verb ‘sound, name’(vt) is not directly preceded by other verbs, it will always express the other meaning ‘to name’(vt). 21

    Me1-yam35-eq1 mving55 (female)–(name)–AG/I sound/name(vt) It was Meyvam who gave [me] that name.

    bi54. give+FCT

    The verb ‘let go down’ is another example of my observation that Zaiwa causative verbs tend to be used as the last in a combination of two or more verbs, since the latter verb, apart from a marginal usage where it has the sense of ‘to lay eggs’, e.g. (22), is in fact only used as an aspectivising auxiliary after the main verb. In other cases, the verb ‘let go down’ is used either as an aspectiviser termed the downward aspectiviser, e.g. (23) and (24), or as an aspectiviser termed the onward aspectiviser, e.g. (25). These two functions of ‘let go down’ as aspectivisers are discussed in Section 12.10. 22

    23

    Ngvoq5-u55 kyo55 bird–egg let.go.down She has laid an egg.

    bue31. P+I

    Dvang55huq5 nvang11 kyo31 gvan31-aq1. (ipf) (ipf) stool/chair let.loose let.go.down put.into*–SIM Put down (SG) the stool.

    583

    CAUSATIVE AND DIRECTIVE VERBS

    24

    A1-lvo31 lang31 cyeq5 kyo31 gvan31-aq1. (ipf) (ipf) nom–picture pull/yank tear let.go.down put.into*–SIM Tear (SG) the picture/poster from the wall.

    25

    Me1-gvai55 r55 ge11 nang31 kum31 (female)–5th-sister OBJ TOP 2SG let.stay(ipf) 31 31 31 kyo dvo lye luq1? (ipf) (ipf) let.go.down place(vt) also+I Y/N Did you (SG) invite fifth sister to stay here?

    Zaiwa has some verbs that do not form part of a simplex-causative verbs pairs but which can have both a stative and a causative reading. These verbs appear to form part of simplex-causative verb pairs of which the other variant has become defunct. In a causative sense, the latter verbs tend to be used after the active involvement auxiliary verb , as illustrated by the following sentences.60, 61 In sentence (26), the verb ‘wrecked’ is used in an intransitive and passive sense as ‘be wrecked, be spoiled, go bad’, whereas in sentence (27) the same verb after (ACT) is used in the sense of ‘to wreck’.

    60 It is only in such cases that the involvement auxiliary verb forms periphrastic causative constructions, since it is only here that the latter specifies the verb after it as a causative. 61 The case of the verb ‘tear’ is more special, since apart from its regular

    meaning ‘to tear off little pieces, to peel’, e.g. (1), it also has a periphrastic use, indicating the intransitive state of ‘be tiny, to consist of only a tiny little piece’, e.g. (2).

    1 2

    Mau11sau11 le1-dvong55-zo11 zyeq1 byuq1 paper/book one–patch–child broken lose There’s a piece missing from this paper/book. Yvang11 myoq1-dong11 cyeq5 3SG eye–(have)hole tear He has a curiously small face.

    bue31. P+I

    dik1 r55. extreme PE

    The verb ‘tear’ forms part of a simplex-causative verb pair together with the simplex ‘broken, miss parts’, e.g. (3).

    3

    Mau11sau11 le1-dvong55-zo11 lvoq5 cyeq5 paper/book one–patch–child ACT tear I have torn off a piece of the paper/book. [by accident]

    am55

    bue31.

    PFM

    P+I

    584

    CHAPTER FOURTEEN

    26

    Si11 hi55-syam11 tyen31 byuq1 bue31. (ipf) fruit this–ball wrecked lose P+I This piece of fruit is spoilt. [because there are bugs in it]

    27

    Nang31 lvoq5

    tyen11 2SG ACT wrecked You (SG) will wreck it.

    ra31. need+I

    In a similar way, the verb ‘wet’ in sentence (28) is used in an intransitive and passive sense of ‘to be wet’, whereas in sentence (29) the same verb after (ACT) is used in the sense of ‘to make wet’. 28

    29

    Mue31-bu11 dvyeq5 a1-si31 wrap–clothes wet nom–still+I Are the clothes still wet? Mi1-gung31 ke5-lvoq5 earth–body PHB–ACT Don’t make the floor wet.

    luq1? Y/N

    dvyeq5. wet

    In a similar fashion, in sentence (30) the verb ‘dent, dented’ is used in the intransitive and passive sense of ‘to be dented’, whereas in sentence (31) the same verb after (ACT) is used in the sense of ‘to dent’. 30

    31

    Gom35 zvyop5 mug chip/chipped The mug is chipped.

    byuq1 lose

    Gom35 lvoq5 zvyop5 mug ACT chip/chipped Someone chipped the mug.

    bue31. P+I

    am55

    bue31.

    PFM

    P+I

    Whenever the verb ‘let loose’ is used after a main verb, it functions as the Zaiwa commissive auxiliary, expressing a specific voice category, viz. that the subject passively allows the object to do something or enter a certain state. This category thus differs from the active involvement auxiliary in several ways. One difference

    585

    CAUSATIVE AND DIRECTIVE VERBS

    is that the active involvement auxiliary is used before the main verb, and ‘let loose’ is used as the commissive auxiliary after it. The main difference between the two is that the active involvement auxiliary indicates that the object performs a certain situation by some active involvement of the subject, whereas the commissive auxiliary ‘let (loose)’ conveys a more passive meaning, indicating that the object performs a certain situation because the subject says so or because the subject does not intervene. 32

    Le1-king11-zo11 zvu31 nvang31 one–halt/rest–child boil/rise let.loose Let’s (DU) keep it boiling for a while.

    33

    Yvang11

    14.4

    SIMPLEX-DIRECTIVE VERB PAIRS

    si1-gvoq1. still–DIE

    a1-gvam31 gvut5 zyang35 (ipf) 3SG NEG–want.to do CD 5 5 31 ke -gvut nvang . PHB–do let.loose If he is not willing to do it, then don’t let him do it.

    In a few verb pairs listed in the Tables 14.1 and 14.2, aspiration or creaky phonation do not indicate causativity but rather directivity.62 Such is the case with the verb pair ‘pull, yank’ vs. ‘hang’. Whereas ‘pull, yank’ is clearly a transitive action verb, e.g. (34), the meaning of the verb ‘hang’ is stative. This is illustrated by sentence (35), where ‘hang’ expresses that the object in question is put in a hanging state, whereby it will start to get stretched or dry up as a result of that situation. 34

    Bu11 ngvyung31 byuq1 (ipf) clothes shrink lose 35 31 1 zyen gvan -aq . stretch put.into*–SIM

    bue31, P+I

    lang31 pull/yank(ipf)

    62 The simplex-directive verb pair ngap1 ‘complete (vi)’ vs. ngvaq5 ‘give all (vt)’

    is exceptional for the final plosive of the causative variant is reduced to /q/.

    586

    CHAPTER FOURTEEN

    The clothes have shrunk, stretch (SG) them out. 35

    Nang31

    bu11 lvang11 bue31 2SG clothes hang P+I Did you (SG) hang the clothes?

    luq1? Y/N

    Similar distinctions exist between the verb pair ‘press into(vt), spear(N)’ vs. ‘point(vt)’, i.e. ‘let some object press in a certain direction’, and possibly also between ‘shoot’ vs. ‘kick’, i.e. ‘let one’s foot shoot in the direction of something’. Sentence (36) illustrates the use of the morpheme ‘press into(vt), spear(N)’ which can be used both as a verb and a noun. The verb ‘point(vt)’ is the directive variant of the former, since it expresses ‘let some object press in a certain direction’, e.g. (37). 36

    Muk1 dun31 kyop5 cake/cookies press.into(ipf)/spear(GEN) break.into.pieces(vt) am55 bue31. PFM

    P+I

    The cake has been pressed into pieces. 37

    Kyo31 dvun31 sit5 raq5. (ipf) road point(vt) show VO Show me which direction, please.

    Sentence (38) illustrates the use of the verb ‘shoot’. The verb ‘kick’ is the directive variant of the former, since it expresses ‘let one’s foot shoot in the direction of something’, e.g. (39). 38

    Nang31 mi1-um31 rup5 bek1 lye31 luq1? 2SG fire–gun dare shoot also+I Y/N Do you (SG) dare to shoot a gun?

    39

    Bo11lung31 bvek5 ye11 lye31. (ipf) ball kick go(away/down) also+I I’m going to play football.

    Another type of case is the verb pair ‘be missing a part or stretch of something’ vs. ‘interrupt’(V), ‘separate

    587

    CAUSATIVE AND DIRECTIVE VERBS

    stretch’(N). The morpheme ‘be missing a part or stretch of something’ is an adjective, as illustrated by sentences (40) and (41), where it is used right after a noun. Sentence (41) illustrates that the last ‘be missing a part or stretch of something’ in a sequence of two verbs can also be used as a transitive verb. The morpheme ‘interrupt’ either is used as an aspectivising auxiliary verb termed the interruptive aspectiviser, expressing that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb is being interrupted, e.g. (42), or as a noun indicating ‘a separate stretch of something’, ‘half end, stump of’, e.g. pi1dum11 hu55-dvum55 (waist above-interrupt) ‘the upper part of the body’. 63 40

    Yvang11 ki31-dum35 ma54 ngvut5 lye31. 3SG leg/foot–missing.a.stretch LOC+FCT be also+I He lacks part of his leg.

    41

    U1-dum35 dum35 am55 ra31. head–missing.a.stretch missing.a.stretch PFM need+I I need to have a lot of my hair cut off.

    42

    Ngo31 zang11 zo31 dvum31 dvo31 (ipf) (ipf) 1SG rice/food eat interrupt place(vt)(ipf) I interrupted my meal.

    lye31. also+I

    63 Section 9.34 has discussed the nominal use of this morpheme as follows. In nominal use, the morpheme ‘interrupt’ expresses ‘separate stretch of something’, ‘half end, stump of’ and can be used after another noun e.g. (i) and (ii), or after a pronominal prefix like a measure noun, e.g. (iii) and (iv). In the two latter noun phrases, the word ‘waist’ can also be omitted. The morpheme ‘interrupt’ can also be used after a numeral, e.g. (v) and (1).

    i

    syam31-dvum55

    (knife-interrupt)

    ‘broken knife’

    ii

    ngvya55-dvum55

    (tobacco-interrupt)

    ‘butt/stub’

    1

    11

    1

    11

    iii pi dum iv pi dum v

    1

    1

    35

    55

    mvo -dvum 55

    hu -dvum 1

    mi -zo le -dvum

    55

    55

    55

    (waist below-interrupt) ‘the lower part of the body’ (waist above-interrupt) ‘the upper part of the body’

    (fire-burning.firewood one-interrupt) ‘a burning stump of wood’ Le1-dvum55 ze11 gyo31 gvat5 wu35 syang55. one–interrupt only hear/smell(ipf) put.into look JUS Let’s (ND.IN) listen to only one piece [of recording].

    588

    CHAPTER FOURTEEN

    Another simplex-directive verb pair is ‘lead, connect’ (vide Section 9.15) vs. the auxiliary verb (clearly), in the context of writing or making footprints. The verb (clearly) is an auxiliary verb expressing that the action indicated by the preceding verb is performed in a distinctive way, such as when writing or making footprints. This is illustrated by the two following pairs of sentences. 43

    Bvong55dvin55 a1-dong31 loq1 . pen NEG–lead/connect no.more My pen doesn’t work anymore.

    44

    Bvong55dvin55-si11 a1-bo31 loq1, pen–drug NEG–contain no.more a1-wo35 gva31 dvong31 loq1. (ipf) NEG–have write clearly no.more There’s no more ink, I can’t write clearly anymore.

    45

    Le1-ko31 ze11 dong11 r55. (ipf) one–track only lead/connect PE There’s only one footprint. / There’s only one track.

    46

    Ki31-ko31 nang31 dvong11 wu35-aq5. leg/foot–track tread(ipf) clearly(ipf) look–SIM Tread firmly (SG) so that your footprints are easy to see.

    14.5

    THE VERB PAIR ‘GO UP’ VS. ‘GET UP’

    The verb pair ‘go up’ vs. ‘get up’ holds between a simplex-directive verb pair and a simplex-directive verb pair, since the meaning of the latter creaky variant bears elements of both categories. In order to illustrate this, this section discusses the use of these two verbs in more detail. I shall also discuss the use of ‘get up’ as an aspectivising auxiliary verb ‘up’. It is not clear yet whether these two verbs share the same etymon with the aspirated form ‘come out, above’. Section 9.18.6 discusses the morpheme ‘come out, above’ and its various functions.

    CAUSATIVE AND DIRECTIVE VERBS

    589

    When the verbs ‘go up’ and ‘get up’ are used in a transitive way, both refer to the process of going up or getting up, the difference between the two being that ‘go up’ is atelic and ‘get up’ is telic. The latter verb ‘get up’ is telic since it specifically refers to the completion of the situation. The atelic ‘go up’ does not refer to the completion of the situation and can even refer to certain states, especially when used in an intransitive way. In the two following sentences, ‘go up’ expresses the state of being ‘out of bed’. 47

    Yvup5 gu54 dum11 doq1 sleep PART+FCT again go.up I had gone to bed, but got up again.

    48

    Le1-dvu31 r55 nvau31 doq1 (ipf) (male)–4th-brother OBJ wake.up(vt) go.up gvan31-aq1. put.into*–SIM Wake up (SG) fourth brother.

    lye31. also+I

    The verb ‘go up’ is also used in an intransitive and stative way when it refers to the age of going to school. 49

    Yvang11 zyong11 a1-doq1 siq1. 3SG school NEG–go.up still He/she doesn’t go to school yet.

    Now I shall compare the meanings of ‘go up’ and ‘get up’, focussing on their atelic and telic meanings respectively. Here I shall only use transitive clauses since the latter is only used in a transitive way. Both verbs can be used in combination with the noun ‘mountain, hill’. In such combinations, the verb ‘go up’ refers to the process of going up the hill, e.g. (50), whereas ‘get up’ refers to getting uphill, from the viewpoint of its completion, e.g. (51) and (52).

    590

    CHAPTER FOURTEEN

    50

    Bum31 doq1 lye31. heap(vt/N) go.up also+I I’m climbing the mountain.

    51

    Naq1-ma35 bum31 dvoq5 syang55 tomorrow–LOC heap(vt/N) get.up JUS Let’s (ND.IN) go up the hill tomorrow, okay?

    52

    Nang31 2SG

    bum31 heap(vt/N)

    he5-dvoq5 PHB–get.up

    loq1-o31. no.more–HIGH+I Don’t (SG) go up the hill anymore.

    dvi31. CX+I

    lo35 go(back/up)

    The verb ‘go up’ is also used in combination with the noun se5-gam31 (tree-tree(B)) ‘tree’ in the sense of climbing trees. 53

    Ngo31 wam11 r55, se5-gam31 a1-rup5 doq1. (ipf) 1SG weak/fear PE tree–tree(B) NEG–dare go.up It makes me weak at the thought. I don’t dare to climb trees.

    • further uses of the verb ‘get up’ In the following sentence, the verb ‘get up’ is used as the only verb of the predicate. 54

    Ra35-ruen11 level(vi)–one.by.one Everybody get up.

    dvoq5 gveq5. get.up PLIM

    The verb ‘get up’ is also used in the expression yvup5-dvoq5 (sleep-get up) ‘rise, get up’. 55

    56

    Yvup5-dvoq5 dvyeng55dvyeng55 sleep–get.up bell The bell for getting up has sounded. Yvup5-dvoq5 a1-king55 sleep–get.up nom–time It’s time to get up.

    bat1 beat

    zye35 bue31. arrive P+I

    bue31. P+I

    CAUSATIVE AND DIRECTIVE VERBS

    591

    The verb ‘get up’ can also be used before the verbs ‘stand’ and ‘sit’, where it refers to standing up or getting in an upright position. 57

    Dvoq5 yam11-aq1. get.up stand*–SIM Stand up (SG) .

    58

    Pot5 gvut5 dvoq5 [sudden.move] do get.up Get the hell up (SG).

    zung31-aq1. sit–SIM

    The verb ‘get up’ can also express ‘to get harsh’ with reference to winds and storms, as in the fixed expression lai31 dvoq5 (wind get.up) ‘(wind) rise’. 59

    Lai31 dvoq5 bue31, mi11 le1go11 gvut5 gveq5. wind get.up P+I fire well do PLIM The wind is kicking up, be (PL) careful with fire.

    60

    Lai31 dvoq5 yvam31 wang31 bue31. wind get.up time.for enter P+I It’s autumn. / (Lit.:) It’s the time of the winds to kick up.

    The verb ‘get up’ is also used in another fixed expression, after the noun loq1-bu11 (hand/arm-callus) ‘callus of the hand’. 61

    Loq1-bu11 dvoq5 r55. hand/arm–callus get.up PE I have got callus.

    In another fixed expression, the verb ‘get up’ is also used in after another noun sin11 ‘louse’, indicating the notion ‘to infect someone with lice’. 62

    Sin11 ke5-dvoq5 bi11-o55 louse PHB–get.up give–HIGH Don’t infect me with your lice!

    dvyo31. DOM+I

    592

    CHAPTER FOURTEEN

    In yet another fixed expression, the verb ‘get up’ can also express ‘to hatch’ of eggs. 63

    Woq1-zo11 dvoq5 ra55. chicken–child get.up PE The chicken’s eggs are hatching.

    • the verb ‘get up’ as an aspectivising auxiliary verb ‘up’ In line with the causative use in the above sentence, the verb ‘get up’ can also be used as an aspectiviser ‘up’, expressing that the subject performs the action indicated by the preceding main verb in a way that the object is placed in a higher position, as illustrated by sentences (64) to (66). In this use, the verb ‘get up’ clearly expresses both a telic and a causative meaning. The same counts for the first sentence, where ‘get up’ is still a main verb, bearing the causative meaning ‘put into upright position’. The form dvu11 (respond/upright(ipf)) is an adverb that expresses ‘upright’. 64

    Zi1syang31 lyeng31 si31 bue31, dvu11 (ipf) child fall(vi) die P+I respond/upright(ipf) 31 1 dvo -aq . get.up*–SIM The child has had a nasty fall, help (SG) her to get up.

    65

    Guq1 dvoq5 gvan31-aq1. pick.up get.up put.into*–SIM Pick (SG) it up.

    66

    Waq1 dvoq5 bi11 raq5. lift get.up give VO Heave it up for me, please.

    14.6 THE DIACHRONIC BACKGROUND OF THE SIMPLEX-CAUSATIVE AND SIMPLEX-DIRECTIVE DISTINCTIONS IN ZAIWA

    Scholars have long observed that Proto-Tibeto-Burman must have had a regular process of forming causative verbs from ‘simplex’ ones, since remnants of this process can be found in many Tibeto-Burman

    CAUSATIVE AND DIRECTIVE VERBS

    593

    languages, not only in Lolo-Burmese but also in languages such as Tibetan and Jingpo. According to Matisoff (1970: 16-20 - 1982: 32, 520), in Lolo-Burmese glottalisation by an initial *ʔ- lies at the base of the simplex-causative distinction, whereas the latter derives from an older sibilant prefix, like Tibetan s- and Jingpo šə -. Zaiwa shares many characteristics with the neighbouring Jingpo language. Jingpo also has many simplex-causative verb pairs, even though genetically these two languages are not closely related. The Jingpo causative constructions have been described by Dai & Xu (1992: 70-81) and Dai (1990: 343-58). It is interesting to note that Zaiwa has some loanwords from Jingpo that appear to have developed creaky causative variants, e.g. ‘level’(vt) and ‘level’(vi). Another verb pair that appears to be loaned, judging by their initial loan phoneme /r/, is ‘limp’ vs. ‘sprain’. However, the original or cognate forms of the two latter verb pairs in Jingpo are not to be found in the Jingpo dictionary of Xu et al. (1983). Another interesting case is the Zaiwa verb pair ‘interfere, participate’ vs. ‘allow to participate’, where Jingpo also has two different original forms, neither of which is creaky but which differ in tone in a parallel way, viz. lom [lom31] ‘participate’ and lom [lom55] ‘participate, (names) include, meet up with’ (Xu et al. 1983: 432). It is not clear why in Zaiwa there are some causative verb variants which are aspirated instead of creaky. Possibly, the aspirated causatives, listed in Table 14.1, represent an older process of causativisation, before the creaky causatives were formed. Important to note here is that in Zaiwa creaky voice phonation does not occur on voiceless fricative initials, i.e. /s/ or /h/ and the rare loan phoneme /f/, as well as on initials that are aspirated. There are a few irregular verb pairs that are not listed in the Tables 14.1 or 14.2 but which I shall discuss here, and which shed some light on the topic. Besides the possible view that the aspirated causatives in Zaiwa may represent an older group of causatives, it also seems plausible that at some early stage Zaiwa causatives may derive from an *s- prefix or an *h- prefix or from a fricative prefix intermediate between the two, perhaps a lateral fricative. Before an */u/ or */w/, this fricative may have become */h/, whereas before other phonemes this may have become

    594

    CHAPTER FOURTEEN

    */s/ or directly led to creaky voice. The aspirated causatives of modern Zaiwa, listed in Table 14.1, could have been the only exceptions to the latter change, for the reason that these would have become homophonous to other words if not becoming aspirated. One verb pair which points in the direction of an *s- prefix underlying causatives in Zaiwa is ‘sleep’, e.g. (67) vs. ‘put to sleep’, e.g. (68). Sentence (69) illustrates both verbs. The verb ‘sleep’, however, appears either to be a loan from Jingpo or to be cognate to Jingpo yup ‘sleep’ (Xu et al. 1983: 901). Please note that Jingpo also has a causative variant shayup ‘put to sleep’ (Xu et al. 1983: 788). Moreover the Zaiwa verb ‘sleep’ is exceptional in itself, given the fact that it is creaky, whereas simplex forms normally are non-aspirated and non-creaky. 67

    Nang31

    a1-yvup5 dvi31? 2SG NEG–sleep CX+I You (SG) weren’t sleeping, were you?

    68

    Zi1syang31 syup5 dvo31 lye31, (ipf) child put.to.sleep place(vt) also+I 5 11 55 ke -lu gvo . PHB–tease PL I’m putting the child to sleep, don’t (PL) tease her.

    69

    Yvang11 yvup5-mo35 a1-mvi55 siq1, a1-wo35 3SG sleep–AUG NEG–trap still NEG–have syup5 siq1. put.to.sleep still [about an infant] She is not yet in deep sleep, I can’t lay her down yet.

    Other verb pairs which perhaps more unambiguously suggest a *s- prefix at some stage of the language are the native verbs ‘go (away/down)’ vs. ‘pull’ (across the floor) and ‘take’ vs. ‘(too) fond of good food’. Also suggestive is the verb ‘grow’ and the noun ‘lattice frame for beanstalk’, i.e. the place to let beanstalks grow. Three verb pairs which particularly point in the direction of a possible velar *h- prefix underlying causatives in Zaiwa are

    CAUSATIVE AND DIRECTIVE VERBS

    595

    ‘carry, bring’ vs. ‘send’, e.g. (70) and (71) respectively, ‘wear, dress oneself’ vs. ‘dress, tuck in’(vt), e.g. (72) and (73) respectively, and ‘drunk’ vs. ‘ply with drink’, e.g. (74) and (75) respectively. Besides these, Cheng Mo (1956: 44) also mentioned another verb pair ‘enter’ vs. ‘load, put into’, e.g. (76) and (77) respectively, incorrectly recording that both of the two latter verbs had tone /31/. 70

    Tung31 wun31-aq1. bag carry/bring–SIM Carry (SG) your bag.

    71

    Si1gvyam55 i5-be1-hun11 gvan31-aq1. greetings go–help–send(ipf) put.into*–SIM Post (SG) that letter for me.

    72

    Bu11-mo35 wut1 no35 clothes–AUG wear/dress to You don’t need to wear a jacket.

    73

    Ha31, A5-nu11 hut5 lye35. where nom–mother dress/tuck.in(vt) come(away/down) Let Mummy dress you up.

    74

    A1-wut1 si1-luq1? NEG–drunk still–Y/N Are you drunk yet?

    75

    Le1-nong35 r55 i31-pue11 (male)–2nd-brother OBJ distilled–booze hut5-nva31 gvyom31-aq1. ply.with.drink–make.drunk(ipf) tuck.away*–SIM Ply (SG) second brother with liquor without rest.

    76

    Nang31

    wang31-aq1. 2SG enter– SIM Enter (SG).

    a1-ra11. NEG–need

    596

    CHAPTER FOURTEEN

    77

    Tang11 hang11-aq5 hoi11. firewood load/put.into–SIM INC Load the firewood. [onto the basket]

    14.7

    OTHER EXCEPTIONAL MORPHEME PAIRS

    There are only some irregularities in the tones in some special simplex-causatives and in just a few simplex-directive verb pairs of which both verbs end in nasals or final offglides. This may have been caused by Proto-Tibeto-Burman suffixes, such as the *-s, *-t or *-n suffixes proposed by Benedict (1972: 97-103) and others. The following simplex-causative verb pairs are exceptional, since the tones of the constituent variants are different. The two causative variants may originally have been marked by a suffix causing their high tone /55/. dan11 be scared ngau31 weep

    vs. vs.

    dvan55 ngvau55

    give someone a fright make someone weep

    The following triplet of verbs are irregular. Part of this irregularity could be explained by borrowing from Chinese, cf. Mandarin 扁 biǎn ‘flat’. The simplex verb expresses ‘flat’ and as yet is only attested in connection to feet or body shapes. This verb appears to have two different causative variants, the creaky voice of which may indicate some notion of performing an action on purpose, viz. ‘flatten, dent(vt)’ (not on purpose) and indicating (1) vt. ‘flatten into slices’ (on purpose), (2) adj. ‘flat’. Both verbs of another simplex-causative verb pair ‘interfere, participate’ vs. ‘allow to participate’ also differ in tones, but this may be the result of indirect loaning from Jingpo. Jingpo also has two different original forms, neither of which is creaky but which differ in tone in a parallel way, viz. lom [lom31] ‘participate’ and lom [lom55] ‘participate, (names) include, meet upon’ (Xu et al. 1983: 432). The tones of the simplex-causative verb pair ‘fixed’ vs. ‘move to one place’ differ for unknown reasons. None of the two can be used as a main verb, whereas both are used as an

    CAUSATIVE AND DIRECTIVE VERBS

    597

    aspectivising auxiliary verb after the main verb, as discussed in Section 15.31. There are also some interesting Zaiwa noun-verb pairs which differ in tone for unknown reasons: •







    The noun ‘bridge’ and the verb ‘put up, erect’ show the same tone contrast as some of the verb pairs shown above. The noun ‘powder’ and the verb ‘pulverise’ show the same contrast between modal and creaky voice as that which regularly marks the simplex-causative verb pairs. Besides this pair of forms, there is a special noun ‘flour’ in tone /35/. The causative verb ‘sound, name’ (vt), discussed in Section 14.3, is related to two different nouns, cf. ‘name’ and ‘language’. The difference between ‘heap’(vi/N) and ‘heap’(vt/N) may be explained by the first being a native Zaiwa word and the latter being a loan, cf. Jingpo bum [pum31] 1) ‘mountain’ 2) ‘pile up’. Please note that Jingpo also has a word bum [pum55] ‘swollen’ (Xu et al. 1983: 71).

    It is also worth noting that in the case of the special verb pair ‘bald, naked’ vs. (trees) ‘bare’, the latter variant may express middle voice instead of causativity.

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    15.1

    INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

    Auxiliary verbs are normally verbs that can be used as a main verb and also after a main verb, whereby its meaning is used in a periphrastic way, adding a specific notion to the situation indicated by the main verb. Apart from such verbs, there are also verbs that are always used as auxiliary verbs, unless they are the only verb in the predicate. There is also a small group of auxiliary verbs which are never used as main verbs and always as auxiliary verbs. The latter are nevertheless verbs and not just suffixes, since they can be marked by the same grammatical categories as other verbs, e.g. by the performative aspectiviser (vide Section 15.2) and by the aspectiviser of vehemence dam54 (VEH+FCT) (vide Section 15.8). This chapter discusses all auxiliary verbs not already discussed in previous chapters. The following auxiliary verbs have already been discussed, and will therefore not be discussed here. In Chapter Nine on nominal morphology: Subsection 9.18.6: the morpheme ‘come out, above’ In Chapter 12 on motion verbs: Section 12.8 The principal motion verbs used as auxiliary verbs Section 12.9 The verb ‘let fly, fling’ as the aspectiviser ‘severe’ Section 12.10 The verbs ‘go down’ and ‘let go down’ as the downward and onward aspectivisers Section 12.11 The verb ‘(turn) round’ as the all-around aspectiviser Section 12.12 The aspectiviser ‘around’ Section 12.13 The morpheme as the aspectiviser

    600

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    In Chapter 11 Section 11.3

    ‘wherever’ On verba sentiendi et dicendi and other verbs referring to sensations and speech: ‘talk’ as the well-aware aspectiviser

    In the discussion of the above auxiliary verbs, the term ‘aspectiviser’ has already been used. Most of the auxiliary verbs because of their specific meanings trigger the marking of the preceding main verb by the imperfective marker . This phenomenon was discussed in Section 4.7 on the tonal morpheme of the imperfective. The aspectivisers trigger the imperfective marker on the preceding main verbs, unifying this group of verbs as the Zaiwa aspectivisers, whereby the situation indicated by the preceding main verb always forms the temporal background to the situations indicated by the aspectiviser, since the function and meaning of the aspectivisers is to specify the way in which the situations indicated by the preceding main verbs occur, as well as to focus on the fact that these situations take place, i.e. to express or specify a certain Aktionsart. For quite a few aspectivisers there is an additional reason for triggering the imperfective marker on the preceding verb, which is that these aspectivisers specifically express that the situations indicated by the main verbs are processes or states. This chapter discusses the following auxiliaries.64 15.2 The performative aspectiviser (PFM) 15.3 The morpheme ‘heap (vt/N)’ as a verb, a noun and an aspectiviser 15.4 The morpheme ‘be awake, miss’ as a main verb, an adverb and an aspectiviser 64 Another auxiliary verb is ‘be fed up / bored with / sick of doing V’.

    1 2

    Syo11 zo31 meat eat(ipf) I’m sick of meat.

    ngeng35 fed.up

    bue31. P+I

    Nang31

    luq1?

    2SG

    bau35 a1-ngi11 ngeng35 (ipf) just NEG–be.there(anim) fed.up Aren’t / weren’t you fed up with being alone?

    Y/N

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15 15.16 15.17 15.18 15.19 15.20 15.21 15.22 15.23 15.24 15.25 15.26 15.27 15.28

    601

    The morpheme ‘get rid of’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser The verb ‘to give’ as a main verb and as the benefactive /malefactive auxiliary verb The verb ‘lose’ as a main verb and as the aspectiviser of change The aspectiviser of vehemence dam54 (VEH+FCT) The verb ‘place’(vt) as a main verb and as the progressive aspectiviser The verb ‘desolate’ as an aspectiviser The morpheme ‘interrupt’ as the interruptive aspectiviser The verb (extreme) ‘go to the limit’ The verb ‘put into’ as a main verb and as the effective aspectiviser The verb ‘help’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser The verb ‘tuck away, polish off’ as the non-stop aspectiviser The verb ‘take off, pluck’ as the aspectiviser ‘to no purpose’ The recreational aspectiviser ‘play’ The verb ‘wait’ as a main verb and as the expectant auxiliary The reciprocal aspectiviser (reciprocal) The verb ‘cheat, fool’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser The verb ‘let loose’ as a main verb and as the commissive auxiliary The modal auxiliary ‘feel like’ The morpheme ‘need’ in various functions The verbs ‘probably’ and ‘ought, address’ The verb ‘die’ as a main verb and as the tormentative aspectiviser The verb ‘do to the utmost’ as an aspectiviser The verb ‘look’ as a main verb and as the probative auxiliary The auxiliary ‘to start’

    602

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    15.32 15.32

    The aspectiviser ‘finish’ The verb ‘take’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser The aspectivisers ‘fixed’ and ‘move to one place’ The verbs ‘eat’ and ‘tasty’ as auxiliaries The verb ‘try’ as an aspectiviser

    15.2

    THE PERFORMATIVE ASPECTIVISER (PFM)

    15.29 15.30 15.31

    Even though it is never used as a main verb, the performative aspectiviser is clearly a verb, since it can be marked by the imperfective marker and since it can be followed by other auxiliaries. Both situations obtain in the following example. 1

    A1ge1di31! dum11 dvo31mvi31 am31 dvo11 (ipf) (self-doubt) again forget(ipf) PFM place(vt) 1 31 31 bue ge -lo . P+I TOP–no.more+I How foolish of me, I’ve forgotten it again!

    The performative aspectiviser (PFM) emphasises the fact that some situation, whether it be a command, a promise, a task, or some other kind of action, is being carried into effect. Therefore, this aspectiviser can be used in all kinds of contexts, such as when the situation should not take place or that its taking place is not in keeping with the speaker’s or listener’s expectations or else that it is important that it take place. In the context of sentence (1) above, the person in the context has forgotten something, whereas (PFM) emphasises the fact that the situation of forgetting has taken place. The context can also be that the person performed the situation even though he previously did not dare to do so. 2

    Ngo31 a1-rup5 1SG NEG–dare am55 bue31. PFM

    dai11 speak

    gu54 PART+FCT

    dai31 speak(ipf)

    P+I

    I have talked about what I didn’t dare to discuss before.

    603

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    Whereas the verb ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser emphasises the effect which is achieved by a certain action, the performative aspectiviser (PFM) emphasises the fact that this action has been performed. Sentence (3) contains ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser and sentence (4) contains the performative aspectiviser . 3

    De1wui31 dving31 gvat5 (ipf) deluge collect.water/flood(vt) put.into I will flood [you all] in a deluge!

    ra31-o55! need+I–HIGH

    and the response: 4 Gau11-zo11 Le1wui31 ngvu25 nine–child (name) say+FCT dving31 am55-aq5. collect.water/flood(vt)(ipf) PFM–SIM The nine Lewui brothers said: “Flood (SG) us, then.” The following examples further illustrate the use of the performative aspectiviser . 5

    Ngo31 zyong11 ye11 byuq1 zyang35 (ipf) 1SG school go(away/down) lose CD 31 1 31 55 1 31 yvang -eq zo am be -ra . 3SG#–AG/I eat(ipf) PFM P–need+I When I would go to school, he would eat it on the sly.

    6

    A1man31 hau55-hun31 ngo31 yvup5 am55 bue31. last.night the/that–time 1SG sleep PFM P+I Last night by that time I had gone to bed already.

    7

    Zum31-go35 sat5 am55 bue31. consort–dance kill PFM P+I The Harmony dance has been spoilt.

    8

    Yvang11 r55 3SG

    OBJ

    am54se5lai35 PFM+FCT

    nga35 1PO

    dik1 pity

    sau55-hai11 shoe–shoe bue31. extreme P+I

    bi31 give(ipf)

    604

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    It’s still a pity that I gave away my shoes to her. 9

    Se5-poq5-gom35 lvoq5 mvuq5 tree–leaf–mug ACT let.tumble I [inadvertently] dropped the tea mug.

    am55

    bue31.

    PFM

    P+I

    10

    Naq1-ma35 waq1 am31 a1-gvo31 ga31. (ipf) tomorrow–LOC lift PFM nom–PL+I perceive+I Tomorrow they will carry him away. [the dead person]

    11

    Ne1-zo11 bya35 cattle–child miscarry The calf came out stillborn.

    am55

    bue31.

    PFM

    P+I

    12

    Pe5-zvang11 rut1 gvut5 belt–(wear).trousers [jerk/tear] do kyo31 am55 bi11-aq5. let.go.down(ipf) PFM give–SIM Pull down (SG) his trousers in one go.

    lang31 pull/yank(ipf)

    13

    Nang31 ding11sang55 syoq5 am54 2SG deliberately pour PFM+FCT Did you (SG) spill the water deliberately?

    luq1?

    14

    Wui31-zye31-eq1 water–exceed#–AG/I bue31.

    Y/N

    um31 am55 (ipf) flood/cover.profoundly PFM

    P+I

    These places have been inundated by the flood. In case of the verb ‘to dry’ (vt), the performative aspectiviser is used to distinguish between two possible uses of this verb before the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I). When (PFM) is not used, reference is made to a state of being dried, but when (PFM) is used, reference is made to the process of drying as performed by some person. For example, sentence (15) is ungrammatical since it is perceived as simultaneously referring to an active process performed by someone and to a state of being dried. Instead of this ungrammatical situation, there should

    605

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    either be no subject referring to the main actant, in which case the state of being dried is specifically referred to, e.g. (16), or the clause should contain the performative aspectiviser , in which case the process of drying is specifically denoted, e.g. (17). Sentence (18) illustrates that in the latter case the subject referring to the main actant of the process of drying can still be omitted. 15 *

    Ngo31

    syo11 gvyuq5 1SG flesh dehydrate (ungrammatical)

    16

    Syo11 gvyuq5 bue31. flesh dehydrate P+I The meat is dried.

    17

    Ngo31

    18

    syo11 gvyuq5 1SG flesh dehydrate I’ve dried the meat.

    bue31. P+I

    am55

    bue31.

    PFM

    P+I

    Syo11 gvyuq5 am55 flesh dehydrate PFM The meat has been dried.

    bue31. P+I

    The performative aspectiviser is very often used before the singular imperative clause marker (SIM). This combination am55-aq5 (PFM-SIM) sounds quite similar to the combination aq5 ma1 or aq1 ma11 (SIM ROUS), both containing the singular imperative clause marker and the rousing suffix . This is illustrated by sentence (19), containing the singular imperative clause marker, and sentences (20) and (21), containing the rousing suffix. The latter attitude marker is used here for spurring the addressee to perform the action in the context, with additional notions of informality and non-committal attitude. 19

    Sun11 ngvyo31 veg/dish mix(ipf) Mix (SG) the dish.

    am55-aq5. PFM–SIM

    606 20

    21

    15.3

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    Mue31-bu11 mi11 me55 ngvin55-aq5 wrap–clothes fire LOC roast2–SIM Hold (SG) the clothes near the fire [to dry]. Dang11 ngyo31-aq1 words talk–SIM Say (SG) something.

    ma11. ROUS

    ma11. ROUS

    THE MORPHEME ‘HEAP (VT/N)’ AS A VERB, A NOUN AND AN ASPECTIVISER

    The Zaiwa morpheme ‘heap (vt/N)’ can be used both as a verb and as a noun, and could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. Jingpo bum, with the same meanings (Xu et al. 1983: 71). When used as a verb, the Zaiwa morpheme ‘heap (vt/N)’ expresses ‘heap up, pile up’, as a transitive action. 22

    23

    Waq1 bum11 lift heap(vt/N)(ipf) Heap/pile (PL) it up.

    dvo11 place(vt)

    gveq5. PLIM

    Tang11 bum11 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) firewood heap(vt/N) place(vt) also+I We are heaping up/piling up firewood.

    When used as a noun, the morpheme ‘heap (vt/N)’ expresses ‘mountain, hill’, e.g. bum31-yo31 (heap.up/mountain.land) ‘hill plot’, Loi11lung35-bum31 (Loilung-heap(vt/N)) ‘Loilung hill’, or also ‘a lot’ or ‘lots’, in the expression le1-bum31-mo35 (one-heap(vt/N)-AUG). 24

    Si1-pik5 le1-bum31-mo35 fruit–pungent one–heap(vt/N)–AUG I’ve put in a lot of chillies.

    gvat5-n55. put.into–FCT

    Zaiwa also has another morpheme ‘heap (vi/N)’ which, unlike ‘heap (vt/N)’, appears to be indigenous, since it does not appear in Jingpo dictionaries. Like ‘heap (vt/N)’, the morpheme ‘heap (vi/N)’ can also be used both as a verb and

    607

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    as a noun. When used as a verb, it expresses ‘heap up, pile up’, as an intransitive process occurring by itself. When used as a noun, the morpheme ‘heap (vi/N)’ expresses ‘heap’, i.e. the result of the intransitive process of heaping up. In the following example, the morpheme ‘heap (vi/N)’ is used both as a noun and as a verb. 25

    Mi1-zvue11 bum35 bum35 dvo31 r55. (ipf) earth–soil heap(vi/N) heap(vi/N) place(vt) PE A heap of earth is piling up.

    In the following sentence, the two morphemes ‘heap (vi/N), as a noun, and ‘heap (vt/N)’ are used together, in order to further illustrate the difference in form and meaning between them. 26

    Ki1-bum35 waq1 bum31-aq1. faeces–heap(vi/N) lift heap(vt/N)–SIM Put together (SG) these heaps of shit/dung [that have been piling up].

    The morpheme ‘heap (vt/N)’ can also be used as an aspectivising auxiliary verb, expressing that the situation which is indicated by the preceding main verb occurs in a massive way, resulting in many of the entities in question. 27

    Mi1-zvue11 bum35 bum11 r55. (ipf) earth–soil heap(vi/N) heap(vt/N) PE Many piles of earth have formed themselves.

    28

    A1hui31 ge11 ang11-noq5 ngai35 bum31 bue31. now TOP petiole–black abundant heap(vt/N) P+I Now there is plenty of black mustard.

    29

    A1kui31 ge11 moq1toq1 ban11 now TOP motorcycle use.up(ipf) 31 31 bum bue . heap(vt/N) P+I Nowadays so many people have motorcycles.

    wo35 have

    608

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    30

    Zai11wa31 wui31 mu35 dat1 zui11 Zaiwa generation work(N) able touch/work(V) lui31-eq1 yvum31 i1gvun11 doq1 in.this.way +I–AG/I house household go.up bum31 bue31. heap(vt/N) P+I Because we Zaiwa are hard-working, our living standard has risen significantly.

    31

    Hi31 ge1ro11 sam31mvi11 zyaq1 this between (common).cold rather bum11 a1-gvo31. (ipf) heap(vt/N) nom–PL+I These days many people have a cold.

    wang11 enter(ipf)

    32

    Ang11-ban35 ban35 bum11 petiole–sprout1 sprout1 heap(vt/N)(ipf) There are lots of black mustard sprouts.

    r55. PE

    33

    Si11 byau11-byau11 zui31 fruit bunch/string–bunch/string bear.fruit(ipf) 11 55 bum r . (ipf) heap(vt/N) PE The tree bears huge quantities of fruits.

    34

    Le1-meng54 nge1-noq1 dong11 one–world+FCT rat/mouse–black (have)hole gvyung31 tong31 bum11 r55. (ipf) (ipf) (ipf) dig/cut.holes pierce heap(vt/N) PE There are rat holes everywhere.

    15.4

    THE MORPHEME ‘BE AWAKE, MISS’ AS A MAIN VERB, AN ADVERB AND AN ASPECTIVISER

    The morpheme ‘be awake, miss’ can be used as a main verb, an adverb and an auxiliary verb. Zaiwa ‘be awake, miss’ as a main verb can both be used in intransitive and transistive ways. In intransitive use, it normally

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    609

    expresses ‘be awake’, often after vi. ‘sleep’, but also often on its own. 35

    Yvang11

    bun31 dvo31 r55. (ipf) (ipf) 3SG awake place(vt) PE She is awake.

    36

    A1-bun11. NEG–awake She is not awake.

    37

    Nang31 yvup5 bun11 bue31 2SG sleep awake P+I Are you (SG) awake?

    luq1? Y/N

    Replied by: 38 Bun11 bue31. awake P+I [Yes] I’m awake. When used as a transistive main verb, ‘be awake, miss’ expresses a range of notions such as ‘remember’, e.g. (39) and (40), and, after certain nouns, ‘feel’, e.g. (41) and (42), and ‘long for’, e.g. (43) and (44). 39

    A1-bun11 le1-luq1? NEG–awake no.more–Y/N Do you remember?

    40

    A1-bun11 loq1. NEG–awake no.more I can’t remember.

    41

    A1gvyu31 bun31 dik1 lye31. (ipf) merit awake extreme also+I I am so thankful for that.

    42

    Nang31 a1-ha11 2SG NEG–repent

    bun11 luq1? awake Y/N

    610

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    Do you (SG) feel guilt? 43

    44

    Nang31 yvum31 a1-bun11 2SG house NEG–awake Are you (SG) homesick? Yvum31 ma54 bang11 house LOC+FCT PNO I miss my family.

    luq1? Y/N

    r55

    bun31 (ipf) OBJ awake

    r55. PE

    The combination of the reflexive verb ‘think of something, reflect on something’ and ‘be awake, miss’ expresses notions like ‘(someone or something:) think of, reflect on, come up to one’s mind, keep in one’s mind, keep thinking of’. 45

    Mit1 bun11 bue31. think awake P+I It came up to my mind.

    46

    Mit1 bun31 dvo31 (ipf) think awake place(vt)(ipf) I’m thinking very much of you.

    lye31. also+I

    The morpheme ‘be awake, miss’ can also be used adverbially in negative clauses, where it expresses ‘forget to do V’. The adverb bun31 (awake(ipf)), as part of the construction a1-bun31 V (NEG-awake(ipf) V), expresses ‘forget to do V’. 47

    A1-bun31 mi31 wu35. (ipf) NEG–awake ask(ipf) look I forgot to try and ask it.

    48

    A1-bun31 mi11. (ipf) NEG–awake ask I forgot to ask.

    Finally, the meaning of the verb ‘be awake, miss’ can also be used periphrastically as an auxiliary verb expressing ‘consider to be V’.

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    611

    49

    Yvang55-moq1 ge11 nvye31 gu54 3PL–party TOP make.red/fry PART+FCT ngvam11 bun31 a1-gvo31, nga35-moq1 (ipf) tasty awake nom–PL+I 1PO–party a1-dye31 ze1-nvau31. NEG–too eat–feel.like They (ND.EX) consider it to be tasty when fried, whereas we (PL) do not like it very much that way.

    50

    Yvang55-moq1 noq1 zyang35-syeq1 zvyoi11 3PL–party black CD–au.contraire beautiful bun31 r55, pyu31 zyang35 a1-zvyoi11 bun11. (ipf) awake PE white CD NEG–beautiful awake They (PL) consider brown as beautiful and white as not beautiful.

    15.5

    THE MORPHEME ‘GET RID OF’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS AN ASPECTIVISER

    The verb ‘get rid of’ as a main verb expresses ‘shake off someone’. 51

    Byu31 hi31 r55 ge11 bvyam31 dvo11 syang55. man/woman this OBJ TOP rid.of(ipf) place(vt) JUS Let’s (ND.IN) shake this person off.

    52

    Mi1-wue11 r55 bvyam31 am55-aq5. wife–female OBJ rid.of(ipf) PFM–SIM Abandon your (SG) relation with that woman.

    53

    Din11 bvyam31 dvo11 ra31. (ipf) (ipf) run rid.of place(vt) need+I I’m going to leave you far behind when we run.

    The same verb ‘get rid of’ can also be used as an auxiliary verb, expressing that the action denoted by the preceding main verb is performed in order to get rid of a certain job and not to be bothered by it anymore.

    612

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    54

    Hau31 syuq5 bvyam55-aq5. the/that drink rid.of–SIM Drink (SG) this up.

    55

    Ngo31 gvam31 be1-zo31 bvyam31 lye31. 1SG want.to(ipf) help–eat(ipf) rid.of(ipf) also+I I’ll help finish this food.

    56

    Ngo31 be1-gvut5 bvyam55 lye35. 1SG help–do rid.of come(away/down) I’m willing to finish this job with you/them.

    57

    Sat5 bvyam31 dvo11 bue31. (ipf) kill rid.of place(vt) P+I I have extinguished the fire [behind me].

    15.6 THE VERB ‘TO GIVE’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS THE BENEFACTIVE/MALEFACTIVE AUXILIARY VERB

    The invariant meaning of the verb is ‘give’, and according to the context it can have both benefactive and malefactive connotations, especially when used as an auxiliary verb. In the following sentences, the verb ‘give’ is used as a main verb. Note that when used as a main verb, the verb ‘give’ can also bear the secondary meaning of ‘hand over, e.g. (61). 58

    59

    Ngo31

    r55

    ge1lu11 le1-zvui55 1SG OBJ sweets one–bit Give me a bit of your sweets [to eat]. Yvang11 r55 3SG

    OBJ

    bi11 give

    nga35

    sau55-hai11 bi31 (ipf) 1PO shoe–shoe give bue31.

    zo11 eat am54 PFM+FCT

    se5lai35 dik1 pity extreme P+I It’s still a pity that I gave away my shoes to her. 60

    Nga35-nvung55 1PO–1ND.IN

    ke5-mvyo55 Q–much(B)

    wo35-Ø have– FCT

    r11 also

    raq5. VO

    613

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    ke5-mvyo55 bi11 syang55. Q–much(B) give JUS Let’s (ND.IN) give whatever we have. 61

    Yau11 bue31, yau11 bue31, ke5-bi11 loq1. let.pass P+I let.pass P+I PHB–give no.more Let it pass, let it pass, you don’t have to hand it over anymore.

    Above I have stated that the verb ‘give’, apart from being used as a main verb, can also be used as a modal auxiliary verb after a transitive main verb, expressing ‘do something to someone’, i.e. with strong benefactive or malefactive connotations. Whether and to what extent ‘give’ bears benefactive or malefactive connotations depends on the context. 62

    Nung31-kung31

    me55

    gvin31

    bi11 upper.back–vault/ridge LOC scratch.against.itch give Scratch (SG) my upper back, please.

    63

    Gung31-du11 me55 i1-zvyam11 syoq5 body–being LOC water–water pour bi11 raq5. give VO Pour water over me, please.

    64

    Ngo31

    65

    Kum11 pong55 bi11 door open(vt) give I’ll open the door.

    66

    Nang31 le1go11 ya11 bi11 raq5. 2SG well cure give VO Cure (SG) me thoroughly please.

    67

    U1-sam31 head–hair.of.the.head

    raq5. VO

    gyun11 bathe(vt)

    gvut5 bi11 gve5-lye35. 1SG do give PL–come(away/down) I will do it for you (PL). lye35. come(away/down)

    myaq1 bi11-aq5. grasp.and.pull give–SIM

    614

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    Pull (SG) his hair. 68

    Ki31 me55 bvek5 bi11-aq5. leg/foot LOC kick give–SIM Give (SG) him a kick in the legs.

    The verb ‘give’ clearly is etymologically related to the cooperative prefix (help). The latter is discussed in Section 16.8. 15.7 THE VERB ‘LOSE’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS THE ASPECTIVISER OF CHANGE

    The verb ‘lose’ can both be used as a main verb and as an aspectivising main verb. When used as a main verb, it expresses ‘lose’, as of objects that are lost. 69

    A1zeng35 byuq1 lye31 dut1 bue31. thing lose also+I become P+I Things have been lost.

    70

    Ngun31 le1-sue31-mun11 silver one–ten–ten.thousand/Yuan I’ve lost ten Yuan.

    byuq1 bue31. lose P+I

    The verb ‘lose’ can also be used as the aspectiviser of change, expressing that a certain change, indicated by the main verb, has taken place, and that the result of this change remains the case. In the first example, the verb ‘lose’ is used twice, once as the main verb and once as the aspectiviser of change. 71

    Byuq1 byuq1 bue31, a1-myang31 loq1. lose lose P+I NEG–see no.more It has been lost, it’s nowhere to be seen.

    72

    Ngo31 bum31 me55 a1-ngi31 1SG heap(vt/N) LOC NEG–be.there(anim) loq1, bva55 gyo35 byuq1 bue31. no.more flatlands go.down lose P+I

    615

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    I do not live on the hill anymore, I have come to live on the flatlands. 73

    Kui11-zo11 nang31 syui31 lo35 byu11-aq1. (ipf) dog–child 2SG take.along go(back/up) lose*–SIM From now on you (SG) take care of the puppy.

    74

    Cyom31 ngi11 byuq1 syang55. drive.game(ipf) be.there(anim)(ipf) lose JUS Let’s (ND.IN) be like one family. [spoken to let someone stay for the night]

    75

    Yvang31-eq1 zvi31 byuq1 (ipf) 3SG#–AG/I borrow/lend lose It has been borrowed by her.

    76

    77

    lo35 go(back/up)

    P+I

    Loq1-ngyui11 gvun11 byuq1 (ipf) hand/arm–finger/toe stuck1 lose [One phalanx of] my finger has got stuck.

    bue31.

    Ngap5 ga11 king31 byuq1 stop.suddenly perceive halt/rest(ipf) lose The noise has suddenly stopped.

    bue31.

    P+I

    P+I

    78

    Zyak1 tyen31 byuq1 bue31. (ipf) engine wrecked lose P+I The machine/engine is wrecked.

    79

    Se5-gam31 a1-gyang31 ma54 dut1 tree–tree(B) nom–naked/bald LOC+FCT become byuq1 bue31. lose P+I The tree has become bare.

    80

    Loq1-seng11 bue35 byuq1 hand/arm–nail loose lose My fingernail has come loose.

    81

    bue31.

    Byo11 bui31 wasp/bee (insects).move(ipf)

    bue31. P+I

    byuq1 lose

    be1-gvo31. P–PL+I

    616

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    The bees/wasps have moved away. 82

    Ngvyau55-ki11-kong55 bvyen31 byuq1 bue31. (ipf) cat–faeces–ring(-shaped) flatten/dent(vt) lose P+I The cat-shit rings have become flattened.

    83

    Su31 byong35 byuq1 bue31. oil melt(vi) lose P+I The oil has melted.

    84

    Yvum31-hung31 byoq1 byuq1 bue31. house–vault/ridge weathered lose P+I The roof of the house has become weathered.

    85

    Kau11 su31 pang11 steal SNO dodge/flee(ipf) The thief has fled.

    86

    87

    15.8

    byuq1 lose

    bue31. P+I

    Ang11-noq5 wai11 byuq1 bue31 (ipf) petiole–black out.of.season lose P+I But black mustard is out of season now! Nga35 u1-sam31 1PO head–hair.of.the.head My hair has grown long.

    heng11 long(ipf)

    byuq1 lose

    ning31. INS+I

    bue31. P+I

    THE ASPECTIVISER OF VEHEMENCE dam54 (VEH+FCT)

    According to its form and meaning, I analyse the Zaiwa aspectiviser of vehemence dam54 as a bimorphemic entity consisting of a no longer retrievable root morpheme * or * in combination with the factitive marker . This form dam54 (VEH+FCT) is only used as the aspectiviser of vehemence, expressing that the action referred to by the preceding main verb is accomplished with vehemence. 88

    Zi1syang31 nang31 gun11 dam54 child 2SG fling/strike/wave(ipf) VEH+FCT

    617

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    ra31-o55! need+I–HIGH You child, I’ll throw you (SG) far away! 89

    Gvyop1gvyop1 zo31 dam54 bue31. (ipf) [tuck.away] eat VEH+FCT P+I [foodstuffs] It has all been tucked away, gobbled up.

    90

    Ban11 ngvyau31 (ipf) use.up throw.away(ipf) It has all been thrown out.

    dam54 VEH +FCT

    bue31. P+I

    91

    Byu31 r11 bvot5 dam54 ra31-o55! man/woman also tear/hew.in.two VEH +FCT need+I–HIGH I’ll tear him in two, in one big yank!

    92

    Mi1-sek5 gvut5 zyang35 ge11 le1go11 wife–new do CD TOP well tyep1 si1reng35 dam54-aq5. thoroughly do.up VEH+FCT–SIM Since you (SG) are the bride, do yourself up very thoroughly.

    15.9

    THE VERB ‘PLACE’(VT) AS A MAIN VERB AND AS THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECTIVISER

    The Zaiwa verb ‘place’(vt) as a main verb expresses ‘to place something somewhere’, and can also be used as an auxiliary verb. The following sentences illustrate the use of the verb ‘place’(vt) as a main verb expressing ‘to place something somewhere’. 93

    94

    Nang31 nge1-noq1-ci11 dvo11 bue31 2SG rat/mouse–black–drug place(vt) P+I Did you (SG) put out the rat poison?

    luq1? Y/N

    Se1boi31 ka55-pyang31 hu31 lui31 (ipf) table Q–DIR face.towards in.this.way+I dvo11 ra31? place(vt) need +I Which direction shall we let the desk face?

    618

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    95

    Nang31 be1-dvo31 2SG help–place(vt)(ipf) Put (SG) it there.

    96

    Ngo31 r55 1SG

    OBJ

    am55-aq5. PFM–SIM

    zang11 mvit5 dvo11 bi11 rice/food leave.over place(vt) give

    gve5-raq5. PL–VO Save (PL) some food for me. 97

    Dvang55kuq5 a1-puq5 dong31 dvo11-aq5. stool/chair nom–turn.over(vt) lead/connect place(vt)–SIM Place (SG) the stool/chair upside down.

    98

    Mue31-bu11 ngvyun31 wrap–clothes steep(vt)(ipf) Soak (SG) the clothes.

    dvo11-aq5. place(vt)–SIM

    The same Zaiwa verb ‘place’(vt) can also be used as an auxiliary verb termed the progressive aspectiviser, expressing progressive aspect, i.e. the continuation of the situation indicated by the preceding main verb. In cases like sentence (98) above and (115) below, the verb ‘place’(vt) in fact functions both as a regular verb expressing ‘to place’ and as the progressive aspectiviser. The following examples further illustrate the use of ‘place’(vt) as the progressive aspectiviser. The verbs preceding ‘place’(vt) are always marked by the imperfective marker . 99

    Yvang11

    yvup5 dvo11 bue31. 3SG sleep place(vt) P+I He is already asleep.

    100

    Dang31 go35 fly(ipf) dance a1-ngvut5 NEG–be gve5-ra31 PL–need +I

    dvo11 place(vt) lui31 in.this.way +I luq1? Y/N

    gve5-ra31 PL–need +I ge11 yvup5 TOP sleep

    luq1, Y/N

    dvo11 place(vt)

    619

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    Are you going to go on jumping and dancing like this, or are you going to sleep? 101

    Ngve5-mvyuq1-gam31 te5-luq1 dvo11-aq5. banana–banana–tree(B) prop.up–prop.up2 place(vt)–SIM Prop up (SG) that banana tree.

    102

    Pye31-ngvam31 negotiate(ipf)–tasty(ipf) They are chatting.

    103

    Ye31 ra31 son31 go(away/down) need+I calculate(ipf) I was already thinking of going.

    104

    Ang55goi11 zi31 dvo31 (ipf) swing(N) ride(vt) place(vt)(ipf) They are swinging.

    105

    Ngo31 a1hang31 mai11 zyan31 dvo11 (ipf) 1SG just.now ABL endure place(vt) Just now I was already restraining myself.

    dvo31 place(vt)(ipf)

    a1-gvo31. nom–PL+I dvo31 lye31. (ipf) place(vt) also+I a1-gvo31. nom–PL+I bue31. P+I

    106

    U1-lvum11 cyu31 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) head–lump spring/wash.hair place(vt) also+I I’m washing my hair.

    107

    Hum11 mvi31 door close(vt)(ipf) Is the door closed?

    dvo11 bue31 place(vt) P+I

    108

    Ngo31 mit1 dvo31 1SG think place(vt)(ipf) I’m keeping it in mind.

    109

    Zi1syang31 gung31-cin31 child body–naked dvo31 r55. (ipf) place(vt) PE The child is/was naked.

    luq1? Y/N

    lye31. also+I

    ma54

    ngi11 (ipf) LOC+FCT be.there(anim)

    620

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    110

    Yap1 dvo11-aq5. stand place(vt)–SIM [Just] stand [there] (SG).

    111

    Nga35-nvung55 dai31 dvo54 a1-king55 1PO–1ND.IN speak(ipf) place(vt)+FCT nom–time 1 11 a -lai siq1. NEG–pass still The time that we (ND.IN) fixed has not yet passed.

    112

    Ngo31 nang31

    113

    No11 gve5-lvu11 lvu31 dvo31 r55. cattle mud–wallow wallow(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE The cow is wallowing in the puddle.

    114

    Ki31 ke5-lye35 nvye31 leg/foot PHB–come(away/down) press(ipf) dvo11. place(vt) Don’t press against me with your leg/foot.

    115

    Ya11ya35 ngum11 dvo11-aq5. medicine keep.in.mouth(ipf) place(vt)–SIM Keep (SG) the medicine in your mouth [for a while].

    116

    Yvang11 zung31-ngung11 ngung31 3SG sit–squat squat(ipf) He is squatting.

    r55

    lang35 1SG 2SG OBJ wait I’ll be waiting for you (SG) .

    dvo11 place(vt)

    ra31. need+I

    zek1 (op)press

    dvo31 place(vt)(ipf)

    117

    Se5-gvoq5 me55 lvang31-mui31 bai35 tree–branch LOC snake–snake wind 1 31 55 dap dvo r . be.attached place(vt)(ipf) PE There’s a snake twisted around the branch.

    118

    Mau31-gyon11 fungus–ear-shaped.fungus

    i1-zvyam11 water–water

    r55. PE

    nai31 knead(ipf)

    me55 LOC

    621

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    bvom31 dvo11-aq5. (ipf) put.to.swell place(vt)–SIM Let (SG) the ear-shaped fungus swell in the water. 119

    Hi55-me55 a1-bu35-zo11 this–LOC nom–pimple/convex–child dvo31 r55. (ipf) place(vt) PE There’s a little pimple just right here.

    bu35 pimple/convex

    120

    Mik1-bup1 bvup5 bamboo.shoots–bad/fermented ferment/let.decay dvo31 lye31. (ipf) place(vt) also+I We’re making fermented bamboo shoots.

    121

    Loq1 me55 syung11 dvo11-aq5. hand/arm LOC use(ipf) place(vt)–SIM Keep (SG) it in your hand.

    122

    Ka55-hu55 wui31 ra31 son31 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) Q–sort buy need+I calculate place(vt) also+I I was / We were thinking about what to buy.

    123

    Nvut5 ha31 dvo11-aq5. mouth (mouth).open.wide(ipf) place(vt)–SIM Keep your (SG) mouth opened wide.

    124

    Yvup5 dvo11 gvoq1 hoi11 sleep place(vt) DIE INC It’s time for us (DU) to sleep, isn’t it?

    dvi31. CX+I

    When used after main verbs that are specifically telic, the progressive aspectiviser ‘place’(vt) does not indicate the continuation of the process indicated by these verbs, but rather the continuation of their results. 125

    Ngo31 mo35-za35 zvung31 dvo31 (ipf) 1SG AUG–knitwork put.on place(vt)(ipf)

    lye31. also+I

    622

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    I’m wearing socks. 126

    127

    Zoq1-si11 si31 lock–tie/lock tie/lock(ipf) The door is locked.

    dvo31 place(vt)(ipf)

    Nang31 dai54 dang11 ngo31 2SG speak+FCT words 1SG me1zveng31 dvo11 (ipf) memory/memorise place(vt) I’ll make notes of what you said. sat5 am31 kill PFM(ipf)

    r55. PE

    ra31. need+I

    128

    Mi11 hi31 bat1 fire this beat 5 11 a be . almost.certain I will put out this fire.

    dvo11 place(vt)

    129

    Yvang11

    130

    Sek5 zan31 lvyeng31 dvo11 tree hew(ipf) topple/roll(vt)(ipf) place(vt) I/we have cut down the tree.

    ra31 need+I

    ke5-ngi35 bu11 a1-ngyui31 3SG before–day clothes nom–green/blue ma54 wut1 dvo31 r55. (ipf) LOC+FCT wear/dress place(vt) PE Today he is wearing green/blue clothes.

    131

    Nvik5-yo11 gve5lvang11 i1mit1 ma55 heart–itch3 although mind LOC a1-gvat5 dvo11. NEG–put.into place(vt) Even when angry, she doesn’t take offence.

    132

    Bvong55dvin55-mvi11 zvyop5 dvo11-aq5. pen–close(vt) ring place(vt)–SIM Put (SG) the top back on the pen.

    133

    Yvang11 3SG

    bun31 awake(ipf)

    dvo31 place(vt)(ipf)

    r55. PE

    bue31. P+I

    623

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    She is awake. 134

    Gai31, ngo31 r55 le1-dam31 (come.on!) 1SG OBJ one–time(Sp) 11 11 dvo bi raq5. place(vt) give VO Please, take a picture of me.

    135

    Zoq1 zoq1 dvo11-aq5. lock lock place(vt)–SIM Lock (SG) it up.

    dyem31 take.picture(ipf)

    The following examples illustrate that the progressive aspectiviser ‘place’(vt) can also depict a situation indicated by the main verb as a state which obtains. 136

    Hau31 a1-ngvyu11 me55 zui31 the/that nom–top.of.plant LOC bear.fruit(ipf) dvo31 r55 mai31. (ipf) place(vt) PE OBV+I [on a piece of fruit:] There in the top it’s hanging! (lit.: growing).

    137

    Yvang11

    dvon11 3SG toast(ipf) He is toasting.

    dvo31 place(vt)(ipf)

    r55. PE

    138

    Zye11 zvyoi31 dvo31 lye31 me5-wa35, (ipf) (ipf) exceed beautiful place(vt) also+I LOC– EMP a1-toq5 lo54 ge5-dvi55! NEG–come.out no.more+FCT TOP–RFL Just during the most beautiful part of it [the video], it stopped playing!

    139

    Myang31 zo31 dvo31 r55 (ipf) (ipf) see eat place(vt) PE [In prison] you do get meals!

    mai31. OBV+I

    624

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    The following examples illustrate that the progressive aspectiviser ‘place’(vt) can also be used after other auxiliary verbs, also in order to emphasise the situation indicated by the preceding verbs, including the preceding auxiliary verb, as a state in effect. 140

    Ngo31 dyen11she31 wu35 1SG television2 look I want to watch television!

    nvau11 dvo31 ning31! (ipf) (ipf) feel.like place(vt) INS+I

    141

    Waq1 lyeq1 nai35 mvau31 dvo31 (ipf) pig lie.down relax cheat/fool place(vt)(ipf) The pig is lying there, just relaxing.

    r55. PE

    142

    Me1-gvai31-bvue31 yvum31 me55 nga35 (GEN) (GEN) (female)–5th-sister –PLN house LOC 1PO 31 11 31 31 31 11 mue -bu dvo mvi am dvo bue31. (ipf) (ipf) wrap–clothes forget PFM place(vt) P+I I have forgotten my clothes at the house of fifth sister and the others.

    143

    Si11 byuq1 dvo31 (ipf) die lose place(vt)(ipf) He is dead now.

    r55. PE

    The progressive aspectiviser ‘place’(vt) can also express the urgency of a certain situation to be done. In this usage, it is mostly followed by the clause marker ‘to’. In sentence (146), the progressive aspectiviser expresses a similar meaning but without ‘to’. 144

    Ngo31

    waq1-zang11 zvo31 dvo11 (ipf) 1SG pig–rice/food feed place(vt) ra31 a1-si31. need(ipf) nom–still+I I still have to feed the pigs.

    145

    Yvang11 i1-zvyam11 3SG water–water

    no35 to

    ham11 dvo11 receive/fetch(ipf) place(vt)

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    625

    no35 ra31 r55. (ipf) to need PE It is imperative that he fetch water. 146

    Yvang11

    i1-zvyam11 ham11 dvo11 3SG water–water receive/fetch(ipf) place(vt) 31 ra dut1 r55. need+I become PE He should fetch water.

    The following examples illustrate that the progressive aspectiviser ‘place’(vt) can also express a threat, when used in the construction le5-Verb dvo31 wu35-aq5 (but-Verb place(vt)(ipf) look-SIM), expressing ‘go on (sg.) doing V and see what I’ll do!’. The latter construction expresses that the addressee is given a last chance to change his behaviour before the speaker will lose his temper. In the latter construction, the main verb preceding ‘place’(vt) is marked by a stressed contrastive adverbial prefix ‘but’, and after ‘place’(vt) the verb ‘look’ is used as a second aspectiviser, viz. as the probative aspectiviser. This construction ends in an imperative clause marker, mostly the singular imperative clause marker (SIM). 147

    Le5-yvup5 dvo31 wu35-aq5! but–sleep place(vt)(ipf) look–SIM Go on staying in bed like this and see what happens!

    148

    Zi1syang31 nang31, le5-ngau11 dvo31 wu35-aq5! (ipf) (ipf) child 2SG but–weep place(vt) look–SIM “You (SG) child, go on crying like this and see what happens!”

    The following example, illustrating the use of ‘place’(vt) as the progressive aspectiviser, is a formal way of inquiring about someone’s health. 149

    Nang31

    wang35-zan35 dvo31 lye31 luq1? (ipf) 2SG healthy–healthy place(vt) also+I Y/N Are you (SG) in good health?

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    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    The verb ‘place’(vt) can also be reduplicated. The first functions as the main verb expressing ‘to place something somewhere’ and the second functions as the progressive aspectiviser. 150

    Sau55-hai11 se1boi31 o31 me55 shoe–shoe table under LOC dvo11-aq5. place(vt)–SIM Put (SG) the shoes under the table.

    dvo31 place(vt)(ipf)

    151

    Dvo31 dvo11-aq5. (ipf) place(vt) place(vt)–SIM Just leave (SG) it there.

    152

    Sun11 lo11 dvo31 dvo54 (ipf) (ipf) veg/dish come(back/up) place(vt) place(vt)+FCT mai11-eq1 mu35 zui11 ye25. ABL–AG/I work(N) touch/work(V) go(away/down)+FCT After leaving the vegetables at home, I went to work.

    153

    Nang31

    tat5-mi11 se1boi31 me55 2SG electricity2–fire table LOC 54 1 dvo luq ? place(vt)+FCT Y/N Did you (SG) put the torch on the table?

    dvo31 place(vt)(ipf)

    Zaiwa ‘place’(vt) could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. the Jingpo verb to ‘to be there’, ‘have a certain (social) position’ (Xu et al. 1983: 834). According to the latter scholars, the same Jingpo verb can also be used as an auxiliary verb expressing the notion of being there, performing the situation indicated by the preceding main verb. Dai & Xu (1992: 148) state that the Jingpo auxiliary verb to expresses the notion of being in a certain state. 15.10

    THE VERB ‘DESOLATE’ AS AN ASPECTIVISER

    The auxiliary verb ‘desolate’ could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. htum ‘finish harvest’ as a verb, and ‘end, be over, finish’ as an

    627

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    auxiliary verb, in Xu et al. (1983: 336). In sentence (154), Zaiwa ‘desolate’ appears to be used as a main verb with the same meaning as the original Jingpo verb in its function as a main verb, i.e. ‘finish harvest’. The latter sentence, as well as sentences (156) and (157), further contain the adverb ban11 (use.up(ipf)) expressing ‘all of it’. 154

    Ang11-noq5 r11 ban11 dvom31 byuq1 bue31. (ipf) (ipf) petiole–black also use.up desolate lose P+I There are only the remnants of the black mustard.

    In the remaining examples, Zaiwa ‘desolate’ is used as an aspectiviser expressing a state of desolation has been attained after certain collective actions. 155

    Zo31 dvom11 bue31. (ipf) eat desolate P+I [foodstuffs] It’s finished. / There are only the remnants of it.

    156

    Le1-zyong11 bang11 rvoq5 one–school PNO DEF dvom11 bue31. desolate P+I The entire school is asleep.

    157

    Woq1 r11 ban11 si11 dvom11 (ipf) (ipf) chicken also use.up die desolate Even all chickens are dead.

    15.11

    ban11 use.up(ipf)

    yvup5 sleep

    bue31. P+I

    THE MORPHEME ‘INTERRUPT’ AS THE INTERRUPTIVE ASPECTIVISER

    The morpheme ‘interrupt’65 can both be used as a verb and as a noun. When used as a noun, the morpheme ‘interrupt’ expresses the meanings ‘a separate stretch of something’, ‘half end/ 65 This morpheme (vt.) ‘interrupt’ forms part of a simplex-causative verb pair, together with (adj.) ‘be cut off for a large part’; (vt.) ‘have something cut off for a large part’.

    628

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    stump of’, often like a measure noun, e.g. syam31-dvum55 (knife-interrupt) ‘broken knife’ and mi1-zo35 le1-dvum55 (fire-burning.firewood one-interrupt) ‘a burning stump of wood’. The nominal use of this morpheme is discussed in more detail in Section 9.34. Whenever used as a verb, the morpheme ‘interrupt’ functions as an aspectivising auxiliary verb termed the interruptive aspectiviser, expressing that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb is being interrupted. When in this function, the morpheme ‘interrupt’ is always used in conjunction with the progressive aspectiviser ‘place’ (vt). 158

    Si5gvyam55 gva31 dvum31 dvo31 (ipf) (ipf) greetings write interrupt place(vt)(ipf) I interrupted my letter writing.

    159

    Ngo31 zang11 zo31 dvum31 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) (ipf) 1SG rice/food eat interrupt place(vt) also+I I interrupted my meal.

    15.12

    THE VERB (EXTREME) ‘GO TO THE LIMIT’

    lye31. also+I

    The Zaiwa morpheme ‘go to the limit’, which I shall gloss as ‘extreme’, expresses the notion of going to extreme limits. In the function of an aspectivising auxiliary verb, the meaning of ‘go to the limit’ is used in two different senses, depending on what kind of verb it modifies. When used after action verbs, the verb ‘go to the limit’ as an aspectiviser expresses ‘to go to extreme limits in performing V’, e.g. (160). When used after stative verbs, the verb ‘go to the limit’ as an aspectiviser expresses the notion ‘very V’, e.g. (161). 160

    Dai31 dik1 bue31. (ipf) speak extreme P+I I did all I could to persuade [him/her/you/them].

    161

    Krak5 dik1 perfect extreme

    bue31. P+I

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    629

    It’s/that’s perfect! I shall first focus on the form and origin of the Zaiwa morpheme ‘go to the limit’, which appears to be a loan from Jingpo. According to Xu et al. (1983: 113), the Jingpo word dik [tik 31] can both be used as an adverb and as a verb. When used as an adverb, Jingpo dik expresses ‘very’ or ‘to the end, to the limit’. In verbal use, Jingpo word dik expresses the meaning of ‘come true’. Dai & Xu (1992: 163, 176) describe the Jingpo form dik1 in a similar way. The allomorph of the Zaiwa morpheme ‘go to the limit’ is mostly used instead of the regular allomorph whenever this morpheme comes after verbs which normally are produced with the [5-2] allotone of tone /31/, i.e. that are either without initials or with voiceless fricative, aspirated, or creaky initials, e.g. after ‘clear’ in kyang31-dik5 ‘very clear’, e.g. (162), and after ‘sour’ in zvin31-dik5 ‘very sour’, e.g. (163). The latter examples illustrate that, whereas the morpheme ‘go to the limit’ normally triggers the marking by the imperfective marker on the preceding verb, the latter is omitted when the allomorph is used. The allomorph of ‘go to the limit’ is used in the remaining surroundings. 162

    163

    164

    Kyang31-dik5 clear–extreme It’s very clear.

    bue31.

    Zvin31-dik5 sour–extreme It’s very sour.

    r55.

    P+I

    PE

    Pyu31-dik5 r55. white–extreme PE [Yes] it’s very white. / It’s rather white.

    The two following pairs of sentences illustrate that in the surroundings mentioned above the use of the special allomorph , instead of the regular allomorph of the morpheme ‘go to the limit’ in most cases is optional.

    630

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    165

    Hi31 ge1ro11 ngo31 syu11 dik1 r55. (ipf) this between 1SG fond.of.good.food extreme PE These days I’m really fond of good food.

    166

    Hi31 ge1ro11 ngo31 syu31-dik5 this between 1SG fond.of.good.food–extreme These days I’m really fond of good food.

    167

    168

    Yvup5 nvau11 dik1 (ipf) sleep feel.like extreme I’m very sleepy. 1

    bue31.

    Yvup5 nvau31-dik5 sleep feel.like–extreme I’m very sleepy. 2

    bue31.

    r55. PE

    P+I

    P+I

    In one case, the allomorph of ‘go to the limit’ is also used after a form which does not belong to the type after which this allomorph normally occurs, viz. after ‘bully’ in roi31-dik5 ‘bully’. In the following sentence, both constituent morphemes are joined together in a fixed expression indicating ‘to bully’, rather than ‘to bully very much’. 169

    Woq1-gvo11 woq1-zo11 r55 chicken–big chicken–child OBJ The big chicken bullies the little one.

    roi31-dik5 r55. bully–extreme PE

    When used after action verbs, the verb ‘go to the limit’ as an aspectiviser expresses the notion ‘to go to extreme limits in performing V’, as already illustrated by sentence (160). According to my principal informant, sentences (170) and (171) are almost similar in meaning, both expressing being as full as can be. 170

    171

    Zo31 gi31 dik1 (ipf) (ipf) eat full/satisfied extreme I’m very full. Zo31 eat(ipf)

    dik1 extreme

    bue31. P+I

    bue31. P+I

    631

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    I’ve eaten to the brim. 172

    Dai54 gyo31 dik1 (ipf) speak+FCT hear/smell extreme He does as he is told. / He behaves himself.

    r55. PE

    When used after stative verbs, the aspectiviser ‘go to the limit’ expresses the notion ‘very V’. 173

    174

    175

    176

    177

    178

    179

    Yvup5 gan11-zue11 dik1 (ipf) (ipf) sleep late –late extreme We’ve slept too long. It’s too late.

    r55. PE

    Yvang11

    Si5dvung55-ming35 gat1 dik1 3SG Jingpo–language expert extreme She is fluent in Jingpo.

    bue31.

    Wui31-kung11 nop1 dik1 water–fold sink.away/squishy extreme a1-wo35 lai11. NEG–have pass It’s very squishy in the dale, you can’t pass.

    r55,

    Yvup5 nuk5 sleep fast.asleep She is fast asleep.

    dik1 extreme

    P+I

    PE

    r55. PE

    Sa11-bya11 hi31 ge11 sye31 dik1 soap–soap this TOP economical(ipf) extreme This soap is very economical.

    r55.

    Nang35 loq1 ding35 dik1 2SG.PO hand/arm straight.(branch) extreme You (SG) are good at aiming a gun.

    r55.

    No11 dik1 (ipf) pain/ill/disease extreme It hurts terribly.

    mo35-mo35 AUG–AUG

    bue31. P+I

    PE

    PE

    632

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    In sentences (180) and (181), the verb ‘go to the limit’ is used in negative clauses, illustrating that the latter morpheme, unlike the adverb ‘too’ in sentence (182), does not moderate the negation, but strengthens it. 180

    Loq1-bvai31-eq1 zang11 zo31 r11 hand/arm–left#–AG/I rice/food eat(ipf) also 1 35 1 a -yo dik . NEG–convenient extreme Eating with my left hand is very inconvenient.

    181

    A1-pik5 dik1. NEG–pungent extreme It’s not at all hot. (Lit.: It’s very un-hot.)

    182

    A1-dye31 gam11. NEG–too steep(adj) It’s not very steep.

    The morpheme ‘go to the limit’ can also be reduplicated and used as adverb. This reduplicated form expresses that the main actant goes to extreme limits in performing the situation in the context. In sentence (185), this adverb is used in an elliptic clause, with the main verb having been left out. 183

    Dik1-dik1 dai11 bue31, a1-gyo11. extreme–extreme speak P+I NEG–hear/smell I did my very best to persuade him but he won’t listen.

    184

    Dik1-dik1 extreme–extreme I really want it.

    185

    o31-nvau11 want/take–feel.like(ipf)

    r55. PE

    Dik1-dik1 bue31. extreme–extreme P+I I did my very best. / We did our very best.

    Zaiwa has a form quite resembling ‘go to the limit’, but which I consider to be a different morpheme, i.e. the ideophone

    633

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    ‘endlessly, all the time’, which could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. tiktik Xu et al. (1983: 831), expressing the same meanings. Examples of this Zaiwa ideophone are ngi11 gvun55 dvik5dvik5 (be.there(anim)(ipf)-play endlessly) ‘to recreate endlessly’, yvup5 dvik5dvik5 (sleep endlessly) ‘to sleep endlessly’ and the following sentence. 186

    Gyo11 dvik5dvik5 luq1? hear/smell endlessly Y/N Have you been listening all the time?

    15.13

    THE VERB ‘PUT INTO’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS THE EFFECTIVE ASPECTIVISER

    The verb ‘put into’ has a broad scale of meanings, in its variety much alike to English ‘put’, whereas a central part of its meaning appears to be ‘to cause a certain effect’. In what sense this meaning is used largely depends on the context and on its syntactic function, as a main verb or as an aspectivising auxiliary verb after the main verb. 1. When used as a main verb and in a spatial context, the verb ‘put into’ directly expresses its most basic meaning, i.e. ‘someone puts something into some place’. This particular sense of the meaning of ‘put into’ differs from the meaning of ‘let inside’, since ‘put into’ focuses on the effect of the action, whereas ‘let inside’ focuses on the process as well as on the place where the object is put into. 187

    Se1dyek5 me55 mau11sau11 gvat5 case LOC paper/book put.into The paper has been put into the case.

    dvo11 bue31. place(vt) P+I

    188

    Le1-bvoq5-zo11 gvat5 one–drop/heeltap–child put.into Put in (SG) one more drop.

    189

    Ngo31 hi55-bvue55 hye55-me55 gvat5 1SG this–PLN same.elevation–LOC put.into

    si1-aq5. still–SIM ra31. need +I

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    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    I’ll put these in there. 190

    Koq5-kam11 mai11 bowl–have.gap ABL syang55.

    zang11 a1-gvat5 rice/food NEG–put.into

    zo11 eat

    JUS

    Let’s (ND.IN) not eat from this broken bowl. 191

    Gai31, hi55-me55 syoq5 (come.on!) this–LOC pour lye35. come(away/down) Let me pour you some in here.

    gvat5 put.into

    bi11 give

    In cases where putting into some place needs some effort, the verb ‘let inside’ will be used instead of ‘put into’. 192

    Hau55-nvik5-dvang31 r55 ge11 zeng31 the/that–duo–siblings OBJ TOP trunk mo35-mo35 lvung54. AUG–AUG let.inside+FCT Brother and sister were then put into a huge chest.

    193

    Lvin31 lvung55-aq5. (ipf) screw/roll let.inside–SIM Screw (SG) it in.

    2. Other secondary meanings of ‘put into’ as a main verb are: ‘to pronounce’ in the case of curses, e.g. (194), and ‘to chant’, in the case of traditional folk songs, e.g. (195). Please note that the verb ‘sing’ refers to singing in a general way, e.g. (196), whereas ‘put into’, in the meaning of ‘to chant’, is reserved for traditional folk songs such as the ‘traditional love songs’.66 194

    Nang31 long31 ke5-gvat5. 2SG curse PHB–put.into

    66 The same word ‘traditional love songs’ often roughly refers to traditional

    songs in general.

    635

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    Don’t (SG) lay curses. 195

    Nga35-nvik5 zi11 gvat5 lum31 wu35 gvoq1. (ipf) 1PO–duo love.song put.into reciprocal look DIE Let’s (DU) try and sing [traditional] love song duets.

    196

    Me1-kon31 kon31 gvoq1. words–sing sing DIE Let’s (DU.IN) sing songs.

    3. The verb ‘put into’ is also used in a fixed combination with ‘greetings’, with the meaning of ‘to shake hands’. 197

    Ngo31 yvang11-eq5 si5gvyam55 1SG 3SG–COM greetings I’ll shake hands with him.

    gvat5 be55. put.into EE

    4. The expression pau11 gvat5 (dowry put.into) expresses ‘to offer dowry’. 5. Another secondary meaning of ‘put into’ as a main verb is ‘to put with power’/ ’to put strength’. This meaning has only been attested in combination with the noun ‘power’. 198

    Wum11 gvan31-aq1. power put.into*–SIM Apply (SG) [some more] force.

    199

    Ngo31

    wum11 1SG power I can’t apply force.

    a1-gue11 (ipf) NEG–all.right

    gvat5. put.into

    6. In the following sentence, the verb ‘put into’ appears to be used as a main verb in a kind of idiosyncratic way, referring to the entering of the cold into one’s bones. Here, the speaker expresses that he feels the effects of being cold, which is caused by not being covered by a quilt. 200

    Yvup5 gyoq1 sleep cold

    gvat5 put.into

    ngyo31 bue31. talk P+I

    636

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    I was cold while I slept. 7. The combination of the verbs ‘do’ and ‘put into’ expresses a notion which can be rendered into English as: ‘to enjoy due respect’ or ‘to be in somebody’s good graces’, or rather into Dutch as bij iemand een potje kunnen breken. 201

    Ngo31

    hau55 yuq1 r55 a1-dye31 1SG the/that person OBJ NEG–too gvat5 siq1. put.into still I don’t much have the due respect of that person yet.

    202

    Ngo31 1SG

    hau55 yuq1 r55 the/that person OBJ 31 bue .

    gvut5 do

    zyaq1 gvut5 rather do

    gvat5 put.into P+I I already adequately have the due respect of that person. 8. When used after the main verb, the verb ‘put into’ functions as the Zaiwa effective aspectiviser. In this function it is always combined with the imperfective marker on the preceding verb. The Zaiwa effective aspectiviser expresses that someone consciously causes the situation indicated by the preceding main verb, and focuses on this situation from the perspective of its effects, not specifically on the process of it. In many cases, the effective aspectiviser appears to express subtlety or brevity, but neither is the central meaning of this category. The semantic link between this secondary meaning as the effective aspectiviser and the secondary meaning of ‘to put into’, contrary to , is that the achieved effect is being emphasised, rather than the effort. The following sentences illustrate the use of ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser after the verb ‘let inside’. The latter verb was already discussed above in the context of the meaning of ‘put into’ as a main verb, e.g. (192) and (193). In the following examples, the main verb ‘let inside’ refers to the actual action, whereas the effective aspectiviser ‘put into’ indicates its being put into effect.

    637

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    203

    Lvop5 gvut5 tau31 lvung31 gvan31-aq1. (ipf) (ipf) [plunge] do sew/insert let.inside put.into*–SIM Plunge (SG) [a needle] into it.

    204

    Bo11lung31 lvop5 gvut5 du35 lvung31 ball [plunge] do throw let.inside(ipf) 31 1 gvan -aq . put.into*–SIM Plunge (SG) the ball into it [into the net].

    205

    Mvyu31 float/drown(vt)(ipf) Let (SG) it sink.

    lvung31 let.inside(ipf)

    gvan31-aq1. put.into*–SIM

    In the following exhortative clauses, the effective aspectiviser ‘put into’ also expresses that the action in the context is performed in order to attain a certain effect, apart from expressing subtlety and brevity. 206

    Ngo31 Nong35dau31 zye35 1SG Nongdao arrive dye35 gvat5 see.off put.into I’ll bring you to Nongdao.

    lye35 come(away/down) lye35. come(away/down)

    207

    Ngo31

    me1zveng31 memory/memorise(ipf)

    1SG

    byam11 gva31 jump(ipf) write(ipf) be55.

    gvat5 put.into EE I’ll make a short note of this now. 208

    Ngo31 dang11 le1-hun11 dai31 gvat5 (ipf) 1SG words one–sentence speak put.into I’ll say something now. / (Lit.:) I’ll say one sentence.

    be55. EE

    In imperative and prohibitive clauses, the verb ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser expresses that the action is viewed from the perspective of its effects, apart from expressing subtlety and brevity

    638

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    209

    Dvang31 gvan31-aq1. (ipf) let.fly put.into*–SIM Throw (SG) it over.

    210

    Ngo31 du35 gvat5 be55, nang31 1SG throw put.into EE 2SG yven31-aq1. dodge(vt)–SIM I’m throwing [the ball], you (SG) dodge.

    211

    Nung35-moq1-o55 waq1 ke5-lvam31 gvat5 gvo55. (ipf) 2PL–party–FCT pig PHB–let.walk put.into PL Don’t take your (PL) pig out to pasture.

    212

    Le1-king11 no31 gvat5 one–halt/rest catch.one’s.breath(ipf) put.into Let’s (DU.IN) stop to catch our breath for a while.

    gvoq1. DIE

    Whereas ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser emphasises the effect which is achieved by a certain action, the performative aspectiviser (PFM), already discussed in Section 15.2, emphasises the performance of that action. Sentence (213) contains ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser, and sentence (214), which is the response, contains the performative aspectiviser . 213

    De1wui31 dving31 deluge collect.water/flood(vt)(ipf) 31 55 ra -o ! need+I–HIGH I will flood [you all] in a deluge!

    and the response: 214 Dving31 collect.water/flood(vt)(ipf) Flood (SG) us, then.

    gvat5 put.into

    am55-aq5. PFM–SIM

    The following sentence also contains both the effective and the performative aspectiviser, which are used in ways which are similar to those in the above sentences.

    639

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    215

    Yvang11

    a5-se55 gvut5 tui31 3SG nom–like do hit.with.fist(ipf) gvat5-n55-eq5 ngo31 loq1-eq1 i5-se55 put.into–FCT–COM 1SG hand/arm–AG/I SPEC–like gvut5 bat1 dvye11 am54. (ipf) do beat receive PFM+FCT When he tried to hit me like that, I blocked his blow like this.

    Several informants have stressed that it would be impolite to omit the verb ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser in refusals to offerings of drinks, smokes etc. Using ‘put into’ in this type of context expresses that the speaker is aware of his impudence in not accepting the offer, but that he nevertheless prefers not to accept it, or, essentially, that the speaker is aware of the generosity of the person offering, but nevertheless prefers not to accept it. More generally speaking, the form ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser expresses a notion of awareness of whatever the effects of the situation may be. 216

    Ngo31

    a1-zo31 gvat5 (ipf) 1SG NEG–eat put.into I won’t eat it yet . [if you don’t mind]

    217

    Ngo31

    a1-bok5 1SG NEG–smoke(vt) I won’t smoke now. [thanks]

    siq1. still

    gvat5. put.into

    In clauses referring to situations like the latter, as well as in situations like in the following examples, the verb ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser expresses a certain awareness of possible effects of the actions of the speaker. According to the informants, the use of ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser in all these cases makes the utterance more respectful and courteous. The optional use of ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser in sentences like the following seems to add a notion like ‘if you don’t mind’, or otherwise to ask for attention in a courteous manner. 218

    Ngo31 yvup5 1SG sleep

    gvat5 put.into

    be55. EE

    640

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    I’ll go to sleep now, if you don’t mind. 219

    Ngo31 Zai11wa31 me1-kon31 1SG Zaiwa words–sing 5 31 gvat lye . put.into also+I I’ll sing a Zaiwa song now.

    le1-lvum11 one–lump

    kon11 sing(ipf)

    In the following sentence, the verb ‘put into’ is used in a similar way. This utterance can in some cases be used to express that the speaker is aware of his stupidity of not hearing what the other person was saying, or, somewhat milder, that it is not that he did not want to hear what the other person was saying, but that he somehow was unable to hear it clearly. More generally speaking, the use of ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser expresses a notion of awareness of whatever effects of the situation. 220

    A1-wo35 gyo31 NEG–have hear/smell(ipf) [Sorry] I couldn’t hear you.

    gvat5. put.into

    The above discussion has made clear that, whenever ‘put into’ is used as the effective aspectiviser, certain effects are being inferred. In each of the following examples, the particular effect which may be inferred is separately indicated. In the following sentence, the effective aspectiviser ‘refers to the effect of relaxing, when tea is being steeped and offered to drink. 221

    Ngo31

    se5-poq5 ngvyun11 syuq5 1SG tree–leaf steep(vt) drink Let me steep some tea to drink.

    gvat5 put.into

    be55. EE

    In the following sentences, the verb ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser refers to sudden effects. 222

    Mi1-um31 bek1 fire–gun shoot A gun sounded.

    mving31 gvat5 (ipf) sound/name(vt) put.into

    bue31. P+I

    641

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    223

    224

    A1gaq5 zang35 nang31 gvat5 (oops!) strike tread(ipf) put.into Oops, I stepped on it. A1gaq5! zang35 gvat5 (oops!) strike put.into Oops, I bumped into you!

    bue31. P+I

    bue31. P+I

    In the following sentence, the effective aspectiviser refers to a kind of special relaxing effect of being quietly alone. 225

    Ngo31 bau35 sem31 ze1-gvut5 1SG just [in.quietness] only–do ngi11 gvat5 nvau11 (ipf) be.there(anim) put.into feel.like(ipf) I would like to be left in peace and quiet for a while.

    r55. PE

    In the following sentence, the effective aspectiviser refers to the adverse effects on self-esteem of being scolded. 226

    Le1-dvu31 r55 ai11 ze11 ta11 (male)–4th-brother OBJ RCL only scold(ipf) 5 5 gvyop gvat bue31. tuck.away put.into P+I Fourth brother is endlessly being called everything under the sun.

    In the following sentence, the effective aspectiviser more or less directly refers to the outcome of weighing on the scales. 227

    Ngo31

    ke5-mvyo55 gya35 mo11 1SG Q–much(B) prepared (people).heavy(ipf) 54 55 31 5 lye lu , cyueng gvat wu35 be55. (ipf) also+FCT MIR weigh(vt) put.into look EE How much exactly do I weigh, let me weigh myself and see.

    The effects of the situations which are being referred to by the following sentences are rather unpleasant.

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    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    228

    Syang11-gvyak5 gvyak5 dvang31 ginger–beat.with.knuckles beat.with.knuckles let.fly(ipf) gvat5 ra31-o55. put.into need+I–HIGH I’ll hit you! [with my knuckles on your head]

    229

    Dai54 a1-gyo11 zyang35 Nong35dau31bva55 speak+FCT NEG–hear/smell CD Nongdao–flatlands 11 5 31 5 mai i -lvam gvat ra31. (ipf) ABL go–let.walk put.into need+I If you don’t listen to what I say, I’ll let you walk back home from the Nongdao flatlands onwards (instead of going by tractor).

    In the context of the following sentence, the thought of some situation renders a certain effect on the speaker. 230

    Son31 gvat5 zyang35 ngo31 (ipf) calculate put.into CD 1SG 1 31 11 si -gyo yu dik1 die(ipf)–hear/smell(ipf) take(ipf) extreme I pity myself when I think of it.

    gung31-gung31 body–body bue31. P+I

    In the context of the following sentence, the effective aspectiviser refers to the ways in which certain stories were received by the audience, i.e. to the effects on that audience. 231

    A1man31 mau31mi11 kai54 i55-sum31-lvum11 last.night story narrate+FCT two–three–lump zyaq1 gyo31 ngon35 gvat5 bue31. (ipf) rather hear/smell pleasant put.into P+I Last night some stories were told which were received with great enthusiasm.

    The verb ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser can also be used in certain constructions referring to rather complex transactions and the passing on of messages via others. In the following sentences, someone is asked to temporarily keep certain objects, or keep in mind certain words, in order to pass them on to someone else. The notion of

    643

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    temporality evoked in such situations is not inherent to the meaning of ‘put into’, but is caused by the context, since the purpose - or the attained effect - of the first transaction is only to bring about the final transaction. 232

    Ma11-lum11 r55 bi31 gvat5 bue31, (ipf) (name.prefix)–(in.names) OBJ give put.into P+I le1go11 lom11 yu11 dvo31 dvo11-aq5. well attend(ipf) take(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) place(vt)–SIM I have temporarily given it to Malum. Take it from him and keep it well.

    233

    A5-nu11 ga31 r11, dvat5bung35 nom–mother perceive(ipf) also photographs lo11 be1-dyem11 si1-aq5, ga11 (ipf) come(back/up) help–take.picture still–SIM perceive 31 dai gvat5 r55. speak(ipf) put.into PE Mum is asking you (SG) , by way of me, to come and make some more pictures of them.

    234

    Ang55dung54 mau11sau11 be1-yu11 Anton+FCT paper/book help–take(ipf) 31 1 11 lo -aq ga dai31 gvat5 r55. come(back/up)–SIM perceive speak(ipf) put.into PE They told me to ask him to take your [i.e. Anton’s] books with him.

    In a similar way, the verb ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser often modifies the verb ‘send’, in reference either to the notion ‘to send a letter’, or also ‘to receive a letter’, as the result of sending. 235

    Ngo31 Nong35dau31 mai11 si5gvyam55 1SG Nongdao ABL greetings le1-kyap5 i5-hun11 gvat5 (ipf) one–leaf/sheet go–send put.into I’m going to send a letter from Nongdao.

    ra31. need+I

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    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    236

    Si1gvyam55 i5-be1-hun11 greetings go–help–send(ipf) Post (SG) that letter for me.

    gvan31-aq1. put.into*–SIM

    237

    Syau11mye54 si1gvyam55 lang35 dye31 bue31, (name)+FCT greetings wait too P+I a1kui31 r11 a1-gva31 hun11 gvat5-n55 ge11. (ipf) (ipf) now also NEG–write send put.into–FCT TOP I am anxious to receive Xiaomei’s [Chinese name] letter. Just now again it didn’t come.

    In the two following sentences, the verb ‘put into’ is used twice, once as a main verb and once as the effective aspectiviser. 238

    Ngo31 hi55-me55 gvat5 1SG this–LOC put.into I’ve put it in here, all right?

    239

    Le1go11 a1-gvut5-n55 zang35 gvat5 gvat5 bue31. well NEG–do–FCT strike put.into put.into P+I Since I wasn’t paying attention, I accidentally put it in [the pan].

    15.14

    gvat5 bue31 dvyo31. put.into P+I DOM+I

    THE VERB ‘HELP’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS AN ASPECTIVISER

    The Zaiwa verb ‘help’ could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. Jingpo garum ‘help’ (Xu et al. 1983: 175). Except when Zaiwa ‘help’ is used as the only verb in the clause, e.g. (240) and (241), it is used as an aspectivising auxiliary verb, expressing that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb takes place in order to help someone, as illustrated by sentences (242) and (243). 240

    Ge1rai31-eq1 a1-ge1rum35. heavenly.spirits#–AG/I NEG–help The heavenly spirits won’t help.

    645

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    241

    Ngo31 i5-mi31 wu35 be55, yvang55-moq1 (ipf) 1SG go–ask look EE 3PL–party ge1rum35 no35 a1-ra11 le1-gvo54 lu55? help to NEG–need no.more– PL+FCT MIR I’ll try and ask them (PL) whether they still need any help.

    242

    Nang31 ngo31 2SG 1

    1SG

    OBJ

    lai11gva55 script

    ge rum raq5. help VO Please help (SG) me with studying. 243

    15.15

    35

    r55

    mvoq5 learn/teach

    Yvang11

    dum11sa55 i5-to11 ge1rum35 (ipf) 3SG witch.doctor go–cast.spell help He is helping in speaking magical language.

    r55. PE

    THE VERB ‘TUCK AWAY, POLISH OFF’ AS THE NON-STOP ASPECTIVISER

    The verb ‘tuck away, polish off’ can both be used as a main verb and as an auxiliary termed the non-stop aspectiviser. As a main verb, Zaiwa expresses ‘to tuck away’, in the highly idiomatic sense of polishing off some edibles. 244

    Gvyop5 am55 bue31 luq1? tuck.away PFM P+I Y/N [some foodstuff or drink] Did you polish it all off?

    and the response: 245 Gvyop5 am55 bue31. tuck.away PFM P+I [some foodstuff or drink] Yes, I’ve polished it all off. The same verb ‘to tuck away’ can also be used as the Zaiwa non-stop aspectiviser, expressing that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb takes place in an incessant way or in one go.

    646

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    246

    Ngo31 a1-ngi35-nap1 le1-ngi35-bui31 yvup5 gvyop5. 1SG nom–day–morning one–day–sun sleep tuck.away Yesterday I slept the whole day.

    247

    Kyom11 bat1 gvyop5 bue31. all.of.it beat tuck.away P+I I have beaten them all, without taking a breath.

    248

    Le1-gam35-eq5 Me1-gvoq5 r55 (male)–eld-brother– COM (female)–eld-sister OBJ nga35-moq1-eq1 dai31 zvum31 gvyop5. (ipf) (ipf) 1PO–party–AG/I speak make.a.pair tuck.away We are always insinuating that eldest brother and eldest sister should become a couple.

    The two following sentences form a minimal pair. In sentence (249), the verb ‘tuck away, polish off’ is used as a main verb in the highly idiomatic sense of polishing off some edibles. In sentence (250), the same verb is used as the non-stop aspectiviser, expressing that the situation of eating indicated by the main verb takes place in an incessant way or in one go. 249

    Gvyop5 zo31 dam54 bue31. (ipf) tuck.away eat VEH+FCT P+I [foodstuffs] It has all been tucked away, gobbled up.

    250

    Zo31 gvyop5 dam54 (ipf) eat tuck.away VEH+FCT All of it has been eaten in one go.

    bue31. P+I

    In the following sentences, the verb ‘tuck away, polish off’ is also used as the non-stop aspectiviser, expressing that the situation of eating indicated by the main verb takes place in an incessant way or in one go. 251

    Zo31 gvyop5 am55-aq5. (ipf) eat tuck.away PFM–SIM [some foodstuff] You (SG) can polish it all off.

    647

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    252

    Myo31 dik1 r55, got1 zo31 gvyop5 syang55. (ipf) (ipf) much extreme PE scoop(vt) eat tuck.away JUS It’s very much, let’s (ND.IN) indulge ourselves.

    Zaiwa also has an ideophone [tuck.away] which clearly is derived from the morpheme ‘tuck away, polish off’. The ideophone [tuck.away] expresses a state, of foodstuffs or drinks, of being entirely finished. It is not clear yet what the difference is between the two following sentences and the two sentences above. In case of the ideophone [tuck.away], the amount of the foodstuffs or drinks referred to may be bigger or these may be tucked away more voraciously. The element of reduplication in this ideophone [tuck.away] expresses iterativity. 253

    Gvyop1gvyop1 syuq5 dam54 bue31. [tuck.away] drink VEH+FCT P+I [liquids] It has all been tucked away, gobbled up.

    254

    Nang31

    15.16

    a1-zo11 gve5lvang11 nga35-moq1 2SG NEG–eat although 1PO–party gvyop1gvyop1 le1-zo31 dam54-o55. [tuck.away] but–eat(ipf) VEH+FCT–HIGH You (SG) may not want to eat it now, but we (ND.EX) will finish it anyway. THE VERB ‘TAKE OFF, PLUCK’ AS THE ASPECTIVISER ‘TO NO PURPOSE’

    The verb ‘take off, pluck’ as a main verb refers to taking off shoes, e.g. sau55hai11 kyut5 (shoe take.off/pluck), or clothes, e.g. (255), or to plucking chickens, e.g. woq1 kyut5 (chicken take.off/pluck). 255

    Ka31, ngo31 bu11 be1-kyut5 where 1SG clothes help–take.off/pluck Come, I will help you to undress.

    lye31. also+I

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    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    The same verb ‘take off, pluck’ can also be used as an aspectiviser expressing that the action indicated by the main verb is performed to no purpose. The combination ngvye31 kyut5 (burn(vt)(ipf) take.off/pluck) expresses ‘burn to no purpose’. The combination put5 kyut5 (roast take.off/pluck) expresses ‘roast to no purpose, without even making it done’. The following sentence is another example. 256

    Zo31 kyut5 bue31. (ipf) eat take.off/pluck P+I I/we have eaten it to no purpose. [without even getting full]

    15.17

    THE RECREATIONAL ASPECTIVISER ‘PLAY’

    The verb ‘play’ is only used as an aspectiviser, expressing that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb takes place in a way that is not serious or is just for fun. 257

    Yvup5 bue31 a5be1-da11, nang31wu35 gvun55-aq5. sleep P+I almost.certain–maybe 2SG look play–SIM He is asleep, or perhaps not. Just have (SG) a look at him, will you?

    258

    A1-yvup5 gve5lvang11 lyeq1 gvun55 gvoq1. NEG–sleep although lie.down play DIE Even though we do not sleep, let us (DU) just lay down for a while.

    259

    Wa31-gung31 me55 i5-yong31 gvun55 gvoq1. (ipf) village–body LOC go–stroll play DIE Let’s (DU) take a little walk within the village centre.

    260

    Dum11 lye35 gvun55-aq5. again come(away/down) play–SIM Come (SG) once more to amuse yourself here.

    261

    Yvum31-bvan55 me55 zung11 gvun55 syang55. house–outside LOC sit(ipf) play JUS Let’s (ND.IN) sit outside the house just for fun.

    649

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    262

    Rang31-bat5 gvun55 syang55. cards–beat play JUS Let’s (ND.IN) play cards.

    263

    Le1-zvui55-zvui55 ze11 gvut5 syuq5 one–bit–bit only do drink I’ll drink it in tiny little sips.

    gvun55 ra31. play need+I

    The verb ‘play’ can also indicate that the speaker does not take seriously the situation indicated by the clause, e.g. (264). It can even be used for making fun of someone, e.g. (265). 264

    Nang31 a1num11 mau35-Ø ge11, 2SG constantly stare/bewildered–FCT TOP ka55-hu55 dye31 son31 gvun31 lye31 ta11? (ipf) (ipf) Q–sort too calculate play also+I GI You (SG) are staring into the distance all the time, what are you thinking about?

    265

    Dye31 myum31 lui31 ge11 too fat in.this.way +I TOP nut1nut1 gvut5 ze11 so31 gvun31 (ipf) [sluggish.and.clumsy] do only walk play(ipf) r55 ngvut5 r55 mai31. PE be PE OBV+I He is too fat, he walks like a caterpillar, really!

    The verb ‘play’ is also used after the verb ‘use’. This combination cyung11-gvun55 / syung11-gvun55 (use(ipf)-play) expresses ‘to play with something’, e.g. toys. It is worth noting that the word syung11-gvun55-zue31 (use(ipf)-play-truc) expresses ‘toy’. 266

    Ngvyo31, hi31 syung11 (offering) this use(ipf) [a toy] Here, play (SG) with this.

    gvun55-aq5. play–SIM

    The verb ‘play’ is also used after the verb ‘to be there (animate)’. This combination ngi11-gvun55 (be.there(anim)(ipf)-

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    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    play) is more like a fixed expression expressing ‘to play’ or ‘to be around somewhere in just a recreational way’. 267

    Nga35-moq1 yvum31 me55 lye35 1PO–party house LOC come(away/down) 11 55 5 ngi -gvun gveq . be.there(anim)(ipf)–play PLIM Come (PL) and amuse yourselves in our (ND.EX) house.

    268

    Gau11-king55 ze1-si31 wa35, ngi11-gvun55 nine–time only–still+I EMP be.there(anim)(ipf)–play 1 55 si -syang . still–JUS It’s only nine o’clock, let’s (ND.IN) stay a little longer.

    269

    Ngon35 ge11 ngon35 pleasant TOP pleasant ngi11-gvun31 be.there(anim)(ipf)–play(ipf) It is nice there indeed, but we there.

    15.18

    r55, PE

    a1-dye31 NEG–too

    wo35 have

    lye31. also+I only couldn’t have much fun

    THE VERB ‘WAIT’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS THE EXPECTANT AUXILIARY

    The Zaiwa verb ‘wait’ can both be used as a main verb and as an auxiliary. When functioning as a main verb, the Zaiwa verb expresses ‘wait’ in the regular sense. 270

    Le1-king11 lang35 si1-gvoq1. one–halt/rest wait still–DIE Let’s wait a little longer.

    271

    Ngo31 nang31

    r55

    lang35 dvo11 1SG 2SG OBJ wait place(vt) I’ll be waiting for you (SG) .

    ra31. need+I

    651

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    272

    Ngo31 nang31 r55

    lang35 mo35-mo35 1SG 2SG OBJ wait AUG–AUG I’ve been waiting for you (SG) for ages.

    bue31. P+I

    The combination of ‘wait’ and the morpheme ‘too’ expresses ‘to be anxious’. 273

    Mi1-dat5 min31-wui31 lo11 lye31 (ipf) fire–electricity evening–generation come(back/up) also+I ning31, nga35-nvik5 a1-lang35 dye31 gvoq1. INS+I 1PO–duo NEG–wait too DIE The electricity comes back on every evening, let’s (DU) not be anxious.

    274

    Syau11mye54 si1gvyam55 lang35 dye31 bue31. (name)+FCT greetings wait too P+I I am anxious to receive Xiaomei’s [Chinese name] letter.

    275

    Nang35 wa11 nang31 r55 lang35 dye31 be1-kai31? 2SG.PO father 2SG OBJ wait too P–SUG+I Your father must be worried about you (SG), mustn’t he?

    and the response: 276

    A1-lang35 dye31 kai31. NEG–wait too SUG+I He won’t be all that worried.

    The verb ‘wait’ can also be used as the expectant auxiliary, expressing ‘to perform V whilst waiting’, i.e. that the situation referred to by the preceding verb is performed in waiting for someone or something. 277

    Bum31 me55 no11 ngi31 lang35 heap(vt/N) LOC cattle be.there(anim) wait gve5-ra31 kai31. PL–need +I SUG+I The cattle will probably be there, on the hill.

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    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    278

    Naq1-ma35 tomorrow–LOC ke5-ngi35 before–day Tomorrow they today.

    a1-ngi31 lang35 gve5-ra31, NEG–be.there(anim) wait PL–need +I ye11 wu35-aq5. go(away/down)(ipf) look–SIM may not be there, so try (SG) your luck there

    279

    Zyo31syoq5 wu35 lang35-aq5. rice.cake look wait–SIM Keep (SG) an eye on the rice cake until I come back.

    280

    Le1-nong35 lye35 hang11-mo35 (male)–2nd-brother come(away/down) each–AUG ngo31 a1-ngi31 lang35. 1SG NEG–be.there(anim) wait Whenever second brother comes, I’m not at home.

    281

    Ngo31 hi55-me55 yang35wom11-si11 be1-zo31 1SG this–LOC pineapple–fruit help–eat(ipf) lye31, nang31 lo35 lang35-aq5. also+I 2SG go(back/up) wait–SIM I’m eating pineapple with the people here, you (SG) go first and wait.

    The two following sentences serve as informal good-byes, uttered to singular and plural addressee respectively. 282

    Nang31

    ngi31 lang35-aq5. 2SG be.there(anim) wait–SIM Bye. / (Lit.:) You (SG) stay [and wait] here.

    283

    Nung35-moq1 ngi31 lang35 gveq5. 2PL–party be.there(anim) wait PLIM Bye. / (Lit.:) You (PL) stay [and wait] here.

    15.19

    THE RECIPROCAL ASPECTIVISER

    The morpheme , glossed ‘reciprocal’, is exclusively used as the reciprocal aspectiviser, expressing that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb takes place in a reciprocal way.

    653

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    284

    Zi11-do35 do35 lum11 syang55. love.song–sing.duet sing.duet reciprocal JUS Let’s (ND.IN) sing [traditional] love song duets.

    285

    I1-ram31 wui31 cyong11 lum31 function–adolescent generation frolic(ipf) reciprocal(ipf) 31 1 31 31 gvun a -gvo ga . play(ipf) nom–PL+I perceive+I The adolescents of the village are playing around.

    286

    Ngo31 yvang11-eq5 a1-sue31-lum11. (ipf) 1SG 3SG–COM NEG–know –reciprocal He and I don’t know each other.

    287

    Nga35-nvik5 ki31-lyeng31 tai31 lum11 1PO–duo leg/foot–wheel exchange(ipf) reciprocal 1 31 gvoq , nang a1-gvam55 luq1? DIE 2SG NEG–want.to Y/N Let’s (DU) exchange bicycles, do you (SG) mind?

    288

    Nga35-nvik5 syam31-kop5 tai31 1PO–duo knife–(dig).pit exchange(ipf) lum11 gvoq1. reciprocal DIE Let’s (DU) exchange our hoes.

    289

    Woq1 tye31 lum31 a1-gvo31. (ipf) (ipf) chicken peck reciprocal nom–PL+I The chickens are pecking at each other.

    290

    Ne1-lo11 i55-du11 zun35 cattle–tiger/bull two–being cast.side-glances lum31 dvo31 a1-gvo31. (ipf) (ipf) reciprocal place(vt) nom–PL+I These two bulls are casting side-glances at each other.

    291

    Hye55-yuq1 bat1 same.elevation–person beat

    lum11 reciprocal

    syung11 use(ipf)

    wui31 difficult(ipf)

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    dik1 lye31. extreme also+I That person [at the same elevation] is a ferocious fighter. 292

    Nga35-nvik5 hang31 1PO–duo marry(ipf) We’re (DU) about to marry.

    293

    Le1byoq5 pi31 lum11 gvoq1. (ipf) riddle beg reciprocal DIE Let’s (DU.IN) exchange riddles with each other.

    294

    Bvo11 lum11 lui31 so11 (ipf) embrace reciprocal in.this.way +I walk Let’s (DU) walk while embracing each other.

    295

    lum11 reciprocal

    be1-ra31. P–need+I

    gvoq1. DIE

    Dai35wan55-eq5 Hue11lan35 gue11 zvyang31 (ipf) Taiwan– COM Holland all.right near(ipf) lum31 a1-gvo31 luq1? (ipf) reciprocal nom–PL+I Y/N Do Taiwan and Holland lie close to each other?

    The reciprocal aspectiviser is also used in expressions for saying good-bye, after either of the verbs ‘make way, meet’ or ‘see’. 296

    Dum11 hui31 lum11 syang55. again make.way/meet(ipf) reciprocal Farewell (ND.IN) / Let’s (ND.IN) meet again.

    JUS

    297

    Dum11 myang11 lum11 syang55. (ipf) again see reciprocal JUS Farewell (ND.IN) / Let’s (ND.IN) see each other again.

    15.20

    THE VERB ‘CHEAT, FOOL’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS AN ASPECTIVISER

    The verb ‘cheat, fool’ as a main verb expresses the notions ‘cheat, fool, kid’.

    655

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    298

    A1-mvau55 NEG–cheat/fool Are you cheating me?

    luq1? Y/N

    and the response: 299 A1-mvau55-o31, mau31-eq1 gun11 NEG–cheat/fool–HIGH+I sky#–AG/I fling/strike/wave(ipf) 11 11 1 r gun , a -mvau55! (ipf) also fling/strike/wave NEG–cheat/fool I’m not cheating! May lightning strike me, I’m not cheating. / (Lit.:) I’m not cheating! Even if I had to be struck by lightning [I would still say] I’m not cheating. 300

    Yvang11

    mvau31 3SG cheat/fool(ipf) He’s only fooling.

    lye31 ge1-lo31. also+I TOP–no.more+I

    The same verb ‘cheat, fool’ can also be used as an aspectivising auxiliary verb, expressing that the given persons or situations are not to be taken seriously. In the following examples, the situation indicated by the preceding main verb takes place in a foolish way. 301

    Ne1-zo11 cyong11 mvau31 cattle–child frolic(ipf) cheat/fool(ipf) The calf is playing around like mad.

    dik1 extreme

    r55. PE

    302

    Waq1 lyeq1 nai35 mvau31 dvo31 r55. (ipf) (ipf) pig lie.down relax cheat/fool place(vt) PE The pig is lying there, just relaxing.

    303

    Waq1ngan31 ke5-dye31 ngvaq5 mvau55. young.man PHB–too give.all cheat/fool Don’t lay it on so thick, like a young fellow.

    304

    Mvat5mvat5 gvut5 mvau31 [highly.irritated] do cheat/fool(ipf) Behaving in such an irritated way.

    r55

    mai31.

    PE

    OBV+I

    656

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    305

    Me1-gvoq5 dang11 dai11 rueng35 (female)–eld-sister words speak first-rate mvau31 dik1 r55. cheat/fool(ipf) extreme PE Eldest sister is talking in such a high-handed manner.

    306

    Nang31 2SG

    zang11 rice/food luq1?

    ze11 only

    dat1 able

    zo31 mvau31 (ipf) eat cheat/fool(ipf)

    lye31 also+I Y/N Is eating the only thing you (SG) can do? 307

    Byu31 hi55-yuq1 zyaq1 rvuq5 man/woman this–person rather truculent mvau31 dvo31 r55. (ipf) (ipf) cheat/fool place(vt) PE This person pretends to be a very fierce fighter.

    After the combination se5-ngam31 (like-seem), the verb ‘cheat, fool’ as an aspectiviser expresses that the entities referred to are in fact worthless, despite what others had in mind, e.g. (308), or despite what it may seem to be, e.g. (309). 308

    Ka55-hu55 se5-ngam11 mvau31 lye31 lo31? (ipf) (ipf) Q–sort like–seem cheat/fool also+I no.more+I What did you imagine it would be then?

    309

    Yvang55-moq1-bvue55 ka55-hu55 se5-ngam11 3PL–party–PLN Q–sort like–seem(ipf) 31 31 1 54 mvau dvo a -gvo lu55? cheat/fool(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) nom–PL+FCT MIR Who do those guys think they are?

    In the following example, the verb ‘cheat, fool’ as an aspectiviser expresses that the entities in the context are performing in a ridiculously poor fashion, viz. that the fruit tree produces only a poor bit of fruits.

    657

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    310

    Hu55-mvyo55 ze11 zui31 mvau31 (ipf) above–much(B) only bear.fruit cheat/fool(ipf) a1-lo31 ngvut5 r55. nom–no.more+I be PE This tree bears only this tiny bit of fruit.

    In a similar way, the verb ‘cheat, fool’ as an aspectiviser can also be used to express understatements, indicating that the situation in the context is represented as somewhat less than it actually is. 311

    Ngvam31 mvau31 r55 (ipf) (ipf) tasty cheat/fool PE It doesn’t taste bad at all, does it?

    dvi31? CX+I

    The following sentence is also an understatement, since the speaker of the following sentence is in fact earning lots of money. 312

    Pe5ga35 ong31 mvau31 bue31. (ipf) (ipf) trade(N) win cheat/fool P+I I am making some funny little profits in business.

    The following sentence is only a light understatement, and here ‘cheat, fool’ is also used merely in a joking manner. 313

    15.21

    Ang55dung55 Zai11-ming35 gue11 dai31 Anton Zaiwa–language all.right(ipf) speak(ipf) mvau31 lo31 bue31. (ipf) cheat/fool come(back/up) P+I Anton is beginning to speak some funny little words and sentences in Zaiwa. THE VERB ‘LET LOOSE’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS THE COMMISSIVE AUXILIARY

    The verb ‘let loose’ as a main verb expresses ‘let loose’, e.g. animals or objects in one’s grip.

    658

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    314

    Nvang11 bvyam55-aq5. (ipf) let.loose rid.of–SIM Let (SG) go of it. [with your hand]

    315

    Dvang55huq5 nvang11 stool/chair let.loose(ipf) 31 1 gvan -aq . put.into*–SIM Put down (SG) the stool.

    316

    No11 nvang11 gvan31-aq1. (ipf) cattle let.loose put.into*–SIM Let out (SG) the cattle.

    kyo31 let.go.down(ipf)

    The same verb ‘let (loose)’ can also be used as the commissive auxiliary verb, indicating that the subject lets the object perform a certain situation. 317

    Le1-king11-zo11 zvu31 nvang31 one–halt/rest–child boil/rise let.loose Let’s (DU) keep it boiling for a while.

    si1-gvoq1. still–DIE

    318

    Nvap5 ke5-toq5 nvang31. mucus PHB–come.out let.loose [spoken to a child whilst taking a picture:] Don’t let the snot come out.

    319

    Ngo31 yvang11 li55

    320

    Yvang11

    ye31 nvang11 lye31. (ipf) 1SG 3SG OBJ go(away/down) let.loose also+I I’ll send him. / I’m sending him. a1-gvam31 gvut5 zyang35 (ipf) 3SG NEG–want.to do CD 5 5 31 ke -gvut nvang . PHB–do let.loose If he is not willing to do it, then don’t let him do it.

    The same verb ‘let (loose)’ as the commissive auxiliary verb is also used after the verb ‘move’(vi) in the fixed

    659

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    expression dui31 nvang31 (move(vi) let (loose)). This expression indicates that the subject makes a certain object budge. 321

    Dai54 a1-gyo11, dui31 a1-wo35 speak+FCT NEG–hear/smell move(vi) NEG–have 31 5 54 11 55 nvang , a -su bang r ge11 let.loose nom–like+FCT PNO OBJ TOP byu31-mek5 ga31 lye31. man/woman–lethargic perceive(ipf) also+I People that don’t listen and that that won’t do the jobs they are asked to do, such people are called lethargic people.

    There is a clear difference in meaning between the verb ‘let (loose)’ as the commissive auxiliary verb after the main verb on one side and the active involvement auxiliary verb before the main verb on the other. The active involvement auxiliary verb indicates that the object performs a certain situation by some active involvement of the subject. The verb ‘let (loose)’ as the commissive auxiliary verb, on the other hand, bears more of a passive connotation, expressing that the object performs a certain situation because the subject says so or because the subject does not intervene. 322

    Zi1syang31 ke5-lvoq5 child PHB–ACT Don’t make the child cry.

    323

    Se1boi31 ke5-lvoq5 dvui31. table PHB–ACT move(vt) Don’t let the table move. [while I am writing]

    324

    Se5-poq5-gom35 lvoq5 mvuq5 tree–leaf–mug ACT let.tumble I [inadvertently] dropped the tea mug.

    15.22

    ngvau55. let.weep

    am55

    bue31.

    PFM

    P+I

    THE MODAL AUXILIARY ‘FEEL LIKE’

    The morpheme ‘feel like’ is exclusively used as a modal auxiliary, expressing an urge, need or desire to perform a certain

    660

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    situation, coming forth from the person himself instead of objective or general needs. In Section 16.50, I shall discuss the difference in meanings between ‘feel like’ and the voluntative adverb gvam31 (want.to(ipf)). The verb ‘want to’ underlying that adverb refers to the wish to perform a certain action, focussing on the decision whether or not to do so and on the determination on that issue. For example, the verb ‘want to’ in sentence (325) refers to a person’s decision and/or determination whether or not to go, whereas ‘feel like’ in sentences (326) and (327) refers to a person’s wish to go. 325

    Nang31

    326

    Nang31 ye31 nvau11 2SG go(away/down) feel.like(ipf) Do you (SG) feel like going?

    327

    a1-gvam31 (ipf) 2SG NEG–want.to Do you (SG) want to go?

    ye31 luq1? go(away/down) Y/N r55

    luq1?

    PE

    Y/N

    Ngo31 ye31 ge11 ye31 nvau11 1SG go(away/down) TOP go(away/down) feel.like(ipf) 55 5 5 11 r ngvut gve lvang a1-wo35 ye31. PE be although NEG–have go(away/down) Despite the fact that I feel like going, I can’t go.

    Another difference between ‘want to’ and ‘feel like’, is that the latter can also express ‘need to’, when certain body needs are referred to, such as the need to sleep, eat or defecate. The verb ‘want to’ is naturally not used in such contexts. The verb ‘feel like’ expresses a certain inclination for a person to do something, either of necessity or of one’s own volition. When defecating or urinating is concerned, the verb ‘feel like’ will be used in the sense of ‘need to’, as illustrated by sentences (328) and (329), but when returning home is concerned, the verb ‘feel like’ will rather be used in the sense of ‘want to’, e.g. sentence (330). 328

    Ki1-syo31 faeces–defecate I need to defecate.

    nvau11 feel.like(ipf)

    r55. PE

    661

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    329

    330

    I1-zit5 water–pee I have to pee.

    nvau11 feel.like(ipf)

    r55. PE

    Ngo31 bum31 dum11 lo35 nvau31 1SG heap(vt/N) again go(back/up) feel.like I want to go up the hill again.

    bue31. P+I

    When generalising on certain issues in a negative way, the invariant meaning of ‘feel like’ can also be used in the sense of ‘like to’ or ‘to be inclined to’. Sentence (332) is used to mock a constant inclination towards eating. 331

    Dye31 puk5 nvau11 r55. (ipf) too touchy feel.like PE He is too touchy. / You are too touchy.

    332

    Nvut5 ke5-dye31 yop1 nvau31. mouth PHB–too chew.with.mouth.shut feel.like Do not always only think about having something in your mouth.

    In the following sentence, a need to do something is euphemistically expressed as if it were a wish to do something. 333

    Ngo31 yo31-so11 lam35 nvau11 r55. 1SG land–walk ramble feel.like(ipf) PE I need to answer nature’s call. / (Lit.:) I want to ramble in the hills.

    Zaiwa also has another verb ‘want, take’, which, unlike both ‘want to’ and ‘feel like’, refers to material matters. This verb is often used in a fixed combination with ‘feel like’, i.e. in o31-nvau31 (want/take-feel.like), which can be translated as ‘would like to have’, or simply ‘want’, provided that it is only used in reference to material matters. 334

    Be1-sek5 clothes–new

    a1-o31-nvau31 NEG–want/take–feel.like

    luq1? Y/N

    662

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    Don’t you want to have new clothes? 335

    Yvang11

    a1kui31 a1-o31-nvau31 3SG now NEG–want/take–feel.like 5 11 31 gve lvang tang -pyang31 o31-nvau31 although behind–DIR want/take–feel.like ra31 ngvut5 lye31. need+I be also+I Although he doesn’t want to have it now, he will want it later on.

    There are two complex verbs containing the morpheme ‘feel like’, and in both of them the latter morpheme in fact also functions as a modal auxiliary. The first of these complex verbs containing ‘feel like’ is ze1-nvau31 ‘want to eat’, ‘like to eat’, the first syllable of which is derived from ‘eat’ by the morphophonological process of syllable reduction. The complex verb ze1-nvau31 (eat-feel.like) can both express ‘want to eat’ and ‘like to eat’. Only when no explicit reference is being made to personal assessments or experiences, the form ze1-nvau31 (eat-feel.like) can explicitly express ‘like to eat’. Such appears when the general truth indicative clause marking unit lye31 is used, since this clause marking unit has a strong generalising function. Compare sentence (336), containing the general truth indicative clause marking unit lye31, and sentence (337), with the personal experience clause marker , and sentence (338), where ze1-nvau31 (eat-feel.like) is used twice, once marked by the factitive marker and once negated. 336

    Yvang11

    337

    Nang31

    338

    yang35wom11-si11 3SG pineapple–fruit He likes to eat pineapple.

    ze5-nvau11 lye31. (ipf) eat–feel.like also+I

    yang35wom11-si11 ze5-nvau11 r55 (ipf) 2SG pineapple–fruit eat–feel.like PE Do you (SG) feel like eating pineapple? A1kang31 just.now

    zyaq1 rather

    ze5-nvau25 wa35 eat–feel.like+FCT EMP

    a1kui31 now

    luq1? Y/N

    663

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    a1-ze1-nvau31 loq1. NEG–eat–feel.like no.more Although I really wanted to eat it a short while ago, I don’t feel like [eating] it anymore. In an interrogative sentence without a clause marker, like the following, the verb ze1-nvau31 (eat-feel.like) can both bear the meaning of ‘like to eat’, i.e. in general, and of ‘want to eat’, i.e. at the specific moment. 339

    A1-ze1-nvau31 luq1? NEG–eat–feel.like Y/N Do you want to eat it? / Do you like to eat it?

    In some other cases when eating is concerned, the invariant meaning of ‘feel like’ is normally used in the sense of ‘want to’ and not ‘need to’, e.g. sentence (340), since the notion of ‘need to eat’ normally is expressed with the complex word zo11-mut5 (eat-hungry) ‘to be hungry’, e.g. sentence (341). However, also compare sentence (342), expressing a strong wish to eat. 340

    341

    342

    Ngo31 geq1-mvyo55-mvyo55 ze5-nvau11 1SG lot–much(B)–much(B) eat–feel.like(ipf) I want to eat a lot. Ngo31 zo31-mut5 1SG eat#–hungry I’ve become hungry.

    r55. PE

    bue31. P+I

    Yut1yut1 ga11 ze5-nvau11 si1-lo35 r55. [starved] perceive eat–feel.like(ipf) die(ipf)–go(back/up) PE I’m dying to eat.

    The second of the complex verbs containing ‘feel like’, apart from ze1-nvau31 (eat-feel.like) ‘want to eat’, ‘like to eat’, is gi1-nvau31 (hear/smell-feel.like) ‘want to hear’, ‘like to hear’. The first syllable of the latter form is derived from ‘hear/smell’, by the morpho-phonological process of syllable reduction.

    664 343

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    Ngo31 mau31mi11 kai31 gvyo11 (ipf) 1SG story narrate let.hear lye35, a1-gi1-nvau31 come(away/down) NEG–hear/smell–feel.like I’m telling a story, do you want to hear?

    luq1? Y/N

    344

    Tui31, a1-gi1-nvau31, ke5-dai11 loq1. (bah!) NEG–hear/smell–feel.like PHB–speak no.more Bah! I don’t want to hear that kind of stuff, speak no more of it.

    345

    Dang11-gue31 gi1-nvau31 zyang35 ge11 words–all.right hear/smell–feel.like CD TOP tung55-guq1 zung31-aq1. wickerwork–(in.front.of.fireplace) sit–SIM If you want to hear profound words, go sit (SG) in front of the fireplace. [considering the fact that the old and wise people normally take the other positions around the fireplace].

    346

    Mo35do35 ming25 tye31 a1-gi1-nvau31. car sound(vi)+FCT sound NEG–hear/smell–feel.like I don’t like to hear the sound of cars.

    15.23

    THE MORPHEME ‘NEED’ IN VARIOUS FUNCTIONS

    The verb ‘need’ refers to a need, either in the sense of the need for a certain material object, or in the sense of the need for the future accomplishment of a certain situation. This verb can also be used as an auxiliary, its invariant meaning being used in the same sense, provided that in this function it does not refer to the need for certain material or immaterial objects, but to the need for the future accomplishment of the situation indicated by the main verb. The same morpheme ‘need’ is also used as part of the future indicative clause marking unit ra31, after being marked by the indicative mood marker . This future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I) specifically indicates future tense and indicative mood, and can only refer to needs when these needs refer to situations which have to take place in future.

    665

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    • ‘need’ as a main verb When used as a main verb, the verb ‘need’ can be used in the two following different ways: 1. in reference to needs for certain material or immaterial objects, 2. in reference to needs for the future accomplishment of a certain situation, mostly after the clause marker ‘to’. Both types of use of ‘need’ as a main verb can be referred to by the two following short sentences. 347

    A1-ra11. NEG–need That’s not necessary.

    348

    Ra31 dik1 r55. (ipf) need extreme PE That’s very much needed.

    1) The following sentences illustrate the use of ‘need’ as a main verb, either referring to the need for objects, such as material objects, or to the need for immaterial matters, such as days which have yet to pass. 349

    Ngo31 ki31-lyeng31 1SG leg/foot–wheel I need a bike.

    ra31 need(ipf)

    r55. PE

    350

    Na35i55 ke5-mvyo55 king55 ra31 r55 ta11? clock Q–much(B) time need(ipf) PE GI How much time did it take? / How many hours did it take?

    351

    Ke5-mvyo55 lving31 ra31 Q–much(B) turn/roll need(ipf) How many more rounds are needed?

    answered with the reply: 352 Le1-lving31 ra31 one–turn/roll need(ipf) One more round is needed.

    a1-si31. nom–still+I

    a1-si31? nom–still+I

    666 or with:

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    353

    Le1-lving31 ze11 ra31 one–turn/roll only need(ipf) Only one more round is needed.

    a1-lo31. nom–no.more+I

    354

    Zum31 zye35 ra54 ge11 ke5-mvyo55 ngi35 consort arrive need+FCT TOP Q–much(B) day ze11 ra31 a1-lo31 la11? (ipf) only need nom–no.more+I UNC How many more days would be left before the start of the Menau festival? [implying that there are only a few days left]

    answered with the reply: 355 Sum11-ngi35 ze11 ra31 a1-lo31. (ipf) three–day only need nom–no.more+I Only three more days are left. 2) The clause marker ‘to’ is a conjunction-like clause marker expressing the notions ‘that’ or ‘to’. This clause marker exclusively marks clauses that are modified by the verb ‘need’, which in these cases specifically refers to the need for the future accomplishment of certain situations. 356

    Hoq5 no35 a1-ra11. shy to NEG–need You don’t have to be shy.

    357

    Nong35dau31 ye31 zyang35 ki31-lyeng31 Nongdao go(away/down) CD leg/foot–wheel 11 35 31 31 zi no ra lye . ride(vt) to need(ipf) also+I You need a bike for going to Nongdao.

    3) The morpheme ‘need’ as a main verb can also be used in expressions expressing indifference towards the accomplishment of certain situations. In most cases, such clauses are negative, and often the situations in the context are not made explicit. It is only in the first of the following sentences that ‘need’ has been attested in this function in an affirmative clause.

    667

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    358

    Ka55-hu55 ra54 lo31, Q–sort need+FCT no.more+I bvak5-rap5 be55 ge1-lo31. [flinging.a.dollop]–dollop EE TOP–no.more+I What does it matter, I’ll just drop the whole thing in.

    359

    Got1 gve5lvang11 a1-ra11. dirty although NEG–need It does not matter if it gets dirty.

    360

    Syuq5 gve5lvang11 a1-ra11, a1-syuq5 drink although NEG–need NEG–drink gve5lvang11 a1-ra11. although NEG–need To drink or not to drink, it’s all the same to me.

    361

    Ngo31 ge11

    a1-ra31 ngyo31. (ipf) 1SG TOP NEG–need talk For me it’s no problem. / I don’t feel that it is necessary.

    • the form ra54 (need+FCT) The morpheme ‘need’ can also be marked by the factitive marker , resulting in the form ra54 (need +FCT). The latter form can be used as a subordinator, a nominaliser and also as a clause marking unit. As a clause marking unit, the form ra54 (need+FCT) refers to a necessity, e.g. (362), or a possible fact in the future, e.g. (363). 362

    Ka55-kyo31 me55 hui31 lum11 (ipf) Q–road LOC make.way/meet reciprocal ra54 dvi55? need+FCT RFL [after taking separate roads] On what road should we meet again?

    363

    Naq1-ma35 a1-ngi31 tomorrow–LOC NEG–be.there(anim) gve5-ra54 lu55? PL–need+FCT MIR

    lang35 wait

    668

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    Would they be there tomorrow? More basic functions of ra54 (need +FCT), underlying its frequent use as a clause marking unit, are those as subordinator or nominaliser. The following sentences illustrate the use of the form ra54 (need+FCT) as a subordinator, e.g. (364) and (365), or a nominaliser, as illustrated by sentence (366) and by the clause yvang11 gvut5 yau35 be1-ra54 a1mu31 (3SG do finish P-need+FCT matter) ‘the job that he is about to finish’. 364

    Cyung31 ra54 zue31 ge11 use need+FCT truc TOP kum55-kum55 wun31 complete2–complete2 carry/bring Did we carry all the things needed?

    bue31

    luq1?

    P+I

    Y/N

    365

    Sun11 gvat5 ra54 pyeng55 veg/dish put.into need+FCT plate gvan31-aq1. put.into*–SIM Fetch (SG) the plate for putting the vegetables on.

    366

    Mi11 ra54 a1-myo11 ask need+FCT NEG–much There’s not much to ask anymore.

    yu11 take(ipf)

    loq1. no.more

    In the following sentence, the form ra54 (need+FCT) is more a nominaliser than a clause marking unit, since the general locative case suffix can be added after it, adding to the notion ‘at the moment when …’. 367

    Yvum31 wo35 wang31 ra54 ge11, house have enter need+FCT TOP zoq1-si11 syeq1 a1-wun31. lock–tie/lock au.contraire NEG–carry/bring Right when I was about to go into my house, I found out that I didn’t bring my key.

    669

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    The following sentences also illustrate that the functions of ra54 (need+FCT) as a clause marking unit and as a nominaliser are indeed quite close. 368

    Nang31 dung31-lvai31 zi11 ra54 ge11 2SG wing–boat ride(vt) need+FCT TOP dvyeng31 lye31 luq1? true(ipf) also+I Y/N Is it true that you (SG) are going to fly an aeroplane?

    369

    I5-nvik5 lo35 ra54 yvang55-moq1 SPEC–duo go(back/up) need+FCT 3PL–party 1 55 1 a -sue luq ? NEG–know Y/N Do they know that we are going [back/up] there?

    In the following sentence, the form ra54 (need +FCT) is used twice, in the first instance as a subordinator and in the second instance as a clause marking unit. 370

    Zye35 lo31 ra54 bvyat1 me55 ge11 arrive come(back/up) need+FCT lifetime LOC TOP he5-se55 dut1 ra54 nga35-nvung55 a1-sue55. Q–like become need+FCT 1PO–1ND.IN NEG–know We (ND.IN) do not know what the near future will bring.

    • ‘need’ as an auxiliary The verb ‘need’ can also function as an auxiliary, in which case its invariant meaning is used in the same sense, with a promise that it does not refer to the need for objects such as material objects. Instead, it specifically refers to the need for the future accomplishment of the situations indicated by the preceding main verb. In sentence (371) below, the verb ‘need’ is used as a main verb, whereas in sentences (372) and (373), which both are possible answers to that question, it is used as an auxiliary. 371

    Ke5-mvyo55 dam31 ra31 Q–much(B) time(Sp) need(ipf) How many times are still needed?

    a1-si31? nom–still+I

    670

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    which can be answered with the response: 372 Sum11-dam31 ye31 ra31 three–time(Sp) go(away/down) need(ipf) I have to go three more times. or with:

    a1-si31. nom–still+I

    373

    Sum11-dam31 ze11 ye31 ra31 three–time(Sp) only go(away/down) need(ipf) 1 a -lo31. nom–no.more+I There are only three times left for me to go.

    374

    O11 yu31 ra31 r55. (ipf) labour.exchange take need PE We have to make use of some exchanged labour forces.

    375

    Nang31

    ka55-hu55 mi11 ra11 zyang35 mi11-aq5. 2SG Q–sort ask need CD ask–SIM If you (SG) need to ask something, do so.

    • ‘need’ as a clause marker The same morpheme ‘need’ is also used as part of the future indicative clause marking unit ra31, after being marked by the indicative mood marker . The future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I) specifically indicates future tense and indicative mood. It can only refer to needs when these needs refer to situations which have to take place in future. The following sentence illustrates that the morpheme ‘need’ can both function as a main verb and as part of the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I). 376

    Meng11mau11 lo35 zyang35 ki31-lyeng31 Ruili go(back/up) CD leg/foot–wheel zi11 no35 ra11 ra31 kai31 dvi31. ride(vt) to need need+I SUG+I CX+I For going to Ruili, you have to go by bike, don’t you?

    The following examples of the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need +I) may serve to illustrate the fact that this clause marking

    671

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    unit may also be used when in the context there is no mention of needs. 377

    A5-se55 gvut5 zyang35 se1-mui31 mui31 nom–like do CD sand–turbid turbid If you do it like that, the water will get turbid.

    378

    Nang31 ke5-ye31, lvoq5 syun31 ra31. 2SG PHB–go(away/down) ACT spill(vt) need+I Don’t go, you (SG) will spill the water.

    379

    Le1-king11 me55 one–halt/rest LOC ra31. need+I I’ll come in a minute.

    380

    Nang31 hye55-yuq1 r55 2SG same.elevation–person OBJ a1-bye31 ra31 luq1? NEG–be.a.match.for/master need+I Y/N Do you (SG) think you will be a match for that guy?

    ra31. need+I

    lye35 lo31 come(away/down) come(back/up)

    The morpheme ‘need’ forms part of a large group of clause marking units, which are listed below in Table 15.1. In clause marking units, the verb ‘need’ is always marked by the indicative mood marker , in the form ra31 (need +I). Many of the more complex clause marking units are discussed in the following sections, viz. Section 17.7 on the finite clause marker ‘no.more’, Section 17.8 on the continuous clause marker ‘still’, Section 17.9 on the perfect clause marker (P) and Section 17.23 on the plural clause marker (PL). Sentence (381) is an example of the finite future indicative clause marking unit le1-ra31 (no.more-need+I), consisting of the allomorph of the finite clause marker (no.more) and the future indicative clause marking unit ra31. The latter clause marking unit le1-ra31 (no.more-need+I) expresses that the situation which is indicated by the clause will be completed in future. Sentence (382) is an example of the continuous future indicative clause marking unit

    672

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    si1-ra31 (still-need+I), consisting of the allomorph of the continuous clause marker (still) and the future indicative clause marking unit ra31. The latter clause marking unit si1-ra31 (still-need+I) expresses that the situation referred to by the clause will be continued in future. 381

    Le1-koq5 ze11 zo11 one–bowl only eat I will only eat one more bowl.

    le1-ra31. no.more–need+I

    382

    Le1-koq5 zo11 si1-ra31. one–bowl eat still–need+I I will eat one more bowl.

    The following sentence is an example of the plural variant of the clause marking unit si1-ra31 (still-need+I), viz. the plural continuous future indicative clause marking unit si1-gve5-ra31 (still-PL-need+I), i.e. further containing the allomorph of the plural morpheme (PL). Cases of a possible plural variant *le1-gve5-ra31 (no.more-PL-need +I) of le1-ra31 (no.more-need +I) have not been attested yet, but it is quite probable that this form exists. 383

    I55-ngi35 ngi31 si1-gve5-ra31 ga31. two–day be.there(anim) still–PL–need+I perceive+I They will only stay two more days.

    The perfect future indicative clause marking unit be1-ra31 (P-need+I) consists of the allomorph of the perfect clause marker (P) and the future indicative clause marking unit ra31. The plural counterpart of the latter clause marking unit is be1-gve5-ra31 (P-PL-need+I), which consists of the same morphemes with addition of the allomorph of the plural morpheme (PL). The perfect future indicative clause marking unit be1-ra31 (P-need+I) and its plural counterpart be1-gve5-ra31 (P-PL-need+I) emphasise the relevant or impending nature of some situation in the future. 384

    Du35 am55 be1-ra31 throw PFM P–need+I Are you throwing it now?

    luq1? Y/N

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    385

    Nung35-moq1 dum11 gvut5 be1-gve5-ra31 2PL–party again do P–PL–need +I You (PL) will have to do it once more.

    Table 15.1:

    673 dut1 r55. become PE

    The use of the morpheme ‘need’ in clause marking units, with or without the plural morpheme (PL)

    non-plural variants

    plural variants

    ra31 (need+I)

    gve5-ra31 (PL-need+I)

    be1-ra31 (P-need+I)

    be1-gve5-ra31 (P-PL-need+I)

    le1-ra31 *le1-gve5-ra31 67 (no.more-need+I) (no.more-PL-need +I)

    morphemes • ‘need’ • (allomorph of plural morpheme (PL)) • indicative mood marker

    • allomorph of perfect clause marker (P), • (allomorph of (PL)) • ‘need’ • indicative mood marker

    • allomorph of finite clause marker

    (no.more) • (allomorph of plural morpheme (PL)) • ‘need’ • indicative mood marker

    67 The hypothetical form * le1-gve5-ra31 (no.more–PL–need+I) is a possible plural variant of le1-ra31 (no.more–need+I). Though not attested yet, it is quite plausible that this combination of morphemes exists.

    674 1

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    31

    si -ra (still-need+I)

    1

    5

    31

    si -gve -ra (still-PL-need+I)

    • allomorph of continuous clause marker (still) • (allomorph of plural morpheme (PL)) • ‘need’ • indicative mood marker

    Clause marking units containing ‘need’, except be1-ra31 (P-need+I) and be1-gve5-ra31 (P-PL-need +I), are the only clause marking units which can be used after a predicate that is preceded by the negative prefix , provided that these clauses are always interrogative. This combination is possible because of the fact that clause marking units containing ‘need’, except be1-ra31 (P-need+I) and its plural counterpart be1-gve5-ra31 (P-PL-need +I), refer to situations which do not occur at the reference point in time. Therefore, these negative interrogative clauses offer a choice between either a negative or a positive outcome in future. The perfect future indicative clause marking unit be1-ra31 (P-need +I), as well as its plural counterpart be1-gve5-ra31 (P-PL-need+I), cannot be used in negative clauses, since the situation indicated by the predicate is already impending at the reference point in time. The following sentences illustrate the use of ‘need’, as part of the monosyllabic future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I), in negative interrogative clauses. 386

    Nang31 zang11 a1-zo11 2SG rice/food NEG–eat Are you (SG) going to eat rice?

    ra31 need+I

    luq1? Y/N

    387

    Nang31 yang35wom11-si11 a1-ze1-nvau31 ra31 luq1? 2SG pineapple–fruit NEG–eat–feel.like need+I Y/N Will you (SG) feel like pineapple?

    388

    Naq1-ma35

    a1-ngi31

    lang35 gve5-ra31

    tomorrow–LOC NEG–be.there(anim) wait

    PL–need+I

    la11? UNC

    675

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    Would they be there tomorrow? After the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 phrases consisting of the copula ‘become’ and one or more clause markers are often added. Such was discussed in Section 10.3. In such cases, apart from indicating future tense, the morpheme ‘need’, depending on the context, either refers to a stringent necessity, like English ‘must, have to’, e.g. (389) and (390), or to the irreversible or imminent possibility for a certain situation to occur, e.g. (391) to (393). 389

    Nang31

    390

    Kyo31 hi31 sai31 ngvyang11 am55 ra31 road this redo(ipf) straighten(vt)(ipf) PFM need+I 1 dut r55. become PE This road needs to be straightened again.

    391

    Zi1syang31 si1-ngai11 ra31 dut1 child flesh–give.birth need+I become ngvut5 r55. be PE The time has come for the baby to be born.

    392

    393

    num11nang35-Ø kung55ga11 raq1 2SG friend–FCT respect like 35 11 11 35 55 5 zyang ge , num nang r he -kung55ga11 CD TOP friend OBJ before–respect ra31 dut1 lye31. need+I become also+I In order to be respected and liked by your friends, you (SG) first have to respect your friends.

    Mau31-eq1 mi11 bat1 sat5 sky#–AG/I fire beat kill The rain will put out the fire. Yvang11

    su54 3SG like+FCT ra31 dut1 need+I become

    ra31 dut1 need+I become

    byu31 man/woman lye31. also+I

    a5-se55 nom–like

    bue31 P+I

    r55. PE

    gvut5 do

    676

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    Someone like him will certainly do that. / Someone like him will certainly act like that. The following sentences further illustrate the use of the future indicative clause marking unit ra31. 394

    Nang31 i1-lang31 ke5-mvyo55 lving31 2SG water–river Q–much(B) turn/roll 31 31 ye ra ? go(away/down) need+I How many rounds will you (SG) go to fetch water?

    395

    Ngo31

    396

    Baq1 baq1 gvut5 ra31, nva55-moq1! [horseback] [horseback] do need+I elder.sister–AUG I’ll sit on your back, big sister!

    397

    Mi1-dat5 a1-lo25 ge11, ke5-se55 fire–electricity NEG–come(back/up)+FCT TOP Q–like gvut5 ra54 dvi55? do need+FCT RFL What shall we do if the electricity doesn’t come back on?

    hau31 a1-zo11, hi31 syeq1 1SG the/that NEG–eat this au.contraire I won’t eat that, but I’ll have this instead.

    zo11 ra31. eat need+I

    In Section 10.3 I have discussed constructions containing the morphemes ‘become’ and ‘need’, expressing that the situation referred to by the clause ending in ra31 (need+I) is either necessary or unavoidable, or sometimes both. Before ‘become’, the morpheme ‘need’ functions as a clause marker, whereas after the clause marker no35 ‘to’ it functions as a verb. 398

    Nang31 zup5-pong11 lom31 ra31 2SG come.together–meeting attend need+I dut1 r55 luq1? become PE Y/N Do you (SG) have to attend that meeting?

    677

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    399

    Nang31 zup5-pong11 lom31 no35 2SG come.together–meeting attend to r55 luq1? PE

    ra31 need(ipf)

    Y/N

    Is it necessary for you (SG) to attend that meeting? 15.24

    THE VERBS ‘PROBABLY’ AND ‘OUGHT, ADDRESS’

    The Zaiwa forms ‘probably’ and ‘ought, address’ could both be loan morphemes with a somewhat similar function and meaning, which therefore are discussed together within this section. The Zaiwa morpheme ‘probably’ could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. the Jingpo auxiliary verb sam ‘probably, possibly’ (Xu et al. 1983: 712). The Zaiwa morpheme ‘probably’ is never used as a main verb and never undergoes morpho-phonological changes. Zaiwa ‘probably’ expresses the notion that the situation indicated by the main verb probably is the case. 400

    Nap1-zang11 a1-zo11 sam31? morning–rice/food NEG–eat probably You haven’t eaten your brunch yet, have you?

    401

    A1-yvup5 sam31. NEG–sleep probably They are not sleeping, are they?

    402

    A1-yvup5 sam31 siq1. NEG–sleep probably still They are not sleeping yet, are they?

    403

    Ngvut5 sam31 be probably It probably is.

    r55.

    Le1-gam35 (male)–eld-brother

    ngvut5 sam31 be probably

    404

    PE

    r55. PE

    678

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    It probably is eldest brother. 405

    A1-yvup5 dvo11 sam31 NEG–sleep place(vt) probably She isn’t still sleeping, I assume.

    loq1. no.more

    The Zaiwa morpheme ‘ought, address’ could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. the Jingpo morpheme ang which is used as a verb expressing ‘right’ or ‘to be the turn of someone’ or an auxiliary verb expressing ‘possibly’ (Xu et al. 1983: 29). Unlike the Zaiwa morpheme ‘probably’, which could also be a loan from Jingpo, Zaiwa ‘ought, address’ can be used as a main verb and in cases does undergo morpho-phonological changes. I shall first discuss the use of Zaiwa ‘ought, address’ as a main verb. The Zaiwa verb ‘ought, address’ as a main verb can be used in three different ways. First it can express the notion ‘should be’, referring to certain conventions, or simply ‘to be right’. Here, the verb ‘ought, address’ in fact is used in the same way as when used as an auxiliary verb, the only difference being that the situation which is concerned is not explicitly mentioned. The following examples illustrate the use of ‘ought, address’ as a main verb. 406

    A1-ang11 luq1? NEG–ought/address Y/N Ought it be like this? / Is it right?

    and the response: 407 Ang11 bue31 ought/address P+I Yes, it’s right.

    ngvut5 be

    r55. PE

    A very specific use of ‘ought, address’ as a main verb is when it expresses the notion ‘address someone as’. 408

    Ngo31 nang31 r55 1SG

    2SG

    OBJ

    A5-wvoi55 nom–grandmother la11?

    a1-ang31 (ipf) NEG–ought/address UNC Shouldn’t I call you (SG) grandma?

    679

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    and the response: 409 A1-ang11, A5-nu11-mo35 NEG–ought/address nom–mother–AUG le1-ang31 lye31. (ipf) but–ought/address also+I No, but you should call me Madam. or: 410

    Ang31 lye31, ang31 ought/address(ipf) also+I ought/address(ipf) Yes, you should, yes, you should.

    411

    Ngo31 1SG

    ge11 TOP

    nang31 2SG

    r55 OBJ

    ang11 ra31 la11? ought/address need+I UNC What should I call you (SG)? 412

    syeq1 au.contraire

    lye31. also+I

    ka55-hu55 Q–sort

    Dang11-gvue55 mi11-wue11 ngvut5 r11 ge11 words–measure wife–female be also TOP A1-kau55 a1-ang11, I5-gu11 nom–cousin NEG–ought/address function–younger.sibling syeq1 le1-ang31 lye31. (ipf) au.contraire but–ought/address also+I Suppose you were a woman, then you wouldn’t call me Akau, but Igu instead.

    Finally, the Zaiwa verb ‘ought, address’ as a main verb can also express ‘to be someone’s turn’. 413

    414

    O55-yuq1 ang11 who–person ought/address Whose turn is it?

    bue31? P+I

    Ngo31 ang11 bue31, a1-ngvut5 1SG ought/address P+I NEG–be It’s my turn, or isn’t it?

    luq1? Y/N

    680 415

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    Ngo31 a1-ang11 1SG NEG–ought/address Is it my turn?

    luq1? Y/N

    The Zaiwa verb ‘ought, address’ as a main verb can also be used after a complete clause, marked by one or more clause markers. Here, like in many of the cases discussed above, the verb ‘ought, address’ also expresses the notions ‘should be’, referring to certain conventions, or simply ‘to be right’. 416

    A1mu31 hi31 ge11 nga35-nvung55 gvut5 matter this TOP 1PO–1ND.IN do 31 31 ang lye . ought/address(ipf) also+I This matter ought to be done by us (ND.IN).

    417

    A1mu31 hi31 ge11 nga35-nvung55 gvut5 matter this TOP 1PO–1ND.IN do ra54 ang31 lye54 lu55, (ipf) need+FCT ought/address also+FCT MIR a1-ang54 lu55, nang31son31 wu35-aq5. (ipf) NEG–ought/address+FCT MIR 2SG calculate look–SIM Should we (ND.IN) do this job or shouldn’t we, you (SG) think about it.

    ra31 need +I

    Zaiwa ‘ought, address’ as an auxiliary expresses the notion that the situation indicated by the preceding verb should be the case. 418

    Nap1-zang11 a1-zo11 ang31. morning–rice/food NEG–eat ought/address(ipf) They shouldn’t have eaten lunch yet. [since it is still early]

    419

    Ngvut5 ang31 be ought/address(ipf) It should be.

    r55.

    Le1-gam35 ngvut5 (male)–eld-brother be It should be eldest brother.

    ang31 r55. ought/address(ipf) PE

    420

    PE

    681

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    421

    Nge1-zo11 wui31 ra54 pye31 lum11 (ipf) fish–child buy need+FCT negotiate reciprocal ang31 a1-gvo31. ought/address(ipf) nom–PL+I They (PL) must be discussing the purchase of fish.

    422

    Nang31 yvang11 r55

    423

    Yvang11 r11 Bue11zin35 lo35 3SG also Beijing go(back/up) ang31 r55. ought/address(ipf) PE She must be also wanting to go to Beijing.

    424

    Zo11 be1-ra31 ga11 ang31 r55. (ipf) eat P–need+I perceive ought/address PE It seems that they are calling us to the meal. [I didn’t hear it clearly.]

    425

    Woq1 puq1 r55, zun31 ngi11 chicken deter PE bird.of.prey be.there(anim)(ipf) 31 55 ang r . ought/address(ipf) PE The chicken is giving alarming cries, there must be a bird of prey chasing it.

    426

    A1-yvup5 dvo11 ang31 loq1. (ipf) NEG–sleep place(vt) ought/address no.more She shouldn’t be still sleeping, I presume.

    427

    Yvup5 dvo54 kun31-eq1 wo31 sleep place(vt)+FCT time–AG/I rain ang31 r55. ought/address(ipf) PE It must have rained while we were asleep / while I was asleep.

    bi11 ang31 2SG 3SG OBJ give ought/address(ipf) You (SG) ought to give it to her.

    lye31. also+I

    nvau31 feel.like

    682 15.25

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    THE VERB ‘DIE’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS THE TORMENTATIVE ASPECTIVISER

    As a main verb, the verb expresses ‘die’. Apart from literally referring to the dying of living beings, e.g. (428) to (430), ‘die’ can also express ‘die out, fade’, of fires and electricity, e.g. (431) and (432), or ‘stop’, of clocks and watches, e.g. (433). 428

    Dum11sa55 si31-to31 to11 lye31. (ipf) witch.doctor die–cast.spell cast.spell also+I The witch doctor is guiding the spirits of the dead.

    429

    Gue11 si31 a1-si31. (ipf) all.right die NEG–die They didn’t die a good death.

    430

    Mui31 si31 bue31. be.poisoned(ipf) die P+I It has been poisoned to death.

    431

    Mi11 si31 bue31. fire die P+I The fire has died out.

    432

    Mi1-dat5 le1-dam31-dvaq5 ngap5 fire–electricity one–time(Sp)–suddenly stop.suddenly mu31 si11 byuq1 bue31. (ipf) happen die lose P+I All of a sudden, there was a black-out.

    433

    Na35i55 si11 byuq1 (ipf) clock die lose My watch has stopped.

    bue31. P+I

    The same verb ‘die’ can also be used as an auxiliary verb termed the tormentative aspectiviser, expressing that the given situation takes place in a rather severe fashion. 434

    Gyoq1 lye31 gyoq1-si11 cold also+I cold–die(ipf)

    pyui55-pyui55. goose.bumbs–goose.bumbs

    683

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    I have goose bumps from cold. Ngo31 nang31 cyot5 lyeng31 si31 (ipf) (ipf) 1SG tread slip fall(vi) die I slipped and had a nasty fall.

    bue31.

    436

    A1lyo11! a5-mvyo55 ke5-dye31 (strange.situation) nom–much PHB–too si31 mai31. die OBV+I Don’t be so damned greedy!

    ma31 greedy(ipf)

    437

    Nang31 don31 si31 be1-kai31 (ipf) 2SG burn.with.anger die P–SUG+I You (SG) must have been burning with anger.

    ma11!

    435

    438

    P+I

    ROUS

    Me1-gvoq5-eq5 Me1-luq5 kim31 (female)–eld-sister– COM (female)–2nd-sister bicker(ipf) lum31 si11 a1-gvo31. (ipf) (ipf) reciprocal die nom–PL+I Eldest and second sister are bickering ferociously.

    In the following sentence, the tormentative aspectiviser could express both the severe need of sleep of the main actant, as well as pleasure in seeing him sleep so firmly. 439

    Su31su31 ga11 yvup5 ngvam31 si11 r55. (ipf) (ipf) [soundly.sleeping] perceive sleep tasty die PE I can hear that he is sleeping very soundly.

    In cases like the following, the verb ‘die’ as the tormentative aspectiviser appears to be used in a different way, bearing an undertone of malicious pleasure. 440 M1m31, gom31 si31 bue31. (ipf) (malicious) nothing.left die P+I So there, there’s nothing for you! Compare also the following sentence, where ‘die’ is used as the tormentative aspectiviser after the verb ‘to be struck by fate’ as

    684

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    part of what appears to be more of an idiosyncratic or fixed expression. 441

    Nang31 ngo31

    dai54 dang11 2SG 1SG speak+FCT words 35 11 31 zyang ge pu si31 CD TOP (fate).strike(ipf) die If you (SG) don’t listen to what I say, struck by fate.

    a1-gyo11 NEG–hear/smell be1-ra31. P–need+I you will certainly be

    The form si1-lo35 (die(ipf)-go(back/up)) ‘terribly’ is a fixed combination of the verb ‘die’ which is marked by the imperfective marker and reduced by the morpho-phonological process of syllable reduction, together with the verb ‘go (back/up)’. Here, the verb ‘die’ is also used as the tormentative aspectiviser, whereas the verb ‘go (back/up)’ is used as an aspectiviser expressing the notion ‘to start V’, with a further notion that there is no specific goal or completion towards which the situation is developing. The form si1-lo35 (die(ipf)-go(back/up)) ‘terribly’ has in fact already been discussed in Section 12.8, on ‘go (back/up)’ and the other principal motion verbs. The combination of the meanings of these two aspectivisers results in the notion ‘more and more severely’. The latter notion can also be expressed without reference to a progress, in which case si1-lo35 (die(ipf)-go(back/up)) can be just translated as ‘terribly’. 442

    443

    444

    445

    O31-nvau11 want/take–feel.like(ipf) I really want it.

    si1-lo35 die(ipf)–go(back/up)

    r55. PE

    Ki1-syo31 nvau11 faeces–defecate feel.like(ipf) I desperately need to defecate.

    si1-lo35 die(ipf)–go(back/up)

    r55.

    A1tyeq5tyeq5! ngye35 (very.very.hot) burnt/hot Ouch, it’s burning hot!

    si1-lo35 die(ipf)–go(back/up)

    r55.

    Mut1 yut1yut1 hungry [starved]

    si1-lo35 die(ipf)–go(back/up)

    r55. PE

    PE

    PE

    685

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    I’m starved to death. 446

    Yut1yut1 ga11 ze5-nvau11 si1-lo35 r55. (ipf) (ipf) [starved] perceive eat–feel.like die –go(back/up) PE I’m dying to eat.

    447

    Yut1yut1 ga11 [starved] perceive si1-lo35 r55. (ipf) die –go(back/up) PE I’m dying to go to sleep.

    448

    Si1-pik5 pik5 lui31 fruit–pungent pungent in.this.way +I 1 35 55 si -lo r . die(ipf)–go(back/up) PE Because of the chillies I’m suffering terribly.

    449

    Lap5 si1-lo35 suffer die(ipf)–go(back/up) It’s so terribly hard.

    yvup5 nvau11 sleep feel.like(ipf)

    lap5 suffer

    r55. PE

    The first syllable of a group of complex verbs is probably also the verb ‘die’, but here it is not used as the tormentative aspectiviser. These first syllables have also been marked by the imperfective marker . These forms are: si11-cik5 ‘to laugh in an exaggerated fashion’, containing ‘bare’(vt), referring to bared teeth, e.g. (450), and si1-nong35 ‘to offer up in an exaggerated fashion’, containing ‘sacrifice’, in sentence (451) used in the sense of ‘to dish up very much, in an exaggerated fashion’. 450

    Ke5-dye31 si11-cik5. PHB–too die(ipf)–bare(vt) Don’t laugh in such an exaggerated fashion. / (Lit.:) Don’t bare your teeth in such an exaggerated fashion.

    451

    Ke5-si1-nong35 gvat5 bi11. (ipf) PHB–die –sacrifice put.into give Don’t dish up food in such an exaggerated fashion.

    686

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    The first syllable of the verb si1-gyo11 ‘to pity someone’, e.g. (452) and (453), appears also to be the verb , marked by the imperfective marker , and the second syllable is ‘hear, smell’. In line with the two above verbs, the more literal meaning of this verb would thus be ‘to hear in an exaggerated fashion’, as if hearing more than there actually is because of one’s emotional attitude. 452

    453

    Ngo31 yvang11 r55

    si1-gyo31 dik1 (ipf) (ipf) 1SG 3SG OBJ die –hear/smell extreme I very much feel pity for him. Ngo31 gung31-gung31 si1-gyo31 1SG body–body die(ipf)–hear/smell(ipf) 1 31 dik bue . extreme P+I I very much feel pity for myself.

    r55. PE

    yu11 take(ipf)

    The form si25 (die+FCT) is the verb ‘die’ marked by the factitive marker and is used after verbs in certain fixed combinations. The first of such fixed combinations is ngi11 si25 ‘hang around like a zombie’, further containing the verb ‘to be there (animate)’, marked by the imperfective marker , e.g. (454). Another is ngau11 si25 (cry(ipf) die+FCT), expressing the rather special notion of eerily crying or calling as an omen of someone’s death, further containing the verb ‘weep, cry’, marked by the imperfective marker , e.g. (455). Finally, there is yop1 si25 ‘to persistently chew or keep in mouth’, further containing the verb ‘to keep sth. in the mouth’, e.g. (456). 454

    Le1-ngi35-bui31 mu35 r11 a1-zui31 one–day–sun work(N) also NEG–touch/work(V)(ipf) ning31, ngi11 si25 ge11. (ipf) INS+I be.there(anim) die+FCT TOP For the whole day not even working, you are just hanging around like a zombie. / For the whole day not even working, he is just hanging around there like a zombie.

    687

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    455

    Ngve5-noq1 yvum31-nam11 me55 lo11 bird–black house–near.the.house LOC come(back/up)(ipf) ngau11 si25 ge11 yvang11 syeq1 (ipf) weep die+FCT TOP 3SG au.contraire lo11 byo35 ang31 r55. (ipf) (ipf) come(back/up) incarnate ought/address PE A crow came crying eerily near our house, it must have been an incarnation of his soul.

    456

    Nvut5 yop1 si25 ge11 mouth chew.with.mouth.shut die+FCT TOP ka55-hu55 zo31 lye31? Q–sort eat(ipf) also+I Something is moving inside your mouth all the time, what are you eating?

    The morpheme ‘die’ is also used as a cursing suffix. For example, gyang31-si31 (mosquito-die) is the regular word for mosquito. Very often an extra cursing suffix ‘aged’ is added after the suffix ‘die’.68 457

    Mi1-dat5 si31-mang11 dum11a1-lo31 loq1. fire–electricity die–aged again NEG–come(back/up) no.more The bloody electricity has once again failed.

    458

    Byu31 si31-mang11 hi31 man/woman die–aged this lo35 bue54 dvi55? go(back/up) P+FCT RFL Where has that bloke gone off to?

    ge11 TOP

    ka31 where

    68 The latter suffix is ‘aged’, not ‘corpse’. The latter, in turn, can be used as a cursing prefix.

    1

    Mang31 mi1-dat5 hi31 ge11, a1hui31 r11 corpse fire–electricity this TOP now also a1-lo25 ge11. NEG–come(back/up)+FCT TOP The bloody electricity hasn’t even come back on yet.

    688

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    The following is a way of expressing happiness at seeing someone, and is an example of the kind of morbid cordiality which is significant for the speech of the Zaiwa of Longchuan. 459

    Byu31 man/woman be1-kai31

    si31-mang11 nang31 ge11 si31 die–aged 2SG TOP die ngvu31 zyang35wa35, dum11 P–SUG+I say CD EMP again toq5 lo25 ge11! come.out come(back/up)+FCT TOP You (SG) old dead one, you were dead but you have come back to life again!

    15.26

    THE VERB ‘DO TO THE UTMOST’ AS AN ASPECTIVISER

    The verb ‘do to the utmost’ could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. htum ‘do to the utmost’, ‘do to the end’ in Xu et al. (1983: 322). The Zaiwa verb ‘do to the utmost’ is only used as an aspectiviser expressing that the action indicated by the main verb is done to the utmost. 460

    Mit1 tum31 dik1 bue31, dai54 (ipf) think to.the.utmost extreme P+I speak+FCT r11 a1-gyo54 ge11. also NEG–hear/smell+FCT TOP I can’t cope with it any longer, he won’t listen to anything. / I have racked my brains about him, he is so disobedient.

    461

    Zo31 tum11 bue31, ka55-hu55 (ipf) eat to.the.utmost P+I Q–sort a1-gue11 zo11 loq1. (ipf) NEG–all.right eat no.more I’ve eaten as much as I could, I can’t have anything more.

    462

    Syuq5 tum11 drink to.the.utmost

    bue31, ka55-hu55 P+I Q–sort

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    689

    a1-gue11 syuq5 loq1. (ipf) NEG–all.right drink no.more I’ve drunk as much as I could, I can’t have anything more. 15.27

    THE VERB ‘LOOK’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS THE PROBATIVE AUXILIARY

    The verb ‘look’ can both be used as a main verb and as an auxiliary. I shall first discuss its meaning. In contrast to the verb ‘see’, which refers to being able to see without any special effort, its counterpart ‘look’ refers to seeing which is the result of some effort, such as peering or rummaging. In Section 16.51, I shall discuss the verb ‘see’ and its use before the main verb in the form myang11 (see(ipf)), which functions as either the fortunative or the facilitative adverb. The fact that, in contradiction to ‘see’, there is some sense of effort in the context of the verb ‘look’ becomes clear from the fact that it is also used with the meaning of ‘read’, e.g. (465) to (468), ‘tell fortune’, e.g. (469), as well as ‘watch’, as in sentences (470) to (472) and in dyen11she31 wu35 ‘watch television’ containing the loan 电视 diànshì. 463

    Rau35 be1-wu35 gvan31-aq1. promptly help–look put.into*–SIM Come (SG) have a look, quickly.

    464

    Nang31 wu35 r11 ka55-kyap5 zye11 2SG look also Q–leaf/sheet exceed zvyoi31 r55? beautiful(ipf) PE Which of the pictures is the most beautiful to you (SG)?

    465

    Lai11gva55 dye31 wu35 lui31-eq1 script too look in.this.way +I–AG/I myoq1-kung11 ma54 lvang55 dut1 bue31. eye–fold LOC+FCT even become P+I After reading for too long, his eyes have become sunken in.

    690

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    466

    Si5gvyam55 hi31 bong35 dvo31 r55 mai31! (ipf) greetings this open(vi) place(vt) PE OBV+I O31-bvue55 kau31 wu35 gvo54 lu55? (GEN) (ipf) who –PLN steal look PL+FCT MIR This letter is open! Would it have been secretly read by some people?

    467

    Lai11gva55 r11 a1-wu35 ning31 ngi11 script also NEG–look INS+I be.there(anim)(ipf) si25 ge11. die+FCT TOP Not even reading! You are/he is just hanging around there like a zombie

    468

    Zai11wa31-ming35-eq5 sueng54 Zaiwa–language– COM bear.reference+FCT le1-buk1 wu35-Ø. one–book look–FCT I’ve read a book on the Zaiwa language.

    469

    Woq1-but1 wu35 lye31. chicken–determine look also+I I’m telling fortunes using a chicken’s head.

    470

    Hye55-gvong11 me55 zat5 bvyaq5 a1-gvo31 same.elevation–hill LOC dancing perform nom–PL+I ga31 ning31, nang31 a1-wu35 nvau31 luq1? perceive+I INS+I 2SG NEG–look feel.like Y/N They say that on the other hill there is a dancing performance, would you (SG) like to watch it?

    471

    Hum55-dong11 mai11 a1-zyui35 wu35 po11. door–(have)hole ABL NEG–peep look INO It is no good to peep through chinks in the door.

    472

    Zyo31syoq5 wu35 lang35-aq5. rice.cake look wait–SIM Keep (SG) an eye on the rice cake until I come back.

    mau11sau11 paper/book

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    691

    The verb ‘look’ can also be used as an auxiliary verb termed the probative aspectiviser. The verb ‘look’ as the probative aspectiviser expresses ‘to experience’ or ‘to try’, either from a prospective or a retrospective point of view. When used in a prospective perspective, the verb ‘look’ as the probative aspectiviser can be translated as ‘try’, since the situation in the context has not been experienced before. When used in a retrospective perspective, the verb ‘look’ as the probative aspectiviser can be translated as ‘have the experience of doing V’, since the situation in the context has already been experienced, thus indicating experiential perfect. The verb ‘look’ as the probative aspectiviser is especially used in a prospective perspective, expressing ‘to try’, in imperative, exhortative and volitional clauses.69 Sentences (473) to (476) illustrate the use of ‘look’ as the probative aspectiviser in an imperative clause, before the singular imperative clause marker . In sentence (477), the verb ‘look’ as the probative aspectiviser is used in a similar sense before the exclusive exhortative clause marker , and in sentence (478) it is used before the dual inclusive exhortative clause marker . Sentences (482), (483) and (489) further below are examples of the use of ‘look’ as the probative aspectiviser in volitional clauses, before the volitional clause markers and . 473

    Gvi31 ngap5 wu35-aq5. star count look–SIM Try (SG) and count the stars.

    69 In the following sentence, the verb ‘look’ as the probative aspectiviser

    is also used in a prospective perspective before a reduplicated morpheme ‘also’. Wherever the morpheme ‘also’ is reduplicated, the two functions of ‘also’, i.e. as an adverb and as a clause marker, coincide, and this combination can be either translated as ‘also when …’ or ‘even when …’. Such will be described in Section 16.23.

    1

    Ha55-hu55 kyo31 gvat5 wu35 r11-r11 … Q–sort let.go.down(ipf) put.into look also–also Whichever of your animals you try to let down …

    692

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    474

    Pung11syui31 ngat1 wu35-aq5. sugar.cane bite look–SIM Try (SG) and bite into the sugar cane.

    475

    Mue31-bu11 me55 lap1 wu35-aq5, wrap–clothes LOC scoop/fish.out look–SIM ngun31 a1-bo25 lu55? silver NEG–contain+FCT MIR Go through your (SG) pockets to see if there is money.

    476

    Mi1-dat5 nang31 sai31 fire–electricity 2SG redo(ipf) Try (SG) to fix the electricity.

    477

    Nga35 du11pu31-zyok5 i5-cyo31 wu35 be55. 1PO bean.curd–packet go–search(ipf) look EE I’ll go and see whether I can find back my packet of bean curd.

    478

    Bat1 wu35 gvoq1 ma11. beat look DIE ROUS Let us (DU) try and beat it. [the drum]

    wu35-aq5. look–SIM

    In the following negative clauses, the verb ‘look’ as the probative aspectiviser refers to the situations denoted by the main verbs in a retrospective perspective, as ‘have the experience of doing V’. These sentences contain the continuous clause marker ‘still’, and the combination of the latter and ‘look’ renders the notion ‘(not) yet’. In sentence (480), the continuous clause marker is nominalised by the factitive marker . 479

    Ngo31 zi1syang31 a1-ku11 (ipf) 1SG child NEG–raise I have not raised a child before.

    wu35 look

    siq1. still

    480

    Zang11-sun11 rice/food–veg/dish wu35 si54 look still+FCT

    ngo31

    a1-zo31 (ipf) NEG–eat

    hi55-bvue55 this–PLN zvyat5 ngvut5 all be

    1SG

    r55. PE

    693

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    These are all dishes that I haven’t eaten before. The following sentence needs some explanation, since here the probative aspectiviser ‘look’ is not combined with the continuous clause marker ‘still’ but with its counterpart, the finite clause marker ‘no more’. The combination of the probative aspectiviser ‘look’ and the latter clause marker renders the notion ‘(not) anymore’. Whereas the situations in the context of the three sentences above are taking place somewhere in the future, whether or not merely as hypothetical propositions, sentence (481) specifically expresses that the situation in the context will not take place anymore. 481

    Nang31 hi55-bvyat1 ge11 Meng11mau11-cin11 2SG this–lifetime TOP Ruili–county.town ge11 a1-wo35 zye35 wu35 le1-kai31 dvi31? TOP NEG–have arrive look no.more–SUG+I CX+I I guess that in this life you (SG) will not be able to visit the county town Ruili, will you?

    Whenever the combination sit5 wu35 (show look) is used, the verb ‘look’ holds between a main verb and the probative aspectiviser. 482

    Ka31, nang35 loq1-wa11 sit5 where 2SG.PO hand/arm–palm/sole show Come, show me the palm of your (SG) hand.

    483

    Ka31, nang35 dvat5bung35 ngo31 where 2SG.PO photographs 1SG 35 5 wu raq . look VO Come, show (SG) me your photographs.

    r55 OBJ

    wu35 raq5 . look VO sit5 show

    The probative aspectiviser ‘look’ is used in a retrospective perspective, expressing experiential perfect, either before the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I), e.g. (484) to (486) (or its plural variant be1-gvo31 (P-PL+I)), or before the factitive marker , e.g. (487), all of which normally refer to situations in the past.

    694 484

    485

    486

    487

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    Nang31 sum11zvoq5 zvoq5 wu35 2SG court court look Did you (SG) ever have a love affair?

    bue31

    luq1?

    P+I

    Y/N

    Mau11sau11 hi31 ngo31 myang11 wu35 paper/book this 1SG see(ipf) look I have seen this book somewhere before. Zo31 wu35 bue31 se5-a1-ga11 (ipf) eat look P+I like–NEG–perceive Do you think you have eaten it before?

    bue31. P+I

    luq1? Y/N

    Ngo31 byu31 hi55-yuq1 lye55 myang11 1SG man/woman this–person OBJ see(ipf) 35 5 11 31 wu -Ø se -ngam dvo lye31. (ipf) (ipf) look–FCT like–seem place(vt) also+I It seems to me that I have seen this person before.

    In the following sentence, the verb ‘look’ is used twice, once as a main verb and once as the probative aspectiviser. 488

    Be1-wu35 gvat5 wu35-aq5. help–look put.into look–SIM Come (SG) take a look with me/us and see.

    The verb ‘look’ as the probative aspectiviser often occurs after other auxiliaries. This is illustrated by the following sentences, where it is used after ‘give’ as the benefactive/malefactive auxiliary, the reciprocal auxiliary and ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser respectively. 489

    But1-pit5 bi31 wu35 raq5. (ipf) determine–cut.in.two give look VO Tell me my fortunes, please. / Tell us our fortunes, please.

    490

    A1mu31 hi31 matter this wu35-aq5. look–SIM

    yvang11-eq5 3SG–COM

    bong35 talk.over

    lum31 reciprocal(ipf)

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    695

    Try (SG) to talk this matter over with him. 491

    U1-lvum11 ngvang31 gvat5 (ipf) head–lump (neck).hang.backwards(vt) put.into 35 5 wu -aq . look–SIM Try (SG) to bend your neck so that your head touches your back.

    The construction le5-Verb dvo31 wu35-aq5 (but-Verb place(vt)(ipf) look-SIM) expresses ‘go on (sg.) doing V and see what I’ll do!’, i.e. that the addressee is given a last chance to change his behaviour before the speaker will lose his temper. This expression has already been encountered in Section 15.9 above and was illustrated by sentences (147) and (148), during the discussion of the use of the verb ‘place’(vt) as the progressive aspectiviser. This construction contains the stressed contrastive adverbial prefix ‘but’, a main verb, the progressive aspectiviser ‘place’(vt), the probative aspectiviser ‘look’ as a second aspectiviser, and ends in the singular imperative clause marker (SIM). 15.28

    THE AUXILIARY ‘TO START’’

    The morpheme ‘start’ appears to be etymologically related to the morpheme ‘before’. The latter morpheme, already discussed in Section 9.19, is used as a pronominal prefix and as the prioritive adverb. The verb ‘start’ is only used as an auxiliary verb, expressing that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb has been initiated. 492

    Nang31 gva31 he31 zyang35 i55-kok1 2SG write(ipf) start CD two–line.of.writing 5 mvit ra54 ke5-dvo31mvi55. leave.over need+FCT PHB–forget When you (SG) start writing, don’t forget to leave two blank lines.

    696

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    In the following sentences, the verb ‘start’ is modified by the verb ‘go(back/up)’, in the function of an aspectiviser expressing ‘to start V’ (not towards a particular completion or goal). Within this combination, the verb ‘go(back/up)’ further emphasises that the situation referred to is only in its initial stages. 493

    Zai11wa31-ming35 syeq1 Zaiwa–language au.contraire lo35 lye31. go(back/up) also+I I’ve just started learning Zaiwa.

    494

    A1kui31 syeq1 woq1 now au.contraire weave I’ve just started weaving.

    mvoq5 learn/teach

    he11 start(ipf)

    he11 lo35 lye31. (ipf) start go(back/up) also+I

    Apart from being used as an auxiliary verb, the same morpheme ‘start’ is also used as part of the complex adverbial sang31-he11 (beginning-start(GEN)) expressing ‘in the beginning’ or ‘originally’. Here, the morpheme ‘start’ is marked by the oblique genitive case marker . The first syllable of this word, which is tentatively glossed as ‘beginning’, is only attested as part of this word. Sentence (495) illustrates the use of sang31-he11 (beginning-start(GEN)) as a noun indicating ‘the beginning’ in time adverbials such as ‘in the beginning’ or ‘originally’ together with case suffixes like the locative case suffix . However, in cases like sentence (496), the function of the same form sang31-he11 (beginning-start(GEN)) resembles that of auxiliary verbs. 495

    496

    Zai11-yvum31 ge11 sang31-he11 cogon.grass–house TOP beginning–start(GEN) 31 35 kyeng lye31, myang zyang35mui35 yellow(ipf) also+I (time).long CD grey Houses with grass roofs start yellow, but they are grey end. Sang31-he11 zo31 lo35 (GEN) (ipf) beginning–start eat go(back/up) We have just started the meal.

    lye31. also+I

    me55 LOC

    ra55. PE

    in the

    697

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    15.29

    THE ASPECTIVISER ‘FINISH’

    The verb ‘finish’ is normally used as an aspectivising auxiliary verb expressing ‘to finish doing V’, except when it is the only verb of the clause. Sentences (497) and (498) illustrate the use of ‘finish’ as a main verb, and sentences (499) to (501) illustrate its use as an aspectiviser expressing ‘to finish doing V’. 497

    Mvo55-bat1 ge11 yau35 below–week TOP finish It will be finished next week.

    be1-ra31. P–need+I

    498

    A1ga31! a1hui31 syeq1 yau35 r55 (difficulty) now au.contraire finish PE Aah, finally it is finished.

    mai31. OBV+I

    499

    Syo11 hat5 flesh pursue lo35 go(back/up) When we have firewood.

    500

    Sau55-hai11 zvung31 yau35 bue31 (ipf) shoe–shoe put.on finish P+I Have you finished putting on your shoes?

    luq1?

    Ban11-gyet5 gyet1 yau35 bue31 flower–scrape.off scrape.off finish P+I Have you finished scraping off the dirt?

    luq1?

    501

    15.30

    yau35 zyang35 tang11 finish CD firewood ho31 syang55. look.for JUS finished hunting, let’s (ND.IN) go and collect

    Y/N

    Y/N

    THE VERB ‘TAKE’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS AN ASPECTIVISER

    The verb ‘take’ can both be used as a main verb and as an aspectiviser. When used as a main verb, it denotes the meaning ‘take, fetch’.

    698

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    502

    Nga35

    bvong55dvin55 o55-yuq1 yu11 1PO pen who–person take(ipf) cyung31 gvo54 ta11? use PL+FCT GI Which of you has taken and used my fountain pen?

    503

    Ke5-bat1 le1-gvo55 dvyo31, ngo31 yu11 PHB–beat no.more– PL DOM+I 1SG take(ipf) 35 5 11 lo a be . go(back/up) almost.certain Stop (PL) playing with these, all right? I’ll take them away.

    504

    Hu31 a1zeng35 be1-yu31 bi11 raq5. above thing help–take give VO Grab that thing up there for me, please.

    505

    Nang35 mue31-bu11 lvap5 dvo54 2SG.PO wrap–clothes dry.in.the.sun place(vt)+FCT yu31 bue31 luq1? take P+I Y/N Have your (SG) clothes that were drying in the sun been taken in?

    and the response: 506 Yu11 dvo31 (ipf) take place(vt)(ipf) I’ve taken them in.

    lye31. also+I

    The ‘take’ as a main verb is also used in what appear to be idiosyncratic expressions, such as in the following examples. 507

    Se1rue11 a1-dye31 yu31 syang55, yvum31-seng31 politeness NEG–too take JUS house–host zvyat5 ngvut5 lye31. all be also+I Let’s (ND.IN) not be too polite, we’re all hosts of this place.

    508

    O11 labour.exchange

    yu31 take

    ra31 r55. (ipf) need PE

    699

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    We have to make use of some exchanged labour forces. The same verb ‘take’ can also be used as an aspectivising auxiliary verb, expressing several different notions, such as ‘do to oneself’, ‘do on behalf of oneself’, ‘do for oneself’, etc. 509

    O55 sue55 o55 gvat5 yu31 syang55. who know who put.into take JUS Every man (ND.IN) for himself. [at a meal] / Everybody (ND.IN) dig in.

    510

    Mvyet1mvyet1 gvut5 [stuck.to.something] do Just grasp (SG) it to yourself.

    511

    A1mu31 hi31 r55 ge11 a5maq5 kam31 matter this OBJ TOP promise promise(ipf) 31 1 31 31 yu ra dut lye . take need+I become also+I On this matter, you have to make a promise to yourself.

    512

    Mau11sau11 me55 wu35 lui31 paper/book LOC look in.this.way +I yu11 lye31. take(ipf) also+I I’m learning it from a book/magazine.

    513

    Zang11-tun11 tun31 yu31 syang55. (ipf) rice/food–shine(vt) shine(vt) take JUS Let’s (ND.IN) put something in our stomach to still the worst hunger. / Let’s (ND.IN) eat something to take the edge off our appetite.

    514

    Ngyap1-meq1 ngvyam31 yu11 tongs/clip(vt)–AG/I clench(ipf) take(ipf) I have pinched myself with the tongs.

    515

    Nang31 sue31-yu31 2SG know(ipf)–take

    lu35 rob

    bue31

    luq1?

    P+I

    Y/N

    yu31-aq1. take–SIM

    mvoq5 learn/teach

    am55

    bue31.

    PFM

    P+I

    700

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    Do you (SG) understand it? 516

    Pun11 kai31 yu31 si1-ra31. (ipf) hill.plot shovel take still–need+I We want to maintain the use of this hill plot.

    The ‘take’ can also express the notion ‘to receive’, i.e. when after ‘have’. The meaning of ‘have’ in the context of the following sentence is used in the sense of ‘receive, get’, i.e. ‘get into possession’. 517

    Ngo31 a1-ngi35-nap1 1SG nom–day–morning wo35 yu25. have take+FCT Yesterday I received a letter.

    si5gvyam55 le1-kyap5 greetings one–leaf/sheet

    In the following sentence, the verb ‘take’ as an aspectiviser is used in the context of rescuing someone. Here, the verb ‘take’ in a way also refers to an action directed towards the main actant himself. 518

    15.31

    Ngo31 nang31 r55 lye35 1SG 2SG OBJ come(away/down) I have rescued you (SG) .

    ki11 yu25. rescue(ipf) take+FCT

    THE ASPECTIVISERS ‘FIXED’ AND ‘MOVE TO ONE PLACE’

    The aspectivisers ‘fixed’ and ‘move to one place’ together form one of the many simplex-causative verb pairs of Zaiwa. Both are exclusively used as aspectivising auxiliary verbs. The morpheme ‘fixed’ is an aspectivising auxiliary verb expressing that the action indicated by the preceding main verb leads to the inability of a certain object to move. 519

    Dye31 too

    dui11 move(vi)(ipf)

    r55,

    ngo31

    PE

    1SG

    a1-wo35 NEG–have

    701

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    zui31 zeng31 loq1. (ipf) touch/work fixed no.more He moves too wildly, I can’t hold him. [spoken whilst trying to give an injection] 520

    Dun31 zeng11 (ipf) (GEN) press.into /spear fixed(ipf) Press (SG) it so that it can’t move.

    dvo11-aq5. place(vt)–SIM

    521

    Ngat1 zeng11 dvo11-aq5. (ipf) bite fixed place(vt)–SIM Hold (SG) it with your teeth.

    522

    Nang31 zeng11 dvo11-aq5. (ipf) (ipf) tread fixed place(vt)–SIM Step (SG) on it so that it can’t move.

    523

    Lang31 zeng11 dvo11-aq5. pull/yank(ipf) fixed(ipf) place(vt)–SIM Hold (SG) the rope so that it can’t move away.

    The verb ‘move to one place’ is the causative variant of ‘fixed’ and is also exclusively used as an aspectiviser. The aspectiviser ‘move to one place’ expresses that certain specific objects are moved to one place as a result of the action indicated by the preceding main verb. 524

    Waq1 zveng11 lift move.to.one.place Heave (PL) it to one place.

    gveq5. PLIM

    525

    Got1 zveng11-aq5. scoop(vt) move.to.one.place–SIM Scoop (SG) it together.

    526

    Mi1-zvue11 earth–soil got1 scoop(vt)

    syum31 zveng11 (ipf) sweep move.to.one.place am55 gveq5. PFM

    PLIM

    lui31 in.this.way +I

    702

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    Bring the soil together and clear (PL) it away. 15.32

    THE VERBS ‘EAT’ AND ‘TASTY’ AS AUXILIARIES

    In some cases, the verb ‘eat’ appears to be used as an auxiliary verb. The auxiliary verb ‘eat’ expresses that the situation indicated by the preceding verb is the share which some person or persons in the context get, in the context of how things are arranged in society or in life as a whole. 527

    Kau11 su31 r55 ge11 cyup5 zo11 steal SNO OBJ TOP penalty eat dut1 lye31. become also+I The thief should be made to pay a fine.

    528

    Nang31 ngo31

    529

    He55-pyang31 ge11 zvau11-bvue31 before–DIR TOP officer–PLN(GEN) meng11-byu31 wui31 r55 zek1 zo31 world–man/woman generation OBJ (op)press eat(ipf) 5 gvyop . tuck.away In the early days, the land-owners oppressed the people endlessly.

    530

    No11 hi55-du11 ge11 hi55-long31 me55 up1 cattle this–being TOP this–area LOC dominate zo31 lye31. eat(ipf) also+I This buffalo dominates the other buffaloes in this area.

    ra31 need+I

    dai54 dang11 a1-gyo11 2SG 1SG speak+FCT words NEG–hear/smell zyang35ge11 pu11 zo11 be1-ra31. CD TOP (fate).strike eat P–need+I If you (SG) don’t listen to what I say, bad luck will certainly be your lot.

    703

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    The above sentences also illustrate that the auxiliary verb ‘eat’ does not trigger the imperfective marker on the preceding main verb.70 After the noun ‘couple’, the verb ‘eat’ has a similar function as in the above sentences, referring to how things are arranged in society or life. 531

    Nung35-nvik5 r11 nvum31 zo11 2PL–duo also couple eat Have you two also become a couple?

    be1-gvo31 P–PL+I

    luq1? Y/N

    The verb expresses ‘tasty’, when referring to food etc., or ‘sound’, when referring to sleeping, as illustrated by sentences (532) and (533) respectively. This verb ‘tasty’ in some cases has a function similar to ‘eat’ in sentences like (529) and (530) above. This is illustrated by sentence (534), where ‘tasty’ is used in the same way as ‘eat’, after the same main verb ‘dominate’. 532

    Nung35-moq1 zo11-syuq5 a1-ngvam11 2PL–party eat–drink NEG–tasty How is the mess at your (PL) place?

    gve5-luq1? PL–Y/N

    533

    Su31su31 ga11 yvup5 ngvam31 si11 r55. (ipf) (ipf) [soundly.sleeping] perceive sleep tasty die PE I can hear that he is sleeping very soundly.

    534

    Ke5-dye31 PHB–too

    up1-ngvam11. dominate–tasty

    70 This becomes clear when comparing sentence (528) to the following sentence, where the same verb ‘(fate) strike’ is used before a verb other than ‘eat’, and where it is marked by the imperfective marker .

    1

    Nang31

    ngo31

    2SG

    1SG

    dai54 dang11 a1-gyo11 speak+FCT words NEG–hear/smell zyang35 ge11 pu31 si31 be1-ra31. CD TOP (fate).strike(ipf) die P–need+I If you (SG) don’t listen to what I say, you will certainly be struck by fate.

    704

    CHAPTER FIFTEEN

    Don’t be so domineering. [not giving others an opportunity to say anything] The same verb ‘tasty’ is also used as the second verb of what appear to be idiosyncratic expressions, viz. myok1-ngvam11 (joke(vi)-tasty) ‘to be funny’, e.g. (535) and (536), and pye31-ngvam11 (negotiate(ipf)-tasty) ‘chat’, e.g. (537). 535

    Ke5-dye31 myok1-ngvam11. PHB–too joke(vi)–tasty Don’t be so funny.

    536

    Mang11-zo11 hau55-yuq1 dat1 aged–child the/that–person able dik1 lye31. extreme also+I That old woman often makes jokes.

    537

    Pye31-ngvam31 negotiate(ipf)–tasty(ipf) Let’s (ND.IN) chat.

    15.33

    THE VERB ‘TRY’ AS AN ASPECTIVISER

    myok1-ngvam31 joke(vi)–tasty(ipf)

    gvun55 syang55. play JUS

    The verb ‘try’ could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. chyam ‘try’ in Xu et al. (1983: 85). The Zaiwa verb ‘try’ can be used both as a main verb, e.g. (538), and as an aspectiviser expressing ‘try to do V’, e.g. (539) to (541). The following examples show that whenever ‘try’ is used as an aspectiviser, it is always used in conjunction with the probative aspectiviser ‘look’. The latter aspectiviser, already discussed above in Section 15.27, expresses ‘to experience’ or ‘to try’, either from a prospective or a retrospective point of view. 538

    Zvyam31 no35 a1-ra11. try to NEG–need It is not necessary to taste it.

    705

    AUXILIARY VERBS

    539

    Wut1 zvyam11 wu35-aq5. wear/dress try(ipf) look–SIM [clothes] Try (SG) this on.

    540

    Zvung31 zvyam11 put.on(ipf) try(ipf) [shoes] Try (SG) these on.

    541

    Bvung31 seng31-eq1 i1-zvyam11 bucket/jerrycan new*–AG/I water–water zvyam11 wu35-aq5. try(ipf) look–SIM Try your (SG) new buckets for carrying water.

    wu35-aq5. look–SIM i5-waq1 go–lift

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    ADVERBS

    16.1

    INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

    We can define adverbs in Zaiwa as forms which precede the verb in terms of linear syntactic element order, and modify the meaning of the main verb, as if to answer the question of how the situation denoted by the main verb is realised or effectuated. The Zaiwa forms that answer the questions of where and when have been dealt with in Chapter 9 on nominal morphology. The Zaiwa adverbs are in principle an infinite set of forms, many of which have clear verbal origins and may in other contexts also occur as verbs. Some others may also occur as nouns or pronouns. The first sections of this chapter, listed directly below in alphabetical order, discuss the Zaiwa adverbs that do not occur as nominals or verbs. Also included are the negative prefix (NEG), in Section 16.2, and the prohibitive prefix (PHB), in Section 16.4. Section 16.3 discusses the adverb ‘not go (away/down) and do V’, which is a contraction of the negative prefix and the reduced allomorph of the verb ‘go (away/down)’. 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 16.10 16.11 16.12

    Negation in Zaiwa; the negative prefix The adverb ‘not go (away/down) and do V’ The prohibitive prefix The adverb ‘almost’ The adverb variants , and ‘casually, carelessly, abominably, like a rascal’ The adverb ‘just’ The cooperative verb prefix ‘help’ The adverb ‘deliberately’ The adverb ‘again’ The adverb ‘categorically’ The morpheme ‘too’ as an adverb and as an auxiliary

    708 16.13 16.14 16.15 16.16 16.17 16.18 16.19 16.20 16.21 16.22 16.23 16.24 16.25 16.26 16.27 16.28 16.29 16.30 16.31 16.32 16.33 16.34 16.35 16.36

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    The adverb ‘how?’ The adverb ‘all of it’ The contrastive prefix ‘but’ The adverb ‘even’ The adverb variants and ‘almost, soon, promptly’ The habitual adverb The adverb ‘well’ and ‘thoroughly’ The suffix variants // ‘also’ (I): as adverbs The suffix variants // ‘also’ (II): as clause markers and conjunctions The suffix variants // ‘also’ (III): after items which are used in an indefinite way The suffix variants // ‘also’ (IV): reduplicated The adverb ‘indiscriminately’ The adverb ‘hard to’ The satisfactive morpheme ‘about enough’ and ‘about enough’ The manner adverb ‘unfortunately’ and the ideophone ‘dollop’ The definite adverb The adverbs ‘possibly’ and ‘maybe’ The attitudinal morpheme ‘what a pity, shucks’ The morpheme ‘au.contraire’ The limitative morpheme ‘only’ The allomorph of the limitative morpheme as the compliative adverb The adverb ‘all’ The adverb ‘rather’ The adverb ‘do V in passing’

    Many Zaiwa adverbs can also occur as verbs. We can say that the latter type of adverbs in Zaiwa are basically verbal forms used in an adverbial function. Obviously, such adverbs are not finite in the clauses in which they occur, and they modify the meaning of the main verb. The latter group of adverbs in Zaiwa are semantically of great interest, since Zaiwa verbs systematically show what I should like to

    ADVERBS

    709

    call transpositional flexibility, i.e. that verbs can double as adverbs. A large amount of Zaiwa adverbs that also occur as verbs are discussed in the Sections 16.37 to 16.43 of this chapter, as listed below. More adverbs are discussed in further sections of this chapter. 16.37 16.38 16.39

    16.40 16.41 16.42 16.43 16.44 16.45 16.46 16.47

    The morpheme ‘use up’ as a main verb and as part of the completive adverb ban11 (use.up(ipf)) The morpheme ‘drive game’ as a main verb and as part of the collective adverb cyom31 / syom31 (drive.game(ipf)) The morpheme ‘respond, upright’ as a main verb and as part of the adverb dvu11 (respond/upright(ipf)) expressing ‘upright’ The morpheme ‘scoop’(vt) as a main verb and as the excessive adverb The morpheme ‘big’ in the adverb gvo11 (big(ipf)) The morpheme ‘prepared’ as a verb and as the investigative adverb The morpheme ‘pass’ as a main verb and as part of the comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)) The morpheme ‘await, take part, attend’ in the locative adverb lom11 (attend(ipf)) ‘to do on the spot’ The morpheme ‘redo, do all over again’ as a main verb and as part of the repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)) The morpheme ‘strike’ as a main verb and as the unintentional adverb The morpheme ‘exceed’ as a verb and as the superlative adverb

    The use of the following motion verbs as adverbs has already been discussed in the Sections 12.3 to 12.7 in Chapter 12 on the Zaiwa motion verbs. ‘come (away/down)’ in ‘come (away/down) to do V’ ‘go (away/down)’ in ‘go (away/down) to do V’ ‘come (back/up)’ in lo11 ‘come (back/up) to do V’ 35 ‘go (back/up)’ in ‘go (back/up) to do V’ ‘turn’ in dvau31 ‘back’, ‘upside down’

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    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    ‘walk’ in so31 ‘go on foot to do V’ 11 31 ‘ride’ in zi ‘go by some vehicle to do V’ ‘jump’ in byam11 ‘jump’(ipf) The adverb bun31 (awaken/miss(ipf)), in the construction a1-bun31 V (NEG-awaken/miss(ipf) V) expressing ‘forget to do V’, was already discussed in Section 15.4. A large part of this chapter is devoted to a small subset of singularly interesting adverbs, which I shall call modal adverbs. Modal adverbs also occur as main verb, with the exception of the abilitative adverb , but their functional load in the language is great in that they are made much use of. Their semantics make perfect sense, once understood. The modal adverbs discussed in this chapter are listed below. Section 13.7 has already discussed ‘to have’ as the possibilitative adverb. 16.48 16.49 16.50 16.51 16.52 16.53

    The abilitative adverb The morpheme ‘all right’ as a verb and as part of the positive adverb The morpheme ‘want to’ as a main verb and as part of the voluntative adverb The morpheme ‘see, find’ as a main verb and as part of adverbs The morpheme ‘dare’ as a main verb and as the venturesome adverb The morpheme ‘know’ as a main verb and as part of the modal adverb sue31 (know(ipf))

    In Zaiwa, reduplication of adjectives is a means to form complex adverbs expressing the notions ‘very Vadj’, ‘utterly Vadj’ and sometimes ‘so that it becomes (quite) Vadj’. In the following example, the reduplicated adjective ‘much’ expresses the notion ‘quickly’. Section 8.5 already has discussed this type of reduplication. 1

    Myo11-myo11 zo11-aq5. much–much eat–SIM Eat as much as you (SG) want.

    ADVERBS

    711

    Zaiwa adverbs may also have more of a nominal or pronominal origin.71 Section 6.5 has already discussed a limited set of adverbs that are derived from nouns by adding the nominalising prefix . There are also four adverbs which have their origins in pronominal or other deictic forms, as has already been discussed in Chapter 9 on nominal morphology. These are listed below. The special morpheme (3s / in.truth), which can both function as the third person pronoun, a prefixed indicator of family ties and as the adverb ‘in truth’, in the construction V yvang11 V (Verb 3s/in.truth Verb) expressing ‘in truth’, vide Section 9.5. The bound form variant ‘much/many’(B) of the verb ‘much’, which can also be used as the modest adverb, vide Section 9.25. The bound form variant ‘far(B)’ of the verb ‘far’, which can also be used as an adverb, vide Section 9.26. The morpheme ‘before’ which can also be used as the prioritive adverb ‘first’ and as part of the complex adverb sang31-he11 (beginning-start(GEN)), vide Section 9.19. 16.2

    NEGATION IN ZAIWA; THE NEGATIVE PREFIX

    The negative prefix negates the situation expressed by the predicate. This meaning does not need much explanation. 2

    A1-gvut5 a1-gue31. NEG–do NEG–all.right It must be done. / (Lit.:) Not doing it would be no good.

    71 The adverb dang11-gvue55 (words–measure) ‘let’s say, suppose …, for example’ is rather special for it contains a noun, i.e. ‘words’.

    1

    Dang11-gvue55 ke5-min31 mi1-dat5 words–measure before–evening fire–electricity a1-lo31 zyang35 ge11 zyau35 yvup5 gvoq1. NEG–come(back/up) CD TOP early sleep DIE Supposing that the electricity doesn’t come back on by this evening, let’s (DU.IN) go to bed early.

    712

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Since the negative prefix expresses a very important grammatical category, some remarks should be made here from the viewpoint of Zaiwa grammar as a whole. Whenever the negative prefix and the prohibitive prefix are used, as a rule there can be no indicative clause marking unit within the same clause. Exceptions to the latter rule are negative interrogative clauses containing the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I). Such clauses specifically refer to two possibilities, one positive and one negative. These exceptions have already been discussed above in Section 4.7.11. 3

    Ngo31 ge11

    zang11 1SG TOP rice/food 31 11 nang ge a1-zo11 2SG TOP NEG–eat [after drinking booze] I’m some?

    zo31 lye31, (ipf) eat also+I 31 ra luq1? need+I Y/N having rice, won’t you (SG) have

    4

    Nang31 Zum31-go35 a1-ye31 ra31 luq1? 2SG consort–dance NEG–go(away/down) need+I Y/N Are you (SG) going to go to the Menau festival [or not]?

    The Zaiwa negative category is also used in a common type of negative question lacking an indicative clause marking unit. In these cases, the speaker does not specifically have in mind that the given situation could be negative. In these Zaiwa negative interrogative clauses, the negative category is not used to express doubt, and such clauses are just normal ways for asking whether or not something is the case. A clause like the following is unlike English clauses such as ‘aren’t you going to swim today?’, where the negative category expresses doubt. 5

    Nang31 a1-syuq5 le1-luq1? 2SG NEG–drink no.more–Y/N Are you (SG) going to drink more?

    In this context, also compare the two following sentences. In the negative interrogative clause (6), the speaker asks about a specific quality of the food. Sentence (7) is a non-negative interrogative clause

    ADVERBS

    713

    with the clause marker (PE) referring to personal experience. By uttering sentence (7), the speaker aims to check about the disposition of the addressee, who apparently has eaten too many chillies. 6

    A1-pik5 luq1? NEG–pungent Y/N Is it pungent?

    7

    Pik5 r55 luq1? pungent PE Y/N It’s real pungent, isn’t it?

    16.3 THE ADVERB ‘NOT GO (AWAY/DOWN) AND DO V’

    The adverb ‘not go (away/down) and do V’ is a contraction of the negative prefix and the reduced allomorph of the motion verb ‘go (away/down)’. The allomorph of ‘not go (away/down) and do V’ is only used in very slow speech. 8

    Le1-gam35-bvue31 yvum31 me55 ngo31 (male)–eld-brother–PLN(GEN) house LOC 1SG se5-poq5 a35-syuq5. tree–leaf not.go–drink I am not going to drink tea at the house of eldest brother and his family.

    9

    A35-yvup5 gvoq1. not.go–sleep DIE Let’s (DU.IN) not [go and] sleep there.

    My principal informant claims that the notion of going away or downwards expressed by the underlying verb ‘go (away/down)’ is also relevant in ‘not go (away/down) and do V’, and that this form therefore cannot be used when going back or upwards. In negative clauses concerning going back or upwards, like the following, the construction a1-lo35 (NEG-go(back/up)) is used instead.

    714

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    10

    Bum31 me55 a1-lo35 heap(vt/N) LOC NEG–go(back/up) I’m not going to sleep on the hill.

    16.4

    THE PROHIBITIVE PREFIX

    yvup5. sleep

    The prohibitive prefix gives expression to prohibitions, as I shall illustrate by the examples within this section. The two allomorphs of prohibitive prefix are varied rather freely, in the way discussed above in Section 3.4. However, the allomorph of the prohibitive prefix in most cases is not used before forms with the dental initials /d/ and /t/. 11

    Ne5-ki11 he5-nang31 bvyen11. cattle–faeces PHB–tread(ipf) flatten/dent(vt) Don’t (SG) step in the buffalo shit.

    12

    Nvap5 ke5-toq5 nvang31. mucus PHB–come.out let.loose [spoken to a child whilst taking a picture:] Don’t let the snot come out.

    13

    Mai35mai35mai35, ke5-ngau31 (comforting) PHB–weep There, there now, stop crying.

    14

    Go11-bvyaq5 ke5-bvyaq5-o31. clumsy/silly(ipf)–perform PHB–perform–HIGH+I Don’t perform such silly dances. [spoken while the addressee is doing so]

    15

    Ke5-lye35 dvye31 loq1. PHB–come(away/down) receive no.more Don’t come and catch up with me.

    loq1. no.more

    Just as in indicative clauses, plurality of the addressees is also indicated in prohibitive clauses by the plural clause marker .

    715

    ADVERBS

    16

    17

    Nung35-moq1-o55 waq1 ke5-lvam31 gvat5 (ipf) 2PL–party–FCT pig PHB–let.walk put.into Don’t take your (PL) pig out to pasture.

    gvo55. PL

    Zi1syang31 nung35-nvik5 r55 ngo31 wu35 wam11 child 2PL–duo OBJ 1SG look weak/fear(ipf) 55 31 5 5 31 r , syam -kop ke -syung gvo55. PE knife–(dig).pit PHB–use PL It makes me weak to watch you children (DU), don’t play with/use that hoe.

    The following sentence contains the idiosyncratic expression wui31-wo31 ho31 ‘make jokes’, or literally ‘to look for laughing-places’. 18

    Wui31-wo31 ke5-ho31 loq1-o31, laugh–spot PHB–look.for no.more–HIGH+I ngo31 a1-wo35 wui31 loq1. 1SG NEG–have laugh no.more Stop making jokes, I can’t stand laughing anymore.

    16.5

    THE ADVERB ‘ALMOST’

    The Zaiwa adverb ‘almost’ expresses the notion ‘almost’, i.e. that a situation has almost taken place. The latter adverb is somewhat different from the adverb / ‘almost, soon, promptly’ (16.17), which often further expresses ‘as soon as possible’. 19

    A1luq1syoi31 lyeng31 almost fall(vi)(ipf) I almost had a nasty fall.

    si31 die

    20

    A1luq1syoi31 ze1-lo35 byuq1 almost only–go(back/up) lose They are leaving immediately.

    21

    A1luq1syoi31 le1-kyam11 bo31 almost one–half contain Almost one half has been done now.

    bue31. P+I

    lye31. also+I bue31. P+I

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    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Naturally, the adverb ‘almost’ can also refer to qualities. The adverb / ‘almost, soon, promptly’ (16.17) is not suitable here. 22

    Me1-ku31 a1luq1syoi31 le1-zyung11 words–voice almost one–kind Their voices are about the same. ??

    ze11. only

    The adverb ‘almost’ can also be used in elliptic sentences, in combination with the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I). This combination expresses the notion ‘be enough’. The adverb / ‘almost, soon, promptly’ (16.17) is not suitable here. 23

    A1luq1syoi31 be1-kai31. almost P–SUG+I It’s about enough.

    24

    Nga35-nvung55 pye31-ngvam31 gvun54 r11 (ipf) (ipf) 1PO–1ND.IN negotiate –tasty play+FCT also a1luq1syoi31 be1-kai31, nga35-nvik5 lo35 almost P–SUG+I 1PO–duo go(back/up) be1-ra31 ngvut5 r55. P–need+I be PE We (ND.IN) have chatted about enough now, we (DU) should go.

    16.6

    THE ADVERB VARIANTS , AND ‘CASUALLY, CARELESSLY, ABOMINABLY, LIKE A RASCAL’

    The morphemes , and can be varied freely and all appear to express the same meanings ‘casually, carelessly, abominably, like a rascal’. These forms could be borrowings from Jingpo, cf. bagon in Xu et al. (1983: 53) bearing the same meanings. 25

    A1gon11 careless/abominably1

    ze1-gvut5 only–do

    gvan31-aq1. put.into*–SIM

    ADVERBS

    717

    Just do (SG) it casually. 26

    Nang31 le1go11 ke5-gvut5, me5gon11 2SG well PHB–do careless/abominably3 31 1 gvun -aq . do*–SIM Don’t (SG) do it in a proper way, do it in a bad way.

    27

    Yvang11

    28

    Byu31 a1gon11 ke5-dye31 ta31. man/woman careless/abominably1 PHB–too scold Don’t scold at people just like that.

    29

    Byu31 hi55-yuq1 me5gon11 dut1 ra55. man/woman this–person careless/abominably become PE This person is rather careless.

    16.7

    THE ADVERB ‘JUST’

    be5gon11 dye31 gvut5 r55. 3SG careless/abominably2 too do PE He is acting rather too much like a rascal. / He is acting rather too carelessly.

    The Zaiwa adverb ‘just’ indicates that a given entity is in isolation or acts in isolation. 30

    Le1-yuq1 bau35 ngi11 zyang35 (ipf) one–person just be.there(anim) CD zvem55zvem55 ga31 r55. [deathly.quiet] perceive(ipf) PE When I’m on my own [there], it is deathly quiet.

    31

    Ngo31 bau35 ki1-tong55 ye31 zyang35 1SG just faeces–jail go(away/down) CD sim55sim55 ga31 r55. (ipf) [slightly.afraid] perceive PE When I go to the toilet on my own, it feels a bit scary.

    718 32

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Hi31 bau35 this just Just this?

    luq1? Y/N

    The adverb ‘just’ can also be used in the context of movements or other situations occurring by themselves, without interference by humans. The following sentence refers to a mug falling ‘all by itself’. 33

    Yvang11 bau35 muq1 byuq1 3SG just tumble lose It tumbled off all by itself.

    bue31. P+I

    The adverb ‘just’ can also be used in elliptic clauses, e.g. (32). Elliptic clauses containing the adverb ‘just’ often further contain the limitative morpheme ‘only’ as part of the limitative finite indicative clause marking unit ze1-lo31 (LIM-FN+I), which expresses that only a limited number of given entities are left, e.g. (34). The difference in meaning between the limitative morpheme ‘only’ and the adverb ‘just’ is that the latter focuses on the given entities in isolation, rather than on their limitation. 34

    35

    Yvang55-nvik5 bau35 ze1-lo31 3PL–duo just only–no.more+I Are there only the two of them?

    luq1? Y/N

    Nang31 bau35 luq1? 2SG just Y/N Are you (SG) alone? / Were you (SG) alone?

    and the response: 36 Ngo31 bau35. 1SG just I’m alone. / I was alone. / It’s just me. The above sentence is elliptic since it does not contain a verb. It does not even contain a clause marker. The clause ngvut5 lye31 (be also+I), consisting of the copula ‘to be’ and the general indicative

    719

    ADVERBS

    clause marking unit lye31 could be added, resulting in sentence (37). The full sentence (38), however, containing the general indicative clause marking unit lye31, is perceived as ungrammatical. 37

    38

    Ngo31 bau35 ngvut5 lye31. 1SG just be also+I I’m alone. / I was alone. / It’s just me. * Ngo31

    bau35 lye31. 1SG just also+I ungrammatical

    The following sentences illustrate that the adverb ‘just’ can be placed before the negative and prohibitive prefixes. 39

    Ngo31 bau35 a1-gvam31 (ipf) 1SG just NEG–want.to I don’t want to go alone.

    40

    Nang31 bau35 ke5-ye31. 2SG just PHB–go(away/down) Don’t (SG) go alone.

    ye31. go(away/down)

    The adverb ‘just’ is also used in reduplicated form, expressing ‘there’s only’, i.e. that there is only the given entity or mass noun entity. The reduplicated ‘just’ is mostly used in elliptic clauses. 41

    Mue31-bu11 me55 pui11-lvup5 wrap–clothes LOC dust/chaff–be.dusty Our clothes are very dusty.

    42

    Byu31 bau35-bau35 man/woman just–just bum11 a1-gvo31. (ipf) heap(vt/N) nom–PL+I It’s full of people.

    bau35-bau35. just–just

    ngi11 be.there(anim)(ipf)

    720 43

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Gvo11 bang11 bau35-bau35. big PNO just–just There were plenty of adults.

    The reduplicated adverb ‘all’ is used in a way which is similar to the reduplicated ‘just’. The reduplicated adverb ‘all’, however, specifically expresses completely having a certain quality or completely being in a certain state. 44

    Nga35-nvung55 yvum31-yan35 me55 ge11 se1ra35 1PO–1ND.IN house–row LOC TOP teacher zvyat5-zvyat5. all–all Only teachers live in our (ND.IN) row of apartments.

    16.8

    THE COOPERATIVE VERB PREFIX ‘HELP’

    The cooperative morpheme , which I shall gloss as ‘help’, is only used as a verb prefix expressing ‘help to do V’ or ‘join in doing V’. This form is analysed as a separate morpheme and not as a reduced allomorph of the verb ‘give’, to which it is nevertheless clearly etymologically related. The main reason for this is that the cooperative morpheme cannot be derived from ‘give’ by the morpho-phonological process of syllable reduction, since as the result of this process the initial /y/ or the vowel /i/ in the original form would always result in a vowel /i/ in the reduced form. The cooperative prefix can be translated as ‘help with it’ or as ‘join in with it’, or can also remain untranslated, e.g. (45). To be more precise, the cooperative prefix places the action indicated by the main verb to which it is attached into a context involving other people, expressing ‘X does V in cooperation with Y or Z’. Therefore, the cooperative prefix mostly refers to cooperation or unified action and can be used in a large range of different contexts. The cooperative prefix can refer to actions that, depending on the context, are either done by the main actant alone or together with other people. These actions may, but do not necessarily, take place in favour of someone.

    721

    ADVERBS

    45

    Nang31

    be1-dvo31 2SG help–place(vt)(ipf) Put (SG) it there.

    am55-aq5. PFM–SIM

    In view of the following sentences, the cooperative prefix clearly cannot be labeled benefactive. In the context of sentence (46), the addressee is incited by the speaker to join the meal. In this case there is no reference to favours, nor towards the speaker, nor towards the people who are eating. Sentence (47) is another example illustrating that there is no implicit benefactive connotation in the meaning of the cooperative prefix , since in this context the speaker states that he is joining in the consumption of a pineapple, while asking the addressee to go and wait for him. The latter sentence is not in any way intended to be facetious. Sentence (48) also certainly does not refer to a favour, since this utterance plainly refers to a job as an employee in a certain company. 46

    Nang31 zang11 zo11 2SG rice/food eat Go (SG) and share the meal.

    i5-be1-bo31-aq1. go–help–contain–SIM

    47

    Ngo31 hi55-me55 yang35wom11-si11 be1-zo31 lye31, (ipf) 1SG this–LOC pineapple–fruit help–eat also+I 31 35 35 5 nang lo lang -aq . 2SG go(back/up) wait–SIM I’m eating pineapple with the people here, you (SG) go first and wait.

    48

    Nang31 ka55-hu55 mu35 be1-zui31 lye31? (ipf) 2SG Q–sort work(N) help–touch/work(V) also+I What kind of tasks do you (SG) do [in this company]?

    Whether the actions indicated by the main verb after the cooperative prefix are being performed alone by the main actant, i.e. the subject of the sentence, or by the main actant together with other people, totally depends on the context. This becomes most clear from the following example, since it has two possible readings, i.e. either ‘please share (sg.) my booze’ or ‘finish (sg.) my booze for me.’

    722 49

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Nga35 i31-pue11 nang31 be1-syu31-aq1. 1PO distilled–booze 2SG help–drink*–SIM Please share (SG) my booze. / Finish (SG) my booze for me.

    In the context of the two following sentences, the addressee is performing the action by himself, since actions are involved which are normally only done by one person. 50

    Mvo31 bvong55dvin55 be1-guq1 below pen help–pick.up Pick up (SG) that pen down there.

    gvan31-aq1. put.into*–SIM

    51

    Kum11 byam11 be1-mvi31 gvan31-aq1. (ipf) (ipf) door jump help–close(vt) put.into*–SIM Close (SG) the door, please.

    The following sentence can also refer to various different contexts. If it is only the back of the speaker that is itching, he or she will remain passive while the addressee is scratching, whereas if the speaker feels itchy all over his body, the speaker and the addressee will probably be scratching his body together. 52

    Gung31-du11 yo31 r55, be1-gvin11 body–being itch3(ipf) PE help–scratch.against.itch(ipf) 31 1 gvan -aq . put.into*–SIM My body is itching, scratch (SG) me for a while.

    In the context of the following sentences, the cooperative prefix clearly refers to joining in by the main actant in an action performed by several or even many people. 53

    Ngo31 mi1-hang55 be1-lom11 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) 1SG wife–marry help–attend place(vt) also+I I’m participating in a wedding.

    54

    Mo35do35 lye35 be1-zvyun11-aq5. car come(away/down) help–push–SIM Help (SG) us to push the car.

    ADVERBS

    723

    Also compare the following examples of the use of the cooperative prefix . 55

    Nga35

    bu11 a1-be1-myang31 gve5-luq1? 1PO clothes NEG–help–see PL–Y/N [Please assist me for a second] has any of you (PL) seen my clothes?

    56

    Ka31, ngo31 bu11 be1-kyut5 lye31. where 1SG clothes help–take.off/pluck also+I Come, I will help you to undress.

    57

    Hu31 a1zeng35 be1-yu31 bi11 raq5. above thing help–take give VO Grab that thing up there for me, please.

    58

    Byam11 be1-gvun31-aq1. (ipf) jump help–do*–SIM Assist (SG) me for a second, please.

    59

    Ngo31 i1-zvyam11 be1-kam31 zyang35 1SG water–water help–receive/fetch CD nang31 be1-yu31 bi11 ra31 ngva31? 2SG help–take give need+I DC+I I have helped you (SG) fetch water, so you will help me grab that thing now, won’t you?

    60

    Rau35 be1-wu35 gvan31-aq1. promptly help–look put.into*–SIM Come (SG) have a look, quickly.

    61

    Dyen11she11 be1-bom35 kyo31 television help–carry.in.front let.go.down(ipf) 31 1 gvan -aq . put.into*–SIM Help (SG) me/us lower the television. [by carrying it in front of yourself]

    724 16.9

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    THE ADVERB ‘DELIBERATELY’

    The Zaiwa adverb ‘deliberately’ could be a direct loan from Jingpo. Dai & Xu (1992: 166) write that the Jingpo adverbs ding1sa and dingsang both mean ‘intentionally’ or ‘deliberately’, cf. also Xu et al. (1983: 120). The following sentences illustrate the similar use of the Zaiwa adverb ‘deliberately’. 62

    63

    64

    Nang31 ding11sang55 gvut5 syut5 lye31 2SG deliberately do wrong also+I Did you (SG) deliberately do it wrong? Nung35-moq1 ding11sang55 gvut5 2PL–party deliberately do Did you (PL) do that deliberately?

    luq1? Y/N

    gvo54 PL+FCT

    Nang31 ding11sang55 syoq5 am54 2SG deliberately pour PFM+FCT Did you (SG) spill the water deliberately?

    luq1? Y/N

    luq1? Y/N

    The following sentence illustrates that the morpheme ‘deliberately’ can also be placed before the negative prefix. 65

    Hi31 ge11 ding11sang55 a1-gue11 (ipf) this TOP deliberately NEG–all.right 5 ra31 ngvut lye31. need+I be also+I This cannot be done intentionally.

    16.10

    THE ADVERB ‘AGAIN’

    gvut5 do

    The Zaiwa adverb ‘again’ expresses that a given situation occurs again. 66

    Mi1-dat5 si31-mang11 fire–electricity die–aged loq1. no.more

    dum11 again

    a1-lo31 NEG–come(back/up)

    725

    ADVERBS

    The bloody electricity has once again failed. 67

    Ke5-mvyo55 ngi35 gvyo31 zyang35 dum11 Q–much(B) day separated.by CD again 11 31 zo ra ? eat need+I How many days should I wait until I eat the other one?

    68

    Dum11 lye35 gvun55-aq5. again come(away/down) play–SIM Come (SG) once more to amuse yourself here.

    69

    Na35i55 hi31 dum11 zai35 clock this again slow2 This watch is slow again.

    bue31. P+I

    When certain quantities are concerned, the adverb ‘again’ can naturally also be translated as ‘more’. Such is the case in sentence (70), referring to other things to be purchased, since the same things will normally not have to be purchased once again. The construction le1-bum31-mo35 (one-heap(vt/N)-AUG) expresses ‘a whole lot’. Also compare sentence (71). 70

    Le1-bum31-mo35 dum11 wui31 ra31 dut1 r55. one–heap(vt/N)–AUG again buy need+I become PE We have to buy a whole lot more things.

    71

    Dum11 zo11 si1-syang55. again eat still–JUS Let’s eat (ND.IN) some more. / Let’s eat (ND.IN) once more.

    The following sentence is a formal way of saying goodbye. 72

    Dum11 hui31 lum11 gvoq1. (ipf) again make.way/meet reciprocal DIE Farewell (DU) / Let’s (DU) meet each other again.

    In some contexts, the adverb ‘again’ rather expresses contradiction instead of succession. This is illustrated by the following

    726

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    example, referring to the contradiction between two situations which are just as real or just as true. 73

    Si1-pik5 a1-gvat5 zyang35 ge11 dum11 fruit–pungent NEG–put.into CD TOP again 1 11 5 35 11 11 a -ngvam , gvat zyang ge dum pik5. NEG–tasty put.into CD TOP again pungent If you don’t put in chillies, it isn’t tasty, but then again, if you do put them in it is too hot.

    Note that the interconnected situations referred to by the adverb ‘again’ in the following sentences are both successive and contradictory. 74

    Byu31 man/woman be1-kai31

    si31-mang11 nang31 ge11 si31 die–aged 2SG TOP die 31 35 35 ngvu zyang wa , P–SUG+I say CD EMP dum11 toq5 lo25 ge11! again come.out come(back/up)+FCT TOP You (SG) old dead one, you were dead but you have come back to life again!

    75

    A1-gue11 bat1 ngvu31 li11, a1-dong35 (ipf) NEG–all.right beat say+I also NEG–agree 1 35 a -dong , dum11 bat1 zyang35 ngvut5 zyang35 NEG–agree again beat CD be CD 11 55 11 5 5 yvang li dum bvat gvyop ga31. 3SG OBJ again let.beat tuck.away perceive+I He said: “You can’t beat on it”, he said he didn’t agree, but when he [the tiger] beat it nevertheless, he was stung incessantly.

    76

    Sun11-mo35 he5-zvyoq5-o55 mai11 sun11-zo11 veg/dish–AUG before–cook–FCT ABL veg/dish–child dum11 rvang55. again make After making the main dishes we make the side dishes.

    727

    ADVERBS

    77

    Yvup5 gu54 dum11 doq1 sleep PART+FCT again go.up I had gone to bed, but got up again.

    lye31. also+I

    To come to a full understanding of the meaning of ‘again’, this adverb needs to be compared to the repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)). The latter adverb consists of the verb ‘redo, to do all over again’ and the imperfective marker . The difference in meaning between ‘again’ and the repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)) is that the latter specifically refers to one and the same action which is being repeated, like English ‘once more’, e.g. (80), whereas ‘again’ refers to situations which are not specifically similar. The fact that ‘again’ does not necessarily refer to repeated actions is clear from the sentences above. In the two following sentences, both ‘again’ and the repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)) could be used. In these contexts both forms refer to the need for the continuation or repetition of an action, but the repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)) would refer to whole instances of an action, such as once again eating a whole meal. 78

    Nang31 le1-zvui55 dum11 zo11 2SG one–bit again eat Eat (SG) a little bit more!

    79

    I1-zyum11 le1-zvui55 sai31 water–salt one–bit redo(ipf) Add (SG) some more salt.

    si1-aq5 ma11. still–SIM ROUS zyan11-aq1. add*–SIM

    The adverb ‘again’ and the repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)) can also be used together, in this order, specifically expressing that some complex action as a whole is performed ‘(all) over again’. 80

    Nang31 dum11-sai31 dai31-gvyo54 (ipf) 2SG again–redo speak(ipf)–let.hear+FCT 1 5 1 a -ngvut luq ? NEG–be Y/N Did you (SG) tell it once again?

    728 16.11

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    THE ADVERB ‘CATEGORICALLY’

    The Zaiwa adverb ‘categorically’ appears to be a loan from Jingpo, cf. Jingpo tingting ‘stable’, ‘categorically’, Xu et al. (1983: 833). The following examples illustrate the use of the Zaiwa adverb ‘categorically’. 81

    Yvang11 dving55dving55 a1-dong35. 3SG categorically NEG–agree He categorically disagrees.

    82

    Yvang11 dving55dving55 a1-zo11 3SG categorically NEG–eat He categorically refuses to eat.

    16.12

    THE MORPHEME ‘TOO’ AS AN ADVERB AND AS AN AUXILIARY

    ga31. perceive+I

    The morpheme ‘too’ is mostly used as an adverb expressing ‘too (much) …’, i.e. ‘to a greater extent than is acceptable, desirable, permissible or possible’. The following examples illustrate its use in affirmative sentences. 83

    Bui31 sun me55

    84

    A1-ngo11, dye31 zvyap5 NEG–fit too squeeze/tight It doesn’t fit. It’s too tight.

    85

    dye31 ngin35 r55, bui31-syum31 too beam.heat PE sun–shady/shade zung31 gvoq1. LOC sit DIE The sun is shining too brightly, let’s (DU.IN) sit in the shade. r55. PE

    A1hui11-bvyat1 ge11 byu31-zuen35 dye31 (GEN) now –lifetime TOP man/woman–intelligent too myo11 bue31. much P+I Nowadays, there are too many intelligent people.

    729

    ADVERBS

    86

    Lai31 dye31 lo11 r55. (ipf) wind too come(back/up) PE The wind is blowing extremely/very hard.

    87

    A1-syuq5, se5-poq5 syuq5 zyang35 NEG–drink tree–leaf drink CD i11 dye31 myo31 r55. water/urine too much(ipf) PE I won’t have [tea]. If I drink tea, I have to pee too much.

    88

    Byu31 hau55-yuq1 ge11 man/woman the/that–person TOP cyum11 r55 mai31. (ipf) avaricious PE OBV+I That person is really too avaricious!

    89

    Zung31 zyang35dye31 bvyang31 r55, yam11-aq1. (ipf) sit CD too jolt/winnow PE stand*–SIM When sitting there feels too bumpy, just stand (SG) .

    90

    Dye31 zvit5 r55, a1-lvuq1 zo11. too few PE NEG–enough eat There are too few, it’s not enough to eat.

    dye31 too

    The adverb ‘too’ can be used on either side of the negative prefix . When used before the negative prefix, the adverb ‘too’ emphasises the negation so as to express indignation. 91

    Le1-dvang55 r11 dai54 dye31 a1-gyo11, (male)–5th-brother also speak+FCT too NEG–hear/smell boi35 bue31, a1-gon31 loq1. ignore.smn P+I NEG–bother.about no.more Fifth brother is so disobedient. We ignore him. We give him the cold shoulder.

    The following examples are negative clauses with ‘too’ after the negative prefix . After the negative prefix and when no emphatic situation is specified, the adverb ‘too’ weakens the negation. In sentence (92) for example, the negated adverb

    730

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    ‘too’ adds to the notion ‘it is boiling, but it’s not boiling too much yet’. 92

    A1-dye31 zvu31 siq1. NEG–too boil/rise still It’s not boiling that much.

    93

    A1-dye31 yvup5 nvau31 siq1. NEG–too sleep feel.like still I’m not too sleepy yet.

    94

    Se1rue11 a1-dye31 yu31 syang55. politeness NEG–too take JUS Let’s (ND.IN) not be too polite.

    The adverb ‘too’ is often used especially after the prohibitive prefix , where it moderates or limits the extent of some situation, and can be translated as ‘not too’, ‘not always’, or ‘not to such an extent’. 95

    Ke5-dye31 myok1-ngvam11. PHB–too joke(vi)–tasty Don’t be so funny.

    96

    Nvut5 ke5-dye31 yop1 nvau31. mouth PHB–too chew.with.mouth.shut feel.like Do not always only think about having something in your mouth.

    97

    Sam55-yau11 ke5-dye31 yau11. Shan–let.pass PHB–too let.pass Do not always say yes in such a non-committal fashion.

    98

    Nang31 byu31 ke5-dye31 gue11 (ipf) 2SG man/woman PHB–too all.right Do not (SG) always swear at other people.

    99

    Ke5-dye31 PHB–too

    si11-cik5. die(ipf)–bare(vt)

    nving11. swear

    731

    ADVERBS

    Don’t laugh in such an exaggerated fashion. / (Lit.:) Don’t bare your teeth in such an exaggerated fashion. 100

    Ke5-dye31 gvyek5 ngau31. PHB–too shriek weep Don’t shriek like that.

    Also compare the following sentence, where a certain person is being mocked for never doing anything constructive. The adverb ‘too’ seems to express that the subject is doing far too many things, whereas from the context it is clear that the opposite is the case. Note that in this sentence the plural nominal suffix is used in a special way, not indicating plurality but expressing doubt about the qualities of the person in the context. 101

    Le1-nong35-bvue55 ka55-hu55 dye31 (male)–2nd-brother–PLN Q–sort too gvun31-a1-gvo54 lu55? do*–nom–PL+FCT MIR What, in fact, does this second brother of ours do?

    Apart from being used as an adverb, the same morpheme ‘too’ can also be used as an auxiliary verb expressing impatience or the notion that a certain passive state has been persisting for too long. Such has been attested in the following combinations of verbs, all denoting passive situations: ngi11 dye31 (be there(anim.)(ipf) too) ‘to be impatient or annoyed by staying at the same place’, e.g. (102), yvup5 dye31 (sleep too) ‘to be awake in bed, unable to sleep for too long’, e.g. (103). The combination lang35 dye31 (wait too) expresses ‘to be anxious’, as has been discussed in Section 15.18. 102

    103

    Nang31 bau35 a1-ngi11 dye31 (ipf) 2SG just NEG–be.there(anim) too Weren’t you (SG) annoyed being there alone?

    luq1? Y/N

    Yvup5 dye11 r11, mau11 a1-gue11 bo35. (ipf) (ipf) sleep too also sky NEG–all.right open.itself I was getting impatient from lying down, and it still didn’t get light.

    732 16.13

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    THE ADVERB ‘HOW?’

    The adverb ‘how?’ expresses ‘(that is) out of the question’. The following elliptic clause further contains the epistemic marking unit me1-lo31 (ROUS-no.more+I) expressing the notion ‘so that’s simple’, which is complementary to the meaning of the adverb ‘how?’. 104

    Hyem31 me1-lo31. how ROUS–no.more+I That’s out of the question.

    The notion ‘(that is) out of the question’ expressed by the adverb ‘how?’ can be used in various different ways. Clauses containing the adverb ‘how?’ can be translated both as an interrogative, e.g. ‘why should this situation occur’, and as an affirmative, e.g. ‘this situation is out of the question’. Moreover, clauses containing this adverb are translated differently depending on whether the main verbs in the predicate are action verbs or stative verbs. I shall first discuss the use of the adverb ‘how?’ before action verbs. The predicates of the following sentences (105) to (107) all contain action verbs, and thus the notion expressed by the adverb ‘how?’ can be translated in the interrogative as ‘why should X do that?’, and in the affirmative as ‘doing this is out of the question’. 105

    Hyem31zo11 ra31. how eat need+I Why eat it? / You can’t eat it.

    106

    Hyem31yvup5 ra31. how sleep need+I Why go to sleep? / You can’t go to sleep.

    107

    O35! hyem31 du35 am31 lye31! (ipf) (blaming) how throw PFM also+I Oh, why did you throw it away?

    733

    ADVERBS

    In negative clauses, the adverb ‘how?’ can express similar notions. In negative clauses in which the main verb of the predicate is an action verb, the adverb ‘how?’ expresses either interrogative ‘why shouldn’t X do that?’ or affirmative ‘not doing like this is out of the question’. 108

    Nang31 ngo31

    r55

    2SG

    OBJ

    1SG

    si5gvyam55 greetings ta11?

    a1-gva31 hun25 (ipf) NEG–write send+FCT GI Why didn’t you (SG) write me a letter?

    hyem31 how

    When the main verb of a predicate of an affirmative clause is a stative verb, the notion expressed by the adverb ‘how?’ is used in a different sense, viz. as both an interrogative in the sense of ‘why would it be so’ and an affirmative in the sense of ‘being like this is out of the question’. Unfortunately, I have no good examples of affirmative clauses illustrating this. Nevertheless, I do have negative clauses containing ‘how?’ before predicates containing stative verbs. In line with what has been stated above, the notions expressed by the adverb ‘how?’ in these cases both are interrogative, like ‘why wouldn’t it be so’, and affirmative, like ‘not being like this is out of the question’, i.e. ‘of course it is like that’. 109

    Mu35 r11 a1-zui31 ge11, hyem31 work(N) also NEG–touch/work(V)(ipf) TOP how a1-myung31 ra54 dvi55? NEG–poor need+FCT RFL If one doesn’t even work, how can one avoid becoming poor?

    16.14

    THE ADVERB ‘ALL OF IT’

    The Zaiwa adverb ‘all of it’ could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. the Jingpo adverb hkyom [khjom31], to which Xu et al. (1983: 271) ascribe the meaning ‘all put together’. Dai & Xu (1992) do not mention this Jingpo adverb. The adverb ‘all of it’ expresses

    734

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    that all entities referred to by the direct object are affected by a certain transitive action. 110

    Nga35 ngun31 yvang55-moq1 r55 1PO silver 3PL–party OBJ 1 55 maq am bue31. give.away.for.nothing PFM P+I I just gave all my money to them.

    kyom11 all.of.it

    111

    Mau11sau11 kyom11 wue31 paper/book all.of.it sweep.away(ipf) Just sweep (SG) all the paper away.

    112

    Kyom11 bat1 gvyop5 bue31. all.of.it beat tuck.away P+I I have beaten them all, without taking a breath.

    113

    Mau11sau11 mvya11mvya11 kyom11 du35 am55 bue31. paper/book [spread.all.over] all.of.it throw PFM P+I Paper is flung all over the place.

    am55-aq5. PFM–SIM

    Both Zaiwa adverbs ‘all’ and ‘all of it’ could be translated into Chinese as the adverb 都 dōu, but there is a clear difference in meaning and function between them. The adverb ‘all of it’ expresses that all entities referred to by the direct object are affected by a certain transitive action. The adverb ‘all’, however, specifically expresses that a certain characteristic or identity applies for all entities in question. 114

    Nga35-nvung55 ge11 bui31num31 zvyat5 ngvut5 1PO–1ND.IN TOP family all be We (ND.IN) are all family.

    lye31. also+I

    In the two following sentences, the adverb ‘all of it’ is placed before the negative prefix . The order of these two forms cannot be reversed. 115

    A1-kyom11 NEG–all.of.it

    bi11 give

    siq1. still

    735

    ADVERBS

    Not all of it has been given yet. 116

    Se5-poq5 a1-kyom11 doi35 tree–leaf NEG–all.of.it cut.short Not all of the tea shrubs have been pruned yet.

    16.15

    THE CONTRASTIVE PREFIX ‘BUT’

    siq1. still

    The contrastive prefix ‘but’, which is homophonous to ‘one’, highlights certain notions of contrast between the situation indicated by the predicate to which it is attached and some other situation in the context. This function is quite similar to English ‘but’, albeit ‘but’ bears a somewhat more emphatic connotation and more specifically refers to a certain problem or contradiction. 117

    118

    Me1-gvoq5 ge11 (female)–eld-sister TOP Eldest sister has eaten it!

    le1-zo31 am31 but–eat(ipf) PFM(ipf)

    Yvang11 ge11 ya11ya35 le1-ngvut5 3SG TOP medicine but–be It’s medicine, you know.

    lye31 also+I

    r55 mai31. PE OBV+I

    ga11. TOP

    119

    Nang31 a1-zo11 gve5lvang11 nga35-moq1 2SG NEG–eat although 1PO–party gvyop1gvyop1 le1-zo31 dam54-o55. [tuck.away] but–eat(ipf) VEH+FCT–HIGH You (SG) may not want to eat it now, but we (ND.EX) will finish it anyway.

    120

    A1man31 le1-lam35 byuq1 last.night but–ramble lose Last night you were away, rambling.

    r55

    mai31.

    PE

    OBV+I

    In the following sentence, the building of rafts and boats is the measure taken by the speakers to combat the impending deluge, aimed at punishing them.

    736 121

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Bvau31 le1-zan11-o55 lvai31 le1-zvuq5-o55. raft/cluster but–hew–HIGH boat but–insert–HIGH But we’ll build rafts and we’ll make ships!

    In the following sentences, the contrastive prefix ‘but’ emphatically refers to matters out of proportion. 122

    123

    Le1-dviq5 byuq1 r55 but–little lose PE They have become so small!

    mai31. OBV+I

    Me1-lat5-n55 ki31 ge11 (female)–halfway–FCT leg/foot TOP le1-ngvut5 r55 mai31. but–be PE OBV+I Second sister has very tiny legs!

    ki31-gvok5-zo11 leg/foot–tiny–child

    The contrastive prefix ‘but’ is often used in combination with other adverbs or in specific other constructions. It is especially often used in combination with the adverb ‘au contraire’. The latter adverb specifically refers to contradictions, e.g. (124), whereas the only function of the contrastive prefix ‘but’ is to add more contrast. The following sentence clearly illustrates this difference in meaning. Here, the use of ‘but’ instead of ‘au contraire’ is refused, since this sentence explicitly refers to a contradiction. 124

    A1-ngvut5, Le1-gam35 NEG–be (male)–eld-brother ye31 bue31. go(away/down) P+I No, eldest brother went instead.

    syeq1 au.contraire

    The two following sentences illustrate that ‘au contraire’ and the contrastive prefix ‘but’ are often used together. In sentence (125), and possibly also in the others, the contrastive prefix ‘but’ can be omitted freely.

    737

    ADVERBS

    125

    126

    Nang31 syeq1 2SG au.contraire Oh, it’s you (SG)!

    le1-ngvut5 but–be

    r55

    mai31.

    PE

    OBV+I

    Hi55-dong31 a1-ngvut5, hau55-dong31 this–lead/connect NEG–be the/that–lead/connect syeq1 le1-ngvut5 r55. au.contraire but–be PE It’s not this way, you need to go that way.

    The contrastive prefix ‘but’ often directly follows the adverb ‘au contraire’, e.g. (125) and (126) above. Sentence (127), containing the contrastive prefix ‘but’ without ‘au contraire’, seems to emphasise the contrast between right and wrong, in the context of a misunderstanding. Adding ‘au contraire’ in sentence (128) clearly more strongly emphasises the contrast and the notion of correcting the misunderstanding. 127

    Ngo31

    Ang55dung35 a1-ngvut5, 1SG Anton NEG–be hye55-yuq1 le1-ngvut5 lye31. same.elevation–person but–be also+I I’m not Anton, it’s him [at the same elevation].

    128

    Ngo31

    Ang55dung35 a1-ngvut5, 1SG Anton NEG–be 55 1 hye -yuq syeq1 le1-ngvut5 lye31. same.elevation–person au.contraire but–be also+I I’m not Anton, it’s him instead [at the same elevation].

    Another morpheme often combined with the contrastive prefix ‘but’ is ‘far(B)’, when the latter is used as an adverb mocking the addressee for his narrow-mindedness. In the two following sentences, the contrastive prefix ‘but’ refers to situations that may be a problem for the addressee, but not for the speaker, who expresses a notion like ‘why would you bother about this?’ 129

    Se5-bvue55 SNO–PLN

    hue55 ngun31 le1-wo35 far(B) silver but–have

    r11, also

    738

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    ke5-dye31 me1non31. PHB–too envious You don’t have to be envious if others have more money than you. 130

    Ngo31 hue55 le1-yvup5 r11, ke5-dye31 me1non31. 1SG far(B) but–sleep also PHB–too envious I’m only sleeping, don’t be envious.

    The contrastive prefix ‘but’ is also often used in certain specific constructions involving forms other than adverbs. In the following sentence, the contrastive prefix ‘but’ is used in combination with r11 ge11 (also TOP), expressing ‘if’ or ‘when’. 131

    Woq1-eq1 guq1 chicken–AG/I unhusked.rice ge11 dvi31? TOP

    le1-zo31 but–eat(ipf)

    am55 PFM

    r11 also

    CX+I

    What if the chicken would eat the unhusked rice, what then eh? The contrastive prefix ‘but’ can also form part of a special construction where it is used before a main verb which is followed by the combination ra31 za54 (need+I only+FCT). This construction expresses regret, as if to say ‘if only …’. 132

    A5-se55 gvut5 le1-gvut5 nom–like do but–do If only I had done it like that.

    ra31 za54. need+I only+FCT

    133

    Hau31 le1-o31 ra31 za54. the/that but–want/take need+I only+FCT If only I had chosen that one / those ones.

    The contrastive prefix ‘but’ also appears in tone /55/ as , as a result of the morpho-phonological process of stress. 134

    Le5-zo11 gvoq1-o31, but–eat DIE–HIGH+I

    min35 r55 mut1 night-time TS hungry

    ra31. need +I

    ADVERBS

    739

    But let us (DU.IN) eat something, in the evening we will get hungry. 135

    Nang31 hue55 a1-wo35 gyo11 2SG far(B) NEG–have hear/smell le5-mu25 wa35. but–happen+FCT EMP It’s only that you (SG) didn’t hear my reply.

    This stressed contrastive prefix ‘but’ is also used as part of a fixed expression, together with two aspectivisers, viz. ‘place’(vt), when the latter is used as the progressive aspectiviser, and ‘look’, when the latter is used as the probative aspectiviser. This construction, which has already been encountered in Section 15.9, is used to give the addressee a last chance to alter his behaviour before the speaker loses his temper. 136

    Le5-yvup5 dvo31 wu35-aq5! (ipf) but–sleep place(vt) look–SIM Go on staying in bed like this and see what happens!

    137

    Zi1syang31 nang31, le5-ngau11 dvo31 wu35-aq5! (ipf) (ipf) child 2SG but–weep place(vt) look–SIM “You (SG) child, go on crying like this and see what happens!”

    16.16

    THE ADVERB ‘EVEN’

    The adverb ‘even’ places a specific emphasis on the situation indicated by the clause to which it belongs, expressing that the given situation is extreme. 138

    I31-pue11 syuq5 lui31-eq1 distilled–booze drink in.this.way +I–AG/I myoq1-dong11 lvang55 nye11 lye31 eye–(have)hole even red(ipf) also+I

    740

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    heng11heng11 dut1 bue31. [scarlet] become P+I Because of boozing, his face got scarlet red. 139

    Lai11gva55 dye31 wu35 lui31-eq1 script too look in.this.way +I–AG/I myoq1-kung11 ma54 lvang55 dut1 bue31. eye–fold LOC+FCT even become P+I After reading for too long, his eyes have become sunken in.

    140

    A1ga31! se1-byo31 lvang55 lam35 ra31 (difficulty) spirit2–spirit3 even ramble need+I se5-ga31 r55. (ipf) like–perceive PE Aah! [I was frightened out of my wits] it felt as if my spirit would go rambling.

    The following sentence refers to a situation where the speaker was unable to wait for the addressee any longer, forcing him to start the meal without him. 141

    Ngo31 lvang55 zo11 lang35 bue31. 1SG even eat wait P+I I had to start the meal while waiting for you.

    In the following sentence, the adverb ‘even’ expresses that the speaker is very sure about something, since he even saw it with his own eyes. 142

    Le1-gam35 tat5-mi11 (male)–eld-brother electricity2–fire dvo31 dvo11 bue31 (ipf) place(vt) place(vt) P+I 55 25 lvang myang . even see+FCT Eldest brother put the electrical torch with my own eyes.

    se1boi31 me55 table LOC ning31, ngo31 INS+I

    1SG

    on the table, I saw it

    741

    ADVERBS

    Naturally, the adverb ‘even’ can also be used in the context of coincidental situations. 143

    Ngo31 lvang55 nang31 r55 lye35 1SG even 2SG OBJ come(away/down) 1 11 31 31 wut ra ngvu dvo lye31. (ipf) (ipf) call need+I say place(vt) also+I In fact, I was just thinking of coming to your (SG) place to call on you.

    In both of the following sentences, the adverb ‘even’ is used in combination with the phrase a1-sue55 (NEG-know). The addressee of sentence (144) is being ridiculed somewhat, but this is not the case in sentence (145). In sentence (144), the combination of ‘even’ and the limitative adverb ‘only’ ridicules the addressee for his not knowing some bit of information. In sentence (145), the function of ‘even’ is to mark the extreme character of the situation, and not to ridicule the speaker himself. 144

    145

    Hau31 ze11 lvang55 a1-sue55 the/that only even NEG–know Don’t you (SG) even know that?

    luq1? Y/N

    Ke5-se55 gvut5 lo35 ra54 lu55 Q–like do go(back/up) need+FCT MIR lvang55 a1-sue55 loq1. even NEG–know no.more I don’t even know anymore how I should move. [spoken whilst playing a game of Chinese checkers]

    Another way of using ‘even’ is after a nominal constituent the meaning of which is used in an indefinite sense. Here, the adverb ‘even’ can mostly be translated as ‘whatever …’. According to my principal informant, the adverb // ‘also’ could also be used instead of ‘even’ in sentence (146). This may count for many other cases, albeit the adverb // ‘also’ is not as emphatic as ‘even’.

    742

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    146

    Zem55zem55 ga31 dik1 r55, (ipf) sound.of.silence perceive extreme PE lvang55 wo35 gyo31 r55. (ipf) even have hear/smell PE It’s so quiet, you can hear every little thing!

    ka55-hu55 Q–sort

    147

    I31-pue11 syuq5 wut1 zyang35 ka55-hu55 distilled–booze drink drunk CD Q–sort 1 31 55 31 me -hon lvang sue hon31 nvo31 words–sing even know(ipf) sing EXP+I 11 ngam r55. seem(ipf) PE When I’m drunk, it seems to me that I can sing each and every song.

    In the negative, the adverb ‘even’ is best rendered into English as ‘(not) … at all’. This negative use of ‘even’, marking nouns that are used in an indefinite sense, is, again, somewhat similar to that of the suffix variants // ‘also’. The adverb ‘even’, however, has a stronger connotation of exaggeration than // ‘also’, which explains why the informant claimed that the suffix of the obvious mai31 (OBV+I) was accepted in sentence (148) containing ‘even’, whereas it was rejected in sentence (149) containing ‘also’. The suffix of the obvious mai31 (OBV+I) stresses the truth, the urgency or the exceptionality of a certain situation by referring to its being obvious in some way. Sentence (148) with ‘even’ concerns the incorrectness of the assumption that the object in the context would be heavy, as well as the extreme lightness which is experienced instead. Sentence (149), containing ‘also’, is more neutral in tone. 148

    149

    Le1-zvui55 lvang55 a1-lai11 one–bit even NEG–heavy It’s not heavy at all! Le1-zvui55 r11 one–bit also It’s not heavy at all.

    a1-lai11. NEG–heavy

    mai31. OBV+I

    743

    ADVERBS

    16.17

    THE ADVERB VARIANTS AND ‘ALMOST, SOON, PROMPTLY’

    The two Zaiwa adverb variants and both express ‘almost, soon, promptly’ and can be varied freely. Variations like between /rau35/ and /lau35/, of which the variant in /r/ is more “Jingpoish”, are discussed in Section 7.8. Both adverbs appear to be variants based on loans from Jingpo. Dai & Xu (1992: 164, 186) describe a Jingpo adverb rau1 or a1rau1 expressing ‘together’, and another Jingpo adverb lau meaning ‘quickly’, used for urging. Possibly, the variation between the Zaiwa adverb variants and ‘almost, soon, promptly’ is based on these two Jingpo variants, whereas in Zaiwa there is only one single meaning for both variants. In all sentences below, the two variants and ‘almost, soon, promptly’ can be freely interchanged, and bear exactly the same meanings ‘almost, soon, promptly’. The two variants / ‘almost, soon, promptly’ of this Zaiwa adverb are used in the same way, both either expressing ‘almost’ or ‘soon’, when in the indicative mood and referring to future situations, or ‘promptly’, when in the imperative or exhortative mood and urging people to do something. This is illustrated by the examples (150) and (151), where / ‘almost, soon, promptly’ is used in indicative clauses, and sentences (152) and (153), where / ‘almost, soon, promptly’ is used in imperative or exhortative clauses. 150

    151

    152

    Ngvyeq5-zo11 lau35 baby–child promptly There will be a baby soon. Lau35 zin31 promptly ready It’s almost ready. Yvum31me55 house LOC lau35 promptly

    wo35 have

    bue31. P+I

    bue31. P+I

    gin11 lye31 dut1 (ipf) busy also+I become ye25 mai11 go(away/down)+FCT ABL

    rvo31, PE+HIGH+I lau35 promptly

    744

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    lo31 syang55. come(back/up) JUS Since there’s lots of work to be done at home, let’s (ND.IN) make it brief over there and come back soon. 153

    Rau35 yvup5 syang55 hoi11. promptly sleep JUS INC Let’s all (ND.IN) go to bed quickly.

    Comments like the following were often uttered while the author was jogging in the village. 154

    Din11 lye31 luq1? lau35 din31-aq1, lau35 (ipf) run also+I Y/N promptly run–SIM promptly din31-aq1. run–SIM Are you running [jogging]? Run (SG) fast, run (SG) fast.

    16.18

    THE HABITUAL ADVERB

    The Zaiwa habitual adverb could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. the Jingpo adverb la [l a̱ʔ55] ‘used to’ Xu et al. (1983: 386). Dai & Xu (1992) make no mention of this Jingpo adverb. The Zaiwa habitual adverb , glossed (HAB), can be translated as ‘repeatedly, every time, as always’ and expresses repeated occurrence of certain situations. The following example is a negative clause. 155

    Lvaq5 HAB

    zang11 rice/food

    a1-zo11 NEG–eat r55.

    u1-lvum11 head–lump

    no11 pain/ill/disease(ipf) PE I have a head-ache every time I do not eat.

    In the following sentence, the Zaiwa habitual adverb is used in a non-negative clause. 156

    Kun55-can11 (name)–no.gloss

    mu35 work(N)

    zui11 touch/work(V)

    ADVERBS

    745

    a1-ye31 zyang35 lvaq5 ta11 a1-gvo31. (ipf) NEG–go(away/down) CD HAB scold nom–PL+I Whenever Kuncan doesn’t go to work she is scolded. The Zaiwa habitual adverb can also be used before a combination of a reduplicated verb and the copula ‘happen’, e.g. (157). The latter construction expresses habituality in the past and the lasting present relevance thereof. In this type of sentence, the copula ‘happen’ cannot be omitted after the reduplicated verb. 157

    Le1-gam35 ning31 a5-se55 lvaq5 gvut5 (male)–eld-brother INS+I nom–like HAB do 5 11 31 gvut mu lye ning31. (ipf) do happen also+I INS+I They say that eldest brother acts like that all the time.

    The difference in meaning between the two latter types of affirmative clauses containing (HAB) is that the reduplication of the verb places more emphasis on the repeatedness of the situation, and therefore is more suitable to express weariness or other emotional attitudes. The two following pairs of sentences may serve to illustrate the latter difference in meaning. In sentences (158) and (160), the habitual adverb precedes single main verbs, whereas in sentences (159) and (161) it precedes reduplicated verbs before the copula ‘happen’. 158

    A5-nu11 lu11 lvaq5 ze5-nvau11 lye31 (ipf) nom–mother sweets HAB eat–feel.like also+I ning31, wui11 lo35 gvoq1. (ipf) INS+I buy go(back/up) DIE Mum always wants to eat sweets, so let’s (DU.IN) buy her some.

    159

    A5-nu11 nom–mother mu11 happen(ipf) Mum wants to some.

    ge1lu11 lvaq5 ze1-nvau31-nvau31 sweets HAB eat–feel.like–feel.like lye31, wui11 lo35 gvoq1. (ipf) also+I buy go(back/up) DIE eat sweets all the time, so let’s (DU.IN) buy her

    746 160

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Nang31 ge11

    i31-syuq5 wut1 2SG TOP distilled–drink drunk wui31 lye31-o55, le1-zvui55 (ipf) difficult also+I–HIGH one–bit Every time you (SG) are drunk, you Drink (SG) less. i31-syuq5 2SG TOP distilled–drink lvaq5 wui11-wui11 HAB difficult–difficult When you (SG) are drunk, you every time.

    zyang35

    lvaq5

    CD

    HAB

    syau31 syu31* -aq1. less(ipf) drink–SIM become troublesome.

    161

    Nang31 ge11

    wut1 zyang35 drunk CD mu11 lye31-o55. (ipf) happen also+I–HIGH become troublesome each and

    16.19

    THE ADVERB ‘WELL’ AND ‘THOROUGHLY’

    The central meaning expressed by the adverb ‘well’ is ‘with attention, thoroughly’. To be more precise, the adverb ‘well’ specifically refers to certain expectations of how the action in the context should take place. 162

    Nang31 le1go11 ke5-gvut5, me5gon11 gvun31-aq1. 2SG well PHB–do careless/abominably do*–SIM Don’t (SG) do it in a proper way, do it in a bad way.

    In some appropriate contexts, the adverb ‘well’ can also express the notion of ‘in order to be attentive to safety’. 163

    Mi11 le1go11 gvut5 gveq5. fire well do PLIM Be (PL) careful with fire.

    164

    Kyo31 zvyut5 r55 le1go11 so11-aq5. road slippery PE well walk–SIM The road is slippery, so mind (SG) your step.

    747

    ADVERBS

    In contexts where matters of safety are not concerned, the adverb ‘well’ can either be translated as ‘well’, ‘satisfactorily’ or ‘properly’, or also just remain untranslated. 165

    Le1go11 ngyang11-ngyang11 well straight(ipf)–straight(ipf) Lie (SG) straight.

    lye11-aq1. lie.down*–SIM

    166

    Nga35-nvung55 wa31 bang11 le1go11 pom31 1PO–1ND.IN village PNO well unite ra31 dut1 lye31. need+I become also+I We (ND.IN) village people have to stand together.

    167

    Nga35-nvik5 r55 le1go11 dvon31 bi11 1PO–duo OBJ well toast give Propose a good toast for us (DU).

    raq5. VO

    168

    Kau11 su31 hau31 r55 ge11 steal SNO the/that OBJ TOP sin11 gveq5. spank/give.beating PLIM Give (PL) that thief a decent beating.

    le1go11 well

    169

    Sun11 le1go11 zvyoq5 ngvyoq5 veg/dish well cook make.done Make (PL) this dish very well done.

    170

    Mi1-sek5 gvut5 zyang35 le1go11 mvon55-aq5. wife–new do CD well dress.up–SIM Since you (SG) are the bride, dress up very well.

    gveq5-o55. PLIM–HIGH

    The Zaiwa ideophone ‘thoroughly’ could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. htep [thep31] ‘appropriately, satisfactorily’, vide Xu et al. (1983: 310). This ideophone ‘thoroughly’ is only used in conjunction with the adverb ‘well’, and expresses an attitude of extra thoroughness.

    748 171

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Nga35 dyen11she11di35 le1go11 tyep1 1PO television well thoroughly i5-rvang31 am55 bue31. go–make(ipf) PFM P+I My television has been repaired very well.

    In the following sentence, the notion of extra thoroughness expressed by ‘thoroughly’ is furthermore emphasised by the aspectiviser of vehemence dam54, which here expresses that the bride should undergo a complete metamorphosis when doing herself up. 172

    Mi1-sek5 gvut5 zyang35 ge11 le1go11 wife–new do CD TOP well tyep1 si1reng35dam54-aq5. thoroughly do.up VEH+FCT–SIM Since you (SG) are the bride, do yourself up very thoroughly.

    In the following sentence, the ideophone ‘thoroughly’ is reduplicated, in order to express iterativity. 173

    A1mu31 zui31 r11 ge11 le1go11 (ipf) matter touch/work also TOP well tyep1-tyep1 gvut5 ra31 dut1 lye31. thoroughly–thoroughly do need+I become also+I When working, you have to do things very thoroughly

    16.20

    THE SUFFIX VARIANTS // ‘ALSO’ (I): AS ADVERBS

    Both in form, syntactic use and meaning, the suffix variants // ‘also’ are a topic that needs to be discussed in detail, as I shall do in this and the following sections. Zaiwa // ‘also’ has three free variants, viz. , and , as I have discussed in Section 7.8. An adverb-like general translation of // as ‘also’ or sometimes ‘too’ also covers their use in syntactic function as clause markers or conjunctions. The suffixes // ‘also’, whatever their syntactic function, modify the meaning of the form or clause to which

    ADVERBS

    749

    they are attached and place this within a larger context, such as which is expressed by the clause as a whole. Its meaning could therefore comprise the sense ‘something takes place; something else also takes place’. Within this chapter, the suffixes // ‘also’ are discussed according to the following topics. The remainder of this section discusses the suffixes // ‘also’ as adverbs. Section 16.21 discusses the suffixes // ‘also’ as clause markers and conjunctions. Section 16.22 discusses the suffixes // ‘also’ after items which are used in an indefinite way, since in these cases the meaning of these suffixes is used in a particularly different sense. Section 16.23 discusses the reduplicated // ‘also’. The remaining part of this section will discuss the use of the suffixes // ‘also’ as adverbs after nominal constituents of which the meanings are used in a definite way. The notion expressed by the suffixes // ‘also’ after nominal constituents is ‘something happens to this entity’, together with either ‘this does not only happen in this particular case’ or ‘this does not happen to this entity alone’. Section 9.8 has discussed the fact that all kinds of nominal constituents can serve as topic, regardless of whether they function as a subject, object or adjunct. Any nominal constituent which is marked by the suffixes // ‘also’ functions as the topic of the sentence. In line with the meaning of // ‘also’ set out above, and depending on the syntactic function of the nominal constituent which is being marked by // ‘also’, the latter adverb can express the following notions. In the descriptions of these notions, both tense and number are left unspecified. • After the subject: this entity does this as well, just like some other entity, e.g. (174), • After the direct object: this entity undergoes this as well, just like some other entity, e.g. (175) to (178), • After an adjunct: this takes place at this time/place as well, just like in some other time/place, e.g. (179)

    750

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    In the two following sentences, the suffixes // ‘also’ express two different notions. In sentence (174), the suffix ‘also’ is placed after the subject and therefore expresses: ‘this entity does this as well, just like some other entity’, since the person in the context is not the only person to wash clothes. In sentence (175), the adverb ‘also’ is placed after the direct object referring to the undergoer of the action, i.e. the clothes being washed. Here, the suffix ‘also’ expresses: ‘this entity undergoes this as well, just like some other entity’, since these clothes are not the only things to be washed. 174

    175

    Nang31 r11 mue31-bu11 i5-ci11 ra31 2SG also wrap–clothes go–wash need +I Are you (SG) also going to wash clothes? [like I do]

    luq1? Y/N

    Mue31-bu11 r11 ci11 ra31 luq1? wrap–clothes also wash need+I Y/N Are you going to wash clothes too? [besides shoes]

    The direct objects in the following sentences are marked both by the object marker and by the adverb // ‘also’. 176

    Ngo31 r55

    r11 lvom55 1SG OBJ also let.participate Please let (PL) me participate too.

    177

    Yvang11

    gve5-raq5. PL–VO

    r55

    bat1-n55 mai11 3SG OBJ beat–FCT ABL hye55-yuq1 r55 r11 dum11 bat1 r55. same.elevation–person OBJ also again beat PE After hitting him, he also hit that guy [at the same elevation].

    No cases have been attested yet where // ‘also’ is used after an indirect object, but nevertheless are likely to exist. In non-negative clauses, the suffixes // ‘also’ after the indirect object, are likely to express the notion: ‘this entity is benefacted/malefacted by this transitive action too, just like some other entity’. In future, clauses like the following need to be tested.

    751

    ADVERBS

    178

    Ngo31 r55

    r11 syo11 le1-zvui55 1SG OBJ also flesh one–bit Cut off a bit of meat for me too.

    yam11 bi11 raq5. cut.off give VO

    The following sentence illustrates the use of // ‘also’ after an adjunct. 179

    Hye55-me55 r11 zyoq1 r55. same.elevation–LOC also be.there(inan) PE [on booths at the market] Over there [at the same elevation] they have it too.

    In negative clauses, the meaning of // ‘also’ after nominal constituents can get the different readings listed below. If possible from the context, a sense of exaggeration can also be conveyed, like ‘not even’. After the subject: this entity does not do this either, just like some other entity, e.g. (180), After the direct object: this entity does not undergo this either, just like some other entity, e.g. (181) and (182), After an adjunct: at this time, at this place etc. this does not take place either, just like at some other time/place etc., e.g. (183) 180

    Yvang55-moq1 a1-syuq5-u55 i31-pue11 ngo31 3PL–party NEG–drink–FCT distilled–booze 1SG r11 a1-syuq5. also NEG–drink I won’t drink the liquor that they (PL) don’t drink.

    181

    Se5-gam31 le1-gvue55 tree–tree(B) one–measure si11 r11 a1-wo35 fruit also NEG–have I could only climb the tree part pick any fruits.

    ze11 wo35 doq1 r55, only have go.up PE pyoq5. break.off/down(vt) of the way and I also couldn’t

    182

    Zai11wa31 Zaiwa

    r11 also

    tung31-pin11 tradition–morals

    a1-sue55, NEG–know

    752

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    got1 dai31 mvau55. (ipf) scoop(vt) speak cheat/fool He doesn’t even know the Zaiwa traditional values; he’s talking nonsense. 183

    A1kui31 r11 a1-gva31 hun11 gvat5-n55 ge11. (ipf) (ipf) now also NEG–write send put.into–FCT TOP [about a letter, after the postman came:] It didn’t arrive again, just now.

    As mentioned above, no cases have been attested yet where // ‘also’ are used after an indirect object, but such cases nevertheless are likely to exist. In negative clauses, the suffixes // ‘also’ after the indirect object, are likely to express the notion: ‘this entity is not benefacted/malefacted by this transitive action either, just like some other entity’. In future, clauses like the following need to be tested. 184

    Ngo31 r55

    r11 syo11 a1-yam11 1SG OBJ also flesh NEG–cut.off He didn’t cut off meat for me either.

    bi11. give

    Note that two of these negative constructions with // ‘also’ within a single complex sentence are somewhat similar to the English ‘neither … nor’ construction. 185

    I1-zvyam11 r11 a1-wo35 kam11 water–water also NEG–have receive/fetch(ipf) 55 1 11 11 1 35 bving ,mi -hue r a -wo ci31 pyu31. (ipf) fill fire–dirt also NEG–have wash white She couldn’t fill it with water nor wash the coals white.

    16.21

    THE SUFFIX VARIANTS // ‘ALSO’ (II): AS CLAUSE MARKERS AND CONJUNCTIONS

    I shall now discuss the use of // ‘also’ after the predicate, as clause markers and conjunctions. The suffixes // ‘also’ as clause markers and conjunctions

    753

    ADVERBS

    specifically relate certain situations to other situations in the context, without indicating a strong circumstantial or chronological relationship between these situations, more or less as ‘something more happened’. This meaning is in line with my definition of the meaning of // ‘also’ as: ‘something takes place; something else also takes place.’ The suffixes // ‘also’ as clause markers and conjunctions do not indicate a strong circumstantial or chronological relationship between situations, and in such cases other clause markers and conjunctions should be used, with more specific meanings. Often, the use of // ‘also’ as clause markers and conjunctions resembles the English present participle in -ing. 186

    Zai11wa31-ming35 mvoq5 r11 le1zvyum55 Zaiwa–language learn/teach also meaning zyaq1 bo11 r55. rather contain(ipf) PE Learning the Zaiwa language is very interesting.

    187

    Yvum31 me55 zang11 house LOC rice/food zye11 ngvam31 r55. (ipf) exceed tasty PE Eating at home is best.

    zo31 r11 (ipf) eat also

    ge11 TOP

    188

    Loq1-bvai31-eq1 zang11 zo31 r11 (ipf) hand/arm–left#–AG/I rice/food eat also 1 35 1 a -yo dik . NEG–convenient extreme Eating with my left hand is very inconvenient.

    189

    Zung31-ngung11 ngung31 r11 a1-ngon35 zyang35 (ipf) sit–squat squat also NEG–pleasant CD zung11-byeq5 bye11-aq1. (ipf) sit –tight.to.the.ground tight.to.the.ground*–SIM If squatting [also] feels uncomfortable, why don’t you (SG) sit cross-legged.

    754 190

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Bu11 hi55-dung11 nang31 wut1 clothes this–piece(Sp) 2SG wear/dress tuk5 r55. suit.well PE This piece of clothing suits you (SG) well.

    r11 also

    The meaning of the morpheme variants // ‘also’ as clause markers is contrastive to that of the conditional clause marker (CD), which marks a circumstantial relationship between the situations expressed by the clauses on either side. The clause marker (CD) can be translated as ‘as soon as’ or simply as ‘if’ or ‘when’, bearing a much more optional meaning than // ‘also’, since the former does not express that the situation indicated by the preceding verb will actually occur. Therefore, the conditional clause marker never triggers marking by the imperfective marker . Sentence (191), containing the conditional clause marker in zo11 zyang35 (eat CD) may express that the speaker will not eat chillies anymore, since these seem to cause pain. Sentence (192), containing ‘also’ in zo31 r11 (eat(ipf) also), expresses a slightly different notion, since this utterance is a specific statement on the simultaneity of the eating of chillies and the aching of the belly, almost as if specifically neglecting the causal relationship that the chillies may have caused the pain, indicating that these situations just co-occur. 191

    Si1-pik5 zo11 zyang35 fruit–pungent eat CD wam35-no11 r55. (ipf) swollen/abdomen–pain/ill/disease PE If I eat chillies, I will get abdominal pain.

    192

    Si1-pik5 zo31 r11 fruit–pungent eat(ipf) also wam35-no11 r55. (ipf) swollen/abdomen–pain/ill/disease PE When eating chillies, my abdomen aches / will ache.

    755

    ADVERBS

    The two following sentences can be compared in a similar way. In sentence (193), the adverb ‘also’ could be translated straightforwardly as ‘also’. 193

    Ki31-lyeng31 zi31 r11 no11 r55. (ipf) (ipf) leg/foot–wheel ride(vt) also pain/ill/disease PE It also hurts when I ride a bicycle.

    194

    Ki31-lyeng31 zi11 zyang35 leg/foot–wheel ride(vt) CD It hurts when I ride a bicycle.

    no11 r55. pain/ill/disease(ipf) PE

    The use of ‘also’ in the following sentence is more difficult to explain. Here, two coexisting situations are indicated, both resulting in a bad mood. 195

    Yvup5 dye11 r11, mau11 a1-gue11 bo35. (ipf) (ipf) sleep too also sky NEG–all.right open.itself I was getting impatient from lying down, and it still didn’t get light.

    The coexistence of situations, such as denoted by // ‘also’ as clause markers and conjunctions, is not the same as simultaneity. The simultaneity of two situations can be specifically expressed in Zaiwa with use of a construction with two times the clause marking unit lye31 (also+I). 196

    Zang11 zo31 lye31 lai11gva55 (ipf) rice/food eat also+I script ke5-gvut5. PHB–do Don’t eat and read at the same time.

    wu35 look

    lye31 also+I

    Especially when // ‘also’ are used as clause markers and conjunctions, the allomorph of the topic marker may often modify them. In some contexts, the construction r11 ge11 (also TOP) may be translated as ‘suppose if …’, e.g. (197). The clause wu35 r11 ge11 (look also TOP) in sentence (198) expresses ‘as seems from his appearance/looks’.

    756

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    197

    Ngo31 le1-zo31 am55 r11 (ipf) 1SG but–eat PFM also gvut5 ra31? do need+I If I eat it, what will you do then?

    198

    ge11, TOP

    ke5-se55 Q–like

    Wu35 r11 ge11 num11num11 ze1-gvut5 look also TOP [taciturn] only–do 54 11 35 35 11 dvo mai wa gum rong dik1 r55. place(vt)+FCT ABL EMP conceited(ipf) extreme PE Although he looks very taciturn, he is in fact very arrogant.

    The adverb dang11-gvue55 (words-measure) expresses the connotation ‘let’s say, suppose …, for example’ and is often combined with the construction r11 ge11 (also TOP). 199

    Dang11-gvue55 mi11-wue11 ngvut5 r11 ge11 words–measure wife–female be also TOP A1-kau55 a1-ang11, I5-gu11 nom–cousin NEG–ought/address function–younger.sibling syeq1 le1-ang31 lye31. (ipf) au.contraire but–ought/address also+I Suppose you were a woman, then you wouldn’t call me Akau, but Igu instead.

    Very often there is no clause after the combination r11 ge11 (also TOP), even though another related situation is being inferred. Section 16.33 discusses the constructions with the allomorph of the limitative morpheme ‘only’, as the Zaiwa compliative adverb, in combination with r11 ge11 (also TOP). 200

    Woq1-eq1 chicken–AG/I ge11 dvi31? TOP

    guq1 unhusked.rice

    le1-zo31 but–eat(ipf)

    am55 PFM

    r11 also

    CX+I

    What if the chicken would eat the unhusked rice, what then eh? 201

    Zaq1 only

    zo11 eat

    lo31 no.more+I

    r11 also

    ge11. TOP

    757

    ADVERBS

    The only thing we can do is start eating. Another way of using // ‘also’ is in the construction V1 r11 V1 -V2 r11 V2, which can be translated as ‘both V1 and V2 are the case’. 202

    Pik5 r11 pik5 pungent also pungent It’s both pungent and sour.

    zvin31 r11 zvin31. sour also sour

    203

    Heng31 r11 heng31 lam31 long also long wide It’s both long and wide.

    lam31. wide

    r11 also

    Constructions of // ‘also’ between two times the same predicate express indifference. (Sentence (299) in Section 15.20 is another example.) 204

    Dyen35 lum31 r11 dyen35 crack/do reciprocal(ipf) also crack/do le1-ngvut5-no55! but–be–HIGH If you want to fight, let’s (DU) fight then!

    205

    Tye11 r11 tye31 (ipf) be.in.the.way also be.in.the.way I don’t mind it standing in my way.

    lum11 reciprocal

    syang55-gaq1. JUS–CC

    The Zaiwa general indicative clause marking unit lye31 consists of the indicative mood marker and a root morpheme which is either no longer retrievable or, probably, the allomorph of // ‘also’. The general indicative clause marking unit lye31 refers to general information in a broad and overall way, and is not related to any specific time other than that which naturally is evident from the context. The general indicative clause marking unit lye31 is often used to refer to states which are a matter of fact. Such matters of fact can also be what the speaker is doing.

    758

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    206

    Ngo31 tang11 zik1 lye31. 1SG firewood cleave also+I I am cleaving firewood.

    207

    Ka55-hu55 gvut5 Q–sort do What are you doing?

    lye31? also+I

    Other matters of fact that, as a rule, are referred to by the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 are matters of general knowledge. 208

    Li31-eq1 ge11 i1-tung11 puq5 lye31. plough#–AG/I TOP water–paddy turn.over(vt) also+I The plough is for turning the paddies.

    209

    Mau11-mi31 ge11 bui31 tang31 cyang31 sky–earth TOP sun behind follow(ipf) 11 31 ling lye . (ipf) turn/roll(vi) also+I The earth turns around the sun.

    When the variant of // ‘also’ indeed does underlie the general indicative clause marking unit lye31, its meaning ‘also’ is thus used in a somewhat less straightforward way. But there is nevertheless a semantic link between the general, as expressed by the general indicative clause marking unit, and the similar, as normally expressed by // ‘also’. The general indicative clause marking unit lye31 expresses ‘this is a matter of fact, like so many others’. 16.22

    THE SUFFIX VARIANTS // ‘ALSO’ (III): AFTER ITEMS WHICH ARE USED IN AN INDEFINITE WAY

    In this section, I shall discuss the use of // ‘also’ after nominal constituents or adverbial clauses which are used in an indefinite way. I shall first discuss their use in both negative and affirmative sentences, after interrogative pronouns that are used in an indefinite way, in Zaiwa to express notions like ‘everything’ and

    759

    ADVERBS

    ‘nothing’, ‘anybody’ and ‘nobody’, ‘everywhere’ and ‘nowhere’ etc. Suffixing // ‘also’ intensifies the clause, in the sense that a certain situation applies for the indefinite entity referred to by the interrogative pronoun. A more emphatic reading in the sense of ‘even’ is also possible. For example, after ka55-hu55 (Q-sort) ‘what’, the suffix ‘also’ expresses ‘that too’ or ‘even that’ or, in the negative, ‘neither that’ or ‘not even that’. after ka55-hu55 (Q-sort) ‘what’: 210

    Ngo31 ka55-hu55 1SG Q–sort I can eat everything.

    r11 also

    dat1 able

    211

    Ka55-hu55 r11 a1-bo31 Q–sort also NEG–contain There is nothing in it anymore.

    212

    Yvang11

    zo31 lye31. (ipf) eat also+I loq1. no.more

    le1-ngi35-bui31 ka55-hu55 3SG one–day–sun Q–sort a1-gvut5-n55, ngi11-si11 (ipf) (ipf) NEG–do–FCT be.there(anim) –die He hasn’t done anything all day, just hanging zombie.

    r11 also r55. PE

    around like a

    The following examples illustrate the similar use of // ‘also’ after ‘what’, which is the variant of ka55-hu55 ‘what’ in dialects of Longchuan. 213

    Ngo31 hai31 li11 1SG what also I can eat everything.

    dat1 able

    214

    Hai31 r11 a1-ngvut5. what also NEG–be It was nothing at all.

    zo31 lye31. (ipf) eat also+I

    The following examples illustrate the use of // ‘also’ after ‘where’, as has only been attested in negative clauses.

    760 215

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Ka31 r11 a1-dat1 wang31. where also NEG–able enter There was nowhere they could go inside.

    The following examples illustrate the use of // ‘also’ after ke5-nvam55 (Q-when) ‘when’. 216

    Zang11-sun11 hi55-bvue55 ke5-nvam55 li11 rice/food–veg/dish this–PLN Q–when also wo35 lye31. have also+I [The vegetables for] these dishes are always available.

    217

    Ngo31 ke5-nvam55 1SG Q–when I never drink alcohol.

    li11 also

    i31-pue11 a1-syuq5. distilled–booze NEG–drink

    The following examples illustrate the use of // ‘also’ after constructions with bvue55-ha55 (PLN-where) ‘places’. 218

    Ka55-bvue55-ha55 r11 byeq1-byeq1 Q–PLN–where(B) also tight.to.the.ground–2x 5 11 55 gvut zung r . do sit(ipf) PE He just sticks his ass all over the place.

    219

    Hau55-bvue55-ka55 r11 the/that–PLN–where(B) also It’s not even in those places.

    a1-zyoq1. NEG–be.there(inan)

    The following examples illustrate the use of // ‘also’ after ‘who’. 220

    O55 r11 a1-lye35. who also NEG–come(away/down) Nobody came.

    221

    A1-myu31-zo11 ge11 o55 nom–sort/nationality–child TOP who

    r11 also

    o54 who+FCT

    761

    ADVERBS

    tung31-keng11 wo35 lye31. tradition–outfit have also+I Every minority has its own traditions. Also compare the use of // ‘also’ after o54 ‘whose’, consisting of ‘who’ and the factitive marker . 222

    O54 r11 who+FCT also It belongs to nobody.

    a1-ngvut5. NEG–be

    The examples below show that // ‘also’ can also be used in the same way after non-pronominals when these are used in an indefinite way. Their use after le1-zvui55 ‘a bit’ has only been attested in negative sentences, like the following. 223

    224

    Le1-zvui55 r11 a1-pau11 one–bit also NEG–expensive It’s not expensive at all!

    mai31. OBV+I

    Le1-zvui55 r11 a1-zo11. one–bit also NEG–eat I won’t eat anything. / I didn’t eat anything.

    In the following sentence, the nominalised clause nga35-nvung55 ke5-mvyo55 wo35-Ø (1PO-1ND.IN Q -much(B) have-FCT) is also used in an indefinite sense before ‘also’. Sentence (226) is a similar case. 225

    Nga35-nvung55 ke5-mvyo55 wo35-Ø 1PO–1ND.IN Q–much(B) have–FCT ke5-mvyo55 bi11 syang55. Q–much(B) give JUS Let’s (ND.IN) give whatever we have.

    r11 also

    226

    Mvyet1mvyet1 ga11 [stuck.to.something] perceive lang31 kyo55. (ipf) pull/yank let.go.down

    a1-wo35 NEG–have

    wo35 have

    r11 also

    762

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Hanging all my weight to it, I still couldn’t pull it down. In the following sentence, the suffix ‘also’ expresses a certain emphatic connotation as if emphatically referring to other situations, viz. to other ferocious acts which the speaker may do in his anger. 227

    Byu31 r11 bvot5 dam54 ra31-o55! man/woman also tear/hew.in.two VEH +FCT need +I–HIGH I’ll tear him in two, in one big yank!

    The emphatic use of // ‘also’ in the previous sentence is also found in the following sentence, where ‘also’ is used after other clause markers. 228

    Nang31 ban11 gvo11 bue31 r11 ke5-dye31 (ipf) 2SG use.up big P+I also PHB–too cyong31-o31. frolic–HIGH+I You (SG) have been grown up for a long time, don’t play like that.

    In the following sentence, the suffix ‘also’ expresses the notion ‘whatever’ in an emphatic way, in ‘whatever one says to him’, after the form dai54 (talk+FCT), consisting of the verb ‘talk’ and the factitive marker. 229

    Mit1 tum31 dik1 bue31, dai54 think to.the.utmost(ipf) extreme P+I speak+FCT r11 a1-gyo54 ge11. also NEG–hear/smell+FCT TOP I can’t cope with it any longer, he won’t listen to anything. / I have racked my brains about him, he is so disobedient.

    The construction r11 a1-sue55 (also NEG-know) can be added to Zaiwa clauses that are already complete since they already end in clause markers, and expresses ‘it might be, but I don’t know’. 230

    Hoi55 ngvut5 lye31 r11 maybe be also+I also

    a1-sue55. NEG–know

    763

    ADVERBS

    It might be, I don’t know. 231

    Hoi55 lo35 bue31 r11 maybe go(back/up) P+I also It might be that he left, I don’t know.

    a1-sue55. NEG–know

    232

    Me1-gvoq5-bvue55 yvup5 nvau11 a1-gvo31 (ipf) (female)–eld-sister–PLN sleep feel.like nom–PL+I r11 a1-sue55. also NEG–know I don’t know, but perhaps eldest sister and the others want to go to sleep.

    233

    Yvang55-moq1 a1-gvam55 gvo54 r11 a1-sue55. 3PL–party NEG–want.to PL+FCT also NEG–know I don’t know, but perhaps they (PL) do not want to do that.

    The adverb ‘even’ is somewhat similar to // ‘also’ in its use as a marker of nouns or clauses that are used in an indefinite sense. However, the adverb ‘even’ has a stronger connotation of exaggeration than the former. Whereas the construction r11 a1-sue55 (also NEG-know) in sentences (230) to (233) above does not have a self-abasing or self-reproaching effect, a similar construction containing the adverb ‘even’ expresses the notion ‘I don’t even know this’. 234

    Ke5-mvyo55 wo31 gvut5 syut5 lye31 lvang55 a1-sue55. Q–much(B) spot do wrong also+I even NEG–know You don’t even know how many mistakes you have made!?

    The same difference in meaning between the adverb ‘even’ and // ‘also’ was discussed and illustrated in Section 16.16 on the former adverb. One more way of using // ‘also’ is after verbal phrases which are used in an indefinite sense, e.g. in the construction: ke5-mvyo55 V // V (Q-much Verb also Verb) ‘no matter how much you V’.

    764

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    235

    Ngo31 lye55

    ke5-mvyo55 bat1 r11 bat1 1SG OBJ Q–much(B) beat also beat gveq5, ngo31 a1-gue11 dai11. (ipf) PLIM 1SG NEG–all.right speak No matter how much you (PL) beat me, I won’t say a word.

    16.23

    THE SUFFIX VARIANTS // ‘ALSO’ (IV): REDUPLICATED

    The functions of // ‘also’ as adverbs and as clause markers collide wherever they are reduplicated. These reduplicated forms can be either translated as ‘also when …’ or ‘even when …’. 236

    A5-mvyo55-mvyo55 syuq5 r11-r11 i31-pue11 nom–much(B)–much(B) drink also–also distilled–booze wut1-n55 a1-wo35 gyo11 luq1? drunk–FCT NEG–have hear/smell Y/N Even when you drink so much, don’t you feel any intoxication?

    237

    Mi1-hang31 r11-r11 Zai11wa31 tung31-pin11 (ipf) wife–marry also–also Zaiwa tradition–morals r11 a1-syui31 cyung31le1-gvo55. (ipf) also NEG–take.along use no.more– PL Even with weddings, the Zaiwa traditions are no longer observed.

    238

    Ha55-hu55 kyo31 gvat5 wu35 r11-r11, (ipf) Q–sort let.go.down put.into look also–also ngva31ze11 ngvu31 ga31 ning31 dvun31 [onom] only say perceive+I INS+I bue31 ga31 ning31 gyo35 lo31 crow(vi) P+I perceive+I INS+I go.down gyo35 lo31 ge11. no.more+I go.down no.more+I TOP “Whichever of your animals you try to let loose, only when you hear it cawing or crowing you can go down, you can go down then”

    ADVERBS

    765

    The above cases of a reduplicated // resemble the following sentence, where a combination of both // ‘also’ and the adverb ‘even’ is used, expressing ‘even when’. 239

    Myang11 r11 lvang55 a1-ngyo31, rueng35 see(ipf) also even NEG–talk first-rate dik1 r55. extreme PE Even when they see each other, they don’t say a thing; they’re treating each other so high-handedly.

    16.24

    THE ADVERB ‘INDISCRIMINATELY’

    The adverb ‘indiscriminately’ can be used in two ways. In non-negative sentences, the adverb expresses the notions ‘indiscriminately’, ‘boundlessly’, and ‘without restraint’. 240

    Dang11 hi55-bvue55 lvum31 dai11 ra31 words this–PLN indiscriminately speak need+I a1-dut1. NEG–become You cannot mention these matters indiscriminately.

    241

    Ke5-lvum31 dai11. PHB–indiscriminately speak Don’t just mention it indiscriminately.

    242

    Yvang11 a1-yan35 lvum31 dai31 3SG nom–row indiscriminately speak(ipf) He always mentions these matters indiscriminately.

    243

    r55. PE

    Yvang11 i31-pue11 lvum31 syuq5 r55. 3SG distilled–booze indiscriminately drink PE He’s drinking immoderately. / He’s drinking with reckless abandon.

    766

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    In negative clauses, the adverb ‘indiscriminately’ weakens or moderates the negation expressed by the negative prefix . The notion expressed by ‘indiscriminately’ in sentence (244) is as if to say: ‘It’s not that I don’t know how to speak it, but I just don’t know how to speak all that well’. 244

    Ngo31 Zai11-ming35 a1-lvum31 sue31 1SG Zaiwa–language NEG–indiscriminately know(ipf) 11 dai . speak I don’t know Zaiwa very well.

    245

    Ngo31 zang11-sun11 hi55-hu55 1SG rice/food–veg/dish this–sort a1-lvum31 dat1 zo11. NEG–indiscriminately able eat I don’t quite know how to appreciate this dish.

    246

    Mang11 zyang35ge11 a1-lvum31 aged CD TOP NEG–indiscriminately gue11 dai11 loq1. all.right(ipf) speak no.more In my old age I can’t tell these stories very well anymore.

    16.25

    THE ADVERB ‘HARD TO’

    The morpheme is tentatively glossed as ‘hard to’, and somewhat resembles Chinese 难 nán ‘difficult’. This adverb ‘hard to’ is only used in two special constructions with the numeral prefix ‘one …’. The construction nan31 le1-dam31 le1-Verb consists of the morpheme ‘hard to’, the numeral prefix ‘one …’ and the specifier noun ‘(a) time’(Sp), followed by a combination of the contrastive prefix ‘but’ and an action verb. This construction expresses ‘it’s hard to get the chance to …’.

    ADVERBS

    247

    Nan31 le1-dam31 syeq1 (hardly) one–time(Sp) au.contraire le1-kai31 lye31. (ipf) but–have.meeting also+I It’s hard to arrange a meeting.

    248

    Nan31 le1-dam31 syeq1 le1-myang31 (hardly) one–time(Sp) au.contraire but–see zo31 lye31. (ipf) eat also+I It’s hard to get the chance to eat this.

    767

    The other construction containing the adverb ‘hard to’ is nan31 le1-Nspec le1-Vadj, consisting of the morpheme ‘hard to’, the numeral prefix ‘one …’ and a specifier noun, followed by a combination of the contrastive prefix ‘but’ and a stative verb. This construction expresses: ‘it’s hard to find/get/have one … that is Vadj’. 249

    Se5-gam31 hi55-hu55 ge11 nan31 le1-gam31 tree–tree(B) this–sort TOP (hardly) one–tree(B) syeq1 le5-ngyang11 lye31. au.contraire but–straight(ipf) also+I It’s hard to find a tree of this sort which is straight.

    16.26

    THE SATISFACTIVE MORPHEME ‘ABOUT ENOUGH’ AND ‘ABOUT ENOUGH’

    The Zaiwa satisfactive morpheme ‘about enough, will do’ is a loan from Jingpo. According to Xu et al. (1983: 683), Jingpo ram [ʒam33] expresses ‘enough’, ‘suitable’, or ‘all right’. In Zaiwa, the morpheme ‘about enough, will do’ is mainly used as the satisfactive adverb, expressing the special notion of having about enough, or reaching a certain level of satisfaction, or perhaps also ‘almost even too much’. The form ‘about enough’ is exclusively used in combination with ‘about enough, will do’, and expresses a similar meaning as the latter, and is used whenever the latter is used as an adverb. The form ‘about

    768

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    enough’ does not seem to be a loan. The following sentences also illustrate the use of this expression ram35-gvyo55 ‘about enough’. 250

    Ngo31 ram35-gvyo55 syuq5 gvat5 bue31. 1SG about.enough–about.enough drink put.into P+I I have drunk about enough.

    251

    Ram35-gvyo55 myo31 lye31. (ipf) about.enough–about.enough much also+I That’s about it. [about all the people which were to come]

    252

    Ram35-gvyo55 about.enough–about.enough That’s about enough.

    ngvut5 r55. be PE

    The following sentence illustrates that the expression ram35-gvyo55 ‘about enough’ can be placed before the negative prefix. Although this example is grammatically prefect, from a stylistic point of view it is not considered as very regular. 253

    Ngo31 ram35-gvyo55 1SG about.enough–about.enough I haven’t drunk enough yet.

    a1-syuq5 NEG–drink

    siq1. still

    The following sentence illustrates that ‘about enough, will do’ may also be used as a verb. 254

    Ngo31 ram35 bue31, ram35 1SG about.enough P+I about.enough Enough, enough, thank you.

    bue31. P+I

    Note that the Zaiwa verb ‘enough’ has a meaning which rather resembles that of ‘about enough, will do’. The verb ‘enough’ expresses the meaning ‘enough’ in the pure sense of meeting certain amounts and without connotations of satisfaction etc. 255

    A1-lvuq1 NEG–enough Is it enough?

    si1-luq1? still–Y/N

    769

    ADVERBS

    16.27

    THE MANNER ADVERB ‘UNFORTUNATELY’ AND THE IDEOPHONE ‘DOLLOP’

    The Zaiwa adverb expresses ‘unfortunately’. 256

    Dvau55 rap5 lvoq5 inflate/bottle unfortunately ACT kyop5 am55 bue31. break.into.pieces(vt) PFM P+I Unfortunately, I broke the bottle.

    257

    Yvang11

    rap5 yvup5 byuq1 bue31, 3SG unfortunately sleep lose P+I nang31 a1-zyau35 lye35-Ø wa35. 2SG NEG–early come(away/down)–FCT EMP Unfortunately he is asleep already, why didn’t you (SG) come a little bit sooner?

    The following sentence illustrates that the adverb ‘unfortunately’ can be placed before the negative prefix. Although this example is grammatical, from a stylistic point of view it is not considered to be very usual. 258

    Ka31, rap5 a1-zang35 where unfortunately NEG–strike It’s a pity, I missed the target.

    loq1. no.more

    Zaiwa also has a homophonous morpheme that I shall tentatively gloss as ‘dollop’, expressing an as yet unspecifiable notion and modifying at least three different ideophones. The morpheme ‘dollop’ is a loan from Jingpo. According to the Chinese translation of the Jingpo adverb rap, vide Xu et al. (1983: 685-6), the latter Jingpo form seems to express ‘just/simply drop (altogether)’, just like the Zaiwa form ‘dollop’ in the three following sentences. Zaiwa ‘dollop’ in this particular connotation is only used in combination with the ideophone ‘[flinging a dollop of salt etc.]’. The latter word could be a loan, cf. the Jingpo ideophone pak ‘situation of throwing powder into a liquid in a quick manner’ (Xu et al. 1983: 660). Putting the meanings of these two words together,

    770

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    the Zaiwa combination bvak5-rap5 ([flinging a dollop of salt etc.]-dollop) seems to express the notion ‘just drop some powder into a liquid in a quick manner’. 259

    Bvak5-rap5 gvut5 gvan31-aq1 [flinging.a.dollop]–dollop do put.into*–SIM Drop (SG) it in.

    ma11. ROUS

    260

    Ka55-hu55 ra54 lo31, Q–sort need+FCT no.more+I bvak5-rap5 be55 ge1-lo31. [flinging.a.dollop]–dollop EE TOP–no.more+I What does it matter, I’ll just drop the whole thing in.

    261

    Pik5-mun31 mut1 dvang31 gvat5 lye31 (ipf) pungent–powder blow let.fly put.into also+I ngvu31 zyang35, nga35 myoq1-zi35 ze1-me55 say CD 1PO eye–ball/seed only–LOC bvak5-rap5, a1ga31! lap5 mo35-mo35! [flinging.a.dollop]–dollop (difficulty) suffer AUG–AUG With the chilli powder being blown into the air and coming right into my eyes, aah, it felt terrible!

    The following sentence is an example of the use of ‘[flinging a dollop of salt etc.]’ without ‘dollop’. 262

    I1-zyum11 bvak5 ngvu31 gvan31-aq1. water–salt [flinging.a.dollop] say put.into*–SIM Fling (SG) the salt into it.

    Zaiwa ‘dollop’ is also used in the fixed ideophone combination dvup5-rap5 (fit.exactly-dollop) expressing ‘perfect, fit perfectly’. 263

    264

    Dvup5-rap5 fit.exactly–dollop Is it right?

    bue31

    lo55?

    P+I

    FV

    Sau55-hai11 shoe–shoe

    ki31 me55 leg/foot LOC

    r11 also

    dvup5-rap5. fit.exactly–dollop

    771

    ADVERBS

    The shoes fit perfectly. 265

    Sau55-hai11 hi55-zum35 ge11 nga35 shoe–shoe this–pair TOP 1PO 55 5 5 me dvup -rap . LOC fit.exactly–dollop This pair of shoes fit my feet perfectly.

    ki31 leg/foot

    The morpheme ‘fit exactly’ used above appears to be another loan, cf. Jingpo tup [t u̱p55] vide Xu et al. (1983: 850), with many different meanings, viz. ‘neat, even’ as an adjective or stative verb, ‘come true’ as a verb, ‘as a whole’ as an adverb and ‘make even’ as an ideophone. Zaiwa ‘fit exactly’ seems to be only used as an ideophone. The following sentences illustrate the use of ‘fit exactly’ without ‘dollop’. 266

    267

    Dvup5 fit.exactly Is it right?

    bue31

    lo55?

    P+I

    FV

    Dvup5 bue31 lo55 nang31! fit.exactly P+I FV 2s It’s enough now! [I don’t want to hear you (SG) arguing anymore.]

    Zaiwa ‘dollop’ is also used after the morpheme , which I shall tentatively gloss ‘display’. The latter morpheme does not seem to be borrowed from Jingpo, and appears to be a verb expressing ‘display’. 268

    Sau55-hai11 sek5 bvuep5-rap5 dvi31? shoe–shoe new display–dollop CX+I You are showing your new shoes off to the world, aren’t you?

    269

    Hi55cuang55 bvuep5-rap5 luq1? Western-style.clothes display–dollop Y/N Are you showing your western-style clothes off to the world?

    772

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Zaiwa ‘dollop’ is also used in the idiosyncratic combination dak5-rap5, to be glossed as ([direct.hit]-dollop). The ideophone , which I tentatively gloss as ‘direct hit’, apparently is not a loan from Jingpo. The combination dak5-rap5 ([direct.hit]-dollop) apparently has a connotation of unfortunate circumstances. 270

    Yvum31-kung31 mai11 mai31na31 lyeng31 house–vault/ridge ABL nail/pin fall(vi)(ipf) 35 35 35 35 31 gyo lo wa nga ki me55 go.down go(back/up) EMP 1PO leg/foot LOC dak5-rap5 mai31! [direct.hit]–dollop OBV+I A nail fell off the roof, right onto my foot!

    16.28

    THE DEFINITE ADVERB

    The Zaiwa definite adverb can be translated as ‘exactly, definitely, whole, all of, both’ and emphasises a definite amount or identity of the preceding nominal constituent, in the specific context of the situation denoted by the predicate. The Zaiwa definite adverb is a loan from Jingpo, cf. the Jingpo adverb ro [ʒo ʔ55] ‘exactly the same’; ‘wholly’ (Xu et al. 1983: 693). Dai & Xu (1992) do not mention this Jingpo adverb. The Zaiwa definite adverb in sentence (271) can be translated as ‘exactly’ or ‘definitely’, in sentence (272) it can be translated as ‘whole’, and in sentence (273) it renders the translation ‘all of’ or ‘both’. 271

    272

    No11-ke1rok1 kau11 su31 ge11 cattle–wooden.bell steal SNO TOP 5 5 31 rvoq ngvut lye . DEF be also+I You (SG) are the thief of the wooden bell!

    nang31

    Ngo31 ling31-zeng11 le1-ling31-zeng11 1SG neck–neck one–neck–neck o31 ra31. want/take need+I

    rvoq5

    2SG

    DEF

    773

    ADVERBS

    I’ll take the whole neck. [spoken to the butcher] 273

    Yvang54 myoq1-zi35 i55-hon55 3SG+FCT eye–ball/seed two–one.of.a.pair 1 zit byuq1 bue31. stopped.up lose P+I She has gone blind in both eyes.

    rvoq5 DEF

    The following sentence illustrates that the definite adverb can be placed before the negative prefix. 274

    Nang31 rvoq5

    a1-ngvut5. 2SG DEF NEG–be Sure enough, it wasn’t you.

    The definite adverb is often used in conjunction with the allomorph of the limitative morpheme ‘only’. On one hand, the morpheme ‘only’ does express limitation, but on the other hand it seems to merely function as a kind of pause, after an emphatically pronounced definite adverb . The first two sentences of the following examples are minimal pairs. 275

    Nang31 rvoq5 2SG

    DEF

    ngvut5 lye31. be also+I

    It was you (SG) . 276

    Nang31 rvoq5

    ze11 ngvut5 lye31. 2SG DEF only be also+I It really was just you (SG).

    277

    No11-ke1rok1 kau11 su31 ge11 nang31 cattle–wooden.bell steal SNO TOP 2SG 5 11 5 31 rvoq ze ngvut lye . DEF only be also+I You (SG), and only you, are the thief of the wooden bell!

    774

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    16.29 THE ADVERBS ‘POSSIBLY’ AND ‘MAYBE’

    Viewed superficially, both the adverbs ‘possibly’ and ‘maybe’ express a similar meaning, and these two adverbs are therefore discussed together in this section in order to reveal the difference in meaning between them. The Zaiwa adverb ‘maybe’ could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. the Jingpo adverb hkoi [khoi33] in Xu et al. (1983: 244), expressing about the same meaning. Dai & Xu (1992) make no mention of this Jingpo adverb. Both the adverbs ‘possibly’ and ‘maybe’ express probability to take place of the situation referred to by the predicate. The difference between the two is that the adverb ‘possibly’ infers certainty to a lesser degree than ‘maybe’, thus suggesting that in the context other options may be left open. The adverb ‘possibly’ can therefore express a notion of indifference. The adverb ‘maybe’ is more neutral in this respect. In other words, the adverb ‘possibly’ bears a more tentative connotation, whereas ‘maybe’ is more serious about certain possibilities. The informant suggested that the topic of sentence (278), containing ‘possibly’, was rather trivial, whereas the topic of sentence (279), with ‘maybe’, would be more serious. 278

    Yvang31-eq1 syaq1 pyuq5 am55 be1-kai31. 3SG#–AG/I possibly make.lost PFM P–SUG+I It could be that it was him who has mislaid it. [something not very important]

    279

    Yvang31-eq1 hoi55 pyuq5 3SG#–AG/I maybe make.lost Perhaps it’s him who has mislaid it.

    am55

    bue31.

    PFM

    P+I

    According to the informant, the speaker of sentence (280), containing ‘maybe’, does not want the subject to leave yet, since there are still some matters to take care of, whereas the speaker of sentence (281), containing ‘possibly’, is rather indifferent about his absence. 280

    Hoi55 maybe

    lo35 go(back/up)

    byuq1 bue31. lose P+I

    775

    ADVERBS

    It might be that he left. / Could he have left? 281

    Syaq1 lo35 byuq1 possibly go(back/up) lose They may have left. [But never mind.]

    bue31. P+I

    In the following dialogue, speaker A asks B whether some other person is sleeping yet, by uttering sentence (282), containing ‘maybe’. Given the choice of the latter adverb, the speaker does not at all express indifference. Speaker B replies in an indifferent way, by uttering sentence (283), containing ‘possibly’, suggesting that neither the speaker nor the addressee should be bothered about this situation, since they are not in need of any assistance from the sleeping person. 282

    Hoi55 yvup5 bue31. maybe sleep P+I Could he be asleep? / Maybe they have gone to sleep. / She may be asleep.

    and the response: 283 Syaq1 yvup5 be1-kai31-o31. possibly sleep P–SUG+I–HIGH+I He might be sleeping. [Never mind, let him sleep!] The matters in the contexts of the following sentences, viz. naughty children and smelly feet respectively, are not matters about which it is usual to be indifferent. Therefore, the adverb ‘maybe’ is used here, and not ‘possibly’. 284

    Hoi55 syai11 lye31. (ipf) maybe loud-mouthed also+I Maybe you ARE being naughty.

    285

    Nang35 mo35-za35 syeq1 hoi55 2SG.PO AUG–knitwork au.contraire maybe 11 31 nam lye . smelly(ipf) also+I But maybe it’s your (SG) socks that stink.

    776

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    The speaker of the following sentences containing ‘possibly’ is unable to see whether the electricity has come or not, but is speaking in an indifferent way, boasting on his large experience with power failures. 286

    Syaq1 duq1 be1-kai31. possibly burning P–SUG+I I bet the electricity has come back on.

    287

    Mi1-dat5 syaq1 a1-duq1 siq1. fire–electricity possibly NEG–burning still The electricity may not be back yet. (But never mind.)

    16.30

    THE ATTITUDINAL MORPHEME ‘WHAT A PITY, SHUCKS’

    The Zaiwa attitudinal morpheme ‘what a pity, shucks’ is intermediate between an adverb and an interjection and expresses a notion of pity, reproach or resignation, akin to ‘never mind’. When the attitudinal morpheme ‘what a pity, shucks’ is used as an interjection, the notion of resignation is stronger than that of pity or reproach. When used as an adverb it is the other way around, the notion of pity or reproach being stronger than that of acceptance. Whenever ‘what a pity, shucks’ is used as an adverb and expresses pity or reproach, this mostly refers to the speaker himself. The morpheme ‘what a pity, shucks’ in the following sentences functions more like an adverb, and clearly expresses self-reproach. The speaker of sentence (289) is reproaching himself because of getting drunk in spite of his intention not to do so. 288

    Ngo31 ge11

    nvik5-yo31 dik1 rvo31, (ipf) 1SG TOP heart–itch3 extreme PE+HIGH+I zoq1-si11 sye31 pyuq5 am31 r11 ning31. (ipf) lock–tie/lock pity make.lost PFM also INS+I I’m so angry at myself, now I have dropped my key somewhere.

    777

    ADVERBS

    289

    I31-pue11 sye31 syuq5 distilled–booze pity drink Shit, I am drunk again!

    wut1 r11 drunk also

    ning31. INS+I

    In the following sentence, the adverb ‘what a pity, shucks’ also functions more like an adverb or maybe a conjunction and expresses self-pity rather than self-reproach. 290

    A1man31 gyuq1 nvo31 za54 i5-moq1 last.night afraid EXP+I only+FCT go–dream myang11 si31 lui31, sye31 dan11 see(ipf) die in.this.way +I pity be.scared 31 31 11 11 bun dang lo r ning31! (ipf) (ipf) (ipf) awake fly come(back/up) also INS+I Last night I was having terrible dreams, and I woke up with a start.

    In the following two sentences, the form ‘what a pity, shucks’ functions more like an interjection. In these cases, the notions of either self-reproach or self-pity are not so strong, since the speaker also expresses resignation and a more accepting mood. In these cases, the form ‘what a pity, shucks’ could therefore even be translated as ‘never mind!’. 291

    Sye31, yau11 pity let.pass Oh, never mind.

    292

    Sye31, zyang31 syut5 syang55-gaq1-o31. pity in.passing wrong JUS–CC–HIGH+I Never mind, let it remain incorrect.

    bue31-o31. P+I–HIGH+I

    The central meaning common to both the indifferent notion of ‘never mind!’, expressed by ‘what a pity, shucks’ as an interjection, and the notions of self-reproach or self-pity expressed by the same morpheme as an adverb, appears to be a special notion of coming across a certain unfavourable situation and subsequently leaving it as it is, either by admitting one’s faults, in case of its use as an adverb, or by just dropping the matter, in case of its use as an interjection.

    778 16.31

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    THE MORPHEME ‘AU CONTRAIRE’

    The morpheme ‘au contraire’ expresses the notions ‘contrary to expectation, rather, however, on the other hand, au contraire’. The Zaiwa morpheme ‘au contraire’ could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. the Jingpo adverb she [ʃeʔ31] ‘only when’; ‘(if …) then’ Xu et al. (1983: 788). Dai & Xu (1992) do not mention this Jingpo adverb. When the morpheme ‘au contraire’ is used right after one of the nominal constituents that serve as actants in the sentence, it could be translated as ‘instead’, expressing that the identity of certain actants in the sentence is different from what previously was thought. 293

    Hi55-zyung31 bvyet5 a1-gue11 dang11 this–kind duck NEG–all.right(ipf) fly 35 55 55 bang ga li syeq1 gue11 dang31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) helicopter au.contraire all.right fly also+I This kind of duck can’t fly, but helicopters can.

    294

    Ngo31 hau31 a1-zo11, hi31 syeq1 zo11 ra31. 1SG the/that NEG–eat this au.contraire eat need +I I won’t eat that, but I’ll have this instead.

    295

    Hi55-dong31 a1-ngvut5, hau55-dong31 this–lead/connect NEG–be the/that–lead/connect syeq1 ngvut5 r55. au.contraire be PE It’s not this way, you need to go that way.

    The speaker of the following sentence originally thought that the woman in the context had big feet, whereas she actually proved to be a ki31-gvok5-zo11 (leg/foot-tiny-child) i.e. a person with tiny feet. 296

    Me1-lat5-n55 ki31 ge11 ki31-gvok5-zo11 (female)–halfway–FCT leg/foot TOP leg/foot–tiny–child syeq1 le1-ngvut5 r55 mai31. au.contraire but–be PE OBV+I But second sister is a person with very tiny feet!

    779

    ADVERBS

    The nominal constituents that are marked by ‘au contraire’ can also mark time expressions instead of actants. 297

    Min35 r55 syeq1 wu35 syang55. night-time TS au.contraire look JUS Let’s (ND.IN) watch that in the evening. [instead of now]

    The construction a1hui31 syeq1 (now au.contraire) expresses ‘now at last’ i.e. that a certain situation is taking place rather late. According to my principal informant, this construction expresses the notion ‘finally’ in sentence (298). Also according to him, the same construction a1hui31 syeq1 (now au.contraire) in sentence (299) expresses that the addressee can still join the meal, since the eaters, containing the speaker, were late at starting eating anyway. 298

    299

    A1ga31! a1hui31 syeq1 yau35 (difficulty) now au.contraire finish Aah, finally it is finished.

    r55

    mai31.

    PE

    OBV+I

    A1hui31 syeq1 zo31 lo35 lye31. (ipf) now au.contraire eat go(back/up) also+I We are just sitting down to eat [so we all can still have our meal together].

    When used after a nominal constituent, the morpheme ‘au contraire’ is often followed by the contrastive prefix ‘but’, as was discussed in Section 16.15. The morpheme ‘au contraire’ can also be used as an interjection expressing discontent, apart from the notion ‘au contraire’. 300

    Ang55dung55 ngo31 r55 bi54 zue31 Anton 1SG OBJ give+FCT truc syeq1 Mue11bung31-eq1 dum11 yu11 au.contraire (name)#–AG/I again take(ipf) am55 bi11. PFM give The things Anton gave to me were taken away by Muebung.

    780 301

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Yvum31wo35 wang31 ra54 ge11, house have enter need+FCT TOP zoq1-si11 syeq1 a1-wun31. lock–tie/lock au.contraire NEG–carry/bring Right when I was about to go into my house, I found out that I didn’t bring my key.

    The morpheme ‘au contraire’ in the following sentence functions as a conjunction. 302

    Ngvam11 ge11 ngvam54 tasty TOP tasty+FCT 31 5 dye pik r55. too pungent PE It is really tasty, only it’s too pungent.

    syeq1 au.contraire

    ze11 only

    The combination zyang35-syeq1 (CD-au.contraire), consisting of the conditional clause marker and conjunction with the adverb and conjunction ‘au contraire’, normally expresses ‘only after having V’ 303

    Zang11-sun11 zo11 zyang35-syeq1 rice/food–veg/dish eat CD–au.contraire 11 35 no lo ga31 ning31. (ipf) pain/ill/disease go(back/up) perceive+I INS+I It only started hurting after eating this dish/these dishes.

    The morpheme ‘au contraire’ often serves as a mere stopgap, also adding some suspense, cf. the Dutch usage or over-use of maar ‘but’. This use of ‘au contraire’ has been mostly attested in story-telling. 304

    Hi31 mvung31-zi1tung11 hi31 hau55-me55 this evil.spirit–spirit.type this the/that–LOC 1 31 55 syeq cyang dvai … au.contraire follow(ipf) follow.tracks This evil spirit, following the tracks to that place…

    781

    ADVERBS

    305

    Hau55-syeq1, gau11-zo11 Le1wui31 the/that–au.contraire nine–child (name) syeq1, Ning11gon35wa35r55 syeq1 au.contraire (name) OBJ au.contraire nung11-mi11 si31 bue31 ngvu31. 2REL–wife die P+I say+I And then, the nine Lewui brothers then said to Ninggonwa: “Your wife has died”. [That’s what they said.]

    306

    Au11-koq5 ban11 ci31 (ipf) pan–bowl use.up wash(ipf) 5 11 35 A -zvi nau huq5 ba55, nom–grandfather milk/breast let.drink EE zi1syang31 ngvu31 zyang35-syeq1. child say CD–au.contraire When the dishes had all been washed, she [the “Let me breast-feed it, where’s the child?”

    16.32

    yau35-Ø, finish–FCT ka31, where

    mother] said:

    THE LIMITATIVE MORPHEME ‘ONLY’

    The limitative morpheme ‘only’ refers to limitations to the reach or amount of all kinds of situations, much like the English word ‘only’. 307

    Sun11 i55-hu55 veg/dish two–sort There are only two dishes.

    ze11 only

    wo35 have

    308

    Ze11 lo35 wu35. only go(back/up) look We shall only go and have a look. [not buy anything]

    lye31. also+I

    I shall first discuss the distribution of the four allomorphs of the limitative morpheme .

    782 • •





    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    The reduced allomorph of the limitative morpheme is used as the first syllable of several kinds of complex forms.72 The vowel /e/ of the full syllable allomorph of the limitative morpheme is the result of the morpho-phonological process of vowel reduction of /a/ to /e/. The allomorph of the limitative morpheme is used as an adverb, after nominal constituents or other adverbs, or as a conjunction, as I shall discuss first. The allomorph of the limitative morpheme is the Zaiwa limitative pronoun, expressing ‘only this’, discussed in Section 16.32. The latter section discusses the use of the allomorph of the limitative morpheme as part of the special form za54 (only+FCT) expressing ‘only of a certain kind’. The checked allomorph of the limitative morpheme is only used as the special compliative adverb, to be discussed in the next section.

    1. I shall first discuss the use of the allomorph of the limitative morpheme as an adverb after nominal actants. In sentence (309), containing the nominal constituent le1-koq5 ‘one bowl’, the ability to eat is limited to just one bowl, like ‘I can only eat one bowl’ or, more precisely, ‘(as far as I can eat), I can eat only one bowl’. In sentences (310) to (314), the allomorph of the limitative morpheme is also used after nominal constituents and also behaves very much like the English adverb ‘only’. For example, in sentence (310) the addressee is asked to dig, to a limited extent of just one bout or round. 309

    Le1-koq5 ze11 wo35 one–bowl only have I can only eat one bowl.

    zo31 lye31. (ipf) eat also+I

    72 There are reasons to suggest that the prefix in certain kinship terms may in

    fact also be the limitative morpheme . My informant suggested that the first syllable of the word ze1ram31, denoting unmarried young men of about 18 to 20 years old, could be translated into Chinese as 正 zhèng ‘just’ or 才 cái ‘only’, which points in the direction of the limitative morpheme. He could only be very vague on this matter, and this first syllable could just as well be the reduced form of Zaiwa ‘child’. During future investigations, more details will have to be found, which might also explain the meaning of a similar first syllable in ze1-au31, another kinship term, which can roughly be translated as ‘aunt’.

    783

    ADVERBS

    310

    Le1-kop5 ze11 kai31 gvan31-aq1 (ipf) one–(dig).pit only shovel put.into*–SIM Just dig (SG) one bout now.

    hoi11. INC

    311

    Gai31, gvue31toq5 me55 (come.on!) upper.smoking.rack LOC ke5-zyui35 wu35-o55 dvye31 PHB–peep look–HIGH receive He blocked him, saying: “Only on the upper you cannot take a peep.”

    ze11 only ngvu31. say+I smoking rack

    312

    Se5-gam31 le1-gvue55 ze11 wo35 tree–tree(B) one–measure only have I could only climb the tree part of the way.

    doq1 go.up

    313

    A1-ngyuq1 ze11 nom–young.leaves only We only eat its young leaves.

    lye31. also+I

    314

    Hau31 ze11 lvang55 a1-sue55 the/that only even NEG–know Don’t you (SG) even know that?

    le1-zo31 but–eat(ipf)

    r55. PE

    luq1? Y/N

    The limitative morpheme can also mark an actant which is already marked by the object marker //. Such has only been attested in the following sentence. 315

    Ngo31 A5-nu11 r55 ze11 ngau11 zeng11r31 r55. (ipf) 1SG nom–mother OBJ only weep annoy(ipf) PE [I realise that] I was only annoying Mum with my crying.

    In the above examples, the allomorph of the limitative morpheme was preceded by nominal actants. In the same way, the allomorph of the limitative morpheme can also be used after adverbs and nominal constituents functioning as adjuncts. In most of these cases, the allomorph of the limitative morpheme still behaves very much like the English adverb ‘only’. In sentence (316), containing the time noun ‘just now’, the

    784

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    situation of eating is limited to a specific position in time, viz. ‘only just now’. 316

    A1hang31 ze11 zo11 just.now only eat Because I ate just now.

    lui31. in.this.way +I

    The following sentences further illustrate the use of the allomorph of the limitative morpheme after other adverbs or after adjuncts. 317

    Nang31 rvoq5

    318

    Le1-suen31 ze11 a1-ngvut5 one–appearance only NEG–be Not the same, right?

    319

    ze11 ngvut5 lye31. 2SG DEF only be also+I It really was just you (SG).

    Nuq1-byeq1 bean–tight.to.the.ground

    kai31? SUG+I

    ge11 bum31-yo31 me55 TOP heap(vt/N)–land LOC

    ze11 san31 lye31. (ipf) only scatter also+I Low-growing black mustard is only seeded in high fields. 320

    321

    Le1-dam31-dam31 ze11 one–time(Sp)–time(Sp) only It only hurts sometimes.

    no11 pain/ill/disease(ipf)

    r55. PE

    Le1man35 ze11 i5-wo35 zvi31 with.much.effort only go–have borrow/lend(ipf) 35 35 1 35 lo -Ø wa , a -wo bvyaq5 r11 go(back/up)–FCT EMP NEG–have perform also ge11, se5lai35 dik1 bue31. TOP pity extreme P+I It was only with much effort that we could go there and fetch it [i.e. the videotape], and now we can’t play it, such a pity!

    785

    ADVERBS

    The special morpheme (RCL) replaces rude cursing language in order not to be quoted and is frequently followed by the allomorph of the limitative morpheme. 322

    Le1-dvu31 r55 ai11 ze11 ta11 (male)–4th-brother OBJ RCL only scold(ipf) gvyop5 dvang31 gvat5 bue31. (ipf) tuck.away let.fly put.into P+I A flood of profanity is being flung at fourth brother.

    In the following sentence, the allomorph of the limitative morpheme marks the phrase m11m11 ngvu31 ‘saying ‘yes yes’’, which also functions as an adjunct. 323

    Nang31 m11-m11 ngvu31 ze11 yau11-aq5. 2SG (yes)–(yes) say only let.pass–SIM Just say (SG) “hum” [yes] to them in a non-committal fashion.

    2. The allomorph of the limitative morpheme can also be used as a conjunction expressing: ‘situation X may be the case, but it just so happens that situation Y is also the case’. The allomorph of the limitative morpheme in its function as a conjunction could specifically be labelled as the Zaiwa concessive conjunction. In sentence (325), the adverb (LIM) is combined with the morpheme ‘au contraire’, which here is also used as a conjunction rather than as an adverb. 324

    Ngvam11 ge11 ngvam31 r55 ze11 tasty TOP tasty(ipf) PE only 5 55 pik r . pungent PE It is tasty indeed, only it’s too pungent.

    325

    Ngvam11 ge11 ngvam54 tasty TOP tasty+FCT dye31 pik5 r55. too pungent PE It is really tasty, only it’s too pungent.

    dye31 too

    syeq1 au.contraire

    ze11 only

    786

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    326

    Gue11 bat1 lye31, ze11 a1-gat1. (ipf) all.right beat also+I only NEG–expert I know how to play, but I’m not very good at it.

    327

    Ngon35 ge11 ngon35-Ø ze11 dye31 wue31 r55. pleasant TOP pleasant–FCT only too far(ipf) PE It is great fun [to go there], only it’s too far away.

    • the reduced allomorph of the limitative morpheme The reduced allomorph of the limitative morpheme can be prefixed to adverbs, to specific verbs used as ideophone complements, to the general locative case suffix , and to clause markers. In sentence (328), the reduced allomorph of the limitative morpheme is prefixed to the adverb ‘also’. Here, the limitative notion expressed by the limitative morpheme further intensifies the specific notion of ‘not even’, normally expressed by ‘also’ in this type of negative sentence. 328

    Nang31 le1-bvyat1-bvyat1 zue11 2SG one–lifetime–lifetime live.as.human(ipf) lo11 r11 Meng11mau11-cin11 ze1-r11 (ipf) come(back/up) also Ruili–county.town only–also a1-zye35 wu35 si1-luq1? NEG–arrive look still–Y/N So you (SG) haven’t even once in your whole life visited the county town Ruili?

    In sentence (329) below, the reduced allomorph of the limitative morpheme is prefixed to the abilitative adverb . 329

    Ngo31 zang11 ze1-dat1 zo31 mvau31 1SG rice/food only–able eat(ipf) cheat/fool(ipf) 31 31 lye ning . also+I INS+I The only thing I am capable of doing is eating.

    The reduced allomorph of the limitative morpheme can also be used as a prefix to the general locative case suffix in the fixed combination ze1-me55 (only-LOC). In the latter

    787

    ADVERBS

    complex form, the prefix ‘only’ indicates that there are limitations to the range indicated by the general locative case suffix . These limitations can be both in time and in space, as illustrated by the phrases ‘right near our house’, ‘well in time’ and ‘right into my eyes’ respectively, in the translations of the following examples. 330

    Le1-nong35-bvue31 yvum31 ge11 (GEN) (male)–2nd-brother–PLN house TOP 35 1 31 11 nga -moq yvum -nam ze1-me55 ngvut5 lye31. 1PO–party house–near.the.house only–LOC be also+I The house of second brother and the others is right by our (ND.EX) house.

    331

    A1kui31 ze1-me55 gva31 yau35 bue31 (ipf) now only–LOC write finish P+I You finished writing this on time, didn’t you?

    332

    ngva31? DC+I

    Nga35 myoq1-zi35 ze1-me55 1PO eye–ball/seed only–LOC bvak5-rap5, a1ga31! lap5 mo35-mo35! [flinging.a.dollop]–dollop (difficulty) suffer AUG–AUG [chilli powder] Right into my eyes, aah, it felt terrible!

    • reduced ‘only’ as an ideophone marker The reduced allomorph of the limitative morpheme can also be prefixed to one of the verbs ‘perceive’, ‘to do’ and ‘become’, after a special type of adverbs termed ideophones. The limitative morpheme here indicates that the situation referred to by the predicate is restricted to the situation indicated by the ideophone, which specifically describes the way or manner in which the given situation occurs. In other words, the limitative morpheme in these constructions expresses that a certain feature is predominantly characteristic for the given entity. For example, in the context of sentence (333) containing the ideophone ‘[like jelly]’, the sensation caused by the pea-floor mush is restricted to being very jelly-like. This sentence expresses: ‘pea-floor mush is just very jelly-like’ or, more precisely, ‘(as far as the shape of pea-floor mush is concerned), it’s predominantly jelly-like’.

    788

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    333

    Wam35pun31-ngvyaq1 not1not1 ze1-dut5 pea.flour.cake–watery/thin [like.jelly] only–become dik1 r55. extreme PE Pea flour mush is just like jelly.

    In sentence (334), containing the ideophone ‘[springy]’, the sensation caused by the bed is restricted to that of springiness, or that the bed is predominantly springy. This sentence expresses the notion: ‘this bed feels very springy’ or, more precisely, ‘(as far as what I can feel), I can feel only springiness’. 334

    Gu35 hi31 ge11 op1op1 ze1-ga31 bed this TOP [springy] only–perceive(ipf) This bed feels springy.

    r55. PE

    In the following examples, the reduced allomorph of the limitative morpheme has the same function and is prefixed to the verb ‘to do’, to ‘become’, and to the verb ‘perceive’ respectively. 335

    Syo11 lyep1lyep1 ze1-gvut5 flesh [into.small.slices] only–do Cut (SG) the meat in slices.

    336

    Loq1-ngyui11 yang11-yang11 ze1-dut5 hand/arm–finger/toe stalk–stalk only–become She has long and thin fingers.

    337

    hum31-aq1. cut/slice–SIM r55. PE

    Sam55-bvi55 r11 pyot5pyot5 ze1-ga11 Shan–flute also [onom] only–perceive gue11 mut1 r55. all.right(ipf) blow PE Also on the flute, he can only play like “phyot phyot”.

    • ‘only’ in ze1-bue31 (only-P+I) The reduced allomorph of the limitative morpheme also occurs as a prefix to the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I). This complex clause marking unit ze1-bue31 (only-P+I) normally

    ADVERBS

    789

    marks ideophones, e.g. ‘[easy to break]’ in the two following sentences. In combination with the latter ideophone, the clause marking unit ze1-bue31 (only-P+I) appears to express that, if performing the action in the way indicated in the context or indicated by the preceding clause, the aimed result is reached very easily. The preceding clauses end in the conditional clause marker and conjunction expressing ‘when’ or ‘if’. This type of clause containing the clause marking unit ze1-bue31 (only-P+I) is elliptic since it contains no verb, and its being elliptic seems to further express easiness. 338

    Kue31dan35 lang31 kyui11 zyang35 (ipf) pencil pull/yank bend CD 5 5 1 31 tok tok ze -bue . [easy.to.break] only–P+I Pencils can easily be broken by pulling them.

    339

    We1-zung31-eq1 zik1 zyang35tok5tok5 bamboo–axe#–AG/I cleave CD [easy.to.break] ze1-bue31. only–P+I With an axe, you can easily cleave it.

    The same clause marking unit ze1-bue31 (only-P+I) is used in another elliptic construction with the adverb (not an ideophone) le1-suen31 (one-appearance) ‘one in appearance’, e.g. (340). 73 In clauses containing le1-suen31 ‘one in appearance’ there is no suitable verb to be used between the limitative morpheme and the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31, as illustrated by the following sentence,

    73 Compare also the following negative sentence, also containing le1-suen31 (one-appearance) ‘one in appearance’ and the limitative morpheme, but where the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 is not used.

    1

    Nga35

    dyen11she11 nang35 dyen11she11 le1-suen31 television 2SG.PO television one–appearance ze11 a1-ngvut5 kai31 ? only NEG–be SUG+I My television and yours (SG) aren’t the same, are they? 1PO

    790

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    where the use of ‘to be’ was rejected by my principal informant. 340

    Yvang55-nvik5 ge11 le1-suen31 ze1-bue31 ga31. 3PL–duo TOP one–appearance only–P+I perceive+I Those two people look the same. [whereas one of them is a bad one disguised as a good one]

    • reduced ‘only’ in nominal clause marking units : The reduced allomorph of the limitative morpheme is also used in the Zaiwa nominal clause marking units, which are only used in clauses without a predicate. The nominal clause marking units attested until now are: 1. The form ze1-lo31 (only-no.more+I), consisting of the reduced allomorph of the limitative morpheme , the finite clause marker ‘no more’ and the indicative mood marker , e.g. (341), 2. the form ze1-si31 (only-still+I), consisting of the reduced allomorph of the limitative morpheme , the continuous clause marker and the indicative mood marker , e.g. (342), 3. the form ze1-si1-gvo31 (only-still-PL+I), consisting of the reduced allomorph of the limitative adverb , the continuous clause marker , the plural clause marker and the indicative mood marker , e.g. (343), 4. the combination ze1-luq1 (only-Y/N), consisting of the reduced allomorph of the limitative morpheme and the yes-or-no attitude marker (Y/N ), e.g. (344), and 5. the combination ze1-ngva31 (only-DC+I), consisting of the reduced allomorph of the limitative adverb and the double-checking question suffix ngva31 (DC+I), marked by the indicative mood marker , e.g. (345). The reduced allomorph of the limitative morpheme can possibly also be combined with attitude markers or attitude marking units other than (Y/N) and ngva31 (DC+I).

    ADVERBS

    791

    341

    Ngvya55-gvop1 ze1-lo31. tobacco–shell/packet only–no.more+I Only an empty cigarette-packet is left.

    342

    Le1-nvut5 ze1-si31. one–mouth only–still+I Only one more bite.

    343

    Le1-nvut5-nvut5 ze1-si1-gvo31. one–mouth–mouth only–still–PL+I Only one more bite. [referring to a third person plural subject]

    344

    Hi55-mvyo55 ze1-luq1? this–much(B) only–Y/N Is it only this amount?

    345

    Hi55-mvyo55 ze11 this–much(B) only So it’s only this bit?

    ngva31? DC+I

    • the special construction ze11 V ze1-lo31 (only V only-no.more+I) The meaning of the limitative morpheme is used in the same sense in the following two sentences containing a special construction where a verb is placed between the allomorph of the limitative morpheme and the clause marking unit ze1-lo31 (only-no.more+I). This construction, only attested in the two following sentences, expresses that the situation indicated by the verb is the only thing which is left to occur before the end. 346

    Ze11 gyo35 ze1-lo31. only go.down only–no.more+I It’s all downhill from here.

    347

    Ze11 doq1 ze1-lo31. only go.up only–no.more+I It’s all uphill from here.

    792 16.33

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    THE ALLOMORPH OF THE LIMITATIVE MORPHEME AS THE COMPLIATIVE ADVERB

    The form is the emphatic free form allomorph of the limitative morpheme , and is only used as the Zaiwa compliative adverb. The compliative adverb ‘only’ expresses that a certain situation can only occur in compliance with some other situation in the context. The compliative adverb ‘only’ is only used in a specific set of constructions shown in Table 16.1, as I shall further set out below. The compliative adverb ‘only’ is only used in the constructions shown in Table 16.1 and thus in most cases is used in conjunction with the combination r11 ge11 or li11 ge11, consisting of // ‘also’ and the topic marker (TOP). The construction zaq1 Verb+(ipf) r11 ge11 (only V(ipf) also TOP) expresses the notion: ‘V is the only situation to occur, in compliance to some situation’, as illustrated by sentences (349) to (352). 348

    Nang31 a1-ye31 2SG NEG–go(away/down) Will you (SG) go?

    and the response: 349 Zaq1 ye11 only go(away/down)(ipf) The only thing I can do is go.

    luq1? Y/N

    r11 also

    ge11. TOP

    350

    Ki1-zung31 zaq1 ngvut5 r11 ge11. faeces–pile.up only be also TOP I only have a bunch of shit for you. [spoken to someone who always borrows a lot]

    351

    Zaq1 ngvut5 r11 only be also That’s the only way.

    352

    Ngun31 r11 silver also

    ge11. TOP

    a1-wo35 NEG–have

    ge11, TOP

    hi55-za31-eq1 this–only#–AG/I

    ADVERBS

    793

    zaq1 ye11 r11 ge11. (ipf) only go(away/down) also TOP Since I don’t have money, I can only go with this [bit of money]. The finite indicative clause marking unit lo31 (no.more+I) is used in the construction zaq1 Verb lo31 r11 ge11, expressing: ‘V is the only situation left to occur, in compliance to some situation’. The finite indicative clause marking unit lo31 is a combination of the finite clause marker ‘no more’ and the indicative mood marker . The finite clause marker indicates the conclusion of some situation. 74

    Table 16.1

    Constructions with the allomorph of the limitative morpheme :

    1) zaq1 Verb r11 ge11 only also TOP ‘V is the only situation to occur, in compliance to some situation’ 2) the finite variant of 1): zaq1 Verb lo31 r11 ge11 only no.more+I also TOP ‘V is the only situation left to occur, in compliance to some situation’ 3) the plural variant of 1): zaq1 Verb gvo31 r11 only PL+I also

    ge11 TOP

    74 The plural indicative clause marking unit gvo31 (PL+I) is used instead of the

    finite indicative clause marking unit lo31 (no.more+I) in the construction zaq1 Verb gvo31 r11 ge11, expressing ‘V is the only situation to occur, in compliance to some situation’, with a plural subject. This construction has only been attested in the case of sentence (358). The plural indicative clause marking unit gvo31 (PL+I) is a combination of the plural clause marker and the indicative mood marker . The plural clause marker indicates that certain entities in the context count two or more.

    794

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    ‘V is the only situation to occur, in compliance to some situation; the subject is plural’ 4) the negative variant of 1): zaq1 a1-Verb r11 ge11 in conjunction with ke5- ~ he5only NEG-Verb also TOP PHB ‘a situation should not occur, in compliance to some negative situation indicated by V’ 5) also negative, with reduplicated verb and without r11 ge11 (also TOP): zaq1 a1-Verb1-Verb1 in conjunction with ke5- ~ he5only NEG-V-V PHB ‘a situation should not occur, in compliance to the situation indicated by V, repeatedly failing to occur’

    353

    Dvyep5tyep1 hi31 ge11 zaq1 du35 am55 rubber.slippers1 this TOP only throw PFM lo31 r11 ge11, dye31 zyeq1 bue31. no.more+I also TOP too broken P+I The only thing we can do with these rubber slippers is throw them away. They are too worn out.

    354

    Zaq1 zo11 lo31 r11 ge11. only eat no.more+I also TOP The only thing we can do is start eating.

    355

    Le1-gam35 r11 (male)–eld-brother also lo31 lo54 come(back/up) no.more+FCT dvo11 lo31 place(vt) no.more+I

    a1-lye35 NEG–come(away/down) ge11, zaq1 yvup5 TOP only sleep r11 ge11. also TOP

    795

    ADVERBS

    Since eldest brother is not coming anymore, the only thing we can do is go to sleep. 356

    357

    Hi55-za31-eq1 zaq1 ngvut5 lo31 this–only#–AG/I only be no.more+I Only this will do.

    r11 also

    ge11.

    Hi55-za31-eq1 zaq1 gvut5 lo31 this–only#–AG/I only do no.more+I We can only do it with this.

    r11 also

    ge11.

    TOP

    TOP

    The third construction zaq1 Verb gvo31 r11 ge11 (only V PL+I also TOP) expresses ‘V is the only situation to occur, in compliance to some situation’, with a plural subject. This construction is the plural variant of the first construction in Table 16.1 and has in fact only been attested with the verb ‘to be’, thus rather expressing: ‘it can only be X (plural), in compliance to some situation’. 358

    Bvan31-pai55 zaq1 ngvut5 gvo31 r11 ge11. hearts–cards/game only be PL+I also TOP It can only be the hearts cards again. [i.e. a lazy and unreliable person]

    Another negative construction, viz. zaq1 a1-Verb r11 ge11 (only NEG-Verb also TOP), is always used in conjunction with the prohibitive prefix , and expresses that ‘a certain situation should not occur, in compliance to some negative situation indicated by V’. 359

    Yvang11

    zaq1 a1-ngi11 dvo31 (ipf) 3SG only NEG–be.there(anim) place(vt)(ipf) 11 11 31 5 31 r ge , nang ke -wang . also TOP 2SG PHB–enter If he’s not there, don’t go inside.

    360

    Yvang11 3SG

    r11 also

    zaq1 a1-ngi11 dvo31 (ipf) only NEG–be.there(anim) place(vt)(ipf) ge11, nang31 ka55-pyang31 TOP 2SG Q–DIR

    796

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    ke5-ye31-o55. PHB–go(away/down)–HIGH If he’s not there, don’t go anywhere! Now I shall discuss the construction consisting of the compliative adverb ‘only’ before a verb which is both negated and reduplicated, in zaq1 a1-Verb1-Verb1 (only NEG-V-V), always in conjunction with the prohibitive prefix in the next clause. This construction expresses: ‘a certain situation should not occur, in compliance to the situation indicated by V, repeatedly failing to occur’. The reduplication of the verb in combination with the negative prefix expresses the repeated non-occurrence of a certain situation, in the context of certain conditions to which one should comply, referred to by the compliative adverb ‘only’. In other words, in the context of this type of clause there is something one should not do whenever a certain situation fails to occur. The action not do is indicated by a prohibitive second clause. The following example is taken out of a story and is an utterance which was spoken to the two orphans, telling them how to survive after the deluge. 361

    Woq1-po55 gau31-du11 kyo31 gvat5 r11 chicken–male nine–being let.go.down(ipf) put.into also zaq1 a1-dvun31-dvun31 ke5-gyo35 gvo55-o55 (vi) only NEG–crow –crow(vi) PHB–go.down PL–HIGH ngvu31. say+I “When you let loose nine cocks and they do not crow, you (PL) cannot go down”, they were told.

    16.34

    THE ADVERB ‘ALL’

    The Zaiwa adverb ‘all’ expresses that a certain characteristic or identity applies for all given entities, like ‘all’ or ‘all of’ and much like the Chinese adverb 都 dōu. The meaning of ‘all’ differs from that of another Zaiwa adverb ‘all of it’, which can be roughly translated in a similar way but which specifically expresses that all entities indicated by the direct object are affected by a certain

    797

    ADVERBS

    transitive action. This can be illustrated by comparing sentence (362), containing ‘all of it’, to the examples (363) to (365) containing ‘all’. 362

    Nga35 ngun31 yvang55-moq1 r55 1PO silver 3PL–party OBJ maq1 am55 bue31. give.away.for.nothing PFM P+I I just gave all my money to them.

    kyom11 all.of.it

    363

    Hi55-bvue55 ge11 dvau55 zvyat5 this–PLN TOP inflate/bottle all These are all bottles.

    364

    Hi55-bvue55 nga35 this–PLN 1PO These are all mine.

    365

    Zang11-sun11 hi55-bvue55 ngo31 a1-zo31 (ipf) rice/food–veg/dish this–PLN 1SG NEG–eat 35 54 5 5 55 wu si zvyat ngvut r . look still+FCT all be PE These are all dishes that I haven’t eaten before.

    ngvut5 be

    lye31. also+I

    zvyat5 ngvut5 lye31. all be also+I

    The following sentence illustrates that the adverb ‘all’ can be placed before the negative prefix . 366

    Bui31num31 zvyat5 a1-ngvut5, num11nang35 family all NEG–be friend 5 31 ngvut lye . be also+I None of them are relatives, they’re all friends.

    A reduplicated adverb ‘all’ at the end of a clause expresses that the given entity or entities completely have a certain quality or are completely in a certain state. 367

    Hye55-poq5 bang11 ge11 same.elevation–foreign PNO TOP

    nvo31 nose

    798

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    suen11-suen11 ma54 pointed–pointed LOC+FCT Foreigners all have pointy noses. 368

    zvyat5-zvyat5. all–all

    Zang11 zo31 lye31 zvyat5-zvyat5 ngva31. rice/food eat(ipf) also+I all–all DC+I I see that you are only eating. [not drinking booze]

    In the above sentences, the reduplicated ‘all’ may seem to function as the predicate, whereas these clauses are in fact elliptic, lacking a predicate. Sentence (369) is an example of a non-elliptic clause, containing the copula ‘to be’ as a predicate. In this type of clause, the predicate is often omitted before the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31, as illustrated by sentences (370) and (371). Hye55-bvue55 ge11 same.elevation–PLN TOP zvyat5-zvyat5 ngvut5 all–all be Over there is all Burma.

    Myen31-meng11 Burma–world bue31.

    370

    Hye55-bvue55 ge11 same.elevation–PLN TOP zvyat5-zvyat5 bue31. all–all P+I Over there is all Burma.

    Myen31-meng11 Burma–world

    371

    I5-nvung55 ge11 yvum31-seng31 zvyat5-zvyat5 SPEC–1ND.IN TOP house–host all–all We (ND.IN) are all hosts. [So help yourselves.]

    369

    P+I

    bue31. P+I

    Sentence (369) has illustrated that the verb ‘to be’ can optionally function as the predicate, after the reduplicated adverb ‘all’. The function of ‘to be’ in this position is to emphasise a certain entity, in contrast to other entities, as if to say ‘these mountains are Burma, but those over there are not’. The use of ‘to be’ is rejected in sentence (371), since such would infer that the people referred to are the hosts, whereas others specifically

    ADVERBS

    799

    are not, which thus would enfeeble the notion of generous hospitality which this utterance is meant to express. The use of the reduplicated adverb ‘all’ is rather similar to that of the reduplicated adverb ‘just’ discussed above in Section 16.7. However, the latter construction expresses that there are many of the entities that are indicated by the preceding nominal constituent, or, in case of a mass noun, that there is very much of the mass noun entity that is indicated by the preceding nominal constituent. 372

    Pui11-lvup5 dust/chaff–be.dusty It’s so dusty.

    bau35-bau35. just–just

    16.35

    THE ADVERB ‘RATHER’

    The Zaiwa adverb ‘rather’75 is used before stative verbs and can mostly be translated as ‘very’, ‘rather’, or ‘quite’. 373 U1-nvuq5 zyaq1 lyet1 r55. head–brains rather clever PE He is very sharp. At first glance, Zaiwa seems to have two words that express notions like ‘very’, viz. the adverb ‘rather’ and the aspectivising auxiliary verb ‘go to the limit’ already discussed in Section 15.12. The verb ‘go to the limit’ is more expressive and emphatic than ‘rather’, and is more suitable when used in reference to actual situations. The adverb ‘rather’ refers to general situations and inherent qualities. Clauses containing both the verb ‘go to the limit’ and the adverb ‘rather’ have not been attested. The two following sentences both contain the verb ‘pleasant’, once after ‘rather’ and once before ‘go to the limit’, and illustrate the difference between the two latter forms.

    75 The Zaiwa adverb ‘rather’ is possibly the same morpheme as the noun ‘engine’, which appears to be a loan from Jingpo jak [tʃak55] ‘machine’ (Xu et al. 1983: 337).

    800

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    374

    I1gvun11 zyaq1 ngon35 household rather pleasant They live quite happily.

    a1-gvo31. nom–PL+I

    375

    Gung31-ci11 ci31 am55 zyang35 san31 body–wash wash(ipf) PFM CD clean(ipf) 1 11 35 1 ze -ga ngon dik bue31. only–perceive pleasant extreme P+I Once you wash yourself, it feels so nice and clean.

    In the final clause of sentence (376) below, the adverb ‘rather’ is used whereas ‘go to the limit’ is rejected. The latter sentence refers to the general, not particular, situation of Dad avoiding going on long walks because of general difficulties of old age. The auxiliary ‘go to the limit’ in sentence (377) refers to an actual sensation of difficulties in walking. 376

    A5-wa11 mang11 lui31-eq1 kyo31 nom–father aged in.this.way +I–AG/I road 31 11 54 1 1 heng so ra zyaq yak r55. long walk need+FCT rather difficult2 PE Because Dad is old, it’s difficult for him to take long walks.

    377

    Kyo31 so31 lap5 (ipf) road walk suffer It becomes hard to walk.

    dik1 extreme

    bue31. P+I

    The following sentence, containing ‘rather’, expresses some inherent quality of cooked young black mustard, as compared to stir-fried. This sentence could also be uttered when at the moment there is not any black mustard at all, since no particular reference is made to an actual perception of the taste of it. If the latter were the case, my principal informant would rather use sentence (379) with ‘go to the limit’. 378

    Ang11-nu35-zo11 petiole–young/tender–child zyaq1 ngvam31 r55. rather tasty(ipf) PE

    zvyoq5 zo31 r11 (ipf) cook eat also

    801

    ADVERBS

    Cooked young black mustard is delicious to eat. 379

    Ngvam31 dik1 (ipf) tasty extreme It’s very tasty.

    r55. PE

    Also compare the following examples, both containing the verb ‘tough, difficult’. Sentence (380), containing ‘go to the limit’, refers to an actual sensation whilst tilling the land, whereas sentence (381), containing ‘rather’, refers to certain inherent qualities of a certain track, which could be perceived at any time when taking this route. 380

    381

    Yo31 hi31 nak5 dik1 land this tough/difficult extreme This piece of land is really tough.

    r55. PE

    Bva55 mai11 kyo31 so31 lo35 r11 (ipf) flatlands ABL road walk go(back/up) also zyaq1 nak5 r55. rather tough/difficult PE To walk through the flatlands back upwards is rather tough.

    In the two following cases, a certain inherent situation in the past, referred to by ‘rather’, is compared to certain actual situations in another clause. In these cases, the use of the auxiliary verb ‘go to the limit’ is also rejected by my informant. 382

    He55-pyang31 yvang11 zyaq1 mvyang25 wa35, before–DIR 3SG rather tall/high+FCT EMP a1kui31 ngyup1 byuq1-u55 se5-dut5 bue31. now low lose–FCT like–become P+I Before, he used to be quite tall, but now he appears to have become shorter.

    383

    A1kang31 zyaq1 just.now rather a1-ze1-nvau31 NEG–eat–feel.like

    ze5-nvau25 wa35 eat–feel.like+FCT EMP loq1. no.more

    a1kui31 now

    802

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Although I really wanted to eat it a short while ago, I don’t feel like [eating] it anymore. The following examples further illustrate the meaning and use of ‘rather’. Sentence (384) refers to certain inherent qualities of the person in the context, expressing that he often acts like that. In the same way, sentence (385) refers to a general and persistent feeling. 384

    A1ga31! waq1ngan31 zyaq1 ngvaq5 r55 (difficulty) young.man rather give.all PE Oh my, he lays it on thick like a young fellow!

    dvi31. CX+I

    385

    Bui31num31 ga11 gve5lvang11 zyaq1 a31na35 r55. family perceive although rather ill.at.ease PE Even though we are relatives, we are quite ill at ease with each other.

    386

    Dvip5dvip5dvop5dvop5zyaq1 gue11 [all.kinds] rather all.right(ipf) He can do all kinds of jobs.

    387

    Ma11-lum11 ki11 zyaq1 (name.prefix)–(in.names) faeces rather bvuq5 r55. explode(vt) PE Malum is good at farting.

    388

    Zai11wa31-ming35 mvoq5 r11 le1zvyum55 Zaiwa–language learn/teach also meaning zyaq1 bo11 r55. rather contain(ipf) PE Learning the Zaiwa language is very interesting.

    389

    Yvang11

    390

    yvup5 zyaq1 wo35 3SG sleep rather have He can do well without sleep. Ngo31 nang31 r55 1SG

    2SG

    OBJ

    gvut5 r55. do PE gue11 all.right(ipf)

    zyan31 endure(ipf)

    zyaq1 kung55ga31 rather respect(ipf)

    lye31. also+I

    r55. PE

    803

    ADVERBS

    I have quite a lot of respect for you (SG). The adverb ‘rather’ is not attested within one clause together with any auxiliary after the main verb, except in the two following cases. 391

    Byu31 hi55-yuq1 zyaq1 rvuq5 man/woman this–person rather truculent 31 31 mvau dvo r55. cheat/fool(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE This person pretends to be a very fierce fighter.

    392

    Hi31 ge1ro11 sam31mvi11 zyaq1 this between (common).cold rather bum11 a1-gvo31. (ipf) heap(vt/N) nom–PL+I These days many people have a cold.

    wang11 enter(ipf)

    The Zaiwa adverb ‘rather’ is not combined with the negative prefix , nor with the prohibitive prefix .

    16.36

    THE ADVERB ‘DO V IN PASSING’

    The Zaiwa adverb expresses ‘do V in passing’ or ‘do V whilst already in action’ or, in other words, that since the given person already is doing something he could just as well also perform some other action. The latter notion can often be translated as: ‘since X is doing this, why doesn’t X do V’. 393

    Nang31 bui11-syum11 zyang31 syum11-aq5 hoi11. 2SG broom–sweep in.passing sweep–SIM INC [Since you are busy already] you (SG) can also sweep the floor then.

    In the following examples, the prohibitive prefix is prefixed to ‘do V in passing’. Sentence (394) expresses that the addressee should not come back, since the speaker is angry. Whether such a notion of anger also underlies sentence (395) depends

    804

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    on the context. The utterance of sentence (396) clearly is rather friendly. 394

    Ke5-zyang31 lo31 loq1. PHB–in.passing come(back/up) no.more [Since you have to go away] Stay away then. / Don’t come back then.

    395

    Ke5-zyang31 zo11 loq1. PHB–in.passing eat no.more [since you have to go away] Don’t recommence the meal then.

    396

    Ke5-zyang31 lo35 loq1, nga35-moq1 PHB–in.passing go(back/up) no.more 1PO–party zvyang55 zang11 zyang31 zo11 syang55. near rice/food in.passing eat JUS Well, stay here then, and since you’re here have a meal with us.

    The adverb ‘do V in passing’ is often used in combination with the opportunative clause marker and conjunction .76 The opportunative clause marker , glossed (OPP), links two clauses and expresses that the situation referred to by the clause after (OPP) can take place by the opportunity offered by the situation indicated by the clause ending in this clause marker. In the context of the following sentence, the act of fishing takes place since one already has to go to that place to collect firewood. 397

    Tang11 ho31 lo35 i1zvyang11 firewood look.for go(back/up) OPP 1 11 35 31 nge -zo lo zyang gvong31 lye31. (ipf) fish–child go(back/up) in.passing catch.fish also+I As long as we’re already up there collecting firewood, we’re also going to go fishing.

    76 It is not clear yet to what extent the Zaiwa adverb ‘do V in passing’, the suffix ‘place for/to’, and the opportunative conjunction are etymologically related.

    805

    ADVERBS

    16.37

    THE MORPHEME ‘USE UP’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS PART OF THE COMPLETIVE ADVERB ban11 (USE.UP(IPF))

    The morpheme ‘use up’ occurs both as a main verb in the meaning ‘use up’ and, marked by the imperfective marker , in the Zaiwa completive adverb ban11 (use.up(ipf)). The morpheme ‘use up’ is mostly marked by the imperfective marker , except in isolation or in the special combination ban31-syoq5 (use.up-till) ‘entirely’. I shall discuss the latter combination near the end of this section. In non-negative sentences, the morpheme ‘use up’, either as a main verb or as an adverb, is used mostly in conjunction with the perfect clause marker (P). In the following examples, ‘use up’ is a main verb. 398

    Ban11 bue31. (ipf) use.up P+I It’s all finished.

    399

    Ban11 byuq1 bue31. (ipf) use.up lose P+I It has all been used up.

    • the Zaiwa completive adverb ban11 (use.up(ipf)) This morpheme ‘use up’ is used mostly as the completive adverb ban11 (use.up(ipf)), marked by the imperfective marker . This category simultaneously marks (i) the totality of entities in the context, like ‘all of it’, ‘all or them’, or ‘entirely’, as well as (ii) the irreversibility of a certain change. 400

    401

    Mvan11-haq5 ban11 ngyui31 byuq1 (ipf) (ipf) grass/leaves–leaf use.up dried.out lose The leaves have become dried out.

    bue31. P+I

    Si11 dye31 zui11 lui31 si11-gvoq5 fruit too bear.fruit in.this.way +I fruit–branch lvang55 ban11 ngun11 bue31. (ipf) even use.up hang.down P+I Because of bearing too much fruit, the fruit branches were hanging down.

    806 402

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Lai11-eq1 a1zeng35 ban11 wind#–AG/I thing use.up(ipf) am55 bue31. PFM

    mut1 blow

    dvang31 let.fly(ipf)

    P+I

    The wind has blown it all away. 403

    Le1-zyong11 bang11 rvoq5 one–school PNO DEF 11 31 dvom bue . desolate P+I The entire school is asleep.

    ban11 use.up(ipf)

    yvup5 sleep

    In the four following examples, the Zaiwa completive adverb ban11 (use.up(ipf)) expresses the notion ‘irreversibly’, rather than notions like ‘all of it’, ‘all or them’, or ‘entirely’. 404

    Zi1syang31 hi31 ge11 ban11 lun35 byuq1 bue31. (ipf) child this TOP use.up spoiled lose P+I This child is totally spoiled.

    In the following sentence, the completive adverb ban11 (use.up(ipf)) adds to the speaker’s disapproval of the situation, stressing the irreversibility of the supposed state of being grown up. 405

    Nang31 ban11 gvo11 bue31 r11 ke5-dye31 (ipf) 2SG use.up big P+I also PHB–too 31 31 cyong -o . frolic–HIGH+I You (SG) have been grown up for a long time, don’t play like that.

    In the following sentence, the completive adverb ban11 (use.up(ipf)) stresses the irreversibility of the state of being light already. The imperfective marker mocks the sleepiness or laziness of the addressee, emphasising the continuousness of the situation of being light. The adverb ‘even’ in the same sentence emphasises that the speaker and the addressee both had something completely different in mind.

    ADVERBS

    406

    807

    Bo35 bue31 mai31, myoq1 lvang55 open.itself P+I OBV+I eye even ban11 myang31 bue31 ning31. use.up(ipf) see P+I INS+I But it’s light already, I can see things clear enough!

    In the following sentence, the adverb ban11 (use.up(ipf)) refers to the situation of having turned numb rather than expressing the notion ‘both of’. 407

    Dye31 gyoq1 lui31 loq1 lvang55 too cold in.this.way +I hand/arm even 11 11 1 31 ban bing byuq bue . use.up(ipf) numb(ipf) lose P+I Because it was so cold, my hands were totally numb.

    In negative clauses, the adverb ban11 (use.up(ipf)) comes after the negative prefix . The only attested negative clauses containing ban11 (use.up(ipf)) have in common that the meaning of the underlying morpheme ‘use up’ is used in a rather literal sense. 408

    A1-ban11 zo31 si1-kai31? (ipf) (ipf) NEG–use.up eat still–SUG+I It is not totally eaten up yet, I believe?

    409

    Yvang55-moq1 i31-pue11 a1-ban11 syuq5 (ipf) 3PL–party distilled–booze NEG–use.up drink si1-luq1? still–Y/N Did they (PL) finish the booze or not?

    410

    No11 le1-du11-du11 ung54 ngun31 ge11 cattle one–being–being sell+FCT silver TOP 1 11 31 1 1 31 a -ban syung siq ge -lo . (ipf) NEG–use.up use still TOP–no.more+I You (SG) can’t have spent all the money you earned by selling the cow yet, right?

    808 411

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Nang31

    a1-ban11 syuq5 zyang35ngo31 (ipf) 2SG NEG–use.up drink CD 1SG be1-syuq5 r55. help–drink BENEX If you (SG) can’t finish this drink, I’ll help you.

    The morpheme ‘use up’ is used in one specific combination with adverbial function, viz. in ban31-syoq5 (use.up-till) ‘entirely’, before the conjunction-like clause marker ‘till’. Sentence (414) illustrates that after the latter construction the completive adverb ban11 (use.up(ipf)) can be added, whereas this adverb lacks in sentence (415). 412

    Ban31-syoq5 a1-wo35 cyung31loq1. use.up–till NEG–have use no.more None of it can be used anymore.

    413

    Bum31 hau55-bum31 ge11 ban31-syoq5 heap(vt/N) the/that–heap(vt/N) TOP use.up–till 11 5 11 11 5 gam -bvyoq gam -lvang zvyat -zvyat5. steep(adj)–lop.off steep(adj)–hang all–all That mountain all consists of overhanging, steep cliffs.

    414

    Ban31-syoq5 ban11 use.up–till use.up(ipf) Is all of it finished?

    syuq5 drink

    Ban31-syoq5 syuq5 use.up–till drink Is it all finished?

    bue31

    luq1?

    P+I

    Y/N

    415

    bue31

    luq1?

    P+I

    Y/N

    The combination ban31-syoq5-bang11 (use.up-till-PNO), consisting of ban31-syoq5 (use.up-till) ‘entirely’ and the plural nominalising suffix , expresses ‘all of’ or, literally, ‘the whole group’, and modifies personal pronouns. 416

    Nga35-nvung55 ban31-syoq5-bang11 1PO–1ND.IN use.up–till–PNO

    syom31 drive.game(ipf)

    809

    ADVERBS

    gam11 zo11 syang55. (ipf) divide/share eat JUS Let us (ND.IN) divide this and eat it together. 417

    Yvang55-moq1 ban31-syoq5-bang11 3PL–party use.up–till–PNO Bue11zin35-byu31 gve5-luq1? Beijing–man/woman PL–Y/N Are all of those people from Beijing?

    16.38

    THE MORPHEME ‘DRIVE GAME’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS PART OF THE COLLECTIVE ADVERB cyom31 / syom31 (DRIVE.GAME(IPF))

    The morpheme ‘drive game’ occurs both as a main verb ‘drive game’ and, marked by the imperfective marker , in the Zaiwa collective adverb cyom31 / syom31 (drive.game(ipf)), expressing ‘X and Y doing V together with Z’. The morpheme ‘drive game’ could be a direct loan from Jingpo. Xu et al. (1983: 353) mention the Jingpo adverb jom, which is used in about the same ways as the Zaiwa collective adverb. Dai & Xu (1992: 164) also mention the Jingpo adverb jom2 with the same meaning as the Zaiwa collective adverb. The meaning ‘to drive game’, however, cannot be retrieved from these Jingpo sources. The following examples illustrate that the original and invariant meaning of the verb is ‘to drive game’. 418

    419

    Zi1si31 cyom55 lo35 muntjac drive.game go(back/up) Let’s (ND.IN) go uphill and drive muntjac.

    syang55. JUS

    Si1-cyom55 lo35 zyang35 ge11 flesh–drive.game go(back/up) CD TOP syok5-syok5 ngvu31 ra31 dut1 lye31. [putting.up.game] say need +I become also+I When driving game, you have to shout “shok shok”.

    810

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    The following examples illustrate that, marked by the imperfective marker , the verb ‘to drive game’ can also be used as the Zaiwa collective adverb, expressing ‘X and Y doing V together with Z’. In the first example, the latter adverb is placed before the negative prefix . 420

    Nga35-nvung55 cyom31 a1-ye31 (ipf) 1PO–1ND.IN drive.game NEG–go(away/down) le1-syang55. no.more– JUS Let’s (ND.IN) not go there.

    421

    Paq1zvi31 syom31 mvoq5 lui31 (ipf) knowledge drive.game learn/teach in.this.way +I yvum31-mau11 dum11 lo35 ra31. house–native.land again go(back/up) need+I After learning together, we will go back to our native land.

    422

    Nga35-nvung55 ban31-syoq5-bang11 syom31 1PO–1ND.IN use.up–till–PNO drive.game(ipf) gam11 zo11 syang55. (ipf) divide/share eat JUS Let us (ND.IN) divide this and eat it together.

    423

    Hi55-kyap5 ge11 nga35-nvik5 syom31 this–leaf/sheet TOP 1PO–duo drive.game(ipf) 54 5 dyem ngvut lye31. take.picture+FCT be also+I This is a picture of the two of us.

    424

    Nga35-nvik5 a1-cyom31 gai35 gvoq1. (ipf) 1PO–duo NEG–drive.game prepare.food DIE Let’s (DU) not prepare the meal together.

    425

    Cyom31 yvup5 syang55. (ipf) drive.game sleep JUS Let’s (ND.IN) sleep together.

    811

    ADVERBS

    426

    Nga35-nvung55 cyom31 ngi11 (ipf) 1PO–1ND.IN drive.game be.there(anim)(ipf) byuq1 syang55. lose JUS Let’s (ND.IN) be like one family. [spoken to let someone stay for the night]

    16.39

    THE MORPHEME ‘RESPOND, UPRIGHT’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS PART OF THE ADVERB dvu11 (RESPOND/UPRIGHT(IPF)) EXPRESSING ‘UPRIGHT’

    The verb ‘respond, upright’ mostly forms part of the adverb dvu11 (respond/upright(ipf)) expressing ‘upright’. In the following sentence, the same morpheme ‘respond, upright’ is a causative main verb expressing ‘put in upright position’. Here, the verb ‘get up’ is used as an aspectiviser expressing ‘up’. 427

    Zi1syang31 lyeng31 si31 bue31, dvu11 (ipf) child fall(vi) die P+I respond/upright(ipf) 31 1 dvo -aq . get.up*–SIM The child has had a nasty fall, help (SG) her to get up.

    In the following sentence, the morpheme ‘respond, upright’ is used as a main verb expressing ‘put in upright position’, or perhaps rather as an aspectiviser expressing ‘upright’. 428

    Le1gok1 gek1 dvu31-aq1. stone wrench.off respond/upright–SIM Wrench off (SG) the stone and stand it upright.

    As a main verb, however, the same morpheme ‘respond, upright’ can also express ‘respond’. 429

    Hau31 mang11-zo11 dvu31-aq1 the/that aged–child respond/upright–SIM But give an answer to that aged person!

    mai31! OBV+I

    812 430

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    O55 r11 a1-dvu31 gvo54 ge11. who also NEG–respond/upright PL+FCT TOP And none of you gives an answer [Why do none of you give me an answer?]

    and the reply: 431 Ngo31 dvu11 1SG respond/upright(ipf) But I answered already!

    am55

    bue31

    mai31.

    PFM

    P+I

    OBV+I

    The notion ‘respond’ can also be used in the connotation of children replying too defiantly to elder people, in the expression dang11 dvu31 (words respond/upright). 432

    Zi1syang31 hi31 dang11 dye31 dvu11 child this words too respond/upright(ipf) This child replies too defiantly to adults.

    r55. PE

    The same morpheme ‘respond, upright’ is also used as a verb in a fixed expression ‘(sun) shine from zenith’, together with the special noun ngi35-gvung31 (day-hunch). The latter noun refers to the sun in the position right above one’s head. 433

    434

    Ngi35-gvung31 dvu31 day–hunch respond/upright The sun is at its zenith.

    bue31. P+I

    Ngi35-gvung31 a1-dvu31 siq1. day–hunch NEG–respond/upright still The sun isn’t at its zenith yet.

    The following examples illustrate the use of the same morpheme ‘respond, upright’ as part of an adverb expressing ‘upright’, marked by the imperfective marker . 435

    La11zyu11 dvu11 candle respond/upright(ipf) Stand (SG) the candle upright.

    zvung31-aq1. set(vt)–SIM

    813

    ADVERBS

    436

    Gom35 dvu11 mug respond/upright(ipf) Stand (SG) the mug upright.

    zvung31-aq1. set(vt)–SIM

    437

    Pun55dung11 dvu11 su31-aq1. (ipf) post.of.a.fence respond/upright secure*–SIM Insert (SG) the post into the ground. [not with a hammer but by thrusting the post into the ground with your hands]

    16.40

    THE MORPHEME ‘SCOOP’(VT) AS A MAIN VERB AND AS THE EXCESSIVE ADVERB

    • ‘scoop’ as a main verb When the morpheme ‘scoop’(vt) is used as a main verb, it expresses ‘to scoop with something broad’. Examples of ways of scooping with something broad, with exemplary descriptions by the informant, are: got1 zveng11 (scoop(vt)-bring.together) ‘to sweep rubbish with the hand, the foot or a hoe, instead of with the broom’, and got1 syuq5 (scoop(vt)-drink) ‘to drink out of the hand or after scooping the water with a bowl, instead of with a ladle’. Also compare the following examples. 438

    Ka55-hu55 a1-gue11 got1 zyang35 (ipf) Q–sort NEG–all.right scoop(vt) CD loq1-eq1 got1 syu31-aq1. hand/arm–AG/I scoop/ladle drink*–SIM If you can’t scoop it with anything, just drink it out of your hands.

    439

    Zang11 got1 rice/food scoop(vt) Scoop out (SG) the rice.

    440

    Mi1-zvue11 earth–soil got1 scoop(vt)

    gvan31-aq1. put.into*–SIM

    syum31 zveng11 sweep(ipf) move.to.one.place am55 gveq5. PFM

    PLIM

    lui31 in.this.way +I

    814

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Bring the soil together and clear (PL) it away. • ‘scoop’(vt) as the excessive adverb The morpheme ‘scoop’(vt) is also used as the Zaiwa excessive adverb expressing ‘to do something in an excessive way’. There is a clear link between the different notions expressed by ‘scoop’(vt) as a main verb on one hand and as an adverb on the other, since in both uses this morpheme refers to a rather rough or coarse manner. The morpheme ‘scoop’(vt) as the excessive adverb is especially often used as part of a construction containing the prohibitive prefix and another adverb ‘too, impatient’, in: ke5-dye31 got1 V ‘don’t V so (terribly) much’. 77 441

    Ke5-dye31 got1 PHB–too scoop(vt) Don’t eat so terribly much.

    zo11. eat

    442

    Ke5-dye31 got1 PHB–too scoop(vt) Don’t sleep so terribly much.

    yvup5. sleep

    443

    Ke5-dye31 PHB–too

    so31 walk(ipf)

    got1 scoop(vt)

    han31. quick

    77 Also compare the use of the excessive auxiliary ‘scoop’(vt) before the two following verbs. According to the informant, the word ‘feed, feed oneself’ does not specifically refer to eating a lot or in a very uncouth manner, but is most of all an ugly, impolite word for eating. The difference in meaning between ‘feed, feed oneself’ and another verb, viz. ‘feed oneself’ is not clear to me yet. The latter is also a rather coarse word for eating.

    1

    Hye55-me55 zang11 got1 nvang31 same.elevation–LOC rice/food scoop(vt) feed.(oneself)(ipf) dvo31 r55. place(vt)(ipf) PE [very coarse:] He is over there eating / gorging himself.

    2

    Got1 nvang55-aq5. scoop(vt) feed.(oneself)–SIM Go on (SG), eat it. (though I did not want to let you have it)

    3

    Got1 wvue31-aq1. scoop(vt) feed.oneself–SIM Go ahead and eat (SG) it. [if you have no pride]

    815

    ADVERBS

    Don’t walk so terribly fast. Also compare the following examples. 444

    Zai11wa31 tung31-pin11 r11 a1-sue55, Zaiwa tradition–morals also NEG–know got1 dai31 mvau55. scoop(vt) speak(ipf) cheat/fool He doesn’t even know the Zaiwa traditional values; he’s talking nonsense.

    445

    I31-pue11 got1 syuq5 li11 a1gvyu31 a1-bo31. distilled–booze scoop(vt) drink also merit NEG–contain There’s no merit in excessive drinking.

    446

    Got1 din31-aq1, lyeng31 si31 be1-ra31. (ipf) scoop(vt) run–SIM fall(vi) die P–need +I Run (SG), run and you will break your neck.

    The verb ‘scoop’(vt) is homophonous with ‘dirty’. 16.41

    THE MORPHEME ‘BIG’ IN THE ADVERB gvo11 (BIG(IPF))

    The morpheme ‘big’ occurs both as a stative verb ‘big’ and as part of the adverb gvo11 (big(ipf)) expressing ‘well over, at the outside calculation’. The first of the following sentences illustrates the use of the morpheme ‘big’ as a stative verb. 447

    Le1-tang31 ge11 dviq5,le1-tang31 ge11 one–behind TOP little one–behind TOP One end is small and the other end is big.

    448

    Yvang31-eq1 yvang11 r55 3SG#–AG/I 3SG OBJ dvo11 bue31. place(vt) P+I She has raised him.

    ku11 raise(ipf)

    gvo11. big

    gvo31 big(ipf)

    816

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    449

    Zi1syang31 hi31 ge11 ki31-bu35 child this TOP leg/foot–pimple/convex loq1-bu35 gvo31 dik1 r55. (ipf) hand/arm–pimple/convex big extreme PE This child has hefty legs and arms.

    450

    A1gvyu31 merit Thank you.

    gvo11 big

    bue31. P+I

    The following sentences illustrate the use of the latter morpheme as part of the adverb gvo31 (big(ipf)), always in combination with the imperfective marker , expressing ‘well over’; cf. Dutch ruim. 451

    Bvan55 le1-ci11 gvo31 a1-wo35 luq1? (ipf) cloth one–1/3.mtr big NEG–have Y/N Does this piece of cloth measure at least one third of a metre?

    452

    Le1-wui35 gvo31 ban11 one–equal big(ipf) use.up(ipf) More than half has been done now.

    bue31. P+I

    453

    Ngo31 ngo11-gin35 gvo31 o31 1SG five–pound big(ipf) want/take I’ll take about [at least] five pounds of it.

    16.42

    THE MORPHEME ‘PREPARED’ AS A VERB AND AS THE INVESTIGATIVE ADVERB

    ra31. need+I

    • ‘prepared’ as a verb The invariant meaning of the morpheme is ‘to be prepared’, mostly in the sense of ‘be able to stand the test’ or even ‘be prepared for the fight’. The latter usages are illustrated by the following two sentences. 454

    Ngo31 a1-wo35 1SG NEG–have I’m not prepared yet.

    gya35 prepared

    siq1. still

    817

    ADVERBS

    455

    Gya35 bue31. prepared P+I I’m prepared. [for a fight etc.]

    In the following sentence, Zaiwa ‘prepared’ is used in its more fundamental meaning. 456

    A1zeng35 gya35 yau35 bue31 luq1? thing prepared finish P+I Y/N Did you finish preparing your things? [luggage]

    This morpheme is also used with reference to the preparation of meals. Here it apparently refers to the preparations for satisfying the wishes of the eaters. 457

    Zang11 gya35 bue31, zo11 rice/food prepared P+I eat The food is ready, let’s (ND.IN) eat.

    syang55

    hoi11.

    JUS

    INC

    Zaiwa has a verb ‘all right, ready’ which can be used in a somewhat similar way, but especially refers to meals. 458

    Zang11 zin31 rice/food ready The meal is ready.

    bue31. P+I

    • ‘prepared’ as the investigative adverb Also in a periphrastic way, the Zaiwa ‘prepared’ can also be used as the Zaiwa investigative adverb, often translating roughly as ‘exactly’, in the context of specific investigations and exclusively in interrogative sentences that contain ke5-mvyo55 ‘how much/many’. According to my main informant, the investigative adverb is especially used in the Zaiwa of Longchuan. In sentence (459), this adverb expresses ‘exactly’, referring to exact measurements instead of approximate indications with use of gestures of the hands etc., cf. (460) without this adverb. 459

    Ke5-mvyo55 Q–much(B)

    gya35 prepared

    lai31 heavy(ipf)

    r55

    ta11?

    PE

    GI

    818

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    How heavy is it? / How much does it weigh? 460

    Ngo31 ke5-mvyo55 1SG Q–much(B) How tall am I?

    mvyang11 tall/high(ipf)

    r55

    ta11?

    PE

    GI

    Also compare the remaining examples. 461

    Ke5-mvyo55 gya35 o31 Q–much(B) prepared want/take How much exactly do you want?

    462

    Ngo31 ke5-mvyo55 gya35 mo11 1SG Q–much(B) prepared (people).heavy(ipf) 54 55 31 5 lye lu , cyueng gvat wu35 be55. (ipf) also+FCT MIR weigh(vt) put.into look EE How much exactly do I weigh, let me weigh myself and see.

    ra31? need+I

    In many contexts where the investigative adverb ‘prepared’ is used, already acquired information regarding certain amounts is put to the test. This is naturally the case when the reference suffix is used at the end of the sentence, since this form refers back to the wording of a previous utterance, e.g. as when the speaker failed to grasp the meaning. For example, the context of sentence (463) is that two addressees had said on one occasion that they have three children, whereas they had already said once that they had five children. The speaker of this sentence puts the information to the test. 463

    Nung35-nvik5 zi1syang31 gue31-gue31 ke5-mvyo55 2PL–duo child all.right–all.right Q–much(B) yuq1 gya35 wo35 a1-gvo31 ga31 o11? person prepared have nom–PL+I perceive+I REF How many children, exactly, did you say you have? / How many children do you really have?

    In the following sentence, bearing the same context as the one above, the investigative adverb ‘prepared’ is not used. This further illustrates that the latter adverb is exclusively used in conjunction with

    ADVERBS

    819

    ke5-mvyo55 ‘how much/many’. In the following sentence, the adverb gue31-gue31 (all.right-all.right) ‘really’ is used instead of the investigative adverb ‘prepared’. 464

    Nung35-moq1 zi1syang31 gue31-gue31 a1-wo35 luq1? 2PL–party child all.right–all.right NEG–have Y/N [I want to know now, since you say something different every time.] Do you (PL) have children or don’t you?

    16.43

    THE MORPHEME ‘PASS’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS PART OF THE COMPARATIVE ADVERB lai31 (PASS(IPF))

    The Zaiwa morpheme ‘pass’ occurs both as a main verb and, marked by the imperfective marker , in the comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)). This morpheme could be a loan from Jingpo; compare Jingpo lai in Hanson (1954: 331) ‘to pass by, to go beyond’; ‘to exceed, overstep, transgress’, and Jingpo lai in Xu et al. (1983: 400) (verb) ‘pass, overdo, violate’. The invariant meaning of the Zaiwa morpheme is ‘pass’ in the sense of ‘to proceed past some point of reference’. The following sentences illustrate the use of the morpheme ‘pass’ as a main verb. 465

    Mo35do35 lai31 lo31 zyang35 pui11 (ipf) car pass come(back/up) CD dust/chaff 5 31 31 1 lvup nueng nueng dut r55. be.dusty [forces.of.nature] become PE When a car passes, it becomes dusty as hell.

    466

    Nga35-nvung55 dai31 dvo54 a1-king55 (ipf) 1PO–1ND.IN speak place(vt)+FCT nom–time 1 11 1 a -lai siq . NEG–pass still The time that we (ND.IN) fixed has not yet passed.

    The morpheme ‘pass’ can also be used as the Zaiwa comparative adverb, expressing ‘X is more Vadj than Y’, only after being marked by the imperfective marker . Thus marked the

    820

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    form expresses that the state referred to by the main verb of the sentence ‘passes’ or exceeds some other state. Note that the comparative adverb differs therefore from the superlative adverb ‘exceed’, referring to the attainment of some maximum. The following sentences illustrate the use of the Zaiwa comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)).78 467

    468

    Nga35-nvik5 gvue31 wu35 gvoq1, (ipf) 1PO–duo measure look DIE 5 55 31 11 ke -mvyo lai mvyang lye54 Q–much(B) pass(ipf) tall/high(ipf) also+FCT Let’s (DU) compare which of the two of us is taller. A1-ngi35-nap1 lye31 r55 nom–day–morning also+I OBJ nam11 r55. smelly(ipf) PE It smells even worse than yesterday.

    lu55? MIR

    lvang55 lai31 even pass(ipf)

    In combinations with the negative or prohibitive prefixes, the comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)) can only be posited after them, as illustrated by sentences (469) to (471). 469

    1

    Ngo31 nang31 r55

    a1-lai31 (ipf) 1SG 2SG OBJ NEG–pass I’m not taller than you (SG) .

    mvyang31. tall/high

    78 The prefix ‘one’ and the noun ‘equal’ together form the adverb

    le -wui35 ‘equal’, as discussed in Section 9.37. When followed by the limitative adverb , the adverb le1-wui35 ‘equal’ expresses ‘just as much’, e.g. (1), but when followed by the comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)), e.g. (2), it expresses ‘twice as much’.

    1

    Nga35-nvung55 a1sak1 le1-wui35 1PO–1ND.IN age one–equal We (ND.IN) are the same age.

    2

    Ngo31

    nang31

    r55

    1SG

    2SG

    OBJ

    ze11 only

    a1sak1 le1-wui35 age one–equal I’m twice as old as you (SG).

    gvo31 big(ipf)

    lye31. also+I

    lai31 pass(ipf)

    gvo31 big(ipf)

    lye31. also+I

    821

    ADVERBS

    Also compare the following examples, where the comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)) is used in a specific way, expressing the notion ‘exceeding someone’s right on doing something’. 470

    Ngo31 nang31 r55

    a1-rup5 1SG 2SG OBJ NEG–dare I don’t dare do more than you (SG).

    471

    Ngo31 nang31 r55

    lai31 pass(ipf)

    gvut5. do

    a1-rup5 lai31 dai11. 1SG 2SG OBJ NEG–dare pass(ipf) speak I don’t dare to say more than you (SG).

    The morpheme ‘heavy’, used in the following sentence, is homophonous to ‘pass’. 472

    16.44

    A1ga31! lai31 dik1 r55 (difficulty) heavy(ipf) extreme PE Gosh, it’s heavy!

    mai31. OBV+I

    THE MORPHEME ‘AWAIT, TAKE PART, ATTEND’ IN THE LOCATIVE ADVERB lom11 (ATTEND(IPF)) ‘TO DO ON THE SPOT’

    The Zaiwa morpheme ‘await, take part, attend’ can both be used as a main verb and as part of the locative adverb lom11 (attend(ipf)) ‘to do on the spot’. The morpheme ‘await, take part, attend’ could be a loan from Jingpo lom [lom55] ‘participate’ ‘run into’, vide Xu et al. (1983: 432). In the first two sentences below, the meaning of ‘await, take part, attend’ is used in its regular sense, in the context of taking part in a meeting. 473

    Zup1-pong11 hau31 ge11 ngo31 come.together–meeting the/that TOP 1SG lom25. attend+FCT I have also participated in that meeting.

    r11 also

    822 474

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Ngo31 1SG

    mi1-hang55 wife–marry

    be1-lom11 dvo31 (ipf) help–attend place(vt)(ipf)

    lye31. also+I I’m participating in a wedding.

    The two sentences below show that the same meaning ‘await, take part, attend’ of can be used in the context of waiting for a bus, where it is translated as ‘wait for’, i.e. in order to intercept it and to participate in travelling by it. 475

    Mo35do35 lom11 car attend(ipf) I/we are waiting for a/the bus.

    476

    Mo35do35 a1-lom31 le1-gvoq1. car NEG–attend no.more–DIE Let’s (DU) not wait for the bus anymore.

    lye31. also+I

    Note that Zaiwa has a separate verb ‘wait’ expressing waiting in a general sense.79 The verb ‘wait’ moreover has other connotations which ‘await, take part, attend’ does not express, such as impatience or anxiety. 477

    Nang35 wa11 nang31 r55 lang35 dye31 be1-kai31? 2SG.PO father 2SG OBJ wait too P–SUG+I Your father must be worried about you (SG), mustn’t he?

    Zaiwa ‘await, take part, attend’ apparently is also used colloquially in the following fixed expressions for threatening people. Here, the verb refers to molesting people. 478

    Lom31 be1-ra31. attend P–need+I I will beat you up!

    79 This verb is discussed in Section 15.18, on its special use as an auxiliary verb.

    ADVERBS

    479

    823

    Lom31 be1-gve5-ra31. attend P–PL–need+I You (PL) will be given what for.

    • ‘await, take part, attend’ in the locative adverb lom11 (attend(ipf)) ‘to do on the spot’ The Zaiwa morpheme ‘await, take part, attend’ is also used as part of the locative adverb lom11 (attend(ipf)) ‘to do on the spot’, after being marked by the imperfective marker . This adverb indicates that the action denoted by the predicate takes place at the very place in question. 480

    Yvang11-mi31-eq1 paq1zvi31 lom11 3SG–wife#–AG/I knowledge attend(ipf) 31 54 11 dai -gvyo ge . speak(ipf)–let.hear+FCT TOP That’s where she told him her idea.

    The locative adverb lom11 (attend(ipf)) also expresses the connotation of imposing upon unknowing victims. This notion appears to be only expressed in certain fixed combinations of verbs, i.e. of lom11 (attend(ipf)) before ‘give someone a fright’, e.g. (481), and before ‘rob’, e.g. (482). 481

    Lom11 dvan55 gvoq1. (ipf) attend give.a.fright DIE Let’s (DU.IN) hide when he comes and give him a fright.

    482

    A1-ngi35-nap1 byu31 le1-yuq1 r55 nom–day–morning man/woman one–person OBJ 11 35 54 31 lom lu gvo ga . attend(ipf) rob PL+FCT perceive+I Yesterday someone was held up and robbed. [by two or more people]

    The morpheme ‘await, take part, attend’ is also used in a special sense before the verbs ‘take’ and ‘give’, in the context of complex transactions involving more than two parties, whereby someone in the context acts as an intermediary. When the

    824

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    verb ‘give’ is used after ‘await, take part, attend’, the subject is the intermediary, but when the verb ‘take’ is used after ‘await, take part, attend’, the subject is the final recipient. The use of the verb ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser is discussed in Section 15.13. In cases like sentence (484) below, the verb ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser expresses that a certain effect is aimed at. The effect aimed at here is that the object in the context, via the intermediary, finally comes into the right hands. 483

    Le1-dvu31 r55 le1go11 lom11 bi11-aq5. (ipf) (male)–4th-brother OBJ well attend give–SIM Keep it so as to give it to fourth brother.

    484

    Ma11-lum11 r55 bi31 gvat5 bue31, (ipf) (name.prefix)–(in.names) OBJ give put.into P+I 1 11 11 11 31 le go lom yu dvo dvo11-aq5. well attend(ipf) take(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) place(vt)–SIM I have temporarily given it to Malum. Take it from him and keep it well.

    485

    Lom11 yu31-aq1. (ipf) attend take–SIM Take it from me. [at that place / via someone else]

    16.45

    THE MORPHEME ‘REDO, DO ALL OVER AGAIN’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS PART OF THE REPETITIVE ADVERB sai31 (REDO(IPF))

    The invariant meaning of the morpheme is ‘redo, do all over again’. When used as a main verb, it can express two different secondary meanings, viz. ‘repair’ and ‘construct’, whereas it can also be used periphrastically in yet another meaning, functioning as an adverb. • ‘redo, do all over again’ as a main verb When used as a main verb, the morpheme ‘redo, do all over again’ expresses either ‘repair’ or ‘construct’, depending on the

    ADVERBS

    825

    context. Normally, the verb ‘redo, do all over again’ expresses ‘repair’, but when the objects in question are normally not reparable, the verb has the sense of ‘construct’. With another Zaiwa verb ‘make’, the situation is exactly the other way around. The verb ‘make’ often expresses ‘make, construct’, but when the objects in question are normally not constructible, or when the subject is presumed unable to construct, as in the case of bicycles, the verb expresses ‘repair’.80 This verb ‘make’ thus resembles the Dutch word maken, which can also both be translated as ‘construct’ and ‘repair’. In sentence (486), the verb ‘make’ cannot be used, since the construction of a new television does not lie within the abilities of the person in question. 486

    Dyen11she11 sai55 ra31. television redo need+I I’m going to repair a television.

    In sentence (487) on the building of a house, both ‘redo, do all over again’ and ‘make’ can be used. In this case, the morpheme ‘redo, do all over again’ would refer to building a new house rather than repairing an existing one, in view of the Zaiwa custom of building a new house once in a few years. If ‘make’ were to be used here instead of ‘redo, do all over again’, the meaning expressed would be building a house in a general sense, i.e. either at a new site or at the original site. 80 The expression nat1 rvang55 ‘to worship spirits’ contains either the same morpheme or a different homophonous morpheme ‘worship’. If we analyse this to be the same verb ‘make’, then this collocation would constitute a very special application of the basic meaning of the verb.

    1

    Num11syang11 me55 ge11 Zai11wa31 wui25 place.of.worship LOC TOP Zaiwa generation+FCT nat1 rvang55 zyang11 ngvut5 lye31. spirit worship place(B) be also+I The Numsyang is the place where the Zaiwa people worship spirits.

    2

    Mang11-zo11 no31 lui31 nat1 aged–child pain/ill/disease in.this.way+I spirit rvang31 lye31. worship(ipf) also+I We are worshipping the spirits in order to cure this old person.

    826 487

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Yvum31 sai31 house redo(ipf) I’m building a house.

    lye31. also+I

    Also compare the following Zaiwa examples of ‘redo, do all over again’ as a main verb. 488 Kum11 sai55 ra31 dut1 r55. door redo need+I become PE We have to repair the door. 489

    Mi1-dat5 nang31 sai31 fire–electricity 2SG redo(ipf) Try (SG) to fix the electricity.

    wu35-aq5. look–SIM

    • the repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)) The same morpheme ‘redo, do all over again’ can also form part of the Zaiwa repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)), after being marked by the imperfective marker . 490

    Ke5-sai31 gvat5 (ipf) PHB–redo put.into [salt] Don’t put any more in.

    loq1. no.more

    The Zaiwa repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)) expresses the secondary meaning ‘to make it right’. The following sentence shows that this morpheme can be used twice within one clause, once as part of an adverb and once as a main verb. 491

    Nang31 dvang55kuq5 sai31 sai55-aq5. (ipf) 2SG stool/chair redo redo–SIM Repair (SG) the stool/chair once more. / Fix (SG) the stool/chair again.

    The combination of the repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)) and the verb ‘to place’ renders the meaning of ‘to sort’. 492

    Ka55-hu55 Q–sort

    a1-ho31, NEG–look.for

    mau11sau11 paper/book

    sai31 redo(ipf)

    827

    ADVERBS

    dvo31 lye31. (ipf) place(vt) also+I I’m not looking for anything in particular. I’m just sorting the books. In the following sentence, the meaning ‘once more’ of sai31 (redo(ipf)) yields just as plausible a reading as ‘repair’ or ‘construct’. Therefore this form can here be both an adverb and a main verb. 493

    Kyo31 hi31 sai31 ngvyang11 (ipf) road this redo straighten(vt)(ipf) 1 55 dut r . become PE This road needs to be straightened again.

    am55 PFM

    ra31 need+I

    Section 16.10 has discussed the repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)) and compared it with the adverb ‘again’. The difference in meaning between ‘again’ and the repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)) is that the latter specifically refers to one and the same action which is being repeated, like English ‘once more’, whereas ‘again’ refers to situations which are not necessarily the same. The following sentence illustrates that the adverb ‘again’ and the repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)), in this order, can be used together within a single clause. The meaning expressed here is that some rather complex action, which might be impossible to ever repeat in exactly the same way, has to be done ‘(all) over again’. 494

    Nang31 dum11-sai31 dai31-gvyo54 2SG again–redo(ipf) speak(ipf)–let.hear+FCT 1 a -ngvut5 luq1? NEG–be Y/N Did you (SG) tell it once again?

    495

    Nang31 koi55 a1-gi11 siq1, dum11-sai31 2SG maybe NEG–full/satisfied still again–redo(ipf) zo11 si1-aq5 ma11. eat still–SIM ROUS You (SG) are probably not full yet, so have some more.

    828

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    The following sentences are additional examples of the repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)). 496

    I1-zyum11 le1-zvui55 sai31 zyan11-aq1. water–salt one–bit redo(ipf) Add (SG) some more salt.

    add*–SIM

    497

    I1-zyum11 a1-ngyo35 siq1, sai31 ngvyo55-aq5. (ipf) water–salt NEG–be.mixed still redo mix–SIM The salt is not mixed in yet, stir/mix (SG) it once more.

    498

    Sai31 rvang55-aq5. redo(ipf) make–SIM Construct (SG) it once more.

    16.46

    THE MORPHEME ‘STRIKE’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS THE UNINTENTIONAL ADVERB

    The morpheme ‘to strike’ occurs both as a main verb and as an adverb expressing ‘unintentionally’ and related notions. Both functions show that the invariant meaning of this morpheme is ‘to strike’ in the sense of hitting a target, either after aiming or by accident. In the two following sentences, the morpheme ‘strike’ is the only main verb of the clause, followed by aspectivising auxiliary verbs. 499

    Nang35 dam11 hau31 ge11 ka55-hu31-eq1 2SG.PO wound the/that TOP Q–sort#–AG/I 35 54 11 zang am ta ? strike PFM+FCT GI What struck you (SG) , causing that wound of yours?

    500

    A1gaq5! zang35 gvat5 (oops!) strike put.into Oops, I bumped into you!

    bue31. P+I

    In the following sentences, the morpheme ‘strike’ is used in resultative constructions of two main verbs. In such constructions, the

    829

    ADVERBS

    morpheme ‘strike’ is mostly used as the first of the two, e.g. (501) to (503). When ‘strike’ is used as the first of the two main verbs, it refers to an active situation leading to the situation indicated by the second verb. The verb ‘strike’ is the second of the two main verbs in sentence (504), where it refers to a passive situation as a result of the shining of the sun. 501

    502

    503

    504

    Moi31! (surprise) My, I hit it!

    zang35 bek1 strike shoot

    bue31. P+I

    Lvang31-mui11-eq1 zang35 tye11 snake–snake#–AG/I strike peck I’ve been bitten by a snake. Ne5-sue31-eq1 kui11 r55 cattle–stick#–AG/I dog OBJ I struck the dog with the stick.

    bue31. P+I

    zang35 strike

    du35 throw

    bue31. P+I

    Bui31 a1-zvo11 zang35 loq1. (ipf) sun NEG–shine strike no.more The sun isn’t shining anymore.

    The verb ‘strike’ can also be used as an adverb expressing the notion ‘inadvertently’ or related notions, sometimes ‘accidentally’ or ‘forced by circumstances’. When used as an adverb, the invariant meaning of ‘strike’ is used in a periphrastic way. Often, the action that unintentionally leads towards the occurrence of the situation referred to by ‘strike’ is performed by an unspecified main actant. 505

    Ngi35-wui31 zang35 ngyo11 day–generation strike talk(ipf) These words are used every day.

    lye31. also+I

    506

    A1-yang11 zang35 dai31 nom–stalk strike speak(ipf) These words are often used.

    lye31. also+I

    830

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    507

    Hau31 koq5 le1-kyap5 zang35 zvung11 the/that bowl one–leaf/sheet strike set(vt)(ipf) yvon31 dvo31 r55. (ipf) (ipf) oblique place(vt) PE One of those bowls has not been put level.

    The following sentence is a similar case. Here, the morpheme ‘strike’ refers to a certain outcome which is achieved by itself, viz. of a certain amount of time that has passed on the clock after walking a certain distance. 508

    Cya35cyang31 mai11 zyong11 hi31 ge1ro11 me55 tea.factory ABL school this between LOC na35i55 ke5-mvyo55 fuen55 zang35 so31 r55? clock Q–much(B) minute strike walk(ipf) PE How many minutes does/did it take to walk from the tea factory to the school?

    In the remaining examples of ‘strike’ as the unintentional adverb, the main actant is specified, whereas the cause of the occurrence of the given situations is left likewise unspecified. In these cases, the morpheme ‘strike’ has the connotation ‘accidentally’. In the first sentence, however, the verb has the connotation of ‘forced by circumstances’. 509

    A1-zang35 mvoq5. NEG–strike learn/teach I wasn’t able to prepare for class.

    510

    Dvui11 me55 zang35 bvek5 rope(N/vt) LOC strike kick One of my feet got stuck in the ropes.

    wue35 stuck2

    Ngo31 gung31-gung31 loq1 1SG body–body hand/arm yam31 yu31 bue31. (ipf) cut.off take P+I I have accidentally cut my hand.

    me55

    511

    LOC

    bue31. P+I

    zang35 strike

    831

    ADVERBS

    512

    Moi31! woq1-ki11 zang35 nang31 (surprise) chicken–faeces strike tread(ipf) bvyen11 bue31. flatten/dent(vt) P+I My, I have stepped right into the chicken shit!

    513

    Su31 se1boi31 me55 zang35 syoq5 gyun11 oil table LOC strike pour bathe(vt) I have accidentally spilt some oil on the table.

    bue31.

    Ngo31 au11 zang35 bat1 ngvyop5 1SG pan strike beat dent I have accidentally dented the pan.

    am55

    bue31.

    PFM

    P+I

    514

    P+I

    515

    Le1go11 a1-gvut5-n55 zang35 gvat5 gvat5 bue31. well NEG–do–FCT strike put.into put.into P+I Since I wasn’t paying attention, I accidentally put it in [the pan].

    16.47

    THE MORPHEME ‘EXCEED’ AS A VERB AND AS THE SUPERLATIVE ADVERB

    The morpheme ‘exceed’ occurs both as a verb and as the superlative adverb. 81 In sentence (516), the morpheme ‘exceed’ forms part of the noun-verb construction wui31-zye11 (water2-exceed) ‘flooding’, which in fact functions as a noun. Within sentence (517) the same morpheme is used twice, once in the latter noun-verb construction and once as the main verb. In sentences (518) and (519), which are two possible replies to sentence (517), the morpheme ‘exceed’ is only used as the main verb. 516

    Wui31-zye11-mo35 water–exceed–AUG

    lo11 come(back/up)(ipf)

    lye31 also+I

    81 Jingpo has an adverb je [tʃe31] ‘(even) more …’, ‘the more …’ which much

    resembles Zaiwa as an adverb (Xu et al. 1983: 347).

    832

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    nueng31nueng31. [forces.of.nature] A terrible flood is coming. 517

    Wui31-zye11 a1-zye11 water–exceed NEG–exceed Is there a flood?

    luq1? Y/N

    and two possible replies: 518

    Zye31 dik1 r55. (ipf) exceed extreme PE There has been quite a serious flood.

    519

    A1-zye11 siq1. NEG–exceed still It hasn’t flooded yet.

    The morpheme ‘exceed’ can also be used as the Zaiwa superlative adverb, which can mostly be translated as ‘most’. 520

    Yvang11

    521

    Nang31 wu35 r11 ka55-kyap5 zye11 2SG look also Q–leaf/sheet exceed zvyoi31 r55? beautiful(ipf) PE Which of the pictures is the most beautiful to you (SG)?

    522

    Yvum31 me55 zang11 house LOC rice/food zye11 ngvam31 r55. (ipf) exceed tasty PE Eating at home is best.

    zo31 r11 eat(ipf) also

    Le1-zan31-tong11 me55 one–summer/year–roll LOC

    zye11 ngon35 exceed pleasant

    523

    zye11 3SG exceed She is tallest.

    mvyang11 tall/high(ipf)

    lye31. also+I

    ge11 TOP

    ge11 TOP

    833

    ADVERBS

    sung11 bue31. spring P+I Of all seasons of the year, spring is the most pleasant. 524

    Zye11 tu25 su31 yu11 exceed (make).thick+FCT SNO take(ipf) 35 31 1 lye lo -aq . come(away/down) come(back/up)–SIM Bring (SG) the thickest one.

    I shall now compare the Zaiwa comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)) and another adverb, the superlative adverb ‘exceed’. The comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)) denotes the surpassing of a certain value above the other, whereas the superlative adverb ‘exceed’ refers to the attainment of some maximum. In some contexts, however, the notion of exceeding may not have reached its final stage yet. The maximum referred to by the superlative adverb can still be surpassed in certain contexts, as in case of sentence (526), where the combination of ‘exceed’ and the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I) is used in a kind of “supra-comparative” sense. 525

    Ngo31 nang31 r55 lai31 1SG 2s OBJ pass(ipf) I’m taller than you (SG).

    526

    Nang31

    zye11 mvyang31 2SG exceed tall/high You’ve (SG) become even taller.

    mvyang11 r55. tall/high(ipf) PE bue31. P+I

    The morpheme ‘exceed’ as the superlative adverb can also be used twice within one complex clause, expressing ‘the more …, the more …’. It is interesting to note that in the following sentences the superlative adverb ‘exceed’ is used, not the comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)), apparently because in these contexts there is no comparison and some maximum is constantly being surpassed. 527

    Zo31 eat#

    zye11 mut1 zye11 exceed hungry exceed

    ngi11 be.there(anim)(ipf)

    834

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    wui31 r55. (ipf) difficult PE The hungrier I get, the harder it gets. 528

    529

    530

    Zye11 zo11 zye11 ngvam31 exceed eat exceed tasty(ipf) The more you eat of it, the tastier it gets.

    r55.

    Zye11 yvup5 zye11 yvup5 nvau11 exceed sleep exceed sleep feel.like(ipf) The more I sleep, the sleepier I get.

    r55.

    PE

    PE

    Zye11 a1-ye31 zyang35 zye11 exceed NEG–go(away/down) CD exceed 1 31 31 a -gvam ye loq1. (ipf) NEG–want.to go(away/down) no.more The longer I don’t go there, the less I want to go.

    When clauses like the above examples are short, one of the adverb variants // ‘also’ can be inserted, apparently adding only the subtlest enhancement in meaning. My principal informant claimed that the adverb ‘also’ in the following sentence could just as well be omitted. 531

    Zye11 ngi11 r11 zye11 (ipf) exceed be.there(anim) also exceed The longer I stay, the more pleasant it gets.

    ngon35. pleasant

    The superlative adverb can also be used like English ‘most’, expressing ‘in the highest degree’, without any explicit comparison between certain situations. 532

    Nga35 syu11 Roi35-toi11 1PO grandchild 3rd-sister–(in.names) ngon35 le1-lvum11 dum11 hon31 pleasant one–lump again sing 5 31 55 ngvut lye -o . be also+I–HIGH

    zye11 exceed be1-ra31 P–need+I

    835

    ADVERBS

    My grandchild Roitoi will now sing another, most beautiful song. 533

    16.48

    Yvang11-eq5 yvang11 zye11 3SG–COM 3SG exceed Those two are best friends.

    zyem31 close(ipf)

    r55. PE

    THE ABILITATIVE ADVERB

    The modal adverb is termed the abilitative adverb and is glossed ‘able’. The abilitative adverb either expresses ‘it is possible that V occurs’, when referring to possibilities of situations as a whole, or ‘X is capable of V’, when specifically referring to capabilities of persons. In the following examples, the abilitative adverb expresses ‘it is possible that V occurs’, since it refers to situations as a whole. In this function, the abilitative adverb could be translated as ‘can’, ‘may’ or ‘will’. 534

    Yvang11

    bau35 just

    3SG

    dat1 able

    ming11 sound(vi)(ipf)

    lye31. also+I

    It calls by itself. 535

    Nang31 a1-dat1 wo35 ge1-lo31. 2SG NEG–able have TOP–no.more+I You (SG) will not have it. [because it is a rare object]

    536

    Nga35-nvik5 i5-mvyo55 1PO–duo SPEC–much(B) ge11 le1-bvyat1 lvang55 TOP one–lifetime even 55 31 am kai . PFM

    zum11 ngon35-Ø consort(ipf) pleasant–FCT a1-dat1 dvo31mvi31 NEG–able forget(ipf)

    SUG+I

    I guess that I will never ever forget how the two of us got along so well. In the following sentences, the abilitative adverb refers to persons and thus expresses ‘X is capable of V’. In this function, it could be translated as ‘can’ or ‘be capable of’.

    836

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    537

    Ngo31 Zai11-ming35 a1-lvum31 dat1 dai11. 1SG Zaiwa–language NEG–indiscriminately able speak I don’t speak Zaiwa very well.

    538

    Nang31 zang11 dat1 zvyoq5 lye31 luq1? 2SG rice/food able cook also+I Y/N Can you (SG) cook? [Do you know how to cook?]

    539

    A1-dat1 mit1 toq5 loq1 NEG–able think come.out no.more I can’t find a way of figuring this out.

    mai31. OBV+I

    The following sentence is perceived as witty, since it indicates that the person in question is capable of almost nothing, except just eating. 540

    Ngo31 zang11 ze1-dat1 zo31 mvau31 (ipf) 1SG rice/food only–able eat cheat/fool(ipf) 31 31 lye ning . also+I INS+I The only thing I am capable of doing is eating.

    The abilitative adverb can be used in most cases instead of the positive adverb gue11 (all.right(ipf)), except when the latter is used to express certain specific notions and the abilitative adverb would yield an awkward or implausible meaning. The latter adverb consists of the verb ‘all right’ and the imperfective marker and either expresses that certain situations are ‘all right’ or ‘no good’, or refers to inherent properties. I discuss this adverb, and the underlying morpheme ‘all right’ as a whole, in Section 16.49. If the above examples were to express that the given person is good at something, the positive adverb gue11 (all.right(ipf)) would have to be used instead of the abilitative adverb . When there is specific emphasis on ethical values, the abilitative adverb can also not be used instead of the positive adverb gue11 (all.right(ipf)). My principal informant rejected the use of the abilitative adverb in the following example. 541

    Zai11wa31 Zaiwa

    tung31-keng11 i5-nvung55 tradition–outfit SPEC–1ND.IN

    ADVERBS

    837

    a1-gue11 dvo31mvi55-o31! (ipf) NEG–all.right forget–HIGH+I We (ND.IN) shouldn’t forget our Zaiwa traditions! 542

    Mang11-zo11 ngi31 zyang35 nga35 ngi11 aged–child be.there(anim) CD 1PO penis nga35 zyuq1 a1-gue11 dai11. 1PO vagina NEG–all.right(ipf) speak When the old folks are there, one cannot talk about one’s penis or one’s vagina.

    In a similar way, the use of the abilitative adverb instead of the positive adverb gue11 (all.right(ipf)) was rejected in sentences (543) and (544). Here, the importance of the situation would not be well expressed by the abilitative adverb . In sentence (543), the importance of the situation is expressed by the highlighting suffix (HIGH) and in sentence (544) by the negative indicative suffix (N)o31 (HIGH+I). Note that sentence (545) was accepted, with the abilitative adverb and without the emphatic attitude markers (HIGH ) and (N)o31 (HIGH+I). 543

    A1-gue11 dvo31mvi55-o55. (ipf) NEG–all.right forget–HIGH It’s no good if you forget it!

    and the response: 544 A1-gue11 dvo31mvi55-o31. (ipf) NEG–all.right forget–HIGH+I No, I shall never forget it! 545

    A1-dat1 dvo31mvi55. NEG–able forget It will not be forgotten. / I/we will not forget it.

    The abilitative adverb cannot be used instead of the positive adverb gue11 (all.right(ipf)) when the meaning intended is being good at the action indicated by the main verb. My principal informant rejected the use of the abilitative adverb in the following sentence.

    838

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    546

    Loq1-gun31 gue11 du35 lye31. (ipf) hand/arm–fling/strike/wave all.right throw also+I I/we swim freestyle rather well.

    Both the abilitative adverb and the positive adverb gue11 (all.right(ipf)) can be used in the two following sentences, without a clear difference in meaning. In a parallel way, the positive adverb gue11 (all.right(ipf)) can also be used instead of the abilitative adverb in sentences (537) and (538) above. 547

    Nang31 ma11gyang11 a1-gue11 (ipf) 2SG mah-jong NEG–all.right Can you (SG) play Mah Jong?

    bat1 beat

    luq1? Y/N

    and the response: 548

    Gue11 bat1 lye31, ze11 a1-gat1. (ipf) all.right beat also+I only NEG–expert I know how to play, but I’m not very good at it.

    In the following sentences, the abilitative adverb and the positive adverb gue11 (all.right(ipf)) can also both be used. In all of these cases, the positive adverb gue11 (all.right(ipf)) expresses ‘being good at’, referring to inherent qualities, whereas the abilitative adverb refers to ability in a neutral way. 549

    Yang11yi35-eq5 zang11 a1-gue11 zvyoq5 bvong31. potato–COM rice/food NEG–all.right(ipf) cook coincide It won’t do to cook potatoes and rice together.

    550

    Yang11yi35-eq5 zang11 a1-dat1 zvyoq5 bvong31. potato–COM rice/food NEG–able cook coincide Potatoes and rice can’t be cooked together.

    551

    Se5-gam31 hi55-zyung11 ge11 si11 gue11 (ipf) tree–tree(B) this–kind TOP fruit all.right 31 zui lye31. (ipf) bear.fruit also+I This kind of tree bears fruit. [is good at bearing fruit]

    839

    ADVERBS

    552

    Se5-gam31 hi55-zyung11 tree–tree(B) this–kind zui31 lye31. (ipf) bear.fruit also+I This kind of tree bears fruit.

    ge11 TOP

    si11 fruit

    dat1 able

    The following sentence also contains the abilitative adverb instead of other modal adverbs. This sentence expresses that the two orphans only did not feel up to entering the houses they came along because they were feeling ill at ease, whereas in fact there was nothing against doing so. If the positive adverb gue11 (all.right(ipf)) had been used here, it would express that it would be no good to go inside. If the morpheme ‘have’ as the possibilitative adverb had been used here, it would have expressed that going inside were not allowed or impossible. The morpheme ‘have’ as the possibilitative adverb is discussed in Section 13.7. 553

    Ka31 r11 a1-dat1 wang31. where also NEG–able enter There was nowhere they could go inside.

    16.49

    THE MORPHEME ‘ALL RIGHT’ AS A VERB AND AS PART OF THE POSITIVE ADVERB

    The morpheme ‘all right’ occurs as a verb and as part of the positive adverb. I shall translate the invariant meaning of the verb into English as ‘all right’, but there really is no equivalent lexical category in English. Some senses and ramifications of the invariant meaning of ‘all right’ are more readily translated, especially when ‘all right’ is used as part of a modal adverb. For example, the sense ‘to be good at’ can also be intended when ‘all right’ is used in an ironic sense denoting the tendencies of certain people, and ‘to be no good’, when ‘all right’ denotes situations as a whole in negative sentences concerning prohibitions. The following sentences are examples of ‘all right’ as a verb. 554

    Mai35mai35mai35, (comforting)

    gue31 all.right

    be1-ra31. P–need+I

    840

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    There, there now, it will be over in a moment. 555

    Gue11 all.right(ipf) All right.

    556

    No31 gue31 pain/ill/disease all.right I have recovered.

    lye31. also+I bue31. P+I

    557

    Hye55-yuq1 i1mit1 gue11 dik1 bue31. (ipf) same.elevation–person mind all.right extreme P+I That person [at the same elevation] is a very good person.

    558

    Gue11 si31 a1-si31. (ipf) all.right die NEG–die They didn’t die a good death.

    559

    Yvup5 gve5lvang11 gue31 sleep although all.right To go to sleep would also be good.

    bue31. P+I

    The difference between ‘be all right’ and ‘be excellent’, apart from the fact that the latter is exclusively used as a stative verb, is that ‘be all right’ can refer either to situations as a whole or to a general positive opinion towards a person, whereas ‘be excellent’, refers either to qualities of inanimate entities or to the diligence of people. This difference is illustrated by the two following sentences. 560

    561

    Yvang11ge11

    gyai11 yvang11 3SG TOP excellent in.truth She is really diligent indeed.

    gyai31 excellent(ipf)

    Hau55-yuq1 zyaq1 gue11 the/that–person rather all.right(ipf) He is a good person.

    r55. PE

    r55. PE

    841

    ADVERBS

    • ‘all right’ as part of the positive adverb When ‘all right’ is used as part of the positive adverb, its invariant meaning, which is most aptly translated into English as ‘be all right’, is expressed in the various senses discussed below, some of which are not always readily translated into English. Especially senses of ‘be all right’ that refer to inherent properties often remain untranslated in English. The positive adverb may refer to the situation as a whole or to specific parts of the situation. • Referring to the situation as a whole the positive adverb expresses the notions: ‘it is all right for X to V’, ‘it is all right if V takes place’, ‘it would be no good if V takes place’ or ‘it is in the nature of things for X to V’. • Referring to specific parts of situations, viz. to certain people in the context, the positive adverb either expresses: ‘X has a tendency to V’, or, ironically, ‘X is good at V’. • Referring to other specific parts of situations, viz. to the performance of the action in the context, the positive adverb expresses ‘X performs V satisfactorily’. 1) the positive adverb gue11 ‘all right’(ipf) referring to the situation as a whole In the following sentence, the invariant meaning ‘all right’ of is expressed in the sense of ‘be all right for someone’. This sentence is a cautious, polite question by the host to the foreign guest, who is supposed to be unfamiliar with Zaiwa food. 562

    Sun11 hi55-hu55 nang31 gue11 zo31 lye31 luq1? (ipf) (ipf) veg/dish this–sort 2SG all.right eat also+I Y/N Do you (SG) eat these kinds of dishes?

    In sentences (564) and (565) of the following dialogue, the invariant meaning ‘all right’ of is also expressed in the sense of ‘be all right for someone’. 563

    Ngo31

    Meng11mau11 me55 1SG Ruili LOC 35 11 lo ho go(back/up) look.for(ipf)

    A5-wa11 nom–father lye31. also+I

    r55 OBJ

    842

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    I’m going to Ruili to find Dad. and the response: 564 Nang31 lo35-Ø gue11 ho11 (ipf) 2SG go(back/up)–FCT all.right look.for(ipf) lye31 ngva31? also+I DC+I So it’s all right for you (SG) to go there to find Dad? after which the speaker of sentence (563) responds: 565

    Lo35-Ø gue11 ho11 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) go(back/up)–FCT all.right look.for also+I Yes, it’s no problem for me to go there to find Dad.

    In sentence (568) below, the invariant meaning ‘all right’ of is used in the sense of ‘be all right if …’. In this respect, we can also compare the use of ‘all right’ in the positive adverb with the verb ‘have’ as the possibilitative adverb. Sentence (568) with gue11 ‘all right’(ipf) below is a possible response to sentence (566), and sentence (567) with ‘have’ as the possibilitative adverb is another possible response. The latter response stresses that the circumstances for eating plenty of the food are there, for there still is enough, whereas the response containing the positive adverb gue11 ‘all right’(ipf) emphasises that it is all right if the addressee eats plenty of it, whereas at the same time, with use of the singular imperative clause marker , he is urged to eat plenty of it. The positive adverb gue11 ‘all right’(ipf) appears to be the only modal adverb to be used together with the imperative mood, e.g. (568). This sentence is apparently a contraction of two clauses, one indicative gue11 myo31 zo31 lye31 ‘it’s all right to eat plenty of it’ /’you can eat plenty of it’, and one imperative myo31 zo11-aq5 ‘eat (sg.) plenty of it’. The translation of this sentence, viz. ‘eat (sg.) plenty of it, if you can’ unites these two different notions. 566

    A1-wo35 myo31 NEG–have much(ipf) Can I/we eat plenty of it?

    zo11 eat

    luq1? Y/N

    843

    ADVERBS

    and the response: 567 Wo35 myo31 zo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) have much eat also+I You can eat plenty of it. or: 568

    Gue11 myo31 zo11-aq5. (ipf) (ipf) all.right much eat–SIM Eat (SG) plenty of it, if you can.

    When the positive adverb gue11 ‘all right’(ipf) is used in a negative clause and refers to the situation as a whole, the invariant meaning ‘be all right’ can be used in the sense of ‘it would be no good if …’. The latter sense only occurs in negative clauses in prohibitions. This is illustrated by the following sentences and by sentences (541) to (544) above. 569

    No11 hi31 a1-gue11 lvam55. (ipf) cattle this NEG–all.right let.walk This cow cannot be taken out to pasture.

    570

    Dviq5 bang11 ge11 gvo11 bang11 r55 little PNO TOP big PNO OBJ dang11 a1-gue11 dvu31. words NEG–all.right(ipf) respond/upright The little ones cannot reply defiantly to the adults.

    There is yet another type of use of the positive adverb gue11 ‘all right’(ipf), in clauses where it refers to inherent properties. In these cases, the invariant meaning of ‘all right’ is used in the sense of ‘to be in the nature of things’, which often remains untranslated in English. The first of the examples below is a negative clause. 571

    U1-lvum11 a1-gue11 ngvang55. head–lump NEG–all.right(ipf) (neck).hang.backwards(vt) I can’t touch my head to my back.

    572

    Se5-gam31 hi55-zyung11 tree–tree(B) this–kind

    ge11 TOP

    si11 fruit

    gue11 all.right(ipf)

    844

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    zui31 lye31. (ipf) bear.fruit also+I This kind of tree bears fruit. [is good at bearing fruit] 573

    Yvang11 mang11 zyang35 gue11 ngyup1 lye31. 3SG aged CD all.right(ipf) low also+I When he’s old, he will be short.

    574

    Zo31 syut5 zyang35 le1-dam31-dam31 (ipf) eat wrong CD one–time(Sp)–time(Sp) gue11 no11 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) all.right pain/ill/disease also+I If you eat it under the wrong circumstances, you may get ill.

    2) the positive adverb gue11 ‘all right’(ipf) referring to persons in the context When the positive adverb gue11 ‘all right’(ipf) refers specifically to some person or persons in the context, the invariant meaning of the underlying morpheme ‘all right’ can either be used in a sense of ‘to have the tendency to’, which often remains untranslated in English, or, usually ironically, in the sense of ‘to be good at’. The following sentences are examples of gue11 ‘all right’(ipf) in the sense of ‘to have the tendency to’. 575

    Yvang11 sam55-yau11 dye31 gue11 yau31 r55. (ipf) (ipf) 3SG Shan–let.pass too all.right let.pass PE He always says yes to everything in a non-committal fashion. / He is rather too good at saying yes to everything in a noncommittal fashion.

    576

    Nang31

    577

    Mang11-zo11 hi31 ge11 dye31 aged–child this TOP too 31 55 ngyum r . grumble(ipf) PE This old person is such a grumbler.

    byu31 ke5-dye31 gue11 nving11. (ipf) 2SG man/woman PHB–too all.right swear Do not (SG) always swear at other people. gue11 all.right(ipf)

    845

    ADVERBS

    578

    579

    Ngo31

    i1-zvyam11 gue11 syoq5 (ipf) 1SG water–water all.right pour I will spill the water. [because I always do]

    am31

    (ipf)

    PFM

    lye31. also+I

    Mang11-zo11 hau55-yuq1 gue11 aged–child the/that–person all.right(ipf) 1 31 myok -ngvam dik1 lye31. (ipf) joke(vi)–tasty extreme also+I That old man/woman often makes jokes.

    The following sentences are ironic and are examples of the positive adverb gue11 ‘all right’(ipf) in the ironical sense of ‘to be good at’. 580

    Ma11-lum11 ki11 (name.prefix)–(in.names) faeces bvuq5 r55. explode(vt) PE Malum is good at farting.

    zyaq1 gue11 rather all.right(ipf)

    581

    Mue31-bu11 gue11 kong11 dik1 r55. (ipf) (ipf) wrap–clothes all.right save extreme PE She keeps her clothes very well. [by not wearing them]

    3) the positive adverb referring to the performance of the action in the context When the positive adverb gue11 ‘all right’(ipf) specifically refers to the performance of the action in the context, the invariant meaning of the underlying morpheme ‘all right’ is used in the sense of ‘to perform satisfactorily’. In these cases, this adverb is translated using the English modal ‘can’. Also compare sentences (547) and (548) above. 582

    583

    Zi1syang31 gue11 child all.right(ipf) The child can crawl now.

    ye11 crawl

    bue31. P+I

    Nang31 zi11 a1-gue11 gvat5 (ipf) 2SG love.song NEG–all.right put.into Can you (SG) sing folk songs/traditional love songs?

    luq1? Y/N

    846 584

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Ngo31 yvam31 gue11 wu35 (ipf) 1SG time.for all.right look I can tell fortunes.

    lye31. also+I

    The two following examples were uttered during a discussion on the various Zaiwa kinship terms. The informant is asked whether he would know how a specific kind of relative would have to be addressed, if he were a woman. 585

    Dang11-gvue55 nang31 mi1-wue11 le1-ngvut5 words–measure 2SG wife–female but–be r11 ge11, gue11 dai31 lye31 luq1? (ipf) (ipf) also TOP all.right speak also+I Y/N Suppose you (SG) were a woman, would you be able to say it then?

    and the response: 586 Ngo31 mi1-wue11 a1-ngvut5 gve5lvang11, 1SG wife–female NEG–be although 11 31 31 gue dai lye . all.right(ipf) speak(ipf) also+I Although I’m not a woman, I could say it. Depending on the different possible readings of the following two sentences, the positive adverb gue11 ‘all right’(ipf) can express several different senses, i.e. either ‘to perform satisfactorily’ or ‘to have the tendency to’ or ‘to be good at’. 587

    Ngo31 koi55zvue11 a1-gue11 (ipf) 1SG chopsticks NEG–all.right I can’t use chopsticks.

    ngvyam11. clench

    588

    Nang31 yui11 a1-gue11 byat1, nang35 wa11 (ipf) 2SG guilt NEG–all.right solve 2SG.PO father r55 syeq1 byat1 nvang31 syang55. OBJ au.contraire solve let.loose JUS You (SG) are not good at solving issues of guilt, let us have your father go to solve it.

    847

    ADVERBS

    • the adverb gue31-gue31 (all.right-all.right) ‘really’ The verb ‘all right’ is one of the adjectival verbs that can also be reduplicated and used as an adverb, as discussed in Section 8.5. The adverb gue31-gue31 (all.right-all.right) expresses the meaning ‘really’. This meaning is more or less in line with the notion ‘to be in the nature of things’, which is one of the senses of ‘be all right’, since this adverb may also refer to the situation as a whole. 589

    Gue31-gue31 ngvut5 lye31 ngva31? all.right–all.right be also+I DC+I So is it really like that?

    590

    M1m55! gue31-gue31 lo11 a1-gvo31 luq1? (wonder) all.right–all.right come(back/up)(ipf) nom–PL+I Y/N Hmm, did she really come?

    16.50

    THE MORPHEME ‘WANT TO’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS PART OF THE VOLUNTATIVE ADVERB

    The morpheme ‘want to’ is usually marked by the imperfective marker as part of the Zaiwa voluntative adverb gvam31 (want.to(ipf)) expressing ‘X wants to do V’. When it is the only verb of the predicate, it can also function as a main verb in the same meaning, unlike most other morphemes that can be used both as a main verb and as an adverb. In the first example, the morpheme ‘want to’ is the only verb in the predicate. In cases like this, the specific action referred to is already implicit. In the second example, the morpheme ‘want to’ forms part of the voluntative adverb gvam31 (want.to(ipf)), before the predicate. 591

    Nang31 a1-gvam55 luq1? 2SG NEG–want.to Y/N Do you (SG) want to do that?

    592

    Nang31

    a1-gvam31 (ipf) 2SG NEG–want.to Do you (SG) want to go?

    ye31 luq1? go(away/down) Y/N

    848

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    The verb ‘want to’ differs from the Zaiwa auxiliary ‘feel like’. I translate as ‘want to’ because it refers to the wish to perform a certain action, focusing on the decision whether or not to do so and on the determination on that issue. The auxiliary ‘feel like’ does not refer to a decision whether or not to perform the given action, but an attitude towards that action. Another difference between ‘want to’ and ‘feel like’ is that the latter also expresses bodily needs such as the need to sleep, to eat, or to defecate. 593

    Zyai11-ei31 yvum31-mau11 (regretting)–EXCL+I house–native.land nvau11 ra55. feel.like(ipf) PE Oh, how I want to return to my native land!

    594

    I1-zit5 water–pee I have to pee.

    nvau11 feel.like(ipf)

    lo35 go(back/up)

    r55. PE

    The Zaiwa verb ‘select’ should also briefly be mentioned here. Unlike both ‘want to’ and ‘feel like’, the verb ‘select’ refers to material matters. 595

    Guq1 sum11-bung31 o31 unhusked.rice three–25.kilo want/take I’ll take 75 kilos of unhusked rice.

    ra31. need+I

    The following examples illustrate the use of the voluntative adverb gvam31 (want.to(ipf)). 596

    Ngo31 gvam31 ye31 gve5lvang11 (ipf) 1SG want.to go(away/down) although a1-king55 a1-bo31. nom–time NEG–contain Although I want to go, I have no time.

    849

    ADVERBS

    597

    Ngo31 le1gon31 r55, a1-gvam31 (ipf) (ipf) 1SG lazy PE NEG–want.to loq1. no.more I’m lazy, I don’t want to go anymore.

    ye31 go(away/down)

    598

    Yvang11 syuq5 gu54 ngo31 a1-gvam31 syuq5. (ipf) 3SG drink PART+FCT 1SG NEG–want.to drink I don’t want to drink from his drink.

    599

    Nang35 tang31 a1-gvam31 (ipf) 2SG.PO behind NEG–want.to I don’t want to go with you (SG).

    16.51

    THE MORPHEME ‘SEE, FIND’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS PART OF ADVERBS

    syang55. follow

    The morpheme ‘see, find’, which I shall gloss as ‘see’, occurs as a main verb as well as in two different adverbial functions. When used as an adverb, the morpheme ‘see, find’ is usually marked by the imperfective marker , expressing that the situation indicated by the adverb forms a temporal framework for the situation indicated by the main verb after it. This adverb myang11 (see(ipf)) expresses that entities have been found on which to perform the situation indicated by the main verb, as illustrated by sentence (600). Unmarked by the imperfective marker , the morpheme ‘see, find’ is used as an adverb expressing: ‘there is a commodity for doing V’, as illustrated by sentences (601) and (602). 600

    No11 ki31-ko31 a1-myang11 cattle leg/foot–track NEG–see(ipf) I can’t see the tracks of the cattle.

    601

    Nung35-moq1 ang11-noq5 a1-myang31 zo11 gve5-luq1? 2PL–party petiole–black NEG–see eat PL–Y/N Do you (PL) have black mustard to eat?

    and the response:

    dvai55-o31. follow.tracks–HIGH+I

    850 602

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Myang31 zo31 r55. (ipf) see eat PE We are provided with it. [in order to eat it]

    The invariant meaning of the verb ‘see, find’ is clearest when its use as a main verb is contrasted with the verb ‘look’. This also sheds additional light on its adverbial functions. The verb ‘look’ has been discussed in Section 15.27. Unlike ‘see, find’, the verb ‘look’ conveys a probative meaning, expressing ‘to experience’ or ‘to try’. In other words, ‘look’ is used as the probative auxiliary verb. The verb ‘look’ often further marks experiential perfect or ‘have the experience of doing V’. ‘look’ as the probative aspectiviser: 603

    Nang31 zim11 2SG taste(ipf) Taste (SG) it.

    wu35-aq5. look–SIM

    ‘look’ as the probative aspectiviser marking experiential perfect: 604

    Mau11sau11 hi31 ngo31 myang11 wu35 paper/book this 1SG see(ipf) look I have seen this book somewhere before.

    bue31. P+I

    The fact that ‘look’, unlike ‘see, find’, has the connotation of effort becomes clear from the fact that is can also express ‘read’, or ‘tell fortune’, as well as ‘watch’, e.g. ‘watch television’. Sentence (604) above illustrates that ‘see, find’ does not refer to reading. 605

    Hi31 wu35-aq5 ma11! this look–SIM ROUS Take (SG) a look at this. / Read (SG) this.

    The invariant meaning of ‘see, find’ refers to ‘be able to see’, e.g. without having to peer intently or to rummage through things, as is often the case with its counterpart ‘look’. In the

    851

    ADVERBS

    following examples, the morpheme ‘see, find’ is used as a main verb. 606

    Lo11 le1-du11 tiger/bull one–being I’ve seen a tiger.

    myang25. see+FCT

    607

    A1-waq1, myoq1 myang11 lye31 ning31. (ipf) NEG–lift eye see also+I INS+I I don’t have it with me [the flashlight]. I can see well enough without it.

    608

    Myoq1 a1-myang31 luq1? eye NEG–see Y/N Can you see? [e.g. in this darkness]

    609

    Byuq1 byuq1 bue31, a1-myang31 loq1. lose lose P+I NEG–see no.more It has been lost, it’s nowhere to be seen.

    610

    Myang31 bue31. see P+I I/we have found it.

    611

    Ngo31 ngi35-wui31 yvup5 hang11-mo35 1SG day–generation sleep each–AUG i5-moq1 myang11 dik1 r55. (ipf) go–dream see extreme PE Every day when I sleep I always have many dreams.

    The verb ‘see, find’, unlike ‘look’, can express ‘to see someone’ in the sense of ‘to visit someone’. 612

    Nga35-nvik5 yvang11r55 lo35 1PO–duo 3SG OBJ go(back/up) We (DU) went [back/up] to see him.

    myang25. see+FCT

    852

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    The construction mau11-myang31 (sky/rain-see) is a curse. In the following example this curse is uttered when the speaker has just been given a fright by someone. 613

    Mau11-myang31, sky–see Heavens, you (SG)!

    nang31 ge11! 2SG

    TOP

    Now let us return to the use of the morpheme ‘see, find’ as part of an adverb, marked by the imperfective marker . This adverb consisting of the morpheme ‘see, find’ and the imperfective marker expresses the availability of some commodity. The imperfective marker expresses that the situation indicated by this adverb forms a temporal framework for the situation indicated by the predicate after it. 614

    A1-myang11 wui31 gve5-luq1? (ipf) NEG–see buy PL–Y/N Were you (PL) able to buy it?

    and the response: 615 A1-myang11 wui31. (ipf) NEG–see buy No, we were unable to buy it. The adverb myang11 (see(ipf)) often refers to lucky situations. 616

    A1lyu35, ngo31 ngun31 myang11 (discovery) 1SG silver see(ipf) Hey, I have picked up some money.

    guq1 bue31-o55. pick.up P+I–HIGH

    617

    Ke5-ngi35 ge11 long35 mo35-mo35 ngun31 before–day TOP profit AUG–AUG silver 1 31 11 11 le -syo -mun myang guq1-u55. one–hundred–ten.thousand/Yuan see(ipf) pick.up–FCT Today, to my great advantage, I had the good fortune of picking up one hundred Yuan.

    853

    ADVERBS

    618

    Yvang11

    a1-ngi35-nap1 ngo31 li55 3SG nom–day–morning 1SG OBJ dai31-gvyo54 ngo31 gung35zo11 myang11 (ipf) speak –let.hear+FCT 1SG work see(ipf) 5 1 31 31 gvut be -ra ga . do P–need+I perceive+I Yesterday he told me that I will soon have a job.

    Now I shall discuss the use of the morpheme ‘see, find’ as an adverb unmarked by the imperfective marker expressing the availability of some commodity for performing the action indicated by the main verb. This adverb can also be termed the Zaiwa facilitative adverb. The fact that ‘see, find’ in this adverbial function expresses a secondary meaning different from that of the combination myang11 (see(ipf)), is a function of the absence of the imperfective marker, which in adverbs expresses that the situation indicated by the adverb forms a temporal framework for the situation indicated by the predicate. The situation denoted by ‘see, find’ does not form a temporal framework for the situation denoted by the predicate since the fact that the commodities implied by ‘see, find’ are available does not necessarily imply that they are utilised. The following sentences illustrate the use of the morpheme ‘see, find’ as an adverb unmarked by the imperfective marker . 619

    Nung35-moq1 yvum31 i31-pue11 a1-myang31 2PL–party house distilled–booze NEG–see syuq5 gve5-luq1? drink PL–Y/N Do you have booze to drink at your (PL) home?

    620

    Nung35-moq1 yvum31 mue31-zyong35 a1-myang31 2PL–party house wrap–cover(N) NEG–see wut1 gve5-luq1? wear/dress PL–Y/N Do you (PL) have quilts to cover yourselves with at home?

    621

    Myang31 see

    zo31 dvo31 (ipf) eat place(vt)(ipf)

    r55

    mai31.

    PE

    OBV+I

    854

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    [In prison] you do get meals! 622

    Gom11 bue31, gom11 bue31, a1-myang31 nothing.left P+I nothing.left P+I NEG–see 11 1 zo loq . eat no.more It’s all finished, there’s nothing left to eat for you. / You’ll have to do without food.

    The two following sentences form a minimal pair, illustrating the opposition between the imperfective marker and Ø. In sentence (623), the morpheme ‘see, find’ is unmarked by the imperfective marker , whereas in sentence (624) it is. 623

    A1-myang31 zo11. NEG–see eat We don’t have any of that to eat.

    624

    A1-myang11 zo11 zyang35 yau11 (ipf) NEG–see eat CD let.pass When there is none of it to eat, just let it pass.

    16.52

    bue31. P+I

    THE MORPHEME ‘DARE’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS THE VENTURESOME ADVERB

    The morpheme ‘dare’ is mostly used before the main verb as the venturesome adverb, expressing ‘X dares to V’, referring to the possibility of occurrence of the action indicated by the main verb, from the viewpoint of the courage or determination of the subject. 625

    Nang31 mi1-um31 rup5 bek1 2SG fire–gun dare shoot Do you (SG) dare to shoot a gun?

    626

    Ngo31 a1-rup5 goi11. 1SG NEG–dare swing I do not dare to swing.

    lye31 luq1? also+I Y/N

    855

    ADVERBS

    627

    Ngo31 wui31-gu11 1SG water–wade I do not dare to wade.

    a1-rup5 NEG–dare

    gu11. wade

    The Zaiwa morpheme ‘dare’ is a loan from Jingpo, cf. rip ‘dare’ in Xu et al. (1983: 692). This Zaiwa morpheme also has a variant [ʐәʔp˺], which appears to be more “Jingpoish” because of its closer similarity to the original Jingpo form. My principal informant apparently always uses the regular allomorph [ʐuʔp˺]. When generalising about the attitude of a third person towards a certain undertaking, the morpheme ‘dare’ may also be translated as ‘be prepared to’. 628

    Yvang11

    Mi11wa11-ngun31 sum11-syo31 rup5 3SG Chinese–silver three–hundred dare 31 31 31 bi lye ga . give(ipf) also+I perceive+I He offers three hundred Yuan. / He is prepared to offer three hundred Yuan.

    In cases like the following sentence, the morpheme ‘dare’ is used as a main verb. The invariant meaning ‘dare’ of this verb could be translated as ‘be brave’, although it in fact expresses ‘dare a lot’, cf. Dutch die jonge man, nou die durft! ‘that young man, he really has guts.’ 629

    Waq1ngan31 hi31 ge11 rup5 dik1 young.man this TOP dare extreme This young man has guts. / This young man has balls.

    r55. PE

    The morpheme ‘dare’ should be seen as a modal adverb in both of the two following sentences. Whereas in the first sentence the main verb is still there, in the second the main verb ‘to do’ has been omitted, since from the context it already is clear which action is referred to. 630

    A1-rup5 NEG–dare

    gvut5 do

    luq1? Y/N

    856

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Do you dare to do it? 631

    A1-rup5 luq1? NEG–dare Y/N Do you dare [to do it]?

    The Longchuan dialect of Zaiwa has a verb expressing the same meaning as ‘dare’. According to my main informant, both verb can be used in the following sentence, yielding exactly the same meaning. 632

    Ngo31 a1-wam35 1SG NEG–dare I don’t dare to eat it.

    zo11. eat

    16.53

    THE MORPHEME ‘KNOW’ AS A MAIN VERB AND AS PART OF THE MODAL ADVERB sue31 (KNOW(IPF))

    The verb ‘know’ can, after being marked by the imperfective marker , be used in the modal adverb sue31 (know(ipf)), expressing ‘to know how to do V’. 633

    Hi55-hu55 sun11 nang31 sue31 zo31 lye31 luq1? (ipf) (ipf) this–sort veg/dish 2SG know eat also+I Y/N Do you (SG) know how to eat these kinds of dishes? (?)

    634

    A1-sue31 gva55-o55. (ipf) NEG–know write–HIGH So, you don’t know how to write it.

    635

    Ngo31 Zai11-ming35 a1-lvum31 sue31 1SG Zaiwa–language NEG–indiscriminately know(ipf) 11 dai . speak I don’t know Zaiwa very well.

    636

    Zai11wa31-ming35 dong31 a1-sue31 dai11. Zaiwa–language lead/connect NEG–know(ipf) speak

    857

    ADVERBS

    I don’t know how to say it in Zaiwa. The invariant meaning of the morpheme is ‘know’. The following examples illustrate the use of ‘know’ as a main verb. 637

    Yvang11

    i31-pue11-yin31 dap1-n55 3SG distilled–booze–addiction be.attached–FCT 31 1 55 ngo a -sue . 1SG NEG–know I didn’t know that she was addicted to alcohol.

    638

    Ngo31 ya11ya35 sue31 1SG medicine know(ipf) I am familiar with medicine.

    639

    Yvang11

    640

    O55 sue55 o55 gvat5 yu31 syang55. who know who put.into take JUS Every man (ND.IN) for himself. [at a meal] / Everybody (ND.IN) dig in.

    lye31. also+I

    myoq1-dong11 si1-gvuq5 dye31 3SG eye–(have)hole flesh–skin too 11 tu r55, ka55-hu55 dai11 gve5lvang11 (make).thick(ipf) PE Q–sort speak although hoq5 a1-sue55. shy NEG–know He has a thick hide. Whatever he says, he won’t feel shy.

    The following examples illustrate the use of ‘know’ in the fixed combinations sue31-gyo11 (know-hear/smell) ‘understand (from hearing)’, e.g. (641), sue31-lum11 (know-reciprocal) ‘be acquainted’, e.g. (642) and (643), and sue31-yu31 (know-take) ‘understand, grasp the meaning’, e.g. (644). 641

    Yvang11

    dai54 ngo31 a1-sue31-gyo11. 3SG speak+FCT 1SG NEG–know(ipf)–hear/smell I don’t understand what he says.

    858 642

    CHAPTER SIXTEEN

    Byu31 sue31-lum11 man/woman know(ipf)–reciprocal a1-ngi31. NEG–be.there(anim) There are/were no people that I know.

    bang11 PNO

    643

    Ngo31 yvang11-eq5 a1-sue31-lum11. (ipf) 1SG 3SG–COM NEG–know –reciprocal He and I don’t know each other.

    644

    Nang31 sue31-yu31 bue31 (ipf) 2SG know –take P+I Do you (SG) understand it?

    luq1? Y/N

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    17.1

    INTRODUCTION

    I use the term clause markers for a special word class in Zaiwa. Clause markers are used, mostly together with up to several other clause markers, as part of clause marking units after the predicates of most Zaiwa clauses, simultaneously marking both the predicate and the clause as a whole for different categories of mood, aspect, tense, Aktionsart and number. Non-negative and non-prohibitive clauses, i.e. clauses that contain neither the negative prefix nor the prohibitive prefix , mostly contain a clause marking unit. Exceptions are the special cases discussed in Section 17.24. The Zaiwa clause markers must be distinguished from conjunctions, attitude markers and other special forms, most of which are discussed in the next chapter. The quotative marking unit ngvu31 (say+I) was discussed in Section 11.5 and the evidential marking unit ga31 (perceive+I) was discussed in Section 11.6. Table 17.1 is a listing of all Zaiwa clause markers and of where in this study they are discussed. Some clause markers have already been discussed in earlier sections, as the table also indicates. In Zaiwa clauses, indicative mood is normally overtly indicated by particular clause markers. The group of clause markers that first of all express indicative mood, with some additional notions, is listed as group I in Table 17.1. Zaiwa also has clause marking units, listed as group II in Table 17.1, that over and above expressing indicative mood also express categories of aspect, tense and Aktionsart. Zaiwa also has a special group of forms that are clause markers in regular non-negative and non-prohibitive clauses, whereas on the other hand they function as conjunctions linking two clauses to each other. These conjunctional clause markers are listed as group III. Group IV in Table 17.1 consists of all clause markers expressing mood types like

    860

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    imperative, exhortative, optative, jussive and volitional. The Zaiwa plural clause marker (PL), further below in the table, indicates that either the subject or the addressees consist of more than one entity. Table 17.1

    The Zaiwa clause markers

    Chapter 4: Chapter 5: 9.22:

    The factitive marker (FCT) The indicative mood marker The form gu54 (PART+FCT)

    I

    Epistemological clause markers: 17.3 The general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I) 17.5 The personal experience clause marker (PE) 17.6 The emphatic highlighting rvo55 (PE+HIGH) and the emphatic indicative rvo31 (PE+HIGH+I)

    II Clause markers indicating aspect, tense, or Aktionsart: 15.23 The verb ‘need’ as part of the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I) 17.7 The finite clause marker ‘no more’ 17.8 The continuous clause marker ‘still’ 17.9 The perfect clause marker (P) III Conjunctional clause markers: 11.7 The verb ‘happen’ in a conjunctional clause marking unit mu31 (happen+I) 16.21 The morpheme variants // ‘also’ as conjunctional clause markers 17.10 ‘although’ 17.11 The opportunative (OPP) 17.12 lui31 (in.this.way+I) ‘in this way’ 17.13 The suffix of the expected nvo31 (EXP+I) 17.14 ‘to’ 17.15 ‘till’ 17.16 The conditional (CD)

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    861

    IV Clause markers expressing imperative, exhortative, optative, jussive and volational moods: 12.16 The verb ‘come’ (away/down) as the benefactive exhortative clause marker 17.17 The singular imperative (SIM) 17.18 The plural imperative (PLIM) 17.19 The dual inclusive exhortative (DIE) 17.20 The exclusive exhortative (EE) 17.21 The volitional clause markers and (VO) 17.22 The jussive clause marker (JUS) V One clause marker expressing plurality: 17.23 The plural clause marker (PL)

    Negative and prohibitive clauses often lack a clause marker, whereas the range of the clause markers that can be used at the end of such clauses is fairly limited. Apart from some of the conjunctional clause markers, only the following morphemes can be used in clause markers at the end of negative and prohibitive clauses: the plural clause marker (PL), the finite clause marker ‘no more’, the continuous clause marker ‘still’, the verb ‘need’ as part of the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need +I), • the factitive marker , • the indicative mood marker . • • • •

    Some important grammatical morphemes used as part of clause marking units have already been discussed elsewhere. One is the indicative mood marker expressing indicative mood as part of many clause marking units, discussed in Chapter 5. Another is the nominalising prefix (nom-). When the nominalising prefix (nom-) forms part of clause marking units, it has the function of substantivising and actualising the different notions expressed by these forms, as discussed in Section 6.6. In that section, Tables 6.1

    862

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    and 6.2 show all clause marking units containing this prefix. A third important grammatical morpheme is the factitive marker . The following section recapitulates the main points of Section 4.4. on its function as a clause marker. The future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I) was discussed in Section 15.23 on the underlying morpheme ‘need’. Table 15.1 in that section lists all clause marking units containing the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I). 17.2

    THE FACTITIVE MARKER AS A CLAUSE MARKER

    The use of the factitive marker as a clause marker has already been discussed in Section 4.4. Especially when used as a clause marker, the factitive marker indicates factuality and imperfective aspect. The factitive marker as a clause marker marks either the last verb of the predicate or certain clause markers or other grammatical morphemes. In the following two sentences, the factitive marker functions as a clause marker and is directly attached to the last verbs of the predicates. 1

    Nang35 nge1-lang11 bu35 dvo54 2SG.PO forehead–pull/yank pimple/convex place(vt)+FCT ge11, ka55-hu55 gvut5 am54 ta11? TOP Q–sort do PFM+FCT GI You (SG) have a lump on your forehead; what have you done to yourself?

    2

    Wui31-sum31 ge11 byu11-eq1 wu35 water–mortar TOP man/woman#–AG/I look no35 a1-ra54, guq1 wo35 to NEG–need+FCT unhusked.rice have tung31 lye31. crush(ipf) also+I A water mortar can pound rice by itself, without people having to look after it.

    Combinations of the factitive marker and other grammatical morphemes can also function as clause marking units. The form gvo54

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    863

    (PL+FCT) is the combination of the plural clause marker (PL) and the factitive marker , and indicates factuality and imperfective aspect as well as the plurality of the entities in the context, as will be further discussed below in Section 17.23. 3

    Le1-pok1pok1 za54, mu35 ge11 one–identical only+FCT work(N) TOP a1-gvam31 zui11 gvo54. (ipf) NEG–want.to touch/work(V) PL+FCT They are birds of a feather, both unwilling to work.

    Most of the clause markers listed in Table 17.1 above can be marked by the factitive marker , indicating factuality and imperfective aspect. For example, in sentence (4) the form si54 (still+FCT), i.e. the combination of the continuous clause marker and the factitive marker, functions as a clause marking unit expressing that a certain situation is not the case yet, or, in other words, refers to something that is not a fact yet. Whenever marking clause marking morphemes, however, the factitive marker can also be used as a subordinator, as illustrated by the phrase yvang11 a1-zo11 si54 zang11 (3s NEG-eat still+FCT rice/food) ‘(the) food he hasn’t eaten yet’. 4

    Si31 yvam31 a1-zye35 si54 wa35 die time.for NEG–arrive still+FCT EMP 11 si byuq1 dvo31 r55. die(ipf) lose place(vt)(ipf) PE He is dead, even though it wasn’t his time to die yet.

    The form gu54 (PART+FCT) has already been discussed in Section 9.22. The form gu54 (PART+FCT) expresses that some feature or situation was the case but is no longer, as well as some related notions, as illustrated by sentence (5). The use of the same form gu54 (PART+FCT) in subordinating function is illustrated by the phrase mon35 gu54 no11 (castrate PART+FCT cattle) ‘castrated bulls’.

    864 5

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    Lo35 gu54 dum11 dvau31 go(back/up) PART+FCT again turn(ipf) lo11 lye31. (ipf) come(back/up) also+I I’m turning back instead of continuing on.

    When used in a pure clause marking function and not in a nominalising or subordinating function, the factitive marker refers to facts and is used in some interesting combinations with clause marking morphemes. For example, the form bue 54 (P+FCT) as a clause marking unit refers to a fact at another time, mostly in the past, e.g. (6). The form ra54 (need+FCT) as a clause marking unit refers to a necessity, e.g. (7), or a possible fact in the future, e.g. (8). The form syi54 (still+FCT) as a clause marking unit refers to a situation that does not apply yet, e.g. (4) above. The form lo54 (no.more+FCT) as a clause marking unit refers to a situation that no longer applies, e.g. (9). The form gu54 (PART+FCT) as a clause marking unit expresses the sense of ‘despite the fact that something else took place beforehand’, e.g. (5) above. 6

    7

    Ngo31

    ke5-mvyo55 mvyang31 1SG Q–much(B) tall/high How tall was I? [I have forgotten.] Ngo31 1SG

    gung31-du11 body–being r55.

    bue54

    lu55?

    P+FCT

    MIR

    gvin31 scratch.against.itch

    gin11 busy(ipf) PE I’m busy scratching myself.

    ra54 need+FCT

    8

    Naq1-ma35 a1-ngi31 lang35 tomorrow–LOC NEG–be.there(anim) wait gve5-ra54 lu55? PL–need+FCT MIR Would they be there tomorrow?

    9

    A1-lo31 lo54 a5be11. NEG–come(back/up) no.more+FCT almost.certain It will probably not come back on anymore. [the electricity]

    865

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    The form lye54 (also+FCT) as a clause marking unit refers to general facts, in a broad and overall way. Sentence (10) forms a nice contrast to sentence (6) above, containing bue54 (P+FCT). The form lye54 (also+FCT) is also discussed in the separate Section 17.4. Like the former, the form gvo54 (PL+FCT) as a clause marking unit also refers to general facts in a broad and overall way, but moreover specifies the number of the given entities as two or more, e.g. (11). 10

    11

    17.3

    Ngo31

    ke5-mvyo55 1SG Q–much(B) How tall would I be?

    mvyang11 tall/high(ipf)

    O55-yuq1 yu31 gvo54 who–person take PL+FCT Which of you has taken it?

    lye54 also+FCT

    lu55? MIR

    ta11? GI

    THE GENERAL INDICATIVE CLAUSE MARKING UNIT lye (ALSO+I)

    31

    One of the most important Zaiwa clause marking units is the general indicative clause marking unit lye31, which I gloss (also+I). This form consists of a root morpheme which is no longer retrievable or, perhaps, one of the morpheme variants // ‘also’ in combination with the indicative mood marker . The meaning of the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 is in many ways the opposite of that of the factitive marker . To begin with, the factitive marker , especially when used as a clause marker, expresses the notion of factuality, focussing on certain information in the clause such as where and when or exactly to what extent the situation in question takes place. 12

    Ngo31

    r55

    1SG

    OBJ

    ke5-nvam55 Q–when ta11?

    dvo54 place(vt)+FCT GI Since when do you hate me?

    mai11 ABL

    ngan11za31 hate(ipf)

    866 13

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    Ka55-mai11 lo25 ta11? Q–ABL come(back/up)+FCT GI Where do you come from?

    Whereas the factitive marker refers to specific information which is related to a specific time, the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 refers to general information in a broad and overall way, which is not related to any specific time other than what naturally is evident from the context. The general indicative clause marking unit lye31 is mostly used for reference to certain states which are a matter of fact. One type of these matters of fact are what a given person is doing. 14

    Ngo31

    zi1-cyun31 cyun11 lye31. (ipf) 1SG small–sharpen sharpen also+I I’m sharpening a stick. / I am making pointed sticks.

    15

    Ka55-hu55 gvut5 lye31 Q–sort do also+I What are you doing there!?

    la11, UNC

    hau31 the/that

    ge11? TOP

    Other matters of fact which as a rule are referred to by the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 are matters of general knowledge. 16

    Hi31 ge11 heng31-zyet1 this TOP gold–pure This is real gold.

    lye31. also+I

    17

    Ngvan31 ge11 snow(N) TOP Snow is white.

    lye31. also+I

    18

    Lvoq5

    pyu11 white(ipf)

    mving55 zyang35 ka55-lvum11 ACT sound/name(vt) CD Q–lump dun31 lye31? press.into(ipf) also+I [cassette recorder] Which button is to make it play?

    867

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    19

    Hi55-me55 no11 this–LOC pain/ill/disease(ipf) It [always] gives you pain here.

    lye31. also+I

    Before the general topic marker , the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I) is used in a conditional sense, expressing the notions ‘since’ or ‘because’. 20

    Nang31

    mvyang11 lye31 ge11, hu31 2SG tall/high(ipf) also+I TOP above 1 35 a zeng be1-yu31 bi11 raq5. thing help–take give VO Since you (SG) are tall, grab that thing up there for me, please.

    21

    Nang31

    22

    Bui11-syum11 hi55-me55 zyoq1 broom–sweep this–LOC be.there(inan) bum11 lye31 ge11, nang31 heap(vt/N)(ipf) also+I TOP 2SG bui11-syum11 zyang31 syum11-aq5 hoi11. broom–sweep in.passing sweep–SIM INC There are enough brooms here, you (SG) might as well sweep the floor.

    le1gon31 lye31 ge11, nang35 tang31 (ipf) 2SG lazy also+I TOP 2SG.PO behind a1-gvam31 syang55. (ipf) NEG–want.to follow Since you (SG) are lazy, I don’t want to go with you.

    Another type of use of lye31 (also+I) is in the construction: V1 lye31 V2 lye31, indicating simultaneity of two sensations or actions or a given person. 23

    Sun11 hi31 ngye35 lye31 veg/dish this burnt/hot also+I lye31 ga31 r55. also+I perceive(ipf) PE This dish is both hot and pungent.

    pik5 pungent

    868 24

    25

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    Moi31 lye31 gyoq1 (ipf) tired also+I cold I’m both tired and cold.

    lye31 also+I

    ga31 perceive(ipf)

    Zang11 zo31 lye31 lai11gva55 rice/food eat(ipf) also+I script lye31 ke5-gvut5. also+I PHB–do Don’t eat and read at the same time.

    r55. PE

    wu35 look

    The general indicative clause marking unit lye31 can also have a conjunction-like function when linking clauses to special ornate expressions. These ornate expressions, which mostly contain ideophones, convey additional notions in addition to the states indicated by the stative verbs preceding lye31 (also+I). 26

    Gyoq1 lye31 gyoq1-si11 cold also+I cold–die(ipf) I have goose bumps from cold.

    pyui55-pyui55. goose.bumbs–goose.bumbs

    27

    Lai31-dun11-mo35 wind–press.into/spear–AUG nueng31nueng31. [forces.of.nature] A terrible storm is coming.

    28

    Mi11-mo35 duq1 fire–AUG burning The big fire is ablaze.

    29

    Mau11-mo35 wo11 lye31 (ipf) sky–AUG rain also+I It’s raining cats and dogs.

    30

    Gyuq1 lye31 u1-zvyung31 rong11rong11 afraid also+I head–top [bristling.hair] ga31 lo11 r55. perceive(ipf) come(back/up)(ipf) PE My hair is starting to rise from fear.

    lo11 lye31 (ipf) come(back/up) also+I

    lye31 also+I

    nueng31nueng31. [forces.of.nature] nueng31nueng31. [forces.of.nature]

    869

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    31

    Yvum31 ma54 bang11 r55 bun31 (ipf) house LOC+FCT PNO OBJ awake lye31 yut1yut1 se5-ga31 r55. (ipf) also+I [starved] like–perceive PE Because of missing my family, it feels like I’m starving.

    Before the singular nominalising suffix (SNO), the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I) adds the notions: ‘X always does V’, or ‘you that always does V !’. 32

    Got1 cyong11 lye31 su31. (ipf) scoop(vt) frolic also+I SNO someone that always plays around like a fool / You always play around like a fool!

    The form lye31 (also+I) has a somewhat similar function in the construction V lye31 hu55 N (Verb also+I sort Noun), expressing: ‘the sort that does V’. This is illustrated by the phrases dang31 lye31 hu55 bau11 (fly(ipf) also+I sort insect) ‘flying insect’ and do31 lye31 hu55 bau11 (all.fours(ipf) also+I sort insect) ‘crawling insect’. The special construction lye31 r55 lvang55 lai31 V (also+I OBJ even pass(ipf) V) consists of lye31 (also+I), the object marker , the adverb ‘even’ and the comparative auxiliary lai31 (pass(ipf)), which is a combination of the verb ‘pass’ and the imperfective marker . This construction is exclusively used between time words/ time nominals, which are marked by the oblique genitive case marker , and verbs, and expresses ‘even more V than already was the case at time X’, / ‘even more V than during …’. It is only in this construction that the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 is ever used directly after a nominal constituent. 33

    A1kang11 lye31 r55 lvang55 lai31 just.now(GEN) also+I OBJ even pass(ipf) 31 55 ngvam r . tasty(ipf) PE It is even tastier now than it was a few minutes ago.

    34

    Ke5-min31-tang11 before–evening–behind(ipf)

    lye31 also+I

    r55 OBJ

    lvang55 even

    870

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    lai31 tan11 r55. (ipf) (ipf) pass hard PE The sun is shining even brighter than yesterday afternoon. 35

    Mi1-dat5 hi31 ge11 a1man11 lye31 (GEN) fire–electricity this TOP last.night also+I r55 lvang55e1-wui35 lai31 duq1 r55. (ipf) OBJ even one–equal pass burning PE The (electric) light is twice as strong as it was last night.

    17.4

    THE FORM lye54 (ALSO+FCT)

    The form lye54 (also+FCT) is a combination of the factitive marker and the lateral variant of the morpheme // ‘also’ In nominal function, as a subordinator or nominaliser, the form lye54 (also+FCT) expresses the notion ‘the one that …’, ‘the one that is …’. As a clause marking unit, the form lye54 (also+FCT) refers to general facts such as in ‘(is it) a fact that …?’ ‘(could it be) that …?’ or ‘how much is it that …?’. First we shall look at the subordinating or nominalising function of lye54 (also+FCT). The following sentences illustrate the resemblance between the clause marking unit lye31 (also+I) and lye54 (also+FCT) subordinating function and in nominalising function. The clause marking unit lye31 (also+I) expresses indicative mood and refers to general information in a broad and overall way, as discussed in the previous section. The two first sentences illustrate the difference between the clause marking function of lye31 (also+I) and the subordinating function of lye54 (also+FCT). 36

    Nat1 ngi11 lye31. (ipf) spirit be.there(anim) also+I There is a spirit there. / There are spirits there.

    37

    Meng11-gvan11 toq5 me55 world–dried.out come.out LOC lye54 byu31 … also+FCT man/woman The people living on the earth…

    ngi11 be.there(anim)(ipf)

    871

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    The following sentence pairs illustrate the difference between the clause marking function of lye31 (also+I) and the nominalising function of lye54 (also+FCT). 38

    Ngo31

    Mo35pi55 1SG beggar I’m called Beggar.

    39

    Nang31 2SG

    bue31

    r55 OBJ

    la11?

    ga31 perceive(ipf)

    Mo35pi55 beggar

    lye31. also+I

    ga31 perceive(ipf)

    lye54 also+FCT

    P+I

    UNC Are you (SG) the one called Beggar? 40

    Ka55-hu55 gvut5 lye31? Q–sort do also+I What are you doing?

    41

    Hi31 ge11 ka55-hu55 gvut5 this TOP Q–sort do What is this thing for?

    lye54 zue31 also+FCT truc

    ta11? GI

    Before the general locative case suffix , the form lye54 (also+FCT) also functions as a nominaliser, and refers to a certain moment in time, adding to the notion ‘right at the time when …’. 42

    Ning11long11-po55 ge11 zang11 zo31 zung11 (ipf) demon–male TOP rice/food eat sit(ipf) 31 54 55 dvo lye me (ipf) place(vt) also+FCT LOC yvang11-lang31-cau31-eq1 bok5 zyap1. 3SG–husband–old#–AG/I [a.gash] chop.up Just as the demon was sitting down to eat, her husband cut him, leaving a huge gash.

    In the following sentence, the morpheme underlying the form lye54 (OBJ+FCT) could be the morpheme ‘also’ or the object marker , and here the combination is tentatively analysed as the latter, because of the meaning of the sentence.

    872 43

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    Nam35bat5 i55-lvum11 lye54 lvum11 le1-bvong55dvin55. number two–lump OBJ+FCT lump one–pen The one with number two gets a fountain pen.

    The morpheme underlying the form lye54 (also+FCT) in sentence (44) below, however, is the morpheme ‘also’. In the following sentence, the construction sit5 cyam11 lye54 cyam11 (eight ball also+FCT ball) can be analysed as a somewhat elliptic expression for ‘the one that was the eighth’, the copula ‘to be’ having been left out. 44

    Ngvit5 cyam31-eq1 bek1 li11 a1-zang35, seven ball#–AG/I shoot also NEG–strike sit5 cyam11 lye54 cyam31-eq1 eight ball also+FCT ball#–AG/I syeq1 zang35 bek1-ng55. au.contraire strike shoot–FCT The first seven bullets didn’t hit the target, but the eighth finally did.

    The form lye54 (also+FCT) as a clause marking unit refers to general facts, as can be referred to in a wide variety of contexts, such as in ‘(is it) a fact that …?’ ‘(could it be) that …?’ or ‘how much is it that …?’. Used as a clause marking unit, the form lye54 (also+FCT) is modified by one of two attitude markers, viz. either the reflective suffix (RFL), e.g. (45), or the mirative suffix (MIR), e.g. (46). 45

    Yvang11 3SG

    r11 bum31 also heap(vt/N) dvi55?

    lye54 also+FCT RFL Would he also go up the hill? 46

    Yvang11

    pyang31 DIR

    lo35 go(back/up)

    ke5-la55 haq5 dvo31 lye54 (ipf) 3SG Q–LOC hide place(vt) also+FCT lu55, ngo31 r11 a1-myang31. MIR 1SG also NEG–see Where could he be hiding, since I can’t find him.

    873

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    17.5

    THE PERSONAL EXPERIENCE CLAUSE MARKER (PE)

    The personal experience clause marker (PE) indicates a specific type of epistemological mood that applies to the clause as a whole, such as may be worded as ‘someone experienced this’, referring to the present relevance of a certain personal assessment, such as impressions or experiences. The meaning of the personal experience clause marker (PE) becomes most clear when compared to the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I) discussed in the previous section. Whereas sentence (47) below, containing the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I), refers to a general truth, sentence (48), containing (PE), refers to a specific experience of snow. 47

    Ngvan31 ge11 snow(N) TOP Snow is white.

    pyu11 white(ipf)

    48

    Ngvan31 ge11 pyu11 snow(N) TOP white(ipf) The snow was/is white.

    lye31. also+I r55. PE

    The two following sentences can be compared in the same way. 49

    Ngo31

    syo31-dvui11 tongue–rope(N/vt)

    dvui31 rope(N/vt)(ipf)

    lye31. also+I

    syo31-dvui11 1SG tongue–rope(N/vt) I was stuttering.

    dvui31 rope(N/vt)(ipf)

    r55.

    1SG

    I stutter. 50

    Ngo31

    PE

    Whereas sentence (51), without a clause marker, is a pure yes-or-no question, sentence (52) containing (PE), is a specific question about how things are perceived by the addressee. 51

    A1-lai11 NEG–heavy

    mo35-mo35 AUG–AUG

    luq1? Y/N

    874

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    Isn’t it very heavy? 52

    Lai11 mo35-mo35 r55 luq1? heavy AUG–AUG PE Y/N It’s exceedingly heavy for you, isn’t it?

    The personal experience clause marker (PE) always refers to the experience of a specific person in the context. Naturally, there are three possibilities as to who this person could be: the speaker, the addressee or a third person. It is clear from the context and the wording of the clause which of these three entities is referred to. In sentence (53), the personal experience clause marker refers to the experience of the speaker. In sentences (54) and (55), the personal experience clause marker refers to an experience specifically of the addressee. In sentence (55), the personal experience clause marker refers to what a third person is cooking, according to the experience of the addressee. In sentence (56), the personal experience clause marker refers to an experience specifically of a third person. Whenever the personal experience clause marker refers to the experience of a person other than the speaker, the clause will either be interrogative or express related modes, such as expressed by the suggestive suffix kai31/hai31 (SUG+I) in sentence (56). 53

    54

    55

    56

    Le1gon11-gon11 ga31 lazy–lazy perceive(ipf) I’m feeling a bit lazy. Nang31

    r55. PE

    ke5-se55 ga31 2SG Q–like perceive(ipf) How are you (SG) feeling? Ka55-hu55 zang11-sun11 Q–sort rice/food–veg/dish What dishes is she making? Yvang11

    r55? PE

    zvyoq5 cook

    r55

    ta11?

    PE

    GI

    yang35wom11-si11 ze5-nvau11 r55 kai31. 3SG pineapple–fruit eat–feel.like(ipf) PE SUG+I He feels like eating pineapple, I guess.

    875

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    The fact that the personal experience clause marker (PE) always refers to the experiences of specific persons implies that, in order to be specific, these persons are singular. In most cases where reference is made to the experience of more than one person and where the speaker is not included, the plural indicative clause marking unit a1-gvo31 (nom-PL+I) will be used. The plural indicative clause marking unit a1-gvo31 (nom-PL+I) indicates that the non-first person subject specifically consists of more than one entity. Whenever the latter clause marking unit is used instead of (PE), it implies to experiencers consisting of more than one person. In the following examples, the personal experience clause marker (PE) and the plural indicative clause marking unit a1-gvo31 (nom-PL+I) refer to persons who are reported to have said something about the subject. According to my informant, the speaker of sentence (57), containing (PE), knew who the person in the context was and that this was just a single person. My informant also stated that the speaker of sentence (58) containing a1-gvo31 (nom-PL+I) knew that this group consisted of more than one person and who they were. 57

    58

    17.6

    Ngo31

    ngvut5 lye31 1SG be also+I Does he say it was me?

    ga31 perceive(ipf)

    r55

    luq1?

    PE

    Y/N

    Ngo31 ngvut5 lye31 ga31 a1-gvo31 (ipf) 1SG be also+I perceive nom–PL+I Are they saying it was me?

    luq1? Y/N

    THE EMPHATIC HIGHLIGHTING CLAUSE MARKING UNIT rvo55 (PE+HIGH) AND THE EMPHATIC INDICATIVE rvo 31 (PE+HIGH+I)

    The emphatic highlighting clause marking unit rvo55 (PE+HIGH) appears to be a contraction of the personal experience clause marker (PE) and the highlighting suffix (HIGH). The latter form adds strength to the words of the speaker. The following sentences illustrate the use of the emphatic highlighting clause marking unit rvo55 (PE+HIGH).

    876

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    59

    Ng55! ke5-min31 le1-sang31 (sudden.shift) before–evening (male)–humans sing55 nam11 rvo55! (ipf) taste/smell(N) smelly PE+HIGH Huh? tonight I smell humans!

    60

    Beng35 lye35 lo11 ngyo11 rvo55. (ipf) guest come(away/down) come(back/up) talk(ipf) PE+HIGH The guests are just arriving!

    61

    Yvum31 lyeng31 lo35 (ipf) house fall(vi) go(back/up) The house is tumbling over!

    rvo55. PE+HIGH

    The emphatic indicative clause marking unit rvo31 (PE+HIGH+I)82 is a combination of the emphatic highlighting clause marking unit rvo55 (PE+HIGH) discussed above and the indicative mood marker . This emphatic indicative clause marking unit rvo31 (PE+HIGH+I) bears a more affirmative connotation than rvo55 (PE+HIGH) on its own and moreover expresses indicative mood. Sentence (62) could serve as an emphatic reply to sentences (59) to (61) above. Also compare the remaining examples. 62

    Ngvut5 rvo31! be PE+HIGH+I Yes it is! / Yes they are!

    63

    Nga35

    laq1haq1 yu11 am55 bi11 gvo54 (ipf) 1PO salary take PFM give PL+FCT 31 1 31 byong dik rvo . furious(ipf) extreme PE+HIGH+I I’m furious about their having taken away my salary!

    82 Zaiwa also has two partly homophonous forms / ‘heave!’.

    1

    Rvo31! syom31 waq1 syang55! heave! drive.game(ipf) lift JUS Heave! Let’s (ND.IN) lift it together!

    877

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    64

    Nang31

    ge11

    dye31 dut1 2SG TOP too become You (SG) are really going too far.

    65

    I1kyet1rung31 rvo31, ke5-dai11 dislike(ipf) PE+HIGH+I PHB–speak How disgusting, stop talking about it!

    66

    A1gva31, no11 (painful) pain/ill/disease(ipf) Aaah, it hurts!

    17.7

    THE FINITE CLAUSE MARKER ‘NO MORE’

    rvo31. PE+HIGH+I

    dik1 extreme

    loq1-o31. no.more–HIGH+I rvo31. PE+HIGH+I

    The finite clause marker ‘no more’ refers to the end of some situation. In negative clauses, the finite clause marker refers to an end which already has been reached, whereas in affirmative clauses, it refers to an end that is approaching. Whenever the finite clause marker is used in the context of a non-negative or non-prohibitive situation, it is obligatorily combined with the limitative morpheme ‘only’, as frequently stressed by my main informant. Within the same clause, the finite clause marker ‘no more’ and the continuous clause marker ‘still’ are mutually exclusive. The three allomorphs of the finite clause marker ‘no more’ are distributed in the following way. 1. The short prefix allomorph of the finite clause marker is used before other syllabic morphemes, as a prefixed part of clause marking units or combinations of clause markers and attitude markers, in negative or prohibitive clauses. 2. The checked allomorph of the finite clause marker is exclusively used in conjunction with either the negative prefix (NEG) or the prohibitive prefix (PBH). 3. The full syllable allomorph of the finite clause marker is used in all other cases, i.e. either marked by

    878

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    the indicative mood marker or by the factitive marker , and forms part of various clause marking units and attitude marking units. Table 17.2 shows all possible types of use of the finite clause marker ‘no more’, which will be discussed below. • the allomorph of the finite clause marker To start with the last allomorph of the finite clause marker , its allomorph is always used in conjunction with either the negative prefix (NEG) or the prohibitive prefix (PBH). This allomorph expresses the notion that the situation referred to by the clause either has already ended, when combined with the negative prefix , e.g. (67), or that it should end, when combined with the prohibitive prefix , e.g. (68). 67

    A1-syuq5 loq1. NEG–drink no.more I don’t drink anymore.

    68

    Ke5-ngau31 loq1. PHB–weep no.more Stop weeping.

    In many cases, the allomorph of the finite clause marker ‘no more’, is merely used to place emphasis on negative clauses rather than referring to an end which already has been reached. 69

    Le1-zvui55 r11 a1-syau11 loq1. one–bit also NEG–less no.more There are not just few. / There is not just a little bit.

    70

    Dvat5bung35-dyem11-zue31 ke5-dvang11 photographs–take.picture–truc PHB–let.fly Don’t throw the camera around.

    loq1. no.more

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    879

    • the imperfective finite clause marking unit lo54 (no.more+FCT) The imperfective finite clause marking unit lo54 consists of the finite clause marker ‘no more’ and the factitive marker , and is only used in conjunction with the negative prefix . The form lo54 (no.more+FCT) as a clause marking unit refers to a situation that no longer applies. Section 4.4 has discussed that whenever the factitive marker marks the clause as a whole, it expresses factuality and imperfective aspect. 71

    Le1-gam35 r11 a1-lye35 (male)–eld-brother also NEG–come(away/down) lo31 lo54 ge11, zaq1 yvup5 come(back/up) no.more+FCT TOP only sleep 11 11 11 31 31 dvo lo r ge dvi . place(vt) no.more+I also TOP CX+I Since eldest brother is not coming anymore, the only thing we can do is go to sleep, isn’t it?

    72

    Zye11 zvyoi31 dvo31 lye31 (ipf) (ipf) exceed beautiful place(vt) also+I 5 35 1 5 54 me -wa , a -toq lo ge5-dvi55! LOC– EMP NEG–come.out no.more+FCT TOP–RFL Just during the most beautiful part of it [the video], it stopped playing!

    • the finite indicative clause marking unit a1-lo31 (nom-no.more+I) The finite indicative clause marking unit a1-lo31 (nom-no.more+I) is the combination of the nominalising prefix (nom-), the allomorph of the finite clause marker and the indicative mood marker . This clause marking unit lo31 (no.more+I) expresses indicative mood and on the other hand refers to the end of some situation, whereas the nominalising prefix (nom-), when used in clause marking units, expresses affirmative or non-negative mood. The finite indicative clause marking unit a1-lo31 (nom-no.more+I) is used as a clause marking unit of clauses that are non-elliptic non-negative and non-prohibitive, and expresses the notion that only a limited amount is left of the entity referred to by the predicate.

    880

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    73

    Le1-lving31 ze11 ye11 a1-lo31. (ipf) one–turn/roll only go(away/down) nom–no.more+I I’ll go only one more round.

    74

    Ngo31 1SG

    sau55-hai11 shoe–shoe

    le1-kon55 one–one.of.a.pair

    a1-lo31. nom–no.more+I I only have one shoe left.

    Table 17.2

    ze11 only

    wo35 have

    The use of the finite clause marker ‘no more’

    form and gloss

    constituent morphemes

    use

    ‘no more’

    • allomorph of the finite clause 1 marker

    in conjunction with either the negative prefix (NEG) or the prohibitive prefix (PBH)

    ‘no more’

    • allomorph of the finite clause marker

    a prefixed part of clause marking units or combinations with attitude markers, in negative or prohibitive clauses

    881

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    lo54 (no.more+FCT)

    • the finite clause marker • the factitive marker

    the imperfective finite clause marking unit, used in some negative clauses

    a1-lo31 (nomno.more+I)

    • the nominalising prefix • the finite clause marker • the indicative mood marker • the finite clause marker • the indicative mood marker

    the finite indicative clause marking unit

    lo31 (no.more+I)

    the finite indicative clause marking unit without prefix, used in negative clauses and as part of special constructions

    ze1-lo31 (onlyno.more+I)

    • the limitative morpheme

    • the finite clause marker • the indicative mood marker

    the limitative finite indicative clause marking unit, in elliptic clauses

    me1-lo31 (ROUSno.more+I)

    • the rousing suffix

    • the finite clause marker • the indicative mood marker

    as an attitude marker after imperative clause markers, expressing ‘so that’s simple’

    882

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    ge1-lo31 (TOPno.more+I)

    • the general topic marker • the finite clause marker • the indicative mood marker

    the familiarity marker ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I), i.e. an attitude marker expressing familiarity with or evidence of the situation in the context

    • the finite indicative clause marking unit lo31 (no.more+I) without prefix The finite indicative clause marking unit lo31 (no.more+I) consists of the finite clause marker and the indicative mood marker and expresses indicative mood and on the other hand refers to the end of some situation. Without the nominalising prefix (nom-), i.e. unlike the form a1-lo31 (nom-no.more+I) discussed above, the finite indicative clause marker lo31 (no.more+I) is only used in some special constructions. In one type of its use, the finite indicative clause marking unit lo31 (no.more+I) is used in combination with the attitude marker ‘almost certain’ in negative clauses. The attitude marker ‘almost certain’ indicates that certain situations are taken for granted, whereas it simultaneously indicates that some doubt about or some change in this situation are possible. When used in combination with the latter form, the finite indicative clause marking unit lo31 (no.more+I) expresses indicative mood, over and above referring to an end to some situation. 75

    76

    Mi1-dat5 a1-lo31 lo31 a5be11. fire–electricity NEG–come(back/up) no.more+I almost.certain The electricity will not come back on anymore, I’m afraid. A1-yvup5 lo31 a5be11. NEG–sleep no.more+I almost.certain I don’t think that she is still sleeping.

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    883

    The use of the finite indicative clause marking unit lo31 (no.more+I) in the expression ka55-hu55 ra54 lo31 in the following sentence, is rather special. The latter expression consists of the pronoun ka55-hu55 (Q-sort) ‘what’, used in an indefinite sense like ‘whatever’, the verb ‘need’, marked by the factitive marker , and lo31 (no.more+I) at the end. This expression seems to express: ‘what does it matter, we don’t heed the rules anymore’, or more specifically: ‘we don’t observe the regular way of cooking anymore’. 77

    Ka55-hu55 ra54 lo31, Q–sort need+FCT no.more+I bvak5-rap5 be55 ge1-lo31. [flinging.a.dollop]–dollop EE TOP–no.more+I What does it matter, I’ll just drop the whole thing in.

    The finite indicative clause marking unit lo31 (no.more+I) can also be used in conjunction with the Zaiwa conformative adverb ‘only’. The Zaiwa conformative adverb consists of the emphatic free form allomorph of the limitative morpheme ‘only’, which is only used in a particular set of constructions. Together with the finite indicative clause marker lo31 (no.more+I), the conformative adverb ‘only’ is used in the construction: zaq1 V lo31 r11 ge11 (only Verb no.more+I also TOP), which expresses the notion ‘V can only take place, in conformity with some situation, and that will be the end … / and that will be it’. This matter has been discussed in Section 16.33. 78

    Dvyep5tyep1 hi31 ge11 zaq1 du35 am55 rubber.slippers1 this TOP only throw PFM lo31 r11 ge11, dye31 zyeq1 bue31. no.more+I also TOP too broken P+I The only thing we can do with these rubber slippers is throw them away. They are too worn out.

    A single case has been attested where lo31 (no.more+I) is used after another indicative clause marking unit, i.e. after the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I). In this case, the finite indicative clause marker lo31 serves to express the notion that the idea which the

    884

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    addressee had in mind must now have been reduced to nothing, in light of the explanation given by the speaker just before that. 79

    Ka55-hu55 se5-ngam11 mvau31 lye31 (ipf) (ipf) Q–sort like–seem cheat/fool also+I What did you imagine it would be then?

    lo31? no.more+I

    • the limitative morpheme ‘only’ and the limitative finite indicative clause marking unit ze1-lo31 (only-no.more+I) The limitative morpheme ‘only’ refers to limitations to the extent or amount of all kinds of situations, much like the English word ‘only’. Whenever the finite clause marker is used in the context of a non-negative or non-prohibitive situation, it is obligatorily used in conjunction with the limitative morpheme ‘only’, as frequently stressed upon by my main informant.Clauses containing the finite indicative clause marking unit a1-lo31 (nom-no.more+I) discussed above, thus always contain the limitative adverb , i.e. the allomorph of the limitative morpheme ‘only’, as can be illustrated by sentences (73) and (74) above. The allomorph of the limitative morpheme ‘only’ forms part of the limitative finite indicative clause marking unit ze1-lo31 (only-no.more+I). Whereas the finite indicative clause marking unit a1-lo31 (nom-no.more+I) is only used in regular non-elliptic clauses, the limitative finite indicative clause marking unit ze1-lo31 (only-no.more+I) is only used in elliptic clauses where the predicate has been omitted. In the two following pairs of sentences, sentences (81) and (83), containing ze1-lo31 (only-no.more+I), are the elliptic variants of sentences (80) and (82) respectively, containing a1-lo31 (nom-no.more+I). 11

    80

    Le1-lving31 ze11 ye11 a1-lo31. (ipf) one–turn/roll only go(away/down) nom–no.more+I I’ll go only one more round.

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    81

    Le1-lving31 ze1-lo31. one–turn/roll only–no.more+I Only one more round.

    82

    Sum11-ngi35 ze11 ra31 three–day only need(ipf) Only three more days are left.

    83

    Sum11-ngi35 ze1-lo31. three–day only–no.more+I Only three more days.

    885

    a1-lo31. nom–no.more+I

    The limitative finite indicative clause marking unit ze1-lo31 (only-no.more+I) can be used in two types of elliptic clauses. In one type, the limitative finite indicative clause marking unit ze1-lo31 (only-no.more+I) refers to a certain limited amount that is left before the end, expressing a notion like ‘only the final …’, as illustrated by sentences (80) to (83). In the other type, reference is made to what remains after the reaching of the end, expressing a notion like ‘there’s only … left’, e.g. (84). 84

    Ngvya55-gvop1 ze1-lo31. tobacco–shell/packet only–no.more+I Only an empty cigarette-packet is left.

    Whereas the limitative finite indicative clause marking unit ze1-lo31 (only-no.more+I) is normally preceded by nominal constituents, in the special construction ze11 V ze1-lo31 (only Verb only-no.more+I), verbs can also be used before this form, after the allomorph of the limitative morpheme ‘only’ in its function as the limitative adverb. 85

    Ze11 gyo35 ze1-lo31. only go.down only–no.more+I It’s all downhill from here.

    86

    Ze11 doq1 ze1-lo31. only go.up only–no.more+I It’s all uphill from here.

    886

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    The form lo31 (no.more+I) also forms the final syllable of the two following attitude marking units discussed below. • me1-lo31 (ROUS-no.more+I) ‘so that’s simple’ The form me1-lo31 (ROUS-no.more+I) is an attitude marking unit consisting of the short allomorph of the rousing suffix and the allomorph of the finite clause marker ‘no more’, marked by the indicative mood marker . The rousing suffix (ROUS) expresses that the situation referred to by the clause fits within a certain natural or logical course of events. The form me1-lo31 (ROUS-no.more+I) expresses simplicity, when a certain state or situation is the only course of action, with several different further connotations. This attitude marking unit me1-lo31 (ROUS-no.more+I) normally is only used after imperative clauses. The following sentence shows, however, that the form me1-lo31 (ROUS-no.more+I) can also be used after clauses that are not imperative. In the elliptic sentence (87) the meaning of me1-lo31 (ROUS-no.more+I) is used in a negative reading and expresses a notion of simplicity, indicating that the given action is the only course of action not to take. The adverb ‘how?’ used here expresses ‘(that is) out of the question’. 87

    Hyem31 me1-lo31. how ROUS–no.more+I That’s out of the question.

    In the following examples, the form me1-lo31 (ROUS-no.more+I) is used after imperative clauses. Sentence (89) is the answer to sentence (88), uttered by someone who is unwilling to work 88

    Nang31 mu35 zui11 ye31-aq1 ma11. 2SG work(N) touch/work(V) go(away/down)–SIM ROUS Go (SG) to work.

    and the response: 89 Nang31 ye31-aq1 me1-lo31. 2SG go(away/down)–SIM ROUS–no.more+I You (SG) go. [yourself, instead of letting me do it]

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    887

    In the two following sentences, the form me1-lo31 (ROUS-no.more+I) reassures, since the situation referred to by the clause is the only course of action to be taken and is supposed to be an appealing prospect to the addressee. 90

    No11 hi55-me55 ngi11 dvo31 cattle this–LOC be.there(anim)(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) lye31 ge11, nang31 lo35 yvup5 also+I TOP 2SG go(back/up) sleep 31 1 1 31 gvan -aq me -lo . put.into*–SIM ROUS–no.more+I The cattle are here already, so go (SG) to sleep.

    91

    Nang31

    a1-yan35 lye35 yu31-yu31 2SG nom–row come(away/down) take–take gvun31-aq1 me1-lo31. do*–SIM ROUS–no.more+I You (SG) can come here and borrow it as often as you want.

    • the familiarity marker ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) The special form ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) is an attitude marking unit consisting of the general topic marker , the finite clause marker and the indicative mood marker , and expresses familiarity, e.g. (92), or evidence, i.e. that the situation depicted is an obvious fact, conveying a connotation akin to ‘of course’, e.g. (93). 92

    A5-wa54 syam31-byang31 ge1-lo31. nom–father+FCT knife–scabbard TOP–no.more+I These are Dad’s knife and scabbard [of course].

    93

    Nang31

    a5-mvyo55 ze11 wut1-n55 ge11 2SG nom–much only call–FCT TOP a1-wo35 gyo54 ge1-lo31. NEG–have hear/smell+FCT TOP–no.more+I If you shout with such a soft voice, they won’t hear you.

    Depending on the context, the notions of familiarity and evidence expressed by ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) can be used with different

    888

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    additional senses, e.g. expresses foolishness in sentence (94), reassurance in sentence (95) and simplicity in sentence (77) above. 94

    Dum11 dvo31mvi31 am31 dvo11 bue31 (ipf) (ipf) again forget PFM place(vt) P+I 1 31 ge -lo . TOP–no.more+I I’ve forgotten it again!

    95

    Nang31

    gung31-gung31 ze11 le1-gvyuq5 2SG body–body only but–scare(vt) yu11 lye31 ge1-lo31. take(ipf) also+I TOP–no.more+I You (SG) are only frightening yourself.

    The familiarity marker ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) can also be used as a stopgap after elliptic clauses with omitted predicates. Many of these clauses would be felt to be too curt without this form. 96

    Bau11 ge1-lo31. bug TOP–no.more+I It’s [only] a bug.

    97

    Ngo31

    98

    Ngo31

    99

    Sue55 zyang35 ge11 lui31-lui31 know CD TOP easy–easy ge1-lo31. TOP–no.more+I If you know how to do it, it is easy.

    100

    Hau55-yuq1 the/that–person

    ge1-lo31. 1SG TOP–no.more+I It’s [only] me. nang35 nu11 ge1-lo31. 1SG 2SG.PO mother TOP–no.more+I [in the dark] It’s [only] me, your (SG) mother.

    ge11

    nga35

    TOP

    1PO

    ze11 only

    gu11 younger.sibling

    889

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    ge1-lo31. TOP–no.more+I He/she is my younger sibling. Sentence (77) above illustrates that the familiarity marker ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) can be used after non-indicative clause markers, since here it is used after the exclusive exhortative clause marker (EE). The following sentences illustrate that the familiarity marker ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) can be used to modify indicative clause marking units. In sentences (101) and (102), the familiarity marker ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) is used after the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I), and in sentence (103) it is used after the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I). In sentences (94) and (95) further above, the familiarity marker ge1-lo31 was used after the same clause marking units. 101

    Yvang11

    mvau31 3SG cheat/fool(ipf) He’s only fooling.

    102

    Yvang11 gue11 rup5 bi31 lye31 ge1-lo31. (ipf) (ipf) 3SG all.right dare give also+I TOP–no.more+I [Don’t worry.] He will [dare to] offer that much [money].

    103

    Nang35 i1sat1 ge11 2SG.PO character/disposition TOP 55 31 hi -dong bue31 ge1-lo31. this–lead/connect P+I TOP–no.more+I Your (SG) character is just like that.

    lye31 also+I

    ge1-lo31. TOP–no.more+I

    The following sentence is an example of the use of the familiarity marker ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) after negative clauses. 104

    Nang31

    a1-dat1 wo35 ge1-lo31. 2SG NEG–able have TOP–no.more+I You (SG) will not have it. [because it is a rare object]

    The following sentence is another example of the use of the familiarity marker ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) after a negative clause,

    890

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    but here this clause is marked by the factitive marker, expressing factuality. 105

    Le1byoq5 hi31 ge11 nung35-moq1 a1-wo35 riddle this TOP 2PL–party NEG–have 1 55 1 31 dvak -n ge -lo . guess–FCT TOP–no.more+I This is a riddle which you (PL) won’t be able to guess.

    • the allomorph of the finite clause marker The allomorph of the finite clause marker is only used as prefix to certain other morphemes and thus its shape is reduced by the morpho-phonological process of syllable reduction. This allomorph of the finite clause marker occurs either as 1) a prefixed part of clause marking units, or 2) a prefixed clause marker in special combinations with certain attitude markers. The variety of all combinations of the allomorph of the finite clause marker with the various clause markers and attitude markers is too great to give examples of each, so only a few examples are given below. The following sentence is an example of the allomorph of the finite clause marker before the morpheme ‘need’, which is marked by the indicative mood marker as the future indicative clause marking unit ra31. 106

    Ngo31

    le1-dam31 ze11 1SG one–time(Sp) only I’ll only play one more game.

    bat1 beat

    le1-ra31. no.more–need+I

    The following sentence is an example of the allomorph of the finite clause marker in the combination le1-gvo55, before the allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL). 107

    Ke5-zi1ta11 le1-gvo55. PHB–chat2 no.more– PL Stop (PL) chatting.

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    891

    The following sentence is an example of the allomorph of the finite clause marker before the allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL) and the yes-or-no attitude marker (Y/N ), in the combination le1-gve5-luq1 (no.more-PL-Y/N). 108

    A1-wo35 le1-gve5-luq1? NEG–have no.more– PL–Y/N Are there any left? [directed towards a group of more than one person]

    The following sentence is an example of the use of the allomorph of the finite clause marker after the nominalising prefix and before the allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL), which is marked by the indicative mood marker , in the combination a1-le1-gvo31 (nom-no.more-PL+I). 109

    I55-ngi35 ze11 ngi11 two–day only be.there(anim)(ipf) 1 1 a -le -gvo31 ga31. nom–no.more–PL+I perceive+I They only have two more days left to stay.

    When asking someone whether or not a certain situation will be continued, it is not the continuous clause marker ‘still’ that is used, despite the English word ‘more’ in the translation ‘do you want to drink some more?’ in sentence (110), and also despite the English word ‘still’ in the translation ‘are you still going?’ in sentence (111). Instead, the finite clause marker ‘no more’ is used. The literal meaning of these expressions is thus: ‘is it that V occurs some more or is it not occurring anymore?’, or, in an explicitly transitive reading: ‘are you doing V some more or are you not doing V anymore?’. 110

    A1-syuq5 le1-luq1? NEG–drink no.more–Y/N Do you want to drink some more?

    892

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    111

    Nang31

    a1-ye31 le1-luq1? 2SG NEG–go(away/down) no.more–Y/N Are you (SG) still going?

    112

    Dvau55

    17.8

    THE CONTINUOUS CLAUSE MARKER ‘STILL’

    me55 i31-pue11 a1-bo31 le1-luq1? inflate/bottle LOC distilled–booze NEG-contain no.more-Y/N Is there any booze left in the bottle?

    The continuous clause marker expresses the notion of continuation of some situation. In the negative, the continuous clause marker refers to situations that have not yet been implemented, i.e. ‘not yet’. The three allomorphs of the continuous clause marker are distributed in the following way. 1. The checked allomorph of the continuous clause marker ‘still’ is exclusively used in conjunction with either the negative prefix (NEG) or the prohibitive prefix (PBH). 2. The short prefix allomorph of the continuous clause marker ‘still’ is used in negative or prohibitive clauses, before other syllabic morphemes as a prefixed part of clause marking units or combinations of clause markers and attitude markers. 3. The full syllable allomorph of the continuous clause marker ‘still’ is used in all other cases, and is either marked by the indicative mood marker or the factitive marker , and forms part of various clause marking units and attitude marking units. The form si54 (still+FCT), i.e. the full syllable allomorph of the continuous clause marker ‘still’ which is marked by the factitive marker , can also be used before other nominal constituents at the end of subordinated clauses like the following.

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    893

    yvang11 a1-zo11 si54 zang11 (3s NEG-eat still+FCT rice/food) ‘(the) food he hasn’t eaten yet’ yvang11 zo31 a1-si54 zang11 (3s eat(ipf) nom-still+FCT rice/food) ‘the food he is/was still eating’ Table 17.3 shows all possible types of use of the continuous clause marker ‘still’ to be discussed below. The continuous clause marker ‘still’ and the finite clause marker ‘no more’ are mutually exclusive within the same clause. • the allomorph of the continuous clause marker ‘still’ The allomorph of the continuous clause marker ‘still’ is always used in conjunction with either the negative prefix (NEG) or the prohibitive prefix (PBH). This allomorph expresses the notion that the situation referred to by the clause does not yet take place, when combined with the negative prefix , e.g. (113), or that it should not take place yet, when combined with the prohibitive prefix , e.g. (114). 113

    No11 a1-ho31 siq1. cattle NEG–look.for still I/we haven’t searched for the cows yet.

    114

    He5-gvut5 han31 siq1. PHB–do quick still First wait before you do it.

    894 Table 17.3

    form gloss

    ‘still’

    ‘still’

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    The use of the continuous clause marker (in non-plural forms) and constituent morphemes

    Use

    • the allomorph of in conjunction with the continuous clause either the negative 1 11 marker prefix (NEG) or the prohibitive prefix (PBH) 1 • the allomorph of a prefixed part of the continuous clause clause marking units or marker combinations with attitude markers, in negative or prohibitive clauses

    a1-si31 • the nominalising prefix (nom-still+I) • the continuous clause marker • the indicative mood marker ze1-si31 • the limitative morpheme (only-still+I) • the continuous clause marker • the indicative mood marker 54 si • the continuous clause (still+FCT) marker • the factitive marker

    the continuous indicative clause marking unit

    the limitative continuous indicative clause marking unit, in elliptic clauses

    before other nominal constituents at the end of a subordinated clause the imperfective continuous clause marker, used in some negative clauses

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    895

    • the allomorph of the continuous clause marker ‘still’ The allomorph of the continuous clause marker is used in the same way as the allomorph , except that it is prefixed to certain other morphemes and its shape is thus reduced by the morpho-phonological process of syllable reduction. This allomorph of the continuous clause marker occurs either as 1) a prefixed part of clause marking units, or 2) a prefixed clause marker in special combinations with certain attitude markers. Like the checked allomorph , this allomorph of the continuous clause marker is always used in conjunction with either the negative prefix (NEG) or the prohibitive prefix (PBH). The variety of all combinations of the allomorph of the continuous clause marker with the various clause markers and attitude markers is too great to give examples of each, so only a few examples are given below. The following sentence is an example of the allomorph of the continuous clause marker ‘still’ in the combination si1-ra31, before the morpheme ‘need’ which is marked by the indicative mood marker as the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I). 115

    Sum11-dam31 ye31 si1-ra31. three–time(Sp) go(away/down) still–need+I I will go three more times.

    The following sentence is an example of the allomorph of the continuous clause marker ‘still’, in the combination si1-gvo55, before the allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL). 116

    Yvang55-moq1 zang11 a1-zo11 si1-gvo55. 3PL–party rice/food NEG–eat still–PL They are not eating yet. / They have not yet eaten.

    The following sentence is an example of the allomorph of the continuous clause marker ‘still’ before the allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL)

    896

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    and the yes-or-no attitude marker (Y/N ) in the combination si1-gve5-luq1 (still-PL-Y/N). 117

    A1-ci31 yau35 si1-gve5-luq1? (ipf) NEG–wash finish still–PL–Y/N Have you (PL) finished washing?

    The continuous indicative clause marking unit a1-si31 (nom-still+I) : The continuous indicative clause marking unit a1-si31 (nom-still+I) is the combination of the nominalising prefix , the full syllable allomorph of the continuous clause marker ‘still’ and the indicative mood marker . In this form, the indicative mood marker is combined with the nominalising prefix (nom-), which, when used in clause marking units, indicates non-negative or affirmative mood. The continuous indicative clause marking unit a1-si31 (nom-still+I) marks clauses that are non-elliptic, non-negative and non-prohibitive, and expresses the notion that the situation indicated by the predicate is still going on. 118

    Zyau35 a1-si31, a1-king11 early nom–still+I NEG–halt/rest It’s still early, let’s (DU) not rest yet.

    si1-gvoq1. still–DIE

    119

    Yvang11

    120

    Ngo31 gung31-si11 si11 ye11 a1-si31. (ipf) 1SG body–wash wash go(away/down) nom–still+I [Although it’s late] I’m still going to wash myself.

    121

    Bo11lung31 ling11 ball turn/roll(vi)(ipf) The ball is still rolling.

    122

    Sun11 le1-koq5 ra31 a1-si31. veg/dish one–bowl need(ipf) nom–still+I We need yet another bowl of this dish.

    gue11 mvyang11 a1-si31. (ipf) (ipf) 3SG all.right tall/high nom–still+I He will keep on growing. / He will grow even taller.

    dvo31 place(vt)(ipf)

    a1-si31. nom–still+I

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    897

    • The limitative continuous indicative clause marking unit ze1-si31 (only-still+I) The limitative morpheme ‘only’ refers to limitations to the extent or amount of all kinds of situations, much like the English word ‘only’. In cases where the limitative morpheme ‘only’ is used in the same clause as the continuous indicative clause marking unit si31 (still+I), there are two options. 1) In regular non-elliptic clauses with predicates containing action verbs, the full syllable allomorph of the limitative morpheme ‘only’ can be used as the limitative adverb before the predicate, the continuous indicative clause marking unit si31 (still+I) being marked by the nominalising prefix in a1-si31 (nom-still+I) discussed above. 123

    Sum11-lving31 ze11 ye11 a1-si31. (ipf) three–turn/roll only go(away/down) nom–still+I I’ve only gone three rounds thus far.

    124

    Le1-koq5 ze11 zo31 one–bowl only eat(ipf) I only ate one bowl thus far.

    a1-si31. nom–still+I

    2) As a second option, limited to elliptic clauses, the short prefix allomorph of the limitative morpheme ‘only’ and the continuous indicative clause marking unit si31 (still+I) can be united into the continuous indicative clause marking unit ze1-si31 (only-still+I). The verbs of the predicates which have been omitted from these elliptic clauses could be action verbs or stative verbs. In these cases, the central notion is that a certain limited amount of something is still left, regardless of the action or other situation which these entities form part of. Sentences (125) and (126) below, containing ze1-si31 (only-still+I), are the elliptic variants of sentences (123) and (124) above respectively, containing the limitative adverb ‘only’ and the continuous indicative clause marking unit a1-si31 (nom-still+I).

    898

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    125

    Sum11-lving31 ze1-si31. three–turn/roll only–still+I Only three rounds thus far.

    126

    Le1-koq5 ze1-si31. one–bowl only–still+I Only one bowl thus far.

    127

    Gau11-king55 le1-kyam11 nine–time one–half [It’s] only half past nine.

    128

    Ke5-mvyo55 zan31 a1-ngvut5 siq1, Q–much(B) summer/year NEG–be still 55 35 11 5 1 31 lva -mo sum -kyap ze -si . moon–AUG three–leaf/sheet only–still+I Her age cannot yet be measured in years; she’s only three months old.

    ze1-si31. only–still+I

    • the form si54 (still+FCT), i.e. the continuous clause marker ‘still’ marked by the factitive marker According to different grammatical functions of the factitive marker , the form si54 (still+FCT), i.e. the continuous clause marker ‘still’ marked by the former, can be used in two different ways. When the factitive marker is used to mark the clause as a whole, it expresses factuality and imperfective aspect. When the factitive marker in the latter function marks the continuous clause marker ‘still’ in the form si54 (still+FCT), the latter form functions as the imperfective continuous clause marker si54, which is only used in conjunction with the negative prefix . 129

    Mi1-dat5 a1-duq1 si54 la11? fire–electricity NEG–burning still+FCT UNC Could it be that the electricity has come back on?

    130

    Zang11 lvang55 a1-zo11 rice/food even NEG–eat We have not even had our meal!

    si54 still+FCT

    wa35! EMP

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    899

    However, the same form si54 (still+FCT) can also be used before other nominal constituents at the end of a subordinated clause like yvang11 a1-zo11 si54 zang11 (3s NEG-eat still+FCT rice/food) ‘(the) food he hasn’t eaten yet’. The same form forms part of the phrase yvang11 zo31 a1-si54 zang11 (3s eat(ipf) nom-still+FCT rice/food) ‘the food he is/was still eating’. The latter phrase contains the form a1-si54 (nom-still+FCT), which can be analysed as a continuous indicative clause marking unit a1-si31 (nom-still+I) where the factitive marker is used instead of the indicative mood marker . The continuous clause marker ‘still’ is used when asking someone whether or not a certain situation has taken place yet, e.g. (131), much like the English word ‘yet’ in the translation. The literal meaning of these expressions is thus: ‘did V take place yet, or did it not take place (yet)?’, or, in an explicitly transitive reading: ‘did you do V yet, or didn’t you do it (yet)?’. 131

    A1-syuq5 si1-luq1? NEG–drink still–Y/N Did you have a drink yet?

    When asking someone whether or not a certain situation will be continued, it is not the continuous clause marker ‘still’ which is used, despite the words ‘more’ or ‘still’ in English translations like ‘do you want to drink some more?’ and ‘are you still going?’. This matter has been discussed in Section 17.7 and illustrated by sentences (110) to (112). • the clause marking units si1-ra31 (still-need+I) and le1-ra31 (no.more-need+I) Another interesting problem lies in possible answers to questions like the following. 132

    Zang11 ke5-mvyo55 koq5 zo11 si1-ra31? rice/food Q–much(B) bowl eat still–need+I How many more bowls of rice will you eat?

    The continuous future indicative clause marking unit si1-ra31 (still-need+I), used in the above sentence, refers to a future

    900

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    continuation of some situation, and consists of the continuous clause marker and the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need +I), in turn consisting of the morpheme ‘need’ and the indicative mood marker . Another clause marking unit is le1-ra31 (no.more-need+I), consisting of the finite clause marker and the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I). This clause marking unit le1-ra31 (no.more-need+I) refers to a future end to some situation, e.g. (134). The continuous future indicative clause marking unit si1-ra31 (still-need+I) is used in contexts like in sentence (133), a possible response to sentence (132) above, when reference is made to a considerable amount of work ahead, instead of a limited amount of a certain activity left to be done, in which case the finite future indicative clause marking unit le1-ra31 (no.more-need+I) would be used instead, e.g. (134). 133

    Le1-koq5 zo11 si1-ra31. one–bowl eat still–need+I I will eat one more bowl.

    Whenever the finite clause marker is used in the context of a non-negative or non-prohibitive situation, it is obligatorily used in conjunction with the limitative morpheme ‘only’. Whereas in sentence (133) above the clause marking unit si1-ra31 (still-need+I) rather neutrally refers to the continuation of some situation which still lies ahead, the clause marking unit le1-ra31 (no.more-need+I) is used in cases like sentence (134), where the emphasis lies on the limitation of the amount of what is left over. The literal meaning of this sentence is ‘I will eat only one more bowl and that will be the end of it’. 134

    Le1-koq5 ze11 zo11 le1-ra31. one–bowl only eat no.more–need+I I will only eat one more bowl.

    The following sentence is witty, since four bowls is more than enough.

    901

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    135

    Mi11-koq5 ze11 zo11 le1-ra31. four–bowl only eat no.more–need+I I will only eat four more bowls.

    A possible response to the big eater like in sentence (135) may be sentence (136), containing the continuous indicative clause marking unit a1-si31 (nom-still+I), which refers to the continuation of situations. Sentence (136) explicitly expresses that the addressee appears to be eating in a seemingly endless fashion, since in this case the continuous indicative clause marking unit a1-si31 both takes into account the state of being eating and the continuation of this state. The literal translation of this sentence is: ‘you’re still eating; how many bowls will you eat more?’. Also compare sentence (137), which contains another response to this big eater. 136

    Nang31 ke5-mvyo55 koq5 zo31 a1-si31? (ipf) 2SG Q–much(B) bowl eat nom–still+I [perplexed] How many MORE bowls will you (SG) eat?

    137

    Nang31

    ke5-mvyo55 2SG Q–much(B) 31 dye wo35 zo31 too have eat(ipf) How many MORE bowls eater!

    koq5 zo31 bowl eat(ipf) r55 mai31. PE

    a1-si31, nom–still+I

    OBV+I

    will you (SG) eat, you’re such a big

    Instead of sentence (136), a neutral way of asking how much more someone will eat is sentence (132), containing the clause marking unit si1-ra31 (still-need+I). 17.9

    THE PERFECT CLAUSE MARKER (P)

    Clause marking units containing the perfect clause marker (P) emphasise the continuing present relevance of some situation at another time, mostly in the past but in some cases also in the future. All clause marking units containing the perfect clause marker (P) are listed in Table 17.4. Many of the clause marking units in Table 17.4 can be marked by the factitive marker

    902

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    , replacing the indicative mood marker and resulting in the separate clause marking units bue54 (P+FCT), be1-gvo54 (P-PL+FCT), be1-ra54 (P-need+FCT) and be1-gve5-ra54 (P-PL-need+FCT). The perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I), e.g. (138), and its plural variant be1-gvo31 (P-PL+I), e.g. (139), both simultaneously express indicative mood and the continuing present relevance of a situation in future or past. The plural variant be1-gvo31 (P-PL+I), moreover, indicates plurality of the entities in the given context. The latter form is discussed in Section 17.23 on the plural clause marker (PL). 138

    139

    Wui31-bu11 zvu31 water–water boil/rise Is the water boiling?

    bue31

    luq1?

    P+I

    Y/N

    Wui31-bu11 zvu31 be1-gvo31 luq1? water–water boil/rise P–PL+I Y/N Is the water boiling already? [spoken to more than one person]

    In most surroundings, these perfect indicative clause marking units bue31 (P+I) and be1-gvo31 (P-PL+I) refer to the continuing present relevance of a situation in the past, as illustrated by the above sentences. However, when combined with the adverb / ‘almost, soon, promptly’, the clause marking units bue31 (P+I) and be1-gvo31 (P-PL+I) refer to a situation that already is in its final stages before taking place, so here these clause marking units refer to the continuing present relevance of a situation in the future. This becomes clear when comparing sentence (140), containing the adverb / ‘almost, soon, promptly’, to sentence (141) without. Sentences (142), (144) and (145) illustrate that the perfect indicative clause marking units can also refer to the future without the adverb / ‘almost, soon, promptly’. 140

    141

    Mau11-mo35 rau35 wo31 sky–AUG promptly rain Heavy rain will soon come. Mau11 sky

    wo31 rain

    bue31. P+I

    bue31. P+I

    903

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    It’s raining. 142

    143

    144

    145

    Lau35 zin31 promptly ready It’s almost ready.

    bue31. P+I

    Ngvyeq5-zo11 lau35 baby–child promptly There will be a baby soon. Rau35 gue31 promptly all.right It’s almost ready.

    wo35 have

    bue31. P+I

    bue31. P+I

    Naq1-ma35 bue31 tomorrow–LOC P+I But that’s tomorrow!

    mai31. OBV+I

    The perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I) is one of the Zaiwa clause marking units that are used most frequently. Sentence (146) is the regular formula for expressing thankfulness. Other useful expressions are yau11 bue31 (let.pass P+I) ‘never mind, e.g. (147), and syut5 bue31 (wrong P+I) ‘I’m sorry’, e.g. (148). 1

    11

    Table 17.4 The use of the perfect clause marker (P) in

    clause marking units and other complex forms non-plural plural variants variants

    constituent morphemes

    bue31 (P+I)

    • allomorphs or respectively of (P) • optional: allomorph of plural clause marker (PL) • indicative mood marker • allomorph of limitative morpheme ‘only’ • allomorph of (P) • indicative mood marker • nominalising prefix (nom-) • allomorphs or respectively of (P) • optional: allomorph of plural clause marker (PL) • indicative mood marker • allomorph of (P) • suggestive suffix / (SUG) • indicative mood marker

    a1-bue31 a1-be1-gvo31 (nom-P+I) (nom-P-PL+I)

    be1-kai31 (P-SUG+I) ---

    a1-be1-gve5-kai31 • nominalising prefix (nom-) (nom-P-PL-SUG+I) • allomorph of (P) • allomorph of plural clause marker (PL) • suggestive suffix / (SUG) • indicative mood marker be1-ra31 be1-gve5-ra31 • allomorph of (P) • optional: allomorph of plural clause marker (PL) • ‘need’ • indicative mood marker ---

    146

    A1gvyu31 gvo11 merit big Thank you.

    bue31. P+I

    905

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    147

    Yau11 bue31, yau11 bue31, ke5-bi11 loq1. let.pass P+I let.pass P+I PHB–give no.more Let it pass, let it pass, you don’t have to hand it over anymore.

    148

    Syut5 bue31. wrong P+I Sorry. / (Lit.:) That was wrong. / I was wrong.

    The perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I) appears to be the only Zaiwa clause marking unit which can be regularly used in clauses without a predicate. Each of the cases where this occurs can be analysed as cases where exclusive reference is made to a certain identity, the number of that entity or a certain point in time, and the copula ‘to be’ or any other verb has been omitted. 149

    Nang35 i1sat1 ge11 2SG.PO character/disposition TOP hi55-dong31 bue31 ge1-lo31. this–lead/connect P+I TOP–no.more+I Your (SG) character is just like that.

    150

    Hau31 a1kui31 i5-nvung55 byu31 the/that now SPEC–1ND.IN man/woman And that’s what came to be us, mankind.

    151

    152

    153

    154

    Gau11-king55 le1-kyam11 nine–time one–half It’s half past nine. Naq1-ma35 zyau31 tomorrow–LOC market The market is tomorrow. A1kui31 ke5-mvyo55 now Q–much(B) What’s the time now? I5ban11 week(end)

    ke5-mvyo55 Q–much(B)

    bue31. P+I

    bue31. P+I

    king55 time bat1 week

    bue31? P+I

    bue31? P+I

    bue31. P+I

    906

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    How many weeks ago? 155

    He5-yoq1 bue31. before–ago P+I [That was] some time ago.

    156

    Nang31

    157

    Kyuq5-ngi35 bue31. six–day P+I It’s Saturday. [the sixth day]

    hi55-me55 lye35-Ø 2SG this–LOC come(away/down)–FCT ke5-mvyo55 min31 bue31? Q–much(B) evening P+I How many nights have you (SG) been here?

    Elliptic clauses, like the following, containing only a personal pronoun or a person name and the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I), are usually used for asking whose turn it is, e.g. when playing games. 158

    Ngo31

    bue31

    luq1?

    1SG

    P+I

    Y/N

    Is it my turn? and the response: 159 Nang31 bue31. 2SG

    P+I It’s your (SG) turn.

    The above elliptic clauses containing the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I) can be compared to sentences (160) to (163), where the Zaiwa copula ‘to be’ is used in order to place emphasis on specific identities so as to contrast them with others. In sentences (160) and (161), the copula ‘to be’ is optional. These cases can be compared to sentence (162), where the copula ‘to be’ cannot be omitted. In sentence (163) the copula ‘to be’ cannot be added, since this utterance is not a

    907

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    statement on the exact identity of the host but more of an invitation, stating that all people at the place should be like hosts themselves. 160

    Hye55-bvue55 ge11 Myen31-meng11 same.elevation–PLN TOP Burma–world 5 5 5 zvyat -zvyat ngvut bue31. all–all be P+I Over there is all Burma.

    161

    Le1-zan31-tong11 me55 zye11 gyoq1-o55 one–summer/year–roll LOC exceed cold–FCT ge11 gyoq1-myo31 ngvut5 bue31. TOP cold–winter be P+I Winter is the coldest season of the whole year.

    162

    Nga35

    163

    nu11 ngvut5 1PO mother be If you were our mother

    bue31 P+I

    r11 also

    ge11. TOP

    I5-nvung55 ge11 yvum31-seng31 zvyat5-zvyat5 SPEC–1ND.IN TOP house–host all–all We (ND.IN) are all hosts. [So help yourselves.]

    bue31. P+I

    Another clause marking unit containing the perfect clause marker (P) is ze1-bue31 (only-P+I), i.e. the combination of the allomorph of the limitative morpheme ‘only’, the allomorph of (P) and the indicative mood marker . This limitative perfect clause marking unit ze1-bue31 (only-P+I) is only used in elliptic clauses and expresses radical change. 164

    Kue31dan35 lang31 kyui11 zyang35 (ipf) pencil pull/yank bend CD 5 5 1 31 tok tok ze -bue . [easy.to.break] only–P+I Pencils can easily be broken by pulling them.

    165

    We1-zung31-eq1 bamboo–axe#–AG/I

    zik1 cleave

    zyang35 CD

    tok5tok5 [easy.to.break]

    908

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    ze1-bue31. only–P+I With an axe, you can easily cleave it. 166

    Yvang55-nvik5 ge11 le1-suen31 ze1-bue31 ga31. 3PL–duo TOP one–appearance only–P+I perceive+I Those two people look the same. [whereas one of them is a bad one disguised as a good one]

    The form be1-kai31 is a combination of the short prefix allomorph of the perfect clause marker (P), the suggestive suffix / and the zero allomorph of the indicative mood marker , and combines the meanings of all of these forms. The suggestive suffix / is an attitude marker expressing that the speaker is making a guess. 167

    Syaq1 zyo11 be1-kai31. possibly right P–SUG+I I bet it will be right.

    168

    A5-zvi55 mang11 be1-kai31. nom–grandfather aged P–SUG+I I guess grandfather has become old, hasn’t he?

    Elliptic sentences with be1-kai31 (P-SUG+I) like the following are usually used for asking whose turn it is, e.g. when playing games. 169

    Ngo31

    be1-kai31.

    1SG

    P–SUG+I

    It’s my turn, I presume. The perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I) can also be combined with the nominalising prefix (nom-), forming the special determinant clause marking unit a1-bue31 (nom-P+I). Whereas the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I) expresses the continuing present relevance of some situation at another time, usually in the past, e.g. (170) and (172), the determinant clause marking unit a1-bue31 (nom-P+I) expresses the actual relevance of a situation which is just being initiated and also refers to the start of the completion of

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    909

    that situation, e.g. (171). Sentence (170), by the way, is a normal way of greeting. 170

    Zang11 zo11 bue31 rice/food eat P+I Have you eaten already?

    luq1? Y/N

    and the response: 171 A1hui31 zo31 a1-bue31. now eat(ipf) nom–P+I I have just begun eating. or, instead: 172 Zyau35-mai11 zo11 early–ABL eat I ate some time ago.

    bue31. P+I

    The following sentences also illustrate the use of the determinant clause marking unit a1-bue31 (nom-P+I). 173

    Lo35 a1-bue31 luq1? go(back/up) nom–P+I Y/N Are you going back now?

    174

    A1kui31 ban31-syoq5 gva31 yau35 a1-bue31. (ipf) now use.up–till write finish nom–P+I Now I’m finishing up writing the whole thing.

    175

    Du35 am31 a1-bue31. throw PFM(ipf) nom–P+I We are going to throw it away now.

    176

    Syuq5 am31 a1-bue31. (ipf) drink PFM nom–P+I We are going to drink it up now.

    177

    Zyong11 ye11 a1-bue31 luq1? (ipf) school go(away/down) nom–P+I Y/N Are you going off to school? [to stay there for some while]

    910 178

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    Lo35 a1-bue31 go(back/up) nom–P+I He said he was leaving.

    ga31. perceive+I

    Two other complex forms containing the nominalising prefix (nom-), the perfect clause marker (P) and the zero allomorph of the indicative mood marker are the plural variant a1-be1-gvo31 (nom-P-PL+I), e.g. (179), and the combinational form a1-be1-gve5-kai31 (nom-P-PL-SUG+I), e.g. (180). The latter contains the suggestive suffix kai31/hai31 (SUG+I). 179

    A1hui31 ge11 i5-mvyup5 am31 (ipf) now TOP go–bury PFM We are on our way to bury him now.

    a1-be1-gvo31. nom–P–PL+I

    180

    Yvang55-moq1 lo35 ngi11-gvun31 3PL–party go(back/up) be.there(anim)(ipf)–play(ipf) 1 1 5 31 a -be -gve -kai . nom–P–PL–SUG+I They (PL) have gone off to amuse themselves for a while, I suppose.

    Clause marking units containing both the perfect clause marker (P) and the morpheme ‘need’ are the perfect future indicative clause marking unit be1-ra31 (P-need +I) and its plural variant, the plural perfect future indicative clause marking unit be1-gve5-ra31 (P-PL-need +I). The two latter clause marking units simultaneously indicate indicative mood and prospective aspect, whereas be1-gve5-ra31 (P-PL-need +I) additionally indicates plurality of the entities involved. Prospective aspect here implies: emphasising of the relevance at present of some situation in the future by expressing that the situation referred to by the predicate is already impendent at the reference point in time. The following examples illustrate that be1-ra31 (P-need+I) and be1-gve5-ra31 (P-PL-need+I) also express a further notion, i.e. that the situation to which the clause refers will definitely take place, whereas the notion ‘in a moment’ is only inferred when implied by the context, e.g. (190) to (193) further below.

    911

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    181

    Yvang11 mang11 zyang35 ngyup1 byuq1 3SG aged CD low lose He will be short when he’s old.

    be1-ra31. P–need+I

    182

    Naq1-ma35 ge11 ngi31 lang35 tomorrow–LOC TOP be.there(anim) wait be1-ra31 kai31. P–need+I SUG+I They will probably be there tomorrow. [e.g. because I told their neighbours that I would come again tomorrow]

    183

    Nang31

    184

    Got1 din31-aq1, lyeng31 si31 be1-ra31. (ipf) scoop(vt) run–SIM fall(vi) die P–need+I Run (SG), run and you will break your neck.

    185

    Nga35-nvik5 hang31 lum11 (ipf) 1PO–duo marry reciprocal We’re (DU) about to marry.

    186

    Ke5-ngi35 ge11 i5ban31-ngi35 before–day TOP week(end)(GEN)–day 1 11 31 be -ra la ? P–need+I UNC Today must be Sunday, mustn’t it?

    187

    Ngvam11 be1-ra31. tasty P–need+I This is going to be tasty.

    a1kui31 dum11 bi11 zyang35-eq1 2SG now again give CD–AG/I dum11 dung11 r55 dum11 dung11-dung11 again demand TS again demand–demand 5 1 31 gvut be -ra . do P–need+I If you give it to her this time, she will always keep asking you for more.

    be1-ra31. P–need+I ngvut5 be

    912

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    188

    Lai11 be1-ra31. heavy P–need+I This is going to be heavy.

    189

    A1gvyu31 wo35 be1-ra31. merit have P–need+I Merit will emanate [from this].

    The following examples illustrate that be1-ra31 (P-need+I) and be1-gve5-ra31 (P-PL-need +I) can also express the notion ‘in a moment’, when this can be inferred from the context. 190

    Bvyang11 be1-ra31. jolt/winnow P–need+I I’m about to winnow it.

    191

    Zvu31 be1-ra31. boil/rise P–need+I It’s about to boil.

    192

    Mai35mai35mai35, gue31 be1-ra31. (comforting) all.right P–need+I There, there now, it will be over in a moment.

    193

    Ngo31

    yvup5 be1-ra31 a5be11, 1SG sleep P–need+I almost.certain nung35-moq1 pye31-ngvam31 gvun55 gveq5. (ipf) (ipf) 2PL–party negotiate –tasty play PLIM I should go to sleep now, you people (PL) have a chat here.

    The following examples illustrate the use of the plural perfect future indicative clause marking unit be1-gve5-ra31 (P-PL-need +I). 194

    Ngo31 1SG

    byuq1 lose byuq1 lose

    mu35 work(N) zyang35

    zui11 touch/work(V) yvang55-moq1 CD 3PL–party be1-gve5-ra31. P–PL–need +I

    ye11 go(away/down)(ipf) lo35 go(back/up)

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    913

    They will leave as soon as I’m off to work. 195

    Lom31 be1-gve5-ra31. attend P–PL–need +I You (PL) will be given what for.

    17.10

    CONJUNCTIONAL CLAUSE MARKERS (1): ‘ALTHOUGH’

    The clause marker ‘although’ is a conjunction normally expressing the notion ‘although’. 196

    Ngo31 zo31 gi11 gve5lvang11zo31 a1-si31. (ipf) (ipf) 1SG eat full/satisfied although eat nom–still+I Although I’m full, I’m still eating.

    197

    A1-moi11 gve5lvang11 zung11 gvat5 gvoq1. (ipf) NEG–tired although sit put.into DIE Even though we are not tired, let us (DU) sit for a while.

    198

    Le1-nap1 bui31 bat1 gve5lvang11 one–morning sun beat although a1-gue11 ren31. (ipf) NEG–all.right win Even though I played the whole morning, I didn’t win.

    199

    Nang31

    200

    Ke5-gyo35 gyo35 gve5lvang11 gyo35 steep–go.down go.down although go.down lo35 gvoq1. go(back/up) DIE Even though it is rather steep, let’s (DU) still go down.

    lai11gva55 gyai11 gve5lvang11 2SG script excellent although he5-gum11rong31. PHB–conceited Even though your (SG) handwriting is beautiful, you don’t have to be so proud of yourself.

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    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    201

    Hi55-yuq1 gue11 wui31 nvau11 (ipf) this–person all.right laugh feel.like(ipf) dik1 lye31, nvik5-yo11 gve5lvang11 i1mit1 extreme also+I heart–itch3 although mind ma55 a1-gvat5 dvo11. LOC NEG–put.into place(vt) This person has a sunny character and, even when she is angry, she doesn’t take offence.

    202

    A1-ngi31 gve5lvang11 mai31. NEG–be.there(anim) although OBV+I Even though they are not here now [Make a picture of us, even though our parents aren’t here.]

    The clause marker ‘although’ can also be used to express indifference, as illustrated by the following examples and also by sentence (202) above. 203

    Yvup5 gve5lvang11 gue31 bue31. sleep although all.right P+I To go to sleep would also be good.

    204

    Got1 gve5lvang11 a1-ra11. dirty although NEG–need It does not matter if it gets dirty.

    The clause marker ‘although’ can also express indifference in another way than in the two above sentences. In some complex sentences, the clause marker ‘although’ is used twice, thus expressing the notion ‘it doesn’t matter whether V’, whereby V refers to a verb which is used in the predicates of both clauses and which in one clause is negated and in the other is not negated. 205

    Syuq5 gve5lvang11 a1-ra11, a1-syuq5 drink although NEG–need NEG–drink gve5lvang11 a1-ra11. although NEG–need To drink or not to drink, it’s all the same to me.

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    206

    915

    Gvat5 gve5lvang11 ngvam31 lye31, (ipf) put.into although tasty also+I a1-gvat5 gve5lvang11 a1-ra11. NEG–put.into although NEG–need It would be tasty to put in, but it also doesn’t matter if we don’t put it in.

    In combination with the complex pronominal ka55-hu55 (Q-sort) ‘what’, which is used in an indefinite sense, the clause marker ‘although’ expresses notions like ‘whatever’ and ‘whenever’, in addition to a notion of contradiction. In sentences (207) and (208), the clause marker ‘although’ expresses ‘whatever X V’ and in sentence (209) it expresses ‘whenever X V’. 207

    Yvang11

    myoq1-dong11 si1-gvuq5 dye31 3SG eye–(have)hole flesh–skin too 11 tu r55, ka55-hu55 dai11 gve5lvang11 (make).thick(ipf) PE Q–sort speak although hoq5 a1-sue55. shy NEG–know He has a thick hide. Whatever he says, he won’t feel shy.

    208

    Meng11-gvan11 toq5 me55 ka55-hu55 gvut5 world–dried.out come.out LOC Q–sort do gve5lvang11 lui11 r55, byu31 although easy(ipf) PE man/woman 11 zue zo11 ra54 ze11 yak1 r55. (ipf) live.as.human eat need+FCT only difficult2 PE It is easy to live as any creature in this world, it is only very difficult to live as a human.

    209

    Yvang11

    lving31-hang11 ngo31 r55 zi31 3SG turn/roll–each 1SG OBJ invite gve5lvang11 ngo31 a1-ye31. although 1SG NEG–go(away/down) Each time she invited me I didn’t go.

    916 17.11

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    CONJUNCTIONAL CLAUSE MARKERS (2): THE OPPORTUNATIVE (OPP)

    The opportunative clause marker (OPP) links two clauses together and expresses the notion that the situation referred to by the clause ending in (OPP) forms the opportunity for the situation indicated by the next clause. 210

    Tang11 firewood

    ho31 look.for

    lo35 go(back/up)

    i1zvyang11 OPP

    nge1-zo11 lo35 zyang31 gvong31 lye31. (ipf) fish–child go(back/up) in.passing catch.fish also+I As long as we’re already up there collecting firewood, we’re also going to go fishing. 211

    Syo11 lo35 hat5 i1zvyang11 tang11 flesh go(back/up) pursue OPP firewood lo35 zyang31 ho31 syang55. go(back/up) in.passing look.for JUS Since we’re already going to be up there hunting, let’s (ND.IN) also collect firewood.

    212

    Zang11 zo11 i1zvyang11 rice/food eat OPP Read (SG) while you are eating.

    17.12

    CONJUNCTIONAL CLAUSE MARKERS (3): 31 THE CLAUSE MARKING UNIT lui ‘IN THIS WAY’

    lai11gva55 script

    wu35-aq5. look–SIM

    The form lui31 ‘in this way’ is analysed as a bimorphemic entity consisting of a clause marker that is a no longer retrievable root morpheme in combination with the indicative mood marker . Therefore, it is glossed as (in.this.way +I). The clause marking unit lui31 ‘in this way’ functions as a conjunction, and can express two different notions. Either it expresses the notion ‘because’, indicating that the situation expressed by the first clause is the reason for the situation in the second clause to take place, e.g. (219) to (221) further

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    917

    below. When no clues are supplied by the context, the clause marking unit lui31 ‘in this way’ indicates that the situation expressed by the first clause is a specific way in which the situation referred to by the second clause takes place, as illustrated by sentences (213) to (218). The first sentence below refers to dancing during the Menau festival, under the leadership of the Naubva. 213

    Nau11-bva54 tang31 syang31 Menau–dance.sideways+FCT behind follow(ipf) 1 11 35 55 lui31 le go go syang . in.this.way +I well dance JUS Let us (ND.IN) follow the Naubva and do our best dancing.

    214

    Se1boi31 ka55-pyang31 hu31 table Q–DIR face.towards(ipf) 11 31 lui dvo ra31? in.this.way +I place(vt) need+I Which direction shall we let the desk face?

    215

    Le1-gam35-bvue55 mo35do35-lyeng31 ge11 (male)–eld-brother–PLN car–wheel TOP mau11-hung31 pyang31 rvong31 sky–vault/ridge DIR [legs/wheels.in.the.air] 5 1 31 gvut lui muq si11 a1-gvo31. do in.this.way +I tumble die(ipf) nom–PL+I Eldest brother and the others had a nasty accident and the car rolled over.

    216

    Wui31-yam31 cyang55 lui31 zyang31 water–edge follow in.this.way +I in.passing 35 35 5 gyo lo -aq . go.down go(back/up)–SIM Follow (SG) the stream. / Lit.: Follow (SG) the river bank.

    217

    Nga35-nvung55 Zai11-zo11 tung31-keng11 1PO–1ND.IN Zaiwa–child tradition–outfit mue31-bu11 cyung11 yu31 lui31, wrap–clothes use(ipf) take in.this.way +I me1nau11 wang11 pyang31 le1-so31

    918

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    Menau at.base DIR but–walk(ipf) 11 35 ye lo syang55. go(away/down)(ipf) go(back/up) JUS Having put on our Zaiwa traditional outfit, let us (ND.IN) walk towards the foot of the [pillars of the] Menau. 218

    Mau11sau11 me55 wu35 lui31 paper/book LOC look in.this.way +I 5 11 31 mvoq yu lye . learn/teach take(ipf) also+I I’m learning it from a book/magazine.

    In the following sentences, the clause marking unit lui 31 ‘in this way’ expresses the notion ‘because’, since in the context there are stronger causal ties between the situations referred to by the two clauses. 219

    Mo35do35 zi11 lui31 car ride(vt) in.this.way +I a1-on11 ma54 ga31 nom–feel.like.vomiting LOC+FCT perceive(ipf) I’m feeling dizzy because of sitting in the car.

    r55. PE

    220

    Ngo31

    li55

    hak1 lui31 ku11 1SG OBJ fond.of in.this.way +I raise(ipf) 31 11 31 gvo dvo bue . big(ipf) place(vt) P+I They are fond of me, and therefore they are raising me.

    221

    Kyo31 so11 lui31 ngu35 dik1 bue31. road walk in.this.way +I exhausted extreme P+I I’m exhausted from walking.

    The agentive/instrumental suffix can be added to lui31 (in.this.way +I) in order to mark or emphasise the causal ties between the two situations. 222

    Gung31-du11 body–being

    ci11 wash

    lui31-eq1 in.this.way +I–AG/I

    gyoq1 cold

    919

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    nan35nan35 si11 r55. (ipf) [shiver.from.cold] die PE Because of the washing, I am shivering from cold. 223

    I31-pue11 syuq5 lui31-eq1 distilled–booze drink in.this.way +I–AG/I myoq1-dong11 lvang55 nye11 lye31 (ipf) eye–(have)hole even red also+I 11 11 1 31 heng heng dut bue . [scarlet] become P+I Because of boozing, his face got scarlet red.

    The clause marking unit lui31 ‘in this way’ can also be used in inquiries about the identity of a certain matter, in which case there are two options: if it is not the first option it may be the second, like ‘is it A or B?’ Such utterances may seem somewhat garrulous, but the informant claimed that this is the normal way of formulating such matters, since Zaiwa has no word for ‘or’. 224

    Hi31 ge11 this TOP lui31 in.this.way +I Is this beer or booze?

    pi11zyo31 luq1, a1-ngvut5 beer Y/N NEG–be ge11 i31-pik5 luq1? TOP distilled–pungent Y/N booze? / (Lit.:) Is this beer? And if not, is it

    225

    Hi31 ge11 Zai11wa31-ming35 luq1, this TOP Zaiwa–language Y/N lui31 ge11 Si5dvung55-ming35 in.this.way +I TOP Jingpo–language Is this Zaiwa or Jingpo?

    a1-ngvut5 NEG–be luq1? Y/N

    The clause marking unit lui31 ‘in this way’ can also be used in elliptic utterances, with no further clause after it. 226

    Bum31 lo35 ra31 lui31. (ipf) heap(vt/N) go(back/up) need in.this.way +I Because he has to go up the mountain.

    920 17.13

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    CONJUNCTIONAL CLAUSE MARKERS (4): 31 THE SUFFIX OF THE EXPECTED nvo (EXP+I)

    The suffix of the expected nvo31 (EXP+I) is a clause marking unit expressing that the situation denoted by the preceding clause was expected by someone. Whether these expectations cope with reality depends on the context. The suffix of the expected nvo31 (EXP+I) is a combination of a no longer retrievable morpheme and the indicative mood marker . The suffix of the expected is normally used as a conjunction in complex sentences of various types. The following sentence is rather special because nvo31 (EXP+I) is used in an isolated single clause. Here, it expresses that the main actant, the legendary Rabbit, even though he had said he would go, was no longer expected to arrive. 227

    A1-ye31 nvo31. NEG–go(away/down) EXP+I He didn’t show up.

    The clause marking unit nvo31 (EXP+I) is especially often used before modifying clauses containing the verb ‘seem’, in complex sentences expressing notions like: ‘it falls within the line of expectation that …’ and ‘it seems that …’. 228

    229

    230

    Ngvut5 nvo31 be EXP+I It could be.

    ngam11 seem(ipf)

    r55. PE

    Yvang11

    ye31 nvo31 3SG go(away/down) EXP+I I think he will go. I31-pue11 syuq5 wut1 distilled–booze drink drunk me1-hon31 lvang55 sue31 words–sing even know(ipf) ngam11 r55. (ipf) seem PE

    ngam11 seem(ipf) zyang35 CD

    hon31 sing

    r55. PE

    ka55-hu55 Q–sort nvo31 EXP+I

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    921

    When I’m drunk, it seems to me that I can sing each and every song. 231

    Ngo31

    ge11

    hi55-bvue55-ha55 ma54 1SG TOP this–PLN–where(B) LOC+FCT bum31 ge11 zyaq1 mvyang31 nvo31 heap(vt/N) TOP rather tall/high EXP+I ngam25 wa35, geq1-mvyo55 a1-mvyang31 seem+FCT EMP lot–much(B) NEG–tall/high ngvut5 r55 mai31. be PE OBV+I I thought that the hills here were quite high, but they’re not at all very high.

    232

    Zang11-sun11 hi55-bvue55 zyaq1 zo31 rice/food–veg/dish this–PLN rather eat(ipf) wui11 nvo31 ngam25 wa35, zo11 zyang35 difficult EXP+I seem+FCT EMP eat CD zyaq1 ngvam31 r55 mai31. quite tasty(ipf) PE OBV+I I thought that these dishes would be quite disgusting, but they’ve proven to be rather tasty.

    Another type of use of nvo31 (EXP+I) is in conjunction with a negated verb ‘perceive’, in complex sentences expressing notions like: ‘I feel that I won’t …’, whereas literally it would be ‘I don’t feel that I will/can …’. 233

    A1ga31! zang11 hi55-hoq5 ge11 (difficulty) rice/food this–bowl TOP bye31 nvo31 a1-ga11 mai31! be.a.match.for/master EXP+I NEG–perceive OBV+I Oh my dear, I don’t think I will master this bowl of rice!

    234

    Ngo31

    wo35 syuq5 nvo31 a1-ga11. 1SG have drink EXP+I NEG–perceive I can’t drink it. / I don’t feel that I can drink it.

    922

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    The suffix of the expected nvo31 can also be modified by the copula ‘become’. The combination of ‘become’ and nvo31 (EXP+I) expresses the notion ‘on the face of things, it is quite possible that …’, e.g. (235), or, in the negative, of ‘on the face of things, it is quite impossible that …’, e.g. (236) and (237). The suffix of the expected nvo31 (EXP+I) should not be confused with the negative indicative suffix (N)o31 (HIGH+I), which has /no31/ as one of its phonological shapes, and which can be used after negative clauses, e.g. at the end of sentence (237). 235

    Yvang11

    kau11 nvo31 dut1 r55. 3SG steal EXP+I become PE He looks/seems like someone who would steal.

    236

    Ngo31

    237

    Yvang55-moq1 wo35 3PL–party have a1-dut1-no31. NEG–become–HIGH+I They can’t drink that!

    myang31 nvo31 a1-dut1. 1SG see EXP+I NEG–become I think I won’t be able to see it. syuq5 drink

    gve5-nvo31 PL–EXP+I

    In negative sentences like (237), the suffix of the expected can also be said to express ‘X cannot be expected to do V’. 17.14

    CONJUNCTIONAL CLAUSE MARKERS (5): ‘TO’

    The form , which I shall gloss as ‘to’, is a conjunctional clause marker exclusively used in combination with the verb ‘need’ and expressing ‘that’ or ‘to’. This morpheme is remarkably like English ‘to’ used with the infinitive of a verb. 238

    Si5-gyo11 no35 a1-ra11. die–hear/smell to NEG–need You don’t have to feel pity.

    923

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    239

    Gvut5 no35 a1-ra11 loq1. do to NEG–need no.more It’s no longer necessary to do that.

    240

    Wui31-sum31 ge11 byu11-eq1 wu35 water–mortar TOP man/woman#–AG/I look no35 a1-ra54, guq1 wo35 to NEG–need+FCT unhusked.rice have 31 31 tung lye . crush(ipf) also+I A water mortar can pound rice by itself, without people having to look after it.

    241

    Syen55 no35 a1-ra11 loq1, economise to NEG–need no.more 1 35 naq -ma zyau31 bue31. tomorrow–LOC market P+I We don’t have to be frugal with this anymore, the market is tomorrow.

    242

    Hoq5 no35 a1-ra11. shy to NEG–need You don’t have to be shy.

    243

    Bu11-mo35 wut1 no35 clothes–AUG wear/dress to You don’t need to wear a jacket.

    a1-ra11. NEG–need

    Section 15.9 has discussed the use of ‘to’ after the progressive aspectiviser . 17.15

    THE CONJUNCTIONAL CLAUSE MARKERS (6): ‘TILL’

    The clause marker ‘till’ is a conjunction expressing ‘till V occurs’. 244

    Wui31-bu11 water–water

    bing35 full

    syoq5 till

    gvat5 put.into

    bi11 give

    raq5. VO

    924

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    Pour me boiled water till it is full. 245

    Ke5-ngi35 Meng11mau11 zye35 before–day Ruili arrive 31 31 dvo lye . place(vt)(ipf) also+I Today we are bound to get to Ruili.

    246

    Gan31-zue31 syoq5 zui11 zyang35 late–late till touch/work(V) CD mut1 be1-ra31. hungry P–need+I If you work till late, you will get hungry.

    247

    Ngo31 1SG

    gyuq1 afraid

    r55, PE

    ap5 needle

    syoq5 till

    zvem55 dip/duck

    ngvu11 say(ipf)

    syoq5 till

    ke5-tau11. PHB–sew/insert I’m scared, don’t plunge the needle all the way inside. The meaning of ‘till’ can normally can also be interpreted as the full implementation of the action denoted by the preceding verb fulfilling a condition for the realisation of the situation indicated by the next clause, as illustrated by sentences (244) to (246) above. In sentence (247), however, the full implementation of the action denoted by the preceding verb constitutes a frightening situation preventing the realisation of the situation indicated by the next clause. In sentence (248), the clause marker ‘till’ after ‘arrive’ expresses that the full implementation of the act of arriving at a certain place constitutes a limit to the act of coming along with the addressee, even though the latter has to travel even further than the appointed place. Sentence (249) is similar to sentence (248) but without ‘till’. 248

    Ngo31

    Nong35dau31 zye35 syoq5 1SG Nongdao arrive till lye35 dye35 gvat5 lye35. come(away/down) see.off put.into come(away/down) I’ll see you off to Nongdao [but no further].

    925

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    249

    Ngo31

    Nong35dau31 zye35 lye35 1SG Nongdao arrive come(away/down) dye35 gvat5 lye35. see.off put.into come(away/down) I’ll bring you to Nongdao.

    The clause marker ‘till’ is especially often used in combination with the morpheme ‘use up’ in the idiosyncratic expression ban31-syoq5 (use.up-till) ‘entirely’. 250

    Hau31 ban31-syoq5 the/that use.up–till 55 am gveq5.

    kot5kot5 [finished/empty]

    zo31 eat(ipf)

    PFM PLIM Eat (PL) it all.

    The latter combination ban31-syoq5 (use.up-till) ‘entirely’ together with the plural nominalising suffix (PNO) expresses ‘the whole group’ and is used after personal pronouns, indicating ‘all of’. 251

    Nga35-nvung55 ban31-syoq5-bang11 syom31 1PO–1ND.IN use.up–till–PNO drive.game(ipf) 31 55 31 35 hon syang ngvu zyang , zye11 sing JUS say CD exceed tang31 ma55 ngo31 bau35 ze1-lo31. behind LOC 1SG just only–no.more+I Whereas they said let’s (ND.IN) all sing together, in the end I was the only one.

    17.16

    CONJUNCTIONAL CLAUSE MARKERS (7): THE CONDITIONAL (CD)

    The conditional clause marker (CD) is normally used as a conjunction expressing that the situation denoted by the clause ending in (CD) is a condition for the situation denoted by the next clause. Used as a conjunction, it can be translated as ‘as soon as’ or simply as ‘if’ or ‘when’. Other more idiosyncratic uses of (CD) will be discussed toward the end of this section.

    926

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    This conditional clause marker is not indicative, but merely marks subordinate clauses that modify main clauses, whereas the moods expressed by the main clauses count for the sentence as a whole, i.e. either indicative, imperative, exhortative, or volitional. The suffix (CD) therefore is always combined with another clause marker in the main clause, expressing a specific kind of mood. The notion expressed by (CD) here is ‘when this happens …’, or ‘if this happens …’. The following examples illustrate the use of (CD) as a conjunctional clause marker. 252

    Nang31 2SG

    a1-ye31 zyang35 NEG–go(away/down) CD

    a1-ye31. NEG–go(away/down) If you (SG) don’t go, I won’t go either. 253

    254

    ngo31 1SG

    li11 also

    He5-min31 zang11 zo11 before–evening rice/food eat Let’s (DU.IN) drink that at dinner.

    zyang35 syuq5 CD drink

    Dung31sang11 do31 doq1 (ipf) caterpillar all.fours go.up mvyet1mvyet1 ga31 [stuck.to.something] perceive(ipf) When a caterpillar walks upwards sticky.

    lo31 zyang35 come(back/up) CD r55 mai31. PE

    gvoq1. DIE

    OBV+I

    on your skin, it feels very

    255

    Dang11-gue31 gi1-nvau31 zyang35 ge11 words–all.right hear/smell–feel.like CD TOP tung55-guq1 zung31-aq1. wickerwork–(in.front.of.fireplace) sit–SIM If you want to hear profound words, go sit (SG) in front of the fireplace.

    256

    Nang31

    yvup5 zyang35 mi1-dat5 2SG sleep CD fire–electric lang31 san31-aq1. pull/yank(ipf) kill*–SIM When you (SG) go to sleep, pull the cord to turn out the light.

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    927

    257

    Ke5-mvyo55 ngi35 gvyo31 zyang35 dum11 Q–much(B) day separated.by CD again zo11 ra31? eat need+I How many days should I wait until I eat the other one?

    258

    Mau11 wo31 zyang35 ne1-lui11 sky rain CD cattle–water.buffalo 11 1 pyau dik r55. cross.grained(ipf) extreme PE When it rains, the water buffaloes get very obstinate. [water buffaloes love water]

    259

    Lai31-dun11 lo31 zyang35, wind–press.into/brace come(back/up) CD tung55-sum31 duk5duk5 ngvu31 stamper–(container.for).stamper [onom] say tung31 mving55-aq5. grind/crush(ipf) sound/name(vt)–SIM When the storm comes, you (SG) must crush your stamper, going “dukduk”.

    260

    Si31 gvat5 zyang35 a1-gyoq1 loq1. wash(ipf) put.into CD NEG–cold no.more Once you start washing it doesn’t feel cold anymore.

    Besides being used as a conjunctional clause marker, the morpheme (CD) is also used in certain fixed expressions after time nouns, thus forming adjuncts. The expression a1kui31 zyang35 (now CD) can be translated as ‘in a minute’ or ‘in a second’, literally expressing “as soon as it is now”, thus inferring that the moment ‘now’ has almost arrived. This construction has already been discussed in Section 9.40. 261

    A1kui31-zyang35 i5-zvo11 be1-ra31. now– CD go–feed P–need+I I will go and feed them right now.

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    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    The morpheme ‘time’ is normally used as a conjunction expressing ‘at the time when’. The expression a1-kun31-zyang35 (nom-time-CD) (or its allomorphic variant a1-hun31-zyang35) is a kind of formal and almost empty expression, which can be translated as ‘well then …’. 262

    A1-hun31 zyang35 ge11 byeng35 sat5 nom–time CD TOP fix/solve kill wang11 lo35 syang55 hoi11-ma11. (ipf) enter go(back/up) JUS INC–ROUS [opening a meeting:] Well then, let us (ND.IN) get into business and start to solve the matter right away.

    263

    A1-kun31 zyang35 nom–time CD sang31-pe1-nap5 ye31 gvoq1. beginning–after.tomorrow–morning go(away/down) DIE Well then, let us go the day after tomorrow.

    The conditional clause marker is often combined with the copula ‘to be’. This phrase ngvut5 zyang35 (be CD) marks other clauses already ending in clause markers. 264

    Nang31

    ka55-hu55 mi11 ra31 ngvut5 2SG Q–sort ask need+I be zyang35 ge11 mi11-aq5. CD TOP ask–SIM Whenever you (SG) may need to ask something, do so.

    265

    Wu55syuq1 r11 mvoq5 ra31 ngvut5 martial.arts also learn/teach need+I be zyang35 ge11 le1go11 si1gvun11-aq1. CD TOP well endeavour*–SIM When learning martial arts, do (SG) your very best.

    266

    Mi1-hang55 wife–marry zo11-syuq5 eat–drink

    ra54 ngvut5 zyang35 need+FCT be CD 1 11 11 le go wui tang31 ra31 (ipf) well buy behind need+I

    929

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    dut1 r55. become PE Before a wedding, one has to prepare the food and drinks very carefully. 267

    Nang31 2SG

    bum31 lo31 heap(vt/N) come(back/up) zyang35 ge11 …

    ngvut5 be CD TOP If you (SG) have to go up the hill …

    ra31 need+I

    Another use of the combination ngvut5 zyang35 (be CD) is after nominal constituents, where it expresses the notion ‘as for …’, often rather like a stopgap. 268

    Mi11wa11 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 ban31-syoq5 Chinese be CD TOP use.up–till yvang55-moq1 i5-mang11-mo35, 3PL–party serve–elder.brother–AUG 5 11 35 i -mang -mo ngvut5 lye31. serve–elder.brother–AUG be also+I As for the Chinese, they are all like our (ND) elder brothers, they are our elder brothers.

    269

    Saq1 wa11 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 (type.of.spirit) be CD TOP 5 54 5 55 i -su ngvut ra . SPEC–like+FCT be PE As for the saqwa, the story goes like this.

    270

    Yvang55-nvik5-dvang31 ge11, zi1syang31 3PL–duo–siblings TOP child ngvut5 zyang35 ge11. be CD TOP Brother and sister, as for their child

    271

    Zi1syang31 hau31 ngvut5 child the/that be As for this child, it wept a lot

    zyang35 CD

    hau31 the/that

    ngau31. weep

    930 272

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    A1-kun31 syeq1, hau31 ngvut5 zyang35, nom–time au.contraire the/that be CD yvang55-moq1 yvang31-nu11 hau31 ngvut5 zyang35… (GEN) 3PL–party 3SG –mother the/that be CD Well then, since things are as I just said, their mother then…

    The conditional clause marker is often used after the verb ‘say’ and before the general emphatic suffix used as a conjunction. This construction ngvu31 zyang35 wa35 (say CD EMP) expresses surprise at the fact that some situation took place or did not take place. 273

    Meng11mau11 lo35 syang55 ngvu31 Ruili go(back/up) JUS say zyang35 wa35, a1-lo11 gvo54 ge11. (ipf) CD EMP NEG–come(back/up) PL+FCT TOP Although we said “Let’s (ND.IN) go to Ruili”, they didn’t come.

    274

    Ngo31

    ge11

    nang31

    1SG

    TOP

    2SG

    275

    Ngo31

    ge11

    nang31

    276

    Sat5 bvyam31 kill rid.of(ipf) 35 zyang wa35.

    a1-ngi31 NEG–be.there(anim) zyang35 wa35,

    ang31 ngvu31 (ipf) ought/address say CD EMP 11 54 11 ngi dvo ge . be.there(anim)(ipf) place(vt)+FCT TOP I thought you weren’t here, but you are.

    ang31 bue31 (ipf) 1SG TOP 2SG ought/address P+I ngvu31 zyang35 wa35, a1-zo11 si1-luq1? say CD EMP NEG–eat still–Y/N I thought you (SG) had eaten already, but you haven’t, have you?

    CD

    EMP

    zo11 eat

    dvo11 place(vt)

    bue31 P+I

    ngvu31 say

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    931

    I was sure that I had thoroughly extinguished the fire. [But now it’s burning again.] The conditional clause marker can also be combined with the morpheme ‘au contraire’, expressing the notions ‘contrary to expectation, rather, however, on the other hand, au contraire’. This combination zyang35-syeq1 (CD-au.contraire) has two functions, one in which it is used in a literal sense, and one in which it is used as a kind of stopgap. When used in a strict sense and not as a stopgap, zyang35-syeq1 (CD-au.contraire) expresses the special notion of ‘only if’ or ‘only after …’. 277

    Nvye31 nvuq5 zyang35-syeq1 le1-wo35 chew(ipf) pound.fine CD–au.contraire but–have zo31 lung35 gvat5 lye31. (ipf) eat be.inside put.into also+I Only after chewing it up can you swallow it.

    278

    Zang11-sun11 zo11 zyang35-syeq1 rice/food–veg/dish eat CD–au.contraire no11 lo35 ga31 ning31. (ipf) pain/ill/disease go(back/up) perceive+I INS+I It only started hurting after eating this dish/these dishes.

    In story-telling, the form zyang35-syeq1 (CD-au.contraire), like some other expressions containing the morpheme ‘au contraire’, can be used in a loose sense, i.e. as a mere stopgap connecting different sentences of the same story. Even though this is a stopgap, it also has a function, which is to mark chronology in a story, as becomes clear from the two following sentences. 279

    Hau55-mai11 the/that–ABL ye31 go(away/down) yvum31 me55 house LOC ye31 go(away/down)

    cyang31 dvai31 (ipf) follow follow.tracks(ipf) 35 zyang -syeq1, Me1kuq1 Kun55 CD–au.contraire (name) (name) cyang31 dvai31 follow(ipf) follow.tracks(ipf) zyang35-syeq1. CD–au.contraire

    932

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    They followed the tracks, they followed the tracks right towards the house of Mekuq Kun 280

    Pang11 wang11 (ipf) dodge/flee enter(ipf) Having fled inside …

    lo35 go(back/up)

    zyang35-syeq1 … CD–au.contraire

    17.17

    THE SINGULAR IMPERATIVE CLAUSE MARKER (SIM)

    The singular imperative clause marker (SIM) expresses the notion ‘do this!’, exclusively referring to singular main actants. The allomorph of the singular imperative clause marker (SIM) is used after checked syllables and syllables in tone /31/, whereas its allomorph is used after non-checked syllables in the tones /11/, /35/ or /55/. Section 7.7 discussed these matters as well as the morpho-phonological processes which the singular imperative clause marker (SIM) causes on the preceding syllables. 5

    17.18 THE PLURAL IMPERATIVE CLAUSE MARKER (PLIM)

    The plural imperative clause marker (PLIM) expresses the notion ‘do this!’ and refers to a group of addressees consisting of two or more persons. Like the dual inclusive exhortative clause marker (DIE), the plural imperative clause marker (PLIM), according to both its shape and its function, also appears to be a kind of merger of the plural clause marker (PL) and the singular imperative clause marker (SIM). 281

    282

    Le1-yan35 ze1-gvut5 one–row only–do Stand (PL) in a queue.

    yap1 stand

    Le1-zvui55 zai35 gveq5. one–bit slow PLIM Slow down (PL) a bit.

    gveq5. PLIM

    933

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    283

    Cu31 le1-zvui55 syen31 gvat5 (ipf) oil one–bit frugal put.into Use (PL) the oil a bit more frugally.

    284

    Ngo31

    285

    Zang11 dvam31 rice/food set.table Set (PL) the table.

    gveq5. PLIM

    r55

    tye11 r55, pang31 gveq5. (ipf) 1SG OBJ be.in.the.way PE dodge/flee PLIM You are standing in my way. Make (PL) way. gveq5

    hoi11.

    PLIM

    INC

    286

    Yvang55-moq1 r55 a1-wo35 lang35, 3PL–party OBJ NEG–have wait 5 5 11 i -nvik zo lang35 gvoq1. SPEC–duo eat wait DIE We can’t wait for them, let’s (DU.IN) eat while we’re waiting.

    287

    Nung35-moq1 ngi31 lang35 gveq5. 2PL–party be.there(anim) wait PLIM Bye. / (Lit.:) You (PL) stay [and wait] here.

    17.19

    THE DUAL INCLUSIVE EXHORTATIVE CLAUSE MARKER (DIE)

    The dual inclusive exhortative clause marker (DIE) expresses the notion ‘let’s do this’ and refers to the speaker himself and a single addressee. Like the plural imperative clause marker (PLIM), the dual inclusive exhortative clause marker (DIE), according to both its shape and its function, also appears to be a kind of merger of the plural clause marker (PL) and the singular imperative clause marker (SIM). 288

    289

    Yvup5 dvo11 gvoq1 hoi11 sleep place(vt) DIE INC It’s time for us (DU) to sleep, isn’t it? Bui31 sun

    zvo25 shine+FCT

    me55 LOC

    i5-zung31 go–sit

    dvi31. CX+I

    gvoq1. DIE

    934

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    Let’s (DU.IN) go and sit in the sunshine. 290

    Nga35-nvik5 zi11 gvat5 lum31 1PO–duo love.song put.into reciprocal(ipf) 35 1 wu gvoq . look DIE Let’s (DU) try and sing [traditional] love song duets.

    291

    Dung31sang31-eq1 i5-gvyuq5 gvoq1. caterpillar#–AG/I go–scare(vt) DIE Let’s (DU.IN) scare her with a caterpillar.

    292

    Ke5-dye31 han31, yvo55-mai11 lo35 gvoq1. PHB–too quick leisurely–ABL go(back/up) DIE Don’t walk so fast, let’s (DU.IN) walk [back/up] leisurely.

    293

    Wa31-gung31 me55 i5-yong31 gvun55 gvoq1. (ipf) village–body LOC go–stroll play DIE Let’s (DU) take a little walk within the village centre.

    294

    Nga35-nvik5 le1-king11 king31 gvat5 gvoq1. 1PO–duo one–halt/rest halt/rest(ipf) put.into DIE Let’s (DU) rest for a while.

    295

    Bui31 sun me55

    296

    Ro31, nga35-nvik5 lai11gva55 (come;.start.with.it) 1PO–duo script mvoq5 gvoq1 hoi11. learn/teach DIE INC Come, let’s (DU) do some studying.

    297

    Loq1-soq5 soq5 hand/arm–connect connect Let’s (DU) go hand in hand.

    dye31 ngin35 r55, bui31-syum31 too beam.heat PE sun–shady/shade zung31 gvoq1. LOC sit DIE The sun is shining too brightly, let’s (DU.IN) sit in the shade.

    gvoq1. DIE

    935

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    298

    299

    Bvo11 lum11 lui31 so11 (ipf) embrace reciprocal in.this.way +I walk Let’s (DU) walk while embracing each other.

    gvoq1. DIE

    Tang31-pyang31 dum11 hui31 behind–DIR again make.way/meet(ipf) 11 1 lum gvoq . reciprocal DIE Farewell (DU) / Let’s meet each other again later.

    When the predicate is marked by the negative prefix (NEG), the notion ‘let’s do this’ expressed by the dual inclusive exhortative clause marker (DIE) becomes ‘let’s not do this’. Predicates marked by the dual inclusive exhortative clause marker (DIE) cannot be marked by the prohibitive prefix (PHB). 300

    A1-yvup5 gvoq1. NEG–sleep DIE Let’s (DU.IN) not sleep.

    301

    Zyau35 a1-si31, a1-king11 early nom–still+I NEG–halt/rest It’s still early, let’s (DU) not rest yet.

    302

    Mo35do35 a1-lom31 le1-gvoq1. car NEG–attend no.more–DIE Let’s (DU) not wait for the bus anymore.

    17.20

    THE EXCLUSIVE EXHORTATIVE CLAUSE MARKER (EE)

    si1-gvoq1. still–DIE

    The exclusive exhortative clause marker (EE) expresses willingness to perform certain situations, like ‘let me do V’ or ‘I’ll do V’. 303

    Ha31, ngo31 gvut5 where 1SG do I’ll do it. / Let me do it.

    be55. EE

    936

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    Section 12.16 discussed the use of the verbal morpheme ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker and compared it to the exclusive exhortative clause marker (EE). The difference between these two clause markers is that ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker refers to the willingness to do a certain favour, whereas (EE) refers to the willingness to perform certain situations in general, without implying favours. It is also possible to say that, whereas (EE) places emphasis on what the speaker does, the verb ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker places emphasis on the beneficiaries. This explains the fact that ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker can be combined with the plural clause marker (PL), whereas (EE) cannot. The reason for this is that (PL) expresses plurality of certain entities in the context, but never the group to which the speaker belongs. Sentence (304) is an example of the use of the allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL) before ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker. A similar sentence with (EE) instead of ‘come (away/down)’ was rejected by my informant. 304

    Ngo31

    waq1-zvang11 lye35 zvo11 1SG pig–fodder come(away/down) feed bi11 gve5-lye35. give PL–come(away/down) I will feed your (PL) pigs. / I will feed the pigs for you (PL).

    Also compare the following examples of ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker. 305

    Ngo31

    nang31

    r55

    1SG

    2SG

    OBJ

    lye35 ki31 come(away/down) rescue

    lye35. come(away/down) I’m coming to rescue you (SG) .

    937

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    306

    Zang11 gvat5 bi11 si1-lye35. rice/food put.into give still–come(away/down) Let me put more rice into your bowl.

    The full syllable allomorph of (EE) is only seldom used in Loilung, whereas normally its variant by the morphophonological process of vowel reduction, i.e. the full syllable allomorph , is used instead. 307

    Yang11yi35 ngo31 syap5 be55. potato 1SG peel EE I’ll peel the potatoes. / Let me peel the potatoes.

    308

    Nga35-nvik5 he55 zo11 lang35 be55. 1PO–duo before eat wait EE We (DU) will start eating first. [without you]

    309

    Ngo31

    310

    se5-poq5 ngvyun11 1SG tree–leaf steep(vt) Let me steep some tea to drink.

    syuq5 drink

    Ngo31

    ye11 lo31 1SG go(away/down)(ipf) come(back/up) I’ll go then. [since the others have no time]

    gvat5 put.into

    be55. EE

    be55. EE

    311

    Ngo31

    i31-pue11 zyau35 be55 nang31 1SG distilled–booze serve EE 2SG ge1lu11 zyau35-aq5. sweets serve–SIM I’ll serve the liquor, you (SG) serve the sweets.

    312

    Ki31-gvek5 gvek5 gvat5 be55. leg/foot–cross.legs/trip.up cross.legs/trip.up put.into EE I’ll cross my legs.

    313

    Ngo31

    du35 gvat5 be55, nang31 1SG throw put.into EE 2SG I’m throwing [the ball], you (SG) dodge.

    yven31-aq1. dodge(vt)–SIM

    938

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    314

    Guq1

    315

    Ka31, ngo31 zok1 where 1SG search.around Let me nose around.

    316

    le1-cyam11 pyoq5 unhusked.rice one–ball break.off/down(vt) wu35 be55. look EE I’ll break off one grain of rice and see.

    Ngo31 1SG

    byam11 jump(ipf) be55.

    gva31 write(ipf)

    wu35 look

    gvat5 put.into

    be55. EE

    me1zveng31 memory/memorise(ipf)

    gvat5 put.into EE I’ll make a short note of this now.

    The reduced syllable allomorph of (EE) is used when this morpheme is combined with certain attitude markers. 317

    A1kui31 ngo31 dum11 now 1SG again Now I will propose a toast.

    318

    Ngo31

    17.21

    hi31 du35 1SG this throw I’ll throw this, all right?

    dvon31 toast

    am55 PFM

    be5-hoi11. EE–INC

    be5-dvye31. EE–DOM2+I

    THE VOLITIONAL CLAUSE MARKERS 5 5 AND < laq > (VO)

    The volitional clause markers and (VO) express the notion ‘please do V for me/us’. In Loilung, the variant of the Zaiwa volitional clause markers appears to be used only seldom. 319

    Dang11 hi55-hun11 ngo31 r55 words this–sentence 1SG OBJ byan35-gvyo31 wu35 raq5. explain–let.hear(ipf) look VO

    939

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    Try to translate this sentence for me, please. 320

    Ka31, nang35 loq1-wa11 sit5 where 2SG.PO hand/arm–palm/sole show Come, show me the palm of your (SG) hand.

    321

    Ngo31

    322

    Gung31-du11 me55 i1-zvyam11 body–being LOC water–water 11 11 5 gyun bi raq . water(vt) give VO Pour water over me, please.

    323

    Ngun31-yoi11 pyoq5 bi11 raq5. silver–small.change break.off/down(vt) give VO Could you please change this bill into small denominations for me.

    324

    Ka31, ngun31 where silver Give me money.

    bi11 give

    Nang31

    ngo31

    r55

    2SG

    1SG

    OBJ

    325

    r55

    zang11 mvit5 1SG OBJ rice/food leave.over bi11 gve5-raq5. give PL–VO Save (PL) some food for me.

    gvyo11 raq5. let.hear VO Tell (SG) me a story. 326

    327

    wu35 raq5. look VO

    dvo11 place(vt)

    syoq5 pour.out

    raq5. VO

    mau31mi11 story

    kai31 narrate(ipf)

    Si1-bong35 be1-mut1 dvau55 flesh–bladder help–blow inflate/bottle Please blow up this balloon for me. Nga35-nvik5 r55 le1go11 dvon31 1PO–duo OBJ well toast Propose (DU.EX) a good toast for us.

    raq5. VO

    bi11 give

    raq5. VO

    940

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    328

    Gai31, ngo31 r55 gung31-du11 (come.on!) 1SG OBJ body–being dun11 bi11 raq5. press.into/brace give VO Come on, give me a massage please.

    329

    Pung11syui31 le1-dvu55 lang31 kyui11 (ipf) sugar.cane one–fold pull/yank bend 11 5 bi raq . give VO Break off one stretch of sugar cane for me. [a stretch is what is between two ribs]

    17.22

    THE JUSSIVE CLAUSE MARKER (JUS)

    The jussive clause marker (JUS) can express two different notions. First it can express exhortative mood or the notion ‘let us do this’, when referring to main actants numbering more than two, including the speaker and the addressee. Second, when referring to third person subjects, it can express optative mood or the notion ‘let X do this’ or ‘let V take place’. The following examples illustrate the use of the jussive clause marker (JUS) expressing exhortative mood, in reference to non-dual plural actants. 330

    331

    Zang11 zo11 syang55 rice/food eat JUS Let’s (ND.IN) have our meal.

    hoi11. INC

    Loq1-eq1 lap1 hand/arm–AG/I scoop/fish.out Let’s (ND.IN) eat with our hands.

    zo11 eat

    syang55. JUS

    332

    Lyeq1 nai35 gvun55 syang55-o31. lie.down relax play JUS–HIGH+I Let’s (ND.IN) lie down and relax.

    333

    Se5-poq5 tree–leaf

    ngvyun11 steep(vt)

    syuq5 drink

    syang55. JUS

    941

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    Let’s (ND.IN) steep and drink tea. 334

    Sa31, ye31 syang55 (Let’s.go!) go(away/down) JUS Come, let us (ND.IN) go there now.

    hoi11. INC

    335

    I31-seng11 seng11 syang55. distilled–go.with.liquor go.with.liquor JUS Let’s (ND.IN) help the liquor down with something.

    336

    Dum11 zo11 si1-syang55. again eat still–JUS Let’s eat (ND.IN) some more. / Let’s eat (ND.IN) once more.

    337

    Yuq1 kang11-mo35 me1-hon31 le1-lvum11 person each–AUG words–sing one–lump hon31 syang55. sing JUS Let’s each of us all (ND.IN) sing a song.

    338

    Me1-luq5 yvum31 me55 (female)–2nd-sister house LOC hui31 lum11 syang55. (ipf) make.way/meet reciprocal JUS Let’s (ND.IN) meet at the house of second sister.

    339

    Dum11 hui31 lum11 syang55. (ipf) again make.way/meet reciprocal JUS Farewell (ND.IN) / Let’s (ND.IN) meet again.

    When referring to third person subjects, the jussive clause marker (JUS) expresses optative mood, i.e. the notions ‘let X do this’ or ‘let V take place’. When (JUS) refers to third person subjects, the number of the group of people to which the speaker and the addressee(s) belong is irrelevant. 340

    Yvang11

    zvo11 syang55. 3SG feed JUS [pigs] Let him feed them.

    942

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    341

    Yvang11

    zyang31 zvo11 syang55. 3SG in.passing feed JUS [on feeding the pigs] Let her feed them then. [since she’s already going there]

    342

    Nang31

    343

    Yvang11

    li55

    3SG

    OBJ

    yui11 a1-gue11 byat1, nang35 (ipf) 2SG guilt2 NEG–all.right solve 2SG.PO wa11 r55 syeq1 byat1 nvang31 syang55. father OBJ au.contraire solve let.loose JUS You (SG) are not good at solving issues of guilt, let us have your father go to solve it. ye31 nvang31 go(away/down) let.loose

    syang55. JUS

    Let us send him. The clause marker (JUS) is often modified by the conceptual attitude marker (CC). The Zaiwa conceptual suffix , glossed (CC), indicates that a mere thought of the speaker is being expressed and that the situation is not specifically a real situation. The combination syang55-gaq1 (JUS-CC) expresses that some situation may, could or should occur. These situations are either actions by others, that may, could or should take place, e.g. (344) and (345), or states that may, could or should be maintained, e.g. (346) and (347). It is interesting to note that (JUS) in this combination does not express that the group of people to which the speaker belongs should do something themselves, but, instead, that they could give permission, such as in ‘let us have him do this’. 344

    Yvang11

    gvut5 nvau31 zyang35 gvut5 3SG do feel.like CD do If she wants to do it, let’s let her do it.

    345

    Yvang11

    346

    Heng31 long

    yvup5 syang55-gaq1 hoi11. 3SG sleep JUS–CC INC Let’s (ND.IN) allow her to get her sleep now. a1-ra35 NEG–level(vi)

    syang55-gaq1. JUS–CC

    syang55-gaq1. JUS–CC

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    943

    [haircut] Just let it be uneven. 347

    Zvu31 si1-syang55-gaq1. boil/rise still–JUS–CC Let us keep it boiling.

    When the predicate is marked by the negative prefix (NEG) and when reference is made to the group of people including the addressee and the speaker, the notion ‘let us do this’ normally expressed by (JUS) becomes ‘let us not do this’, e.g. (348). When the predicate is marked by the negative prefix (NEG) but when reference is made to a third person subject instead of a first or a second, the notion ‘let X do this’ or ‘let V take place’ normally expressed by (JUS) in these cases, becomes ‘let us not let X do this’ or ‘let us not let V take place’, e.g. (349). The clause marker (JUS) and the prohibitive prefix (PHB) cannot mark the same predicate. 348

    Nga35-nvung55 cyom31 1PO–1ND.IN drive.game(ipf) le1-syang55. no.more– JUS Let’s not go there.

    a1-ye31 NEG–go(away/down)

    349

    Yvang11

    17.23

    THE PLURAL CLAUSE MARKER (PL) IN VARIOUS COMBINATIONS

    a1-ze1-nvau31 zyang35 ge11 3SG NEG–eat–feel.like CD TOP 1 11 55 1 a -zo syang -gaq . NEG–eat JUS–CC If he doesn’t like to eat it, let’s not make him eat it.

    The plural clause marker (PL) explicitly refers to two or more entities, which can either be a second or a third person subject. The plural clause marker (PL) never refers to the number of the group to which the speaker specifically belongs, and therefore, besides indicating number, it can be used to specifically

    944

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    refer to persons which do not belong to the group to which the speaker belongs, e.g. (350) and (351). In these cases the subject is singular, whereas the plural clause marker (PL) specifically refers to the plurality of the addressees. 350

    Cin31 zang11-gok5 me55 zvung11 husked.rice rice/food–room LOC set(vt)(ipf) 31 1 1 31 dvo a -gvo luq ? place(vt)(ipf) nom–PL+I Y/N Did he put the uncooked rice in the kitchen? [spoken to more than one person]

    351

    Wui31-bu11 zvu31 be1-gvo31 luq1? water2–water boil/rise P–PL+I Y/N Is the water boiling already? [spoken to more than one person]

    The plural clause marker (PL) can both be used as a simple clause marker and as part of clause marking units. I shall first discuss the use of its full syllable allomorph and the combinations of this allomorph with other morphemes. In unmodified form, the allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL) is only used in negative or prohibitive clauses, either as a simple clause marker, e.g. (352) and (353), or as the last syllable of the clause marking units si1-gvo55 (still-PL), e.g. (354), and le1-gvo55 (no.more-PL), e.g. (355). 352

    Nvut5 me55 bve5-sau55 sau55 gveq5, mouth LOC plug–cork(N/V) cork(N/V) PLIM ke5-dye31 ge1ru11 gvo55. PHB–too talk(noise) PL Put (PL) the cork [i.e. rice] into your mouth, don’t (PL) talk too much.

    353

    Ke5-byoq1 lum11 gvo55. PHB–quarrel reciprocal PL Don’t (PL) quarrel with each other.

    354

    Yvang55-moq1 3PL–party

    zang11 rice/food

    a1-zo11 NEG–eat

    si1-gvo55. still–PL

    945

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    They are not eating yet. / They have not yet eaten. 355

    Nung35-nvik5 ke5-kim31 (ipf) 2PL–duo PHB–bicker Don’t (DU) quarrel anymore.

    lum11 reciprocal

    le1-gvo55. no.more– PL

    The allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL) is often marked by the indicative mood marker , as gvo31 (PL+I). The indicative mood marker of clause markers is always attached to the final part, and when the allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL) is attached to other clause markers, the indicative mood marker moves over from the former to (PL), as discussed in Section 5.2. The first column of Table 17.5 lists the clause marking units of which gvo31 (PL+I) forms the final part. The second column of the table lists the morphemes of which these clause marking units consist. The third column of the table shows the non-plural clause marking counterparts instead of which these plural clause marking units can be used, and also refers to the sections which discuss these important non-plural clause markers. The plural indicative clause marking unit a1-gvo31 (nom-PL+I) indicates that the non-first person subject specifically consists of more than one entity, and moreover this expresses indicative mood. In this form, the indicative mood marker is modified by the nominalising prefix (nom-), which, when used in clause marking units, indicates non-negative or affirmative mood. The plural indicative clause marking unit a1-gvo31 (nom-PL+I) is used instead of either the personal experience clause marker (PE) or the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I), when plurality is somehow more important. 356

    Nge1-zo11 wui31 ra54 pye31 fish–child buy need+FCT negotiate(ipf) 11 31 lum ang a1-gvo31. (ipf) reciprocal ought/address nom–PL+I They (PL) must be discussing the purchase of fish.

    357

    Ka55-hu55 Q–sort

    nat1 spirit

    zyau35 serve

    a1-gvo31? nom–PL+I

    946

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    What spirits do you (PL) serve? 358

    I1gvun11 zyaq1 ngon35 household rather pleasant They live quite happily.

    a1-gvo31. nom–PL+I

    359

    Nga35

    360

    Bui11-syum11 ka55-me55 dvo31 dvo31 (ipf) broom–sweep Q–LOC place(vt) place(vt)(ipf) 1 a -gvo31? nom–PL+I Where’s the broom? [spoken to more than one person]

    361

    Dai35wan55-eq5 Hue11lan35 gue11 zvyang31 (ipf) Taiwan– COM Holland all.right near(ipf) 31 1 1 31 lum a -gvo luq ? (ipf) reciprocal nom–PL+I Y/N Do Taiwan and Holland lie close to each other?

    362

    Hi31 ge1ro11 sam31mvi11 zyaq1 this between (common).cold rather bum11 a1-gvo31. (ipf) heap(vt/N) nom–PL+I These days there’s a lot of influenza around.

    363

    De1kya31 bang11 ge11 mue35 ding11-a1-gvo31. different PNO TOP meek extreme*–nom–PL+I The other ones [livestock] are rather meek.

    364

    Dvui11-byam31 byam11 rope(N/vt)–jump jump(ipf) They are skipping rope.

    bvong55dvin55 o55-yuq1 yu11 1PO pen who–person take(ipf) cyung11 dvo31 a1-gvo31? (ipf) (ipf) use place(vt) nom–PL+I Which of you (PL) is using my fountain pen?

    dvo31 place(vt)(ipf)

    wang11 enter(ipf)

    a1-gvo31. nom–PL+I

    Also compare the two following sentences. In sentence (365), unlike in sentence (366), the general indicative clause marking unit lye31

    947

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    (also+I) is used instead of the plural indicative clause marking unit a1-gvo31 (nom-PL+I), even though the subject is plural. The general indicative clause marking unit lye31 (also+I) here places emphasis on the truth of what is said. Note that the plurality of the subjects is already overtly expressed by both the personal pronoun and the plural nominal suffix (PLN). 365

    Yvang55-moq1 Si1dvung31-bvue55 3PL–party Jingpo(GEN)–PLN [It is true that] they (ND) are Jingpo.

    ngvut5 be

    lye31. also+I

    366

    Yvang55-moq1 Si1dvung31-bvue55 3PL–party Jingpo(GEN)–PLN They (ND) are Jingpo.

    ngvut5 be

    a1-gvo31. nom–PL+I

    • the form gvo54 (PL+FCT) The form gvo54 (PL+FCT) is the combination of the allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL) and the factitive marker . This form has the same functions as the factitive marker , expressing factuality and/or imperfective aspect and the subordination or nominalisation of the phrase. Since the form gvo54 (PL+FCT) contains the plural clause marker , it moreover expresses plurality of the entities in the context. This is illustrated by the two following nominalised phrases: the singular yvang11 syuq5-u55 (3s drink+FCT) ‘what he drinks/drank’ and the plural yvang55-moq1 syuq5 gvo54 (3PL-party drink PL+FCT) ‘what they drink/drank’. In sentence (367), the form gvo54 (PL+FCT) is also used as a nominaliser and in sentence (368) it is a subordinator. 367

    Nung35-moq1-eq1 nga35 i31-pue11 syuq5 2PL–party–AG/I 1PO distilled–booze drink 55 11 54 1 am bi gvo a -ngvut5 gve5-luq1? PFM give PL+FCT NEG–be PL–Y/N Are you (ND) the ones who have drunk my booze?

    368

    Yvang55-moq1 3PL–party ngo31 r11 1SG also

    a1-syuq5 NEG–drink a1-syuq5. NEG–drink

    gvo54 PL+FCT

    i31-pue11 distilled–booze

    948

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    I won’t drink the liquor that they (ND) don’t drink. In the following sentences, the form gvo54 (PL+FCT) is used as a clause marking unit instead of a mere nominaliser or subordinator, simultaneously expressing the plurality of entities in the context and the notions of factuality and/or imperfective aspect. 369

    A1-ngi35-nap1 byu31 le1-yuq1 r55 nom–day–morning man/woman one–person OBJ lom11 lu35 gvo54 ga31. attend(ipf) rob PL+FCT perceive+I Yesterday someone was held up and robbed. [by two or more people]

    370

    Nga35

    371

    Nung35-moq1-o55 yvum31-go11 ke5-le55 gvut5 2PL–party–FCT house–base Q–LOC do 54 11 gvo ta ? PL+FCT GI Where were the foundations of your (ND) former house?

    372

    Pyu31 gvo54 mai11-eq1 dum11 noq1 white PL+FCT ABL–AG/I again black Those that were white are now black again.

    bvong55dvin55 o55-yuq1 yu11 1PO pen who–person take(ipf) cyung31 gvo54 ta11? use PL+FCT GI Which of you has taken and used my fountain pen?

    be1-gvo31. P–PL+I

    In negative or prohibitive clauses, the form gvo54 (PL+FCT) is used in the same way. 373

    O55 r11 a1-dvu31 gvo54 ge11. who also NEG–respond/upright PL+FCT TOP And none of you gives an answer [Why do none of you give me an answer?]

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    949

    In negative clauses, the form gvo54 (PL+FCT) can also form part of clause marking units after either the short syllable allomorph of the finite clause marker (no.more), e.g. (374), or the short syllable allomorph of the continuous clause marker (still), e.g. (375). In these negative clauses, the form gvo54 (PL+FCT) thus simultaneously indicates that the non-first person subject specifically consists of more than one entity, in addition to indicating factuality and imperfective aspect, as the factitive marker normally does when used as a clause marker. 374

    Ngo31

    i5-mi31 wu35 be55, yvang55-moq1 (ipf) 1SG go–ask look EE 3PL–party ge1rum35 no35 a1-ra11 le1-gvo54 lu55? help to NEG–need no.more– PL+FCT MIR I’ll try and ask them (ND) whether they still need any help.

    375

    yvang55-moq1 a1-zo31 wu35 si1-gvo54 sun11 (ipf) 3PL–party NEG–eat look still–PL+FCT veg/dish dishes they (ND) have never eaten before

    Table 17.5

    The use of the full syllable allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL), in the form gvo31 (PL+I), in clause marking units

    plural variants

    constituent morphemes

    used instead of these non-plural forms:

    a1-gvo31 (nom-PL+I)

    • nominalising prefix (nom-), • allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL), • indicative mood marker

    • allomorph of the perfect clause marker (P),

    either the personal experience clause 55 marker (PE) (17.5) or the general indicative clause marker unit lye31 (also+I) (17.3) perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31 (P+I) (Section

    be1-gvo31 (P-PL+I)

    950

    a1-be1-gvo31 (nom-P-PL+I)

    a1-le1-gvo31 (nomno.more-PL+I)

    a1-si1-gvo31 (nom-still-PL+I)

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    • allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL), • indicative mood marker

    • nominalising prefix

    • allomorph of the perfect clause marker (P), • allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL), • indicative mood marker

    • nominalising prefix allomorph • of the finite clause marker • allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL), • indicative mood marker

    • nominalising prefix

    • allomorph of the continuous clause marker

    • allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL), • indicative mood marker

    17.9)

    determinant clause marking unit a1-bue31 (nom-P+I) (Section 17.9)

    finite indicative clause marking unit a1-lo31 (nom-no.more+I) (Section 17.7)

    continuous indicative clause marking unit a1-si31 (nom-still+I) (Section 17.8)

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    951

    • combinations with other clause markers: the full syllable allomorph

    The two allomorphs of the plural clause marker (PL) are combined in the following ways. 1. The reduced allomorph is used as either a prefix or an infix, as I shall illustrate near the end of this section. 2. The full syllable allomorph is used as either a single clause marker (in negative and prohibitive clauses) or as the last syllable of clause marking units. In the clause marking units si1-gvo55 (still-PL), e.g. (354) above, and le1-gvo55 (no.more-PL), e.g. (355), the allomorph retains its original tone, whereas in other clause marking units it is marked by the indicative mood marker in the form gvo31 (PL+I). Only the following four clause markers are used before the plural clause marker, whereas the others are always used after it. Table 17.5 contains all clause marking units containing these four morphemes in combination with the form gvo31 (PL+I), which is the combination of the allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL) and the indicative mood marker . These clause marking units have already been discussed in the appropriate sections, where examples have also been given. • the nominalising prefix (nom) • the perfect clause marker (P) • the finite clause marker (no.more) • the continuous clause marker (still) • combinations with other clause markers: the reduced allomorph

    Here I shall discuss the combinations of other clause marking morphemes with the reduced allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL). Plural clause marking units other than those in Table 17.5, i.e. that are not marked by the indicative mood marker , contain the short syllable allomorph of the plural clause marker.

    952

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    The allomorph of plural clause marker (PL) is used mostly as prefix to the following clause markers. • the conjunctional clause marking unit lui31 (in.this.way +I), e.g. (376), • the verb ‘come (away/down)’ as the benefactive exhortative clause marker (vide Section 12.16), e.g. (377), • the clause marking unit nvo31 (EXP+I), e.g. (378), • the volitional clause markers / (VO ), e.g. (379), • the jussive clause marker (JUS), e.g. (380), • the conditional clause marker (CD), e.g. (380) and (381). 376

    Nung35-moq1 i1-zvyam11 ge1-zyam11 2PL–party water–water random–fiddle gve5-lui31 mau11sau11 bvue55-ha55 PL–in.this.way+I paper/book PLN–where(B) yui35yui35 ban11 dut1 bue31. (ipf) soaking.wet use.up become P+I Because of your (PL) fiddling with water, all the paper and everything has now become soaking wet.

    377

    Ngo31

    378

    Yvang55-moq1 wo35 3PL–party have a1-dut1 gvo55. NEG–become PL They can’t drink that.

    379

    Waq1-zang11 i1-zvyam11 hi55-me55 pig–rice/food water–water this–LOC dving31 dvo11 bi11 (ipf) collect.water/flood(vt) place(vt) give You can keep the water for the pigs in here.

    waq1-zvang11 lye35 zvo11 1SG pig–fodder come(away/down) feed bi11 gve5-lye35. give PL–come(away/down) I will feed your (PL) pigs. / I will feed the pigs for you (PL). syuq5 drink

    gve5-nvo31 PL–EXP+I

    gve5-raq5. PL–VO

    953

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    380

    Yvang55-moq1 gvut5 nvau31 gve5-zyang35 3PL–party do feel.like PL–CD gvut5 gve5-syang55-gaq1. do PL–JUS– CC If they would like to do that, then let them do it.

    381

    Go35 si1-gve5-zyang35 ge11 nga35-nvung55 dance still–PL–CD TOP 1PO–1ND.IN 11 1 35 1 55 r be -go si -syang . also help–dance still–JUS If they are still dancing, let us (ND.IN) also dance along some more.

    The allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL) is also used as prefix in combination with attitude markers or as infix after other clause marking morphemes. Compare the following examples of the allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL) with: • • •





    gve5-luq1 (PL-Y/N), before the yes-or-no attitude marker (Y/N), e.g. (382), gve5-lo55 (PL-FV), before the final verification suffix , e.g. (383), le1-gve5-luq1 (no.more-PL-Y/N), between the allomorph of the finite clause marker and the yes-or-no attitude marker (Y/N ), e.g. (384), si1-gve5-luq1 (still-PL-Y/N), between the allomorph of the continuous clause marker and the yes-or-no attitude marker (Y/N ), e.g. (385), and a1-be11-gve5-kai31 (NEG-P-PL-SUG+I), between the nominalising prefix , the allomorph of the perfect clause marker (P) and the suggestive suffix kai31/hai31, e.g. (386).

    382

    Gvo11 bang11 le1-yuq1 a1-bo31 gve5-luq1? big PNO one–person NEG–contain PL–Y/N Is there an adult person amongst you (PL)?

    383

    Ki31 leg/foot

    goi35 crooked/wicked

    su31

    r55

    SNO

    OBJ

    lo35 go(back/up)

    954

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    mi31 r11-r11 nga35 mi11 a1-lai11 gve5-lo55? (ipf) ask also–also 1PO wife NEG–pass PL–FV He also asked the one with the crooked legs, saying: “Did my wife really not pass through here?” 384

    A1-wo35 le1-gve5-luq1? NEG–have no.more– PL–Y/N Are there any left? [directed towards a group of more than one person]

    385

    A1-ci31 yau35 si1-gve5-luq1? (ipf) NEG–wash finish still–PL–Y/N Have you (PL) finished washing?

    386

    Yvang55-moq1 lo35 3PL–party go(back/up) ngi11-gvun31 a1-be1-gve5-kai31. (ipf) (ipf) be.there(anim) –play nom–P–PL–SUG+I They (ND) have gone off to amuse themselves for a while, I suppose.

    The short syllable allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL) is also used as an infix in syi1-gve5-zyang35, between the continuous clause marker (no.more) and the conditional clause marker (CD). 387

    Go35 si1-gve5-zyang35 ge11 nga35-nvung55 dance still–PL–CD TOP 1PO–1ND.IN r11 be1-go35 si1-syang55. also help–dance still–JUS If they are still dancing, let us (ND.IN) also dance along some more.

    The short syllable allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL) is used as a prefix infix in all plural clause marking units containing the morpheme ‘need’. Table 15.1 in Section 15.23 lists all combinations of the allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL) with the morpheme

    955

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    ‘need’. These are: gve5-ra31 (PL-need+I), be1-gve5-ra31 (P-PL-need+I) and si1-gve5-ra31 (still-PL-need+I). 388

    Naq1-ma35 ngi31 lang35 gve5-ra31 kai31. tomorrow–LOC be.there(anim) wait PL–need +I SUG+I I guess they will be there tomorrow.

    389

    Nung35-moq1 dum11 gvut5 be1-gve5-ra31 2PL–party again do P–PL–need +I dut1 r55. become PE You (PL) will have to do it once more.

    390

    I55-ngi35 ngi31 si1-gve5-ra31 two–day be.there(anim) still–PL–need+I They will only stay two more days.

    17.24

    INDICATIVE CLAUSES WITHOUT CLAUSE MARKERS

    ga31. perceive+I

    Non-negative and non-prohibitive clauses, i.e. clauses that do not contain the negative prefix nor the prohibitive prefix , mostly contain one or more clause markers. Below is an overview of all types of non-negative and non-prohibitive clauses that lack a clause marker. The Zaiwa copula ‘to be’ and the indicative clause marking unit are often omitted. I term as nominal clauses all clauses containing one or two nominal constituents as well as an optional combination of a copula, mostly ‘to be’, and an indicative clause marking unit. This type of clause concerns the identity of certain entities. The following sentences illustrate that in nominal clauses the copula and the indicative clause marking unit are often omitted. 391

    Hau31 ge11 o54 syam31-byang31? the/that TOP who+FCT knife–scabbard Whose knife and scabbard are these?

    and the response:

    956

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    392

    A5-wa54 syam31-byang31. nom–father+FCT knife–scabbard These are Dad’s knife and scabbard.

    393

    Hi31 ge11 this TOP What’s this?

    ka55-hu55 Q–sort

    ta11? GI

    The copula ‘to be’ and the clause markers are still used when specific reference is made about whether or not the identity of the given entities is correct. 394

    No11-ke1rok1 kau11 su31 ge11 cattle–wooden.bell steal SNO TOP rvoq5 ngvut5 lye31. DEF be also+I You (SG) are the thief of the wooden bell!

    nang31 2SG

    Elliptic nominal clauses without a predicate and an indicative clause marking unit can be marked by various sentence suffixes, such as in the following sentence where the suggestive suffix kai31/xai31 (SUG+I) is used, expressing an evaluating connotation in the sense of ‘isn’t it?’ or ‘I guess that …’. 395

    Yvang11

    kai31.

    3SG

    SUG+I

    It was him, wasn’t it? The familiar suffix ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) is another attitude marking unit used after elliptic nominal clauses without a predicate and an indicative clause marking unit. The familiar suffix ge1-lo31 expresses either familiarity or the fact that something is evident, much like English ‘of course’. The following sentence containing ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) is a possible alternative to sentence (392). 396

    A5-wa54 syam31-byang31 ge1-lo31. nom–father+FCT knife–scabbard TOP–no.more+I These are Dad’s knife and scabbard [of course].

    957

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    The familiar suffix ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) can also replace clause marking units after other types of clauses including predicates. This form is listed as an attitude marking unit, but there are arguments to say that it functions as a clause marking unit, since it directly follows the predicate. 397

    I1mit1 le1go11 taq1dving11 yu25 mai11 (ipf) mind well reassure.o·s· take+FCT ABL le1go11 dum11 gvut5 ge1-lo31. well again do TOP–no.more+I After reassuring yourself, you can only do your best and start again.

    398

    Yvum31-seng31 zvyoq5-o55 zang11 house–host cook–FCT rice/food yvum31-seng31 zo11 ge1-lo31. house–host eat TOP–no.more+I Everyone cooks for himself.

    ge11 TOP

    Yet there also are other types of clauses lacking clause markers. The following clause without clause markers was uttered in a specific context, as a reply to an inquiry about what to do at the market. 399

    Ze11 lo35 wu35. only go(back/up) look We shall only go and have a look. [not buy anything]

    In complex clauses where two situations are being opposed or compared, both indicative clause marking units are often omitted. The reasons behind the omission can be twofold. First, the clause markers of the two clauses may have been identical, and their omission renders the utterance less garrulous. 400

    Gyoq1 r11 ge11 i11 toq5, cold also TOP water/urine come.out gyuq1 r11 ge11 ki11 toq5. afraid also TOP faeces come.out When you’re cold, urine comes out; when you’re scared, shit comes out.

    958 401

    402

    403

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    Nang31

    ge11

    i1-zvyam11 kam31, 2SG TOP water–water receive/fetch ge11 koq5 ci11. TOP bowl wash You (SG) fetch water, and I shall wash dishes. Le1-tang31 ge11 dviq5, le1-tang31 one–behind TOP little one–behind One end is small and the other end is big.

    ngo31 1SG

    ge11 TOP

    gvo11. big

    Le1-wam11 ge11 tu31, one–considerable.part TOP (make).thick le1-wam11 ge11 yvam55. one–considerable.part TOP thin Some of them are thick and some of them are thin.

    A second reason for omitting the clause markers is to express parallelism between clauses, the clause markers of which would have been different or when one of the two clauses is negative. In the first sentence below, the clauses dum11 a1-ngvam11 (again NEG-tasty) ‘(on one hand) not tasty’ and dum11 pik5 (again pungent) ‘(on the other hand) pungent’, are contrasted, and both clauses lack clause markers. Sentence (405) also consists of a negative clause and an affirmative clause, in reverse order, also both without clause markers. 404

    Si1-pik5 a1-gvat5 zyang35 ge11 dum11 fruit–pungent NEG–put.into CD TOP again a1-ngvam11, gvat5 zyang35 ge11 dum11 pik5. NEG–tasty put.into CD TOP again pungent If you don’t put in chillies, it isn’t tasty, but then again, if you do put them in it is too hot.

    405

    Le1-wam11 ge11 ze1-nvau31, one–considerable.part TOP eat–feel.like le1-wam11 ge11 a1-ze1-nvau31. one–considerable.part TOP NEG–eat–feel.like I like to eat some of them, some of them I don’t.

    959

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    The construction V1 r11 V1 -V2 r11 V2 contains the morpheme ‘also’ twice and can be translated as ‘both V1 and V2 are the case’. At the end of this construction, the last verb is not marked by clause markers. 406

    Pik5 r11 pik5 pungent also pungent It’s both pungent and sour.

    407

    Heng31 r11 heng31 long also long It’s both long and wide.

    zvin31 sour lam31 wide/cubit

    r11 also r11 also

    zvin31. sour lam31. wide/cubit

    Another construction containing the morpheme // ‘also’ is where one of these variants is between the same verb twice, e.g. (408), or the same combination of verbs twice, e.g. (409). This construction expresses indifference. Clause markers do not normally occur after this construction, except in the following cases. When the plurality of the actants is expressed, the plural imperative clause marker is used, as illustrated by sentence (410). The combination syang55-gaq1 (JUS-CC), consisting of the jussive clause marker and the conceptual suffix , is used in sentence (411), where the speaker specifically expresses that there is no objection to the performance of a certain action. 408

    A1-mvau55-o31, mau31-eq1 gun11 (ipf) NEG–cheat/fool–HIGH+I sky#–AG/I fling/strike/wave 11 11 1 55 r gun , a -mvau ! also fling/strike/wave(ipf) NEG–cheat/fool I’m not cheating! May lightning strike me, I’m not cheating. / (Lit.:) I’m not cheating! Even if I had to be struck by lightning [I would still say] I’m not cheating.

    409

    Dyen35 lum31 r11 dyen35 (ipf) crack/do reciprocal also crack/do If you want to fight, let’s (DU) fight then.

    410

    Ngo31

    lye55

    1SG

    OBJ

    ke5-mvyo55 Q–much(B)

    bat1 beat

    r11 also

    lum11. reciprocal bat1 beat

    960

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    gveq5,

    a1-dai11. PLIM 1SG NEG–speak No matter how much you (PL) beat me, I won’t say a word. 411

    ngo31

    Tye11 r11 tye31 be.in.the.way(ipf) also be.in.the.way I don’t mind it standing in my way.

    syang55-gaq1. JUS–CC

    The verb ‘to place’(vt) is often used as an aspectivising auxiliary verb expressing progressive aspect. Indicative clause marking units after the latter aspectiviser are often omitted, since indicative mood is already evident from the context and since doing so renders the expression more vivid, e.g. (412). In many cases, the insistive suffix ning31 is used after the progressive aspectiviser ‘to place’(vt) instead of clause markers, e.g. (413) to (415). 412

    Suet1 ga54 me55 wu35 [cut.very.lightly] perceive+FCT LOC look gvat5 zyang35 wa35 sui11 toq5 dvo11. put.into CD EMP blood come.out place(vt) I was cut without feeling anything, and when I looked I saw to my surprise - blood gushing out.

    413

    Zo31 yau35 bue31 wu35 dvo11 ning31, (ipf) eat finish P+I look place(vt) INS+I zo11 yau35 bue31 luq1 ga54 ge11. eat finish P+I Y/N perceive+FCT TOP You ask me if I have finished the meal, whilst you can see that I have finished already. / (Lit.:) You see that I have finished eating, and now you ask me whether I have finished eating!

    414

    Nang31

    rvoq5

    2SG

    DEF

    11

    ngvut5 be

    lye31, also+I

    ngo31 1SG

    31

    myang11 see(ipf)

    dvo ning . place(vt) INS+I It definitely was you (SG), I saw it with my own eyes! 415

    Ngo31 1SG

    dyen11she31 television2

    wu35 look

    nvau11 feel.like(ipf)

    CLAUSE MARKERS

    961

    dvo31 ning31! (ipf) place(vt) INS+I I want to watch television! Indicative clause marking units can be omitted in order to express that the given situation goes on incessantly, after the verb ‘to tuck away’ in its use as an aspectivising auxiliary verb exclusively marking this notion, e.g. (416). My main informant claimed that the general indicative clause marking unit lye31 in sentence (417) can also be omitted, apparently for the same reasons. 416

    Le1-gam35-eq5 Me1-gvoq5 r55 (male)–eld-brother– COM (female)–eld-sister OBJ nga35-moq1-eq1 dai31 zvum31 gvyop5. (ipf) (ipf) 1PO–party–AG/I speak make.a.pair tuck.away We are always insinuating that eldest brother and eldest sister should become a couple.

    417

    He55-pyang31 ge11 zvau11-bue31 before–DIR TOP officer–P+I meng11-byu31 wui31 r55 zek1 world–man/woman generation OBJ (op)press zo31 gvyop5 lye31. (ipf) eat tuck.away also+I In the early days, the land-owners oppressed the people endlessly.

    In the following sentence, the second clause does not contain a clause marker since it is merely an additional remark to the preceding clause or could even be inserted into that clause. 418

    I55-sum11-ngi35 bue31 ga31 a5-se55 two–three–day P+I perceive+I nom–like mu31 dut1. happen become It went on like that for a couple of days.

    The indicative clause markers may also be omitted at the end of the second clause of a complex sentence expressing indignation.

    962

    CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

    419

    Ang55dung55 ngo31 r55 bi54 zue31 Anton 1SG OBJ give+FCT truc syeq1 Mue11bung31-eq1 dum11 yu11 am55. (ipf) au.contraire (name)#–AG/I again take PFM The things Anton gave to me were taken away by Muebung.

    420

    Zai11wa31 tung31-pin11 r11 a1-sue55, Zaiwa tradition–morals also NEG–know 1 31 55 got dai mvau . scoop(vt) speak(ipf) cheat/fool He doesn’t even know the Zaiwa traditional values; he’s talking nonsense.

    421

    Nung35-moq1 i1-zvyam11 ge1-zyam11 2PL–party water–water random–fiddle 5 31 gve -lui mau11sau11 bvue55-ha55 PL–in.this.way+I paper/book PLN–where(B) yui35yui35. soaking.wet Because of your (PL) fiddling with water, all the paper and everything is soaking wet.

    In songs there appears to be greater freedom with regard to whether or not to use clause markers. The following is the final part of a children’s song. 422

    Yvup5 lvang55 a1-ngon35, Nu31 r55 sleep even NEG–pleasant Ma OBJ sing11ran35 myang31. visualisations see I wouldn’t even sleep well, and would see Mother before me.

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKER

    18.1

    INTRODUCTION

    Zaiwa has a large group of morphemes that can be used after the clause markers in utterance-final position and which, like the clause markers, express several modal categories. As single morphemes, these forms include conjunctions and attitude markers. The forms consisting of more than one morpheme, for they are marked by the indicative mood marker , are termed attitude marking units. There is also one evidential marking unit, i.e. ga31 (perceive+I), and one quotative marking unit, i.e. ngvu31 (say +I). All these forms need to be distinguished from the clause markers since they can be omitted without harming well-formedness, whereas most non-negative and non-prohibitive clauses are obligatorily marked by clause markers. This chapter discusses all conjunctions, attitude markers and attitude marking units, except those that have already been described above. Section 18.2 first discusses the conjunctions. After that, two of the most important attitude markers will be discussed first, viz. the yes-or-no suffix (Y/N) and the general interrogative suffix (GI). The remaining part of this chapter discusses the remaining attitude markers, in alphabetical order. For the sake of clarity, the conjunctions, attitude markers and attitude marking units already discussed are listed below. • • •

    The general topic marker (TOP) (vide Section 9.8) the evidential marking unit ga31 (perceive+I) (vide Sections 5.5 and 11.6) the quotative marking unit ngvu31 (say+I) (vide Sections 5.5 and 11.5) the special complex form ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) (vide Section 17.7), consisting of the allomorph of the general

    964



    • • 18.2

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    topic marker , the finite clause marker and the indicative mood marker the special complex form me1-lo31 (ROUS-no.more+I) (vide Section 17.7), consisting of the allomorph of the rousing suffix , the finite clause marker and the indicative mood marker , the comitative case suffix (vide Section 9.10) the ablative case suffix (ABL) (vide Section 9.12) VARIOUS CONJUNCTIONS, INCLUDING ‘TIME’ AND THE GENERAL EMPHATIC SUFFIX (EMP)

    Conjunctions connect two clauses. Conjunctions modify clause markers, mostly the factitive marker . There is a clear difference between conjunctions on one hand and conjunctional clause markers or conjunctional clause marking units on the other. The latter include clause markers or clause marking units that may also function as a conjunction. These are: mu31 (happen+I) (vide Section 11.7), lui31 (in.this.way+I) ‘in this way’ (vide Section 17.12), nvo31 (EXP+I) (vide Section 17.13) and zyang35 (CD) (vide Section 17.16). This section discusses all Zaiwa conjunctions apart from the latter group of conjunctional clause markers or clause marking units. • The general topic marker (TOP) functions as either an attitude marker or as a conjunction, discussed in Section 9.8. As a conjunction, the allomorph of the general topic marker indicates that the topic ending in this form functions as the topic or background for the contents of the next clause. 1

    Nang35 nge1-lang11 bu35 2SG.PO forehead–pull/yank pimple/convex dvo54 ge11, ka55-hu55 gvut5 am54 ta11? place(vt)+FCT TOP Q–sort do PFM+FCT GI You (SG) have a lump on your forehead; what have you done to yourself?

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    965

    2

    Sau55-hai11 hi55-mvyo55-mvyo55 lyeq1 shoe–shoe this–much(B)–much(B) lie.down bum25 ge11, o31-bvue55 lung35 (GEN) heap(vt/N)+FCT TOP who –PLN be.inside bum11 a1-gvo31 ta11? heap(vt/N)(ipf) nom–PL+I GI There are so many shoes lying here, who (PL) could be inside?

    3

    Nang31

    mvyang11 lye31 ge11, hu31 a1zeng35 2SG tall/high(ipf) also+I TOP above thing 1 31 be -yu bi11 raq5 ma11. help–take give VO ROUS Since you (SG) are tall, grab that thing up there for me, please.

    • ‘time’ The form ‘time’. is rather like a noun for it is normally used after clauses that are marked by the factitive marker , where it functions as a conjunction expressing ‘at the time when’, e.g. (4) and (5). 4

    Yvup5 dvo54 kun31-eq1 wo31 sleep place(vt)+FCT time–AG/I rain ang31 r55. (ipf) ought/address PE It must have rained while we where asleep / while I was asleep.

    5

    Yvang11

    zyau31 ye11 byuq1-u55 (ipf) 3SG market go(away/down) lose–FCT kun31-eq1 yvang11-gu11 lo11 r55. (ipf) time–AG/I 3SG–younger.sibling come(back/up) PE Just at the time that she had gone to the market, her younger brother/sister came.

    In at least one case, the form ‘time’ is also used after an indicative clause marking unit, viz. after the continuous indicative clause marking unit a1-si31 (nom-still+I) in: ngo31 dviq5 a1-si31 kun31 (1SG little nom-still+I time) ‘when I was small’. My impression is that the factitive marker has been omitted here because in such a

    966

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    usage, the conjunction ‘time’ renders the factitive superfluous. The agentive/instrumental suffix (AG/I) can be used after conjunctions or conjunctional clause markers, where in most cases it places emphasis on certain causes. In sentences (4) and (5) above, the agentive/instrumental suffix (AG/I) is used after the conjunction ‘time’. The form ‘time’ can also be marked by the nominalising prefix in the expression a1-kun31 (nom-time), which functions rather like a stopgap and which can be translated as ‘well then’, ‘in that case’. The latter form is mostly combined with the conditional clause marker (CD). 6

    A1-kun31 zyang35 sang31-pe1-nap5 nom–time CD beginning–after.tomorrow–morning ye31 gvoq1. go(away/down) DIE Well then, let us go the day after tomorrow.

    • a5-su54 (nom-like+FCT) Another form with a conjunction-like function a5-su54 (nom-like+FCT). contains the nominalising prefix and can be translated as ‘but nevertheless’. This form also contains the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’ and the factitive marker . 7

    Zai11wa31-ming35 ge11 ngvut5 r55, a5-su54 Zaiwa–language TOP be PE nom–like+FCT 31 1 31 11 ngo a -sue -gyo . (ipf) 1SG NEG–know –hear/smell It’s Zaiwa but nevertheless I can’t understand it.

    • The ablative case suffix can be used as a conjunction expressing ‘after that …’, after clauses which are marked by the factitive marker . The use of the ablative case suffix in nominal morphology is discussed in Section 9.12, e.g. a1-bvun31 mai11 (nom-(single).root ABL) ‘from the start, all over again’.

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    967

    8

    Le1go11 weng25 mai11 beng11-aq1. well aim+FCT ABL shoot*–SIM Aim (SG) well and then shoot.

    9

    Sun11-mo35 he5-zvyoq5-o55 mai11 sun11-zo11 veg/dish–AUG before–cook–FCT ABL veg/dish–child dum11 rvang55. again make After making the main dishes we make the side dishes.

    10

    I1-zit5 ye25 mai11 ka55-hu55 water–pee go(away/down)+FCT ABL Q–sort dum11 gvut5 ra31? again do need+I And what will you do after going for a pee?

    • a5-mai11 (nom-ABL) ‘after that’ and hau55-mai11 (the/that-ABL) ‘and after that’ The form a5-mai11 (nom-ABL) is a combination of the ablative case suffix and the nominalising prefix , and functions as a conjunction which can be translated as ‘after that’, e.g. (11). The regular complex conjunction hau55-mai11 (the/that-ABL) ‘and after that’, e.g. (12) is a variant of a5-mai11 (nom-ABL). 11

    A5-mai11 yvang11-mi11 syui31 cyong31. (ipf) nom–ABL 3SG–wife take.along lead.away And after that, he led his wife away.

    12

    Hau55-mai11 lo31 bue31 the/that–ABL come(back/up) P+I And after that she came back home.

    ga31. perceive+I

    • ‘cause’ The morpheme ‘cause’ is a noun that is always modified by the ablative case suffix as a conjunction, and which expresses ‘since’ or ‘by’. This morpheme ‘cause’ could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. the conjunction majo, in Xu et al. (1983: 462).

    968

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    13

    Hau55-me1zyoq1 mai11 se5-bvue55 nga35-nvung55 the/that–cause(N) ABL SNO–PLN 1PO–1ND.IN r55 wu35-syau31 lye31. (ipf) OBJ look–less also+I That’s the reason why others disparage us (ND.IN).

    14

    Le1-gam35-Ø me1zyoq1 mai11-eq1 ngo31 (male)–eld-brother–FCT cause(N) ABL–AG/I 1SG 31 35 31 tang gyo bue . behind go.down P+I It is because of eldest brother that I came behind the others.

    As already mentioned above, the agentive/instrumental suffix (AG/I) can be used after conjunctions or conjunctional clause markers, where it places emphasis on causes. In sentence (14) above, the agentive/instrumental suffix (AG/I) is used after the ablative case suffix . • the comitative case suffix (COM) ‘and, with’ The comitative case suffix (COM) ‘and, with’ can be used as a conjunction after a verb marked by the factitive marker , and expresses the notion ‘as soon as’. 15

    Dai31 yau35-Ø-eq5 lo35 bue31. (ipf) speak finish–FCT–COM go(back/up) P+I He left as soon as he finished speaking.

    16

    Tim31 dang31 lo25-eq5 (ipf) (ipf) pounce.upon fly come(back/up)+FCT– COM ling31-zeng11 me55 rvuet5 bue31 ga11. neck–neck LOC [grab.hold.of] P+I perceive As soon as it threw itself upon me, I grasped its throat.

    • a5-mu31 (nom-happen) ‘and after that’ The form a5-mu31 (nom-happen) is a combination of the morpheme ‘happen’ with the nominalising prefix and functions as a conjunction which can be translated as ‘and after that’, e.g. (17). The regular complex conjunction hau55-mu31 (the/that-happen) ‘and after that’, e.g. (18), is a variant of a5-mu31 (nom-happen).

    969

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    17

    A1hang31 ze11 zo11 lui31, a5-mu31 just.now only eat in.this.way +I nom–happen a1-ze1-nvau31. NEG–eat–feel.like Because I just ate, I don’t feel like eating it.

    18

    Kyo31 he5-so54, hau55-mu31 mo35do35 road before–walk+FCT the/that–happen car 54 zi . ride(vt)+FCT First I walked and then I went by bus.

    • the general emphatic suffix (EMP) The general emphatic suffix (EMP) expresses bewilderment. This form is basically a conjunction, but in some cases it can also be used as an interjection. The following sentences illustrate the use of this morpheme as a conjunction. 19

    Gau11-king55 ze1-si31 wa35, ngi11-gvun55 nine–time only–still+I EMP be.there(anim)(ipf)–play si1-syang55. still–JUS It’s only nine o’clock, let’s (ND.IN) stay a little longer.

    20

    Si31 yvam31 a1-zye35 si54 wa35 si11 die time.for NEG–arrive still+FCT EMP die(ipf) byuq1 dvo31 r55. lose place(vt)(ipf) PE He is dead, even though it wasn’t his time to die yet.

    21

    Lang31-sek5 ga54 wa35 sek5 gvat5 husband–new perceive+FCT EMP pinch2 put.into wu35 syang55. look JUS Since he is the bridegroom, let’s (ND.IN) pinch him.

    22

    A1ga31! gyoq1 (difficulty) cold

    lye31 also+I

    wa35 EMP

    dvung31 frozen(ipf)

    byuq1 lose

    970

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    ra31 se5-ga31 r55. (ipf) need+I like–perceive PE Aah, it’s so cold that it feels as if we might freeze. 23

    He55-pyang31 yvang11 zyaq1 mvyang25 wa35, before–DIR 3SG rather tall/high+FCT EMP a1kui31 ngyup1 byuq1-u55 se5-dut5 bue31. now low lose–FCT like–become P+I Before, he used to be quite tall, but now he appears to have become shorter.

    Clauses after the general emphatic morpheme are often omitted when their purport or gist is understood from the context. 24

    Nang31 2SG

    wa35

    yvup5 sleep ge11.

    EMP

    TOP

    bui31 sun

    dye31 too

    dang31 fly(ipf)

    lye31 also+I

    That’s because you (SG) always oversleep. 25

    Nang35 myoq1-dong11 ge11 dvau55-dvau55 za54 wa35. 2SG.PO eye–(have)hole TOP inflate/bottle.2x only+FCT EMP Your (SG) face is very round.

    26

    Yvang11

    27

    Sat5 bvyam31 dvo11 bue31 ngvu31 zyang35 wa35. (ipf) kill rid.of place(vt) P+I say CD EMP I was sure that I had thoroughly extinguished the fire. [But now it’s burning again.]

    rap5 yvup5 byuq1 bue31, 3SG unfortunately sleep lose P+I nang31 a1-zyau35 lye35-Ø wa35. 2SG NEG–early come(away/down)–FCT EMP Unfortunately he is asleep already, why didn’t you (SG) come a little bit sooner?

    The following sentences illustrate the use of the general emphatic suffix as an interjection.

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    971

    28

    Hau55-yuq1 wa35 i1sat1 le1-zvui55 the/that–person EMP character/disposition one–bit r11 a1-zvyoi11. also NEG–beautiful He doesn’t have a good disposition at all!

    29

    Zi1syang31 wa35 dang11 i5-mvyo55 wa35 child EMP words SPEC–much(B) EMP 1 54 11 a -gyo ge , mau35 dik1 bue31. NEG–hear/smell+FCT TOP stare/bewildered extreme P+I That a child can listen so poorly, it really amazes me!

    30

    A5-mvyo55-mvyo55 wa35 nom–much(B)–much(B) EMP Eating so very much!

    31

    Wvue55wvue55wvue55, a1hui11-yvam31 wa35 (GEN) (disapproving) now –time.for EMP 35 25 lye lo gvo54 ge11. come(away/down) come(back/up)+FCT PL+FCT TOP So, (well well well), you (PL) have come only just now.

    32

    Goi35-ei31, a5-se55 wa35 dut1-n55 alas–EXCL+I nom–like EMP become– FCT ga54 ge1-dvi31-ei31. perceive+FCT TOP–CX– EXCL+I My God, why did it have to be like this!

    zo31 si25 ge11! (ipf) eat die+FCT TOP

    The rare allomorph of this general emphatic suffix (EMP) has only been attested in the following sentence, in combination with the coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I). 33

    M1m55! i5-hue55-hue55 (wonder) SPEC–far(B)–far(B) Oh, it’s that far!

    ma54 LOC+FCT

    we1-dvi31! EMP–CX+I

    972 18.3

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    THE YES-OR-NO SUFFIX (Y/N) AND THE GENERAL INTERROGATIVE SUFFIX (GI)

    The yes-or-no suffix (Y/N) is the general question suffix for yes-or-no questions, like Mandarin 吗 ma. Zaiwa (Y/N ) expresses the notion ‘is it or isn’t it?’ and can be used after indicative clauses, i.e. clauses marked by the indicative mood marker , e.g. (34), as well as after negative clauses, e.g. (35). Sentence (36) contains an elliptic phrase, consisting of only a pronoun and (Y/N).83 34

    Yvup5 bun11 sleep awake Are you awake?

    35

    Nang31

    36

    Hi31 luq1? this Y/N This one?

    bue31

    luq1?

    P+I

    Y/N

    a1-syuq5 le1-luq1? 2SG NEG–drink no.more–Y/N Are you (SG) going to drink more?

    The attitude marker (Y/N) is only used after clauses containing interrogative pronouns when these are used in an indefinite way, such as in clauses containing the complex pronoun ka55-hu55 (Q-sort) ‘what’. 37

    Nang31 ka55-hu55 nam35 a1-wo35 gyo11 2SG Q–sort smell NEG–have hear/smell Can you (SG) smell something smelly?

    luq1? Y/N

    83 The rhetorical suffix (RHT) is related to the yes-or-no suffix (Y/N )

    and marks a yes-or-no question the answer to which has already occurred to the speaker, implying that this utterance does not strictly require an answer.

    1

    O11, hi55-dong31 lu11? (realising) this–lead/connect RHT Oh, it’s like this.

    973

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    38

    Ka55-hu55 r11 si1zvip5 Q–sort also supply Is the trousseau complete?

    yau35 finish

    be1-gvo31

    luq1?

    P–PL+I

    Y/N

    Since Zaiwa does not have a word for ‘or’, some interrogative sentences may seem to be formulated in a somewhat garrulous way with several instances of (Y/N ). 39

    Cyui31 r55 luq1, ko31 r55 luq1, wat1 sweet(ipf) PE Y/N bitter(ipf) PE Y/N tingle 55 1 11 r luq , bvan r55 luq1? PE Y/N puckery(ipf) PE Y/N What did it taste like? / Was it sweet or bitter, tingling or puckery?

    The general interrogative suffix (GI) is the general question suffix for interrogative phrases containing question words, somewhat like Mandarin 呢 ne. Zaiwa (GI) is optionally used after clauses containing interrogative pronouns, and indicates that these question words are used in an interrogative instead of an indefinite sense. 40

    Hau55-bang11 ge11 o31-bvue55 ta11? (GEN) the/that–PNO TOP who –PLN GI Who are those people?

    41

    I31-pue11 ka55-me55 distilled–booze Q–LOC Where’s the liquor?

    ta11? GI

    Apart from (GI), there are other attitude markers that can be used after interrogative phrases containing question words. These are: the reflective suffix (Section 18.6), the uncertainty suffix (Section 18.11), the final verification suffix (Section 18.12) and the mirative suffix (Section 18.13). The appropriate sections below will illustrate that the latter attitude markers have meanings that are more specific than that of (GI) and can even be used in other types of clauses than in interrogatives containing question words.

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    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    The morpheme (GI) appears to have a secondary effect of changing the topic of the conversation. Conversely, the suffix (GI) tends to be omitted when the question is a direct continuation of an earlier question. Sentence (42) illustrates this, since it expresses ‘and at what time do you leave classes?’ when already engaged in making an appointment. Sentence (43) likewise illustrates this, since it expresses ‘how many nights then?’, in a discussion about staying in someone’s house. 42

    43

    18.4

    Nang31

    zyong11 ke5-mvyo55 king55 2SG school Q–much(B) time gyo35 lye31? go.down also+I At what time is your (SG) class finished? Ke5-mvyo55 min31 yvup5 bue31 Q–much(B) evening sleep P+I How many nights have you slept?

    me55 LOC

    ta11? GI

    THE SUFFIX ‘ALMOST CERTAIN’ AND ‘MAYBE’

    The suffix ‘almost certain’84 suggests certainty where in fact there may not be that much of it, expressing that the given situation is taken for granted, leaving open the question as to whether the speaker or addressee may change their mind. The effect of using ‘almost certain’ may often be that the addressee is not given a real opportunity to express alternative views, without the speaker being high-handed. The meaning of ‘almost certain’ cannot easily be captured into one single English word, and some possible translations that only slightly approach its meaning are: ‘rather’, ‘possibly’, ‘I think so …’ and ‘I’m afraid that …’. The first of the sentences below refers to a second person subject.

    84 The initial syllable of ‘almost certain’ could etymologically represent a stressed nominalising prefix (nom-), but since the second syllable is never found in isolation this whole form is analysed as a single morpheme.

    975

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    44

    Nang31 2SG

    se5-gam31 doq1 tree–tree(B) go.up

    ra31 need+I

    dut1 become

    a5be11. almost.certain You (SG) will have to climb that tree, I’m afraid.

    lye31 also+I

    45

    Ngo31

    yvup5 be1-ra31 a5be11, 1SG sleep P–need+I almost.certain 35 1 nung -moq pye31-ngvam31 gvun55 gveq5. 2PL–party negotiate(ipf)–tasty(ipf) play PLIM I should go to sleep now, you people (PL) have a chat here.

    46

    A1-lo35 le1-ra31 a5be11-o55. NEG–go(back/up) no.more–need+I almost.certain–HIGH I think I won’t go anymore. [I have decided]

    47

    Ngo31

    48

    Mi11 hi31 bat1 sat5 fire this beat kill a5be11. almost.certain I will put out this fire.

    lo35 be1-ra31 a5be11. 1SG go(back/up) P–need+I almost.certain I should go now. / I’m about to go now. am31

    (ipf)

    PFM

    dvo11 place(vt)

    ra31 need+I

    The following sentences do not refer to the future but to situations that are in the present or past. Here, the form ‘almost certain’ expresses that the situation is taken for granted but that some doubt or some changes are still possible. 49

    Ngo31

    tat5-mi11 se1boi31 me55 dvo31 1SG electricity2–fire table LOC place(vt)(ipf) gvat5 bue31 a5be11. put.into P+I almost.certain It seems that I have left the torch on the table.

    50

    Lam35 ramble

    gvun31 play(ipf)

    lye31 also+I

    a5be11. almost.certain

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    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    She should be off rambling about somewhere. 51

    Yvang11

    zo31-mut5 lye31 3SG eat#–hungry also+I He should be pretty hungry.

    a5be11. almost.certain

    There is a subtle difference in meaning between the suffixes ‘almost certain’ and kai31/hai31 (SUG+I). The latter, called the suggestive suffix, unlike ‘almost certain’, specifically takes the viewpoint of the addressee into consideration, expressing assessments like ‘isn’t it?’ or ‘I guess that …’. The two following examples illustrate the difference between ‘almost certain’ and kai31/hai31 (SUG+I). The suffix ‘almost certain’ in sentence (52) indicates that a certain situation has been decided on or otherwise is taken for granted, simultaneously indicating that some doubt or some changes to this situation are still possible. The suggestive suffix kai31/xai31 refers to assessments, and sentence (53) thus refers to the alternative possibilities of either going or not going up the hill. 52

    Naq1-ma35 bum31 lo35 ra31 tomorrow–LOC heap(vt/N) go(back/up) need+I a5be11. almost.certain We’ll go up the hill tomorrow.

    53

    Naq1-ma35 bum31 lo35 ra31 tomorrow–LOC heap(vt/N) go(back/up) need+I We’ll go up the hill tomorrow, shan’t we.

    kai31. SUG+I

    The form ‘maybe’ expresses doubt about a statement and is only used in combination with ‘almost certain’. 54

    Hau55-dong31 ngvut5 lye31 a5be1-da11. the/that–lead/connect be also+I almost.certain–maybe It may be like that, I don’t know.

    55

    Ngvut5 be

    lye31 also+I

    a5be1-da11. almost.certain–maybe

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    977

    It should be, or perhaps it may not be. 56

    Hau31 a5be1-da11. the/that almost.certain–maybe Maybe that’s the one.

    57

    King11 be1-ra31 a5be1-da11. halt/rest P–need+I almost.certain–maybe We’re about to take a rest, aren’t we?

    58

    Yvup5 bue31 a5be1-da11, nang31 wu35 sleep P+I almost.certain–maybe 2SG look gvun55-aq5. play–SIM He is asleep, or perhaps not. Just have (SG) a look at him, will you?

    59

    Woq1 hi31 ge11 bat1 sat5 am55 ra31 chicken this TOP beat kill PFM need+I a5be1-da11. almost.certain–maybe [angry] I’ll kill this chicken, don’t you think?

    18.5

    THE CONCEPTUAL SUFFIX (CC)

    The Zaiwa conceptual suffix , which I shall gloss (CC), indicates that a thought of the speaker is being expressed and that the situation is not specifically a real situation. The Zaiwa conceptual suffix (CC) could be a loan from Jingpo, cf. Xu et al. (1983: 138) ga [kaʔ31], which is a clause-final suffix for eliciting opinions about a proposal by the first person plural main actant to perform a certain action. The latter Jingpo form appears to be the same morpheme as Jingpo ka1 in Dai & Xu (1992: 296), which forms part of function words marking proposals. The meaning of the Zaiwa conceptual suffix is evident when this form is used in the clause-final construction lu55 gaq1 ngvu31 (MIR CC say +I) ‘I was wondering whether …’, after a clause that is marked by the factitive marker . This construction

    978

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    consists of the mirative suffix (MIR), the conceptual suffix (CC) as a conjunction, and the quotative marking unit ngvu31, in turn consisting of the verb ‘say’ and the indicative mood marker . 60

    Ngo31

    ge11

    nang31

    1SG

    TOP

    2SG

    gaq1

    zang11 rice/food

    zo11 eat

    bue54

    lu55

    P+FCT

    MIR

    ngvu31. CC say+I I was wondering whether you (SG) had eaten yet. 61

    Ngo31

    ge11

    nang31

    ha31 lo35 byuq1 1SG TOP 2SG where go(back/up) lose bue54 lu55 gaq1 ngvu31. P+FCT MIR CC say+I I was wondering where you (SG) had disappeared to.

    The conceptual suffix can also modify the jussive clause marker (JUS). The combination syang55-gaq1 (JUS-CC) expresses that some situation may, could or should occur. This construction has already been discussed in Section 17.22. 62

    Yvang11

    gvut5 nvau31 zyang35 gvut5 syang55-gaq1. 3SG do feel.like CD do JUS–CC If she wants to do it, let’s let her do it.

    63

    Zvu31 si1-syang55-gaq1. boil/rise still–JUS–CC Let us keep it boiling.

    18.6

    THE REFLECTIVE SUFFIX (RFL)

    The reflective suffix (RFL) is mostly preceded by the factitive marker , and marks interrogative clauses. It expresses that one or both of the speech participants should reflect on the situation in the context, suggesting an attitude like ‘think about this’. The factitive marker expresses factuality, tantamount to ‘this is knowable’,

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    979

    and not that the situation is current. My main informant volunteered sentence (65) to exemplify the context of sentence (64). 64

    Yvang11 3SG

    54

    li11 bum31 also heap(vt/N) dvi55?

    pyang31 DIR

    lo35 go(back/up)

    lye also+FCT RFL Would he also go up the hill? 65

    Yvang11

    lo35 r11 ge11 ngo31 3SG go(back/up) also TOP 1SG a1-lo35 le1-ra31 wa35. NEG–go(back/up) no.more–need+I EMP If he will go, I won’t go anymore!

    The following sentence sounds rather a bit indulgent. 66

    Ngo31

    ka55-hu55 ze5-nvau11 lye54 dvi55? (ipf) 1SG Q–sort eat–feel.like also+FCT RFL What would I like to eat now.

    The following sentences further illustrate the use of the reflective suffix (RFL). In sentence (67), the suffix (RFL) is used in a context where the addressee is invited to think over his mistakes. 67

    Nang31

    ka55-hu55 Q–sort

    gvut5 do

    bi54 dvi55? 2SG give+FCT RFL [to a child that has been reprimanded:] What did you (SG) do?

    68

    I1sye11, ka55-hu55 ga54 bue54 dvi55? (er/what’s.his.name) Q–sort perceive+FCT P+FCT RFL Er [let me think] what was it called?

    69

    Byu31 si31-mang11 hi31 ge11 man/woman die–aged this TOP lo35 bue54 dvi55? go(back/up) P+FCT RFL Where has that bloke gone off to?

    ka31 where

    980

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    70

    Mi1-dat5 a1-lo25 ge11, ke5-se55 fire–electricity NEG–come(back/up)+FCT TOP Q–like gvut5 ra54 dvi55? do need+FCT RFL What shall we do if the electricity doesn’t come back on?

    71

    Mu35 r11 a1-zui31 ge11, hyem31 (ipf) work(N) also NEG–touch/work(V) TOP how 1 31 54 55 a -myung ra dvi ? NEG–poor need+FCT RFL If one doesn’t even work, how can one avoid becoming poor?

    72

    Mau35 bue31, mau35 bue31, stare/bewildered P+I stare/bewildered P+I ka31 lo35 bue54 dvi55? where go(back/up) P+FCT RFL How strange, where has he gone?

    73

    O35, Ang55dung35 hi31 (blaming) Anton this lo35 bue54 dvi55? go(back/up) P+FCT RFL Oh, where’s Anton gone off to?

    ge11 TOP

    ka31 where

    74

    Naq1-ma35 a1-ngi31 lang35 tomorrow–LOC NEG–be.there(anim) wait gve5-ra54 dvi55? PL–need+FCT RFL Would they be there tomorrow?

    75

    I5-se55 gvut5 am55 bue31 ga11, ke5-se55 SPEC–like do PFM P+I TOP Q–like 5 54 55 gvut ra dvi ? do need+FCT RFL Now that they have done it like this, what can we do about it?

    76

    Nang31 2SG

    bvek5 kick

    gvat5 put.into

    zyang35

    ngo31

    CD

    1SG

    ke5-se55 Q–like

    981

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    gvut5 lom11 dvye31 ra54 dvi55? (ipf) (ipf) do attend attend need+FCT RFL When you (SG) kick me [like this], how should I repel your strike? 77

    A1-su31, nang31 ka31 lo35 lye54 dvi55? nom–SNO 2SG where go(back/up) also+FCT RFL And where are YOU (SG) going? [The speaker has just told where he is going himself.]

    78

    Ka55-hu31-eq1 sut5 ra54 dvi55? Q–sort#–AG/I wipe/polish need+FCT RFL With what should I wipe/polish it?

    The reflective suffix (RFL) can also be used without the factitive marker . In the sentence below, the personal experience clause marker and the reflective suffix (RFL) specifically refer to the remembrance of the given situation as experienced by the addressee. 79

    18.7

    Yvang11

    ke5-la55 haq5 3SG Q–LOC hide Where has he hidden it? 31

    THE COAXING SUFFIX dvi

    dvo31 r55 (ipf) place(vt) PE

    dvi55? RFL

    (CX+I)

    The coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I) expresses the notions ‘isn’t it?’, ‘won’t we?’, ‘all right?’, ‘don’t you think so?’, etc., not in order to check the opinion of the addressee but to coax a consensus in keeping with one’s own views. The coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I) consists of a no longer retrievable morpheme, clearly etymologically related to the reflective suffix (RFL) and the indicative mood marker . The indicative mood marker adds the notion that the correct response to the utterance is already fixed and that the addressee is only to give a similar response. The coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I) can be used after all kinds of clauses, ranging from indicative and negative to imperative and exhortative. The following sentences illustrate the use of the coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I) after indicative clauses.

    982 80

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    Mung11zung35 mould(N) r55 dvi31? PE

    zui11 gve5lvang11 bear.fruit although

    wo35 have

    zo31 eat(ipf)

    CX+I

    So, you say one can still eat it, even though it is mildewed / mouldy? 81

    Nang35 ki31 hek1 dik1 r55 dvi31! 2SG.PO leg/foot huge extreme PE CX+I Your (SG) feet are huge, don’t you think so?

    82

    Ngvam31 mvau31 r55 dvi31? tasty(ipf) cheat/fool(ipf) PE CX+I It doesn’t taste bad at all, does it?

    83

    Gan31-zue31 bue31 late–late P+I It’s late, isn’t it?

    dvi31. CX+I

    In the following sentences, the coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I) is used after elliptic clauses where indicative clause marking units have been omitted. 84

    Lui35-lui35 ze1-dvi31. easy–easy only–CX+I It’s only very simple, isn’t it?

    85

    Sau55-hai11 sek5 bvuep5-rap5 dvi31? shoe–shoe new display–dollop CX+I You are showing your new shoes off to the world, aren’t you?

    The following sentences illustrate the use of the coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I) after negative clauses. 86

    Nang31

    a1-yvup5 dvi31? 2SG NEG–sleep CX+I You (SG) weren’t sleeping, were you?

    983

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    87

    Yin35yu31 dong31 a1-dap1 dvi31? English.language lead/connect NEG–be.attached CX+I There’s no English written on it, is there?

    The following sentences illustrate the use of the coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I) after imperative or exhortative clause markers, where it can be translated as ‘all right?’/’okay?’ 88

    89

    90

    Wui31-li11 li11 ye31 gvoq1 water–swim swim go(away/down) DIE Let’s (DU) go swim, all right? Pi11zyo31 wui31 ye31 gvoq1 beer buy go(away/down) DIE Let’s (DU.IN) go off to buy some beer, eh?

    dvi31. CX+I

    dvi31. CX+I

    Naq1-ma35 bum31 dvoq5 syang55 tomorrow–LOC heap(vt/N) get.up JUS Let’s (ND.IN) go up the hill tomorrow, okay?

    dvi31. CX+I

    The coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I) can be used in combinations with various attitude markers, where it is always used as the last in the line. In the following sentences it is used after the inciting suffix (INC) and the rousing suffix (ROUS) respectively. 91

    Yvup5 dvo11 gvoq1 hoi11 dvi31. sleep place(vt) DIE INC CX+I It’s time for us (DU) to sleep, isn’t it?

    92

    A1-su31, a5-se55 gvut5 syang55 ma11 dvi31. nom–SNO nom–like do JUS ROUS CX+I Well then, let us (ND.IN) do it in that way, all right?

    984 18.8

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN 31

    THE DOMINEERING SUFFIX dvyo (DOM+I) 31 AND ITS VARIANT dvye (DOM2 +I)

    The domineering suffix dvyo31 (DOM+I) appears to be the emphatic variant of the coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I). Whereas the coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I) is used for reaching consensus with the addressee, the domineering suffix dvyo31 (DOM+I) does not really take the attitude of the addressee into consideration, and appears to suggest that consensus has already been reached or that the situation will naturally lead to consensus. In some cases, this notion can almost be translated as ‘come on!’. The domineering suffix dvyo31 (DOM+I) contains the indicative mood marker . Therefore, the suffix dvyo31 (DOM+I) expresses a notion like ‘this is not going to be a problem, is it?’. The domineering suffix dvyo31 (DOM+I) can be used after all kinds of clauses, including indicative, negative, prohibitive, imperative, volitional and exhortative. 93

    94

    Nga35-nvik5 gvut5 ra31 1PO–duo do need+I We (DU) will do it, all right? Ngo31

    nang31

    r55

    1SG

    2SG

    OBJ

    dvyo31. DOM+I

    si5gvyam55 greetings

    gva55 write

    bi11 give

    ra31 dvyo31. need+I DOM+I I’ll surely write you (SG) a letter! / Of course I’ll write you (SG) a letter! 95

    96

    97

    Ngo31

    hi55-me55 gvat5 1SG this–LOC put.into I’ve put it in here, all right? Ge1lu11 hi31 ngo31 zo11 sweets this 1SG eat I’ll have this sweetie, all right?

    gvat5 put.into ra31 need+I

    Sin11 ke5-dvoq5 bi11-o55 dvyo31. louse PHB–get.up give–HIGH DOM+I Don’t infect me with your lice!

    bue31

    dvyo31.

    P+I

    DOM+I

    dvyo31. DOM+I

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    985

    98

    Ke5-bat1 le1-gvo55 dvyo31, ngo31 yu11 PHB–beat no.more– PL DOM+I 1SG take(ipf) lo35 a5be11. go(back/up) almost.certain Stop (PL) playing with these, all right? I’ll take them away.

    99

    Nang31

    100

    Yvo55-mai11 zo11-aq5 dvyo31. leisurely–ABL eat–SIM DOM+I Take your (SG) time eating.

    101

    Ka31, bi31 wu35 raq5 dvyo31. where give(ipf) look VO DOM+I Give here and let me have a look at it, all right?

    102

    Ngo31

    103

    tang31 gyo35-aq5 dvyo31. 2SG behind go.down–SIM DOM+I You (SG) stay in the rear, all right?

    du35 am55 1SG throw PFM I’ll throw it, all right?

    be55

    dvyo31.

    EE

    DOM+I

    Naq1-ma35 Meng11mau11 lo35 gvoq1 dvyo31. tomorrow–LOC Ruili go(back/up) DIE DOM+I Let’s (DU) go to Ruili tomorrow, all right?

    In the following example, the domineering suffix dvyo31 (DOM+I) is used in an elliptic phrase, both without a predicate and without clause markers. 104

    Zue31 nang31 dvyo31! truc 2SG DOM+I You bloody bastard!

    In the following example, the domineering suffix dvyo31 (DOM+I) is used as a kind of interjection, expressing the notion ‘here!’, in the context of an action to be taken in the direction of something.

    986 105

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    wu35-aq5 ma11! DOM+I look–SIM ROUS Here, take (SG) a look at this. Dvyo31,

    hi31 this

    The suffix dvye31 (DOM2+I) appears to be a variant of the domineering suffix dvyo31 (DOM+I) and, like the latter, suggests that consensus has already been reached or that the situation in the context will naturally lead to consensus. The suffix dvye31 (DOM2+I) is always used after the exclusive exhortative clause marker (EE). 106

    A1kui31 ge11 si11 tau31 kyo31 (ipf) now TOP fruit sew/insert let.go.down(ipf) gvat5 be5-dvye31. put.into EE–DOM2+I “And now I’ll impale the fruit [on the spear] and then hand it down to you, okay?”

    107

    Ngo31

    108

    Ngo31

    zo31 am55 be5-dvye31. (ipf) 1SG eat PFM EE–DOM2+I I’ll eat this up, do you mind? hi31 du35 am55 1SG this throw PFM I’ll throw this, all right?

    be5-dvye31. EE–DOM2+I

    The form dvye31 (DOM2+I) can also be used at the start of the utterance instead of after the exclusive exhortative clause marker (EE). 109

    110

    dyen35 DOM2+I 1SG crack/do I’ll give him a beating, okay? Dvye31,

    ngo31

    EE

    bvuq5 be55. DOM2+I 1SG explode(vt) EE I’ll let it explode, okay? Dvye31,

    ngo31

    be55.

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    111

    Dvye31,

    ngo31

    DOM2+I

    1SG

    bek1 shoot

    987

    be55. EE

    I’ll shoot, okay? 18.9

    31

    31

    THE SUGGESTIVE SUFFIX kai /hai

    (SUG+I)

    The Zaiwa suggestive suffix kai31/hai31 (SUG+I) expresses assessments, in the sense of ‘isn’t it?’ or ‘I guess that …’. This form contains the indicative mood marker . Sentence (112) is a question, whereas sentence (113) is the negative answer to that sentence. 112

    Nang35 wa11 nang31 r55 lang35 dye31 be1-kai31? 2SG.PO father 2SG OBJ wait too P–SUG+I Your father must be worried about you (SG), mustn’t he?

    and the response: 113 A1-lang35 dye31 kai31. NEG–wait too SUG+I He won’t be all that worried. Some elliptic clauses only contain a nominal constituent and the suggestive suffix kai31/hai31. 114

    Nang31

    kai31.

    2SG

    SUG+I

    [on a photograph:] That ought to be you (SG), I guess. In Zaiwa, personal experiences of a third person are almost exclusively referred to by using the suggestive suffix kai31/hai31. The following sentence would be ungrammatical when containing the yes-or-no suffix (Y/N ) instead of the suggestive suffix kai31/hai31, as well as if it were to be without any marker. 115

    Yvang11

    yang35wom11-si11 ze5-nvau11 r55 (ipf) 3SG pineapple–fruit eat–feel.like PE He feels like eating pineapple, I guess.

    kai31. SUG+I

    988

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    The suggestive suffix kai31/hai31 is very often used in the combination be1-kai31 (P-SUG+I) after the reduced allomorph of the perfect clause marker (P). The perfect clause marker (P) indicates the continuing present relevance of a situation at some other time. 116

    A5-zvi55 mang11 be1-kai31. nom–grandfather aged P–SUG+I I guess grandfather has become old, hasn’t he?

    117

    A1gaq5, dvyeq5 be1-kai31. (oops!) wet P–SUG+I Oops, now you’re wet, I guess!

    118

    Ngvut5 be1-kai31. be P–SUG+I I guess so. / Isn’t it?

    119

    Dut1 be1-kai31. become P–SUG+I This must be enough, I assume/presume.

    The combination be1-kai31 (P-SUG+I) can also be used in elliptic clauses. The following clause is usually used for asking whose turn it is, such as when playing games. 120

    Ngo31

    be1-kai31.

    1SG

    P–SUG+I

    It’s my turn, I presume. The suggestive suffix kai31/hai31 can also be combined with the rousing suffix (ROUS) in the combination kai31-ma11 / kai31-me11 / hai31-ma11 / hai31-me11. The rousing suffix expresses that the situation referred to by the clause fits a certain natural or logical course of events. 121

    Nang31

    ge11

    2SG

    TOP

    a5-se55 ga11 nom–like perceive

    dai54 speak+FCT

    ge11 TOP

    989

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    se5-bvue55 ge11 a1-gyo31 yo31 hai31-ma11. (ipf) SNO–PLN TOP NEG–hear/smell right SUG+I– ROUS If you (SG) say it like that, other people will naturally feel revulsion upon hearing it. 122

    Nang31 r55

    Mo35pi55 ga31 r55 kai31-ma11? (ipf) 2SG OBJ beggar perceive PE SUG+I–ROUS You (SG) are the one called Beggar, aren’t you?

    123

    A1-wo35 gyo11 kai31-ma11. NEG–have hear/smell SUG+I–ROUS I guess you couldn’t hear that.

    18.10

    THE INCITING SUFFIX (INC)

    The inciting suffix urges the addressee to perform a certain action, with the additional notion that the time for this action has come. 124

    Yvup5 dvo31-aq1 koi11. sleep get.up*–SIM INC Get up (SG).

    125

    Zang11 gya35 bue31, zo11 rice/food prepared P+I eat The food is ready, let’s (ND.IN) eat.

    syang55

    hoi11.

    JUS

    INC

    126

    U1-sam31 dye31 sue31 bue31, head–hair.of.the.head too overgrown P+I zuen31 am55-aq5 hoi11. cut/clip(ipf) PFM–SIM INC Your hair has grown wild, get (SG) a haircut.

    127

    A1kui31 ngo31 dum11 now 1SG again Now I will propose a toast.

    dvon31 toast

    be5-hoi11. EE–INC

    990 128

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    A1-dut1 zyang35 ge11 lo31-aq1 hoi11. NEG–become CD TOP come(back/up)–SIM INC Phone (SG) me back if there’s any problem.

    The rousing suffix (ROUS) is another attitude marker used after imperative, exhortative and volitional clauses. There is a subtle difference in meaning between the latter and the inciting suffix . The inciting suffix suggests more of an urging tone of voice, with the additional notion that the time for the given action is ripe. By contrast, the rousing suffix expresses that the situation referred to by the clause fits within a certain natural or logical course of events, often with the additional notion of informality or being non-committal in attitude. For example, the inciting suffix in the following sentence cannot be used instead of the rousing suffix . 129

    18.11

    Nang31

    hi55-me55 lye35 wu35-aq5 2SG this–LOC come(away/down) look–SIM Come (SG) and have a look here.

    ma11. ROUS

    THE UNCERTAINTY SUFFIX (UNC)

    The Zaiwa uncertainty suffix (UNC) basically indicates that the speaker is pleading ignorance and inquiring about something he is uncertain about, with the connotations of ‘it’s not for me to determine’ or ‘I don’t know, but perhaps you know’. My informant claimed that sentence (130) is not really interrogative but rather expresses that the speaker is unable to find a certain object. 130

    131

    Yvang11

    ke5-la55 haq5 dvo31 lye31 (ipf) 3SG Q–LOC hide place(vt) also+I Where could he have hidden it? Mau11 bo35 bue31 la11? sky open.itself P+I UNC Could it have become light out?

    la11? UNC

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    991

    132

    Ka31-ke5-la11? where–Q–UNC Where, where?

    133

    A1hui31 ge11 ha55-yvam31 bue31 la11? now TOP Q–time.for P+I UNC [after waking up:] What time would it be now?

    134

    Ngo31

    135

    Ke5-ngi35 ngo31 before–day 1SG sau55-hai11 ka31 shoe–shoe where Where are my shoes today gone off to?

    136

    Mau11 pong11 bue31 la11? sky clear.up P+I UNC Could the rain have stopped?

    137

    Nang35 ming31 ka55-hu55 ga31 bue31 (ipf) 2SG.PO name Q–sort perceive P+I la11, ngo31 dvo31mvi31 am55 bue31. UNC 1SG forget(ipf) PFM P+I What was your (SG) name again, I forgot. / (Lit.:) What were you (SG) called again, I forgot.

    138

    Nang31

    go31 bue31 la11? 1SG clumsy/silly P+I UNC Should I have been silly [again]?

    2SG

    r55 OBJ

    bue31

    la11?

    P+I

    UNC

    hai54 (shoes).wear/put.on+FCT lo35 bue31 la11? go(back/up) P+I UNC today? / (Lit.:) Where have my shoes

    Mo35pi55 beggar

    ga31 lye54 (ipf) perceive also+FCT

    Are you (SG) the one called Beggar? 139

    Ke5-ngi35 before–day

    ge11 TOP

    i5ban31-ngi35 ngvut5 (GEN) week(end) –day be

    992

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    be1-ra31 la11? P–need+I UNC Today must be Sunday, mustn’t it? 140

    Ke5-ngi35 ge11 ha55-hu55 before–day TOP Q–sort What would today’s date be?

    bui31-ngi31 sun–date

    la11? UNC

    In the following cases, the uncertainty suffix expresses that it may be difficult to get an answer to a question. For example, in the context of sentences (141) and (142), it may well be that the addressee does not know the exact figures, codes or numbers. In the beginning of sentence (144), any word can be filled in. 141

    Mo35do35 hi55-du11 nam35bat5 car this–being number What’s the number of this car?

    ke5-mvyo55 Q–much(B)

    142

    Byu31 hi55-yuq1 nam35bat5 ge11 man/woman this–person number TOP ke5-mvyo55 lvum11 la11? Q–much(B) lump UNC What’s the number of this person? [a prisoner in jail]

    143

    Hi55-bvue55 ge11 ngun11-eq1 rvang54 this–PLN TOP silver#–AG/I make+FCT a1-ngvut5-n55 la11? NEG–be–FCT UNC Would these be made of silver?

    144

    … ga54 ka55-hu55 le1zvyum55 perceive+FCT Q–sort meaning 31 11 31 ga lye la ? perceive(ipf) also+I UNC What would be the meaning of …?

    145

    Zai11wa31-ming35 Zaiwa–language

    dong31 ke5-se55 lead/connect Q–like

    la11? UNC

    ga31 perceive(ipf)

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    993

    lye31 la11? also+I UNC How do you say that in Zaiwa? 146

    Hi55-zyung31 i1-lang31 me55 this–kind water–river LOC myu31 lye31 la11? (ipf) float/drown(vi) also+I UNC Would this float on water?

    147

    Ke5-hue55 wue31 lye31 (ipf) Q–far(B) far also+I How far would it be then?

    wo35 have

    la11? UNC

    148

    Syo11 hi31 ge11 le1-gin35 bo11 lye31 la11? flesh this TOP one–pound contain(ipf) also+I UNC Would this meat weigh at least one pound?

    149

    I1-lang31 hi25 mun31 ge11 water–river this+FCT upper.course TOP ke5-mvyo55 heng11 lye31 la11? (ipf) Q–much(B) long also+I UNC How long would the upper course of this river be?

    150

    No11 ke5-me55 ngi11 dvo31 lye31 la11? cattle Q–LOC be.there(anim)(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I UNC Where could the cow be?

    In other cases, the uncertainty suffix is used with respect to matters probably no one knows. 151

    I1-lang31 hi31 ge11 ka55-pyang31 water–river this TOP Q–DIR lo35 lye31 la11? go(back/up) also+I UNC Where does this river flow towards?

    152

    Mau11 sky

    pan31 create

    mi31 earth

    pan31 create

    yui11 leak/stream(ipf)

    su31

    ge11

    SNO

    TOP

    994

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    o55-yuq1 la11? who–person UNC Who would be the creator of heaven and earth? 153

    Byu31 ge11 o55-yuq1 lye35 man/woman TOP who–person come(away/down) pan25 la11? create+FCT UNC Who could have [come down and] created mankind?

    154

    Mi1-dat5 ge11 o55-yuq1 fire–electricity TOP who–person toq5-o55 la11? come.out–FCT UNC Who did invent electricity?

    pan11 create(ipf)

    The uncertainty suffix also has another important function. It can be used in negotiations, expressing that the addressee might decide, as if to say ‘it’s not for me to determine’. 155

    A1-mvoq5 le1-ra31 la11? NEG–learn/teach no.more–need+I UNC Are you going to teach me some more?

    156

    Nga35-nvik5-nvum31 i55-yuq1 rvoq5 gung31-ci11 1PO–duo–couple two–person DEF body–wash i5-wo35 ci11 ra31 la11? go–have wash need+I UNC Would it be okay for the two of us, as a couple, to go and wash together?

    157

    Ke5-mvyo55 zyoq1 gvut5 ra31 la11? Q–much(B) be.there(inan) do need+I UNC How many tables should we set? (lit.: should we do)

    158

    A1-su31, nga35-nvik5 ka31 lo35 ra31 nom–SNO 1PO–duo where go(back/up) need+I Well, where shall we (DU) go then?

    la11? UNC

    995

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    159

    I5ban11 ka55-hu55 ngi11-gvun55 week(end) Q–sort be.there(anim)(ipf)–play What shall we do for fun this weekend?

    160

    Ngo31

    ge11

    nang31

    r55

    1SG

    TOP

    2SG

    OBJ

    ang11 ra31 la11? ought/address need+I UNC What should I call you (SG)?

    ra31 la11? need+I UNC

    ka55-hu55 Q–sort

    In the following sentence, the uncertainty suffix creates the effect of indignation. In this case, it is not that the speaker does not know what is happening, but rather that he does not know what the situation is good for. 161

    18.12

    Ka55-hu55 gvut5 lye31 Q–sort do also+I What are you doing there!?

    la11, UNC

    hau31 the/that

    ge11? TOP

    THE FINAL VERIFICATION SUFFIX (FV)

    The final verification suffix (FV ) expresses that the speaker is asking for the last time, offering the addressee a last chance to say something on the matter, as if to say ‘so you are sure that …?’. 162

    Ngvut5 bue31 be P+I So that’s it?

    lo55? FV

    163

    Lvuq1 bue31 lo55? enough P+I FV Are you sure it is enough?

    164

    Gue31-gue31 zo11 bue31 lo55? all.right–all.right eat P+I FV So have you really eaten already?

    996 165

    166

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    Nang31

    gue31-gue31 lo35 be1-ra31 2SG all.right–all.right go(back/up) P–need+I So are you (SG) really going?

    lo55? FV

    Dvup5 bue31 lo55 nang31! fit.exactly P+I FV 2s It’s enough now! [I don’t want to hear you (SG) arguing anymore.]

    In the following example, the final verification suffix (FV) is used in the context of the main actant asking everyone and everywhere, without much hope but just to be sure. In this case, the final verification suffix is prefixed by the allomorph of the plural clause marker (PL), indicating that the subject is asking questions to more than one person. 167

    Ki31 goi35 su31 r55 lo35 leg/foot crooked/wicked SNO OBJ go(back/up) mi31 r11-r11 nga35 mi11 a1-lai11 gve5-lo55? (ipf) ask also–also 1PO wife NEG–pass PL–FV He also asked the one with the crooked legs, saying: “Did my wife really not pass through here?”

    Judging by its meaning and its form, the final verification suffix (FV) could be a contraction of the highlighting suffix (HIGH) and either the finite clause marker ‘no.more’ or the uncertainty suffix . This question is best left undecided. The highlighting suffix (HIGH) adds strength to the words of the speaker. The initial /l/ of this suffix (FV ) suggests some etymological link to the finite clause marker ‘no.more’, since the question is asked for the last time. The uncertainty suffix , in turn, could also underlie the final verification suffix (FV), given its use in negotiations, where it expresses that the addressee may decide, as if to say ‘it’s not for me to determine’. The latter notion is illustrated by sentences (130) to (140) above.

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    18.13

    997

    THE MIRATIVE SUFFIX (MIR)

    The mirative suffix (MIR) is always preceded by the factitive marker and expresses that the speaker is wondering about something. The factitive marker focuses on certain information in the clause such as where and when or exactly to what extent the situation takes place, thus leaving the actuality of the situation without question, and therefore it is often used in clauses containing interrogative pronouns. 168

    Nga35-nvik5 gvue31 wu35 gvoq1, (ipf) 1PO–duo measure look DIE ke5-mvyo55 lai31 mvyang11 lye54 lu55? (ipf) (ipf) Q–much(B) pass tall/high also+FCT MIR Let’s (DU) compare which of the two of us is taller.

    169

    Ngo31 1SG

    tat5-mi11 ke5-me55 electricity2–fire Q–LOC bue54 lu55?

    dvo31 place(vt)(ipf)

    dvo11 place(vt) P+FCT MIR Where could I have left the electrical torch? 170

    Byo11 hi55-bang11 ka55-pyang31 bui31 wasp/bee this–PNO Q–DIR (insects).move(ipf) lo35 a1-gvo54 lu55? go(back/up) nom–PL+FCT MIR Where would these bees/wasps have moved to?

    171

    Mvo55-me55 o31-bvue55 ge1ru31 a1-gvo54 lu55? (GEN) (ipf) below–LOC who –PLN talk(noise) nom–PL+FCT MIR Who (PL) could be talking down there?

    The following clauses do not contain an interrogative pronoun. Here, the morpheme (MIR) also expresses that the speaker is wondering about something. 172

    Mo35pi31 zvyang55 (GEN) beggar near

    zo54 eat+FCT

    lu55, MIR

    yvum31 house

    998

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    me55

    zang11 a1-lo11 zo11. (ipf) LOC rice/food NEG–come(back/up) eat Would he have eaten at Beggar’s place, since he didn’t come back for the meal? 173

    Ngo31

    i5-mi31 wu35 be55, yvang55-moq1 (ipf) 1SG go–ask look EE 3PL–party ge1rum35 no35 a1-ra11 le1-gvo54 lu55? help to NEG–need no.more– PL+FCT MIR I’ll try and ask them (PL) whether they still need any help.

    174

    Mue31-bu11 me55 lap1 wu35-aq5, wrap–clothes LOC scoop/fish.out look–SIM ngun31 a1-bo25 lu55? silver NEG–contain+FCT MIR Go through your (SG) pockets to see if there is money.

    The mirative suffix (MIR) is also used in complex sentences where the situation indicated by the clause marked by (MIR) forms the topic of reflexion of the next clause. In this kind of use, the mirative suffix (MIR) is almost like a conjunction and could often be translated as ‘whether’, ‘that’, or ‘if’. 175

    Ngun31 a1-bo25 lu55, zui31 wu35-aq5. (ipf) silver NEG–contain+FCT MIR touch/work(V) look–SIM Feel in your (SG) pockets whether you have any money in them.

    176

    Nang31 Ang55dung35 r55 dvat5bung35-dyem11-zue31 2SG Anton OBJ photographs–take.picture–truc a1-wun25 lu55, lok1 wu35-aq5. NEG–carry/bring+FCT MIR ferret.out look–SIM Try (SG) to ferret out from Anton if he has brought his camera or not.

    177

    Nga35-nvik5 ka55-hu55 sun11 i5-wui31 1PO–duo Q–sort veg/dish go–buy ra54 lu55 ngvu31 meng31 gvun31 (ipf) need+FCT MIR say chat1 play(ipf)

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    999

    dvo31 lye31. (ipf) place(vt) also+I We (DU) were chatting about which vegetables to buy. 178

    Nang35 ki31 ke5-mvyo55 heng11 lye54 2SG.PO leg/foot Q–much(B) long(ipf) also+FCT 55 1 35 lu dyek wu gvoq1. MIR estimate/be.worth look DIE Let’s (DU) measure how long your (SG) legs/feet are.

    179

    Nang35 loq1-ngyui11-eq5 nga35 2SG.PO hand/arm–finger/toe– COM 1PO loq1-ngyui11, o55-yuq1 zye11 heng11 hand/arm–finger/toe who–person exceed long(ipf) lye54 lu55 wvui31 wu35 gvoq1. (ipf) also+FCT MIR compare look DIE Let’s (DU) compare whose fingers are longer. / (Lit.:) My fingers and your fingers, whose would be the longest, let’s (DU) compare.

    180

    Ngo31

    181

    Yvang11

    syut5 wrong lu55,

    lye54 lu55, nang31 syut5 1SG also+FCT MIR 2SG wrong 54 31 31 35 lye nang son wu -aq5. also+FCT MIR 2SG calculate(ipf) look–SIM Would it be my fault or would it be your (SG) fault, you (SG) think about it. a1-o31-nvau25 lu55, 3SG NEG–want/take–feel.like+FCT MIR 1 31 be -mi wu35-aq5. help–ask(ipf) look–SIM Try (SG) and ask him if he would like to have it.

    The mirative suffix (MIR) is also used when an interrogative clause is being repeated, such as when the addressee has not responded. 182

    Yvang11 3SG

    a1-o31-nvau25 NEG–want/take–feel.like+FCT

    lu55? MIR

    1000

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    I said: Does he want it? 183

    Ka31 lo35 ta11? Ka31 lo35-Ø lu55? where go(back/up) GI where go(back/up)–FCT MIR Where has she gone? [After no response, repeating:] I said: where has she gone?

    The form (MIR) is used in a similar sense in sentence (186), as part of the following dialogue. 184

    Ke5-nvam55 lo25 ta11? Q–when come(back/up)+FCT GI When did you arrive?

    and the response: 185 A1-wo35 gyo31 gvat5. (ipf) NEG–have hear/smell put.into [Sorry] I couldn’t hear you. and the response, again by the speaker of sentence (184): 186 Ke5-nvam55 lo25 lu55? Q–when come(back/up)+FCT MIR I said: When did you come? The mirative suffix (MIR) is also used in a rhetorical sense in the following sentence, where it appears to suggest that the speaker had already asked the given question beforehand. 187

    Hau55-hun31 mai11 ngo31 dai11 bue31, a1hui31 the/that–time ABL 1SG speak P+I now ka55-hu55 bin35 dvo31 lye54 lu55? Q–sort take.shape place(vt)(ipf) also+FCT MIR I’ve told you beforehand, now look what has happened.

    18.14

    THE ROUSING SUFFIX (ROUS)

    The rousing suffix expresses the notion that the situation indicated by the clause fits within a certain natural or logical

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    1001

    course of events. After imperative, exhortative or volitional clauses, the rousing suffix (ROUS) adds the notion that the situation can best take place, whereas after indicative clauses it expresses the probability of the situation. My principal informant claims that adding the rousing suffix in sentence (188) makes the utterance seem more friendly or polite. 188

    Be1-gvut5 raq5 ma11. help–do VO ROUS Help me/us, please.

    189

    Nang31

    190

    Ki31 loq1 lvoq5 mvan31 leg/foot hand/arm ACT form.habit/loosen.muscles(ipf) 55 5 11 gvun -aq ma . play–SIM ROUS Now loosen up your (SG) arms and legs.

    191

    Lvop5 gvut5 dang31 [plunge] do fly(ipf) Plunge (SG) into it.

    le1-zvui55 dum11 2SG one–bit again Eat (SG) a little bit more!

    zo11 eat

    si1-aq5 ma11. still–SIM ROUS

    wang31-aq1 enter–SIM

    me11. ROUS

    In the following sentence, the rousing suffix (ROUS) is used right after the inciting suffix (INC). The latter suggests more of an urging tone of voice, with the additional notion that the time for the given action is ripe. 192

    A1-hun31 zyang35 ge11 byeng35 sat5 wang11 nom–time CD TOP fix/solve kill enter(ipf) 35 55 11 11 lo syang hoi -ma . go(back/up) JUS INC–ROUS [opening a meeting:] Well then, let us (ND.IN) get into business and start to solve the matter right away.

    In sentences (193), (195) and (197), the rousing suffix is added to the combination be1-kai31 (P+SUG+I), thus forming

    1002

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    be1-kai31-ma11 / be1-kai31-me11 (P+SUG+I-ROUS), whereas in sentences (194), (196) and (198) the rousing suffix is being left out. The combination be1-kai31 (P+SUG+I), discussed in Section 17.9, expresses perfect aspect and notions akin to ‘isn’t it?’ or ‘I guess that …’. In sentences (193), (195) and (197), the rousing suffix adds the notion that the situation referred to by the clause fits within a certain natural or logical course of events, as will be explained for each of these examples. 1. The rousing suffix in sentence (193), as a variation on sentence (194), adds the notion ‘as you should be’, in view of the underlying view that the addressee should be angry about the situation. 193

    194

    Nang31

    don31 si31 be1-kai31 2SG burn.with.anger(ipf) die P–SUG+I You (SG) must have been burning with anger.

    ma11! ROUS

    Nang31

    don31 si31 be1-kai31. (ipf) 2SG burn.with.anger die P–SUG+I I guess you are burning with anger.

    2. The rousing suffix in sentence (195), as a variation on sentence (196), adds the notion: ‘as it should be’, in view of the underlying knowledge that: ‘because it always comes back on at this time’. 195

    Mi1-dat5 duq1 be1-kai31-ma11. fire–electricity burning P–SUG+I–ROUS The electricity should come back on by now.

    196

    Mi1-dat5 duq1 be1-kai31. fire–electricity burning P–SUG+I I assume the electricity has come back on.

    3. The rousing suffix in sentence (197), as a variation on sentence (198), adds the notion: ‘as you should be’, in view of the underlying knowledge that: ‘at this time of the day, everyone normally has eaten’.

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    197

    Nang31

    198

    Nang31

    1003

    zang11 zo11 be1-kai31-ma11. 2SG rice/food eat P–SUG+I–ROUS I assume you (SG) must have eaten already. zang11 zo11 be1-kai31. 2SG rice/food eat P–SUG+I I assume you (SG) have eaten already.

    The form kai31-me1-dvi31 (SUG+I-ROUS-CX+I) is the combination of the suggestive suffix kai31/hai31 (SUG+I) and the rousing suffix followed by the coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I). In this combination, the reduced allomorph of the rousing suffix is used. The coaxing suffix dvi31 (CX+I) aims at reaching a consensus in accordance with the speaker’s own views. 199

    Me1-luq5 zang11 syaq1 zo11 (female)–2nd-sister rice/food possibly eat be1-kai31-me1-dvi31. P–SUG+I–ROUS–CX+I Second sister must have eaten by now, isn’t it?

    200

    I5-nvung55 Zum31-go35 ban31-syoq5-bang11 SPEC–1ND.IN consort–dance use.up–till–PNO lo35 ra31 kai31-me1-dvi31. go(back/up) need+I SUG+I–ROUS–CX+I We (ND.IN) are all going to the Menau festival, aren’t we?

    The reduced allomorph of the rousing suffix also forms part of the combination me1-lo31 (ROUS-no.more+I). The last syllable of the latter form is lo31 (no.more+I), which is the finite clause marker marked by the indicative mood marker . The combination me1-lo31, already discussed in Section 17.7, expresses simplicity, when a certain state or situation is the only course of action.

    1004 18.15

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN 31

    THE SUFFIX OF THE OBVIOUS mai

    (OBV+I)

    The suffix of the obvious mai31 (OBV+I) is an attitude marking unit that stresses the truth, the urgency, or the exceptional nature of a certain situation, by stressing the fact that it is obvious in some way. The suffix of the obvious mai31 (OBV+I) is analysed as a bimorphemic entity consisting of a no longer retrievable root morpheme in combination with the indicative mood marker . The following sentences illustrate the frequent use of this form. 201

    A1tyeq5! ngye35 dik1 (very.hot) burnt/hot extreme Aah! It’s burning hot!

    r55

    mai31.

    PE

    OBV+I

    202

    Dye31 myum31 lui31 ge11 too fat in.this.way +I TOP 1 1 nut nut gvut5 ze11 so31 gvun31 [sluggish.and.clumsy] do only walk(ipf) play(ipf) 55 5 55 31 r ngvut r mai . PE be PE OBV+I He is too fat, he walks like a caterpillar, really!

    203

    Byu31 hau55-yuq1 ge11 man/woman the/that–person TOP bue31 mai31. P+I

    myum11 fat(ipf)

    dik1 extreme

    OBV+I

    He has become really fat! 204

    Le1-zvui55 r11 a1-pau11 mai31. one–bit also NEG–expensive OBV+I It’s not expensive at all!

    205

    Nang31

    206

    ge11

    dye31 syu11 r55 (ipf) 2SG TOP too fond.of.good.food PE You (SG) are just too fond of good food. Mau11 cyut5 dvu55dvu55 sky dark [pitch-dark] The sky is as black as coal!

    ga31 r55 perceive(ipf) PE

    mai31. OBV+I

    mai31! OBV+I

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    1005

    In the following examples, the suffix of the obvious mai31 (OBV+I) is used after elliptic clauses, both without predicate and clause marker. 207

    Se5boi31 me55 table LOC On the table!

    mai31! OBV+I

    208

    Waq1-si31 mai31! pig–die OBV+I A dead pig! [It’s a dead pig, don’t you see!]

    209

    Dung31sang11 mai31! caterpillar OBV+I A caterpillar! [It’s a caterpillar, don’t you see!]

    In some cases, the suffix of the obvious mai31 (OBV+I) can also be used after imperative clauses, e.g. (210), and exhortative clauses, e.g. (211), when a certain command is being repeated. In these cases, the suffix of the obvious mai31 also refers to the fact that it is obvious that the given action has to be done. 210

    Rau35 han31 i5-yu11 promptly quick go–take(ipf) Go (SG) and get it quickly.

    211

    Zang11 zo11 syang55 rice/food eat JUS But let’s (ND.IN) eat!

    lo31-aq1 mai31. come(back/up)–SIM OBV+I

    mai31. OBV+I

    The suffix of the obvious mai31 is also used in the following dialogue. 212

    Hau31 mang11-zo11 dvu31-aq1 mai31! the/that aged–child respond/upright–SIM OBV+I But give an answer to that aged person!

    and the response: 213 Ngo31 dvu11 am55 (ipf) 1SG respond/upright PFM But I answered already!

    bue31

    mai31.

    P+I

    OBV+I

    1006 18.16

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    THE SUFFIX ‘TO THE CONTRARY’

    The suffix ‘to the contrary’ emphatically expresses the notion that a certain situation is the case rather than or instead of some other situation. 214

    Yvang11

    215

    Hi55-dong31 syeq1 gva55 ra31 this–lead/connect au.contraire write need+I 5 11 mve nvung ! to.the.contrary I wouldn’t have thought that I would write it like this.

    216

    Le1-gam35 zang11 a1-zo11 siq1 mve5nvung11! (male)–eld-brother rice/food NEG–eat still to.the.contrary Eldest brother has not yet eaten! [I thought he had.]

    217

    Ngun31 hi31 ge11 pyuq5 silver this TOP make.lost 5 mve nvung11! to.the.contrary But, the money is gone!

    18.17

    lo35 byuq1 bue31 3SG go(back/up) lose P+I He has left! [I thought he hadn’t.]

    mve5nvung11! to.the.contrary

    am55

    bue31

    PFM

    P+I

    31

    THE INSISTIVE SUFFIX ning (INS+I) AS AN INTERJECTION AND AS AN ATTITUDE MARKING UNIT

    The insistive suffix ning31 (INS+I) 85 expresses a sure conviction on the part of the speaker, emphatically drawing the attention of the addressee to the given situation. The insistive suffix ning31 (INS+I) is Zaiwa also has a homophonous morpheme which is an onomatopoeic form imitating the sound of explosions.

    1

    Zya11yoq1 ning31! ga11 dynamite [sound.of.explosion] perceive The dynamite exploded with a big bang.

    buq1 bue31. explode(vi) P+I

    1007

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    analysed as a bimorphemic entity consisting of a no longer retrievable root morpheme in combination with the indicative mood marker . This form serves as an attitude marking unit, e.g. (218), or as an interjection, e.g. (219). 218

    Nang31

    rvoq5

    2SG

    DEF

    Nang31

    ning31

    ngvut5 be

    lye31, also+I

    ngo31 1SG

    myang11 see(ipf)

    dvo11 ning31. place(vt) INS+I It definitely was you (SG), I saw it with my own eyes! 219

    nga35

    nu11 2SG INS+I 1PO mother You (SG) are not our mother at all!

    a1-ngvut5. NEG–be

    The insistive suffix ning31 (INS+I) draws the attention to situations which are not necessarily evident at the present moment, but which nevertheless deserve attention. In this respect the insistive suffix ning31 differs from the suffix of the obvious mai31 (OBV+I), which stresses the truth, the urgency or the exceptional nature of situations by referring to their being obvious. For the same reason, the suffix of the obvious is often used after the personal experience clause marker (PE), e.g. (220), whereas such is impossible for ning31 (INS+I). 220

    Nang31

    dye31 zai35 2SG too slow1 You (SG) are too slow!

    r55

    mai31.

    PE

    OBV+I

    The form ngve5-ning31 (say-INS+I) is a combination of the verb ‘say’ and the insistive suffix ning31 (INS+I). This form ngve5-ning31 (say-INS+I) is used when the speaker somewhat looses his temper or when repeating an utterance. 221

    Yoq1 ngve5-ning31! (buffalo)stand.still! say–INS+I [commanding a buffalo:] Whoa! Stand still, I said!

    1008 222

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    Yvang11

    ke5-la55 haq5 dvo31 r55 lu55 (ipf) 3SG Q–LOC hide place(vt) PE MIR ngve5-ning31. say–INS+I I said - once more, how can you still not hear me clearly! where would he have hidden it?

    The following sentences further illustrate the use of ning31 (INS+I) as an attitude marking unit. 223

    Le1-gam35 tat5-mi11 se1boi31 me55 (male)–eld-brother electricity2–fire table LOC 31 11 31 31 31 dvo dvo bue ning , ngo place(vt)(ipf) place(vt) P+I INS+I 1SG lvang55 myang25. even see+FCT Eldest brother put the electrical torch on the table, I saw it with my own eyes.

    224

    Bau31woq5 byau11-byau11 ning31, ant bunch/string–bunch/string INS+I ke5-se55 gvut5 i5-pyoq5 ra31? Q–like do go–break.off/down(vt) need+I There are myriads of ants, how can I go and pick them? [i.e. the fruits/leaves]

    225

    Kui11-zo11 r55 ngo31 hak1 dik1 lye31 ning31. dog–child OBJ 1SG fond.of extreme also+I INS+I I’m really fond of little dogs.

    226

    Hi31 wu35-aq5 ma11, bvong55dvin55 this look–SIM ROUS pen Look here then, it’s just a pen!

    227

    Ngo31

    hue55 far(B)

    le1-mvau31 gvun54 ning31. (ipf) 1SG but–cheat/fool play+FCT INS+I I was only kidding!

    ning31. INS+I

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    228

    1009

    Zo31 yau35 bue31 wu35 dvo11 ning31, (ipf) eat finish P+I look place(vt) INS+I zo11 yau35 bue31 luq1 ga54 ge11. eat finish P+I Y/N perceive+FCT TOP You ask me if I have finished the meal, whilst you can see that I have finished already. / (Lit.:) You see that I have finished eating, and now you ask me whether I have finished eating!

    The following sentences illustrate the use of ning31 (INS+I) as an interjection. 229

    A5-kun11 zo31 a1-si54 zang11 ning31 (ipf) nom–(name) eat nom–still+FCT rice/food INS+I yu11 am55 bi54 ga11. (ipf) take PFM give+FCT TOP You took away the food that Akun was still eating!

    230

    Yuq1-gue31 ga54 ning31 i31-pue11 person–male perceive+FCT INS+I distilled–booze 5 1 31 31 syuq ra dut lye . drink need+I become also+I Men are supposed to drink. / Real men should drink.

    231

    Wam11-pam11-mo35 zang11 ning31, swollen/abdomen–stomach–AUG rice/food INS+I i5-mvyo55 wo35 zo54 ge11. SPEC–much(B) have eat+FCT TOP You’re such a big eater! / (Lit.:) You with your belly consisting only of a stomach, you can eat so much!

    18.18

    THE DOUBLE-CHECKING SUFFIX ngva

    31

    (DC+I)

    The double-checking suffix ngva31 (DC+I) is analysed as a bimorphemic entity consisting of a no longer retrievable root morpheme in combination with the indicative mood marker . The double-checking suffix ngva31 (DC+I) is used for double-checking situations that already are obvious, just to be sure, and is often translated like ‘I see that you …?’.

    1010

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    232

    Yvup5 be1-ra31 ngva31? sleep P–need+I DC+I So are you about to go to sleep?

    233

    Zo11 be1-ra31 ngva31? eat P–need+I DC+I So are you about to eat?

    234

    A1kui31 ze1-me55 gva31 yau35 bue31 (ipf) now only–LOC write finish P+I You finished writing this on time, didn’t you?

    235

    Nang31

    236

    Nang31

    237

    ngva31? DC+I

    a1-dong35 ngva31? 2SG NEG–agree DC+I So you (SG) disagree with this, do you? ngo31-eq5 a1-gvam31 zum31 (ipf) 2SG 1SG–COM NEG–want.to consort So you (SG) don’t want to consort with me?

    ngva31? DC+I

    Zang11 zo31 lye31 zvyat5-zvyat5 ngva31, (ipf) rice/food eat also+I all–all DC+I i31-pue11 ge11 a1-syuq5 ge5-dvi55? distilled–booze TOP NEG–drink TOP–RFL Are you only eating? Aren’t you drinking booze?!

    In situations where the actual situation is rather different from the situation that the speaker wants it to be or originally had in mind, the double-checking suffix ngva31 (DC+I) can express a further notion ‘so is this really true?’. For example, in the context of sentence (238), the speaker thought that the addressee was going to leave, whereas it just appeared that he was not leaving, since he was still remaining seated. Similarly, in the context of sentence (239), the speaker thought that the addressee would not leave since it still was too early, whereas it just appeared that he was going to leave none the less. 238

    Nang31

    a1-lo35 ngva31? 2SG NEG–go(back/up) DC+I So are you (SG) [really] not going?

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    239

    Nang31

    240

    Lo35 be1-ra31 ngva31? go(back/up) P–need+I DC+I So are you (SG) [really] about to go [back/up]?

    241

    Lon35lon35 ngva31? gratis DC+I So is it really for nothing?

    242

    Ngvut5 lye31 be also+I Is it true?

    1011

    lo35 lye31 ngva31? 2SG go(back/up) also+I DC+I So are you (SG) [really] going [back/up]?

    ngva31? DC+I

    243

    Nang31

    dvat5bung35 a1-dyem11 ngva31? 2SG photographs NEG–take.picture DC+I So are you really not making pictures?

    244

    Nang31

    245

    Hi55-mvyo55 ze11 this–much(B) only So it’s only this bit?

    a1man31 min35-gvung31-gam31 r55 2SG last.night night-time–hunch–no.gloss TS bun54 mai11 a1-dum11 yvup5 le1-ngva31. awake+FCT ABL NEG–again sleep no.more–DC+I So you (SG) really didn’t get any more sleep after waking up late during last night? ngva31? DC+I

    The notion ‘really’ is normally expressed by the adverb gue31-gue31 (all.right-all.right) consisting of the reduplicated verb ‘all right’. Sentence (246) furthermore contains the double-checking suffix ngva31 (DC+I) whereas sentence (247) ends in the yes-or-no suffix (Y/N) which is neutral in this respect. 246

    Gue31-gue31 ngvut5 all.right–all.right be

    lye31 also+I

    ngva31? DC+I

    1012

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    So is it really like that? 247

    18.19

    Gue31-gue31 dvyeng31 lye31 all.right–all.right true(ipf) also+I Is it really true?

    luq1? Y/N

    THE REFERENCE SUFFIX (REF)

    The reference suffix refers back to utterances of people other than the speaker, not as a quotative but for asking the addressee to repeat his words, for insinuating incomprehension or uncertainty or for checking about what yet other people have said. The reference suffix is especially often used for asking the addressee to repeat his words. In the last sentence of the following dialogue, the speaker asks the addressee to repeat his words because these had not been heard clearly. 248

    Ke5-nvam55 lo25 ta11? Q–when come(back/up)+FCT GI When did you arrive?

    and the response: 249 A1-ngi35-nap1 lo25. nom–day–morning come(back/up)+FCT I came yesterday. followed by a reiteration of sentence (248), this time using (REF): 250 Ke5-nvam55 lo25 o11? Q–when come(back/up)+FCT REF When did you say you came? [I didn’t hear you clearly.] The following examples further illustrate the use of the reference suffix . The reference suffix could theoretically refer to previous utterances by anyone other than the speaker, and depending on the context different translations are possible. I attested the first sentence several times, referring to previous utterances of

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    1013

    different people: addressees and other people, masculine and feminine, singular and plural. 251

    Ka55-hu55 o11? Q–sort REF What? / What did you/she/he/they say?

    252

    Ke5-me55 o11? Q–LOC REF Where did you say it was? [I didn’t hear you clearly.]

    253

    Duq1 r55 o11? burning PE REF Did you say the light was on? [I didn’t hear you clearly.]

    In the following sentence, the reference suffix apparently is not used to inquire after the addressee’s words but after his thoughts. 254

    Nang31

    a1num11 mau35-Ø ge11, 2SG constantly stare/bewildered–FCT TOP ka55-hu55 dye31 son31 gvun31 lye31 ta11? (ipf) (ipf) Q–sort too calculate play also+I GI You (SG) are staring into the distance all the time, what are you thinking about?

    The reference suffix is often used in combination with the evidential marking unit ga31. The latter form consists of the verb ‘perceive’ and the indicative mood marker . The evidential marking unit ga31 (perceive+I) indicates that the speaker knows about the situation from others, simultaneously expressing ‘this is true’ and ‘I know this from someone else’. The combination ga31 o11 (perceive+I REF) can refer to the words of a third person, e.g. (255) and (256), or to the words of the addressee, e.g. (257) to (260). Sentence (255) illustrates that the combination ga31 o11 (perceive+I REF) can also be used ironically, expressing disbelief in some previous statement. 255

    Nang31 2SG

    zuen35 dik1 intelligent extreme

    lye31 also+I

    ga31 o11. perceive+I REF

    1014

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    People say that you (SG) are very intelligent. [But I don’t believe it.] 256

    Nang31

    ning31

    nga35

    2SG

    INS+I

    1PO

    nu11 mother

    a1-ngvut5, NEG–be

    ngvu31 ga31 o11. say perceive+I REF “You (SG) are not our mother at all!” they said. 257

    Ke5-mvyo55 gya35 wo35 zo31 lye31 (ipf) Q–much(B) prepared have eat also+I 11 31 ga o ? perceive+I REF How much exactly did you say you can eat?

    258

    Ka55-hu55 ga31-o11, lvang31-mui31 ga31 Q–sort perceive+I–REF snake–snake perceive+I o11, lo11 lo35 tung31 hui11 (ipf) REF tiger/bull go(back/up) crush make.way/meet gvo54 ga31 o11? PL+FCT perceive+I REF What did you say? Was it snakes or was it tigers that you ran into?

    259

    Ka55-hu55 lo35 tung31 hui11 (ipf) Q–sort go(back/up) crush make.way/meet gvo54 ga31 o11? PL+FCT perceive+I REF What did you say you ran into? [I didn’t hear you clearly.]

    260

    Lo35 be1-ra31 ga31-o11? ke5-lo35 go(back/up) P–need+I perceive+I–REF PHB–go(back/up) si1-gvo55. still–PL Are you saying that you are leaving? Don’t (PL) go yet.

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    18.20

    1015

    THE HIGHLIGHTING SUFFIX AND 31. THE NEGATIVE INDICATIVE SUFFIX ( N)o

    The highlighting suffix adds strength to the words of the speaker. 261

    Du35 lvut5 lye31-o55. throw move.to.opp.side also+I–HIGH I’m now throwing it to your side!

    262

    Sa31-o55, sa31-o55! (Let’s.go!)–HIGH (Let’s.go!)–HIGH Let’s go, let’s go!

    263

    Ang55dung11, mi1-wue11 lye35 Anton! wife–female come(away/down) 31 lo bue31-o55! come(back/up) P+I–HIGH Anton, there are women coming! [spoken whilst bathing]

    264

    Ngvut5 lye31-o55, ngo31 nung35-moq1 be also+I–HIGH 1SG 2PL–party yvang31-nu11 ngvut5 lye31-o55 ngvu31. (GEN) 3SG –mother be also+I–HIGH say+I “But I am! I am you mother!” she said.

    265

    Nga35

    266

    U1-lvum11 tung31 bvu55 ra31-o55. (ipf) head–lump crush cause.a.bump need+I–HIGH Mind you, you will bump your head and get a lump!

    syu11 Roi35-toi11 zye11 1PO grandchild 3rd-sister–(in.names) exceed ngon35 le1-lvum11 dum11 hon31 be1-ra31 pleasant one–lump again sing P–need+I 5 31 55 ngvut lye -o . be also+I–HIGH My grandchild Roitoi will now sing another, most beautiful song.

    1016

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    267

    Pik5 ra31-o55! pungent need+I–HIGH It will be pungent, I tell you!

    268

    Pik5 dik1 lye31-o55! pungent extreme also+I–HIGH It’s pungent, I tell you!

    269

    Yvum31 lyeng31 lo35 a1-gvo31-o55. (ipf) house fall(vi) go(back/up) nom–PL+I–HIGH The house is starting to fall over!

    • The negative indicative suffix (N)o31 (HIGH+I) : The negative indicative suffix (N)o31 (HIGH+I) is the combination of the highlighting suffix and the indicative mood marker . The negative indicative suffix (N)o31 is normally combined with the negative prefix (NEG) or the prohibitive prefix (PHB) and insists on a current situation, as if saying ‘not at all!’, in the affirmative, or ‘don’t do that!’, in the prohibitive. 270

    A1-no11 si1-gvoq1-o31. NEG–catch.one’s.breath still–DIE–HIGH+I Let’s (DU) not stop to catch our breath yet.

    271

    A1-wut1-no31. NEG–drunk–HIGH+I I’m not drunk!

    272

    A1-dvyeng11-o31. NEG–true–HIGH+I It’s not true.

    273

    Ke5-dye31 myap1 PHB–too trot Don’t trot like that.

    274

    Mo35pi55 ke5-dye31 lye35 pi55-o31. beggar PHB–too come(away/down) beg–HIGH+I Don’t come here begging like a beggar.

    so11-o31. walk–HIGH+I

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    275

    Ke5-sek5-ngo31. PHB–pinch2–HIGH+I Don’t pinch.

    276

    A1-syai31-o31. NEG–loud-mouthed–HIGH+I I’m not naughty!

    277

    No11 ki31-ko31 a1-myang11 cattle leg/foot–track NEG–see(ipf) I can’t see the tracks of the cattle.

    278

    A1-yang11 ngun31 ke5-dye31 dung11-o31. nom–stalk silver PHB–too demand–HIGH+I Don’t always ask for [loads of] money.

    279

    A1-wue11-o31, zvyang55-zvyang55 NEG–far–HIGH+I near–near It’s not far at all, it’s very near by.

    280

    Ke5-bek1-ngo31. PHB–shoot–HIGH+I Don’t shoot.

    281

    A1-syui11 gvoq1-o31. NEG–take.along DIE–HIGH+I Let’s (DU) not take him along.

    1017

    dvai55-o31. follow.tracks–HIGH+I

    ze11 ngvut5 lye31. only be also+I

    Given its meaning and form, the negative indicative suffix (N)o31 (HIGH+I) clearly incorporates indicative mood, in contrast to the highlighting suffix , which does not contain the indicative mood marker . The highlighting suffix adds strength to the words of the speaker, without suggesting that the situation is current, and sometimes even excluding the latter notion. By contrast, the negative indicative suffix (N)o31 insists on a situation that is current. The opposition between the two suffixes is illustrated by the three minimal pairs below, consisting of negative or prohibitive clauses. In all of these cases, the clause containing the negative indicative suffix (N)o31 refers to a current situation, whereas the

    1018

    CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

    clause containing the highlighting suffix has a pre-emptive connotation. 282

    Ke5-gvut5-no31. PHB–do–HIGH+I What are you doing!? / But you can’t do that!? [spoken whilst actually doing it]

    283

    Ke5-gvut5-no55. PHB–do–HIGH Don’t do that. [spoken before actually doing it]

    284

    Go11-bvyaq5 ke5-bvyaq5-o31. (ipf) clumsy/silly –perform PHB–perform–HIGH+I Don’t perform such silly dances. [spoken while the addressee is doing so]

    285

    Go11-bvyaq5 ke5-bvyaq5-o55. (ipf) clumsy/silly –perform PHB–perform–HIGH Don’t perform such silly dances. [spoken before the addressee is going there]

    286

    A1-gue11 dvo31mvi55-o55. (ipf) NEG–all.right forget–HIGH It’s no good if you forget it!

    and the response: 287 A1-gue11 dvo31mvi55-o31. (ipf) NEG–all.right forget–HIGH+I No, I shall never forget it! Given below are all attested cases where the negative indicative suffix (N)o31 (HIGH+I) is used in clauses which are not negative or prohibitive. In all these cases, special adverbs are used instead of the negative prefix (NEG) or the prohibitive prefix (PHB). In the following sentences, the negative indicative suffix (N)o31 is combined with the indifferent adverb ‘never mind’.

    CONJUNCTIONS AND ATTITUDE MARKERS

    288

    Syaq1 yvup5 be1-kai31-o31. possibly sleep P–SUG+I–HIGH+I He might be sleeping. [Never mind, let him sleep!]

    289

    Syaq1 duq1 be1-kai31-o31. possibly burning P–SUG+I–HIGH+I I bet the electricity has come back on.

    1019

    In the following sentences, the negative indicative suffix (N)o31 is combined with the attitudinal morpheme (ATT), which here expresses acceptance, as if to say ‘never mind’. 290

    Sye31, yau11 pity let.pass Oh, never mind.

    291

    Sye31, zyang31 syut5 syang55-gaq1-o31. pity in.passing wrong JUS–CC–HIGH+I Never mind, let it remain incorrect.

    bue31-o31. P+I–HIGH+I

    In the following sentence, the negative indicative suffix (N)o31 is combined with the contrastive adverb ‘but’. 292

    Le5-zo11 gvoq1-o31, min35 r55 mut1 ra31. but–eat DIE–HIGH+I night-time TS hungry need+I But let us (DU.IN) eat something, in the evening we will get hungry.

    CHAPTER NINETEEN

    THE IMPRESSIONISTIC MORPHEME

    19.1

    INTRODUCTION AND ALLOMORPHS

    The impressionistic morpheme ‘like’ is a bound morpheme referring to all kinds of impressions and plays an important role in different parts of Zaiwa grammar. The morpheme ‘like’ obviously shares the same etymon with the singular nominaliser (SNO ) discussed in Section 9.32.2.86 The impressionistic morpheme ‘like’ has three allomorphs. The vowel /e/ of the allomorph of ‘like’ is the result of the morpho-phonological process of vowel reduction and is used after formative or pronominal prefixes, as discussed in the Sections 19.4 to 19.8. The allomorph of ‘like’ is only used in combination with the factitive marker , as su54 (like+FCT). Section 19.3 discusses the use of latter form in detail. Whenever the reduced allomorph ‘like’ is used, the comparison is referred with by the preceding nominal constituent, ideophone or complete clause, which ‘like’ embeds into a larger frame. In sentence (1), the construction waq1-syo11 se5-ga11 (pig-flesh like-perceive) expresses ‘like pork’. I shall discuss constructions like this in detail in this chapter. When the full syllable allomorphs and of the impressionistic morpheme are used, the comparison is specifically referred with the referent denoted by the other elements in the complex form of which these allomorphs form part, e.g. a5-se55 (nom-like) ‘like this/that’, ke5-se55/he5-se55 (Q-like) ‘how’ and ke5-su54/he5-su54 (Q-like+FCT) ‘what kind of’.

    86 The reduced allomorph of the singular nominaliser (SNO ) in the fixed combination se5-bvue55 (SNO-PLN) ‘others’ (vide Section 9.32.2) is homophonous with the reduced allomorph of the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’.

    1022 1

    CHAPTER NINETEEN

    Waq1-syo11 se5-ga11 nam11 lye31. (ipf) pig–flesh like–perceive smelly also+I This thing smells like pork.

    Except when nominalised by the factitive marker as su54 (like+FCT), the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’ always precedes one of the following verbs: ‘perceive’, ‘do’, ‘happen’, ‘seem’, ‘say’, or ‘become’. Less often it precedes ‘to be’. 2

    A5-se55 ngvut5 lye31, nom–like be also+I That’s how it is, the saqwa.

    saq1wa11. spirit.type

    The following sections discuss different uses of the impressionistic morpheme. 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 19.2

    Combinations with the full syllable allomorph of the impressionistic morpheme The form su54 (like+FCT) The allomorph of ‘like’ as the impressionistic prefix The impressionistic prefix before the inchoative copula ‘become’ The impressionistic prefix before the verb ‘perceive’ The impressionistic prefix before the verb ‘seem’ The impressionistic prefix before the verb ‘happen’ COMBINATIONS WITH THE FULL SYLLABLE ALLOMORPH OF THE IMPRESSIONISTIC MORPHEME

    The allomorph of the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’ is only used in the following forms. • i5-se55 (SPEC-like) ‘like this, in this particular way’, with the reduced allomorph of the specificatory morpheme • a5-se55 (nom-like) ‘like this/that’, with a stressed formative prefix

    THE IMPRESSIONISTIC MORPHEME

    • •

    1023

    hi55-se55 (this-like) ‘as this’, with the bound form pronoun ‘this’. This form has only been attested in one instance. ke5-se55 or he5-se55 (Q-like) ‘how’, with the general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q) ‘what/which/where’.

    The above forms containing the allomorph of ‘like’ always precedes one of the verbs: ‘perceive’, ‘do’, ‘happen’, ‘say’, or ‘become’, and in one case ‘to be’. Please note that these forms never precede the verb ‘seem’. • The form i5-se55 The impressionistic morpheme ‘like’ in combination with the reduced allomorph of the specificatory morpheme forms i5-se55 (SPEC-like) expressing the deictic meaning ‘like this’, often accompanied by certain gestures. 3

    Hoi55 ngvut5 zyang35 i5-se55 mu11 (ipf) snail1 be CD SPEC–like happen 35 11 1 31 31 goi lye ga mai -eq , hoi55. crooked/wicked also+I perceive+I ABL–AG/I snail1 The snail, after this he is crooked like this, the snail.

    4

    I5-se55 gvut5 am55 bue31 ga11, ke5-se55 SPEC–like do PFM P+I TOP Q–like gvut5 ra54 dvi55? do need+FCT RFL Now that they have done it like this, what can we do about it?

    • the form a5-se55 (nom-like)’like this/that’ The form a5-se55 (nom-like) is a combination of the nominalising prefix , which in this combination is always stressed, and ‘like’. This form can be translated as ‘like this/that’. The form a5-se55 (nom-like) has only been attested in combination with four different verbs, viz, ‘do’, ‘happen’, ‘say’ and ‘become’.

    1024

    CHAPTER NINETEEN

    The translations of the following sentences, where the form a5-se55 (nom-like) ‘like this/that’ is combined with the first two of these verbs, viz. ‘do’, e.g. (6) to (10), and ‘say’, e.g. (5), are quite straightforward. The use of the verb ‘say’ in combination with ‘like’ has until now only been attested in this particular construction with a5-se55 (nom-like) ‘like this/that’ such as in sentence (5). 5

    A5-se55 ngvu31 dai11-aq5. nom–like say speak–SIM Say (SG) it like this.

    6

    A5-se55 ke5-gvut5. nom–like PHB–do Don’t do it like that.

    7

    Se5gvan11 a5-se55 gvut5 spit/phlegm nom–like do ke5-zvet5-no31. PHB–spit.through.the.teeth–HIGH+I Don’t spit through your teeth like this/that.

    8

    A5-se55 gvut5 zyang35 se1-mui31 mui31 nom–like do CD sand–turbid turbid If you do it like that, the water will get turbid.

    9

    O55-yuq1 pan11 lye31 ga31, a5-se55 gvut5. (ipf) who–person create also+I perceive+I nom–like do Who has made this mess?

    10

    Nang31

    a5-se55 gvut5-n55 ge11 2SG nom–like do–FCT TOP The way you (SG) do this is not right.

    ra31. need+I

    a1-zyo11. NEG–right

    The form a5-se55 (nom-like) ‘like this/that’ can also be combined with the verb ‘become’. This combination can be used wherever reference is made to the way things turn out.

    THE IMPRESSIONISTIC MORPHEME

    11

    A5-se55 dut1 ra31 ngvu31 bue31. nom–like become need+I say P+I I told you that things were going to get like this.

    12

    A5-se55 dut1 nom–like become That’s how it is.

    13

    A5-se55 dut1 lui31-eq1 ngo31 nom–like become in.this.way +I–AG/I 1SG a1-wo35 lye35 loq1. NEG–have come(away/down) no.more I couldn’t come because of the situation being like that.

    1025

    lye31. also+I

    The combination of a5-se55 (nom-like) ‘like this/that’ with the morpheme ‘happen’ is mostly used in a somewhat idiosyncratic sense, roughly expressing ‘the way it happens’. This combination a5-se55 mu31 (nom-like happen) can be used as a kind of conjunction, suggesting temporal succession and, if the context permits, also a reason or cause, e.g. (15) and (16). 14

    A5-se55 mu31 zang11 lo11 zvyo31-aq1. (ipf) nom–like happen rice/food come(back/up) cook*–SIM After that, you (SG) come and prepare the meal.

    15

    Yvang11

    16

    A5-se55 mu31 lui31-eq1 ngo31 nom–like happen in.this.way +I–AG/I 1SG a1-wo35 lye35 loq1. NEG–have come(away/down) no.more I couldn’t come because of that.

    u1-nvuq5 me55 a1na11 bo11 r55 3SG head–brains LOC illness contain(ipf) PE 5 55 a -se mu31 na31 byuq1 bue31. (ipf) nom–like happen insane lose P+I He has a defect in his brains, therefore he has gone insane.

    The following sentence contains both a5-se55 (nom-like) ‘like this/that’ and i5-se55 (SPEC-like) ‘like this, in this particular way’.

    1026 17

    CHAPTER NINETEEN

    Yvang11

    a5-se55 gvut5 tui31 3SG nom–like do hit.with.fist(ipf) gvat5-n55-eq5 ngo31 loq1-eq1 i5-se55 put.into–FCT–COM 1SG hand/arm–AG/I SPEC–like gvut5 bat1 dvye11 am54. do beat receive(ipf) PFM+FCT When he tried to hit me like that, I blocked his blow like this.

    • the form hi55-se55 In only one case thus far, the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’ is attested in combination with the bound form pronoun ‘this’. This combination hi55-se55 (this-like) can be translated as ‘as this’. 18

    A1mu31 wa35 hi55-se55 mu31 bin35 matter EMP this–like happen take.shape 54 11 dvo ge . place(vt)+FCT TOP That this simple matter could develop into something as complicated as this!

    • the forms ke5-se55/he5-se55 (Q-like) ‘how’ The forms ke5-se55 and he5-se55 (Q-like) are combinations of different allomorphs of the general interrogative prefix (Q ) ‘what/which/where’ and ‘like’, and can normally be translated as ‘how’. This combination is used before the verbs ‘perceive’ and ‘become’ and is especially frequently used before ‘do’. The two following examples illustrate the use of ke5-se55 (Q-like) ‘how’ before ‘perceive’. 19

    Ke5-se55 ga11 hon25 bue54 lu55, Q–like perceive sing+FCT P+FCT MIR dvo31mvi31 am55 bue31. (ipf) forget PFM P+I How was it sung? I’ve forgotten.

    20

    Zai11wa31-ming35 Zaiwa–language

    dong31 ke5-se55 lead/connect Q–like

    ga31 perceive(ipf)

    THE IMPRESSIONISTIC MORPHEME

    1027

    lye31 la11? also+I UNC How do you say that in Zaiwa? In the following sentence, the form he5-se55 (Q-like) ‘how’ is used before the verb ‘become’. 21

    Ke5-se55 dut1 bue31? Q–like become P+I How is the situation?

    The forms ke5-se55 and he5-se55 (Q-like) are especially frequently used before ‘do’. Before ‘to do’ they can also be translated as ‘what’ instead of ‘how’. 22

    23

    Ke5-se55 gvut5 ra31 Q–like do need+I What should I/we do? Yvum31 ke5-se55 gvut5 house Q–like do How do we get home?

    la11? UNC

    lo35 ra31? go(back/up) need+I

    Section 10.4 has already discussed the use of the forms ke5-se55 and he5-se55 (Q-like) as well as a5-se55 (nom-like), i5-se55 (SPEC-like) before the verb ‘to do’, in cases where the latter verb is used for linking all kinds of phrases, or even subordinate clauses, of a descriptive nature to the remaining part of the clause. 19.3

    THE FORM su54 (LIKE+FCT)

    The form su54 is the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’ marked by the factitive marker (FCT). This form su54 (like+FCT) is exclusively used in the following combinations. • ke5-su54 (Q-like+FCT), i.e. after the reduced allomorph of the general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q )

    1028 • • • •

    CHAPTER NINETEEN

    ke5-se5-su54 (Q-like-like+FCT) the same as above, with addition of an extra reduced allomorph of ‘like’ i5-su54 (SPEC-like+FCT), i.e. after the reduced allomorph of the specificatory pronoun (SPEC) a5-su54 (nom-like+FCT), i.e. in combination with the general formative prefix combinations of personal pronouns, mostly the second person singular pronoun (2SG )

    The forms ke5-su54 (Q-like+FCT) and ke5-se5-su54 (Q -like-like+FCT) can both be translated ‘what kind of’ and are used in interrogative phrases where descriptions are being asked for. The form ke5-su54 (Q-like) is used for inquiring into matters that are rather simple, e.g. (24) and (25). The more complex form ke5-se5-su54 (Q-like-like+FCT) is used when asking for more complex descriptions or for descriptions of rather complex matters, encompassing several different entities with different characteristics, as illustrated by the examples (26) and (27). 24

    Yvang55-moq1 yvum31 ge11 ke5-su54 lu55? 3PL–party house TOP Q–like+FCT MIR What would their (PL) house be like? / What is their (ND) house like?

    25

    Yvang54 bu11 ke5-su54 ta11, pyu31 3SG+FCT clothes Q–like+FCT GI white gu54 luq1? ngyui31 gu54 luq1? PART+FCT Y/N green/blue PART+FCT Y/N What were his clothes like? White ones? Green/blue ones?

    26

    Ban11-bo35 ke5-se55 su54 zuen11 flower–open.itself Q–like like+FCT cut/clip What kinds of flowers did you cut?

    27

    Ke5-se55 su54 myoq1-dong11 a1rvang55? Q–like like+FCT eye–(have)hole etcetera What does he look like, his face and such?

    The form i5-su54 (SPEC-like+FCT) expresses ‘like this’.

    bue31? P+I

    THE IMPRESSIONISTIC MORPHEME

    28

    1029

    Nvut5 i5-su54 ha31 dvo11 (ipf) mouth SPEC–like+FCT (mouth).open.wide place(vt) mu31 syeq1. happen+I au.contraire He had opened his mouth wide, like this ....

    The form a5-su54 (nom-like+FCT) has a subordinating function expressing ‘like this/that’, e.g. (29), or is used as a kind of conjunction expressing ‘nevertheless’, e.g. (30). 29

    Nga35-nvung55 r11 a5-su54 byu31 1PO–1ND.IN also nom–like+FCT man/woman 31 31 ra dvo r55. need(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE We (ND.IN) also need people like him/her/them.

    30

    Zai11wa31-ming35 ge11 ngvut5 r55, a5-su54 Zaiwa–language TOP be PE nom–like+FCT ngo31 a1-sue31-gyo11. (ipf) 1SG NEG–know –hear/smell It’s Zaiwa but nevertheless I can’t understand it.

    The combination of the second person singular pronoun (2SG) and su54 (like+FCT) is used for scolding people, e.g. (31) to (37). In sentence (38), the form ke5-su54 (Q -like+FCT), already discussed above, has a somewhat similar function. 31

    Nang31

    su54 byu31-bam11 ge11. 2SG like+FCT man/woman–moist/dull-witted TOP You (SG) bloody idiot!

    32

    Nang31

    33

    Nang31

    su54 ki1-pek1 ge11. 2SG like+FCT faeces–diarrhoea TOP You (SG) worthless piece of shit! su54 son11-ki11! 2SG like+FCT stingy–faeces You (SG) crook!

    1030

    CHAPTER NINETEEN

    34

    Nang31

    su54 byu31. 2SG like+FCT man/woman You (SG), you !

    35

    Nang31

    36

    Nang31

    37

    Nang31

    su54 bang11dvai31. 2SG like+FCT rabbit You (SG) liar! su54 byu31 bvan31-pai55. 2SG like+FCT man/woman hearts–cards/game You (SG) hearts card! [You lazy and unreliable person!] 2SG

    su54 ge11 like+FCT TOP su31.

    mau31-eq1 sky#–AG/I

    gun31 fling/strike/wave

    ra54 need+FCT SNO [really angry:] You (SG) who will be struck by lightning! 38

    Nang31

    ke5-su54 byu31 ngvut5 2SG Q–like+FCT man/woman be [angry:] What kind of a fellow are you (SG) ?

    lye31? also+I

    In the following sentence, the form su54 (like+FCT) is combined with the third person pronoun (3s/FCT). 39

    Yvang11

    su54 byu31 a5-se55 gvut5 3SG like+FCT man/woman nom–like do ra31 dut1 lye31. need+I become also+I Someone like him will certainly do that. / Someone like him will certainly act like that.

    19.4

    THE ALLOMORPH OF ‘LIKE’ AS THE IMPRESSIONISTIC PREFIX

    The reduced allomorph of the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’ will hereafter be called the impressionistic prefix for short. The impressionistic prefix specifically refers to impressions and is used before the verbs ‘perceive’,

    THE IMPRESSIONISTIC MORPHEME

    1031

    ‘do’, ‘happen’, ‘seem’ or ‘become’. These verbs, together with ‘happen’ and ‘say’, form part of the group of Zaiwa verbs that must always accompany the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’, except when this morpheme is nominalised as su54 (like+FCT). The impressionistic prefix can be used in three different ways. The impressions referred to by the impressionistic prefix are made explicit either by the preceding nominal constituent, e.g. (40), by the preceding ideophone, e.g. (41), or by the preceding complete clause, which it embeds into a larger frame, e.g. (42). Further examples of the combination of the impressionistic prefix with the inchoative copula ‘become’ will be given in the next section. The many Zaiwa ideophones, like ‘taciturn’ in sentence (41), are treated in this study as part of the lexicon and can be found in the word-list. the form se5-dut5 (like-become) after a nominal constituent: 40

    Nang31

    Zai11wa31 se5-dut5 r55. 2SG Zaiwa like–become PE You (SG) look like a Zaiwa.

    the form se5-dut5 (like-become) after an ideophone: 41

    Bi1mun31 num11num11 (name) [taciturn] Bimun is rather taciturn.

    se5-dut5 r55. like–become PE

    the form se5-dut5 (like-become) after a complete clause: 42

    Nga35

    ngun31 le1-zvui55 yom25 1PO silver one–bit decrease+FCT 5 5 55 31 se -dut r mai . like–become PE OBV+I My money appears to have diminished!

    Below, separate sections discuss the combinations of the impressionistic prefix with various verbs. The combination se5-dut5 (like-become) refers to impressions or appearances in a general way, e.g. (43). The combination se5-ga11 (like-perceive) refers to how

    1032

    CHAPTER NINETEEN

    situations appear to be, but not in a visual sense, e.g. (44), whereas se5-mu31 (like-happen) specifically refers to visual impressions, e.g. (45). The combination se5-ngam31 (like-seem) refers to how situations seem to be, e.g. (46). 43

    Ne1-ki11 se5-dut5 r55. cattle–faeces like–become PE It’s just like cow dung.

    44

    A1zeng35 hi31 ge11 ne1-ki11 se5-ga11 thing this TOP cattle–faeces like–perceive nam11 r55. smelly(ipf) PE This thing smells like cow dung.

    45

    Ne1-ki11 se5-mu11 r55. cattle–faeces like–happen(ipf) PE It looks like cow dung. [stated as an observation]

    46

    Se5-ngam11 r55. like–seem(ipf) PE It seems to be so.

    The following sentence is the only instance attested of the impressionistic prefix used before the verb ‘to do’. Here, the combination se5-gvut5 (like-do) expresses ‘do like’, in a metaphorical way. This sentence is taken from a/the song …… and the listeners are invited to stretch their minds as the foothills, through the landscape. 47

    Mit1 wu35 lui31-eq1 think look in.this.way +I–AG/I bum31-weng11-tang31 se5-gvut5 zvyang31 heap(vt/N)–foothills–foothills like–do stretch.out(ipf) 11 35 55 ye lo syang . go(away/down)(ipf) go(back/up) JUS By thinking like this, let us (ND.IN) go and stretch ourselves out just as the foothills do.

    1033

    THE IMPRESSIONISTIC MORPHEME

    19.5

    THE IMPRESSIONISTIC PREFIX BEFORE THE INCHOATIVE COPULA ‘BECOME’

    The inchoative copula , which I gloss as ‘become’, basically expresses the notions ‘take shape, form, become like, change into’. This meaning can be used in many different senses. When the impressionistic prefix is prefixed to the copula ‘become’, the meaning expressed is one of a certain appearance, like ‘have become like’ or ‘appear to be’. Sentence (49) illustrates the combination of the two latter morphemes in the negative. 48

    Se5-dut5 r55. like–become PE It appears to be so.

    49

    Hu55-zyung11 se5-a1-dut1 luq1? above–kind like–NEG–become Y/N Does it look like the one above?

    The two following sentences form a minimal pair, illustrating the contrast between the impressionistic prefix and zero. According to the informant, adding the impressionistic prefix in sentence (51) marks that there is more emphasis on the appearance of the person, without inferring that he has really become a demon. 50

    51

    Yvang11

    ning11long11 dut1 3SG demon become He has become [like] a demon. Yvang11

    byuq1 lose

    bue31. P+I

    ning11long11 se5-dut5 byuq1 3SG demon like–become lose He now looks just like a demon.

    bue31. P+I

    Sentences (40) to (42) in the previous section illustrated the three ways of using the form se5-dut5 (like-become): after a nominal constituent, after an ideophone, or embedding a complete clause into a larger syntagma. Sentence (41) is the only instance attested thus far where se5-dut5 (like-become) is used after an ideophone. The

    1034

    CHAPTER NINETEEN

    following further examples illustrate the use of the form se5-dut5 (like-become) after nominal constituents. 52

    Na35i55 hau31 ge11 nga35 clock the/that TOP 1PO That watch appears to be mine.

    53

    Nang31

    ge11

    nga35

    2SG

    TOP

    1PO

    se5-dut5 r55. like–become PE

    num11nang35 friend r55.

    le1-yuq1 one–person

    se5-dut5 dik1 like–become extreme PE You (SG) look very much like a friend of mine. 54

    Ngo31

    yvang11

    se5-dut5 lo35 1SG 3SG like–become go(back/up) 54 1 1 gu le -yuq myang25. PART+FCT one–person see+FCT I’ve seen someone who looks just like him.

    55

    Wung31 ge11 le1ngvyau55 se5-dut5 lye31. wildcat TOP cat like–become also+I Wildcats look just like regular cats.

    The following sentences are examples of the form se5-dut5 (like-become) embedding a complete clause into a larger frame. The preceding clauses either end in the factitive marker or in the suffix of the expected nvo31 (EXP+I). 56

    Ngo31

    wu35 look

    r11 ge11 nang31 r11 yvup5 1SG also TOP 2SG also sleep nvau25 se5-dut5 r55 mai31, a1-ngvut5 luq1? feel.like+FCT like–become PE OBV+I NEG–be Y/N As far as I can tell you (SG) are very sleepy, aren’t you?

    57

    Mi1-dat5 duq1-u55 se5-dut5 r55. fire–electricity burning–FCT like–become PE It appears that the electricity has come back on.

    THE IMPRESSIONISTIC MORPHEME

    1035

    58

    Ngvam11 nvo31 se5-dut5 r55. tasty EXP+I like–become PE It looks like it will be tasty.

    59

    Yvang11

    19.6

    THE IMPRESSIONISTIC PREFIX BEFORE THE VERB ‘PERCEIVE’

    kau11 nvo31 se5-dut5 r55. 3SG steal EXP+I like–become PE He looks like someone who would be able to steal.

    The form se5-ga11 (like-perceive) is the combination of the impressionistic prefix and the verb ‘perceive’. The combination se5-ga11 (like-perceive) refers to how situations appear to be, but not in a visual sense. Like the other fixed combinations of verbs with the impressionistic prefix, the form se5-ga11 (like-perceive) can be used after a nominal constituent, after an ideophone, or embedding a complete clause into a larger syntagma. The combination of these two morphemes can also be negated, viz. se5-a1-ga11 (like-NEG-perceive), which can be translated as ‘don’t feel like’ or ‘is not perceived as’. The special construction se5-ge1-a1-ga11 (like-perceive-NEG-perceive) will be discussed at the end of this section. First, the following sentences illustrate the use of the forms se5-ga11 (like-perceive) and se5-a1-ga11 (like-NEG-perceive) after nouns. 60

    Waq1-syo11 se5-ga11 nam11 lye31. pig–flesh like–perceive smelly(ipf) also+I This thing smells like pork.

    61

    Mo35-za35 nam31 gve5lvang11 ki11 AUG–knitwork smelly although faeces se5-a1-ga11. like–NEG–perceive Although my socks do stink, they do not stink like shit.

    62

    Nang35 2SG.PO

    sun11-au11 ngye35 gyo35 veg/dish–pan burnt/hot go.down

    1036

    CHAPTER NINETEEN

    sing55 se5-ga54 ngam11 rvo55. taste/smell(N) like–perceive+FCT seem(ipf) PE+HIGH It smells like your (SG) dish [in the pan] is burning! The forms se5-ga11 (like-perceive) and se5-a1-ga11 (like-NEG-perceive) also form part of special constructions, after verbs that are marked by the imperfective marker and that should be analysed as nominalised. 63

    Yvup5 nvau11 se5-ga31 bue31. (ipf) (ipf) sleep feel.like like–perceive P+I I feel sleepy now.

    64

    U1-lvum11 no11 se5-ga31 r55. (ipf) (ipf) head–lump pain/ill/disease like–perceive PE I have an aching feeling in my head.

    65

    Nang31

    moi54 se5-a1-ga11 luq1? 2SG tired+FCT like–NEG–perceive Y/N Do you (SG) feel fatigue?

    The same applies to the verbs before se5-ga11 (like-perceive) in the following sentences. These verbs, however, are zero-marked by the imperfective marker because of their underlying tones. 66

    Zo31-mut5 se5-ga11 bue31. eat#–hungry like–perceive P+I I feel hunger now.

    67

    Ngo31

    68

    Nun35 se5-ga31 r55. (ipf) wobble like–perceive PE It feels wobbly.

    a31na35 se5-ga31 r55. (ipf) 1SG ill.at.ease like–perceive PE I’m feeling ill at ease.

    There is a subtle difference in meaning between sentences (63) and (64) above on one hand and the two following sentences on the other.

    1037

    THE IMPRESSIONISTIC MORPHEME

    The following sentences contain the verb ‘talk’ as the well-aware auxiliary, which expresses a certain situation within the mind or body of the speaker. By contrast, sentences (63) and (64) above are more like statements on whether or not certain sensations are being perceived. 69

    70

    Yvup5 nvau11 ngyo31 (ipf) sleep feel.like talk I’m sleepy.

    bue31. P+I

    U1-lvum11 no11 ngyo11 (ipf) head–lump pain/ill/disease talk(ipf) My head hurts.

    r55. PE

    Clauses like (63) and (64) containing the special construction se5-ga11 (like-perceive) cannot contain the aspectiviser (extreme) ‘go to the limit’, ‘very’, and sentence (72) was rejected by my main informant. Sentence (71), however, is fully grammatical. The latter sentence also contains ‘extreme, very’, but with the verb ‘talk’ as the well-aware auxiliary instead of se5-ga11 (like-perceive). 71

    72

    U1-lvum11 no11 dik1 (ipf) head–lump pain/ill/disease extreme My head hurts very much.

    ngyo11 talk(ipf)

    r55. PE

    * U1-lvum11 no11 dik1 se5-ga31 r55. head–lump pain/ill/disease(ipf) extreme like–perceive(ipf) PE ungrammatical

    The following sentences illustrate the use of the forms se5-ga11 (like-perceive) and se5-a1-ga11 (like-NEG-perceive) after ideophones. The ideophones used here are: nu35-nu35 ‘soft and lithe’ (like the skin of an infant) and cyam11-cyam11 ‘pleasantly cool’. 73

    Nu35-nu35 se5-ga31 dik1 r55 mai31. (ipf) young/tender–2x like–perceive extreme PE OBV+I It feels so soft-and-lithe. [like the skin of an infant]

    1038 74

    CHAPTER NINETEEN

    Lai31 lo31 zyang35 cyam11-cyam11 wind come(back/up) CD cool–cool se5-ga31 r55, ngon35 dik1 r55. (ipf) like–perceive PE pleasant extreme PE When the wind blows, it feels pleasantly cool.

    The two following sentences form a near minimal pair illustrating the opposition between the impressionistic prefix and zero before the verb ‘perceive’. Sentence (75) without the impressionistic prefix refers to a sensation just as it is, whereas in sentence (76) the impressionistic prefix before ‘perceive’ refers to an impression of the speaker of enjoying keeping his head tucked under the quilt. 75

    U1-kup5 kup5 zyang35 kup5-kup5 ga31 r55. (ipf) head–stuffy stuffy CD stuffy–stuffy perceive PE When covering my head it feels stuffy.

    76

    U1-kup5 kup5 zyang35 kup5-kup5 head–stuffy stuffy CD stuffy–stuffy 5 11 35 55 se -ga ngon r . like–perceive pleasant PE When covering my head it feels pleasantly stuffy.

    The following sentences illustrate the use of the forms se5-ga11 (like-perceive) and se5-a1-ga11 (like-NEG-perceive), embedding complete clauses into larger syntagmas. The preceding clauses are mostly marked by the factitive marker , but sometimes also by a clause marking unit containing the indicative mood marker , viz. the perfect indicative clause marking unit bue31, as illustrated by sentence (77). Sentences (78) to (82) illustrate the use of se5-ga11 (like-perceive) after clauses marked by the factitive marker . The use of se5-ga11 (like-perceive) after other clause markers will be discussed further below. 77

    Zo31 wu35 bue31 se5-a1-ga11 eat(ipf) look P+I like–NEG–perceive Do you think you have eaten it before?

    luq1? Y/N

    1039

    THE IMPRESSIONISTIC MORPHEME

    78

    I31-syuq5 wut1 lo35-Ø se5-ga31 r55. (ipf) distilled–drink drunk go(back/up)–FCT like–perceive PE I feel that I’m beginning to get drunk.

    79

    Nang31

    80

    Lu11yin55zi55 ming25 se5-ga31 r55. (ipf) tape.recorder sound(vi)+FCT like–perceive PE It appears that there’s a tape recording playing.

    81

    Nat1-neq1 ngat1-n55 se5-ga31 r55. spirit–AG/I bite–FCT like–perceive(ipf) PE It appears that he’s under the spell of spirit.

    82

    Kyong11 tye31 mu25 se5-ga31 r55 mai31. (ipf) throat sound happen+FCT like–perceive PE OBV+I It sounded like someone coughing!

    i31-pue11 syuq5 2SG distilled–booze drink se5-a1-ga11 luq1? like–NEG–perceive Y/N Do you (SG) feel intoxication?

    wut1-n55 drunk–FCT

    The form se5-ga11 (like-perceive) can also be used after clauses that are marked by the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need +I). The combination of ra31 (need+I) and se5-ga11 (like-perceive) can express both the notions ‘feel like’ and ‘need to’, as illustrated by sentences (83) to (85). This means that the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need +I) does not so much refer to future here, but is used in the sense of the underlying morpheme ‘need’. In sentences (86) and (87), such a reading is not permitted by the context. So, in these examples the future indicative clause marking unit ra31 (need+I) refers to future situations. 83

    Zvi5nan31 i5-bat1 ra31 se5-ga31 r55. telephone go–beat need+I like–perceive(ipf) PE I feel like going and making a phone call.

    84

    Lyeq1 lie.down

    ra31 need+I

    se5-ga31 r55 (ipf) like–perceive PE

    luq1? Y/N

    1040

    CHAPTER NINETEEN

    Do you want to lie down? 85

    A1-rvueq5 ma54 gvut5 so11 ra31 nom–sprained LOC+FCT do walk need+I 5 31 55 se -ga r . like–perceive(ipf) PE It feels as if I will have to walk with a limp.

    86

    A1ga31! se1-byo31 lvang55 lam35 ra31 (difficulty) spirit2–spirit3 even ramble need+I se5-ga31 r55. like–perceive(ipf) PE Aah! [I was frightened out of my wits] it felt as if my spirit would go rambling.

    87

    Wun11 wun11 ra31 se5-ga31 r55. (ipf) dizzy dizzy need+I like–perceive PE I feel that I’m getting dizzy.

    In each of the following sentences, the verb ‘perceive’ is used twice, once in a reduced form after the impressionistic prefix and once in its full form. It is used twice because reference is made to two different impressions at the same time. Literally, the speaker perceives that he does not yet perceive a certain sensation.87 88

    Yvup5 nvau25 se5-ge1-a1-ga31 sleep feel.like+FCT like–perceive–NEG–perceive(ipf) 31 ngyo siq1. talk still I don’t feel that I’m sleepy yet.

    89

    Yvup5 nvau25 se5-ge1-a1-ga11. sleep feel.like+FCT like–perceive–NEG–perceive I don’t feel that I am hungry yet.

    87 The special construction se5-ge5-a1-ga11 (like-perceive-NEG -perceive) is the only environment in which the reduced allomorph of the verb ‘perceive’ has thus far been attested.

    THE IMPRESSIONISTIC MORPHEME

    1041

    90

    Ze5-nvau25 se5-ge1-a1-ga11. eat–feel.like+FCT like–perceive–NEG–perceive I don’t have the feeling that I want to eat it / It doesn’t feel that I like to eat it.

    91

    Mut1-n55 se5-ge1-a1-ga31 ngyo31 siq1. (ipf) hungry–FCT like–perceive–NEG–perceive talk still I don’t feel that I’m hungry yet.

    19.7

    THE IMPRESSIONISTIC PREFIX BEFORE THE VERB ‘SEEM’

    The verb ‘seem’ is always combined with the suffix of the expected nvo31 (EXP+I), as illustrated by sentences (96) and (97), or with the impressionistic prefix, as in the following sentences. 92

    Se5-ngam11 r55. like–seem(ipf) PE It seems to be so.

    93

    A5-nu11 yu25 se5-ngam11 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) nom–mother take+FCT like–seem place(vt) also+I I think that mother has taken it.

    94

    Yvup5 dvo11 su31 ge11 do55la55zi55 sleep place(vt) SNO TOP tractor wo35-Ø se5-ngam11 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) have–FCT like–seem place(vt) also+I I think that the person who is sleeping there owns a tractor.

    95

    Ngo31

    byu31 hi55-yuq1 lye55 myang11 1SG man/woman this–person OBJ see(ipf) wu35-Ø se5-ngam11 dvo31 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) look–FCT like–seem place(vt) also+I It seems to me that I have seen this person before.

    The following sentences illustrate the use of the verb ‘seem’ without impressionistic prefix, marking clauses which end in the suffix of the expected nvo31 (EXP+I).

    1042 96

    97

    19.8

    CHAPTER NINETEEN

    Ngvut5 nvo31 be EXP+I It could be. Yvang11

    ngam11 seem(ipf)

    r55. PE

    ye31 nvo31 3SG go(away/down) EXP+I I think he will go.

    ngam11 seem(ipf)

    r55. PE

    THE IMPRESSIONISTIC PREFIX BEFORE THE VERB ‘HAPPEN’

    The combination se5-mu31 (like-happen) is used for expressing how things look like. I have already discussed this topic in Section 11.7. 98

    Sek5-haq5 se5-mu31 ngyui11 ra55. tree–leaf like–happen green/blue(ipf) PE It’s green like tree leaves.

    The way of indicating in Zaiwa that something is purple is by saying that it is just like purple cloth, since this colour is mainly known from a certain textile. Both the combinations se5-mu31 (like-happen) and se5-dut5 (like-become) can be used to refer to this colour. 99

    Kang11-bvan55 se5-dut5 ra55. purple–cloth like–become PE It’s purple. / (Lit.:) It’s like purple cloth.

    100

    Kang11 se5-mu11 ra55. (ipf) purple like–happen PE It’s purple. / (Lit.:) It looks like purple cloth.

    CHAPTER TWENTY

    EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSIONS In this final chapter, I list the most important Zaiwa exclamatory expressions, which are words like English ‘gosh!’ and ‘yep’, ‘ah’ and ‘oh’, etc. Interjections are analysed as a subgroup of exclamatory expressions and are also therefore included. • I shall first focus on the exclamatory expressions that solely or mainly consist of nasals and tones. The word ‘no’ expresses ‘no’, as a response to sentences like the two following. 1

    2

    Nang31

    myoq1 ci11 bue31 2SG eye wash P+I Did you (SG) wash your face?

    luq1? Y/N

    A1-dap1 le1-luq1? NEG–be.attached no.more–Y/N Is there still something sticking [on my face]?

    • The notion ‘yes’ is expressed by either ‘yes, right’ or ‘yes, right’. Other ways for expressing ‘yes’ and ‘no’ are the clauses (3) and (4), using the copula ‘to be’. 3

    Ngvut5 lye31. be also+I Yes. / It is.

    4

    A1-ngvut5. NEG–be No. / It isn’t.

    • The words and both express ‘agreed!’ rather than just ‘yes!’, and thus differ in meaning from ‘yes, right’ and ‘yes, right’. The latter two can be used for responding to

    1044

    CHAPTER TWENTY

    utterances like sentence (5), whereas and ‘agreed!’ are used for responding to utterances like sentences (6) and (7). 5

    Nang31 r55

    Mo35pi55 ga31 r55 kai31-ma11? (ipf) 2SG OBJ beggar perceive PE SUG+I–ROUS You (SG) are the one called Beggar, aren’t you?

    6

    Nang31 2SG

    bum31 heap(vt/N)

    he5-dvoq5 lo35 PHB–get.up go(back/up)

    loq1-o31. no.more–HIGH+I Don’t (SG) go up the hill anymore. 7

    I31-pue11 wui25 mai11 han31-han31 distilled–booze buy+FCT ABL quick–quick dvau31 lo31-aq1-o55. turn(ipf) come(back/up)–SIM–HIGH After buying the booze, come back (SG) quickly.

    dum11 again

    Other exclamatory expressions consisting of nasals and tones are the following, much resembling ‘no’ just mentioned. • The word (wonder), which is pronounced in a rather prolonged fashion, expresses bewilderment, as illustrated by sentences (8) and (9), as well as by sentence (11), which is a response to sentence (10). 8

    M1m55! ngvut5 (wonder) be Huh? Is it like that?

    lye31 also+I

    luq1? Y/N

    9

    M1m55! gue31-gue31 lo11 a1-gvo31 luq1? (ipf) (wonder) all.right–all.right come(back/up) nom–PL+I Y/N Hmm, did she really come?

    10

    Yvang55-moq1 3PL–party

    mau11 ge11 native.land TOP

    i5-nvung55 SPEC–1ND.IN

    EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSIONS

    1045

    Mi11wa31-mau11-eq5 lvang55 dui35 (GEN) Chinese –native.land–COM even see.difference lum31 lo35 lye31. reciprocal(ipf) go(back/up) also+I [with spread arms:] Their country and our (ND.IN) China lie THIS far apart. 11

    M1m55! i5-hue55-hue55 (wonder) SPEC–far(B)–far(B) Oh, it’s that far!

    ma54 we1-dvi31! LOC+FCT EMP–CX+I

    • The word (malicious) expresses malicious pleasure. 12

    M1m31, got1 cyong11 lye31 su31 ge11 (ipf) (malicious) scoop(vt) frolic also+I SNO TOP 31 31 ngya bue . have(low) P+I That’s what you get when you always go around playing the fool!

    13

    M1m31, gom31 si31 bue31. (ipf) (malicious) nothing.left die P+I So there, there’s nothing for you!

    • The word (sudden.shift) is used when suddenly realising that something is not right. 14

    Ng55, syeq1 (sudden.shift) au.contraire ngvut5 r55. be PE No, I’d rather go.

    ye31 ra31 go(away/down) need+I

    15

    Ning11long11-po55 lo31, ng55! demon–male come(back/up) (sudden.shift) ke5-min31 le1-sang31 sing55 nam11 before–evening (male)–humans taste/smell(N) smelly(ipf) rvo55! PE+HIGH

    1046

    CHAPTER TWENTY

    The demon came back and said: “Huh? tonight I smell humans!” Below is a listing of the Zaiwa exclamatory expressions with initial /a/, which all are primarily used for expressing emotional reactions to different situations. • The most common of these is (difficulty), uttered with much vivid expression in reference to all kinds of difficulties, such as fear, fatigue, heat or cold’, either at the very moment or at the very occasion one is telling about. The creaky variant (painful) expresses great pain. 16

    17

    A1ga31! lai31 dik1 (difficulty) heavy(ipf) extreme Gosh, it’s heavy!

    r55

    mai31.

    PE

    OBV+I

    A1ga31! a1hui31 syeq1 (difficulty) now au.contraire Aah, finally it is finished.

    yau35 finish

    r55

    mai31.

    PE

    OBV+I

    18

    A1ga31! mai11 mo35-mo35 gva31 (difficulty) strain(vi) AUG–AUG write(ipf) gvyop5-m55 ga11. tuck.away–FCT TOP Oh yeah, that was extremely straining, writing all the time.

    19

    Pik5-mun31 mut1 dvang31 gvat5 zyang35, (ipf) pungent–powder blow let.fly put.into CD nga35 myoq1-zi35 ze1-me55 1PO eye–ball/seed only–LOC bvak5-rap5, a1ga31! lap5 mo35-mo35! [flinging.a.dollop]–dollop (difficulty) suffer AUG–AUG With the chilli powder being blown into the air and coming right into my eyes, aah, it felt terrible!

    20

    A1ga31! gyoq1 lye31 wa35 (difficulty) cold also+I EMP ra31 se5-ga31 r55. (ipf) need+I like–perceive PE

    dvung31 frozen(ipf)

    byuq1 lose

    1047

    EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSIONS

    Aah, it’s so cold that it feels as if we might freeze. 21

    A1ga31! yvup5 (difficulty) sleep Aah, I’m so sleepy!

    nvau11 dik1 (ipf) feel.like extreme

    rvo31. PE+HIGH+I

    • The form (sorry!) expresses ‘oops!’ or ‘sorry’, such as when standing on someone’s toes. • The forms (very.hot) and (very.cold) expresses sensations of extreme heat or extreme cold respectively. The last syllables of these expressions can be reduplicated, as in the following examples. The more often they are reduplicated, the more the emphasis. These examples also show that when the last syllable of (very.cold) is reduplicated its tone becomes /55/. 22

    A1tyeq5tyeq5! ngye35 si1-lo35 r55. (very.very.hot) burnt/hot die(ipf)–go(back/up) PE Ouch, it’s burning hot!

    23

    A1ze55ze55ze55! (very.very.very.cold) Aaah! It’s so chilly!

    ngam35 dik1 chilly extreme

    A1ze55ze55ze55! (very.very.very.cold) Aaah! It’s so cold!

    gyoq1 dik1 cold extreme

    24

    r55

    mai31.

    PE

    OBV+I

    r55

    mai31.

    PE

    OBV+I

    • The word (self-doubt) expresses dissatisfaction with oneself. 25

    A1ge1di31! dum11 dvo31mvi31 am31 dvo11 (ipf) (ipf) (self-doubt) again forget PFM place(vt) 1 31 31 bue ge -lo . P+I TOP–no.more+I How foolish of me, I’ve forgotten it again!

    • The word (strange.situation) expresses surprise or dissatisfaction at someone else.

    1048

    CHAPTER TWENTY

    26

    A1lyo11! a5-mvyo55 (strange.situation) nom–much Don’t be so damned greedy.

    ke5-dye31 PHB–too

    ma31 si31. (ipf) greedy die

    27

    Mon31 dik1 r55 mai31, a1lyo11. skim(ipf) extreme PE OBV+I (strange.situation) I just missed it, how come. / I skimmed along/over it, how come.

    • The word (happy.for.you) expresses joy about the sudden luck of the addressee. 28

    A1lyo31, hau31 ge11 nang31 dum11 (happy.for.you) the/that TOP 2SG again myang31 zo11 bue31. see eat P+I Well look here now! Now you have got these as well. [spoken by a father to his infant daughter while playing cards together]

    • The word (disappointed) expresses disappointment. 29

    A1ni11, ka31 lo35 byuq1 (disappointed) where go(back/up) lose Oh, where has he gone?

    bue31

    la11?

    P+I

    UNC

    • The word (very.happy) expresses great joy. 30

    A5ni55! A5-nu11 lo31 bue31. (very.happy) nom–mother come(back/up) P+I Hooray, Mum is back!

    • The word (discovery) expresses surprise at some sudden discovery. 31

    A1lyu35, ngo31 ngun31 myang11 guq1 (discovery) 1SG silver see(ipf) pick.up Hey, I have picked up some money.

    bue31-o55. P+I–HIGH

    EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSIONS

    32

    A1lyu35, ngo31 (discovery) 1SG Wow, now I get it!

    ge11 TOP

    sue55 know

    1049

    bue31-o55. P+I–HIGH

    33

    A1lyu35, lvang31-mui31 wa35 (discovery) snake–snake EMP Wow, what a big snake is this!

    hi5-i54 ge11! this–SPEC+FCT TOP

    34

    A1lyu35, byu31 wa35 run31run31 mai31 (discovery) man/woman EMP [myriads] OBV+I bau31woq5 rvoq5. ant DEF Wow, there are so many people there, just like ants!

    • The word (sudden.dangerous.situation) expresses the notion of being shaken up by sudden dangerous situations, such as when nearly slipping. • The word (sudden.shock) expresses shock. 35

    A5bvyot1! ki1-syo31 bue31 ngvut5 r55 mai31. (sudden.shock) faeces–defecate P+I be PE OBV+I [on a child in one’s lap:] Shit! she is shitting! or: Shit! she has shit!

    The following are the remaining Zaiwa exclamatory expressions used for expressing emotional reactions to different situations, but without initial /a/. • The word is said to children at the same moment when seeing them falling or hurting themselves. • The word (let’s.start) is used when urging others to start with something together with the speaker. 36

    Ro31, nga35-nvik5 (let’s.start) 1PO–duo gvoq1 hoi11. DIE

    lai11gva55 script

    INC

    Come, let’s (DU) do some studying.

    mvoq5 learn/teach

    1050 37

    CHAPTER TWENTY

    Ro31, zo11 syang55 hoi11. (let’s.start) eat JUS INC Come on then, let’s (ND.IN) eat now.

    • The word expresses ‘let’s go!’ or ‘let’s move’ and is used when the speaker suggests or urges the group that includes him- or herself to leave. The second example is spoken when the addressee is rather reluctant. 38

    39

    Sa31, ye31 syang55 (Let’s.go!) go(away/down) JUS Come, we should (ND.IN) go now. Sa31-o55, (Let’s.go!)–HIGH Let’s go, let’s go!

    hoi11. INC

    sa31-o55! (Let’s.go!)–HIGH

    • The word (mistake!) is used just as someone finds out that he or she has made a mistake. 40

    Wai35, ngo31 dai31 (mistake!) 1SG speak(ipf) Oh, I didn’t say it right.

    syut5 wrong

    bue31. P+I

    • The word (realising) is used when just realising something. 41

    O11, hi55-dong31 lu11? (realising) this–lead/connect RHT Oh, it’s like this.

    • The word (blaming) is used when blaming others for some matter. 42

    O35! hyem31 du35 am31 lye31! (ipf) (blaming) how throw PFM also+I Oh, why did you throw it away?

    • The word (something.missing) expresses bewilderment when just finding out something is missing.

    1051

    EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSIONS

    43

    Wvue55! a1-bo31 (something.missing) NEG–contain But, there’s nothing left inside!

    • The word disapproval with the addressee.

    loq1. no.more (disapproving)

    expresses

    44

    Wvue55wvue55wvue55, i5-se55 gvut5 gvo54 ge11. (disapproving) SPEC–like do PL+FCT TOP [disapproving] So, (well well well), you (PL) have done it like that.

    45

    Wvue55wvue55wvue55, a1hui11-yvam31 wa35 (GEN) (disapproving) now –time.for EMP lye35 lo25 gvo54 ge11. come(away/down) come(back/up)+FCT PL+FCT TOP So, (well well well), you (PL) have come only just now.

    • The word (what!?) expresses intense surprise and anger. 46

    Mvuet5! gue31-gue31 luq1? (what!?) all.right–all.right Y/N [angry:] What!? Really?

    47

    Dang31 go35 dvo11 gve5-ra31, gve5-ra31 (ipf) fly dance place(vt) PL–need +I PL–need +I ngvut5 ngyo11 ra55. (ipf) be talk PE “Oh my!, so you (PL) are going to go on dancing like this??”

    • The word is used in songs and gives expression to feelings of regret etc. 48

    Zyai11-ei31 yvum31-mau11 lo35 (regretting)–EXCL+I house–native.land go(back/up) nvau11 ra55. (ipf) feel.like PE Oh, how I want to return to my native land!

    1052

    CHAPTER TWENTY

    I shall now discuss exclamatory expressions related to offering and sharing. • The form glossed (come.on!) expresses notions like ‘well then, come on’. Naturally, it mostly expresses a wish for the addressee to do something, as illustrated by most of the following examples, but in sentence (49) it refers to an action performed by the speaker. 49

    Gai31, hi55-me55 syoq5 (come.on!) this–LOC pour lye35. come(away/down) Let me pour you some in here.

    gvat5 put.into

    bi11 give

    50

    Gai31 hi55-me55 (come.on!) this–LOC Pour me some in here.

    gvat5 put.into

    bi11 give

    syoq5 pour

    raq5. VO

    51

    Gai31, lau35 kon31-aq1. (come.on!) promptly sing–SIM Come on, sing (SG) it for us!

    52

    Gai31, le1-zvui55 hui11-aq5. (come.on!) one–bit make.way/meet–SIM Come on, make (SG) some way.

    53

    Gai31, ngo31 r55 gung31-du11 (come.on!) 1SG OBJ body–being dun11 bi11 raq5. press.into/spear give VO Come on, give me a massage please.

    54

    Gai31, ngo31 r55 le1-dam31 dyem31 (ipf) (come.on!) 1SG OBJ one–time(Sp) take.picture dvo11 bi11 raq5. place(vt) give VO Please, take a picture of me.

    55

    Gai31, (come.on!)

    nang31 2SG

    i5-ngyo11 wu35-aq5. (ipf) go–talk look–SIM

    1053

    EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSIONS

    Come on then, go (SG) and try to talk with him. 56

    Gai31, lye35 byam11 (come.on!) come(away/down) jump(ipf) Please, come and help (SG) me/us carry.

    be1-wa11-aq1. help–lift*–SIM

    The combination of (come.on!) and the verb ‘put into’ as the effective aspectiviser expresses that the addressee should facilitate some other person to perform the action referred to by the main verb. 57

    Le5-dvu11, gai31, zung11 gvan31-aq1. (male)–4th-brother (come.on!) sit(ipf) put.into*–SIM Fourth brother, make some room. [on your lap]

    58

    Gai31, yvup5 gvan31-aq1. (come.on!) sleep put.into*–SIM Make some room to sleep!

    • The word , glossed (orders), is used when giving orders to someone. 59

    60

    Ba31-ba31, zang11 i5-byam11 zo11 (ipf) (orders)–(orders) rice/food go–jump eat Well, go on then, you (PL) can start cooking now.

    gveq5. PLIM

    Ba31-ba31, nga35 syu31-nvik5 ge11, (GEN) (orders)–(orders) 1PO grandchild –duo TOP 1 11 5 55 5 nge -zo i -gvong gveq . fish–child go–catch.fish PLIM “Well now my two children, go (PL) and drain some fish.”

    The following example illustrates that (orders) can also be used at the end of the clause. 61

    A1-mvau55, i5-wu35-aq5 ba31. NEG–cheat/fool go–look–SIM (orders) “I’m not cheating you, go (SG) and look for yourself!”

    1054

    CHAPTER TWENTY

    • A form similar to (orders) is , glossed (directing). This form appears to bear more of a directing meaning, such as when pointing of the objects is involved in the suggested action. 62

    Bai31, hi55-me55 (directing) this–LOC Put (SG) it in here.

    gvan31-aq1. put.into*–SIM

    63

    Bai31 mvo31 dun11 lo35 (directing) below press.into/spear go(back/up) ngvye31 lo31-aq1. (ipf) burn(vt) come(back/up)–SIM “Look here below, go (SG) home, heat this spear and come back with it.”

    64

    Bai31, nang31 nga35 nu11 ngvut5 r11 ge11… (directing) 2SG 1PO mother be also TOP Look here / take this, if you (SG) are our mother …

    • The form , glossed (offering), is used when offering things. 65

    Ngvyo31, ngvyo31, syo11 nvut5 me55 (offering) (offering) flesh mouth LOC ruk5 gvut5 lvung31 am55-aq5 ma11. (ipf) [put.into] do let.inside PFM–SIM ROUS Here, here, hide it inside your mouth quickly!

    66

    Ngvyo31, ze1dai31 nang35 be1-tung31 me55 (offering) cassette 2SG.PO clothes–bag LOC ruk5 gvut5 hang31 wun31-aq1. (ipf) [put.into] do load/put.into carry/bring–SIM Here, put the cassette into your (SG) pocket.

    67

    Ngvyo31, hi31 syung11 gvun55-aq5. (ipf) (offering) this use play–SIM [a toy] Here, play (SG) with this.

    EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSIONS

    1055

    68

    Ngvyo31, hi31-eq5 zvum55-aq5. (offering) this–COM make.a.pair–SIM Here, make (SG) a pair of it with this.

    69

    Ngvyo31, hi31 r55 u1-huq5 gvun31-aq1. (offering) this OBJ head–pillow(N/V) do*–SIM Here, use (SG) this as a pillow.

    • The form is used when passing something out of one’s hand into someone else’s. 70

    Ngyam31, loq1-wa11 ham31-aq1 (take.from.my.hand) hand/arm–palm/sole receive/fetch–SIM bui31-ban11 gvat5 bi11 lye35. sun–flower put.into give come(away/down) Come here (SG) with your hands, I’ll give you sunflower seeds.

    • The form is mostly spoken to children, and used for letting the addressee hand over something. 71

    Ngvyaq1, ngo31 r55 (hand.it.to.me) 1SG OBJ Well there, hand it to me.

    bi11 give

    raq5. VO

    • When being called from a certain distance, the typical reaction of a Zaiwa speaker is shouting (yes!/I'm.here!). When the other person does not hear this reaction, the longer variant (yes!/I'm.here!) can be used, or in fact any other sound. My main informant states that when the variant (yes!/I'm.here!) is used as a response at the very first time, this would express unwillingness to react. • The form dvye31 (DOM2+I) can both be used as an attitude marker at the end of the utterance and as an exclamatory expression at the start of the utterance. The form dvye31 (DOM2+I) appears to be a variant of the domineering suffix dvyo31 (DOM+I). Both forms have already been discussed in Section 18.8.

    1056 72

    CHAPTER TWENTY

    Dvye31,

    ngo31

    DOM2+I

    1SG

    bek1 shoot

    be55. EE

    I’ll shoot, okay? • Interjections Interjections can also be seen as a subgroup of exclamatory expressions. Below, I list all Zaiwa interjections I have encountered, as far as not already discussed in earlier chapters. • The clause initial form a1-su31 is much like a stopgap expressing ‘well…’, ‘well then’, i.e. a wish for a certain conclusion or answer. This form is tentatively interpreted as the combination of the nominalising prefix and the singular nominaliser (SNO). 73

    A1-su31, nga35-nvik5 ka31 lo35 ra31 la11? nom–SNO 1PO–duo where go(back/up) need+I UNC Well, where shall we (DU) go then?

    74

    A1-su31, ngo31 hi55-me55 dvo31 dvo54 (ipf) nom–SNO 1SG this–LOC place(vt) place(vt)+FCT a1zeng35 ka31 lo35 bue31 ta11? thing where go(back/up) P+I GI Well, where has the thing that I put here gone off to?

    75

    A1-su31, nang31 ka31 lo35 lye54 dvi55? nom–SNO 2SG where go(back/up) also+FCT RFL And where are YOU (SG) going? [The speaker has just told where he is going himself.]

    76

    A1-su31, a5-se55 gvut5 syang55 ma11 dvi31. nom–SNO nom–like do JUS ROUS CX+I Well then, let us (ND.IN) do it in that way, all right?

    • The form , sometimes pronounced , is glossed (er/what’s.his.name) and is used as a stopgap or replacement whenever the speaker cannot find the words. In a sentence like the first, this form can be used once or be repeated as much as one likes.

    EXCLAMATORY EXPRESSIONS

    77

    1057

    I1sye11-i1sye11-i1sye11, (er/what’s.his.name)–(er/what’s.his.name)–(er/what’s.his.name)

    ka55-hu55 ga54 bue54 dvi55? Q–sort perceive+FCT P+FCT RFL Er [let me think] what was it called? 78

    I1sye11 Le1-gam35 ga31 (er/what’s.his.name) (male)–eld-brother perceive(ipf) r11 yvang55-moq1 yvum31 lye35 also 3PL–party house come(away/down) gveq5 ga31. PLIM perceive+I This, er, eldest brother told us/them to come to their house.

    79

    Mvo31 below bue31

    a1sye11 me55 bat1 zye35 (er/what’s.his.name) LOC beat arrive ga31. P+I perceive+I When he arrived by beating, down below at, er, what’s-thename

    • The interjection glossed ‘right!’ expresses approval of some situation. 80

    A1ra31, i5-se55 gvut5 Right! SPEC–like do Right, do (PL) it like that.

    gveq5. PLIM

    BIBLIOGRAPHY Anonymous. Jingpozu jianshi, Kunming: Yunnan Renmin Chubanshe, 1983. Bauman, James John. Pronouns and Pronominal Morphology in Tibeto-Burman, University of California, Berkeley, dissertation, 1975. Burling, Robbins. ‘Proto Lolo-Burmese’, International Journal of American Linguistics Part II, Volume 33, No. 2, 1967. Cheng Mo. ‘Zaiwayu jianjie’, Zhonguo yuwen’ nov. 1956: 41-4, 1956. Comrie, Bernard. Aspect, Cambridge University Press. 1976 Dai Qingxia. Zangmian Yuzu Yuyan Yanjiu, Kunming: Yunnan Minzu Chubanshe, 1990. Dai Qingxia and Xu Xijian. Jingpoyu Yufa / The Grammar of Kachin, Beijing: Zhongyang Minzuxueyuan Chubanshe, 1992. Dai Qingxia et al. Zangmianyu Shiwu Zhong, Beijing: Yanshan Chubanshe, 1991. van Driem, George. A Grammar of Limbu, Berlin / New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1987. –– A Grammar of Dumi, Berlin / New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1993. –– “Einige Bemerkungen zum Aspect im Limbu”, Linguistische Berichte, 2001. Doqshi Yongtang & Doqshi Roiseng. Jingpozu Zaiwa yuwen zhishi, Mangshi: Dehong Minzu Chubanshe, 1985. Doqshi Yongtang et al. Han-Zai Cidian / Myiwa Zaiwa Dangzhi Zhyum, Chengdu: Sichuan Minzu Chubanshe, 1992. Hanson, O. A dictionary of the Kachin Language, Rangoon: Baptist Board of Publications (first published in 1906), 1954. Jacquesson, François. ‘Langues tibéto-birmanes du Nord-Est de l’Inde: investigations typologiques en Assam et au Nagaland’, Journal Asiatique 284/1, 159-212, 1996. Jin Liyan. Shuyexin yu Caoqiao / Leaf-letters and Straw-bridges; The Jingpo, Kunming: Yunnan Jiaoyu Chubanshe, 1995. Ladefoged, Peter and Maddieson, Ian. The Sounds of the World’s Languages, Oxford UK & Cambrigde USA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996. Lustig, Anton. Zaiwa Grammar, University of Leiden: unpublished PhD thesis, 2002. Matisoff, James A. ‘Glottal dissimilation and the Lahu high-rising tone: a tonogenetic case-study”. Journal of the American Oriental Society 90(1): 13-44, 1970. –– The Grammar of Lahu, University of California Press, 1982. Okell, J. A reference grammar of Colloquial Burmese. London: Oxford University Press, 1969. Rutgers, Roland. Yamphu: Grammar, texts & lexicon, Leiden, Research School CNWS (CNWS Publications), Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region, Vol. 2. 1998. Wannemacher, Mark W. Aspects of Zaiwa Prosody: An Autosegmental Account, Arlington: University of Texas, 1996. Wierzbicka, Anna, The Semantics of Grammar, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1988. Xu Xijian and Xu Guizhen, Jingpozu Yuyan Jianzhi (Zaiwayu), Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe, 1982. Xu Xijian et al. Jinghpo Miwa Ga Ginsi Chyum / Jing-Han Cidian, Kunming: Yunnan Minzu Chubanshe, 1983.

    1060

    BIBLIOGRAPHY

    Xu Xijian. ‘Zaiwayu’, Zhongguo Shaoshuminzu Yuyan Shiyong Qingkuang, (p. 80306), Beijing: Zhongguo Zangxue Chubanshe, 1994 Yue Xiangkun et al. Han-Jing Cidian / Miwa Jinghpo Ga Ginsi Chyum, Kunming: Yunnan Minzu Chubanshe, 1981 Yabu, Shiro. A Classified Dictionary of the Atsi or Zaiwa Language (Sadon dialect) with Atsi, Japanese and English indexes, Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA), Tokyo Gaikokugo Daigaku, 1982.

    INDEX OF ZAIWA GRAMMATICAL ITEMS a1- nominalising prefix; vide Ch. 6 and Tables 6.1, 6.2. a1- negative prefix; vide 16.2. a1-mu31 / a5-mu31 conjunction ‘and after that’; vide 18.2. a1-be1-gvo31 plural form of the perfect indicative clause marking unit (nom-P-PL+I); vide 17.9, 17.23. a1-bue31 determinant clause marking unit (nom-P+I); vide Section 17.9 and Table 17.4. a1-gvo31 plural indicative clause marking unit (nom-PL+I); vide Section 17.23 and Tables 6.2, 17.5. a1-lo31 finite indicative clause marking unit (nom-no.more+I); vide Section 17.7 and Table 17.2. a1-si31 continuous indicative clause marking unit (nom-still+I); vide Section 17.8 and Table 17.3. a1gon11 / me5gon11 / be5gon11, adverb variants ‘casually, carelessly, abominably, like a rascal’; vide 16.6. a1luq1syoi31 adverb ‘almost’; vide 16.5. a1mu31 ‘matter, job’; vide 9.32.8. a1rvang55 / a5rvang55 manifold suffix ‘etcetera’; vide 9.28. a1zeng35 ‘thing, things, stuff’; vide 9.32.8.

    a35- ~ ai35adverb ‘not go (away/down) and do V’; vide 16.3. a5-su54 conjunction (nomlike+FCT); vide 18.2. a5be11 ‘almost certain’; vide 18.4. am55 performative aspectiviser (PFM); vide 15.2. ang11 ‘ought, address’; vide 15.24. -aq1 ~ -aq5 singular imperative clause marker (SIM); vide 7.7, 17.17. ban31 ‘use up’ as a main verb and as part of the completive adverb ban11 (use.up(ipf)); vide 16.37. bang11 plural nominalising morpheme; vide 9.32.3. bau35 adverb ‘just’; vide 16.7. be1cooperative verb prefix ‘help’; vide 16.8. be1- ~ bue11 perfect clause marker (P); vide Sections 5.7, 17.9 and Table 17.4. be1-gvo31 clause marking unit (PPL+I); vide Section 17.9 and Table 17.4. be1-kai31 vide Section 17.9 and Tables 17.4, 18.9. be1-ra31 perfect future indicative clause marking unit (P-need+I); vide Section 17.9 and Table 17.4.

    1062

    INDEX OF ZAIWA GRAMMATICAL ITEMS

    be5- ~ ba55 ~ be55 exclusive exhortative clause marker (EE); vide 17.20. be5gon11 / a1gon11 / me5gon11, adverb variants ‘casually, carelessly, abominably, like a rascal’; vide 16.6. bi11 ‘to give’ as a main verb and as the benefactive / malefactive auxiliary verb; vide 15.6. bo31 ‘contain’; vide 13.3. bue31 clause marking unit (onlyP+I); vide Section 17.9 and Table 17.4. bum31 ‘heap (vt/N)’ as a verb, a noun and an aspectiviser; vide 15.3. bun11 ‘be awake, miss’ as a main verb, an adverb and an aspectiviser; vide 15.4. bvue55 plural suffix (PLN); vide 9.28. bvyam55 ‘get rid of’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser; vide 15.5. byam31, byam11 ‘jump’, ‘please’; vide 12.7. byuq1 ‘lose’ as a main verb and as the aspectiviser of change; vide 15.7. cyom55 ~ syom55 ‘drive game’ as a main verb and as part of the collective adverb cyom31 / syom31 (drive.game(ipf)); vide 16.38. da11 ‘maybe’; vide 18.4. dai11 ‘speak’; vide Ch.11, 11.2.

    dam54 aspectiviser of vehemence (VEH+FCT); vide 15.8. dap1 ‘be attached’; vide 13.5. dat1 abilitive adverb; vide 16.48. de1kya31 differentiating pronoun; vide 9.23. dik1 ~ dik5 (extreme) ‘go to the limit’; vide 15.12. ding11sang55 adverb ‘deliberately’; vide 16.9. dong31 ‘lead, connect’ as the mediative case suffix; vide 9.15. doq1 ‘go up’; vide 14.5. dum11 adverb ‘again’; vide 16.10. dut1 inchoative copula ‘become’; vide 10.3, 19.5. dvang11 ‘let fly, fling’ as the aspectiviser of ferocity; vide 12.9. dvap5 ‘attach’; vide 13.5. dvau11, dvau31 ‘turn’, used as adverb ‘back’ or ‘upside down’; vide 12.4. dvi31 coaxing suffix (CX+I); vide 18.7. dvi55 reflective suffix (RFL); vide 18.6. dving55dving55 adverb ‘categorically’; vide 16.11. dvo11 ‘place’(vt) as a main verb and as the progressive aspectiviser; vide 15.9. dvom11 ‘desolate’ as an aspectiviser; vide 15.10. dvoq5 ‘get up’; vide 14.5. dvu31 ‘respond, upright’ as a main verb and as part of the

    INDEX OF ZAIWA GRAMMATICAL ITEMS

    adverb dvu11 (respond/upright(ipf)) expressing ‘upright’; vide 16.39. dvum55 ‘interrupt’ as the interruptive aspectiviser; vide 15.11. dvye31 variant of dvyo31; vide 18.8. dvyo31 domineering suffix (DOM+I); vide 18.8. dye31 ‘too’ as an adverb and as an auxiliary; vide 16.12. -ei31 exclamatory ending; vide 5.7. -eq1 agentive / instrumental suffix; vide 9.9. -eq5 comitative suffix; vide 9.10, 18.2. ga11 ‘perceive’; vide Ch.11, 11.6, 19.6. ga11 general topic marker ge1- ~ ga11 ~ ge11 (TOP); vide 9.8, 18.2. ga35 / go35 differentiating pronoun; vide 9.23. gaq1 conceptual suffix (CC); vide 18.5. ge1- ~ ga11 ~ ge11 general topic marker (TOP); vide 9.8, 18.2. ge1-lo31 attitude marker expressing familiarity (TOPno.more+I); vide Section 17.7 and Table 17.2. ge1ro11 ‘between’; vide 9.17.2. ge1ru11 ‘talk (noise)’; vide Ch.11, 11.2.

    1063

    ge1rum35 ‘help’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser; vide 15.14. go35 / ga35 differentiating pronoun; vide 9.23. got1 ‘scoop’(vt) as a main verb and as the excessive adverb; vide 16.40. gu31 partitive pronominal suffix (PART); vide 9.22. gu54 (PART+FCT); vide 9.22. gue31 ‘all right’ as an adjective and as part of the positive adverb; vide 16.49. gung11-gung31 ‘the middle’; vide 9.17.1. gvam55 ‘want to’ as a main verb and as part of the voluntative adverb; vide 16.50. gvat5 ‘put into’ as a main verb and as the effective aspectiviser; vide 15.13. gve5- ~ gvo55 plural clause marker (PL); vide Section 17.23 and Tables 6.2, 15.1, 17.5. gve5lvang11 conjunctional clause marker ‘although’; vide 17.10. gveq5 plural imperative clause marker (PLIM); vide 17.18. gvo11 ‘big’ in the adverb gvo11 (big(ipf)); vide 16.41. gvo55 the plural clause marker; vide Section 17.23 and Tables 6.2, 15.1, 17.5. gvoq1 dual inclusive exhortative clause marker (DIE); vide 17.19. gvun55 recreational aspectiviser ‘play’; vide 15.17.

    1064

    INDEX OF ZAIWA GRAMMATICAL ITEMS

    gvut5 ‘to do’; vide 10.4. gvyem31 ‘have left over’; vide 13.8. gvyo55 ‘about enough’; vide 16.26. gvyop5 ‘tuck away, polish off’ as the non-stop aspectiviser; vide 15.15. gya35 ‘à point’ as a verb and as the investigative adverb; vide 16.42. gyo35 ‘go down’, downward aspectiviser; vide 12.10. he31 auxiliary ‘to start’; vide 9.19, 15.28. he5- ~ he55 ~ ke5- before; the prioritive adverb; vide 9.19. hoi55 adverb ‘maybe’; vide 16.29. hu55 ‘sort’; vide 9.36. hue55 far’ (bound form) as a pronoun and an adverb; vide 9.26. hyem31 adverb ‘how?’; vide 16.13. i1zvyang11 conjunctional clause marker: the opportunative (OPP); vide 17.11. i5- ~ i55 specificatory morpheme (SPEC); vide 9.20. i5-~ye31 ‘go (away/down)’; vide Ch.12. ka31 ~ ha31 ‘where’; vide 9.21.1. ka55 ~ ha55 ‘where’ (bound form); vide 9.21.3.

    kai31 / hai31 suggestive suffix (SUG+I); vide 18.9. kang11 ~ hang11 ‘each’; vide 9.31. kat5 ~ hat5 ~ kan31 ~ han31 ‘pursue’ as the adverb ‘go everywhere to do V’; vide 12.6. kau31 ‘inside of’; vide 9.18.1. ke5- ~ he5- prohibitive prefix; vide 16.4. ke5- ~ he5- ~ ka55- ~ ha55 general interrogative pronominal prefix (Q) ‘what / which / where’; vide 9.21.2. koi11 ~ hoi11 inciting suffix (INC); vide 18.10. kun31 ~ hun31 conjunction ‘time’; vide 18.2. kyo55 ‘let go down’, onward aspectiviser; vide 12.10. kyom11 adverb ‘all of it’; vide 16.14. kyuq1 aspectiviser ‘around’; vide 12.12. kyut5 ‘take off, pluck’ as the aspectiviser ‘to no purpose’; vide 15.16. la11 uncertainty suffix (UNC); vide 18.11. lai11 ‘pass’ as a main verb and as part of the comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)); vide 16.43. lang35 ‘wait’ as a main verb and as the expectant auxiliary; vide 15.18. laq5 / raq5 volitional clause markers (VO); vide 17.21.

    INDEX OF ZAIWA GRAMMATICAL ITEMS

    lau35 / rau35 adverb variants ‘almost, soon, promptly’; vide 16.17. le1- numeral prefix ‘one’; vide 9.37, 9.38. le1- contrastive adverbial prefix ‘but’; vide 16.15. le1- ~ lo11 ~ loq1 finite clause marker ‘no more’; vide Section 17.7 and Table 17.2. le1-ra31 future indicative clause marking unit (only-need+I); vide Sections 15.22 and 17.8 and Table 15.1. le1-suen31 ‘apparantly similar’; vide 9.36. le1go11 adverb ‘well’; vide 16.19. li11 / lye11 / r11 suffix variants used as adverbs, clause markers and conjunctions; vide 16.20-23. li55 object marker; vide 9.7. lo11 ‘tiger’, masculine suffix for animals; vide 9.29. lo31 ‘come (back/up)’; vide Ch.12. lo31 finite indicative clause marking unit (no.more+I); vide Section 17.7 and Table 17.2. lo35 ‘go (back/up)’; vide Ch.12. lo55 final verification suffix (FV); vide 18.12. lom31 ‘await, take part, attend’ in the locative adverb lom11 (attend(ipf)) ‘to do on the spot’; vide 16.44. loq1 finite clause marker; vide Section 17.7 and Table 17.2.

    1065

    lu55 mirative suffix (MIR); vide 18.13. lui31 conjunctional clause marking unit: ‘in this way’; vide 17.12. lum11 reciprocal aspectiviser; vide 15.19. lung35 ‘be inside’; vide 13.3. luq1 yes-or-no attitude marker (Y/N); vide 18.3. lut1 positional specifier noun ‘(go to the) opposite side’; vide 9.35. lvang55 adverb ‘even’; vide 16.16. lvaq5 habitual adverb; vide 16.18. lvoq5 active involvement auxiliary (ACT); vide 14.3. lvum31 adverb ‘indiscriminately’; vide 16.24. lye31 general indicative clause marking unit (also+I); vide 17.3. lye35 ‘come (away/down)’; vide Ch.12, 12.16. lye54 (also+FCT); vide 17.4. lye55 object marker; vide 9.7. lyeq1 ‘lie down’, ‘lay down’; vide 13.4. ma11 rousing suffix (ROUS); vide 18.14. ma35 ~ ma55 ~ me55 general locative case suffix (LOC); vide 9.13. ma54 (LOC+FCT) used in a literal way and as the description marker; vide 9.14.

    1066

    INDEX OF ZAIWA GRAMMATICAL ITEMS

    mai11 ablative case suffix; vide 9.12, 18.2. mai31 suffix of the obvious (OBV+I); vide 18.15. me1- ~ me11 ~ ma11 rousing suffix (ROUS); vide 18.14. me1-lo31 attitude marker ‘so that’s simple’ (ROUSno.more+I); vide Section 17.7 and Table 17.2. me1zyoq1 ‘cause’; vide 18.2. me55 general locative case suffix (LOC); vide 9.13. me5gon11 be5gon11 / a1gon11, adverb variants ‘casually, carelessly, abominably, like a rascal’; vide 16.6. mo35 augmentative morpheme; vide 8.7, 9.30. moq1 ~ moq5 ‘party’; vide 9.28. mu31 verb and clause marker ‘happen’; vide Ch.11, 11.7, 19.8. mvau55 ‘cheat, fool’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser; vide 15.20. mve5nvung11 ‘to the contrary’; vide 18.16. mvi55 feminine sex suffix; vide 9.29. mvyo55 ‘much’ (bound form); vide 9.25. myang31 ‘see, find’ as a main verb and as part of adverbs; vide 16.51. -(N)eq1 agentive / instrumental suffix; vide 9.9.

    -(N)eq5 comitative suffix; vide 9.10, 18.2. (N)o11 reference suffix (REF); vide 18.19. (N)o31 negative indicative suffix; vide 18.20. (N)o55 highlighting suffix; vide 18.20. nam11 ‘near the house’; vide 9.17.3. nam31 ‘close vicinity’; vide 9.17.3. nan31 adverb ‘hard to’; vide 16.25. nang35 (2SG.PO); vide 9.6. nga35 (1PO); vide 9.6. ngam31 the verb ‘seem’; vide 19.7. ngi31 ‘be there’ (animate entities); vide 13.2. ngva31 double-checking suffix (DC+I); vide 18.18. ngvam11 ‘tasty’ as an auxiliary; vide 15.32. ngvu31 ‘say’; vide Ch.11, 11.5. ngvut5 copula ‘to be’; vide 10.2. ngya31 ‘have’ (low); vide 13.8. ngyo31 ‘talk’; vide Ch.11, 11.3. ning31 insistive suffix (INS+I) as interjection and as attitude marking unit; vide 18.17. no35 conjunctional clause marking unit: ‘to’; vide 17.14. num11-tang55 ‘behind one’s back’; vide 9.17.5. nung11 (2REL); vide 9.6.

    INDEX OF ZAIWA GRAMMATICAL ITEMS

    nvang31 ‘let loose’ as a main verb and as the commissive auxiliary; vide 15.21. nvau31 modal auxiliary ‘feel like’; vide 15.22. nvik5 dual suffix (DU); vide 9.28. nvo31 conjunctional clause marking unit: the suffix of the expected (EXP+I); vide 17.13. o31 ‘under’; vide 9.18.2. po11 nominaliser ‘things for/to …’; vide 9.32.4. po55 masculine sex suffix; vide 9.29. pyang31 directive case suffix; vide 9.11. r11 / li11 / lye11 suffix variants used as adverbs, clause markers and conjunctions; vide 16.20-23. r55 object marker; vide 9.7. ra11 morpheme ‘need’ with various functions; vide Sections 15.22, 15.23 and Table 15.1. ra31 future indicative clause marking unit (need+I); vide Section 15.23 and Table 15.1. ra55 ~ r55 personal experience clause marker (PE); vide 17.5. ram35 satisfactive morpheme ‘about enough’; vide 16.26. rap5 manner adverb ‘unfortunately’ and ideophone; vide 16.27.

    1067

    raq5 / laq5 volitional clause markers (VO); vide 17.21. rau35 / lau35 adverb variants ‘almost, soon, promptly’; vide 16.17. rup5 ‘dare’ as a main verb and as the venturesome adverb; vide 16.52. rvo31 emphatic indicative clause marking unit (PE+HIGH+I); vide 17.6. rvo55 emphatic highlighting clause marking unit (PE+HIGH); vide 17.6. rvoq5 definite adverb; vide 16.28. sai55 ‘redo, do all over again’ as a main verb and as part of the repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)); vide 16.45. sam31 ‘probably’; vide 15.24. se5- ~ su31 singular nominaliser (SNO); vide 9.32.2. se5- ~ su55 ~ -se55 the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’; vide Chapter 19. si1-ra31 future indicative clause marking unit (still-need+I); vide Section 15.23 and Tables 15.1, 17.8. si1- ~ si11 ~ siq1 continuous clause marker ‘still’; vide Section 17.8 and Table 17.3. si31 / si11 ‘die’ as a main verb and as the tormentative aspectiviser; vide 15.25.

    1068

    INDEX OF ZAIWA GRAMMATICAL ITEMS

    siq1 allomorph of the continuous clause marker ‘still’; vide Section 17.8 and Table 17.3. so11 ‘walk’, ‘leave’; vide 12.5. su31 ~ se5- singular nominaliser (SNO); vide 9.32.2. su54 (like+FCT); vide 19.3. su55 the impressionistic morpheme ‘like’; vide Chapter 19. sue55 ‘know’ as a main verb and as part of the modal adverb sue31 (know(ipf)); vide 16.53. syang55 jussive clause marker (JUS); vide 17.22. syaq1 adverb ‘possibly’; vide 16.29. sye31 attitudinal morpheme ‘what a pity, shucks’; vide 16.30. syeq1 ‘au contraire’; vide 16.31. syom55 ~ cyom55 ‘drive game’ as a main verb and as part of the collective adverb cyom31 / syom31 (drive.game(ipf)); vide 16.38. syoq5 conjunctional clause marker: ‘till’; vide 17.15.

    tyep1 adverb ‘thoroughly’; vide 16.19. wa35 the general emphatic suffix (EMP); vide 18.2. wang11 ‘roots, base’; vide 9.17.6. wo35 ‘have’, also as the possibilitative adverb ‘can’; vide 13.6-7. wu35 ‘look’ as a main verb and as the probative auxiliary; vide 15.27. wui31 (generation) suffix; vide 9.27. wun35 aspectiviser ‘wherever’; vide 12.13. yam31 ‘edge’; vide 9.17.7. yap1 ‘stand’; vide 13.4. yau35 ‘finish’; vide 15.29. yu31 ‘take’ as a main verb and as an aspectiviser; vide 15.30. yui11 nominaliser ‘(matter of) guilt’; vide 9.32.6. yvam31 nominaliser ‘time for, season’; vide 9.32.5. yvang11 (3SG / in truth); vide 9.5, 9.6.

    ta11 general interrogative suffix (GI); vide 18.3. tang31 ‘behind’; vide 9.17.4. tong11 ‘roll’; vide 9.18.5. toq5 ‘come out, above’; vide 9.18.6. tum11 aspectiviser ‘do to the utmost’; vide 15.26. tye11 ‘under, amongst’; vide 9.18.3.

    za11 limitative pronoun ‘only this’; vide 9.24. zang35 ‘strike’ as a main verb and as the unintentional adverb; vide 16.46. zaq1 allomorph of the limitative morpheme; the compliative adverb; vide Section 16.33 and Table 16.1.

    INDEX OF ZAIWA GRAMMATICAL ITEMS

    ze1-bue31 perfect indicative clause marking unit (only-P+I); vide Section 17.9 and Table 17.4. ze1- ~ ze11 ~ za11 ~ zaq1 the limitative morpheme ‘only’; vide 16.32. ze1-lo31 limitative finite indicative clause marking unit (only-no.more+I); vide Section 17.7 and Table 17.2. ze1-si31 clause marking unit (only-still+I); vide Section 17.8 and Table 17.3. zeng31 aspectiviser ‘fixed’; vide 15.31. zi11 ‘ride’; vide 12.5. zo11 diminutive suffix; vide 9.30. zo11 ‘eat’ as an auxiliary; vide 15.32. zue31 ‘implement, matter’ (truc); vide 9.32.8. zung31 ‘sit’; vide 13.4. zveng31 aspectivisers ‘move to one place’; vide 15.31. zvyang55 ‘near’; vide 9.18.4. zvyat5 adverb ‘all’; vide 16.34. zyang11 nominaliser ‘place to’, ‘place that’; vide 9.32.7. zyang31 adverb ‘do V in passing’; vide 16.36. zyang35 conjunctional clause marker: the conditional (CD); vide 17.16. zyaq1 adverb ‘rather’; vide 16.35. zye11 ‘exceed’ as a verb and as the superlative adverb; vide 16.47.

    1069

    zyoq1 ‘be there’ (inanimate entities); vide 13.2.

    INDEX OF NAMES AND GRAMMATICAL TERMS abilitative adverb , 835 ablative case suffix (ABL), 268; 966 about enough, 767 above, 295 Achang, 3 address, 677 adjectives, 178; 289; 427 adverbs, 141; 707 again, 724 agentive, 260 agentive/instrumental suffix , 65; 260 all (adverb), 796 all of it, 733 all-around aspectiviser, 527 allotones, 58 almost, 715 almost certain, maybe (attitude markers), 974 almost, soon, promptly, 743 also, 748; 752; 758; 764 although, 913 amongst, 291 around, 528 aspectivisers, 599 attach, attached, 558 attitude markers, 963 attitude marking units, 131 au contraire, 778 augmentative morpheme , 201; 347 auxiliary verbs, 599 awake, 608 back, go back, come back, 505 base, 287 be there, 544 be, to be, 428 become, 432; 1033 behind, 284; 286 benefactive exhortative clause marker, 537 benefactive/malefactive auxiliary verb, 612

    between, 282 big, 815 bits and parts, 394 Bola, 3; 4; 5; 69 bound form adjectives, 178 Burling, 37 but, 735 can, 835 can, will, 835 carelessly, 716 casually, carelessly, abominably, like a rascal, 716 categorically, 728 change, aspectiviser of, 614 cheat, fool, 654 clause markers, 111; 126; 130; 859 clause marking units, 134 close vicinity, 283 31 coaxing suffix dvi (CX+I), 981 collapsed syllables, 26 collective adverb cyom31 / syom31 (drive.game(ipf)), 809 come, 496; 537 come out, 295 comitative case suffix (COM) ‘and, with’, 968 comitative suffix , 263 commissive auxiliary, 657 comparative adverb lai31 (pass(ipf)), 819 completive adverb ban11 (use.up(ipf)), 805 compliative adverb, 792 conceptual suffix (CC), 977 conditional clause marker (CD), 925 conjunction ‘time’, 965 conjunction a5-mu31 (nom-happen) ‘and after that’, 968 conjunction a5-su54 (nom-like+FCT), 966 conjunctions, 149; 963; 964 consider, 610

    1072

    INDEX OF NAMES AND GRAMMATICAL TERMS

    contain, 547 continuous clause marker ‘still’, 893 contraire (au contraire), 778 contrary, to the, 1006 contrastive prefix ‘but’, 735 cooperative verb prefix ‘help’, 720 copula ‘to be’, 428 creaky voice, 21; 24; 62 Dai Qingxia, 6 dare, 854 dead, 682 deceive, 654 definite adverb , 772 deliberately, 724 demonstratives, 222 description marker, 274 desolate, 626 diachrony, 65; 592 dialects, 5 die, 682 differentiating pronouns, 322 diminutive , 347 diphthong /ui/ and creak, 64 direct speech, 460 directive case suffix (DIR), 266 do V in passing, 803 do, to do, 443 dollop (ideophone), 769 dominate, 702 31 domineering suffix dvyo (DOM+I), 984 Doqshi Roiseng, 5 Doqshi Yongtang, 5 31 double-checking suffix ngva (DC+I), 1009 downward, 523 dual inclusive exhortative clause marker (DIE), 933 each, 348 eat, 702 edge, 288 effective aspectiviser, 633 emphatic highlighting clause marking unit rvo55, 875

    emphatic indicative clause marking 31 unit rvo (PE+HIGH+I), 875 emphatic suffix (EMP), 964 even, 739 everywhere, 510 evidential, 133 excessive adverb, 813 31 exclamatory ending -ei , 136 exclusive exhortative clause marker, 935 exhortative, 537; 933; 935 expectant auxiliary 'wait', 650 expected, suffix of the, 920 factitive marker, 65; 66; 74; 78; 862 family ties, 244 far, 333 feel like, 659 ferocious, 521 fieldwork, 3 final offglides, 42 final verification suffix (FV), 995 finals, 24 finish, 697 finite clause marker ‘no more’, 877 fold, 394 fool, 654 general emphatic suffix (EMP), 964 general indicative clause marking unit 31 lye (also+I), 865 general interrogative suffix (GI), 972 general topic marker (TOP), 253 generation, 336 genitive, 84 get rid of, 611 get up, 588 give, 612 glides, 39 glottal hiatus, 27 go, 496 go down, 523 go up, 588

    INDEX OF NAMES AND GRAMMATICAL TERMS

    1073

    Greater Jingpo, 4 guilt, 356

    kind, 390 know, know how to, 856

    habitual adverb , 744 habituality, 189 happen, 485; 1042 hard to (adverb), 766 have, 541; 563; 567; 572 heap, 606 help, 644; 720 hiatus, 27 highlighting suffix , 1015 how (can you)? 732

    l and r, 173 Lashi/Letsi, 3 leave, 507 left over, 572 let loose, 657 lie down, 554 like, the impressionistic morpheme, 1021 limit, go to the, 628 limitative morpheme ‘only’, 781; 792 limitative pronoun ‘only this’, 326 loan phonemes, 35; 44; 62 locational suffixes, 279 locative adverb lom11 (attend(ipf)) ‘to do on the spot’, 821 locative case suffix , 273 look, 689 lose, 614

    ideophones, 189 imperative, 169; 932 imperfective, 94 implement, matter, 358 impressionistic morpheme ‘like’, 1030 impressionistic prefix , 1022 in this way (clause marking unit), 916 inchoative copula ‘become’, 432; 1033 inciting suffix (INC), 989 indicative clause marking units, 134 indicative clauses without clause markers, 955 indicative mood marker, 125 indirect speech, 460 indiscriminately, 765 informant, 1 initial nasals, 165 initials, 21; 32 inside, 289; 547 31 insistive suffix ning (INS+I), 1006 interruptive aspectiviser , 627 investigative adverb, 816 iterativity, 189 Jinghpaw, 3 Jingpo, 3 jump, 512 jussive clause marker (JUS), 940 just, 717

    ma54 (LOC+FCT), 274 obvious, suffix of the, 1004 many, 606 Maru, 3; 4; 5; 69; 229; 346 matter, 358 maybe, possibly, 774 Me1nau11-zum31-go35, 2 measure nouns, 371 mediative case suffix, 277 merger, 36 middle, the, 282 mirative suffix (MIR), 997 miss, 608 morphophonology, 157 motion verbs, 495; 515; 530,533 much, 328; 606 nasals, 34; 48; 165 near, 283; 291 need, 664 negative not go and do V, 713 31 negative indicative suffix (N)o , 1015

    1074

    INDEX OF NAMES AND GRAMMATICAL TERMS

    negative prefix , 711 neutralisation rules, 53 no more, 877 nominaliser ‘things for/to …’, 354 nominalising prefix , 137 nominalising suffixes, 350 non-stop aspectiviser, 645 noun phrases, 214 nuclei, 51 number suffixes, 340 numerals, 87; 361 object marker, 248 oblique genitive case marker, 84 one, 394 oneself, 240 only, 781 only this, 326 onward, 523 opportunative clause marker (OPP), 916 optional initial nasals, 165 other, 322 ought, 677 partitive, 315 passing, do V in passing, 803 passive, 120 perceive, 470; 1035 perfect clause marker (P), 102; 901 performative aspectiviser (PFM), 602 personal experience clause marker (PE), 873 personal pronouns, 227 phonation types, 9; 24; 62 phonetics, 21 phonology, 21 pinyin, 5 pity (what a pity), shucks, 776 place (vt), 617 place to, place that Zie, 357 play, 648 plosives, 48 plural clause marker (PL), 943

    plural imperative clause marker (PLIM), 932 plural nominalising morpheme , 352 population, 30 positional specifier nouns, 386 positive adverb gue11, 839 possessive, 244 possibly, maybe, 774 post-consonantal glides, 39 prioritive adverb, 299 probably, 677 probative auxiliary, 689 progressive aspectiviser, 617 prohibitive prefix , 714 Proto-Burmese, 37 Proto-Lolo-Burmese, 37 pursue, 509 put (vt), 617 put into, 633 quantifiers, 370 question markers, 972 quickly, 743 quotative, 133 r and l, 173 rather (adverb), 799 reciprocal aspectiviser , 652 recreational aspectiviser ‘play’, 648 redo, do all over again, 824 reduced syllables, 28; 161; 162 reduplication, 183 reference suffix (REF), 1012 reflective suffix (RFL), 978 repetitive adverb sai31 (redo(ipf)), 824 ride, 507 rimes, 49 roll, 294; 527 roots, 287 rousing suffix (ROUS), 1000 Sadon dialect, 5 sandhi, 55; 61 satisfactive morpheme ‘about enough’, 767

    INDEX OF NAMES AND GRAMMATICAL TERMS say, 464; 468 season, 355 see, find, 849 seem, 1041 self, 240 sex suffixes, 345 short syllables, 24 shucks, 776 Sichuan, 4 simplex-causative verb pairs, 578 simplex-directive verb pairs, 585 singular imperative clause marker (SIM), 171; 932 singular nominaliser , 351 sit, 554 soon, 743 sort, 390 speak, 449; 453 specificatory morpheme (SPEC), 304 specifier nouns, 363 stand, 554 start, 299; 695 stiff voice onset, 62 still, 892 stopgaps, 149 stress, 28; 157 stuff, 360 31 suffix of the expected nvo (EXP+I), 920 31 31 suggestive suffix kai /hai (SUG+I), 987 summary, 9 superlative adverb , 831 syllabic consonants, 26 syllabic nasals, 51 syllable reduction, 28 syllable types, 25 syllables, 50 take, 697 talk, 449; 454 thing, 354 think, 608 Tibeto-Burman, 2 till (conjunctional clause marker), 923 time, 403 time adverbs with initial /a/, 421

    1075

    time for, season, 355 to (conjunctional clause marker), 922 to no purpose, 647 to the contrary, 1006 together, 809 tone, 25 tone /31/, 58 tone /54/, 82 tone raising, 158; 161; 162 tone sandhi, 55; 61 tone switching, 65 tones and creaky voice, 24 too, adverb and auxiliary, 728 topic marker, 253 tormentative aspectiviser, 682 transcription, 5 transliteration system, 6 try, 704 turn, 506; 527 uncertainty suffix (UNC), 990 under, 290 unfortunately, 769 unintentional adverb , 828 up, 586 upright, 811 upside down, 506 use up, 805 utmost, do to the, 688 vehemence, aspectiviser of, 616 venturesome adverb , 854 verb pairs, 575 very, 628 volitional clause markers and (VO), 938 voluntative adverb, 847 vowel length, 28 vowel nuclei, 42 vowel reduction, 164 vowels, 42 wait, 650 walk, leave, 507 Wannemacher, 6 want, 659 want to, 847 well over, at the outside calculation, 815

    1076

    INDEX OF NAMES AND GRAMMATICAL TERMS

    well, thoroughly, 746 what, 309 where, 309 wherever, 529 which, 309 whole, 399 why? 730 will, can, 835 Xu & Xu (1984), 37 Xu Guizhen, 6 Xu Xijian, 6 Yabu (1982), 37 yes-or-no suffix (Y/N), 972

    A Grammar and Dictionary of Zaiwa

    Brill’s Tibetan Studies Library Edited by

    Henk Blezer Alex McKay Charles Ramble

    Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region Edited by

    George L. Van Driem

    VOLUME 5/11

    A Grammar and Dictionary of Zaiwa Volume Two: Dictionary and Texts

    By

    Anton Lustig

    LEIDEN • BOSTON 2010

    On the cover: Old Dumsa witch doctor Du Lai Wa from Udvyeng. Courtesy of Li Yang. This book is printed on acid-free paper.

    ISSN 1568-6183 ISBN 978 90 04 18489 3 (Set) ISBN 978 90 04 19221 8 (Volume 1) ISBN 978 90 04 19222 5 (Volume 2) Copyright 2010 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints BRILL, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change.

    DEDICATION

    This book is dedicated to the inventive and warmhearted Jingpo people.

    CONTENTS VOLUME TWO

    Introduction to Volume Two ................................................................. ix Abbreviations ................................................................................. xi English index to the Dictionary ...............................................................1 Zaiwa - English Dictionary ....................................................................59 a b c d e (f) g h i k l

    ................ ................ ................ ................ ................ ................ ................ ................ ................ ................ ................

    59 73 101 109 133 133 135 161 175 181 201

    m n o p r s t u w y z

    ................ ................ ................ ................ ................ ................ ................ ................ ................ ................ ................

    227 263 297 301 315 325 359 371 377 393 405

    v after the initial consonant indicates creaky voice. Stories: 1 On the Zitung; free translation..............................................437 Zaiwa transcription with literal translation ......................442 2 On the Saqwa; free translation..............................................471 Zaiwa transcription with literal translation ......................473 3 Rabbit Tales; free translation................................................485

    VIII

    CONTENTS

    Zaiwa transcription with literal translation..........................492 Songs: 1 Song of Mount Mezyoisingra ...............................................521 2 When I Was Little .................................................................523 3 Mama and Papa .....................................................................525 4 Our Native Land....................................................................526 Fragments of speech.............................................................................528 Plates……… ………….......................................................................531

    INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME TWO Whereas volume one is a description of Zaiwa grammar, this second volume focuses on vocabulary and texts. The Zaiwa-English dictionary reflects almost all of the vocabulary I encountered during fieldwork. The English-Zaiwa index contains more or less the same information, but turned inside out. As in the discussion of the grammar in volume one, here too I could not resist the temptation of adding much examples. Zaiwa phonology and the backgrounds of Zaiwa transcription have been set out in the first chapters of the first volume and will therefore not be discussed again here. The stories are told by two respected elderly men, the stories on the Zitung and the Saqwa by the late witch doctor Pau11ki11-gam35, and the rabbit tales by Pau11zyang11 Ka31dvom55. Of all stories I give both a free translation in normal text type and a literal translation with Zaiwa transcriptions and glosses. The recordings of most of the materials can be obtained from the author. (Please feel welcome to contact me at Anton_Lustig @hotmail.com). The book ends with photographs showing aspects of Zaiwa life and of my stays in Loi11lung35 village and thereabouts. These photographs were all taken in the early nineties of the last century. The captions are in Zaiwa, with glosses and English translations. I am very much aware of the fact that this book offers just a fraction of what can be told about the wonderful Zaiwa people and their language, a world on its own.

    ABBREVIATIONS […] /…/

    Ø

    phonetic transcription phonemic transcription notation for single morpheme1 zero-marker

    person number categories: SG PL PO

    singular plural possessive

    other categories: ablative case suffix active involvement auxiliary (adj) adjective AG/I agentive/instrumental suffix anim animate AUG augmentative suffix B bound form BENEX benefactive exhortative clause marker CC conceptual suffix CD conditional clause marker ABL ACT

    1 Combinations of morphemes are written without brackets.

    Only relevant for first person pronouns: DU dual ND non-dual (more than two) IN addressee included EX addressee excluded

    COM CX DC DIE

    DIM DOM EE EMP EXCL EXP

    comitative suffix coaxing suffix double-checking suffix dual inclusive exhortative clause marker diminutive suffix domineering suffix exclusive exhortative clause marker general emphatic suffix exclamatory ending suffix of the expected

    XII FV GEN GI FCT HIGH +I INC INO INS

    (ipf) JUS LOC MIR N NEG

    nom OBJ OBV OPP P PART PE PFM PHB PL PLIM PNO Q REF

    ABBREVIATIONS

    final verification suffix oblique genitive case marker general indicative clause marker factitive marker highlighting suffix indicative mood marker inciting suffix inanimate nominaliser ‘things for/to …’ insistive suffix imperfective jussive clause marker general locative suffix mirative suffix noun negative prefix nominalising prefix object marker suffix of the obvious opportunative clause marker perfect clause marker partitive pronominal suffix personal experience clause marking unit performative aspectiviser prohibitive prefix plural clause marker plural imperative clause marker plural nominaliser general interrogative pronominal prefix reference suffix

    2REL RFL ROUS SIM SPEC SNO SUG TOP TS UNC V VEH VO

    vi vt Y/N

    second person relational prefix reflective suffix rousing suffix singular imperative clause marker specificatory morpheme singular nominaliser suggestive suffix general topic marker time suffix uncertainty suffix verb aspectiviser of vehemence volitional clause marker intransitive verb transitive verb yes-or-no suffix

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY a / one vide: le1-. Aah! vide: a55! abandon vide: bvyam55. abdomen vide: i1-si5-um 31; um 31; wam11; wam11-bvung11-mo35 ; wam11-dau35mo35; wam 35-no11 . ablative vide: mai11. ablaze vide: duq1; nueng31nueng31. able vide: dat1; myang31; ung31; wo35. abominably vide: a1gon11 / me5gon11 / be5gon11. about (a certain topic) vide: sueng54. about to vide: a1kui31/a1hui31. above vide: a1-toq5; hu31; hu55. abstain vide: gam35. abundant vide: ngai35. abundantly green vide: a1-ngvyo55. abundantly (growing) vide: a1-si31. abyss vide: gam11; ng1gam11 gam11. accept vide: ron35. accident vide: mue11; mue 11 si31 mu31; rvong31; saq1wa11. accidentally vide: zang35. ache vide: gyop1; no31; seng55-no11; ut1ut1 ; wam35-no11. acquainted vide: man35; sue31-lum 11. Adam’s apple vide: kyong11-zui31. add vide: gya35; zyat1. add colour vide: nvye31. add water vide: nam35. addiction vide: i31-pue11-yin31. address someone as vide: ang11. adolescent vide: i1-ram31; ze1-ram 31. adult vide: gvo11. adults vide: gvo11 bang 11 (wui31). advantage vide: long35; long35 mo35-mo35. aeroplane vide: dung31-lvai31; lvai31. 11 5 affair vide: sum11zvoq5; sum zvoq zvoq5. 1 55 55 afraid vide: gyuq ; sim sim ; wam31. after vide: mai11-eq1; mu31; tang31. after that… vide: a1-mu31. afternoon vide: kyui55; min35-tang 31. again vide: dum11; dum11-sai31; sai55. age vide: a1sak1.

    aged

    vide: mang11; mang11-zo11; mang11zo11-mvi55 ; mang 11-zo11-po55; mang11zo11 wui31. agent vide: -eq1. ago vide: he55-me55; ke5-yoq1-ngi35. ago (some time ago) vide: he5-yoq1; zyau35-mai11. agree vide: dong35; pom31; sam55-yau11 yau11; yau11. agreed vide: ei11o31; m 31mo31. aim vide: weng31. air vide: mau11-kung31 / mau11-hung31; soq5. air (in the air) vide: -lat1/-lat5; mau11-lat5 me55; rvong31 . alarm vide: puq1. alas vide: ei31; goi35-ei31. albino vide: nge1-noq1 pyu31; pyu31. alcohol vide: i31-bvat5; i31-bvyung31; i31pik5; i31-pue 11 ; i31-pue11 -yin31; i31seng11 seng11 ; i31 -syuq5; pe1 -gang11 ; pi11zyo31; tam11; wue31-i31; wut1. all vide: ban31; kot1kot1; kum55/hum 55; kyom11; ngvaq5 ; zvyat5. all around vide: le1-meng54. all day vide: le1-ngi35-bui31. all fours vide: do11. all kinds vide: dvip5dvip5dvop5dvop5. all kinds of vide: a1-myu31-myu31. all of vide: rvoq5. all of them vide: ngap1. all over vide: dum11; dum 11-sai31. all over the place vide: bvyeq1bvyeq1; byeq1-byeq1; mvya11mvya11. all right! vide: ei31; m31. all right vide: gue31; zin31. all the time vide: dvik5dvik5. all together vide: ban31-syoq5-bang11. all-around vide: lving31. all-round vide: dvip5dvip5dvop5dvop5. allergy vide: pun31. almost vide: a1luq1syoi31; rau35 / lau35. almost certain vide: a5be11. alone vide: bau35. alphabet vide: lai11gva55-mvi55.

    2

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    also vide: r11 / li11 / lye11. although vide: gve5lvang11. aluminium vide: sot1. always (as always) vide: lvaq5. amazed vide: mau35. amidst vide: lung35; tye 11. amongst vide: a1-tye11; tye11. amulet vide: lak1poi31. amuse oneself vide: ngi11-gvun55. anaemia vide: bin11syui11. and vide: -eq5. and after that … vide: a5-mai11; hau55mu31 . and then… vide: hau55-syeq1. and-so-on vide: a1rvang55/a5rvang55. anger vide: mvuet5!. angle vide: zyut1/zyut5. angry vide: byong11; don11; mvat5mvat5; myoq1-duq1 (-mo35); nvik 5-yo11 ; zun11zun11. animals vide: du11sat1/du11sat5; puq1; reng35-nvau11; zvo11. ankle vide: rvueq5. annoy vide: zeng11r 11. answer vide: dvu31. ant vide: bau31woq5; gum11gai35bva31; zvang55mvan31 . ant eggs vide: bau31woq5-u55. anteater vide: dang31-hui11. antelope vide: yo11. anthill vide: bau31woq5-um31; um31. antlers vide: kyui31; sat5-kyui31; zi1si31kyui31 . anus vide: ki5-dong11. anxious vide: dye31; lang35. any vide: le1-zvui55; le1-zvui55-zo11; le 1zvui55-zvui55 . anymore vide: le1-. apart vide: gang11. ape vide: > monkey. apocalypse vide: meng11-gvan11 zi1tum 31. apparent vide: nvo31. appear vide: ngam31. appearance vide: le1-suen31. appetizing smell vide: kom55sing55 /hom55-sing55 . apply force vide: wum11. appropriate vide: map5. approval vide: a1ra31!.

    area vide: long31. argue vide: byoq1; me1-byoq1 ho31. argument vide: byoq1; kim55; kim31 lum11. arm vide: loq1/loq5; loq1-bvat5; loq1-hue11; loq1-myoq1 ; loq1-yin31 . armadillo vide: dang31-hui11. armpit vide: ge1-zvyuk5-kyong31. armspan vide: lam31; loq1-lam31. aromatic tumeric vide: tut5-poq5. around vide: kyuq1. arrange vide: me1sat1 bi11. array vide: yan35. arrive vide: ron35; zye35. arrogant vide: gum11rong31; rueng35. arrow vide: lai11-zu11; zu11. as vide: dong31; -se55/se5-/su55; su55/se 5-/se55. as always vide: lvaq5. as much as you can vide: myo11-myo11. as soon as vide: zyang35. ashes vide: mi1-byu11; mi1-um 11 um11; mi1-wap5; put5 /pun31 ; um11 . aside vide: hui11. ask vide: dung 11; lok1; mi11; zi31. askance/askew looks vide: myoq1-zun35; zun35. asleep vide: mvi55; mvyet1mvyet1; ngvam11; nuk 5; son11; su31su31 ; syup5 ; yvup5/yvum31 ; yvup5-mo35; zek1 -zek1; zuet1. assemble vide: byong31. assist vide: be1-; ge1rum35. astringent, like unripe persimmons vide: bvan31. at vide: me5-/ma35/ma55/me55. at least vide: gvo11. at leisure vide: yvo55-mai11; yvo55-yvo55. at once vide: le1-dam31-dvaq5. at the base of vide: wang11. attach vide: dap1/dap5; dvap5. attached (closely attached to) vide: tyep5. attached (feel attached to) vide: nan11. attack vide: pun31; tim11; tye11. attend vide: lom31. attention (with attention) vide: le1go11. au contraire vide: syeq1. aubergine vide: he5lvam11.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY aunt vide: au31-mo35; mi1-tang55-zo11; mvoi55. available vide: wo35. avaricious vide: cyum31. await vide: lom31. awake (be awake) vide: bun11. away vide: lye35; so 11; ye31/i5-. awl vide: dun11; dvok5; tong11. axe vide: we5-zung11; zung 11. baby vide: Me1-ngvyeq5; ng5nga31; ngvyai55-bong11; ngvyeq5 ; ngvyeq5nu35-zo11; ngvyeq5-zo11 ; nu35 ; si1ngai11 ; zo11 /ze1 -/za1 -. back vide: dvau11; num11-tang55; nung31kung31 ; pi1dum11; zyai35. back (at the back) vide: tang31-pyang31. back-basket vide: tung55-gva55. bad vide: bup1; goi35; poi11. bad (feel bad) vide: ngon35. bad fruits vide: si1-nam31. bad luck vide: pu11. badminton vide: uu35mau11zyo11. bag vide: mau11-bu11-tung31; pun55tung31; sam55-tung 31; soi11-tung31; song11; tung31 ; tung31-bvi55 ; tung31duk1; tung 31-hen55 ; tung31 zving31; zuk5. bagpipes vide: ba35zya35. bah! vide: tui31!. balance vide: gan11; wui35. bald vide: a1-gyang31; gvak5; gyang31; kang55; nge1-dyeng35-mo35 ; u1-zvyui55. bald on top of the head vide: u1-zvyui55; zvyui55. ball vide: bo11lung31; cyam11/syam11; king31-tui11; mau11sau11-tui11 ; tui11; zi35. balloon vide: si1-bong35. bamboo vide: bvun11; mai31pyu55-gam31; mi1-bvyung55 (mut1 ); sek5 -pye11; sen55ma 35; sue 55 ; tong 11; tong11-loq5; wa11/we 1-/we5 -; we 1-/we5 -; we1kyam11; wut1lvo31. bamboo bushes vide: we1-yo31. bamboo for cooking vide: bvun11; te5bvun11; te5-dvum 55 . bamboo rat vide: woq1-kui11/woq1-hui11.

    3

    bamboo shoots

    vide: mik1; mik1-bup 1; mik1-bup 1 bvup5; mik1-sun11. bamboo sprouts vide: mik1-ban35. bamboo thong vide: nye11. bamboo trunks (cluster of) vide: bang31. bamboo tube vide: i1-syang11; syang11. bamboo-made container vide: i1syang11; syang11; te5 -; te5-kyun55. banana vide: mvye11; ngve5-mvyuq1; ngvoq1/ngve5 -. banana leaves vide: ngvoq1-haq5. banana skin vide: ngve5-mvyuq1-gvyap5. band vide: dum31bvu55-pung55; Wun11 bvong55 -pung55. bandage vide: bam35. bang vide: ning31!; rong31/rong31rong31; rum31 ; tong11 ; tong11-loq5; tong11-si11. bank vide: wui31-yam31. banyan tree vide: mvyang11-zeng31. bare vide: a1-gyang31; gyang31; se5gvyang31. bare (teeth, wound) vide: cik5; si11-cik5. barefoot vide: ki31-cin31. barehand vide: cin31; loq1-cin31. bark vide: kui11-wap5; se5-gvu55; wap1/wap5. barking deer vide: zi1si31. barn vide: guq1-zvi31; yo31-zang 31; zum 35. base vide: gung31; wang11; yvum31-go11. basket vide: bvyap5; byo31; i31-bvyung31; lan35; mong11 ; nge 1-byun35; sa11 ; sa11zo11; song11 ; tung55-gva55. bastard vide: dye31. bat vide: bve5he55. bathe vide: gyun11; syoq5. battery vide: mi1-zang11. be vide: ngvut5. be there vide: ngi31; ngi31 lang35; zyoq1/zyoq5. beam heat vide: mi1-ngin35 ngin35; ngin35. beam (roof beam) vide: kung31/hung31. bean vide: nuq1/nuq5/ne1-; nuq1-gvyui31.

    bean curd

    vide:

    do11fu31/do11pu31/du11pu31. bean sprouts vide: nuq1-ngok1. beanstalk vide: gvyui31-syuq5. bear fruit vide: zui11. bear n. vide: wam31; wam31-kui11; wam 31mvi55; wam31-po55.

    4

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    bear reference with… vide: sueng54. bear vt. vide: dap1/dap5. beard vide: nvut5-mui11. bearded vide: nvut5-mui11 zuk5-mo 35; zuk5-mo35 . beat vide: ban11; bat1/bat5/ban11; cyang11 /syang11 gvyak5 gvyak5; dyen35; nvuq5 ; rang31; sin11 ; sop5. beat (let beat) vide: bvat5. beat (whilst forging) vide: syam31-bat5. beautiful vide: gyai11; yung35; zvyoi11. because vide: mai11-eq1. because of this… vide: a1-mu31. become vide: byuq1; dut1. bed vide: gu35; gum31; yvup5-dvoq5; zvuq5. bee vide: bi1-; bi1-syoq5; bi1-yang11; bi1zo11; byo11 /bi1-; dvu31-mo35 ; mi1bvyung55 (mut1 ); yang11-zvin55 . bee hive vide: bi1-gvyap5; bi1-tung55. beep vide: dvit5dvit5. beer vide: pi11zyo31; zvu31-myup5. beeswax vide: bi1-zang11. before vide: he5-/he 55/ke 5-; he5-yoq1; he5yoq1-ngi35; he55-pyang31 . beg vide: pi55. beggar vide: mo35pi55; pi55. begin vide: pang55. begin vide: a1-bvun31; he31; pang55; sang31-he11; wang31 . begin of a story vide: a1-bvun31. begin (season) vide: wang31. beginning vide: he31. beginning (in the beginning) vide: sang31-he11. behave vide: dai54 (dang11) (a 1-)gyo11. behind vide: tang31; tang55. behind one’s back vide: num11-tang55. Beijing vide: Bue11gin35/Bue11zin35; Bueq1gin35. being vide: du11. believe vide: zing35. bell vide: dvyeng55dvyeng55; ke1rok1/ke1rok5; (no11 -)ke 1rok1. bellows vide: mvyang55. belly drum vide: dum31bvu55. beloved vide: zvit5; zvit5-dap1.

    below

    vide: a1-o31; a1-u31; mvo31; mvo55-; mvo55-dong31; mvo55-kung11; mvo55lut1 ; o31; wang11. belt vide: het5; pe1-/pe5-; pe1-het5. bench vide: dvang55kuq5/dvang55huq5. bend vide: kyui11; ngvuq5. bend neck vide: u1-lvum 11 ngvang55. bend over vide: ngom35. benefit vide: a1gvyu31. berry vide: si1-bvi31-si11. besom vide: ding35; mvan11-ding35.

    best (do one’s best) vide: si1gvut1 /si1gvun11. better vide: san11-san11. between vide: ge1ro11; gung11-gung31; gvyo31. bewildered vide: mau35. bewilderment vide: m1m55!; wa 35/we1-; wvue55 ! bicker vide: dang11-kim55 kim 55; kim55; kim31 lum11. bicycle vide: ki31-lyeng 31; lyeng31. big vide: gvo11; mo 35; mo35-mo35. big eater vide: wam11-pam11-mo35. big job vide: ngvyeq1(-ngvyeq1). big toe vide: ki31-mo35-syam11. bile vide: seng11-gvi31. bind vide: dvui11; pui55. bird vide: bang35ga55li55; buk1be1lui11; bvak5bvang55 ; bvuk5dun11 ; du11du1di35di35 ; mau35 ; ne1-lui11ngvoq5; ne1-zi11-ngvoq5; ngve5 -; ngve5-noq1; ngvoq5/ngve5-; ngvoq5 zo11; pui55-woq1; pung31gvyui11 ; pyui31; u5dvong55; wa31gyang31; we1poq1; zeng31gi11 ; zeng 31gi11-zo11 ; zi11; zun31ngyau31; zyo31kyang55. bird of prey vide: zun31; zun31-gvyang11. bird’s nest vide: ngvoq5-sut5. birds vide: ngvoq5-zvik5 ngvoq5-zo11. birds of a feather vide: le1-pok1pok1 za54. birth vide: bau11; cyoq5-pit5; cyoq5-pit5mau11 ; lang11dang35; mau11; san11; si1ngai11 . bit vide: le1-zvui55; le 1-zvui55-zo11; le1zvui55-zvui55 . bit (tiny little bit) vide: le1-pyek1-zo11. bite vide: ngat1; nvut5; tye 11; zvan55zvan55 .

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY bitter vide: gvi11gvi11; ko11. bitter vines vide: nui31-ko11. black vide: cyot1cyot1; cyut5/syut5; noq1 /noq5; nvoq5; u1-sam 31 nvoq5 . black mustard vide: ang11-bong11; ang11noq5 ; ang11-noq5-weng11 /weng 31; ang11-nu35-zo11; nuq1-byeq1 . blacksmith vide: ning11dup1. bladder vide: seng11-gvi31; si1-bong35. blaming vide: o35!. blanch vide: syui11. blast vide: rang31. bleb (form bleb) vide: bvyom11. bleb on the tongue vide: syo31-bvyom11 byom11. bleed vide: nvo31-mun35-sui11; sui11. blind vide: myoq1-zit1; zit1/-zit5. blink eyes vide: myoq1-pyap1 pyap1; pyap1. bllinking vide: dvu55. block vide: dvye31; tye31; zeng 31. block vt. vide: lvom31. blond vide: kyeng55. blood vide: nvo31-mun35-sui11; sui11; sui11-ki55; waq1-sui11. bloodsucker vide: mvyu55. bloody vide: si31/si5-/si11-; si31-mang11; waq1-si31. blow vide: dvang11; hek5; mut1/mut5. blow fire vide: mi1-bvyung55 (mut1); mi1toi55loi35 . blow one’s nose vide: kyui11; nvap5 kyui11 . blow the fire vide: mi1-mut5. blow up vide: dvau55. blue vide: a1-ngyui31; ngyui31; sek5ngyui31; sing11sing 11. blue sky vide: mau11-kung31/mau11hung31 ; mau11-kung31-ngyui31 . boar vide: dvye11; waq1-dvye11. boar (intact male pig) vide: waq1-kyam55. board n. vide: bvyen55; sek5-bvyen55; sek5pye11. boat vide: lvai31. body vide: du11; gung31; gung 31-du11; (pi1dum11) hu55-dvum55; (pi1dum11) mvo55-dvum55 ; syo11 /si1 -/si5; wang31gang11. body hair vide: mau35; si1-mau35.

    5

    body-guard vide: de1bvye31. bogey-man vide: dam11-mvi55. bogged in the mud vide: nvop5. boil vide: zvu31. boil vide: bing31; bing31-zvin31-zo11; myoq1-bing31 . boiled water vide: wui31-bu11. Bola vide: Wun11bvong55 a 1-myu31. bolt vide: gvyang55; kum11-gvyang55. bomb vide: bom11; loq1-bom 11. bond vide: ki31. bone vide: gvong55; si1-gvong55; si1-wui11; wui11; wui11-ngyun35 . bones (of fish) vide: nge1-zo11-zu11. book vide: buk1; mau11sau11; mau11sau11gvyap5. booze vide: i31-bvat5; i31-bvyung31; i31pik5; i31-pue 11 ; i31-pue11 -yin31; i31seng11 seng11 ; i31 -syuq5; pe1 -gang11 ; pi11zyo31; seng11-zue 31 ; tam11; wue31i31 ; wut1. bore vide: dun11; dvok5; tong11. bore for cleaning guns vide: um31-dun11. bored with vide: ngeng35. born vide: bau11; cyoq5-pit5; cyoq5-pit5mau11 ; lang11dang35; san11; si1-ngai11 . borrow vide: zvi11. both vide: lum 11; rvoq5. bother vide: gon11/gon31; zeng11r 11. bottle vide: dvau55; dvau55-gvom31; i31pue11-tam11; tam11 ; tok1 . bottom vide: ci5-hung11; cyuq5; syang11cyuq5; yam11-cyuq5 . bottom of bucket or jerrycan vide: bvung31-cyuq5 . bottom of pan vide: au11-cyuq5. boundlessly vide: lvum31. bout vide: kop5. bow vide: kyui11; lai11; lai11-bek5. bow vt. vide: ngvuq5. bowed down vide: gung31-ngong35 ngong35. bowl vide: koq5/hoq5; koq5-kam11; mau11lat5 koq5 -zo11; nye35gvyet5-koq5. box vide: ap5-gvyung55; gok5; gvok5; gvyung55; ngvya55-gvyung55 . boycott vide: hyet5. boyfriend vide: sum11zvoq5-po55. bracelet vide: kong55; loq1-ting11.

    6

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    brain vide: u1-nvuq5. brains vide: u1-nvuq5. branch vide: gvoq5; mvan11-ding35; se 5gvoq5; si1 -gvoq5/si11-gvoq5 . branch road vide: kyo31-bvi31. brave vide: rvuq5. bread vide: man11to55. break vide: cek5/sek5; gvrom31; gyom31; gyop1; king11 ; kyop5/kyom31; kyui11; sak5; tok5tok5. break down vide: pyoq5/pyo31. break off vide: dvum55. break (take a break) vide: no11. break wind vide: bvuq5; ki1-bvuq5. breakfast vide: zang11. breast vide: nau35. breast stroke (swimming) vide: bve1-li11. breast-feed vide: huq5; nau35; nau35gvang11 gvang11; nau35 huq5. breathe vide: soq5 sye31; sye31. breed on something vide: dvuq5. breeding vide: up5. breeding hen vide: woq1-up5-mvi55. bride vide: mi1-sek5; moq1-wang31 wang31/moq5-wang 31 wang31 . bridegroom vide: lang31-sek5. bridge vide: zam31; zvam55. bright vide: san11. brim vide: dyep1. bring vide: wun31. bring about vide: pan31. bring home vide: dye35. bring out toast vide: dvon31. bring someone down with words vide: a1ngyan11 . bring the news of someone’s death vide: si31-sit5. brittle vide: pop1; sak5; tang11-wom11. brittle vide: wom11; kve5-lvam55; lvam55. broad vide: lam31; lvam55; zvyang11. broken vide: gyop1; koq5-kam11; zyeq1. broken edge vide: kam11. broken knife vide: syam31-dvum55. brood vide: up5; woq1-up5 up5. brook, stream vide: i1-lang31-zo11; lang31kung11 /lang 31-hung11 ; nge1-gvoq5. broom vide: bui11-syum11; syum11. broth vide: a1-weng11; weng11/weng31.

    brother

    vide: a5-gu11; a5-mang11; a5-pu11; Dvang55; -Dvu31; -Gam35; gu11; Gun31; i5-mang11 -mo35 ; i5-pu11; -Ka 31 ; -Laq1/-Laq5; Laq1-wom35; Le1-dvang55; Le1-dvu31; Le 1-gam35; Le 1-ka31 ; Le1laq5; Le 1-nong35 ; Le1-yong35; mang11 ; Mang11-gun31 ; Mang11-ka31; Mang 11lat5; Mang11-mo35 ; Mang11-tung55 ; Nong35; Pe1 -lat5 ; pu11/pe 1-; Pu11gun31/Pe 1-gun31; Pu11-ka31/Pe1-ka31; Pu11-lat1/Pu11-lat5 /Pe 1-lat5 ; Pu11mo35/Pe 1-mo35; Pu11-tung 55/Pe1tung55; Yong35. brothers vide: ge1-mang11. brothers and sisters vide: nvik5-dvang31. brown sugar vide: nam31oi11; zyo31bva55; zyo31syoq5. bruised vide: mue11. brunch vide: nap1-zang11. brush teeth vide: nvut5 zyui11; zyui11. bucket vide: bvung31. bud vide: a1-zui35; bum11; zui35. Buddha vide: Pe5rva31. budge vide: dui31. buffalo vide: bok1bok1bok1; dvang11; dvang31; hui31 ; hui31; lui11 ; ne1-lui11 ; yoq1; yoq1 . buffaloes vide: bok1bok1bok1. bug vide: ang11-noq5-bau11; bau11; bau11don35; nuq1-bau11 ; pyo31 ; woq1dut 1. bug-eaten vide: tyen11; tyen55-lui11. bugle vide: gye31-bvi55. build vide: rvang55; zvam55.

    build by fitting tenons into mortises vide: zvuq5. build house vide: yvum31-zvuq5 zvuq5. bulb vide: mi1-sueng55. bull vide: mi11; ne 1-lo11; ne 1-mi11. bull’s eye vide: dvyeq5dvyeq5. bullet vide: syam31-si11; zve1-lvin55 lvin55. bullets vide: tong11-si11. bully vide: roi31; up1. (bum 31-)weng11-tang31 vide: bum 31-doq5. bumb (cause a bump) vide: bvu55. bump vide: tung11; zang35. bun vide: u1-zung31; u1-zung31 zung31; zung31 . bunch vide: byau11/byau11-byau11; mat1; roi11.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY bunch of bananas vide: bvau31; mvye11. bunch (of fruits) vide: bvyau31. Burma vide: Myen31-meng11. Burmese vide: Myen31. burn vide: duq1; ngvye55; tun11. burn down vide: kyo55; ngvye55. burning vide: duq1. burnt vide: ngye35. burp vide: a5-gue11; gue11. burst vide: ut1-ut1. bury vide: mvyup5. bus vide: mo35do35. bush vide: we1-yo31. bush meat vide: yo31-so31-syo11. bushes vide: syoi31syoi31. business vide: mi1-hang55-kyo31; myat1; pe5ga35; sam55-zue 31 ; sep1; ung11 . busy vide: gin31. but vide: le1-/le 5-; mve5nvung 11; syeq1. but in that case … vide: a1-kun31/a1hun31. butt vide: dvum55. butt (of cigarette) vide: ngvya55-dvum55. butterfly vide: pe5lvam31. buttock-jolting vide: bvyang11. buttocks vide: ci5-; ci5-nau35; nau35. button vide: be1-si11; si11. button one’s clothes vide: be 1-si11 si11. buy vide: wui31. buy stock vide: sep1. by (done by) vide: -eq1. by itself vide: bau35. by oneself vide: yvang11. cabbage vide: ang11-pyu31; ang 11-pyu31zo11; ang11-pyu31-zo11; tup5 . cabinet vide: gvau55. cable vide: zvi5nan31-dvui11. cage vide: cyun55; koq5/hoq5; kup5; ngvoq5-cyun55; woq1-cyun55; woq1kup5. cage for ritual use vide: woq1-koq5. cake vide: gvyeq5; long11; muk 1; zyo31bva55; zyo31syoq5 . calculate vide: son55. calf vide: ne1-nu35-zo11; ne1-zo11. call vide: puq1; wut1/wun11. call (telephone) vide: bat1/bat5/ban11. called vide: ga11.

    7

    callus vide: bu11; loq1-bu11. camera vide: dvat5bung35-dyem11-zue 31. can vide: dat1; gue31; myang31. candle vide: la11zyu11. cane vide: dvu55; pung11syui31; pung11syui31-haq5 ; yang11 . canine teeth vide: kui11-zui31. cap vide: muq1-gvyup5/me 1-gvyup5; zvung11. cap of bottle vide: dvau55-mvi11. capable vide: dat1. capon vide: woq1-mon35. car vide: mo35do35; to 55. cards vide: pai55; pue 31; rang 31. care vide: gon11/gon31. careful vide: rom11. carefully vide: yvo55-mai11; yvo55-yvo55. carelessly vide: a1gon11 /me5gon11/be5gon11; be 5gon11; me5gon11 . caring vide: me1yat1. carpet vide: dvap5-kang11/dvap5-hang11; kang11/hang11. carry vide: waq1/wa11; wun31. carry (child) on back vide: bau11. carry in front vide: bom35; bun35. carry on shoulder vide: lui31. carrying pole vide: hap1. cart vide: to55. carton vide: gvok5. cartridge-case vide: yam35dvok5-gvop1. case vide: mue31-bu11 se1dyek1; ngun31 se1dyek1; se1dyek1. cassette vide: ze1dai31. cast vide: du35. cast side-glances vide: myoq1-zun35; zun35. cast spell vide: to31. castrated vide: mon35. castrated pig vide: waq1-dung11; waq1mon35 . casually vide: a1gon11/me5gon11/be 5gon11. cat vide: le1-/lo11; le1-ngvyau55; lo 11; ngvyau55; ngvyau55-lo11 ; ngvyau55po55; sya31lom11 ; wung31. catapult vide: lai11-dan35; nye35gvyet5 lai11-dan35 ; zve1-lvin55 lvin55. catch vide: dvui11; zyup5/zyum 31.

    8

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    catch fire vide: dap1/dap5; mi11 ngye35; ngye35; gvong55; pek5. catch one’s breath vide: no11. catch up vide: dvye31. categorically vide: dving55dving55. caterpillar vide: dung31sang11; nut1nut1; pun31 pun31. cats and dogs vide: nueng31nueng 31. cattle vide: ne1-boi35 boi35; ne 1-ho31; ne1sue11 ; ne1-zung35; ne1 -zyung31; no11 /ne 1-/ne5 -; (no11 -)ke 1rok1; ruem35; yo31-so31-no11 . cattle, buffalo, water buffalo, zebu vide: no11/ne 1-/ne 5-. cattle commands to water buffaloes vide: no11/ne 1-/ne 5-. cause vide: lvoq5; me 1zyoq1. caused by vide: mu31. cave vide: dong11; mi31-dong11. cavity vide: kyung55. CCP vide: Dang31. celery vide: gvung31gvang31. centipede vide: mui31-sin11; sin11. centre vide: gung31; wa 31-gung31. ceremonial gruel vide: mi1-sek 5 ge1zyam11. ceremony vide: keng11wai35. certain vide: a5be 11. chaff (for pigs) vide: pui11; waq1-pui11. chair vide: dvang55kuq5/dvang55huq5; zut1/zun11; zvuq5. chameleon vide: yang31gyung31. change vide: byuq1; dut1; ngun31-yoi11; pyoq5/pyo31. chaos (create chaos) vide: mvin31. character vide: i1sat1; lai11gva55; Mi11wa11 lai11gva55 . chase vide: si1-gyeq5. chase away vide: bvyo31; syoi31! syoi31!. chat vide: meng11; pye31-ngvam11; zi1ta11. cheat vide: mvau55. check up on someone vide: zong31. cheek vide: be1-. cheeks vide: be1-bvyuq5 bvyuq5; myoq1dong11. cheese-paring person vide: son11-ki11 son11-na35. chest vide: mue31-bu11 se 1dyek1; se 1dyek1; wang31gang11.

    chest for money vide: ngun31 se1dyek1. chew vide: nvut5 yop1; nvye11. chew fine vide: nvuq5. chewed fine vide: nuq1. chick vide: woq1-zo11. chicken vide: no11-woq1-waq1; pui55-woq1; syoi31! syoi31 !; tau11zvi31-woq1 ; woq1; woq1-but1 ; woq1-mon35 ; woq1-mvi55; woq1-po55 ; woq1-po55 zyoq1-ban11 ; woq1-up5 -mvi55 ; woq1-up5 up5; woq1wum35 ; woq1-zo11. child vide: dye31; ze1-dvai55; zi1syang31; zo11/ze1 -/za1 -; zyong11-zo11 . childbirth vide: bau11; lang11dang35; san11 ; si1-ngai11. childhood vide: a1-dviq5 (ze 11). children vide: dviq5 bang11; tik1tik1tak1tak1 . chilli vide: pik5-nu35; si1-pik5. chilli powder vide: pik5-mun31. chilly vide: ngam35. chin vide: am31tang55. China vide: Mi11wa31-mau11. Chinese vide: Mi11wa11; Mi11wa 11 lai11gva55 ; Mi11wa11 -ming35. Chinese cabbage vide: ang11-pyu31; ang11-pyu31-zo11 . Chinese prickly ash vide: wat1; zyap1si11 . chink vide: hum55-dong11. chip vide: zvyop5. chipped vide: zvyop5. chisel vide: dvok5. choose vide: kin31; o31. chop vide: dvok5; dvok5dvok5dvok5; si1zyap5; zyap1/zyap5. chopsticks vide: koi55zvue11; ngvyam11; sun55-kau31 koi55zvue 11. cicada vide: ge1yveng31; sung11-toq5 ge1yveng31. cigarette vide: dvum55; ngvya55; yven55. cigarette-packet vide: ngvya55-gvop1. circle dance vide: gva11; Tong11-gva11. city vide: mvyuq5; mvyuq5-mo35. claim vide: map5. claim debt vide: but1; zvin31 but1. clam vide: lung11zyo35. clamber vide: gau35. clap hands vide: bvyuq5.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY class vide: mu35 zui11 zo11 bang11; wui31. classes vide: zyong11 pong55. classroom vide: gok1; zyong11-gok5. clean vide: san11; san11-san11; san11sueng31; sut5 /sun31; zvyui55 . clean gun vide: um31-dun11. clear vide: dvong31; kyang31; san11. clear one’s throat vide: kyong11 tye31 mu31 . clear out vide: sueng55. clear up vide: byan35; pong11. clearly vide: dvong31. clearly (speak clearly) vide: bye35. cleave vide: pit5/pin31; tok5tok5; zik1/zing11; zvye55. clench vide: ngvyam11; ngyap1/ngyap5. clench fist vide: loq1-zvup5 zvup5; zvup5. clever vide: lyet1; zuen35. cliff vide: gam11-bvyoq5 gam11-lvang11. climb vide: doq1/doq5; gau35. climb the mountain vide: bum 31-doq5. clip vide: ngvyam11; ngyap1/ngyap5; zuen11. clippers vide: loq1-seng11-zuen11-zue31. clock vide: na35i55; tyek1tyek1. clock time vide: king55. close vide: a1-zvyang55; dvyep5dvyep5; laq1; mvi11 ; tyep5 . close by vide: le1-ha55-ze1-me 55. close (relationship) vide: zyem11. close to each other vide: tyep5-tyep5; yvep5yvep5. close to each other (plants, seeds) vide: sup5/sum31 . close vicinity vide: nam31. close vicinity of the house vide: yvum31nam11 . closed vide: mi11. closely attached to vide: tyep5. closely related vide: seng11-seng11. clot vide: bvat5. cloth vide: bvan55; kang11-bvan55. clothes vide: be1-; be 1-sek5; bu11/be1-; keng11/heng 11; mau11-bu11; mi1-wue 11bu11; mue 31; mue 31-bu11 ; mue 31-bu11 zyup5; sau11-bu11 ; soi11-bu11; wut1 /wun11; yuq1-gue31-bu11; zvung11. cloud vide: > clouded; fog; fog bank.

    clouded

    9

    vide: kup5; mau11-kup5 kup5; syum31; zau35. cloudy leopard vide: ting 11cyap5-lo11. clubs vide: pai55; zi55ya55. clumsy vide: go31; nut1nut1. cluster vide: bvau31; we1-bang31. cluster of bamboo trunks vide: bang31. clutch throat vide: mvik5. coal vide: mi1-gye11. coal prickles vide: mi1-zu11. coals vide: hue11; mi1-hue11. cobra vide: bau31-hu31. cobweb vide: gyang11mvya55-sut5; sut5/sun31 . cock vide: a1-mon35 si54 woq1-po55; san11dap5; woq1-po55. cockroach vide: pyo31. cockscomb vide: woq1-po55 zyoq1-ban11; zyoq1-ban11. cocoon vide: lai11-sut5; sut5/sun31. coffin vide: gung11. cogon grass vide: zai11. coincide vide: bvong31. coins vide: byek1san11; ngun31-yoi11. cold vide: a1ze31!; cyam11/syam11; dvung55; gu35; gyoq1; gyoq1 -si11 pyui55 (-pyui55); ngam35; pyui55-pyui55; sam31mvi11 . cold (have a cold) vide: wang31. cold rice vide: zang11-cyam11/syam11.

    cold shoulder (give the cold shoulder) vide: boi35; hyet5. collect vide: rom11; rvang55 toq5; tuk1. collect water vide: dving55. collectively vide: cyom55/syom55. colour vide: i1sam31; ngvyui31; noq1kyeng55; nvye31. colour black vide: nvoq5. comb vide: bvye11; gyoq5; zyoq1-ban11. comb hair vide: u1-lvum 11. come vide: lo31; lye35. come! vide: lyoq1. come across vide: tung31 hui11. come closer vide: hui11. come down vide: gyo35. come in vide: wang31. come on! vide: dvyo31; gai31. come out vide: toq5. come out (buds) vide: zui35.

    10

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    come together vide: zup1/zup5. come up to one’s mind vide: bun11. comfortable vide: ngon35. comforting vide: mai35mai35mai35. commands to water buffaloes vide: dvang11; dvang31 ; hui31 ; yoq1; yoq1. commodity vide: myang31. common cold vide: sam31mvi11. Communist Party vide: Dang31. companion vide: num 11nang35; syang 55. compare vide: dui35; wvui55. complete vide: gum35; kum 55/hum55. completely vide: kot1kot1; ngap1; ngvaq5. computer vide: dyennao. conceal one’s error vide: zau35. conceited vide: gum11rong31. concentrated vide: -dvung55; gvai55. concerning… vide: sueng54. congealed blood vide: bvat5; sui11-bvat5. conjunction vide: a1-mu31; hau55-mu31; 31 kun31/hun31; lui ; mai11 -eq1 ; mu31; 31 nvo ; syoq5; wa35/we 1-; zyang35 ; zyang35-syeq1. connect vide: dong31; rot1; soq5. conscience vide: me1rong35. conscientious vide: i1mit1. consider vide: bun11; son55. consort with vide: zum31. constantly vide: a1num11. construct vide: rvang55. constructed vide: rot1. contact vide: zum31. contain vide: bo31. container (for paddy) vide: guq1-do35; i1syang11. container (made of bamboo) vide: i1syang11; syang11; te5 -; te5-kyun55. contents vide: le1zvyum55. continue vide: dung11-dung11; dvo11. contrary to expectation vide: syeq1. contrary (to the contrary) vide: mve5nvung11. contrast vide: le1-/le 5-. control vide: zong31. convenient vide: ngai11; yo35. convex vide: bu35. cook vide: gai35; zang11-gok5; zo11; zvo31; zvyoq5/zvyo31.

    cook and eat together vide: zang11bvong31 bvong31 . cook in bamboo vide: bvun11. cooked vide: ngyoq1; zvyoq5/zvyo31. cooked (make well cooked) vide: ngvyoq5. cookies vide: muk1. cooking liquid vide: weng11/weng 31. cooking terms vide: zo11. cool vide: cyam11/syam11. cooperate vide: bvong31. cooperative verb prefix vide: be1-. copper vide: gi11. copper coins vide: byek1san11. copulate vide: lau11. cord vide: dvui11; mi1-dat5-dvui11; zvi5nan31-dvui11. coriander vide: ang11-nam31; ge1la31 ang11-nam31 ; pe1gvi31. cork vide: bve5-sau55 (sau55). corn vide: lung11; lung11-bum11; lung11gam31; lung 11-haq5 ; lung11-sam31. corner vide: kum11-zyut5; zyut1/zyut5. corpse vide: byu31-mang 31; mang31; ne1mang31. correct vide: zyo11. correction vide: o11ka11. cotton vide: daq1u31. cough vide: kyong11 tye31 mu31; kyong11zau11; zau11. count vide: ngap5. country vide: meng11. county vide: kung11/hung11; Meng11mau11-cin11. county town vide: cin11. couple vide: nga35-nvik5-nvum 31; nvik 5nvum31; nvum31; nvum 31 zo11 ; yvang55(-nvik 5)-nvum31; zvum 55 . course vide: kyo31; mi1-hang55-kyo31; mun31; mun31-zup5 . course of brook vide: lang31kung11 /lang 31-hung11 . course voice vide: gok1ei11gok11a11 gok1gi11gok1gak1. court vide: sum11zvoq5 zvoq5. courtship vide: sum11zvoq5. cousin vide: A1-kau55/A5-kau55; kau55/hau55 .

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY cousin (female) cousin or cousin-in-law (female) vide: a5-nving55. cousine vide: a5-rvat5; nving55; nving55mo35. cover vide: -gvyap5; hut5/hun31; mau11sau11-gvyap5; ngvop5; um 55. cover a pan vide: lik1/ling11. cover oneself vide: wut1/wun11. cover the fire vide: mi1-um11 um11. cover the head vide: kup5. cover vt. vide: um11. covered vide: gum31; hup1. cow vide: ne1-boi35 boi35; ne1-ho31; ne1mvi55; ne 1-zyung31. cow’s milk vide: ne1-nau35. cowing (crows etc.) crow vide: ngva31. crab vide: bau11-ki31; ki31. crack vide: dyen35; gvrom31; gyam11dong11; ke 1rok1/ke1rok5 . crasy vide: byu31-na11; na11; u1-nvuq5. crate vide: gok5. crave vide: yut1yut1. crawl vide: do11; ye11. crayfish vide: bau11-zun31. crazy about vide: mak1. create vide: pan31. creator vide: mi31-pan31; pan31. creeps vide: gyoq1-si11 pyui55(-pyui55). crest vide: gok5. cricket vide: ke5dvon55/he5dvon55; ke5dvon55-zo11 /he5dvon55 -zo11. crimson vide: zam11zam11. crispy vide: gup1gup1. crocodile vide: hang55sue 31. crook vide: cyum31; son11; son11-ki11; son11-ki11 son11-na 35 . crooked vide: a1-bvi31; a1-yvon55-yvon55; bvi31 ; goi35; rvek5 ; yvon55. crooked leg(s) vide: ki31 goi35 su31. crooked neck vide: ling31-ngvai55 ngvai55. crop of a chicken vide: woq1-lut1. crop (of birds) vide: lut1. cross vide: dvap5; gu11; hap5; lai11. cross legs vide: ki31-gvek5 gvek5. cross-grained vide: pyau31. cross-laths vide: syap5 syap5. cross-legged vide: zung11-byeq5 byeq1. crossroads vide: gvang11; kyet1; kyo31gvang11.

    11

    crosswise vide: bat5; bvi31. crow vide: dvun31; ngve5-noq1. crowd vide: le1-zyum 31-mo35; zyum31. crowded vide: zvyap5. crown vide: hon55; u1-zvyung31; zvyung31. crumbling walls vide: rum31. crunch vide: buq1. crush vide: mvun31; tung 11. crushed fine vide: nuq1. crust vide: a1-gvyap5; au11-gvyap5; gvyap5; gvyeq5. crusts on the eyes vide: myoq1-gvyeq5. cry vide: ng5nga31; ngau31; ngau31-bi11; ngvau55 ; puq1; sut 1sut 1. cube vide: ki55; sui11-ki55. cube-shaped vide: a1-ki55; a1-ki55-ki55 ma54. cubit vide: dung 35. cuff (give a cuff on the ears) vide: sop5. cuff in vide: hut5/hun31. cuff on the ears vide: be1-sop5; sop5. cuff oneself in vide: wut1/wun11. cultivate vide: ho11. culture vide: lai11gva55. cupboard vide: gvau55. cure vide: ya11. curl up vide: gvup5. curly vide: gvui11. curly hair vide: u1-gvui11. curse vide: ai11; long31; nving 11. curtain vide: cyuan55lyen11; muen11lyen11. cushaw vide: pe5-hum31. cushion vide: dvap5-kang11/dvap5-hang11; kang11/hang11. cut vide: hum31; lyep1lyep1; suet1; tuq5; zuen11; zvye55. cut down vide: zan11. cut (grass, cane etc.) vide: bin31. cut hole vide: gvyung11. cut in two vide: pit5/pin31. cut off vide: dum35; dvum 55; syok1syok1; u1-dum 35 dum35; yam11. cut wood vide: sek5-zyum11. cycle vide: kap5; wan31dvum31. cymbals vide: cyeng55. Dad vide: A5-wa11; wa 11. dagger vide: cyun11/syun11; syam31cyun11 .

    12

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    dahlia vide: ge1la31-si11. Dai vide: Le1-sam55; Le1-sam55-ming35; Le1-sam55-mvi55; Le1-sam 55-po55 ; Le1sam55-wa31 ; Sam55 ; Sam55-bva55 . dale vide: mun31-zup 5; wui31kung11 /wui31-hung 11. damned vide: si31/si5-/si11-; si31-mang 11; zyo11. dance vide: go35; go11-bvyaq5; gva11; Me1nau11 Zum31-go35 /Me5 nau11 zum31-go35; nau11 ; O55ra55 ra55/O55rang11 rang 11; Pe 1gun11 ; Tong11-gva11 ; zum31 ; Zum31-go35 . dance arena vide: Si1dung11-zeng31. dance leaders vide: Nau11-bva55; Nau11syong55. dance session (of dance) vide: cyang31. dance sideways vide: bva55. dancing vide: zat5. dandruff vide: u5-song55 song 55. dare vide: rep5/rup5; wam35. dare (not dare) vide: wam31. dark vide: cyut5/syut5; mau11. dark vide: mau11-cyut5/mau11-syut5. dark black vide: dvu55dvu55. date vide: bui31-ngi31. dawn vide: nap1-sun31; sun31. day vide: bui31-ngi31; hang11; he5-yoq1ngi35 ; ke5-yoq1-ngi35 ; kyui55 ; le 1-ngi35bui31 ; naq1-ma35-bvue55 ; ngi35; ngi35wui31; wan31dvum31. day before yesterday vide: he5-wa31ngi35 ; he5-yoq1 le 1-ngi35 . days of the week vide: i5ban31-tang31. daytime vide: kyui55; ngi35-kyui55. dead vide: byu31-si31; mang31-dving31; ne1mang31; saq1wa 11; si31/si5 -/si11 -; wue31; wue31 -i31; wue 31-zang11. dead pig vide: waq1-si31. deadly silence vide: zvem55zvem55. deaf vide: ne1-zit5; zit1/-zit5. De’ang language vide: Bve1lvong11ming35 . De’ang people vide: Bve1lvong11. death vide: byu31-si31; mue11; mue11 si31 mu31 ; saq1wa11; si31-sit5 . deceive vide: mvau55. deceiver vide: te1mung35. decorate vide: cui11/sui11.

    decorations vide: bya31-lvang11. decrease vide: yom31. deep vide: nik 1. deep sleep vide: yvup5-mo35. deer vide: sat5; sat5-kyui31; zi1si31. defecate vide: ki1-syo31; ngvyeq1(ngvyeq1). definitely vide: rvoq5. Dehong vide: Mang11si11; Mang 11si31kung11 . dehydrate vide: si1-gvyuq5; si1-gvyuq5; si1-gvyuq5 gvyuq5; si1 -gvyuq5 gvyuq5. dehydrate (meat, fruits etc.) vide: gvyuq5. deliberately vide: ding11sang55. delight (to one’s delight) vide: ngvam11. delirious vide: zek1-zek1. deluge vide: de1wui31; ding35; dving55. demand vide: dung11. demon vide: ning11long11; ning11long11mvi55; ning11 long11-po55. dense vide: sup5/sum31. dent vide: bvyen11; ngvyop5; zvyop5. dented vide: bvyet1; kang11. deny one’s responsability vide: zau35. depend vide: lum31. depressed vide: yon35. dept vide: zvin31; zvin31 but1. desire vide: nvau31. desolate vide: dvom11. despair vide: ei31; goi35-ei31. develop vide: bin35. deviate (roads) vide: lai35. dew vide: wo31-doq5. dial (telephone) vide: bat1/bat5/ban11. diamonds vide: pai55; yvek5dva55. diarrhoea vide: ki1-pek1; ki1-syun31; syun31; wam 11-syun31; wam35-syun11. dibble vide: dvui31. die vide: mue11; mue 11 si31 mu31; si31/si5/si11-; si31-sit5. die out vide: si31/si5-/si11-. diet vide: gam35. difference vide: dui35. different vide: bvong31; de1kya31; ga35/go35 ; go35 ; lai35 ; syai31. difficult vide: nak5; wui11; yak1. difficulty vide: a1ga31! dig vide: kai11/hai11; kop5.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY dig hole vide: gvyung11. dig out vide: bvau31; du11. dig steps vide: mvak5. diligent vide: gyai11. diminish vide: yom31. diminutive vide: zi1-; zo11/ze1-/za1-. dinner vide: min35-zang11. dip vide: wui31-zvem55 zvem55; zyum 31. dip sauce vide: nam31zyam31. dip, ducking vide: zvem55. dipper vide: gva55mai35; mut1. direct vide: hu55. direct hit vide: dak5. directing vide: bai31. direction vide: dong31; dvang11; hu55dong31; hye55-dong31 ; ka55-dong31 ; ka55-pyang31/ha55-pyang31; lut1 ; lvut5; mvo55-dong31; pyang31. dirt vide: ban11; ban11-gyet5 gyet1; hue11; ki31-hue 11 ; loq1-hue 11; u1-hue 11. dirty vide: cyaq5/syaq5; got1; hue11. dirty all over vide: a1-gva54-gok1. dirty talk vide: kun11-syoq5. disagree vide: dving55dving 55. disappointment vide: a1ni11. disapproval vide: wvue55wvue55wvue 55. disbelief vide: lvaq5me55lye 35. discard vide: du35; ngvyau11. discuss vide: pye55. disease vide: a1na11; byu31-wum 35; me1ruq1; mek1; no31; rung35 ; sam31mvi11 ; seng55-no11; wam 35-no11 ; waq1-wum 35 ; wum35. disgraceful talking vide: hoq5 po11. disgust vide: i1kyet1rung11. disgusting vide: wui11. dish vide: mvan11-haq5-sun11; pyeng55; sun11/cun11; sun11-mo35 ; sun11pyeng55; sun11-zo11; zang11 ; zang11pyeng55; zang11-sun11. dish up food in an exaggerated fashion vide: si11-nong35. dishes vide: au11-koq5 ci11/si11. dislike vide: i1kyet1rung 11. disparage vide: wu35-syau11. disperse vide: mvin31. display vide: bvuep5-rap5. disposition vide: i1sat1. dissatisfaction vide: a1lyo11!.

    13

    dissolve vide: ngvyun11. dissolved vide: ngyun11. distance vide: rot1. distant vide: meng11-gong35 gong35. distillers’ grains vide: waq1ha11. distilling process vide: i31-bvat5; nam35. distribute vide: tuk1. disturb vide: me1rong11. disused vide: cau11. dive vide: dang11. divide vide: gam31. divorce vide: gvang11. divulge secrets vide: pok5. dizzy vide: a1-on11; wun11 wun11. do vide: dui31; dyen35; gvut5. do all over again vide: sai55. do one’s best vide: si1gvut1/si1gvun11. do oneself up vide: si1reng35. do well without vide: zyan11. doctor vide: ci11-se 1ra35; se 1ra35. dodge vide: pang31; yven31. dog vide: kui11/hui11; kui11-lo11; kui11mvi55; ngyeng55 ; o35o35o 35o35!/o35ro 35ro35ro35 !; syuk5syuk5syuk5 ; wap1/wap5. doggy vide: kui11-zo11. dollop vide: bvak5; bvak5-rap5. domestic vide: yo31; yo31-zi1tung11. dominate vide: roi31; up 1. domineering vide: up1-ngvam11. don’t vide: ke5-/he5-. done vide: ngyoq1; zvyoq5/zvyo31; zvyoq5/zvyo31. done before vide: wu35. done (make done) vide: ngvyoq5. donkey vide: lo11; lo11-gung35. doodle vide: soi31. door vide: gvyang55; ke1-/he1-; kum11 /hum11/hum 55/ke 1-/he1-; zoq1/zo11 . door curtain vide: muen11lyen11. doorway vide: hum55-dong11. dormitory vide: yvup5-gok1. double-check vide: ngva31. doubt vide: da11. doufu vide: do11fu31/do11pu31/du11pu31. dough vide: mun35; nok5. dove vide: gvai55gvyeq1; pung31gvyui11. down (let go down) vide: kyo55.

    14

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    down, downward vide: gyo35; ke5-; ke 5gyo35; kyo55; lvyeq5 ; lye35; ye31 /i5 -. downstream vide: byin31; i1-tung11-bva55. dowry vide: pau11. drag vide: sye31. dragon vide: man31zyum31. dragonfly vide: wui31-syuq5 gve5-nva11. drain vide: gvoq5; kung 11/hung11; nge1/nge5-; nge1-gvoq5; pek5. draw vide: soi31. draw soup vide: het5. drawing vide: a1-lvo31; byu31-lvo31; -lvo31. dream vide: i5-moq1; moq1; sing11ran35; yvup5-moq1. dregs vide: a1-bvat5; bvat5; hut5/hun31; wut1 /wun11; zvung11. dress up vide: hut5/hun31; mvon55. dried vide: gvyuq5; yang35wom11-si1gvyuq5. dried fish vide: be1nau11. dried out vide: a1-ngyui11; gvan11; ngyui11. dried persimmon vide: si5bing11(-si11). drink vide: dyen35; gam35; gut1gut1; gvyaq5; huq5; i31-syuq5; ngop1; syuq5/syu31; wut1; zyau35. drink from breast vide: nau35 syuq5. drinks (food and drinks) vide: zo11syuq5. dripping dew vide: wo31-doq5. drive vide: hang55. drive away vide: bvyung11. drive game vide: cyom55/syom55; si1cyom55/si1-syom55 ; si1-kat5/si1-hat5 . drizzle vide: mut5-sin11 sin11; syaq1. drop/s vide: bvak5; bvak5-rap5; bvoq5; dvau55-bvoq5 ; i11-bvoq5 ; i31-bvoq5 ; le 1bvoq5-zo11 ; pyuq5. drown vide: mvyu11; myu11. drug vide: ci11/si11/ci1-. drum vide: dum31bvu55; dyek1ge1rye11; zeng31-gyang31 . drunk vide: byan35; hut5; hut5-nva11; nva11; u1-ngun11; wut 1. dry vide: a1-ngyui11; gvan11; gvyuq5; hui55 ; lvap5; myam11; ngyui11 ; poq5gyuq1; sin55 . dry paddy vide: lin11hau11. dry vt. vide: dyep5.

    drying rack above the fireplace vide: myam31zui11. duck vide: bang35ga55li55; bvyet5. ducking, dip vide: wui31-zvem55 zvem55. duet vide: do35; le1lvai55. dull vide: a1-hok1; hok1. dull-witted vide: a1-hok1; bam 11; hok1. dung vide: ki1-/ki5-/ki11; ki1-pun55; ki11/ki1/ki5-; nam31-pun55; ne 1-ki11/ne5-ki11; pun55; san11; waq1 ki1-pun55. dung fly vide: luq1. duo vide: -nvik5. duodenum vide: u31-zo11. durable vide: geng11. during vide: r55/lye55. dusk vide: rem11rem 11. dust vide: mop1/mop5; pui11; pui11-lvup5. dusty vide: pui11; pui11-lvup5; pui11-lvup5 lvup5. dwarf vide: le1zvai55; mi31-zo11 le 1-zvai55. dye vide: ngvyui31. dying vide: yut1yut1. dying to vide: si1-lo35. dynamite vide: zya11yoq1. each

    vide: ban31; ban31-syoq5-bang11;

    kang11/hang11; kang11-mo35/hang11mo35; kot1kot1; kum55/hum 55 ; kyom11; ngvaq5; rvoq5; zvyat5. each other vide: lum11. each time vide: kang11/hang 11; kang11mo35/hang11-mo35 ; lvaq5; lving31; lving31-hang 11. each year vide: zan31-wui31. ear vide: ne1-/ne5-; ne 1-pyo11/ne5-pyo11. ear of rice vide: guq1-nvam31. ear-shaped fungus vide: mau31-gyon11. earlier vide: zyau35-mai11. early vide: ze1-si31; zyau35. earring vide: gvan31; ne1-gvan31. ears (cuff on the ears) vide: be1-sop5. earth vide: mau11-mi31; mi1-; mi1-gung31; mi1-zvue11; mi31/mi1-; sue 11 . earthquake vide: le1yang31; nun35. earthworm vide: zvi5zvin55. earwax vide: ne1-pyo31. easily vide: yvo55-mai11; yvo55-yvo55. East vide: bui31-toq5-kyam11. easy vide: ngai11.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY easy to do vide: lui31; lui35-lui35. eat vide: dyen35; gam35; mam11mam11 gvut5; nvang55 ; syu31 ; wam11-pam11mo35; wvue31; zang 11-sueng55; zang11zo11; ze 1-nvau31; zo11 ; zo11-mun11; zo11-myoq5-noq1 ; zvang11 ; zvyoq5/zvyo31. eat snack vide: tun11. eaten by insects vide: wang31. eclipse of the moon vide: Lve5-kui11 zo11. economical vide: sye55; syen55. economize vide: syen55. edge vide: kam11; yam31. edge off appetite vide: tun11. edit vide: rvang55 toq5. educate vide: dai31-mvoq5; mvoq5. eel vide: hang11syan55. effect vide: gvang55; gvat5; poi11. effort vide: zvang55-zve55 (zvang55-man31) ze11. egg vide: nge1-u55; ngvoq5-u55; u55/u5-; up5; woq1-u55. eggshell vide: -gvyap5; u5-gvyap5. eight vide: sit5. elbow vide: loq1-mun35 tung55-sum31; tung55-sum 31 . elder brother vide: a5-mang11; a5-pu11; i5mang11-mo35; i5-pu11 ; mang11; pu11 /pe1-. elder female cousin vide: nving55-mo35. elder sister vide: nva55. elderly vide: mang11; mang11-zo11; mang11-zo11 -mvi55 ; mang11-zo11-po55; mang11-zo11 wui31. elderly people vide: um11-tung55. eldest brother vide: -Gam35; Le 1-gam35; Mang11-mo 35. eldest sister vide: -Gvoq5; nva55-mo 35. eldest-born sister vide: Me1-gvoq5. electricity vide: dat5; mi1-dat5; mi1-dat5dvui11. elephant vide: a5pau11. eleven vide: le1-sue11-ra11. emanate vide: wo35. embrace vide: bvo31. emperor vide: wong31. emphatic vide: rvo31; rvo55; wa35/we1-. empty vide: a1-gvom31; dvau55-gvom31; gvom31; zvan31 .

    15

    empty pod vide: a1-som31. enclose vide: gvyam55. end vide: le1-tang31; um11/u1-/u5-; yau35. end (of the world) vide: meng11-gvan11 zi1tum 31. endeavour vide: si1gvut1/si1gvun11. endlessly vide: dvik5dvik5. endure vide: lap5; zyan11. endure hard times vide: yak1. engine vide: zyak1. English vide: Yin35yu31. enjoy oneself vide: ngon35. enormous vide: hek1. enormously vide: mo35-mo35. enough vide: lvuq1; ngai35; ram35; ram35gvyo55. enter vide: moq1-wang31 wang31/moq5wang31 wang31 ; wang31. enter new house vide: yvum31-wang31 wang31. enter the ranks vide: wang31. entirely vide: ban31; ban31-syoq5; ngvaq5; zvyat5. envelop vide: tup5. envious vide: me1non31. epilepsy vide: dvuq5; mvung31-dvuq5. equal vide: me1dvu55; ra35. equal(s); part(s) vide: le1-wui35; wui35. equally vide: le1-wui35; ra 35-ruen11. equivalence vide: gan11. er vide: i1sye11. eraser vide: pyoq5-zue31; sut5-zue31. erect vide: zvam55. escape vide: pang31; pyang55. estimate vide: dvot1; dyek1. etcetera vide: a1rvang55/a 5rvang55. evade vide: gop1. even vide: lvang55; ra35. even more vide: lai11. evening vide: min31; min35; min35 r 55. evening dusk vide: rem11rem 11. evening (this evening) vide: he5-min31. ever vide: bvyat1; ke5-nvam55/he5-nvam55. every vide: ban31; kang11/hang11; kang11mo35/hang11-mo35 ; kot1kot1 ; kum55 /hum55; kyom11 ; ngvaq5; rvoq5; zvyat5. every day vide: ngi35-wui31. every one vide: ban31-syoq5-bang 11.

    16

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    every time hang11.

    every year everybody everything everywhere

    vide: lvaq5; lving31; lving31vide: zan31-wui31. vide: ra35-ruen11. vide: ngap1. vide: byeq1-byeq1; kat5/hat5;

    le1-meng54. evidence vide: dang11-wang11. evident vide: ge1-lo31. evil vide: u55son55/i5son55. evil eye vide: pi11. evil spirit vide: mvung31; mvung31zi1tung11 . exactly vide: rvoq5. exam vide: bvoi31; sam55-bvoi31. excavated vide: kyung55-kyung55. exceed vide: lai11. excellent vide: gyai11. excessive vide: got1. exchange vide: tai55. exchange labour vide: sap5. exchange riddles vide: le1byoq5; pi55. exchanged labour forces vide: o11. excuse me vide: a1gaq5!. exercise vide: duan35lyen35. exert oneself vide: rang31. exhale vide: soq5 sye31. exhausted vide: moi11; myoq1-kung11; ngu35. exhortative vide: ba55/be-/be55. exist vide: wo35; zyoq1/zyoq5. expect vide: lang35. expensive vide: pau11. experience vide: ra55/r 55; wu35. expert vide: gat1; se 1ra35. explain vide: byan35. explode vi. vide: buq1. explode vt. vide: bvuq5. explosion vide: ning31!. expression vide: kun11/hun11. extend vide: zvyang11. extent vide: ke5-i55/he5-i55. extinguish vide: sat5/san31. extreme vide: tum11. extremely vide: dik1/dik5/ding11-; mo35mo35. eye vide: kau11; loq1-myoq1; mi1-kau11; miq1; myoq1 /myoq5; myoq1-bing31; myoq1-bvi31; myoq1-duq1(-mo 35 );

    myoq1-dvye11 dap1; myoq1-gvyeq5 ; myoq1-pong55 san11; myoq1-pyap1 pyap1; myoq1-zi35 ; myoq1 -zit1 ; pyap1. eyebrows vide: myoq1-cam31/myoq1sam31; myoq1-sam31 nvoq5. eyelashes vide: myoq1-mau35. eyesore vide: myoq1-sui11 a1-tuk5..

    face

    vide: myoq1-bom11-mo35; myoq1 ci11/si11 ; myoq1-dong 11; myoq1-kung11; nvut5-mui11 zuk5-mo35; nvut5 zyui11 . face (someone/something) vide: ngop1. face vt. vide: hu55. factory vide: zyak1-rung31. fade vide: sum31. faeces vide: ki1-/ki5-/ki11; ki1-zung 31; ki11/ki1-/ki5 -. faithful vide: nvik5-bo31. fake vide: a1-bvyoq5; bvyoq5; Zai11-zo11 a1bvyoq5; Zai11wa 31-bvyoq5. fall vide: cyot5; lvyeng11; lyeng11; muq1. fall asleep vide: mvi55; mvyet1mvyet1; yvup5/yvum31. fall over vide: mvuq5. fallen vide: rvueq5. falls vide: Man11hui11-rum35; rum35. familiar vide: man35; sue55. family vide: au31-zo11 num11nang35 wui31; bui31 num 31; bui31 num31 au31 -zo11 wui31; le1-yvum 11 bang11. family name vide: Doq1si11; Dvu31; Kun55 /Hun55; Le1-bang11; Le1 -pai11 ; Me1ran11 ; Meng11req1 ; Pai11-Kun55; Pau11cung55; Pau11ki11 ; Pau11zyang11; Syum55lut1; Ung31cau31; Zeng11hang55; Zeng 11tong 31; Zyang11mo35 . family spirit vide: bui31num 31-nat1. fan vide: hek5; syap5/syam31. far vide: hue55; ke5-hue55/he5-hue 55; wue11. farewell vide: hui11. fart vide: ki1-bvuq5. fast vide: han31; le1wan35. fast asleep vide: nuk5. fat vide: cu31/su31; don35; myum31; waq1cu31/waq1-su31. fat meat vide: si1-cu31. fate vide: gvyam11; gvyam11-dap5; pu11. father vide: A5-wa11; i5-wa11; wa11.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY fatigue vide: moi11; u1-ngun11. fault vide: syut5. fear vide: gyuq1; rong11rong11. feather vide: mau35. fed up vide: ngeng35. feed vide: huq5; zvo11. feel vide: bun11; ga11; gyo11/gi1-; ngyo31; zui11. feel attached to vide: nan11. feel bad vide: i1mit1; ngon35. feel good vide: i1mit1; ngon35; ngon35. feel like vide: nvau31. feel pity for someone vide: si5-gyo11/si1gyo31. feel weak at the thought of something vide: wam31. feeling like vomiting vide: a1-on11. feet vide: ki31-gvi11; ki31-hue11. feet (at your feet) vide: wang11. female vide: mvi55; ning11long11-mvi55. female animal vide: a1-mvi55. fence vide: gvyam55; kum11-gvyang55; kyam31; pun55dung11; sun55-kyam31. fennel vide: ban11-zvai55. ferment vide: bvat5; bvup5. fermented vide: bup1; mik1-bup1; mik1bup1 bvup5 . fermented soy bean paste vide: ne1-bup5; nuq1-gvyuq5 . fermented soy beans vide: nuq1-sui11; nuq1-yen11 . ferocious vide: dvang11; mue35; wui11. ferociously vide: si31/si5-/si11-. ferret out information vide: lok1. fertile vide: me1yat1. fertilizer vide: pun55; pyun11. festival vide: bvoi31; Me 1nau11; Me1nau11 Zum31-go35/Me5 nau11 zum31-go35 ; nau11; Nau11-bva55; Nau11-syong55 ; O55ra55 ra55/O55rang11 rang11; pung11 lum31; Si1dung11-zeng31 ; zeng31-gyang31 ; zum 31-cyang31 ; Zum31-go35. festivities vide: bvoi31; mi1-hang55-bvoi31. fetch vide: kam31/ham31; wo35; yu31. fever vide: wang11-gvyo31. few vide: a5-mvyo55-mvyo55; le 1-pyek1zo11; le1-zvui55 ; le 1-zvui55-zo11; le1zvui55-zvui55 ; syau11 ; yom31 ; zvit5 .

    17

    fiancé vide: sum11zvoq5-po55. fiancée vide: sum11zvoq5-mi11; sum11zvoq5 -mvi55 . fiddle vide: ngyau35; sup1. fiddle with vide: ge1-zyam11. field vide: cyang31; guq1-yo31; lok1; pun11; pung11syui31-yo31 ; tung11; yo31; yo31gyoq5 gyoq5; yo31-myoq5; zum31cyang31 . field mouse vide: nge1-noq1. fierce vide: nueng31nueng31; wui11. fierce fighter vide: rvuq5. fight vide: bat1/bat5/ban11; bat1 lum 11; dyen35. fight war vide: bek1. figure out vide: mit1. fill vide: bving55; dyep1. fill (a bowl with rice) vide: ku11. fill up vide: sang55. fillet meat vide: nvik5; si1-nvik5. film vide: dvaq5sin55. find vide: myang31. fine vide: a1-zvai55-zvai55; cyup5/syup5; mup1; nuq1 ; nvuq5; zvai55. finger vide: dvun11-ngyui11; loq1-bun11; loq1-ngyui11; ming31 a1-bo31 Roi35-dot1 ; ngyui11; zvup5 . fingernail vide: loq1-seng11. finish vide: bvyam55; dvom11; gvyop1gvyop1; yau35. finished vide: gom11; mvaq5; mvyeq5; zin31. fire vide: dap1/dap5; dum31; kau11; mi1-; mi1-byu11 ; mi1-dum31; mi1-gye11; mi1hu11 ; mi1-kyung55; mi1-mut5 ; mi1sing55gan11 ; mi1-zo35 ; mi1-zu11; mi11 /mi1 -; mi11-bui35 bui35 ; mi11-mo35; mi11 ngye35 ; mvek5; ngvye55; nueng31 nueng31 ; suq5 /su31 ; tut5 ; zai11mi1-hu11. fire (catch fire) vide: ngye35. fire (on fire) vide: ngye35. fire (set on fire) vide: mi11 ngvye55. firecrackers vide: gong11dop5. fireplace vide: bui35; dap1-gop1; dap1zyut1; mi1-kyom55 ; mi11-bui35 ; myam11; tung55; tung55-guq1 ; um11tung55; yam31.

    18 firewood

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    vide: bui35; le 1ngyeng11-tang11; mi1-zo35 ; mi1-zu11; sat5 /san31; tang11; tang11-bui35 ; tang 11-dvum55. fireworks vide: gong11dang11. first vide: he5-/he55/ke5-; he55-me 55. first-rate vide: rueng35. fish vide: be1lvup5; be1nau11; be5rang11; gve5-nva11-gam35 ; gvong55 ; nge1-/nge5 ; nge1-dvui11 dvui11; nge1-gvoq5; nge1zo11/nge 5-zo11 ; pek5; tung31 ; wui35. fish bone vide: zu11. fish bones vide: nge1-zo11-zu11. fish eggs vide: nge1-u55; u55/u5-. fish hook vide: mit1/mit5; nge1-mit5. fish out vide: lap1. fish scales vide: nge1-gvyap5. fish soup vide: nge1-zo11-weng31. fish with hook vide: nge1-mit5 mit1. fish with net vide: du35. fish-trap vide: nge1-sang11/nge5-sang11. fishing pond vide: nge1-nvong 31. fishing rod vide: nge1-bvat5. fist vide: loq1-zvup5 zvup5; zvup5. fit vide: dvup5(-rap5); gue35; ngo11. fit (not fit) vide: syai31. five vide: ngo11. five-day cycle vide: wan31dvum 31. fix vide: byeng35. flame-thrower vide: mi1-sing55gan11. flash vide: cik 5/sik 5; lvap5; mau35-gun11. flat vide: a1-bvyen55; bvyen55; nvye55. flat (body/feet) thin vide: byen11. flat terrain vide: zyang11-gyu35. flatlands vide: bva55. flatten vide: buq1; bvyen11; bvyen55. flattened bamboo vide: sue55. flavour vide: a1-sing55; gyo11/gi1-; kom55/hom55 ; kom55-sing55/hom55 sing55 ; ron11 ; nam31 ; nam35 ; sing55 . flea vide: gve5lai11; waq1-gve5lai11. flee vide: dvung31; pang31. flesh vide: ki31-bu35; syo11/si1-/si5. flesh of the arm vide: bu35; loq1-bu35. flesh of the leg vide: bu35. fleshy vide: bom11; ngvyai55-bom11. flexible vide: nu35. fling vide: bvak5; bvak5-rap5; dvang11; gun31. float vide: myu11.

    float away vide: mvyu11. flood vide: de1wui31; ding35; dving 55; nueng31 nueng31 ; um55 ; wui31-zye11 mo35; wui31-zye11 (zye11); zye11 . flooded vide: ding35. floor vide: gyam11; kang 11/hang 11; mi1gung31 ; mi1-gung31-yvum31; pyang11; sue55 . floor (make a floor) vide: sin55. flour vide: mun35; myen35fuen31. flourish vide: reng11. flow vide: yui31. flower vide: ban11; ban11-bo35; ban11gam31; bo35 ; ge1la 31-si11 ; lun11 ; mat1 ; pung11sin55-bo35 ; zyoq1 ; zyoq1-hui31bo35 . flu vide: sam31mvi11. fluent vide: gat1. flush away vide: bvyung11. flute vide: bvi55; mut1/mut5; pyot5pyot5; sam55-bvi55. fly vide: dang11; dvang11; yang31kung 11/yang 31hung11 . flying squirrel vide: si1lo31. foam vide: myup5; zvo31; zvu31-myup5. fodder vide: waq1-zang11; waq1-zvang11; waq1ha11 ; zvang11 . fog vide: mut5. fog bank vide: long11; mau35; mut5-mau35. fold vide: dvu55; i55-sum 11-dvu55; kung11 /hung11 ; nvap5. fold between hills vide: wui31kung11 /wui31-hung 11. fold hands vide: gvyaq5. fold the quilt vide: bui35-mo35 nvap5. follow vide: cyang55/syang55; dvai55. follow everywhere vide: bin11 cyang55. follower vide: de1bvye31. fond of vide: hak1. fond of good food vide: syu31. food vide: si1-ho31; si11-nong 35; sun11/cun11; wue 31-zang 11; zang11 ; zang11-nai11 nai11 ; zang11-sun11; zang11-wue 35 wue 35 ; zo11 ; zo11-mun11; zvang11; zyau35. food and drinks vide: zo11-syuq5. food parcel vide: zang11-gyeq5.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY fool vide: byu31-go31; byu31-go31-zo11; byu31-poi11-mo 35; go31 ; go11-bvyaq5; mvau55. foolish vide: poi11. foot vide: ki31; ki31-dam11; ki31-wa11; le5tin55; nang 11. foot (at your feet) vide: wang11. foot (of a hill) vide: tang31. foothill(s) vide: gong11-tang31; tang31; weng11-tang31 . footprints vide: dvai55; ki31-ko31; ko31/ho31. footsole vide: wa11. footsteps vide: ki31-ko31. for most part vide: myo11-me55-myo11. for nothing vide: lon35lon35. for oneself vide: yu31. force vide: bvat5; wum11. force into vide: zvyap5. forehead vide: mek1; nge1-; nge1-lang11. foreign vide: hye55-poq5. foreigner vide: hye55-poq5; hye55-poq5 bang11 ; hye55-poq5-mvi55; hye55-poq5po55. forest vide: sek5-yo31; si1long35. forge vide: syam31-bat5. forger vide: ning11dup 1. forget vide: bun11; dvo31mvi55. forked road vide: Gau11-kyo31-gvang11. form vide: dut1. form a couple vide: nvum31 zo11. form a pair vide: zvum55. form gas vide: soq5-dau35 dau35. fortune vide: long35 mo35-mo35. fortune-telling vide: but1; but1-pit5; woq1but1; yvam31 . forty vide: mi11-sue 31. foster (orphans, old people) vide: bau35. foundation vide: dang11-wang11. foundation (of a house) vide: yvum31go11. four vide: mi11/mi31. fowl pest vide: woq1-wum35. fox vide: hui31-zyo35; zyo35. fragile vide: tyen55-nvau11. fragrance vide: kom55-sing55/hom55-sing55; sing55 . fragrant vide: kom55/hom55. frame vide: gvyui31-syuq5. frame (make a frame) vide: suq5/su31.

    19

    freckle vide: sui11. freckles vide: mun11-sui11. free vide: lon35lon35; maq1. freestyle vide: loq1-gun31 du35. freeze vide: -dvung55. French beans vide: nuq1-gvyui31; sun55kau31 koi55zvue 11. frequently vide: a1-yan35. fresh vide: san11. Friday vide: i5ban31-tang 31. friend vide: num 11nang35; syang55. friends vide: zyem11. friends and family vide: au31-zo11 num11nang35 wui31 . fright vide: gyoq1-si11 pyui55(-pyui55). frighten vide: byo31-dvan55 dvan55; dvan55; gvyuq5. frightened vide: byo31 dan11 (mo35-mo 35); dan11. frizzle vide: cyem11. frizzy vide: gvui11. frizzy hair vide: u1-gvui11. frog vide: bve1-; bvo11. frolic vide: cyong31. from vide: mai11. from below vide: mvo55-mai11. from now onwards vide: a1kui31/a1hui31. from where vide: ka55-mai11/ha55-mai11. front vide: he55-ma54; he55-me 55. front teeth vide: he55-zui31. frozen vide: -dvung55; si1-dvung55. frozen fish vide: nge1-zo11-dvung55. frugal vide: syen55. fruit vide: bi5yui35-si11; bvyau31; lung11bum11-si11; mak1zyok5-si11; me5dvong11-dvyek5; me5ko55-si11; meng11dung11-si11; ngve5-mvyuq1 ; ngvoq1/ngve5 -; si1-bvi31-si11; si1gvyuq5; si1-gvyuq5 gvyuq5 ; si1-ling35si11 ; si1-mvyo55-byap1; si1-mvyo55-si11; si1-nam31; si11/si1-/si5-; si5-ho11-si11 ; si5-hum11-si11; si5bing11 (-si11 ); sue11; um31 bo11; wum31-si11; yang35wom 11si11 ; zi5zyo11-si11; zue31-si11 ; zui11 . fruit peels vide: si1-gvuq5; si1-gvyap5. fruit tree vide: si1-gam31. fruits vide: kan11zyui35. fry vide: nvye31; sun11-nvye31 nvye31. full vide: bing35; dyep1; gi11.

    20

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    full moon vide: ling35; lva55-mo35. full of vide: bvyeq1bvyeq1. fun vide: ngon35. funeral vide: byo31-du31; byu31-si31; du31. fungus vide: mau31; mau31-gvyok1; mau31gyon11; mi1-gye11-mau31; ong11 lot1; zi1si31-mau31. funny vide: wui31-wo31 ho31. fur? vide: mau35. fur vide: mau35; si1-mau35. furious vide: byong11; don11. fuse vide: lvyen11. fuss (make fuss) vide: suk1suk1sak1sak1. future vide: naq1-ma35-bvue55; ra11; ra31; 31 si1-ra ; tang31 -pyang31. gadfly vide: mvoq5. gain profit vide: myat1. gall vide: seng11-gvi31. gall bladder vide: seng11-gvi31. gamble vide: bat1/bat5/ban11; ngun31-pai55 bat1; pai55 . game vide: syok5-syok5. games vide: pai55. gaol vide: tong55. gap vide: kam11. garden vide: sun11-sun55; sun55. garlic vide: pe5ro35. garment vide: bu11-zo11. gas vide: dau35; soq5. gas cylinder vide: soq5-um 31. gas (form gas) vide: soq5-dau35 dau35. gash vide: mvak5. gecko vide: bi1syup5. gelding vide: myang11-mon35. gem vide: sueng55. generation vide: sum11-zai35; wui31; zai35. germinate vide: ngok1. get vide: wo35; yu31. get along with vide: zum31. get dressed vide: hut5/hun31; wut1/wun11. get into vide: wang31. get into business vide: wang31. get rid of vide: bvyam55. get up vide: dvoq5; dvu31; yvup5-dvoq5. gill vide: ko31; nge1-ko31. ginger vide: cyang11/syang11. girdle vide: pe1-het5. girl’s names vide: Me1-; Me1-don35.

    girlfriend

    vide: mi1-wue11/mi11-wue11; sum11zvoq5 -mi11; sum11zvoq5-mvi55. give vide: bi11. give all vide: ngvaq5. give away vide: maq1. give back vide: zyai35. give beating vide: sin11. give birth vide: bau11; si1-ngai11. give it to me vide: ngvyaq1. give name vide: mving55. give someone a fright vide: dvan55. give the cold shoulder vide: hyet5. giving vide: ngyam31. glad vide: a5ni55!; ge 1bu35; ngui31. glass vide: man31-zyam31. glasses vide: myoq1-suet5; myoq1-suet5 suet5; suet5. glibly vide: ngon35; nvut5. glob of snot vide: nvap5-san55. gloves vide: loq1-mo35-za35; mo35-za35. glutinous rice vide: zang11-bung11; zyo31bva55; zyo31syoq5 . gluttonous vide: ma11; ma 31 si31; syu31. gnat vide: bvyup5. gnaw vide: kue11. gnawn into by insects vide: bau11-ngat5. go vide: a35-; i5-; lo 35; sa31!; ye31/i5-. go bad vide: poi11. go by (train etc.) vide: zi11. go down vide: gyo35. go down (sun) vide: wang31. go (in one go) vide: gvyop5/gvyom31; le1dam31-dvaq5. go into vide: wang31. go on vide: dung11-dung11; dvo11. go on! vide: syuk5syuk5syuk5. go on then vide: ba31. go to school vide: doq1/doq5; zyong11doq5. go up vide: doq1/doq5. go without vide: zyan11. goal vide: wang31. goat vide: bai11nam35. goat wool vide: bai11nam35 si1-mau35. gobble up vide: gvyop1gvyop1. goblin vide: le1zvai55. goblins vide: mi31-zo11 le 1-zvai55.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY god vide: Ge1rai11; nat1/nat5; Ning11gon35wa 35; Woq1-gan11sing55 ngyang11 (-nat1); Zyan35ku55 . gold vide: heng31; heng31-kyeng55; heng31zyet1. goldfish vide: heng31-nge1-zo11. gone vide: mvaq5; mvyeq5; pyang55. gong vide: mvong55; ut5; yun11-mang11. good at vide: gat1; gue 31. good (feel good) vide: ngon35. good for vide: me1dvu55. good luck vide: byai35. good (people) vide: byu31-gue31. good person vide: i1mit1. good quality vide: gyai11. good results) vide: sat5/san31. goodbye vide: ngi31 lang35. goods vide: sam55-zue 31. goose vide: kyang55-mo35. goose bumbs vide: pyui55; pyui55-pyui55. goose bumbs (idiom) vide: gyoq1-si11 pyui55 (-pyui55). goose (wild goose) vide: gon35; kyang55mo35. goral vide: yo11. gorge oneself vide: nvang55. gossip vide: lu31 mu31. gouge out vide: cyoq5. gourd vide: hum31/he5-; hum 31-zyang35. grab vide: lu35; rvuet5; yu31. grain vide: bum11; cyam11/syam11; zang11cyam11/syam11. grandchild vide: syu11. grandfather vide: A5-zvi55/A 5-zvi11; Zvi5dui11 ; zvi55/zvi11/zvi5 -; zvi11 . grandmother vide: a5-dui11; A5-wvoi55; dui11 ; wvoi55. grandparent vide: dui11. grasp vide: gvyaq5; myaq1; ngvyam11; ngyap1/ngyap5; rvuet5 . grass vide: dan35; keng11wai35; mvan11; no11-mvan11 /ne 1-mvan11 ; zai11; zai11yvum31. grasshopper vide: ke5dvon55zo11/he5dvon55-zo11 . grassland vide: si1long35. grate vide: sui11. gratis vide: lon35lon35; maq1.

    21

    grave vide: lup1. graveyard vide: lup1-yo31. graze vide: lvam55. great vide: rueng35; tum11. great-grandchild vide: syu11-gvue55. great-grandparent vide: gvue55. Greater Jingpo vide: Zai11-zo11 a1-myu31. greedy vide: ma11; ma31 si31; syu31. green vide: a1-ngyui31; ngyui31; sek5ngyui31; sing11sing 11. grenade vide: loq1-bom11. grey vide: a1-mui35; hui31; mui35. grind vide: bvik5; tung 11. grindstone vide: luq1/luq5; sui11-luq5. grip vide: gvyaq5. grit vide: mop1/mop5; mvan11-mop5; ngvya55-mop1. groin vide: si1-gvo55. groom vide: lang31-sek5. groove under the nose vide: nvo31-kyo11. ground vide: mi1-gung31; suq5/su31. group vide: le1-zyum31-mo35; myuq1zyum31; pung55; zyum31. group of bamboo vide: we1-bvung55. grove vide: bvung55; sek5-bvung55; we 1bvung55. grow vide: si1-bong11 bong11; yuq1; zui11. grow seedlings vide: bong 11. grow well vide: reng11; reng35-nvau11. grown-ups vide: gvo11 bang11 (wui31). gruel vide: ge1zyam11; mi1-sek 5 ge1zyam11; wui31-bvuq5 . gruel (make) vide: wui31-bvuq5 bvuq5. grumble vide: ngyum11. grunt vide: ngut1ngut1. guard vide: zan35ze55; zong31. guess vide: dvak1; dvot1; kai31/hai31. guest vide: beng35; kum 55. guide the dead vide: si31-to31 to31; to 31. guiding spirit vide: nat1/nat5; tau11pan31; tau11zvi31; tau11zvi31-woq1. guilt vide: kau11-yui11; me1ra11; yui11. guilty vide: ha11. guitar vide: deng55deng55deng55; dving55. gun vide: loq1-pek5; lot5; mi1-um 31; myeng31mun31; pu11 ; sang55 ; ting55 ; tung31; um31; um 31-dun11; um 31-dvot5; um31-ting55 ting55; yam35dvok5-gvop1.

    22

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    gunpowder vide: mi1-si11. gurgle vide: gut1gut1. guts vide: rep5/rup5; wam35. habit vide: lvaq5; lvoq5 mvan55. hair vide: bvye11; cam31/sam31; lung11sam31; mau35; rong11rong11 ; si1-mau35; u1-cam31 ; u1-gvui11 ; u1-gvup5; u1lvum11 ; u1-myam31 ; u1-zvyung 31; u5song55 song55 ; yuq1; zyoq1bvoi55-zo11. hair in a bun vide: zung31. hair of the head vide: u1-sam31. hair tie vide: zyoq1bvoi55 (bvoi55). haircut vide: u1-dum35 dum 35. hairdress vide: u1-zung31; u1-zung31 zung31 . hairpin vide: ngvyam11; ngyap1/ngyap5; sam31-ngyap5. hairy vide: nvut5-mui11 zuk 5-mo35; zuk5mo35; zuk5-zuk 5. half vide: kyam11; le 1-wui35; pak1; pak1zo11. half a day’s labour vide: hang11. half end of vide: dvum55. half (half a day) vide: kyui55. half past vide: kyam11. halfway vide: gvue55; -lat1/-lat5; le1-lat1 me55. halt vide: king11. hand vide: loq1/loq5; loq1-gvi11; loq1-hue 11; loq1-myoq1 . hand in hand vide: loq1-soq5 soq5. hand it to me vide: ngvyaq1. hand over vide: ngvyo31. hand-grenade vide: bom11; loq1-bom11. handfull vide: le1-zvup 5-mo35; zvup5. handle vide: um 11bong11. handle of an axe vide: zung11-loq5. handpalm vide: wa11. hands vide: i55-loq1-eq1. hands (eat with hands) vide: lap1. hands (shake hands) vide: si1gvyam55/si5gvyam55. hang vide: gvyam31; gyam31; lvang11; lvap5; zui11 . hang above fireplace vide: myam11. hang around vide: ngi11-si31. hang (mosquito net) vide: sut5/sun31. hang out vide: bya11.

    hanging carcass vide: syok1syok1. hanging down (leaves etc.) vide: ngun11 . happen vide: bin35; mu31. happy vide: a5ni55!; ge1bu35; ngui31. hard vide: nak5; tan31; wui11. hard times vide: yak1. hard to endure vide: lap5. hard-working vide: gyai11. hardly vide: nan31. hardly (hard to get a chance to) vide: nan31 le 1-dam31 . Harmony dance vide: Zum31-go35. harp vide: zyang31gvung11. harrow vide: gyoq5. harrow the field vide: yo31-gyoq5 gyoq5. harsh times vide: i1gvun11. harvest vide: dvom11. hat vide: muq1-gvyup5/me1-gvyup5; zvung11. hatch vide: dvoq5; gvyok5; koq5; up5; woq1up5 up5. hate vide: ngan11za11. have vide: ngya31; wo35. have contact with vide: zum31. have to vide: a1-V a1-gue 31; ra11; ra31; be131 31 kai ; be1-kai -ma11; ang 11. have to do with… vide: sueng 54. hawk vide: zun31. hawk up vide: kik5; kyong11-gvyoq5 kik 5. he vide: hau55-yuq1; po55; yuq1-gue 31; yvang11. head vide: kang55; lvum 11; u1-/u5-; u1cam31 ; u1-cyun11 ; u1-gong11; u1-hue11; u1-kang55; u1-lvum 11; u1-ngun11; u1sam31; u1-zvyui55 ; u1-zvyung 31; u5song55 song55 ; um 11 /u1-/u5-; zvyui55. headache vide: u1-lvum11; ut1. headgear vide: muq1-gvyup5/me 1-gvyup5; zvung11. headstall for pigs vide: waq1-gva31. heal vide: ya11. healthy vide: peng55; wang35; wang35zan35. heap vide: bum 31; bum35; ki1-zung31; ki11/ki1-/ki5 -. heap up vide: bum 31. hear vide: ga11; ga31; gi1-nvau31; gvyo11; gyo11/gi1-; zem55zem55 .

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY heart vide: lvum11; nvik5; nvik5-lvum 11; pyam31; seng11/seng55 . heart-shaped vide: a1-lvum11; lvum11. heartbeat vide: ngyom31(-ngyom31). heartful vide: nvik5-bo31; nvik5-bo31-zo11. hearts vide: pai55. hearts card vide: bvan31-pai55. hearts (cards) vide: bvan31. heat vide: a1tyeq5!; ngin35. heave! vide: rvo31!/ro31!. heaven vide: Ge1rai11; mau11. heavenly spirits vide: mau11-nat5; mau11nat5-gvau55; u55son55/i5son55 . heavens vide: mau11-myang31. heavy vide: lai11; mo31. hedgehog vide: bvyu31. heed vide: gyo11/gi1-. heed (to someone’s words) vide: dai54 (dang11) (a 1-)gyo11. heel of the foot vide: le5-tin55. heeltap vide: bvoq5. helicopter vide: bang35ga55li55. hell (like hell) vide: si31/si5-/si11-. hello vide: zang11-zo11. help vide: be1-; ge1rum35; mu35-bvong 31 bvong31; zyun35 . help down liquor vide: i31-seng11 seng11; seng11-zue 31 . hen vide: woq1-mvi55; woq1-up5-mvi55. her vide: yvang11; yvang54. here vide: hi31; hi55-; hi55-me55; hi55pyang31. here… (offering) vide: ngvyo31. heroine vide: ya11pyen55-pyu31. herself vide: yvang11; yvum31-seng31. hew vide: mvan11 bin31; zan11. hew in two vide: bvot5. hey! vide: e11/e31/eq5/ei11/ei35/ei55/eiq5/o 55; e5-; ue 31 !/hei55! etc.. hiccup vide: ge1uek5; tung 11. hide vide: gvuq5; haq5; si1-gvuq5. hide oneself vide: gop1. hide (thick hide) vide: si1-gvuq5. high vide: ke5-mvyang55/he5-mvyang55; mvyang31; -mvyang55. high-handed vide: rueng35. hill vide: bum31; gong11-tang31; gvong11; Rung31-gvong11 ; zyang31gvon11-um31 ; zyong11-gvong11.

    23

    hill plot vide: bum 31-yo31; pun11. hilltop vide: Loi11lung 35-bum31; zvau11gvong11. him vide: yvang11. him vide: hau55-yuq1; po55; yuq1-gue 31. himself vide: yvang11; yvum31-seng 31. hinny vide: lo11-to 55; to55. hip(s) vide: dvang31bau35-bvun31. his vide: yvang54. hit vide: be1-sop5; cyang 11/syang 11 gvyak5 gvyak5; dak5; nvuq5; sin11 ; sop5. hit goal vide: wang31. hit target vide: dvyeq5dvyeq5. hit with fist vide: tui55. hive vide: bi1-gvyap5; bi1-tung55. hoarse vide: soi55. hoe vide: cyot1; kai11/hai11; kop5; syam31kop5; zi1ku11 . hold vide: mvyet1mvyet1; zeng31; zyun35. hold in one’s hands vide: cyung31/syun31. hold in position vide: zui11. hold with teeth vide: ngat1. hole vide: dong11; dong11-kop5; gvyung11; tum11 -beng35. holiday vide: zyong11-dat1 dat; zyong11dat1 dat. Holland vide: Hue11lan35/Hueq1lan35. hollow vide: kyung55; kyung55-kyung 55. hollow of the knee vide: le1-hap1. home vide: yvum31; zvyang55. homeward vide: lo31; lo35. honey vide: bi1-i31. honorific tittle for men of an elder generation vide: A5-wa11-mo 35. honorific tittle for women of an elder generation vide: A5-nu11-mo35. honorific tittle for women of an elder generation vide: A5-nu11-mo35. hook vide: nge1-mit5; ngvuen11; tung11ngvuen11. hook fish vide: mit1/mit5; nge1-mit5 mit1. horn vide: bvi5-kye55; kyui31; kyui31-wuek5; ne1-kyui31 . hornbill vide: wa31gyang31. horns vide: zi1si31-kyui31. horse vide: myang11; myang11-lo11; myang11-mi11; myang 11-mon35 . horseback vide: baq1.

    24

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    hospital vide: ci1-rung31. host vide: yvum31-seng 31. hot vide: a1tyeq5!; bui31; lum 35; mi1-ngin35 ngin35; ngin35; ngye35 ; pik5 ; tan31 . hour vide: king55. house vide: gyam11-yvum31; kung31-tuq5; le1-yvum11 bang11 ; mi1-gung 31yvum31; sang31po31-yvum31; sing11gvan11; tot1 ; wap1-doq1 ; yo31zang31; yvum 31 ; yvum31-bvan55 ; yvum31-kau31; yvum31-kung31/yvum 31hung31 ; yvum31-toq5 toq5; yvum31wang31 wang31 ; yvum31-zvuq5 zvuq5; zai11-yvum31; Zai11wa31-yvum 31 ; zum35 ; zvuq5. household vide: i1gvun11; yvum31. how vide: hyem31; ka55-/ha55-; ke5-/he5/ka55-/ha55-; ke 5-se55/he5-se 55; -se 55/se5/su55; su55/se 5-/-se 55. how do you do? vide: zang11-zo11. how far vide: ke5-hue55/he5-hue 55. how long vide: ke5-heng55/he5-heng55. how long time vide: ke5-mvyang55/he5mvyang55. how many vide: ke5-mvyo55/he5-mvyo55. how much vide: ke5-mvyo55/he5-mvyo55. howl vide: bvuk 5 ngau31; ngau31. huajiao vide: wat1; zyap1-si11. huanglian vide: nui31-ko11. huge vide: geq1-i54; hek1. huge amount vide: bum 31. huh? vide: m1m55!; ng55!. "hum" vide: m11/m 11-m 11. human vide: byu31; le 1-sang31; le1-sang31 sing55 ; le 1-sang31 ze1-wui31 ; zue 31 . hump vide: gung31-gvung31. hunch vide: gung31-gvung31; gvung31. hundred vide: le1-syo31; -syo31. hunger vide: zo31-mut5. hungry vide: hom11; mut1/mut5; ngvyom55; yut 1yut1 ; ze1 -nvau31; zo31 mut1. hunt vide: gyam35; kat5/hat5; lvom31; si1bek5; si1-cyom55 /si1-syom55; si1-gyam35 ; si1-gyeq5; si1 -ho31; si1-kat5/si1-hat5; si1lvom31; syo11/si1-/si5 ; syok5-syok5. hunter vide: zyau11gong11. hurry up vide: hui31.

    hurt vide: gyop1; no31; ut1-ut1; wam35no11 . husband vide: lang31; lang31 ho31. hush vide: bai55!; kye31; mo35mo35mo35. husk vide: gong11gve5rvang55; guq1 tung11; tung11 ; wui31-sum 31 . husked vide: mup1. husked rice vide: cin31. hygienic vide: san11-sueng31. I, me vide: ngo31; ngo25. ice-cold vide: gu35. ice-cream vide: bing55bang11. idea vide: paq1zvi31. identical vide: le1-pok1pok1 za54. identity card vide: mat5-bvong55dvin55. ideophone vide: a1-gva54-gok1; bvak5; bvak5-rap5; bvi55 bvi55 ; bvyeq1bvyeq1 ; bvyut5bvyut5; byau11-byau11 ; byeq1; byeq1-byeq1; byon31 ; cyot1 cyot1; dak1ngvyaq1; dak1dak1; dak5; dui11; dui11dui11 ; dung11 -dung11; dvau55-dvau55; dvik5dvik5; dvip5dvip5dvop5dvop5; dvu55dvu55; dvung31 ; dvup5 (-rap5); dvyep5dvyep5; dvyeq5dvyeq5; ge1brem11-ge1-bram11; ge5-zvyuk5 -ge1zyo11; gup1gup 1; gvi11gvi11 ; gvyop1gvyop1; gyet5gyet5; heng11heng11 ; hup 1; kot1kot1; kup5kup5; lop1 lop1; lvop5/lvop5-lvop5; lyem31lyem31 ; lyep1lyep1; mam11mam11 gvut5; mun35-mun35 ; mvya11mvya11; mvyet1mvyet1; mvyet1mvyet1; nan35nan35; ngap5; ngvyeq1(-ngvyeq1); ngyom31(-ngyom31); nip5nip5; not1not1; nueng31nueng31; num11num11; nut1 nut1; nvam55nvam55; op1op1 ; pok5; pot5; pyang55; pyu11-pyu11; pyui55; rang11rang11; rang31 ; rap5 ; rem11rem11 ; ro11ro11 ; rong 11rong11; ruk5 ; run31run31; rut 1/rut1rut1 ; rvaq5 ; rvong31; rvuet5; sem31; sim55sim55; sing11sing11; sit1 ; su31su31; suen11suen11; suet1; sup1 ; syak1syak1; syok1syok1; syut5syut 5; tik1tik 1tak1tak1; tok1; tok5tok5 ; ut1 ; ut1-ut1 ; yang11yang11; ye11ye11 ; yui35yui35; yut 1yut1 ; yvep5yvep5; zam11zam11 ; zem55zem55 ;

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY zuep1zuep1; zuk5 ; zuk 5-zuk5 ; zun11zun11; zvan55zvan55; zvem55zvem55. ideophone: winding vide: goi35-goi35gup1-gup1. idiom vide: kun11/hun11. idiot vide: bam11; byu31-bam 11; gun31; mau11-gun31. Iess vide: yom31. if vide: dang11-gvue 55; gvue55; zyang35. if only vide: le1-/le 5-. ignition cap vide: lot5. ignorance vide: la11. ignore vide: boi35; ne 1-boi35 boi35. ill vide: gyop1; no31; sam31mvi11; wam35no11 . ill at ease vide: a31na 35. illegitimate child vide: dye31. illness vide: a1na 11; rung35. imagine vide: mit1. immature vide: ngvyai55; zo11/ze1-/za1-. immoderately vide: lvum31. impatient vide: dye31. imperative vide: -aq1/-aq5; gveq5. in vide: me5-/ma35/ma55/me 55. in balance vide: wui35. in case vide: dang11-gvue55. in front vide: he55-ma54; he55-me55. in one go vide: le1-dam31-dvaq5. in passing vide: zyang31. in this way vide: i5-se55; i5-su54. in thruth vide: yvang11. incarnate vide: byo35. incarnation vide: byo35. incense vide: mvau55; ya11pau55. incessantly vide: gvyop5/gvyom31. incest vide: wong11; zyau11wong11. independent vide: yvum31-toq5 toq5. index finger vide: dvun11-ngyui11; loq1ngyui11. India vide: Ge1la31; Ge1la11-bvue55. indicate vide: dvun11. indiscriminately vide: lvum31. individual vide: yuq1/yuq5; zo11/ze1-/za1-. infant vide: da11da55 da55; ng5nga31. infant name vide: kye31-ming31; ming31zo11. infant skin vide: nu35. infantile vide: ngap1.

    25

    infected by bugs vide: wang31. infectious disease vide: byu31-wum 35; wum35 . inflammation vide: zyeq1. inflatable vide: soq5-um31. inflatable bed vide: soq5-um31 dvap5kang11. inflate vide: dvau55; mut1/mut5. influenza vide: sam31mvi11. inhale vide: soq5 sye31. injection vide: tau11; zvan55zvan55. injection (give injection) vide: ci1-tau11. ink vide: bvong55dvin55-si11. innumerable vide: di1ge1di11. insane vide: byu31-na11; na11; u1-nvuq5. inscrutable vide: i1mit1; nik1. insect vide: ang11-noq5-bau11; bau11; 31 bau11-don35; dang 31 lye hu55 bau11; 31 31 55 11 1 do lye hu bau ; i -bvyat1 zo11 su31 ; ki1-nun11 ; mvek5; mvoq5; nuq1bau11; pe 5lvam31 ; pyo31; si31-mvoq5 ; sin11; sung11-toq5 ge1yveng31; waq1gve5lai11; woq1dut1 ; wui31-syuq5 gve5nva11; yang31kung11/yang31hung 11; zvang55mvan31 ; zyang31gvon11. insect hill vide: um31. insect-eaten vide: tyen11; tyen55-lui11. insects vide: sue11. inseparable vide: gang11; nvik5-dvang31. insert vide: dvu11 suq5; gya35; suq5/su31; tau11 ; zvuq5. inserted vide: zuq1. inside vide: a1-kau31; gue35; kau31/hau31; lung35; lvung55 ; zvem55 . inside (amidst other stuff) vide: tye11. inside out vide: a1-puq5 dong31; puq5. insinuate vide: dai11. insist vide: ning31. institution vide: rung31. instrument vide: -eq1. intact male vide: a1-mon35 si54; mi11; mon35 . intelligent vide: byu31-zuen35; zuen35. intelligible vide: bye35. intensely vide: si1-lo35. intentionally vide: ding11sang55. interest vide: a1gvyu31. interesting vide: le1zvyum55. interpreter vide: byan35; gve5-byan35.

    26

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    interrogative vide: ka55-/ke5-/ha55-/he5-; luq1; ta11 . interrupt vide: dvum55; pyet5. intestine/s vide: pe1dong11; u31-mo35; seng11-u31; u31. into vide: lvung55; wang31. intoxicated vide: a1-u31. intoxication vide: u1-ngun11. intoxication (get out of) vide: byan35. intuition vide: zon31. inundate vide: um55; wui31-zye11 (zye11); wui31-zye11-mo35. inundated vide: ding35. invent vide: pan31. investment vide: a1rang31. invite vide: kum55; zi31. iron vide: dvoq5; sang31po31-yvum31; syam31; syam31-dvoq5 . iron sheets vide: sang31po31. irritate vide: gvyum31; kau11. irritated vide: mvat5mvat5. irritating vide: mi1-kau11. isn’t it? vide: kai31/hai31. it vide: yvang11. itch vide: ge1-zyo11; gvin31; rui35; soq5; yo11. its vide: yvang54. ivory vide: syung11lvam11. jackal vide: wam31-kui11. jacket vide: bu11-mo35. jade vide: lung 11-sueng55. jail vide: tong55. jar vide: tam11; yam11. jaw vide: si1-gvap1. jealous vide: me1non31. jelly vide: not1not1. jerk vide: rut1/rut1rut1. jerrycan vide: bvung31. Jew’s harp vide: zyang31gvung11. Jingpo vide: Si1dvung55; Si1dvung55ming35 ; Wun11bvong55; Wun11bvong55 a1-myu31 ; Zai11-zo 11 a 1-myu31. job vide: a1mu31; mu35 zui11. jog vide: din31. join vide: dvap5. joints vide: gvun31; ki31-myoq1; loq1myoq1.

    joke vide: myok1-ngvam11; ngyau35; wui31-wo31; wui31-wo 31 ho31. jolty vide: bvyang11. journey vide: gong35; meng11-gong35 gong35. joy vide: a1lyo31!; a5ni55!. jump vide: byam31. just vide: bau35; sup1. just now vide: a1hang31; a1kang31/a 1hang31 . just now (only just now) vide: a1hui11yvam31. just when vide: kun31/hun31. Kachin

    vide: Si1dvung55; Si1dvung55ming35 ; Wun11bvong55; Wun11bvong55 a1-myu31 ; Zai11-zo 11 a 1-myu31. vide: kong31; ruem 35; wo35. an eye on vide: zung35. (animals, spirits) vide: zvo11. in mind vide: me1zveng55. in mouth vide: ngum31. in one’s hand vide: waq1/wa11.

    keep keep keep keep keep keep keep in one’s hands vide: cyung31/syun31. keep legs tight vide: zvyum11. keep (spirits) vide: zyau35. kerosene lamp vide: byen31-din11. key vide: si11; zoq1/zo11; zoq1-si11. kick vide: bvek5; nang11; ting 55. kidding vide: mvau55. kidney vide: lvum11; zin35-lvum11. kill vide: sat5/san31; tim11. kill with fire vide: mvek5. kilo vide: gung55gin35. kind n. vide: zyung11/zyung31. kindle vide: dap1/dap5. king cobra vide: bau31-hu31. kinship vide: a5-rvat5; au31-zo11; du31mo35; i1 -/i5-; i5-mang11-mo35 ; -lat1 /lat5; mi1-tang55-zo11; nga35 -du31; nving55; o 55-zyan35; rvat5; rvat5 -lat1 ; rvat5-mo35; seng11-seng11; syu11; syu11 gvue55; tang55; tang55-lat1; tang55mo35; tang55 -zo11; wvoi55; za1-au31/ze1au31 ; ze5-tang55 ; Zvi5-dui11 ; zvi55/zvi11//zvi5-. kinship term vide: i5-gu11. kinship terms vide: mvoi55.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY kiss

    vide: nvut5-zyup 5 zyup5; zyup5/zyum31 . kitchen vide: gok1; zang11-gok5. knead vide: nai11. knee vide: ki31-put5; le 1-hap1. kneecap vide: gve5syang11. knickers vide: lve1-zo11. knife vide: cyun11/syun11; kang11; kyam11; lvam31; pe1dvung31 ; suen11 ; syam31 ; syam31-cyun11; syam31-nong35 ; syam31to11; syam31-to11-mo35 ; syam31-to11 zo11; um11bong 11; we1-kyam11 ; (zi1 )syam31-nong35. knife and scabbard vide: syam31-byang31. knife forger vide: ning11dup1. knit vide: tu31. knit wool vide: za35-tu31 tu31. knitting needles vide: za35-ap5. knitwork vide: za35; za35-tu31. knock down vide: tui55. knot vide: zvyuq5. know vide: ga11; sue55. know each other vide: sue31-lum11. knowledge vide: lai11gva55; paq1zvi31. kohlrabi vide: hu11-bvun31; hu11-gam31; hu11-haq5. kudzu vine vide: zyang11ngyang11. Kunming vide: Gun55ming11.

    labour vide: hang11; kyui55. labour exchange vide: o11. lace vide: bvi55; dvui11. ladder vide: zum31-tang31. ladle vide: gvak5; zvyo31; zvyo31-zo11. lair vide: sut5/sun31. lake vide: nge1-nvong 31; nvong31; wui31dving55. lame vide: ki31; rueq5. lamp vide: suen11-din11. lance vide: lvam31. land vide: si1-gvyoq5-si11-yo31; yo31; yo31gyoq5 gyoq5; yo31-myoq5; zyang11gyu35. land-owner vide: zvau11. land-owners vide: zvau11-bvue55. language vide: ming35; Zai11-ming35; Zai11wa 31-ming35 . lappet vide: bai11. lard vide: cu31/su31; waq1-cu31/waq1-su31.

    27

    large vide: geq1-i54; mo35. large vide: mo35-mo 35. large intestine vide: pe1dong11. Lashi vide: Wun11bvong55 a1-myu31. last vide: kong31. last in succession vide: tang55. last night vide: a1man31. last time vide: he5-yoq1-lving31; lving31. last week vide: he5-yoq1-bat1. last year vide: a1-nvik5/a5-nvik5. late vide: gan31-zue 31. late at night vide: min35-gvung31-gam31. later vide: tang31-pyang31. laugh vide: cik5; si11-cik5; wui31; wui31 nvau31 . lay down vide: lvyeq5; lyeq1. lay egg vide: kyo55. lay it on with someone vide: kye11 mau35 . lazy vide: le1gon11; lyem35; ngi11-si31. lazy and unreliable person vide: bvan31pai55. lead vide: cyui31-tung11; dong31. lead away vide: bvun55; bvyung11; cyong31 . lead away (bride) vide: mi1-bvun55. leaf (thick part of) vide: ang11-gung11. leaf, leaves vide: a1-haq5; haq5; kyap5; mvan11; mvan11 -haq5; ngvoq1-haq5; ngyun35; ngyuq1; pe5sye55 ; poq5 ; poq5gyuq1; pung11syui31-haq5; se 5-poq5 ; sek5-haq5; sek 5-ngyuq1; sek5-poq5 ; sek5pup5; sun11-haq5; tut5 -poq5. leak vide: mau11; mau11-yui31 yui31; mau35-yui11; yui31. lean vide: ngvue31. lean meat vide: nvik5; si1-nvik5. lean (one’s body) vide: ngue31. lean-to vide: dup5. leap vide: dang11. learn vide: mvoq5. leathery vide: gyet5gyet5. leave vide: pyang55; sa31!; so11. leave over vide: mvit5. leaves vide: > leaf. leaves (thick parts of) vide: ang11gung11 . leech vide: ham55; ham55-hoq5; hup5; laq1; laq1-ham55 /laq5-ham55; laq5-ham55 .

    28

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    left vide: pyang55. left hand vide: loq1-bvai11. left over vide: gvyem31; mit1/mit5; ruem 35. left side vide: a1-bvai11; bvai11; loq1-bvai11kyam11. leg/s vide: ki31; ki31-bu35; ki31-bvat5; ki31dam11; ki31-dum 35 ; ki31-dvye11 dap1; ki31 goi35 su31; ki31-gvek5 gvek5; ki31gvok5-zo11; ki31-hue11; ki31-yin31 ; zung31 -ngung11 ngung11; zung11-byeq5 byeq1; zvyum11 . legend vide: mau31mi11. legs (on its legs) vide: rvaq5. lend vide: zvi11. length vide: ci11; heng31; -heng55; ke 5mvyang55/he5-mvyang55; lam31; loq1lam31; ra35 ; to31. leopard vide: le1-bvo55dvye55; ting11cyap5lo11. leopard cat vide: sya31lom11. less vide: syau11. let vide: lvoq5; nvang31. let decay vide: bvup5. let him/her/it vide: syang55-gaq1. let it be vide: yau11 bue31. let it pass vide: yau11 bue31. let pass vide: yven31. let’s vide: koi11/hoi11; ro31!; rvo31!/ro31!; syang55. let’s go! vide: sa31!. lethargic vide: byu31-mek 5; mek 1/mek5. Letsi vide: Wun11bvong55 a 1-myu31. letter vide: hun31; lai11gva55; lai11gva55mvi55; si1gvyam55/si5gvyam55; sum11zvoq5 lai11gva55. level vide: gyu35; ra35; ra35; rva55; zyang11-gyu35 . liana vide: nui11; nui31; sam55myuq5; wui35. lice vide: sin11; sin55-ngi11. lick vide: yoq1/yo11. lid vide: mvi11. lie down vide: lyeq1. lie-in vide: yvup5 bui31 dang11. lifestyles vide: byu31 zue 31 le1gva11. lifetime vide: bvyat1; zai35. lifetime (one’s whole life) vide: le1bvyat1.

    lift vide: ge5-nvyep5; rvo31!/ro31!; waq1/wa11. lift off the fire vide: tut5. light vide: bo35; lui31; mau11; ngai11. light bulb vide: mi1-sueng55. light (jobs) vide: a1mu31 som54; som55. light (matches) vide: kyet1. light sleep vide: zuet1. light vt. vide: dvap5; dvuq5. light (weight) vide: som55. lighten vide: cik5/sik5. lightning vide: cik5/sik5; gun31; lvap5; mau11 ; mau11-gun31; mau35-gun11. like vide: dong31; gi1-nvau31; hak1; mak1; raq1; ron11; ron35; -se55/se 5-/su55; su55 /se5 -/-se55 . like hell vide: si31/si5-/si11-. like that vide: a5-se55; a 5-su54. like this vide: i5-se 55; i5-su54. like this/that/those vide: a1-su54. like to eat vide: ze1-nvau31. limb vide: bun11. limbs vide: yin31. limp vide: sui11. limp (walk with a limp) vide: rueq5; rvueq5. limp (walking with a) vide: a1-rvueq5 ma54. line vide: yan35. line of writing vide: kok1; yan35. lines vide: loq1-me1-gva55; loq1-wa11 me1gva55. lion vide: hang11ki11. lip vide: nvut5-gvuq5. lips vide: cyu11; gvuq5; nvut5-cyu11; nvut5-gvuq5 ; zam11zam11. lipstick vide: nvut5-nvye31 nvye31. liquid vide: weng11/weng31. liquor vide: i31-bvat5; i31-bvyung31; i31pik5; i31-pue 11 ; i31-pue11 -yin31; i31seng11 seng11 ; i31 -syuq5; pe1 -gang11 ; pi11zyo31; seng11-zue 31 ; tam11; wue31i31 ; wut1. listen vide: dai54 (dang 11) (a 1-)gyo11; gyo31 me1zveng55. Lisu vide: Yo11in35; Yo11in35-byu31; Yo11in35-zo11 . literate vide: gat1.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY little vide: a1-dviq5 (ze11); a1-sen55-zo11; cyeq5 ; dviq5 ; gvok5; ngvyai55; sen55zo11; syau11 ; zi1 -; zo11 /ze1-/za1-; zvai55. little finger vide: loq1-ngyui11; loq1tang55-ngyui11. little toe vide: ki31-tang55-ngyui11. live as human being vide: zue31. live by oneself vide: yvum31-toq5 toq5. live happily vide: i1gvun11. live to ripe old age in happiness vide: u1-pyu31 zui31 nye31 . lively vide: san11. lively eyes vide: myoq1-pong55 san11. liver vide: pyam31; seng11/seng55; waq1seng11. livestock vide: no11-woq1-waq1; waq1; zvo11. living room vide: wap1-doq1. living standard vide: i1gvun11. living-room vide: kau31/hau31; yvum31kau31. lizard vide: me1nu31sum11gvu31. loach vide: si1yo31. load vide: hang11. load gun vide: lang11; tung31. locative vide: me5-/ma35/ma55/me55. lock vide: laq1; mvi11; si11; zoq1/zo11. locust vide: ding11-gam35. log vide: dum11; sek 5-dum11. long vide: a1kang31 a1nam 11 ma 35; heng31; -heng55; i5-heng55; ke 5-heng55/he5heng55; -mvyang55 ; myang35 ; syut5syut5 ; yang11-yang11 . long ago vide: a1kang31/a1hang 31; a1kang31 a1nam11 ma35 ; a1kang31 he55-ma55; a1kang31 he55-pyang31 ; a1 nam11 ; he55me55. long for vide: bun11; yut1yut1. long object vide: kat5/hat5. long way vide: bin11 wue 11 so11. Longchuan vide: hu55-tang31-byu31. loo vide: ki1-tong55/ki5-tong55; ki1-zum35; tong55. look vide: myang31; wu35; zyui35 wu35. look after vide: zung35. look down upon vide: wu35-syau11. look for vide: ho31. look from out of hiding vide: haq5 wu35.

    loom

    29

    vide: gan11; gan11-zum35; ting55; woq1; woq1-gan11 ; (woq1 -)gan11-zum35 . loose vide: pyuq5; ro 11ro11; sum31. loose (let loose) vide: nvang31. loose one’s way vide: kyo31-ngvoq5 ngvoq5. loose temper vide: zun11zun11. loose vi. vide: bue35. loose-fitting vide: wong11. loosen muscles vide: lvoq5 mvan55. lop vide: doi35. lop off vide: bvyoq5. loquat tree vide: pi11pa55(go11)syu31. lose vide: byuq1. losing temper vide: ngve5-ning31. losses vide: sum31. lost vide: byuq1; kyo31-ngvoq5 ngvoq5; pyuq5. lot (a lot) vide: bum 31. lot (get one’s lot) vide: pu11. lots vide: geq1. lots (a huge lot) vide: le1-bum31-mo35. lots and lots of them vide: a1-mun54 sum31-dung11. lots of vide: run31run31. loud-mouthed vide: syai31. louse vide: sin11; sin55-ngi11. love vide: mak1; zvit5; zvit5-dap1. love affair vide: sum11zvoq5; sum11zvoq5 zvoq5. love letter vide: sum 11zvoq5 lai11gva55. love song vide: do35. low vide: ngyup1. low-growing vide: nuq1-byeq1. lower abdomen vide: i1-si5-um31; um 31. lower arm vide: loq1-yin31; yin31. lower leg vide: ki31-yin31; yin31. lower part of a village vide: tang31. lower part of the body vide: (pi1dum11) mvo55-dvum55. lower part of the village vide: wa31tang31. lowlands vide: bva55; Sam55-bva55. luck vide: byai35; gvyam11; gvyam11-dap5; long35 mo35-mo35; mun11; zvang55zve55 (zvang55-man31) ze11 . luck (bad luck) vide: pu11. lucky vide: myang31; ren31. lucky mouth vide: zo11-mun11.

    30

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    lukewarm vide: lum 35. lull to sleep vide: mo35mo35mo35. lump vide: cyui31-tung11; sek 5-tung11; tung11. lump (get a lump) vide: bvu55. lump-shaped vide: a1-lvum 11; lvum 11. lunch vide: nap1-zang11. lungs vide: pom31; seng 11-zvut5; zvut5; zvut5-pom31. lure vide: lvyen11. machine vide: gong11gve5rvang55; zyak1. macho vide: dyen35. mad vide: byu31-na 11; na 11; u1-nvuq5. madam vide: A5-nu11-mo35. made of vide: rvang55. madness vide: hek1. magazine vide: mau11sau11. maggot vide: luq1. magic vide: dum11sa 55; si31-to31 to 31; to31. magnet vide: dvoq5-mvi55. magpie vide: dum11sa55-gam35. mah-jong vide: ma11gyang11. main dish vide: sun11-mo35. maize vide: lung11; lung11-bum11; lung11gam31; lung 11-haq5 ; lung11-sam31. major vide: mo35. make vide: rvang55. make a pair vide: zvum55. make by fitting tenons into mortises vide: zvuq5. make jokes vide: myok1-ngvam11; wui31wo31 ho31. make notes vide: gva31 me1zveng55. make room vide: ngat5. make someone V vide: lvoq5. make up (new words) vide: rvang55 toq5. make way vide: hui11; pang31. make way for vide: yven31. malaria vide: wang11; wang11-bung 11; wang11-gvyo31; wang11-noq5. male vide: gue31/ge1-; mi11; mon35; ning11long 11-po55; po55. male animal vide: a1-lo11; a1-po55; lo11. male cattle vide: ne1-lo 11. male pig vide: waq1-dung 11. malicious pleasure vide: m1m31!. mammal vide: kui11/hui11.

    man

    vide: byu31; byu31-po55; mang11-zo11po55; po55; waq1 ngan31; yuq1 /yuq5; yuq1-gue 31 ; Zai11wa 31-po55 . mango vide: si1-gvyoq5-si11. mankind vide: byu31; le 1-sang31; le1-sang31 ze1-wui31 ; zue 31. mantis vide: i1-bvyat1 zo11 su31. mantou vide: man11to 55. manure vide: ki1-/ki5-/ki11; ki1-pun55; ki11/ki1-/ki5 -; nam31-pun55 ; pun55; san11 ; waq1 ki1-pun55 . many vide: byau11-byau11; geq1; le 1-bum31mo35; -mvyo55; myo11; run31run31. mare vide: myang11-mvi55. market vide: gai31; kap5; wan31dvum31; zyau31. market (go to market) vide: wang31. market goods vide: sam55-zue31. marriage vide: mi1-bvun55; mi1-hang55; mi1-hang55-bvoi31 ; mi1-hang55-kyo31; mi1-sek5 ge1zyam11 ; mi1-wue11 pye55; moq1-wang31 wang 31/moq5-wang31 wang31; mung31 ; mung31 wui31; mung31 wui31; u1-pyu31 zui31 nye31; ze1-moq5; zyan35 . married couple vide: nvik5-nvum 31; nvum31. marrow vide: ngyun35; wui11-ngyun35. marry vide: doq1/doq5; hang55; lang31doq5; lang31 ho31; mi1 -hang55 . marten vide: zve5hai11. martial arts vide: wu55syuq1. Maru vide: Wun11bvong55 a1-myu31. masculine vide: po55. mash up food vide: zang11-nai11 nai11. massage vide: dun11; mvik5. master vide: bye31. master (be able to master) vide: bye31. mat vide: bvyo31; dving11; dyep5; sai55tung55; tan31. match vide: kyet1; mi1-kyet1. match (be a match for) vide: ung31.

    match (be a match for an opponent) vide: bye31. matches vide: pai11-kyet1. material vide: rvang55. matras vide: dvap5-kang11/dvap5-hang11; kang11/hang11. matter vide: a1mu31.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY may vide: gue31. maybe vide: da11; hoi55/koi55; syaq1. me vide: ngo31; ngo25. meal vide: min35-zang 11; nap1-zang 11; ngi35-zang11 . mealtimes vide: zang11. meaning vide: le1zvyum55. measure vide: ci11; dyek1; gvue 55; wo35. meat vide: si1-cu31; si1-gvyui55 gvyui55; si1-gvyuq5 ; si1-gvyuq5 gvyuq5; si1 -ho31; si1-nvik5 ; si1-zyap5; si1-zyum11; syo11/si1 -/si5; waq1-syo11; woq1-syo11; yo31-so31-syo11; zi1si31-syo11 . mediate vide: bvin31. medicine vide: ci11/si11/ci1-; nui31-ko11; ya11; ya11ya35. medium size vide: rang11rang 11. meek vide: mue35. meet vide: hui11; ngi31 lang35; tung31 hui11 ; zup 1/zup5 . meet (again) vide: kyum31. meet girls vide: mi1-wue11 pye55. meet (rivers) vide: wui31-zup 5. meet (roads) vide: kyo31-zup5. meeting vide: zup1-pong11/zup5-pong11. melon vide: hum31/he5-. melt vide: bvyong55; byong35. memorize vide: gyo31 me1zveng55; me1zveng55. memory vide: me1zveng55; tau11zvi31. mend vide: po31. menstruation vide: gue35; lva55-mo35. merit vide: a1gvyu31; zye31zyu31. meter vide: lam31; loq1-lam31. middle vide: dvang31; ge1ro11; gung31; gung11-gung31. middle finger vide: loq1-ngyui11; to31ngyui11. midge vide: bvyup5. mildew vide: mung11zung35. mildewed vide: sa11; zui11. military vide: gye31; gye31 gvut5; gye31keng11; wang31. milk vide: nau35; ne1-nau35. mill vide: lui35. millet vide: nvam11. mind vide: i1mit1. mind (keep in mind) vide: me1zveng55. mind (your step) vide: le1go11.

    31

    minor vide: zo11/ze1-/za1-. minority people vide: a1-myu31-zo11. mint vide: bo11ho55. minute vide: fuen55. minute (in a minute) vide: le1-king11 me55. mirror vide: man31-zyam31; wup1-zyam31. miscarry vide: bya35. miserly vide: i1mit1. mislay things vide: pyuq5. miss vide: mit1; yut1yut1. miss part of (arm) vide: loq1-dum35. miss part of (arm or leg) vide: dum35. miss (part of the leg) vide: ki31-dum 35. missing vide: wvue55!. mistake vide: syut5; wai35!. mistaken (out of a mistake) vide: ngvoq5. mister vide: tang55-mo35; tang55-zo11. misty vide: tup5. mix vide: lvu31; ngvyo55; ngyo35. mixed vide: a1-ngvyo55. moist vide: bam11. molar vide: zui31. molars vide: zui31-tung11. mole vide: i1-bvyat1. Monday vide: i5ban31-tang31. money vide: hing55/king55; Myen31ngun31 ; ngun31 ; ngun31-kong31 kong 31. money dept vide: zvin31. monk vide: bung11ki11. monkey vide: laq1gang 11; myuq1; myuq1kyeng55; myuq1-mui35; myuq1-noq1 ; myuq1-zyum31. monosodium glutamate vide: pong55wan35. monster vide: dam11; dam11-mvi55. month vide: kyap5; lva55-mo 35. moon vide: kyap5; ling35; lva55-; lva55mo35; lve5-; Lve5-kui11 zo11 ; lve5-sek 5; lve5-toq5 ; zvo31 . moon-dawn vide: lve5-toq5. morbid cordiality vide: si31-mang11. more vide: gvo11; i55-sum 11-dvu55; lai11; zyat1. morning vide: nap1/nap5; nap1-gvyo55; nap1-sun31; sun31 . mortar vide: sum 31/cum 31; sum31; tung 55sum31 ; wui31-sum31 .

    32

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    mortar and pestle vide: loq1-sum31. mortise vide: yvum31-zvuq5 zvuq5; zvuq5. mosquito vide: gvyang31; gvyang31-si31. mosquito net vide: gvyang31-sut5; sut5/sun31 . most vide: zye11. most of it vide: myo11-pyang31. most part vide: myo11-me55-myo11. moth vide: pe5lvam31. mother vide: A5-nu11; i5-nu11; me1yat1; nu11; nu31/Nu31. motorcycle vide: moq1toq1. mould vide: mung11zung35. mouldered vide: pom31; pop1; sek 5-pom31. mouldy vide: sa11; zui11. mountain vide: bum 31; gong11-tang31. mountain bees/wasps vide: bum 31-byo11. mountain lion vide: le1-bvo55dvye55. mourn vide: byo31-du31; du31. mourning dance vide: Pe1gun11. mouse vide: nge1-noq1; zit5zit5/zvit5zvit5. mouth vide: ha55; kum11/hum 11/hum55/ke1/he1-; nvut5; nvut5-hum 11; nvut5 yop1; yam11-nvut5. mouth (keep in mouth) vide: ngum31. mouthful vide: nvut5. move vide: dui31; dvui31; lvut5; sa31!; tot1; zveng11. move about vide: suk1suk1sak1sak1. move oneself (scoot over) vide: zut1/zun11. move out vide: dye11. move out/away vi. (bees etc.) vide: bui11 . movie vide: dvaq5sin55. Mrs. vide: A5-nu11-mo35. much vide: a1-mvyo55-mvyo55; a5-mvyo55mvyo55; geq1 ; geq1-mvyo55; i5-mvyo55 ; i5-mvyo55; le1-bum 31-mo35; -mvyo55 ; myo11; myo11-myo11. mucus vide: nvap5; nvap5-dvung55; nvap5 kyui11 . mud vide: byok1; gve5-; gve5-bvo11; gve5nva11; nva11; nvop5; se 1-mui31 -yo31. mud pool vide: gve5-lvu11-tum 11. muddy vide: ngvyaq1; nop1; se1-mui31 mui31. mug vide: gom35; se 5-poq5-gom35. Mum vide: A5-nu11; nu11; nu31/Nu31.

    muntjac vide: zi1si31. muscle power vide: bvat5. mushroom vide: mau31; mau31-gvyok1; mau31-gyon11; mi1-gye11-mau31; ong11lot1; zi1si31-mau31 . music band vide: dum31bvu55-pung55; Wun11 bvong55 -pung55. mussel vide: lung11zyo35. must vide: a1-V a 1-gue31; ra11; ra31; be 131 31 kai ; be1-kai -ma11; ang 11; ra11 . mustard vide: ang11-bong11; ang11-noq5; ang11-noq5-weng11 /weng 31; ang11-nu35zo11; nuq1-byeq1 . musty vide: sa11. my! vide: moi31!. my vide: nga35. my dear! vide: ok5-ngei31. mynah vide: ne1-lui11-ngvoq5; ne1-zi11ngvoq5. myriads vide: byau11-byau11; run31run31. myself vide: yvang11; yvum31-seng31. nail

    vide: loq1-seng 11; mai11na 31 /mai31 na11/mai31 na31 ; seng 11; zuq1 . nail clippers vide: loq1-seng 11-zuen11zue31 . nails vide: zvuq5. naked vide: a1-gyang31; cin31; gung 31cin31 ; gyang31 ; si5-gyang31. name vide: A1-kun55; -Bvi55; Doq1si11; Duq1 ; -Dvang55 ; -Dvom55; -Dvu31; Dvu31; -Gam 35; -Gun31 ; -Gvai55 ; Gving55 ; -Gvoq5; -Ka 31; Ka31dvom55; Kon55 lum 11 ; Kun55 /Hun55 ; kye31ming31 ; -Laq1/-Laq5; Laq1-wom35; Le1 /Le5-; Le 1-bang 11; Le 1-ci55/Le1-si55; Le1dvang55; Le1-dvu31; Le 1-gam35; Le 1gyon31; Le1-ka31; Le 1-kun55-laq1; Le1laq5; Le 1-nong35 ; Le1-pai11; Le1 -rvoi55 ; Le1-toi11 ; Le 1-tun31; Le 1-yong35 ; Le1wui31; -Lum11; -luq1/-luq5 ; Ma11 -; Ma11-bvut5 ; Ma11-lum 11 ; Ma 11-rep1 ; Ma11-sin11; Ma11-sueng55; Ma11wom35; mang11 ; Mang11 -gun31 ; Mang11-ka 31; Mang11-lat5; Mang 11mo35; Mang11-tung55; Me1 -; Me1 bvi55 ; Me1-don35; Me 1-dving55 ; Me1dvom55; Me 1-gvai55; Me 1-gvoq5; Me1 -

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY lat5; Me1-lum 11; Me 1-luq5 ; Me1-myo11; Me1-ngvyeq5; Me1-pang55; Me1-roi35 ; Me1-sueng55; Me1-tam 11; Me 1-toi11; Me1-tuq1 ; Me1-yam35; Me1-yin35; Me1yong35; Me1-zvai55; Me1kuq1 Kun55 ; Me1ran11 ; Meng11req1 ; ming31 ; ming31-mo 35; ming31 mving55 ; ming31zo11; Miq1-dvai55-dvu55 ; Mue11bung11; mving55; Ning 11gon35wa35; -Nong35; Nva55-bvi55; Nva55-dvom55; Nva55gving55; Nva55-yun11; o 55-zyan35; Pai11-Kun55; -Pang55 ; Pau11cung55; Pau11ki11; Pau11zyang11 ; pu11 /pe1-; Pu11-gun31/Pe 1-gun31; Pu11-ka31/Pe 1ka31; Pu11-lat1/Pu11-lat5/Pe1-lat5; Pu11mo35/Pe 1-mo35; Pu11-tung 55/Pe1tung55; -Rep1 ; Roi35 ; Roi35-toi11 ; Rvoi55; Sing11-rep1; Sueng55; Sueng55kam31; Syang11dyeng35; Syum 55lut1 ; tang55; -Toi11; -Tuq1; Ung31 cau31 ; Wom35 ; Yam35; -Yin35; Yong35; Yong35 ; -Yun11; Zeng11hang55 ; Zeng11tong31 ; Zyang11mo35. named vide: ga11. nameless vide: ming31 a1-bo31 Roi35-dot1. namesakes vide: du31; ming31-du31. narrate vide: kai11. nasty vide: syoq5. nasty talk vide: kun11-syoq5. nationality vide: a1-myu31. native vide: cyoq5-pit5-mau11; mau11. native land vide: yvum31-mau11. native place vide: mau11. nature’s call vide: lam35. naughty vide: syai31. navel string vide: cyoq5. near vide: a1-zvyang55; long31; nam31; yvum31-nam 11; zvyang55. near by vide: le1-ha55-ze 1-me55. neat vide: dvup5(-rap5). necessary vide: ra11; syau11/syau31. neck vide: ling31; ling31-ngvai55 ngvai55; ling31-zeng11; ling 31.(zeng11-)gvok5zo11; u1-lvum11 ngvang55; yup1/yup5/yum11; zeng11 . necklace vide: wui11-zo11. need vide: a5-syau11; nvau31; ra11; syau11/syau31 . need to vide: no35.

    33

    needle vide: ap5; sen55; sueng 55; za35-ap5; zuq1 ; zvuq5; zyoi35. negative prefix vide: a1-. negotiate vide: pye55. nephews vide: a1-du31. nest vide: mau11-lat5 koq5-zo11; ngvoq5sut5; sut 5/sun31 ; waq1-sut5; woq1-sut 5; zeng31gi11-sut 5. net vide: gun31. never vide: bvyat1; ge1zyu11; ke5nvam55/he5-nvam55 ; yvam31. never mind vide: yau11 bue31. nevertheless vide: a5-su54. new vide: a1-sek5; sek 5/seng31. new clothes vide: be1-sek5. new moon vide: lve5-sek5. newborn vide: nu35. newborn baby vide: ngvyai55-bong 11. newborn calf vide: ne1-nu35-zo11. next time vide: a1hui11-lving31; a1kui31/a1hui31; lving31. next week vide: mvo55-bat1. next year vide: sang31-nvik5. nice vide: ngon35. nicely warm vide: ngye11. nieces vide: a1-du31. night vide: min31; min35; min35-gvung31gam31; min35 r 55. night (every night) vide: min31-wui31. nine vide: gau11/gau31; gau35. ninety vide: gau11-cue31. nipple vide: nau35-si11; si11. no vide: m1m35. no more vide: le1-. no problem! vide: a35!. nob vide: um11bong11. nod into sleep vide: mvyet1mvyet1. noise vide: ge1-ru11; ming31; tye 31. noisy vide: rong31/rong31rong 31. nominalizer vide: po11. nominalizing prefix vide: a1-. non-committal vide: sam55-yau11 yau11; yau11. noodles vide: myen35dyau11. nose vide: ne1-lui11-nvo31; nvap5 kyui11; nvo31/nve5-; nvo31-kyo11 ; nvo31-zit5. nose lock for cattle vide: nvo31syoi55/nve5-syoi55 . nose-blood vide: nvo31-mun35-sui11.

    34

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    nostril vide: nvo31-dong11. not vide: a1-. not at all vide: le1-zvui55; le1-zvui55-zo11; le1-zvui55-zvui55 . not even vide: lvang55. not go vide: a35-. not too vide: lvum31. not very vide: lvum31. not yet vide: si11/si1-/siq1; siq1. notched vide: kang11. note vide: me1zveng55. notebook vide: mau11sau11. notes vide: gva31 me1zveng55. now vide: a1hui31; a1kui31/a1hui31. nowadays vide: a1kui11-bvyat1/a1hui11bvyat1; bvyat1. numb vide: bing31. number vide: nam35bat5. o’clock vide: king55. oak vide: le1ngyeng11. object marker vide: r55/li55/lye55. oblique vide: a1-yvon55-yvon55; bvi31; goi35; yvon55. observe vide: cyui11/syui11. obstinate vide: pyau31. obstruct vide: tye31. obvious vide: ge1-lo31; mai31. occasion vide: lving31; me1sat1 bi11. ocean vide: nam31moq1 de1ra 35. of course vide: ge1-lo31; me1-lo31. off vide: poi11. off (electricity) vide: duq1. off (foodstuffs) vide: sa11; san31. offended (easily) vide: puk5. offer vide: ngvyo31; rvang55; a1-yan35; a1yang11; yan35 ; yang11. officer vide: zvau11. officers vide: zvau11-bvue55. official name vide: ming31-mo35. offspring vide: me1yat1. oh! vide: goi35-ei31; o11; o55. oil vide: cu31/su31. old vide: cau11; gvo11; mang11; mang11zo11; mang11-zo11-mvi55; mang11-zo11po55; mang 11-zo11 wui31; u1-pyu31 zui31 nye31. old (foodstuffs) vide: sa11; san31. on vide: duq1; me5-/ma35/ma 55/me 55.

    on (a certain topic) vide: sueng54. on fire vide: mi11 ngye35; ngye35. on top vide: a1-toq5. once vide: dam31; le1-dam31. once (at once) vide: le1-dam31-dvaq5. once more vide: dum11. one vide: le1-; ra11/ra1-. one and the same vide: le1-zyung11 za54. one of these days (in future) vide: naq1ma35-bvue 55 . one-armed vide: dvye11; loq1-dvye11 dap1. one-eyed vide: dvye11; Miq1-dvai55-dvu55; myoq1-dvye11 dap1. one-legged vide: dvye11; ki31-dvye11 dap1. one/s vide: yvang11. oneself vide: gung31; gung31-gung31; yu31 ; yvum31-seng31. only vide: bau35; dvai55; ge1-lo31; za11/ze1/ze11/zaq1; za31-eq1; zaq1; ze1-; ze1-si31. onomatompoeia vide: pyok1. onomatopoeia vide: bak1bak1; bung31; bvyeng31bvyeng31; byet1 ; bvyet1/bvyet1bvyet1 ; byok1 ; cyem11; deng55deng55deng55 ; dok1dok1; duk1duk1; duk5duk 5; dvit5dvit5; dvok5dvok5dvok5; gok1ei11gok11a11 gok1gi11gok1gak1; gut1gut1 ; gvrom31; gyet1tyu31-gyet1tyu31 ; gyom31; ka11ta11ka11ta11ka11ta11; ke1rok1/ke 1rok5; ng5nga31; ngut1ngut1; ngva31 ; ngyeng55; ning31!; puk1 ; pyop1pyop1; pyot5pyot5; rong31/rong31rong31 ; rum31 ; sa11u55 (ka11ta11ka11ta 11ka11ta11); sok1sok1; son11 ; sueng55; suk1suk1sak1sak1; sut1sut1 ; syoi31syoi31 ; tyek1tyek1; zit5zit5 /zvit5zvit5 . onward vide: kyo55. onwards vide: hau55-mai11; mai11. oops! vide: a1gaq5!. open vide: pong55; rot1. open (out in the open) vide: yo31-so11. open vi. vide: bong35. open wide vide: ha55. opener vide: dvau55-pong55-zue 31. opium vide: ya11pyen55. opponent vide: ung31. opposite vide: lut1; lvut5. oppress vide: zek1; zek1 zo11.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY orange vide: kyeng55. orders vide: ba31; bai31. organize vide: me1sat1 bi11. organs vide: lvum11; seng11/seng55; seng11u31 ; u31. original vide: cau11. originally vide: he31; sang31-he11. ornaments vide: soi11; soi11-bu11; soi11tung31. orphan vide: cyui11-/syui11-; cyui11/syui11. other vide: de1kya31; ga35/go35; go35. other people vide: se5-bvue55. other side vide: lut1. others vide: -bvue55; se5-bvue55. otter vide: kam31/ham31. ourselves vide: yvang11; yvum 31-seng31. out vide: toq5. out in the open vide: yo31-so11. out of season vide: wai31. out of the question vide: hyem31. outfit vide: keng11/heng 11; Zai11keng11/heng 11; Zai11wa31keng11/heng 11. outside the house vide: bvan55; sing11gvan11; yvum31 -bvan55. ovary vide: ngvoq1-kun31. ovary of banana plant vide: ngvoq1kun31. over vide: mit1/mit5. over (be over) vide: dvom11. over (festivities etc. with fixed dates) vide: wai31. over-ripe vide: ut1-ut1. overcast vide: syum31. overdone vide: hek1. owe money vide: zvin31. owl vide: buk1be1lui11. own vide: yvum31-seng31. ox vide: mon35 gu54 no11; ne1-mon35. oyster vide: lung11zyo35. pack vide: gvang31 zo11. packet vide: a1-gvop1; gvop1; gyeq1/gyeq5; ngvya55-gvop1; tup1 ; zang11-gyeq5; zang11-gyeq5 gyeq1; zvyuq5; zyok5. packing vide: tup1. pad vide: dvap5-kang11/dvap5-hang11; kang11/hang11. padauk tree vide: soq5-gam31.

    35

    paddy vide: bva55; guq1 dvui31; guq1zung31 zung31 ; lok1 . paddy field vide: guq1-yo31; i1-tung11; i1tung11-bva55; tung11 . pain vide: gvun11 zung31; gyop1; lap5; no31 ; seng55-no11 ; ut1-ut1 ; wam 35-no11 ; zvan55zvan55 . painful vide: a1gva31!. paint vide: ngvyui31; soi31. paint eyebrows vide: myoq1-sam31 nvoq5. paint the hair black vide: u1-sam31 nvoq5. pair vide: kon55/hon55; zum 35; zvum55. pale vide: a1-hok1; hui31. palm vide: wa11. palm lines vide: loq1-me1-gva55; loq1-wa 11 me1-gva55; me 1-gva55. palm of the hand vide: loq1-wa11. palpitate vide: pyam31. pan vide: au11; au11-bung11; lik1/ling11; ngvya55-au11; sun11-au11; tut 5; wui31bu11-au11 ; zang11-au11. pangolin vide: dang31-hui11. panther vide: le1-bvo55dvye55. pants vide: lve1-zo11; pe5-zvang11. papaya vide: me5wau31-si11; sang31po31si11 . paper vide: ki1-sut5 mau11sau11; mau11sau11 ; mau11sau11-tui11 ; tui11. paralized vide: a1-wut1 a1-u31. parcel vide: gyeq1/gyeq5; zang11-gyeq5; zang11-gyeq5 gyeq1; zvyuq5; zyok5. parrot vide: gvai55gvyeq1; pung31gvyui11. part vide: dvum55; gu31; gvue 55; le 1-wui35; wui35. part (considerable part of something) vide: le1-wam11. participate vide: lvom55. Party vide: Dang31. pass vide: lai11; yven31. pass (do in passing) vide: zyang31. pass exams vide: ong55. pass Sunday vide: ban11. passionflower vide: ge1la31-si11. past vide: he55-pyang31. past times vide: bvyat1. pasture vide: lvam55. pasty vide: ye11ye11. patch vide: dvong55; le 1-dvong55-zo11; po31; si1-gvyoq5-si11-yo31 .

    36

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    patterns vide: me1-gva55. pauze vide: king11. pawn vide: ki31. pea flour vide: wam35pun31. pea flour cake vide: wam35pun31. pea flour mush vide: wam35pun31ngvyaq1. peaceful vide: sem31; son11. peach vide: si5-hum11-si11. peacock vide: u5dvong55. peanuts vide: mi31-nuq5; nuq1/nuq5/ne 1-. peck vide: tye11. pee vide: byep1; i1-byep1 byep1; i1-si31; i1zit5; i11/i1-; i11-bvoq5; sit1; zit1/-zit5; zyan11. peel vide: cyap5/syap5; cyeq5; gvuq5; gvyap5; ngve5-mvyuq1-gvyap5; si1gvuq5; si1-gvyap5. peep (through chinks etc.) vide: zyui35 wu35. Pekinese vide: Bue11zin35-byu31. pen vide: bvong55dvin55; zvyop5/zvyom31. pen, sty, stable vide: kup5. penalty vide: cyup5/syup5. pencil vide: kue31dan35/hue31dan35. penis vide: ngi11. people vide: meng11-byu31 wui31. pepper vide: wat1; zyap1-si11. perceive vide: ga11. perfect vide: be11/be1-; dvup5(-rap5); gum35; krak5. perform vide: bvyaq5; go11-bvyaq5. performance vide: bvyaq5; zat5. perfume vide: ban11-bo35-i1-zvyam11. perhaps vide: da11; hoi55/koi55; la 11; syaq1. period vide: yvam31. permed vide: gvup5. permed hair vide: u1-gvup5. persimmon vide: si5bing11(-si11). person vide: hau55-yuq1; su31/se 5-; yuq1 /yuq5. personal vide: ra55/r55. personal name vide > name. persuade vide: wui11. pest vide: wum35. pestle vide: loq1-sum31; sum31/cum 31; sun11-tung11 tung11; tung11 ; tung 11 zo11; tung 55-gvi31; tung55-loq1 ; tung55sum31 .

    pet name vide: kye31-ming31; ming31-zo11. petiole vide: ang11. petrol vide: cu31/su31. phalanx vide: bun11; ki31-bun11; loq1bun11 ; loq1-ngyui11. phlegm vide: se5gvan11. phone call vide: zvi5nan31. photo vide: dyem11. photo camera vide: dvat5bung35-dyem11zue31 . photograph vide: dvat5bung35. phrase vide: kun11/hun11. pick vide: kin31; o31; pyoq5/pyo31; tye11. pick fights vide: byoq1; me1-byoq1 ho31. pick flowers vide: kyui11. pick up vide: guq1. pickled vide: nuq1-yen11. pickles vide: ang11-yen11; ang11-zvin31; yen11. picture vide: a1-lvo31; byu31-lvo31; dvat5bung35; -lvo31. piece vide: cyeq5; du11; dung11; dvum55; dvut5; le 1-dvong55-zo11; zyap1/zyap5. pieces (in pieces) vide: gyop1; kyop5/kyom31. pierce vide: byon31; rot1; tau11; tong11. pierce nose vide: nvo31-syoi55/nve5-syoi55. pig vide: no11-woq1-waq1; waq1; waq1dung11 ; waq1-dvye11; waq1-gva31 ; waq1-kyam55; waq1 -mon35; waq1-mvi55. pig’s manure vide: waq1 ki1-pun55. pigeon vide: gvai55gvyeq1; pung 31gvyui11. piglet vide: waq1-zo11. pigs vide: ngut1ngut1. pigsty vide: kup5; waq1-hup5; waq1-kup5. pile vide: bum35; zung31. pile up vide: bum31; bum 35; guq1-zung31 zung31 ; zung31. pillar vide: hum55-zeng31; Si1dung11zeng31; suq5/su31. pillow vide: kuq5/huq5; u1-kuq5/u1-huq5. pimple vide: a1-bu35-zo11; bu35; sui11. pin vide: mai11na31/mai31na11/mai31na31. pinch vide: cek5/sek5; ge5-nvyep5; mek1; ngvyam11; zvan55zvan55 . pineapple vide: yang35wom11-si11. pipe vide: goi35; mi1-toi55loi35; ngvyau11; ngvyau11-goi35 . pistol vide: um31-dvot5.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY pit (in the ground) vide: dong11; dong11kop5; ge1-zvyuk5-kyong31; kop5; kyung55-kyung55 ; mi1-gung31-dong11. pit-coal vide: a1yo11; a1yo11 mi1-gye11; mi1-gye11. pitch black vide: cyot1cyot1. pitch-dark vide: dvu55dvu55. pity vide: si5-gyo11/si1-gyo31. pity (such a pity) vide: se5lai35; sye31. place vide: wo31; zi1wo31; zvyang55; zyang11; zye35 . place to sit behind the fireplace vide: um11-tung55 . place to sit right in front of the fire vide: tung55-guq1. place vt. vide: dvo11. place vt. vide: suq5/su31. places vide: -bvue55-ka 55/-bvue55-ha55. plague vide: wum 35. plan vide: paq1zvi31. plant vide: a1-haq5; ban11; ban11-bo35; bui31-ban11; gve5syang11; haq5 ; he1hum55 ; lun11 ; mau31 ; naq5tam11; ngvoq1-kun31 ; ngvyu11 ; nui11 ; poq5 ; pue55 (-gam31); pung11sin55 ; pung11sin55-bo35 ; pung11syui31; reng35nvau11 ; sam55myuq5; si1-pik 5; sing55dvon55; sing55-rem35; sup5/sum31; tut 5poq5; we 1-ngvyu11; wui35 ; wut1lvo31; yang11; yo31-so31-sun11; yuq1 ; zai11; zyang11ngyang11 ; zyoq1-hui31-bo35. plant, be planted vide: ran35. plastic bag vide: mau11-bu11-tung 31; pun55-tung31 . plate vide: long11; pyeng55; sun11-pyeng55; zang11-pyeng55 . platform vide: gyam11; si1-gyam11. platform (make a platform) vide: sin55. play vide: bat1/bat5/ban11; cyung 31/syun31; ge1-dap1; ge1-zyam11; gvun55; ngi11gvun55 ; ngyau35 . play around vide: cyong31. play cards vide: rang31-bat5. play (movies, videos) vide: bvyaq5. play people vide: ngyau35. play (recorder etc.) vide: mving55. play with food vide: tau11. play with food during the meal vide: ngvyok5.

    37

    pleasant vide: ngon35. please vide: byam11; raq5/laq5. pleased vide: ngui31. plenty vide: ngai35; lvuq1. pliable vide: nu35. plod in mud vide: nvop5. plop vide: puk1. plot vide: pun11; pung11syui31-yo31; si1gvyoq5-si11-yo31 ; yo31. plot where once was as house vide: yvum31-go11 . plough vide: li11; ngvung31. pluck vide: hu11; kyut5/kyun31. plum vide: si5-ho11-si11. plunge into vide: lvop5/lvop5-lvop5. plural vide: moq1/moq5. plural nominalizer vide: bang11. plural suffix vide: -bvue55. ply with drink vide: hut5; hut5-nva11; nva11. pocket vide: lve1-tung31; tung31; zuk 5. pocket knife vide: syam31-to11; syam31to11-mo35; syam31-to11 -zo11. pocket of one’s clothes vide: be1-tung31. pod vide: a1-som31. point vide: dvun11; zi1cyun31. point vt. vide: sit5. pointed vide: cyun11/syun11; suen11; zi1cyun31 cyun31. pointed head vide: u1-cyun11. pointy vide: suen11-suen11. poison vide: ci11/si11/ci1-; mui11; mui11si11 ; mvui11 ; nge1-noq1-ci11/si11 . poison ivy vide: wui35. pole vide: hap1; mong11. polish vide: sut5/sun31. polish off vide: gvyop5/gvyom31. polite vide: se1rue11. politeness vide: byam11. pomegranate vide: lung11-bum 11-si11. pond vide: nge1-nvong31; nvong31; wui31dving55. pool vide: gve5-lvu11-tum 11; se1-mui31yo31; tum11. poor vide: myung31. porc vide: si1-cu31; waq1; waq1-syo11. porcupine vide: bvyu31. porridge vide: wui31-bvuq5. porridge (make) vide: wui31-bvuq5 bvuq5.

    38

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    portion vide: me1dvu55. position vide: wo31. position vt. vide: suq5/su31. possess vide: ngya31; wo35. possible vide: dat1. possibly vide: hoi55/koi55; syaq1. post vide: hun31; si1gvyam55/si5gvyam55; suq5 /su31 . post of a fence vide: pun55dung11. post (pillar) vide: Si1dung11-zeng31. postage stamp vide: yo35pyau11. postcard vide: ming11hin55. poster vide: a1-lvo31; byu31-lvo31; -lvo31. pot vide: i1-zvyam11-yam11; yam11; yam11bu35. potato vide: sa55-mvyup5; yang11yi35. pounce upon vide: tim11. pound vide: gin35. pound fine vide: nvuq5. pound (half a pound) vide: pak1; pak1zo11. pound vt. vide: tung55-. pour vide: gyun11; syoq5. pour empty vide: zvan31. pour out vide: hun31. pout vide: nvut5-bvyet1. powder vide: mun31; mvun31; zyap1-si11mun31. powder oneself vide: ban11-but5; but1. power vide: bvat5; wum 11. praying mantis vide: i1-bvyat1 zo11 su31. precious stone vide: sueng55. prefecture vide: kung11/hung11; Mang11si31-kung 11. pregnant vide: gung31-lai11. prepare vide: rvang55. prepare food vide: gai35; zo11; zvyoq5/zvyo31. prepare for class vide: mvoq5. prepared vide: gya35. present n. vide: zvyum31-hu55. press vide: dun11; nvye55; zek1. press down vide: byeq1; zving 31. press into vide: zving31. prestige vide: myoq1-dong11. presume vide: kai31/hai31. previous vide: he5-yoq1. prey (bird of prey) vide: zun31; zun31gvyang11.

    prick vide: zu11. prickle vide: zu11. prickles vide: mi1-gye11; mi1-zu11. print vide: dok5. printed stamp vide: zyang35. prison vide: tong55. prize vide: nam35bat5. probably vide: sam31. probibitive vide: ke5-/he5-. procedure vide: kyo31. profit vide: long35; long35 mo 35-mo35; myat1; ong55. profound vide: dang11-gue31. projection vide: wup1. promise vide: a5maq5 kam11. promptly vide: rau35/lau35. pronunciation vide: me1-ku31. prop up vide: te5-luq1; tuq5/te 5-. prop up (a door) vide: kum11-tuq5 tuq5. propose vide: dung11. propose (toast) vide: dvon31. prostrate vide: bvai55. protruding, raised vide: bu35. proud vide: gum11rong 31. provided vide: myang31. provision vide: i31-bvyung 31. proximous vide: -bvue 55. pry out vide: pue31. puckery vide: bvan31. puddle vide: gve5-lvu11 lvu11; gve5-lvu11tum11 ; se 1-mui31-yo31; tum 11. puffy vide: dau35. pull vide: lang11; rut1/rut1rut1; sye31. pull (grass, hair etc.) vide: myaq1. pull out vide: mvan11-myoq5. pull out (hair, grass etc.) vide: nut1/nut5. pull out the grass etc. vide: yo31-myoq5. pulverize vide: bvik5; mvun31. pump vide: soq5-tu31-zue31; tu31. pumpkin vide: pe5-hum31. pumpkin seeds vide: hum31-zi35. pungent, spicy vide: pik5. pure vide: zyet1. purple vide: kang11; kang11-bvan55. pursue vide: kat5/hat5. pus vide: mo31-weng11. push vide: zvyun11. put vide: dvo11. put above fireplace vide: myam11.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY put down vide: lvyeq5. put inside vide: lvung55. put into vide: gvat5; hang11; ruk5; zuk5. put on vide: gvyup5/gvyum31; hut5/hun31; muq1-gvyup5 /me1-gvyup5; myoq1-suet5 suet5; wut1/wun11 ; zvung11 ; zvyop5/zvyom31. put on shoes vide: sau55-hai11 hai55. put on trousers vide: zvang11. put out (fire) vide: sat5/san31. put somewhere vide: zvung31. put to sleep vide: syup5. put up vide: zvam55. put up game vide: syok5-syok5. put up with vide: zyan11. python vide: bau31-mi11. quake vide: le1yang31; nun35. quarrel vide: bat1 lum11; byoq1; kim55; kim31 lum11; me1-byoq1 ho31; syai31. question vide: ta11. queue vide: yan35. quick vide: han31; le1wan35; rau35/lau35. quiet vide: num11num11; sem 31; zem55zem55 ; zvem55zvem55. quilt vide: be1-zyong35; bui35; bui35-mo35; hut5/hun31; kang11 /hang11 ; mue31 ; mue31-zyong35; zyong35. quilt folded to form a sleeping bag vide: bui35; bui35-mo 35. quite vide: a1gan35; zyaq1. quotative vide: ngvu31. rabbit vide: bang11dvai31; te1mung35. rabbit stories vide: Bang11dvai31 mau31mi11 . race vide: syo11/si1-/si5. rack vide: gvau55; gvue31toq5. rack above fire vide: myam31zui11. radio vide: syo55yin55zi55. radish (long and white) vide: ang11-ki31bvun31. raft vide: bvau31; zvuq5. rafter vide: kyang31. rain vide: mau11; mau11-mo35; mau11 wo31; mau35-wo 11; mut5-sin11 sin11; nueng31 nueng31 ; pong11; syaq1; wo31 ; wo31-doq5 . rain clothes vide: mau11-bu11. rain water vide: mau11-i1-zvyam11.

    39

    rain-cap vide: dui35; tap5-gam31. rainbow vide: Woq1-gan11sing55 ngyang11 (-nat1). raise (animals, spirits) vide: zvo11. raise (children) vide: ku31; mvoq5. raise deluge vide: dving55. ramble vide: lam35. random vide: ge1-. ranks vide: wui31. rascal (like a) vide: a1gon11 /me5gon11/be5gon11; be 5gon11; me5gon11 . raspy vide: zuep1zuep1. rat vide: nge1-noq1; zit5zit5/zvit5zvit5. rat (bamboo rat, not a real rat) vide: woq1-kui11 /woq1-hui11. rat snake vide: mui31-pyu31. rather vide: gyai35; zyaq1. rattle vide: gve5syang11. raven vide: ngve5-noq1. ravine vide: mi31-byoq5. raw vide: si1-zyum11; zyum 11. raw taste vide: a1-zyum11 sing55. reach vide: zang35. reached vide: zye35. react allergically vide: pun31. read aloud vide: gvyo11; ngvap5. ready vide: zin31. real vide: dvyeng11; zyet1. realizing vide: ng55!; o11. really? vide: e11/e 31 /eq5 /ei11/ei35/ei55 /eiq5/o55; m1m55! really vide: gue31; lo55; yvang11. really? (double-checking) vide: ngva31. reason vide: me1zyoq1. reassure oneself vide: taq1dving31. receive vide: dvye31; hun31; kam31/ham31; ron35 ; si1gvyam55/si5gvyam55; wo35; yu31. reciprocal vide: lum 11. recite vide: ngvap5. recoil vide: ting55; um31-ting55 ting55. recompense vide: byai35. record vide: lu11. recorder vide: lu11yin55zi55. recover vide: san11-san11. recreate vide: ngi11-gvun55. red vide: a1-nye 31; heng11heng11; kang11nye31; nvye31; nye31 ; zam11zam11 .

    40

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    redo vide: sai55. reed vide: woq1-mo35; wu35. reference vide: sueng54. reflect vide: mit1. refuse vide: dving55dving55. refuse to give help vide: hyet5. regret vide: zyai11. reincarnate vide: luq1gvet5. related vide: seng11-seng11. relatives vide: bui31num31; bui31num31 au31-zo11 wui31; zyem11. relax vide: nai35. rely vide: lum31. remember vide: bun11. remove (a layer from the surface) vide: rom11. repair vide: byong31; rvang55; sai55. repay vide: ki31. repeatedly vide: lvaq5. repent vide: ha11. replacement vide: lai35. reply vide: dvu31. reprimand vide: kau11-yui11. reputation (negative) vide: yui11. requisites vide: ci11/si11/ci1-. rescue vide: ki31. residu vide: a1-bvat5; bvat5; i31-bvat5. resist against vide: zyan11. respect vide: kung55ga11. respected (have due respect) vide: gvut5 gvat5. respond vide: dvu31. rest vide: king11. rest head vide: kuq5/huq5. restaurant vide: sueng55; zang11-sueng55. restless vide: ge1-ruet1; suk1suk 1sak1sak1; tik1tik1tak1tak1 . restrain oneself vide: zyan11. return vide: zyai35. revulsion vide: a1-gyo31 yo31; i1kyet1rung11 ; tui31!. rhinoceros vide: dum11bau11. ribs vide: nam31syam11 si1-wui11. rice vide: cin31; guq1; guq1-bup1; guq1 bvyo31; guq1 dvui31; guq1 ho11 ; guq1 tung11; guq1-yo31 ; guq1-zung31 zung31 ; hu55wa35; i1-tung11 ; lin11hau11; lin11hau11; tung11 ; zang11; zang11bung 11; zang11-cyam11/syam11 ; zang11-

    cyam11/syam11; zang 11-wue35 wue35 ; zo11; zyoq1 -hui31-zang11. rice gruel vide: wui31-bvuq5. rice gruel (make) vide: wui31-bvuq5 bvuq5. rice stick vide: hau11soi31; hau55seng55. rice wine vide: i31-bvat5; i31-bvyung31; i31pik5; i31-pue 11 ; i31-pue11 -yin31; i31seng11 seng11 ; i31 -syuq5; pe1 -gang11 ; seng11-zue 31 ; wue31-i31; wut 1. rich vide: wo35 bang11. riddle vide: dvak1; le1byoq5. riddles vide: pi55. ride vide: do11; zi11. ride horseback vide: baq1. ridge vide: dvik5; kung31/hung31; kung31tuq5. ridge of a house vide: tuq5/te 5-. right vide: ang11; le 1go11; loq1-yo31; rvoq5; zyo11. right! vide: a1ra31!; ei31; m31. right? vide: kai31/hai31. right arm vide: loq1-yo31. right(hand) vide: yo31. right (not feel right) vide: zon31. right period for … vide: yvam31. right size vide: sup1. right (the right person) vide: tuk5. right-hand side vide: a1-yo31. ring vide: a1-kong55; kong55; loq1-zvyop5; zvyop5/zvyom31. ring-finger vide: loq1-ngyui11; ming31 a1bo31 Roi35-dot1. ring-shaped vide: a1-kong55. rings vide: ngvyau55-ki11-kong55. rinse vide: zyui11. rinse out vide: bvyok5. ripe vide: mving55; ngvan31; ut1-ut1. ripe (almost ripe) vide: wang35. rise vide: doq1/doq5; dvoq5. rise from bed vide: yvup5-dvoq5. rise (moon) vide: lva55-mo35. rising hair vide: rong11rong11. ritual vide: keng11wai35; miq1-toi11 toi11. river vide: hye55-dvap5; i1-lang31; i1-lang31zo11; lang31 ; Long11cyon11-lang31 ; mun31; mun31-zup5 ; nge 1-gvoq5; wui31-zup5 ; zup 1/zup5 . river bank vide: wui31-yam31.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY road

    vide: bin11; gve5-nva11; gvue55; kyo31; mi1-hang55-kyo31. road (on the road) vide: kyo31-gung31 me55. roads vide: zup1/zup5. roaring shout vide: a31ha31!. roast vide: bing11; gvang31 zo11; ngvin55; put5/pun31. rob vide: lu35. robber vide: de1myaq1; gvun31zyun35; lu35 zo11 bang11 lu35 syuq5 bang11 . robust vide: myum31; peng55. rock vt. vide: nvun55. rocks vide: mi31-byoq5. rod vide: nge1-bvat5. rodent vide: hui11-kyon55; woq1kui11/woq1-hui11 . roe vide: nge1-u55; u55/u5-. roll vide: dving11; ling31; lvin55; lving31; lvyeng11; tui11 . roll over vide: rvong31. roll up vide: dving11. rolled up vide: tan31-dving11. roof vide: doq1-gang35; doq1-sya11; dup5; kung31 /hung31 ; kyang31 lvang11; lvang11; mau11-yui31 yui31; mau35yui11 ; sang 31po31 -yvum31 ; yvum31kung31 /yvum31-hung 31; zai11-yvum31 . roof-making vide: syap5 syap5. roof-tile vide: long11; wa31-long11. room vide: gok1; wap1-doq1; yvum31-kau31. rooster vide: woq1-po55. rooster (intact male) vide: a1-mon35 si54 woq1-po55 . root (single) vide: a1-bvun31; bvun31; nai11-ya11-bvun31 . root vt. vide: gyung11. roots (manifold) vide: a1-mit1; mit1; sek5mit1. roots of vide: wang11. rope vide: dvui11; nge1-dvui11 dvui11; nve5-syoi55-dvui11 ; pi31 ; yui11 . rope-skipping vide: byam31; dvui11byam31 byam31. rotten fish vide: a1-gyum11. rotten smell vide: bup1 sing55. rough vide: nvai55; zuep 1zuep1.

    41

    round vide: a1-ling35; a1-lvum11; bom11; bvung11; kyuq1 ; ling35; lving31; lvum11 . round and fleshy (like a baby) vide: ngvyai55-bom11. round face vide: dvau55-dvau55. roundworm vide: zan31. row vide: yan35. row (have a terrible row) vide: bat1 lum11. row of apartments vide: yvum31-yan35. rub vide: sui11. rub in vide: bun11; but1. rubber vide: gyet5gyet5; nye35gvyet5. rude language vide: ai11. rug vide: dvap5-kang11/dvap5-hang11; kang11/hang11. Ruili vide: Meng11mau11. Ruili county vide: Meng11mau31-kung11. Ruili river vide: Meng11mau11-lang31. rummage vide: sop5. run vide: din31; dvung31. run into vide: hui11; tung11; tung31 hui11. run over vide: nvye55. run the supplies of the household vide: i1gvun11. rush vide: dang11. rust vide: zyo31gvik5. rusted vide: zui11. rustling sound vide: sok1sok1. sack vide: tung 31; tup 1. sad vide: yon35. salad vide: ngvyo55 zo11. salary vide: laq1haq1. saliva vide: kik5; kyong11-gvyoq5; kyong11gvyoq5 kik5; se 5gvan11 ; tui31! sallow vide: a1-hui31. salt vide: i1-zyum11; zyum 11. salty vide: ko11. salty little fishes vide: be5rang11. sambar vide: sat5. sambhur vide: sat5. same (in appearance) vide: le1-suen31. same (one and the same) vide: le1zyung11 za 54. same (the same) vide: le1-hu55-hu55 za54; le1-hu55 ze11; le1 -zyung11 ze11; le1zyung11-zyung11 za54 ; syai31.

    42

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    same time vide: i1zvyang11; le1gvam31. sandal vide: lyang11hai11. sandy vide: ro11ro11; se 1-mui31. sapling vide: a1-gam31-zo11. satisfied vide: gi11; ram35; ram35-gvyo55. Saturday vide: i5ban31-tang31; kyuq5-ngi35. sauce vide: nam31zyam31; zyum31. sausage vide: bve5-sang55; sang55. sausage (make sausage) vide: u31-sang55. save vide: ki31; kong31; syen55. save face vide: myoq1-dong11; o31. save for later vide: bvam31. save money vide: ngun31-kong31 kong31. savoury, smelling appetizing vide: kom55/hom55 ; kom55-sing55/hom55 sing55 ; nam31 . saw vide: sek5-yit1 (yit1); yit1/yit5/yin11. sawdust vide: mop1/mop5; sek 5-mop1. say vide: ga11; ga31; ngv31; ngve5-ning31; ngvu31 /ngv31/ngve5 -; ngvu25; ngvu54; ngyo31. scab vide: -gvyap5. scab on wound vide: dam11-gvyap5. scabbard vide: byang31; mau11-lat5 byang31-goi35; ngun31-byang31; syam31-byang31 . scales vide: -gvyap5; nge1-gvyap5. scantily haired vide: a1-sun55; sun55; sun55-zo11. scar vide: dam11-ho31; ko31/ho31. scare vide: byo31-dvan55 dvan55; dvan55; gvyuq5. scared vide: dan11; sim 55sim 55; wam31. scarf vide: ling31-yup 5; yup1/yup5/yum11. scarlet red vide: heng11heng11. scary vide: sim55sim55. scatter vide: san11. scattered vide: min31; mvyo55; ran35. school vide: zyong11; zyong11-doq5; zyong11 mvoq5. schoolchild vide: zyong11-zo11. scissors vide: te1-zuen11; zuen11. scold vide: ai11; ta31. scolding vide: mau11-gun31; mau11myang31; si31 /si5-/si11-; si31-mang11. scoop vide: got1; lap1. scoop up vide: ku11. scoot over vide: zut1/zun11. scorpion vide: ng5go11gok5.

    scragged vide: a1-sun55; sun55; sun55-zo11. scrape off vide: gyet1/gyet5. scrape off dirt vide: ban11-gyet5 gyet1. scratch vide: gvin31. scratch the ground in search for food (chickens) vide: bik1. screw vide: lvin55; me1nai11 bi11. screw n. vide: sue 11. script vide: lai11gva55; Zai11wa 31 lai11gva55. search vide: cyo11; ho31; sop5. search around vide: zok1. search for cattle vide: ne1-ho31. search out (secrets) vide: lok1. season vide: le1-zan31-tong11 me55; wai31; yvam31. season (begin) vide: wang31. seasoning vide: mut5man31. secret vide: pok5. secrets vide: lok1. section of field vide: lok1. see vide: myang31; wu35. see off vide: dye35. see (one another) vide: kyum31. see the difference vide: dui35. seed vide: a1-zi35; zi35. seedling vide: ang11-bong 11; bong11; mak1zyok5-si11-bong11 ; si1-bong 11 bong11 . seeds vide: wang31. seek a man vide: lang31 ho31. seem vide: ngam31. seesaw vide: gong11nvyet5/gong11nvyet5 nvyet5. segment (of fruit) vide: sue11. select vide: kin31. self vide: gung31; gung31-gung31; yu31; yvang11; yvum31-seng31. self-doubt vide: a1ge1di31!. selfish eater vide: zo11-myoq5-noq1. sell vide: ung11. send vide: hun31. send letter vide: si1gvyam55/si5gvyam55. sense vide: gyo11/gi1-. sentence vide: dang11; kun11/hun11. separate vide: de1kya31-de1kya31; gvang11; gvyo31. serious vide: rung35. servant vide: zyun31-zo 11. serve vide: gye31 gvut5.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY serve drinks during cermonies vide: pung11 lum31. serve (food and drink) vide: zyau35. set vide: zvam55; zvung31. set blood vide: sui11-ki55. set on fire vide: ngvye55. set table vide: dvam31. seven vide: ngvit5. severe vide: rung 35. severely vide: si31/si5-/si11-. sew vide: kyup5; tau11. shade of the sun vide: bui31-syum31. shadow vide: wup1; wup1-zo11. shady vide: syum31. shaft of plough vide: ngvung31. shake vide: gvyun55. shake hands vide: si1gvyam55/si5gvyam55. shake off vide: gvo31. shake off someone vide: bvyam55. shake off (water etc.) vide: bik1. shake out (ink) vide: bik 1. shaken up vide: a1ruq5!. shallow vide: nik1 (a1-nik 1). Shan vide: Le 1-sam55; Le1-sam55-ming35; Le1-sam55-mvi55; Le1-sam 55-po55 ; Le1sam55-wa31 ; Sam55 ; Sam55-bva55 . share vide: gam31. share (one’s equal share) vide: me1dvu55 . sharp vide: cyun11/syun11; lyet1; suen11; u1-nvuq5; zi1-cyun31 cyun31; zi1 cyun31 . sharp (memory) vide: tan31. sharpen vide: zi1-cyun31 cyun31. shave vide: kang55; wuq1. shaved head vide: u1-gong11; u1-kang55. she vide: hau55-yuq1; mvi55; yvang11. she-bear vide: wam31-mvi55. shed vide: guq1-zvi31; yo31-zang31; zum 35. sheep vide: sau11; sau11-bu11. sheep skin vide: sau11-bu11; sau11 dvap5hang11. sheet vide: kyap5; mau11sau11; sang31po31. shell vide: a1-gvop1; a1-gvyap5; gvop1; gvung55; gvung55-gvop1; -gvyap5; lung11zyo35-gvyap5; nve5 bap1-gvyap5. shellfish vide: lung11zyo35; lung11zyo35gvyap5. shift vide: tot1. shin vide: gvung55; mvyang11-gvung55.

    43

    shine vide: tun11; zvo31. shining vide: duq1; dvu55. shining eyes vide: myoq1-duq1(-mo35). ship vide: lvai31; zvuq5. shit vide: ki1-/ki5-/ki11; ki1-syo31; ki11/ki1/ki5-; ne1-ki11/ne 5-ki11. shit! vide: zyo11. shits vide: syun31; wam11-syun31; wam35syun11. shivering vide: nan35nan35. shock vide: a5bvyot19!. shoe vide: hai11; ki31-zvung 11; sau55-hai11; sau55-hai11 hai55; sau55-hai11 kyut5; zvung11. shoelace, shoestring vide: hai11-bvi55; sau55-hai11-dvui11. shoeshine vide: sau55-hai11-si11. shoot vide: bek1; byon31; lai11-bek5; si1bek5; si1-bvi31 -si11; syo11/si1-/si5; weng31 . shoots vide: mik1; mik1-sun11. shop vide: sueng55. shore vide: wui31-yam31. short vide: doi35; dvot5; dvut5; dvyek5; ngyup1. short road vide: kyo31-ngyang31. short while vide: byam11; le 1-king11. should be vide: ang11. shoulder vide: gvoq1-san31; loq1-myoq1; lui31; san31. shoulder muscles vide: loq1-san31. shoulder-bag vide: sam55-tung31; tung31duk1; tung 31-hen55 . shout vide: a31ha31!; bvuk5 ngau31; wut1 /wun11. shovel vide: kai11/hai11. show vide: dvun11; sit5. show to the world vide: bvuep5-rap5. shred vide: sui11. shredder vide: mik1-sui11. shriek vide: gvyek5 ngau31; ngau31. shrimp vide: bau11-zun31. shrink vide: ngvyung55. shrub vide: byap1. shucks vide: sye31. shut mouth vide: bve5-sau55 (sau55). shuttlecock vide: uu35mau11zyo11. shy vide: hoq5.

    44 Siberian tiger

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    vide: kyang31 lvang11; le 1mo35 kyang31-lvang11 . sibling vide: a5-gu11; du31; ge1-mang11; i5gu11 ; nvik 5-dvang31. Sichuan pepper vide: wat1; zyap1-si11. sick of vide: ngeng35. sickle vide: zai31-yit5. side vide: hye55-dvap5; lut1; lvut5. side dish vide: sun11-zo11. side of river vide: dvap5. side (other side) vide: hye55-lut1. side road vide: kyo31-bvi31. side-glances vide: myoq1-zun35 (zun35); zun35. sideways vide: Nau11-bva55. sieve vide: syai55. sight (on gun) vide: myeng31mun31. signs vide: me1-gva55. silence vide: zem55zem55; zvem55zvem55. silent vide: num11num11. silk vide: lai11-king31; nvam55nvam55. silkworm vide: lai11; lai11-mvi55; lai11sut5. silly vide: byu31-go31; byu31-go31-zo11; go31; go11-bvyaq5. silver vide: ngun31; soi11; soi11-bu11; soi11tung31; um11bong11 . silver-coloured vide: ngun31-pyu31 pyu31. similar vide: le1-hu55-hu55 za54; le1-hu55 ze11; le1-suen31 ; syai31. similar ways vide: bvong31. simple vide: lui35-lui35; me 1-lo31. simultanously vide: le1gvam31. sin vide: me1ra11. since … already vide: zyang31. sinew vide: si1-gi11. sing vide: do35; kon31/hon31; me 1-ku31; zi11do35 do35. single vide: dvye11; kon55/hon55. sink vide: mvyu11; myu11. sink away in the mud vide: nop1. sink into vide: wang31. sir vide: A5-wa11-mo35. sister vide: a5-gu11; -Bvi55; -Duq1; Dvom55; gu11 ; -Gvai55 ; -Gving55 ; Gvoq5; -luq1 /-luq5; Me 1-bvi55; Me 1dving55; Me1-dvom55 ; Me1-gvai55 ; Me1-gvoq5; Me 1-lat5 ; Me1-lum11; Me1 luq5; Me1-myo11; Me1 -roi35 ; Me1-

    tam11; Me1 -tuq1; nva55; Nva55-bvi55 ; Nva55-dvom55; Nva55 -gving55 ; Nva55yun11; Roi35; Roi35-toi11; -Tuq1; Yun11 . sisters vide: ge1-mang11. sit vide: rvaq5; yvep5yvep5; zung31; zung31 -ngung11 ngung11; zung11-byeq5 byeq1; zut1/zun11. sit on eggs vide: up5. sit tightly vide: zvyum11. six vide: kyuq5. size vide: nam35bat5; rang11rang11; sup1. sizzle vide: cyem11.

    skim (along/over something) vide: mon11 . skin vide: gvuq5; me1ruq1; mek1; ngve5mvyuq1-gvyap5; sau11-bu11; sau11 dvap5-hang11; si1-gvuq5 . skinny vide: dvyek5; gung 31-gvok5-zo11; gvok5; ki31-gvok5-zo11 ; ling31.(zeng11 )gvok5-zo11; sun55; sun55-zo11; yang11yang11. skip vide: mvit5. skip rope vide: dvui11-byam31 byam31. skirt vide: lve1-wong11; pa11sen55; wong11. skirt (wide) vide: ci5-wong11. skull vide: u1-gop5. sky vide: mau11; mau11-kung31/mau11hung31 ; zau35 . sky-blue vide: mau11-kung31-ngyui31. slack vide: zyen35. slam vide: rong31/rong31rong31. slanting vide: a1-yvon55-yvon55; yvon55. slap cheeks vide: be1-bvyuq5 bvyuq5; bvyuq5 . slash vide: mvak5. slave vide: zyun31-zo11. sleep vide: be1-zyong35; mo35mo 35mo35; mvi55; mvyet1mvyet1; nuk5 ; sem31; son11 ; su31su31; syup5; yvup5/yvum31; yvup5 bui31 dang11 ; yvup5-dvoq5 ; yvup5-mo35; yvup5-moq1 ; zek1-zek1 ; zuet1. sleeping ward vide: yvup5-gok1. sleepy face vide: myoq1-bom11-mo35. sleeve vide: be1-loq5. sleeveless garment vide: bu11-zo11. sley vide: woq1-mo35.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY slice vide: hum31; kyap5; long11; lyep1lyep1; sue 11 . slice n. vide: bvyen55. slim vide: gi35. slip vide: cyot5; nang11. slippers vide: dvyep5tyep1/gvyep5tyep1. slippery vide: zvyut5. slovenly vide: a1-byaq1; a1-byaq1 si5laq1; cyaq5/syaq5. slow vide: ngvyam11; zai35. sluggish vide: a1-hok1; hok1; nut1nut1. slump one’s head vide: u1-ngun11. slurp vide: pyop1pyop1. slush vide: nok5. sly (on the sly) vide: haq5 wu35; kau11. sly (take someone on the sly) vide: lyem35. small vide: a1-dviq5 (ze11); a1-sen55-zo11; dvut5; gvok5; ngvyai55; sen55-zo11; zi1-; zo11/ze1 -/za1 -; zvai55. small change vide: ngun31-yoi11. small Chinese cabbage vide: ang11pyu31-zo11 . small denominations vide: ngun31-yoi11; pyoq5/pyo31. small intestine vide: u31-mo35. small of the back vide: pi1dum11. small (small face) vide: cyeq5. smash vide: kyop5/kyom31. smell vide: a1-sing55; bup1 sing55; gyo11/gi1-; kom55/hom55 ; kom55 sing55 /hom55-sing55 ; nam31 ; nam35 ; sing55 . smell like rotten fish vide: a1-gyum11. smell of humans vide: le1-sang31 sing55. smelling appetizing vide: kom55/hom55. smelly vide: nam31. smile vide: cik5; si11-cik5; wui31; wui31 nvau31 . smoke vide: bok5; mi1-kau11; ngvya55. smoke out vide: mi1-bvyung 55 (mut1); mut1/mut5 . smooth vide: bvyut5bvyut5. snack vide: i31-seng11 seng11; tun11. snacks vide: seng11-zue 31. snail vide: gvung55; hoi55; hoi55-bu31; hoi55-zvyup5; nve5bap1 ; nve5bap1gvyap5; zvyup5.

    snake

    45

    vide: i1-lang 31 lvang31-mui31; ling31nye31; lvang31; lvang31-mui31; lyem31lyem31 ; mui31; mui31-noq5; mui31-pyu31; sing55-mui11-ngyui31; zvau11-zo11-tye 31-sat5 . snare drum vide: dyek1ge1rye11. sneeze vide: a5-cyo11 cyo11; cyo11. snip vide: cyeq5; mau11sau11. snippet vide: cyeq5. snot vide: nvap5; nvap5-dvung55; nvap5 kyui11 . snout vide: cyu11; nvo31-cyu11. snow vide: ngvan31; ngvan31-pyu31. so vide: lo55. so… (double-checking) vide: ngva31. so much vide: a1-mvyo55-mvyo55. soak vide: ngvyun11. soaking wet vide: yui35yui35. soap vide: bya11; bya11-hom55; sa11-bya11. sob vide: sut1sut1. social gathering vide: moq1/moq5; moq1pung31 . socks vide: mo35-za35; zvung11. soft vide: ngvyom55. soft and pliable vide: nu35. soft as silk vide: nvam55nvam55. soften vide: bvom11. soil vide: mi1-; mi1-zvue11; mi31/mi1-; sue11 . soldier vide: gye31; gye31 gvut5; gye31keng11; wang31. sole vide: wa11. sole of the foot vide: ki31-wa11. solve vide: byat1; byeng35; sat5/san31. some vide: le1-wam11; le 1-zvui55; le 1zvui55-zo11; le1-zvui55-zvui55; le1zvup5-mo35. some other time vide: a1ku55/a1hu55. something missing vide: wvue55! sometimes vide: dam31; le 1-dam31-dam31. somewhere (on the road) vide: kyo31gung31 me55 . song vide: do35; kon31/hon31; le 1gva11; le1lvai55; me 1-kon31/me 1-hon31; Zai11wa 31 me 1-kon31; zi11; zi11-do35 do35. songs vide: oi55ei31ang35!. soon vide: rau35/lau35. soothe vide: kye31.

    46

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    sorcerer vide: > witch doctor. sore vide: bing31; bing31-zvin31-zo11; myoq1-bing31 . sorry vide: a1gaq5!; ha11; syut5 bue31. sort vide: hu55. sort n. vide: zyung11/zyung 31. soul vide: byo31; se1-byo31. sound vide: ge1-ru11; me1-ku31; ming31; tye31. sound (let sound) vide: mving55. sound (sleep) vide: ngvam11. sound (sleep) vide: su31su31. soup vide: a1-weng 11; ang11-noq5weng11 /weng31; het5; nge1-zo11-weng 31; suan11tang11-weng 31/weng11; sun11weng31 ; weng11 /weng31. sour vide: bvi55bvi55; yen11; zvin31. sour payaya vide: me5wau31-si11. sour soup vide: suan11tang11weng31 /weng11. source vide: wui31-tong55; wui31-tung55. source of a stream vide: wui31-toq5. sourse vide: cyu11. sow vide: dvui31; guq1 dvui31; waq1-mvi55. soy bean vide: ne1-bup5; nuq1/nuq5/ne 1-; nuq1-sui11; nuq1 -yen11. soy bean paste vide: nuq1-gvyuq5. space vide: ke5-heng55/he 5-heng55. spades vide: pai55; pe1gum 31. span vide: to31; to31-ngyui11. spank vide: sin11. sparrow vide: zyo31kyang55. speak vide: dai11; dang 11 dai11; ge1-ru11; si31-to 31 to31 . speak in trance vide: miq1-toi11 toi11. speaking vide: dang11. spear vide: dun11; lvam31. specifier noun vide: lvum11. specimen vide: du11. spectacles vide: myoq1-suet5; myoq1-suet5 suet5; suet5. speech vide: dang11. spell vide: ngat1; to31. sperm vide: ngi11-sui55. spices vide: mut5man31; pe1gvi31; sing 55dvon55; sing55-rem35; zo11lyau35. spicy vide: pik5. spider vide: gyang11mvya55. spill vide: syoq5; syun31.

    spill out vide: gyun11. spin vide: syum55. spirit vide: bui31num31-nat1; bvak5bvang55; byo31; dam11-mvi55; dum11sa55 ; Ge1rai11 ; Gvue 31toq5 Le1 bung11; le1tok1; mau11-cyut5/mau11-syut 5; mau11nat5; Me 1kuq1 Kun55 ; me1rong35 ; Miq1-dvai55-dvu55; mvung31; mvung31zi1tung11 ; nat1/nat5 ; ning11long11 ; pi11; rvang55; ruem35; saq1wa11; se1-byo31; tau11pan31 ; tau11zvi31; tau11zvi31-woq1; to31; u55son55 /i5son55; Woq1-gan11sing55 ngyang11 (-nat1); yo31-so 31zi1tung11 ; yo31 -zi1tung11; yuq1/yuq5 ; yvum31-zi1tung 11; zi1tung11 ; zvo11; Zyan35ku55 ; zyau35. spit vide: kik5; kyong11-gvyoq5; kyong11gvyoq5 kik5; se 5gvan11 ; tui31!. spit out vide: bye35. spit through the teeth vide: zvet5. spitting cobra vide: bau31-hu31. splash out vide: bvyok5. split vide: cing11/sing 11; gang11. split in two vide: bit1. split up vide: gvang11. spoil a child vide: lvoq5 mvan55. spoil (good luck vide: sat5/san31. spoiled vide: poi11. spoiled (children) vide: lun35. spoilt vide: tyen11. spongy vide: ngvyom55; pom31; pop1; sek 5ngvyom55; sek5-pom31. spooky vide: nip5nip5. spoon vide: gvak5; zvyo31; zvyo31-zo11. spot (do on the spot) vide: lom31. spot n. vide: wo31. spouts vide: nuq1-ngok1. sprain vide: rvueq5. spread vide: kang11/hang11; mvya11mvya11. spread all over vide: bvyeq1bvyeq1. spread out vide: bvyo31; guq1 bvyo31; kang11/hang11. spring vide: cyu11; sung11. springy vide: op1op1. sprinkle vide: gyun11; pyun11; syoq5. sprout vide: ang11-ban35; ban35; mik1ban35; ngok1; ngyun35 . spur a dog vide: syuk5syuk5syuk5.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY spy vide: haq5 wu35; zyui35 wu35. squat vide: zung31-ngung11 ngung11. squeak vide: zit5zit5/zvit5zvit5. squeeze inside vide: zvyap5. squeeze out vide: gvyok5. squeezy vide: zvyap5. squinting vide: bvi31. squinting eyes vide: myoq1-bvi31. squirrel vide: mang11mun35; si1lo31. squishy vide: nop1. stable vide: kup5. stable-fly vide: mvoq5; si31-mvoq5. stairs vide: zum31-tang31. stairway vide: mvak5. stalk vide: gyam35; si1-gyam35; yang11. stallion vide: myang11-lo11; myang11mon35 . stamp vide: dok5; rong31/rong31rong31; tung11; yo35pyau11 . stamp (printed) vide: zyang35. stand vide: gvau55; yap1/yam11. stand guard vide: zan35ze55; zong31. stand in someone’s way vide: tye31. stand n. vide: mau11-nat5-gvau55. stand on toes vide: ki31-zyen35 zyen35. stand still vide: yoq1. stand together vide: pom31. stand up vide: dvoq5. stanza vide: kun11/hun11. star vide: gvi31. stare vide: mau35. start vide: a1-bvun31; he 31; pang55; sang 31he11; wang31 . start classes vide: pong55; zyong11 pong55. start of a story vide: a1-bvun31. starved vide: yut1yut1. stay vide: kum55; ngi31; ngi31 lang35; ngvi31. steady vide: ding35. steal vide: ge5-nvyep5; kau11; kau11 su31; kau11-yui11; kau11-zvuq5 ; lu35. stealthily vide: kau11. steam food vide: bung11 zo11. steam n. vide: se1lu35. steam vt. vide: bung11. steam-bath vide: bung11; wang 11-bung11. steamboat vide: sang31po31-lvai31. steamed vide: bung11. steamed bread vide: man11to 55.

    47

    steamer vide: bung11-kyung31. steep vide: bvom11; gam11; gam11-bvyoq5 gam11-lvang11 ; ke5 -; ke5-doq1 ; ke5gyo35; ng1gam11 gam11 ; ngvyun11. steeped vide: ngyun11. steer vide: mon35 gu54 no11; ne1-mon35. stem of banana tree vide: ngvoq1-cue55. step vide: nang11. step into vide: bvyen11. stew vide: gvyui55; si1-gvyui55 gvyui55. stick vide: dap1/dap5; ne 1-sue 11; ngvuen11; suq5 /su31 ; tung11-ngvuen11; zi1-cyun31 cyun31 . stick into vide: hang11. stick out (tongue) vide: sye31. stick v. vide: dap1. sticky vide: mvyet1mvyet1. sticky rice vide: zang11-bung11; zyo31bva55; zyo31syoq5 . stiff vide: myung11. stigma vide: me1-gva55. still vide: dvyem55; si1-; si1-ra31; si11/si1/siq1; siq1. stillborn vide: bya35. sting vide: bi1-nim11; bvat5; nim 11. stingy vide: son11; son55. stink vide: a1-gyum11; bup 1 sing55; nam31. stir vide: lvu31; ngvyo55; puq5; tau11. stir-fry vide: nvye31; sun11-nvye31 nvye31. stock vide: sep1. stomach vide: ki1-pam11; pam11; wam 11; wam11-pam11-mo35; wam35-no11; woq1pam11. stone vide: cyam11/syam11; le 1gok1; luq1/luq5; sueng55 . stool vide: dvang55kuq5/dvang55huq5. stools vide: ki1-/ki5-/ki11; ki11/ki1-/ki5-; ngvyeq1(-ngvyeq1). stooped with age vide: gung31-ngong35 ngong35. stop vide: king11; ngap5; no11; si31/si5/si11-; yoq1; zeng31. stop (people quarreling) vide: bvin31. stop raining vide: pong11. stopgap vide: hau55-syeq1; i1sye11; kun31/hun31; zyang35-syeq1. stopgap: well then … vide: a1-kun31/a1hun31.

    48 storey

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    vide: gyam11; gyam11-yvum31; mi1gung31-yvum 31. storey (make a storey) vide: sin55. stories on Rabbit vide: Bang11dvai31 mau31mi11 . storm vide: dun11; lai31-dun11; nueng31 nueng31 . story vide: a1-bvun31; kai11; mau31mi11. storytelling vide: ngvu31. straddling position vide: rvaq5. straight vide: ding35; ngyang31; syut5syut5 . straighten vide: ngvyang31. strain vide: mai11. strange vide: mau35. strangle vide: mvik5. straw vide: hu55wa35. stream vide: i1-lang31-zo11; lang31kung11 /lang 31-hung11 ; nge1-gvoq5; yui31 . trenght vide: bvat5; tan31; ki31-bvat5; wum11 . strength in the arms vide: loq1-bvat5. stretch vide: bun11; dvu55; dvum 55; dvut5; gvue55; ngvyang31; zyen35. stretch oneself vide: ngyang35. stretch out vide: zvyang11. stretched out vide: zyen35. strew vide: pyun11. strike vide: gun31; zang35. strike (fate) vide: pu11. string vide: bvi55; byau11/byau11-byau11; dvui11; lan35-bvi55; mai35roi35 ; roi11; u31 le 1-roi11. string of a bag vide: tung 31-bvi55. string of the tongue vide: syo31-dvui11. stroll vide: yong11. strong vide: geng11; gyeng11; peng55; tan31 ; wum11; wum35-bo 11. strong (tea) vide: gvai55. strongbox vide: ngun31 se 1dyek1; se1dyek1. stub vide: dvum55. stub (of cigarette) vide: ngvya55-dvum55. stuck vide: gvun31; gvyam31; gyam31; wue35 . stuck in one’s throat vide: zang11-wue 35 wue35 . study vide: mvoq5. stuff vide: a1zeng35; po11; sam55-zue31.

    stuffed up vide: zit1/-zit5. stuffed up nose vide: nvo31-zit5. stuffy vide: kup5; kup5-kup5. stump vide: dvum55. stupid vide: a1-hok1; bam11; hok1. sturdy vide: peng55; tyen55-nvau11. stutter vide: dvui11; syo31-dvui11 dvui11. sty vide: kup5. sty vide: kup5. subject vide: -eq1. substitutionary vide: lai35. succesful vide: ong55. such vide: a1-su54. such as vide: -se55/se5-/su55; su55/se 5-/se55. sudden vide: pot5; tim11. sudden dangerous situations vide: a1ruq5!. sudden discovery vide: a1lyu35! sudden end vide: ngap5. sudden luck vide: a1lyo31! sudden shock vide: a5bvyot19! suddenly vide: le1-dam31-dvaq5. suffer pain vide: lap5. sugar vide: nam31oi11; zyum11-dui11. sugar cane vide: pung11syui31; pung11syui31-haq5. suit perfectly vide: kyak5. suit well vide: tuk5. suitable vide: zin31. sulphur vide: gvan31. summer vide: he5-zan31; zan31. sun vide: bui31; kyap5; ngin35; sun31; zvo31. sun flower vide: bui31-ban11. Sun Goddess vide: Zyan35ku55. Sunday vide: ban11; i5ban11; i5ban31-ngi35; i5ban31-tang31 . sunken (face/eyes) vide: myoq1-kung11. sunken in (eyes) vide: kung11/hung11. sunny character vide: wui31 nvau31. sunrise vide: bui31-toq5. suona horn vide: bvi5-kye55. supper vide: ngi35-zang11. supply vide: si1zvip5. support vide: tuq5/te 5-; zyun35. suppose vide: dang11-gvue55. supposing vide: dang11-gvue55; gvue55.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY surprise vide: a1lyo11!; a1lyu35!; byon31; moi31!; mvuet 5! suspect vide: kau11-zvuq5; zon31; zvuq5. suspend vide: gvyam31. suspended vide: gyam31. swallow n. vide: zeng31gi11; zeng31gi11zo11. swallow v. vide: mvi31; mvyui31. swap vide: tai55. swarm vide: le1-zyum 31-mo 35; pyu11pyu11; zyum31 . swarming vide: ge1-brem11-ge1-bram11. swear at vide: nving11. sweat vide: bui31-bu11; gvi11; ki31-gvi11; loq1-gvi11. sweater vide: za35-tu31-bu11. sweep vide: got1; syum 11; wue11. sweep with the broom vide: bui11-syum 11 syum11. sweeped clean vide: zvyui55. sweet vide: cyui11/syui11; dui11; dui11dui11 . sweet potato vide: sa55-mvyup5. sweetheart vide: a1-bvut5; bvut5. sweets vide: ge1lu11. swell vide: bvom11. swelling vide: bu35. swim vide: bve1-li11; wui31-li11 li11; wui31zvem55 zvem55. swim freestyle vide: loq1-gun31 du35. swim under water vide: zvem55. swindler vide: byu31-mvau55. swine fever vide: waq1-wum35. swing vide: ang55goi11 goi11; goi11. swollen vide: bvung 11; dau35; wam11. swollen abdomen vide: wam11-bvung11mo35; wam 11-dau35-mo35. sympathy vide: goi35-ei31. table vide: dvam31; se 1boi31; zvuq5. table with dishes vide: zyoq1/zyoq5. taciturn vide: num 11num 11. tadpole vide: syuq1byen35bau35. tail vide: si1-mi11. tail of a shirt vide: bai11; bu11-bai11. Taiwan vide: Dai35wan55. take vide: o31; yu31. take a peep vide: zyui35 wu35.

    49

    take a short break to catch one’s breath vide: no11. take along vide: cyui11-/syui11-; cyui11/syui11. take care vide: cyui11/syui11; gon11/gon31. take down with hooked stick vide: ngvuen11. take off vide: kyut5/kyun31. take off clothes vide: bu11 kyut5. take off shoes vide: sau55-hai11 kyut5. take offence vide: i1mit1. take out vide: ngat5. take part vide: lom31; lvom55. take picture vide: dyem11. take shape (situations) vide: bin35. take your time vide: yvo55-mai11; yvo55yvo55. talisman vide: lak1poi31. talk vide: dai11; dang11; dang11 dai11; ge1ru11 ; ngyo31; pye55; pye31-ngvam11 ; zi1ta11 . talk over vide: bong35. tall vide: ke5-mvyang55/he 5-mvyang55; mvyang31; -mvyang55. tamp vide: tung11; tung31 zving31; zving31. tangerine vide: mak1zyok5-si11; mak1zyok5si11-bong11. tangled up vide: a1-bvik5 a1-bai35; bvik5. tape recorder vide: lu11yin55zi55. tape-worm vide: bau11-bvyet1. tar vide: ngvyau11-ki11. target vide: dvyeq5dvyeq5. task vide: a1mu31; mu35; mu35 zui11. taste vide: a1-sing55; nam 31; ron11; sing55; zim31; zvyam31. tasty vide: ngvam11. tatouage vide: ang31. tattoo vide: mak5; tau11. tea vide: hu11; ngi35-zang11; poq5; se 5-poq5. teach vide: mvoq5; zyong11 mvoq5. teacher vide: se1ra35. tear in two vide: bvot5. tear v. vide: bvyet1/bvyet1bvyet1; cyeq5; rut1/rut 1rut 1; wom 11. tears n. vide: bi11; ngau31-bi11. tease vide: lu11. teeth vide: he55-zui31; kui11-zui31; ngat1; nge1-noq1-zui31; nvut5 zyui11 ;

    50

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    ya11syua11 ; zui31; zui31-zvyap5-tau11zue31 ; zvet5; zyui11. telephone vide: zvi5nan31. television vide: dyen11she11(di35). tell vide: dai11; dai31-gvyo11; gvyo11; kai11. tell fortunes vide: but1; but1-pit5; woq1but1; yvam31 . tell riddles vide: pi55. temperament vide: a1gvyang31. ten vide: cue31/sue 31; le 1-sue 31; ra1-cue31; sue31 . ten cent (piece) vide: hing55/king55; le 1hing55. ten thousand vide: le1-mun11; le1-mun11mo35; mun11 . tend cattle vide: ne1-zung35; zung35. tender vide: don35; nu35. tendon vide: si1-gi11. tenons and mortises vide: yvum31-zvuq5 zvuq5; zvuq5. tepid vide: lum 35. termite vide: zyang31gvon11. termite hill vide: bau31woq5-um 31; um 31; zyang31gvon11-um31 . terrain vide: zyang11-gyu35. terribly vide: si1-lo35. testicles vide: ngi11-zi35. thank you vide: zye31zyu31. thankful vide: a1gvyu31. that vide: hau31; hau55-; hu31; hu55; hye31; hye55-; mvo31; mvo55-. that much vide: a1-mvyo55-mvyo55; a5mvyo55. that time vide: hau55-hun31. that way vide: hau55-dong31. the vide: hau31; hau55-. their vide: yvang55-moq1-o 55; yvang55nvik5-ng55. them vide: yvang55-; yvang55-moq1; yvang55-moq1-bvue55; yvang55-nvik5 . themselves vide: yvang11; yvum 31-seng31. then vide: hau55-hun31. there vide: ha55-me55/hau55-me 55; hau55me55. there below vide: mvo55-me55. thereabouts vide: a1rvang55/a5rvang55. therefore vide: a5-mu31.

    thermometer vide:

    wen55du11byau31/wen55du31byau11 .

    these vide: hi55-bang 11; hi55-bvue55. these kinds of vide: a1-su54. they vide: yvang55-; yvang55-moq1; yvang55-moq1-bvue55; yvang55-nvik5 . thick vide: -dvung55; gvai55; nvap5dvung55; tu31 . thick hide vide: myoq1-dong11; si1-gvuq5; si1-gvuq5; tu31. thicket vide: bvung55. thief vide: byu31-kau11; de1myaq1; gvun31zyun35; kau11; kau11 su31 ; kau11yui11 ; kau11-zvuq5 ; lu35 zo11 bang11 lu35 syuq5 bang11. thigh vide: dvang31bau35. thin vide: gi35; sen55; sen55-zo11; sun55; sun55-zo11; yang11-yang11; yvam55 . thin out vide: mvyo55. thin out (crops) vide: pyai11. thin (watery) vide: ngvyaq1. thing vide: a1zeng35. things vide: a1zeng35. things for/to … vide: po11. think vide: mit1. think about vide: son55. think of vide: bun11. third-born vide: tang55. this vide: hi31; hi55-. this time vide: lving31. this way vide: hi55-dong31. thongs vide: nye11; pui55; cing11/sing11; cyap5/syap5. thorn vide: zu11. thoroughly vide: le1go11; tyep1/tyep5. thoughtful vide: nvik5-bo31. thousand vide: hing55/king55; le1-hing55; le1-hing55-mo35; le1-hing55 mun11 . thread vide: king31; king31-tui11; tui11. thread (meat etc.) vide: mai35roi35. thread vt. vide: zyoi35. three vide: i55-sum 11; sum11/sum 31/sum35. throat vide: kyong11; kyong55-; soi55; wue35 ; zang 11-wue35 wue35 . throat (heart beating in one’s throat) vide: ngyom31(-ngyom31). throb vide: pyam31. through vide: rvap5. throw vide: du35; dvang11; gun31. throw away vide: du35; ngvyau11. throw with hands (water etc.) vide: bik1.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY thrust into vide: lvop5/lvop5-lvop5. thrust into the ground vide: suq5/su31. thumb vide: loq1-mo35-syam11; loq1ngyui11. thumb (of a cock) vide: san11-dap5. thunder vide: gun31; mau11; mau35ming11 . thunderstorm vide: gun31; mau11-gun31; mau35-gun11. Thursday vide: i5ban31-tang31. tick vide: mi1gya11; tyek1tyek1. tickle vide: ge1-zvyuk5/ge5-zvyuk5; ge1zyo11; ge5-zvyuk5-ge1-zyo11 ; rvui55; tok1. tidy vide: san11-san11; san11-sueng31. tidy up vide: zue35. tie vide: zvyuq5; zyoq1bvoi55 (bvoi55); zyoq1bvoi55-zo11. tie food parcels vide: zang11-gyeq5 gyeq1. tie vt. vide: zyoi35. tiger vide: ge5-zvyuk5-ge1-zyo11; gok1ei11gok11a11 gok1gi11gok1gak1; kyang31 lvang11; le1 -/lo11; le1-mo 35 kyang31-lvang11 ; lo 11; lo11-zo11 . tight vide: bveng55; dvyep5dvyep5; zvyap5; zvyum11. tight grip vide: mvyet1mvyet1. tile vide: long11. till vide: kai11/hai11; syoq5. timber vide: sek5-bvyen55. time vide: a1-king55; dam31; ka55yvam31/ha55-yvam31; ke5-heng55/he5heng55; ke5-mvyang55/he 5-mvyang55; king55 ; kun31/hun31; lving31; na35i55 ; yvam31; zye35. time (at the same time) vide: le1gvam31. time for … vide: yvam31. times vide: dvu55. tin vide: gvyung55. tingle vide: mun35; mun35-mun35; wat1. tinnen box vide: ap5-gvyung55; ngvya55gvyung55. tinnen tub vide: ang55. tiny vide: a1-dviq5 (ze11); a1-sen55-zo 11; gvok5; ngvyai55; sen55-zo11 ; zvai55. tip vide: dvut5. tipi style fire vide: mi1-kyung55. tired vide: moi11; ngu35. to (need to) vide: no35.

    51

    to no purpose vide: kyut5/kyun31. to oneself vide: yu31. to the utmost vide: tum11. toad vide: bve1-bui35. toast vide: dvon31. tobacco vide: bok5; ngvya55; yven55. tobacco grit vide: ngvya55-mop1. tobacco tar vide: ngvyau11-ki11. today vide: he5-/he55/ke5-; he 5-ngi35; ke5ngi35 . toe vide: ki31-bun11; ki31-mo35-syam11; ki31ngyui11; ki31-tang55 -ngyui11 ; ki31zyen35 zyen35 ; ngyui11 . together vide: ban31-syoq5-bang 11; bvong31; cyom55/syom55 ; le 1-zyum31mo35; mu35-bvong31 bvong31 ; pom31 ; zang11-bvong31 bvong31 ; zup1 /zup5 ; zveng11. toilet vide: ki1-/ki5-/ki11; ki1-tong55/ki5tong55; ki1-zum35; ki11 /ki1 -/ki5-; tong55; yo31-so11 . toilet (go to) vide: lam35. toilet paper vide: ki1-sut5 mau11sau11. tomato vide: me5ke55sum 11. tomb vide: lup1. tomcat vide: ngvyau55-lo11; ngvyau55-po55. tomorrow vide: naq1-ma35. tomorrow afternoon vide: naq1-min31tang31. tomorrow evening/night vide: naq1min31. tomorrow morning vide: naq1-ma35gvyo55. tomorrow (the day after tomorrow) vide: sang31-pe1-nap5. tongs vide: ngvyam11; ngyap1/ngyap5. tongue vide: dvut5; lop1lop1; lyem31lyem31; syo31; syo31 -bvyom11 byom11. tonight vide: he5-min31. too vide: dye31; r11/li11/lye11. tool vide: syam31. tooth vide: he55-zui31; kui11-zui31; ngat1; nge1-noq1-zui31; nvut5 zyui11 ; zui31 ; zvet5; zyui11. tooth-brush vide: ya11syua11. toothed sickle vide: zai31-yit5. toothpick vide: zui31-zvyap5-tau11-zue31. top vide: hon55; mvi11; u1-zvyung31; zvyung31.

    52

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    top (kind of toy) vide: syang31. top of a pen vide: bvong55dvin55-mvi11. top of a tree vide: sek5-ngvyu11. top of mountain or hill vide: bum 31zvyung31. top (of pen) vide: zvyop5/zvyom31. top of plant or tree vide: a1-ngvyu11; ngvyu11; we1-ngvyu11 . topic vide: ga11; ge1-; ge11; sueng54. toponym vide: hu5yup5; Loi11lung35; Loi11lung35 -bum 31 ; Loi11lung35-bva55 ; Loi11lung35 -wa31 ; Long11cyon11; Long11 cyon11-lang31 ; Long11 cyon31kung11 ; Man11hui11-rum35; Mang11si11; Me1ko31; Meng 11mau11 ; Meng11mau11-cin11 ; Mvan11lim35; No11no35; Nong35dau31 ; Pa55sue31bva55; Rung31 -gvong11; U5dvyeng55; U5dvyeng55-bum31 ; U 5dvyeng55-bva55 ; Wa11mo31woq1kyung31; Waq1lang11rum35 . topple vide: lvyeng11. torch vide: dat5-mi11; dum31; hu11; mi1dum31; mi1 -hu11; tat5-mi11 ; zai11-mi1hu11. totally vide: ban31-syoq5. touch vide: ge1-dap1; zui11. touchy vide: puk5. tough vide: gyeng11; gyet5gyet5; nak5; nvai55 . towards vide: hu55; lvut5. town vide: mvyuq5; mvyuq5-mo35. township vide: pa55dvye31; pa55dvye31bva55. toxin vide: ci11/si11/ci1-; mui11; mui11-si11; mvui11 ; nge1-noq1-ci11/si11 . toy vide: gyeng11; syang31; syung11gvun55-zue31; tong11 ; tong11-loq5 ; zyak1-tong11. trace vide: ki31-ko31. trace (without a trace) vide: pyang55. traces vide: no11 ki31-ko31. tracks vide: dvai55; ki31-ko31; ko31/ho31; no11 ki31-ko31 . tractor vide: do55la55zi55; mo35do35. trade vide: myat1; pe5ga35; sam55-zue31; sep1; ung11 . tradition vide: keng11/heng11; tung31keng11; Zai11wa31 tung31-keng11.

    traditional vide: tung31-keng11. traditional values vide: tung31-pin11; Zai11wa 31 tung31-pin11. traditions vide: tung 31. train n. vide: gyet1tyu31-gyet1tyu31; ka11ta11ka11ta11ka11ta11; mi31ta31; sa11u55 (ka11 ta11ka11ta11ka11ta11). train v. vide: duan35lyen35. tramp vide: byu31-lam35; byu31-sye31; sye31; zyau11lam11. trance vide: miq1-toi11 toi11. transfer vide: tok1. translate vide: byan35; byan35-gvyo11; dang11 byan35 ; gve5-byan35 . transplant rice seedlings vide: guq1 ho11; ho11. transport vide: dye11; to55. trap vide: mvi55; nge1-sang11/nge5-sang11. trap birds vide: ngvoq5-mvi55 mvi55. trap (fish) vide: tung31. trapped vide: mi35. travel vide: gong35; meng11-gong 35 gong 35; meng11-lam 35 lam35 ; zi11. tray vide: tung11pun55; myoq1-ci11tung11pun55 /myoq1-si11-tung11pun55. tread vide: nang 11. tree vide: ban11-gam31; byap1; gam31; gve5rvom11-gam31; gvoq5 ; le 1ngyeng11; mvyang11-zeng31 ; nam 11lo 11pe1zyang35; ngve5-mvyuq1-gam31; ngvoq1-gam31; ngvyu11; nye35gvyet5gam31; pi11pa55 (go11 )syu31; se5-gam31 ; se5-gvoq5; se 5-gvu55; se 5-gvyang31; sek5/se5-; sek5 -bvung55 ; sek5-haq5; sek5ngvyu11; sek5-ngyuq1 ; sek5-pup5; si1gam31; si1-mvyo55-byap1; soq5-gam31; tap5-gam31; tuq5; we1-gam31 ; we 1ngvyu11; we1-yo31; wen31-gam31 /wen31zeng31; yang11 ; zeng31. tree platform vide: si1-gyam11; sin55. treehut vide: si1-gyam11. trench vide: kung11/hung11. trench (make trenches) vide: sye31. triangle vide: waq1-gva31. trigger vide: loq1-pek5; pek5. trip someone up vide: ki31-gvek5 gvek5. tripod/trivet vide: gvyo31. trot vide: myap1. trouble vide: me1-gva55.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY troublesome vide: wui11. troup vide: zyum31. trouser pocket vide: lve1-tung31. trousers vide: lve1-; pe5-zvang11; zvang11. trousers (without trousers) vide: si5gyang31. trousseau vide: si1zvip5. truculent vide: rvuq5. true vide: dvyeng11. trumpet vide: gye31-bvi55. trunk vide: zeng31. try vide: si1gvut1/si1gvun11; zvyam31. tub vide: ang55; myoq1-ci11zi1rung35 /myoq1-si11-zi1rung35 ; zi1rung35 . tube vide: dvum55; mi1-bvyung55 (mut1); te5-. tuck away vide: gvyop1gvyop1; gvyop5/gvyom31. tuck in vide: hut5/hun31. Tuesday vide: i5ban31-tang31. tumble vide: muq1; mvuq5. tumeric vide: tut5-poq5. turban vide: tup5; u1-tup5 tup5. turbid vide: se1-mui31 mui31. turd vide: ki11/ki1-/ki5-; tung11. turn vide: dam31; dvau11; ling31; lving31; lving31 ; puq5 . Turn around! vide: bok1bok1bok1. turn (cigarette) vide: dving11. turn (one turn) vide: hap1. turn round vide: lvik5/lving 31. turn soil vide: puq5. turned vide: a1-bvik5; bvik5; rvek5. turnip vide: muk5. turtle vide: dvau55-gvop1; gvung55. twelve vide: le1-sue11-i55. twenty vide: i55-cue 31/i55-sue 31; i55-sue31; le1-i55-sue31 . twice as much vide: le1-wui35. twig vide: gvoq5; se 5-gvoq5. twins vide: ze1-zum31. twist vide: me1nai11 bi11; yui11. twisted vide: a1-bvik5; a1-bvik5 a1-bai35; bvik5; rvek5 . twisted around something vide: nai11. twisted around something vi. vide: bai35. twisted teeth vide: zui31 rvek5 ma 54. twisting vide: pui55.

    53

    two

    vide: bit1; i55; i55-sum11; -nvik 5; zum35 . two (cut in two) vide: pit5/pin31. two (the two of us) vide: nvik5-nvum31.

    two (the two of us, as a couple) vide: nga35-nvik5-nvum31 . typewrite vide: bat1/bat5/ban11. tyre pump vide: soq5-tu31-zue 31.

    ulcer vide: bing31. umbrella vide: zyong35. uncastrated pig vide: a1-mon35 si54 waq1kyam55; waq1-kyam55. uncertainty vide: la11. uncle vide: tang55; tang55-lat1; tang55mo35; tang55 -zo11; Ze1 -lat5 ; ze1-mo35; ze1-tang55 . uncomfortable vide: wui11. under vide: o31; tye11; wang 11. under water vide: wui31-zvem55 zvem55; zvem55. underneath vide: a1-tye11; tye11. understand vide: sue31-yu31; yu31. understanding vide: nvik5-bo31. undress vide: kyut5/kyun31. uneven vide: ra35. unfortunate vide: se5lai35. unfortunately vide: rap5. unfounded vide: dang11-wang11. unhusked rice vide: guq1. uniform vide: gye31-keng11; keng11/heng11. uniformly vide: ra35-ruen11. unintentional vide: zang35. unite vide: pom31. unmarried adolescent vide: ze1-ram31. unreal vide: a1-bvyoq5; bvyoq5; Zai11-zo11 a1-bvyoq5; Zai11wa31-bvyoq5. unscrupulous vide: i1mit1. unsociable vide: me1rong11. untie ropes vide: pi31. up vide: doq1/doq5; dvoq5; dvu31; ke 5-; ke5doq1; lo 31 ; lo35. upper back vide: nung31-kung31. upper course vide: mun31. upper end of the village vide: wa31-um 11. upper part of the body vide: pi1dum11) hu55-dvum55. upright vide: dvu31. ups-a-daisy! vide: dek5syoi11!.

    54

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    upset (easily) vide: puk5. upside down vide: a1-puq5 dong31; dvau11; puq5 . upstairs vide: pyang11. urge vide: nvau31. urge to vide: zyan11. urging vide: ro31! urinate vide: byep1; i1-byep1 byep1; i1-zit5; i11 /i1 -; sit1 ; zit1/-zit5 . urine vide: i1-si31; i1-zit5; i11/i1-; i11-bvoq5; -zvyam11. us, we vide: i5-nvik5; i5-nvung55; nga35moq1; nga35-nvik5 ; nga35-nvung55; nvung55. use vide: a1gvyu31; cyung 31/syun31. use up vide: ban31. using (a certain instrument or material) vide: -eq1. utensil vide: syam31. utmost (to the utmost) vide: tum11. vagina vide: zyuq1; zyuq1-dong11; zyuq1sui55. vagrant vide: byu31-lam35; byu31-sye31. vagrant vide: sye31; zyau11lam 11. valley vide: bva55; kung11/hung 11; mun31zup5; mvo55-kung 11; pa55dvye31-bva55; wui31-kung11 /wui31-hung11; zup1 /zup5. values vide: tung31; Zai11wa 31 tung31pin11 . vane vide: gum11rong31. vapour vide: se1lu35. variegated vide: a1-gva55; a1-gvong55; gva55. vault vide: kung31/hung31. vegetable vide: ang11-noq5; ang11-pyu31; ang11-tup5; gvung31gvang31; ham55; haq5; hum 31-zyang35; mvan11-haq5sun11; mvyang11-bum11; nai11-ya11; nai11-ya11-bvun31 ; naq1zvyu31; ngyuq1; nuq1/nuq5 /ne 1-; nuq1-gvyui31; pe1gvi31; pe5ha11; sun11/cun11; wun11 ngyuq1 ; sun11-pyeng55; syui11; yo31so31-sun11. veil vide: tup5. vein vide: si1-gi11. veins vide: kyo31; rot1; sui11-kyo31. veranda vide: hum55-dvot5.

    very

    vide: a1gan35; a 5-mvyo55; dik1/dik5/ding11 -; gyai35; mo35-mo35; si31 /si5 -/si11 -; si1-lo35 ; zyaq1 . very fine vide: a1-zvai55-zvai55. vicinity vide: nam31. village vide: Le1-sam55-wa31; Loi11lung35wa31; wa31 ; wa31-tang 31; wa31-um 11; Zai11wa 31-wa31. village centre vide: wa31-gung31. village name vide: Bang11ling11; hu5yup5; Loi11lung35 ; Pa55sue31-bva55; U5dvyeng55-bum31 ; U 5dvyeng55-bva55 . village ruler vide: zvau11. vine vide: nui11; nui31; nui31-ko11; wui35; wum31 -si11; zyang11ngyang11. vinegar vide: cu11/su11; nam31-cu11. viscous vide: nvai55. visible vide: dvong31. visit vide: hui11. visualizations vide: sing11ran35. voice vide: me1-ku31. voilence vide: saq1wa 11. volcano vide: mi11-bum31. vomit vide: pat5. vulture vide: lang31da11.

    wade vide: gu11. waist vide: pi1dum11; yup1/yup5/yum11. waistcoat vide: za35-tu31-bu11. wait vide: lang35; lom 31; ngi31 lang35. wait! vide: han31siq1/han31ziq1/kan31ciq1. wake someone up vide: nvau11; yvup5 nvau11 . wake up vide: dan11 bun31 dang31 lo31. walk vide: do11; kyo31; kyo31-so11; lvam55; nut1nut1 ; rueq5 ; rvueq5 ; so11; yong 11. walk a long way vide: bin11 wue11 so11. walk fast vide: myap1. walk (first walking) vide: da11da55 da55. wall vide: rum31; se 5-wam31 (wam 31); sue55 . wallow vide: gve5-lvu11 lvu11; tum 11. wander vide: meng11-lam 35 lam35. wander around vide: lam35. want vide: nvau31; o31; o 31-nvau31. want to vide: gvam55. want to eat vide: ze1-nvau31. war vide: mi1-zyan11; zyan11. ward vide: gok1; yvup5-gok1.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY warm vide: lum35; mi11-bui35; ngye11. warm oneself vide: bui35; mi11-bui35 bui35 . wash vide: ci11/si11; cyu11; gung31-ci11/si11; zyui11 . wash dishes vide: au11-koq5 ci11/si11; koq5 ci11/si11 . wash face vide: nvut5 zyui11. wash hair vide: u1-lvum11. wash the face vide: myoq1 ci11/si11. wasp vide: bi1-; bi1-syoq5; bi1-zo11; byo11/bi1 -; dvu31 -mo35 ; het5-noq1 /het5nye31; mi1-bvyung 55 (mut1); yang11zvin55 . wasp type vide: bi1-hui31. watch vide: na35i55; wu35; zung35. water vide: i1-lang31; i1-zvyam11; lang31; mang31-dving31; mau11-i1-zvyam11 ; wui31-; wui31-bu11; wui31-gun31 ; wui31-lving55 lving55; wui31 -tong55; yui31 ; -zvyam11. water buffalo vide: dvang11; dvang31; hui31 ; lui11 ; ne 1-lui11; yoq1; yoq1 . water container vide: i1-syang11; syang11. water fold vide: wui31-kung 11/wui31hung11 . water mortar vide: wui31-sum31. water snake vide: i1-lang31 lvang31-mui31. water-melon vide: he5-syau55. waterfall vide: cye11; rum 35. watery vide: ngvyaq1. wave vide: gun31. wave hand vide: loq1-lik1 lik1. wave (water) vide: wui31-gun31. wax vide: bi1-zang11. wax gourd vide: hum31-zyang35. way vide: bin11; bin11 wue 11 so 11; gvue55. way (be in someone’s way) vide: tye31. we vide: i5-nvik5; i5-nvung55; nga35-moq1; nga35-nvik5; nga35 -nvung55 ; -nvung55 . weak vide: ngvyom55; sak5; wam31; wom11. wean vide: gvang11; nau35-gvang11 gvang11. wear vide: cyung31/syun31; gvyup5/gvyum31; hut5/hun31; muq1gvyup5/me1-gvyup5; myoq1-suet5 suet5; u1-tup5 tup5; wut 1/wun11 ; zvung11 . wear a ring vide: zvyop5/zvyom31.

    55

    wear belt vide: het5. wear out vide: cyeq5. wear shoes vide: sau55-hai11 hai55. wear trousers vide: zvang11. weather vide: > rain; sky. weathered vide: byoq1. weave vide: gan11; gan11-zum 35; woq1; woq1-mo35 . weaving-loom vide: gan11; gan11-zum 35; ting55 ; woq1; woq1-gan11; (woq1)gan11-zum35. wedding vide: dung11; mi1-bvun55; mi1hang55; mi1-hang55-bvoi31; mi1-hang55kyo31; mi1-wue 11 pye55; moq1-wang31 wang31/moq5-wang 31 wang31 ; mung31; mung31 wui31; mung31 wui31 ; ze1moq5; zyan35. wedding gruel vide: mi1-sek5 ge1zyam11. Wednesday vide: i5ban31-tang 31. wee-wee vide: sit1. weed vide: kai11/hai11; mvan11-myoq5; myoq1/myoq5; sok1. weed the land vide: yo31-myoq5. week vide: bat1; he31-bat1; he5-yoq1-bat1; i5ban11 ; i5ban31-tang31. weekend vide: i5ban11. weep vide: ng5nga31; ngau31; ngau31-bi11; ngvau55 ; sut 1sut1. weight vide: bung31; bye35; gin35; gung55gin35; pak1 ; pak1-zo11 ; som55. welcome in vide: bvang31. well… vide: e11/e 31 /eq5 /ei11/ei35/ei55 /eiq5/o55. well adv. vide: le1go11; tyep1/tyep5. well n. vide: tong55; tum 11-beng35; wui31tong55. well over vide: gvo11. well then vide: a1-su31; gai31. West vide: bui31-wang31-kyam11. wet vide: dvyeq5; mau11; pyui55; pyui55pyui55; yui35yui35. what vide: hai31. what!? vide: mvuet5!. what? vide: e11/e 31/eq5/ei11/ei35/ei55/eiq5/o 55; o11; o 55 . what kind vide: ke5-su54/he5-su54. what time vide: ka55-yvam31/ha55-yvam31. what’s his name vide: i1sye11. wheat flour vide: mun35; myen35fuen31.

    56

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    wheel vide: lyeng31. when vide: ke5-nvam55/he 5-nvam55; kun31/hun31; zyang35. whence vide: ka55-mai11/ha55-mai11. where vide: ka31/ha31; ka31-ke5-la11?; ka55/ha55-; ka55-me55/ha55-me 55; ke5-/he5/ka55-/ha55-. wherever vide: -bvue55-ka55/-bvue55-ha55; ka55-me55 /ha55-me 55 ; wun35. whet vide: mon11; sui11. whetstone vide: luq1/luq5; luq1-mon11. which vide: ka55-/ha55-; ka55-bvue55/ha55bvue55; ka55-nvik 5/ha55-nvik5 ; ke5 -/he5 /ka55-/ha55-. which direction vide: ka55-pyang31/ha55pyang31. while (after a while) vide: le1-king11 me55. while (for a while) vide: king11; le1king11 . while (in a little while) vide: le1-king11 r55. while (in a while) vide: a1ku55/a1hu55. whilst vide: i1zvyang11. whining of dogs vide: ngyeng55. whirl vide: lai31-lving55 lving55; lving55; wui31-lving55 lving55. whirlpool vide: tum 11; wui31-lving55tum11 . whisper vide: dang11-ge1zi11. white vide: bo11bo11; pyu31; sam31-pyu31; si1-pyu31. white gourd vide: hum31-zyang35. white (person) vide: byu31-pyu31. white race vide: si1-pyu31. white sugar vide: zyum11-dui11. whites vide: zyuq1-sui55. who vide: o55; o55-yuq1; o 31-bvue55. whoa! vide: yoq1. whole vide: rvoq5. whole day vide: le1-ngi35-bui31. whole family vide: le1-yvum 11 bang11. whole world vide: le1-meng11-gvan11. whole year vide: le1-zan31-tong11 me 55; le1-zan31 tong11-tong11 . whose vide: o54. whose wife vide: o55-zyan35. why vide: ka55-hu55 mu31.

    wick

    vide: din11; mi1-lvyen11; suen11-

    din11 .

    wicked vide: byu31-goi35; goi35. wickerwork vide: tung55. wide vide: lam31; lvam55; wong11; zvyang11. widow vide: cyui11-/syui11-; cyui11/syui11. widower vide: ci5-pau31(-po55); cyui11/syui11-; cyui11/syui11. wife vide: mi1-; mi1-wue11/mi11-wue11; mi11 /mi1 -; o 55-zyan35. wife of vide: zyan35. wife-givers vide: mung 31; mung31 wui31; mung31-yvum31 ; rvat5 . wife-takers vide: ze1-moq5. wild vide: mue35; nueng31nueng31; yo31so31; yo31-so31-no11. wild boar vide: dvye11; waq1-dvye11. wild cattle vide: yo31-so31-no11. wild chicken vide: pui55-woq1. wild goose vide: gon35; kyang55-mo 35. wild hair vide: u1-myam31. wild (out in the wild) vide: yo31-so11. wild species vide: yo31-so11. wild vegetables vide: yo31-so31-sun11. wildcat vide: wung31. will vide: gue31. win vide: ong55; ren31. wind vide: hek5; ki1-bvuq5; lai31. wind vt. vide: bai35. winding vide: goi35. winding road vide: kyo31-goi35. window vide: cyong55hu11. window vide: ke1-hot5/he1-hot5; kum11 /hum11/hum 55/ke 1-/he1-. wine vide: i31-bvat5; i31-bvyung31; i31-pik5; i31-pue 11 ; i31-pue11 -yin31; i31-seng11 seng11; i31-syuq5 ; pi11zyo31; seng11zue31 ; wue31 -i31; wut 1. wing vide: dung 31. winnow vide: bvyang11. winnowing basket vide: byo31. winter vide: gyoq1-myo31. wipe vide: wue 11. wipe clean vide: sut5/sun31. wipe dry vide: sut5/sun31. wipe off vide: sop5. wise vide: dang11-gue 31.

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY witch doctor vide: dum11sa55; miq1-toi11 toi11; si31-to31 to 31; tau11zvi31. with vide: -eq5. with both hands vide: i55-loq1-eq1. with doctor vide: to31. without restraint vide: lvum31. without trousers vide: si5-gyang31. witted vide: lyem35. wizard vide: > witch doctor. wobble vide: le1yang31; nun35. wolf vide: wam31-kui11. woman vide: byu31; byu31-mvi55; mang11zo11-mvi55 ; mi1-; mi1-wue 11 /mi11wue11 ; mi11 /mi1 -; mvi55 ; Zai11 wa31mvi55. women vide: mi1-wue 11/mi11-wue11. womenfolk vide: bvi55-zo11. wondering vide: lu55. wood vide: sek5/se5-; sek5-bvyen55; sek5pom31; sek5-tung11 ; zyum11. wood colour vide: noq1-kyeng 55. wooden bell vide: (no11-)ke1rok1. woodpecker vide: bau11-puq5-ngvoq5. wool vide: bai11nam35 si1-mau35; king31wom35; si1-mau35 ; za35-tu31 ; za35-tu31 tu31. woollen sweater or waistcoat vide: za35tu31-bu11. words vide: dang11; me1-. work vide: a1mu31; gung35zo 11; gvang55; mu35 ; mu35 zui11 ; zui11. working class vide: mu35 zui11 zo11 bang11 . world vide: le1-meng11-gvan11; meng11; meng11-gvan11; mi31-pan31. worm vide: zan31; zvi5zvin55. worn out vide: pop1; zyeq1. worry vide: kik5; nvik5-kik5. worship vide: rvang55. worship (place of worship) vide: Num11syang11. worth vide: dyek1. would like to have vide: o31-nvau31. wound vide: cyeq5; dam11; ki31-dam11; loq1-dam11 ; rung35. wounded vide: dam11-dap5. wrap vide: gyeq1/gyeq5; mue31; tup5; u1tup5 tup5. wrap around vide: yup1/yup5/yum11.

    57

    wrap up vide: he1hum55-poq5. wrap-around skirt vide: pa11sen55. wrapping vide: tup1. wreck vide: tyen11. wrecked vide: tyen11; tyen55-lui11; tyen55nvau11 ; zyeq1. wrecked! vide: zyo11. wrench off vide: gek1. wrestle with horns vide: kyui31-wuek5. wriggle vide: gyung11. wriggle oneself into vide: wang31. wring out vide: mue31-bu11 zyup5; zyup5/zyum31 . wrist-watch vide: na35i55. write vide: gva55; kok1; rvang55 toq5. write letter vide: si1gvyam55/si5gvyam55. writhe with pain vide: gvun11 zung31. writing vide: lai11gva55; me1-gva55; Zai11wa 31 lai11gva55. wrong vide: ngvoq5; syut5; syut5 bue31; wai35 !; zon31 . wry looks vide: myoq1-zun35; zun35. yam yank yard yard yawn year

    vide: mui11; nai11; naq5tam11. vide: lang11. vide: yvum31-bvan55; yvum31-kun11. vide: lam31; loq1-lam31. vide: a5-ham11; ham11. vide: a1-nvik5/a5-nvik5; he5-zan31; le1-

    zan31-tong11 me55 ; le 1-zan31 tong11tong11; nuq1-nvik 5; nvik5; sang31nvik5; zan31; zan31-wui31 . year before last year vide: he5-nvik 5. yellow vide: heng31-kyeng55; kyeng55. yellow rice vide: zyoq1-hui31-zang11. yes vide: e11/e31/eq5/ei11/ei35/ei55/eiq5/o55; ei11o31; ei31; m11 /m11-m11; m 31 ; 31 m31mo31 ; oi31 !; oi31 -o !; sam55-yau11 11 11 yau ; yau . yes-or-no vide: luq1. yesterday vide: a1man31-tang31; a1-ngi35nap1; he5-wa 31-ngi35; he 5-min31-tang31 ; he5-yoq1 le 1-ngi35. yesterday morning vide: a1-ngi35-nap1gvyo55. yet (not yet) vide: si11/si1-/siq1. yoke vide: ne 1-lang11. you vide: nang31; nung35-; nung35-moq1; nung35-nvik5.

    58

    ENGLISH INDEX TO THE DICTIONARY

    you there! vide: ue31!/hei55! etc.. young vide: dviq5; nu35; sek 5-ngyuq1; we1nu35; ze1-ram31; zo 11/ze 1-/za1-. young leaves vide: a1-ngyuq1; ngyuq1. young man vide: waq1ngan31; yuq1-zo11. young men vide: ze1-gue31 waq1ngan31. younger sibling vide: i5-gu11. youngest vide: tang55. youngest of the family vide: ze5-tang55. youngsters vide: ze1-gue31 waq1ngan31. your vide: nang35; nung11-. your child/children vide: nung11-zo11. your husband vide: nung11-lang31. your wife vide: nung11-mi11. yourself/selves vide: yvang11; yvum31seng31. Yuan Renminbi vide: le1-hing 55 mun11; le1-mun11; Mi11wa11-ngun31 ; mun11. Zaiwa vide: Wun11bvong55 a1-myu31; Zai11 ; Zai11-zo11; Zai11-zo11 a1-bvyoq5; Zai11-zo11 a1 -myu31; Zai11wa31 ; Zai11wa 31 a 1-myu31; Zai11wa31 -bvyoq5; Zai11wa 31 wui31 ; Zai11wa31-zo11 . Zaiwa language vide: Zai11-ming35; Zai11wa 31-ming35 . Zaiwa outfit vide: Zai11-keng11/heng11; Zai11wa 31-keng11/heng11. Zaiwa script vide: Zai11wa 31 lai11gva55. Zaiwa traditions vide: Zai11wa31 tung31keng11. Zaiwa village vide: Zai11wa31-wa31. Zaiwa-style house vide: Zai11wa31yvum31. zebu vide: ne1-zyung31; zyung31. zenith vide: dvu31; ngi35-gvung31. zombie vide: ngi11-si31.

    ZAIWA - ENGLISH DICTIONARY

    -Aa1- I (NEG) negative prefix (16.2). a1- II (nom) nominalizing prefix (ch.6). a1-bvai11 (nom-left) na. left side. a1-bai35 (nom-wind) in a1-bvik5 a1-bai35. a1-bvat5 (nom-dregs/ferment(vi)) n. dregs, residu; vide bvat5. a1-be1-gvo31 (nom-P-PL+I) (17.9, 17.23) plural form of the perfect indicative clause marking unit.

    a1-bvi31 (nom-crooked) na. crooked; cf. rveq5. a1-bvik5 (nom-turn/grind) na. turned, twisted; A1-bvik5 ma54 gvut5 gvan31aq1. (nom-turn/grind LOC+FCT do put.into*-SIM) Twist (SG) it. / (Lit.:) Do it in a way that it becomes twisted; vide a1-bvik5 a1-bai35; cf. rvek5. 1 a -bvik5 a1-bai35 (nom-turn/grind nom-wind) na-+na. all twisted, all tangled up; A1-bvik5 a1-bai35 dut1 dvo31 r55. (nom-turn/grind nom-wind become place(vt)(ipf) PE) (rope:) It is all tangled up. Cf. rvek5. 1 a -bu35-zo11 (nom-pimple-child) na+adj. little pimple. a1-bue31 (nom-P+I) determinant clause marking unit (17.9, Table 17.4). a1-bvun31 (nom-single.root) a n. single root; b n. start of a story; a1-bvun31 mai11 (nom-single.root ABL) from the start, all over again, from the roots onwards; cf. a1-mit1. 1 a -bvut5 (nom-sweetheart) n. sweetheart; vide bvut5 . a1-byaq1 (nom-slovenly) na. slovenly; A1-byaq1 ma54 gvut5 ngi11 r55. (nomslovenly LOC +FCT do be.there(anim)(ipf) PE) He lives there in a very slovenly fashion. Cf. cyaq5/syaq5 vi. slovenly; cf. Jingpo abyak (Xu et al. 1983: 4). a1-byaq1 si5laq1 (nom-slovenly slovenly) (idiom:) slovenly; A1-byaq1 si5laq1 gvut5 wa35 ngi11 si25 ge11. (nom-slovenly slovenly do EMP be.there(anim)(ipf) die+FCT TOP) How can you be so slovenly, just hanging around like a zombie? Cf. cyaq5/syaq5 vi. slovenly; cf. Jingpo abyak shalak (Xu et al. 1983: 4). a1-bvyen55 (nom-flat/slice) na. flat; A1-bvyen55 ma54 luq1, a1-lvum11 ma54 luq1? (nom-flat/slice LOC+FCT Y/N nom-lump LOC +FCT Y/N) The flat one or the round one? Vide bvyen55.

    -A -

    60

    a1-bvyoq5 (nom-fake) na. fake, unreal; Zai11-zo11 a1-bvyoq5 (Zaiwa-child nom-fake) n+na. unreal Zaiwa.

    a1-dvik5 (nom-(make).ridges) vide dvik5. a1-dviq5 (ze11) (nom-little only) na. small, tiny; tung55-gva55 a1-dviq5 ze11 (wickerwork-variegated nom-little only) a tiny back-basket; a1-dviq5 ze11 mai11 (nom-little only ABL) from childhood onwards. 1 a -du31 (nom-younger.M) kinship term used for much younger relatives belonging to wife-giving families; e.g. for the nephews and nieces of the wives of my brothers; also nga35-du31 (nga35 ‘my’); vide du31. 1 a ga31! (ch.20) exclamatory expression to all kinds of difficulties, such as fear, fatigue, heat or cold. a1gva31! (ch.20) exclamatory expression to great pain. a1-gva55 (nom-variegated1) na. variegated, vide a1-gva54-gok1, a1-gvong55 and gva55. 1 a -gva54-gok1 (nom-variegated1+FCT-flamboyant) ideophone expressing a state of being dirty all over; A1-gva54-gok1 gvut5 ke5-soi31. (nomvariegated1+FCT-flamboyant do PHB-draw/paint) (to children that are drawing:) Don’t doodle. a1-gam31-zo11 (nom-tree(B)-child) n+adj. sapling. a1gan35 adv. quite, very; Ke5-doq5 a1gan35 doq1 ra55. (steep-go.up quite go.up PE) It’s very steep (upwards). a1gaq5! (ch.20) exclamatory expression ‘oops!’ or ‘sorry’, such as when standing on someone’s toes. a1ge1di31! (ch.20) exclamatory expression to self-doubt. a1-gve5-kai31 (nom-PL-SUG+I) (17.23, 18.9). a1-gvo31 (nom-PL+I) (17.23) plural indicative clause marking unit. a1-gvo54 (nom-PL+FCT) plural clause marking unit marked by the factitive marker (17.23). 1 a -gvom31 (nom-empty) na. empty. a1gon11 / me5gon11 / be5gon11 (16.6) adv. casually, carelessly, abominably, like a rascal; cf. Jingpo bagon bearing the same meanings (Xu et al. 1983: 53). a1-gvong55 (nom-variegated2) na. variegated; a1-gvong55 a1-gva55 (nomvariegated2 nom-variegated1) na+na. (hide etc.:) variegated; No11 hi31 ge11 a1-gvong55 gva31 ma54. (cattle this TOP nom-variegated2 variegated1(ipf) LOC+FCT) This cow has rather a variegated hide. No11 hi31 ge11 a1-gvong55 ma54. (cattle this TOP nom-variegated2 LOC+FCT) This cow has a variegated hide. Cf. gva55 adj. variegated. 1 a -gvop1 (nom-shell/packet) n. shell, packet. a1-gvue55 / a5-gvue55 (nom-great+grand) vide gvue55.

    -A -

    61

    a1-gyang31 (nom-naked/bald) na. naked, bald, bare; Se5-gam31 a1-gyang31 31

    ma54 dut1 byuq1 bue . (tree-tree(B) nom-naked/bald LOC +FCT become lose P+I) The tree has become bare. a1gvyang31 n. temperament; A1gvyang31 dye31 hek1 r55. (temperament too huge PE) He has a bad temperament. Mi1wa54 a1gvyang31-eq5 Zai35wa25 31 a1gvyang31 ge11 syai11 lye . (Chinese+FCT temperament-COM Zaiwa+FCT temperament TOP differ/not.fit(ipf) also+I) The Chinese and the Zaiwa have different temperaments. Cf. Jingpo akyang and kyang (Xu et al. 1983: 22, 381). a1-gvyap5 (nom-shell/crust) n. shell, crust; cf. gvyap5. a1-gyo31 yo31 (NEG-hear/smell(ipf) right) (idiom:) feel revulsion upon hearing; Chinese: 听不顺耳 tīng bú shùněr; Nang31 ge11 a5-se55 ga11 31 dai54 ge11 se5-bvue55 ge11 a1-gyo31 yo31 hai -ma11. (2SG TOP nom-like perceive speak+FCT TOP SNO-PLN TOP NEG-hear/smell(ipf) right SUG+IROUS) If you (SG) say it like that, other people will naturally feel revulsion upon hearing it. a1gvyu31 n. merit; A1gvyu31 gvo11 bue31. (merit big P+I) Thank you. Also: 31 Zye31zyu31 gvo11 bue . (merit big P+I) Thank you. A1gvyu31 wo35 be131 ra . (merit have P-need+I) Merit will emanate (from this). A1gvyu31 31 bun31 dik1 lye . (merit awake(ipf) extreme also+I) I am so thankful for 31 11 that. I -pue got1 syuq5 li11 a1gvyu31 a1-bo31. (distilled-booze scoop(vt) drink also merit NEG-contain) There’s no merit in excessive drinking. 31 A1gvyu31 ho11 lye . (merit look.for(ipf) also+I) She is saying auspicious 31 things. Zam rvang31 dvo11 zyang35 ge11 lvung55lvang31-bang54 me1dvu55 31 a1gvyu31 bo11 lye . (bridge make(ipf) place(vt) CD TOP everyone(GEN)(ipf) PNO+FCT share/portion merit contain also+I) It would be good for everyone to build a bridge here. Cf. Jingpo akyu ‘merit, interest, benefit, use’ (Xu et al. 1983: 22). 1 a -gyum11 (nom-smell.like.rotten.fish) na. A1-gyum11 sing55 nam11 r55. (nom-smell.like.rotten.fish taste/smell(N) smelly(ipf) PE) It smells like rotten fish. a1hang31 I variant of a1kang31 adv. just now. a1hang31 II variant of a1kang31/a1hang31 adv. long ago. a1-haq5 (nom-leaf) n. leaf; cf. haq5. a1-hok1 (nom-dull-witted) na. dull-witted, e.g. such as after a period of intoxication; A1-hok1 ma54 ga31 r55. (nom-dull-witted LOC+FCT perceive(ipf) PE) I feel a bit dull. 1 a hu55 (in.a.while) variant of a1ku55. a1-hui31 (nom-sallow) na. sallow, pale; Nang35 myoq1-dong11 a1-hui31 ma54 dut1 r55, no11 r55 luq1? (2SG.PO eye-(have)hole nom-sallow LOC+FCT

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    become PE pain/ill/disease(ipf) PE Y/N) Your (SG) face has become pale, are you ill? a1hui31 variant of a1kui31 adv. now. a1hui11-lving31 (now(GEN)-turn/roll) next time. a1hui11-yvam31 (now(GEN)-time.for) only just now; Wvue55wvue55wvue55, a1hui11-yvam31 wa35 lye35 lo25 gvo54 ge11. (disapproving) now(GEN)time.for EMP come(away/down) come(back/up)+FCT PL+FCT TOP) Well, well, well, you (PL) have come only just now. A1hui11-yvam31 zye35-zye35 31 mu35 zui31 a1-gvo luq1? (now(GEN)-time.for arrive-arrive work(N) (ipf) touch/work nom-PL+I Y/N) Have you (ND) only just now arrived at work? a1-hun31 (nom-time) vide a1-kun31/a1-hun31. a1kang31 / a1hang31 I adv. just now. a1kang31 / a1hang31 II adv. long ago. a1kang31 a1nam11 ma35 / a1hang31 a1nam11 ma35 (long.ago long.ago2 LOC) long, long ago. a1kang31 he55-ma55 / a1hang31 he55-ma55 (long.ago before-LOC) long ago; cf. he55-me55. 1 a kang31 he55-pyang31 / a1hang31 he55-pyang31 (long.ago before-DIR) long ago. a1-kau31 (nom-inside) na. inside; Gve5syang11 a1-kau31 ma54 nam11 dik1 r55. (plant.name nom-inside LOC +FCT smelly(ipf) extreme PE) The inside of a gvesyang-bean stinks. A1-kau55 / A5-kau55 (nom-cousin) word used by men for addressing their cousins. a1-ki55 (nom-cube) na. cube-shaped. a1-ki55-ki55 ma54 (nom-cube-cube LOC+FCT) cube-shaped; A1-ki55-ki55 ma54 gvun31-aq1 ma11. (nom-cube-cube LOC +FCT do*-SIM ROUS) Cut (SG) all of it into cubes. a1-king55 (nom-time) n. time; A1-king55 a1-bo31. (nom-time NEG-contain) I have no time. yvup5-dvoq5 a1-king55 (sleep-get.up nom-time) time to get up. Vide king55 and Section 9.39 for matters related to time. 1 a -kong55 (nom-ring(-shaped)) n/na. ring, ring-shaped; cf. a1-ling35 (nomround) n/na. round. a1ku55 / a1 hu55 adv. in a while; a1ku55-bvue55 (in.a.while-PLN) some other time. a1kui31 / a1hui31 adv. now; a1kui31/a1hui31-zyang35 (now-CD) right now; 31 A1kui31-zyang35 zvu31 be1-ra . (now-CD boil/rise P-need+I) It’s about to 1 11 1 11 boil. a kui /a hui -lving31 (now(GEN)-turn/roll) next time;

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    a1kui31/a1hui31 mai11 (now ABL) from now onwards. Vide a1kui11/a1hui11-bvyat1. 1 a kui11-bvyat1 / a1hui11-bvyat1 (now(GEN)-lifetime) adv. nowadays; A1hui11-bvyat1 ge11 mo35do35 dye31 myo31 r55. (now(GEN)-lifetime TOP car too much(ipf) PE) Nowadays, there are too many cars. A1hui11-bvyat1 ge11 31 byu31-zuen35 dye31 myo11 bue . (now(GEN)-lifetime TOP man/womanintelligent too much P+I) Nowadays, there are too many intelligent people. a1-kun31 / a1-hun31 (nom-time) (18.2) in two stopgaps: a a1-kun31/hun31 zyang35 (nom-time CD) ‘well then …, in that case …’; A1-kun31 zyang35 (ge11) sang31-pe1-nap5 ye31 gvoq1. (nom-time CD TOP beginningafter.tomorrow-morning go(away/down) DIE) Well then, let us go the day after tomorrow. A1-hun31 zyang35 ge11 byeng35 sat5 wang11 lo35 syang55 hoi11-ma11. (nom-time CD TOP fix/solve kill enter(ipf) go(back/up) JUS INC-ROUS) (opening a meeting:) Well then, let us (ND.IN) get into business and start to solve the matter right away. b a1-kun31/hun31 syeq1 (nom-time au.contraire) ‘but in that case …’; A1-kun31 syeq1, hau31 ngvut5 zyang35, yvang55-moq1 yvang31-nu11 hau31 ngvut5 zyang35… (nom-time au.contraire the/that be CD 3PL-party 3SG(GEN)-mother the/that be CD) Well then, since things are as I just said, their mother then… A1-kun55 (nom-(name)) a personal name. a1-le1-gvo31 (nom-no.more-PL+I) (17.7, 17.23) plural finite indicative clause marking unit. a1-ling35 (nom-round) n/na. round; cf. a1-kong55 n/adj. ring, ring-shaped. A1lving55 a personal name. a1-lo11 (nom-tiger/bull) n. male animal. a1-lvo31 (nom-picture) n. picture, poster or drawing; vide -lvo31. a1-lo31 (nom-no.more+I) (17.7) finitive indicative clause marking unit. a1-lvum11 (nom-lump) na. round, lump-shaped, heart-shaped (like an animal’s or human heart); A1-bvyen55 ma54 luq1, a1-lvum11 ma54 luq1? (nom-flat/slice LOC+FCT Y/N nom-lump LOC +FCT Y/N) The flat one or the round one? Vide lvum11. 1 a luq1syoi31 (16.5) adv. almost. a1lyo11! exclamatory expression to surprise or dissatisfaction at someone else (ch.20). a1lyo31! exclamatory expression to joy about the sudden luck of the addressee (ch.20). a1lyu35! exclamatory expression to surprise at some sudden discovery (ch.20).

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    a1man31 (9.39, 9.40) adv. last night. a1man31-tang31 (last.night-behind) (9.39, 9.40) yesterday afternoon. a1-mvi55 (nom-female) n. female animal; cf. Maru a1mvi55 ‘mother’. a1-mit1 (nom-roots) n. roots. a1-mon35 si54 (NEG-castrated still+FCT) (male animals) intact. a1-mon35 si54 waq1-kyam55 (NEG-castrated still+FCT pig-uncastrated.pig) uncastrated pig.

    a -mon35 si54 woq1-po55 (NEG-castrated still+FCT chicken-male) cock, 1

    rooster (intact male).

    a1-mu31 (nom-happen) (18.2, 11.7) conj. ‘and after that…’; ‘because of this…’; also hau55-mu31 (the/that-happen) ‘and after that…’; not to be confused with a1mu31 n. matter. 1 a mu31 (matter) (9.32.8) n. matter, job; After the factitive marker, the nominalizing prefix can also be omitted, e.g.: Yvum31-seng25 mu31 31 31 yvum31-seng31 gvut5 ra dut1 lye . (house-host+FCT matter house-host do need+I become also+I) Everyone should do his own work. Cf. mu35 n. ‘work, task’ in mu35 zui11; cf. Jingpo amu n. ‘work, matter, case’ (Xu et al. 1983: 27). a1mu31 som54 (matter light+FCT) n+adj. light jobs. a1-mui35 (nom-grey) na. grey; a1-mui35 ma54 mue31-bu11 (nom-grey LOC+FCT wrap-clothes) grey clothes; vide mui35. 1 a -mun54 sum31-dung11 (nom-ten.thousand/Yuan+FCT three-hectic) (idiom:) lots and lots of them (people, birds etc.). a1-mvyo55-mvyo55 (nom-much(B)-much (B)) adv. so much, that much. a1-myu31 (nom-sort/nationality) n. nationality; cf. Jingpo myu (Xu et al. 1983: 542). a1-myu31-myu31 (nom-sort/nationality-sort/nationality) adv. all kinds of. a1-myu31-zo11 (nom-sort/nationality-child) n+adj. minority people. a1na11 n. illness; Nang31 ka55-hu55 a1na11 bo11 r55? (2SG Q-sort illness contain(ipf) PE) What kind of illness do you (SG) have? Cf. na11, no31. a1nam11 (9.40) long ago. a1-ngi35-nap1 (nom-day-morning) (9.39, Table 9.11) yesterday. a1-ngi35-nap1-gvyo55 (nom-day-morning-morning.of.other.day) (9.39, Table 9.11) yesterday morning. a1-ngvyai55 (nom-immature) vide ngvyai55. a1ngyan11 (bring.down) in dang11 dai11 a1ngyan11 (words speak bring.down) to bring someone down with words. a1-ngvyo55 (nom-mixed) na. mixed; Sek5 a1rvang55 a1-ngvyo55 a1-si31 yuq1 ra55. (tree etcetera nom-mix nom-abundantly.green grow PE) The trees and such are so abundantly green. Vide ngvyo55.

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    a1-ngvyu11 (nom-top.of.plant) n. top of plant or tree; Hau31 a1-ngvyu11 me55 31

    zui31 dvo31 r55 mai . (the/that nom-top.of.plant LOC bear.fruit(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE OBV+I) (on a fruit:) There in the top it’s hanging! (lit.: growing). a1-ngyui11 (nom-dried.out) na. (throat, leaves etc.:) dried out. A1ga31! a131 ngyui11 ma54 ga31 rvo ! ((difficulty) nom-dried.out LOC+FCT (ipf) perceive PE+HIGH+I) Oh, I feel like a dried out piece of something. 11 Vide ngyui . a1-ngyui31 (nom-green/blue) na. green or blue; Mue31-bu11 hau31 a1-ngyui31 ma54 a1-ngvut5 luq1? (wrap-clothes the/that nom-green/blue LOC+FCT NEG-be Y/N) Were those clothes green/blue ones? Yvang11 ke5-ngi35 bu11 a1-ngyui31 ma54 wut1 dvo31 r55. (3SG before-day clothes nom-green/blue (ipf) LOC+FCT wear/dress place(vt) PE) Today he is wearing green/blue 31 31 clothes. Vide ngyui ; e.g.: Pue55-gam31 ge11 a1-ngyui31 ngyui11 lye . (ipf) (plant.name-tree(B) TOP nom-green/blue green/blue also +I) The Pue plant is rather green. a1-ngyuq1 (nom-young.leaves) n. young leaves; A1-ngyuq1 ze11 le1-zo31 31 lye . (nom-young.leaves only but-eat(ipf) also+I) We only eat its young leaves. a1ni11 exclamatory expression to disappointment (ch.20). a1-nvik5 / a5-nvik5 (nom-the.other.year) (9.39) last year. a1num11 (9.40) adv. constantly. a1-nye31 (nom-red) na. red; cf. nye31 and nvye31. a1-o31 (nom-under) (9.18.2) na. below; nang35 a1-o31 ma54 su31 (2SG.PO nomunder LOC+FCT SNO) the one below you (SG); Mvo31, a1-o31 me55. (below nom-under LOC) Down there. Cf. o31, mvo55-, mvo31. 1 a -on11 (nom-feel.like.vomiting) na. dizzy, feeling like vomiting; Mo35do35 31 zi11 lui a1-on11 ma54 ga31 r55. (car ride(vt) in.this.way+I nomfeel.like.vomiting LOC+FCT perceive(ipf) PE) I’m feeling dizzy because 31 of sitting in the car. Su31 sing55 nam31 lui a1-on11 ma54 ga31 r55. (oil taste/smell(N) smelly in.this.way+I nom-feel.like.vomiting LOC+FCT perceive(ipf) PE) I’m feeling dizzy because of the smell of petrol. Cf. pat5 vi/vt. vomit; cf. Jingpo on (Xu et al. 1983: 656). a1-po55 (nom-male) na. male animal; cf. Maru a1pho55 ‘father’. a1-puq5 dong31 (nom-turn.over(vt) lead/connect) a upside down; Dvang55kuq5 a1-puq5 dong31 dvo11-aq5. (stool/chair nom-turn.over(vt) lead/connect place(vt)-SIM) Place (SG) the stool/chair upside down. b 31 inside out; A1-puq5 dong31 zang35 wut1 bue r55. (nom-turn.over(vt) lead/connect strike wear/dress P+I PE) He is (unintentedly) wearing it inside out. Vide puq5; cf. rvaq5.

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    a1ra31! (right!) exclamatory expression to approval of some situation (ch.20); A1ra31, i5-se55 gvut5 gveq5. (Right! SPEC-like do PLIM) Right, do (PL) it like that. Cf. Jingpo ara (Xu et al. 1983: 38). a1rang31 n. investment; cf. Jingpo arang (Xu et al. 1983: 38). a1rvang55 / a5rvang55 (etcetera) nominal suffix ‘etcetera’; myoq1-dong11 a1rvang55 (eye-(have)hole etcetera) his face and such; si1-pik5 a5rvang55 (fruit-pungent etcetera) chillies and-so-on; yvum31 a5rvang55 (house etcetera) the house and thereabouts, the household. a1-rvueq5 ma54 (nom-sprained LOC+FCT) (walking) with a limp; A1-rvueq5 31 ma54 gvut5 so11 ra se5-ga31 r55. (nom-sprained LOC+FCT do walk need+I like-perceive(ipf) PE) It feels as if I will have to walk with a limp. Vide rvueq5. 1 a ruq5! exclamatory expression to the notion of being shaken up by sudden dangerous situations, such as when nearly slipping (ch.20). a1sak1 n. age; Ngo31 a1sak1 dviq5 a1-si31. (1SG age little nom-still+I) I’m still 31 very young. Yvang11 a1sak1 ke5-mvyo55 zan31 (bo31) bue ? (3SG age Qmuch(B) summer/year contain P+I) How old is she now? a1-sek5 (nom-new) na. new; vide sek5. a1-sen55-zo11 (nom-thin-child) na+adj. tiny one(s); A1-sen55-zo11 za54. (nomthin-child only+FCT) (There are only) tiny ones. a1-si1-gvo31 (nom-still-PL+I) (17.8, 17.23) plural continuous indicative clause marking unit. a1-si31 (nom-abundantly.green) na. growing abundantly; in a1-ngvyo55 a1-si31; vide a1-ngvyo55. 1 a -si31 (nom-still+I) (17.8) continuous indicative clause marking unit. a1-sing55 (nom-taste/smell(N)) n. taste, smell; Zo11 zyang35 a1-sing55 nam11 r55. (eat CD nom-taste/smell(N) smelly(ipf) PE) It doesn’t have a good taste. Cf. nam35; vide sing55. 1 a -som31 (nom-empty.pod) n. empty pod; cf. Jingpo som [som55] n. ‘empty one’ (Xu et al. 1983: 812); cf. som55. 1 a -su31 (nom-SNO) (ch.20) clause initial form much like a stopgap expressing ‘well…’, ‘well then’, i.e. a wish for a certain conclusion or answer. a1-su54 (nom-like+FCT) (ch.19) such, like this/that/those; a1-su54 mau31mi11 (nom-like+FCT story) these kinds of stories. a1-sun55 (nom-scantily.haired/scragged) na. scantily haired, scragged; Kui1131 31 zo11 a1-sun55 ze1-dut5 byuq1 bue ngvut5 r55 mai ! (dog-child nomscantily.haired/scragged only-become lose P+I be PE OBV+I) This little dog has shed almost all of its hair! Cf. sun55-zo11. 1 a -syau11 / a1-syau31 / a5-syau11 (NEG-need) vide syau11/syau31.

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    a1sye11 (er/what’s.his.name) variant of i1sye11. a1-toq5 (nom-come.out) (9.18.6) na. above, on top; mi1-kyom55 a1-toq5 me55 (fire-fireplace nom-come.out LOC) above the fireplace.

    a1-tye11 (nom-underneath) (9.18.3) na. underneath, amongst, below; A1-tye11

    me55 lung35 bum11 r55. (nom-underneath LOC be.inside heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) There’s lots of it/them underneath. a1tyeq5! ((very.hot)) exclamatory expression to extreme heat (ch.20). a1tyeq5tyeq5! ((very.very.hot)) like a1tyeq5, but more severe. a1tyeq5tyeq5tyeq5! ((very.very.very.hot)) even more severe than a1tyeq5tyeq5! 1 31 a -u (nom-intoxicated) na. intoxicated; vide a1-wut1 a1-u31. a1-weng11 (nom-broth) n. soup, broth; vide weng11/weng31. a1-wut1 a1-u31 (nom-drunk nom-intoxicated) na+na. sensation of paralization because of drunkenness or severe sunshine etc.; A1-wut1 a1u31 ga31 r55. (nom-drunk nom-intoxicated perceive(ipf) PE) I feel paralized (because of drunkenness or severe sunshine etc.) a1-yan35 (nom-row) (6.5) adv. often; Kui11 hi31 a1-yan35 wap1 r55. (dog this nom-row bark PE) This dog barks frequently. A5-wa11 i31-syuq5 wut1 zyang35 a1-yan35 na31 r55. (nom-father distilled-drink drunk CD nom-row insane(ipf) PE) Dad often goes mad when he is drunk. Cf. a1-yang11 (nomstalk) adv. often. Vide yan35. 1 a -yang11 (nom-stalk) (6.5) adv. often; A1-yang11 zang35 dai31 lye31. (nomstalk strike speak(ipf) also+I) These words are often used. Cf. a1-yan35 (nom-row) adv. often. Vide yang11. 1 a yo11 (pit-coal) n. pit-coal; in a1yo11 mi1-gye11. a1yo11 mi1-gye11 (pit-coal fire-coal) n. pit-coal. a1-yo31 (nom-right) na. right-hand side. a1-yvon55-yvon55 (nom-oblique-oblique) na. oblique; Nang31 lai11gva55 gva31 r11 ge11 a1-yvon55-yvon55 ma54 dut1 r55. (2SG script write(ipf) also TOP nom-oblique-oblique LOC +FCT become PE) You (SG) write very crookedly. a1-zvai55-zvai55 (nom-fine-fine) na. very fine; Nge1-noq1-zui31 ge11 a1zvai55-zvai55 za54 (rat/mouse-black-tooth TOP nom-fine-fine only+FCT) The teeth of a mouse/rat are very very fine. a1ze31! ((very.cold)) exclamatory expression to extreme cold (ch.20). a1ze55ze55ze55! ((very.very.very.cold)) like a1ze31, but more severe. a1ze55ze55ze55ze55! ((very.very.very.very.cold)) even more severe than a1ze55ze55ze55! 1 a zeng35 n. thing, things, stuff; Nang31 ka55-hu55 a1zeng35 wui25 ta11? (2SG Qsort thing buy+FCT GI) What things did you (SG) buy? Vide 9.32.8.

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    a1-zi35 (nom-ball/seed) n. seed. a1-zui35 (nom-(grow).bud) n. bud; A1-zui35 zui35 lo11 r55. (nom-(grow).bud

    (grow).bud come(back/up)(ipf) PE) New buds are coming out. Vide zui35. a -zvyang55 (nom-near) na. nearby; A1-zvyang55 syeq1 lo11 lai31 lo31 zyang35 syeq1… (nom-near au.contraire tiger/bull pass(ipf) come(back/up) CD au.contraire) But then the tiger came by very closely … a1-zyum11 sing55 (nom-raw taste/smell(N)) n. raw unpleasant taste; A1zyum11 sing55 nam11 r55. (nom-raw taste/smell(N) smelly(ipf) PE) It tastes bad when eaten raw. a31ha31! a roaring shout. a31na35 vr. feel ill at ease; Bui31num31 ga11 gve5lvang11 zyaq1 a31na35 r55. (family perceive although quite ill.at.ease PE) Even though we are relatives, we are quite ill at ease with each other. Cf. Jingpo ana (Xu et al. 1983: 29). a35 I exclamatory expression, expressing ‘no problem!’; “A35, gue11 lye31!” 31 ngvu syeq1. ((no.problem!) all.right(ipf) also+I say+I au.contraire) “Ah, no problem” he (the snail) said. a35- II (16.3) adv. ‘not go (away/down) and do V’; A35-yvup5 gvoq1. (not.gosleep DIE) Let’s (DU .IN) not (go and) sleep there. a55! I exclamatory expression ‘Aah!’; A55! ki11 nang31 bvyen11 bue31, a1-zyo11 loq1! (Ah! faeces tread(ipf) flatten/dent(vt) P+I NEG-right no.more) Aah! I have stepped into shit, wrecked! -a55 II (FCT) (4.3) one of the various possible shapes of the factitive marker. a5- (nom) (ch.6) variant of the nominalizing prefix a1-/a5-. a5be11 (18.4) attidude marker ‘almost certain’. a5be1-da11 (almost.certain-maybe) (18.4) combination of two attitude markers. a5be1-kai31 (almost.certain-SUG+I) (18.4, 18.9) combination of two attitude markers. a5bvyot1! exclamatory expression to sudden shock (ch.20). a5-cyo11 cyo11 (nom-sneeze sneeze) vide cyo11. a5-dui11 (nom-maternal.grandparent) n. maternal grandmother; cf. Jingpo dui (Xu et al. 1983: 128). a5-gu11 (nom-younger.sibling) n. one’s younger brother or sister. a5-gue11 (nom-burp) vide gue11. a5-ham11 (nom-yawn) vide ham11. a5-mai11 (nom-ABL) (18.2) (clause initial form) ‘and after that …’; A5-mai11 yvang11-mi11 syui31 cyong31. (nom-ABL 3SG-wife take.along(ipf) lead.away) And after that, he lead his wife away. 1

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    a5-mang11 (nom-elder.brother) n. term for addressing one’s elder brother; 5

    also a5-pu11.

    a maq5 kam11 (promise promise) n+vt. make a promise onto something; 31

    31

    A1mu31 hi31 r55 ge11 a5maq5 kam11 ra dut1 lye . (matter this OBJ TOP promise promise need+I become also+I) You have to make a promise on 31 this matter. Zang11 zvyoq5 ngo31 a5maq5 kam31 lye . (rice/food cook 1SG (ipf) promise promise also+I) I promise I will do the cooking. 5 a -mu31 (nom-happen) (18.2, 11.7) conj. therefore. a5-mvyo55 (nom-much(B)) adv. that (much); Nang31 mue31-bu11 ci31 r11 ge11 a5-mvyo55 myang35 ge11. (2SG wrap-clothes wash(ipf) also TOP nom-much (time).long TOP) You (SG) took a very long time to wash your clothes. Gan31 a5-mvyo55 a1-zue31. (late nom-much NEG-late) It’s not very late. 5 a -mvyo55-mvyo55 (nom-much (B)-much(B)) adv. a this very much; b this tiny bit; A5-mvyo55-mvyo55 ke5-gvat5 yu31. (nom-much(B)-much(B) PHBput.into take) Don’t put in so much. a5ni55! exclamatory expression to great joy (ch.20). a5-nving55 (nom-cousine) n. female cousin or cousin-in-law, referred to by a woman. A5-nu11 (nom-mother) Mum, Mother; vide nu11, cf. nu31. A5-nu11-mo35 (nom-mother-AUG) madam, honorific tittle for women of an elder generation. a5pau11 n. elephant; cf. syung11lvam11 n. ivory. a5-pu11 (nom-elder.brother) n. term for addressing one’s elder brother; also a5-mang11. 5 a -rvat5 (nom-elder.M) n. term for addressing one’s elder female cousin. a5-se55 (nom-like) (19.2) like that. a5-su54 (nom-like+FCT) a like that; a5-su54 bang11 people like that; b conj. nevertheless. 5 a -syau11 (NEG-need) vide syau11/syau31. A5-wa11 (nom-father) Dad, Father. A5-wa11-mo35 (nom-father-AUG) sir, honorific tittle for men of an elder generation. A5-wvoi55 (nom-father’s.mother) n. paternal grandmother; cf. Jingpo woi (Xu et al. 1983: 879). A5-zvi55 / A5-zvi11 (nom-grandfather) a n. paternal grandfather; often addressed as A5-zvi11; b A5-zvi55 and A5-zvi11 are also used as a form of address for men of two generations elder. ai11 (RCL) word for replacing rude cursing language in order of not to be 31 quoted; Le1-dvu31 r55 ai11 ngvu31 ta11 gvyop5 dvang31 gvat5 bue . (ipf) (ipf) ((male)-4th-brother OBJ RCL say scold tuck.away let.fly put.into

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    P+I) A flood of profanity is being flung at fourth brother. Vide ta31 vt.

    scold.

    am31tang55 n. chin. am55 (PFM) (15.2) performative auxiliary. ang11 I (ought/address) (15.24) a aux. ‘should be, to be right’, referring to certain conventions; b vt. address someone as; cf. Jingpo ang (Xu et al. 1983: 29). 11 ang II n. petiole. ang11-ban35 (petiole-sprout1) (n+n.) n. sprouts; Ang11-ban35 ban35 bum11 r55. (petiole-sprout1 sprout1 heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) There are lots of black mustard sprouts. ang11-bong11 (petiole-(grow).seedlings) (n+n.) n. seedling of black mustard. ang11-gung11 (petiole-body2) (n+n.) n. thick parts of leaves. ang11-ki31-bvun31 (petiole-leg/foot-single.root) (n+n+n.) n. (long white) radish. ang11-nam31 (petiole-smelly) n+adj. coriander. ang11-noq5 (petiole-black) n+adj. black mustard. ang11-noq5-bau11 (petiole-black-bug) n. bug living on black mustard. ang11-noq5-weng11 / ang11-noq5-weng31 (petiole-black-broth) n. black mustard soup. ang11-noq5-yo31 (petiole-black-land) n. plot of black mustard. ang11-noq5-zyap1 (petiole-black-chop.up) n. piece of black mustard left in the mouth; vide zyap1. 11 ang -nu35-zo11 (petiole-young/tender-child) n+adj+adj. young black mustard. ang11-pyu31 (petiole-white) n+adj. Chinese cabbage (白菜 báicài). ang11-pyu31-zo11 (petiole-white-child) n+adj+adj. small Chinese cabbage 小白菜 xiǎobáicài). 11 ang -tup5 (petiole-envelop/wrap/veil) n+adj. cabbage. ang11-yen11 (petiole-pickles) n+adj. pickles (the long procedure); cf. ang11zvin31. 11 ang -zvin31 (petiole-sour) n+adj. pickles (the short procedure); ang11zvin31-yam11 (petiole-sour-pot) n. pot for pickles. 31 ang n. tatouage yielding power after beating it. ang55 n. tinnen tub; cf. zi1rung35. ang55goi11 goi11 (swing(N) swing) n+vt. swing (on the swing); also ang55goi11 zi11 (swing(N) ride(vt)) n+vt. swing; Ang55goi11 goi31 gvun55 syang55. (swing(N) swing(ipf) play JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) swing. 5 ap n. needle (sp. kat5/hat5); ap5 zyoi35 (needle thread(vt)) n+vt. thread a needle.

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    ap5-gvyung55 (needle-tinnen.box) (n+n.) n. tinnen box for needles. -aq1 / -aq5 (SIM) (7.7) singular imperative clause marker. au11 n. pan. au11-bung11 (pan-plump) n+adj. kind of pan. au11-cyuq5 (pan-bottom) (n+n.) n. bottom of pan. au11-gvyap5 (pan-shell/crust) (n+n.) n. edible crust on the bottom of a pan. au11-koq5 ci11/si11 (pan-bowl wash) n+n+vt. wash dishes; also shortly koq5 ci11. au (super) ……in au31-mo35, au31-zo11 and za1-au31/ze1-au31. au31-mo35 (super-AUG) family term, …… au31-zo11 (super-child) family term. …… au31-zo11 num11nang35 wui31 (super-child friend generation) (dear) friends and family; cf. bui31num31 au31-zo11 wui31 31

    -Bba31 (ch.20) exclamatory expression used when giving orders to someone; Ba31-ba31, zang11 i5-byam11 zo11 gveq5. ((orders)-(orders) rice/food gojump(ipf) eat PLIM) Well, go on then, you (PL) can start cooking now. 35 ba zya35 n. bagpipes; ba35zya35 le1-lvum11 (bagpipes one-lump) a/one set of bagpipes. ba55 / be- / be55 (EE) (17.20) the exclusive exhortative clause marker. bva55 I (dance.sideways) a in Nau11-bva55 (Menau-dance.sideways) n. assistant Menau dance leaders; b vt. traditional way of dancing 31 sideways, during Menau festival; Nau11-bva55 bva31 lye . (Menau(ipf) dance.sideways dance.sideways also+I) We are dancing sideways. Vide go35 and Me1nau11/Me5nau11 Zum31-go35. bva55 II n. flatlands; i1-tung11-bva55 (water-paddy-flatlands) n. paddy; Sam55bva55 (Shan-flatlands) n+n. the lowlands, often inhabited by Shan; often used in toponyms, e.g.: U5dvyeng55-bva55 Udvyeng-dale; Bva55 dong31 31 31 lo35 ra luq1, bum31 dong31 lo35 ra luq1? (flatlands lead/connect go(back/up) need+I Y/N heap(vt/N) lead/connect go(back/up) need+I Y/N) Shall we go by the flatlands or by the hills? Cf. Chinese: 坝 bà. bai11 n. lappet; only attested in bu11-bai11 (clothes-lappet) (n+n.) n. the tail of a shirt. bvai11 adj. left side; A1-bvai11 dong31 ke5-wun31. (nom-left lead/connect PHBcarry/bring) (a bag:) Don’t carry it on your left side. loq1-bvai11 (hand/arm-left) left hand; Nang35 loq1-bvai11-kyam11 me55 zyoq1 dvo31 r55. (2SG.PO hand/arm-left-half LOC be.there(inan) place(vt)(ipf) PE) It’s at your left side. bai11nam35 n. goat. bai11nam35 si1-mau35 (goat meat-body.hair) n. goat wool; also king31wom35 (thread-wool) n. wool; cf. za35-tu31. 31 bai (ch.20) exclamatory expression like ba31 (orders), but apparently bearing more of a directing meaning, such as when pointing of the objects involved in the suggested action; Bai31, hi55-me55 gvan31-aq1. ((directing) this-LOC put.into*-SIM) Put (SG) it in here. bai35 a vt. wind; Le1-bai35 bai35 si1-aq5. (one-wind wind still-SIM) Wind (SG) one more turn. b spec. n. instance of winding; illustrated by the same clause; c vi. be twisted around something, in bai35 nai11: Mi1 -dat5 dvui11 bai35 nai31 dvo31 r55. (fire-electric rope(N/vt) wind knead(ipf) place(vt)(ipf)

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    PE) The electricity cord is twisted. Se5-gvoq5 me55 lvang31-mui31 bai35 nai31 dap1 dvo31 r55. (tree-branch LOC snake-snake wind knead(ipf) be.attached place(vt)(ipf) PE) There’s a snake twisted around the branch.

    vide bvik5 bai35; d vide a1-bvik5 a1-bai35. bai ! exclamatory expression ‘hush!’, variant of ba31 and bai31; Bai55bai55bai55bai55, rau35 zyai35 gveq5! ([hush.hush] promptly give.back) Hush hush hush, return it quickly! bvai55 vt. prostrate before; Pe5rva31 bvai31 lye31. (Buddha prostrate.before(ipf) also+I) We are prostrating before the Buddha. bak1bak1 onom. sound of weeding etc. bvak5 ideophone referring to flinging a dollop of something; I1-zyum11 bvak5 ngvu31 gvan31-aq1. (water-salt [flinging.a.dollop] say put.into*-SIM) Fling (SG) the salt into it. Cf. Jingpo ideophone pak, expressing ‘situation of throwing powder into a liquid in a quick manner’ (Xu et al. 1983: 660). bvak5bvang55 n. kind of bird-like spirit; When heard, one should fetch a handfull of earth, break wind onto it and throw it at them, after which they come skim past one’s ears, invisibly but with heavy sound. There are two kinds, one of which can change into u55son55. Vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. bvak5-rap5 ([flinging.a.dollop]-dollop) (16.27) ideophone referring to dropping some powder into a liquid in a quick manner. bam11 a vi. moist; Mi1-gung31 bam31 r55. (earth-body moist/dull-witted(ipf) PE) The earth is moist. b adj. dull-witted; Nang31 su54 byu31-bam11 ge11! (2SG like+FCT man/woman-moist/dull-witted TOP) You (SG) bloody idiot! bvam31 vt. save for later; Se5-gam31 hi31 ngo31 bvam11 dvo11 bue31. (treetree(B) this 1SG save.for.later(ipf) place(vt) P+I) I’m saving this tree for later. bam35 vt. bandage; Hi11-eq1 ki31 bam35-aq5. (this#-AG/I leg/foot bandage-SIM) Bandage (SG) the leg with this. ban11 I (beat*) allomorph of bat1 vt. beat; Ban11-aq1. (beat*-SIM) (You (SG)) beat. ban11 II a n. flower, used in the forms below, esp. ban11-bo35, and in bui31ban11 (sun-flower) (n+n.) n. sun flower; b n. dirt, in ban11-gyet5 gyet1; c also in woq1-po55 zyoq1-ban11 (chicken-male cockscomb-flower) n. cockscomb. ban11 III vt. pass Sunday; I5ban11 ban31 lye31. (week(end) pass.Sunday(ipf) also+I) We are passing our Sunday. Cf. Jingpo ban (Xu et al. 1983: 56). 55

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    ban11-bo35 (flower-open.itself) n. flower; ban11-bo35 le1-mat1 (floweropen.itself one-(make).bunch) a/one bunch of flowers; ban11-bo35 kyui11 (flower-open.itself bend) n+vt. pick flowers. ban11-bo35-i1-zvyam11 (flower-open.itself-water-water) n. perfume. ban11-but5 (flower-rub.in) vr. powder oneself. ban11-gam31 (flower-tree(B)) (n+n.) n. flower tree; ban11-gam31 le1-byap1 (flower-tree(B) one-shrub/tree) a/one flower tree. 11 ban -gyet5 gyet1 (flower-scrape.off scrape.off) n+vt. scrape off dirt; 31 Ban11-gyet5 gyet1 yau35 bue luq1? (flower-scrape.off scrape.off finish P+I Y/N) Have you finished scraping off the dirt? ban11-zvai55 (flower-fine) n+adj. fennel. ban31 (use.up) (vide 16.37) vide ban11 (use.up(ipf)) as the completive adverb and ban31-syoq5. bvan31 I n. (cards:) hearts; vide pai55. bvan31 II vi. puckery, astringent, like unripe persimmons; Si11 hi31 bvan11 dik1 r55. (fruit this puckery(ipf) extreme PE) This kind of fruit is very puckery. bvan31-pai55 (hearts-cards/game) a n+n. hearts card; b (idiom) n+n. lazy 31 and unreliable person; Bvan31-pai55 zaq1 ngvut5 gvo r11 ge11. (heartscards/game only be PL+I also TOP) It can only be the hearts cards again. ban31-syoq5 (use.up-till) (16.37) adv. totally, entirely. ban31-syoq5-bang11 (use.up-till-PNO) adv. every one; Nga35-nvung55 ban31syoq5-bang11 syom31 hon31 syang55 ngvu31 zyang35, zye11 tang31 ma55 31 ngo31 bau35 ze1-lo . (1PO-1ND.IN use.up-till-PNO drive.game(ipf) sing JUS say CD exceed behind LOC 1SG just only-no.more+I) Whereas they said let’s (ND .IN) all sing together, in the end I was the only one. ban35 a n. sprout; ang11-ban35 (petiole-sprout1) (n+n.) n. black mustard sprouts; mik1-ban35 (bamboo.shoots-sprout1) (n+n.) n. bamboo shoots; b 31 vi. sprout; Mik1-ban35 ban35 bue . (bamboo.shoots-sprout1 sprout1 P+I) New bamboo shoots have sprouted. Cf. ngyun35 vi. (new leaves) sprout. bvan55 I n. cloth; bvan55 le1-dung35 (cloth one-cubit) a/one cubit of cloth; bvan55 le1-cyeq5 (cloth one-tear) a/one little piece of cloth; bvan55 le1tong11 (cloth one-roll) a/one roll of cloth; bvan55 le1-long11 (cloth oneslice/plate) a/one piece of cloth. bvan55 II (outside) n. only attested in yvum31-bvan55 me55 (house-outside LOC) outside the house. bvan55 noq1 (cloth black) n+adj. black cloth. bvan55-gva55 (cloth-variegated1) n+adj. variegated cloth. Bang11 I Vide the personal name Le1-bang11.

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    bang11 II (PNO) (9.32.3) the plural nominalizer, used after verbs, nouns and pronouns; e.g.: gvo11 bang11 (big PNO) adults, dviq5 bang11 (little PNO) children, the little ones; wo35 bang11 (have PNO) rich people; nga35nvung55 wa31 bang11 (1PO-1ND.IN village PNO) we village people; le1yvum11 bang11 (one-house(GEN) PNO) the whole family; byo11 hi55bang11 (wasp/bee this-PNO) these bees/wasps; Vide ban31-syoq5-bang11; cf. Chinese 帮 bāng. bang11dvai31 n. rabbit; cf. Jingpo brangtai (Xu et al. 1983: 64). Bang11dvai31 mau31mi11 (rabbit story) (n+n.) stories on Rabbit. Bang11ling11 village name. bang31 n. cluster of bamboo trunks; wa11 le1-bang31 (bamboo onebamboo.cluster) a/one cluster of bamboo trees; we1-bang31 (bamboobamboo.cluster) n. cluster of bamboo trees. bvang31 vt. welcome in; Yvang55-moq1 r55 i5-bvang31 syang55. (3PL-party OBJ go-welcome JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) go to welcome them in. bang35ga55li55 (from Burmese) a n. helicopter; b n. also used for a large kind of duck. baq1 a exclamatory expression for inviting a child to ride horseback; Baq1, A5-nu11 bau11 lye35. ([horseback] nom-mother carry.on.back come(away/down)) Come, Mum will carry you on her back. b reduplicated, as ideophone used by children begging to ride horseback; 31 Baq1 baq1 gvut5 ra , nva55-moq1! ([horseback] [horseback] do need+I elder.sister-AUG) I’ll sit on your back, big sister! bat1 / bat5 / ban11 I (beat) a vt. (objects, people) beat; Nga35 lang31 ngo31 r55 bat1 r55. (1PO husband 1SG OBJ beat PE) My husband beats me. Syam31-dvoq5 bat1 ngvyang31-aq1. (knife-iron beat straighten(vt)-SIM) Beat (SG) the iron straight. b vt. fight; bat1 lum11 (beat reciprocal) v+v. fight; bat1 sat5 (beat kill) (i) kill; (ii) (fire) put out; c vt. (guitars, Jew’s harps etc.) play; (hands) clap; cyeng55 bat1 n+vt. beat the cymbals; dving55 bat1 n+vt. play the guitar; (drums, gongs etc.) beat; d vt. (balls etc.) play; bo11lung31 bat1 (ball beat) n+vt. play the ball; e vt. (cards etc.) play; rang31/pue31/pai55 bat1, rang31-bat5,pue31-bat5 n+vt. play cards; ngun31-pai55 bat1 n+vt. gamble; f vt. (telephone) call, dial; zvi5nan31 bat1 n+vt. make a phonecall, dial a phonenumber; g vt. type; Diannao me55 31 bat1 lvung31 dvo11 bue . (computer LOC beat let.inside(ipf) place(vt) P+I) These words have been typed into the computer. h vi. sound (as the 31 result of beating); Dvyeng55dvyeng55 bat1 bue . (bell beat P+I) The bell 11 1 5 5 5 has sounded. Cf. sin , be -sop sop and bvat . bat1 II (week) spec. noun for weeks; i5ban11 sum11-bat5 (week(end) threeweek) three weeks; he5-yoq1-bat1 (before-ago-week) last week; he31-bat1

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    (before2-week) the week before last week; mvo55-bat1 (below-week) next week. bat1 lum11 (beat reciprocal) vt+aux. have a terrible row bat5 (crosswise) a aux. crosswise; Ling11 bat5 bue31. (turn/roll(vi)(ipf) crosswise P+I) I have fallen crosswise; b ideophone, in a1-bvi31 bat5, e.g.: A1-bvi31 bat5 gvut5 dvo11-aq5. (nom-crooked crosswise do place(vt)-SIM) Put (SG) it down crosswise. bvat5 I n. clot; sui11-bvat5 (blood-clot(N)) n+n. congealed blood. bvat5 II (dregs/ferment(vt)) a n. dregs, residu; A1-bvat5 a1-bo31 le1-luq1? (nom-dregs/ferment(vt) NEG-contain no.more-Y/N) Are there any dregs left? ya11ya35 bvat5 (medicine dregs/ferment(vt)) n+n. dregs of medicine; i31-bvat5 (distilled-dregs/ferment(vt)) n+n. (during distilling process:) fermented rice residu (edible); b vt. (during distilling process:) further 31 ferment; I31-bvat5 bvat5 dvo31 lye . (distilled-dregs/ferment(vt) (ipf) dregs/ferment(vt) place(vt) also+I) We’re further fermenting the residue. See further nam35 vt. (during distilling process:) add new water to the residu. bvat5 III (fishing.rod) in nge1-bvat5. bvat5 IV vt. let beat; cf. bat1 vt. beat. bvat5 V vt. to sting; Byo31-eq1 bvat5 bue31. (wasp/bee#-AG/I sting P+I) I have been stung by a wasp/bee. Cf. bi1-nim11 n+n. sting. bvat5 VI n. muscle power; loq1-bvat5 (hand/arm-strength) n+n. strength in the arms; ki31-bvat5 (leg/foot-strength) n+n. strength in the legs; Nang35 ki31-bvat5 ngvyom31 r55. (2SG.PO leg/foot-strength soft/weak(ipf) PE) You (SG) haven’t got much strength in your legs. Nang35 loq1-bvat5 tan11 r55. (2SG.PO hand/arm-strength hard(ipf) PE) You (SG) have much strength in your arms. Loq1-bvat5 a1-bo31 (hand/arm-strength NEG-contain) I haven’t got strength in my hand/arms. Cf. wum11 n. power, force. bvat5-nam35 nam35 (dregs/ferment(vt)-add.water(…) add.water(…)) vide nam35. bvat5-nam35-zang11 (dregs/ferment(vt)-add.water(…)-rice/food) vide nam35. bvat5zvan55 n. black and long-shaped ant, painfull bite, mostly in small groups; vide bau31woq5. 11 bau I (bug) n. insect, bug (sp. du11); dang31 lye31 hu55 bau11 (fly(ipf) also+I 31 sort bug) n. flying insect; do31 lye hu55 bau11 (all.fours(ipf) also+I sort 11 5 bug) crawling insect; ang -noq -bau11 (petiole-black-bug) n. black mustard bug; nuq1-bau11 (bean-bug) n+n. bug living on bean plants. 11 bau II a vt. carry (child) on back; Yvang11 zi1syang31 bau31 dvo31 r55. (3SG child carry.on.back(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) He is carrying the child on his

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    back. b vt. give birth to; Dye31-zo11 bau11 gvo54 ga . (illegitimate.childchild carry.on.back PL+FCT perceive+I) They have given birth to an illegitimate child. Vide waq1 for an overview of words related to lifting and carrying. bau11-bvyet1 (bug-dented) n+adj. tape-worm. bau11-don35 (bug-tender/fat) n+adj. name for bugs in general when not knowing the proper name. 11 bau -ki31 (bug-crab) n+n. crab. bau11-ngat5 (bug-bite) n+vt. be gnawn into by insects; Sek5 hi31 ge11 bau1131 ngat5 bue . (tree this TOP bug-bite P+I) This tree has been gnawn into by insects. bau11-puq5-ngvoq5 (bug-turn.over(vt)-bird) n. woodpecker. bau11-zun31 (bug-shrimp) n+n. shrimp/crayfish. bvau31 I vt. dig out; Mui11 bvau11 lye31. (taro dig.out(ipf) also+I) I’m digging out taro. bvau31 II (raft/cluster) a n. raft (sp. lvum11); b specifier noun ‘bunch’, specifically used for bananas; ngve5-mvyuq1 le1-bvau31 (banana-banana one-raft/cluster) a/one (complete) bunch of bananas; cf. ngve5-mvyuq1 le1-mvye11 (banana-banana one-(bananas).bunch) a/one part of a bunch of bananas. bau31-hu31 (cobra/python-cobra) n+n. cobra, spitting cobra, king cobra. The morpheme is only attested in this form. 31 bau -mi11 (cobra/python-(cobra/python)) n+n. python; The exact meaning of the morpheme is unknown. 31 bau woq5 n. ant; The following words for types of ants have been attested: bvat5zvan55 n. black and long-shaped ant, painfull bite, mostly in small groups; gum11gai35bva31 n. type of ant, neck and middle are red, painfull bite; zvang55mvan31 n. kind of ant with very painfull bite. 31 bau woq5-u55 (ant-egg) n+n. ant eggs. bau31woq5-um31 (ant-insect.hill) n+n. anthill, termite hill. bau35 I (foster) vt. foster (orphans, old people); cf. zyau35. bau35 II (just) (16.7, 9.5) adv. ‘just’, indicating being alone, acting in isolation or moving all by itself; cf. za11/ze1-/ze11/zaq1. 35 bau -bau35 (just-just) (16.7) reduplicated adverb, in elliptic clauses, expressing ‘there’s only’; Pui11-lvup5 bau35-bau35. (dust/chaff-be.dusty just-just) It’s so dusty. bve1- n. prefix ‘frog’; vide bvo11, gve5-bvo11 and below. be1- I n. prefix ‘cheek’. be1- II (clothes) n. prefix ‘clothes’; allomorph of be1-/bu11 n. clothes.

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    be1- III (help) (16.8) the cooperative verb prefix; e.g.: be1-gvut5 (help-do) help doing.

    be11 / be1- (P) (17.9) perfect clause marker. bve1-byui35 (frog-toad) n+n. toad. be1-bvyuq5 bvyuq5 (cheek-clap/slap clap/slap) n+vt. slap cheeks. be1-gve5-ra31 (P-PL-need+I) (15.23, 17.9, table 15.1) combination of four clause markers. be -gvo31 (P-PL+I) (17.9) plural perfect indicative clause marking unit. be1-kai31 (P-SUG+I) (17.9, 18.9) combination of perfect clause marker be131 /be11 and the suggestive attitude marking unit kai . 1 11 bve -li (frog-swim) (n+v.) n. breast stroke (swimming); cf. bvo11; vide wui31-li11 li11 for more on swimming. 1 Bve lvong11 n. Deang people. Bve1lvong11-ming35 (Deang.people-language) n+n. Deang language. be1-loq5 (clothes-hand/arm) n+n. sleeve. be1lvup5 n. kind of fish (in Chinese: 胡子鱼 húziyú bearded fish). be1nau11 n. dried fish; cf. Jingpo banau (Xu et al. 1983: 56). be1-ra31 (P-need+I) (15.23, 17.9) perfect future indicative clause marking unit. be1-sek5 (clothes-new) n+adj. new clothes. be1-si11 (clothes-tie/lock) n+n. button (sp. cyam11/syam11). be1-si11 si11 (clothes-tie/lock tie/lock) n+vt. button one’s clothes; vide si11. be1-sop5 (cheek-wipe/rummage) n. cuff on the ears; be1-sop5 sop5 n+vt. give a cuff on the ears; Be1-sop5 sop5 dvang31 gvan31-aq1. (cheekwipe/rummage wipe/rummage let.fly(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Give (SG) him a cuff on the ears. be1-tung31 (clothes-bag) n+n. pocket of one’s clothes. be1-zyong35 (clothes-cover(N)) n+n. quilt (sp. dung11); cf. bui35-mo35 (warm.oneself-AUG) n+adj. quilt, a quilt folded to form a sleeping bag. The prefix be1- could also be derived from bui35 vr. warm oneself. 5 be - (EE) (17.20) allomorph of the exclusive exhortative clause marker be5/ba55/be55. 5 bve - n. prefix ‘plug’; only attested in bve5-sang55 and bve5-sau55. be55 (EE) (17.20) allomorph of the exclusive exhortative clause marker be5/ba55/be55. 5 be gon11 (careless/abominably2) vide a1gon11/me5gon11/be5gon11. be5rang11 n. salty little fishes. bve5he55 (bat) n. bat. bve5-sang55 (plug-fill.up) (n+vt.) n. sausage, made of the large intestine; cf. pe1dong11. 1

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    bve5-sau55 (sau55) (plug-cork (cork)) a n. cork, in bve5-sau55 (plug-cork) n. cork; b vt. cork something; Nvut5 me55 bve5-sau55 sau55 gveq5, ke5-dye31 ge1ru11 gvo55. (mouth LOC plug-cork cork PLIM PHB-too talk(noise) PL) Put (PL) the cork (i.e. rice) into your mouth, don’t (PL) talk too much. bek1 (shoot) a vt. shoot; lai11 bek1 (bow shoot) n+vt. shoot the bow; Mi1-um31 31 bek1 mving31 gvat5 bue . (fire-gun shoot sound/name(vt) (ipf) put.into 31 P+I) A gun sounded. Zang35 bek1 bue . (strike shoot P+I) I hit it. syo11 1 bek (meat shoot) n+vt. shoot game; Nang31 syo11 wo35 bek1 ra54 gvyam11 a1-wo35. The word si1-bek5 (meat-shoot) n+vt. is the general term for hunting, though it is not often used. Vide syo11 for an overview of Zaiwa hunting terms. b vt. fight in war, in mi1-zyan11 bek1 (fire-endure shoot) n+vt. fight war; Mi1-zyan11 bek1 rvuq5 dik1 r55. (fire-endure shoot truculent extreme PE) He is a brave fighter in the war. Cf. bvek5 and pek5. bvek5 vt. kick; Bo11lung31 bvek5 ye11 lye31. (ball kick go(away/down)(ipf) 31 also+I) I’m going to play football. Nui31 me55 zang35 bvek5 wue35 bue . (vine LOC strike kick stuck2 P+I) One of my feet got stuck in the vines. Cf. ting55 vt. kick (with the full length of the foot). beng11 (shoot*) allomorph of bek1 vt. shoot; Beng11-aq1. (shoot*-SIM) (You) (SG) shoot. beng35 I n. guest. beng35 II in tum11-beng35. bveng55 vi. tight; Sau55-hai11 hi31 ge11 bveng31 dik1 r55 mai31! (shoe-shoe this (ipf) TOP tight extreme PE OBV+I) These shoes are really tight! / This shoe is really tight! bi1- (wasp/bee) allomorph of bi11 n. wasp, bee. bi11 I (15.6) vt. give. bi11 II (tears) in ngau31-bi11. bi1-gvyap5 (wasp/bee-shell/crust) n+n. bee hive. bi1-hui31 (wasp/bee-sallow) n+adj. type of wasp. bi1-i31 (wasp/bee-distilled) n+n. honey. Bi1mun31 a personal name. bi1-nim11 (wasp/bee-sting) n+n. sting; cf. bvat5 vt. sting. bi1-puq5 (wasp/bee-turn.over(vt)) n+vt. search for wasps/bees with use of knife or axe. bi1-syoq5 (wasp/bee-nasty) n+adj. kind of wasp/bee. bi1syup5 n. gecko. bi1-tung55 (wasp/bee-wickerwork) n+n. artificial bee hive. bi1-yang11 (wasp/bee-bee) n+n. bee; vide byo11/bi1-. bi1-zang11 (wasp/bee-rice/food) n+n. beeswax.

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    81

    bi1-zo11 (wasp/bee-child) n+adj. immature wasp/bee (unable to fly). bvi31 I (crooked) vi. crooked, crosswise, squinting; kyo31-bvi31 (roadcrooked) n. branch road; A1-bvi31 bat5 gvut5 dvo11-aq5. (nom-crooked crosswise do place(vt)-SIM) Put it down crosswise. Vide myoq1-bvi31; cf. goi35 and yvon55. 55 -Bvi I (7th-sister) in names for seventh-born sisters. bvi55 II n. flute; sam55-bvi55 (Shan-flute) n+n. regular flute; bvi5-kye55 (flutesuona.horn) n+n. woodwind instrument resembling the suona horn; gye31-bvi55 (soldier-flute) n+n. bugle (without valves); Sam55-bvi55 r11 “pyot5pyot5” ze1-ga11 gue11 mut1 r55. (Shan-flute also [onom] onlyperceive all.right(ipf) blow PE) Also on the flute, he can only play like “phyot phyot”. bvi55 III n. string, lace; hai11-bvi55 (shoe-string) n+n. shoelace; tung31-bvi55 (bag-string) n+n. string of a bag; byang31-bvi55 (scabbard-string) n+n. string of a scabbard; lan35-bvi55 (basket-string) n+n. string of a basket. 55 bvi bvi55 ideophone referring to a very sour taste; Zvin11 lye31 bvi55bvi55 (sour(ipf) also+I [very.sour]) It’s sour as hell. 55 bvi -zo11 (womenfolk-child) n+n. middle-aged womenfolk bvi5-kye55 (flute-suona.horn) n+n. woodwind instrument resembling the suona horn. bi5yui35-si11 (grape-like.fruit-fruit) n+n. grape-like fruit, edible, very sweet, with thick peel. bik1 a vt. (water, mercury in thermometer etc.) shake off, (water) throw with hands; I1-zvyam11 bik1 gyun11-aq5. (water-water shake.off bathe(vt)-SIM) Throw (SG) water (with your hands). Bvong55dvin55-si11 bik1 toq5 am55aq5. (pen-drug shake.off come.out PFM-SIM) Shake (SG) out the ink. b (chickens) vt. scratch the ground in search for food; Woq1 mi1-gung31 bik1 r55. (chicken earth-body shake.off PE) The chicken is scratching on the ground. Cf. gvo31 and gvyun55. bvik5 (turn/grind) a vt. grind; Lung11-bum11 bvik5 lye31. (maize/corn-bud turn/grind also+I) I’m grinding maize. bvik5 mvun31 (turn/grind 31 pulverize) vt-+vt. to pulverize; Lung11-bum11 bvik5 mvun11 lye . (maize/corn-bud turn/grind pulverize(ipf) also+I) I’m pulverizing maize. b adj. turned, twisted; bvik5 bai35 (turn/grind wind) all twisted, all tangled up; Tung31-bvi55 bvik5 bai35 dvo31 r55. (bag-string turn/grind wind place(vt)(ipf) PE) The string of the bag is all twisted. c vide a1-bvik5. 11 bin n. way; cf. kyo31 n. road. bin11 cyang55 (way follow) n+vt. follow everywhere; Bin11 cyang55 ke5-dye31 cyang55. (way follow PHB-too follow) Don’t follow me everywhere.

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    82

    bin11 wue11 so11 (way far walk) n+adj+vi. walk a long way, e.g.: Bin11 31

    wue11 so31 lye , zyau35-mai11 so11 syang55. (way far walk(ipf) also+I earlyABL walk JUS) It’s a long journey, so let’s (ND .IN) leave early. bin11syui11 n. anaemia; from Chinese 贫血 pínxuě. bin31 vt. (grass, cane, etc.) cut; A1-bvun31 mai11 kot1kot1 bin31 gveq5. (nom(single).root ABL [completely] hew.(grass.etc) PLIM) Cut (PL) them all short, from the roots onwards. Cf. tuq5. Vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. bvin31 vt. mediate; Me1-byoq1 bvin11 lye31. (words-quarrel mediate(ipf) also+I) 31 I’m mediating in a quarrel. Woq1-po31-nvik5 tye31 lum31 a1-gvo , bvin11 (ipf) (ipf) am55 gveq5. (chicken-male(GEN)-duo peck reciprocal nom-PL+I mediate(ipf) PFM PLIM) The two cocks are pecking at each other, stop (PL) them. bin35 vi/vt. (situations) take shape; A1mu31 wa35 hi55-se55 mu31 bin35 dvo54 ge11. (matter EMP this-like happen take.shape place(vt)+FCT TOP) That this simple matter could develop into something as complicated as this! A1hui31 ka55-hu55 bin35 dvo31 lye54 lu55? (now Q-sort take.shape place(vt)(ipf) also+FCT MIR) Now look what has happened! bing11 (roast1) vt. roast, on a stick near the fire; bing11 zo11 (roast1 eat) vt+vt. eat things roasted on a stick near the fire; Nge5-zo11 bing11 zo11 syang55. (fish-child roast1 eat JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) roast fish. Cf. ngvin55 vt. roast, not specially for food. Vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. bing31 I vi. numb; Ki31 bing11 r55. (leg/foot numb(ipf) PE) My leg/foot is numb. bing31 II n. sore, boil, ulcer (sp. cyam11/syam11); vide bing 31-zvin31-zo11 and myoq1-bing31. bing31-zvin31-zo11 (sore-no.gloss-child) n+adj+adj. little sores, boils or ulcer; Bing31-zvin31-zo11 yuq1 r55. (sore-no.gloss-child grow PE) There are little boils growing there. bing35 vi. full; Yam11-bu35 bing35 bue31. (pot-pimple/convex full P+I) The pot is full. bing35 dyep1 (full to.the.brim) full to the brim; vide dyep1. bving55 vt. fill; Yam11-bu35 kam11 bving55 zyang35 ngvut5 bue31. (potpimple/convex receive/fetch(ipf) fill CD be P+I) Fetch water till the pot is filled and then you’re finished. bing55bang11 n. ice-cream (Chinese: 冰棒 bīngbàng). bit1 vi. be split in two; Dvui11 bit1 byuq1 bue31. (rope(N/vt) in.two lose P+I) The rope is in two; cf. pit5 vt. cut in two. 11 bo (2.days.ago) (9.39, Table 9.11) bound form noun referring to two days ago, used in time adverbials.

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    83

    bvo11 n. frog; possible also in gve5-bvo11 (mud-frog) n+n. the type of mud to be found in the fields. Vide the prefix allomorph bve1-. bo bo11 ideophone expressing extreme whiteness; in bo11bo11 pyu31 ([very.white] white) id+adj. very white. bo11ho55 n. mint; from Chinese 薄荷 bòhe. bo11lung31 n. ‘ball’, from English ‘ball’. bo11-wa31-min31 (2.days.ago-2/3.days.ago-evening) (9.39, Table 9.11) the evening/night of the day that was two days before yesterday. bo11-wa31-min31-tang31 (2.days.ago-2/3.days.ago-evening-behind) (9.39, Table 9.11) the afternoon of the day that was two days before yesterday. bo11-wa31-nap1(-gvyo55) (2.days.ago-2/3.days.ago-morning(morning.of.other.day)) (9.39, Table 9.11) the morning of the day that was two days before yesterday. bo11-wa31-ngi35 (2.days.ago-2/3.days.ago-day) (9.39, Table 9.11) the day that was two days before yesterday. bo31 (13.3) vt. contain. bvo31 (embrace) a vt. embrace; Bvo11 lum11 gvoq1. (embrace(ipf) reciprocal DIE) Let’s (DU.IN) hug. b spec. n. size as large as two curved arms can 31 indicate; Yvang11 le1-bvo31 bo11 r55 mai ! (3SG one-embrace contain(ipf) PE OBV+I) He is as fat as my arms can embrace now! bo35 (open.itself) a specifier noun for flowers and part of ban11-bo35 (floweropen.itself) n. flower; ban11-bo35 le1-bo35 (flower-open.itself one31 open.itself) a/one flower; b vi. open itself; Ban11-bo35 le1-bo35 bo35 bue . (flower-open.itself one-open.itself open.itself P+I) One flower has 31 opened itself. Mau11 bo35 bue . (sky open.itself P+I) It’s getting light. 55 55 1 bvo dvye (leopard) vide le -bvo55dvye55. bvoi31 (festival) a n. festival, festivities; Me1nau11-bvoi31 (Menau-festival) Menau festival; mi1-hang55-bvoi31 (wife-marry-festival) wedding festivities; b n. exams; sam55-bvoi31 (Shan-festival) exams; cf. Jingpo poi (Xu et al. 1983: 665). boi35 vt. ignore someone; Boi35 bue31, a1-gon31 loq1. (ignore.smn P+I NEGbother.about no.more) We ignore him; we give him the cold shoulder. vide ne1-boi35 boi35. bvoi55 ((hair).tie) vide zyoq1bvoi55 (bvoi55). bok1bok1bok1 in commands to buffaloes: “Turn around!”. See no11 for an overview of commands to water buffaloes. bok5 vt. smoke; ngvya55 bok5 smoke tobacco. bvom11 (put.to.swell) vt. steep in order to soften and swell; Mau31-gyon11 i1zvyam11 me55 bvom31 dvo11-aq5. (fungus-ear.shaped.fungus water-water (ipf) LOC put.to.swell place(vt)-SIM) Let (SG) the ear-shaped fungus swell 11

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    in the water. Cf. Jingpo bom vi. swell (Xu et al. 1983: 61); cf. bom11 adj. round, fleshy. bom11 I (bomb) n. hand-grenade; cf. Jingpo bom (Xu et al. 1983: 62). bom11 II adj. round and fleshy; ngvyai55-bom11 (immature-round/fleshy) adj. round and fleshy like a baby; myoq1-bom11-mo35 (eye-round/fleshy-AUG) n. sleepy face; cf. bvom11 vt. steep in order to (soften and) swell. bom35 vt. carry in front; Dyen11she11 bom35 wa11-aq1. (television carry.in.front lift*-SIM) Carry (SG) the television (in front of yourself). Cf. bun35; vide waq1 for an overview of words related to lifting and carrying. bong11 ((grow).seedlings) a bound form n. seedlings; in si1-bong11 (fruit(grow).seedlings) n+n. seedlings; ang11-bong11 (petiole(grow).seedlings) n+n. seedling of black mustard; mak1zyok5-si11-bong11 (tangerine-fruit-(grow).seedlings) n. seedling of tangerine tree; b in ngvyai55-bong11 (immature-(grow).seedlings) n. newborn baby; c in si131 bong11 bong11 n+vt. grow seedlings; Si1-bong11 bong31 lye . (fruit(ipf) (grow).seedlings (grow).seedlings also+I) I’m/we are growing seedlings. Cf. nui11, reng11, yuq1, zui35; cf. Jingpo bong (Xu et al. 1983: 62). bvong31 (coincide) a vt. coincide, cooperate in; mu35-bvong31 bvong31 (work(N)-coincide coincide) n+vt. help each other with the work; zang11-bvong31 bvong31 (rice/food-coincide coincide) n+vt. the people of two households cooking and eating together; b vi. coincide, be used in similar ways; Lai11gva55-mvi55 ga54 ge11 bvong11 ra55. (script-female perceive+FCT TOP coincide(ipf) PE) (Dutch and English:) The same alphabets are used for writing. Lai11gva55-mvi55 a1-bvong31 (script-female NEG-coincide) (English and Burmese:) Different alphabets are used. Me1-ku31 bvong11 ra55. (words-voice coincide(ipf) PE) These words sound the same. Yang11yi35-eq5 zang11 a1-dat1 zvyoq5 bvong31 (potato-COM rice/food NEG-able cook coincide) Potatoes and rice can’t be cooked together. bong35 I (bladder) in si1-bong35. bong35 II vi. be open; Si5gvyam55 bong35 dvo31 r55. (greetings open(vi) place(vt)(ipf) PE) The letter is open. Cf. pong55 vt. ‘open’ and pong11. bong35 III vt. talk something over with someone; A1mu31 hi31 yvang11-eq5 bong35 lum31 wu35-aq5. (matter this 3SG-COM talk.over reciprocal(ipf) look-SIM) Try (SG) to talk this matter over with him. Cf. Jingpo bong (Xu et al. 1983: 62). bvong55dvin55 n. pen (sp. kat5/hat5); cf. Jingpo hpongtin (Xu et al. 1983: 282).

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    85

    bvong55dvin55-mvi11 (pen-close(vt)) n+n. top of a pen; Bvong55dvin55mvi11 zvyop5 dvo11-aq5. (pen-close(vt) ring place(vt)-SIM) Put (SG) the top back on the pen. bvong55dvin55-si11 (pen-drug) n+n. ink. bvoq5 n. drop, heeltap; Le1-bvoq5-zo11 gvat5 si1-aq5. (one-drop/heeltap-child put.into still-SIM) Put in (SG) one more drop. su31-bvoq5 (oildrop/heeltap) n+n. the last drops of the oil; i31-bvoq5 (distilleddrop/heeltap) n+n. the last drops of the booze; i11-bvoq5 (water/urinedrop/heeltap) n+n. the last drops of urine (that never come out). bvot5 a vt. tear or hew in two in one go; Byu31 r11 bvot5 dam54 ra31-o55! (man/woman also tear/hew.in.two VEH +FCT need+I-HIGH) I’ll tear him in two, in one big yank! b ideophone expressing tearing or hewing in two in one go; Bvot5 gvut5 lang31 pin31-aq1. (tear/hew.in.two do pull/yank(ipf) cut.in.two*-SIM) Tear (SG) it in two in one yank. Bvot5 gvut5 zan31 pin31-aq1. (tear/hew.in.two do hew(ipf) cut.in.two*-SIM) Hew (SG) it in two in one blow. Vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. bram11 / brem11 (swarm) vide ge1-brem11-ge1-bram11. bu11 I n. callus, in loq1-bu11 (hand/arm-callus) n+n-callus; Loq1-bu11 dvoq5 r55. (hand/arm-callus get.up PE) I have got callus. bu11 / be1- II n. clothes; Hau31 zi1syang31 r55 bu11 hun31-aq1. (the/that child OBJ clothes dress/tuck.in(vt)*-SIM) Dress up (SG) the child. mue31-bu11 (wrap-clothes) clothes; za35-tu31-bu11 (knitwork-(make).thick-clothes) n. knitwork. -bu11 III (water) suffixed n. water; in: wui31-bu11 (water-water) n+n. boiled water; bui31-bu11 (sun-water) n+n. sweat. Zaiwa has four morphemes glossed ‘water’: -bu11, i1-/i11, wui31- and -zvyam11. All of them are bound forms, exept i11 in the meaning of ‘urine’. 11 bu kyut5 (clothes take.off/pluck) n+vt. take off clothes. bu11-bai11 (clothes-lappet) n+n. the tail of a shirt. bu11-mo35 (clothes-AUG) n+adj. jacket. bu11-zo11 (clothes-child) n+adj. sleeveless garment. bu31 (snail.type) in hoi55-bu31. bu35 (swell) a n. pimple; a1-bu35-zo11 (this-LOC nom-pimple/convex-child) n. little pimple; b vi. (pimple) grow; Hi55-me55 a1-bu35-zo11 bu35 dvo31 r55. (this-LOC nom-pimple/convex-child pimple/convex place(vt)(ipf) PE) There’s a little pimple just right here. c adj. convex; yam11-bu35 (potpimple/convex) earthen pot (various in size); loq1-bu35 (hand/armpimple/convex) n+adj. flesh of the arm; ki31-bu35 (leg/footpimple/convex) n+adj. flesh of the leg; cf. bvu55 vt. cause a bump.

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    bvu55 vt. cause a bump; U1-lvum11 tung31 bvu55 ra31-o55! (head-lump

    crush(ipf) cause.a.bump need+I-HIGH) Mind you, you will bump your head and get a lump! Cf. bu35 (pimple/convex). 11 Bue gin35 / Bue11zin35 Beijing; also Bueq1gin35. Bue11zin35-byu31 (Beijing-man/woman) n. Pekinese. bue31 (P+I) (17.9) plural indicative clause marking unit. bue35 vi. be loose; Loq1-seng11 bue35 byuq1 bue31. (hand/arm-nail loose lose 31 P+I) My fingernail has come loose. Se5-gvoq5 bue35 byuq1 bue . (treebranch loose lose P+I) The branch has got loose. -bvue55 (PLN) (9.28) the plural suffix, bound form used after nouns or pronominals. a indicating any number larger than two; Ge1la11-bvue55 (India(GEN)-PLN) Indians; a1zeng35 hi55-bvue55 (thing this-PLN) these things; o31-bvue55 (who(GEN)-PLN) who/whom (more than two); also in se5-bvue55 (SNO-PLN) others, other people (both indefinite on number and identity) (Chinese: 人 家 rénjiā) (9.32.2, 9.4); b expressing proximity; naq1-ma35-bvue55 (tomorrow-LOC-PLN) one of these days (in future); Le1-nong35-bvue55 ((male)-2nd-brother-PLN) second brother and the others. Vide bvue55-ka55/bvue55-ha55. -bvue55-ka55 / -bvue55-ha55 (PLN-where(B)) in those places; bound form used after nouns or pronominals, expressing proximity; hi55-bvue55-ha55 ma54 bum31 (this-PLN-where(B) LOC+FCT heap(vt/N)) the hills around here; hau55-bvue55-ka55 (the/that–PLN–where) around there, in those places; ka55-bvue55-ha55 (where(B)-PLN-where(B)) wherever; loq1-bu35 bvue55-ha55 (hand/arm-pimple/convex PLN) all over his arms. (9.21.3 9.28). bue54 (P+FCT) (17.2) combination of two clause markers; lai31 byuq1 bue54 bvyat1 (pass(ipf) lose P+FCT lifetime) in past times. bvuep5-rap5 (display-dollop) (16.27) translation uncertain, vt. show to the 31 world; Sau55-hai11 sek5 bvuep5-rap5 dvi ? (shoe-shoe new displaydollop CX+I) You are showing your new shoes to the world, aren’t you? Hi55cuang55 bvuep5-rap5 luq1? (Western-style.clothes display-dollop Y/N) Are you showing your western-style clothes to the world? Bueq1gin35 Beijing; also Bue11gin35/Bue11zin35 bui11 I n. broom; only in bui11-syum11 (syum11). bui11 II vi. (bees etc.) move out; Byo11 bui31 byuq1 be1-gvo31. (wasp/bee (insects).move(ipf) lose P-PL+I) The bees/wasps have moved away. 11 bui -syum11 (broom-sweep) (n+vt.) n. broom. bui11-syum11 syum11 (broom-sweep sweep) n+vt. to sweep with the broom; Nang31 bui11-syum11 syum11-aq5 hoi11. (2SG broom-sweep sweep-SIM INC) Sweep (SG) the floor.

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    bui31 n. sun; Bui31 tan11 r55. (sun hard(ipf) PE) The sun is shining brightly. / It’s hot.

    bui31-ban11 (sun-flower) n+n. sun flower. bui31-ban11-som31 (sun-flower-empty.pod) empty pods of the sun flower. bui31-bu11 (sun-water) n+n. sweat; Bui31-bu11 toq5 r55. (sun-water come.out PE) I’m sweating. Cf. gvi11. 31

    bui -ngi31 (sun-date) (9.39) a n+n. day; bui31-ngi31 le1-hing 55 ngi35 (sun-date one-thousand/ten.cent day) a thousand days; b n+n. date; Ke5-ngi35 ge11 ha55-hu55 bui31-ngi31 la11? (before-day TOP Q-sort sun-date UNC) What would today’s date be? bui31num31 n. family, relatives; possibly related to Jingpo num (Xu et al. 1983: 641). bui31num31 au31-zo11 wui31 (family super-child generation) (dear) family and other relatives; cf. au31-zo11 num11nang35 wui31. 31 bui num31-nat1 (family-spirit) n+n. family spirit; vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. bui31-syum31 (sun-shady/shade) (n+vi.) n. shade of the sun; Bui31 tan11 r55, bui31-syum31 me55 zung11 gvat5 gvoq1. (sun hard(ipf) PE sun-shady/shade (ipf) LOC sit put.into DIE) It’s hot, let’s (DU .IN) sit in the shade. Cf. ngi3531 gvung n. zenith, wup1-zo11 n+adj. shadow of someone or something. 31 bui -toq5 (sun-come.out) (n+vi.) n. sunrise. bui31-toq5-kyam11 (sun-come.out-half) n. East. bui31-wang31-kyam11 (sun-enter-half) n. West. bui35 I (warm.oneself) a in bui35-mo35 (warm.oneself-AUG) n. quilt, a quilt folded to form a sleeping bag; b n. firewood, fireplace; in tang11-bui35 (firewood-warm.oneself) n. large firewood; c vr. warm oneself; vide mi11-bui35 and mi11-bui35 bui35. 35 bui II (toad) n. only attested in bve1-byui35 (frog-toad) n. toad. bui35-mo35 (warm.oneself-AUG) n. quilt, a quilt folded to form a sleeping bag; Bui35-mo35 kau31 me55 ki11 ke5-bvuq5 (warm.oneself-AUG inside LOC faeces PHB-explode(vt)) Don’t fart inside of the quilt. Cf. be1-zyong35 (clothes-cover (N)) n. quilt. bui35-mo35 nvap5 (warm.oneself-AUG fold(vt)) n+vt. fold the quilt. buk1 (book) specifier noun ‘book’ (from English); mau11sau11 sum11-buk5 (paper/book three-book) three books, magazines or notebooks. buk1be1lui11 n. owl. bvuk5 ngau31 (howl weep) vi. shout; howl; Kui11 bvuk5 ngau11 r55. (dog howl weep(ipf) PE) The dog is howling. Ke5-dye31 bvuk5 ngau31. (PHB-too howl weep) Don’t howl like that. bvuk5 dun11 n. kind of bird, its name is an imitation of its song.

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    bum11 (bud) a n. bud, grain; guq1-bum11 (paddy.rice-bud) n. grain of rice; b 31

    vi. (grains) take shape; Guq1-bum11 bum11 bue . (unhusked.rice-bud bud P+I) Grains of rice have been shaped (still packed in leaves); c in various plant names; mvyang11-bum11 (banyan-bud) n. kind of vegetable (Chinese: 龙 包 尖 lóngbāojiān); lung11-bum11 (maize/corn-bud) n. maize/corn; lung11-bum11-si11 (maize/corn-bud-fruit) n. pomegranate. bum31 (heap(vt/N)) (15.3) a n. mountain, hill; Bum31 doq1 lye31. (heap(vt/N) go.up also+I) I’m climbing the mountain. b n. heap, huge amount; le1bum31-mo35 (one-heap(vt/N)-AUG) a lot. c vt. heap up, pile up; Waq1 bum11 dvo11 gveq5 (lift heap(vt/N)(ipf) place(vt) PLIM) Heap/pile (PL) it up. d aux. bum11 (heap(vt/N)(ipf)) expressing that the situation which is indicated by the preceding main verb occurs in a massive way, resulting in many of the entities in question. Si1-gam31 yuq1 bum11 r55. (fruittree(B) grow heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) Lots of fruit trees are growing there. Cf. bum35 heap (vi/N); cf. Jingpo bum, with the same meanings (Xu et al. 1983: 71). bum31-byo11 (heap(vt/N)-wasp/bee) n+n. mountain bees/wasps. bum31-doq5 (heap(vt/N)-go.up) n+vt. climb the mountain; Bum31-doq5 31 lye . (heap(vt/N)-go.up also+I) We are climbing the mountain. also as: 31 Bum31 doq1 lye . (heap(vt/N) go.up also+I) We are climbing the mountain. Vide doq1. bum31-mau11 (heap(vt/N)-native.land) n+n. (my) mountainous/hilly native land. (bum31-)weng11-tang31 ((heap(vt/N) -)foothills-foothills) n. foothills. bum31-yo31 (heap(vt/N)-land) n+n. hill plot. bum31-zvyung31 (heap(vt/N)-top) n+n. top of mountain/hill. bum35 (heap(vi/N)) a n. pile, heap; mi1-zvue11 bum35 (earth-soil heap(vi/N) pile of earth; ki1-bum35 (faeces-heap(vi/N)) n. heap of faeces that has been piling up; b vi. pile up; Mi1-zvue11 bum35 bum35 dvo31 r55. (earthsoil heap(vi/N) heap(vi/N) place(vt)(ipf) PE) A heap of earth is piling up. Cf. bum31 heap(vt/N). bvun11 (cook.in.bamboo) a vt. cook in bamboo; bvun11 zo11 (cook.in.bamboo eat) vt+vt. eat a dish cooked in bamboo; Sun11 bvun11 zo11 syang55. (veg/dish cook.in.bamboo eat JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) cook our dishes in bamboo. b n. bamboo for cooking, in te5-bvun11 ((bamboo)31 cook.in.bamboo) n. bamboo for cooking; Te5-bvun11 bvun31 lye . (ipf) ((bamboo)-cook.in.bamboo cook.in.bamboo also+I) We are cooking in bamboo. Te5-bvun11 mai11 bvun11 zo11 syang55. ((bamboo)cook.in.bamboo ABL cook.in.bamboo eat JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) cook

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    things in bamboo in order to eat. Vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. bun11 I (awake) (15.4) a vi. be awake; b vt. remember, feel, long for, think of, come up to one’s mind; c as part of the adverb bun31 in the negative construction a1-bun31 V (NEG-awake(ipf) V), expressing ‘forget to do V’; d as an auxiliary verb expressing ‘consider to be V’. bun11 II both regular n. and spec. n. phalanx, limb, stretch; loq1-ngyui11 le1bun11 (hand/arm-finger/toe one-phalanx/limb) a/one phalanx of the finger; loq1-bun11 (hand/arm-phalanx/limb) n. phalanx of the finger; ki31bun11 (leg/foot-phalanx/limb) n. phalanx of the toe; wa11 le1-bun11 (bamboo one-phalanx/limb) a/one stretch of bamboo. bun11 III (rub.in*) allomorph of but1 vt. rub in; Bun11-aq1. (rub.in*-SIM) You (SG) rub it in. bvun31 a n. (single) root; ang11-ki31-bvun31 (petiole-leg/foot-(single).root) (long white) radish; b vide a1-bvun31; c hip, in dvang31bau35-bvun31 (thigh-(single).root) n+n. hips; cf. mit1. 35 bun vt. (child) carry in front; Yvang11 zi1syang31 bun35 dvo31 r55. (3SG child (child).carry.in.front place(vt)(ipf) PE) He is carrying a child in front of himself. Cf. bom35; vide waq1 for an overview of words related to lifting and carrying. bvun55 vt. lead away people; cf. cyong31 vt. (less formal:) lead away people; Beng35 bvun55 syang55 hoi11. (guest lead.away JUS INC) Let’s (ND .IN) lead the guests away. Ke5-me55 bvun31 lye54 lu55? (Q-LOC lead.away(ipf) also+FCT MIR) Where to lead them (spirits) away to? Mi1-wue11 bvun31 31 lye . (wife-female lead.away(ipf) also+I) The bride is being lead away to the groom’s house. mi1-bvun55 (wife-lead.away) n+vt. leading the bride away to the groom’s house. Vide hang55 for an overview of words related to marriage and wedding. bvung11 adj/vi. swollen; Yvang11 wam11-bvung11 ma54 ngvut5 r55. (3SG swollen/abdomen-swollen LOC+FCT be PE) He has a round belly. wam11-bvung11-mo35 (swollen/abdomen-swollen-AUG) n. (someone with) a swollen abdomen; Wam11-bvung11 bvung31 r55. (swollen/abdomen-swollen swollen(ipf) PE) My abdomen is swollen. Cf. dau35 adj/vi. puffy and wam11 vi. swollen. bung11 I (plump) adj. only attested in au11-bung11 (pan-plump) n+adj. kind of pan. bung11 II a vt. steam; bung11 zo11 (steam eat) vt+vt. eat a steamed dish; 31 Bung11-kyung31 mai11 bung31 lye . (steam-steamer ABL steam(ipf) also+I) We steam with the steamer. b adj. steamed, to be used for steaming; zang11-bung11 (rice/food-steam) n+adj. glutinous rice; c n/vt.

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    in wang11-bung11 bung11 (malaria-steam steam) n+vt. have a steam-bath against malaria. Vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. bung11 zo11 (steam eat) steam food. bung11ki11 n. monk. bung11-kyung31 (steam-steamer) n+n. steamer (sp. cyam11/syam11). bvung31 n. bucket, jerrycan; cu31-bvung31 (oil-bucket/jerrycan) n+n. oil jerrycan. bung31 I n. le1-bung31 (one-25.kilo) measure unit for 25 kilograms. bung31 II onom. imitating the sound of falling of rather heavy objects. bvung31-cyuq5 (bucket/jerrycan-bottom) n+n. bottom of bucket or jerrycan. bvung55 a bound form n. grove, thicket; sek5-bvung55 (tree-grove) n+n. grove; we1-bvung55 (bamboo-grove) n+n. bamboo grove; b spec. n. grove, thicket; wa11 le1-bvung55 (bamboo one-grove) a/one group of bamboo, a/one bamboo grove. Bvung55kyeng55 a name used in an old story. bup1 (bad/fermented) vi. bad or fermented; ne1-bup5 (bean-bad/fermented) n. fermented soy bean paste; mik1-bup1 (bamboo.shoots-bad/fermented) n. fermented bamboo shoots; guq1-bup1 (unhusked.rice-bad/fermented) n. fermented, heating unhusked rice; si1-bup5 (meat-bad/fermented) n. bad 31 meat; Mik1-bup1 bup1 bue . (bamboo.shoots-bad/fermented bad/fermented P+I) The bamboo shoots are fermented already. / The 31 bamboo shoots have already gone bad. Si11 hi55-syam11 bup1 bue . (meat this-ball bad/fermented P+I) This piece of meat has turned bad. Cf. 31 bvup5 vt. ferment, let decay; Mik1-bup1 bvup5 dvo31 lye . (ipf) (bamboo.shoots-bad/fermented ferment/let.decay place(vt) also+I) We’re making fermented bamboo shoots. bup1 sing55 (bad/fermented taste/smell(N)) n+n. rotten smell; Bup1 sing55 nam11 r55. (bad/fermented taste/smell(N) smelly(ipf) PE) There’s a rotten smell. bvup5 (ferment/let.decay) vt. ferment, let decay; Mik1-bup1 bvup5 dvo31 31 lye . (bamboo.shoots-bad/fermented ferment/let.decay place(vt)(ipf) also+I) We’re making fermented bamboo shoots. cf. bup1 vi. bad, fermented. buq1 I vt. crunch, flatten; Sue55 buq1 lye31. (flattened.bamboo crunch/flatten also+I) We’re flattening bamboo. buq1 II vi. explode; cf. bvuq5 vt. explode. bvuq5 vt. explode; ki1-bvuq5 (faeces-explode(vt)) break wind; cf. buq1.

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    91

    but1 I (determine) a vt. tell fortunes; woq1-but1 (chicken-determine) n+vt. tell fortunes, using a chicken’s head; b vt. claim dept, in zvin31 but1 (debt determine) n+vt. claim debt. but1 II (rub.in) vt. rub in; Sau55-hai11-si11 but1 lye31. (shoe-shoe-drug rub.in also+I) I’m rubbing the shoes in with shoeshine. ban11-but5 (flowerrub.in) (n+vt.) vr. powder oneself. but1-pit5 (determine-cut.in.two) v+v. tell fortunes; But1-pit5 wu35 syang55. (determine-cut.in.two look JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) tell fortunes. But1-pit5 bi31 wu35 raq5. (determine-cut.in.two give(ipf) look VO) Tell me my fortunes, please. / Tell us our fortunes, please. bvut5 n. sweetheart; a1-bvut5 (nom-sweetheart) n. sweetheart; Mo35mo35mo35 a1-bvut5 yvum31-aq1. ((lulling.to.sleep) nom-sweetheart sleep*-SIM) (Lulling.to.sleep:) Sleep (SG) now, sweetheart. Ma11-bvut5 ((name.prefix)-sweetheart) a personal name (only for women?). bya11 I vt. hang out (in large quantities); Ang11-noq5 bya31 lvang11-aq5. (petiole-black hang.out(ipf) hang-SIM) Hang out (SG) the black mustard. Cf. lvang11. 11 bya II n. soap, in sa11-bya11 (soap-soap) n. ‘soap’ and bya11-hom55. bya11-hom55 (soap-fragrant) n. fragrant soap (not for washing clothes); cf. sa11-bya11. 35 bya vt. miscarry; Ne1-zo11 bya35 am55 bue31. (cattle-child miscarry PFM P+I) The calf came out stillborn. bya31-lvang11 (hang.out(ipf)-draw/hang) n. decorations hanging from lamps, bags etc. byai35 vt. recompense, in byai35 byuq1 (recompense lose) v+v. obtain good luck by dropping certain objects behind for others to be found; Hi55-me55 be1-byai35 byu11-aq1. (this-LOC help-recompense lose*-SIM) (spoken to the object to be dropped behind:) Help (SG) me/us in finding recompensation here. byam31 (jump) (12.7) a vi. jump; b n/vt. in dvui11-byam31 byam31 (rope(N/vt)-jump jump) n+v. rope-skipping; Dvui11-byam31 byam11 dvo31 31 a1-gvo . (rope(N/vt)-jump jump(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) nom-PL+I) They are skipping rope. c in adverb byam11 (jump(ipf)). bvyam55 (rid.of) (15.5) a vt. shake off someone; Din11 bvyam31 dvo11 ra31 (run(ipf) rid.of(ipf) place(vt) need+I) I’m going to leave you far behind when we run. Mi1-wue11 r55 bvyam31 am55 aq5 (wife female OBJ rid.of(ipf) PFM-SIM) Abandon your (SG) relation with that woman. b aux. get rid of, expressing that the action denoted by the preceding main verb is performed in order to get rid of a certain job and not to be bothered by it

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    -B 31

    anymore; Ngo31 gvam31 be1-zo31 bvyam31 lye . (1SG want.to(ipf) helpeat(ipf) rid.of(ipf) also+I) I’ll help finish this food. byam11 (jump(ipf)) (12.7) a adv. expressing that the movement denoted by the main verb takes a short time, and/or: b expressing politeness, in the sense of ‘if you don’t mind’ or ‘please’, in the context of polite demands; Byam11 yu31 bi11 raq5. (jump(ipf) take give VO) (Please) take (SG) hold of this (for a short while). byan35 (explain) a vt. explain; Nang31 dang11 hi55-hun11 byan35 wu35-aq5. (2SG words this-sentence explain look-SIM) Try (SG) to explain this sentence. b vt. translate; dang11 byan35 n+vt. (words explain) translate; gve5-byan35 (no.gloss-explain) n. interpreter; gve5-byan35 gvut5 (no.gloss-explain do) act as interpreter; byan35 toq5 (explain come.out) be a direct translation; Hi55-bvue55 ge11 Mi11wa11-ming35 mai11 byan35 31 toq5 gvat5-n55 ngvut5 lye . (this-PLN TOP Chinese-language ABL explain come.out put.into-FCT be also+I) These (words) stem from the Chinese language. c vi. (intoxication) clear up; i31-pue11 byan35 (distilledbooze explain) get out of intoxication; I31-pue11 a1-byan35 si1-luq1? (distilled-booze NEG-explain still-Y/N) Are you out of your intoxication? byan35-gvyo11 (explain-let.hear) vt-+vt. translate; Dang 11 hi55-hun11 r55 byan35-gvyo31 wu35 raq5. (words this-sentence OBJ explain-let.hear(ipf) look VO) Try to translate this sentence for me/us, please. Vide byan35. bvyang11 (jolt/winnow) a vt. winnow; cin31 bvyang11 (husked.rice jolt/winnow) n+vt. winnow rice; b vi. jolty, buttock-jolting; Mo35do35 a1bvyang11 luq1? (car NEG-jolt/winnow Y/N) Was the car jolting? ci5bvyang11 bvyang11 (buttock-jolt/winnow jolt/winnow) n+v. buttockjolting; Ci5-bvyang11 bvyang31 dik1 r55. (buttock-jolt/winnow jolt/winnow(ipf) extreme PE) It is/was very much buttock-jolting. byang31 n. scabbard; ngun31-byang31 (silver-scabbard) n+n. silver scabbard; in syam31-byang31 n+n. knife and scabbard; mau11-lat5 byang31-goi35 (sky-halfway scabbard-crooked/wicked) (riddle:) the crooked scabbard in the air (The answer is: the ge5syang11.) byang31-bvi55 (scabbard-string) n+n. string of a scabbard. byap1 spec. n. ‘shrub, tree’, as a specifier noun referring to less branched trees; si1-pik5 le1-byap1 (fruit-pungent one-shrub/tree) a/one shrub of the chilli plant; mvyang11-zeng31 le1-byap1 (banyan-trunk one-shrub/tree) a/one banyan tree; cf. Jingpo byap clump, thicket (Xu et al. 1983: 76); cf. gam31 spec. n. tree(B). bvyap5 n. kind of little basket worn on the back (sp. lvum11); vide lan35 for other types of baskets.

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    byaq1 (slovenly1) only in a1-byaq1. bvyaq5 (perform) a vt. perform; zat5 bvyaq5 (dancing perform) n+vt. give

    performance; go11-bvyaq5 bvyaq5 (clumsy/silly(ipf)-perform perform) n+vt. perform silly dances; b vt. play movies/videos; Dvaq5sin55 ke531 31 mvyo55 hu55 bvyaq5 a1-gvo ga ? (movie Q-much(B) sort perform nomPL+I perceive+I) How many films are they playing? bvyat1 (lifetime) a n. lifetime; le1-bvyat1 (one-lifetime) one’s whole life; 31 Le1-bvyat1 lvang55 a1-dat1 dvo31mvi31 am55 kai . (one-lifetime even NEG(ipf) able forget PFM SUG+I) I guess I will not forget it in my whole life. nang35 bvyat1 (2SG.PO lifetime) your whole life; lai31 byuq1 bue54 bvyat1 (pass(ipf) lose P+FCT lifetime) in past times; zye35 lo31 ra54 bvyat1 me55 (arrive come(back/up) need+FCT lifetime LOC) the near future; Nang31 le1-bvyat1-bvyat1 zue11 lo11 r11 Meng11mau11-cin11 ze1-r11 a1-zye35 wu35 si1luq1? (2SG one-lifetime-lifetime live.as.human(ipf) come(back/up)(ipf) also Ruili-county.town only-also NEG-arrive look still-Y/N) So you (SG) haven’t even once in your whole life visited the county town Ruili? b n. mole, in i1-bvyat1 (function-lifetime) n. mole; vide a1kui11/a1hui11-bvyat1 (now(GEN)-lifetime) nowadays; cf. zai35. byat1 vt. solve matters; Syui55-zo11 li11 i5-wo35 byat1 bi11-e55 ga31. (orphanchild also go-have solve give-FCT perceive+I) He thus was able to solve the matter for the orphan. often in combination with a1mu31 n. ‘matter’ 31 or yui11 n. ‘guilt’ A1mu31 byat1 ye11 lye . (matter solve go(away/down)(ipf) also+I) I’m on my way to solve some matters. Nang31 yui11 a1-gue11 byat1, nang35 wa11 r55 syeq1 byat1 nvang31 syang55. (2SG guilt NEGall.right(ipf) solve 2SG.PO father OBJ au.contraire solve let.loose JUS) You (SG) are not good at solving issues of guilt, let us have your father go to solve it. byau11 / byau11-byau11 a n. bunch, string; syo11 le1-byau11 (meat onebunch/string) a/one string of meat pieces; nge5-zo11 le1-byau11 (fish-child one-bunch/string) a/one string of fishes (also with le1-roi11); b in byau11byau11; cf. roi11, mai35roi35 and run31run31. byau11-byau11 (bunch/string-bunch/string) ideophone referring to large quantities of fruits, ants etc.; Si11 byau11-byau11 zui31 bum11 r55. (fruit bunch/string-bunch/string bear.fruit(ipf) heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) The tree bears 31 huge quantities of fruits. Bau31woq5 byau11-byau11 ning ! (ant bunch/string-bunch/string INS+I) There are myriads of ants! bvyau31 spec. n. bunch of fruits; si11 le1-bvyau31 (fruit (one-(fruits).bunch) a/one bunch of fruits; cf. bvau31 (raft/cluster) especially used as specifier for bananas.

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    bvye11 n. comb (sp. lvum11); Bvye31-eq1 u1-lvum11 gyo31-aq1. (comb#-AG/I head-lump harrow/comb*-SIM) Comb (SG) your hair with the comb. Cf. gyoq5 vt. harrow, comb. 11 bye (tight.to.the.ground*) allomorph of byeq1; Zung11-byeq5 bye11-aq1. (sit(ipf)-tight.to.the.ground tight.to.the.ground*-SIM) Sit (SG) crosslegged. bye31 a vt. be a match for, such as for opponents; Nang31 hye55-yuq1 r55 a131 bye31 ra luq1? (2SG same.elevation-person OBJ NEGbe.a.match.for/master need+I Y/N) Do you (SG) think you will be a match for that guy? b vt. be able to master, such as large amounts of 31 31 food; A1ga31! zang11 hi55-hoq5 ge11 bye31 nvo a1-ga11 mai ! ((difficulty) rice/food this-bowl TOP be.a.match.for/master EXP+I NEG-perceive OBV+I) Oh my dear, I don’t think I will master this bowl of rice! c vt. (new languages etc.) master ; Yvang11 ge11 Zai11wa31-ming 35 bye11 dik1 31 lye ga11. (3SG TOP Zaiwa-language be.a.match.for/master (ipf) extreme also+I TOP) He has really mastered the Zaiwa language. Cf. ung31. The exact difference in meaning between bye31 and ung31 is unclear. 35 bye I (5pounds) spec. n. used as measuse unit of five pounds in weight; nuq1 sum11-bye35 (bean three-5pounds) three 5-pound measures of beans; i55-bye35 wang31 (two-5pounds enter) (a paddy) big enough for two baskets of paddy seeds. bye35 II vi. (speech) intelligible; Mang11-zo11 hi31 ge11 dang11 dai31 r11 dang11 a1-bye35 loq1. (aged-child this TOP words speak(ipf) also words NEGclearly no.more) This old man/woman doesn’t speak clearly anymore. Hau55-yuq1 wa35 dang11 dai31 r11 a1-bye35, a1-sue31-gyo11 (the/that-person (ipf) EMP words speak also NEG-clearly NEG-know(ipf)-hear/smell) She doesn’t speak clearly. I can’t understand. bye35 III vt. spit out; Ngvya55 bye35 am55-aq5. (tobacco spit.out PFM-SIM) Spit out (SG) the tobacco. byek1san11 n. copper coins; cf. Jingpo byeksan (Xu et al. 1983: 77). bvyen11 (flatten/dent(vt)) vt. flatten, dent; Ne5-ki11 ke5-nang31 bvyen11. (cattle-faeces PHB-tread(ipf) flatten/dent(vt)) Don’t step into the buffalo 31 shit. Dvau55 bvyen31 byuq1 bue . (inflate(vt)/bottle(N) flatten/dent(vt)(ipf) lose P+I) The bottle has become flat. Cf. byen11 and bvyen55. Cf. bvyet1 adj. dented; kang11 vi. (knife) be notched, be dented; ngvyop5 vt. dent; zvyop5 vi. be chipped; vt. chip. byen11 adj. (body/feet) flat; ki31-byen11(-long11) (leg/foot-(body/feet).flatslice/plate) flat-foot(ed person); gung31-du11 byen11(-long11-mo35) (bodybeing (body/feet).flat(-slice/plate-AUG)) (person with a) flat, thin body. bvyen31 (kerosene.lamp) only in bvyen31-din11

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    95

    bvyen31-din11 (kerosene.lamp-wick) n. kerosene lamp. bvyen55 (flat/slice) a adj. flat a1-bvyen55 ma54 (nom-flat/slice LOC+FCT) flat; b vt. flatten; Zyo31syoq5 bvyen55 syang55. (rice.cake flat/slice JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) flatten rice cakes. c n. slice; sek5-bvyen55 (tree-flat/slice) n+n. board for timber; d spec. n. slice; zyo31syoq5 le1-bvyen55 (rice.cake oneflat/slice) a/one piece of rice cake. bvyeng31bvyeng31 onom. imitating the sound of clapping hands; Loq1 bvyuq5 “bvyeng31bvyeng31” ngvu31 bat1 mving55 gveq5 ma11. (hand/arm clap/slap [onom] say beat sound/name(vt) PLIM ROUS) Clap (PL) your hands, going bang bang. byeng35 (fix/solve) a vt. fix; Ngvyo31, na35i55 hi31 byeng35 wu35-aq5. ((offering) clock this fix/solve look-SIM) Here you are, try (SG) to fix 31 this watch. b vt. solve; A1mu31 byeng35 ra dut1 r55. (matter fix/solve need+I become PE) We have to fix this problem. byeng35 sat5 vt+vt. solve matters in a straightforward fashion, vide sat5; Cf. byat1 solve, apparently referring to more serious matters such as social conflicts. byep1 vt. urinate; i1-byep1 byep1 (water-urinate urinate) n+vt. pee; I1-byep1 byep1 nvau11 r55. (water-urinate urinate feel.like(ipf) PE) I have to pee. The latter expression bears the same meaning as: I1-zit5 nvau11 r55. (water-pee feel.like(ipf) PE) I have to pee. byeq1 (tight.to.the.ground) a ideophone expressing ‘pressing down tightly’; Ki31 byeq1 gvut5 nang31 gvan31-aq1. (leg/foot tight.to.the.ground do tread(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Press (SG) it well with your foot. b in zung11byeq5 byeq1 (sit(ipf)-tight.to.the.ground tight.to.the.ground) n+v. sit crosslegged; Zung11-byeq5 bye11-aq1. (sit(ipf)-tight.to.the.ground tight.to.the.ground*-SIM) Sit (SG) cross-legged. c reduplicated, vide byeq1-byeq1; d in nuq1-byeq1 (bean-tight.to.the.ground) n. low-growing black mustard. bvyeq1bvyeq1 ideophone expressing that certain things are spread all over the place; Myoq1-dong11 me55 mun11-sui11 bvyeq1bvyeq1 mu31 yuq1 bum11 r55. (eye-(have)hole LOC luck-freckle [all.over.-the.place] happen grow heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) The face is full of freckles. Sau55-hai11 bvyeq1bvyeq1 lyeq1 bum11 r55. (shoe-shoe all.over.the.place lie.down heap(vt/N)(ipf) GI) It’s full of shoes all over the place. byeq1-byeq1 (tight.to.the.ground-tight.to.the.ground) ideophone expressing notions like ‘everywhere’ in a negative sense; Ka55-bvue55-ha55 r11 byeq1byeq1 gvut5 zung11 r55. (Q-PLN-where(B) also tight.to.the.groundtight.to.the.ground do sit(ipf) PE) He just sticks his ass all over the place. Le1-meng54 byeq1-byeq1 gvut5 ke5-zung31. (one-world+FCT tight.to.the.ground-tight.to.the.ground do PHB-sit) Don’t stick your ass

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    into all places in the world. / Don’t stick your ass into each and every place. byet1 (onom.) Myang11 ki11 bvuq5 r11 ge11 “byet1 … byet1” ga31 r55. (horse faeces explode(vt) also TOP [onom] [onom] perceive(ipf) PE) When a horse farts, it goes like “pyet … pyet”. bvyet1 I adj. dented; Dvau55 bvyet1 byuq1 bue31. (inflate(vt)/bottle(N) dented lose P+I) The bottled has become dented. bau11-bvyet1 (bug-dented) n. tape-worm; nvut5-bvyet1 (mouth-dented) (n+adj.) n. pout; cf. bvyen11 vt. flatten, dent; kang11 vi. (knife) be notched, be dented; ngvyop5 vt. dent; zvyop5 vi. be chipped; vt. chip. bvyet1 / bvyet1bvyet1 II onom. imitating the sound of tearing paper etc.; “Bvyet1” gvut5 lang31 pin31-aq1. ([sound.of.tearing] do pull/yank(ipf) cut.in.two*-SIM) Tear (SG) it off. bvyet5 n. duck (sp. du11). byin31 n. downstream; Byin31 pyang31 gyo35-aq5. (downstream DIR go.downSIM) Go (SG) downstream. byo11 / bi1- n. wasp, bee (sp. du11); vide bi1-yang11 and other forms with prefix bi1-. bvyo31 (spread) a n. mat for spreading out vegetables etc.; b vt. (crops etc.) spread out; Ang11-noq5 hau31 bvyo31 me55 bvyo11 lvyeq5 gvan31-aq1. (petiole-black the/that spread LOC spread(ipf) lay.down(vt) put.into*SIM) Spread (SG) the black mustard out on the spreading-mat. c vt. chase away in all directions; Woq1 i5-hat5 bvyo11 gvan31-aq1. (chicken gopursue spread(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Chase away (SG) the chickens. Cf. hang11. 31 byo I (spirit3) n. spirit; se1-byo31 (spirit2-spirit3) n. soul, spirit; see further below; cf. nat1 n. spirit; vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. 31 byo II n. winnowing basket; vide lan35 for other types of baskets. byo31 dan11 (mo35-mo35) (spirit3 be.scared (AUG-AUG)) n+v. be frightened (out of one’s wits). byo31-dvan55 dvan55 (spirit3-give.a.fright give.a.fright) n+vt. scare someone; Nga35-nvik5 yvang11 r55 byo31-dvan55 i5-dvan55 gvoq1. (1PO-duo 3SG OBJ spirit3-give.a.fright go-give.a.fright DIE) Let’s (DU) go and give him a fright. byo31-du31 (spirit3-mourn) n+vt. mourning period after the funeral, taking 31 six days for men, seven days for women; Byo31 du11 lye . (spirit3 (ipf) mourn also+I) We’re in the mourning period. (after the funeral). Vide du31.

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    97

    byo35 (incarnate) vi. said of animals appearing as incarnation or embodiment of some person; Ngve5-noq1 yvum31-nam11 me55 lo11 ngau11 si25 ge11 yvang11 syeq1 lo11 byo35 ang31 r55. (bird-black house-near.the.house LOC come(back/up)(ipf) weep(ipf) die+FCT TOP 3SG au.contraire (ipf) come(back/up) incarnate ought/address(ipf) PE) A crow came crying eerily near our house, it must have been an incarnation of his soul. byok1 (onom.) sound when stepping into deep mud; Ki31 “byok1” ga11 nang31 31 lvung31 am55 bue . (leg/foot [onom] perceive tread(ipf) let.inside(ipf) PFM P+I) I stepped my foot deeply into the mud with a loud “pyok!”. bvyok5 vt. splash out, rinse out; Yvo55-mai11 so11-aq5, i1-zvyam11 bvyok5 31 syun31 bue . (leisurely-ABL walk-SIM water-water splash spill(vt) P+I) Take you time in walking, the water has already splashed out. Koq5-zo11 bvyok5 si31 am55-aq5. (bowl-child splash wash(ipf) PFM-SIM) Rinse out (SG) the little bowls. bvyom11 only attested in syo31-bvyom11 bvyom11 n+vi. (tongue-(form).bleb (form).bleb) formation of little bleb on the tongue; Syo31-bvyom11 bvyom31 r55. (tongue-(form).bleb (form).bleb(ipf) PE) Little bleb has formed on my tongue. byon31 ideophone; a indicating piercing or shooting right through; Byon31 gvut5 tau31 tong11-aq5. ([pierce/shoot.through] do sew/insert(ipf) pierceSIM) Pierce (SG) through it in one go. Lving31-hang11 byon31-byon31 ga11. ((turn).round-each [pierce/shoot.through]-[pierce/shoot.through] perceive) I shot my projectile through the circle every time. b indicating surprise visits; Ke5-yoq1-ngi35 ge11 nga35 zvyang55 Ang55dung35 byon31 ga11. (before-ago-day TOP 1PO near Anton [pierce/shoot.through] perceive) The day before yesterday, Anton (came), like a bolt from the blue. Cf. Jingpo byon (Xu et al. 1983: 78). byong11 vi. furious; Nga35 laq1haq1 yu11 am55 bi11 gvo54 byong31 dik1 bue31. (1PO salary take(ipf) PFM give PL +FCT furious(ipf) extreme P+I) I’m furious about their having taken away my salary. cf. nvik5 -yo31 (heartitch) vi/vt. be angry (at) (to a lesser degree than when using byong11); also cf. don11 vi. burn with anger (to a higher degree than when using byong11). byong31 (assemble) a vt. assemble; b vt. repair; Mi1-um31 byong31 ra31 dut1 r55. (fire-gun combine need+I become PE) The gun needs to be repaired/assembled. Cf. sai55. byong35 vi. melt; Ngvan31 byong35 bue31. (snow(N) melt(vi) P+I) The snow has melted. Cf. bvyong55 vt. melt. bvyong55 vt. melt; Waq1-su31 bvyong31 lye31. (pig-oil melt(vt)(ipf) also+I) I’m melting lard. Cf. byong35 vi. melt.

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    byoq1 I (quarrel) vi. quarrel; a in byoq1 lum11 (quarrel reciprocal) vi+aux. have an argument; b in me1-byoq1 ho31 (words-quarrel look.for) n+vt. pick fights; Nang31 me1-byoq1 he5-ho31, ngo31 nang31-eq5 a1-gvam31 byoq1 lum11. (2SG words-quarrel PHB-look.for 1SG 2SG-COM NEG-want.to(ipf) quarrel reciprocal) Don’t pick fights, I don’t want to argue with you (ipf) (SG). Cf. kim55 vi. bicker, quarrel pettily; kim31 lum11 (bicker 1 11 reciprocal) vi+aux. bicker, quarrel; bat lum (beat reciprocal) vt+aux. have a fight. byoq1 II vi. weathered; Se5-wam31 byoq1 byuq1 bue31. (tree-(make).wall weathered lose P+I) The wall has become weathered. Lai11gva55 byoq1 31 byuq1 bue . (script weathered lose P+I) The letters have become weathered. mi31-byoq5 (earth-weathered) n. ravine. bvyoq5 I adj. fake; Zai11wa31-bvyoq5 (Zaiwa-fake) unreal Zaiwa (Zaiwa who do not speak the language), also Zai11-zo11 a1-bvyoq5 (Zaiwa-child nomfake). bvyoq5 II vt. lop off; Ngo31 ngvung31 bvyoq5 lye31. (1SG shaft.of.plough lop.off also+I) I’m making a shaft for a plough. Se5-gvu55 bvyoq5 am55aq5. (tree-bark lop.off PFM-SIM) Lop off (SG) the bark. 11 byu I (hot.ash) in mi11-byu11. byu11 II (lose*) allomorph of byuq1. bvyu31 n. porcupine, hedgehog (sp. du11). byu31 (man/woman) a n. man, woman; b n. mankind. Hau31 a1kui31 i531 nvung55 byu31 bue . (the/that now SPEC-1ND.IN man/woman P+I) And that’s what came to be us, mankind. Cf. le1-sang31 ((male)-humans) humans, in contrast to demons etc. c also used in an indefinite sense, e.g.: Byu31 dye31 gue11 roi11 r55. (man/woman too all.right(ipf) bully(ipf) PE) He’s such a bully (to other people). byu31 si31-mang11 (man/woman die-aged) vide si31-mang11. byu31 zue31 le1gva11 (man/woman live.as.human song.type) the legva song on lifestyles. byu31-bam11 (man/woman-moist/dull-witted) n+adj. idiot; Nang31 su54 byu31-bam11 ge11! (2SG like+FCT man/woman-moist/dull-witted TOP) You (SG) bloody idiot! byu31-go31 (man/woman-clumsy/silly) n-+adj. silly person; fool. byu31-go31-zo11 (man/woman-clumsy/silly-child) n+adj+adj. fool, silly boy/girl; Byu31-go31-zo11 nang31 ge11… (man/woman-clumsy/silly-child 2SG TOP) You silly boy/girl… byu31-goi35 (man/woman-crooked/wicked) n+adj. wicked person. byu31-gue31 (man/woman-all.right) n+adj. good people. byu31-kau11 (man/woman-steal) (n+vt.) n. thief, also kau11-su31.

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    99

    byu31-lam35 (man/woman-ramble) (n+v.) n. tramp; Byu31-lam35 byu31-sye31, byu31 a1-ngvut5. (man/woman-ramble man/woman-pull man/woman NEG-be) He’s a tramp, a vagrant, he’s nothing at all. byu31-lvo31 (man/woman-picture) n+n. picture, poster or drawing with some person or persons on it. vide -lvo31. 31 byu -mang31 (man/woman-corpse) n+n. human corpse. byu31-mvau55 (man/woman-cheat/fool) (n+v.) n. swindler. byu31-mek5 (man/woman-lethargic) n+adj. lethargic person; Dai54 a1-gyo11, 31 dui31 a1-wo35 nvang31, a5-su54 bang11 r55 ge11 byu31-mek5 ga31 lye . (speak+FCT NEG-hear/smell move(vi) NEG-have let.loose nomlike+FCT PNO OBJ TOP man/woman-lethargic perceive(ipf) also+I) People that don’t listen and that can’t be made to budge, such people are called lethargic people. byu31-mvi55 (man/woman-female) n. woman (used in a deictic sense, cf. mi1-wue11/mi11-wue11); byu31-mvi55 hau55-yuq1 (man/woman-female the/that-person) that woman (we just talked about); cf. byu31-po55. 31 byu -na11 (man/woman-insane) n+adj. insane person. byu31-po55 (man/woman-male) n. man (used in a deictic sense, cf. yuq1gue31); Byu31-po55 hye55-yuq1 ge11 o55-yuq1 ta11? (man/woman-male same.elevation-person TOP who-person GI) Who’s that man? Cf. byu31mvi55. 31 byu -poi11-mo35 (man/woman-bad/off-AUG) n+adj+adj. fool; Nang31 su54 byu31-poi11-mo35! (2SG like+FCT man/woman-bad/off-AUG ) You (SG) fool! byu31-pyu31 (man/woman-white) n+adj. white person; cf. si1-pyu31. byu31-si31 (man/woman-die) a n+adj. dead person; vide byu31-si31-mang11; b n+vi. death; Byu31-si31 bvoi31 zyoq1 zyang35… (man/woman-die festival be.there(inan) CD) When there is a funeral… 31 byu -sye31 (man/woman-pull) (n+v.) n. vagrant; Byu31-lam35 byu31-sye31, byu31 a1-ngvut5. (man/woman-ramble man/woman-pull man/woman NEG-be) He’s a tramp, a vagrant, he’s nothing at all. byu31-wum35 (man/woman-pest) n+n. human infectious disease. byu31-zuen35 (man/woman-intelligent) n+adj. intelligent person/people; 31 A1hui11-bvyat1 ge11 byu31-zuen35 dye31 myo11 bue . (now(GEN)-lifetime TOP man/woman-intelligent too much P+I) Nowadays, there are too many intelligent people. byun35 (basket.type) in nge1-byun35. bvyung11 (flush/drive) a vt. flush away with liquid; I1 -zvyam31-eq1 ki11 bvyung31 kyo31 am55-aq5. (water-water#-AG/I faeces flush/drive(ipf) let.go.down(ipf) PFM-SIM) Flush (SG) the stools away with water. b vt.

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    (flood) wash away; Wui31-zye31-eq1 yvum31 ban11 bvyung 31 gyo35 lo35 31 byuq1 bue . (water-exceed#-AG/I house use.up(ipf) flush/drive(ipf) go.down go(back/up) lose P+I) The flood has flushed away the house completely. c vt. drive away (livestock, people); Lau35 bvyung31 lo35 byu11-aq1 hoi11. (promptly flush/drive(ipf) go(back/up) lose*-SIM INC) Lead (SG) these people away now. bvyung31 (basket.for.provision) in i31-bvyung31. bvyung55 (blowing.tube) only in mi1-bvyung55. bvyup5 n. gnat, midge, a tiny insect flying in huge swarms (sp. du11) bvyup5 le1-zyum31-mo35 (midge one-crowd-AUG) a/one large swarm of midges. byuq1 (lose) (15.7) a vi. lose, as of objects that are lost; Ngun31 le1-sue3131 mun11 byuq1 bue . (silver one-ten-ten.thousand/ Yuan lose P+I) I’ve lost ten Yuan. b aux. aspectivizer of change, expressing that a certain change, indicated by the main verb, has taken place, and that the result of this change remains the case. Mang31 byuq1 31 bue . (aged(ipf) lose P+I) He has become aged. Cf. pyuq5. 5 bvyuq (clap/slap) a vt. slap cheeks; be1-bvyuq5 bvyuq5 (cheek-clap/slap clap/slap) slap cheeks; b vt. clap hands; Loq1 bvyuq5 “bvyeng31bvyeng31” ngvu31 bat1 mving55 gveq5 ma11. (hand/arm clap/slap [onom] say beat sound/name(vt) PLIM ROUS) Clap (PL) your hands, going bang bang. bvyut5bvyut5 ideophone referring to a very smooth surface; Bvyut5bvyut5 se5-ga31 r55. ([smooth] like-perceive(ipf) PE) It feels very smooth. Cf. zvyut5 slippery.

    -Ccam31 / sam31 n. hair of the head; u1-cam31/u1-sam31 (head-hair.of.the.head) n+n. hair of the head; lung11-sam31 (maize/corn-hair.of.the.head) n+n. hairs around the maize; myoq1-cam31/sam31 (eye-hair.of.the.head) n. eyebrows; Sam31-ngyap5 ngyam11-aq1. (hair.of.the.head-tongs/clip(vt) 31 tongs/clip(vt)*-SIM) Clip (SG) a hairpin. Sam31-pyu31 nut1 lye . (hair.of.the.head-white pull.out also+I) (idiom:) (I wish you will) live to ripe old age in happiness. 11 cau adj/vi. old, disused; mue31-bu11 cau11 (wrap-clothes old) old clothes; 31 Sau55-hai11 cau31 byuq1 bue . (shoe-shoe old(ipf) lose P+I) These shoes have become old. yvang11-lang31 cau11 (3SG-husband old) her original, disused husband. cek5 / sek5 (pinch2) a vt. pinch the skin, using fingernails, in order to cause pain; playing upon words, given the partly homophonous sek5 adj. ‘new’ in lang31-sek5 (husband-new) ‘bridegroom’ and mi1-sek5 (wife-new) ‘bride’: Mi1-sek5 ga54 wa35 sek5 gvat5 wu35 syang55. (wife-new perceive+FCT EMP pinch2 put.into look JUS) Since she is the bride, let’s (ND.IN) pinch her. b break into pieces, using the fingernails; Si1-pik5 cek5 gvan31-aq1. (fruit-pungent pinch2 put.into*-SIM) Break (SG) the chilli into pieces. Cf. mek1 (pinch1). 11 ci I (1/3.mtr) spec. n. 1/3 of a meter; Bvan55 le1-ci11 gvo31 a1-wo35 luq1? (cloth one-1/3.mtr big(ipf) NEG-have Y/N) Does this piece of cloth measure at least one third of a metre? from Chinese 尺 chǐ ci11 / si11 / ci1- II (drug) a n. medicine; ci11-se1ra35 (drug-teacher) n+n. doctor; ci1-rung31 (drug-institution) n+n. hospital; ci1-tau11 (drugsew/insert) n+vt. give injection; Ngo31 ci11 a1-rup5 tau11. (1SG drug NEGdare sew/insert) I don’t dare to give an injection. b n. drug, poison; mui11-si11 (be.poisoned/poison(N)-drug) n+n. poison; nge1-noq1-ci11 (rat/mouse-black-drug) n+n. rat poison; c n. requisites for a particular item; syam31-si11 (knife-drug) n+n. bullet; bvong55dvin55-si11 (pen-drug) n+n. ink; mi1-si11 (fire-drug) n+n. gunpowder; sau55-hai11-si11 (shoeshoe-drug) n+n. shoe-polish; cf. Jingpo tsi (Xu et al. 1983: 842). ci11 / si11 III vt. wash; myoq1 ci11/si11 (eye wash) n+vt. wash the face; gung31-ci11/si11 (body-wash) n+vt. wash oneself; (au11-)koq5 ci11 31 ((pan-)bowl wash) n+n+vt. wash dishes; Mue31-bu11 ci11 ra luq1?

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    (wrap-clothes wash need+I Y/N) Are you going to wash clothes? Cf. cyu11 (spring/wash.hair) and zyui11 vt. rinse. 11 ci -se1ra35 (drug-teacher) n+n. doctor. ci1-rung31 (drug-institution) n+n. hospital; Yvang11 ci1-rung31 lung35 dvo31 r55. (3SG drug-institution be.inside place(vt)(ipf) PE) She is lying in hospital. ci1-tau11 (drug-sew/insert) n+vt. give injection; Ci1-tau31 lye31. (drug31 sew/insert(ipf) also+I) I’m giving an injection. Ci1-tau11 ra dut1 r55. (drug-sew/insert need+I become PE) An injection is needed. Cf. Ngo31 ci11 a1-rup5 tau11. (1SG drug NEG-dare sew/insert) I don’t dare to give an injection. ci5- (buttock-) the buttock-prefix; ci5-nau35 (buttock-milk/breast) n+n. buttocks; ci5-hung11 (buttock-fold) n+n. bottom; ci5-bvyang11 bvyang11 (buttock-jolt/winnow jolt/winnow) n+v. buttock-jolting; ci5-wong11 (buttock-loose-fitting) n+n. (wide) skirt. Ci55 / Si55 only in the name Le1-ci55/Le1-si55. ci5-pau31(-po55) (orphan-widower-male) n. widower; cf. cyui11-mo35/syui11mo35; vide cyui11-/syui11-/cyui55-/syui55-/ci5-. 5 ci -bvyang11 (buttock-jolt/winnow) vide bvyang11. ci5-hung11 (buttock-fold) n+n. bottom. ci5-nau35 (buttock-milk/breast) n+n. buttocks. ci5-wong11 (buttock-loose-fitting) n+n. (wide) skirt; vide wong11. cik5 I vt. bare (teeth, wound); Nvut5 cik5 gvan31-aq1. mouth bare(vt) put.into*-SIM) Bare (SG) your teeth. Ke5-dye31 si11-cik5. (PHB-too die(ipf)bare(vt)) Don’t laugh in such an exaggerated fashion. / Lit.: Don’t bare your teeth in such an exaggerated fashion. cik5 / sik5 II vt. lighten; Lvap5 sik5 r55. (lightning (lightning).flash PE) It 31 lightens. Lvap5 sum11-dam31 cik5 bue . (lightning three-time(Sp) (lightning).flash P+I) There were three flashes of lightning. cin11 n. county town; Meng11mau11-cin11 the county town of Ruili. cin31 I n. husked rice; probably the same morpheme as cin31 adj. naked. cin31 II adj. naked; gung31-cin31 (ma54) (body-naked (LOC+FCT)) na. naked; ki31-cin31 (leg/foot-naked) na. barefoot; loq1-cin31 (hand/arm-naked) na. barehand; Zi1syang31 gung31-cin31 ma54 ngi11 dvo31 r55. (child body-naked (ipf) LOC+FCT be.there(anim) place(vt)(ipf) PE) The child is/was naked. cf. 31 gyang adj. naked, bald; Gung31-cin31 si5-gyang31 gvun31-aq1. (bodynaked meat-naked/bald do*-SIM) Go (SG) naked. Cin31 adj. ‘naked’ is possibly the same morpheme as cin31 n. ‘husked rice’. Cf. gyang31 and si5-gyang31 ‘without trousers’. 31 cin -yam11 (husked.rice-pot) n+n. pot for (husked) rice.

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    cing11 / sing11 vt. split bamboo into thongs; Nye11 cing31/sing31 lye31.

    (thong split.(bamboo)(ipf) also+I) I am splitting bamboo thongs. Materials other than bamboo are also possible, e.g.: Nui31 r55 sing31 gvan31-aq1. (vine OBJ split.(bamboo)(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Make (SG) thongs out of vines. cu11 / su11 n. vinegar; nam31-cu11 (smelly-vinegar) n. vinegar; from Chinese 醋 cù. cum31 / sum31 (mortar) vide sum31; its allomorph cum31 is rarely used. cu31 / su31 n. oil, petrol, fat,; waq1-cu31 / waq1-su31 (pig-oil) n+n. lard; si131 cu31 (meat-oil) n+n. fat meat; Waq1-su31 bvyong55 ra . (pig-oil melt(vt) need+I) I am going to melt lard. Su31 sing55 nam11 r55. (oil taste/smell(N) smelly(ipf) PE) The petrol stinks. 31 cu -bvoq5 / su31-bvoq5 (oil-drop/heeltap) n+n. the last drops of the oil. cu31-bvung31 / su31-bvung31 (oil-bucket/jerrycan) n+n. oil jerrycan. cue31 / sue31 (9.33) nu. ten. According to the main informant, the allomorph sue31 is used more often than cue31. le1-cue31 (one-ten) ten; i55cue31 (two-ten) twenty; gau11-cue31 (nine-ten) ninety; gau35-cue11-ra11 (nine(GEN)-ten(GEN)-one) ninety-one; gau35-cue11 le1-lvum11 (nine(GEN)-ten(GEN) one-lump) the ninety-first. cue55 / sue55 (stem.of.banana.tree) in ngvoq1-cue55/sue55. cui11 / sui11 (decorate.with) a vt. put on decorations, such as earrings, 31 flowers, etc. Ne1-gvan31 cui31 lye . (ear-earring decorate.with(ipf) also+I) I’m wearing an earring. Ban11-bo35 sui11-aq5. (flower-open.itself decorate.with-SIM) Put on (SG) a flower. b vt. make a lean-to for the house, in: dup5 sui11 (lean-to.under.the.ridge decorate.with) make a lean31 to under the ridge; Dup5 sui31 lye . (lean-to.under.the.ridge (ipf) decorate.with also+I) We are making a lean-to under the ridge. cun11 (veg/dish) rarely used allomorph of sun11, vide sun11. cyam11 / syam11 I (ball) (9.34) a n. ball shaped object, in certain specific complex nouns: ki31-mo35-syam11 (leg/foot-AUG-ball) n. big toe; loq1mo35-syam11 (hand/arm-AUG-ball) n. thumb; zang11-syam11 le1-syam11 (rice/food-ball one-ball) a/one grain of rice. b specifier noun used for massive objects with “body”, e.g.: le1gok1 le1-cyam11 (stone one-ball) a/one stone; c specifier noun used for objects that are used as container, e.g.: se1dyek1 le1-cyam11 (chest one-ball) a/one case/chest; d specifier noun for objects with a specific value, e.g.: sueng55 le1-cyam11 (precious.stone one-ball) a/one precious stone; e specifier noun for objects with a specific meaning, e.g.: lai11ga55 le1-cyam11 a/one letter/character; vide zang11-syam11 .

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    cyam11 / syam11 II adj. cool; zang11-syam11 (rice/food-cool) n+adj. cold 31

    rice; Zang11 cyam11 bue . (rice/food cool P+I) The rice/food has cooled down. Lai31 lo31 zyang35 cyam11-cyam11 se5-ga31 r55, ngon35 dik1 r55. (wind come(back/up) CD cool-cool like-perceive(ipf) PE pleasant extreme PE) When the wind blows, it feels pleasantly cool. Zang11 mut1 syam11-aq5. (rice/food blow cool-SIM) Cool (SG) the rice/food down by blowing it. cyang11 / syang11 (ginger) n. ginger; cyang11-zyum11 (ginger-raw) n+adj. raw ginger; vide cyang11-gvyak5 gvyak5. cyang11-gvyak5 gvyak5 / syang11-gvyak5 gvyak5 (ginger beat.with.knuckles) n+v. beat the head a person with the knuckles of one’s fist; the use of the word for ginger probably refers to the shape of 31 the fist; Syang11gvyak5 gvyak5 dvang31 gvat5 ra -o55! (gingerbeat.with.knuckles beat.with.knuckles let.fly(ipf) put.into need+I-HIGH) I’ll hit you! (with my knuckles on your head). cyang31 (field) (from Chinese 场 chǎng); a n. field for performing the Zum, in: Zum31-cyang31 (consort-field) n+n. field for performing the Harmony dance; b specifier noun for sessions of Harmony dance; Zum31-go35 i55cyang31 (consort-dance two-field) two sessions of the Harmony dance. cyang55 / syang55 vt. follow (cf. dvai55 vt. follow tracks) Nga35 tang31 cyang55-aq5. (1PO behind follow-SIM) Come (SG) and follow me. Nang35 tang31 a1-gvam31 syang55. (2SG.PO behind NEG-want.to(ipf) follow) I don’t want to go with you (SG). wui31-yam31 cyang55 (water-edge follow) n+vt. follow the stream; vide bin11 cyang55. Possibly etymologically related to syang55 n. companion. cyap5 / syap5 vt. peel; yang11yi35 syap5 (potato peel) n+vt. peel potatoes; Tung55-gva55 nye11 syap5 lye31. (wickerwork-variegated thong peel also+I) I am making thongs for the tunggva basket. cyaq5 / syaq5 vi. slovenly; cf. a1-byaq1 adj. slovenly and a1-byaq1 si5laq1 adj. slovenly; Ki1-tong55 dye31 nam11 r55, ngo31 cyaq5 dik1 r55. (faeces-jail too smelly(ipf) PE 1SG slovenly extreme PE) The toilet is too smelly, I’m too slovenly. Cf. Chinese 差 chà ‘not up to standard’. cye11 n. waterfall; Cye11 le1-lvum11 zyoq1 r55. (waterfall one-lump be.there(inan) PE) There’s a/one waterfall. Cf. rum35. 31 cye (tear*) allomorph of cyeq5 tear; Cye31-aq1. (tear*-SIM) Your (SG) tear it. cyem11 onom. referring to sizzling, frizzling sounds; “Cyem11” gvut5 nvye31aq1 ma11. ([onom] do make.red/fry-SIM ROUS) Stir-fry (SG) it, with loud sizzling. Dun11 i1-zvyam11 me55 “cyem11” gvut5 ngvyun31 am55-aq5. (press.into/spear water-water LOC [onom] do steep(vt)(ipf) PFM-SIM) Let (SG) the (hot) spear sizzle in the water. cyeng55 n. cymbal; cyeng55 bat1 (cymbal beat) n+vt. beat the cymbals.

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    cyeq5 (tear) a n. snippet, piece, as the result of tearing; mau11sau11 le1-cyeq5 (paper/book one-tear) a/one snip of paper; b vt. tear; Le1-cyeq5-zo11 lang31 cyeq5 gvan31-aq1. (one-tear-child pull/yank(ipf) tear put.into*-SIM) Pull a length off of it. c vt. peel; si1-gvyap5 cyeq5 (fruit-shell/crust tear) n+vt. peel fruit; Ngve5mvyuq1-gvyap5 cye31-aq1. (banana-shell/crust tear*-SIM) Peel (SG) the banana. d vt. wear out; Sau55-hai11 lvoq5 cyeq5 31 am55 bue . (shoe-shoe ACT tear PFM P+I) I have worn out my shoes. e vt. wound; Ke5-mvyo55 wo31 lvoq5 cyeq5 am54? (Q-much(B) spot ACT tear PFM+FCT) At how many spots are you wounded? f adj. (face) very small; Yvang11 myoq1-dong11 cyeq5 dik1 r55. (3SG eye-(have)hole tear extreme PE) He has a curiously small face. Cf. zyeq1 vi. broken. 11 cyo I vt. search; Ngo31 byo11 cyo11 lo35 ra31. (1SG wasp/bee search go(back/up) need+I) I’m on my way to search for wasps/bees. Cf. zok1 vi. search around; sop5 vt. rummage. 11 cyo II vt. sneeze; a5-cyo11 cyo11 (nom-sneeze sneeze) n+v. to sneeze; A531 cyo11 cyo31 lye . (nom-sneeze sneeze(ipf) also+I) I’m sneezing. A5-cyo11 5 11 ke -cyo . (nom-sneeze PHB-sneeze) Don’t sneeze. cyom55 / syom55 (drive.game) (16.38) a vt. drive game, with many people; Zi1si31 cyom55 lo35 syang55. (muntjac drive.game go(back/up) JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) go uphill and drive muntjac. vide si1-cyom55/si1-syom55; b the form cyom31/syom31 (drive.game(ipf)) is also used as the collective adverb, expressing “X and Y doing V together with Z”; Cyom31 zo11 syang55. (drive.game(ipf) eat JUS) Let’s (ND .IN) eat together. Cf. le1gvam31 adv. simultanously. Cf. the Jingpo adverb jom (Dai & Xu 1992: 164, Xu et al. 1983: 353). cyom31 / syom31 (drive.game(ipf)) vide cyom55/syom55. cyong31 I vi. frolic, play around; Ne1-zo11 cyong11 mvau31 dik1 r55. (cattlechild frolic(ipf) cheat/fool(ipf) extreme PE) The calf is playing around like mad. cyong31 II vt. lead away people; Yvang11-mi11 syui31 cyong31… (3SG-wife take.along(ipf) lead.away) He lead his wife away… Cf. bvun55 (more formal:) vt. lead away people. cyong55hu11 n. window (Chinese: 窗户 chuānghu); cf. indigenous ke1hot5/he1-hot5 (door-window) n+n. window. cyoq5 I vt. gouge out; A1-zi35 cyoq5 am55-aq5. (nom-ball/seed gouge PFMSIM) (melon etc.:) Gouge out (SG) the seeds. cyoq5 II (navel.string) n. navel string. cyoq5-pit5 (navel.string-cut.in.two) n+vt. cut navel string; be born (at a certain place or time); Me1zyoi11sing11ra11 Bum31 me55 cyoq5-pit5-n55 num11nang35 wui31 (Mezyoisingra heap(vt/N) LOC navel.string-

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    cut.in.two-FCT friend generation) friends that were born at Mount Mezyoisingra. cyoq5-pit5-mau11 (navel.string-cut.in.two-native.land) n. place of birth; 31 Nang35 cyoq5-pit5-mau11 ka55-me55 ngvut5 lye ? (2SG.PO navel.stringcut.in.two-native.land Q-LOC be also+I) Where’s your (SG) place of birth? cyot1 vt. hoe; Mi1-gung31 hi31 cyot1 rva55 ra31 dut1 r55. (earth-body this hoe level(vt) need+I become PE) The ground needs to be hoed level. Cf. zi1ku11 n. hoe. cyot1cyot1 ideophone expressing extreme blackness of colour; “pitch 31 black”; Ngve5-noq1 ge11 cyot1cyot1 noq1 gu54 ngvut5 lye . (bird-black TOP [pitch.black] black PART +FCT be also+I) Crows are pitch black. Mi1-gye11 cyot1cyot1 noq1 r55. (fire-coal [pitch.black] black PE) (The) coal is pitch black. cyot5 vi. slip; nang31 cyot5 (tread(ipf) slip) vi+vi. to slip one’s foot; Ngo31 31 nang31 cyot5 lyeng31 si31 bue . (1SG tread(ipf) slip fall(vi)(ipf) die P+I) I slipped and had a nasty fall. cyu11 I n. snout; nvo31-cyu11 (nose-snout) n+n. (animals) snout; nvut5-cyu11 (mouth-snout) n+n. lips (also human). cyu11 II (spring/wash.hair) a warm spring; b u1-lvum11 cyu11 (head-lump 31 spring/wash.hair) n+vt. wash hair; U1-lvum11 cyu11 ye31 ra . (head-lump spring/wash.hair go(away/down) need+I) I am going to wash my hair. Cf. ci11/si11 vt. wash. cyuan55lyen11 n. curtain (Chinese: 窗帘 chuānglián n. curtain). cyui11-/syui11-/cyui55-/syui55-/ci5- I (orphan) possibly the same morpheme as cyui11/syui11 vt. take along on one’s way (people, pats, traditions); a n. orphan; cyui55-zo11/syui55-zo11 (orphan-child) n+adj. orphan; cyui11-zo31-nvik5 (orphan-child(GEN)-duo) the two orphans; b n. widower; ci5-pau31(-po55) (orphan-widower-male) n. widower; c cyui11mo35/syui11-mo35 (orphan-AUG) n+adj. widow, widows and widowers. cyui11 / syui11 II adj/vi. sweet; Cyui31 lye31 dui11dui11 (sweet(ipf) also+I [very.sweet]) (It’s) extremely sweet. Zvin31-zvin31 syui11-syui11 (soursour sweet-sweet) It’s both sour and sweet. also: Syui11-syui11 zvin31zvin31 (sweet-sweet sour-sour) It’s both sweet and sour. cyui11 / syui11 III (take.along) vt. take along on one’s way (people, pats, traditions); Mi1-hang31 r11-r11 Zai11wa31 tung31-pin11 r11 a1-syui31 cyung31 le1-gvo55 (wife-marry(ipf) also-also Zaiwa tradition-morals also NEGtake.along(ipf) use no.more-PL) Even with weddings, the Zaiwa traditional values are no longer observed. Le1-nong35 r55 i5-syui11 gvoq1. ((male)-2nd-brother OBJ go-take.along DIE) Let’s take second brother

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    along with us (DU). Kui11-zo11 nang31 syui31 lo35 byu11-aq1 . (dog-child (ipf) 2SG take.along go(back/up) lose*-SIM) From now on you (SG) take care of the puppy. Ning11long31-eq1 yvang11-mi11 syui31 lo35-Ø. (demon#(ipf) AG/I 3SG-wife take.along go(back/up)-FCT) The demon had taken her away. Possibly the same morpheme as cyui55-/syui55-/ci5- n. orphan, widow, widower. cyui11-mo35 / syui11-mo35 (orphan-AUG) vide cyui11-/syui11-/cyui55/syui55-/ci5-. cyui31 (lead) in cyui31-tung11. cyui31-tung11 (lead-lump) n+n. lump of lead; cyui31-tung11 le1-tung11 (leadlump one-lump) a/one lump of lead. cyui55-zo11 / syui55-zo11 (orphan-child) vide cyui11-/syui11-/cyui55-/syui55/ci5-. cyum31 (avaricious) vi. avaricious; Byu31 hau55-yuq1 ge11 dye31 cyum11 r55 31 mai . (man/woman the/that-person TOP too avaricious(ipf) PE OBV+I) That person is really too avaricious! cyun11 / syun11 (sharp) adj/vi. sharp, pointed; U1-cyun11 cyun31 lye31. (head-sharp sharp(ipf) also+I) He has a very pointed head. syam31-cyun11 (knife-sharp) n+adj. dagger; cf. cyun31/syun31 vt. sharpen, vi. have a sharp point. cyun31 / syun31 (sharpen) vide zi1-cyun31 cyun31. cyun55 n. bamboo cage; ngvoq5-cyun55 (bird-bamboo.cage) n+n. (bamboo) bird cage; woq1-cyun55 (chicken-bamboo.cage) n+n. (bamboo) chicken cage. cyung31 / syun31 (use) a vt. use; yvang11 cyung25 au11 (3SG use+FCT pan) the pan he/she has used; Ngun31 syen31 syung31-aq1. (silver frugal(ipf) use-SIM) Use (SG) the money frugally. b vt. keep in one’s hands; Loq1 me55 syung11 dvo11-aq5. (hand/arm LOC use(ipf) place(vt)-SIM) Keep (SG) it in your hand. c vt. play with; Ngvyo31, hi31 syung11 gvun55-aq5. ((offering) this use(ipf) play-SIM) (a toy:) Here, play (SG) with this. syung11-gvun55-zue31 (use(ipf)-play-truc) n. toy; d vt. wear; Zai11-heng11 syung11 r55. (Zaiwa-outfit use(ipf) PE) He/she is wearing Zaiwa clothes. cyup5 / syup5 n. penalty, fine; in cyup5 zo11 (penalty eat) n+vt. (be made 31 31 to) pay a fine; Kau11 su31 r55 ge11 cyup5 zo11 ra dut1 lye . (steal SNO OBJ TOP penalty eat need+I become also+I) The thief should be made to pay a fine. cyuq5 n. bottom; yam11-cyuq5 (pot-bottom) n+n. bottom of pot; dvau55-cyuq5 (inflate(vt)/bottle(N)-bottom) n+n. bottom of bottle; au11-cyuq5 (panbottom) n+n. bottom of pan; bvung31-cyuq5 (bucket/jerrycan-bottom) n+n. bottom of bucket or jerrycan.

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    cyut5 / syut5 a vi. dark; Mau11 cyut5 bue31. (sky dark P+I) It has become 31

    dark. Mau11 cyut5 dvu55dvu55 ga31 r55 mai ! (sky dark [pitch-dark] perceive(ipf) PE OBV+I) The sky is as black as coal! b adj. dark, in mau11cyut5 (sky-dark) n. type of spirit.

    -Dda11 (maybe) (18.4) an attitude marker expressing doubt about a statement, only used in combination with the attitude marker a5be11 ‘almost 31 certain’; Yvup5 bue a5be1-da11. (sleep P+I almost.certain-maybe) He is 31 asleep, or perhaps not. Ngvut5 lye a5be1-da11. (be also+I almost.certainmaybe) It should be, or perhaps it may not be. Cf. koi55/hoi55 adv. maybe. 11 da da55 da55 n+v. (said of infants:) do its first walking; Da11da55 da31 lo31 31 bue . ((infant’s).first.steps (infant’s).first.walking(ipf) come(back/up) P+I) The infant is doing its first walking. da55 ((infant’s).first.walking) vide da11da55 da55. dai11 (speak) (11.2) a vi. speak; Le1go11 kyang31-kyang31 dai11-aq5-(well clearclear speak-SIM) Speak (SG) a bit clearer. b vt. speak; dang11 dai11 (words speak) n+vt. speaking in general; c vt. speak a certain language; Ngo31 Zai11-ming35 a1-lvum31 dat1 dai11. (1SG Zaiwa-language NEGindiscriminately able speak) I don’t speak Zaiwa very well. d vt. tell, vide dai31-gvyo11; e vide dai31-mvoq5; f dai11 wui11 (speak difficult1) vt+vi. difficult to persuade; Me1-luq5 r55 dai11 wui31 r55, dai54 dang11 a1gyo11. ((female)-2nd-sister OBJ speak difficult1(ipf) PE speak+FCT words NEG-hear/smell) Second sister is difficult to persuade, she will never listen. g in dai31 zvum55 (speak(ipf) make.a.pair) vt+vt. insinuate that two people should become a couple; Le1-gam35-eq5 Me1-gvoq5 r55 nga35-moq1eq1 dai31 zvum31 gvyop5. ((male)-eld-brother-COM (female)-eld-sister (ipf) OBJ 1PO-party-AG/I speak make.a.pair(ipf) tuck.away) We are always insinuating that eldest brother and eldest sister should become a couple. Vide dai54 (dang11) (a1-)gyo11. 35 Dai wan55 n. Taiwan. dvai55 I vt. follow tracks; No11-ki31-ko31 dvai31 lye31. (cattle-leg/foot-track follow.tracks(ipf) also+I) I am following the footprints of some cattle. dvai55 II adj. only; Miq1-dvai55-dvu55 (eye2-only-shining) One-eye-blinking, a spirit’s name; ze1-dvai55 (child-only) n. one’s only child. 31 dai -gvyo11 (speak(ipf)-let.hear) (vt+vt.) vt. tell; Yvang11 r55 dai31-gvyo11aq5. (3SG OBJ speak(ipf)-let.hear-SIM) Tell (SG) it to her. Cf. mvau31 gvyo11 (cheat/fool(ipf) let.hear) vt+vt. tell lies. 31 dai -mvoq5 (speak(ipf)-learn/teach) (vt+vt.) vt. educate; Zi1syang31 hi31 31 dye31 syai11 r55, le1go11 dai31-mvoq5 ra dut1 r55. (child this too loud(ipf) (ipf) mouthed PE well speak -learn/teach need+I become PE ) This child is too loud-mouthed, he/she should be thoroughly educated. Vide mvoq5.

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    dai54 (dang11) (a1-)gyo11 (speak+FCT (words) (NEG-)hear/smell) ‘(not) heed to someone’s words, (not) behave oneself’; Dai54 (dang11) a1-gyo11. (speak+FCT (words) NEG-hear/smell) He will never listen. Dai54 gyo31 dik1 r55. (speak+FCT hear/smell(ipf) extreme PE) He does as he is told. / He behaves himself. Ze1-wui31 li11 dai54 a1-gyo11 gvo55. (child-generation also speak+FCT NEG-hear/smell PL) These children are not listening. dak1 in dak1-ngvyaq1 and dak1dak1. dvak1 vt. guess; Le1byoq5 hi31 ge11 nung35-moq1 a1-wo35 dvak1-n55 ge1-lo31. (riddle this TOP 2PL-party NEG-have guess-FCT TOP-no.more+I) This is a riddle which you (PL) won’t be able to guess. Nga35 loq1 me55 ka55-hu55 31 bo11 lye dvak1 wu35-aq5. (1PO hand/arm LOC Q-sort contain(ipf) also+I guess look-SIM) Guess (SG) what I have in my hand. Cf. Jingpo tak (Xu et al. 1983: 823). dak1 dak1 ideophone referring to the sensation of half done rice, being soft at the outside and elastic at the inside; Zang11 hi31 ge11 dak1 dak1 ga31 r55. (rice/food this TOP [like.half.done.rice] perceive(ipf) PE) This rice feels half-done. Cf. dak1-ngvyaq1. 1 dak -ngvyaq1; dak1 is an ideophone referring to the sensation of half done rice, being soft at the outside and elastic at the inside; only in combination with ngvyaq1 (watery/thin); Dak1-ngvyaq1 dak1-ngvyaq1. ([half.done.rice]-watery/thin [half.done.rice]-watery/thin) (It feels like) half-done rice. Cf. dak1dak1. 5 dak [direct.hit] ideophone expressing the notion of a direct hit; Hau55-hun31 31 ngo31 syam31-to31-eq1 rvoq5 dak5 ze1-gvut5 wo35 gun11 zvuq5 r55 mai ! (the/that-time 1SG knife-(short.knife)#-AG/I DEF [direct.hit] only-do have fling/strike/wave(ipf) insert PE OBV+I) At that moment, I managed 31 to force the small knife right into! Hi31 kyong11 me55 dak5 tye11 bi11 ga . (this throat LOC [direct.hit] peck give perceive+I) (on a snake:) It bit him here in the throat. The combination of ideophones dak5-rap5 ([direct.hit]dollop) (16.27) apparently has a connotation of unfortunate circumstances. Yvum31-kung31 mai11 mai31na31 lyeng31 gyo35 lo35 wa35 31 nga35 ki31 me55 dak5-rap5 mai ! (house-vault/ridge ABL nail/pin fall(vi)(ipf) go.down go(back/up) EMP 1PO leg/foot LOC [direct.hit]-dollop OBV+I) A nail fell off the roof, right onto my foot! dam11 I n. monster; only attested in dam11-mvi55. dam11 II n. wound; loq1-dam11 (hand/arm-wound) n. wound on hand or arm. dam11-dap5 (wound-be.attached) n+vi. wounded; Yvang11 dam11-dap5 lye31 luq1? (3SG wound-be.attached also+I Y/N) Is he wounded? dam11-gvyap5 (wound-shell/crust) n+n. scab on wound. dam11-ho31 (wound-track) n+n. scar.

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    dam11-mvi55 (monster-female) n. kind of female man-eating devil-like spirit, with a real body; vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. dam31 (time(Sp)) n. time, turn; a as specifier noun referring to the quantity of situations: zup1-pong11 le1-dam31 (come.together-meeting one31 time(Sp)) a/one meeting; Ngo31 i1-zvyam11 sum11-dam31 kam31 bue . (1SG water-water three-time(Sp) receive/fetch P+I) I have fetched water three times. b in le1-dam31 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 … (one-time(Sp) be CD TOP) once, another time; c in le1-dam31-dam31 (one-time(Sp)-time(Sp)) adv. sometimes; d in le1-dam31-dvaq5; vide dvaq5; e in nan31 le1-dam31; vide nan31. Vide Section 9.39 for matters related to time. dvam31 I (attach*) allomorph of dvap5 (attach); Gu31 dvam31-aq1. (wade(ipf) attach*-SIM) Wade (SG) across. dvam31 II vt. set table; Zang11 dvam31 gveq5 hoi11. (rice/food set.table PLIM INC) Set (PL) the table. Cf. zvung31 vt. set. dam54 (VEH+FCT) (15.8) aspectivizer of vehemence, expressing that the action referred to by the preceding main verb is accomplished with 31 vehemence. Ban11 du35 dam54 bue . (use.up(ipf) throw VEH +FCT P+I) It is all been thrown out. dan11 vi. be scared; Dan11 mo35-mo35. (be.scared AUG-AUG) I’m frightened out of my wits. byo31 dan11 (mo35-mo35) (spirit3 be.scared AUG-AUG) n+vi. be frightened (out of one’s wits); cf. byo31-dvan55 dvan55 (spirit3give.a.fright give.a.fright) scare someone. Vide dan11 bun31 dang31 lo31. 11 dan bun31 dang31 lo31 (be.scared awake(ipf) fly(ipf) come(back/up)) 31 (idiom:) wake up with a start; A1man31 gyuq1 nvo za54 i5-moq1 myang11 31 31 31 31 11 31 31 11 11 si lui , sye dan bun dang lo r ning ! (last.night afraid EXP+I only+FCT go-dream see(ipf) die in.this.way+I pity be.scared awake(ipf) fly(ipf) come(back/up)(ipf) also INS+I) Last night I was having terrible dreams, and I woke up with a start. dan35 I (catapult) vide lai11 n. bow. dan35 II n. kind of wild grass. dvan55 vt. give someone a fright; Lom11 dvan55 gvoq1. (attend(ipf) give.a.fright DIE) Let’s (DU.IN) hide when he comes and give him a fright. vide byo31-dvan55 dvan55; cf. dan11 vi. be scared. dang11 I a vi. fly; Sek5-ngvyu11 mai11 dang31 lai31 lo35 bue31. (treetop.of.plant ABL fly(ipf) pass(ipf) go(back/up) P+I) It flew by from out of 31 the top of the tree. b vt. fly; Dung31-lvai31 dang11 bue luq1? (wing-boat fly P+I Y/N) Have you ever flewn in an aeroplane? c vi. leap; Dang31 ham31-aq1. (fly(ipf) cross(vt)*-SIM) Leap (SG) across. d vi. rush; Ha55me55 ge11 dang31 toq5 lo35-Ø. (the/that-LOC TOP fly(ipf) come.out

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    go(back/up)-FCT) And he rushed out of the house. e vi. dive; Lvop5 gvut5 dang31 wang31-aq1 me11 ([plunge] do fly(ipf) enter-SIM ROUS) Plunge (SG) into it. f v. lie-in, in yvup5 bui31 dang11 (sleep sun fly) (idiom:) have a long lie-in. dvang11 I directive suffix in commands to buffaloes; (reduplicated once or more:) Hu55-dvang11! (above-(buffalo)side) Upwards, upwards! (reduplicated once or more:) Mvo55-dvang11! (below-(buffalo)side) Downwards, downwards! See no11 for an overview of commands to water buffaloes. dang11 II (words) n. words; The combination dang11 dai11 (words speak) n+vt. is the common way in Zaiwa of referring to speaking in a general sense. See further Chapter 11. dang11 le1-kun11/hun11 (words onesentence) a/one sentence. dvang11 II (let.fly) (12.9) vt. let fly, blow up into the air, fling; Ngvoq5 i5dvang31 am55-aq5. (bird go-let.fly(ipf) PFM-SIM) Let (SG) the bird loose. The verb dvang11 ‘let fly, fling’ is often used after the main verb as the Zaiwa aspectivizer of ferocity, expressing that the action denoted by the preceding main verb takes place in a ferocious and punishing way. In this type of use, the verb is always followed by the Zaiwa effective 31 aspectivizer gvat5 ‘put into’. Tui31 lyeng31 dvang31 gvat5 bue . (ipf) (ipf) (ipf) (hit.with.fist fall(vi) let.fly put.into P+I) I knocked him down. Cf. dang11 vi. fly. dang11 byan35 (words explain) n+vt. translate; vide byan35. dang11 dai11 (words speak) n+vt. the common way in Zaiwa of referring to speaking in a general sense. See further Chapter 11 on ‘verba sentiendi and dicendi and other verbs referring to sensations and speech’. dang11-ge1zi11 (words-whisperings) n. kind whisperings; A5-nu11 lye55 A531 wa11 lye55 dang11-ge1zi11 bi11 ra . (nom-mother OBJ nom-father OBJ words-whisperings give need+I) I will whisper kindly to mama and papa. dang11-gue31 (words-all.right) n. profound words; Dang11-gue31 gi1-nvau31 zyang35 ge11 tung55-guq1 zung31-aq1. (words-all.right hear/smell-feel.like CD TOP wickerwork-(in.front.of.fireplace) sit-SIM) If you want to hear profound words, go sit (SG) in front of the fireplace. (considering the fact that the old and wise people normally take the other positions around the fireplace). dang11-gvue55 (words-measure) adv. if, supposing, in case; Dang11-gvue55 nang31 mi11-wue11 le1-ngvut5 r11 ge11… (words-measure 2SG wife-female but-be also TOP) Suppose you (SG) were a woman… dang11-kim55 kim55 (words-bicker bicker) n+v. bicker.

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    dang11-wang11 (words-at.base) n+n. the foundation of one’s words; Dang11-wang11 a1-bo25 dang11 nang31 ke5-dai11. (words-at.base NEGcontain+FCT words 2SG PHB-speak) Don’t (SG) say things that are unfounded. Se5-bvue55 dang11-wang11 cyo31 lo31 zyang35, nang31 ke5-se55 31 gvut5 ra ? (SNO-PLN words-at.base search(ipf) come(back/up) CD 2SG Qlike do need+I) What will you (SG) do when someone starts to search for evidence? Vide wang11. dang31 I (armadillo) only attested in dang31-hui11. dvang31 I in commands to buffaloes: Walk in the middle of the road! (reduplicated once or more:) Dvang31-o55! ((buffalo)walk.in.the.middle!HIGH) In the middle! See no11 for an overview of commands to water buffaloes. Dang31 II (CCP) n. Chinese Communist Party; (Chinese: 党 dǎng). dvang31 II n. siblings; only in nvik5-dvang31. dvang31bau35 n. thigh. dvang31bau35-bvun31 (thigh-single.root) n. hip(s). dang31-hui11 (armadillo-dog) n+n. anteater, pangolin, armadillo. -Dvang55 (5th-brother) in names for fifth brothers; Le1-dvang55 ((male)-5thbrother) short name for a 5th brother; cf. Jingpo Tang (Xu et al. 1983: 825). dvang55kuq5 / dvang55huq5 n. stool, chair (sp. cyam11/syam11) dang31 lye31 hu55 bau11 (fly(ipf) also+I sort bug) flying insect. dap1 / dap5 (13.5) vi. be attached, in a very broad sense; cf. dvap5 vt. attach; a be attached, as for any concrete object; Mue31-bu11 me55 hue11 31 dap1 dik1 bue . (wrap-clothes LOC dirt be.attached extreme P+I) The clothes are very dirty. b have a certain body part or component; ki31dvye11 dap1 (leg/foot-single be.attached) n. one-legged; c have a certain abstract notion attached to it, such as belovedness, dept, addiction, etc. zvit5-dap1 (love-be.attached) beloved; Yvang11 ngo31 r55 ngun31 zvin31 dap1 r55. (3SG 1SG OBJ silver debt be.attached PE) He owes me money. d said of cattle: to bind oneself to a certain group. Ne1-zo11 hi31 nga35nvung55 no31 zvyang55 a1-dap1 (cattle-child this 1PO-1ND.IN cattle(GEN) near NEG-be.attached) This little calf does not get along with our cattle. e mi11 dap1 (fire attached) n+v. catch fire; Mi11 a1-dap1 luq1? (fire NEGbe.attached Y/N) Does the fire kindle? (cf. mi11 ngye35); f noun used in specific names for parts of the Zaiwa house, see below. dap1-gop1 (be.attached-evade) n. surounds of the fireplace; vide mi1kyom55. 1 dap -zyut1 (be.attached-corner) n+n. corners of the fireplace; vide mi1kyom55.

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    dvap5 (attach) a n. bound form nominal indicating another side of the water; hye55-dvap5 (same.elevation-attach) n. the other side of the river; b dvap5-kang11/dvap5-hang11 (attach-spread) n. carpet, rug, mattrass; vide 31 kang11/hang11 vt. spread; c vt. attach; Byu31-lvo31 dvap5 lye . (man/woman-picture attach also+I) I’m hanging up a poster (with some 31 people on it). Yo35pyau11 dvap5 lye . (stamp attach also+I) I’m sticking 31 stamps. d vt. (fire) light; Bvyen -din11 dvam31-aq1. (kerosene.lamp-wick attach*-SIM) Light (SG) the kerosene lamp. e vt. cross, get oneself onto the other side of the river; Gu31 dvap5 syang55. (wade(ipf) attach JUS) Let’s (ND .IN) wade across. f vt. (cattle) let join with other cattle; Ne1zo11 lye35 dvap5 gvat5 gveq5. (cattle-child come(away/down) attach put.into PLIM) Let (PL) the calf join the other cattle. dap5 (be.attached) allomorph of dap1. dvap5-kang11 / dvap5-hang11 (attach-spread) n. carpet, rug, mattrass, 31 pad, cushion; Dvap5-hang11 hang31 lye . (attach-spread spread(ipf) also+I) I’m spreading a mattrass. daq1u31 n. cotton. dvaq5 (suddenly) only in le1-dam31-dvaq5. dvaq5sin55 n. movie (sp. hu55). dat1 I (able) (16.48) the abilitative adverb; a expressing “it is possible that V occurs”, when referring to possibilities of situations as a whole; b expressing “X is capable of V”, when specifically referring to capabilities of persons. dat1 II ((have).holiday) in zyong11-dat1 (dat1). dat5 n. electricity; Jingpo dat n. electricity (Xu et al. 1983: 108); cf. dvat5bung35 n. photo; mi1-dat5 (fire-electricity) n+n. electricity. dvat5bung35 n. photograph (sp. kyap5); dvat5bung35 dyem11 (photographs take.picture) n+vt. take pictures; Nang35 dvat5bung35 ngo31 r55 sit5 wu35 raq5. (2SG.PO photographs 1SG OBJ show look VO) Please show (SG) me your pictures. Cf. -lvo31. dvat5bung35-dyem11-zue31 (photographs-take.picture-truc) n. photo camera. dat5-mi11 (electricity-fire) n+n. electrical torch; sometimes realized as tat5mi11; cf. mi1-dat5 (fire-electricity) n. electricity; Jingpo datmyi electrical torch (Xu et al. 1983: 109). dvau11 (turn) (12.4) a vt. turn; Mo35do35 dvau31 lye31. (car turn(ipf) also+I) I am turning the car. b dvau31 (turn(ipf)) adv. back; Dum11 dvau31 lo31-aq1. (again turn(ipf) come(back/up)-SIM) Come (SG) back again. c dvau31 (turn(ipf)) adv. upside down; Dvau31 zvung31-aq1. (turn(ipf) set(vt)-SIM) Put (SG) it upside down.

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    dau35 (puffy) a vi. form gas; soq5-dau35 dau35 (air-puffy puffy) n+vi. form gas; Soq5-dau35 dau35 r55. (air-puffy puffy PE) There’s lots of gas. b adj. swollen, puffy; wam11-dau35-mo35 (swollen/abdomen-puffy-AUG) n. (someone with a) swollen abdomen (mostly: wam11-bvung11-mo35). dvau55 (inflate/bottle) a n. bottle (sp. cyam11/syam11); i31-pue11-dvau55 (distilled-booze-inflate/bottle) n. bottle for booze; dvau55 pong55 (inflate/bottle open(vt)) n+vt. open a bottle; b as a specifier noun; i31pue11 le1-dvau55 (distilled-booze one-inflate/bottle) a/one bottle of booze; c in dvau55-gvop1 (inflate/bottle-shell/packet) n. turtle; d vt. inflate; Si1bong35 be1-mut1 dvau55 raq5. (meat-bladder help-blow inflate/bottle VO) Please blow up this balloon for me. e reduplicated, vide dvau55-dvau55. dvau55-bvoq5 (inflate/bottle-drop/heeltap) n+n. the last drops in the bottle; Dvau55-bvoq5 zvan31 syu31-aq1. (inflate/bottle-drop/heeltap empty(vt) drink*-SIM) Pour out and drink (SG) the last drops in the bottle. dvau55-dvau55 (inflate/bottle-inflate/bottle) reduplicated verbs used as ideophone expressing extreme roundness of the face; Nang35 myoq1dong11 ge11 dvau55-dvau55 za54 wa35. (2SG.PO eye-(have)hole TOP inflate/bottle-inflate/bottle only+FCT EMP) Your (SG) face is very round. dvau55-gvom31 (inflate/bottle-empty) n+adj. empty bottle. dvau55-gvop1 (inflate/bottle-shell/packet) n. turtle; cf. Jingpo taukok kop (Xu et al. 1983: 828). dvau55-mvi11 (inflate/bottle-close(vt)) n+n. cap of bottle. dvau55-pong55-zue31 (inflate/bottle-open(vt)-truc) n. bottle opener. de1bvye31 n. a follower; b body-guard. de1kya31 (different) (9.13) pron. ‘different’; (Burmese ta-khraa2, Yabu 1982: 92) Both de1kya31 ‘different’ and ga35/go35 ‘other’ are differentiating pronouns; yo31-so31-sun11 de1kya31 hu55 (land-walk(GEN)31 veg/dish different) other kinds of wild vegetables; De1kya31 bo11 a1-si . (ipf) (different contain nom-still+I) There are also others. de1kya31-de1kya31 (different-different) adv. in separate ways; Yuq1-gue31 31 mi1-wue11 de1kya31-de1kya31 ming31 bo11 lye . (person-male wife-female different-different name contain(ipf) also+I) Men and women are named in separate ways. de1myaq1 n. robber; also gvun31zyun35 n. robber; cf. kau11-su31 / byu31-kau11 n. thief. de1ra35 vide nam31moq1. de1wui31 n. deluge; de1wui31-ding35 (deluge-be.flooded) (n+vi.) n. deluge; de1wui31 dving55 (deluge collect.water/flood(vt)) n+vt. raise a deluge. 5 dek syoi11! ups-a-daisy!

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    deng55deng55deng55 onom. imitating the sound of strumming a guitar. di1ge1 di11 innumerable. dvi31 (CX+I) (18.7) the coaxing suffix, expressing the notions ‘isn’t it?’, ‘won’t we?’, ‘all right?’, ‘don’t you think so?’, etc., not in order to check the opinion of the addressee but to coax a consensus in keeping with one’s own views. dvi55 (RFL) (18.6) The reflective suffix dvi55 is mostly preceded by the factitive marker (discussed in Chapter 4), and marks interrogative clauses. It expresses that one or both of the speech participants should reflect on the situation in the context, suggesting an attitude like ‘think about this’. dik1 / dik5 / ding11- (extreme) (15.12) aux. and adv. ‘go to the limit’; a 31 aux. ‘very’ (after stative verbs); Yvup5 nvau11 dik1 bue . (sleep 31 feel.like(ipf) extreme P+I) / Yvup5 nvau31-dik5 bue . (sleep feel.like1 5 1 extreme P+I) I’m very sleepy. A -pik dik . (NEG-pungent extreme) It’s not at all hot. (Lit.: It’s very un-hot.) b as aux. ‘to the extreme’ (after action verbs); Woq1-gvo11 woq1-zo11 r55 roi11 dik1 r55. (chicken-big chicken-child OBJ bully(ipf) extreme PE) / Woq1-gvo11 woq1-zo11 r55 roi31dik5 r55. (chicken-big chicken-child OBJ bully-extreme PE) The big 31 chicken bullies the little one. Zo31 dik1 bue . (eat(ipf) extreme P+I) I’ve 1 1 eaten to the brim. c dik -dik (extreme-extreme) adv. ‘going to extreme limits’, ‘doing my very best’; (after stative verbs:) ‘extremely’; Dik1-dik1 31 dai11 bue , a1-gyo11. (extreme-extreme speak P+I NEG-hear/smell) I did my very best to persuade him but he won’t listen. Cf. Jingpo dik (Xu et al. 1983: 113). dvik5 a n. a ridge of some crop; a1-dvik5 (nom-(make).ridges) n. ridge of some crop; b n. ridge, as a specifier noun for crops; si1-pik5 le1-dvik5 (fruit-pungent one-(make).ridges) a/one ridge of chillies; c vt. make 31 ridges for cultivating crops; A1-dvik5 dvik5 lye . (nom-(make).ridges (make).ridges also+I) We are making ridges for cultivating crops. Ang1131 noq5-dvik5 dvik5 lye . (petiole-black-(make).ridges (make).ridges also+I) We are making ridges / a ridge for cultivating black mustard. dvik5dvik5 ideophone expressing ‘endlessly, all the time’; ngi11-gvun55 dvik5dvik5 (be-there(anim)(ipf)–play endlessly) to recreate endlessly; yvup5 dvik5dvik5 (sleep endlessly) to sleep endlessly. Cf. Jingpo tiktik ‘endlessly, all the time’ (Xu et al. 1983: 831). din11 n. wick; in: bvyen31-din11 (kerosene.lamp-wick) n+n. kerosene lamp, suen11-din11 (pointed-wick) n+n. wick of kerosene lamp. 31 din vi. run, jog; Lau35 din31-aq1, lau35 din31-aq1. (promptly run-SIM promptly run-SIM) Run (SG) fast, run (SG) fast. Din11 bvyam31 dvo11

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    ra . (run(ipf) rid.of(ipf) place(vt) need+I) I’m going to leave you far behind when we run. dving11 (roll.up) a n. in tan31-dving11 (hard.mat-roll.up) n. rolled up hard mat; b specifier noun for rolled up mats; tan31-dving11 le1-dving11 (hard.mat-roll.up one-roll.up) a/one rolled up hard mat; c vt. roll up; Sai55-tung55 dving31 am55-aq5. (mat-wickerwork roll.up(ipf) PFM-SIM) Roll up (SG) the mat. Ngo31 r55 ngvya55 le1-hat5 dving11 bi11 raq5. (1SG OBJ tobacco one-long.object roll.up give VO) Turn me a cigarette please. Cf. tui11 vt. roll into a ball. ding11- I (extreme*) allomorph of dik1; De1kya31 bang11 ge11 mue35 ding11-a131 gvo . (different PNO TOP meek extreme*-nom-PL+I) The other ones (livestock) are rather meek. ding11 II (locust) in ding11-gam35. ding11-gam35 (locust-eld-brother) n. locust. ding11sang55 (16.9) adv. deliberately; cf. Jingpo dingsa and dingsang, both expressing ‘intentionally’ and ‘deliberately’ (Dai & Xu 1992: 166), and dingsa (Xu et al. 1983: 120). dving31 (water.for.a.dead.person) only in mang31-dving31. ding35 I a vi. be flooded, inundated; Dong11 hi55-me55 i1-zvyam11 ding35 r55. ((have)hole this-LOC water-water be.flooded PE) This hole is full of water. b n. in de1wui31-ding35 (deluge-be.flooded) n. deluge; cf. dving55 vt. flood. ding35 II (straight.(branch)) a adj. straight; b vi. steady, good at aiming guns, etc.; Nang35 loq1 ding35 dik1 r55. (2SG.PO hand/arm straight.(branch) extreme PE) You (SG) are good at aiming a gun. c reduplicated as adverb: straight; Le1go11 ding35-ding35 yam11-aq1. (well straight.(branch)straight.(branch) stand*-SIM) Stand (SG) straight. d as noun: mvan11ding35 (grass/leaves-straight.(branch)) n. branch with leaves, suitable to be used as besom; e as spec. n. for straight branches and besoms; Mvan11-ding35 le1-ding35 kyui31 gvan31-aq1. (grass/leavesstraight.(branch) one-straight.(branch) bend(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Break off (SG) a branch to be used as besom. dving55 I (collect.water/flood(vt)) a n. in wui31-dving55 (watercollect.water/flood(vt)) n. pond (with streaming water); cf. nvong31 n. pond (man-made, without much circulation); b vt. collect water; Mau1131 i1-zvyam11 dving31 dvo11 bue . (sky-water-water (ipf) collect.water/flood(vt) place(vt) P+I) We have collected rain water. Waq1-zang11 i1-zvyam11 hi55-me55 dving31 dvo11 bi11 gve5-raq5. (pigrice/food water-water this-LOC collect.water/flood(vt)(ipf) place(vt) give PL-VO) You can keep the water for the pigs in here. c vt. flood, raise

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    deluge; De1wui31 dving31 gvat5 ra -o55! (deluge (ipf) collect.water/flood(vt) put.into need+I-HIGH) I will flood (you all) in a deluge! Cf. um55. dving55 II n. guitar (sp. cyam11/syam11); dving55 bat1 (guitar beat) n+vt. play the guitar. -Dving55 III in the personal name Me1-dving55. dving55dving55 (16.11) adv. categorically; Yvang11 dving55dving55 a1dong35. (3SG categorically NEG-agree) He categorically disagrees. 31 Yvang11 dving55dving55 a1-zo11 ga . (3SG categorically NEG-eat perceive+I) He categorically refuses to eat. cf. Jingpo tingting stable, categorically (Xu et al. 1983: 833). dvip5dvip5 dvop5 dvop5 ideophone indicating all-round abilities, “all kinds”; Dvip5dvip5dvop5dvop5 zyaq1 gue11 gvut5 r55. ([all.kinds] quite all.right(ipf) do PE) He can do all kinds of jobs. Dvip5dvip5dvop5dvop5 zyaq1 gue11 zo31 r55. ([all.kinds] quite all.right(ipf) eat(ipf) PE) He can eat all kinds of things. dviq5 (little) a adj/vi. little, young of age; Ngo31 a1sak1 dviq5 a1-si31. (1SG age little nom-still+I) I’m still very young. vide dviq5 bang11; a1-dviq5 ze11 mai11 (nom-little only ABL) from childhood onwards; b adj/vi. little in size; cf. ngvyai55 adj. tiny, immature; (also with a1-ngvyai55-ngvyai55 ze11 (nom-immature-immature only) so tiny and immature:) Nang35 loq131 ngyui11 a1-dviq5-dviq5 ze11 ngvut5 r55 mai ! (2SG.PO hand/armfinger/toe nom-little-little only be PE OBV+I) My, your (SG) fingers are so small! a1-dviq5 ze11 (nom-little only) adj. very small; cf. a1-ngvyai55 ze11 (nom-immature only) adj. very tiny and immature; Le1 -tang31 ge11 dviq5, le1-tang31 ge11 gvo11. (one-behind TOP little one-behind TOP big) One end is small and the other end is big. Cf. kvo11 big. dviq5 bang11 (little PNO) n. the children; cf. gvo11 bang11 (big PNO) n. the adults. Dviq5 bang11 ge11 gvo11 bang11 r55 dang11 a1-gue11 dvu31. (little (ipf) PNO TOP big PNO OBJ words NEG-all.right respond/upright) The little ones cannot reply defiantly to the adults. dvit5 dvit5 onom. imitating electrical beeping sounds. dvo11 (place(vt)) (15.9) a vt. place something somewhere; b the progressive aspectivizer, expressing progressive aspect, i.e. the continuation of the situation indicated by the preceding main verb. Cf. Jingpo to ‘to be there’, ‘have a certain (social) position’ (Xu et al. 1983: 834). do11 I (all.fours) vi. (chicken, caterpillars, cars and other non-humans:) walk, 31 go on all fours, crawl, ride; Woq1 do31 wang11 lo35 bue . (chicken (ipf) (ipf) all.fours enter go(back/up) P+I) A chicken walked into the house. Mo35do35 a1-do31 lai31 lo35-Ø luq1? (car NEG-all.fours(ipf) pass(ipf)

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    go(back/up)-FCT Y/N) Has there been a car passing? Cf. ye11 (humans:) vi. crawl. do11 II (go.up*) allomorph of doq1; Byam11 do11-aq1. (jump(ipf) go.up*-SIM) Jump (SG) upwards. do11fu31 / do11pu31 / du11pu31 n. bean curd; from Chinese: 豆腐 dòufu. dvo31 (get.up*) allomorph of dvoq5 get up; Yvup5 dvo31-aq1 hoi11. (sleep get.up*-SIM INC) Get up (SG). 31 dvo mvi55 vt. forget; Zai11wa31 tung31-keng11 i55-nvung55 a1-gue11 31 dvo31mvi55-o ! (Zaiwa tradition-outfit SPEC-1ND.IN NEG-all.right(ipf) forget-HIGH+I) We can’t forget our Zaiwa traditions! do35 I in guq1-do35 n. huge container, mostly for unhusked rice. do35 II (sing.duet) a in zi11-do35 (love.song-sing.duet) n. traditional love song duet; b vt. sing traditional love song duets; Zi11-do35 do35 lum11 syang55. (love.song-sing.duet sing.duet reciprocal JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) sing (traditional) love song duets. Cf. kon31/hon31 vt. sing. 55 55 55 do la zi n. tractor; from Chinese: 拖拉机 tuōlājī tractor, cf. mo35do35. do31 lye31 hu55 bau11 (all.fours(ipf) also+I sort bug) crawling insect. doi35 (cut.short) a adj. short; u1-doi35 (head-cut.short) n+adj. be short-haired; 31 Yvang11 u1-doi35 ma54 ngvut5 lye . (3SG head-cut.short LOC+FCT be 5 also+I) She has short hair. pe -zvang11 doi35-zo11 (belt-(wear).trousers 31 cut.short-child) n. shorts; b vt. lop; U1-doi35 doi35 am55 ra . (headcut.short cut.short PFM need+I) I want to have my hair cut short. Se5poq5 kyom11 doi35 am55-aq5. (tree-leaf all.of.it cut.short PFM-SIM) Lop (SG) all tea shrubs. Vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. dok1 dok1 onom. imitating the sound of beating on earth; Mi1-gung31 me55 “dok1dok1” ngvu31 tung11-aq5. (earth-body LOC [onom] say crush-SIM) Pound (SG) the ground. (with the point of your stick). 5 dok vt. print a stamp; Zyang35 dok5 bi11 raq5. (printed.stamp stamp (V) give VO) Give me a stamp here. Cf. Jingpo tok (Xu et al. 1983: 835). dvok5 I (chisle/bore) vt. chisel, bore holes; Li11 dvok5 lye31. (plough chisle/bore also+I) I’m boring a hole in the plough. / I am making a plough. Cf. gvyung11 and tong11; cf. Jingpo tok (Xu et al. 1983: 835). Vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. dvok5 II (chop.up) vt. chop up into rather big pieces; cf. zyap1 vt. chop up into fine pieces; Syo11 “dvok5dvok5dvok5” ngvu31 dvong31-aq1 ma11. (meat [chopping.up] say chop.up*-SIM ROUS) Chop up (SG) the meat. Seng11eq5 u31 dvok5 zvyoq5 dvo11 bi11. (liver-COM intestine chop.up cook place(vt) give) He chopped up and prepared its liver and intestines… Cf.

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    Jingpo tok (Xu et al. 1983: 835). Vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. dvok5 dvok5 dvok5 onom. imitating the sound of chopping; Syo11 “dvok5dvok5dvok5” ngvu31 dvong31-aq1 ma11. (meat [chopping.up] say chop.up*-SIM ROUS) Chop up (SG) the meat. Vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. dvom11 (desolate) (15.10) a vi. finish harvest; Ang11-noq5 r11 ban11 dvom31 31 byuq1 bue . (petiole-black also use.up(ipf) desolate(ipf) lose P+I) There are only the remnants of the black mustard. b aspectivizing aux. expressing that a state of desolation has been attained after certain collective 31 actions; Zo31 dvom11 bue . (eat(ipf) desolate P+I) (foodstuffs:) It’s finished. / There are only the remnants of it. Le1-zyong11 bang11 rvoq5 31 ban11 yvup5 dvom11 bue . (one-school PNO DEF use.up(ipf) sleep desolate P+I) The entire school is asleep. Cf. Jingpo htum ‘finish harvest’ as a verb, and ‘end, be over, finish’ as an auxiliary verb (Xu et al. 1983: 336). -Dvom55 (6th-sister) in names for sixth-born sisters; Me1-dvom55 ((female)6th-sister); Nva55-dvom55 (elder.sister-6th-sister); cf. Jingpo Tom (Xu et al. 1983: 836). don11 vi. burn with anger; Nang31 don31 si31 be1-kai31 ma11! (2SG burn.with.anger(ipf) die P-SUG+I ROUS) You (SG) must have been burning with anger. Cf. byong11 vi. be furious (to a lesser degree than when using don11); also cf. nvik5-yo31 (heart-itch) vi/vt. angry (at) (to an even lesser degree than when using don11. dvon31 vi. bring out toast; A1kui31 ngo31 dum11 dvon31 be5 -hoi11. (now 1SG again toast EE-INC) Now I will propose a toast. Nga35-nvik5 r55 le1go11 dvon31 bi11 raq5. (1PO-duo OBJ well toast give VO) Propose a good toast for us (DU). 35 don adj. both tender and fat; Ang11-ban35 don35 bum11 r55. (petiole-sprout1 tender/fat heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) There are lots of tender black mustard sprouts. bau11-don35 (bug-tender) n+adj. name for bugs in general when not knowing the proper name; Me1-don35 ((female)-tender/fat) common woman’s name; cf. nu35 young, tender; cf. Jingpo don (Xu et al. 1983: 125). dvon55 (spice.name) only in sing55-dvon55. dong11 a n. hole, pit; mi31-dong11 (earth-(have)hole) n+n. cave; ki5-dong11 (faeces-(have)hole) n. anus; myoq1-dong11 (eye-(have)hole) n. face; vide myoq1-dong11; nge1-noq1 dong11 (rat/mouse-black (have)hole) rat/mouse holes; b specifier noun for figures on playing cards; Ngo31 yvek5dva55 31 sum31-dong11 toq5 lye . (1SG diamonds three-(have)hole come.out

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    also+I) I’ll play a three of diamonds. c vi. have a hole; Nga35 pe5-zvang11 a1-dong11 luq1? (1PO belt-(wear).trousers NEG-(have)hole Y/N) Is there a hole in my trousers? Le1-dong11-mo35 dong31 dvo31 r55. (one-(have)hole(ipf) AUG (have)hole place(vt)(ipf) PE) There’s a large hole. Cf. Chinese 洞 dòng. dong11-kop5 ((have)hole-(dig).pit) n. pit in the ground (not made by man). dong31 (lead/connect) (9.15) a vi. lead, connect; b mediative case suffix; hi55-dong31 (this-lead/connect) this way; Hi55-dong31 kyo31 a1-dong31 luq1? (this-lead/connect road NEG-lead/connect Y/N) Is there a road from here? ka55-dong31 (where(B)-lead/connect) what way? Zai11-ming35 dong31 (Zaiwa-language lead/connect) in Zaiwa; Le1-sam31-bveu55 dong31 ((male)-Shan-PLN lead/connect) like the Shan do. Syam31 dong31 toq5 dik1 ra55. (knife lead/connect come.out extreme PE) It’s as sharp as a knife. dvong31 I (chop.up*) allomorph of dvoq5 vt. chop up into rather big pieces. dvong31 II (clearly) (9.15) aux. expressing that the action indicated by the preceding verb is performed in a distinctive way, such as when writing or making footprints; cf. dong31 (lead/connect); Le1go11 gva31 dvong31aq1. (well write(ipf) clearly-SIM) Write (SG) clearly. Ki31-ko31 nang31 dvong11 wu35-aq5. (leg/foot-track tread(ipf) clearly(ipf) look-SIM) Tread firmly (SG), so that your footprints are clear to see. Cf. kyang 31 vi. clear. dong35 vi. agree; Yvang11 a1-dong35 luq1? (3SG NEG-agree Y/N) Does he/she agree? dvong55 (patch) only in le1-dvong55-zo11; cf. Jingpo tong (Xu et al. 1983: 836). doq1 / doq5 (go.up) (12.2, 14.5) a vi. go up; Doq1 lo31 bue31. (go.up come(back/up) P+I) I have come back/up. Ke5-doq1 doq1 dik1 r55. (steepgo.up go.up extreme PE) It’s rather steep (upwards). Vide ke5-doq1; b vi. 31 being out of bed; Dum11 doq1 lye . (again go.up also+I) I got up again. cf. yvup5 dvoq5 (sleep get.up) get up; c vi. rise (as of living standard, 31 etc.) Yvum31 i1gvun11 doq1 bum31 bue . (house household go.up heap(vt/N) P+I) Our living standard has risen a lot. d vt. go up; se5-gam31 31 doq1 (tree-tree(B) go.up) climb trees; Bum31 doq1 lye . (heap(vt/N) go.up 31 also+I) We are climbing the mountain. also: Bum31-doq5 lye . 11 (heap(vt/N)-go.up also+I) We are climbing the mountain. e zyong doq1 (school go.up) n+vt. go to school; also zyong11-doq5 (school-go.up); f vt. marry, in lang31 doq1 (husband go.up) n+v. marry (spoken by a woman), also lang31-doq5 (husband-go.up); g in wo31-doq5 (rain-go.up) n. dripping dew; h in words referring to parts of the house; doq1-gang35 (go.up-roof)

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    n. main roof; doq1-sya11 (go.up-lower.roof) n. lower roof; wap1-doq1 (living.room-go.up) n. living room. Cf. ke5-doq1 and dvoq5 get up (14.5). 1 doq -gang35 (go.up-roof) n. main roof; cf. mau11. Doq1si11 a family name, cf. Jingpo Doshi (Xu et al. 1983: 968). doq1-sya11 (go.up-lower.roof) n. lower roof; cf. mau11. dvoq5 I (get.up) (Vide 14.5 on the verb pair doq1 vi. go up vs. dvoq5 vt. get up) vt. get up; stand up; (winds:) rise, get harsh; (eggs:) hatch; aux. up, upwards. dvoq5 II n. iron; in syam31-dvoq5 (knife-iron) n+n. iron and dvoq5-mvi55 (iron-trap) n+n. magnet. doq5 (go.up) allomorph of doq1. dvoq5-mvi55 (iron-trap) n+n. magnet (sp. lvum11). dvot1 vi. estimate, guess; No11 hi31 ke5-mvyo55 dyek1 ra54 lu55, nga35-nvung55 syom31 dvot1 wu35 syang55. (cattle this Q-much (B) estimate/be.worth need+FCT MIR 1PO-1ND.IN drive.game(ipf) estimate look JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) estimate together what this cattle could be worth. Cf. gvue55 vt. measure; cf. dyek1 a vi. be worth; b vt. estimate worth. dvot5 a adj/vi. short in length, not of body length; cf. dvyek5 adj. short and skinny (also of body length) and ngyup1 vi. low, short (also of body length); Nang35 loq1-ngyui11 ge11 heng11 r55, nga35 ge11 dvot5 r55. (2SG.PO hand/arm-finger/toe TOP long(ipf) PE 1PO TOP short PE) Your (SG) fingers are long and mine are short. um31-dvot5 (gun-short) n+adj. pistol; hum55-dvot5 (door-short) n. veranda. b vi. short in time; Sun31 dvot5 31 bue . (dawn short P+I) (in summer:) Dawn has become short. 11 du I (being) a specifier noun for all animals as well as vehicles; no11 mi31du11 (cattle four-being) four pieces of cattle; ngvoq5 le1-du11 (bird onebeing) a/one bird; moq1toq1 le1-du11 (motorcycle one-being) a/one motorcycle; b in gung31-du11 (body-being) n. body. 11 du II (dig.with.stick) vt. dig out with a stick; Sa55-mvyup5 du31 lye31. (sweet.potato-bury dig.with.stick(ipf) also+I) I’m digging out sweet potatoes. Cf. bvau31, gvyung11, kai11/hai11, kop5, sok1. 11 du du1 di35di35 n. kind of fish-eating bird, named after part of its repertiore: [du11du1], [di35di35] and [m11m11]. 11 du pu31 / do11fu31 / do11pu31 n. bean curd; from Chinese 豆腐 dòufu. du11sat1 / du11sat5 n. animal; cf. du11 and sat5. du31 I a vt. mourn someone, after the funeral, taking six days for men, seven 31 days for women; Byo31 du11 lye . (spirit3 mourn(ipf) also+I) We’re in the mourning period (after the funeral). b in n. byo31-du31 (spirit3-mourn) n/v. (be in the) mourning period after the funeral.

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    -Dvu31 I (4th-brother) in names for fourth brothers; Le1-kun55-dvu31 ((male)(name)-4th-brother) fourth brother of the Kun family; Le1-dvu31 ((male)4th-brother) short name for fourth-born men; cf. Jingpo Tu (Xu et al. 1983: 849). du31 II a n. namesakes; ming31-du31 (name-namesake) n. namesakes (e.g.: 31 both called Mopi); Nga35-nvik5 ge11 ming31-du31 ngvut5 lye . (1PO-duo TOP name-namesake be also+I) We (DU) are namesakes. b vi. be referred to as sibling, after ge1-mang11 (male-elder.brother) ‘brothers’ or nvik5-dvang31 (duo-siblings) ‘siblings’; Ge1-mang11 nvik5-dvang31 du11 31 lye . (male-elder.brother duo-siblings namesake(ipf) also+I) We are like brothers or sisters. (from the point of view of our names). Nga35-moq1 31 ge11 ge1-mang11 du11 lye . (1PO-party TOP male-elder.brother namesake(ipf) also+I) We (ND.EX) are like brothers. Nung35-nvik5 ge11 31 ke5-lai11 ge1-mang11 du11 a1-gvo ? (2PL-duo TOP Q-ABL male(ipf) elder.brother namesake nom-PL+I) From what type of relationship are you (DU) to be called brothers? Nvik5-dvang31 a1-wo35 du31. (duosiblings NEG-have namesake) You cannot be called siblings. dvu31 II (light(vt)*) allomorph of dvuq5 vt. light. Dvu31 III a family name. du31 III (younger.M) bound form n. in kinship terms referring to younger relatives belonging to wife-giving families; vide a1-du31, nga35-du31 and du31-mo35. 31 dvu IV (respond/upright) (16.39) a vt. put in upright position; Le1gok1 gek1 dvu31-aq1. (stone wrench.off respond/upright-SIM) Wrench off (SG) the stone and stand it upright. Zi1syang31 dvu11 dvo31-aq1. (child respond/upright(ipf) get.up*-SIM) Help (SG) the child to get up. b as part of the adverb dvu11 (respond/upright(ipf)) ‘upright’, expressing ‘bringing the object referred to by the main verb into upright position’; La11zyu11 dvu11 zvung31-aq1. (candle respond/upright(ipf) set(vt)-SIM) Stand (SG) the candle upright. c ngi35-gvung31 dvu31 (day-hunch respond/upright) n+v. (the sun) is at its zenith. ngi35-gvung31 (day-hunch) being a noun referring to the sun in the position right above one’s head; Ngi35-gvung31 31 dvu31 bue . (day-hunch respond/upright P+I) The sun is at its zenith. d 31 vi/vt. respond; Hau31 mang11-zo11 dvu31-aq1 mai ! (the/that aged-child respond/upright-SIM OBV+I) But give an answer to that aged person! e dang11 dvu31 n+vt. reply defiantly (said of children); Dviq5 bang11 ge11 gvo11 bang11 r55 dang11 a1-gue11 dvu31. (little PNO TOP big PNO OBJ words NEG-all.right(ipf) respond/upright) The little ones cannot reply defiantly to the adults.

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    dvu31-mo35 ((soil)-AUG) n+adj. kind of wasp/bee living underground; cf. Chinese 土 tǔ n. earth, soil.

    du31-mo35 (younger.M-AUG) (n+adj.) n. kinship term a mostly used by men, referring to younger female relatives of marriagable age, belonging to wife-giving families; b used by women, in the same way as her husband refers to them, i.e. referring to (1) their sons’ wives, and (2) the wives of her husband’s brothers’ sons; cf. rvat5. 35 du (throw) a vt. throw, cast; Ngo31 du35 gvat5 be55, nang31 yven31-aq1. (1SG throw put.into EE 2SG dodge(vt)-SIM) I’m throwing the ball, you (SG) dodge. b vt. fish with a net, in gun31 du35 (net throw) n+vt. fishing with net; throw the fishing net; Gun31 du35 ye31 gvoq1. (net throw go(away/down) DIE) Let’s (DU) go fishing with the net. c in loq1-gun31 du35 (hand/arm-fling/strike/wave throw) n+vt. swim freestyle (vide wui31-li11 li11 for more on swimming) d throw away, discard; Dvau55gvom31 i5-du35 am55 gveq5. (inflate/bottle-empty go-throw PFM PLIM) Let’s (PL) go and throw away the empty bottles. Cf. ngvyau11. 55 dvu I (fold) a specifier noun indicating a stretch of sugar cane, bamboo etc., i.e. what is between two of the many ribs of the stalk; Pung11syui31 le1-dvu55 lang31 kyui11 bi11 raq5. (sugar.cane one-fold pull/yank(ipf) bend give VO) Break off one stretch of sugar cane for me. b (9.37) specifier noun ‘fold’; cf. wui35 ‘equal’; i55-sum11 dvu55 (two-three fold) two or three times as much. dvu55 II adj. shining; Miq1-dvai55-dvu55 (eye2-only-shining) One-eyeblinking, a spirit’s name; Hi31 mung31-zi1tung11 r55 hau55-mu31 yvang11 31 a1hui31 Miq1-dvai55 dvu31 lye . (this evil.spirit-spirit.type OBJ the/thathappen 3SG now eye2-only shining(ipf) also+I) From now on, this evil spirit is (called) the one-eyed. Cf. Jingpo tu (Xu et al. 1983: 848). dvu55dvu55 ideophone expressing extreme darkness; pitch dark; Mau11 31 cyut5 dvu55dvu55 ga31 r55 mai ! (sky dark [pitch-dark] perceive(ipf) PE OBV+I) The sky is as black as coal! dvu11 suq5 (respond/upright(ipf) secure) v+v. to insert a post or a stick into the ground (not with a hammer but by thrushing into the ground with hands); vide dvu31. duan35lyen35 n. exercise(s); from Chinese: 锻炼 duànliàn; gung31-du11 duan35lyen35 gvun55 (body-being exercise play) do physical exercises (for fun). dvui11 (rope(N/vt)) a n. rope, lace, cord (sp. kat5/hat5, dung35, etc.); in dvui11-syum55 syum55 (rope(N/vt)-spin spin) n+vt. spin rope; vide syum55; dvui11 yui11 (rope(N/vt) twist) n+vt. twist rope; vide yui11; nve5syoi55-dvui11 (nose-nose.lock-rope(N/vt)) n. rope for cattle; sau55-hai11-

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    dvui11 zvyuq5 (shoe-shoe-rope(N/vt) tie) n+vt. tie shoelaces; mi1-dat5dvui11 (fire-electric-rope(N/vt)) n. electrical cord; b vt. catch with rope; ngvoq5 dvui11 (bird rope(N/vt)) n+vt. catch birds with rope; c vt. bind with rope; (both n. and vt.:) Dvui31-eq1 dvui11-aq5. (rope#-AG/I rope(N/vt)-SIM) Bind (SG) it with rope. (Both n. and vt.:) Dvui31-eq1 31 dvui31 dvo31 lye . (rope#-AG/I rope(N/vt)(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I) It is bound with rope. d in nge1-dvui11 dvui11 (fish-rope(N/vt) rope(N/vt)) n+vt. catch fish (with rope); Nge1-nvong31 me55 nge1-dvui11 i5-dvui11 syang55. (fish-pond LOC fish-rope(N/vt) go-rope(N/vt) JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) go fishing in the pond. e n. string of the tongue; syo31-dvui11 dvui11 (tongue-rope(N/vt) rope(N/vt)) n+vt. stutter; Syo31-dvui11 ke5dvui11. (tongue-rope(N/vt) PHB-rope(N/vt)) Don’t stutter. 11 dui I n. maternal grandparent; in a5-dui11 (nom-maternal.grandparent) n. maternal grandmother and zvi5-dui11 (grandfather-maternal.grandparent) n. maternal grandfather; cf. Jingpo dui (Xu et al. 1983: 128). dui11 II adjective or ideophone expressing sweetness of taste (cf. cyui11 adj. sweet); zyum11-dui11 (salt-[sweet]) n. white sugar (lit.: sweet salt, something like salt but sweet). dvui11-byam31 byam31 (rope(N/vt)-jump jump) n+vt. skip rope. dui11-dui11 ([sweet]-[sweet]) ideophone expressing sweetness of taste; 31 Cyui31 lye dui11-dui11. (sweet(ipf) also+I [sweet]-[sweet]) (It’s) extremely sweet. dvui11-syum55 syum55 (rope(N/vt)-spin spin) vide syum55. dui31 vi. move, budge; Ke5-dui31. (PHB-move(vi)) Don’t move. (spoken whilst giving an injection). dui31 nvang31 (move(vi) let.loose) perform task, do the jobs one is asked to do; Dui31 a1-wo35 nvang31. (move(vi) NEG-have let.loose) He won’t do the jobs he is asked to do. Cf. dvui31 vt. move. dvui31 I vt. move; Se1boi31 ke5-lvoq5 dvui31. (table PHB-ACT move(vt)) Don’t let the table move (while I am writing). dvui31 II vt. sow in holes, dibble; Guq1 dvui11 lye31. (unhusked.rice sow.in.holes/dibble(ipf) also+I) We are sowing paddy. 35 dui I n. rain-cap made of the leaves of the tap5-gam31 (sp. lvum11); Dui35 31 kyup5 lye . (rain-cap sew also+I) I am making a rain-cap out of tapgam. 5 (Tap -gam31-)dui35 wun11-aq1. ((tree.name-tree(B)-)rain-cap wear/dress*SIM) Wear your (SG) tapgam rain-cap. dui35 II vi. see the difference; cf. wvui55 vt. compare; Le1go11 dui35 wu35-aq5, nga35-nvik5 yap1 a1-dui35 luq1? (well see.difference look-SIM 1PO-duo stand NEG-see.difference Y/N) Carefully look (SG) at the difference, which of the two us is taller? Yvang55-moq1 mau11 ge11 i5-nvung55

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    Mi11wa31-mau11-eq5 lvang55 dui35 lum31 lo35 lye . (3PL-party native.land TOP SPEC-1ND.IN Chinese(GEN)-native.land-COM even see.difference reciprocal(ipf) go(back/up) also+I) (with spread arms:) Their country and our China lie THIS far apart. duk1 in tung31-duk1 n. Jingpo shoulder bag without fringes. duk1 duk1 onom. imitating the sound of banging, thrubbing or loudly stepping with bare feet; Nang31 kyo31 so31 r11 ge11 duk1duk1 ga11 lvang55 31 ming11 r55 mai . (2SG road walk(ipf) also TOP [onom] perceive even (ipf) sound(vi) PE OBV+I) You (SG) stamp so loudly when walking. Seng11 duk1duk1 ga11 pyam11 han11 r55. (liver [onom] perceive palpitate(ipf) quick(ipf) PE) My heart (lit.: my liver) is throbbing very fast. duk5 duk5 onom. imitating the sound of crushing mortars etc. Lai31-dun11 lo31 zyang35, tung55-sum31 duk5duk5 ngvu31 tung31 mving55-aq5. (windpress.into/brace come(back/up) CD pound-mortar [onom] say crush(ipf) sound/name(vt)-SIM) When the storm comes, you (SG) must crush your (empty) mortars, going “dukduk” (in order to let the storm pass sooner). dum11 I (16.10) adv. again; dum11-sai31 (again-redo(ipf)) adv. (all) over again. dum11 II (log(vt/n)) a vt. log; Tang11 dum11-aq5 ma11. (firewood log(vt/n)SIM ROUS) Log (SG) the firewood. b n. log; sek5-dum11 (tree-log(vt/n)) n. log. dum11 III in Gvong11-dum11 (hill-no.gloss) name of the hilltop of Loilung; 31 Loi11lung35 bum31-zvyung31 ge11 Gvong11-dum11 ga31 lye . (Loilung (ipf) heap(vt/N)-top TOP hill-no.gloss perceive also+I) The hilltop of Loilung is called Gvongdum. dum11bau11 n. rhinoceros. dum11sa55 n. witch doctor; also dum11sa55-po55 (witch.doctor-male) n. male witch doctor; dum11sa55 to31 (witch.doctor cast.spell) speak magical language to spirits, a main activity of a Jingpo witch doctor; vide to31; Yvang11 dum11sa55 i5-to11 ge1rum35 r55. (3SG witch.doctor go-cast.spell(ipf) help PE) He is helping in speaking magical language. Vide nat1 for a selection of types of spirits and gods. dum11sa55-gam35 (witch.doctor-eld-brother) n. magpie. dum11sa55-po55 (witch.doctor-male) n. male witch doctor. dum11-sai31 (again-redo(ipf)) adv. (all) over again. dum31 (torch) only in mi1-dum31 (fire-torch) n. fire, torch. dum31bvu55 n. belly drum. dum31bvu55-pung55 (belly.drum-group) n. Zaiwa music band; cf. Wun11bvong55-pung55. dum35 (missing.a.stretch) a adj. be cut off for a large part; ki31-dum35 (leg/foot-missing.a.stretch) be missing part of the leg; loq1-dum35

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    (hand/arm-missing.a.stretch) be missing part of the arm; Yvang11 loq131 dum35 ma54 ngvut5 lye . (3SG hand/arm-missing.a.stretch LOC+FCT be also+I) He lacks part of his arm. b vi/vt. have something cut off for a large part; u1-dum35 dum35 (head-missing.a.stretch missing.a.stretch) n31 +v. have one’s hair cut off for a large part; U1-dum35 dum35 am55 ra . (head-missing.a.stretch missing.a.stretch PFM need+I) I need to have a lot of my hair cut off. Cf. dvum55 interrupt, dum11 vt/n. log. dvum55 (interrupt) (9.34, 15.11) a n. separate stretch of something, half end of, stump of; ngvya55-dvum55 (tobacco-interrupt) n. butt, stub of a cigarette; syam31-dvum55 (knife-interrupt) n. broken knife; tang11dvum55 (firewood-interrupt) n. piece of firewood; te5-dvum55 ((bamboo)interrupt) n. bamboo tube for cooking (still unused; cf. te5-bvun11); b as a specifier noun; mi1-zo35 le1-dvum55 (fire-burning.firewood oneinterrupt) a/one burning stump of wood; Le1-dvum55 ze11 gyo31 gvat5 wu35 syang55. (one-interrupt only hear/smell(ipf) put.into look JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) listen to only one piece (of recording). (pi1dum11) hu55-dvum55 ((waist) above-interrupt) n. the upper part of the body; (pi1dum11) mvo55dvum55 ((waist) below-interrupt) n. the lower part of the body. c aspectivizing aux. termed the interruptive aspectivizer, expressing that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb is being interrupted, always used in conjunction with the progressive aspectivizer dvo11; 31 Si5gvyam55 gva31 dvum31 dvo31 lye . (greetings write(ipf) interrupt(ipf) (ipf) place(vt) also+I) I interrupted my letter writing. Ngo31 zang11 zo31 31 31 31 dvum dvo lye . (1SG rice/food eat(ipf) interrupt(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I) I interrupted my meal. Cf. dum35 adj. be cut off for a large part, vt. have something cut off for a large part. Cf. pyet5 vt. interrupt someone’s words. dun11 (press.into/spear) a n. spear; b n. possibly also in in lai31-dun11 n. storm; c n. awl; d n. bore for cleaning flutes, guns etc.; um31-dun11 (gunpress.into/spear) n+n. bore for cleaning guns; Dun31-eq1 sam55-bvi55 tong11-aq5. (press.into(ipf)/spear#-AG/I Shan-flute pierce-SIM) Clean (SG) 31 the flute with the bore. e vt. press; Muk1 dun31 kyop5 am55 bue . (cake/cookies press.into(ipf)/spear(GEN) break.into.pieces(vt) PFM P+I) The cake has been pressed into pieces. Mai11na31 a1-wo35 dun31 zvuq5. (nail/pin NEG-have press.into(ipf)/spear(GEN) insert) Nails can’t (just) be 31 pressed into wood. Lvoq5 mving55 zyang35 ka55-lvum11 dun31 lye ? (ACT (ipf) sound/name(vt) CD Q-lump press.into /spear(GEN) also+I) (on a cassette recorder:) Which button is to make it play? Dun31 zeng11 dvo11aq5. (press.into(ipf)/spear(GEN) fixed(ipf) place(vt)-SIM) Press (SG) it so that it can’t move. f vt. massage; Gai31, ngo31 r55 gung31-du11 dun11 bi11

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    raq5. ((come.on!) 1SG OBJ body-being press.into/spear give VO) Come on, give me a massage please. Vide lai31-dun11 and um31-dun11. Cf. dvun11 vt. point. Vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. dvun11 vt. point; Kyo31 dvun31 sit5 raq5. (road point(vt)(ipf) show VO) Show me which direction. dvun11-ngyui11 (point(vt)-finger/toe) n. index finger. dvun11-ngyui11 (point(vt)-finger/toe) n. index finger; vide loq1-ngyui11 for the names of the other fingers. dvun31 vi. crow; Woq1 dvun31 bue31. (chicken crow(V) P+I) The cock has crowed. dung11 I (castrated.pig) only in waq1-dung11. dung11 II a vt. demand; Yvang11 a1-yang11 ngun31 dung31 r55. (3SG nomstalk silver demand(ipf) PE) He always asks for money. b vt. demand, in 31 the context of proposing a wedding: Mi1-wue11 dung11 lo35 lye . (wifefemale demand go(back/up) also+I) I’m on my way to propose a wedding. dung11 III (hectic) a vide dung11-dung11; b (uncertain) in a1mun54 sum31dung11 (ten.thousand/Yuan+FCT three-hectic) lots of them (people, birds etc.). dung11 IV (piece(Sp)) specifier noun for clothing, quilts, wickerwork etc.; mue31-bu11 le1-dung11 (wrap-clothes one-piece(Sp)) a/one piece of clothing; mue31-zyong35 le1-dung11 (wrap-cover(N) one-piece(Sp)) a/one quilt; sai55-tung55 le1-dung11 (mat-wickerwork one-piece(Sp)) a/one mat. dung11-dung11 (hectic-hectic) ideophone expressing the urge to continue; 31 So31 lye dung11-dung11. (walk(ipf) also+I hectic-hectic) We won’t stop 31 walking. Lo35 lye dung11-dung11. (go(back/up) also+I hectic-hectic) We won’t stop. dung31 n. wing; dung31 le1-kon55 (wing one-one.of.a.pair) a/one wing. dvung31 ideophone expressing the notion of fleeing quick as a flash; Le131 nong35 i31-syuq5 wut1 lui wui11 zyang35, yvang55-moq1 ge11 dvung31 31 31 ban11 pang31 be1-gvo ga . ((male)-2nd-brother distilled-drink drunk in.this.way+I difficult1 CD 3PL-party TOP [fleeing] use.up(ipf) dodge/flee P-PL+I perceive+I) When second brother is troublesome because of being drunk, they all flee away from him. dung31-lvai31 (wing-boat) n+n. aeroplane. dung31sang11 n. caterpillar. dung35 (cubit) a specifier noun ‘cubit’ i.e. the length of one forearm, for measures of cloth, rope etc.; bvan55 le1-dung35 (cloth one-cubit) a/one cubit of cloth; dvui11 le1-dung35 (rope(N/vt) one-cubit) a/one cubit of

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    rope; b specifier noun for French beans; nuq1-gvyui31 le1-dung35 (beanFrench.bean one-cubit) a/one French bean. -dvung55 (frozen) a adj. frozen; nge1-zo11-dvung55 (fish-child-frozen) n+adj+adj. frozen fish; si1-dvung55 (meat-frozen) n+adj. frozen meat; b adj. thick, concentrated; nvap5-dvung55 (mucus-frozen) n+adj. thick 31 31 mucus/snot; c vi. freeze; A1ga31! gyoq1 lye wa35 dvung31 byuq1 ra se5(ipf) 31 55 ga r . ((difficulty) cold also+I EMP frozen lose need+I like(ipf) perceive PE) Aah, it’s so cold that it feels as if we might freeze. Cf. Chinese 冻 dòng. dup5 n. lean-to under the ridge of the house, against rain and wind; dup5 sui11 (lean-to.under.the.ridge decorate.with) n+vt. make a lean-to under 31 the ridge; vide cui11/sui11 decorate.with; Dup5 sui31 lye . (leanto.under.the.ridge decorate.with(ipf) also+I) We are making a lean-to under the ridge. dvup5(-rap5) (fit.exactly(-dollop)) (16.27) ideophone ‘fit exactly’; Dvup5(31 rap5) bue lo55? (fit.exactly(-dollop) P+I FV) Is it right? dvup5-rap5 (fit.exactly-dollop) fixed ideophone combination expressing ‘perfect, fit perfectly’ (16.27); Sau55-hai11 r11 ki31 me55 dvup5-rap5. (shoe-shoe also leg/foot LOC fit.exactly-dollop) The shoes also fit perfectly. Cf. Jingpo tup [tup55] a neat, even; b vi. come true; c adv. as a whole; d ideophone ‘make even’ (Xu et al. 1983: 850). duq1 I (burning) a vi. burning, ablaze, (electricity) on; Mi1-dat5 dum11 a1duq1 loq1. (fire-electric again NEG-burning no.more) The electricity is off again. Hau31 la11zyu11 dye31 duq1 r55 zuen31 am55-aq5. (the/that candle too burning PE cut/clip(ipf) PFM-SIM) The candle is burning too much, cut (SG) it down a bit. b adj. shining; vide myoq1-duq1; cf. dvuq5 vt. light and ngye35. -Duq1 II in short names for fourth-born sisters; their pet names being Me1dving55 or Me1-lum11. dvuq5 (light(vt)) a vt. light; Mi1-dat5 lang31 dvu31-aq1. (fire-electric pull/yank(ipf) light(vt)*-SIM) Pull on (SG) the light. b (idiom:) in: dvuq5 zung31 (light(vt) sit) sit there like breeding on something; Ke5-dye31 dvuq5 zung31. (PHB-too light(vt) sit) Don’t sit there like breeding on something. c mvung31-dvuq5 (evil.spirit-light(vt)) n. epilepsy (?); cf. duq1 a vi. burning, ablaze, (electricity) on; b adj. shining; cf. ngvye55. 1 dut (become) (10.3, 19.5) The copula dut1 ‘become’ basically expresses the inchoative notions ‘take shape, form, become like, change into’. This basic meaning can be used in many different senses, depending on whether reference is made to 1) concrete entities, 2) situations, or 3) personalities. 4) A fourth context, which is quite specific and in which

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    dut1 ‘become’ is used to a rather limited extent, is that of the place taken in by people within their family or society. dvut5 n. small end; le1-dvut5-ze11 (one-small.end-only) little piece, short stretch; syo31-dvut5 (tongue-small.end) n+n. tip of the tongue; Yvang11 syo31-dvut5 sye11 r55. (3SG tongue-small.end pull(ipf) PE) He has extended his tongue somewhat. syo31 le1-dvut5-zo11 (tongue one-small.end-child) a little tip of the tongue. 11 dye (move.out(vt)) vt. transport things outside of house or nest; Bau31woq5 mi1-zvue11 dye31 r55. (ant earth-soil move.out(vt) (ipf) PE) The ants are moving soil. Dvang55kuq5 lye35 be1-dye11-aq5. (stool/chair come(away/down) help-move.out(vt)-SIM) Come (SG) and help to move the chair outside. dvye11 I adj. (limbs, eyes etc.:) single; myoq1-dvye11 dap1 ma54 byu31 (eyesingle be.attached LOC +FCT man/woman) one-eyed person; ki31-dvye11 dap1 (leg/foot-single be.attached) be one-legged; loq1-dvye11 dap1 (hand/arm-single be.attached) be one-armed. dvye11 II (wild.boar) in waq1-dvye11 (pig-wild.boar) n. wild boar. dvye31 (receive) a vt. receive; Nang31 A5-nu11 r55 i5-byam11 dvye11 lo31-aq1. (2SG nom-mother OBJ go-jump(ipf) receive(ipf) come(back/up)-SIM) Go (SG) catch up with Mum for a while. b vt. block the opponent’s hit; Lom11 dvye31 ban11-aq1. (attend(ipf) receive beat*-SIM) Block and hit back (SG). Cf. dye35 vt. see off. 31 dye I n. illegitimate child; dye31-zo11 (illegitimate.child-child) n+n. 31 illegitimate child; Dye31-zo11 bau11 gvo54 ga . (illegitimate.child-child carry.on.back PL+FCT perceive+I) They have given birth to an illegitimate child. Dye31-gva55-zo11, nang31 ge11! (illegitimate.childvariegated-child 2SG TOP) You illegitimate child! (said to one’s own child). 31 dye II (too) (16.12) a adv. too, too much; b aux. expressing impatience or the notion that a certain passive state has been persisted for too long; ngi11 dye31 (be.there(anim)(ipf) too) to be impatient or annoyed by staying at the same place; yvup5 dye31 (sleep too) ‘to be awake in bed, unable to sleep for too long’; lang35 dye31 (wait too) ‘to be anxious’. dvye31 (DOM2+I) (18.8) variant of the domineering suffix dvyo31 (DOM+I). dye35 vt. see someone off; Yvum31 zye35 syoq5 lye35 dye35 gvat5 lye35. (house arrive till come(away/down) see.off put.into come(away/down)) I’ll bring you home. Cf. dvye31 a vt. receive; b vt. block the opponent’s hit. dyek1 (estimate/be.worth) a vi. be worth; Mo35do35 hi31 ke5-mvyo55 dyek1 a131 31 si ga ? (car this Q-much (B) estimate/be.worth nom-still+I perceive+I) How much does he say this car is worth? b vt. estimate worth; Nang35

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    ki31 ke5-mvyo55 heng11 lye54 lu55 dyek1 wu35 gvoq1. (2SG.PO leg/foot Qmuch(B) long(ipf) also+FCT MIR estimate/be.worth look DIE ) Let’s (DU) measure how long your (SG) legs/feet are. Cf. dvot1 vi. estimate, guess; cf. gvue55 vt. measure. dyek1ge1rye11 n. snare drum (sp. cyam11/syam11). dvyek5 adj. short and skinny; Byu31 dvyek5-zo11 ngvut5 r55. (man/woman short.and.skinny-child be PE) He/she is short and skinny. me5dvong11dvyek5 (fruit.name-short.and.skinny) n. kind of wild fruit with prickly shell (Chinese jūlūguǒ). dyem11 vt. take picture; dvat5bung35 dyem11 (photographs take.picture) n+vt. take pictures; dvat5bung35-dyem11-zue31 (photographs-take.picture-truc) n. photo camera. dvyem55 ideophone expressing keeping the mouth still; Nvut5 dvyem55 ze11 gvun31-aq1. (mouth (face).still only do*-SIM) Keep (SG) your mouth still. dyen11she11(di35) n. television (set); Chinese: 电视机 diànshìjī. dyen35 (crack/do) in course (man’s) language: a vt. do a job; Nga35-nvik5 dyen35 si1-gvoq1. (1PO-duo crack/do still-DIE) Let’s (DU) get on with it. b vt. eat, drink something; I31-pue11 dyen35 syang55. (distilled-booze crack/do JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) booze. Zang11 dyen35 syang55 hoi11. (rice/food crack/do JUS INC) Let’s (ND .IN) tuck in rice. c vt. beat 31 someone; Dvye , ngo31 dyen35 be55. (DOM2+I 1SG crack/do EE) I’ll give him a beating, okay? dyen35 lum11 (crack/do reciprocal) vt. fight; Nga35nvik5 dyen35 lum11 gvoq1. (1PO-duo crack/do reciprocal DIE ) Let’s (DU) fight. dvyeng11 vi. true; Gue31-gue31 dvyeng31 lye31 luq1? (all.right-all.right true(ipf) also+I Y/N) Is it really true? dyeng35 vide nge1-dyeng35-mo35. dvyeng55 dvyeng55 n. bell; Dvyeng55dvyeng55 ming31 bue31. (bell sound(vi) 31 P+I) / Dvyeng55dvyeng55 bat1 bue . (bell beat P+I) The bell has sounded. Cf. (no11-)ke1rok1 n. wooden bell (for cattle). dyennao n. computer; Chinese: 电脑 diànnǎo. dyep1 vt. fill to the brim; in bing35 dyep1 (full to.the.brim) vi+vt. filled to the brim; Ngo31 r55 bing35 dyep1 gvat5 bi11 raq5. (1SG OBJ full to.the.brim put.into give VO) Fill it to the brim for me. also reduplicated: I1-zvyam11 bing35 dyep1-dyep1 ke5-waq1. (water-water full to.the.brim-to.the.brim PHB-lift) Don’t fill the bucket to the brim. dyep5 n. kind of mat for drying. dvyep5dvyep5 [close.together] a ideophone expressing that people or objects are posited (more) closely together; Dvyep5dvyep5 zung31 gvoq1.

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    ([close.together] sit DIE) Sit (DU.IN) more closely together. Dvyep5dvyep5 zvung31-aq1. ([close.together] set(vt)-SIM) Put (SG) them more closely together. b ideophone expressing that doors are, or should be closed tightly; Hum11 dvyep5dvyep5 mvi11-aq5. (door [close.together] close(vt)-SIM) Close (SG) the door more tightly. Cf. tyep5-tyep5. dvyep5tyep1 / gvyep5tyep n. rubber slippers; dvyep5tyep1/gvyep5tyep1 tyem11 n+vt. put on / wear rubber slippers; Dvyep5tyep1/gvyep5tyep1 tyem11-aq1. (rubber.slippers wear.rubber.slippers*-SIM) Put on / wear (SG) rubber slippers. Vide wut1 for an overview of other verbs and expressions for putting on/off or wearing clothes, shoes, glasses etc. dvyeq5 vi. wet; Sau55-hai11 lvoq5 dvyeq5 am55 bue31. (shoe-shoe ACT wet PFM P+I) The shoes are being made wet. cf. yui35yui35. dvyeq5 dvyeq5 [hit.target] ideophone expressing scoring a bull’s eye; Lving31-hang11 dvyeq5dvyeq5! ((turn).round-each [hit.target]) A bull’s eye every time! dvyo31 (DOM+I) (18.8) domineering suffix; indicates that consensus has already been reached or that the situation will naturally lead to consensus. In some cases, this notion can almost be translated as ‘come on!’.

    -Ee11 / e31 / eq5 / ei11 / ei35 / ei55 / eiq5 / o55 (VOC) a vocative onsets; 31

    E11, saq1wa11 ge11 ha55-me55 toq5 bue . (VOC spirit.type TOP the/thatLOC come.out P+I) Yes, this was the beginning of the saqwa. b e11 and 31 31 e31 also as vocative ending; I5-wa11 r55 kung55ga11 ra dut1 lye 35 55 31 Mo pi -e . (function-father OBJ respect need+I become also+I beggarVOC) You have to respect your father, Beggar. cf. e5-, cf. the 31 highlighting suffix and the negative indicative suffix (N)o 31 (18.20); also compare the exclamatory ending -ei (5.7). -e55 I (FCT) (4.3) one of the various possible shapes of the factitive marker. e5- VOC vocative infix used in a fixed construction for calling out names; Le5-dvu11, e5-Le5-dvu11! ((male)-4th-brother VOC-(male)-4th-brother) Fourth brother! Hey, fourth brother! Cf. e11/e31/eq5/ei11/ei35/ei55/eiq5/o55. 11 ei (VOC) vocative onsets; vide e11/e31/eq5/ei11/ei35/ei55/eiq5/o55. ei11o31 (agreed) (ch.20) exclamatory expression used when agreeing to some prohibition; similar to m31mo31. 31 ei (ch.20) “yes”, “right!” or “all right!”; similar to m31. ei31 (EXCL+I) exclamatory ending giving emphatic expression to feelings such as despair or longing. In opening phrases of songs, it can also be used as a mere vocative ending. Homophonous to ei31 ‘yes, right!’. Vide 31 31 zyai11-ei and goi35-ei . 1 -eq (AG/I) (9.9) the agentive/instrumental suffix . -eq5 (COM) (9.10) one of the possible shapes of the comitative suffix .

    -Ffuen55 spec. n. ‘minute’; Na35i55 ke5-mvyo55 fuen55? (clock Q-much (B) minute) how many minutes? Chinese 分 fēn.

    -Ggva11 vi/vt. dance in circles; Tong11-gva11 gva11 (roll-dance.(circle) dance.(circle)) n+vt. dance the circle dance; cf. go35, bva55. ga I (perceive) (11.6) a v. to say, but not by the speaker of the sentence itself but rather like to hear from a certain person, or to know from a certain person; b (names) v. be called; c v. to feel. ga11 II (TOP) (9.8) the general topic marker . gva31 (headstall) vide waq1-gva31. ga31 (perceive+I) (11.6) the evidential marking unit, expressing ‘I know this from someone else’. ga35 / go35 I (other) (vide 9.23 on the differentiating pronouns de1kya31 ‘different’ and ga35/go35 ‘other’); go35-hu55 ming35 (other-sort language) another language, other languages. ga35 II (trade(V)) vide pe5ga35. gva55 I a adj. variegated; bvan55-gva55 (cloth-variegated1) n+adj. variegated cloth; b tung55-gva55 (wickerwork-variegated1) n+adj. kind of multifunctional back-basket. Vide a1-gva54-gok1; cf. a1-gvong55 (nomvariegated2) adj. variegated. gva55 II a vi. write; Le1go11 gva31 dvong31-aq1. (well write(ipf) clearly-SIM) Write (SG) clearly. b vt. write; lai11gva55 gva55 (script write) n+vt. to write; Nang31 se1boi31 dye31 lvoq5 dvui11 r55, ngo31 lai11gva55 a1-wo35 gva55. (2SG table too ACT move(vt)(ipf) PE 1SG script NEG-have write) You (SG) are letting the table move; I can’t write like this. si5gvyam55 gva55 (greetings write) n+vt. write a letter; gva31 hun31 (gvat5) (write(ipf) send (put.into)) write to someone; vide si1gvyam55/si5gvyam55 on postal affairs; c me1-gva55 (words-write) n. written signs; vide me1-gva55. Cf. lai11gva55; cf. Jingpo ka and laika (Xu et al. 1983: 358, 401); vide si1gvyam55/si5gvyam55 on postal affairs. 55 gva mai35 n. dipper; cf. Jingpo gamai (Xu et al. 1983: 162); cf. (indigenous:) mut1 n. dipper. 31 gva me1zveng55 (write(ipf) memory/memorize) vt+vt. make notes; vide me1zveng55. 54 ga (perceive+FCT) (11.6). gai31 I (ch.20) expresses notions like ‘well then, come on’; Gai31, lau35 kon31aq1. ((come.on!) promptly sing-SIM) Come on, sing (SG) (it) for us! 31 gai II n. market; used less often than zyau31 n. market. Ngo31 gai31 ye11 31 lye . (1SG market go(away/down)(ipf) also+I) I’m going to the market. Cf. Chinese local dialect 街 gài. 11

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    gai35 vt. prepare food; Nang31 zang11-sun11 i5-gai35-aq5. (2SG rice/foodveg/dish go-prepare.food-SIM) Go (SG) prepare the meal.

    -Gvai55 I (5th-sister) in names for fifth-born sisters; Me1-gvai55 ((female)5th-sister) name for fifth-born women.

    gvai55 II (thick/concentrated) a (porridge etc.) thick; Wui31-bvuq5 hi31 ge11 31

    gvai55-gvai55 ze11 dut1 bue . (water-explode(vt) this TOP thick/concentrated-thick/concentrated only become P+I) This porridge has become very thick. b (tea etc.) strong; Se5-poq5 hi31 ge11 gvai55-gvai55 ze1-me55, ko31 dik1 ra55. (tree-leaf this TOP thick/concentratedthick/concentrated only-LOC bitter(ipf) extreme PE) This tea is strong as hell, very bitter. gvai55gvyeq1 (pigeon/parrot) a n. domestic dove / pigeon; b n. kind of parrot. Cf. pung31gvyui11 and zi11. gvak5 I adj/vi. bald; u1-gvak5 (head-bald) n+adj. bald head; Bung11ki11 ge11 31 u1-gvak5 gvak5 lye . (monk TOP head-bald bald also+I) Monks have 1 bald heads. U -gvak5 gvak5 gvoq1. (head-bald bald DIE) Let’s (DU.IN) go bald-headed. Cf. kang55 and u1-gong11. gvak5 II n. large spoon; cf. zvyo31 n. spoon. gam11 adj. steep; cf. ng1gam11 n. abyss, Jingpo n-gam (Xu et al. 1983: 574); Ng1gam11 gam31 dik1 r55. (abyss steep(adj)(ipf) extreme PE) This is a very steep abyss. Vide gam11-bvyoq5 gam11-lvang11. gam11-bvyoq5 gam11-lvang11 (steep(adj)-lop.off steep(adj)-draw/hang) n. overhanging steep cliffs; Bum31 hau55-bum31 ge11 ban31-syoq5 gam11bvyoq5 gam11-lvang11 zvyat5-zvyat5. (heap(vt/N) the/that-heap(vt/N) TOP use.up-till steep(adj)-lop.off steep(adj)-hang all-all) That mountain all consists of overhanging, steep cliffs. gam31 I vt. divide, share; Le1-wui35 ze1-gvut5 gam31-aq1. (one-equal only-do divide/share-SIM) Divide (SG) it equally. Nang31 yvang11 r55 le1-zvui55 gam31 bi11-aq5. (2SG 3SG OBJ one-bit divide/share give-SIM) Give (SG) him/her a share of it. gam31 II (tree(B)) a spec. n. tree; wa11 le1-gam31 (bamboo one-tree(B)) a/one bamboo tree; sek5 mi11-gam31 (tree four-tree(B)) four trees; b bound form noun ‘tree’; se5-gam31 (tree-tree(B)) n+n. tree; we1-gam31 (bambootree(B)) n+n. bamboo tree; si1-gam31 le1-byap1 (fruit-tree(B) oneshrub/tree) a/one fruit tree; ban11-gam31 le1-byap1 (flower-tree(B) oneshrub/tree) a/one flower tree; nye35gvyet5-gam31 (rubber-tree(B)) n+n. rubber tree; a1-gam31-zo11 (nom-tree(B)-child) n. sapling. Cf. se5-/sek5 tree, wood; sek5 mi11-gam31 (tree four-tree(B)) four trees. gam35 I vt. abstain from eating or drinking something; sun11-gam35 gam35 (veg/dish-abstain abstain) n+vt. abstain from eating or drinking

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    something; Sun11(-gam35) gam35 lye . (veg/dish(-abstain) abstain also+I) I am abstaining from something. / I have to abstain from 31 something. Hau55-zyung31 sun11 gam35 lye . (the/that-kind veg/dish abstain also+I) I am abstaining from that kind of vegetables. -Gam35 II (eld-brother) a in names for eldest brothers; Le1-gam35 (male)-eldbrother) short name for any eldest brother (both eldest and youngest son); Pau11ki11-gam35 (name)-eld-brother) name of a witch doctor in Loilung; b in names of certain animal species; ding11-gam35 (locust-eldbrother) n. locust; dum11sa55-gam35 (witch.doctor-eld-brother) n. magpie; gve5-nva11-gam35 (mud-(regular)mud-eld-brother) n. kind of fish living in mud. gvam55 (16.50) vi. want to; the form gvam31 (want.to(ipf)) is also used as the voluntative adverb. gvam31 (want.to(ipf)) vide gvam55. gvan11 vi. (source etc.) dried out; vide meng11-gvan11; Gvan31 gvyeq5 byuq1 31 bue . (dried.out(ipf) cake lose P+I) It has caked together. I1-zvyam11 a1gvan11 si1-luq1? (water-water NEG-dried.out still-Y/N) Is it dried out already? Cf. ngyui11 adj/vi. (throat, leaves etc.) dried out; cf. gvyeq5 vi. cake. Resembles Chinese 干 gān adj/vi. dry. gan11 I n. balance; Gan11 wui35 bue31. (balance equal P+I) I’m well in balance. / It’s well in balance. Gan11 a1-wui35. (balance NEG-equal) I’m not in balance. / It’s not in balance. This morpheme could be the same morpheme as gan11 n. weaving-loom. 11 gan II n. weaving-loom, in: woq1-gan11 (weave-loom) n. weaving-loom; also in (woq1-)gan11-zum35 ((weave-)loom-pair) n+n. paired weavingloom; vide Woq1-gan11-sing55ngyang11(-nat1). his morpheme could be the same morpheme as gan11 n. balance. 11 gan -zum35 (loom-pair) n+n. paired weaving-loom; vide gan11. gan31 (late) vide gan31-zue31. gvan31 I n. earring; Ne1-gvan31 cui31/sui31 lye31. (ear-earring decorate.with(ipf) also+I) I’m wearing an earring. gvan31 II (put.into*) allomorph of gvat5; Hi55-me55 gvan31-aq1. (this-LOC put.into*-SIM) Put (SG) it in here. gvan31 III n. sulphur. gan31-zue31 (late-late) vi. late; Guq1 ho11 gan31-zue31 bue31. (unhusked.rice cultivate late-late P+I) It’s late for transplanting rice seedlings. Gan1131 zue11 dik1 bue . (late(ipf)-late(ipf) extreme P+I) It’s very late. In the negative: (Gan31) a5-mvyo55 a1-zue31. ((late) nom-much NEG-late) It’s not very late.

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    gang11 vi. (people, roads) split; Nga35-nvik5 Loi11lung35-bum31 mai11 lo35 31

    gang11 bue . (1PO-duo Loilung-heap(vt/N) ABL go(back/up) split(vi) P+I) We (DU) split / were split apart from the Loilung hill onwards. A1wo35 gang11 loq1. (NEG-have split(vi) no.more) We are inseparable. Cf. gvang11 vt. split. gvang11 vt. (people, roads) split up; kyo31-gvang11 (road-split(vt)) n. 31 crossroads; Nga35 mi11-wue11 r55 ngo31 gvang31 am55 bue . (1PO wife(ipf) female OBJ 1SG split(vt) PFM P+I) I have finished my relationship with my wife/girlfriend. nau35-gvang11 gvang11 (milk/breast-split(vt) split(vt)) n+vt. wean, stop breast-feeding; cf. gang11 vi. (people, roads) 31 31 split up; Kyo31-gvang11 zye35 zyang35 ge11 gang31 lum11 ra dut1 bue . (road-split(vt) arrive CD TOP split(vi)(ipf) reciprocal need+I become P+I) We have got to split up at the crossroads. gvang31 zo11 (roast.in.leaves eat) vt+vt. eat a dish packed and roasted in leaves; Vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. gang35 (roof) only in doq1-gang35. gvang55 vi. (said of spells etc.) work, (mostly in the negative:) not work if you incant the spells or if you have eaten dog-meat etc. A1-gvang31 loq1. (NEG-effective(ipf) no.more) (a spell:) It doesn’t work anymore. gvap1 (jaw) vide si1-gvap1. gaq1 (CC) (18.5) conceptual suffix, indicating that a thought of the speaker is being expressed and that the situation is not specifically a real situation. Cf. Jingpo ga [kaʔ31] (Xu et al. 1983: 138), ka1 (Dai & Xu 1992: 296). 1 gat vi/vt. be good at something, be an expert at something; Gue11 bat1 lye31, ze11 a1-gat1 (all.right(ipf) beat also+I only NEG-expert) I know how to play, but I’m not very good at it. Yvang11 lai11gva55 paq1zvi31 gat1 dik1 31 lye . (3SG script knowledge expert extreme also+I) He/she is a very 31 literate person. Yvang11 Si5dvung55-ming35 gat1 dik1 bue . ( 3SG Jingpolanguage expert extreme P+I) She is fluent in Jingpo. gvat5 (put.into) (15.13) a as a main verb, expressing ‘put into’(vt) and various other meanings; b as the effective aspectivizer; cf. lvung55 vt. put inside. gau11 / gau31 (9.33) nu. nine; vide gau35. gau11-cue31 (nine-ten) (9.33) nu. ninety. Gau11-kyo31-gvang11 (nine-road-split(vt)) n. the nine-forked road. Gau11-zo11 Le1wui31 (nine-child (name)) the nine Lewui brothers; figures in the story on Zitung. gau35 vi. clamber, walk difficult tracks; Yvo55-mai11 gau35 lye35 lo35-aq1. (leisurely-ABL clamber come(away/down) go(back/up)-SIM) Climb down (SG) carefully.

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    gvau55 n. stand, rack; gvau55-gyap1 (stand/rack-stand/rack) n. cupboard, like in every Zaiwa kitchen; mau11-nat5-gvau55 (sky-spirit-stand/rack) n. stand for the heavenly spirits (vide plate …). gvau55-gyap1 (stand/rack-stand/rack) vide gvau55. gau35 (nine(GEN)) (4.6-2) variant of gau11 nu. nine’, modified by the oblique genitive case marker; gau35-cue11-ra11 (nine(GEN)-ten(GEN)-one) ninetyone; gau35-cue11 le1-lvum11 (nine(GEN)-ten(GEN) one-lump) the ninetyfirst. ge1- I (male) allomorph of gue31 adj. male (e.g.: yuq1-gue31 (person-male) man), in ge1-mang11 n. brothers, brothers and sisters; ge1-mang11 nvik5dvang31 (male-elder.brother duo-siblings) n. brothers and/or sisters. 1 ge - II (random) prefix in various verbs concerning random actions, shown below. ge1- III (TOP) (9.8) allomorph of the general topic marker . 11 ge (TOP) (9.8) allomorph of the general topic marker . ge1-brem11-ge1-bram11 (random-swarm-random-swarm) ideophone expressing the notion of swarming places; cf. pyu11pyu11. ge1bu35 vi. glad, happy. Yvum31 pyang31 lo35 zyang35 yvang11 lom11 ge1bu35 31 be1-ra ngvut5 r55. (house DIR go(back/up) CD 3SG attend(ipf) glad/happy P-need+I be PE) (on a child:) When we come back home she will be terribly glad. Cf. Jingpo gabu (Xu et al. 1983: 140). ge1-dap1 (random-be.attached) vi/vt. touch things just for the sake of touching (like small children do); Ke5-ge1-dap1. (PHB-randombe.attached) Don’t touch it (touching just for the sake of touching). Ge1la31 n. India. ge1la31 ang11-nam31 (India petiole-smelly) n. Indian coriander. ge1la31-si11 (India-fruit) n. passionflower or dahlia. Ge1la11-bvue55 (India(GEN)-PLN) n. Indians. ge1-lo31 (TOP-no.more+I) (17.7) the familiarity marker, an attitude marker expressing familiarity or evidence, i.e. that the situation depicted is an obvious fact, conveying a connotation akin to ‘of course’; Ngo31 ge131 lo . (1SG TOP-no.more+I) It’s (only) me. ge1lu11 n. sweets. ge1-mang11 (male-elder.brother) a brothers; vide du31; b in ge1-mang11 nvik5-dvang31 (male-elder.brother duo-siblings) n. siblings; brothers and sisters; also vide du31. 1 Ge rai11 n. heavenly spirits; vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods.

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    ge1ro11 (9.17.2) n. between; refers to a position somewhere between two entities, not in the exact middle; cf. gung11-gung31 ‘the middle’. gve rvom31 onom. vide gvrom31. ge1-ru11 (random-talk(noise)) vi. referring to the noise of talking rather than the contents of it; cf. Jingpo garu (Xu et al. 1983: 175) with the same meaning. ge1-ruet1 (random-restless) vi. restless; Yvum31 hang11-mo35 wo35 hat5 ge1ruet1 r55. (house each-AUG have pursue random-restless PE ) All he can do is restlessly making his way along whatever house there is. ge1rum35 (15.14) a vi/vt. help; Ge1rai31-eq1 a1-ge1rum35. (heavenly.spirits#AG/I NEG-help) The heavenly spirits won’t help. b aux. expressing that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb takes place in order to help someone; Nang31 ngo31 r55 lai11gva55 mvoq5 ge1rum35 raq5. (2SG 1SG OBJ script learn/teach help VO) Please help (SG) me with studying. Cf. Jingpo garum (Xu et al. 1983: 175); cf. the cooperative verb prefix be1‘help’ (16.8). ge1uek5 n. hiccup; ge1uek5 uek5 (hiccup(N) hiccup(V)) / ge1uek5 tung11 (hiccup(N) crush) n+vt. have the hiccups; Ge1uek5 uek5 r55. (hiccup(N) hiccup (V) PE) I have the hiccups. / Someone has the hiccups. Ge1uek5 ke5-uek5. (hiccup(N) PHB-hiccup(V)) Don’t hiccup. Yvang11 ge1uek5 tung31 r55. (3SG hiccup(N) crush(ipf) PE) She has the hiccups. 1 ge yveng31 n. cicada; Ge1yveng31 ming31 yvam31 zye35 bue31. (cicada sound(vi) time.for arrive P+I) It’s the season of the singing of the cicada. sung11-toq5 ge1yveng31 (spring-come.out cicada) n. kind of cicada. 1 11 ge zi (whisperings) word class unknown; only attested in dang11-ge1zi11. ge1-zyam11 (random-fiddle) vt. fiddle with, play with; Gve5-nva11 he5-ge131 zyam11 loq1, bu11 bvue55-ha55 a1-gva54-gok1 ban11 dut1 bue . (mud(regular)mud PHB-random-fiddle no.more clothes PLN-where(B) nomvariegated1+FCT-flamboyant use.up(ipf) become P+I) Don’t play with mud; your clothes have become dirty all over. Cf. sup1. 1 ge zyam11 n. ceremonial gruel; ge1zyam11 zyam11 (ceremonial.gruel make.ceremonial.gruel) n+vt. make ceremonial gruel; vide mi11-sek5 ge1zyam11. 1 ge -zyo11 (random-tickle(vt)2) vt. tickle someone; ge1-zyo11 rui35 (randomtickle(vt)2 itch1) v+vi. itch; Ge1-zyo11 rui35 r55. (random-tickle(vt)2 itch1 PE) It itches. ge1-zyo11 rvui55 (random-tickle(vt)2 tickle(vt)1) v+vt. tickle; Ge1-zyo11 ke5-rvui55. (random-tickle(vt)2 PHB-tickle(vt)1) Don’t tickle. Vide ge1-zvyuk5/ge5-zvyuk5 (random-tickle(vt)3); also compare rvui55 vt. tickle1 and tok1. 1

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    ge1zyu11 adv. ‘never’; always in combination with the negative prefix a1-; Ge1zyu11 a1-ngvut5. (never NEG-be) This can never be. Ge1zyu11 a1-wui11 wu35-Ø. (never NEG-laugh(ipf) look-FCT) He has never laughed. Cf.: Ke5nvam55 lye11 a1-wui11 wu35-Ø. (Q-when also NEG-laugh(ipf) look-FCT) He has never laughed. ge1-zvyuk5 / ge5-zvyuk5 (random-tickle(vt)3) vt. tickle someone; cf. rvui55 (tickle(vt)1), ge1-zyo11 (random-tickle(vt)2) and tok1. 1 ge -zvyuk5-kyong31 (random-tickle(vt)3-cavity) n. armpit. gve5- I prefix ‘mud’, in gve5-bvo11, gve5-lvu11 and gve5-nva11. gve5- II (PL) (17.23) allopmorph of the plural clause marker gve5-/gvo55. ge5-zvyuk5-ge1-zyo11 (random-tickle(vt)3-random-tickle(vt)2) combination of verbs used as ideophone; mang35-lo11 ge5-zvyuk5-ge1zyo11 (elder.brother-tiger/bull random-tickle(vt)3-random-tickle(vt)2) tickle the tiger; tok1-tok1 gvut5 ge5-zvyuk5-ge1-zyo11 ([tickle]-[tickle] do random-tickle(vt)3-random-tickle(vt)2) tickle someone; cf. tok1. 5 gve -bvo11 (mud-frog) n. type of mud to be found in the fields. The translation of bvo11 as ‘frog’ is uncertain. Cf. gve5-nva11. 5 gve -byan35 (no.gloss-explain) n. interpreter; Ngo31 gve5-byan35 gvut5 lye31. (1SG no.gloss-explain do also+I) I act as interpreter. gve5lai11 n. flea; mostly waq1-gve5lai11 (pig-flea) n+n. flea. gve5lvang11 (17.10) conjunctional clause marker ‘although’. gve5-lvu11 lvu11 (mud-wallow wallow) n+vr. to wallow; No11 gve5-lvu11 lvu31 dvo31 r55. (cattle mud-wallow wallow(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) The cow is wallowing in the puddle. gve5-lvu11-tum11 (mud-wallow-pool) n. mud pool, such as which water bufaloes wallow in. gve5-nva11 (mud-(regular)mud) n. mud such as on roads etc.; cf. gve5-bvo11. gve5-nva11-gam35 (mud-(regular)mud-eld-brother) n. kind of fish living in mud. ge5-nvyep5 (random-lift/pinch) vt. lift, pinch, referring to not very serious stealing (unlike kau11 vt. steal); Pong55wan35 ke5-gve5-nvyep5. (monosodium.glutamate PHB-random-lift/pinch) Don’t pitch monosodium glutamate. gve5rvom11-gam31 (tree.name-tree(B)) n+n. kind of tree growing inedible berries. gve5syang11 a n. kind of plant that, by the huge beans inside its pods, can be used as rattle; b the beans thereof, resembling the kneecap; Gve5syang11 a1-kau31 ma54 nam11 dik1 r55. (plant.name nom-inside (ipf) LOC+FCT smelly extreme PE) The inside of a gvesyang-bean stinks. c n. kneecap.

    142 gek1

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    vt. wrench off; Le1gok1 gek1 dvu31-aq1. (stone wrench.off respond/upright-SIM) Wrench off (SG) the stone and stand it upright. Cf. gvek5 vt. ‘cross legs, trip up’ in ki31-gvek5 gvek5. gvek5 (cross.legs/trip.up) in ki31-gvek5 gvek5; cf. gek1 vt. wrench off. geng11 vi. strong, durable; Mue31-bu11 hau31 a1-geng11 luq1? (wrap-clothes the/that NEG-durable Y/N) Are these clothes strong? geq1 (9.25) ‘lot’, the nominalizing prefix of unquantified amount. geq1-i54 (lot-SPEC+FCT) ‘this large’, ‘one as huge as this’, e.g.: nvong31mo35 geq1-i54 (pond-AUG lot-SPEC+FCT) ‘a huge pond’. 1 geq -mvyo55 (lot-much(B)) ‘not so much’ (in negative clauses); ‘very much’ (in affirmative clauses). geq1-mvyo55-mvyo55 (lot-much(B)-much(B)) like geq1-mvyo55 but with more emphasis. gveq5 (PLIM) (17.18) the plural imperative clause marker. gvi11 n. sweat of the hands or feet; only in loq1-gvi11 (hand/arm-sweat) n+n. ‘sweat of the hands’ and ki31-gvi11 (leg/foot-sweat) n+n. ‘sweat of the feet’; Loq1-gvi11 toq5 r55. (hand/arm-sweat come.out PE) My hands are sweating. Ki31-gvi11 toq5 r55. (leg/foot-sweat come.out PE) My feet are sweating. Cf. bui31-bu11 (sun-water) n+n. sweat; Bui31-bu11 toq5 r55. (sunwater come.out PE) I’m sweating. gi11 I n. copper; cf. byek1san11 n. copper coins. gi11 II (food, sleep etc.:) vi. be satisfied with, full; Nang31 koi55 a1-gi11 siq1, dum11-sai31 zo11 si1-aq5 ma11. (2SG maybe NEG-full/satisfied still againredo(ipf) eat still-SIM ROUS) You (SG) are probably not full yet, so have 31 some more. Yvup5 gi11 bue . (sleep full/satisfied P+I) I am satisfied 31 31 11 with sleep. Zo gi bue . (eat(ipf) full/satisfied P+I) I’m full. Gi11-gi11 zo11-aq5. (full/satisfied-full/satisfied eat-SIM) Eat (SG) yourself full. 11 gi III (tendon/vein) in si1-gi11. gvi11gvi11 [very.bitter] ideophone expressing extreme bitterness of taste; 31 Ko31 lye gvi11gvi11. (bitter(ipf) also+I [very.bitter]) It tastes bitter as hell. Cf. gvi31 n. bile, gall, gall bladder. 1 gi -nvau31 (hear/smell-feel.like) (15.22) vt. like to hear, want to hear; Ngo31 mau31mi11 kai31 gvyo11 lye35, a1-gi1-nvau31 luq1? (1SG story narrate(ipf) let.hear come(away/down) NEG-hear/smell-feel.like Y/N) I’m telling a story, don’t you want to hear it? Mo35do35 ming25 tye31 a1-gi1-nvau31. (car sound(vi)+FCT sound NEG-hear/smell-feel.like) I don’t like to hear the sound of cars. The form gi1- is the short variant of gyo11 vt. ‘hear, smell’ and is only attested in this form. gvi31 I (bile/gall.(bladder)) only in seng11-gvi31. gvi31 II (pestle) in tung55-gvi31.

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    gvi31 III n. star (sp. cyam11/syam11). gi35 vi. slim; Nang31 gi35 byuq1 bue31. (2SG slim lose P+I) You (SG) have become slimmer.

    gin31 vi. busy; Yvum31 me55 gin11 lye31. (house LOC busy(ipf) also+I) There’s lots of work to be done at home. Ngo31 gung31-du11 gvin31 ra54 gin11 r55. (1SG body-being scratch.against.itch need+FCT busy(ipf) PE) I’m busy scratching myself. gvin31 vi/vt. scratch against itch; Gung31-du11 be1-gvin31-aq1. (body-being help-scratch.against.itch-SIM) Scratch (SG) my back. gin35 spec. n. (weight) pound; Syo11 hi31 ge11 le1-gin35 bo11 lye31 la11? (flesh this TOP one-pound contain(ipf) also+I UNC) Would this meat weigh at least one pound? Cf. pak1(-zo11) (half.a.pound(-child)) n. half a pound. -Gving55 (9th-sister) in name for ninth sisters; Nva55-gving55 (elder.sister9th-sister) name for a ninth sister. go11 (base) in yvum31-go11. gvo11 (big) a adj/vi. big; Le1-tang31 ge11 dviq5, le1-tang31 ge11 gvo11. (onebehind TOP little one-behind TOP big) One end is small and the other 31 end is big. b adj/vi. adult; Ze1-wui31 gvo11 bue . (child-generation big P+I) You are getting old. c vi. be of a certain age; Nga35-nvung55 a1sak1 31 le1-wui35 ze11 gvo31 lye . (1PO-1ND.IN age one-equal only big(ipf) also+I) We have the same age. d adv. after measures, indicating ‘well over, at 31 least’; Ngo31 ngo11-gin35 gvo31 o31 ra . (1SG five-pound big(ipf) want/take need+I) I’ll take about (at least) five pounds of it. Le1-wui35 gvo31 ban11 31 bue . (one-equal big(ipf) use.up(ipf) P+I) More than half has been done now. gvo11 bang11 (wui31) (big PNO (generation)) adj+n+n. the adults; cf. dviq5 bang11 (little PNO) n. the children. 31 go vi. clumsy, silly; Ngo31 go31 bue31 la11? (1SG clumsy/silly P+I UNC) Should I have been silly (again)? byu31-go31 (man/woman-clumsy/silly) n-+adj. silly person; byu31-go31-zo11 (man/woman-clumsy/silly-child) silly boy/girl; Byu31-go31-zo11 nang31 ge11… (man/woman-clumsy/sillychild 2SG TOP) You silly boy/girl…; go11-bvyaq5 bvyaq5 (clumsy/silly(ipf)-perform perform) n+vt. perform silly dances. 31 gvo vt. (dust, water etc.) shake off; Mue31-bu11 ma54 pui11-lvup5 gvo11 am55aq5. (wrap-clothes LOC+FCT dust/chaff-be.dusty shake.off(ipf) PFM-SIM) Shake off (SG) the dust on the clothes. I1-zvyam11 ke5-bik1 gvo31. (waterwater PHB-shake.off shake.off) Don’t shake off the water (off your hands). Cf. bik1 and gvyun55. 31 gvo (PL+I) (17.23) combination of two clause markers, used in many different clause marking units.

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    I vi. dance (in general); vt. perform a certain dance; (Me1nau11/Me5nau11) Zum31-go35 ((Menau) consort-dance) n+vt. Zum or Harmony dance; zat5 go35 (dancing dance) n+vi. dance, perform dances; dang31 go35 (fly(ipf) dance) vi+vi. jumping and dancing; Dang 31 go35 dvo11 31 gve5-ra luq1? (fly(ipf) dance place(vt) PL-need+I Y/N) (to disbehaving children:) Are you going to go on jumping and dancing like this? Pe1gun11 go35 syang55. (mourning.dance dance JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) dance the mourning dance. Cf. bva55 n/v. dance sideways, in traditional dances; gva11 vt. dance in circles; Tong11-gva11 gva11 (roll-dance.(circle) dance.(circle)) n+vt. dance the circle dance. go35 II (other) vide ga35. gvo55 I (groin) vide si1-gvo55. gvo55 / gve5- II (PL) (17.23) the plural clause marker gve5-/gvo55. go11-bvyaq5 (clumsy/silly(ipf)-perform) vi-+vt. Go11-bvyaq5 ke5-bvyaq5-o31. (clumsy/silly(ipf)-perform PHB-perform-HIGH+I) Don’t perform such 31 silly dances. I31-syuq5 wut1 lui go11-bvyaq5 bvyaq5 r55. (distilled-drink drunk in.this.way+I clumsy/silly(ipf)-perform perform PE) Because he’s drunk he is performing silly dances. goi11 vt. swing; only after ang55goi11 n. swing; ang55goi11 goi11 (swing(N) swing) n+vt. swing; also ang55goi11 zi11 (swing(N) ride(vt)) n+vt. swing; Ang55goi11 goi31 gvun55 syang55. (swing(N) swing(ipf) play JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) swing. goi35 I (alas) vide goi35-ei31. goi35 II (crooked/wicked) a adj. crooked; kyo31-goi35 (road-crooked/wicked) n. winding road; vide goi35-goi35-gup1-gup1; ki31 goi35 su31 (leg/foot crooked/wicked SNO) n. person with crooked leg(s); ngvyau11-goi35 (pipe-crooked/wicked) n+adj. pipe; b adj. wicked; byu31-goi35 (man/woman-crooked/wicked) n+adj. wicked person; cf. bvi31 and yvon55. 35 goi -ei31 (alas-EX+I) emphatic exclamation expressing despair or 31 sympathy; Goi35-ei , Me1zyoi11sing11ra11 Bum31 me55 cyoq5-pit5-n55 31 num11nang35 wui31-ei . (alas-EXCL+I Mezyoisingra heap(vt/N) LOC navel.string-cut.in.two-FCT friend generation-EXCL+I) Oh, friends that 31 were born at Mount Mezyoisingra! Goi35-ei , a5-se55 wa35 dut1-n55 ga54 31 1 31 ge -dvi -ei . (alas-EXCL+I nom-like EMP become-FCT perceive+FCT TOP-CX-EXCL+I) My God, why did it have to be like this! goi35 ‘alas’ is always followed by the exclamatory ending -ei31 (EXCL+I) (5.7). Cf. Jingpo goi (Xu et al. 1983: 197). goi35-goi35-gup1-gup1 (crooked/wicked-crooked/wicked-curved-curved) ideophone: (roads:) winding.

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    gok1 I (flamboyant) in a1-gva54-gok1. gok1 II n. room; gok1 le1-gok1 (room one-room) a/one room; also yvum31 le1gok1 (house one-room) a/one room; yvup5-gok1 (sleep-room) n. sleeping ward; zang11-gok5 (rice/food-room) n. kitchen; zyong11-gok5 (schoolroom) n. classroom; cf. Jingpo gok ‘room’ (Xu et al. 1983: 197). [gok1ei11gok11a11] [gok1gi11gok1gak1] onom. imitating the very coarse purring sound of tigers; Kyong11 me55 dak5 tye11 bi11 a1-mu31 lo11 31 31 “gok1gi11gok1gak1” ngvu ming11 lye . (throat LOC [hit.accurately] peck give nom-happen tiger/bull [onom] say+I sound(vi)(ipf) also+I) From being bitten in the throat onwards, tigers speak like “gok-gi-gokgak”. gok5 n. crest, crate; gok5 le1-gok5 (crest/crate one-crest/crate) a/one crest/crate; gok5-mo35 (crest/crate-AUG) n. large crest/crate; cf. gvok5 (box/carton) n. rather small box or carton. gvok5 I (box/carton) n. / spec. n. rather small box or carton; gvok5 le1-gvok5 (box/carton one-box/carton) a/one little box/carton; gvok5-zo11 (box/carton-child) n+adj. little box/carton; cf. gok5 n. crest, crate. gvok5 II (tiny) adj. (body or body parts) abnormally small or skinny; gung31(-du11) gvok5-zo11 (body(-being) tiny-child) n. tiny or skinny body; ki31-gvok5-zo11 (leg/foot-tiny-child) n. tiny or skinny feet/legs; ling31(-zeng11) gvok5-zo11 (neck(-neck) tiny-child) n. tiny or skinny neck; cf. ngvyai55 and zvai55. gom11 vi. (food) be finished, leaving some people without food; M1m31, 31 gom31 si31 bue . ((malicious) nothing.left(ipf) die P+I) So there, there’s 31 31 nothing for you! Gom11 bue , gom11 bue , a1-myang31 zo11 loq1. (nothing.left P+I nothing.left P+I NEG-see eat no.more) It’s all finished, there’s nothing left to eat for you. / You’ll have to do without food. gvom31 (empty) only as adj.; dvau55-gvom31 (inflate(vt)/bottle(N)-empty) n+adj. empty bottle; a1-gvom31 (nom-empty) na. empty; cf. zvan31 vt. empty. gom35 n. mug; se5-poq5-gom35 (tree-leaf-mug) n. tea mug; cf. Jingpo gom (Xu et al. 1983: 197). gon11 / gon31 vt. bother about, take care of; No11-woq1-waq1 le1go11 gon11/31 gveq5. (cattle-chicken-pig well bother.about PLIM) Take good care of the livestock. Vide boi35 ignore smn.; cf. Chinese 管 guǎn vt. bother about, mind; cf. Jingpo gon bother about, take care of (Xu et al. 1983: 198). gon35 n. wild goose; cf. kyang55-mo35 (goose-AUG) n+adj. domestic goose. gong11 ((head).shaven) vide u1-gong11.

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    gvong11 a n. hill; hye55-gvong11 me55 (same.elevation-hill LOC) on the other/next hill; zvau11-gvong11 (officer-hill) n+n. (in former days:) hilltop belonging to the village ruler; b n. in names for hills or other topographical names; Gvong11-dum11 (hill-no.gloss) name of the hilltop of Loilung; Cya11cyang31-gvong11 (tea.factory-hill) Tea factory hill, in Loilung; Zyong11-gvong11 (school-hill) n+n. School hill, in Loilung; Rung31-gvong11 (institution-hill) name for the hill where the Loilung village community buildings used to be; Gvong11-pa55, a village name. Cf. Jingpo akong and kong (Xu et al. 1983: 21, 370). gong11dang11 n. large underground fireworks; cf. Jingpo gongdang (Xu et al. 1983: 198). gong11dop5 n. firecrackers. Gvong11-dum11 (hill-no.gloss) name of the hilltop of Loilung. gong11gve5rvang55 n. husking machine; Gong11gve5rvang31-eq1 zyo31bva55 31 wo35 tung11 zo31 lye . (husking.machine#-AG/I rice.cake have crush (ipf) eat also+I) With the husking machine you can tamp rice cake for eating. gong11nvyet5 / gong11nvyet5nvyet5 n. seesaw; gong11nvyet5 nvyet5 (seesaw play.seesaw) n+vt. play seesaw; Gong11nvyet5 nvyet5 gvun55 gvoq1. (seesaw play.seesaw play DIE) Let’s (DU .IN) play on the seesaw. Gvong11-pa55 (hill-(in.village.names)) a village name. gong11-tang31 (hill-foothills) n+n. the foot of the hill; Mvo31 gvong11-tang31 31 mai11 syeq1 mi35-ngvye31 gvat5-n55 ga31 lye nang31 ge11. (below hill(ipf) foothills ABL au.contraire fire-burn(vt) put.into-FCT perceive(ipf) also+I 2SG TOP) At the foot of the hill he then set a fire. gong35 vi/vt. travel; Gong35 gvun31 lye31. (travel play(ipf) also+I) We are 31 traveling (for fun). Meng11-gong35 gong35 lye . (world-travel travel 11 also+I) I’m making distant journeys. Cf. meng vi/vt. ramble, meng11lam35, yong11 and lam35. gvong55 I (bone1) a n. bone, in si1-gvong55 (flesh-bone1) n. bone; also si1wui11 (flesh-bone2) n. bone; b spec. noun for bones; si1-gvong55 le1gvong55 (flesh-bone1 one-bone1) a/one bone; cf. wui11. gvong55 II vt. catch fish, either by draining the water away, scooping the 31 water away or by catching them by hand; Nge1-zo11 gvong55 ye11 lye . (ipf) (fish-child catch.fish go (away/down) also+I) We are going to catch fish. Cf. pek5 vt. catch fish, specifically by draining. gvong55 III (variegated2) only attested in a1-gvong55. gop1 (evade) a vi. hide oneself; Gop1 yu31-aq1. (evade take-SIM) Hide 31 yourself (SG). Ngo31 gop1 byuq1 bue . (1SG evade lose P+I) I’m hiding 11 31 55 myself. b vt. evade; Yvang ngo r gop1 r55. (3SG 1SG OBJ evade PE)

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    He is evading me. c possibly also in dap1-gop1. Cf. Jingpo gop (Xu et al. 1983: 199). gvop1 n. shell, packet; a1-gvop1 (nom-shell/packet) n. shell, packet; dvau55gvop1 (inflate(vt)/bottle(N)-shell/packet) n. turtle; gvung55-gvop1 (shellshell/packet) n+n. shell of turtle or snail; ngvya55-gvop1 (tobaccoshell/packet) n+n. cigarette-packet; yam35dvok5-gvop1 (bulletshell/packet) n+n. cartridge-case. Cf. Jingpo kop (Xu et al. 1983: 370). 5 gop (skull) vide u1-gop5. gvoq1 (DIE) (17.19) the dual inclusive exhortative clause marker. gvoq1-san31 (no.gloss-shoulder) n. shoulder; vide san31. gvoq5 I (branch) a n. branch of a tree; se5-gvoq5 (tree-branch) n. branch of a tree; si1-gvoq5/si11-gvoq5 (fruit-branch) n. branch of a fruit tree; b spec. n. for branches; se5-gvoq5 le1-gvoq5 (tree-branch one-branch) a/one branch of a tree; c in nge1-gvoq5 (fish-branch) n. stretch of a stream, drained for catching fish; Nge1-gvoq5 i5-pek5 gveq5. (fish-branch go-drain.fish PLIM) Go (PL) drain some fish. -Gvoq5 II (eld-sister) in names for eldest sisters; Me1-gvoq5 ((female)-eldsister) name for eldest-born women; e.g.: Zeng11hang55-gvoq5 ((name)eld-sister) a personal name (an eldest sister of the Zeng11hang55 family). Cf. Jingpo Ko (Xu et al. 1983: 368). got1 I vi. dirty; Pyang11 dye31 got1 r55. (floor too dirty PE) The floor is too dirty. got1 II (scoop(vt)) (16.40) a vt. scoop with something broad; got1 zveng11 (scoop(vt)-bring.together) ‘to sweep rubbish with the hand, the foot or a hoe, instead of with the broom’, and got1 syuq5 (scoop(vt)-drink) ‘to drink out of the hand or after scooping the water with a bowl, instead of with a ladle’; cf. b the excessive adverb, expressing ‘to do something in an excessive way’ Ke5-dye31 got1 syuq5. (PHB-too scoop(vt) drink) Don’t drink so terribly much. Cf. ku11 vt. scoop up water, lap1 vt. scoop, fish out. Vide nvang55. gvrom31 onom. imitating the sound of breaking wood, bones etc. Si1-gvoq5 31 “gvrom31” ga11 kyui31 byuq1 bue . (fruit-branch [onom] perceive bend(ipf) lose P+I) The branch of the fruit tree broke with a loud crack. 11 gu I vi/vt. wade; wui31-gu11 (water-wade) n+vt. wade; gu31 dvap5 (wade(ipf) attach) wade to the other side of the water; Ngo31 wui31-gu11 a1-rup5 gu11. (1SG water-wade NEG-dare wade) I do not dare to wade. Gu31 dvap5 syang55. (wade(ipf) attach JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) wade across. 11 gu II n. younger brother or sister; a5-gu11 (nom-younger.sibling) n. one’s younger brother or sister; nga35 gu11 (1PO younger.sibling) my younger brother or sister; i5-gu11 (function-younger.sibling) n. kinship term.

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    gu31 (PART) (9.22) the partitive pronominal suffix expressing ‘a particular part, this particular part’; hi55-gu31 (this-PART) ‘these, this part’; vide gu54 (PART+FCT). 35 gu I n. bed; also as specifier noun, e.g.: gu35 le1-gu35 (bed one-bed) a/one bed (as a sleeping place); gu35 le1-lvum11 (bed one-lump) a/one bed (as a material object). gu35 II vi. be ice-cold; Bing55bang11 zo31 r11 zui31 gu35 dik1 r55. (ice-cream eat(ipf) also tooth ice-cold extreme PE) When eating ice cream, my teeth are ice-cold. Cf. gyoq1 vi. be cold. 55 gvu (bark) vide se5-gvu55. gu54 (PART+FCT) (vide 9.22). gue11 a n. burp, in a5-gue11 (nom-burp) n. burp; b vt. burp, in a5-gue11 gue11 (nom-burp burp) n+vt. to burp; A5-gue11 gue11 r55. (nom-burp burp PE) He is burping. / You are burping. A5-gue11 ke5-gue11. (nom-burp PHBburp) Don’t burp. gue31 I (all.right) (16.49) no equivalent lexical category in English; a vi. e.g. 31 Gue31 bue . (all.right P+I) It’s all right now. b adj. in dang11-gue31 (words-all.right) n. profound words; c reduplicated: as an adverb expressing ‘really’; d in the positive adverb gue11 (all.right(ipf)), expressing various notions, often translated as ‘can’. gue31 / ge1- II (male) adj. male; only attested in a few complex nouns: yuq1-gue31 n+adj. man, men (not byu31 n. man, woman; mankind); ze1gue31 waq1ngan31 (child-male young.man) n. young men, male youngsters; cf. the masculine sex suffix po55; vide ge1- and ge1-mang11. gvue31toq5 n. rack for smoking and drying things, above the fire rack, found in every Zaiwa home; Myam31zui11 a1-toq5 ma54 ge11 gvue31toq5. (rack.above.fire nom-come.out LOC+FCT TOP upper.smoking.rack) What’s above the fire rack is called the gvuetoq. Gvue31toq5 Le1bung11 (upper.smoking.rack (name)) creature dwelling on the gvue31toq5; vide …; Gvue31toq5 Le1bung11 nat1 a1-dut1. (upper.smoking.rack (name) spirit NEG-become) Lebung of the upper smoking rack is not a (real) spirit. gue35 a vt. fit inside; A1-gue35. (NEG-fit.inside) It’s too small. Gue35 r55. (fit.inside PE) It fits. (It’s not too small.) b Lva55-mo35 gue35 dvo31 r55. (moon-AUG fit.inside place(vt)(ipf) PE) I am in menstruation. Cf. gvue55 vt. measure. gvue55 I (great-grand) a n. great-grandparent; mostly in a5-gvue55; b n. cousins of one’s parents; mostly in a5-gvue55; c n. great-grandchild; in syu11-gvue55.

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    gvue55 II (measure) a n. (road etc.) stretch; Yvang11 kyo31 le1-gvue55 mai11 31

    dum11 dvau31 lo35 byuq1 bue . (3SG road one-measure ABL again turn(ipf) go(back/up) lose P+I) After covering a certain stretch of road, she turned and went back. Se5-gam31 le1-gvue55 ze11 wo35 doq1 r55. (tree-tree(B) onemeasure only have go.up PE) I could only climb the tree part of the way. le1-gvue55 me55 (one-measure LOC) somewhere halfway; Yvang11 le131 gvue55 me55 lo31 be1-kai . (3SG one-measure LOC come(back/up) PSUG+I) He is somewhere halfway on his way here. b vt. measure; Kyo31 hi31 ge11 ke5-mvyo55 heng11 lye54 lu55, nga35-nvik5 gvue31 wu35 gvoq1. (road this TOP Q-much(B) long(ipf) also+FCT MIR 1PO-duo measure(ipf) look DIE) Let’s (DU) measure how long this road is. c vide dang11-gvue55 (words-measure) adv. if, supposing, in case. Cf. gue35. 11 gue (all.right(ipf)) vide gue31. gvui11 (crisp/frizz) adj/vi. (hair, cloth) frizzy, curly; Bu11 nvye31 gvui31 am55 31 bue . (clothes press(ipf) crisp/frizz(ipf) PFM P+I) These (synthetic) clothes have become frizzy (from the heat). u1-gvui11 (head-crisp/frizz) n+adj. curly hair, frizzy hair (not permed; cf. u1-gvup5 n+adj. permed hair). gum11gai35bva31 n. type of ant, neck and middle are red, painfull bite; vide bau31woq5. gum11rong31 (conceited) adj. conceited; arrogant, proud, vain; Yvang11 gum35rong11 dik1 r55. (3SG conceited(ipf) extreme PE) He’s very conceited. gum31 (covered) vi. covered by quilt etc.; A1-gum31 luq1 ? (NEG-covered (ipf) Y/N) Are you well inside the quilt? and the reply: Gum11 r55. (covered 1 PE) Yes, I am. Cf. hup . gum35 (complete/perfect(vi)) a vi. complete, in the same sense as ngap1 vi. complete; Gum35 dik1 ra55. (complete/prefect(vi) extreme PE) It’s very complete. b adj. perfect; Dat1 gyo31 lye11 gum35-Ø ge11. (able hear/smell(ipf) also complete/perfect(vi)-FCT TOP) When you do understand, it would be perfect. Cf. ngap1 and kum55/hum55; cf. Jingpo gum vi. complete (Xu et al. 1983: 207). Gun11 in Gun11-toi11. Gun11-toi11 a personal name. -Gun31 I (5th.in.line) in Mang11-gun31 (elder.brother-5th.in.line) name for elder brother who is fifth in line. gvun31 I (do*) allomorph of gvut5; A5-se55 gvun31-aq1. (nom-like do*-SIM) Do (SG) it like that. gun31 II (fling/strike/wave) a vt. throw, fling in horizontal direction; 31 Zi1syang31 nang31 gun11 dam54 ra -o55! (child 2SG fling/strike/wave(ipf) VEH+FCT need+I-HIGH) You child, I’ll throw you (SG) far away! b n.

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    wave, in wui31-gun31 (water-fling/strike/wave) n. wave; c n. wave, in wui31-gun31 gun31 (water-fling/strike/wave fling/strike/wave) n+n. 31 (water) wave; Wui31-gun31 gun11 lye . (water-fling/strike/wave (ipf) fling/strike/wave also+I) There are waves. Wui31-gun31 a1-gun31. (water-fling/strike/wave NEG-fling/strike/wave) There are no waves. d n. in mau11-gun31 (sky-fling/strike/wave) (i) n. thunderstorm; (ii) scolding: Mau11-gun31 nang31 ge11! (sky-fling/strike/wave 2SG TOP) You (SG) bloody idiot! / (Lit.:) You (SG) that’s always like being struck by lightning! vide f; e vi. thunder, (lightning) strike; Mau35-gun11 r55. (skyfling/strike/wave(ipf) PE) There’s a thunderstorm. f vt. (lightning) strike; Mau31-eq1 gun31 ra54 nang31 ge11! (sky#-AG/I fling/strike/wave need+FCT 2SG TOP) You (SG), who will be struck by lightning! Se5-gvoq5 mau3131 eq1 gun11 kyui31 am55 bue . (tree-branch sky#-AG/I fling/strike/wave(ipf) bend(ipf) PFM P+I) The branch has been struck and bent by the lightning. 31 A1-mvau55-o , mau31-eq1 gun11 r11 gun11, a1-mvau55! (NEG-cheat/fool(ipf) HIGH+I sky#-AG/I fling/strike/wave also fling/strike/wave(ipf) NEGcheat/fool) I’m not cheating! May lightning strike me, I’m not cheating. / (Lit.:) I’m not cheating! Even if I had to be struck by lightning (I would still say) I’m not cheating. g n. in loq1-gun31 du35 (hand/armfling/strike/wave throw) n+vt. swim freestyle. (Vide wui31-li11 li11 for more on swimming.) gvun31 II vi. be stuck, such as of joints, cf. wue35; Loq1-ngyui11 gvun11 byuq1 31 bue . (hand/arm-finger/toe stuck1(ipf) lose P+I) (One phalanx of) my finger is being stuck.; vide gvun11 zung31; cf. wue35. 31 gun III n. net (sp. lvum11); Gun31 du35 ye31 gvoq1. (net throw go(away/down) DIE) Let’s (DU) go fishing with the net. gvun31zyun35 n. robber; also de1myaq1 n. robber; cf. kau11-su31 / byu31-kau11 n. thief. gvun55 (play) (15.17) the recreational aspectivizer. Gun55ming11 the city of Kunming. gvun11 zung31 (stuck1(ipf) sit) a writhe with pain; Gvun11 zung11 lo35 bue31. (stuck1(ipf) sit(ipf) go(back/up) P+I) I writhe with pain. b be stuck; Loq131 ngyui11 gvun11 zung11 byuq1 bue . (hand/arm-finger/toe stuck1(ipf) sit(ipf) lose P+I) (One phalanx of) my finger is being stuck. Vide gvun31. gung11 I (body2) n. variant of gung31 n. body; only in ang11-gung11 (petiolebody2) n+n. thick parts of leaves. Cf. gung31. gung11 II n. coffin (sp. lvum11). gung31 (body) a n. body; b n. base; vide mi1-gung31; c n. centre, middle; vide gung11-gung31 n. ‘(in) the exact middle’ and wa31-gung31 (village-

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    body) n. village centre; d n. self; vide gung31-gung31 adv. oneself. Cf. gung11 (body2). gvung31 (hunch) a not readily translated noun; used in gung31-gvung31, ngi35-gvung31, min35-gvung31-gam31. gung31-ci11/si11 (body-wash) n+vt. wash oneself. Gung31-du11 si11 ye31 ra31. (body-being wash go(away/down) need+I) I’m going to wash myself. gung31-cin31 (body-naked) na. naked; Zi1syang31 gung31-cin31 ma54 ngi11 dvo31 r55. (child body-naked LOC +FCT be.there(anim)(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) The child is/was naked. Gung31-cin31 si5-gyang31 gvun31-aq1. (bodynaked flesh-naked/bald do*-SIM) Go (SG) naked. Vide cin31. gung31-du11 (body-being) n. body; le1-gung31-du11 rvoq5 (one-body-being DEF) the whole body. gung31-du11 byen11(-long11-mo35) (body-being (body/feet).flat(slice/plate-AUG)) vide byen11. gung31-du11 gvok5-zo11 (body-being tiny-child) vide gvok5. gvung31gvang31 n. celery. gung31-gvok5-zo11 (body-tiny-child) vide gvok; n+adj+adj. tiny or skinny body. gung31-gung31 (body-body) (9.5) adv. oneself. gung31-gvung31 (body-hunch) a n. hump, hunch; b n+adj. state of hunching the back; Gung31-gvung31 ma54 gvut5 din31-aq1. (body-hunch LOC+FCT do run-SIM) Run (SG) with your back hunched. gung31-lai11 (body-heavy) n+vi. pregnant; Ngo31 gung31-lai11 bue31. (1SG body-heavy P+I) I’m pregnant. gung31-ngong35 ngong35 (body-bowed.down bowed.down) n+v. (elderly people) be bowed down, stooped with age; Gung31-ngong35 ngong35 r55. (body-bowed.down bowed.down PE) He is bowed down. gung31-si11 (body-wash) vide gung31-ci11/si11. gung35 only in lo11-gung35 n. donkey. gung35zo11 n. work; Chinese 工作 gōngzuò. gvung55 n. shell; mvyang11-gvung55 (shin-shell) n+n. shin; cf. gvung55gvop1, gvop1, gvyap5. gung55gin35 n. kilo; Chinese 公斤 gōngjīn. gvung55-gvop1 (shell-shell/packet) n+n. shell of turtle or snail. gung11-gung31 (body(GEN)-body) (9.17.1) n. ‘(in) the middle’, referring to the exact middle between two entities; gung11-gung31 ma54 yvum31 (body(GEN)-body LOC+FCT house) the house right in the middle; cf. ge1ro11 between (9.17.2). 1 gup (curved) vide goi35; cf. gvup5.

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    gup1gup1 [crispy] ideophone expressing crispness; Gup1gup1 ze5-ga11 31

    ngvam31 dik1 r55 dvi ? ([crispy] only-perceive tasty(ipf) extreme PE CX+I) So crispy, very tasty, isn’t it? gvup5 (contract) a vt. curl up; Ki31-gvup5 he5-gvup5. (leg/foot-contract PHBcontract) Don’t lie there curled up in a ball. b adj. permed, in: u1-gvup5 (head-contract) n+adj. permed hair; cf. u1-gvui11 n+adj. curly hair, frizzy hair (not permed); cf. gup1. 1 guq I (in.front.of.fireplace) in tung55-guq1. guq1 II vt. pick up; Guq1 dvoq5 gvan31-aq1. (pick.up get.up put.into*-SIM) Pick (SG) it up. guq1 III n. unhusked rice. guq1 bvyo31 (paddy.rice spread) n+vt. spread out unhusked rice to dry. guq1 dvui31 (unhusked.rice sow.in.holes/dibble) n+vt. sow paddy. guq1 ho11 (unhusked.rice cultivate) n+vt. transplant rice seedlings. guq1 tung11 (unhusked.rice crush) n+vt. husk rice. guq1-bum11 (unhusked.rice-bud) vide bum11. guq1-bup1 (unhusked.rice-bad/fermented) n. fermented, heating unhusked rice. guq1-do35 (unhusked.rice-huge.container.for.unhusked.rice) n+n. huge container, mostly for unhusked rice (sp. cyam11/syam11). 1 guq -nvam31 (unhusked.rice-ear.(of.grain)) n+n. ear of rice. guq1-som31 (unhusked.rice-empty.pod) n+n. shriveled grains. guq1-yo31 (unhusked.rice-land) n+n. paddy field (in use); cf. i1-tung11. guq1-zvi31 (unhusked.rice-shed2) n. shed for keeping unhusked rice (sp. cyam11/syam11). 1 guq -zung31 zung31 (unhusked.rice-pile.up pile.up) n+vt. pile up unhusked 31 rice; Guq1-zung31 zung11 lye . (unhusked.rice-pile.up pile.up(ipf) also+I) We are piling up unhusked rice. Vide zung31. gvuq5 (skin) n. skin, hide, peel; si1-gvuq5 (fruit-skin) n. fruit peels; si1-gvuq5 (flesh-skin) n. skin, hide; nvut5-gvuq5 (mouth-skin) n+n. lip, lips; vide si1-gvuq5. 1 gut gut1 a onom. imitating gurgling whilst drinking; I1-zvyam11 syuq5 zyang35 “gut1gut1” ga31 r55. (water-water drink CD [gurgle] perceive(ipf) PE) When drinking water you hear “cluck cluck”. b ideophone in small children’s language: ‘drink’. gvut5 (do) (10.4) vt. to do. gvut5 gvat5 (do put.into) vt+aux. have the due respect of a certain person; Ngo31 hau55 yuq1 r55 a1-dye31 gvut5 gvat5 siq1. (1SG the/that person OBJ NEG-too do put.into still) I don’t much have the due respect of that 31 person yet. Ngo31 hau55 yuq1 r55 zyaq1 gvut5 gvat5 bue . (1SG the/that

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    person OBJ quite do put.into P+I) I already adequately have the due respect of that person. gya35 I vt. add; loaned from Chinese 家 jiā; Hau55-lvum11 ze11 gya35 lvung31 gvan31-aq1. (the/that-lump only add let.inside(ipf) put.into*-SIM) (inserting a word into a line of writing:) Add (SG) it here. Cf. zyat1. 35 gya II (prepared) (16.42) a vi. be prepared; b investigative adverb; cf. zin31. gyai11 (excellent) a (objects:) vi. excellent, very good quality; Nang31 lai11gva55 gyai11 gve5lvang11 he5-gum11rong31. (2SG script excellent although PHB-conceited) Even though your (SG) handwriting is beautiful, you don’t have to be so proud of yourself. b (people:) vi. diligent, hard-working; Yvang11 ge11 gyai11 yvang11 gyai31 r55. (3SG TOP excellent in.truth excellent(ipf) PE) She is really diligent indeed. gyai35 (rather) Longchuan variant of zyaq1 adv. rather, very. gvyak5 (beat.with.knuckles) vide syang11-gvyak5 gvyak5. gvyam11 (fate) n. fate, good luck; Nang31 syo11 wo35 bek1 ra54 gvyam11 a1wo35. (2SG flesh have shoot need+FCT fate NEG-have) You (SG) don’t have much luck in shooting game. Vide gvyam11-dap5; cf. pu11 and mun11. gyam11 (storey) n. storey, platform; Sau55-hai11 gyam11 me55 dvo31 dvo31 31 lye . (shoe-shoe storey LOC place(vt)(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I) The shoes 31 are on the floor (upstairs). Gyam11 sin31 lye . (storey make.platform(ipf) also+I) We are making a floor/platform. Cf. pyang11; vide si1 -gyam11. gvyam11-dap5 (fate-be.attached) n+vi. have the fate to; Nang31 mo35do35 muq1 ra54 gvyam11-dap5 r55. (2SG car tumble need+FCT fate-be.attached PE) You (SG) seem to have the fate of having accidents with cars. Nang31 a1zeng35 pyuq5 am55 ra54 gvyam11-dap5 r55. (2SG thing make.lost PFM need+FCT fate-be.attached PE) You (SG) seem to have the fate of misplacing things all the time. Vide gvyam11; cf. pu11. gyam11-dong11 (storey-(have)hole) n+n. crack in wall or floor. gyam11-yvum31 (storey-house) n+n. two-storied house; cf. mi1-gung31yvum31. gvyam31 (suspend) vt. let some object get suspended up somewhere, e.g. as a result of throwing it into a tree; Ngo31 uu35mau11zyo11 bat1 gvyam11 31 am55 bue . (1SG shuttlecock beat suspend(ipf) PFM P+I) I hit the 31 shuttlecock so that it got stuck. Du35 gvyam31 bue luq1? (throw suspend P+I Y/N) Did you throw it up to let it get stuck already? Cf. gyam31. gyam31 (be.suspended) vi. be suspended, be stuck up somewhere; Le1-lat1 31 me55 gyo35 gyam11 byuq1 bue . (one-halfway LOC go.down

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    be.suspended(ipf) lose P+I) It got stuck somewhere halfway. Hu31 gyam11 dvo31 r55. (above be.suspended(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) It’s stuck there above. Cf. gvyam31 and wue31. gyam35 (stalk(vt)) vt. hunt by stalking; Ngvoq5 gyam35 lye31. (bird stalk(vt) also+I) I’m stalking birds. Gyam35 dik1 r55 a1-wo35 gyam35. (stalk(vt) extreme PE NEG-have stalk(vt)) Whatever he did, he just couldn’t hunt it down. Vide si1-gyam35 (flesh-stalk(vt)) n+vt. to hunt (by stalking). Vide syo11 for an overview of Zaiwa hunting terms. gvyam55 (enclose) vt. enclose with a fence; cf. kyam31 n. fence; Sun5531 kyam31 gvyam31 dvo31 lye . (garden-fence enclose(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I) We are enclosing the field with a fence. gvyang11 only in zun31-gvyang11. gyang11mvya55 n. spider. gyang11mvya55-sut5 (spider-(make)nest) n+n. cobweb. gvyang31 I n. mosquito (sp. du11). gyang31 I (large.drum) in zeng31-gyang31. gvyang31 II ((trees)bare) in se5-gvyang31. gyang31 II (naked/bald) adj/vi. naked, bald, bare; in a1-gyang31 and si5gyang31; cf. cin31. gvyang31-si31 (mosquito-die) n+adj. mosquito, bloody mosquito (detesting undertone). gvyang31-sut5 (mosquito-(make)nest) n+n. mosquito net. gvyang31-sut5 sut5 (mosquito-(make)nest (make)nest) n+n+vt. hang a mosquito net; Gvyang31-sut5 sun31-aq1. (mosquito-(make)nest (make)nest*-SIM) Hang (SG) the mosquito net. / Hang (SG) a mosquito net. gvyang55 (bolt) vt. bolt the door; vide kum11-gvyang55. gyap1 (stand/rack) only in gvau55-gyap1. -gvyap5 (shell/crust) suffixed noun indicating ‘shell of…’, ‘crust of…’, ‘scales of…’ and related notions; a1-gvyap5 (nom-shell/crust) n. shell, crust; si1-gvyap5 (fruit-shell/crust) n+n. fruit peels (also si1-gvuq5 (fruitskin) n+n. fruit peels); nge1-gvyap5 (fish-shell/crust) n. fish scales; au11gvyap5 (pan-shell/crust) n+n. edible crust on the bottom of a pan; bi1gvyap5 (wasp/bee-shell/crust) n+n. bee hive; dam11-gvyap5 (woundshell/crust) n+n. scab on wound; lung11zyo35-gvyap5 (shellfishshell/crust) n. shell of shellfish; mau11sau11-gvyap5 (paper/bookshell/crust) n. book cover; nve5bap1-gvyap5 (snail2-shell/crust) n. snail shell; u5-gvyap5 (egg-shell/crust) n. eggshell. Cf. gvyeq5. gvyaq5 (grasp) a vt. grasp; Mi31-nuq5 le1-zvui55 gvyaq5 gvan31-aq1. (earthbean one-bit grasp put.into*-SIM) Grasp (SG) some peanuts. Ki31 me55

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    gvyaq5 zeng11 dvo11 zyang35 syeq1… (leg/foot LOC grasp fixed(ipf) place(vt) CD au.contraire) His leg/foot being tightly in the grip… Ei31 31 te1mung35 nang31 ngo31 gvyaq5 toq5 ra -o55! (VOC deceiver 2SG 1SG grasp come.out need+I-HIGH) “Hey, you deciever, I’ll grasp you and throw you out!” b also in gvyaq5 kung11 (grasp fold) vt+vt. fold hands in order to drink; Loq1-eq1 gvyaq5 kung11-aq5. (hand/arm-AG/I grasp foldSIM) Use (SG) your hands for drinking. Cf. myaq1. 11 gye (coal) only in mi1-gye11. gye31 n. soldier. gye31 gvut5 (soldier do) n+v. serve as soldier. gye31-bvi55 (soldier-flute) n. bugle (without valves). gye31-keng11 (soldier-outfit) n+n. military uniform. gvyek5 (shriek) in gvyek5 ngau31. gvyek5 ngau31 (shriek weep) vi+vi. shriek; Ke5-dye31 gvyek5 ngau31. (PHBtoo shriek weep) Don’t shriek like that. gvyem31 (in requests for certain objects:) vt. have left over (for the speaker); I31-pue11 a1-gvyem11 dvo11 luq1? (distilled-booze NEG -left.over(ipf) 31 place(vt) Y/N) Do you have booze left? Replied by: Gvyem11 dvo31 lye . (ipf) (ipf) 31 1 55 31 (left.over place(vt) also+I) Yes, I have. Ngun le -i -sue a131 1 gvyem luq ? (silver one-two-ten NEG-left.over Y/N) Do you have twenty Yuan left for me? Cf. mit1 vi. be left over. Cf. Jingpo kyem or kyim (Xu et al. 1983: 381). gyeng11 a vi. tough, strong; Wa11 gyeng31 dik1 bue31. (bamboo tough/strong(ipf) extreme P+I) This bamboo is very tough. Mang11-zo11 hi31 gyeng31 dik1 r55. (aged-child this tough/strong(ipf) extreme PE) This elderly person is very tough. b n. kind of shooting toy. gvyep5tyep1 (rubber.slippers) vide dvyep5tyep1/gvyep5tyep1 n. rubber slippers. gyeq1 / gyeq5 (parcel) a n. / spec. n. parcel, wrapped up with paper or leaves; le1-gyeq1 (one-parcel) a/one parcel, wrapped up with paper or leaves, larger than le1-zvyuq5(-zo11) (one-tie(-child)) or le1-zyok5 (onepacket); zang11-gyeq5 (rice/food-parcel) n. food parcel; b vt. wrap up with paper or leaves; zang11-gyeq5 gyeq1 (rice/food-parcel parcel) n+vt. tie food parcels. gvyeq5 (cake) a n. crust, cake; myoq1-gvyeq5 (eye-cake) n+n. crusts on the eyes; b vi. cake, form a crust; myoq1 gvyeq5 su31 (eye cake SNO) a 31 person with crusted eyes; Gvan31 gvyeq5 byuq1 bue . (dried.out(ipf) cake 31 1 1 11 lose P+I) It has caked together. Myoq a -ci lui -eq1 myoq1 gvyeq5 ma54 dut1 r55. (eye NEG-wash in.this.way+I-AG/I eye cake LOC +FCT become

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    gvyap5 n. shell, crust, etc. gyeq5 I (chase) in si1-gyeq5. gyeq5 II (parcel) in zang11-gyeq5. gyet1 / gyet5 vt. scrape off; ban11-gyet5 gyet1 (flower-scrape.off scrape.off) n+vt. scrape of dirt. gyet1tyu31-gyet1tyu31 onom. imitating the sound of trains. gyet5gyet5 ideophone indicating a tough and leathery feeling, like rubber; Gyet5gyet5 ga31 r55. ([tough.and.leathery] perceive(ipf) PE) It feels tough and leathery (like rubber). gvyo11 (let.hear) vt. tell, let hear; always used as a resultative after other verbs; me1-kon31 kon11 gvyo11 (words-sing sing(ipf) let.hear) sing a song for others to hear; Nang31 ngo31 r55 mau31mi11 kai31 gvyo11 raq5. (2SG 1SG (ipf) OBJ story narrate let.hear VO) Tell (SG) me a story. Ngo31 r55 ngvap5 11 5 gvyo raq . (1SG OBJ read.aloud let.hear VO) Read it aloud for me. mvau31 gvyo11 (cheat/fool(ipf) let.hear) vt+vt. tell lies; vide byan35-gvyo11 (explain-let.hear) vt-+vt. translate; dai31-gvyo11 (speak (ipf)-let.hear) (vt+vt.) vt. tell; cf. gyo11 vt. hear. 11 gyo / gi1- (hear/smell) a vt. hear; A1-wo35 gyo31 gvat5. (NEG-have hear/smell(ipf) put.into) (Sorry) I couldn’t hear you. Yvang11 dai54 dang11 ngo31 a1-sue31-gyo11. (3SG speak+FCT words 1SG NEG-know(ipf)hear/smell) I don’t understand what he says. Zai11-ming35 gyo31 ngon35 r55. (Zaiwa-language hear/smell(ipf) pleasant PE) Zaiwa language is nice 31 to hear. b vt. heed to someone’s words; Dik1-dik1 dai11 bue , a1-gyo11. (extreme-extreme speak P+I NEG-hear/smell) I did my very best to persuade him but he won’t listen. Vide dai54 (dang11) (a1-)gyo11. c vt. smell; Nam35 a1-wo35 gyo11 luq1? (smell NEG-have hear/smell Y/N) Can’t you smell it? d vt. sense; Nang31 moi31 a1-wo35 gyo11 luq1? ( 2SG tired(ipf) NEG-have hear/smell Y/N) Can you (SG) feel fatigue yet? I31-pue11 wut1n55 a1-wo35 gyo11 luq1? (distilled-booze drunk-FCT NEG-have hear/smell Y/N) Don’t you feel any intoxication? Nang31 ngon35 a1-wo35 gyo11 luq1? (2SG pleasant NEG-have hear/smell Y/N) Are you (SG) getting high? Vide a1-gyo31 yo31, dai54 (dang11) (a1-)gyo11, gi1-nvau31, si5-gyo11/ si1gyo31. Cf. gvyo11 vt. let hear. 31 gyo (harrow/comb*) allomorph of gyoq5. gvyo31 I (separated.by) vt. keep or put something in between; Ke5-mvyo55 31 ngi35 gvyo31 zyang35 dum11 zo11 ra ? (Q-much(B) day separated.by CD again eat need+I) How many days should I wait until I eat the other one? Mau11sau31-eq1 gvyo11 dvo11-aq5. (paper/book#-AG/I separated.by(ipf) place(vt)-SIM) Put (SG) a book in between. Also in wang11-gvyo31.

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    gvyo31 II n. iron tripod for putting pans or kettles on when cooking or boiling (sp. lvum11). gyo (go.down) (12.2, 12.10) go down, come down; vide ke5-gyo35; cf. kyo55 let go down. gvyo55 I (about.enough) in ram35-gvyo55. gvyo55 II (morning.of.other.day) (9.39, Table 9.11) bound form used in various time adverbials; also in nap1-gvyo55 n. morning. 31 gyo me1zveng55 (hear/smell(ipf) memory/memorize) vt+vt. listen well in order to memorize; vide me1zveng55. gvyok1 only in mau31-gvyok1. gvyok5 I (squeeze.out) a vt. squeeze out; Hum31-zi35 gvyok5 toq5 am55-aq5. (melon/gourd-ball/seed squeeze.out come.out PFM-SIM) Squeeze out (SG) the seeds of the melon/gourd. (The verb cyoq5 vt. ‘gouge out’ 31 would normally be used here.) b hatch out; Woq1-zo11 gvyok5 bue . 5 (chicken-child squeeze.out P+I) The chicks have hatched. Cf. koq vt. hatch (difference unknown); cf. dvoq5, kyo55, up5 and toq5. gvyom31 (tuck.away*) allomorph of gvyop5. gyom31 onom. imitating the sound of breaking trees or cane. gyon11 (ear-shaped.fungus) in mau31-gyon11. Gyon31 in the personal name Le1-gyon31. gyop1 (in.pieces) a vi. be broken, in pieces; Dvau55 gyop1 byuq1 bue31. (inflate(vt)/bottle(N) in.pieces lose P+I) The bottle has broken. Mau11kung31 gyop1 gyo35 lo35 r55. (sky-vault/ridge in.pieces go.down go(back/up) PE) The sky is starting to fall into pieces. b in gyop1 no31 (being in.pieces pain/ill/disease) vi+vi. (muscles) ache; Gung31-du11 gyop1 no11 r55. (body-being in.pieces pain/ill/disease(ipf) PE) I have aching muscles. cf. kyop5 vt. break into pieces. gvyop1gvyop1 [tuck.away] ideophone indicating situations of tucking away, gobbling up edibles; Nang31 a1-zo11 gve5lvang11 nga35-moq1 gvyop1gvyop1 le1-zo31 dam54-o55. (2SG NEG-eat although 1PO-party [tuck.away] but-eat(ipf) VEH+FCT-HIGH) You (SG) may not want to eat it now, but we (ND.EX) will finish it anyway. Gvyop1gvyop1 syuq5 dam54 31 bue . ([tuck.away] drink VEH+FCT P+I) (drinks:) It has all been tucked away, gobbled up. Cf. gvyop5; cf. Jingpo hkyop (Xu et al. 1983: 271). gvyop5 / gvyom31 (tuck.away) (15.14) avt. tuck away, polish off edibles’; b aux. non-stop aspectivizer ‘incessantly’, ‘in one go’. Cf. gvyop1gvyop1; cf. Jingpo hkyop (Xu et al. 1983: 271). gyoq1 (cold) vi. cold, feel cold; A1ze55ze55ze55! gyoq1 dik1 r55 mai31. ((very.very.very.cold) cold extreme PE OBV+I) Aaah! It’s so cold! Ngo31 ge11 gyoq1-gyoq1 ga31 r55. (1SG TOP cold-cold perceive(ipf) PE) I am a bit 35

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    cold. Yvup5 gyoq1 gvat5 ngyo31 bue . (sleep cold put.into talk P+I) I was cold while I slept. Vide gyoq1-si11 pyui55(-pyui55) and nan35nan35; cf. sam31mvi11 n. common cold, possibly also influenza. gyoq1-myo31 (cold-winter) n. winter; Gyoq1-myo31 wang31 bue31. (coldwinter enter P+I) It’s winter. gyoq1-si11 pyui55(-pyui55) (cold-die(ipf) goose.bumbs) (idiom) have goose 31 bumbs from cold or fright; Gyoq1 lye gyoq1-si11 pyui55-pyui55. (cold (ipf) also+I cold-die goose.bumbs-goose.bumbs) I have goose bumps from cold. Gyoq1-si11 pyui31 ga31 r55. (cold-die(ipf) goose.bumbs(ipf) perceive(ipf) PE) It gives me the creeps. Vide pyui55. gyoq5 (harrow/comb) a vt. harrow; yo31-gyoq5 gyoq5 (land-harrow/comb 31 harrow/comb) n+vt. harrow the field; Mo35do35-eq1 gyoq5 lye . (car-AG/I harrow/comb also+I) We are harrowing the field with the tractor. b vt. comb; Bvye31-eq1 u1-lvum11 gyo31-aq1. (comb#-AG/I head-lump harrow/comb*-SIM) Comb (SG) your hair with the comb. Cf. bvye11 n. comb. gvyoq5 I (hawk.up) in kyong11-gvyoq5. gvyoq5 II (mango) in si1-gvyoq5-si11. gyu35 adj. (terrain) level; in zyang11-gyu35; cf. ra35. gvyui31 (French.bean) in nuq1-gvyui31 and gvyui31-syuq5. gvyui31-syuq5 (French.bean-lattice.frame.for.beanstalk) n+n. frame for beanstalks; gvyui31-syuq5 suq5 (French.bean-lattice.frame.for.beanstalk secure) n+n+vt. make a frame for beanstalks. gvyui55 vt. (meat:) stew for a long time. gvyui55 zo11 (stew eat) vt+vt. eat meat stewed for a long time. gyum11 (smell.like.rotten.fish) only attested in a1-gyum11. gvyum31 I (irritate(eyes/teeth) a vi. (by the sun) have irritated eyes; Myoq1 gvyum11 r55. (eye irritate(eyes/teeth)(ipf) PE) The sun is irritating my eyes. 31 b vi. (by eating sour things) have irritated teeth; Me5wau31-si11 zo11 lui zui31 gvyum11 r55. (suanmugua-fruit eat in.this.way+I tooth irritate(eyes/teeth)(ipf) PE) My teeth are irritated after eating sour payaya. Cf. kau11. gvyum31 II (wear.on.head*) allomorph of gvyup5. gyun11 (bathe(vt)) vt. bathe, pour over; a as a resultative verb in combinations like: bik1 gyun11 (shake.off bathe(vt)): I1-zvyam11 bik1 gyun11-aq5. (water-water shake.off bathe(vt)-SIM) Throw (SG) water (with your hands). b in syoq5 gyun11 (pour bathe(vt)) pour out over, spill out over, sprinkle; Mi1-gung31 me55 woq1 r55 syoq5 gyun11-aq5. (earthbody LOC chicken OBJ pour bathe(vt)-SIM) Pour (SG) it out over the chicken on the floor. Vide syoq5 vt. (liquids) pour; cf. gvyun55.

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    gvyun55 vt. (bottles:) shake; Bvong55dvin55-si11 gvyun31 dvo31 lye31. (pen-

    drug shake(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I) I’m shaking the ink. Cf. bik1, gvo31 and gyun11. gvyung11 (dig/cut.holes) a vt. (animals) dig hole; Le1-meng54 nge1-noq1 dong11 gvyung31 tong31 bum11 r55. (one-world+FCT rat/mouse-black (have)hole dig/cut.holes(ipf) pierce(ipf) heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) There are rat holes everywhere. b vi/vt. cut hole, such as with the point of a knife; Se1boi31 me55 ke5-gvyung11. (table LOC PHB-dig/cut.holes) Don’t cut holes in the table. Cf. bvau31, du11, kai11/hai11, kop5. gyung11 (root(V)) vt. root, wriggle; Waq1-eq1 ngve5-mvyuq1-gam31 gyung31 31 lvyeng31 am55 bue . (pig-AG/I banana-banana-tree(B) root(V)(ipf) topple/roll(vt)(ipf) PFM P+I) The banana tree has been made to fall by the rooting of some pig. Nang31 ke5-gyung31 wang11 lo31 loq1. (2SG PHBroot(V)(ipf) enter(ipf) come(back/up) no.more) Don’t wriggle yourself (SG) between us. gvyung55 n. tinnen box; ngvya55-gvyung55 (tobacco-tinnen.box) n+n. tinnen tobacco box; ap5-gvyung55 (needle-tinnen.box) n+n. tinnen box for needles. gvyup5 / gvyum31 (wear.on.head) in muq1-gvyup5 gvyup5/me1-gvyup5 gvyup5 (headgear-wear.on.head wear.on.head) n+vt. put on / wear headgear; Muq1-gvyup5 gvyum31-aq1. (headgear-wear.on.head wear.on.head*-SIM) Put on (SG) your cap/hat. also with the verb zvung11 vt. put on, wear: Me1-gvyup5 zvung11-aq5. (headgear-wear.on.head put.on-SIM) Put on (SG) your cap/hat. Vide wut1 for an overview of other verbs and expressions for putting on/off or wearing clothes, shoes, glasses etc. gyuq1 I (afraid) vi/vt. be afraid of someone or something; Ga35-hu55 du11sat5 31 ge11 byu31 r55 gyuq1 lye , lo11 ze11 a1-gyuq1. (other-sort animal TOP man/woman OBJ afraid also+I tiger/bull only NEG-afraid) The other animals are afraid of man, only the tiger is not afraid. Gyoq1 r11 ge11 i11 toq5, gyuq1 r11 ge11 ki11 toq5. (cold also TOP water/urine come.out afraid also TOP faeces come.out) When you’re cold, urine comes out; when you’re scared, shit comes out. Cf. sim55sim55 and gvyuq5. gyuq1 II (dry) in poq5-gyuq1. gvyuq5 I (dehydrate) a vt. dry, dehydrate (meat, fruits etc.); Ngo31 syo11 31 gvyuq5 am55 bue . (1SG flesh dehydrate PFM P+I) I’ve dried the meat. 31 11 5 Syo gvyuq am55 bue . (flesh dehydrate PFM P+I) The meat has been 31 dried. b vi. be dried, dehydrated (meat, fruits etc.); Syo11 gvyuq5 bue . (flesh dehydrate P+I) The meat is dried. c suffix for dried, dehydrated foodstuffs; e.g. nuq1-gvyuq5 (bean-dehydrate) n. sun-dried slices of

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    fermented beans; yang35wom11-si1-gvyuq5 (pineapple-fruit-dehydrate) n. dried pineapple; vide si1-gvyuq5 gvyuq5; cf. gyuq1 and lvap5. gvyuq5 II vt. scare someone; Dung31sang31-eq1 i5-gvyuq5 gvoq1. (caterpillar#-AG/I go-scare(vt) DIE) Let’s (DU .IN) scare her with a caterpillar. Zi1syang31 r55 ke5-gvyuq5 ngvau55. (child OBJ PHB-scare(vt) let.weep) Don’t make the child cry by scaring it. Cf. gyuq1 and dan11.

    -Hha11 vr. repent, feel guilty; Nang31 a1-ha11 luq1? (2SG NEG-repent Y/N) Do you (SG) feel guilty? also: Nang31 a1-ha11 bun11 luq1? (2SG NEG-repent 31 awake Y/N) Do you (SG) feel guilty? Ha31 dik1 bue . (repent(ipf) extreme 1 11 11 P+I) I feel very sorry. Cf. me ra and yui . ha31 (where) allomorph of ka31/ha31. ha55 I vt. (mouth) open wide; Nvut5 ha31 dvo11-aq5. (mouth (mouth).open.wide(ipf) place(vt)-SIM) Keep your (SG) mouth opened wide. ha55- II (Q) allomorph of ka55-. ha55- / hau55- III (the/that) vide hau55-. ha55 IV (where(B)) vide ka55/ha55 and le1-ha55-ze1-me55. ha55-bvue55 (Q-PLN) vide ka55-bvue55/ha55-bvue55. ha55-hu55 (Q-sort) vide ka55-hu55/ha55-hu55. ha55-mai11 (Q-ABL) vide ka55-mai11/ha55-mai11 / ke5-mai11/he5-mai11 / ke5lai11/he5-lai11. 55 ha -me55 I (Q-LOC) where; vide ka55-me55/ha55-me55 etc. ha55-me55 / hau55-me55 II (the/that-LOC) there. ha55-nvik5 (Q-duo) vide ka55-nvik5/ha55-nvik5. ha55-pyang31 (Q-DIR) vide ka55-pyang31/ha55-pyang31. ha55-yvam31 (Q-time.for) vide ka55-yvam31/ha55-yvam31. hai11 I short form of sau55-hai11 n. shoe, used in complex forms. (From southwestern Mandarin 鞋子 háizi ‘shoe’.) hai11 II (shovel) vide kai11/hai11. hai11-bvi55 (shoe-string) n+n. shoelace, shoestring; hai11-bvi55 zyoi35 (shoestring thread(vt)) n+vt. lace up shoes; cf. sau55-hai11-dvui11 zvyuq5 n+vt. tie shoestrings. hai31 (what) Longchuan variant of Loilung ka55-hu55/ha55-hu55 (Q-sort) what; Hai31 r11 a1-ngvut5. (what also NEG-be) It is nothing at all. Also hai31zyung11. 31 hai (SUG+I) vide kai31/hai31. hai31-ma11 (SUG+I-ROUS) vide kai31-ma11. hai31-zyung11 (what-kind) Longchuan variant of Loilung ka55-hu55/ha55-hu55 (Q-sort) what; Hi31 ge11 hai31-zyung11 ta11? (this TOP what-kind GI) What’s this? hai55 ((shoes).wear/put.on) vide sau55-hai11 hai55.

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    hak1 vt. be fond of; Zi1syang31 hi31 r55 ngo31 hak1 dik1 bue31. (child this OBJ 1SG fond.of extreme P+I) I’m really fond of this child.

    ham11 a n. yawn, in a5-ham11 (nom-yawn) n. yawn; b vt. yawn, in a5-ham11 31

    ham11 (nom-yawn yawn) n+vt. to yawn; A5-ham11 lvang55 ham11 bue , 31 yvup5 nvau11 dik1 bue . (nom-yawn even yawn P+I sleep feel.like(ipf) extreme P+I) I’m even yawning, I’m very sleepy. ham31 I (cross(vt)*) allomorph of hap5 vt. cross; Dang31 ham31-aq1. (fly(ipf) cross(vt)*-SIM) Leap (SG) across. ham31 II kam31/ham31 n. otter. ham31 III (receive/fetch) vide kam31. ham55 I n. leech (water); vide ham55-hoq5 and laq5-ham55; cf. hup5 n. leech (land). ham55 II n. kind of wild vegetable. ham55-bo35 (vegetable.name-open.itself) n. the edible flowers of the leech. ham55-hoq5 (leech-shy) n. leech (water), drops hold when above water; cf. laq5-ham55 and hup5 n. leech (land). ham55-ngyuq1 (vegetable.name-young.leaves) n. the edible tops of the leech plant. han31 I (pursue*) allomorph of kat5/hat5; Syuk5syuk5syuk5 woq1 i5-si1-gyeq5 han31-aq1. ((spurring.a.dog) chicken go-flesh-chase pursue*-SIM) (to a dog:) Go on, chase (SG) the chicken! han31 II (quick) a vi. quick, fast, as a main verb; Rau35 han31-aq1. (promptly quick-SIM) Be quick. Yvang11 han11 dik1 r55. (3SG quick(ipf) extreme PE) He is very fast. b vi. fast, as a second main verb; Ke5-dye31 got1 so31 han31. (PHB-too scoop(vt) walk(ipf) quick) Don’t walk so terribly fast. Yuq1 han11 dik1 r55. (grow quick(ipf) extreme PE) It grows fast. c adv. quickly, either reduplicated or in combination with another adverb; Han31-han31 i5-gvun31-aq1. (quick-quick go-do*-SIM) Go (SG) and do it quickly. Ke5-han31 got1 so11. (PHB-quick scoop(vt) walk) Don’t walk so 31 terribly fast. Rau35 han31 i5-yu11 lo31-aq1 mai . (promptly quick gotake(ipf) come(back/up)-SIM OBV+I) Go (SG) and get it quickly. Cf. le1wan35, said to be loaned from Jingpo lawan (Xu et al. 1983: 420), difference in meaning unknown. han31siq1 / han31ziq1 / kan31ciq1 (wait.a.minute) (idiom) Wait a second; slow down. often reduplicated. He5-han31siq1. (before-(wait.a.minute) Slow down. / Wait a minute. The form kan31ciq1 could be a kind of hypercorrection instead of han31siq1. 31 han ziq1 (wait.a.minute) vide han31siq1/han31ziq1/kan31ciq1. hang11 I (each) vide kang11/hang11.

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    hang11 II (9.39) spec. n. half a day’s labour; cf. kyui55 n. half a day (mostly afternoon).

    hang11 III vt. load, put into; Nang35 be1-tung31 me55 hang31 wun11 am55-aq5.

    (2SG.PO clothes-bag LOC load/put.into(ipf) carry/bring(ipf) PFM-SIM) Stick it into your (SG) pocket. hang11 IV (spread) vide kang11/hang11. hang11ki11 n. lion; cf. Jingpo hkanghkyi n. lion (Xu et al. 1983: 232). hang11-mo35 (each-AUG) vide kang11-mo35/hang11-mo35. hang11syan55 n. ricefield eel (Chinese: 黄鳝 huángshàn). hang55 I vi/vt. (car) drive; Yvang11 hang31 lye31. (3SG drive(ipf) also+I) He 31 drives. Mo35do35 hang55 mvoq5 lye . (car drive learn/teach also+I) I’m learing to drive a car. hang55 II (marry) a vt. marry a woman; Ngo31 mi11 a1-hang55 siq1. (1SG wife NEG-marry still) I’m not married yet (spoken by a man). b vr. marry; 31 Nga35-nvik5 hang31 lum11 be1-ra . (1PO-duo marry(ipf) reciprocal Pneed+I) We’re (DU) about to marry. Cf. lang31-doq5. Vide mi1-hang55 and the following other words related to marriage and wedding: bvun55, lang31-doq5, lang31, lang31 ho31, lang31-sek5, mi11/mi1-, mi1-hang55, mi1sek5, mi1-sek5 ge1zyam11, mi1-wue11 pye55, moq1-wang31 wang31, mung31, ze1-moq5, zyan35. hang55sue31 n. crocodile. hap1 I a n. carrying pole (sp. lvum11); b spec. n. turn of fetching water with a 31 carrying pole; I1-zvyam11 le1-hap1 ham31 bue . (water-water onecarrying.pole receive/fetch P+I) I have fetched one carrying pole (i.e. one turn) of water. (Cf. i1zvyam11 kam31/ham31 (water-water fetch/receive) fetch water, from the well etc.) hap1 II (hollow.of.the.knee) in le1-hap1. hap5 vt. (river cleft etc.) cross; I1-lang31 a1-wo35 hap5. (water-river NEG-have cross(vt)) We can’t cross the river. (There’s no bridge.) haq5 I a vt. hide (objects); Ka55-hu55 haq5 lye31? (Q-sort hide also+I) What are you hiding? Yvang11 r55 haq5-a55. (3SG OBJ hide-FCT) Hide (SG) it 31 for him. b vt. hide (oneself); Ngo31 hi55-me55 haq5 dvo31 lye , nang31 lye35 ho11 wu35-aq5. (1SG this-LOC hide place(vt)(ipf) also+I 2SG come(away/down) look.for(ipf) look-SIM) I’m hiding here, come (SG) and try to find me. (Cf. gop1.) An example to either a or b: Nang31 ke5-la55 31 haq5 dvo31 lye ta11? (2SG Q-LOC hide place(vt)(ipf) also+I GI) Where did you (SG) hide it? / Where are you (SG) hiding? c vide haq5 wu35. Cf. gop1. 5 haq II n. leaf; a1-haq5 (nom-leaf) n. leaf; mvan11-haq5 (grass/leaves-leaf) n+n. leaves in general; mvan11-haq5-sun11 (grass/leaves-leaf-veg/dish)

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    n+n+n. vegetable dishes; sek5-haq5 (tree-leaf) n+n. tree leaves; sun11haq5 (veg/dish-leaf) n+n. vegetable leaves; cf. poq5 n. ‘(large) leaf’ and mvan11 n. ‘grass, leaves’. 5 haq wu35 (hide look) look from out of hiding, look on the sly; Ngo31 31 gung31-ci11 ci31 lye , ke5-haq5 wu35. (1SG body-wash wash(ipf) also+I PHB-hide look) I’m washing myself, don’t look on the sly. hat5 I (long.object) vide kat5/hat5. hat5 II (pursue) vide kat5/hat5. hau11soi31 n. thick rice stick; also hoi11soi31; cf. hau55seng55 n. rice stick (the regular type). hau31 I (inside) vide kau31/hau31. hau31 II (the/that) (9.3) dem. pron. ‘the, that (we know)’; cf. bound form variant ha55-/hau55- ‘the, that (we know)’. 55 hau I (cousin) vide kau55/hau55. hau55- II (the/that) (9.3) dem. pron. ‘the, that (we know)’; cf. free form variant hau31 ‘the, that (we know)’; variant ha55 only in ha55-me55 (the/that-LOC) there. hau55-bvue55-ka55 / hau55-bvue55-ha55 (the/that-PLN-where(B)) vide bvue55-ka55/bvue55-ha55. 55 hau -dong31 (the/that-lead/connect) ‘that way (we already know)’ (9.3 9.15). hau55-hun31 (the/that-time) (18.2) at that time; A1man31 hau55-hun31 ngo31 31 yvup5 am55 bue . (last.night the/that-time 1SG sleep PFM P+I) Last night by that time I had gone to bed already. Hau55-hun31 zyang35 ge11 … (the/that-time CD TOP) At that time … Hau55-hun31 mai11 ngo31 dai11 31 bue , a1hui31 ka55-hu55 bin35 dvo31 lye54 lu55?) the/that-time ABL 1SG speak P+I now Q-sort take.shape place(vt)(ipf) also+FCT MIR) I’ve told you beforehand, now look what has happened. 55 hau -kun31 (the/that-time) only attested as hau55-hun31. hau55-mai11 (the/that-ABL) (18.2) a from there onwards; b from that time onwards. hau55-me55 (the/that-LOC) there; also ha55-me55. hau55-mu31 (the/that-happen) (18.2, 11.7) conj. and after that…; also a1mu31 (nom-happen). 55 hau seng55 n. rice stick, cf. hau11soi31. hau55-syeq1 (the/that-au.contraire) stopgap “and then”. hau55-yuq1 (the/that-person) that person, he, she, the person we just talked 31 about; Hau55-yuq1 nga35 gu11 ge1-lo . (the/that-person 1PO younger.sibling TOP-no.more+I) He/she is my younger sibling. he1- (door) vide ke1-/he1-, which are the short allomorphs of kum11/hum11.

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    he1-hot5 (door-window) vide ke1-hot5/he1-hot1. he1hum55 n. kind of plant. he1hum55-poq5 (plant.name-leaf) n. leaves of the hehum plant, used for wrapping up.

    he31 I (before2) only in he31-bat1; vide he5-/he55/ke5- ‘before’ (9.19). he31 II (start) (9.19) a aux. expressing that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb is initiated; b in the adverb sang31-he11 (beginningstart(GEN)) in the beginning, originally. he31-bat1 (before2-week) the week before last week. he5- / he55 / ke5- I (9.19) ‘before’, used in may different ways;-a in time words such as ke5-ngi35 (before-day) today; b as the priorative adverb expressing ‘first’; Ke5-yvup5 gvoq1. (before-sleep DIE) Let’s (DU .IN) sleep first. Cf. he31 and he31-bat1. 5 he - II (melon/gourd) in he5-syau55. he5- III (PHB) vide ke5-/he5-. he5- IV (Q) vide ke5-/he5-/ka55-/ha55-. he55 (before) vide he5-/he55/ke5- ‘before’ (9.19). he55-la55 (Q-LOC) where; vide ka55-me55/ha55-me55 etc. he55-le55 (Q-LOC) where; vide ka55-me55/ha55-me55 etc. he55-ma55 (Q-LOC) where; vide ka55-me55/ha55-me55 etc. he55-ma54 (before-LOC+FCT) in front; he55-ma54 yvum31 (before-LOC+FCT house) the house in front. nga35 he55-ma54 (1PO before-LOC +FCT) those in front of me; cf. he55-me55. 55 he -me55 I (before-LOC) a in front; He55-me55 he5-yap1 me1rong11 gvo55. (before-LOC PHB-stand disturb PL) Don’t (PL) stand in the way like that. Gvo11 bang11 wui25 he5-me55 a5-se55 a1-gvut5 po11. (big PNO generation+FCT before-LOC nom-like NEG-do INO) These things cannot be done in front of the adults. / One cannot act like this/that in front of the adults. Cf. he55-ma54. b adv. first; He55-me55 i1-zvyam11 i5-kam31. (before-LOC water-water go-receive/fetch) First he went to fetch water. c ago; sum35-zan11 he55-me55 (three(GEN)-summer/year(GEN) beforeLOC) three years ago. d in the early days, long ago; a1kang31/a1hang31 he55-ma55 (long.ago before-LOC) long ago. Cf. he55-me55. 55 he -me55 II (Q-LOC) where; vide ka55-me55/ha55-me55 etc. he55-pyang31 (before-DIR) (9.11, 9.19) a before, in the past; he55-pyang31 lye54 Zai11wa31 wui31 dong31 (before-DIR also+FCT Zaiwa generation lead/connect) like the Zaiwa in the past; He55-pyang31 nga35-nvik5 zum11 dik1-n55. (before-DIR 1PO-duo consort(ipf) extreme-FCT) Before, the two of us have been quite close. b (to the) front side (of); He55-pyang31 wu35-

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    aq5. (before-DIR look-SIM) Look (SG) at the front side. Cf. tang31pyang31. 55 he -zui31 (before-tooth) n. front teeth. he5dvon55 (cricket) vide ke5dvon55/he5dvon55. he5-heng55 (Q-long(B)) vide ke5-heng55/he5-heng55. he5-hue55 (Q-far(B)) vide ke5-hue55/he5-hue55. he5-i55 (Q-SPEC) vide ke5-i55/he5-i55. he5-lai11 (Q-ABL) vide ka55-mai11/ha55-mai11 / ke5-mai11/he5-mai11 / ke5lai11/he5-lai11. 5 he lvam11 n. aubergine; he5lvam11 le1-byap1 (aubergine one-shrub/tree) a/one shrub of the aubergine plant. he5-mai11 (Q-ABL) vide ka55-mai11/ha55-mai11 / ke5-mai11/he5-mai11 / ke5lai11/he5-lai11. 5 he -min31 (before-evening) (9.19, 9.39 Table 9.11) this evening, tonight. he5-min31-tang31 (before-evening-behind) (9.19, 9.39 Table 9.11) yesterday afternoon. he5-mvyang55 I (Q-tall/high(B)) vide ke5-mvyang55/he5-mvyang55. he5-mvyang55 II (Q-(time).long(B) vide ke5-mvyang55/he5-mvyang55. he5-mvyo55 (Q-much(B)) vide ke5-mvyo55/he5-mvyo55. he5-nvam55 (Q-time(B)) vide ke5-nvam55/he5-nvam55. he5-ngi35 (before-day) today (9.19, 9.39 Table 9.11). he5-nvik5 (before-the.other.year) (9.39) the year before last year. he5-se55 (Q-like) vide ke5-se55/he5-se55. he5-su54 (Q-like+FCT) vide ke5-su54/he5-su54. he5-syau55 (melon/gourd-water-melon) n. water-melon (sp. cyam11/syam11 or kyam11 (half)). 5 he -wa31-min31 (before-2/3.days.ago-evening) (9.39 Table 9.11) the evening/night of the day before yesterday. 5 he -wa31-min31-tang31 (before-2/3.days.ago-evening-behind) (9.39 Table 9.11) the afternoon of the day before yesterday. he5-wa31-nap1(-gvyo55) before-2/3.days.ago-morning(morning.of.other.day) (9.19, 9.39, Table 9.11) the morning of the day before yesterday. he5-wa31-ngi35 (before-2/3.days.ago-day) (9.39 Table 9.11) the day before yesterday; also he5-yoq1 le1-ngi35. 5 he -yoq1 (before-ago) some time ago; a in He5-yoq1 bue31. (before-ago P+I) (That was) some time ago. b in various combinations, given below. he5-yoq1 le1-ngi35 (before-ago one-day) (9.39 Table 9.11) the day before yesterday; also he5-wa31-ngi35. 5 he -yoq1-bat1 (before-ago-week) (9.39) last week.

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    he5-yoq1-lving31 (before-ago-turn/roll) (9.39) last time. he5-yoq1-ngi35 (before-ago-day) (9.39) some days ago (three days before or earlier).

    he5-zan31 (before-summer/year) (9.39) a this year; b this summer. hei55! / ue31! etc. exclamatory expression ‘you there!’. hek1 (huge) a vi. huge; Nvut5-mui11 hek1 dik1 r55. (mouth-beard huge extreme PE) He has an enormous beard. b (in a negative sense:) vi. overdone; A1gvyang31 dye31 hek1 r55. (temperament too huge PE) He has a bad temperament. A5-hue55 he5-dai31 hek1. (nom-far (B) PHB-speak(ipf) huge) Don’t make such a big deal out of these matters. A5-mvyo5531 mvyo55 ga11 zyang35 ge11 dye31 hek1 bue . (nom-much (B)-much(B) perceive CD TOP too huge P+I) If you want/offer such a high price, it’s just madness. hek5 (fan (V)) a vi/vt. fan; Mau11sau31-eq1 heng31-aq1. (paper/book#-AG/I fan(V)*-SIM) Fan (SG) with a/the book. syap5 hek5 (fan(N) fan(V)) n+vt. fan with the fan; Bui31 tan11 r55, syap5 heng31-aq1. (sun hard(ipf) PE fan(N) fan(V)*-SIM) It’s hot, use (SG) the fan. b lai31 hek5 (wind fan(V)) n+vi. 31 (cold wind) blow; Lai31 hek5 zyang35 no31 ra . (wind fan(V) CD pain/ill/disease need+I) You will catch a cold in that wind. hen31 (belt(N/V)*) allomorph of het5 (belt(N/V)); Pe1-het5 hen31-aq1. (beltbelt(N/V) belt(N/V)*-SIM) Wear (SG) a belt. hen55 only in tung31-hen55 n. regular Jingpo shoulder-bag. heng11 (outfit) vide keng11/heng11. heng11heng11 [scarlet] ideophone expressing the extremeness of red colour; 31 31 I31-pue11 syuq5 lui -eq1 myoq1-dong11 lvang55 nye11 lye heng11heng11 31 1 dut bue . (distilled-booze drink in.this.way+I-AG/I eye-(have)hole even red(ipf) also+I [scarlet] become P+I) Because of boozing, his face got scarlet red. heng31 I (fan(V)*) vide hek5. heng31 II n. gold; Hi31 ge11 heng11-eq1 rvang54 ngvut5 lye31. (this TOP gold#AG/I make+FCT be also+I) This is made of gold. heng31 loq1-zvyop5 (gold hand/arm-ring) n+n. golden ring. heng31 III (long) (7.9) vi. (space/time) long; vide 7.9; vide ra35 for: heng31 (a1-)ra35 (long (NEG-)level) v+v. in equal/different lengths, shaped equally/differently; cf. bound form variant heng55. heng31-kyeng55 (gold-yellow) n. gold; Heng31-kyeng55 kyeng31 ra55. (goldyellow yellow(ipf) PE) It’s yellow as gold. heng31-nge1-zo11 (gold-fish-child) n. goldfish. heng31-zyet1 (gold-pure) n+adj. real gold; Hi31 ge11 heng31-zyet1 lye31. (this TOP gold-pure also+I) This is real gold.

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    -heng55 (long(B)) (7.9) (space/time:) ‘long’; bound form adverbial/ pronominal variant of heng31. het I (belt(N/V)) a n. belt; vide pe1-het5 and pe5-hum31; b vt. wear belt; Pe1het5 hen31-aq1. (belt-belt(N/V) belt(N/V)*-SIM) Wear (SG) a belt. 5 het II (draw.soup) vt. draw soup; Nge1-zo11-weng31 het5 syuq5 syang55. (fishchild-broth draw.soup drink JUS) Let’s (ND .IN) draw a fish soup. het5-noq1 / het5-nye31 (belt(N/V)-black) / (belt(N/V)-red) two variant names for: n. kind of wasp, cf. Chinese: 黄腰蜂 huángyāofēng ‘yellow belted wasp’. hi31 (this) (9.2) free form dem. pronoun ‘this (here)’; cf. hi55. hi55- (this) (9.2) bound form dem. pronoun ‘this (here)’; cf. hi31. hi55-bang11 (this-PNO) ‘these people; this group of people’. hi55-bvue55 (this-PLN) ‘these’. hi55-bvue55-ha55 (this-PLN-where(B)) vide bvue55-ka55/bvue55-ha55. hi55-dong31 (this-lead/connect) (9.3, 9.15) ‘this way’. hi55-i55 (this-SPEC) (9.20) Hi55-i55 bo11 r55. (this-SPEC contain(ipf) PE) (with gestures:) It’s this big. / It was this big. also hi55-i55 (this- SPEC+FCT); A1lyu35, lvang31-mui31 hi55-i54 ge11! (discovery) snake-snake thisSPEC+FCT TOP) Wow, what a big snake is this! hi55-i54 (this-SPEC+FCT) vide hi55-i55. hi55-lving31 (this-turn/roll) ‘this time’. hi55-long31 me55 (this-area LOC) vide long31. hi55-lvum11 (this-lump) this one. hi55-lut1 (this-(go.to).opp.side) towards/at the side facing the speaker; Se531 gam31 hi55-lut1 pyang31 lut1 lo35 bue . (tree-tree(B) this-(go .to).opp.side DIR (go.to).opp.side go(back/up) P+I) He went in the direction of the side of the tree facing us. Hi55-lut1 du35 lvut5 gvan31-aq1. (this-(go .to).opp.side throw move.to.opp.side put.into*-SIM) Throw it over to this side. Vide lut1 and lvut5. 55 hi -mai11 (this-ABL) from here onwards. hi55-me55 (this-LOC) here. hi55-mvyo55 (this-much (B)) this much. hi55-nvik5 (this-duo) these two. hi55-pyang31 (this-DIR) in this direction. hi55-se55 (this-like) (19.2) like this. hi55-yuq1 (this-person) this person. hing55 / king55 (thousand/ten.cent) (9.34) a thousand; b spec. n. ten cent (piece); cf. Jingpo hkying (Xu et al. 1983: 270). 5

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    ho11 I (cultivate) a vt. cultivate; Pung11syui31 ho31 lye31. (sugar.cane

    cultivate(ipf) also+I) We cultivate sugar cane. b guq1 ho11 (unhusked.rice cultivate) n+vt. transplant rice seedlings. ho11 II (plum) in si5-ho11-si11. ho31 I (above2) variant of dem. pronoun hu31 ‘above’. ho31 II (look.for) vt. search, look for; Nang31 ka55-hu55 ho11 lye31? (2SG Qsort look.for(ipf) also+I) What are you (SG) looking for? vide lang31-ho31; vide me1-byoq1 ho31; vide ne1-ho31, si1-ho31, wui31-wo31 ho31. 31 ho III (track) vide ko31/ho31. hoi11 (INC) vide koi11/hoi11. hoi11-ma11 (INC-ROUS) (18.14) combination of two attitude markers. hoi11soi31 variant of hau11soi31 n. thick rice stick. hoi55 / koi55 I (maybe) (16.29) mostly realized as hoi55; adv. maybe, 31 perhaps; Hoi55 so31 ngvoq5 bue . (maybe walk(ipf) mistake P+I) Perhaps we have walked the wrong way. Cf. Jingpo hkoi (Xu et al. 1983: 244). hoi55 II n. water snail; snail with spiraled shell; cf. nve5bap1. hoi55-bu31 (snail1-snail.type) n. kind of water snail, almost extinct. hoi55-zvyup5 (snail1-no.gloss) n. small type of water snail. hok1 (dull-witted) adj/vi. dull-witted; a1-hok1 (nom-dull-witted) na. dullwitted; Le1-gam35 ge11 hok1 yvang11 hok1 r55. ((male)-eld-brother TOP dull-witted in.truth dull-witted PE) Eldest brother is really dull-witted indeed. hom11 (hungry) vi. hungry; only used when out in the open; Wam11 hom11 31 bue . (swollen/abdomen hungry P+I) I’m hungry. Cf. mut 1, zo31-mut5 and ngvyom55. hom55 (fragrant) vide kom55/hom55. hom55-sing55 (fragrant-taste/smell(N)) vide kom55-sing55/hom55-sing55. hon31 (sing) vide kon31/hon31. hon55 I n. crown, top (in the hair of the head); hon55 le1-hon55 (crown one31 crown) a/one crown; Nang31 hon55 i55-hon55 yuq1 r55 ngvut5 r55 mai ! (2SG crown two-crown grow PE be PE OBV+I) Your (SG) head has got two crowns! Also u1-zvyung31. 55 hon II (one.of.a.pair) vide kon55/hon55. hoq5 I (bowl) vide koq5/hoq5. hoq5 II (shy) a n. shyness; Hoq5 a1-sue55. (shy NEG-know) He won’t feel shy. Byu31 hi55-yuq1 hoq5 sue31 dik1 r55. (man/woman this-person shy know(ipf) extreme PE) This is a rather shy person. b adj. shy; ham55-hoq5 (leechshy) kind of leech that drops hold when above water; c adj. shy; to be shy for; hoq5 po11 (shy INO) disgraceful talking; d vi. shy; Ke5-hoq5 ke5hoq5! (PHB-shy PHB-shy) Don’t be shy! Hoq5 no35 a1-ra11. (shy to NEG-

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    need) You don’t have to be shy. e vt. be shy to someone; Ngo31 nang31 r55 hoq5 r55. (1SG 2SG OBJ shy PE) I am shy around you. 5 hoq po11 (shy INO) disgraceful talking. hot5 (window) only in ke1-hot5/he1-hot5. hu11 I (kohlrabi) vide hu11-bvun31, hu11-gam31 and hu11-haq5. hu11 II vt. pluck tea leaves (one by one); Se5-poq5 hu31 lye31. (tree-leaf pluck.tea(ipf) also+I) We are plucking tea. 11 hu III n. torch; in mi1-hu11 (fire-torch) n+n. torch. hu11-bvun31 (kohlrabi-(single).root) n. kohlrabi (?) root. hu11-gam31 (kohlrabi-tree(B)) n. kohlrabi (both root and leaves). hu11-haq5 (kohlrabi-leaf) n. kohlrabi leaves. hu31 I (above) (9.3) free form dem. pronoun ‘that above’; cf. hu55. hu31 I (let.drink*) allomorph of huq5. hu31 II (cobra) vide bau31-hu31. hu31 II (pillow (N/V)*) allomorph of huq5. hu55 I (above) (9.3) bound form dem. pronoun ‘that above’; cf. hu31. hu55 II vt. face towards; Myoq1-dong11 ka55-pyang31 hu31 ra31? (eye(have)hole Q-DIR face.towards(ipf) need+I) Whither should I direct my face? Hum55-dong11 pyang31 hu55 gveq5. (door-(have)hole DIR face.towards PLIM) (a desk:) Let it face the doorway. hu55 III (9.36) spec. n. sort. hu55-dvang11 (above-(buffalo)side) vide dvang11. hu55-dong31 (above-lead/connect) that way (above) (9.3, 9.15). hu55-dvum55 (above-interrupt) vide (pi1dum11) hu55-dvum55. hu55-tang31-byu31 (above-behind-man/woman) n. people from behind the hills, referring to Longchuan (from the perspective of Loilung). hu55wa35 (rice.straw) n. rice straw. hu5wa35-mop1 (rice.straw-grit) n. rice straw grit (very fine). Hu5yup5 village name. hue11 (dirt) a n. dirt; hue11 dap1 (dirt be.attached) n+vi. be dirty; Mue31-bu11 31 me55 hue11 dap1 dik1 bue . (wrap-clothes LOC dirt be.attached extreme 31 P+I) The clothes are very dirty. Gung31-du11 me55 hue11 dap1 dik1 bue . (body-being LOC dirt be.attached extreme P+I) My body is very dirty. Cf. got1 vi. dirty; ki31-hue11 (leg/foot-dirt) n+n. dirt on legs or feet; loq1hue11 (hand/arm-dirt) n+n. dirt on hands or arms; u1-hue11 (head-dirt) n+n. dirt on the head; b n. coals; in mi1-hue11 (fire-dirt) n+n. coals. Hue11lan35 / Hueq1lan35 Holland. hue31dan35 (pencil) vide kue31dan35/hue31dan35.

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    hue55 (far(B)) (7.9, 9.26) bound form adverbial/ pronominal variant of wue11 vi. ‘far’; e.g. in ke5-hue55/he-hue55 (Q-far(B)) ‘how far’; also used on itself as an adverb. hui11 I (dog) vide kui11/hui11. hui11 II (make.way/meet) a vi. meet (again); Dum11 hui31 lum11 syang55. (again make.way/meet(ipf) reciprocal JUS) Farewell (ND .IN) / Let’s (ND.IN) meet again. Ka55-kyo31 me55 hui31 lum11 ra54 dvi55? (Q-road LOC make.way/meet(ipf) reciprocal need+FCT RFL) (after taking separate roads:) On what road should we meet again? b vt. visit; Bui31num31 hui11 31 ye11 lye . (family make.way/meet go(away/down)(ipf) also+I) We are on our way to visit family. c vide tung31 hui11 (crush(ipf) make.way/meet) vt+vt. meet, run into each other; Nung35-nvik5 ka55-me55 tung31 hui11 gvo54 ta11? (2PL-duo Q-LOC crush(ipf) make.way/meet PL+FCT GI) Where did the two of you come across? d vi/vt. (self) alter one’s position in order to make way or to come closer; Gai31, le1-zvui55 hui11-aq5. ((come.on!) one-bit make.way/meet-SIM) Come on, make (SG) some way. Hui31 lye35 lo31-aq1. (make.way/meet(ipf) come(away/down) come(back/up)-SIM) Come (SG) a bit closer. e vi/vt. (objects) alter the position of some object in order to make way or to put it closer; Bvung31 le1-zvui55 zvyun31 hui31 gvan31-aq1. (bucket/jerrycan one-bit push(ipf) make.way/meet(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Push (SG) the bucket aside a bit. 11 hui -kyon55 (dog-no.gloss) n. kind of grey rodent smaller than bamboo rat. hui31 I in commands to buffaloes: “Hurry up!”. See no11 for an overview of commands to water buffaloes. hui31 II (sallow) vi. grey; pale; Nang35 myoq1-dong11 a1-hui31 ma54 dut1 r55, no11 r55 luq1? (2SG.PO eye-(have)hole nom-sallow LOC +FCT become PE pain/ill/disease(ipf) PE Y/N) Your (SG) face has become pale, are you ill? Vide zyoq1-hui31. 31 hui -zyo35 (sallow-fox) n. fox. hui55 vi. be dry; Mue31-bu11 hui55 bue31. (wrap-clothes dry(vi) P+I) The clothes have become dry. Sut5 hui55-aq5. (wipe/polish dry(vi)-SIM) Wipe (SG) it dry. Cf. gyuq1 in poq5-gyuq1 n+adj. dry leaves. hum11 I (door) vide kum11/hum11/ke1-/he1-. hum11 II (peach) only in si5-hum11-si11 n. peach. hum31 I (cut/slice) (meat, vegetables etc.:) vt. ‘cut’ not ‘chop’; Sun11 hum31aq1. (veg/dish cut/slice-SIM) Cut (SG) the vegetables. Ngo31 syo11 hum11 31 lye . (1SG flesh cut/slice(ipf) also+I) I’m cutting the meat. Vide lyep1lyep1. Vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc.

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    hum31 / he5- II n. (bound form) melon, gourd; pe5-hum31 (beltmelon/gourd) n. pumpkin; also reduced in he5-syau55 (melon/gourdwater-melon) n. water-melon. hum31-zi35 (melon/gourd-ball/seed) n+n. pumpkin seeds. hum31-zyang35 (melon/gourd-wax.gourd) n+n. wax gourd, white gourd. hum55 (complete2) vide kum55/hum55. hum55-dong11 (door-(have)hole) n+n. doorway; Hum55-dong11 pyang31 hu55 gveq5 (door-(have)hole DIR face.towards PLIM) (a desk:) Let it face the doorway. b chink in door; Hum55-dong11 mai11 a1-zyui35 wu35 po11. (door-(have)hole ABL NEG-peep look INO) It is no good to peep through chinks in the door. hum55-dvot5 (door-short) n. veranda. hum55-zeng31 (door-trunk) n+n. pillar, like in Zaiwa homes (sp. kat5/hat5); 31 Hum55-zeng31 ke5-mvyo55 kat5 suq5 ra ? (door-trunk Q-much (B) long.object secure need+I) How much pillars shall we make? hun11 (sentence) vide kun11/hun11. hun31 I (dress/tuck.in(vt)*) allomorph of hut5. hun31 II vt. (drinks) pour out; I31-pue11 hun31 gveq5. (distilled-booze pour.drinks PLIM) Pour out (PL) the liquor. Cf. syoq5 vt. (liquids) pour (used in various senses), syun31 vt. spill and zvan31 vt. pour empty. 31 hun III a vt. (letters:) send by post; Ngo31 nang31 r55 si5gvyam55 le1-kyap5 31 gva31 hun11 gvat5 ra . (1SG 2SG OBJ greetings one-leaf/sheet write(ipf) (ipf) send put.into need+I) I will send you (SG) a letter. Si1gvyam55 i5-be111 hun gvan31-aq1. (greetings go-help-send(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Post (SG) that letter for me. b vt. (letters:) receive by post (lit.: be sent a letter); A1kui31 r11 a1-gva31 hun11 gvat5-n55 ge11. (now also NEG-write(ipf) send(ipf) put.into-FCT TOP) (about a letter, after the postman came:) It didn’t arrive again, just now. Vide si1gvyam55/si5gvyam55 on more postal affairs. hun31 IV (time) vide kun31/hun31. Hun55 a family name, vide Kun55/Hun55. hung11 (fold) vide kung11/hung11. hung31 (vault/ridge) vide kung31/hung31. hup1 [covered] ideophone expressing the notion of being well covered by certain objects; Koq5-eq1 hup1 gvut5 ngvop5 dvo11-aq5. (bowl-AG/I [covered] do cover1(V) place(vt)-SIM) Cover (SG) it well with the bowl. Cf. gum31. 5 hup I n. leech (land); cf. ham55. hup5 II (pigsty) in waq1-hup5.

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    huq5 I vt. let drink; No11 r55 i1-zvyam11 i5-sye11 hu31-aq1. (cattle OBJ water-

    water go-pull(ipf) let.drink*-SIM) Pull (SG) the buffaloes to the water to let them drink. nau35 huq5 (milk/breast let.drink) n+vt. breast-feed; 31 Zi1syang31 r55 nau35 huq5 lye . (child OBJ milk/breast let.drink also+I) I am breast-feeding the child. Cf. syuq5 vt. drink. 5 huq II (pillow(N/V)) vide kuq5/huq5. hut5 / hun31 I (dress/tuck.in(vt)) a vt. dress someone; Hau31 zi1syang31 r55 bu11 hun31-aq1. (the/that child OBJ clothes dress/tuck.in(vt)*-SIM) Dress up (SG) the child. Ha31, A5-nu11 hut5 lye35. (where nom-mother dress/tuck.in(vt) come(away/down)) Let Mummy dress you up. b vt. tuck someone in; Hau31 zi1syang31 r55 bui35-mo35 hun31-aq1. (the/that child OBJ warm.oneself-AUG dress/tuck.in(vt)*-SIM) Tuck in (SG) the child. Cf. wut1 vt. (clothes) put on, vi. get dressed; vt. (clothes) wear; vt. (quilts etc.) cover oneself, cuff oneself in; Vide wut1 for an overview of other verbs and expressions for putting on/off or wearing clothes, shoes, glasses etc. hut5 II vt. ply with drink; vide hut5-nva11; cf. wut1 vi. drunk and hun31 vt. (drinks) pour out. hut5-nva11 (ply.with.drink-make.drunk) vt+vt. to ply someone with drink; Le1-nong35 r55 i31-pue11 hut5-nva31 gvyom31-aq1. ((male)-2nd-brother OBJ distilled-booze ply.with.drink-make.drunk(ipf) tuck.away*-SIM) Ply (SG) second brother with liquor without rest. hye31 (same.elevation) (9.3) free form dem. pr. ‘that, on the same height’; cf. hye55-. 55 hye - (same.elevation) (9.3) bound form dem. pronoun ‘that on the same height’; cf. hye31. 55 hye -bvue55-ha55 (same.elevation-PLN-where(B)) vide bvue55-ka55/bvue55ha55. 55 hye -dvap5 (same.elevation-attach) n. the other side of the river. hye55-dong31 (same.elevation-lead/connect) that way (at the same elevation) (9.3, 9.15). hye55-lvum11 (same.elevation-lump) the one over there at the same elevation. hye55-lut1 (same.elevation-(go.to).opp.side) towards/at the other side at the same elevation; Hye55-lut1 pyang31 ye31 gvoq1. (same.elevation(go.to).opp.side DIR go(away/down) DIE) Let’s (DU .IN) go towards the other side (of the building, at the same elevation). Vide lut1. 55 hye -ma55 / hye55-me55 (same.elevation-LOC) over there at the same elevation. hye55-mai11 (same.elevation-ABL) from over there at the same elevation.

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    hye55-poq5 (same.elevation-foreign) n. foreigner, foreign countries; hye55poq5-mvi55 (same.elevation-foreign-female) n. a/the foreign woman; hye55-poq5-po55 (same.elevation-foreign-male) n. a/the foreign man. 55 hye -poq5 bang11 (same.elevation-foreign PNO) n. foreigners. hye55-poq5-mvi55 (same.elevation-foreign-female) n. a/the foreign woman. hye55-poq5-po55 (same.elevation-foreign-male) n. a/the foreign man. hyem31 (how) (16.13) adv. expressing ‘(that is) out of the question’. Hyem31 31 me1-lo . (how ROUS-no.more+I) That’s out of the question. O35, hyem31 31 35 du am31 lye ! ((blaming) how throw PFM(ipf) also+I) Oh, why did you throw it away? Mu35 r11 a1-zui31 ge11, hyem31 a1-myung31 ra54 dvi55? (work(N) also NEG-touch/work(V)(ipf) TOP how NEG-poor need+FCT RFL) If one doesn’t even work, how can one avoid becoming poor? hyet5 (boycott) vt. boycott; give the cold shoulder; refuse to give help, because of certain grievances, e.g. because the persons aimed at are always unthankful for the help they receive, etc. Ke5-zan31 yvang55-moq1 31 r55 hyet5 dvo31 lye . (before-summer/year 3PL-party OBJ boycott (ipf) place(vt) also+I) This year we don’t help them (PL) with anything. Nang31 ngo31 r55 ke5-dye31 hyet5 mvau55. (2SG 1SG OBJ PHB-too boycott cheat/fool) Why do you never come and help me? / (Lit.:) Don’t give me the cold shoulder.

    -ii1- / i5- I (function) mostly i5-, see the forms with i5- further below; a prefix to nouns indicating family members or members of certain generations, referring to the role they play or the position they have rather than to specific individuals; I5-pu11 ga54 wa35 dai54 r11 a1-gyo11 ge11. (functionelder.brother perceive+FCT EMP speak+FCT also NEG-hear/smell TOP) Even though he is an elder brother, he is disobedient. / Even though you are an elder brother, you are disobedient. Nang31 i5-wa11 le1-ga54 wa35 zo11 a1-gue11 mvoq5-o55 ge11. (2SG function-father but-perceive+FCT EMP child NEG-all.right(ipf) learn/teach-FCT TOP) Even though you (SG) are a father, you can’t raise children. b vide i1-bvyat1. 1 i - II water prefix; vide i11. i11 / i1- (water/urine) n. urine; Se5-poq5 syuq5 zyang35 i11 myo31 r55. (tree-leaf drink CD water/urine much(ipf) PE) If I drink tea, I have to pee so much. Zaiwa has four morphemes glossed ‘water’: -bu11, i1-/i11, wui31- and zvyam11. All of them are bound forms, exept i11 in the meaning of ‘urine’. i11-bvoq5 (water/urine-drop/heeltap) n+n. the last drops of urine (that never come out). i1-bvyat1 (function-lifetime) n. mole (sp. cyam11/syam11). i1-bvyat1 zo11 su31 (function-lifetime eat SNO) n. praying mantis (lit.: moleeater). i1-byep1 byep1 (water-urinate urinate) n+vt. urinate; I1-byep1 byep1 nvau11 r55. (water-urinate urinate feel.like(ipf) PE) I have to pee. (Same meaning as I1-zit5 nvau11 r55.) 1 i gvun11 n. household, referring both to economy and atmosphere; used in the following combinations: a i1gvun11 ngon35 (household pleasant) 31 n+vi. live happily; I1gvun11 zyaq1 ngon35 a1-gvo . (household rather pleasant nom-PL+I) They (as a family) live quite happily. b i1gvun11 yak1 (household difficult2) n+vi. have harsh times; I1gvun11 zyaq1 yak1 31 a1-gvo . (household rather difficult2 nom-PL+I) They (as a family) are having rather difficult times. c i1gvun11 doq1 (household go.up) n+vi. rise 31 in living standard; Zai11wa31 wui31 mu35 dat1 zui11 lui -eq1 yvum31 31 i1gvun11 doq1 bum31 bue . (Zaiwa generation work(N) able touch/work(V) in.this.way+I-AG/I house household go.up heap(vt/N) P+I) Because we Zaiwa are hard-working, our living standard has risen significantly. d i1gvun11 si1zvip5 (household supply) n+vt. run the supplies of the household; Yvum31 i1gvun11 zyaq1 gue11 si1zvip5 r55.

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    (house household rather all.right(ipf) supply PE) She is good at running the supplies of the household. i1kyet1rung11 vt. dislike to hear; evoke revulsion when hearing; Dang11 hau55-hun11 r55 ngo31 i1kyet1rung31 dik1 r55. (words the/that-sentence OBJ (ipf) 1SG dislike extreme PE) I am very much unwilling to hear that 31 31 1 phrase. I kyet1rung31 rvo , ke5-dai11 loq1-o . (dislike(ipf) PE+HIGH+I PHB-speak no.more-HIGH+I) How disgusting, stop talking about it! Cf. Jingpo hkyetrung (Xu et al. 1983: 269). i1-lang31 (water-river) a n. river; b n. open water in general; I1-lang31 ye31 31 ra . (water-river go(away/down) need+I) I’m going to fetch water. / (Lit.:) I’m going to the river. Hi55-zyung31 i1-lang31 me55 wo35 myu31 31 lye la11? (this-kind water-river LOC have float/drown(vi)(ipf) also+I UNC) Would this float on water? i1-lang31 lvang31-mui31 (water-river snake-snake) n. water snake. i1-lang31-zo11 (water-river-child) n+n+adj. brook, stream, little river. i1mit1 (mind) n. mind; a used in the expression i1mit1 ma55 gvat5 (mind LOC put.into) take offence; Nvik5-yo11 gve5lvang11 i1mit1 ma55 a1-gvat5 dvo11. (heart-itch3 although mind LOC NEG-put.into place(vt)) Even when angry, she doesn’t take offence. And before the following verbs: b before bo31 vt. contain: be conscientious; I1mit1 bo11 dik1 r55. (mind contain(ipf) extreme PE) He is rather conscientious. I1mit1 a1 -bo31. (mind NEG-contain) He is rather unscrupulous. c before gue31 adj/vi. be good, 31 be all right: be a good person; Hye55-yuq1 i1mit1 gue11 dik1 bue . (ipf) (same.elevation-person mind all.right extreme P+I) That person (at the same elevation) is a very good person. d before ngon35 vi. pleasant; 31 feel well; mostly in the negative; I1mit1 a1-ngon35-o . (mind NEG1 pleasant-HIGH+I) You must feel bad now. e before nik vi. deep; I1mit1 nik1 dik1 r55. (mind deep extreme PE) He is rather inscrutable. (He often does things you don’t expect; mostly used in a negative sense.) f before noq1 adj/vi. black; be miserly; I1mit1 dye31 noq1 r55. (mind too black PE) He is really too miserly. g before pom31 vi. unite; vide pom31. h before taq1dving31 vt. reassure; vide taq1dving31. 1 i -ram31 (function-adolescent) n. adolescent; i1-ram31-zo11 (functionadolescent-child) n. an (individual) adolescent; i1-ram31 wui31 (functionadolescent generation) the adolescents; cf. Jingpo ram (Xu et al. 1983: 683). i1sam31 n. colour; My main informant claims this to be a neologism that is 31 rather seldomly used; Ka55-hu55 i1sam31 nvye31 ra ? (Q-sort colour make.red/fry need+I) What colour shall we add?

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    i1sat1 n. character, disposition (Chinese: 性格 xìnggé); Nang35 i1sat1 ge11 31

    31

    hi55-dong31 bue ge1-lo . (2SG.PO character/disposition TOP thislead/connect P+I TOP-no.more+I) Your (SG) character is just like that. Hau55-yuq1 wa35 i1sat1 le1-zvui55 r11 a1-zvyoi11. (the/that-person EMP character/disposition one-bit also NEG-beautiful) He doesn’t have a good disposition at all! i1-si31 (water-urine.(outside.the.body)) n. urine (outside the body); cf. i1-zit5 n. urine (inside the body); I1-si31 nam11 r55. (waterurine.(outside.the.body) smelly(ipf) PE) It smells like urine here. 1 5 i -si -um31 (water-urine.(outside.the.body)-insect.hill) n. lower abdomen; cf. si1-bong35 n. bladder or balloon. 1 i -syang11 (water-water.tube) n. bamboo tube used as water container; also used as specifier noun; i1-syang11 le1-syang11 (water-water.tube onewater.tube) a/one bamboo water container. i1sye11 (er/what’s.his.name) (ch.20) stopgap or replacement word for when the speaker cannot find the words; I1sye11-i1sye11-i1sye11, ka55-hu55 ga54 bue54 dvi55? ((er/what’s.his.name)3x Q-sort perceive+FCT P+FCT RFL) Er (let me think) what was it called? i1-tung11 (water-paddy) n. paddy field (either empty or in use); i1-tung11 le1lok1 (water-paddy one-section.of.field) a/one section of a paddy field; cf. guq1-yo31. 1 i -tung11-bva55 (water-paddy-flatlands) n. downstream paddies. i1-zit5 (water-pee) a n+n. urine (inside the body); b n+vt. urinate; I1-zit5 nvau11 r55. (water-pee feel.like(ipf) PE) I have to pee. Cf. i1-byep1. 1 i -zvyam11 (water-water) n+n. water (usually unboiled); cf. wui31-bu11 (water-water) n+n. boiled water; i1-zvyam11 kam31 (water-water receive/fetch) n+vt. fetch water (from the well). i1-zvyam11-yam11 (water-water-pot) n+n+n. pot for water. i1zvyang11 (OPP) (17.11) opportunative clause marker. Guq1 lvap5 i1zvyang11 woq1-gan11 woq1 dvo31 r55. (unhusked.rice dry.in.the.sun OPP weave-loom weave place(vt)(ipf) PE) She is weaving whilst drying unhusked rice. i1-zyum11 (water-salt) n+n. salt; I1-zyum11 ko31 ra55. (water-salt bitter(ipf) PE) It tastes salty. No11 r55 i1-zyum31-eq1 i5-lvyen31 lo31 gvoq1. (cattle OBJ water-salt#-AG/I go-lure(ipf) come(back/up) DIE) Let’s (DU.IN) lure the cow back with salt. i31 (distilled) bound form n. a n. booze, mostly used in i31-pue11 (distilledbooze) n. booze; b n. honey, in bi1-i31 (wasp/bee-distilled) n. honey. 31 i -bvat5 (distilled-dregs/ferment(vt)) n. (during distilling process:) 31 fermented rice residu (edible); I31-bvat5 bvat5 dvo31 lye . (distilled-

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    dregs/ferment(vt) dregs/ferment(vt) place(vt)(ipf) also+I) We’re further fermenting the residue. i31-bvoq5 (distilled-drop/heeltap) n+n. the last drops of the booze. i31-bvyung31 (distilled-basket.for.provision) n. basket with booze and other 31 provision. I31-bvyung31 wun11 lui bui31num31 hui11 ye31 syang55. (distilled-basket.for.provision carry/bring(ipf) in.this.way +I family make.way/meet go (away/down) JUS) Let us (ND.IN) go and visit our relatives, carrying our (traditional) booze-basket. Vide lan35 for other types of baskets. i31-pik5 (distilled-pungent) n+adj. regular rice wine. i31-pue11 (distilled-booze) n. general term for alcoholic drinks, mostly referring to i31-pik5 (distilled-pungent) n+adj. regular rice wine. I31-pue11 a1-byan35 si1-luq1? I31-pue11 got1 syuq5 li11 a1gvyu31 a1-bo31. (distilledbooze scoop(vt) drink also merit NEG-contain) There’s no merit in excessive drinking. Vide i31-syuq5, waq1ha11 and wut1. 31 i -pue11-tam11 (distilled-booze-jar) n. little earthen booze-bottle; vide tam11. 31 i -pue11-yin31 (distilled-booze-addiction) n. addiction to alcohol; Chinese 瘾 yǐn. i31-seng11 seng11 (distilled-go.with.liquor go.with.liquor) n+vt. use things 31 for helping down liquor; Nge5-zo11 bing31 dvo31 lye , i31-seng11 seng11 (ipf) (ipf) 55 syang . (fish-child roast1 place(vt) also+I distilled-go.with.liquor go.with.liquor JUS) We’re roasting fishes, let’s (ND .IN) use them to help down the liquor. Cf. Jingpo seng (Xu et al. 1983: 807). i31-syuq5 (distilled-drink) short for i31-pue11 syuq5 (distilled-booze drink) n+vt. drink alcohol. i5- I (go) (12.2, 12.3, 12.14) adverb expressing ‘go (away/down) to do V’; Ngo31 waq1-zang11 i5-zvo11 be55. (1SG pig-rice/food go-feed EE) I’ll go and feed the pigs. This is the prefix variant of i5-/ye31 vi/vt. ‘go, either in a downward direction or away from home’; vide ye31. 5 i - II (SPEC) (9.20) short allomorph of i55. i55 I (SPEC) (9.20) full allomorph of the specificatory morpheme i5-/i55. i55 II (9.33) nu. two. i55-cue31 / i55-sue31 (two-ten) (9.33) nu. twenty. i55-loq1-eq1 (two-hand/arm-AG/I) with both hands; I55-loq1-eq1 ham31-aq1. (two-hand/arm-AG/I receive/fetch-SIM) Take (SG) it with both hands. i55-sue31 (two-ten) (9.33) nu. twenty; also i55-cue31. i55-sum11 (two-three) (9.33) nu+nu. two or three. i55-sum11-dvu55 (two-three-fold) (9.37) twice or thrice times as much.

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    i5-gu11 (function-younger.sibling) n. kinship term litterally expressing ‘like one’s younger sibling’ or ‘serving as one’s younger brother’, referring to a relative of lower status though not necessarily younger of age, belonging to a wife-taking family. i5-mang11-mo35 (function-elder.brother-AUG) n. person that serves as an elder brother; also plural; Mi11wa11 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 ban31-syoq5 31 yvang55-moq1 i5-mang11-mo35 ngvut5 lye . (Chinese be CD TOP use.uptill 3PL-party function-elder.brother-AUG be also+I) As for the Chinese, they are all like our elder brothers. Used in the same way as i5-pu11 (function-elder.brother). i5-nu11 (function-mother) n. a mother, someone who already has had children. i5-pu11 (function-elder.brother) n. an elder brother, someone who serves as an elder brother; also i5-mang11-mo35. 5 i -wa11 (function-father) n. a father, someone who serves as a father; cf. a1wa11/a5-wa11. 5 i ban11 a n. week; i5ban11 sum11-bat5 ((week(end) three-week)) three weeks; 31 I5ban11 ke5-mvyo55 bat1 bue ? (week(end) Q-much(B) week P+I) How 31 many weeks ago? b n. weekend; I5ban11 ka55-hu55 gvut5 gve5-ra ? (week(end) Q-sort do PL-need+I) What are you (PL) going to do in the weekend? c n. Sunday; vide i5ban31-ngi35; cf. ban11 pass Sunday; I5ban11 31 ban31 lye . (week(end) pass.Sunday(ipf) also+I) We are passing our Sunday. Vide ban11. 5 i ban31-ngi35 (week(end)(GEN)-day) n. Sunday; Ke5-ngi35 ge11 i5ban31-ngi35 31 ngvut5 lye . (before-day TOP week(end)(GEN)-day be also+I) Today it’s Sunday. Cf. ban11 pass Sunday. 5 i ban31-tang31 (week(end)(GEN)-behind) lit.: after Sunday, used in the names for the days of the week, from Monday to Friday (day one to five); i5ban31-tang31 le1-ngi35 Monday; i5ban31-tang31 i55-ngi35 Tuesday; i5ban31-tang31 sum11-ngi35 Wednesday; i5ban31-tang31 mi11-ngi35 Thursday; i5ban31-tang31 ngo11-ngi35 Friday; vide kyuq5-ngi35 (six-day) Saturday and i5ban31-ngi35 Sunday. 5 i -heng55 (SPEC-long(B)) (9.20) as long as this; I5-heng55 bo11 r55. (SPEClong(B) contain(ipf) PE) It is this long. 5 i -moq1 (go-dream) n. dream; the first syllable is tentatively interpreted as the prefix variant of i5-/ye31 vi/vt. ‘go, either in a downward direction or away from home’; i5-moq1 myang31 (go-dream see) n+vt. dream; I5-moq1 myang11 dik1 r55. (go-dream see(ipf) extreme PE) I have many dreams. A1man31 ngo31 wo35 dang54 i5-moq1 myang11 r55. (last.night 1SG have

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    fly+FCT go-dream see(ipf) PE) Last night I dreamt I could fly. Cf. moq1 and yvup5-moq1. 5 i -mvyo55 (SPEC-much(B)) (9.20, 9,25) this much, so much. i5-nvik5 (SPEC-duo) (9.4) specificatory first person dual pronoun. i5-nvung55 (SPEC-1ND.IN) (9.4) specificatory first person non-dual plural inclusive pronoun. i5-se55 (SPEC-like) (9.20, 19.2) like this, in this particular way. i5son55 (spirit.type) variant of u55son55. i5-su54 (SPEC-like+FCT) (9.20, 19.2) like this, in this particular way.

    -Kka11ta11ka11ta11ka11ta11 onom. imitating the sound of trains (sa11u55 is the wistle.)

    -Ka31 I (7th-brother) in names and kinship terms; Le1-ka31 ((male)-7thbrother) seventh brother; Mang11-ka31 (elder.brother-7th-brother) seventh-born elder brother. ka31 / ha31 II (where) (9.3) dem. pron. ‘where’. Ka31dvom55 a personal name. ka31-ke5-la11? (where-Q-UNC) Where, where? ka55-/ke5-/ha55-/he5- I (Q) (9.21.2) various shapes of the general interrogative pronominal prefix ; cf. where (9.21.1) and ‘where’ (bound form) (9.21.3). 55 -ka II (where(B)) vide bvue55-ka55/bvue55-ha55. ka55-bvue55 / ha55-bvue55 (Q-PLN) (9.21.2, 9.28) ‘which ones’ (more than two). ka55-bvue55-ha55 (where(B)-PLN-where(B)) vide bvue55-ka55/bvue55-ha55. ka55-dong31 (where(B)-lead/connect) (9.15, 9.21.2) what way? ka55-hu55 / ha55-hu55 (Q-sort) (9.3) what; cf. kau55, hai31. ka55-hu55 mu31 (Q-sort happen+I) (11.7) why? ka55-mai11/ha55-mai11 / ke5-mai11/he5-mai11 / ke5-lai11/he5-lai11 (QABL) from where (9.12, 9.21.2). ka55-me55/ha55-me55 / ke5-ma55/he5-ma55 / ke5-la55/he5-la55 / ke5me55/he5-me55 / ke5-le55/he5-le55 (Q-LOC) (9.21.2) a interrogative 31 pronoun ‘where?’; Nang35 cyoq5-pit5-mau11 ka55-me55 ngvut5 lye ? (2SG.PO navel.string-cut.in.two-native.land Q-LOC be also +I) Where’s your (SG) place of birth? b indefinite pronoun ‘where’: Ke5-me55 zang35 r11 ke5-me55 yo11. (Q-LOC strike also Q-LOC itch3) It itched wherever it touched their skin. ka55-nvik5 / ha55-nvik5 (Q-duo) which two (9.21.2, 9.28). ka55-pyang31 / ha55-pyang31 (Q-DIR) in which direction? (9.11, 9.21.2). ka55-yvam31 / ha55-yvam31 (Q-time.for) what time? A1hui31 ge11 ha5531 yvam31 bue la11? (now TOP Q-time.for P+I UNC) (after waking up) What time would it be now? (9.21.2, 9.32.5). kai11 I (narrate) vt. (stories) tell; Ngo31 mau31mi11 kai31 gvyo11 lye35. (1SG story narrate(ipf) let.hear come(away/down)) I’m telling a story. Cf. Jingpo hkai (Xu et al. 1983: 225).

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    kai11 / hai11 II (shovel) a vt. till the land, b vt. shovelling in general, including digging (over/out), weeding, hoeing etc.; Ngo31 yo31 kai31 dvo31 31 lye . (1SG land shovel(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I) I’m working in the field 31 (shoveling, hoeing etc.). Sun55 kai31 lye . (garden shovel(ipf) also+I) I am 31 11 tilling the garden. Cf. bvau , du , gvyung11, kop5, myoq1, rva55, sok1; cf. Jingpo hkai (Xu et al. 1983: 225). kai31 / hai31 (SUG+I) (18.9) the suggestive suffix. kai31-ma11 (SUG+I-ROUS) combination of two attitude markers (18.9 and 18.14). kam11 I (have.gap) adj/vi. have a broken edge; Nga35 koq5 kam31 byuq1 bue31. (1PO bowl have.gap(ipf) lose P+I) The edge of my bowl is broken. koq5kam11 (bowl-have.gap) n+adj. bowl with a broken edge. kam11 II (promise) vide a5maq5 kam11. Kam31 I in sueng55-kam31 a personal name. kam31 / ham31 II n. otter. kam31 / ham31 III (receive/fetch) vt. receive, fetch; a mostly used after i1zvyam11 (water-water); fetch water, from the well etc. b receive with one or both hands; I55-loq1-eq1 ham31-aq1. (two-hand/arm-AG/I receive/fetch-SIM) Take (SG) it with both hands. Ngyam31, loq1-wa11 ham31-aq1 bui31-ban11 gvat5 bi11 lye35. (offering) hand/arm-palm/sole receive/fetch-SIM sun-flower put.into give come(away/down)) Come here (SG) with your hands, I’ll give you sunflower seeds. kan11zyui35 n. kind of bitter fruits; kan11zyui35-weng11 n+n. broth made of kanzyui fruits. kan31ciq1 (wait.a.minute) vide han31siq1/han31ziq1/kan31ciq1. kang11 / hang11 I (each) (9.31) a after nouns: ‘each’; b after verbs: ‘each time’; often as kang11-mo35/hang11-mo35. kang11 II vi. (knife) be notched, be dented; Syam31 zan31 kang31 am55 bue31. (knife hew(ipf) notch(ipf) PFM P+I) Someone dented this knife. Syam31 hi31 ge11 a1-kang11 siq1. (knife this TOP NEG-notch still) This knife does not have notches yet. Cf. bvyen11 vt. flatten, dent; bvyet1 adj. dented; ngvyop5 vt. dent; zvyop5 vi. be chipped; vt. chip. kang11 III n. purple; only used in kang11-bvan55 and kang11-nye31. kang11 / hang11 IV (spread) a n. carpet, rug, mattrass, in dvap5kang11/dvap5-hang11 (attach-spread) n. carpet, rug, mattrass; b vt. (floor, 31 mattrass etc.) spread; Bui35-mo35 dvap5-hang11 hang31 lye . (ipf) (warm.oneself-AUG attach-spread spread also+I) I’m spreading a 31 quilt and a mattrass. Sue55 hang31 lye . (flattened.bamboo spread(ipf) also+I) We are spreading a floor. Cf. byo31 vt. (crops etc.) spread out; cf. sin55.

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    kang11-bvan55 (purple-cloth) a n. purple cloth; b noun used for referring to the purple colour; Kang11-bvan55 se5-dut5 ra55 (purple-cloth like-become PE) It’s purple. / (Lit.:) It’s like purple cloth. kang11-mo35 / hang11-mo35 (each-AUG) (9.31) a after nouns: ‘each’; b after verbs: ‘each time’. kang11-nye31 (purple-red) n. deep red; in kang11-nye31 nye31 n+vi. be deep red; Kang11-nye31 nye11 ra55. (purple-red red(ipf) PE) It’s deep red. kang55 (shave.head) a adj/vi. have a shaved head; u1-kang55 (head31 shave.head) n+adj. shaved head; Bung11ki11 ge11 u1-kang55 kang31 lye . (ipf) (monk TOP head-shave.head shave.head also+I) Monks have shaved heads. b vt. get oneself a shaved head; U1-kang55 kang31 gvoq1. (headshave.head shave.head(ipf) DIE) Let’s (DU.IN) shave our heads. Cf. gvak5, u1-gong11 and wuq1. 5 kap (cycle) verb specifically referring to the market cycle, only used in 31 combination with zyau31 n. market; Sum11-zyau31 kap5 bue . (threemarket cycle P+I) The market cycle has passed three times. le1-zyau31 kap5 (one-market cycle) exactly the period between two markets; i55zyau31 kap5 (two-market cycle) exactly the period between three markets. kat5 / hat5 I (long.object) (9.34) spec. noun for long objects; bvong55dvin55 le1-kat5 (pen one-long.object) a/one fountain pen; dui11 le1-hat5 a/one rope. kat5 / hat5 II (pursue) (12.6) a vt. pursue, hunt; vide si1-kat5/si1-hat5 (meatpursue) n+vt. hunt; b as the adverb ‘go everywhere to do V’. kau11 I (irritate.the.eyes) vi/vt. (eyes) be irritated, irritate the eyes, only in connection to fire; mi1-kau11 (fire-irritate.the.eyes) n. smoke (irritating the eyes); Mi1-kau11 kau31 r55. (fire-irritate.the.eyes irritate.the.eyes(ipf) PE) The smoke of the fire is irritating my eyes. Cf. gvyum31. 11 kau II (steal) a vt. steal; No11 kau31 lo35 byuq1 be1-gvo31. (cattle steal(ipf) go(back/up) lose P-PL+I) The cow has been stolen. kau11 su31 (steal SNO) n. thief, also: byu31-kau11 (man/woman-steal) n. thief; b used adverbially, expressing ‘stealthily, on the sly’, only before wu35 look; Ke5-kau31 wu35-o55! (PHB-steal(ipf) look-HIGH) Don’t look on the sly! Si5gvyam55 he5-kau31 wu35. (greetings PHB-steal(ipf) look) Don’t read letters on the sly. kau11 su31 (steal SNO) n. thief, also byu31-kau11. kau11-yui11 (steal-guilt) n. guilt of stealing; Yvang11 kau11-yui11 bo11 lye31. (3SG steal-guilt contain(ipf) also+I) I am guilty of stealing. Kau11-yui11 31 dai35-ye11 lye . (steal-guilt speak(ipf)-go(away/down)(ipf) also+I) I’m going to reprimand him/her/them (and demand recompensation). Vide yui11.

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    kau11-zvuq5 (steal-suspect) n. suspect of theft. kau31 / hau31 (inside) (9.18.1) ‘inside of’; adjective used as locational suffix; sun55 hau31 me55 (garden inside LOC) in the garden (inside the garden fence); a1-kau31 (nom-inside) the inside (of); yvum31-kau31 n. living-room. kau55 / hau55 I (cousin) n. male cousin or cousin-in-law, referred to by a man. 55 kau II (what) allegro form of ka55-hu55 (Q-sort) ‘what?’ (9.3); Kau55 gvut5 31 ra ? (what do need+I) What are you going to do? Kau55 wui25 ta11? (what buy+FCT GI) What did you buy? ke1- / he1- (door) prefix variants of kum11/hum11 n. door; vide ke1-hot5/he1hot5. 1 ke -hot5 / he1-hot5 (door-window) n. window; Ke1-hot5 pong55-aq5. (doorwindow open(vt)-SIM) Open (SG) the window. Ke1-hot5 mvi11-aq5. (doorwindow close(vt)-SIM) Close (SG) the window. Cf. cyong55hu11 n. window (Chinese: 窗户 chuānghu). ke1rok1 / ke1rok5 a onom. Zui31 ke1rok1 ga11 ngat1 kyo31 am55 bue31. (tooth [onom] perceive bite let.go.down(ipf) PFM P+I) The tooth was bitten loose with a crack. b in (no11-)ke1rok1 ((cattle-)[onom]) n. wooden bell (for cattle). ke5- I (before) (9.19) variant of the allomorph of ‘before’, by way of hypercorrection, vide he5-~he55~ke5-. 5 ke - / he5- II (PHB) (16.4) probibitive prefix; Ke5-gvut5/he5-gvut5. (PHB-do) Don’t do (that). ke5-/he5-/ka55-/ha55- III (Q) (9.21.2) various shapes of the general interrogative pronominal prefix; cf. where (9.21.1) and ‘where’ (bound form) (9.21.3). 5 ke - IV (steep) vide ke5-doq1 (steep-go.up) steep (upwards) and ke5-gyo35 steep (downwards); cf. gam11 adj. steep. 55 ke -la55 ke55-la55 (Q-LOC) where; vide ka55-me55/ha55-me55 etc. ke55-le55 (Q-LOC) where; vide ka55-me55/ha55-me55 etc. ke55-ma55 (Q-LOC) where; vide ka55-me55/ha55-me55 etc. ke55-me55 (Q-LOC) where; vide ka55-me55/ha55-me55 etc. ke5dvon55 / he5dvon55 n. cricket. ke5dvon55-zo11 / he5 dvon55-zo11 (cricket-child) n+adj. grasshopper, cricket. ke5-doq1 (steep-go.up) a vi. Ke5-doq1 r55. (steep-go.up PE) It’s steep (upwards). b also in ke5-doq1 doq1 n+vi. Ke5-doq1 doq1 dik1 r55. (steepgo.up go.up extreme PE) It’s rather steep (upwards). Ke5-doq5 a1gan35 doq1 ra55. (steep-go.up quite go.up PE) It’s very steep (upwards). Ke5-

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    doq1 ke5-mvyo55 doq1 r55 ta11? (steep-go.up Q-much(B) go.up PE GI) How steep is it? (upwards). ke5-gyo35 (steep-go.down) in ke5-gyo35 gyo35 (steep-go.down go.down) n+vi. steep (downwards); Ke5-gyo35 gyo35 dik1 r55. (steep-go.down go.down extreme PE) The road goes down steeply. ke5-heng55 / he5-heng55 (Q-long(B)) (7.9, 9.21.2) (time/space) how long. ke5-hue55 / he5-hue55 (Q-far(B)) (7.9, 9.21.2, 9.26) how far. ke5-i55 / he5-i55 (Q-SPEC) (9.20, 9.21.2) to what extent. ke5-lai11 (Q-ABL) vide ka55-mai11/ha55-mai11 / ke5-mai11/he5-mai11 / ke5lai11/he5-lai11. 5 kve -lvam55 I (Q-broad(B)) (7.9) how broad? Kyo31 ke5 -lvam55 bo11 r55? (road Q-broad(B) contain(ipf) PE) How broad is the road? 5 ke -mai11 (Q-ABL) vide ka55-mai11/ha55-mai11 / ke5-mai11/he5-mai11 / ke5lai11/he5-lai11. 5 ke -min31 (before-evening) (9.19, 9.39 Table 9.11) this evening, tonight; variant of he5-min31. 5 ke -min31-tang31 (before-evening-behind) (9.19, 9.39 Table 9.11) yesterday afternoon; variant of he5-min31-tang31. 5 ke -mvyang55 / he5-mvyang55 I (Q-tall/high(B)) (7.9, 9.21.2) how tall; how high; Gung31-du11 ke5-mvyang55 bo11 r55 ta11? (body-being Qtall/high(B) contain(ipf) PE GI) What’s the body length? Note the homophony. ke5-mvyang55 / he5-mvyang55 II (Q-(time).long(B) (7.9, 9.21.2) (time) how long? Note the homophony. ke5-mvyo55 / he5-mvyo55 (Q-much(B)) (9.21.2, 9.25) how much/many. ke5-nvam55 / he5-nvam55 (Q-time(B)) a when; Nang31 ke5-nvam55 lo35 31 ra ? (2SG Q-time(B) go(back/up) need+I) When are you (SG) going to go back/up? b expressing ‘never’, in the negative and in combination with the adverb variants r11/li11/lye11 ‘also’; Ngo31 ke5-nvam55 li11 i31-pue11 a1syuq5. (1SG Q-when also distilled-booze NEG-drink) I never drink alcohol. Vide Section 9.39 for matters related to time. ke5-nap1 (before-morning) (9.19, 9.39, Table 9.11) this morning; variant of he5-nap1. 5 ke -ngi35 (before-day) (9.19, 9.39 Table 9.11) today; variant of he5-ngi35. ke5-se55 / he5-se55 (Q-like) (19.2) how; Nang31 ke5-se55 ga31 r55? (2SG Q-like perceive(ipf) PE) How are you (SG) feeling? Before gvut5 ‘to do’, ke531 se55/he5-se55 could also translated as ‘what?’; Ke5-se55 gvut5 ra ? (Q-like do need+I) What can one do? ke5-su54 / he5-su54 (Q-like+FCT) (9.21.2, 19.3) what kind of? ke5-yoq1-bat1 (before-ago-week) (9.39) last week; variant of he5-yoq1-bat1.

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    ke5-yoq1-ngi35 (before-ago-day) (9.39) some days ago (three days before or earlier); variant of he5-yoq1-ngi35. ke -zan31 (before-summer/year) (9.39) a this year; b this summer; variant of he5-zan31. keng11 / heng11 (outfit) a n. outfit, clothes; gye31-keng11 (soldier-outfit) n. military uniform. Zai11-keng11/heng11 (Zaiwa-outfit) n. Zaiwa outfit; Zai11wa31-keng11 (Zaiwa-outfit) n. Zaiwa outfit; b n. tradition; vide tung31-keng11. keng11wai35 n. bunch of pung grass held by the witch doctor during ritual for the tauzvi guiding spirit. ki1- / ki5- / ki11 (faeces) vide ki11/ki1-/ki5- and the forms given below. ki11 / ki1- / ki5- (faeces) n. faeces; ki1- is the short prefix allomorph of ki11 faeces; ki5- is the high tone prefix variant. ki11 le1-tung11 (faeces onelump) a/one thick turd; ki11 le1-zung31 (faeces one-pile.up) a/one heap of faeces (of one session) ki11 ngvyaq1-mo35 (faeces watery/thin-AUG) n. thin faeces; ki11 sut5 (faeces wipe/polish) n+vt. wipe faeces; ki1-sut5 mau11sau11 (faeces-wipe/polish paper/book) n. toilet paper. Ki11 nam11 r55 luq1? (faeces smelly(ipf) PE Y/N) Does it smell like shit? / (Lit.: Is the shit smelly?) ki1-bum35 (faeces-heap(vi/N)) n. heap of faeces that has been piling up; seldomly used. ki1-bvuq5 (faeces-explode(vt)) (n+vt.) vi. break wind. Ki11 ke5-bvuq5. (faeces PHB-explode(vt)) Don’t fart. ki1-nun11 (faeces-insect.name) n. kind of insect that appears in the evening and lays eggs in dung. ki1-pam11 (faeces-stomach) n. stomach (in the strict sense); cf. wam11. ki1-pek1 (faeces-diarrhoea) n. diarrhoea (The difference in meaning between this form and ki1-syun31 is unknown.) Also in ki1-pek1 pek1 (faecesdiarrhoea diarrhoea) n+vi. suffer from diarrhoea; Ne1-zo11 ki1-pek1 pek1 r55. (cattle-child faeces-diarrhoea diarrhoea PE) The calf suffers from diarrhoea. Nang31 su54 ki1-pek1 ge11! (2SG like+FCT faeces-diarrhoea TOP) You (SG) worthless piece of shit! ki1-pun55 (faeces-manure) a n. human manure; b n. manure; waq1 ki1-pun55 n. pig’s manure; vide pun55. 1 ki -sut5 mau11sau11 (faeces-wipe/polish paper/book) n. toilet paper. ki1-syo31 (faeces-defecate) n+v. defecate; Ki1-syo31 nvau11 r55. (faecesdefecate feel.like(ipf) PE) I need to defecate. 1 ki -syun31 (faeces-spill(vt)) n+vt. suffer from diarrhoea, have the shits (The difference in meaning between this form and ki1-pek1 is unknown.) Also in ki1-syun31 syun31 (faeces-spill(vt) spill(vt)) n+v. suffer from 5

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    diarrhoea, have the shits; Ki1-syun31 syun11 r55. (faeces-spill(vt) spill(vt)(ipf) PE) I have the shits. Si1-nam31 ke5-zo11, ki1-syun31 syun11 31 lye . (fruit-smelly PHB-eat faeces-spill(vt) spill(vt)(ipf) also+I) Don’t eat bad fruits, it gives you diarrhoea. ki1-tong55 / ki5-tong55 (faeces-jail) n. toilet; also ki1-zum35. ki1-zum35 (faeces-shed3) n. toilet; also ki1-tong55/ki5-tong55. ki1-zung31 (faeces-pile.up) n. heap of faeces (of one session); cf. ki11 le1zung31 (faeces one-pile.up) a/one heap of faeces (of one session). 31 ki I (crab) in bau11-ki31 (bug-crab) n. crab. ki31 II (leg/foot) n. leg or foot; ki31 le1-hon55 (leg/foot one-one.of.a.pair) a/one leg or foot; ki31 rueq5 n+adj. be lame. 31 ki III (rescue) a vt. rescue; Ngo31 nang31 r55 lye35 ki11 yu25. (1SG 2SG OBJ come(away/down) rescue(ipf) take+FCT) I have rescued you (SG). b vt. 31 repay the bond on some pawned object; Na35i55 i5-ki31 ra dut1 r55. (clock go-rescue need+I become PE) I have to repay the bond on my pawned watch. ki31 goi35 su31 (leg/foot crooked/wicked SNO) n. a person with (a) crooked leg(s). ki31-bvat5 (leg/foot-strenght) n. strength in the legs; vide bvat5. ki31-bu35 (leg/foot-pimple/convex) n. flesh of the leg. ki31-bun11 (leg/foot-phalanx/limb) n. phalanx of the toe. ki31-byen11(-long11) (leg/foot-(body/feet).flat(-slice/plate)) vide byen11. ki31-cin31 (leg/foot-naked) na. barefoot. ki31-dam11 (leg/foot-wound) (n+n.) n. wound on leg or foot. ki31-dum35 (leg/foot-missing.a.stretch) na. be missing part of the leg; vide dum35. 31 ki -dvye11 dap1 (leg/foot-single be.attached) n+vi. be one-legged, only have one leg. 31 ki -gvek5 gvek5 (leg/foot-cross.legs/trip.up cross.legs/trip.up) a n+vt. cross legs; Ki31-gvek5 gvek5 gvat5 be55. (leg/foot-cross.legs/trip.up cross.legs/trip.up put.into EE) I’ll cross my legs. b n+vt. trip someone up; Ki31-gvek5 gvek5 lvyeng11-aq5. (leg/foot-cross.legs/trip.up cross.legs/trip.up topple/roll(vt)-SIM) Trip (SG) him up. Cf. gek1 vt. wrench off. ki31-gvi11 (leg/foot-sweat) (n+n.) n. sweat of the feet; Ki31-gvi11 toq5 r55. (leg/foot-sweat come.out PE) My feet are sweating. Cf. bui31-bu11. 31 ki -gvok5-zo11 (leg/foot-tiny-child) n+adj+adj. tiny or skinny feet/legs. ki31-gvup5 (leg/foot-contract) vide gvup5. ki31-hue11 (leg/foot-dirt) (n+n.) n. dirt on legs or feet.

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    ki31-ko31 (leg/foot-track) (n+n.) n. footprints, tracks; No11 ki31-ko31 dvai31 31

    lye . (cattle leg/foot-track follow.tracks(ipf) also+I) I am following the tracks of some cattle. Ki31-ko31 nang31 dvong11 wu35-aq5. (leg/foot-track tread(ipf) clearly(ipf) look-SIM) Tread firmly (SG) so that your footprints are easy to see. byu31 ki31-ko31 (man/woman leg/foot-track) n. traces of human footsteps. ki31-lyeng31 (leg/foot-wheel) (n+n.) n. bicycle (sp. cyam11/syam11); ki31lyeng31 zi11 n+vt. ride a bicycle. 31 ki -mo35-syam11 (leg/foot-AUG-ball) n. big toe. ki31-myoq1 (leg/foot-eye) (n+n.) n. joints of foot, leg and hip. ki31-ngyui11 (leg/foot-finger/toe) (n+n.) n. toe. ki31-put5 (leg/foot-knee) (n+n.) n. knee; vide kve5syang11 and le1-hap1. ki31-tang55-ngyui11 (leg/foot-last-finger/toe) n. little toe. ki31-wa11 (leg/foot-palm/sole) (n+n.) n. sole of the foot. ki31-yin31 (leg/foot-lower) n. lower leg (excluding the ankle). ki31-zvung11 (leg/foot-put.on) n. shoe. This is the indigenous word for ‘shoe’, which in Loilung is used less often than sau55-hai11 n. shoe. 31 ki -zyen35 zyen35 (leg/foot-stretch stretch) n+v. stand on toes; Ki31-zyen35 zyen35-aq5. (leg/foot-stretch stretch-SIM) Go stand on your (SG) toes. 55 ki n. cube; syo11 le1-ki55 (meat one-cube) a/one cube of meat; sui11-ki55 (blood-cube) (n+n.) n. cubes of set blood; a1-ki55 na. cube-shaped; A1ki55-ki55 ma54 gvun31-aq1 ma11. (nom-cube-cube LOC+FCT do*-SIM ROUS) Cut (SG) all of it into cubes. ki5- (faeces) variant of prefix ki1-; vide ki11/ki1-/ki5-. ki5-dong11 (faeces-(have)hole) (n+n.) n. anus. kik5 (surge) a vt. hawk up, spit; kyong11-gvyoq5 kik5 (throat-hawk.up surge) n+vt. hawk up, spit; Kyong11-gvyoq5 ke5-kik5. (throat-hawk.up PHBsurge) Don’t spit. b in nvik5-kik5 (heart-surge) vr. worry; Nang31 ke5dye31 nvik5-kik5. (2SG PHB-too (heart-surge) Don’t (SG) worry too much. 55 kim (bicker) vi. bicker, quarrel pettily; in dang11-kim55 kim55 (words-bicker bicker) n+vi. ‘bicker’ and kim31 lum11 (bicker(ipf) reciprocal) vi+aux. ‘bicker, quarrel, (with each other)’; vide kim31 lum11; cf. byoq1 vi. quarrel. kim31 lum11 (bicker(ipf) reciprocal) a vi+aux. ‘bicker, quarrel (with each 31 other)’; Yvang55-nvik5 kim31 lum31 si11 a1-gvo . (3PL-duo bicker(ipf) (ipf) (ipf) reciprocal die nom-PL+I) They (DU) are bickering ferociously. Nung35-nvik5 ke5-kim31 lum11 le1-gvo55. (2PL-duo PHB-bicker(ipf) reciprocal no.more-PL) Stop (DU) bickering. b also used after other verbs, expressing ‘do V for a match’, e.g.: Hoi55-eq5 dum11 din11 kim31 lum11 syeq1. (snail1-COM again run(ipf) bicker(ipf) reciprocal au.contraire)

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    He and the snail ran a match. Cf. byoq1 lum11 (quarrel reciprocal) vi+aux. quarrel, have an argument; bat1 lum11 (beat reciprocal) vt+aux. have a fight. kin31 (choose) vt. choose, select, pick out; Ngo31 mue31-bu11 kin11 dvo31 lye31. (1SG wrap-clothes choose(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I) I’m selecting clothes. Syo11 kin31 zo11-aq5. (meat choose eat-SIM) Pick (SG) the meat out of it (and eat it). king11 (halt/rest) a vi. stop; Nga35 na35i55 king31 byuq1 bue31. (1PO clock halt/rest(ipf) lose P+I) My watch has stopped. Ngap5 ga11 king31 byuq1 31 bue . (stop.suddenly perceive halt/rest(ipf) lose P+I) The noise has suddenly stopped. b vt. (car) stop; Nang35 mo35do35 king31 am55-aq5 hoi11. (2SG.PO car halt/rest(ipf) PFM-SIM INC) Stop (SG) the car now. c vi. rest, take a break etc. (cf. no11 vi. take a short break to catch one’s breath) 31 5 1 King11 be1-ra a be -da11. (halt/rest P-need+I almost.certain-maybe) 31 We’re about to take a rest, aren’t we? Zyau35 a1-si , a1-king 11 si1-gvoq1. (early nom-still+I NEG-halt/rest still-DIE) It’s still early, let’s. (DU) not rest yet. d n. (a) while; in le1-king11 (one-halt/rest) a while; for a while; vide le1-king11, le1-king11 me55 and le1-king11 r55; cf. Jingpo hkring (Xu et al. 1983: 255). king31 n. thread (sp. kat5/hat5); lai11-king31 (silkworm-thread) (n+n.) n. silk. king31-tui11 (thread-(roll.into.a).ball) n+n. ball of thread; king31-tui11 i55-tui11 (thread-(roll.into.a).ball two-(roll.into.a).ball) two balls of thread; in 31 king31-tui11 tui11 n+n+vt. make a ball of thread; King31-tui11 tui31 lye . (ipf) (thread-(roll.into.a).ball (roll.into.a).ball also+I) I’m making a ball of thread. Vide tui11. king31-wom35 (thread-wool) (n+n.) n. wool; also bai11nam35 si1-mau35 (goat meat-body.hair) n+n. wool; cf. za35-tu31. king55 (time) (9.39) a spec. n. hour; Nang31 le1-king55 byam11 yvup5 gvan31aq1. (2SG one-time jump(ipf) sleep put.into*-SIM) Get yourself one hour 31 of sleep. b spec. n. hours o’clock; Gau11-king55 ze1-si . (nine-time only31 still+I) It’s only nine o’clock. Ke5-mvyo55 king55 bo31 bue ? (Q-much(B) time contain P+I) What’s the time? / (Lit.:) How many hours are in it now? c in a1-king55 (nom-time) n. time, time for doing something; vide a1-king55. Vide 9.39 for matters related to time. king55 / hing55 (thousand/ten.cent) (9.34) mostly hing55; vide hing55 and le1-hing55; cf. Jingpo hkying (Xu et al. 1983: 270). 11 ko (bitter) a vi. bitter; Si11 hi31 zyaq1 ko31 r55. (fruit this quite bitter(ipf) PE) This is a bitter fruit. b vi. salty; I1-zyum11 ko31 ra55. (water-salt bitter(ipf) PE) It tastes salty. Vide gvi11gvi11. 31 ko I (gill) in nge1-ko31 (fish-gill) n. gill.

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    ko31 / ho31 II (track) a n. footprints, tracks; vide ki31-ko31; b n. scar; in dam11-ho31 (wound-track) n. scar. koi / hoi11 (INC) (18.10) the inciting suffix; This attidude marker urges the addressee to perform a certain action, with the additional notion that the time for this action has come. Zang11 zo11 syang55 hoi11. (rice/food eat JUS INC) Let’s (ND .IN) have our meal. koi55 / hoi55 (maybe) (16.29) vide hoi55. koi55zvue11 n. chopsticks (sp. zum35, kon55/hon55); Ngo31 koi55zvue11 a1-gue11 ngvyam11. (1SG chopsticks NEG-all.right(ipf) clench) I can’t use chopsticks. from Chinese 筷子 kuàizi. kok1 n. line of writing; Nang31 gva31 he31 zyang35 i55-kok1 mvit5 ra54 ke5dvo31mvi55. (2SG write(ipf) start CD two-line.of.writing leave.over need+FCT PHB-forget) When you (SG) start writing, don’t forget to leave two blank lines. kom55 / hom55 (fragrant) vi. savoury, having an appetizing smell; fragrant (not said of flowers, cf. nam31 ngon35) Hom31 dik1 r55. (fragrant(ipf) extreme PE) It smells nice. bya11-hom55 (soap-fragrant) fragrant soap (not for washing clothes); cf. nam31 smelly; see further kom55 sing55 / hom55 sing55. Cf. Jingpo hkom (Xu et al. 1983: 245). kom55-sing55 / hom55-sing55 (fragrant taste/smell(N)) n. fragrance, always in combination with certain other words; a before nam31 vi. 31 31 smelly: Hom55-sing55 nam11 r55 mai , ka55-hu55 nvye11 a1-gvo ? (ipf) (ipf) (fragrant-taste/smell(N) smelly PE OBV+I Q-sort make.red/fry 35 nom-PL+I) It smells nice, what are you (PL) frying? b before nam n. smell: Kom55-sing55 nam35 a1-wo35 gyo11 luq1? (fragrant-taste/smell(N) smell NEG-have hear/smell Y/N) Can you smell the fragrance? (Lit.:) Can you sense the smell of fragrance? / Can you sense the appetizing smell? 31 kon / hon31 (sing) a n. song; vide me1-kon31/me1-hon31; b vt. sing; Yuq1 kang11-mo35 me1-hon31 le1-lvum11 hon31 syang55. (person each-AUG words-sing one-lump sing JUS) Let’s each of us all (ND.IN) sing a song. Cf. do35 (sing) sing traditional love song duets. Cf. Jingpo hkon (Xu et al. 1983: 246). kon55 / hon55 (one.of.a.pair) specifier noun referring to any kind of object that normally appears in two, and therefore is translated as ‘one of a pair’ (cf. zum35 n. pair); loq1 le1-hon55 (hand/arm one-one.of.a.pair) a/one hand/arm; myoq1-zi35 le1-hon55 (eye-ball/seed one-one.of.a.pair) a/one eye; sau55-hai11 sum11-kon55 (shoe-shoe three-one.of.a.pair) three shoes; cf. zum35 n. pair; cf. Jingpo hkon (Xu et al. 1983: 246). Kon55lum11 a personal name. 11

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    kong31 (save) vt. save, make sth. last/go a long way; Mue31-bu11 gue11 kong11

    dik1 r55. (wrap-clothes all.right(ipf) save(ipf) extreme PE) She keeps her clothes very well (by not wearing them). Zi1syang31 ke5-dye31 kong31 gvo55, yvang11 wo35 gvut5-n55 zue31 ge11 yvang11 r55 gvut5 nvang31 gveq5. (child PHB-too save PL 3SG have do-FCT truc TOP 3SG OBJ do let.loose PLIM) You (PL) shouldn’t spoil a child too much. Let (PL) it do the things it can do. ngun31-kong31 kong31 (silver-save save) n+v. save 31 money; Ngun31-kong31 kong11 lye . (silver-save save(ipf) also+I) I’m 31 31 saving money. Ngun -kong a1-gue11 kong31. (silver-save NEGall.right(ipf) save) I have a hole in my pocket. Cf. bvam31. Cf. Jingpo hkong (Xu et al. 1983: 246). kong55 (ring(-shaped)) a n. ring; ngvyau55-ki11-kong55 (cat-faeces-ring(shaped)) n. cat-shit rings; Zaiwa name for a Shan sweet delicacy; b adj/vi. ring-shaped; a1-kong55 (nom-ring(-shaped)) na. ring, ring-shaped; c wear in a ringed shape, before wut1 vt. wear, dress; Loq1-ting11 gvut5 kong31 wun11-aq1. (hand/arm-bracelet do ring(-shaped)(ipf) wear/dress*SIM) Wear (SG) it as a bracelet. kop5 ((dig).pit) a mostly as part of nouns; dong11-kop5 ((have)hole-(dig).pit) n. pit in the ground (not made by man); le1-kop5 (one-(dig).pit) a/one bout/pit; Le1-kop5 ze11 kai31 gvan31-aq1 hoi11. (one-(dig).pit only shovel(ipf) put.into*-SIM INC) Just dig (SG) just one bout now. syam31-kop5 (knife(dig).pit) n. hoe; b vi/vt. dig pits; He5-kai31 kop5. (PHB-shovel(ipf) (dig).pit) Don’t dig pits. Cf. gvyung11, kai11/hai11. 5 koq / hoq5 I a n. bowl; koq5 le1-kyap5 (bowl one-leaf/sheet) a/one bowl; koq5 ci11 (bowl wash) n+vt. wash dishes; short for au11-koq5 ci11 (panbowl wash); b spec. n. koq5 le1-koq5 (bowl one-bowl) a/one bowl; c woq1koq5 (chicken-bowl) n. bamboo chicken cage for ritual use. 5 koq II vt. hatch; Woq1-zo11 koq5 bue31. (chicken-child hatch P+I) The chicks have hatched. Cf. dvoq5, gvyok5, kyo55 and up5. 5 koq ci11/si11 (bowl wash) n+vt. wash dishes; short for au11-koq5 ci11 (panbowl wash). koq5-kam11 (bowl-have.gap) n+adj. bowl with a broken edge. kot1kot1 [completely] ideophone expressing the notion of doing all of the entity or entities referred to by the object, within one straightforward action; Kot1kot1 kai31 toq5 gveq5. ([completely] shovel(ipf) come.out PLIM) (referring to a hole in the ground:) Dig (PL) it out entirely. A1-bvun31 31 mai11 kot1kot1 bin11 lye . (nom-single.root ABL [completely] (ipf) cut.grass also+I) I’m cutting them all short, from the roots onwards. Cf. kyom11 adv. all of it.

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    krak5 vi. perfect; Krak5 dik1 bue31. (perfect extreme P+I) It’s/that’s perfect! Loan from Jingpo hkrak (Xu et al. 1983: 249); vide kyak5. ku vt. scoop up water; Loq1-eq1 ku11-aq5. (hand/arm-AG/I scoop.up-SIM) Scoop (SG) the water up with your hands. Mut1-neq1 ku11 syu31-aq1. (dipper-AG/I scoop.up drink*-SIM) Use (SG) the dipper for scooping the water to drink. Cf. got1 and lap1. 31 ku I (raise) vt. raise children; Ngo31 zi1syang31 a1-ku11 wu35 siq1. (1SG child (ipf) NEG-raise look still) I have not raised a child before. often before 31 11 gvo ‘big’: Yvang31-eq1 yvang11 r55 ku11 gvo31 dvo11 bue . (3SG#-AG/I (ipf) (ipf) 3SG OBJ raise big place(vt) P+I) She has raised him. ku31 II (voice) vide me1-ku31. kue11 vt. gnaw; Si1-wui11 ke5-kue11. (meat-bone2 PHB-gnaw) Don’t gnaw bones. kue31dan35 / hue31dan35 (pencil) n. pencil (sp. kat5/hat5). kui11 / hui11 (dog) a n. dog; Kui11 wap1 r55. (dog bark PE) There’s a dog barking. b in several mammal sort names, e.g. wam31-kui11 (bear-dog) n. bear; vide dang31-hui11, hui11-kyon55, woq1-kui11/woq1-hui11; c vide Lve5kui11 zo11. 11 kui -lo11 (dog-tiger/bull) n. male dog, he-dog. kui11-mvi55 (dog-female) n. female dog, she-dog. kui11-wap5 (dog-bark) n. barking of dogs; Kui11-wap5 tye31 wo35 gyo31 r55. (dog-bark sound have hear/smell(ipf) PE) I can hear the sound of barking dogs. kui11-zo11 (dog-child) n+adj. doggy, little dog. kui11-zui31 (dog-tooth) (n+n.) n. canine teeth. kum11 / hum11 / hum55 / ke1-/he1- (door) a n. door (sp. lvum11); Hum11 pong55-aq5. (door open(vt)-SIM) Open (SG) the door. Hum11 31 mvi11-aq5. (door close(vt)-SIM) Close (SG) the door. Hum11 mi11 bue luq1? (door close P+I Y/N) Is the door closed? b in ke1-hot5/he1-hot1 (door-window) n. window; c in nvut5-hum11 (mouth-door) (n+n.) n. opened mouth; vide hum55-dong11, hum55-dvot5, possibly also in hum55zeng31; also see the forms in kum11- below. kum11-gvyang55 (door-bolt) n. bolt; kum11-gvyang55 le1-lvum11 (door-bolt one-lump) a/one bolt; kum11-gvyang55 le1-hat5 (door-bolt onelong.object) a/one bolt (long bamboo bolt for fence); kum11-gvyang55 gvyang55 (door-bolt bolt) n+vt. bolt the door. kum11-tuq5 tuq5 (door-prop.up prop.up) n+vt. prop up a door (e.g. with a stick); Kum11-tuq5 tu31-aq1. (door-prop.up prop.up*-SIM) Prop up (SG) the door. 11

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    kum11-zyut5 (door-corner) (n+n.) n. door corner; Kum11-zyut5 me55 ho31aq1. (door-corner LOC look.for-SIM) Look (SG) for it in the corner of the doorway. kum55 / hum55 I (complete2) vi. complete; a often in reference to spices and other seasonings, i.e. in a less general sense than ngaq1 vi. complete; 31 Mut5man31 kum31 dik1 bue . (seasoning complete2(ipf) extreme P+I) The 31 seasoning is complete. Zo11lyau35 hum55 bue luq1? (spices complete2 P+I Y/N) Are all spices in it? and two possible replies: A1-hum55 siq1. 31 (NEG-complete2 still) Not all yet. Hum31 dik1 bue . (complete2(ipf) extreme P+I) The whole range is in there. b reduplicated, as an adverb expresssing ‘all of them’, ‘the whole range’; Hum55-hum55 gvat5 gveq5. (complete2-complete2 put.into PLIM) (on spices:) Put the whole range in 31 it. Cyung31 ra54 zue31 ge11 kum55-kum55 wun31 bue luq1? use need+FCT truc TOP complete2-complete2 carry/bring P+I Y/N) Did we carry all the things needed? Cf. ngap1 and gum35. kum55 II (let.stay) vt. let someone stay in the house; Me1-gvai55 r55 ge11 31 nang31 kum31 kyo31 dvo31 lye luq1? ((female)-5th-sister OBJ TOP 2SG (ipf) (ipf) let.stay let.go.down place(vt)(ipf) also+I Y/N) Did you (SG) invite fifth sister to stay here? kun11 / hun11 I a n. sentence; dang11 le1-hun11 (words one-sentence) a/one sentence; b also in the context of specific expressions or idiom; Dang11 hi55-hun11 Zai11-ming35 me55 a1-bo31 luq1? (words this-sentence Zaiwalanguage LOC NEG-contain Y/N) Do you have this expression in Zaiwa? c n. stanza; me1-kon31 le1-kun11 (words-sing one-sentence(N)) a/one stanza of a song. kun11 II (yard) in yvum31-kun11. kun11-syoq5 (sentence(N)-nasty) n+adj. nasty talk, dirty talk etc.; Kun11syoq5 ke5-dai11. (sentence(N)-nasty PHB-speak) Don’t say nasty things. 31 kun I (huge.ovary.of.banana.plant) in ngvoq1-kun31. kun31 / hun31 II (time) (18.2) n. time, the time that/when …; a noun and 31 conjunction ‘(at the time) when’; ngo31 dviq5 a1-si kun31 (1SG little nom-still+I time) when I was little; he55-pyang31 nga35-moq1 zi1syang31 kun31 (before-DIR 1PO-party child time) before, when we (ND.EX) were children; Yvang11 zyau31 ye11 byuq1-u55 kun31-eq1 yvang11-gu11 lo11 r55. (3SG market go(away/down)(ipf) lose-FCT time-AG/I 3SG-younger.sibling come(back/up)(ipf) PE) Just at the time that she had gone to the market, her younger brother/sister came. b vide hau55-kun31/hau55-hun31 ‘at that time’; c vide a1-kun31 (nom-time) in the stopgaps a1-kun31 zyang35 and a1-kun31 syeq1. Vide Section 9.39 for matters related to time.

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    Kun55 / Hun55 Zaiwa family name corresponding to the Jingpo name Lahpai (vide Xu et al. 1983: 970); Le1-kun55-laq1 ((male)-(name)-3rdbrother) name of the principal informant for this book. kung11 / hung11 (fold) a n. trench in field, for draining rainwater (sp. kat5/hat5); hung11 sye31 (fold pull) n+vt. make trenches; Hung55-sye11 31 lye . (fold-pull(ipf) also+I) We are making trenches. b n. valley; No11 mvo55-kung11 mai11 i5-lvam31 gvan31-aq1. (cattle below-fold ABL golet.ramble/graze(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Take (SG) the cow out to pasture in the valley below. c n. county, prefecture; Long11cyon31-kung11 (Longchuan(GEN)-fold) Longchuan county; Meng11mau31-kung11 (Ruili(GEN)-fold) Ruili county Mang11si31-kung11 (Mangshi(GEN)-fold) Dehong prefecture; d vt. (hands) fold; Loq1-eq1 gvyaq5 kung11-aq5. (hand/arm-AG/I grasp fold-SIM) Use (SG) your hands for drinking. e vi. (eyes) sunken in because of exhaustion, in myoq1-kung11. Vide ci5hung11, myoq1-kung11, lang31-kung11/lang31-hung11, wui31-kung11/wui31hung11. kung31 / hung31 (vault/ridge) n. vault, ridge, roof (sp. kat5/hat5); vide mau11-kung31/mau11-hung31, nung31-kung31, yvum31-kung31/yvum31hung31 and the forms below. kung31-tuq5 (vault/ridge-prop.up) n. ridge of a house. kung55ga11 vt. respect; Yvum31-seng31 i5-wa11 r55 kung55ga11 ra31 dut1 lye31. (house-host function-father OBJ respect need+I become also+I) One has to respect one’s own father. Nang31 num11nang35-Ø kung55ga11 raq1 31 31 zyang35 ge11, num11nang35 r55 he5-kung55ga11 ra dut1 lye . (2SG friendFCT respect like CD TOP friend OBJ before-respect need+I become also+I) In order to be respected and liked by your friends, you (SG) first have to respect your friends. Cf. Jingpo hkungga (Xu et al. 1983: 266). kup5 I (pen/cage) n. pen, sty, cage, stable; waq1-kup5 (pig-pen/cage) n. pigsty; woq1-kup5 (chicken-pen/cage) n. chicken cage. This morpheme is possibly the same as kup5 vi. stuffy. 5 kup II (stuffy) a in u1-kup5 kup5 (head-stuffy stuffy) n+vi. cover the head (e.g. with sack); U1-kup5 kup5 zyang35 kup5-kup5 se5-ga11 ngon35 r55. (head-stuffy stuffy CD stuffy-stuffy like-perceive pleasant PE) When covering my head it feels pleasantly stuffy. b in mau11-kup5 kup5 (skystuffy stuffy) n+vi. be heavily clouded; Mau11-kup5 kup5 r55. (sky-stuffy stuffy PE) It’s heavily clouded. Cf. Mau11 zau35 r55. (sky conceal/clouded PE) It’s clouded. The morpheme kup5 is possibly the same as kup5 n. pen, sty, cage. Vide kup5-kup5. 5 kup -kup5 [stuffy-stuffy] ideophone ‘stuffy; lacking fresh air or ventilation’; Cyong55hu11 pong31 am55-aq5, kup5-kup5 ga31 r55. (window

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    open(vt)(ipf) PFM-SIM stuffy-stuffy perceive(ipf) PE) Open (SG) the window, it’s so stuffy here. kuq5 / huq5 a n. pillow, in u1-kuq5/u1-huq5 (head-pillow) n. pillow; b vi/vt. 31 rest head on something, use a pillow; use as pillow; Ke5-kuq5-o . (PHB1 5 31 pillow-HIGH+I) Don’t rest your head on there. U -huq hu -aq1. (headpillow pillow*-SIM) Rest (SG) your head on the pillow. kyak5 vi. suit perfectly; a corruption of krak5 vi. perfect, which is a direct loan from Jingpo hkrak (Xu et al. 1983: 249); Some speakers may possibly freely vary between the two realizations, in both meanings. A1kyak5 luq1? (NEG-suit.perfectly Y/N) Does it suit me? and the reply: 31 Kyak5 r55 mai . (suit.perfectly PE OBV+I) It suits you perfectly. Nang35 31 sau55-hai11 zyaq1 kyak5 r55 mai . (2SG.PO shoe-shoe quite suit.perfectly PE OBV+I) These shoes of yours (SG) suit you perfectly. kyam11 a n. half; Le1-yuq1 le1-kyam11 gam31 gvoq1. (one-person one-half divide/share DIE) Let’s (DU.IN) both take one half of it. A1luq1syoi31 le131 kyam11 bo31 bue . (almost one-half contain P+I) Almost one half has been done now. b as a specifier noun; he5-syau55 le1-kyam11 (melon/gourd-water-melon one-half) half a water-melon; c specifier noun for knives; syam31 le1-kyam11 (knife one-half) a/one knife; d n. half 31 an hour; Gau11-king55 le1-kyam11 bue . (nine-time one-half P+I) It’s half 1 11 past nine. e in we -kyam (bamboo-half) n. halfed stretch of bamboo which resembles and could be used as a knife; f n. side; loq1-bvai11kyam11 (hand/arm-left-half) n. left side; g n. East/West; side where the sun comes up or goes down resp. bui31-toq5-kyam11 (sun-come.out-half) n. East; bui31-wang31-kyam11 (sun-enter-half) n. West. kyam31 n. fence; in sun55-kyam31; cf. gvyam55. kyam55 (uncastrated.pig) in waq1-kyam55. kyang31 I a vi. (message, voice etc.) clear; Kyang31-dik5 bue31. (clearextreme P+I) It’s very clear. b reduplicated as an adverb ‘clearly’: Le1go11 kyang31-kyang31 dai11-aq5. (well clear-clear speak-SIM) Speak (SG) clearly. Cf. dvong31. kyang31 II n. rafter. kyang31 lvang11 (rafter draw/hang) n+vt. make a roof; le1-mo35 kyang31lvang11 (tiger-AUG rafter-hang) n. Siberian tiger. kyang55 (goose) vide kyang55-mo35; cf. zyo31kyang55 n. sparrow. kyang55-mo35 (goose-AUG) n. domestic goose; cf. gon35 n. wild goose; cf. zyo31kyang55 n. sparrow. kyap5 (leaf/sheet) (9.34) a specifier noun for slicy objects, e.g. leaves, sheets, pottery, etc.; mau11sau11 le1-kyap5 (paper/book one-leaf/sheet) a/one sheet of paper; b specifier noun for suns and moons (probably also

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    considered as flat or slicy) and for months; Lva55-mo35 i55-kyap5 ze1-si . (moon-AUG two-leaf/sheet only-still+I) She’s only three months old. kye31 vt. hush, soothe; a in a negative way: Zi1syang31 ke5-dye31 kye31. (child PHB-too hush/soothe) Leave that child at rest. (Don’t play so wildly with that child.) b vide kye11 mau35. 31 kye -ming31 (hush/soothe-name) n. infant name, pet name; cf. ming31-zo11. kye55 (suona.horn) in bvi5-kye55. kye11 mau35 (hush/soothe(ipf) stare/bewildered) vt+vi. lay it on with someone; Nang31 ngo31 r55 ke5-kye11 mau35. (2SG 1SG OBJ PHBhush/soothe(ipf) stare/bewildered) Don’t (SG) lay it on with me (whereas we both know you have done something wrong). kyeng55 (yellow) a adj/vi. yellow, orange (like Chinese 黄 huáng); mi31kyeng55 (earth-yellow) n. orange coloured earth (cf. mi31-nye31 which is 31 deeper red); b adj/vi. blond; U1-cam31 kyeng31 r55 mai . (head(ipf) hair.of.the.head yellow PE OBV+I) Your hair is blond. Cf. heng3155 1 55 kyeng , noq -kyeng . kyet1 I n. crossroads; mvo55-kyet1 (below-crossroads) the crossroads below there; hye55-kyet1 (same.elevation-crossroads) the crossroads there at the same elevation. kyet1 II (strike.(matches)) a mi1-kyet1 (fire-strike.(matches)) n. match; also pai11-kyet1 (matches-strike.(matches)) n. match, from Shan [yet1 phai52] (pronunciation of Zaiwa informant); b vt. in mi1-kyet1 kyet1 (firestrike.(matches) strike.(matches)) n+vt. light matches; Mi1 -kyet1 kyet1 dvu31-aq1. (fire-strike.(matches) strike.(matches) light(vt)*-SIM) Light (SG) a match. kyo11 (groove) in nvo31-kyo11. kyo31 (road) a n. road (sp. kat5/hat5); Kyo31 nop1 dik1 r55. (road sink.away/squishy extreme PE) The road is very squishy. b referring to walking in general: kyo31-so11 (road-walk) n+v. walk; Ngo31 kyo31 a1-wo35 so11. (1SG road NEG-have walk) I can’t walk. c n. procedure, course; mi1-hang55-kyo31 (wife-marry-road) the course of a wedding (including all things to be arranged); d n. veins, in sui11-kyo31 (blood-road) n. veins. 31 kyo -bvi31 (road-crooked) n. branch road. kyo31-gvang11 (road-split(vt)) n. crossroads; Gau11-kyo31-gvang11 (nineroad-split(vt)) n. the Nine-forked road; vide gvang11. 31 kyo -goi35 (road-crooked/wicked) n+adj. winding road. kyo31-gung31 me55 (road-body LOC) somewhere on the road; Nga35-nvik5 kyo31-gung31 me55 tung31 hui54. (1PO-duo road-body LOC crush(ipf) make.way/meet+FCT) We (DU) came across on the road.

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    kyo31-ngvoq5 ngvoq5 (road-mistake mistake) n+v. loose one’s way, get 31

    lost; Nga35-nvung55 kyo31-ngvoq5 ngvoq5 bue ngvut5 r55. ( 1PO-1ND.IN road-mistake mistake P+I be PE) We (PL.IN) have lost the way. kyo31-ngyang31 (road-straight) n. short road; (lit.: straight road) vide ngyang31; Kyo31-ngyang31 so11 gveq5. (road-straight walk PLIM) Walk (PL) via the short road (lit.: via the straight road). kyo31-so11 (road-walk) n+v. walk; vide so11. kyo31-zup5 (road-come.together) n+n. place where roads meet; Kyo31-zup5 me55 zup1 lum11 syang55. (road-come.together LOC come.together reciprocal JUS) Let’s meet at the place where the roads meet. kyo55 (let.go.down) (12.10) a vt. let go down; Ngve5-noq1 gau31-du11 kyo31 gvat5 r11 … (bird-black nine-being let.go.down(ipf) put.into also) When 31 you let down nine crows … b vt. lay egg; Ngvoq5-u55 kyo55 bue . (birdegg let.go.down P+I) She has laid an egg. (Cf. dvoq5, gvyok5, koq5 and up5.) c aux. downward aspectivizer; after transitive verbs, expressing that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb takes place in a downward direction; Lang31 kyo31 am55-aq5. (pull/yank(ipf) let.go.down(ipf) PFM-SIM) Pull (SG) it down. d aux. onward aspectivizer, after transitive verbs, expressing that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb is prolonged from a certain moment in time onwards; Me1-gvai55 r55 ge11 31 nang31 kum31 kyo31 dvo31 lye luq1? ((female)-5th-sister OBJ TOP 2SG (ipf) (ipf) let.stay let.go.down place(vt)(ipf) also+I Y/N) Did you (SG) invite fifth sister to stay here? e in ngvye31 kyo55 (burn(vt)(ipf) let-go-down) 31 vt+vt. be burnt down by someone; Yvum31 ngvye31 kyo31 am55 bue . (ipf) (ipf) (house burn(vt) let.go.down PFM P+I) The house has been burnt down. Cf. gyo35. kyom11 (all.of.it) (16.14) adv. ‘all of it’, ‘all of them’, expressing that all entities referred to by the direct object are affected by a certain transitive action (cf. zvyat5 adv. all, referring to characteristics or identity). 31 Kyom11 bi31 am55 bue . (all.of.it give(ipf) PFM P+I) I have given away all of it. Cf. zvyat5; cf. Jingpo hkyom (Xu et al. 1983: 271). kyom31 (break.into.pieces(vt)*) allomorph of kyop5. Si1-wui11 bat1 kyom31aq1. (meat-bone2 beat break.into.pieces(vt)*-SIM) Thrush (SG) the bones into pieces. kyom55 (fireplace) in mi1-kyom55. kyon55 in hui11-kyon55. kyong11 n. throat; Kyong11 soi55 ma54 ga31 r55. (throat hoarse LOC+FCT perceive(ipf) PE) My throat feels very hoarse. See the forms below.

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    kyong11 tye31 mu31 (throat sound happen) n+n+v. clear one’s throat; 31

    Kyong11 tye31 mu25 se5-ga31 r55 mai . (throat sound happen+FCT likeperceive(ipf) PE OBV+I) It sounded like someone coughing! kyong11-gvyoq5 (throat-hawk.up) n. spit, saliva, phlegm; Kyong11-gvyoq5 ke5-zang35 nang11. (throat-hawk.up PHB-strike tread) Don’t step into the spit. kyong11-gvyoq5 kik5 (throat-hawk.up surge) n+vt. hawk up, spit; Kyong11gvyoq5 ke5-kik5. (throat-hawk.up PHB-surge) Don’t spit. kyong11-zau11 (throat-cough) n. cough; Kyong11-zau11 dum11 pun31 bue31. (throat-cough again attack P+I) Coughing has started again. Vide zau11. kyong11-zui31 (throat-tooth) n. Adam’s apple. kyong31 (cavity) in ge1-zvyuk5-kyong31. kyong55- (throat) variant of kyong11 n. throat, Kyong55-no11 r55. (throatpain/ill/disease(ipf) PE) I have a sore throat. kyop5 / kyom31 vi/vt. break into pieces, smash; Muk1 dun31 kyop5 am55 31 bue . (cake/cookies press.into(ipf)/spear(GEN) break.into.pieces(vt) PFM P+I) The cake has been pressed into pieces. Dvau55 lvoq5 kyop5 am55 31 bue . (inflate(vt)/bottle(N) ACT break.into.pieces(vt) PFM P+I) Someone has smashed the bottle. Vide kyom31; cf. gyop1 vi. be broken, in pieces. kyui11 (bend) vi/vt. bend, bow, bend and break (cf. pit5 cut in two; in zan31 pit5 (hew(ipf) cut.in.two) hew in two vs. zan31 kyui11 (hew(ipf) bend) hew and bend); a vt. pick flowers; ban11-bo35 kyui11 (flower-open.itself bend) n+vt. pick flowers; b vt. blow one’s nose; nvap5 kyui11 (mucus bend) n+vt. blow one’s nose. c vi. bend and break; Si1-gvoq5 gvrom31 ga11 31 kyui31 byuq1 bue . (fruit-branch [onom] perceive bend(ipf) lose P+I) The branch of the fruit tree broke with a loud crack. Cf. ngvuq5 vt. bow, ngom35 vt. bend over (one’s body). Vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. kyui31 n. horn, horns, antlers; kyui31 le1-zum35 (horn(s)/antlers one-pair) a/one pair of horns/antlers; kyui31 le1-hon55 (horn(s)/antlers oneone.of.a.pair) a/one horn/antler; ne1-kyui31 (cattle-horn(s)/antlers) n. cow’s horn; sat5-kyui31 (deer-horn(s)/antlers) n. deer’s antlers. kyui31-wuek5 (horn(s)/antlers-wrestle.with.horns) n+v. wrestle with horns; No11 hi55-du11 kyui31-wuek5 gue11 wuek1 dik1 r55. (cattle this-being horn(s)/antlers-wrestle.with.horns all.right(ipf) wrestle.with.horns extreme PE) This buffalo is rather a good horn-wrestler. kyui55 (half.a.day) (9.39) a spec. n. half a day (mostly afternoon); b in ngi35kyui55 (day-half.a.day) adv. at daytime; cf. hang11 n. half a day’s labour.

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    kyum31 (meet.(again)) vi. meet (again); Nga35-nvung55 ke5-le55 kyum11 lum11 31

    ra ? (1PO-1ND.IN Q-LOC meet.(again)(ipf) reciprocal need+I) Where 31 shall we (ND .IN) meet? A1-wo35 kyum31 hai ? (NEG-have meet.(again) SUG+I) We will not meet again, I guess? Cf. zup1. kyun31 (take.off/pluck*) allomorph of kyut5. kyun55 (tube) in te5-kyun55; cf. mi1-bvyung55. kyung31 (steamer) vide bung11-kyung31. kyung55 n. hollow, cavity; in kyung55-kyung55 and mi1-kyung55. kyung55-kyung55 (hollow-hollow) n. hollow shape, like an excavated melon or a round pit in the ground. Kyung55zo11 (toponym) Kyungzo Springs. Kyung55zo11-mun31-zup5 (toponym-upper.course-come.together) the place where the streams coming from the separate Kyungzo Springs meet. kyup5 vt. sew; Mue31-bu11 kyup5 lye31. (wrap-clothes sew also+I) I’m sewing clothes. kyuq1 (around) (12.12) aux. expressing ‘to perform V in a way that that one 31 returns at the point of departure’; Le1-lving31 din11 kyuq1 bue . (one(ipf) 1 31 turn/roll run around P+I) I have run one round. Le -lving tau31 kyuq1 31 bue . (one-turn/roll sew/insert(ipf) around P+I) I have sewed one round. Cf. lving31. kyuq5 (9.33) nu. six. kyuq5-ngi35 (six-day) n. Saturday; always used in certain fixed phrases: 31 Kyuq5-ngi35 (zye35) bue . (six-day (arrive) P+I) It’s Saturday. Saturday has arrived. kyut5 / kyun31 (take.off/pluck) (15.16) a vt. pluck; woq1 kyut5 (chicken take.off/pluck) n+vt. pluck a chicken; b (clothes, shoes) vt. take off; Sau55-hai11 kyun31-aq1. (shoe-shoe take.off/pluck*-SIM) Take off your 31 (SG) shoes. Ka31, ngo31 bu11 be1-kyut5 lye . (where 1SG clothes helptake.off/pluck also+I) Come, I will help you to undress. c aux. ‘to no purpose’, expressing that the action indicated by the main verb is performed to no purpose and often even without any real result; ngvye31 kyut5 (burn(vt)(ipf) take.off/pluck) burn to no purpose; put5 kyut5 (roast3 take.off/pluck) vt+aux. roast to no purpose (and without even making it 31 done); Zo31 kyut5 bue . (eat(ipf) take.off/pluck P+I) I/we have eaten it to no purpose (without even getting full). Vide wut1 for an overview of other verbs and expressions for putting on/off or wearing clothes, shoes, glasses etc.

    -Lla11 (UNC) (18.11) uncertainty suffix; basically indicates that the speaker is pleading ignorance and inquiring about something he is uncertain about, with the connotations of ‘it’s not for me to determine’ or ‘I don’t know, but perhaps you know’; Ke5-ngi35 ge11 ha55-hu55 bui31-ngi31 la11? (beforeday TOP Q-sort sun-date UNC) What would today’s date be? la11zyu11 n. candle (Chinese 蜡烛 làzhú). La31 La people. The La31 and Bve1lvong11 (in Chinese: 德昂 Dé’áng) are reported to have lived in the Loilung area some 14 generations ago. la55 (LOC) vide ka55-me55/ha55-me55 etc. lva55- / lve5- n. moon, only in compex forms. lva55-mo35 (moon-AUG) a n. moon (sp. kyap5); Lva55-mo35 ling35 bue31. 31 (moon-AUG round P+I) The moon is full. Lva55-mo35 toq5 lo31 bue . (moon-AUG come.out come(back/up) P+I) The moon is beginning to rise. b n. month; lva55-mo35 le1-kyap5 (moon-AUG one-leaf/sheet) a/one moon/month; Ke5-mvyo55 zan31 a1-ngvut5 siq1, lva55-mo35 sum11-kyap5 31 ze1-si . (Q-much(B) summer/year NEG-be still moon-AUG threeleaf/sheet only-still+I) Her age cannot yet be measured in years; she’s only three months old. c (idiom) Lva55-mo35 gue35 dvo31 r55. (moon-AUG fit.inside place(vt)(ipf) PE) I am in menstruation. 11 lai I (ABL) (9.12) variant of mai11. lai11 II n. bow (sp. lvum11); Nang31 lai11 a1-bek1 nvau31 luq1? (2SG bow NEG31 shoot feel.like Y/N) Do you (SG) want to shoot the bow? Lai11-bek5 lye 1 11 luq ? (bow-shoot also+I Y/N) Are you shooting the bow? Vide lai dan35 and other forms in lai11- below. 11 lai III vi. (weight) heavy; not for humans, cf. mo31 vi. (people) heavy; Lai31 dik1 r55. (heavy(ipf) extreme PE) It’s quite heavy. Vide gung31-lai11. 11 lai IV (pass) (16.43) a vi. (time) pass; Lai31 byuq1 bue31. (pass(ipf) lose P+I) 31 The time has passed. b vi/vt. (space) pass; Lai31 lo35 bue . (pass(ipf) go(back/up) P+I) She has passed. c vt. (bridge) cross; Zam31 a1-wo35 lai11. (bridge NEG-have pass) We can’t cross the bridge. d in the comparative adverb lai31 (pass(imp)) expressing ‘X is more Vadj than Y’. Ngo31 31 yvang11 li55 lai31 mvyang11 lye . (1SG 3SG OBJ pass(ipf) tall/high(ipf) also+I) I’m taller than her. Cf. Jingpo lai (Xu et al. 1983: 400-1) and lai ‘to pass by, to go beyond’; ‘to exceed, overstep, transgress’ in Hanson (1954: 331).

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    lai11 V n. silkworm; only attested in the following forms. lai11-bek5 (bow-shoot) n+vt. shoot the bow; Lai11-bek5 lye31 luq1? (bowshoot also+I Y/N) Are you shooting the bow?

    lai11-dan35 (bow-catapult) n. catapult (sp. lvum11); Lai11-dan35 a1-gue11 bek1

    luq1? (bow-catapult NEG-all.right(ipf) shoot Y/N) Do you know how to shoot the catapult? nye35gvyet5 lai11-dan35 (rubber bow-catapult) n+n. rubber catapult. 11 lai gva55 (script) a n. letter or character (sp. cyam11/syam11); vide lai11gva55mvi55; Mi11wa11 lai11gva55 le1-cyam11 (Chinese script one-ball) a/one Chinese character; lai11gva55 le1-yan35 (script one-row) a/one line of writing; lai11gva55 wu35 (script read) n+vt. read; lai11gva55 gva55 (script write) n+vt. write; lai11gva55 ngvap5 (script read.aloud) n+vt. read aloud; b n. script of a language; Mi11wa11 lai11gva55 (Chinese script) Chinese script; Zai11wa31 lai11gva55 (Zaiwa script) Zaiwa script; Nga35-moq1 Zai11wa31 lai11gva55 a1-bo31 luq1? (1PO-party Zaiwa script NEG-contain Y/N) Isn’t any of our (ND.EX) Zaiwa script in it? (See further under lai11gva55-mvi55.) c lai11gva55 paq1zvi31 (script knowledge) n+n. culture, 31 knowledge; Yvang11 lai11gva55 paq1zvi31 gat1 dik1 lye . (3SG script knowledge expert extreme also+I) He/she is a very literate person. lai11gva55 mvoq5 (script learn/teach) n+vt. study; vide si1gvut1; d letter, in sum11zvoq5 lai11gva55 (court script) n. love letter; vide gva55 vt. write; cf. Jingpo laika (Xu et al. 1983: 401) n. ‘writing, letters, characters, book’. lai11gva55-mvi55 (script-female) n. letters of an alphabet (sp. cyam11/syam11); cf. Chinese 字 母 zìmǔ; Lai11gva55-mvi55 ga54 ge11 bvong11 ra55. (script-female perceive+FCT TOP coincide(ipf) PE) (On Dutch and English:) The same alphabets are used for writing. Lai11gva55mvi55 a1-bvong31. (script-female NEG-coincide) (On English and Burmese:) Different alphabets are used. Cf. nam35bat5 n. number. 11 lai -king31 (silkworm-thread) n. silk. lai11-mvi55 (silkworm-female) n. silkworm. lai11-sut5 (silkworm-(make)nest) n+n. silkworm cocoon. lai11-zu11 (bow-prickle) n+n. arrow. lai31 n. wind; Lai11-eq1 a1zeng35 ban11 mut1 dvang31 am55 bue31. (wind#-AG/I thing use.up(ipf) blow let.fly(ipf) PFM P+I) The wind has blown it all away. 31 lai31 dvoq5 (wind get.up) n+v. (wind) kick up; Lai31 dvoq5 bue . (wind 31 31 get.up P+I) The wind is kicking up. lai lo (wind come(back/up)) n+v. (wind) blow; Lai31 dye31 lo11 r55. (wind too come(back/up)(ipf) PE) The 31 wind is blowing extremely/very hard. Lai31 lo31 bue . (wind 31 11 come(back/up) P+I) The wind has started blowing. Wa -um me55 lai31

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    lo31 nvau11 r55. (village-head LOC wind come(back/up) feel.like(ipf) PE) It’s windy at the upper end of the village. lai31 hek5 (wind fan(V)) n+v. 31 (cold wind) blow; Lai31 hek5 zyang35 no31 ra . (wind fan(V) CD pain/ill/disease need+I) You will catch a cold in that wind. lvai31 (boat) n. boat, ship, aeroplane (sp. du11 ‘being’); dung31-lvai31 (wingboat) n. aeroplane; cf. bvau31 n. raft. 31 lai -dun11 (wind-press.into/spear) n. storm; Lai31-dun11-mo35 lo11 lye31 nueng31nueng31. (wind-press.into/spear-AUG come(back/up)(ipf) also+I [forces.of.nature]) A terrible storm is coming. Vide duk5duk5 . 31 lai -lving55 lving55 (wind-whirl whirl) n+v. whirling of the wind; Lai31lving55 lving31 r55. (wind-whirl whirl(ipf) PE) There’s a whirlwind. Vide lving55. 35 lai (deviate) a vt. (road) deviate; Kyo31 hi31 dye31 goi35 r55, lai35 am55 ra31 dut1 r55. (road this too crooked/wicked PE deviate PFM need+I become PE) This road is too crooked, we’ll have to deviate it. b nominal suffix referring to relatives, expressing ‘substitutionary’; mi11-lai35 (wifedeviate) n. another wife as replacer; wa11-lai35 (father-deviate) n. another father as replacer (conceived as impossible); ze1-lai35 (child-deviate) n. 31 31 other children as replacers; Nung11-zo11 si31 bue ngvu , eq5 ze1-lai35 31 35 wo ra . (2REL-child die P+I say+I VOC child-deviate have need+I) Your children have died, they said. Really? I will have some other children then. c like the previous but expressing ‘different’; Nung3531 moq1 wa11-lai35 wo35 a1-gvo , a1-ngvut5 luq1? (2PL-party father-deviate have nom-PL+I NEG-be Y/N) (Spoken to a group of children:) You (PL) have different fathers, don’t you? cf. Jingpo lai and lai (Xu et al. 1983: 400, 401). Lai35wa35 in the name Dvu31-lai35wa35. lak1poi31 n. amulet/talisman. lam31 (wide) a vi. wide, broad; Heng31 r11 heng31 lam31 r11 lam31. (long also long wide also wide) It’s both long and wide. b n. and spec. n. armspan; loq1-lam31 le1-lam31 (hand/arm-wide one-wide) one armspan, the length between the fingertops of two outstretched arms, about one yard or meter; Ke5-mvyo55 lam31 bo11 r55 ta11? (Q-much(B) wide contain(ipf) PE GI) How many armspans would it be? Cf. lvam55. lvam31 (lance) a n. lance, spear (sp. kat5/hat5); b lvam31 le1-kyam11 (lance one-half) a/one special type of lance, rather like a knife. lam35 (ramble) a vi/vt. ramble, wander around; Meng11mau11 pyang31 lo35 31 lam35 gvun31 lye . (Ruili DIR go(back/up) ramble play(ipf) also+I) I’m 31 going to ramble my way to Ruili. A1ga31! se1-byo31 lvang55 lam35 ra se531 55 ga r . ((difficulty) spirit2-spirit3 even ramble need+I like-perceive(ipf)

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    -L PE) Aah! (I was frightened out of my wits) it felt as if my spirit would

    go rambling! b yo31-so11 lam35 (land-walk ramble) n+v. go to toilet, answer nature’s call; Ngo31 yo31-so11 lam35 nvau11 r55. (1SG land-walk ramble feel.like(ipf) PE) I need to answer nature’s call. / (Lit.:) I want to ramble in the hills. Cf. yong11 vi/vt. stroll and gong35 vi/vt. travel; vide byu31-lam35, meng11-lam35 lam35; cf. lvam55. lvam55 I (broad(B)) (7.9) bound form adverbial/ pronominal variant of lam31 vi. ‘wide’; in ke5-lvam55/he5-lvam55 (Q-broad (B)) how broad? lvam55 II (let.walk) a vt. pasture, graze, No11 mvo55-kung11 mai11 i5-lvam31 gvan31-aq1. (cattle below-fold ABL go-let.walk(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Take (SG) the cow out to pasture in the valley below. b vt. let someone walk; 31 Dai54 a1-gyo11 zyang35 Nong35dau31-bva55 mai11 i5-lvam31 gvat5 ra . (speak+FCT NEG-hear/smell CD Nongdao-flatlands ABL go-let.walk(ipf) put.into need+I) If you don’t listen to what I say, I’ll let you walk back home from the Nongdao flatlands onwards (instead of going by tractor). lan35 n. basket (sp. cyam11/syam11). The variety of different kind of and names for baskets in Zaiwa is overwhelming. Apart from lan35, which appears to be a loan from Chinese 篮 lán n. basket, there are also the following types: bvyap5 n. kind of little basket worn on the back; mong11 n. baskets used in pairs on a pole; byo31 n. winnowing basket; nge1byun35 (fish-basket.type) n. bamboo fish basket (not too big); i31bvyung31 (distilled-basket.for.provision) n. traditional basket for carrying booze or other provision; sa11 n. kind of basket (like for knitwork); sa11-zo11 (basket-child) n. little basket (like for soap etc.); song11 n. standing basket or bag; tung55-gva55 (wickerwork-variegated1) n. kind of multi-functional back-basket worn by a strap across the head (lit.: variegated wickerwork). lan35-bvi55 n. string of a basket. lang11 (pull/yank) a vt. pull; Mue31-bu11 lang31 zyen35 gvan31-aq1. (wrapclothes pull/yank(ipf) tight/stretched put.into*-SIM) Pull (SG) the clothes straight. Lang31 zeng11 dvo11-aq5. (pull/yank(ipf) fixed(ipf) place(vt)-SIM) Hold (SG) the rope so that it can’t move away. b in lang31 tung31 (pull/yank(ipf) (gun).load) vt+vt. load gun (by pulling); Mi1-um31 lang31 tung31-aq1. (fire-gun pull/yank(ipf) (gun).load-SIM) Load (SG) the gun (by pulling). c vt. yank; Mvyet1mvyet1 gvut5 lang31 pit5 yu31-aq1. ([stuck.to. something] do pull/yank(ipf) cut.in.two take-SIM) Keep it tightly in your (SG) grip and yank it out of his hands. Vide ne1-lang11 and nge1-lang11; cf. lvang11. lvang11 a vi. hang; lvang31 dvo54 syam31-byang31 (hang(ipf) place(vt)+FCT knife-scabbard) the knives and scabbards hanging there; b vt. hang out;

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    Ang11-noq5 bya31 lvang11-aq5. (petiole-black hang.out(ipf) hang-SIM) Hang out (SG) the black mustard. kyang31 lvang11 (rafter hang) n+vt. make a roof. Cf. lang11. Vide bya11, bya31-lvang11, le1-mo35 kyang31lvang11, gam11-bvyoq5 gam11-lvang11. lang11dang35 n. childbirth; lang11dang35 si31 mu31 (childbirth die happen) 31 31 died in childbirth; Byu31 hau55-yuq1 lang11dang35-si31 mu31 bue ga . (man/woman the/that-person childbirth-die happen P+I perceive+I) They say that that person died in childbirth. lvang31 (snake) in lvang31-mui31 n. snake. lang31 I n. husband; nung11-lang31 (2REL-husband) your husband. lang31 II n. river; a in river names; Long11cyon11-lang31 Longchuan river; b in i1-lang31 n. river, water; vide i1-lang31. lang31 ho31 (husband look.for) n+vt. seek a man to marry with; Lang31 ho31 31 ye11 lye . (husband look.for go(away/down)(ipf) also+I) I’m going to seek a husband. Cf. mi1-wue11 pye55; vide hang55 for an overview of words related to marriage and wedding. lang31da11 n. vulture. lang31-doq5 (husband-go.up) vi. marry a man (spoken by a woman); Ngo31 31 lang31-doq5 be1-ra . (1SG husband-go.up P-need+I) I’m about to marry (spoken by a woman). Ngo31 lang31 a1-doq5 siq1. (1SG husband NEGgo.up still) I’m not married yet (spoken by a woman). Cf. mi1-hang55 and hang55. lang31-kung11 / lang31-hung11 (river-fold) n. stream; course of brook; 31 Lang31-kung11 me55 i5-si31 lye . (river-fold LOC go-wash(ipf) also+I) I go 31 to wash myself in the stream. Lang31-hung11 zvam31 lye . (river-fold (ipf) put.up/erect also+I) (Part of) the stream has been diverted (via a hollow piece of bamboo) so that the water comes out in a useful jet. lvang31-mui31 (snake-snake) n. snake (sp. du11). lang31-sek5 (husband-new) (n+adj.) n. bridegroom; cf. mi1-sek5 (wife-new) (n+adj.) n. bride; (word-play:) Lang31-sek5 ga54 wa35 ge11 sek5 gvat5 wu35 syang55. (husband-new perceive+FCT EMP TOP pinch2 put.into look JUS) Since he is the bridegroom, let’s (ND .IN) pinch him. Vide hang55 for an overview of words related to marriage and wedding. lang35 (wait) (15.18) a vi/vt. wait; Ngo31 nang31 r55 lang35 mo35-mo35 bue31. (1SG 2SG OBJ wait AUG-AUG P+I) I’ve been waiting for you (SG) for ages. b lang35 dye31 (wait too) be anxious; c expectant auxiliary, expressing ‘to perform V whilst waiting’; I5-nvung55 zo11 lang35 syang55. (SPEC-1ND.IN eat wait JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) eat while we’re waiting. Nang31 lo35 lang35-aq5. (2SG go(back/up) wait-SIM) You (SG) go first and wait. Vide ngi31 lang35; cf. vide han31siq1/han31ziq1/kan31ciq1 and lom31.

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    lvang55 (16.16) adv. even; Zang11 lvang55 a1-zo11 si54 wa35! (rice/food even NEG-eat still+FCT EMP) We have not even had our meal!

    lap1 vt. scoop, fish out; Ngvya55 lap1 toq5 gvan31-aq1. (tobacco scoop/fish.out come.out put.into*-SIM) Fish out your tobacco. Loq1-eq1 lap1 zo11 syang55. (hand/arm-AG/I scoop/fish.out eat JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) eat with our hands. Cf. got1 and ku11. 5 lap (suffer) vi. suffer pain, (pains etc.:) be hard to endure; Kyo31 so31 lap5 31 dik1 bue . (road walk(ipf) suffer extreme P+I) It becomes hard to walk. 5 lvap I vt. hang out to dry in the sun; Nang35 mue31-bu11 lvap5 dvo54 yu31 31 bue luq1? (2SG.PO wrap-clothes dry.in.the.sun place(vt)+FCT take P+I Y/N) Have your (SG) clothes that were drying in the sun been taken in? Cf. gvyuq5. lvap5 II n. lightning; Lvap5 sik5 r55. (lightning (lightning).flash PE) It 31 lightens. Lvap5 sum11-dam31 cik5 bue . (lightning three-time(Sp) (lightning).flash P+I) There were three flashes of lightning. -Laq1 / -Laq5 I (3rd-brother) in names for third-born men. laq1 II vt. close, lock; in mvi31 laq1 (close(vt)(ipf) close/lock) vt+vt. (door) lock; cf. zoq1/zo11 and si11. 1 laq III n. leech; in laq1-ham55 / laq5-ham55. laq1gang11 n. kind of grey monkey; probably the same as myuq1-mui35. laq1-ham55 / laq5-ham55 (leech-leech) n. leech; mostly produced as laq5ham55. 1 laq haq1 n. salary; vide tuk1. Laq1-wom35 (3rd-brother-(in.names)) short name for third-born men. lvaq5 (HAB) (16.18) the habitual adverb expressing ‘repeatedly, every time, as always’; Lvaq5 zang11 a1-zo11 u1-lvum11 no11 r55. (HAB rice/food NEGeat head-lump pain/ill/disease(ipf) PE) I have a head-ache every time I do not eat. Cf. Jingpo la adv. ‘used to’ (Xu et al. 1983: 386). Dai & Xu (1992) make no mention of this Jingpo adverb. laq5 I (VO) vide raq5. -laq5 II (3rd-brother) vide laq1. laq5-ham55 (leech-leech) n. leech (water); cf. ham55-hoq5 and hup5 n. leech (land). No31 zvyang55 laq1-ham55 dap1 dvo31 r55. (cattle(GEN) near leechleech be.attached place(vt)(ipf) PE) There’s a leech on the cow. lvaq5me55lye35 (idiom.) ridiculizing and expressing disbelief; 31 Lvaq5me55lye35 (dvyo )! ((don’t.make.me.laugh) DOM+I) Don’t make me laugh, (okay?) Cf. Jingpo la-ma (Xu et al. 1983: 406). -lat1 / -lat5 (halfway) a n. halfway; le1-lat1 me55 (one-halfway LOC) 31 halfway; Le1-lat1 me55 gyo35 gyam11 byuq1 bue . (one-halfway LOC (ipf) go.down be.suspended lose P+I) It got stuck somewhere halfway. b

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    adj. halfway; vide mau11-lat5 (me55) (sky-halfway (LOC)) in the air; c adj. in kinship terms, referring to second-born men or women; e.g. Mang11-lat5 (elder.brother-halfway) name for a second-born elder brother. lau11 vi. copulate; also lau31 lum11 (copulate(ipf) reciprocal) vi+aux copulate. lau35 (promptly) Vide rau35/lau35. lve1- (trousers) in lve1-tung31, lve1-wong11 and lve1-zo11; vide pe5-zvang11. le1- / le5- I (but) (16.15) adv. the contrastive prefix ‘but’, highlighting 31 notions of contrast; A5-se55 ngvu31 le1-ngvu31 ra za54. (nom-like say but-say need+I only+FCT) If only I had said it that way. Le1- / Le5- II (male) a prefix to family names, ranking names and nicknames, forming personal names; Le1-kun55-laq1 ((male)-(name)-3rdbrother) third-born Kun (used as a personal name); also shortly Le1-laq5 ((male)-3rd-brother) third-born; Le1-rvoi55, a man’s name; b prefix to monosyllabic names for nationalities or kinds of creatures (humans, demons, etc.), forming the specific names for these; Le1-sam55 ((male)Shan) Shan; le1-sang31 ((male)-humans) humans, in contrast to demons etc. c in idiomatic forms; le1-hoi55 ((male)-water.snail) n. water snail; le5tin55 ((male)-heel) n. heel. 1 le - III (no.more) (17.7) prefix variant of the finite clause marker le1-/lo11/loq1 ‘no more’, used in combination with other clause markers and with attitude markers, such as in the forms below. le1- IV (one) (9.33, 9.37, 9.38) numeral prefix ‘a/one’; a before specifier nouns; bu11 le1-dung11 (clothes one-piece(Sp)) a/one piece of clothing; b in complex numerals, e.g. le1-i55-sue31 (one-two-ten) twenty; c in the special forms shown below; cf. ra11 ‘one’. 1 le - / lo11 V (tiger) prefix ‘tiger, cat’, used in the forms shown below. Vide lo11. 1 Le -bang11 family name usually translated into Chinese as 王 Wáng; cf. Jingpo Labang (vide Xu et al. 1983: 970). le1-bvo55dvye55 (tiger-leopard) n. leopard, panther, mountain lion. le1-bvoq5-zo11 (one-drop/heeltap-child) nu+n+adj. a/one drop. le1-bum31-mo35 (one-heap(vt/N)-AUG) (nu+n+adj.) a huge lot; Si1-pik5 le1bum31-mo35 gvat5-n55. (fruit-pungent one-heap(vt/N)-AUG put.into-FCT) I’ve put in a lot of chillies. Le1bung11 vide Gvue31toq5 Le1bung11. le1-bvyat1 (one-lifetime) one’s whole life; vide bvyat1. le1-bvyat1-bvyat1 (one-lifetime-lifetime) vide bvyat1.

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    le1byoq5 n. riddle; Le1byoq5 dvak1 wu35 gveq5. (riddle guess look PLIM) Try (PL) to guess this riddle. Le1byoq5 pi31 lum11 gvoq1. (riddle beg reciprocal DIE) Let’s (DU .IN) exchange riddles with each other.

    (ipf)

    Le1-ci55 / Le1-si55 n. a name; in Le1-ci55 a Lashi/Letsi people, one of the branches of the Greater Jingpo; Le1-ci55 a1-myu31 (male-(name) nomsort/nationality) the Lashi/Letsi; b family name; Le1-ci55 Gam35-tang55 (male-(name) eld-brother-last) the author’s Zaiwa name. 1 le -dam31 (one-time(Sp)) once, vide dam31. le1-dam31-dam31 (one-time(Sp)-time(Sp)) sometimes, vide dam31. le1-dam31-dvaq5 (one-time(Sp)-suddenly) a adv. all of a sudden; Mi1-dat5 31 le1-dam31-dvaq5 ngap5 mu31 si11 byuq1 bue . (fire-electric one-time(Sp)suddenly stop.suddenly happen die(ipf) lose P+I) There was a black-out all of a sudden. b adv. at once, in one turn; Le1-dam31-dvaq5 a1-wo35 zvye31 pit5. (one-time(Sp)-suddenly NEG-have cleave.in.one.blow(ipf) cut.in.two) It cannot be cleaved in one blow. Le1-dvang55 ((male)-5th-brother) short name for fifth-born men; cf. Jingpo Tang (Xu et al. 1983: 825). le1-dvong55-zo11 (one-patch-child) (nu+n+adj.) a/one little patch; si1gvyoq5-si11 yo31 le1-dvong55-zo11 (fruit-mango-fruit land one-patch-child) a little patch of mango trees; mau11sau11 le1-dvong55-zo11 (paper/book one-patch-child) a piece of paper such as missing from a piece of writing. Cf. Jingpo tong (Xu et al. 1983: 836). Le1-dvu31 ((male)-4th-brother) short name for fourth-born men; cf. Jingpo Tu (Xu et al. 1983: 849). le1gva11 n. kind of traditional song; cf. le1lvai55 and zi11. le1gvam31 (simultanous) adv. simultanously; Le1gvam31 wang11 lo35 syang55. (simultanous enter(ipf) go(back/up) JUS) Let’s (ND .IN) enter simultanously. Le1gvam31 gvan31-aq1. (simultanous put.into*-SIM) Put (SG) them in simultanously. Le1gvam31 yvup5 gvoq1. (simultanous sleep DIE) Let’s DU.IN) sleep simultanously-Cf. the adverbs cyom31 (drive.game(ipf)) ‘together’ and kyom11 ‘all of it, all of them’. 1 Le -gam35 (male)-eld-brother) short name for eldest-born men le1go11 (well) (16.19) adv. with attention, thoroughly, in the way that it should be; Le1go11 so11-aq5. (well walk-SIM) Mind (SG) your step. 1 le gok1 a n. stone (sp. cham11); b adj. stone; in le1gok1 kum11 gau31-lvum11 (stone door nine-lump) nine stone doors; cf. luq1/luq5 and lung11sueng55. 1 le gon11 vi. lazy; Ngo31 le1gon11 bue31, a1-gvam31 ye31 loq1. (1SG lazy P+I (ipf) NEG-want.to go(away/down) no.more) I’ve become lazy, I don’t want to go anymore. reduplicated: Le1gon11-gon11 ga31 r55. (lazy-lazy

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    perceive(ipf) PE) I’m feeling a bit lazy. Cf. Jingpo lagon (Xu et al. 1983: 392). le1-gyeq1 (one-parcel) vide gyeq1. Le1-gyon31 a man’s personal name. le1-ha55-ze1-me55 (one-where(B)-only-LOC) near by; Dai35wan55-eq5 Hue11lan35 le1-ha55-ze1-me5-luq1? (Taiwan-COM Holland one-where(B)only-LOC-Y/N) Are Taiwan and Holland near by? 1 le -hap1 (one-hollow.of.the.knee) n. hollow of the knee. le1-hing55 (one-thousand/ten.cent) a one thousand; b one ten cent piece (one 角 jiǎo (1/10 of a 元 Yuán or 10 分 fēn)) ; cf. Jingpo hkying (Xu et al. 1983: 270). le1-hing55 mun11 (one-thousand/ten.cent ten.thousand/Yuan) one thousand Yuan Renminbi. le1-hing55-mo35 (one-thousand/ten.cent-AUG) one thousand. le1-hoi55 ((male)-snail1) Vide hoi55. le1-hu55 ze11 (one-sort only) (9.36) the same. le1-hu55-hu55 za54 (one-sort-sort only+FCT) (9.36) the same; Zang11-sun11 hi55-nvik5 ge11 le1-hu55-hu55 za54 luq1? (rice/food-veg/dish this-duo TOP one-sort-sort only+FCT Y/N) Are these two dishes the same? le1-i55-sue31 (one-two-ten) (9.33) twenty. Le1-ka31 ((male)-7th-brother) short name for seventh-born men. le1-king11 (one-halt/rest) a while; for a while; Le1-king11 lang35 si1-gvoq1. (one-halt/rest wait still-DIE) Let’s wait a little longer. Le1-king11 zung11 gvat5 gvoq1. (one-halt/rest sit(ipf) put.into DIE) Let’s. (DU.IN) sit for a while. Nga35-nvik5 le1-king11 king31 gvat5 gvoq1. (1PO-duo one-halt/rest halt/rest(ipf) put.into DIE) Let’s. (DU) rest for a while. Vide king11 and directly below. le1-king11 me55 (one-halt/rest LOC) in a minute; after a while; Le1-king11 31 me55 lye35 lo31 ra . (one-halt/rest LOC come(away/down) come(back/up) need+I) I’ll come in a minute. Le1-king11 me55 ge11 dum11 ngau11 lo31 31 ga . (one-halt/rest LOC TOP again weep(ipf) come(back/up) perceive+I) After a while, it started to weep again. Le1-king11 me55 ge11 dum11 ngau31. (one-halt/rest LOC TOP again weep) After a while, it wept again. Vide king11. 1 le -king11 r55 (one-halt/rest TS) in a little while; Le1-king11 r55 zo11 ra31. (one-halt/rest TS eat need+I) We will eat in a little while. Le1-king11 r55 31 zvu31 be1-ra . (one-halt/rest TS boil/rise P-need+I) It will boil in a little while. Vide king11. 1 Le -kun55-dvu31 / Le1-hun55-dvu31 ((male)-(name)-4th-brother) name.

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    ((male)-(name)-3rd-brother) name of the principal informant for this book. le1lvai55 n. kind of traditional duet song; cf. le1gva11 and zi11. Le1-laq5 ((male)-3rd-brother) short name for third-born men. le1-lat1 me55 (one-halfway LOC) halfway; vide lat1/lat5. le1man35 ze11 (with.much.effort only) vide zvang55-zve55 (zvang55-man31) ze11. 1 le -meng11-gvan11 (one-world-dried.out) the whole world. le1-meng54 (one-world+FCT) everywhere, all around; Le1 -meng54 ke5-hat5 dai31 wun35. (one-world+FCT PHB-pursue speak(ipf) wherever) Don’t go around telling things everywhere. Long11cyon11 le1-meng54 lo35 lam35 gvun55 gvoq1. (Longchuan one-world+FCT go(back/up) ramble play DIE) Let’s (DU.IN) travel around in Longchuan. le1-mo35 kyang31-lvang11 (tiger-AUG rafter-draw/hang) n. Siberian tiger. le1-mun11 (one-ten.thousand/Yuan) a ten thousand; b one Yuan Renminbi; cf. Jingpo mun (Xu et al. 1983: 526). le1-mun11-mo35 (one-ten.thousand/Yuan-AUG) a ten thousand; b ten thousand Yuan Renminbi. le1-ngi35-bui31 (one-day-sun) all day, the whole day; Ngo31 a1-ngi35-nap1 le1ngi35-bui31 yvup5 gvyop5. (1SG nom-day-morning one-day-sun sleep tuck.away) Yesterday I slept the whole day. le1-ngvyau55 (tiger-cat) n. cat (Felix domesticus); also shortly ngvyau55; other cats are: hang11ki11, lo11 and sya31lom11. 1 le ngyeng11 (oak?) n. oak (?); cf. Burmese nyangbing n. oak (Esche 1976: 175). le1ngyeng11-gam31 (oak?-tree(B)) n. oak tree (?). le1ngyeng11-tang11 (oak?-firewood) n. oak firewood (?) (the best firewood there is). 1 Le -nong35 ((male)-2nd-brother) short name for second-born men. Le1-pai11 (male-name) cf. Jingpo Lahpai (vide Xu et al. 1983: 970); corresponding to the Zaiwa name Kun55; cf. Pai11-Kun55. 1 le -pok1pok1 za54 (one-identical only+FCT) (8.2, 9.36) birds of a feather (having the same bad habits); Byu31 ga31 r11 ge11 le1-pok1pok1 za54. (man/woman perceive(ipf) also TOP one-identical only+FCT) These people are birds of a feather (having the same bad habits). Cf. Jingpo hpokhpok (Xu et al. 1983: 281). le1-pyek1-zo11 (one-tiny.bit-child) (9.37) nu+n+adj. tiny little bit; Le1-pyek1zo11 bi11 raq5. (one-tiny.bit-child give VO) Give me a tiny little bit. Cf. le1-zvui55(-zo11).

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    le1-ra31 (no.more-need+I) (15.23, table 15.1, 17.7-8) finite future indicative clause marking unit.

    Le1-rvoi55 ((male)-(in.names)) short name for ninth-born men. Le1-sam55 ((male)-Shan) Shan people (Chinese: 傣 Dǎi), living in the lowlands; Le1-sam55 tung31-keng11 ((male)-Shan tradition-outfit) n. Shan traditions; Le1-sam55 mang11-zo11 ((male)-Shan aged-child) n. elderly Shan man or woman; vide Sam55 etc. and the forms below. Cf. Jingpo Sam (Xu et al. 1983: 711). Le1-sam55-mvi55 ((male)-Shan-female) n. Shan woman. Le1-sam55-ming35 ((male)-Shan-language) n. Shan language. Le1-sam55-po55 ((male)-Shan-male) n. Shan man. Le1-sam55-wa31 ((male)-Shan-village) n. Shan village. le1-sang31 ((male)-humans) n. humans, in contrast to demons etc.; mostly in le1-sang31 ze1-wui31 ((male)-humans child-generation) humans, in contrast to demons etc. le1-sang31 sing55 ((male)-humans taste/smell(N)) n. the smell of humans; Le1-sang31 sing55 nam11 rvo55! ((male)-humans taste/smell(N) smelly(ipf) PE+HIGH) (spoken by a demon:) I smell humans! le1-sang31 ze1-wui31 ((male)-humans child-generation) humans, in contrast to demons. le1-sue31 (one-ten) (9.33) nu. ten. le1-sue11-i55 (one-ten(GEN)-two) (9.33) nu. twelve. le1-sue11-ra11 (one-ten(GEN)-one) (9.33) nu. eleven. le1-suen31 (one-appearance) (9.36) the same in appearance, mostly focusing on misleading appearances; always in combination with the limitative morpheme ze1-/za11/ze11/zaq1 ‘only’; Yvang55-nvik5 ge11 le1-suen31 ze131 31 bue ga . (3PL-duo TOP one-appearance only-P+I perceive+I) Those two people look the same (whereas one of them is a bad one disguised as a good one). le1-suen31(-suen31) za54 (one-appearance(-appearance) only+FCT) one and the same in appearance (8.2, 9.36). le1-syo31 (one-hundred) (9.33) nu. one hundred; nam35bat5 le1-syo31-lvum11 (number one-hundred-lump) number hundred. le1-tang31 (one-behind) (nu+n.) the one or the other end; Le1-tang31 ge11 dviq5, le1-tang31 ge11 gvo11. (one-behind TOP little one-behind TOP big) One end is small and the other end is big. Le1-toi11 personal name for a man. le1-tok1 ((male)-transfer) n. kind of spirit living up in the hills; When it pulls away one of the logs of the campfire, one of the surrounding people soon will die, if not taking back the log immediatly. This spirit also causes huge tumult, sounding like falling trees or collapsing houses at

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    night, whereas in the morning it appears that nothing has happened. Vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. 1 Le -tun31 personal name for a man. lve1-tung31 (trousers-bag) n. trouser pocket. le1-wam11 (one-considerable.part) (9.37) some; a considerable part of something (more than le1-zvui55 a bit); Nga35 i31-pue11 le1-wam11 be1syu31-aq1. (1PO distilled-booze one-considerable.part help-drink*-SIM) Drink (SG) some of my booze. le1wan35 (quick2) a vi. quick, fast; Yvang11 le1wan35 dik1 r55. (3SG quick2 extreme PE) He is very fast. b adv. quickly; Yvang11 le1wan35 a1-gvut5 toq5. (3SG quick2 NEG-do come.out) He won’t be able to finish it very quickly. Cf. Jingpo lawan (Xu et al. 1983: 420); cf. han31 (quick), difference in meaning unknown. lve1-wong11 (trousers-loose-fitting) n. skirt; cf. pa11sen55 n. wrap-around skirt; vide wong11. 1 Le wui31 a family name, in Gau11-zo11 Le1wui31 the (mythological) nine Lewui brothers. le1-wui35 (one-equal) (9.37) a n. equals, equal parts, half, twice as much; b adv. equally; Le1-wui35 ze1-gvut5 gam31-aq1. (one-equal only-do divide/share-SIM) Divide (SG) it equally. Cf. wvui55. 1 le -yan35 (one-row) vide yan35. le1-yang11 (one-stalk) vide yang11. le1yang31 n. earthquake; always in combination with nun35 vi. wobble; Le1yang31 nun35 r55. (earthquake wobble PE) There’s an earthquake. Le1yang31 a1-nun35 wu35 siq1. (earthquake NEG-wobble look still) There hasn’t been any earthquake before. Le1-yong35 ((male)-6th-brother) short name for sixth-born men. le1-yvum11 bang11 (one-house(GEN) PNO) the whole family. le1zvai55 (goblin) in mi31-zo11 le1zvai55. le1-zan31 tong11-tong11 (one-summer/year roll-roll) (9.18.5) during a whole year; Le1-zan31 tong11-tong11 ngvut5 r11 ka55-hu55 r11 a1-wo35 gvut5. (one-summer/year roll-roll be also Q-sort also NEG-have do) I couldn’t do anything all year. le1-zan31-tong11 me55 (one-summer/year-roll LOC) (9.18.5) of the whole 31 year; Le1-zan31-tong11 me55 zye11 ngon35 ge11 sung11 bue . (onesummer/year-roll LOC exceed pleasant TOP spring P+I) Of all seasons of the year, spring is the most pleasant. lve1-zo11 (trousers-child) n+adj. pants, knickers; vide pe5-zvang11. le1-zvui55 (one-bit) (9.37) (nu+n.) a a bit; or in the negative: (not even) a bit, i.e. referring to a small amount; Nang31 i31-pue11 le1-zvui55 a1-ruem35

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    dvo11 luq1? (2SG distilled-booze one-bit NEG-keep place(vt) Y/N) Have you (SG) got some booze left? Le1-zvui55 r11 a1-zo11. (one-bit also NEGeat) I won’t eat anything. / I didn’t eat anything. b used adverbially; referring to a smaller degree; Le1-zvui55 zai35 gveq5. (one-bit slow2 PLIM) Slow down (PL) a bit. Le1-zvui55 r11 a1-pau11. (one-bit also NEGexpensive OBV+I) It’s not expensive at all. See also below. le1-zvui55-zo11 (one-bit-child) (nu+n+adj.) a like le1-zvui55 but referring to a smaller amount; Ngo31 r55 le1-zvui55-zo11 bi11 raq5. (1SG OBJ one-bit-child give VO) Give me a little bit. b like le1-zvui55 but referring to a smaller degree; Le1-zvui55-zo11 moi31 r55. (one-bit-child tired(ipf) PE) I’m a bit tired. Cf. le1-pyek1-zo11. 1 le -zvui55-zvui55 (one-bit-bit) adv. like le1-zvui55 in its adverbial use; referring to a lesser degree; Ngo31 le1-zvui55-zvui55 yvup5 nvau11 r55. (1SG one-bit-bit sleep feel.like(ipf) PE) I’m a little bit sleepy. This adverb is often followed by the variants ze1- or ze11 of the limitative morpheme ze1-/ze11/za11/zaq1 ‘only’; Le1-zvui55-zvui55 ze11 ke5-kon31. (one-bit-bit only PHB) Don’t sing with such a soft voice. le1-zvup5 (one-(clench).fist) vide zvup5. le1-zvup5-mo35 (one-(clench).fist-AUG) a/one handful; vide zvup5. le1-zyok5 (one-packet) vide zyok5. le1-zyum31-mo35 (one-crowd-AUG) a a/one big crowd, group or swarm; byu31 le1-zyum31-mo35 (man/woman one-crowd-AUG) a large crowd of people; bvyup5 le1-zyum31-mo35 (midge one-crowd-AUG) a large swarm of midges; b adv. as one big group; I5-nvung55 le1-zyum31-mo35 gvut5 ye31 syang55. (SPEC-1ND.IN one-crowd-AUG do go(away/down) JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) go there in one big group. le1zvyum55 (meaning) a n. meaning; mostly with the verb ga11 ‘perceive’; 31 (… ga54 ge11) ka55-hu55 le1zvyum55 ga31 lye ? (perceive+FCT TOP Q-sort (ipf) meaning perceive also+I) What is the meaning (of …)? Or also with bo31 ‘contain’, e.g. De1kya31 le1zvyum55 a1-bo31 luq1? (different meaning NEG-contain Y/N) Does it have any other meaning? b n. interest (idiom); with the verb bo31 ‘contain’: Mau11sau11 hi55-bvue55 le1zvyum55 a1-bo31. (paper/book this-PLN meaning NEG-contain) This book is uninteresting. Zai11wa31-ming35 mvoq5 r11 le1zvyum55 zyaq1 bo11 r55. (Zaiwa-language learn/teach also meaning rather contain(ipf) PE) Learning the Zaiwa language is very interesting. Cf. Jingpo lachyum ‘meaning, contents’ (Xu et al. 1983: 389). le1-zyung11 za54 (one-kind only+FCT) (9.36) one and the same. le1-zyung11 ze11 (one-kind only) (9.36) the same.

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    le1-zyung11-zyung11 za54 (one-kind-kind only+FCT) (8.2, 9.36) one and the same.

    le1-zvyuq5(-zo11) (one-tie(-child)) vide zvuq5. lve5- (moon) short form of lva55- n. moon. le55 (LOC) vide ka55-me55/ha55-me55 etc. le5-tin55 ((male)-heel) n. heel of the foot. Lve5-kui11 zo11 (moon-dog eat) n+vi. eclipse of the moon; Lve5-kui11 zo31

    r55. (moon-dog eat(ipf) PE) It is the eclipse of the moon. lve -sek5 (moon-new) n. new moon. lve5-toq5 (moon-come.out) n. moon-dawn. li11 I (also) vide r11/li11/lye11. li11 II n. plough; Li31-eq1 ge11 i1-tung11 puq5 lye31. (plough#-AG/I TOP waterpaddy turn.over(vt) also+I) The plough is for turning the paddies. Cf. Chinese 犁 lí; cf. ngvung31. 11 li III (swim) vide wui31-li11 li11. lvi31 (CX+I) rare variant of dvi31. li55 (OBJ) Variant of the object marker r55/li55/lye55. lvi55 (RFL) (18.6) marking interrogative clauses and expressing that one or both of the speech participants should reflect on the situation in the 31 context, suggesting an attitude like ‘think about this’. Mau35 bue , 31 35 31 35 54 55 mau bue , ka lo bue dvi ? (stare/bewildered P+I stare/bewildered P+I where go(back/up) P+FCT RFL) How strange, where has he gone? lik1 / ling11 I (cover.to.cook) vt. cover a pan in order to increase heat; Koq5eq1 cin31 lik1 gvan31-aq1. (bowl-AG/I husked.rice cover.to.cook put.into*SIM) Cover (SG) the (pan containing) rice with a bowl. Ling11-aq1. (cover.to.cook*-SIM) Cover (SG) it. Cf. ngvop5 and um11. 1 lik II (wave(V)) vide loq1-lik1 lik1. lvik5 / lving31 (turn.round(vt)) vt. turn round; Gung31-du11 lvik5 gvan31-aq1. (body-being turn.round(vt) put.into*-SIM) Turn (SG) around. Cf. ling31 and lving31. 11 lin hau11 n. rice plants laid out to dry. lvin55 (screw/roll) a vt. screw; Sue11 lvin31 to31-aq1. (screw screw/roll(ipf) come.out/sharp*-SIM) Screw (SG) the screw out. Lvin31 lvung55-aq5. (screw/roll(ipf) let.inside-SIM) Screw (SG) it in. b vt. roll, vide zve1-lvin55 lvin55; cf. sue11 n. screw. 11 ling (cover.to.cook*) allomorph of lik1. ling31 I n. neck; in ling31-zeng11 (neck-neck) n. neck, or in the combinations shown further below; possibly the same morpheme as ling31 vi. ‘turn, roll’, see below. 5

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    lving31 I (turn.round(vt)*) allomorph of lvik5 vt. turn round; Gung31-du11 lving31-aq1. (body-being turn.round(vt)*-SIM) Turn (SG) around. ling II (turn/roll(vi)) vi. turn, roll; Ngun31 ling11 dvo31 a1-si31. (silver turn/roll(vi)(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) nom-still+I) The coin is still turning. 31 Bo11lung31 ling11 dvo31 a1-si . (ball turn/roll(vi)(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) nomstill+I) The ball is still rolling. Cf. ling31, ling35, lving31 and lvik5. Also compare lyeng31, lyeng11 and lyeng11. lving31 II (turn/roll) (12.11) a vt. turn, roll; Lyeng31 lving31-aq1. (wheel turn/roll-SIM) Turn (SG) the wheel. Syang31 lving11 gvun55 syang55. ((toy).top turn/roll(ipf) play JUS) Let’s (ND .IN) play with the top. b as the all-around aspectivizer; c spec. n. round, turn; Le1-lving31 din11 kyuq1 31 bue . (one-turn/roll run(ipf) around P+I) I have run one round. d spec. n. time, occasion; a1hui11-lving31 (now(GEN)-turn/roll) next time; he5-yoq1lving31 (before-ago-turn/roll) last time; hi55-lving31 (this-turn/roll) this time; lving31-hang11 (turn/roll-each) every time; cf. ling31 and lvik5. Also compare lyeng31, lyeng11, lyeng11 and kyuq1. lving31-hang11 (turn/roll-each) (9.31) every time. ling31-ngvai55 ngvai55 (neck-(neck).crooked (neck).crooked) n+adj. have a crooked neck; Hau31 zi1syang31 ling31-ngvai55 ngvai31 dvo31 r55. (the/that child neck-(neck).crooked (neck).crooked(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) The child has a crooked neck. ling31-nye31 (neck-red) (n+adj.) n. red necked snake. ling31-yup5 (neck-wrap.around) n. scarf; vide yup1. ling31-zeng11 (neck-neck) n. neck. ling31-(zeng11) gvok5-zo11 (neck-(neck) tiny-child) n+adj+adj. tiny or skinny neck. ling35 vi. round; Hye55-yuq1 u1-lvum11 ling35 dik1 r55. (same.elevation-person head-lump round extreme PE) That person (at the same elevation) has a 31 very round face. Lva55-mo35 ling35 bue . (moon-AUG round P+I) The moon is full. lving55 vi. whirl; a in lai31-lving55 lving55 (wind-whirl whirl) n+v. whirling of the wind; b in wui31-lving55 lving55 (water-whirl whirl) n+v. whirling of the water; wui31-lving55-tum11 (water-whirl-pool) n. whirlpool. 11 lo I n. donkey; used in the forms given below; cf. Chinese 骆 luó n. mule. lo11 II (tiger/bull) a n. tiger (sp. du11); vide the prefix variant le1- ‘tiger, cat’ which is used in names for kinds of tigers or other cat-like animals; e.g. le1-ngvyau55 (tiger-cat) n. cat (Felix domesticus); b a1-lo11 (nomtiger/bull) n. male animal; c nominal suffix indicating male sex of animals; e.g. myang11-lo11 (horse-tiger/bull) n. stallion, male horse. 11 lo -gung35 (donkey-no.gloss) n. donkey; vide lo11. 31

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    lo11-to55 (donkey-transport) n. hinny; vide lo11 and to55. lo11-zo11 (tiger/bull-child) n+n. little tiger. lo31 (come(back/up)) (ch.12) vi/vt. come, either in an upward direction or

    towards home; also in the adverb lo11 (come(back/up)(ipf)) expressing ‘come (back/up) to do V’ (12.3); and as auxiliary verb expressing ‘come back after’ (12.8). See also 12.14. -lvo31 (bound form) n. picture, poster, drawing; sau55-hai11-lvo31 (shoe-shoepicture) n. picture of shoes (on a shoe box); cf. dvat5bung35 n. photograph. lo35 (go(back/up)) (ch.12) vi/vt. go, either in an upward direction or towards home; also as adverb expressing ‘go (back/up) to do V’ (12.3); and as auxiliary verb expressing ‘be gone to do V, either in an upward direction or towards home’ (12.8). See also 12.14 and si1-lo35. 55 lo (FV) (18.12) final verification suffix; Ngvut5 bue31 lo55? (be P+I FV) So that’s it? Loi11lung35 (Loilung) village near the town Ruili mainly inhibited by Zaiwa people and where the fieldwork underlying this work was performed. The village in fact consists of five separate villages or brigades, surrounding the hilltop from where three of these settlements have their origin. The two other settlements, i.e. Udvyeng-dale and Udvyeng-hill, used to be separate from Loilung in earlier days. The name Loilung stems from a Shan word indicating ‘large hill’. Loi11lung35-bva55 (Loilung-flatlands) one of the lower settlements of Loilung village. Loi11lung35-bum31 (Loilung-heap(vt/N)) hilltop from where three of the constituent settlements of Loilung have their origin. Loi11lung35-wa31 (Loilung-village) n. Loilung village. lok1 I vt. ferret out information; Mi11-wue11 a1-wo35 si1-luq1 ngvu31 lok1 31 zyang35 wa35, gue31-gue31 dai31-gvyo31 r55 mai . (wife-female NEG-have still-Y/N say ferret.out CD EMP all.right-all.right speak(ipf)-let.hear(ipf) PE OBV+I) While I was trying to ferret out whether he had a woman or not, he just told me about it! Nang31 Ang55dung35 r55 dvat5bung35-dyem11zue31 a1-wun25 lu55, lok1 wu35-aq5. (2SG Anton OBJ photographstake.picture-truc NEG-carry/bring+FCT MIR ferret.out look-SIM) Try (SG) to ferret out from Anton if he has brought his camera or not. Cf. mi11 vt. ask. 1 lok II n. section of field; yo31 le1-lok1 (land one-section.of.field) a/one section of a field; i1-tung11 le1-lok1 (water-paddy one-section.of.field) a/one section of a paddy field. Cf. Jingpo lok (Xu et al. 1983: 431).

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    lom31 (attend) (16.44) a vt. await (buses); take part, attend (meetings, weddings); b in the adverb lom11 ‘to do on the spot’; cf. lang 35 vt. ‘wait’; also compare lvom31 and lvom55. Cf. Jingpo lom (Xu et al. 1983: 432). lvom31 (block) a vt. block someone (whilst playing basketball etc.); Lvom31aq1. (block-SIM) Block (SG) him. b vt. hunt (trying to get as close to the game as possible), in si1-lvom31 (flesh-block) n+vt. hunt (trying to get as close to the game as possible), zi1si31 lvom31 (muntjac block) n+vt. hunt for muntjac. Vide syo11 for an overview of Zaiwa hunting terms. lvom55 vt. let someone participate in some meeting etc.; Ngo31 r55 r11 lvom55 gve5-raq5. (1SG OBJ also let.participate PL-VO) Please let (PL) me participate too. Cf. lom31. 11 lom (attend(ipf)) vide lom31. lon35lon35 adv. gratis, for nothing; Lon35lon35 bi11 zo31 am55 bue31. (gratis give eat(ipf) PFM P+I) I gave it to him to eat, for free. long11 (slice/plate) a (9.34) spec. n. slice, plate, referring to flat but not too thin objects; zyo31syoq5 sum31-long11 (rice.cake three-slice/plate) three sticky rice cakes; mut5-mau35 le1-long11 (fog-stare/bewildered oneslice/plate) a/one fog bank; b in wa31-long11 (tile-slice/plate) n. roof-tile; wa31-long11 le1-long11 (tile-slice/plate one-slice/plate) a/one roof-tile; c adj. in byen11-long11(-mo35); vide byen11. Long11cyon11 toponym 陇川 Lóngchuān. Long11cyon11-lang31 (Longchuan-river) Longchuan river. Long11cyon31-kung11 (Longchuan(GEN)-fold) Longchuan county. long31 I (area) n. area; a as a suffix; bum31-byo11 long31 me55 (heap(vt/N)wasp/bee area LOC) near the mountain bees; b in hi55-long31 me55 (thisarea LOC) in this area, either or without specification by a preceding 31 noun; No11 hi55-du11 ge11 hi55-long31 me55 up1 zo31 lye . (cattle this-being (ipf) TOP this-area LOC dominate eat also+I) This buffalo dominates the 1 31 other buffaloes in this area. se boi hi55-long31 me55 (table this-area LOC) near this table; Loi11lung35 hi55-long31 me55 (Loilung this-area LOC) around Loilung here. long31 II n. curse (sp. hu55); Long31 gvan31-aq1. (curse put.into*-SIM) Lay (ipf) (SG) a curse. Long11-eq1 zang35 dvo31 r55. (curse#-AG/I strike place(vt) PE) I have been struck by a curse. Cf. Jingpo long (Xu et al. 1983: 433). long35 (profit) a vr. profit from a certain situation; Nga35-nvik5 ge11 geq1mvyo55 a1-wo35 syuq5, Le1-gam35-eq5 Le1-nong35 ze11 lye35 long35 si11 a131 gvo . (1PO-duo TOP lot-much(B) NEG-have drink (male)-eld-brother(ipf) COM (male)-2nd-brother only come(away/down) profit die nom-PL+I) Since neither of us (DU) can drink very much, eldest and second brother

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    could have as much as they wanted. b used adverbially in long35 mo35mo35; cf. myat1. long35 mo35-mo35 (profit AUG-AUG) adv. to one’s great advantage; Ke5ngi35 ge11 long35 mo35-mo35 ngun31 le1-syo31-mun11 myang11 guq1-u55. (before-day TOP profit AUG-AUG silver one-hundredten.thousand/Yuan see(ipf) pick.up-FCT) Today, to my great advantage, I had the good fortune of picking up one hundred Yuan. 1 lop lop1 ideophone referring to the act of repeatedly moving one’s tongue in and out, in it’s full width; Syo31 lop1lop1 gvut5 sye31-aq1. (tongue [move.tongue.in.and.out] do pull-SIM) Move your tongue in and out. Cf. lyem31lyem31 (like a snake). lvop5 / lvop5-lvop5 ideophone expressing the notion of plunging or thrusting some object forcefully or abruptly into somewhere; Tan31dving11 me55 lvop5 lvung31 dvo11. (mat-roll.up LOC [plunge] let.inside(ipf) place(vt)) And he then quickly put them inside the rolled up hard mat. Kyong11 me55 lvop5, ha55-me55 bung31. (throat LOC [plunge] the/that-LOC [falling.down]) She plunged it (the lance) into his throat and he then “bang” fell down. b reduplicated, expressing iterativity: Lving31-hang11 lvop5-lvop5. (turn/roll-each [plunge]-[plunge]) (on playing basketball:) The ball went in time after time. loq1 / loq5 I (hand/arm) n. hand or arm; loq1 le1-loq1 (hand/arm onehand/arm) or loq1 le1-kon55/hon55 (hand/arm one-one.of.a.pair) a/one 31 hand or arm; Loq1 le1-loq1 me55 ge11 loq1-ngyui11 ngo11-ngyui11 dap1 lye . (hand/arm one-hand/arm LOC TOP hand/arm-finger/toe five-finger/toe be.attached also+I) On one hand there are five fingers. i55-loq1-eq1 (twohand/arm-AG/I) with both hands; see also be1-loq5, tong11-loq5, tung55loq1 and zung11-loq5. 1 loq II (no.more) (17.7) variant of the finite clause marker le1-/lo11/loq1 ‘no more’. loq1-bvai11 (hand/arm-left) n. left hand. loq1-bvai11-kyam11 (hand/arm-left-half) n. left side. loq1-bvai31-eq1 (hand/arm-left#-AG/I) by the left hand. loq1-bvat5 (hand/arm-strenght) n. strength in the arms; vide bvat5. loq1-bom11 (hand/arm-bomb) n. hand-grenade. loq1-bu11 (hand/arm-callus) n. callus; Loq1-bu11 dvoq5 r55. (hand/arm-callus get.up PE) I have got callus. loq1-bu35 (hand/arm-pimple/convex) n. flesh of the arm. loq1-bun11 (hand/arm-phalanx/limb) n. phalanx of the finger; also loq1ngyui11 le1-bun11 (hand/arm-finger/toe one-phalanx/limb) a/one phalanx of the finger.

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    loq1-cin31 (hand/arm-naked) na. barehand. loq1-dam11 (hand/arm-wound) n. wound on hand or arm. loq1-dum35 (hand/arm-missing.a.stretch) adj. be missing part of the arm; 31

    Yvang11 loq1-dum35 ma54 ngvut5 lye . (3SG hand/arm-missing.a.stretch LOC+FCT be also+I) He lacks part of his arm. Vide dum35. 1 loq -dvye11 dap1 (hand/arm-single be.attached) be one-armed, only have one arm. 1 loq -gvi11 (hand/arm-sweat) n. sweat of the hands; Loq1-gvi11 toq5 r55. (hand/arm-sweat come.out PE) My hands are sweating. Cf. bui31-bu11. 1 loq -gun31 du35 (hand/arm-fling/strike/wave throw) n+vt. swim freestyle. loq1-hue11 (hand/arm-dirt) n+n. dirt on hands or arms. loq1-lam31 (hand/arm-wide) n. armspan, the length between the fingertops of two outstretched arms, about one yard or meter; loq1-lam31 le1-lam31 (hand/arm-wide one-wide) one armspan; Ke5-mvyo55 lam31 bo11 r55 ta11? (Q-much(B) wide contain(ipf) PE GI) How many armspans would it be? 1 loq -lik1 lik1 (hand/arm-wave(V) wave(V)) n+v. wave hand. loq1-me1-gva55 (hand/arm-words-write) n. palm lines. loq1-mo35-syam11 (hand/arm-AUG-ball) n. thumb; vide loq1-ngyui11 for the names of the other fingers. loq1-mo35-za35 (hand/arm-AUG-knitwork) n. gloves. loq1-mun35 tung55-sum31 (hand/arm-tingle pound-mortar) n. elbow. loq1-myoq1 (hand/arm-eye) n. joints of hand, arm and shoulder. loq1-ngyui11 (hand/arm-finger/toe) n. finger; loq1-ngyui11 le1-kat5/hat5 (hand/arm-finger/toe one-long.object) a/one finger; loq1-ngyui11 le1ngyui11 (hand/arm-finger/toe one-finger/toe) a/one finger; loq1-ngyui11 le1-bun11 (hand/arm-finger/toe one-phalanx/limb) a/one phalanx of the finger. The names of the fingers are: loq1-mo35-syam11 (hand/arm-AUGball) n. thumb; dvun11-ngyui11 (point(vt)-finger/toe) n. index finger; to31ngyui11 (span-finger/toe) n. middle finger; ming31 a1-bo31 Roi35-dot1 (name NEG-contain 3rd-sister-no.gloss) n. ring-finger (lit.: the nameless third sister); loq1-tang55-ngyui11 (hand/arm-last-finger/toe) n. little finger. loq1-pek5 (hand/arm-trigger) n. trigger of a gun. loq1-san31 (hand/arm-shoulder) n. shoulder muscles; vide san31. loq1-seng11 (hand/arm-nail) n. fingernail (sp. lvum11). loq1-seng11-zuen11-zue31 (hand/arm-nail-cut/clip-truc) n. nail clippers. loq1-soq5 soq5 (hand/arm-connect connect) n+v. go hand in hand; Loq1-soq5 soq5 gvoq1. (hand/arm-connect connect DIE) Let’s (DU) go hand in hand. 1 loq -sum31 (hand/arm-mortar) n. small mortar and pestle; vide sum31.

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    loq1-tang55-ngyui11 (hand/arm-last-finger/toe) n. little finger; vide loq1ngyui11 for the names of the other fingers. loq -ting11 (hand/arm-bracelet) n. bracelet; heng31 loq1-ting11 (gold hand/arm-bracelet) adj+n. golden bracelet; Loq1-ting11 gvut5 kong31 wun11-aq1. (hand/arm-bracelet do ring(-shaped)(ipf) wear/dress*-SIM) Wear (SG) it as a bracelet. loq1-wa11 (hand/arm-palm/sole) n. palm of the hand. loq1-wa11 me1-gva55 (hand/arm-palm/sole words-write) n. palm lines. loq1-yin31 (hand/arm-lower) n. lower arm (excluding the wrist). loq1-yo31 (hand/arm-right) a n. right arm; b the one on the right; nang35 loq1yo31 ki31 (2SG.PO hand/arm-right leg/foot) your (SG) right foot. 1 loq -zvup5 zvup5 (hand/arm-(clench).fist (clench).fist) n+v. clench fist; Loq1-zvup5 zvum31-aq1. (hand/arm-(clench).fist (clench).fist*-SIM) Clench (SG) a fist. Vide zvup5. 1 loq -zvyop5 (hand/arm-ring) (n+n.) n. ring (on finger); heng31 loq1-zvyop5 (gold hand/arm-ring) n+n. golden ring; Loq1-zvyop5 zvyom31-aq1. (hand/arm-ring ring*-SIM) Put on / wear (SG) your ring. Vide wut1 for an overview of other verbs and expressions for putting on/off or wearing clothes, shoes, glasses etc. lvoq5 (ACT) (14.3) the active involvement auxiliary verb; Zang11 lvoq5 syun11 r55. (rice/food ACT spill(vt)(ipf) PE) I spilled some rice. lvoq5 mvan55 (ACT form.habit/loosen.muscles) a vt+vt. let someone make a habit of something; Ke5-lvoq5 mvan55. (PHB-ACT form.habit/loosen.muscles) Don’t let him make a habit of it. b vt+vt. 31 spoil a child; Zi1syang31 hi31 ban11 lvoq5 mvan55 be1-gvo . (child this (ipf) use.up ACT form.habit/loosen.muscles P-PL+I) This child is totally spoilt. c vt+vt. loosen muscles; Ki31 loq1 lvoq5 mvan31 gvun55-aq5 ma11. (leg/foot hand/arm ACT form.habit/loosen.muscles(ipf) play- SIM ROUS) Now loosen up your (SG) arms and legs. Cf. man35 vi. be acquainted with someone. lot5 n. little copper cap containing gunpowder, used for the ignition of oldfashioned gun; lot5 le1-cyam11 (ignition.cap one-ball) one of these. 11 lvu (wallow) vide gve5-lvu11. lu11 I vt. record; Me1-hon31 lu11-aq5. (words-sing record-SIM) Record (SG) the song. Chinese 录 lù. lu11 II vt. tease; Zi1syang31 syup5 dvo31 lye31, ke5-lu11 gvo55. (child put.to.sleep place(vt)(ipf) also+I PHB-tease PL) I’m putting the child to sleep, don’t (PL) tease her. lu11yin55zi55 n. tape recorder; Chinese 录音机 lùyīnjī. 1

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    lvu31 vt. stir (foodstuffs etc.) Zang11-au11 lvu11 gvan31-aq1. (rice/food-pan

    stir(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Stir (SG) the pan. Wam35pun31 lvu11 ngvyo55-aq5. (pea.flour.cake stir(ipf) mix-SIM) Mix (SG) the pea flour cake (with the spices). lu31 mu31 (gossip(N) happen) n+v. gossip; Se5-bvue54 lu31 ke5-mu31. (SNOPLN+FCT gossip (N) PHB-happen) Don’t gossip about others. Yvum31 31 ma54 bang54 lu31 mu11 lye . (house LOC +FCT PNO +FCT gossip (N) (ipf) happen also+I) We are gossiping about the people of our house. lu35 (rob) a vt. rob; A1-ngi35-nap1 byu31 le1-yuq1 r55 lom11 lu35 gvo54 ga31. (nom-day-morning man/woman one-person OBJ attend(ipf) rob PL+FCT perceive+I) Yesterday someone was held up and robbed (by two or more people). Kui11-mvi55 kui11-zo54 zang11 lu35 zo31 r55. (dog-female dogchild+FCT rice/food rob eat(ipf) PE) The she-dog robs the food of the little dog. lu35 zo11 bang11 lu35 syuq5 bang11 (rob eat PNO rob drink PNO) n. robbers and thieves; b vt. grab to oneself; Mvyet1mvyet1 gvut5 lu35 yu31-aq1. ([stuck.to.something] do rob take-SIM) Just grasp (SG) it to yourself. c vt. steal a wife; mi1-wue11 lu35-yui11 (wife-female rob-guilt) n. the guilt of having stolen a wife; cf. de1myaq1 / gvun31zyun35 n. robber. lu35 zo11 bang11 lu35 syuq5 bang11 (rob eat PNO rob drink PNO) robbers and thieves. lu55 (MIR) (18.13) mirative suffix, expressing that the speaker is wondering about something. Yvang11 ke5-la55 haq5 dvo31 lye54 lu55? (3SG Q-LOC hide place(vt)(ipf) also+FCT MIR) Where could he be hiding? 11 lui (water.buffalo) in ne1-lui11 (cattle-water.buffalo) n. water buffalo. lui31 I (carry.on.shoulder) vt. (scabbards, silver bags, etc.:) carry on shoulder; Syam31-byang31 lui31-aq1. (knife-scabbard carry.on.shoulder-SIM) Carry (SG) your knife and scabbard on your shoulder. Vide waq1 for an overview of words related to lifting and carrying. lui31 II (easy) a vi. easy to do; Lui11 dik1 r55. (easy(ipf) extreme PE) It’s very easy to do. b reduplicated as adverb; Sue55 zyang35 ge11 lui31-lui31 ze11 31 ge1-lo . (know CD TOP easy-easy only TOP-no.more+I) If you know how to do it, it is easy. Cf. lui35-lui35; c as a verbal complement expressing ‘easy to V’; tyen11 lui31 (wrecked easy) v+v. easily becoming 31 31 wrecked; Hi55-hu55 ning tyen55-lui11 lye . (this-sort INS+I wrecked(ipf) easy also+I) This sort easily gets wrecked. Cf. ngai11 vi. be convenient, easy, light, som55 adj/vi. light, wui11 vi. difficult1, yak1 vi. difficult2, yo35 vi. feel convenient. 31 lui (in.this.way+I) (17.12) conjunctional clause marking unit. lui31-eq1; vide -eq1.

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    lui31-eq1 (in.this.way+I-AG/I) (9.9-, 17.12) set of clause markers. lui35 vt. mill; Lung11-bum11 lui35 gveq5. (maize/corn-bud mill PLIM) Mill (PL) the maize/corn.

    lui35-lui35 (easy-easy) variant of lui31 vi. easy to do; Lui35-lui35 ze1-dvi31. (easy-easy only-CX+I) It’s only very simple, isn’t it?

    lvum11 (lump) (9.34) a general specifier noun; sun11 hi55-lvum11 (veg/dish this-lump) this dish; nam35bat5 ngo11-lvum11 (number five-lump) number five; b in a1-lvum11 na. round, lump-shaped, heart-shaped (like an animal’s or human heart); A1-bvyen55 ma54 luq1, a1-lvum11 ma54 luq1? (nom-flat/slice LOC+FCT Y/N nom-lump LOC +FCT Y/N) The flat one or the round one? c n. organ with a lump-like shape; u1-lvum11 le1-lvum11 (head-lump one-lump) a/one head; nvik5-lvum11 le1-cyam11 (heart-lump one-ball) a/one heart; zin35-lvum11 (kidney-lump) n. kidney; cf. tung11 n. lump, turd. -Lum11 I in the personal names Ma11-lum11 (only for men?) and Me1-lum11. lum11 II (reciprocal) (15.19) reciprocal aux-, expressing that that the situation indicated by the preceding main verb takes place in a reciprocal way; Nga35-nvik5 dang11 a1-ngyo11 lum11. (1PO-duo words NEG-talk(ipf) reciprocal) We (DU) do not talk with each other. lum31 vt. depend on someone; Hi31 ge11 se5-bvue55 li55 ke5-lum31, nang31 yvum31-seng31 gvun31-aq1. (this TOP SNO-PLN OBJ PHB-depend.on 2SG house-host do*-SIM) As for this job, don’t depend on others, do (SG) it yourself. lvum31 (indiscriminately) (16.24) a adv. in affirmative or prohibitive clauses: ‘indiscriminately, boundlessly, without restraint’; Yvang11 i31pue11 lvum31 syuq5 r55. (3SG distilled-booze indiscriminately drink PE) He’s drinking immoderately. / He’s drinking with reckless abandon. b often in the negative, expressing ‘not too, not very’; Ngo31 zang11-sun11 hi55-hu55 a1-lvum31 dat1 zo11. (1SG rice/food-veg/dish this-sort NEGindiscriminately able eat) I don’t quite know how to appreciate this dish. lum35 vi. tepid; Wui31-bu11 ngye35 a1-si31 luq1? (water-water burnt/hot nom31 still+I Y/N) Is the water still hot? Lum35-lum35 ga11 bue . (tepid-tepid perceive P+I) It already feels tepid. lun11 n. kind of flower (Chinese: 攀枝花 pānzhīhuā). lun35 vi. (children) spoiled; Zi1syang31 hi31 ge11 ban11 lun35 byuq1 bue31. (child this TOP use.up(ipf) spoiled lose P+I) This child is totally spoiled. lung11 I (maize/corn) only in lung11-bum11 and the other words below. lung11 II (stone(J)) in lung11-sueng55. lung11-bum11 (maize/corn-bud) n. maize, corn. lung11-bum11-si11 (maize/corn-bud-fruit) n+n. pomegranate.

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    lung11-gam31 (maize/corn-tree(B)) n. maize/corn plant. lung11-haq5 (maize/corn-leaf) n. leaves of the maize/corn plant. lung11-sam31 (maize/corn-hair.of.the.head) (n+n.) n. hairs around the maize. lung11-sueng55 (stone(J)-precious.stone) n. jade; vide sueng55. lung11zyo35 (shellfish) n. shellfish in general (clam, mussel, oyster etc.). lung11zyo35-gvyap5 (shellfish-shell/crust) n. shell of shellfish. lung35 (be.inside) (13.3) vi. be inside of something; Yvang11 tong55 lung35 31

    bue . (3SG jail be.inside P+I) He is in gaol. Si1-pik5 i1-zyum11 tye11 me55 lung35 bum11 r55. (fruit-pungent water-salt underneath LOC be.inside heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) There’s lots of chillies amidst the salt. Cf. bo31 vt. contain something. lvung55 (let.inside) a main verb: vt. put inside; Hi55-me55 lvung55-aq5. (thisLOC let.inside-SIM) Put (SG) it inside of this. b aux. in resultative combinations, expressing: to cause some object or entity to be inside of 31 some place; Sek5-pup5 me55 du35 lvung31 am55 bue . (tree-leaves LOC (ipf) throw let.inside PFM P+I) I’ve thrown it up into the leaves. zving11 (ipf) 55 lvung (press let.inside) vt+vt. press down the contents of some container; zvyap5 lvung55 (squeeze/tight let.inside) vt+vt. force something into a crack; cf. lung35 (13.3) and gvat5 vt. put into (15.12). lvung55lvang31-bang11 (everyone(GEN)-PNO) vide me1dvu55. lup1 n. grave. lup1-yo31 (grave-land) n+n. graveyard. lvup5 (be.dusty) vide pui11, pui11-lvup5 and pui11-lvup5 lvup 5. lvuq1 (enough) vi. be enough; Lvuq1 bue31. (enough P+I) It is/was enoughDye31 zvit5 r55, a1-lvuq1 zo11. (too few PE NEG-enough eat) There are too few, it’s not enough to eat. Cf. ram35 and ram35-gvyo55. 1 -luq / -luq5 I (2nd-sister) suffix in names of second-born sisters, a in Me1luq5 ((female)-2nd-sister) short name for a second-born sister; b or after family names, e.g. Zeng11tong31-luq1/luq5 (name) second sister Zengtong. luq1 II n. maggot, esp. of dung fly (sp. du11). luq1 III (prop.up) only attested in te5-luq1 (prop.up-prop.up). luq1 / luq5 IV n. stone; in luq1-mon11 (stone-skim) n. whetstone and sui11luq5 (whet/grate-stone) n. grindstone; cf. le1gok1. 1 luq V (Y/N) (18.3) yes-or-no attitude marker. Hi31 luq1? (this Y/N) This one? luq1gvet5 (reincarnate) n/v. reincarnate, reincarnation; in luq1gvet5-zo11 (reincarnate-child) n. reincarnation (of someone); Yvang11 luq1gvet5-zo11 31 ngvut5 lye . (3SG reincarnate-child be also+I) He is a reincarnation (of someone).

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    luq1-mon11 (stone-skim) n. whetstone. lut1 I n. (birds) crop; only attested in woq1-lut1 n. crop of a chicken. lut1 II ((go.to).opp.side) (9.35) a positional specifier noun referring to specific sides of an object or place the speaker is facing; hi55-lut1 (this(go.to).opp.side) towards/at the side facing the speaker; mvo55-lut1 (below-(go.to).opp.side) towards/at the place below the other side; Se531 gam31 mvo55-lut1 pyang31 lut1 lo35 bue . (tree-tree(B) below(go.to).opp.side DIR (go.to).opp.side go(back/up) P+I) He went in the direction of the lower side of the back of the tree. hye55-lut1 (same.elevation-(go.to).opp.side) towards/at the other side (at the same elevation); b vi. go to a specific side of an object or place the speaker is 31 facing; Me1-gvoq5 hye55-lut1 lut1 lo35 bue . ((female)-eld-sister same.elevation-(go.to).opp.side (go.to).opp.side go(back/up) P+I) Eldest sister went over to the other side (at the same elevation). Cf. lvut5. 5 lvut (move.to.opp.side) (9.35) vt. move something towards a specific side of an object or place the speaker is facing; Du35 lvut5 gvan31-aq1. (throw move.to.opp.side put.into*-SIM) Throw (SG) it over to this side. cf. lut1. lyang11hai11 n. sandal, from southwestern Mandarin 凉鞋 liánghái n. sandal; cf. dvyep5tyep1/gvyep5tyep1 n. rubber slippers. 11 lye I (also) vide r11/li11/lye11. lye11 II (lie.down*) variant of lyeq1. lye31 (also+I) (17.3) the general indicative clause marking unit. lye35 (come(away/down)) (ch.12) vi/vt. come, either in a downward direction or away from home; also as an adverb expressing ‘come (away/down) to do V’ (12.3); and in the auxiliary lye35 lo31 (come(away/down) come(back/up)) expressing ‘come back doing V’ (12.8). See also 12.14. lye55 (OBJ) variant of the object marker r55/li55/lye55 (9.7). lye54 (OBJ+FCT;TS +FCT;also+FCT) combination with the factitive marker of either: the object marker r55/li55/lye55, the time suffix r55/lye55 or r11/li11/lye11 ‘also’. lyem31lyem31 ideophone referring to the act of repeatedly moving the tip of one’s tongue in and out, like a snake; Syo31 lyem31lyem31 gvut5 sye31-aq1. (tongue [move.tongue.like.a.snake] do pull-SIM) Move your tongue in and out (like a snake). Cf. lop1lop1 (with the tongue in it’s full width). lyem35 (sly) a vi. be sly; Bang11dvai31 yvang11 ge11 lyem35 li11 lyem35, gue11 r11 gue11 dai11. (rabbit 3SG TOP sly also sly all.right(ipf) also all.right(ipf) speak) The rabbit is clever and well-spoken. b vi. be sly and lazy; I1zvyam11 kam31 ke5-dye31 lyem35. (water-water receive/fetch PHB-too sly) Don’t use such lazy tricks when it’s your turn to fetch water. c vt. take

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    31

    someone on the sly; Bang11dvai31 yvang11 r55 lyem35 lye mai . (rabbit 3SG OBJ sly also+I OBV+I) The rabbit took him on the sly. lvyen11 a vt. lure; Ngvyo31, hi31 syo31-eq1 lvyen11-aq5. ((offering) this flesh#AG/I lure-SIM) Here, lure (SG) the game with this meat. b n. fuse; mi1lvyen11 (fire-lure) n. fuse. lvyeng11 (topple/roll(vt)) a vt. topple, cause to fall; Waq1-eq1 ngve5-mvyuq131 gam31 gyung31 lvyeng31 am55 bue . (pig-AG/I (banana-tree(B) root(V)(ipf) (ipf) topple/roll(vt) PFM P+I) The banana tree has been made to fall by the rooting of some pig. b vt. roll; Bo11lung31 lvyeng31 gvan31-aq1. (ball topple/roll(vt)(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Roll (SG) the ball. Vide lyeng11 vi. ‘fall’; cf. ling31 vi. ‘turn, roll’, lving31 vt. ‘turn, roll’ and lyeng31 n. ‘wheel’. lyeng11 (fall(vi)) vi. fall; Dvang55kuq5 lyeng11 bue31. (stool/chair fall(vi) P+I) The stool has fallen over. Cf. lyeng11 vt. ‘topple, roll’, e.g.: Zan31 31 lvyeng11 bue luq1? (hew(ipf) topple/roll(vt) P+I Y/N) Did you cut it 31 down? and the response: A1-lyeng11 siq1-o . (NEG-fall(vi) still-HIGH+I) 31 It didn’t fall yet. Also compare: ling vi. ‘turn, roll’, lving31 vt. ‘turn, roll’ and lyeng31 n. ‘wheel’. lyeng31 (wheel) a n. wheel; mo35do35-lyeng31 n. car wheel; moq1toq1-lyeng31 n. wheel of a motorcycle; b in ki31-lyeng31 (leg/foot-wheel) n. bicycle. Cf. lyeng11, lvyeng11, ling31 and lving31. lyep1lyep1 ideophone expressing the notion of cutting into small slices; Syo11 lyep1lyep1 (ze1-)gvut5 hum31-aq1. (meat into.small.slices only-do cut/slice-SIM) Cut (SG) the meat into slices. lyeq1 (lie.down) a vi. (inanimate) lie at some place; Bvong55dvin55 a1-lyeq1 dvo11 luq1? (pen NEG-lie.down place(vt) Y/N) Is the pen lying there? b vi. (animate) lay down; A1-yvup5 gve5lvang11 lyeq1 gvun55 gvoq1. (NEGsleep although lie.down play DIE) Even though we do not sleep, let us (DU) just lay down for a while. Cf. lvyeq5 vt. lvyeq5 (lay.down(vt)) vt. lay down; Mue31-bu11 hau31 gu35 me55 lvyeq5 dvo11aq5. (wrap-clothes the/that bed LOC lay.down(vt) place(vt)-SIM) Put (SG) the clothes on the bed. Cf. vi. lyeq1 1 lyet (clever) vi. clever, sharp; U1-nvuq5 zyaq1 lyet1 r55. (head-brains rather clever PE) He is very sharp. lyoq1 / lyoq1lyoq1lyoq1, etc. exclamatory expression spoken when inviting children to come over; Lyoq1, ngo31 bun35 lye35. ((inviting.a.child) 1SG (child).carry.in.front come(away/down)) Come, I will carry you (in front of myself). Lyoq1lyoq1lyoq1, a5-wa31 zvyang55 lo31-aq1. ((inviting.a.child) nom-Dad(GEN) near come(back/up)-SIM) Come (SG) to Daddy.

    -Mm11 / m11 -m11 (yes) less empahtic variant of m31; Nang31 “m11-m11” ngvu31 ze11 yau11-aq5. (2SG (yes)-(yes) say only let.pass-SIM) Just say (SG) “hum” (yes) to them in a non-committal fashion. m1m31! (ch.20) exclamatory expression for malicious pleasure; M1m31, gom31 31 si31 bue ! ((malicious) nothing.left(ipf) die P+I) So there, there’s nothing for you! m1m35 (ch.20) ‘no’. m1m55! (ch.20) (pronounced in a rather prolonged fashion) expressing 31 bewilderment; M1m55! ngvut5 lye luq1? ((wonder) be also+I Y/N) Huh? Is it like that? m31 (ch.20) expressing “yes”, “right!” or “all right!”; in a similar way as ei31. m31mo31 (agreed) (ch.20) exclamatory expression used when agreeing to some prohibition; similar to ei11o31. 55 -m (FCT) (4.3) one of the various possible shapes of the factitive marker. ma11 I (greedy) vi. be greedy, such as when sharing a meal; Ke5-dye31 ma11. (PHB-too greedy) Don’t be so greedy. often in ma31 si31. 11 Ma - II prefix in personal names for both men and women; cf. Me1-. ma11 / me1- / me11 III (ROUS) (18.14) attitude marker termed the rousing suffix; Tang11 zing11-aq1 ma11. (firewood cleave*-SIM ROUS) Cleave (SG) the firewood. Ma11-bvut5 ((name.prefix)-sweetheart) a personal name (only for women?); cf. bvut5; sometimes Me1-bvut5 ((female)-sweetheart). 11 ma gyang11 n. mah-jong; Chinese: 麻将 májiàng. Ma11-lum11 a personal name (only for men?). Ma11-rep1 a personal name. Ma11-sin11 a personal name (only for women?). Ma11-sueng55 a personal name. Ma11-wom35 a personal name (only for women?). ma35 (LOC) vide me5-/ma35/ma55/me55. ma55 (LOC) vide me5-/ma35/ma55/me55. ma31 si31 (greedy die) vi+aux. be greedy, such as when sharing a meal; A1lyo11! a5-mvyo55 ke5-dye31 ma31 si31. ((strange.situation) nom-much (ipf) PHB-too greedy die) Don’t be so damned greedy. 54 ma (LOC+FCT) (9.14) combination of the locative case suffix me5/ma35/ma55/me55 and the factitive marker.

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    mai11 I (ABL) (9.12, 18.2) the ablative case suffix indicating ‘from where’ or ‘from what time onwards’; vide ka55-mai11/ha55-mai11/etc.; yvo55-mai11, zyau35-mai11. 11 mai II vi. strain; only attested in mai11 mo35-mo35; Mai11 mo35-mo35 gva31 gvyop5-m55 ga11. (strain(vi) AUG-AUG write(ipf) tuck.away-FCT TOP) That was extremely straining, writing all the time. mai11-eq1 (ABL-AG/I) (9.9) conjunction; a because of; b after. mai11na31 / mai31na11 / mai31na31 n. nail, pin; Mai11na31 bat1 zvu31-aq1. (nail/pin beat insert*-SIM) Hammer (SG) the nail in. mai31 (OBV+I) (18.15) suffix of the obvious; Loi11lung35 mai31. (Loilung OBV+I) It’s Loilung, don’t you see! mai31pyu55-gam31 (bamboo.name-tree(B)) n. kind of bamboo. mai35mai35mai35 exclamatory expression used for comforting people; Mai35mai35mai35, ke5-ngau31 loq1. ((comforting) PHB-weep no.more) There, there now, stop crying. mai35roi35 a n. string for threading (meat etc.); Mai35roi35-eq1 zyoi35 dvo11aq5. (string.for.threading-AG/I thread(vt) place(vt)-SIM) Tie (SG) the meat together with a string. b as a specifier noun; syo11 le1-mai35roi35 (meat one-string.for.threading) a/one string of meat; cf. roi11, byau11, bvi55. mak1 vt. (food or drinks) be crazy about; very much like; Yvang11 waq131 syo11 mak1 dik1 r55 ga . (3SG pig-meat crazy.about extreme PE perceive+I) She is crazy about pork. mak1zyok5-si11 (tangerine-fruit) n+n. tangerine. mak1zyok5-si11-bong11 (tangerine-fruit-(grow).seedlings) n. seedling of tangerine tree. mak5 n. tattoo; mak5 tau11 (tattoo sew/insert) n+vt. have oneself tattooed, tattoo someone. mvak5 a vt. slash, gash, dig steps; Kyo31 me55 ke5-kai31 mvak5. (road LOC (ipf) PHB-shovel (make).step) Don’t dig steps in the road. Se5-gam31 me55 5 31 5 ke -zan mvak . (tree-tree(B) LOC PHB-hew(ipf) (make).step) Don’t slash the tree. b sp. step (of a stairway); zum31-tang31 le1-mvak5 (stairs1-stairs2 one-(make).step) a/one step of a stairway. Vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. mam11mam11 gvut5 (din-din do) ideophone; children’s language: eat; Mam11mam11 gvun31-aq1. ([din-din] do*-SIM) Have your (SG) din-din. mvan11 (grass/leaves) n. grass, leaves; mvan11-haq5 (grass/leaves-leaf) n. leaves in general. Cutting grass can be referred to as: yam11, bin31, myoq1/myoq5 and nut1/nut5. Vide no11-mvan11/ne1-mvan11. Cf. haq5 n. leaf and poq5 n. (large) leaf.

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    mvan11 bin31 (grass/leaves hew.grass) n+vt. hew grass etc.; vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. mvan11-ding35 (grass/leaves-straight.(branch)) n. branch with leaves, suitable to be used as besom. mvan11-haq5 (grass/leaves-leaf) n. leaves in general. mvan11-haq5-sun11 (grass/leaves-leaf-veg/dish) n. vegetable dishes. Man11hui11-rum35 (toponym)-(place.for).waterfall) toponym: Manhui falls. Mvan11lim35 toponym. mvan11-mop5 (grass/leaves-grit) n. grass grit. mvan11-myoq5 (grass/leaves-weed/pull.up) n+vt. pull out, weed grass; 31 Mvan11-myoq5 lye . (grass/leaves-weed/pull.up also+I) We are weeding the grass. mvan11-nut5 (grass/leaves-pull.out) vide nut1. man11to55 n. steamed bread; from Chinese: 馒头 mántou. man31 (glass) only in man31-zyam31. man31-zyam31 (glass-mirror) n. glass; mirror; cf. wup1-zyam31. man31zyum31 n. dragon. man35 vi. be acquainted with someone; Nang31 yvang11-eq5 man35 lum31 31 lye luq1? (2SG 3SG-COM acquainted reciprocal(ipf) also+I Y/N) Are you (SG) acquainted with her? Cf. lvoq5 mvan55. Cf. sue31-lum11. mvan55 (form.habit/loosen.muscles) vide lvoq5 mvan55; cf. man35. mang11 I (aged) possibly the same morpheme as mang11 n. elder brother; vi. 31 be aged; A5-wvoi55 mang11 bue . (nom-grandmother aged P+I) Grandmother has become old. mang11-zo11 wui31 (aged-child generation) the aged, the elderly people; vide mang11-zo11; vide the suffix -si31mang11 ‘bloody’. mang11 II (elder.brother) possibly the same morpheme as mang11 vi. be aged; a used in a similar way as pe1-/pu11, in short names for elder brothers; see the forms further below; b vide i5-mang11-mo35, also i5pu11; c vide ge1-mang11. Mang11-gun31 (elder.brother-5th.in.line) short name for a fifth elder brother; also Pu11-gun31/Pe1-gun31. Mang11-ka31 (elder.brother-7th-brother) short name for a seventh elder brother; also Pu11-ka31/Pe1-ka31. Mang11-lat5 (elder.brother-halfway) short name for a second-born elder brother; also Pu11-lat1/Pe1-lat5. Mang11-mo35 (elder.brother-AUG) short name for an eldest brother; also Pu11-mo35/Pe1-mo35. mang11mun35 n. squirrel.

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    Mang11si11 capital of Dehong prefecture in Yunnan province; 芒 市 Mángshì, also named 潞西 Lùxī.

    Mang11si31-kung11 (Mangshi(GEN)-fold) Dehong prefecture. Mang11-tung55 (elder.brother-(male).6th.in.line) short name for a sixth elder brother; also Pu11-tung55/Pe1-tung55. mang11-zo11 (aged-child) n+n. elderly person; Le1-bang11 mang11-zo11 ((male)-(name) aged-child) Old Wang; Le1-sam55 mang11-zo11-po55 n. elderly Shan man; Mi11wa11 mang11-zo11-mvi55 n. elderly Chinese woman. mang11-zo11 wui31 (aged-child generation) n+adj+n. the aged, the elderly people. mang11-zo11-mvi55 (aged-child-female) n. elderly woman. mang11-zo11-po55 (aged-child-male) n. elderly man. mang31 n. corpse; byu31-mang31 (man/woman-corpse) n. human corpse; ne1mang31 (cattle-corpse) n. corpse of a cattle; cf. wue31. mang31-dving31 (corpse-water.for.a.dead.person) n. water offered to a dead person. map5 vi/vt. appropriate; claim things that do not belong to oneself; Nang31 31 ke5-map5 mai . (2SG PHB-appropriate OBV+I) Don’t (SG) claim things that do not belong to yourself! maq1 vt. give away for nothing; Nga35 ngun31 yvang55-moq1 r55 kyom11 maq1 31 am55 bue . (1PO silver 3PL-party OBJ all.of.it give.away.for.nothing PFM P+I) I just gave all my money to them. mvaq5 (gone/finished) only towards children: vi. gone, finished (also 31 mvyeq5); Mvaq5 bue . (gone/finished P+I) (said to children, about sweeties:) They’re all finished. Vide mvyeq5. 1 mat a vt. make bunches of flowers, leaves etc.; Poq5 mat1 lye31. (leaf (make).bunch also+I) I’m making bunches of leaves. Ban11-bo35 mat1 31 lye . (flower-open.itself (make).bunch also+I) I’m making bunches of flowers. b spec. n. bunch (flowers, leaves etc.); ban11-bo35 le1-mat1 (flower-open.itself one-(make).bunch) a/one bunch of flowers. mat5-bvong55dvin55 (identity.card-pen) n. identity card. mvat5mvat5 ideophone expressing being highly irritated; Mvat5mvat5 gvut5 31 so31 toq5 lo35 bue . ([highly.irritated] do walk(ipf) come.out go(back/up) P+I) He walked out, highly irritated. mau11 I vt. make a roof; Yvum31 mau31 lye31. (house make.roof(ipf) also+I) We are making a roof. Cf. doq1-gang35 and doq1-sya11. mau11 II (native.land) n. native place, native country; nga35-moq1 mau11 (1PO-party native.land) in our native place, in our native country; Yvang55-moq1 mau11 ge11 i5-nvung55 Mi11wa31-mau11-eq5 lvang55 dui35

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    lum31 lo35 lye . (3PL-party native.land TOP SPEC-1ND.IN Chinese(GEN)-native.land-COM even see.difference reciprocal(ipf) go(back/up) also+I) (with spread arms:) Their country and our China lie THIS far apart. cyoq5-pit5-mau11 (navel.string-cut.in.two-native.land) n. place of birth; yvum31-mau11 (house-native.land) n. native land; hu55mau11 (above-native.land) our place uphill. mau11 III (sky) n. used in many combinations and in the ways described below; a n. sky; in mau11-mi31 (sky-earth) n. earth; Mau11 pan31 mi31 pan31 su31 ge11 o55-yuq1 la11? (sky create earth create SNO TOP whoperson UNC) Who would be the creator of heaven and earth? Mau11 bo35 31 bue . (sky open.itself P+I) It’s getting light. Nga35-moq1 tong11-gva11 gva11 mau11 bo35-Ø. (1PO-party roll-dance.(circle) dance.(circle) sky open.itself-FCT) We have been dancing in circles till the break of 31 morning. Mau11 cyut5 bue . (sky dark P+I) It has become dark. Mau11 31 11 1 pong bue luq ? (sky clear.up P+I Y/N) Has the rain stopped? Mau11 zau35 r55. (sky conceal/clouded PE) It’s clouded (before the rain). b n. 31 thunder and lightning; Se5-gvoq5 mau31-eq1 gun11 kyui31 am55 bue . (ipf) (ipf) (tree-branch sky#-AG/I fling/strike/wave bend PFM P+I) The branch has been struck and bent by the lightning. Mau11 a1-ming31 loq1. (sky NEG-sound(vi) no.more) It’s stopped thundering. c n. rain; Mau3131 eq1 mi11 bat1 sat5 ra dut1 r55. (sky#-AG/I fire beat kill need+I become PE) The rain will put out the fire. Ke5-zan31 mau11 myo31 r55. (beforesummer/year sky much(ipf) PE) This year there’s much rain. Mau11 wo31 31 31 bue . (sky rain P+I) It’s raining. Zyong35 a1-waq1 lui mau11 ge11 35 35 yui yui . (cover(N) NEG-lift in.this.way+I sky TOP soaking.wet) Since we didn’t have an umbrella with us, we are soaking wet now. Mau11 yui11 r55. (sky leak/stream(ipf) PE) The roof is leaking. Vide wo31 vi. ‘rain’ and forms with mau35. mau11 wo31 (sky rain) n+vi. rain. mau11-bu11 (sky-clothes) n. rain clothes. mau11-bu11-tung31 (sky-clothes-bag) n. plastic bag (lit.: rain clothes bag); Vide tung31 for an overview of Zaiwa bags. mau11-cyut5 / mau11-syut5 (sky-dark) a n. the dark; cf. mau11 cyut5 (sky 31 dark) n+vi. be dark, become dark; Mau11 cyut5 bue . (sky dark P+I) It 1 has become dark. b n. type of spirit. Vide nat for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. mau11-gun31 (sky-fling/strike/wave) a n. thunderstorm; b (idiom:) spoken when scolding someone: Mau11-gun31 nang31 ge11! (skyfling/strike/wave 2SG TOP) You (SG) bloody idiot! / (Lit.:) You (SG)

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    that’s always like being struck by lightning! Vide gun31. Cf. mau11myang31. mau11-i1-zvyam11 (sky-water-water) n. rain water. mau11-kung31 / mau11-hung31 (sky-vault/ridge) n. sky, air; Mau11kung31 ge11 sing11sing11 ngyui11 r55. (sky-vault/ridge TOP bright.green/blue green/blue(ipf) PE) The sky is clear blue. Vide mau11kung31-ngyui31; mau11-hung31 pyang31 (sky-vault/ridge DIR) up into the 31 air; Mau11-kung31 toq5 me55 lo35 dvui31 lvang31 dvo11 bue . (sky(ipf) (ipf) vault/ridge come.out LOC go(back/up) rope(N/vt) hang place(vt) P+I) They hang it up into the air. mau11-kung31-ngyui31 (sky-vault/ridge-green/blue) a n. sky-blue; b n. blue sky; Mau11-kung31-ngyui31 ngyui11 ra55. (sky-vault/ridge-green/blue green/blue(ipf) PE) It’s a blue sky. Cf. sing11sing11 and sek5-ngyui31. mau11-kup5 kup5 (sky-stuffy stuffy) n+vi. be heavily clouded; Mau11-kup5 kup5 r55. (sky-stuffy stuffy PE) It’s heavily clouded. Vide kup 5; cf. Mau11 zau35 r55. (sky conceal/clouded PE) It’s clouded. mau11-lat5 byang31-goi35 (sky-halfway scabbard-crooked/wicked) (riddle:) the crooked scabbard in the air (The answer is: It’s the ge5syang11.) mau11-lat5 koq5-zo11 (sky-halfway bowl-child) (riddle:) the little bowl in the air (The answer is: It’s a bird’s nest.) mau11-lat5 me55 (sky-halfway LOC) in the air. mau11-mi31 (sky-earth) n+n. earth. mau11-mo35 (sky-AUG) n+adj. heavy rain; always with wo31 vi. rain; Mau1131 mo35 rau35 wo31 bue . (sky-AUG promptly rain P+I) Heavy rain will soon come. mau11-myang31 (sky-see) (idiom:) spoken when scolding someone: heavens, you! (Lit.:) the one that heaven is looking upon; Mau11myang31, nang31 ge11! (sky-see 2SG TOP) Heavens, you (SG)! Cf. mau11gun31. mau11-nat5 (sky-spirit) n. the heavenly spirits; Ngo31 mau11-nat5 to11 lye31. (1SG sky-spirit cast.spell(ipf) also+I) I am speaking to the heavenly spirits. Vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. mau11-nat5-gvau55 (sky-spirit-stand/rack) n. stand for the heavenly spirits. mau11sau11 (paper/book) a n. paper; mau11sau11 le1-cyeq5 (paper/book onetear) a/one snip of paper; mau11sau11 le1-kyap5 (paper/book oneleaf/sheet) a/one sheet of paper; b n. book, magazine or notebook; mau11sau11 le1-buk1 (paper/book one-book) a/one book, magazine or notebook; mau11sau11 wu35 (paper/book look) n+vt. read a book, read 31 31 books; Mau11sau11 me55 wu35 lui mvoq5 yu11 lye . (paper/book LOC

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    look in.this.way+I learn/teach take(ipf) also+I) I’m learning it from a book/magazine. mau11sau11 gva55 (paper/book write) n+vt. write a book, write books; mau11sau11 gva55 su31 (paper/book write SNO) n. author. mau11sau11-gvyap5 (paper/book-shell/crust) n. book cover. mau11sau11-tui11 (paper/book-(roll.into.a).ball) n. ball of paper. mau11-yui31 yui31 (sky-leak/stream leak/stream) n+v. leak; also shortly 31 mau11 yui31; Mau11 yui31 lui -eq1 bui35-mo35 bvue55-ha55 mau11-i111 35 35 zvyam yui yui . (sky leak/stream in.this.way+I-AG/I warm.oneselfAUG PLN-where(B) sky-water-water soaking.wet) Because of the leak, the quilt and thereabouts have become soaking wet from the rain. Nga35moq1 yvum31 me55 mau11-yui31 yui11 r55. (1PO-party house LOC skyleak/stream leak/stream(ipf) PE) There’s a leak in our (ND .EX) house. Vide mau35-yui11. mau31 n. fungus (sp. kat5, long11) ; mau31-pyu31 (fungus-white) n+adj. white mushrooms (not a specific type); cf. the forms below and mi1-gye11mau31, zi1si31-mau31. mau31-gvyok1 (fungus-no.gloss) n. type of fungus (sp. kat5 ). mau31-gyon11 (fungus-ear-shaped.fungus) n. type of ear-shaped fungus; Chinese 木耳 mùěr or similar; mau31-gyon11 le1-long11 (fungus-earshaped.fungus one-slice/plate) one of these; Mau31-gyon11 ge11 sek531 dum11 me55 yuq1 lye . (fungus-ear-shaped.fungus TOP tree-log(vt/n) LOC grow also+I) Ear-shaped fungus grow on logs. mau31mi11 n. story; mau31mi11 kai11 (story narrate) n+vt. tell stories; Bang11dvai31 mau31mi11 (rabbit story) stories on Rabbit; cf. Jingpo maumi (Xu et al. 1983: 512). mau35 I (body.hair) bound form noun a n. body hair, fur; vide si1-mau35; b myoq1-mau35 (eye-body.hair) n. eyelashes; c n. feathers; dung25 si1mau35 (wing+FCT meat-body.hair) the feathers on its wings. mau35 II (stare/bewildered) a vi/vt. stare (at); Ka55-hu55 mau35 lye31? (Q-sort stare/bewildered also+I) Why are you staring into the distance like that? / What are you staring at? Nang31 a1num11 mau35-Ø ge11, ka55-hu55 dye31 31 son31 gvun31 lye ta11? (2SG constantly stare/bewildered-FCT TOP Qsort too calculate(ipf) play(ipf) also+I GI) You (SG) are staring into the distance all the time, what are you thinking about? b vr. be amazed; 31 31 Mau35 bue , mau35 bue , ka31 lo35 bue54 dvi55? (stare/bewildered P+I stare/bewildered P+I where go(back/up) P+FCT RFL) How strange, where has he gone? Zi1syang31 wa35 dang11 i5-mvyo55 wa35 a1-gyo54 ge11, mau35 31 dik1 bue . (child EMP words SPEC-much(B) EMP NEG-hear/smell+FCT TOP stare/bewildered extreme P+I) That a child can listen so poorly, it

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    really amazes me! c vide kye11 mau35; d mut5-mau35 (fogstare/bewildered) n. fog bank. mvau55 I (cheat/fool) (15.20) vi/vt. cheat, fool, deceive; byu31-mvau55 (man/woman-cheat/fool) n. swindler; also used as aux. expressing that the given persons or situations are not to be taken seriously. mvau55 II n. incense; also ya11pau55. mau35-gun11 (sky-fling/strike/wave(ipf)) imperfective form of mau11 gun31 (sky fling/strike/wave) n+vi. flash (lightning); Mau35-gun11 r55. (skyfling/strike/wave(ipf) PE) There’s a thunderstorm. mau35-ming11 (sky-sound(vi)(ipf)) imperfective form of mau11 ming31 (sky sound(vi)) n+vi. thunder; Mau35-ming11 r55. (sky-sound(vi)(ipf) PE) It’s thundering. mau35-wo11 (sky-rain(ipf)) imperfective form of mau11 wo31 (sky rain) n+vi. to rain; Mau35-wo11 r55. (sky-rain(ipf) PE) It’s raining. mau35-yui11 (sky-leak/stream(ipf)) imperfective form of mau11 yui31 (sky leak/stream) n+v. have a leak, be leaking; Mau35-yui11 r55. (skyleak/stream(ipf) PE) The roof is leaking. 1 Me - I ((female)) prefix in many women’s names, see below; allomorph of mu11; the latter is only attested in slow articulation; cf. female sex suffix -mvi55 and mi1-wue11/ mi11-wue11 (wife-female) n. woman, women, wife. 1 me - II (headgear) allomorph of muq1; in muq1-gvyup5/me1-gvyup5. me1- III (ROUS) (18.14) allomorph of the attitude marker me1-/ma11/me11 31 termed the rousing suffix; vide me1-lo . 1 me - IV (words) ‘words’ prefix, used in the forms below. me11 (ROUS) (18.14) allomorph of the attitude marker me1-/ma11/me11 termed the rousing suffix. Me1-bvi55 ((female)-7th-sister) short name for seventh-born women; her pet name being Me1-tam11. 1 me -byoq1 (words-quarrel ) in me1-byoq1 ho31. me1-byoq1 ho31 (words-quarrel look.for) n+vt. pick fights; Nang31 me1byoq1 he5-ho31, ngo31 nang31-eq5 a1-gvam31 byoq1 lum11. (2SG wordsquarrel PHB-look.for 1SG 2SG-COM NEG-want.to(ipf) quarrel reciprocal) Don’t pick fights, I don’t want to argue with you (SG). Me1-dving55 pet name for a Me1-duq1 i.e. fourth-born sister, another pet name, used more often, being Me1-lum11. 1 Me -dvom55 (female-6th-sister) short name for sixth-born women. Me1-don35 ((female)-tender/fat) common woman’s name. me1dvu55 (share/portion) a n. portion, one’s equal share; Hau55-yuq1-u55 31 me1dvu55 ngvu31 mvit5 dvo31 lye . (the/that-person-FCT share/portion (ipf) say leave.over place(vt) also+I) This is being saved for him. b

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    (idiom:) Lvung55lvang31-bang54 me1dvu55 a1gvyu31 bo11/ngvut5 lye . (everyone(GEN)-PNO+FCT share/portion merit contain(ipf)/be also+I) This would be good for everyone. Zam31 rvang31 dvo11 zyang35 ge11 31 lvung55lvang31-bang54 me1dvu55 a1gvyu31 bo11 lye . (bridge make(ipf) place(vt) CD TOP everyone(GEN)-PNO+FCT share/portion merit contain(ipf) also+I) It would be good for everyone to build a bridge here. 1 me -gva55 (words-write) n. signs, patterns; Ka55-hu55 me1-gva55 gva31 lye31? (Q-sort words-write write(ipf) also+I) What are those patterns you are 31 writing? Ka55-hu55 me1-gva55 soi31 ra ? (Q-sort words-write draw/paint need+I) What patterns are you drawing? loq1(-wa11) me1-gva55 (hand/arm(-palm/sole) words-write) n. palm lines; me1-gva55 dap1 (words-write be.attached) n+vi. bring only trouble, have a stigma; Byu31 hi55-yuq1 me1-gva55 dap1-m55. (man/woman this-person words-write be.attached-FCT) This person brings only trouble. / (Lit.:) There’s a stigma attached to this person. Me1-gvai55 ((female)-5th-sister) short name for fifth-born women. Me1-gvoq5 ((female)-eld-sister) short name for eldest-born women; cf. Jingpo Ko (Xu et al. 1983: 368). me1-gvyup5 (headgear-wear.on.head) vide muq1-gvyup5/me1-gvyup5. me1-hon31 (words-sing) vide me1-kon31/me1-hon31. Me1ko31 village name, also plus -wa31 n. village; one of the constituent villages of Loilung. me1-kon31 / me1-hon31 (words-sing) n. song; me1-kon31 le1-hu55 (wordssing one-sort) a/one song; me1-kon31 le1-kun11 (words-sing onesentence(N)) a/one stanza of a song; cf. kon31/hon31 vt. sing; Ngo31 31 Zai11wa31 me1-kon31 le1-lvum11 kon11 gvat5 lye . (1SG Zaiwa words-sing (ipf) one-lump sing put.into also+I) I’ll sing a Zaiwa song now. Cf. zi1135 do . 1 me -ku31 (words-voice) a n. voice for singing; Ngo31 me1-hon31 hon11 r11 me1-ku31 a1-ngon35. (1SG words-sing sing(ipf) also words-voice NEGpleasant) I don’t have a good voice for singing. b n. pronunciation, the way words sound; Me1-ku31 bvong11 ra55. (words-voice coincide(ipf) PE) These words sound the same. Me1kuq1 Kun55 personal name of a zitung spirit. Me1-lat5 ((female)-halfway) pet name for a Me1-luq5 i.e. second-born sister. me1-lo31 (ROUS-no.more+I) (17.7) attitude marking unit expressing ‘so that’s simple’ and related notions; Nang31 a1-yan35 lye35 yu31-yu31 31 gvun31-aq1 me1-lo . (2SG nom-row come(away/down) take-take do*-SIM ROUS-no.more+I) You (SG) can come here and borrow it as often as you want.

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    Me1-lum11 pet name for a Me1-duq1 i.e. fourth-born sister, another pet name, used less often, being Me1-dving55. Me -luq5 ((female)-2nd-sister) short name for a second-born sister; cf. pet name Me1-lat5. 1 Me -myo11 pet name for a Me1-roi35 i.e. third-born sister. me1nai11 bi11 (twist/screw give) verbal expression: (limbs etc.:) twist, screw; Loq1 me1nai11 bi11-aq5. (hand/arm twist/screw give- SIM) Twist 31 (SG) his arm. Ci5-hung11 i5-se55 gvut5-n55 me1nai31 am55 bi54 ga . (ipf) (buttock-fold SPEC-like do-FCT twist/screw PFM give+FCT perceive+I) He twisted his bottom (the snail’s bottom) like this. Cf. nai11. 1 Me nau11 / Me5nau11 Menau festival, Jingpo spring festival, at full moon, 15 days after Chinese New Year; vide nau11 and Si1dung11-zeng31. 1 Me nau11 Zum31-go35 / Me5nau11 zum31-go35 (Menau consort-dance) n. Menau festival, sometimes followed by bvoi31 n. festival; Ke5-zan11 lye54 Me5nau11 Zum31-go35 bvoi31 a1-nvik5 lye54 i5-mvyo55 a1-ngon35. (before-summer/year(GEN) TS +FCT Menau consort-dance festival nomthe.other.year TS+FCT SPEC-much (B) NEG-pleasant) This year’s Menau festival wasn’t as nice as last year’s. Vide go35, Nau11-bva55, Nau11syong55, Zum31, Zum31-go35 and Zum31-cyang31. 1 Me nau11-bvoi31 (Menau-festival) n. Menau festival; i.e. the main Zaiwa festival. Me1nau11-min35 (Menau-night-time) Menau eve, i.e. the evening and night of Menau festival. Me1-ngvyeq5 ((female)-baby) a woman’s personal name; ngvyeq5 possibly the same morpheme as ngvyeq5 n. baby. 1 me non31 vi/vt. be envious, jealous; Se5-bvue55 hue55 ngun31 le1-wo35 r11, ke5dye31 me1non31. (SNO-PLN far(B) silver but-have also PHB-too envious) You don’t have to be envious if others have more money than you. me1nu31sum11gvu31 n. house lizard (Hemidactylus frenatus). Me1-pang55 personal name for a woman. me1ra11 n. guilt, sin; Nang31 ka55-hu55 me1ra11 bo31 zyang35 ka55-hu55 dai11-aq5. (2SG Q-sort guilt/sin contain CD Q-sort speak-SIM) Whatever guilt you (SG) feel, just say it. Cf. yui11 and ha11. 1 Me ran11 a family name. Me1-roi35 ((female)-3rd-sister) short name for a third-born sister; cf. pet name Me1-myo11. 1 me rong11 (disturb) res. verb ‘do in an unsociable fashion, disturbing others’; He55-me55 he5-yap1 me1rong11 gvo55. (before-LOC PHB-stand disturb PL) Don’t (PL) stand in the way like that. Ke5-dai31 me1rong11 1

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    gvo55. (PHB-speak(ipf) disturb PL) Don’t (PL) talk like that (while the chairman is speaking). me1rong35 n. shadow-like spirit, of people with bad conscience; vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. me1ruq1 n. kind of infectious skin disease; Me1ruq1 ruq1 r55. He bears meruq. me1sat1 bi11 (plan give) n+vt. (by gouverment etc.:) arrange as a special 31 occasion for the people; Dang11-eq1 me1sat1 bi54 bui31-ngi35 ngvut5 lye . (CCP#-AG/I plan give+FCT sun-day be also+I) It is a day the Party has arranged for us. Me1-sueng55 a woman’s personal name; (the second syllable is not sueng55 n. precious stone). Me1-tam11 pet name for a Me1-bvi55 i.e. seventh-born sister. Me1-toi11 a woman’s personal name. Me1-tuq1 ((female)-4th-sister) short name for fourth-born women; cf. Jingpo Htu (Xu et al. 1983: 321). Me1-yam35 a woman’s personal name. me1yat1 vt. said of animals: be fertile and caring for the offspring; Woq1mvi55 hi55-du11 ge11 woq1-zo11 me1yat1 dik1 r55. (chicken-female this-being TOP chicken-child fertile.and.caring extreme PE) This hen is really a good mother (giving many chicks and raising them well). Me1-yin35 a woman’s personal name. Me1-yong35 a woman’s personal name. Me1-zvai55 ((female)-fine) a woman’s personal name. me1zveng55 a n. memory; Me1zveng55 tan11 dik1 r55. (memory/memorise hard(ipf) extreme PE) He has a sharp memory. b vt. memorize, keep in 31 mind; Nang31 dai54 dang11 ngo31 me1zveng31 dvo11 ra . (2SG speak+FCT (ipf) words 1SG memory/memorise place(vt) need+I) I’ll make notes of what you said. Also in combination with other verbs: wu35 me1zveng55 (look memory/memorise) vt+vt. look well in order to memorize; gyo31 me1zveng55 (hear/smell(ipf) memory/memorise) vt+vt. listen well in order to memorize; gva31 me1zveng55 (write(ipf) memory/memorise) vt+vt. make notes; Ngo31 byam11 gva31 me1zveng31 gvat5 be55. (1SG jump(ipf) write(ipf) memory/memorise(ipf) put.into EE) I’ll make a short note of this now. Me1zyoi11sing11ra11 also Me1zyoi11sing11ra11 Bum31 (Mezyoisingra heap(vt/N)) Mount Mezyoisingra, name of the mythological place of origin of the Jingpo.

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    me1zyoq1 n. cause, reason; Hau55-me1zyoq1 mai11 se5-bvue55 nga35-nvung55 31

    r55 wu35-syau31 lye . (the/that-cause ABL SNO-PLN 1PO-1ND.IN OBJ look-less(ipf) also+I) That’s the reason why others disparage us (ND .IN). 5 me - / ma35 / ma55 / me55 (LOC) (9.13) locative case suffix; also combined with two other suffixes in me5-luq1 and me5-wa35. The locative case suffix has also two variants la55 and le55 in some of the pronoun variants ka55-me55/ha55-me55, ke5-ma55/he5-ma55, ke5-la55/he5-la55, ke5me55/he5-me55, ke5-le55/he5-le55 (Q-LOC) ‘where’ (9.21.2). 55 me (LOC) vide me5-/ma35/ma55/me55. me5gon11 (careless/abominably3) vide a1gon11/me5gon11/be5gon11. mve5 nvung11 (to.the.contrary) (18.16) attitude marker expressing ‘to the 31 contrary’; Hi55-dong31 syeq1 gva55 ra mve5nvung11! (this-lead/connect au.contraire write need+I to.the.contrary) I wouldn’t have thought that I would write it like this. me5dvong11-dvyek5 (fruit.name-short.and.skinny) n+adj. kind of wild fruit with prickly shell (Chinese jūlūguǒ). me5ke55sum11 n. tomato. me5ko55-si11 (fruit.name-fruit) n+n. kind of tasty pear-like fruit. me5wau31-si11 (suanmugua-fruit) n+n. sour payaya. me54 (LOC+FCT) rare variant of ma54. mek1 / mek5 I vi. lethargic; Ke5-dye31 mek1. (PHB-too lethargic) Don’t be so lethargic. Vide byu31-mek5 mek1 II (pinch1) vt. pinch and pull repeatedly, especially the skin, as a treatment against diseases; nge1-lang11 mek1 (forehead-pull/yank pinch1) n+vt. pinch and pull the forehead (against diseases); cf. cek5/sek5 (pinch2). mvek5 vt. (insects etc.:) kill with fire; Mi31-eq1 bau31woq5 mvek5 sat5 am55 gveq5. (fire#-AG/I ant kill.with.fire kill PFM PLIM) Kill (PL) the ants by touching them with fire. meng11 I (chat1) vi/vt. chat; Meng31 gvun55 syang55. (chat1(ipf) play JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) chat. Cf. zi1ta11 (chat2) and pye31-ngvam11. meng11 II (world) bound form n. ‘world’; meng11-gvan11 (world-dried.out) n. world; le1-meng11-gvan11 (one-world-dried.out) the whole world; in names for countries; Myen31-meng11 (Burma-world) Burma; see the forms below and le1-meng54. meng11-byu31 wui31 (world-man/woman generation) n+n+n. the people (communist terminology). meng11dung11-si11 (fruit.name-fruit) n+n. kind of large fruit. meng11-gvan11 (world-dried.out) n. world; le1-meng11-gvan11 (one-worlddried.out) the whole world.

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    meng11-gvan11 zi1tum31 (world-dried.out apocalypse) n+n. apocalypse; 31

    Meng11-gvan11 zi1tum31 zye35 bue . (world-dried.out apocalypse arrive P+I) Apocalypse has come. meng11-gong35 gong35 (world-travel travel) n+vt. make distant journeys; 31 Meng11-gong35 gong35 lye . (world-travel travel also+I) I’m making 11 distant journeys. Cf. meng -lam35 lam35. meng11-lam35 lam35 (world-ramble ramble) n+v. wander across the world; 31 Meng11-lam35 lam35 lye . (world-ramble ramble also+I) I’m wandering across the world. Meng11-lam35 ke5-lam35 loq1. (world-ramble PHBramble no.more) Stop travelling around. Cf. meng11-gong35 gong35. Meng11mau11 (toponym) 瑞丽市 Ruìlì shì, Ruili municipality, in Dehong prefecture, Yunnan. Meng11mau11-cin11 (Ruili-county.town) the county town of 瑞丽 Ruìlì. Meng11mau11-lang31 (Ruili-river) Ruìlì jiāng 瑞丽江 Ruili river. Meng11mau31-kung11 (Ruili(GEN)-fold) Ruili county, in fact now Ruili municipality. Meng11req1 a family name. -meq1 (AG/I) (9.9) one of the possible shapes of the agentive/instrumental suffix . 1 mi - I (earth) allomorph of mi31 n. earth, soil; used in the forms below; see the forms beginning with mi31 and mau11-mi31 (sky-earth) n. earth. 1 mi - II (fire) allomorph of mi1-/mi11 n. fire; used in the forms below. mi1- III (wife) variant of mi11 n. wife, woman; also in mi1-wue11/mi11-wue11 (wife-female) n. woman; cf. zyan35. 11 mvi (close(vt)) a vt. (windows, doors, etc.:) close; Hum11 mvi31 dvo11 bue31 luq1? (door close(vt)(ipf) place(vt) P+I Y/N) Is the door closed? and two 31 possible replies: Mvi31 dvo11 bue . (close(vt)(ipf) place(vt) P+I) Yes, it is. 1 31 11 and A -mvi dvo . (NEG-close(vt)(ipf) place(vt)) No, it isn’t. Hum11 mvi11-aq5. (door close(vt)-SIM) Close (SG) the door. mvi31 laq1 (close(vt)(ipf) close/lock) vt+vt. (door) lock b n. suffix ‘lid, top’; bvong55dvin55-mvi11 (pen-close(vt)) n. top of pen; dvau55-mvi11 (inflate/bottle-close(vt)) n. lid of bottle; cf. mi11 (vi.), pong55 and mvi55; cf. zoq1 /zo11 and si11. 11 mi I vt. ask; Nang31 ka55-hu55 mi11 ra31 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 mi11-aq5. (2SG Q-sort ask need+I be CD TOP ask-SIM) Whenever you (SG) may need to ask something, do so. Cf. lok1 vt. ferret out information. 11 mi II (closed) vi. (doors etc.:) be closed; Hum11 mi11 bue31 luq1? (door closed P+I Y/N) Is the door closed? Cf. mvi11 and laq1. 11 mi III (cobra/python) meaning unknown; in bau31-mi11.

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    mi11 / mi1- IV (fire) n. fire; used in the forms below; also see the forms beginning with the reduced variant mi1-. mi / mi31 V (9.33) nu. four. mi11 VI bound form n. intact male; myang11-mi11 (horse-intact.male) n. intact stallion; ne1-mi11 (cattle-intact.male) n. bull (intact male cattle); cf. po55 and mon35. 11 mi VII (tail) in si1-mi11. mi11 / mi1- VIII (wife) n. wife, woman; used in the forms below; nung11mi11 (2REL-wife) your wife; cf. zyan35. 11 mi ngye35 (fire burnt/hot) n+vi. catch fire, be on fire (by a natural cause); cf. mi11 dap1 (fire attached) n+vi. catch fire; cf. mi11 ngvye55 (fire burn(vt)) n+vt. set on fire. mi11 ngvye55 (fire burn(vt)) n+vt. set on fire; cf. mi11 ngye35 n+vi. catch fire, be on fire (by a natural cause). mi11-bui35 (fire-warm.oneself) n. warm fireplace; Ngo31 mi11-bui35 me55 31 yvup5 ra . (1SG fire-warm.oneself LOC sleep need+I) I’ll sleep next to the fireplace. mi11-bui35 bui35 (fire-warm.oneself warm.oneself) n+vr. warm oneself near the fire; Nang31 mi11-bui35 bui35-aq5. (2SG fire-warm.oneself warm.oneself-SIM) You (SG) sleep next to the fireplace. mi11-bum31 (fire-heap(vt/N)) n. volcano. mi11-lai35 (wife-deviate) vide lai35. mi11-mo35 (fire-AUG) n+adj. large fire. mi11-sue31 (four-ten) forty Mi11wa11 n. Chinese. Mi11wa11 lai11gva55 (Chinese script) n. Chinese script; Mi11wa11 lai11gva55 le1-cyam11 (Chinese script one-ball) a/one Chinese character. 11 Mi wa11 mang11-zo11 (Chinese aged-child) n. elder Chinese man or woman. Mi11wa11-mvi55 (Chinese-female) n. Chinese woman. Mi11wa11-ming35 (Chinese-language) n. Chinese language. Mi11wa11-ngun31 (Chinese-silver) n. Chinese money, Yuan Renminbi; Mi11wa11-ngun31 sum11-syo31 mun11 (Chinese-silver three-hundred ten.thousand/Yuan) three hundred Yuan; cf. mun11. 11 Mi wa11-po55 (Chinese-male) n. Chinese man. Mi11wa11-wa31 (Chinese-village) n. Chinese village. Mi11wa31-mau11 (Chinese(GEN)-native.land) n. China; probably also Mi11wa11-mau11. 11 mi -wue11 (wife-female) vide mi1-wue11/mi11-wue11. 11

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    mi1-bvun55 (wife-lead.away) n+vt. leading the bride away to the groom’s house; vide bvun55. mi -byu11 (fire-hot.ash) n+n. hot ashes, with burning pieces; cf. mi1-wap5. mi1-bvyung55 (fire-blowing.tube) n. bamboo tube for blowing fire (only used by elder people) or for smoking out wasps/bees. mi1-bvyung55 mut1 (fire-blowing.tube blow) n+vt. smoke out wasps/bees. mi1-dat5 (fire-electricity) n. electricity; cf. dat5-mi11 (electricity-fire) n+n. electrical torch. mi1-dat5-dvui11 (fire-electricity-rope(N/vt)) n. electrical cord. mi1-dum31 (fire-torch) n. fire, torch. mi1-gung31 (earth-body) n. ground, earth, floor; cf. pyang11 n. floor (upstairs). mi1-gung31-dong11 (earth-body-(have)hole) n. pit. mi1-gung31-yvum31 (earth-body-house) n. one-storied house; cf. gyam11yvum31. 1 mi gya11 n. tick. mi1-gye11 (fire-coal) n. coal, burning wood; cf. mi1-zu11 (fire-prickle) n. coal prickles (still attached to the firewood); a1yo11 mi1-gye11 (pit-coal firecoal) n. pit-coal. mi1-gye11-mau31 (fire-coal-fungus) n. kind of pitch-black fungus (sp. kat5). mi1-hang55 (wife-marry) a (n+vt.) n. wedding; b n+vt. (spoken by a man:) 31 marry a woman; Ngo31 mi1-hang55 be1-ra . (1SG wife-marry P-need+I) I’m about to marry. c vr. marry; The following sentence is an example to 31 both b and c: Mi1-hang55 bue . (wife-marry P+I) I am married (spoken by a man). / We are married. Cf. lang31-doq5 (husband-go.up). Vide hang55 for an overview of words related to marriage and wedding. 1 mi -hang55-bvoi31 (wife-marry-festival) n. wedding festivities. mi1-hang55-kyo31 (wife-marry-road) n. the course of a wedding (including all things to be arranged); Le1-nong35-Ø mi1-hang55-kyo31 meng31 gvun55 syang55. ((male)-2nd-brother-FCT wife-marry-road chat1(ipf) play JUS) Let’s (ND .IN) chat about the whole business of second brother’s wedding. mi1-hu11 (fire-torch) n. torch (with real fire) (sp. lvum11); cf. dvat5-mi11 n. electrical torch. mi1-hue11 (fire-dirt) n+n. coals. mi1-kau11 (fire-irritate.the.eyes) (n+vi.) smoke (irritating the eyes); in mi1kau11 kau11. 1 mi -kau11 kau11 (fire-irritated.by.smoke irritated.by.smoke) n+vi. smoke irritating the eyes; Mi1-kau11 kau31 r55. (fire-irritate.the.eyes 1

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    irritate.the.eyes(ipf) PE) The smoke of the fire is irritating my eyes. The morpheme kau11 ‘irritate the eyes’ is only used in this combination. 1 mi -kyet1 (fire-strike.(matches)) n. match; vide kyet1. mi1-kyom55 (fire-fireplace) n. fireplace; Mi1-kyom55 a1-toq5 ma54 ge11 myam31zui11. (fire-fireplace nom-come.out LOC +FCT TOP rack.above.fire) The thing above the fireplace is known as a myamzui drying rack. Yvang55-moq1 mi1-kyom55 yam31 me55 pye31-ngvam31 gvun31 31 a1-gvo . (3PL-party fire-fireplace edge LOC negotiate(ipf)-tasty(ipf) (ipf) play nom-PL+I) They are chatting near the fireplace. Around a Zaiwa fireplace, the following positions are distinguished: dap1-gop1 (be.attached-evade) n. surounds of the fireplace; dap1-zyut1 (be.attached-corner) n+n. corners of the fireplace; gvyo31 n. tripod; myam31zui11 n. drying rack above the fireplace; tung55-guq1 (wickerwork-(in.front.of.fireplace)) n+n. place to sit right in front of the fire; above that: gvue31toq5 n. upper smoking rack; um11-tung55 (head-wickerwork) n+n. place to sit behind the fireplace, reserved for elderly people. mi1-kyung55 (fire-hollow) n. a tipi style fire. mi1-lvyen11 (fire-lure) n. wick. mi1-mut5 (fire-blow) a n+vt. blow the fire; b n+vt. make fire. mi1-ngin35 ngin35 (fire-beam.heat beam.heat) n+vi. beam heat; Mi1-ngin35 ngin35 r55. (fire-beam.heat beam.heat PE) The fire is beaming hot. 1 mi -sek5 (wife-new) (n+adj.) n. bride; Vide hang55 for an overview of words related to marriage and wedding. mi1-sek5 ge1zyam11 (wife-new ceremonial.gruel) n. wedding gruel; type of ceremonial gruel that only bride and groom are allowed to prepare. mi1-si11 (fire-drug) n. gunpowder. mi1-sing55gan11 (fire-(flame-thrower)) n. flame-thrower. mi1-sueng55 (fire-precious.stone) n. light bulb (sp. cyam11/syam11); vide sueng55. 1 mi -tang55-zo11 (wife-father’s.brother-child) n. aunt, the wife of father’s brother. mi1-toi55loi35 (fire-(J)straight.and.round) n. pipe for blowing fire; cf. Jingpo htoiloi adv. (referring to holes:) straigt and round (Xu et al. 1983: 317). mi1-um11 um11 (fire-cover2(V) cover2 (V)) n+v. cover the fire with ashes, soil etc. Mi1-um11 um11-aq5. (fire-cover2(V) cover2 (V)-SIM) Cover (SG) it with ashes. mi1-um31 (fire-gun) n. gun; mi1-um31 le1-pu11 (fire-gun one-gun(Sp)) a/one gun. mi1-wap5 (fire-ash) n+n. ashes; cf. mi1-byu11.

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    mi1-wue11 / mi11-wue11 (wife-female) a n. woman, women; Mi11-wue11 luq1, yuq1-gue31 luq1? (wife-female Y/N person-male Y/N ) (Are you) 31 women or men? b n. wife, girlfriend; Mi11-wue11 wo35 bue luq1? (wifefemale have P+I Y/N) Do you have a wife/girlfriend yet? Cf. byu31mvi55. 1 mi -wue11 pye55 (wife-female negotiate) n+vt. meet girls in order to find a wife; cf. lang31 ho31; vide hang55 for an overview of words related to marriage and wedding. mi1-wue11-bu11 (wife-female-clothes) n. women’s clothes. mi1-zang11 (fire-rice/food) n+n. battery. mi1-zo35 (fire-burning.firewood) n. burning firewood; mi1-zo35 le1-dvum55 (fire-burning.firewood one-interrupt) a/one burning stump of wood; cf. tang11. 1 mi -zu11 (fire-prickle) n. coal prickles (still attached to the firewood); cf. mi1-gye11 (fire-coal) n. coal, burning wood. 1 mi -zvue11 (earth-soil) n+n. soil, earth; Mi1-zvue11 ro11ro11 dut1 r55. (earthsoil [loose/sandy] become PE) The soil is very loose/sandy. Mi1-zvue11 kai31 um11-aq5. (earth-soil shovel2(ipf) cover2(V)-SIM) (seeds, beans etc.:) Cover (SG) them with soil. mi1-zvue11 nok5 (earth-soil make.dough) n+vt. make slush of soil and water; cf. sue11. 1 mi -zyan11 (fire-endure) n+n. war; vide zyan11; Mi1-zyan11 bek1 rvuq5 dik1 r55. (fire-endure shoot truculent extreme PE) He is a brave fighter in the 31 war. Mi1-zyan11 ong55 bue . (fire-endure win P+I) We/they have won 31 1 11 31 the war. Mi -zyan sum bue . (fire-endure loose/fade P+I) We have lost the war. mvi31 (swallow) also mvyui31; in mvi11 gvat5 (swallow(ipf) put.into) vt+vt. swallow; also mvyui11 gvat5; Mvi11 gvan31-aq1. (swallow(ipf) put.into*(ipf) SIM) Swallow (SG) it. A1-wo35 mvi11 gvat5. (NEG-have swallow put.into) I can’t swallow it. *Mvi31-aq1. (swallow-SIM) (incorrect without gvat5 vt. put into). 31 mi / mi1- I (earth) n. earth, soil; used in the forms below and mau11-mi31 (sky-earth) n. earth; also see the forms beginning with the reduced variant mi1-. Cf. yo31 n. land, field. 31 mi II (four) vide mi11/mi31. mi31-byoq5 (earth-weathered) n. ravine, with eroded rocks, unlike ng1gam11 gam11 (abyss steep(adj)) n+vi. be a very steep abyss. 31 mi -dong11 (earth-(have)hole) n. cave. mi31-kyeng55 (earth-yellow) n. orange coloured earth (cf. mi31-nye31 which is deeper red). mi31le1ta11 (train) variant of mi31ta31.

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    mi31-mui35 (earth-grey) n. grey earth. mi31-noq5 (earth-black) n. black earth. mi31-nuq5 (earth-bean) n. peanuts. mi31-nye31 (earth-red) red earth. mi31-pan31 (earth-create) n. the creator of the world. mi31ta31 n. train (sp. cyam11/syam11); mi31ta31 zi11 (train ride(vt)) n+vt. travel by train; vide sa11u55. mi -zo11 le1-zvai55 (earth-child (male)-fine) goblins; Mi31 tye11 me55 mi3131 31 zo11 le1zvai55 ngi11 lye ga . (earth underneath LOC earth-child goblin (ipf) be.there(anim) also+I perceive+I) Under the earth is where the goblins live. mi35 (trapped) vi. (birds and other game:) be trapped; Ngvoq5 a1-mi35 luq1? (bird NEG-trapped Y/N) Did you trap any birds yet? Cf. mvi55; vide syo11 for an overview of Zaiwa hunting terms. mvi55 I (trap) vt. trap; Nge1-min31-eq1 mvi31 lye31. (fish-fish.hook*-AG/I trap(ipf) also+I) We are trapping them with a fish hook. b in dvoq5-mvi55 (iron-trap) n. magnet (sp. lvum11); c yvup5(-mo35) mvi55 n+vt. fall asleep; Ngo31 a1-yvup5 mvi55 siq1. (1SG NEG-sleep trap still) I have not fallen asleep yet. Cf. mi35, mvi11, ngvoq5-mvi55 mvi55 and tung31. Vide syo11 for an overview of Zaiwa hunting terms. mvi55 II (female) (9.29) female sex suffix, both for people and animals; wam31-mvi55 (bear-female) n. she-bear; mang11-zo11-mvi55 (aged-childfemale) n. elderly woman; Mi11wa11-mvi55 (Chinese-female) n. Chinese woman; sum11zvoq5-mvi55 (court-female) n. fiancée; a1-mvi55 (nomfemale) na. female animal; vide byu31-mvi55 and lai11gva55-mvi55; cf. Maru a1mvi55 ‘mother’. 35 mi -sue11-ra11 (four(GEN)-ten(GEN)-one) nu. 41. mik1 n. bamboo shoots; Mik1 yu31 lo35 lye31. (bamboo.shoots take go(back/up) also+I) I am on my way up/home to fetch some bamboo shoots. Also used in the forms below. mik1-ban35 (bamboo.shoots-sprout1) n. bamboo sprouts; Mik1-ban35 ban35 31 bue . (bamboo.shoots-sprout1 sprout1 P+I) New bamboo shoots have sprouted. mik1-bup1 (bamboo.shoots-bad/fermented) a n. fermented bamboo shoots; 31 b n. bad bamboo shoots; Mik1-bup1 bup1 bue . (bamboo.shootsbad/fermented bad/fermented P+I) The bamboo shoots are fermented already. / The bamboo shoots have already gone bad. mik1-bup1 bvup5 (bamboo.shoots-bad/fermented ferment/let.decay) n+vt. 31 make fermented bamboo shoots; Mik1-bup1 bvup5 dvo31 lye . 31

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    (bamboo.shoots-bad/fermented ferment/let.decay place(vt) (ipf) also+I) We’re making fermented bamboo shoots. mik1-sui11 (bamboo.shoots-whet/grate) n. shredder; (cf. mik1 sui11 n+vt. shred bamboo shoots); Ang11-ki31-bvun31 mik1-sui31-eq1 sui11-aq5. (petiole-leg/foot-single.root bamboo.shoots-whet/grate#-AG/I whet/grate-SIM) Shred (SG) the long white radish with the shredder. mik1-sun11 (bamboo.shoots-veg/dish) n. bamboo shoots, dishes containing bamboo shoots. mvik5 (massage/clutch) vt. a massage; Loq1-bu35 mvik5 bi11 raq5. (hand/armpimple/convex massage/clutch give VO) Massage my arm, please. b 31 clutch throat; Tim31 dang31 lo31 lui -eq1 nga35 ling31-zeng 11 me55 lo11 mvik5 r55. (pounce.upon(ipf) fly(ipf) come(back/up) in.this.way +I-AG/I 1PO neck-neck LOC come(back/up)(ipf) massage/clutch PE) As soon as he threw himself upon me, he started to clutch my throat. mvin31 (disperse) vt. disperse; create chaos; Pui11-lvup5 bat1 mvin11 gvun31 31 lye . (dust/chaff-be.dusty beat disperse(ipf) play(ipf) also +I) We are beating the dust around for fun. Mue31-bu11 ke5-lap1 mvin31. (wrapclothes PHB-scoop/fish.out disperse) Don’t fish out the clothes in such a chaotic fashion. Cf. min31. 31 min I (evening) (9.39) n. evening, night; Nang31 hi55-me55 lye35-Ø ke531 mvyo55 min31 bue ? (2SG this-LOC come(away/down)-FCT Q-much(B) evening P+I) How many nights have you (SG) been here? also used in many complex time adverbials (9.39 Table 9.11); e.g. he5-min31 (beforeevening) this evening, tonight. The noun min31 ‘evening’ refers to specific evenings or night, whereas the etmologically related noun min35 ‘night-time’ refers to night-time or evening-time in general, such as when referring to what usually happens at those times. min31 II vi. be scattered around; Min11 byuq1 bue31. (scattered(ipf) lose P+I) It has been scattered around. Cf. mvin31. 31 min -wui31 (evening-generation) adv. every night; Mi1-dat5 min31-wui31 31 31 lo11 lye ning , nga35-nvik5 a1-lang35 dye31 gvoq1. (fire-electric eveninggeneration come(back/up)(ipf) also+I INS+I 1PO-duo NEG-wait too DIE) The electricity comes back on every evening, let’s (DU) not be anxious. min35 (night-time) (9.39) n. ‘night-time’, referring to night-time or eveningtime in general, such as when referring to what usually happens at those times, cf. the etmologically related noun min31 ‘evening’ referring to 31 specific evenings or night.; Min35 zye35 bue . (night-time arrive P+I) It has become evening. Vide below. min35 r55 (night-time TS) adv. in the evening or night; during evenings or nights; Min35 r55 syeq1 wu35 syang55. (night-time TS au.contraire look

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    JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) watch that in the evening (instead of now). Min35 r55 31 mut1 ra . (night-time TS hungry need+I) In the evening we will get

    hungry.

    min35-gvung31-gam31 (night-time-hunch-no.gloss) late at night; Nang31 31

    a1man31 min35-gvung31-gam31 r55 bun54 mai11 a1-dum11 yvup5 le1-ngva . (2SG last.night night-time-hunch-no.gloss TS awake+FCT ABL NEGagain sleep no.more-DC+I) So you (SG) really didn’t get any more sleep after waking up late during last night? min35-tang31 (night-time-behind) (9.19, 9.39 Table 9.11) n. afternoon, also used in various time adverbials. min35-tang31 r55 (night-time-behind TS) adv. in the afternoon; during afternoons. min35-zang11 (night-time-rice/food) n+n. late evening meal; vide zang11 on Zaiwa mealtimes. ming11hin55 n. postcard; from Chinese 明 信片 míngxìnpiàn; Myen31meng11 mai11 lye35-Ø ming11hin55 (Burma-world ABL come(away/down)FCT postcard) a postcard coming from Burma. ming31 I (name) n. name; Nang35 ming31 ka55-hu55 ga31 lye31? (2SG.PO name (ipf) Q-sort perceive also+I) What’s your (SG) name? Yuq1-gue31 mi1-wue11 31 1 31 1 31 de kya -de kya ming31 bo11 lye . (person-male wife-female different(ipf) different name contain also+I) Men and women are named in different ways. Possibly the same morpheme as ming31 vi. sound; cf. ming35, mving55. ming31 II (sound(vi)) vi. sound, make noise, reach the ear; Woq1 ming11 r55. (chicken sound(vi)(ipf) PE) The chicken is making noises. (NB not the cock crowing; vide dvun31); Mo35do35 ming25 tye31 a1-gi1-nvau31. (car sound(vi)+FCT sound NEG-hear/smell-feel.like) I don’t like to hear the sound of cars. Mi1-um31 ming11 ngyo11 r55. (fire-gun sound(vi)(ipf) talk(ipf) PE) I heard the sound of guns / of a gun. Mau35-ming 11 r55. (skysound(vi)(ipf) PE) It’s thundering. Possibly the same morpheme as ming31 n. name; cf. ming35, mving55 and tye31 n. sound. ming31 a1-bo31 Roi35-dot1 (name NEG-contain 3rd-sister-no.gloss) n. ringfinger (lit.: the nameless third sister); vide loq1-ngyui11 for the names of the other fingers. ming31 mving55 (name sound/name(vt)) n+vt. give a name; Nang31 yvang11 31 r55 ka55-hu55 ming31 mving55 bi11 ra ? (2SG 3SG OBJ Q-sort name sound/name(vt) give need+I) What name will you (SG) give her? / (Lit.:) With what name will you (SG) name her?

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    ming31-du31 (name-namesake) n. namesakes (e.g.: both called Mopi); 31

    Nga35-nvik5 ge11 ming31-du31 ngvut5 lye . (1PO-duo TOP namenamesake be also+I) We (DU) are namesakes. Vide du31 (namesake). ming31-mo35 (name-AUG) n. a person’s official name; cf. ming31-zo11 and kye31-ming31. ming31-zo11 (name-child) (n+adj.) n. a person’s short or inofficial name; cf. ming31-mo35 and kye31-ming31 (hush/soothe-name) n. infant name, pet name. ming35 n. language; Bve1lvong11-ming35 (Deang.people-language) n. Deang language; Le1-sam55-ming35 ((male)-Shan-language) n. Shan language; Mi11wa11-ming35 (Chinese-language) n. Chinese language; Si1dvung55ming35 (Jingpo-language) n. Jingpo language; Yin35yu31 11 31 35 (English.language) n. the English language; Zai wa -ming (Zaiwalanguage) n. Zaiwa language; also shortly Zai11-ming35; cf. ming31 (2x) and mving55. mving55 I vi. (fruits etc.:) ripe; Ci11 mving55-me55-mving55 pyoq5 zo11 gveq5. (fruit ripe-LOC-ripe break.off/down(vt) eat PLIM) Pick and eat (PL) whatever fruit is ripe. (from Cheng Mo 1956). mving55 II (sound/name(vt)) a vt. name, give name; Me1-yam35-eq1 mving55 bi54. ((female)-(name)-AG/I sound/name(vt) give+FCT) It was Meyvam who gave me that name. Vide ming31 mving55 (name sound/name(vt)) n+vt. give a name; b vt. let sound; Mi1-um31 bek1 mving31 gvat5 wu35aq5. (fire-gun shoot sound/name(vt)(ipf) put.into look-SIM) Try (SG) and let the gun sound. c vt. (recorder) let play; Lvoq5 mving55 zyang35 ka5531 lvum11 dun31 lye ? (ACT sound/name(vt) CD Q-lump (ipf) press.into /spear(GEN) also+I) (on a cassette recorder:) Which button is to make it play? d vt. (cassette etc.:) play; Nang35 lu11yin55zi55 mai11 lvoq5 mving31 wu35 gvoq1. (2SG.PO tape.recorder ABL ACT sound/name(vt)(ipf) look DIE) Let’s (DU) try and play it with your (SG) tape recorder. Cf. ming31 n. name, ming31 vi. sound, ming35 n. language and tye31 n. sound. 1 miq (eye2) n. eye; only attested in Miq1-dvai55-dvu55; cf. myoq1. Miq1-dvai55-dvu55 (eye2-only-shining) One-eye-blinking, a spirit’s name. miq1-toi11 toi11 (no.gloss-speak.in.trance speak.in.trance) n+v. speak in 31 trance, such as witch doctors do; Yvang11 miq1-toi11 gue11 toi31 lye . (ipf) (ipf) (3SG no.gloss-speak.in.trance all.right speak.in.trance also+I) She can speak in trance. mit1 / mit5 I a n. fish hook, in nge1-mit5 (fish-hook/fish) n. fish hook; b vt. 31 hook fish; Nge1-mit5 mit1 lye . (fish-hook/fish hook/fish also+I) We are

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    fishing (with hooks). Vide nge1-/nge5- for a list of Zaiwa fishing techniques. mit1 / mit5 II (left.over) a vi. be left over; Zang11 a1-mit1 luq1? (rice/food NEG-left.over Y/N) Is there any rice left over? b in time adverbials: be 31 later than, be more than; Mi11-king55 le1-sue31-fuen55 mit1 bue . (four1 31 time one-ten-minute left.over P+I) It’s ten past four. le -zyau mit5 (onemarket left.over) more than five days. Cf. gvyem31. 1 mit III bound form n. ‘roots’; in a1-mit1 (nom-roots) n. ‘roots’ and sek5-mit1 (tree-roots) n. roots of a tree; cf. bvun31. 1 mit IV (think) vr. think of something, reflect on something; always used before auxiliaries or other verbs; a vr. (someone or something:) think of, reflect on, come up to one’s mind, keep in one’s mind, keep thinking of; often before the verb bun11 vi. ‘be awake, miss’, used in the sense ‘miss, 31 think of’ and/or the progressive aspectivizer dvo11; Mit1 bun11 bue . 31 1 31 31 (think awake P+I) It came up to my mind. Mit bun dvo lye . (think awake(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I) I’m thinking very much of you. Ngo31 mit1 31 dvo31 lye . (1SG think place(vt)(ipf) also+I) I’m keeping it in mind. b in 1 5 mit toq (think come.out) vr+aux. figure out; A1-dat1 mit1 toq5 loq1 31 mai . (NEG-able think come.out no.more OBV+I) I can’t find a way of figuring this out. c in mit1 tum11 (think to.the.utmost) vr+aux. rack one’s 31 brains; take things too hard; Mit1 tum31 dik1 bue , dai54 r11 a1-gyo54 ge11. (ipf) (think to.the.utmost extreme P+I speak+FCT also NEGhear/smell+FCT TOP) I can’t cope with it any longer, he won’t listen to anything. / I have racked my brains about him, he is so disobedient. d in mit1 wu35 (think look) vr+aux. try to think or imagine in a certain way; 31 Mit1 wu35 lui -eq1 bum31-weng11-tang31 se5-gvut5 zvyang31 ye11 lo35 55 syang . (think look in.this.way+I-AG/I heap(vt/N)-foothills-foothills like-do stretch.out(ipf) go(away/down)(ipf) go(back/up) JUS) (poetical:) By thinking like this, let us (ND.IN) go and stretch ourselves out just as the foothills do. e in mit1 zvang11 (think worried) vr+vi. be worried; A1man31 hau55-yvam31-yvam31 li11 a1-gyo35 lo31, ngo31 ge11 cyang31 mit1 zvang11 mo35-mo35. (last.night the/that-time.for-time.for also NEGgo.down come(back/up) 1SG TOP follow(ipf) think worried AUG-AUG) Last night you never came home, I was very worried about you. Cf. mvit5 a vt. (food etc.:) leave over for someone; b vt. skip, not use. Cf. son55. mvit5 (leave.over) a vt. (food etc.:) leave over for someone; Ngo31 r55 zang11 mvit5 dvo11 bi11 gve5-raq5. (1SG OBJ rice/food leave.over place(vt) give PL-VO) Save (PL) some food for me. b (idom.) Zang11 mvit5-mvit5 r11 31 ge11, wum11 mvit5-mvit5 r55 ga . (rice/food leave.over-leave.over also

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    TOP power leave.over-leave.over PE perceive+I) If you have the habit of

    not finishing your food, you aren’t able to use your full energy. b vt. skip, not use; I55-kok1 mvit5 ra54 ke5-dvo31mvi55. (two-line.of.writing leave.over need+FCT PHB-forget) Don’t forget to leave two blank lines. Cf. mit1. mvo31 (below) (9.3) free form pronoun or pronominal suffix ‘that below’; cf. mvo55- and o31. 31 mo I vi. (people) be heavy; Zi1syang31 hi31 a1-mo31 luq1? (child this NEG(people).heavy Y/N) Is this child heavy? Cf. lai11 (weight) vi. ‘heavy’ not for humans. mo31 II (pus) only in mo31-weng11. mo31 (HIGH+I) (18.20) one of the possible shapes of the negative indicative suffix (N)o31. 31 mo -weng11 (pus-broth) n. pus. mo35 (AUG) (9.30) the augmentative suffix; a adj. large, never used as a main verb, unlike gvo11 adj/vi. big; b ranking suffix in kinship terms and other related forms, expressing seniority, e.g. a5-nu11-mo35 (nom-motherAUG) n. Madam; c in numerous ideosycratic forms, more or less expressing largeness, e.g. yvup5-mo35 (sleep-AUG) n. deep sleep; d reduplicated, vide mo35-mo35. Cf. diminutive suffix zo11. 35 mo do35 (car) n. car, bus, tractor; mo35do35 hang55 (car drive) drive a car, bus or tractor; mo35do35 zi11 (car ride(vt)) ride in a car or bus or on a 31 tractor; Mo35do35 lom11 lye . (car attend(ipf) also+I) We are waiting for 31 35 35 1 a/the bus. Mo do -eq gyoq5 lye . (car-AG/I harrow/comb also+I) We are harrowing the field with the tractor. Cf. do55la55zi55 n. tractor. 35 mo do35-lyeng31 (car-wheel) n. car wheel. mo35-mo35 (AUG-AUG) (8.6) the reduplicated augmentative suffix (9.30); a seldom: after a noun: expressing largeness; gvong11-mo35-mo35 (hillAUG-AUG) a/the large hill; b after a stative verb: expressing 31 ‘enormously’, ‘very’; Yvup5 nvau31 mo35-mo35 bue . (sleep feel.like AUG-AUG P+I) I’m so sleepy. c after an action verb, expressing ‘to the 31 extreme’: Zo11 mo35-mo35 bue . (eat AUG-AUG P+I) I ate a ton. Ngo31 31 nang31 r55 lang35 mo35-mo35 bue . (1SG 2SG OBJ wait AUG-AUG P+I) I’ve been waiting for you (SG) for ages. Cf. dik1. 35 mo mo35mo35 exclamatory expression used for lulling children to sleep; Mo35mo35mo35, a1-bvut5 yvum31-aq1. ((lulling.to.sleep) nom-sweetheart sleep*-SIM) Hush, sleep, my sweetheart (SG). mo35pi55 a n. beggar; Yvang11 mo35pi55 gvut5 lye31. (3SG beggar do also+I) Sometimes he is a beggar. Also in mo35pi55 pi55 (beggar beg) n+v. beg 31 (like a beggar); Mo35pi55 ke5-dye31 lye35 pi55-o . (beggar PHB-too

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    come(away/down) beg-HIGH+I) Don’t come here begging like a beggar. b also as Mo35pi55 ‘Beggar’, the inofficial name of the main informant for this book. Vide pi55. 35 mo -za35 (AUG-knitwork) a n. socks; mo35-za35 le1-kon55 (AUG-knitwork one-one.of.a.pair) a/one sock; mo35-za35 le1-zum35 (AUG-knitwork onepair) a/one pair of socks; Mo35-za35 zvung11-aq5. (AUG-knitwork put.onSIM) Put on your socks. b in loq1-mo35-za35 (hand/arm-AUG-knitwork) n. gloves. mvo55- (below) (9.3) bound form pronoun or pronominal prefix ‘that below’, cf. mvo31 and o31. 55 mo (HIGH) (18.20) one of the possible shapes of the highlighting suffix (N)o55. mvo55-bat1 (below-week) (9.39) next week. mvo55-dvang11 (below-(buffalo)side) vide dvang11. mvo55-dong31 (below-lead/connect) n/adv. that way (below) (9.3, 9.15). mvo55-dvum55 (below-interrupt) vide (pi1dum11) mvo55-dvum55. mvo55-kung11 (below-fold) n. the valley below; No11 mvo55-kung11 mai11 i5lvam31 gvan31-aq1. (cattle below-fold ABL go-let.walk(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Take (SG) the cow out to pasture in the valley below. mvo55-lut1 (below-(go.to).opp.side) towards/at the place below the other 31 side; Se5-gam31 mvo55-lut1 pyang31 lut1 lo35 bue . (tree-tree(B) below(go.to).opp.side DIR (go.to).opp.side go(back/up) P+I) He went in the direction of the lower side of the back of the tree. Vide lut1. mvo55-mai11 (below-ABL) from over there below. mvo55-me55 (below-LOC) (9.3) there below. moi11 a vi. be tired; Moi31 dik1 r55. (tired(ipf) extreme PE) I’m very tired. Moi11-moi11 ga31 r55. (tired-tired perceive(ipf) PE) I’m feeling a bit tired. b possibly also as the noun ‘fatigue’; Nang31 moi54 se5-a1-ga11 luq1? (2SG tired+FCT like-NEG-perceive Y/N) Do you (SG) feel fatigue? moi31! expression of surprise, both for pleasant and unpleasant situations; 31 Moi31! lyeng31 si31 bue . ((surprise) fall(vi)(ipf) die P+I) My, what a nasty 31 fall you had. Moi31! wang31 bue . ((surprise) enter P+I) My, it’s a goal! mvoi55 (father’s.sister) n. aunt, i.e. father’s sister; used in kinship terms, e.g.: mvoi55-zo11 father’s third sister;cf. Jingpo moi (Xu et al. 1983: 520). mon11 (skim) a vt. skim along/over something; Mon31 dik1 r55 mai31, a1lyo11! (skim(ipf) extreme PE OBV+I (strange.situation)) I just missed it / just skimmed along/over it, how come! b vt. whet; Syam31 mon11-aq5. (knife skim-SIM) Whet (SG) the knife. luq1-mon11 (stone-skim) n. whetstone. mon35 (castrated) adj. castrated; mon35 gu54 (castrated PART+FCT) castrated; a1-mon35 si54 (NEG-castrated still+FCT) (male animals) intact; a1-mon35

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    si54 waq1-kyam55 (NEG-castrated still+FCT pig-uncastrated.pig) uncastrated pig; a1-mon35 si54 woq1-po55 (NEG-castrated still+FCT chicken-male) n. cock/rooster (intact male); ne1-mon35 (cattle-castrated) n+adj. ox, steer; myang11-mon35 (horse-castrated) n+adj. gelding (castrated horse); waq1-mon35 (pig-castrated) n+adj. castrated pig; woq1mon35 (chicken-castrated) n+adj. capon; cf. waq1-dung11 (pigcastrated.pig) n+n. a castrated pig; b male pig in general. mon35 gu54 no11 (castrated PART+FCT cattle) ox/steer. mvon55 (dress.up) vi. dress up; Lang31-sek5 mvon31 dvo31 r55. (husband-new dress.up(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) The bridegroom is dressing up. mong11 n. kind of baskets used in pairs on a pole; mong11 le1-cyam11 (pair.of.baskets.on.a.pole one-ball) one of these; vide lan35 for other types of baskets. mvong55 n. small gong (sp. cyam11/syam11); cf. ut5 and yun11. mop1 / mop5 (grit) bound form n. grit; sek5-mop1 (tree-grit) n. sawdust; mvan11-mop5 (grass/leaves-grit) n. grass grit; hu55wa35-mop1 (rice.strawgrit) n. rice straw grit (very fine); ngvya55-mop1 (tobacco-grit) n. tobacco grit. moq1 I (dream) in i5-moq1 (myang31) and yvup5-moq1 (myang31). moq1 / moq5 II (party) morpheme referring to plurality of people, used in several different ways; a vide moq1-pung31 (party-gathering) n. social gathering; b in ze1-moq5 n. wife-takers, families from which men of a certain family cannot take wives; c plural suffix in personal pronouns (9.4), indicating a number of more than two; e.g. yvang55-moq1 (3PLparty) pr. they, them (more than two). moq1-pung31 (party-gathering) n. social gathering; Moq1-pung31 toq5 zyang35 i31-pue11 ke5-dye31 syuq5. (party-gathering come.out CD distilledbooze PHB-too drink) Do not drink too much at social gatherings. Mi131 hang55 moq1-pung31 ye31 ra . (wife-marry party-gathering go(away/down) need+I) I am going to a wedding where many people are together. The morpheme pung31 is only attested within this word. moq1toq1 n. motorcycle (sp. du11 ‘being’ or cyam11/syam11 ‘ball’); moq1toq1 zi11 (motorcycle ride) n+vt. ride motorcycle; Yvang11 moq1 toq1 zi31 lo11 r55. (3SG motorcycle ride(vt)(ipf) come(back/up)(ipf) PE) She came by motorcycle. moq1toq1-lyeng31 (motorcycle-wheel) n+n. wheel of a motorcycle. moq1-wang31 wang31 / moq5-wang31 wang31 (party-enter enter) n+vt+vt. bride entering the groom’s family; Chinese: 上门 shàng mén; vide ze1-moq5; vide hang55 for an overview of words related to marriage and wedding.

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    mvoq5 I n. gadfly; also in si31-mvoq5 (die-gadfly) n. stable-fly. mvoq5 II (learn/teach) a vt. teach; Nga35-moq1 lye55 mvoq5 bi11 gve5-raq5. (1PO-party OBJ learn/teach give PL-VO) Please teach us (ND.EX). b vt. study, learn, prepare for class; Mo35pi31 zvyang55 Zai11wa31-ming35 31 mvoq5 yu11 lye . (beggar(GEN) near Zaiwa-language learn/teach take(ipf) 31 also+I) I’m learning Zaiwa from Beggar. Ngo31 r11 koq5 si11 mvoq5 ra . (1SG also bowl wash learn/teach need+I) I want to learn to wash dishes too. A1-zang35 mvoq5. (NEG-strike learn/teach) I wasn’t able to prepare for class. c vt. (children) raise; Nang31 i5-wa11 le1-ga54 wa35 zo11 a1-gue11 mvoq5-o55 ge11. (2SG function-father but-perceive+FCT EMP child NEGall.right(ipf) learn/teach-FCT TOP) Even though you (SG) are a father, you can’t raise children. Also in dai31-mvoq5 (speak(ipf)-learn/teach) vi+vt. educate; d also: vi. to teach itself unto someone (after the unintentional adverb zang35 (16.46): Zai11wa31-ming35 ngyo31 zyang35 yvang11 bau35 zang35 mvoq5 lo35-lo35. (Zaiwa-language talk CD 3SG just strike learn/teach go(back/up)-go(back/up)) When I speak (more) Zaiwa, the language teaches itself unto me all the time. moq5 (party) vide moq1/moq5. Mu11- / Me1- ((female)) prefix in many women’s names; the variant Mu11is only attested in slow articulation, e.g. Mu11-luq5 ((female)-2nd-sister) short name for any second-born sister; Mu11-roi35 ((female)-3rd-sister) short name for a third-born sister; see all forms with Me1-; Cf. female sex suffix -mvi55 and mi1-wue11/ mi11-wue11 (wife-female) n. woman, women, wife. mu31 I (happen) (11.7, 18.2, 19.8) used in various ways, as a main verb, in conjunctions, as a clause marker and in various other expressions. mu31 II (matter) vide a1mu31. mu31 (happen+I) (11.7) clause marking unit expressing ‘after, caused by’. mu35 (work(N)) n. work, task; in mu35 zui11 and mu35-bvong31 bvong31; cf. a1mu31. 35 mu zui11 (work(N) touch/work(V)) n+vt. work; Ka55-hu55 mu35 zui31 a131 gvo ? (Q-sort work(N) touch/work(ipf) nom-PL+I) What are you (PL) doing? Ngo31 mu35 a1-zui11. (1SG work(N) NEG-touch/work(V)) I didn’t 31 work. / I have nothing to do. Nang31 ka55-hu55 mu35 be1-zui31 lye ? (2SG (ipf) Q-sort work(N) help-touch/work(V) also+I) What kind of tasks do you 31 (SG) do (in this company)? Mu35 hi31 na35i55 i55-king55 zui11 bue . (work(N) this clock two-time touch/work(V) P+I) This job took two hours. Vide zui11. 35 mu zui11 zo11 bang11 (work(N) touch/work(V) eat PNO) the working class.

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    mu35-bvong31 bvong31 (work(N)-coincide coincide) n+v. help each other with the work; Zang11-bvong31 bvong31 zo11 syang55. (rice/food-coincide coincide eat JUS) (people of two households:) Let’s (ND.IN) cook and eat together. mue11 I (bruised) vi. be bruised; Ki31 lyeng31 rvueq5 lui31-eq1 ki31 mue11 31 bue . (leg/foot fall(vi)(ipf) sprained in.this.way+I-AG/I leg/foot bruised P+I) Because of spraining my ankle, it has become bruised. mue11 II n. death by accident, often caused by a saqwa spirit; Mue11 dap1 r55. (death.by.accident be.attached PE) I am being plagued by a saqwa. See further below. mue11 si31 mu31 (death.by.accident die happen) n+v+v. not die a good 31 death, die in an accident; Mue11 si31 mu31 ra su31. (death.by.accident die happen need+I SNO) You that will die in an accident! Byu31 hau5531 yuq1 mue11 si31 mu31 bue . (man/woman the/that-person death.by.accident die happen P+I) That person has died in an accident. 31 31 Yvang11 mue11 si31 mu11 byuq1 bue ga . (3SG death.by.accident die (ipf) happen lose P+I perceive+I) He has died in an accident. Mue11bung11 a personal name. mue31 (wrap) a short for mue31-zyong35 (wrap-cover(N)) n. quilt; mue31 le1dung11 (wrap one-piece(Sp)) a/one quilt; b also in mue31-bu11 n. clothes. mue31-bu11 (wrap-clothes) n. clothes; mue31-bu11 le1-dung11 (clothes onepiece(Sp)) a/one piece of clothing. mue31-bu11 se1 dyek1 (wrap-clothes case) n+n. case, chest for clothing etc. mue31-bu11 zyup5 (wrap-clothes catch/wring.out) n+vt. wring out clothes. mue31-zyong35 (wrap-cover(N)) n. quilt; also shortly mue31 (sp. dung11); Nung35-moq1 yvum31 mue31-zyong35 a1-myang31 wut1 gve5-luq1? (2PLparty house wrap-cover(N) NEG-see wear/dress PL-Y/N) Do you have quilts to cover yourselves with at your (PL) home? mue35 (animals:) vi. meek; Ne1-zo11 mue35 dik1 r55. (cattle-child meek extreme PE) The calf is very meek. Kui11 a1-mue35. (dog NEG -meek) The dog is ferocious. muen11lyen11 n. door curtain (Chinese: 门帘 ménlián). mvuet5! (what!?) (ch.20) exclamatory expression for intense surprise and anger; Mvuet5! gue31-gue31 luq1? ((what!?) all.right-all.right Y/N) (angry:) What!? Really? mvui11 (poison(vt)) vt. poison; mvui31 sat5 (poison(vt)(ipf) kill) vt+vt. kill 31 someone with poison; Nang31 nge1-noq1 mvui11 bue luq1? (2SG rat/mouse-black poison(vt) P+I Y/N) Did you (SG) poison the rats? Cf. mui11.

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    I (be.poisoned/poison(N)) a n. poison; in mui11-si11 (be.poisoned/poison(N)-drug) n. poison; b vi. be poisoned; Mui31 si31 31 bue . (be.poisoned(ipf) die P+I) It has been poisoned to death. Vide sing55-mui11-ngyui31; cf. mvui11 (poison(vt)). 11 mui II (beard) in nvut5-mui11. mui11 III n. kind of yam or yam in general; difference with nai11 is unknown. mui11-si11 (be.poisoned/poison(N)-drug) n. poison. mui31 (turbid) vide se1-mui31 mui31. mui31 I (snake) n. snake; in lvang31-mui31 n. ‘snake’ and the forms below. mui31 II (turbid) in se1-mui31 mui31. mui31-noq5 (snake-black) n. kind of black snake. mui31-pyu31 (snake-white) n. rat snake. mui31-sin11 (snake-louse) n. centipede. mui35 vi. grey; Mi1-wap5 se5-mu31 mui35 ra55. (fire-ash like-happen grey PE) It’s as grey as ashes; vide a1-mui35. muk1 n. cake, cookies. muk5 n. kind of turnip. mun11 I (luck) in mun11-sui11 and zo11-mun11; cf. gvyam11. mun11 II (ten.thousand/Yuan) a n. one fold ten thousand; b n. Yuan Renminbi; Mi11wa11-ngun31 sum11-syo31 mun11 (Chinese-silver threehundred ten.thousand/Yuan) three hundred Yuan Renminbi; vide le1mun11(-mo35) and a1-mun54 sum31-dung11; cf. Jingpo mun (Xu et al. 1983: 526). mun11-sui11 (luck-freckle) n. freckles; Myoq1-dong11 me55 mun11-sui11 bvyeq1bvyeq1 mu31 yuq1 bum11 r55. (eye-(have)hole LOC luck-freckle [all.over.the.place] happen grow heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) Her face is full of freckles. mvun31 vt. pulverize; in bvik5 mvun31 (turn/grind pulverise) vt+vt. grind to powder; and tung31 mvun31 (crush(ipf) pulverize) vt+vt. crush to powder; 31 Si1-pik5 tung31 mvun11 lye . (fruit-pungent crush(ipf) pulverize(ipf) also+I) 31 I’m pulverizing chillies. Lung11-bum11 bvik5 mvun11 lye . (maize/cornbud turn/grind pulverize(ipf) also+I) I am pulverizing maize. Cf. mun31 and mun35. mun31 I n. powder; pik5-mun31 (pungent-powder) n. chilli powder; cf. mvun31 and mun35. mun31 II n. upper course; I1-lang31 hi25 mun31 ge11 ke5-mvyo55 heng11 lye31 la11? (water-river this+FCT upper.course TOP Q-much (B) long(ipf) also+I UNC) How long would the upper course of this river be? mun31-zup5 (upper.course-come.together) n+n. place where two dales meet.

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    mun35 I n. flour; Mun35 nok5 gveq5, man11to55 rvang55 zo11 syang55. (flour make.dough PLIM steamed.bread make eat JUS) Make (PL) a dough. Let’s (ND .IN) make steamed bread to eat. Cf. myen35fuen31 n. wheat flour, borrowed from Chinese 面粉 miànfěn; cf. mun31 and mvun31. mun35 II vi. tingle; in mun35-mun35, loq1-mun35 tung55-sum31 and nvo31mun35-sui11; cf. wat1. mun35-mun35 (tingle-tingle) vi+vi. used as ideophone expressing a tingling feeling; Nvo31 mun35-mun35 ga31 r55. (nose tingle-tingle perceive(ipf) PE) My nose is tingling. mung11zung35 (mould(N)) n. mould; Mung11zung35 zui11 bue31. (mould(N) bear.fruit P+I) It is mildewed / mouldy. Cf. pom31, pop1, sa11, sak5, wom11. mung31 (wife.givers) n. the family that provide wives to a certain family; also see mung31-yvum31; cf. ze1-moq5. Vide hang55 for an overview of words related to marriage and wedding. mvung31 n. evil spirit; in mvung31-zi1tung11 and mvung31-dvuq5. mung31 wui31 (wife.givers generation) members of a family of wife-givers. mvung31-dvuq5 (evil.spirit-light(vt)) n. epilepsy. mung31-yvum31 (wife.givers-house) n+n. the family that provides wives to a certain family; Zeng11tong11-bvue54 ze1-moq5 ge11 Le1-Kun55, Le1Kun55-bvue54 mung31-yvum31 ge11 Zeng11tong11-bvue55. ((name)(GEN)PLN+FCT child-party TOP (male)-(name) (male)-(name)-PLN+FCT wife.givers-house TOP (name)(GEN)-PLN) Zengtong men cannot take wives from the Lekun family, whereas Lekun men can do so from the Zengtong family. Vide mung31; vide hang55 for an overview of words related to marriage and wedding. mvung31-zi1tung11 (evil.spirit-spirit.type) n. evil spirit; vide zi1tung11 and nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. mup1 (husked) vi. be (well) husked; A1-mup1 si1-luq1? (NEG-husked stillY/N) Is it husked yet? Also in mup1-mup1 well husked; Mup1-mup1 tung11 gveq5. (husked-husked crush PLIM) Husk (PL) the rice well. muq1 / me1- I (headgear) in muq1-gvyup5/me1-gvyup5. muq1 II (tumble) vi. tumble; Yvang54 mo35do35 muq1 bue31. (3SG+FCT car tumble P+I) His car has tumbled. / He has had an accident with his carCf. mvuq5. muq1-gvyup5 / me1-gvyup5 (headgear-wear.on.head) n. headgear; hat, cap, etc.; muq1-gvyup5 gvyup5 (headgear-wear.on.head wear.on.head) n+vt. put on / wear headgear; Muq1-gvyup5 gvyum31-aq1. (headgearwear.on.head wear.on.head*-SIM) Put on / wear (SG) your cap/hat. Also with the verb zvung11 vt. put on, wear: Me1-gvyup5 zvung11-aq5.

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    (headgear-wear.on.head put.on-SIM) Put on / wear (SG) your cap/hat. Vide wut1 for an overview of other verbs and expressions for putting on/off or wearing clothes, shoes, glasses etc. mvuq5 (let.tumble) vt. let tumble, cause to tumble; Se5-poq5-gom35 lvoq5 31 mvuq5 bue . (tree-leaf-mug ACT let.tumble P+I) I’ve let the mug fall over. Cf. muq1. 1 mut / mut5 I (blow) a vt. blow; Zang11 mut1 syam11-aq5. (rice/food blow cool-SIM) Cool (SG) the rice/food down by blowing it. Si1 -bong35 be1mut1 dvau55 raq5. (meat-bladder help-blow inflate/bottle VO) Please blow up this balloon for me. sam55-bvi55 mut1 (Shan-flute blow) n+vt. play flute b vt. smoke out; mi1-bvyung55 mut1 (fire-blowing.tube blow) n+vt. smoke out wasps/bees. Also in mi1-mut5. 1 mut II n. dipper; cf. gva55mai35. mut1 / mut5 III vi. be hungry; Gan31-zue31 syoq5 zui11 zyang35 mut1 be131 ra . (late-late till touch/work(V) CD hungry P-need+I) If you work till late, you will get hungry. Also reduplicated: Mut1-mut1 ga31 r55. (hungry-hungry perceive(ipf) PE) I’m feeling a bit hungry. See further zo31-mut5 and zo31 mut1; cf. hom11 and ngvyom55. 5 mut n. fog; Mut5 tup5 r55. (fog envelop/wrap/veil PE) It’s misty. See further below. mut5man31 n. seasoning; Mut5man31 hum31 dik1 bue31. (seasoning complete2(ipf) extreme P+I) The seasoning is complete (resulting in a rich flavour). mut5-mau35 (fog-stare/bewildered) n. fog bank (sp. long11 slice/plate); Mut5-mau35 myo31 r55. (fog-stare/bewildered much(ipf) PE) There’s a lot of fog. mut5-sin11 sin11 (fog-drizzle drizzle) n+vi. drizzle; Mut5-sin11 sin31 r55. (fog-drizzle drizzle(ipf) PE) It’s drizzling. mvya11mvya11 ideophone expressing ‘spread all over the place’; 31 Mau11sau11 mvya11mvya11 kyom11 du35 am55 bue . (paper/book [spread.all.over] all.of.it throw PFM P+I) Paper is flung all over the place. myam11 vt. hang at or put on rack above fire; Tung55-gva55 myam31zui11 me55 myam31 dvo11-aq5. (wickerwork-variegated1 rack.above.fire LOC hang.at/put.on.rack.above.fire(ipf) place(vt)-SIM) Place (SG) the variegated back-basket above the fire. Cf. myam31zui11 n. drying rack above the fireplace. myam31 (wild.hair) only in u1-myam31. myam31zui11 n. drying rack above the fireplace; Mi1-kyom55 a1-toq5 ma54 ge11 myam31zui11. (fire-fireplace nom-come.out LOC +FCT TOP

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    rack.above.fire) The thing above the fireplace is known as a myamzui drying rack. Myam31zui11 a1-toq5 ma54 ge11 gvue31toq5. (rack.above.fire nom-come.out LOC+FCT TOP upper.smoking.rack) What’s above the myamzui is called a gvuetoq. Cf. myam11 vt. hang at or put on rack above fire. myang11 n. horse (sp. du11). mvyang11-bum11 (banyan-bud) kind of vegetable, Chinese: 龙 包 尖 lóngbāojiān. mvyang11-gvung55 (shin-shell) n. shin. myang11-lo11 (horse-tiger/bull) n. stallion, male horse. myang11-mi11 (horse-intact.male) n. intact stallion. myang11-mvi55 (horse-female) n. mare. myang11-mon35 (horse-castrated) n+adj. gelding (castrated horse). mvyang11-zeng31 (banyan-trunk) n+n. banyan tree (sp. byap1). mvyang31 vi. (people) tall; (hills etc.:) high; Ngo31 nang31 r55 lai31 mvyang11 r55. (1SG 2s OBJ pass(ipf) tall/high(ipf) PE) I’m taller than you (SG). Cf. bound form -mvyang55. myang31 (see) (16.51) vt. see, find; Myoq1 a1-myang31 luq1? (eye NEG-see Y/N) Can you see (it)? (e.g. in this darkness) Vide mau11-myang31, i5moq1 (myang31) and yvup5-moq1 (myang31); cf. wu35 vt. look. The verb myang31 is also used as part of adverbs (vide 16.51). myang35 (7.9) vi. (time:) ‘long’; cf. bound form -mvyang55. mvyang55 I n. bellows (sp. lvum11). -mvyang55 II (7.9) bound form adverbial/ pronominal variant of mvyang31 vi. ‘tall, high’. -mvyang55 III (7.9) bound form adverbial/ pronominal variant of myang35 vi. ‘(time) long’. myang11 (see(ipf)) vide myang31. myap1 (trot) vi. trot, walk fast; Ke5-dye31 myap1 so11-o31. (PHB-too trot walkHIGH+I) Don’t trot like that. myaq1 vt. grasp and pull (e.g. grass, hair); U1-sam31 myaq1 bi11-aq5. (headhair.of.the.head grasp.and.pull give-SIM) Pull (SG) his hair. Cf. gvyaq5, myoq1 and nut1. myat1 vt. gain profit in business; Pe5ga35 myat1 bue31. (trade(N) gain.profit P+I) I have gained profit in business. Cf. long35. mvye11 spec. noun for sections of bunches of bananas; ngve5-mvyuq1 le1mvye11 (banana-banana one-(bananas).bunch) a/one part of a bunch of bananas; cf. ngve5-mvyuq1 le1-bvau31 (banana-banana one-raft/cluster) a/one (complete) bunch of bananas.

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    Myen31 (Burma) n. Burmese; in the forms below; cf. Jingpo Myen (Xu et al. 1983: 530).

    Myen31-meng11 (Burma-world) n. Burma; Hye55-bvue55 ge11 Myen3131

    meng11 zvyat5-zvyat5 bue . (same.elevation-PLN TOP Burma-world allall P+I) Over there is all Burma. Myen31-ngun31 (Burma-silver) n. Burmese money. myen35dyau11 n. (wheat) noodles; Chinese: 面条 miàntiáo. myen35fuen31 n. wheat flour, borrowed from Chinese 面粉 miànfěn; cf. mun35. myeng31mun31 n. (on gun:) sight. mvyeq5 (gone/finished) only towards children: vi. gone, finished (also 31 mvaq5); Mvyeq5 bue , a1-wo35 loq1. (gone/finished P+I NEG-have no.more (said to children, about sweeties:) They’re all finished. Also 31 reduplicated: Mvyeq5-mvyeq5 bue . (gone/finished-gone/finished P+I) (said to children, about sweeties:) They’re all finished. Vide mvaq5. mvyet1mvyet1 I ideophone expressing the feeling of (almost) nodding into sleep whilst still talking or sitting; Mvyet1mvyet1 ga11 yvup5 mvi31 lo35 31 r55 mai . ([nod.into.sleep] perceive sleep trap(ipf) go(back/up) PE OBV+I) Just now I was nodding off to sleep! Cf. Jingpo myet and myetmyet, expressing the same notion (Xu et al. 1983: 531). mvyet1mvyet1 II [stuck.to.something] a ideophone expressing the notion of holding something in a tight grip; Mvyet1mvyet1 ga11 wo35 r11 a1-wo35 lang31 kyo55. ([stuck.to. something] perceive have also NEG-have pull/yank(ipf) let.go.down) Hanging all my weight to it, I still couldn’t pull it down. Mvyet1mvyet1 gvut5 lu35 yu31-aq1. ([stuck.to. something] do rob take-SIM) Just grasp (SG) it to yourself. b ideophone expressing a sticky feeling; Dung31sang11 do31 doq1 lo31 zyang35 mvyet1mvyet1 ga31 r55 31 mai . (caterpillar all.fours(ipf) go.up come(back/up) CD (ipf) [stuck.to.something] perceive PE OBV+I) When a caterpillar walks upwards on your skin, it feels very sticky. Cf. Jingpo myetmyet (Xu et al. 1983: 531). -Myo11 I in the personal name Me1-myo11. myo11 II (much) vi. much, many; Ngo31 dye31 zo31 myo11 bue31. (1SG too eat(ipf) much P+I) I have eaten far too much. Cun11 myo11 zyang35 wo35 31 myo31 zo31 lye , cun11 syau11 zyang35 syau31 zo11 syang55. (veg/dish much CD have much(ipf) eat(ipf) also+I veg/dish less CD less(ipf) eat JUS) If there’s much of a dish, we can eat plenty of it; if there is not much of it let us (ND .IN) eat some less. Cf. syau11 and mvyo55.

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    myo11-me55-myo11 (much-LOC-much) adv. for most part; Myo11-me55myo11 yuq1-gue31 zvyat5. (much-LOC-much person-male all) For most part they are/were men. myo11-myo11 (much-much) adv. very much, as much as you can; Myo11myo11 zo11-aq5. (much-much eat-SIM) Eat as much as you (SG) want. Cf. a1-mvyo55-mvyo55. myo11-pyang31 (much-DIR) adv. most of it. myo31 (winter) in gyoq1-myo31. mvyo55 I (loquat) in si1-mvyo55-si11 and si1-mvyo55-byap1. -mvyo55 II (much (B)) (7.9) bound form adverbial/ pronominal ‘many, much’; e.g. ke5-mvyo55/ he5-mvyo55 how much/many; cf. free form myo11. mvyo55 III vt. thin (out) crops; Ang11-noq5 mvyo55-aq5. (petiole-black thin.out-SIM) Thin (SG) the black mustard. Mvyo31 ho11-aq5. (thin.out(ipf) cultivate-SIM) Cultivate (SG) it more scatteredly. Cf. pyai11, apparently bearing the same meaning; cf. ran35. myok1 (joke(vi)) only in myok1-ngvam11. myok1-ngvam11 (joke(vi)-tasty) (15.32) vi+aux. make jokes; Mang11-zo11 31 hau55-yuq1 dat1 myok1-ngvam31 dik1 lye . (aged-child the/that-person (ipf) able joke(vi)-tasty extreme also+I) That old woman often makes jokes. myoq1 / myoq5 I n. eye; used in the forms given below and in loq1-myoq1 and ki31-myoq1; possibly also in zo11-myoq5-noq1; cf. miq1. myoq1 / myoq5 II (weed/pull.up) vt. weed; Ke5-myoq1 loq1. (PHBweed/pull.up no.more) Stop weeding. Vide mvan11-myoq5, yo31-myoq5, kai11/hai11 and sok1. myoq1 ci11/si11 (eye wash) n+vt. wash the face; Nang31 myoq1 ci11 bue31 luq1? (2SG eye wash P+I Y/N) Did you (SG) wash your face? Myoq1 a131 ci11 lui -eq1 myoq1 gvyeq5 ma54 dut1 r55. (eye NEG-wash in.this.way+IAG/I eye cake LOC+FCT become PE) Because of not washing his face, he has crusts on his eyes. myoq1-bvi31 (eye-crooked) n. squinting eyes; adj. having squinting eyes; 31 Yvang11 myoq1-bvi31 ma54 ngvut5 lye . (3SG eye-crooked LOC+FCT be 31 also+I) He has squinting eyes. Yvang11 myoq1-bvi31 bvi11 lye . (3SG eye(ipf) crooked crooked also+I) He has squinting eyes. myoq1-bing31 (eye-sore) n. sores in corner of the eye; Myoq1-bing31 yuq1 r55. (eye-sore grow PE) There are sores growing in the corner of the eye. myoq1-bom11-mo35 (eye-round/fleshy-AUG) n. sleepy face. myoq1-cam31 / myoq1-sam31 (eye-hair.of.the.head) n. eyebrows.

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    myoq1-ci11-tung11pun55 / myoq1-si11-tung11pun55 (eye-wash-tray) n. tray for washing the face.

    myoq1-ci11-zi1rung35 / myoq1-si11-zi1rung35 (eye-wash-tub) n. tub for washing the face.

    myoq1-dong11 (eye-(have)hole) a n. face; myoq1-dong11 nvye31 (eye(have)hole make.red/fry) n+vt. add red colour to the cheeks; Myoq1dong11 si1-gvuq5 tu11 dik1 r55. (eye-(have)hole meat-skin (make).thick(ipf) extreme PE) He has a thick hide. b n. face, prestige; Myoq1-dong11 o31 31 31 ra dut1 lye . (eye-(have)hole want/take need+I become also+I) You should save face. myoq1-duq1(-mo35) (eye-burning(-AUG)) n/adj. (make) big shining eyes, also: (make) big angry eyes; Byu31 hye55-yuq1 myoq1-zi35 myoq1-duq131 mo35 mai . (man/woman same.elevation-person eye-ball/seed eyeburning-AUG OBV+I) The eyes of that person (at the same elevation) are really big and shining / is really making big eyes. Ngo31 r55 myoq1-duq1 ma54 gvut5 ke5-wu35. (1SG OBJ eye-burning LOC+FCT do PHB-look) Don’t look at me with such big shining eyes. myoq1-dvye11 dap1 (eye-single be.attached) n+vi. be one-eyed, only have one eye; Myoq1-dvye11 dap1 ma54 byu31 le1-yuq1 ngi11 r55. (eye-single be.attached LOC+FCT man/woman one-person be.there(anim)(ipf) PE) There’s a one-eyed person living there. myoq1-gvyeq5 (eye-cake) n. crusts on the eyes. myoq1-kung11 (eye-fold) a n. sunken face (especially referring to the eyes being sunken in because of exhaustion; b adj. referring to the state 31 thereof; Lai11gva55 dye31 wu35 lui -eq1 myoq1-kung11 ma54 lvang55 dut1 31 bue . (script too look in.this.way+I-AG/I eye-fold LOC +FCT even become P+I) After reading for too long, his eyes have become sunken in. myoq1-mau35 (eye-body.hair) n. eyelashes. myoq1-pong55 san11 (eye-open(vt) clean) n+vi. have lively eyes; Myoq1pong55 san31 dik1 r55. (eye-open(vt) clean(ipf) extreme PE) He has very lively eyes. myoq1-pyap1 pyap1 (eye-blink blink) n+vt. blink eyes; Myoq1-pyap1 ke5pyap1. (eye-blink PHB-blink) Don’t blink your eyes. myoq1-sam31 (eye-hair.of.the.head) n. eyebrows; also myoq1-cam31. myoq1-sam31 nvoq5 (eye-hair.of.the.head blacken(vt)) n+vt. paint the eyebrows black. myoq1-suet5 (eye-(wear).glasses) n. glasses. myoq1-suet5 suet5 (eye-(wear).glasses (wear).glasses) n+vt. put on / wear glasses; Vide wut1 for an overview of other verbs and expressions for

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    putting on/off or wearing clothes, shoes, glasses etc. Cf. Jingpo set (Xu et al. 1983: 725). myoq1-sui11 (eye-no.gloss) in Myoq1-sui11 a1-tuk5. (eye-no.gloss NEGsuit.well) It’s an eyesore. myoq1-sui11 a1-tuk5 (eye-no.gloss NEG-suit.well) (idiom:) It’s an eyesore. myoq1-zi35 (eye-ball/seed) n. eye (sp. kon55/hon55); Yvang 54 myoq1-zi35 i5531 hon55 rvoq5 zit1 byuq1 bue . (3SG+FCT eye-ball/seed two-one.of.a.pair DEF stopped.up lose P+I) She has gone blind in both eyes. myoq1-zit1 (eye-stopped.up) (n+adj.) vi. be blind; Myoq1 -zit1 lye31. (eye31 stopped.up also+I) He is blind. also: Myoq1-zi35 zit1 lye . (eye-ball/seed stopped.up also+I) He is blind. Vide zit1/zit5. myoq1-zun35 (zun35) (eye-cast.side-glances (cast.side-glances)) myoq1zun35 n. askance/askew looks; Ngo31 r55 myoq1-zun35-eq1 ke5 -wu35. (1SG OBJ eye-cast.side-glances-AG/I PHB-look) Don’t cast side-glances at me. myoq1-zun35 zun35 n+vt. look wry, look askance/askew at someone; Byu31 hye55-yuq1 myoq1-zun35 gue11 zun35 dik1 r55. (man/woman same.elevation-person eye-cast.side-glances all.right(ipf) cast.sideglances extreme PE) That person (at the same elevation) is rather too good at casting wry looks (whenever he does not agree with something). myoq5 (eye) allomorph of myoq1; in zo11-myoq5-noq1. mvyu11 (float/drown(vt)) a vt. let float away; Mvyu31 kyo31 gvan31-aq1. (float/drown(vt)(ipf) let.go.down(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Let (SG) it float away. b vt. let sink; Mvyu31 lvung31 gvan31-aq1. (float/drown(vt)(ipf) let.inside(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Let (SG) it sink. c vt. drown someone; in mvyu31 sat5 (float/drown(vt)(ipf) kill); Le1-ka31 r55 i1-lang31 me55 i5-mvyu31 31 31 sat5 am55 be1-gvo ga . ((male)-7th-brother OBJ water-river LOC go(ipf) float/drown(vt) kill PFM P-PL+I perceive+I) Seventh brother has been drowned. d vt. drown oneself; gung31-gung31 mvyu31 si31 (body-body float/drown(vt)(ipf) die); Le1-ka31 i1-lang31 me55 yvang11 gung31-gung31 i531 31 mvyu31 si11 byuq1 bue ga . ((male)-7th-brother water-river LOC 3SG body-body go-float/drown(vt)(ipf) die(ipf) lose P+I perceive+I) Seventh brother has drowned himself. Cf. myu11 vi. myu11 (float/drown(vi)) a vi. float, Hi55-zyung31 i1-lang31 me55 wo35 myu31 31 lye la11? (this-kind water-river LOC have float/drown(vi)(ipf) also+I UNC) Would this float on water? b vi. float away; in myu31 gyo35 31 (float/drown(vi)(ipf) go.down); Mue31-bu11 myu31 gyo35 lo35 bue . (wrap(ipf) clothes float/drown(vi) go.down go(back/up) P+I) The clothes have floated away. c vi. sink, in myu31 lung35 (float/drown(vi)(ipf) be.inside); d vi. be/get drowned, in myu31 si31 (float/drown(vi)(ipf) die); Le1-ka31 i131 31 lang31 me55 myu31 si31 bue ga . ((male)-7th-brother water-river LOC

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    float/drown(vi)(ipf) die P+I perceive+I) Seventh brother has drowned. Cf. mvyu11 vt. myu31 (sort/nationality) in a1-myu31; cf. Jingpo myu (Xu et al. 1983: 542). mvyu55 n. kind of tiny bloodsucking animal that enters through one’s nose when drinking water from a brook (sp. du11). mvyui31 (swallow) also mvyi31; in mvyui11 gvat5 (swallow(ipf) put.into) vt+vt. swallow; also mvi11 gvat5; Ya11ya35 mvyui11 gvan31-aq1. (medicine swallow(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Swallow (SG) the medicine. myum31 vi. be fat (both people and animals); Byu31 hau55-yuq1 ge11 myum11 31 31 dik1 bue mai . (man/woman the/that-person TOP fat(ipf) extreme P+I OBV+I) He has become really fat! No11 du11 kang11 myum11 r55. (cattle being each fat(ipf) PE) Each of these cattle is very robust. myung11 vi. feel stiff; Loq1 myung11 bue31. (hand/arm stiff P+I) My hand has become stiff. Gung31-du11 myung31 no11 r55. (body-being stiff(ipf) pain/ill/disease(ipf) PE) I have stiff and aching muscles. myung31 vi. be poor; Mu35 r11 a1-zui31 ge11, hyem31 a1-myung31 ra54 dvi55? (work(N) also NEG-touch/work(V)(ipf) TOP how NEG-poor need+FCT RFL) If one doesn’t even work, how can one avoid becoming poor? mvyup5 vt. bury; Mvyup5 am55 bue31 luq1? (bury PFM P+I Y/N) Is it buried? also in sa55-mvyup5. myup5 (foam) allomorph of myuq1; in zvu31-myup5 (boil/rise-foam) n. foam (on water, beer etc.:); there are no examples of the regular allomorph myup1. mvyuq1 (banana) in ngve5-mvyuq1. myuq1 n. monkey (sp. du11); cf. laq1gang11. myuq1-kyeng55 (monkey-yellow) n. kind of yellow monkey (the only kind to be found around Loilung). myuq1-mui35 (monkey-grey) n. kind of grey monkey; probably the same as laq1gang11. myuq1-noq1 (monkey-black) n. kind of black monkey. myuq1-zyum31 (monkey-crowd) n. group of monkeys. mvyuq5 n. town (sp. lvum11); cf. cin11 n. county town and pa55dvye31 n. township. mvyuq5-mo35 (town-AUG) n. large town.

    -N-n55 (FCT) (4.3) one of the various possible shapes of the factitive marker. na11 adj/vi. insane, mad; byu31-na11 (man/woman-insane) n. insane person; 31

    Yvang11 u1-nvuq5 me55 a1na11 bo11 r55 a5-se55 mu31 na31 byuq1 bue . (3SG head-brains LOC illness contain(ipf) PE nom-like happen insane(ipf) lose P+I) He has a defect in his brain, therefore he has gone insane. A5-wa11 i31-syuq5 wut1 zyang35 a1-yan35 na31 r55. (nom-father distilled-drink drunk (ipf) CD nom-row insane PE) Dad often goes mad when he is drunk. Cf. 1 11 31 11 a na , no , nva . nva11 I (make.drunk) in hut5-nva11 vt+vt. to ply someone with drink; cf. na11 vi. insane. nva11 II ((regular)mud) vide gve5-nva11 and wui31-syuq5 gve5-nva11. na35 in son11-ki11-son11-na35. na35i55 (9.39) n. clock, watch (sp. cyam11/syam11); also used for expression 31 duration in time; Mu35 hi31 na35i55 i55-king55 zui11 bue . (work(N) this clock two-time touch/work(V) P+I) This job took two hours. nva55 n. elder sister. Nva55-bvi55 (elder.sister-7th-sister) name for a seventh sister. Nva55-dvom55 (elder.sister-6th-sister) name for a sixth sister. Nva55-gving55 (elder.sister-9th-sister) name for a ninth sister. nva55-mo35 (elder.sister-AUG) eldest sister. Nva55-yun11 (elder.sister-8th-sister) name for an eighth sister. nai11 I (knead) a vt. knead; nai11 zo11 vt+vt. eat a kneaded dish; Be5rang11 nai11 zo11 syang55. (salty.little.fishes knead eat JUS) Let’s knead (ND .IN) salty little fishes to eat. Vide se5-poq5 nai11, zang11-nai11. Vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. b vi. be twisted around something; in bai35 nai11. 11 nai II n. kind of yam or yam in general; cf. Chinese 芋艿 yùnǎi n. taro; the difference with mui11 is unknown. 11 nai -ya11 (yam-no.gloss) n. kind of wild vegetable resembling yam. nai11-ya11-bvun31 (taro-no.gloss-single.root) n. edible root of a kind of wild vegetable resembling yam. nai35 vi. relax; Waq1 lyeq1 nai35 mvau31 dvo31 r55. (pig lie.down relax cheat/fool(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) The pig is lying there, just relaxing. nvai55 vi. tough, viscous, (thongs etc.:) rough; Mi1-zvue11 hi31 ge11 nvai31 dik1 31 r55, zve1-lvin55 wo35 lvin55 ra dut1 ra55. (earth-soil this TOP

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    tough/viscous(ipf) extreme PE soil-screw/roll have screw/roll need+I become PE) This soil is very viscous, it’s suitable for turning clay bullets. Nye11 hi31 ge11 nvai55-nvai55 ze1-ga31 r55. (thong this TOP tough/viscous-tough/viscous only-perceive(ipf) PE) This bamboo thong feels very rough. nak5 vi. (tasks:) tough, difficult; Yo31 hi31 nak5 dik1 r55. (land this tough/difficult extreme PE) This piece of land is really tough. Bva55 mai11 kyo31 so31 lo35 r11 zyaq1 nak5 r55. (flatlands ABL road walk(ipf) go(back/up) also rather tough/difficult PE) To walk through the flatlands back upwards is rather tough. nam11 (near.the.house) in yvum31-nam11. nvam11 n. millet. nvam11-bvi31 (millet-sesame) n. sesame; in nvam11-bvi31-kong55 (milletcrooked-ring(-shaped)) n. kind of delicacy. nam11lo11-pe1zyang35 n. kind of tree; also nam11lo11-pe1zyang35-zeng31; (zeng31 n. trunk). nam31 I (9.17.3) n. close vicinity; nung35-nvik5-n55 nam31 (2ns-duo-FCT close.vicinity) next to you (DU); se1boi31 nam31 me55 (table close.vicinity LOC) near the table; cf. -nvam55 and yvum31-nam11 (housenear.the.house) n. close vicinity of the house. nvam31 I (ear.(of.grain)) in guq1-nvam31. nam31 II (smelly) adj/vi. be smelly, referring to strong smells that can be conceived in a positive, neuter or negative way; a in a positive sense: Nam11 ngon35 r55. (smelly(ipf) pleasant PE) It smells nice. b in a neuter sense: Nam11 dik1 r55. (smelly(ipf) extreme PE) It is smelly. c in a negative sense: si1-nam31 (fruit-smelly) n+adj. bad fruits; Syo11 a1-nam31 luq1? (meat NEG-smelly Y/N) Is the meat smelly? Ki1-tong55 dye31 nam11 r55. (faeces-jail too smelly(ipf) PE) The toilet is too smelly. d n. smell, taste, in nam31 ron11/ron35 n+vi. like, be able to get used to a certain smell or taste; Nang31 nam31 a1-ron11 luq1? (2SG smelly NEG-get.used Y/N) Do you (SG) like the smell? Cf. nam35 n. smell, kom55/hom55 adj/vi. fragrant and ngvam11 vi. tasty; vide ang11-nam31. nvam31 II (fold(vt)*) allomorph of nvap5. nam31-cu11 (smelly-vinegar) n. vinegar. nam31moq1 de1ra35 (ocean ocean) n. ocean. nam31oi11 n. brown sugar; cf. pung11syui31 n. sugar cane; zyum11-dui11 n. white sugar. nam31-pun55 (smelly-manure) n. (stinking) manure; vide pun55. nam31syam11 si1-wui11 (ribs meat-bone2) n. ribs (sp. kat5).

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    nam31zyam31 n. dip sauce; Nam31zyam31 me55 zyum31-aq1. (dip.sauce LOC dip(vt)-SIM) Dip (SG) it in the dip sauce.

    nam35 I vt. (during distilling process of rice wine:) add new water to the residu; bvat5-nam35 nam35 (dregs/ferment(vt)-add.water(…) add.water(…)) n+vt. (during distilling process:) add new water to the half-done rice; bvat5-nam35-zang11 (dregs/ferment(vt)-add.water(…)rice/food) n. (during distilling process:) half-done rice before adding new water. nam35 II (smell) a suffixed n. smell of something; Nang31 si1-bup5 nam35 a1wo35 gyo11 luq1? (2SG meat-bad/fermented smell NEG-have hear/smell Y/N) Can you (SG) sense the smell of decayed meat? b n. smell, as a free form, not as suffix; Nam35 a1-wo35 gyo11 luq1? (smell NEG-have hear/smell Y/N) Can’t you smell it? Nang31 ka55-hu55 nam35 a1-wo35 gyo11 luq1? (2SG Q-sort smell NEG-have hear/smell Y/N) Can you (SG) smell something smelly? Vide kom55-sing55 / hom55-sing55; cf. nam31 and sing55. nam35bat5 (number) a n. number; from English number; with spec. n. lvum11, e.g. nam35bat5 le1-lvum11 (number one-lump) number one; nam35bat5 gau31-lvum11 (number nine-lump) number nine; b n. size; 31 Nang31 nam35bat5 ke5-mvyo55 lvum11 zvung31 lye ? (2SG number Q(ipf) much(B) lump put.on also+I) What’s the size of your (SG) shoes? c n. 31 prize; Nam35bat5 wo35 lye . (number have also+I) You will recieve a prize for that. -nvam55 (time(B)) bound form pronoun only used in ke5-nvam55/he5-nvam55; cf. nam31. nvam55nvam55 [soft.as.silk] ideophone expressing the feeling feeling like having two pieces of silk between your fingers. Nvam55nvam55 se5-ga31 r55. ([soft.as.silk] like-perceive(ipf) PE) It’s a feeling like having two pieces of silk between your fingers. nan11 a vt. feel attached to; Nang31 ka55-hu55 r55 nan31 r55 ta11? (2SG Q-sort (ipf) OBJ feel.attached PE GI) What things do you (SG) feel attached to? b 11 11 in ngi nan (be.there(anim)(ipf) feel.attached) vi+v. want to stay, don’t want to depart; Ngo31 Nong35dau35 ye31 zyang35 i5-ngi11 nan31 byuq1 byuq1 mu11 r55. (1SG Nongdao go(away/down) CD go-be.there(anim)(ipf) feel.attached(ipf) lose lose happen(ipf) PE) When I go to Nongdao, it has often occurred that there’s no going back. nan31 (hardly) adv. in nan31 le1-dam31; cf. Chinese 难 nán difficult. nan31 le1-dam31 (hardly one-time(Sp)) (idiom.) it’s hard to get a chance to; 31 Nan31 le1-dam31 syeq1 le1-myang31 zo31 lye . ((hardly) one-time(Sp) (ipf) au.contraire but-see eat also+I) It’s hard to get the chance to eat this.

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    nan35nan35 ideophone expressing shivering from cold; only after gyoq1 vi. 31

    cold; Gung31-du11 ci11 lui -eq1 gyoq1 nan35nan35 si11 r55. (body-being wash in.this.way+I-AG/I cold [shiver.from.cold] die(ipf) PE) Because of the washing, I am shivering from cold. nang11 (tread) a vi. tread, step; Ngo31 nang31 cyot5 lyeng31 si31 bue31. (1SG tread(ipf) slip fall(vi)(ipf) die P+I) I slipped and had a nasty fall. Ki31-ko31 nang31 dvong11 wu35-aq5. (leg/foot-track tread(ipf) clearly(ipf) look-SIM) Tread firmly (SG) so that your footprints are easy to see. b vi. use the full length of the foot; in nang31 ting55 (tread(ipf) kick); Nang31 ting55-aq5. (tread(ipf) kick-SIM) Kick (SG) with the full length of your foot. c vt. step onto something; Mue31-bu11 ke5-nang11. (wrap-clothes PHB-tread) Don’t 31 step on the clothes. A55! ki11 nang31 bvyen11 bue , a1-zyo11 loq1. (Aah! faeces tread(ipf) flatten/dent(vt) P+I NEG-right no.more) Aah! I have stepped into shit, wrecked! nang31 (2SG) (9.4) second person singular pronoun. nvang31 (let.loose) (15.21) a vt. (animals) let loose; b vt. (objects) let loose of one’s grip; c the commissive auxiliary, indicating that a the subject lets the object perform a certain task. Vide dui31. nang35 (2SG.PO) (9.4) second person singular possessive pronoun. nvang55 vt/vr. ‘feed’, ‘feed oneself’, a course word for ‘eat’; Got1 nvang55aq5. (scoop(vt) feed.(oneself)-SIM) Go on (SG), eat it. (though I did not want to let you have it). Hye55-me55 zang11 got1 nvang31 dvo31 r55. (same.elevation-LOC rice/food scoop(vt) feed.(oneself)(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) (very coarse:) He is over there eating / gorging himself. Nang31 ke5dye31 got1 nvang55. (2SG PHB-too scoop(vt) feed.(oneself)) Stop gorging yourself in such an overdone fashion. Cf. wvue31 and zvo11. 1 nap / nap5 (morning) (9.39, Table 9.11) n. morning; also used in various time adverbials; in a1-ngi35-nap1 bo11-wa31-nap1(-gvyo55), he5-nap1/ke5nap1, he5-wa31-nap1(-gvyo55), nuq1-poi31-nap5, sang31-pe1-nap5 and the forms directly below; cf. gvyo55 and naq1. 1 nap -gvyo55 (morning-morning.of.other.day) (9.39, Table 9.11) n. morning; also used in various time adverbials. nap1-sun31 (morning-dawn) (9.39) n. dawn; Naq1-ma35 nap1-sun31 r55 zo11 syang55. (tomorrow-LOC morning-dawn TS eat JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) eat this tomorrow, early in the morning. (incorrect without naq1-ma35:) Naq1-ma35 nap1-sun31 lye35 lo31-aq1. (tomorrow-LOC morning-dawn come(away/down) come(back/up)-SIM) Come back (SG) tomorrow at dawn. nap1-zang11 (morning-rice/food) n+n. brunch (11 or 12 AM); vide zang11 on Zaiwa mealtimes.

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    nvap5 I vt. fold; Bui35-mo35 nvam31-aq1. (warm.oneself-AUG fold(vt)*-SIM) Fold (SG) the quilt.

    nvap5 II n. mucus; Nvap5 ke5-toq5 nvang31. (mucus PHB-come.out let.loose) (spoken to a child whilst taking a picture:) Don’t let the snot come out.

    nvap5 kyui11 (mucus bend) n+vt. blow one’s nose. nvap5-dvung55 (mucus-frozen) n+adj. thick mucus/snot. nvap5-san55 (mucus-glob.of.mucus) n. glob of mucus/snot; Nvap5-san55 toq5 r55. (mucus-glob.of.mucus come.out PE) There’s a glob of snot coming out. naq1 (tomorrow) (9.39, Table 9.11) morpheme used in the following time adverbials; etymologically related to nap1 n. morning. 1 naq -ma35 (tomorrow-LOC) (9.39, Table 9.11) tomorrow. naq1-ma35-bvue55 (tomorrow-LOC-PLN) one of these days (in future). naq1-ma35-gvyo55 (tomorrow-LOC-morning.of.other.day) (9.39, Table 9.11) tomorrow morning. naq1-min31 (tomorrow-evening) (9.19, 9.39 Table 9.11) tomorrow evening/night. naq1-min31-tang31 (tomorrow-evening-behind) (9.19, 9.39 Table 9.11) tomorrow afternoon. naq1zvyu31 n. kind of wild vegetable. naq5tam11 n. kind of inedible wild yam; in the story of the zitung: 31 31 Naq5tam11, naq5tam11 r55 wui35 gvut5 nvang31 bue ga . (inedible.wild.yam inedible.wild.yam OBJ plant.name do let.loose P+I perceive+I) He told them to use naqtam, naqtam instead of poison ivy. Cf. Jingpo nahtam (Xu et al. 1983: 545). nat1 / nat5 (spirit) n. spirit, god; nat1 rvang55 (spirit worship) n+vt. offer to the spirits; nat1 ruem35 (spirit keep) n+vt. keep spirits at one’s home; also vide zyau35; nat1 zvo11 (spirit feed) n+vt. feed or keep spirits; The following is a selection of types of spirits and gods: bvak5bvang55 n. kind of bird-like spirit (vide bvak5bvang55), bui31num31-nat1 n+n. family spirit; Ge1rai11 n. heavenly spirits; mau11-nat5 (sky-spirit) n+n. the heavenly spirits; me1rong35 n. shadow-like spirit, of people with bad conscience; pi11 n. kind of spirit protecting certain families and punishing when things are denied to them; saq1wa11 n. the restless spirits of people died in accidents or by voilence; tau11pan31 n. female guiding spirit; tau11zvi31 n. male guiding spirit; u55son55/i5son55 n. type of heavenly spirits (mostly evil); see also le1-tok1 and Num11syang11, (si31to31) to31 and Woq1-gan11-sing55ngyang11(-nat1); See further zi1tung11 (of which several kinds are distinguished). Cf. byo31 n. soul, spirit and se1byo31 (spirit2-spirit3) n. soul, spirit. Cf. Jingpo nat (Xu et al. 1983: 557).

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    nau11 (Menau) a short form for Me1nau11, in Nau11-bva55 and Nau11-syong55; b vt. in Me1nau11 nau11 n+vt. dance the Menau. (in songs:) O55ra55 ra55 syang55 Me1nau11 nau11 syang55-o55. (no.gloss no.gloss JUS Menau Menau JUS-HIGH) Let us (ND.IN) dance the Ora and join in in the Menau! nvau11 (wake.up(vt)) vt. wake someone up; Nang31 yvang 11 r55 ke5-nvau11. (2SG 3SG OBJ PHB-wake.up(vt)) Don’t (SG) wake him up. Le1-dvu31 r55 nvau31 doq1 gvan31-aq1. ((male)-4th-brother OBJ wake.up(vt)(ipf) go.up put.into*-SIM) Wake up (SG) fourth brother. yvup5 nvau11 (sleep wake.up(vt)) vi+vt. wake someone up. Nau11-bva55 (Menau-dance.sideways) a n. assistant Menau dance leaders; cf. Nau11-syong55; b nau11-bva55 bva55 n+vi. dance sideways; Nau1131 syong55-nvik5 nau11-bva55 bva31 a1-gvo . (Menau-front.leaders-duo Menau-dance.sideways dance.sideways(ipf) nom-PL+I) The two Menau main leaders are dancing sideways. Nau11-syong55 (Menau-front.leaders) n. (two) main Menau dance leaders; cf. Nau11-bva55. nvau31 (feel.like) (15.22) modal auxiliary expressing an urge, need or desire to perform a certain situation, coming forth from the person himself instead of objective or general needs; also in gi1-nvau31, o31-nvau31, ze1nvau31. 35 nau (milk/breast) n. milk, breast; nau35 huq5 (milk/breast let.drink) n+vt. (mothers:) breast-feed; nau35 syuq5 (milk/breast drink) (infants) n+vt. (infants:) drink from breast; ne1-nau35 (cattle-milk/breast) n. cow’s milk; ci5-nau35 (buttock-milk/breast) n. buttocks. 35 nau huq5 (milk/breast let.drink) n+vt. breast-feed. nau35 syuq5 (milk/breast drink) n+vt. drink from breast. nau35-gvang11 gvang11 (milk/breast-split(vt) split(vt)) n+vt. wean, stop 31 breast-feeding; Nau35-gvang11 gvang31 lye . (milk/breast-split(vt) (ipf) split(vt) also+I) I am weaning. (stopping breast-feeding); vide gvang11. nau35-si11 (milk/breast-tie/lock) n+n. nipple. ne1- I (bean-bad/fermented) short variant of nuq1/nuq5; in ne1-bup5. ne1- / ne5- II (cattle) short variant of no11. ne1- / ne5- III (ear) ear prefix. There is no long form. Cf. no11 ‘ear’ in Yabu (1982: 18). ne1-boi35 boi35 (cattle-ignore.smn ignore.smn) n+vt. ignore a certain piece 31 of cattle; Ne1-boi35 boi35 bue . (cattle-ignore.smn ignore.smn P+I) We ignore that cow.

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    ne1-bup5 (bean-bad/fermented) (sometimes nuq1-bup5) n. fermented soy bean paste; cf. nuq1-sui11. ne -gvan31 (ear-earring) n. earring; heng31 ne1-gvan31 (gold ear-earring) n+n. golden earring. ne1-ho31 (cattle-look.for) n+vt. search for cattle; No11 pyuq5 am55 bue31, ne531 ho11 lye . (cattle make.lost PFM P+I cattle-look.for(ipf) also+I) Some cows has been made lost. We are searching for them. Also compare: No11 a1-ho31 siq1. (cattle NEG-look.for still) I haven’t searched for the cows yet. ne1-ki11 / ne5-ki11 (cattle-faeces) n. cow shit; ne1-ki11 ngvyaq1 (cattlefaeces watery/thin) n+adj. thin cow dung. ne1-kyui31 (cattle-horn(s)/antlers) n. cow’s horn. ne1-lang11 (cattle-pull/yank) n. yoke. ne1-lo11 (cattle-tiger/bull) n. bull, male cattle. ne1-lui11 (cattle-water.buffalo) n. water buffalo; cf. ne1-zyung31 n. zebu. ne1-lui11-ngvoq5 (cattle-water.buffalo-bird) n. mynah, a kind of bird often riding cattle, also ne1-zi11-ngvoq5. 1 ne -lui11-nvo31 (cattle-water.buffalo-nose) n. nose of a water buffalo. ne1-mvan11 (cattle-grass/leaves) vide no11-mvan11/ne1-mvan11. ne1-mang31 (cattle-corpse) n. corpse of a cattle. ne1-mi11 (cattle-intact.male) n. bull (intact male cattle) ne1-mvi55 (cattle-female) n. cow. ne1-mon35 (cattle-castrated) (n+adj.) n. ox, steer. ne1-nau35 (cattle-milk/breast) n. cow’s milk. ne1-nu35-zo11 (cattle-young/tender-child) (n+adj+adj.) n. newborn calf; also ne1-zo11 nu35-zo11 (cattle-child young/tender-child) (n+n+adj+adj.) n. newborn calf. ne1-pyo11 / ne5-pyo11 (ear-ear) n. ear; Ne5-pyo11 tong31 lye31. (ear-ear pierce(ipf) also+I) I am having my ear pierced. 1 ne -pyo31 (ear-earwax) n. earwax; Ne1-pyo11 me55 ne1-pyo31 lung35 r55. (earear LOC ear-earwax be.inside PE) In the ear there is earwax. ne1-sue11 (cattle-stick) n. stick, such as for hitting cattle (sp. kat5/hat5 or lvum11). 1 ne -zi11-ngvoq5 (cattle-ride(vt)-bird) n. mynah, a kind of bird often riding cattle; also ne1-lui11-ngvoq5. 1 ne -zit5 (ear-stopped.up) (n+adj.) vi. be deaf; vide zit1/zit5. ne1-zo11 (cattle-child) n+n. calf; ne1-zo11 nu35-zo11 (cattle-child young/tender-child) n+n+adj+adj. newborn calf; also shortly ne1-nu35zo11. 1

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    ne1-zung35 (cattle-keep.an.eye.on) (n+vt.) vi. tend cattle, Chinese 放牛 fàng niú; Ke5-ngi35 nang31 ne1-zung35 dum11 ye25 luq1? (before-day 2SG cattle-keep.an.eye.on again go(away/down)+FCT Y/N) Is it your turn to tend cattle again today? ne1-zyung31 (cattle-zebu) n. zebu; cf. ne1-lui11 (cattle-water.buffalo) n. water buffalo. nve5- (nose) allomorph of nvo31. -ne55 (FCT) (4.3) one of the various possible shapes of the factitive marker. nve5bap1 (snail2) n. snail; cf. hoi55. nve5bap1-gvyap5 (snail2-shell/crust) n. snail shell. nve5-syoi55 (nose-nose.lock) vide nvo31-syoi55/nve5-syoi55. nve5-syoi55-dvui11 (nose-nose.lock-rope(N/vt)) n. rope for a cattle’s nose 31 lock; Nve5-syoi55-dvui11 yui31 lye . (nose-nose.lock-rope(N/vt) twist(ipf) also+I) I’m twisting a rope for cattle. -neq1 (AG/I) (9.9) one of the possible shapes of the agentive/instrumental suffix . -neq5 (COM) (9.10) one of the possible shapes of the comitative suffix . 1 ng gam11 gam11 (abyss steep(adj)) n+vi. be a very steep abyss; Jingpo ngam (Xu et al. 1983: 574); Ng1gam11 gam31 dik1 r55. (abyss steep(adj)(ipf) extreme PE) This is a very steep abyss. Cf. mi31-byoq5; vide gam11. 31 ngv (say) variant of ngvu31 ‘say’. -ng55 I (FCT) (4.3) one of the various possible shapes of the factitive marker. ng55! II (ch.20) exclamatory expression used when realizing that something is not right; Ng55! ke5-min31 le1-sang31 sing55 nam11 rvo55! ((sudden.shift) before-evening (male)-humans taste/smell(N) smelly(ipf) PE+HIGH) Huh? tonight I smell humans! ng5go11gok5 n. scorpion. ng5nga31 onom. imitating the sound of crying infants; Ng5nga31 ng5nga31 ga11 wo35 ngau11 dik1 r55. ([onom] [onom] perceive have weep(ipf) extreme PE) This baby is very much a cry-baby. ngva31 onom. imitating the sound of cowing of crows etc. ngva31 (DC+I) (18.18) double-checking suffix; Lo35 be1-ra31 ngva31? (go(back/up) P-need+I DC+I) So are you (SG) (really) about to go (back/up)? nga35 (1PO) (9.4, 9.6) first person possessive pronoun; referring to first person singular if not used in complex pronouns, e.g. nga35 syang55 (1PO companion) my companion(s). nga35-du31 (1PO-younger.M) my younger relative, belonging to a wifegiving family; as a1-du31.

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    nga35-moq1 (1PO-party) (9.4) first person non-dual plural exclusive pronoun.

    nga35-nvik5 (1PO-duo) (9.4) first person dual pronoun; Mo35pi55 nga35-nvik5 (beggar 1PO-duo) Beggar and I.

    nga35-nvik5-nvum31 (1PO-duo-couple) the two of us, as a couple; Nga3531

    nvik5-nvum31 i55-yuq1 rvoq5 gung31-ci11 i5-wo35 ci11 ra la11? (1PO-duocouple two-person DEF body-wash go-have wash need+I UNC) Would it be okay for the two of us, as a couple, to go and wash together? nga35-nvung55 (1PO-1ND.IN) (9.4) first person non-dual plural inclusive pronoun. ngai11 I (convenient/easy) vi. be convenient, easy, light; Dung31-lvai31 zyoq131 o55 mai11 Bueq1gin35 lo35 r11 ngai31 dik1 bue . (wing-boat be.there(inan)(ipf) FCT ABL Beijing go(back/up) also convenient/easy extreme P+I) Now that there are aeroplanes, it has become very easy to go to Beijing. 31 Hi55-kyo31 mai11 ye11 r11 ngai11-ngai11 ze11 ngvut5 r55 mai . (this-road (ipf) ABL go(away/down) also convenient/easy-convenient/easy only be PE OBV+I) When going via this road, it is very light. Cf. lui31 vi. easy to do, som55 adj/vi. light, wui11 vi. difficult1, yak1 vi. difficult2, yo35 vi. feel convenient. ngai11 II (give.birth) in si1-ngai11. ngai35 vi. be abundant; A1hui31 ge11 ang11-noq5 ngai35 bum31 bue31. (now TOP petiole-black abundant heap(vt/N) P+I) Now there is plenty of black mustard. ngvai55 ((neck).crooked) vide ling31-ngvai55 ngvai55. ngvam11 (tasty) (15.32) a vi. tasty; ngvam31 po11 (tasty( GEN) INO) tasty stuff; Zye11 zo11 zye11 ngvam31 r55. (exceed eat exceed tasty(ipf) PE) The 31 more you eat of it, the tastier it gets. Ngvam31 mvau31 r55 dvi ? (tasty(ipf) (ipf) cheat/fool PE CX+I) It doesn’t taste bad at all, does it? b vi. (sleep) very sound; Su31su31 ga11 yvup5 ngvam31 si11 r55. ([soundly.sleeping] perceive sleep tasty(ipf) die(ipf) PE) I can hear that he is sleeping very soundly. c aux. to one’s delight; in certain fixed expressions, vide myok1-ngvam11, pye31-ngvam11 and up1-ngvam11; cf. nam31 vi. smelly. ngam31 (seem) vi. seem; a (17.13) in combination with the suffix of the 31 31 expected nvo ; Ngvut5 nvo ngam11 r55. (be EXP+I seem(ipf) PE) It could be. (See further 17.13.) b (19.7) in combination with the impressionistic prefix se5-, in se5-ngam31 and the negative variant se5-a1ngam31. ngam35 a adj. chilly; i1-zvyam11 ngam35 (water-water chilly) cold water; b 31 vi. chilly; A1ze31! ngam35 dik1 r55 ngvut5 r55 mai . ((very.cold) chilly extreme PE be PE OBV+I) It’s so chilly! c reduplicated and used as

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    adverb; Lai31 lo31 zyang35 ngam35-ngam35 se5-ga31 r55, ngon35 dik1 r55. (wind come(back/up) CD chilly-chilly like-perceive(ipf) PE pleasant extreme PE) When the wind blows, it feels pleasantly chilly. ngan11za11 vt. hate; Nang31 ngo31 r55 ke5-dye31 ngan11za11. (2SG 1SG OBJ PHB-too hate) Don’t (SG) hate me (so much). ngvan31 (snow(N)) n. snow, ripe. ngvan31-pyu31 (snow(N)-white) n. snow. ngvang55 ((neck).hang.backwards(vt)) in u1-lvum11 ngvang55. ngap1 (complete(vi)) a after other verbs, expressing ‘Vbed all of them’; 31 Wui11 ngap1 bue luq1? (buy(ipf) complete(vi) P+I Y/N) Have we bought 31 everything we needed? Byu31 lye35 ngap1 be1-gvo luq1? (man/woman come(away/down) complete(vi) P-PL+I Y/N) Have all of them arrived? b as an indipendent verb, in replies to sentences like the above: Ngap1 31 bue . (complete(vi) P+I) Yes, they have. / yes, we have. etc. or: A1ngap1 siq1. (NEG-complete(vi) still) No, they haven’t. / no, we haven’t. etc. c further examples: A1-wui11 ngap1 si1-luq1? ( NEG-buy(ipf) complete(vi) still-Y/N) Did we buy everything we needed? Wui11 ngap1 31 bue . (buy(ipf) complete(vi) P+I) We have bought everything we needed. 31 d in the following expression: Yvang11 nvik5 a1-ngap1 siq1, dviq5 a1-si . (3SG heart NEG-complete(vi) still little nom-still+I) (as an excuse for infantile behaviour:) She’s not a sensible child yet, (since) she’s still very small. Cf. gum35, kum55/hum55 and ngvaq5 vt. give all. ngvap5 vt. read aloud; Nang31 ngo31 r55 le1-yan35 ngvap5 gvyo11 raq5. (2SG 1SG OBJ one-row read.aloud let.hear VO) Read (SG) one line of text to me. ngap5 I vt. count; Gvi31 ngap5 wu35-aq5. (star count look-SIM) Try (SG) and count the stars. Cf. son55. ngap5 II [stop.suddenly] a ideophone expressing a sudden end, especially to 31 noises; Ngap5 ga11 king31 byuq1 bue . (stop.suddenly perceive (ipf) halt/rest lose P+I) The noise has suddenly stopped. Mi1-dat5 le131 31 5 dam -dvaq ngap5 mu31 si11 byuq1 bue . (fire-electric one-time(Sp)suddenly stop.suddenly happen die(ipf) lose P+I) All of a sudden, there was a black-out. b similar but in reference to a controlled action: Ke5ngau31 loq1, ngap5 gvun31-aq1. (PHB-weep no.more stop.suddenly do*SIM) Stop crying, just stop it (SG). ngvaq5 (give.all) a vt. give all; Bi31 ngvaq5 am55 ra31 dut1 r55. (give(ipf) give.all PFM need+I become PE) It has to be given completely. b in waq1ngan31 ngvaq5; cf. ngap1 vi. complete. ngat1 (bite) a vt. bite; Kui11 ngat1 lye31. (dog bite also+I) Dogs bite. / The dog bites. Pung11syui31 ngat1 wu35-aq5. (sugar.cane bite look-SIM) Try

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    (SG) and bite into the sugar cane. b often before other verbs, e.g.: Ngat1 zeng11 dvo11-aq5. (bite fixed(ipf) place(vt)-SIM) Hold (SG) it with your teeth. Nang35 ki31 me55 hup5 ngat1 dvo31 r55. (2SG.PO leg/foot LOC (land).leech bite place(vt)(ipf) PE) There’s a leech on your foot/leg. c vt.

    bite, referring to a state of being under the spell of a spirit; Nat1-neq1 ngat1-n55 se5-ga31 r55. (spirit-AG/I bite-FCT like-perceive(ipf) PE) It appears that he’s under the spell of spirit. Vide bau11-ngat5. ngat5 vt. take out of some container in order to make room for something else; (cf. Chinese 腾 téng) Dvau55 ma54 zyum11-dui11 ngat5 am55 gveq5. (inflate(vt)/bottle(N) LOC +FCT salt-[sweet] take.out.to.make.room PFM PLIM) Take (PL) the white sugar out of the bottle to make room. ngau31 vi. weep; Mai35mai35mai35, ke5-ngau31 loq1. ((comforting) PHB-weep no.more) There, there now, stop crying. Ke5-dye31 got1 ngau31. (PHB-too scoop(vt) weep) Don’t weep like that. Vide gvyek5 ngau31 vi+vi. shriek, bvuk5 ngau31 vi+vi. howl, sut1sut1; cf. ngvau55 vt. let weep. ngau31-bi11 (weep-tears) n. tears; Ngau31-bi11 toq5 lye31. (weep-tears come.out also+I) I am weeping. ngvau55 (let.weep) vt. let weep, cause to weep; Zi1syang31 ke5-lvoq5 ngvau55. (child PHB-ACT let.weep) Don’t make the child cry. Ngo31 nang31 r55 31 gvyuq5 ngvau55 ra . (1SG 2SG OBJ scare(vt) let.weep need+I) I will make you (SG) cry by scaring you. Cf. ngau31 vi. weep. 1 nge - / nge5- I (fish) fish prefix. The following is a listing of Zaiwa fishing techniques. nge1-dvui11 dvui11 (fish-rope(N/vt) rope(N/vt)) n+vt. fish with rope; nge1-mit5 mit1 (fish-fish.h/hook.f fish.h/hook.f) n+vt. hook fish, fish with hook; nge1-zo11 gvong55 (fish-child catch.fish) n+vt. catch fish, either by draining the water away, scooping the water away or by catching them by hand; nge1-gvoq5 pek5 (fish-branch drain.fish) n+vt. drain part of a stream in order to collect the fish; nge1-nvong31 pek5 (fish-pond drain.fish) n+vt. drain a pond in order to collect the fish; nge1-sang11 tung31 (fish-fyke.(net) trap.fish) n+vt. trap fish with a fyke; nge1-bvat5 (fish-fishing.rod) n. fishing rod (verb unknown). 1 nge - II (forehead) in nge1-lang11 and nge1-dyeng35-mo35. nge1- III (rat/mouse) only in nge1-noq1. nge1-bvat5 (fish-fishing.rod) n. fishing rod (sp. kat5/hat5). Vide nge1-/nge5for a list of Zaiwa fishing techniques.

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    nge1-byun35 (fish-basket.type) n. bamboo fish basket (not too big). Vide lan35 for other types of baskets. nge -dvui11 dvui11 (fish-rope(N/vt) rope(N/vt)) n+vt. fish (with rope). Nge1-nvong31 me55 nge1-dvui11 i5-dvui11 syang55. (fish-pond LOC fishrope(N/vt) go-rope(N/vt) JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) go fishing in the pond. Vide nge1-/nge5- for a list of Zaiwa fishing techniques. 1 nge -dyeng35-mo35 (forehead-no.gloss-AUG) (n+adj+adj.) n. head only bald in the middle; Nang35 u1-lvum11 ge11 nge1-dyeng35-mo35, u1-sam31 r11 a1-yuq1-u55 ge11. (2SG.PO head-lump TOP forehead-no.gloss-AUG head-hair.of.the.head also NEG-grow-FCT TOP) You (SG) are bold in the middle of your head, no hair at all there. Cf. u1-zvyui55 (headclean/complete) (n+adj.) n. head which is bald on top. nge1-gvoq5 (fish-branch) n. stretch of a stream, drained for catching fish; Nge1-gvoq5 i5-pek5 gveq5. (fish-branch go-drain.fish PLIM) Go (PL) drain some fish. Vide nge1-/nge5- for a list of Zaiwa fishing techniques. 1 nge -gvyap5 (fish-shell/crust) n. fish scales. nge1-ko31 (fish-gill) n. gill. nge1-lang11 (forehead-pull/yank) n. forehead; nge1-lang11 mek1 (foreheadpull/yank pinch1) n+vt. pinch and pull the forehead (against diseases). nge1-mit5 (fish-fish.h/hook.f) n. fish hook (sp. lvum11). nge1-mit5 mit1 (fish-fish.h/hook.f fish.h/hook.f) n+vt. hook fish, fish with 31 hook; Nge1-mit5 mit1 lye . (fish-fish.h/hook.f fish.h/hook.f also+I) We are fishing (with hooks). Vide nge1-/nge5- for a list of Zaiwa fishing techniques. nge1-nvong31 (fish-pond) n. fishing pond; nge1-nvong31 pek5 (fish-pond drain.fish) n+vt. drain a pond in order to collect the fish; vide nge1/nge5- for a list of Zaiwa fishing techniques. Cf. Jingpo nong n. ‘lake’ (Xu et al. 1983: 627). 1 nge -noq1 (rat/mouse-black) n. mouse, field mouse, rat. nge1-noq1 pyu31 (rat/mouse-black white) (n+adj.) n. albino mouse/rat. nge1-noq1-ci11/si11 (rat/mouse-black-drug) n. rat poison. nge1-noq1-zui31 (rat/mouse-black-tooth) n. mouse/rat teeth/tooth. nge1-sang11 / nge5-sang11 (fish-fyke.(net)) n. bamboo fish-trapping 31 device; Ngo31 nge1-sang11 tung31 ye11 lye . (1SG fish-fyke.(net) trap.fish (ipf) go(away/down) also+I) I am on my way to trap fish. Vide nge1-/nge5for a list of Zaiwa fishing techniques. nge1-u55 (fish-egg) n. roe, fish eggs. nge1-zo11 / nge5-zo11 (fish-child) (n+adj.) n. fish (in general); nge1-zo11 le1-roi11/ byau11 (fish-child one-string(Sp)/ bunch/string) a/one bunch of 1

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    fishes on a string; heng31-nge1-zo11 (gold-fish-child) n+n+adj. goldfish. Vide nge1-/nge5- for a list of Zaiwa fishing techniques. 1 nge -zo11-dvung55 (fish-child-frozen) n+n+adj. frozen fish. nge1-zo11-weng31 (fish-child-broth) n. fish soup. nge1-zo11-zu11 (fish-child-prickle) n. fish bones. ngve5- I (bird) short variant of ngvoq5 n. bird; in ngve5-noq1 . ngve5- II (say) short variant of ngvu31 vt. say; only in ngve5-ning31. -nge55 (FCT) (4.3) one of the various possible shapes of the factitive marker. ngve5- I (banana) short allomorph of ngvoq1 n. banana, only in ngve5mvyuq1. ngve5-mvyuq1 (banana-banana) n. banana (both the short type, in Chinese called 芭蕉 bājiāo, and the regular type); ngve5-mvyuq1 le1-cyam11 (banana-banana one-ball) a/one banana; ngve5-mvyuq1 le1-mvye11 (banana-banana one-(bananas).bunch) a/one part of a bunch of bananas; ngve5-mvyuq1 le1-bvau31 (banana-banana one-raft/cluster) a/one (complete) bunch of bananas. ngve5-mvyuq1-gam31 (banana-banana-tree(B)) n. banana tree. ngve5-mvyuq1-gvyap5 (banana-banana-shell/crust) n. banana skin; Ngve5-mvyuq1-gvyap5 cye31-aq1. (banana-banana-shell/crust tear*-SIM) Peel (SG) the banana. ngve5-ning31 (say-INS+I) (18.17) combination of the verb ngvu31 ‘say’ and the insistive suffix; used when the speaker is losing his/her temper or 31 when repeating an utterance; A1-ngvut5 ngve5-ning ! (NEG-be sayINS+I) I told you it wasn’t me! ngve5-noq1 (bird-black) n. crow, raven. ngeng35 (fed.up) aux. be fed up / bored with / sick of doing V; Nang31 bau35 a1-ngi11 ngeng35 luq1? (2SG just NEG-be.there(anim)(ipf) fed.up Y/N) 31 Aren’t / weren’t you fed up with being alone? Syo11 zo31 ngeng35 bue . (ipf) (meat eat fed.up P+I) I’m sick of meat. -ngeq1 (AG/I) (9.9) one of the possible shapes of the agentive/instrumental suffix . 11 ngi n. penis. ngi11-sui55 (penis-sperm) n. sperm. ngi11-zi35 (penis-ball/seed) n. testicles. ngvi31 (cause.to.be.there(anim)) vt. make animate entities stay at a certain 31 place; Kui11-zo11 ke5-me55 ngvi11 dvo31 lye ? (dog-child Q-LOC (ipf) (ipf) cause.to.be.there(anim) place(vt) also+I) Where did you put the puppy? Cf. ngi31. ngi31 I (be.there(anim)) (13.2) vi. (animate entities:) be there, be or stay at a 31 certain place; Nat1 ngi11 lye . (spirit be.there(anim)(ipf) also +I) There is

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    a spirit there. / There are spirits there. Cf. ngi31 n. date in bui31-ngi31, ngi35 n. day and ngvi31, zue31 vi. live as human being. 31 ngi II (date) in bui31-ngi31; cf. ngi35 and ngi31. ngi31 lang35 (be.there(anim) wait) vide lang35 ‘wait’ as the expectant auxiliary (15.18); a vi+vi. (people, animals) be at some place for others to find or meet; Yvang11 lye35 hang11-mo35 ngo31 a1-ngi31 lang35. (3SG (male)-2nd-brother come(away/down) each-AUG 1SG NEG31 be.there(anim) wait) Whenever he comes, I’m not at home. Bum me55 31 31 no11 ngi31 lang35 gve5-ra kai . (heap(vt/N) LOC cattle be.there(anim) wait PL-need+I SUG+I) The cattle will probably be there, on the hill. b in idiomatic expressions for saying goodbye; Nang31 ngi31 lang35-aq5. (2SG be.there(anim) wait-SIM) Bye. / (Lit.:) You (SG) stay (and wait) here. Nung35-moq1 ngi31 lang35 gveq5. (2PL-party be.there(anim) wait PLIM) Bye. / (Lit.:) You (PL) stay (and wait) here. ngi35 (day) (9.39) a sp. day; Nang31 ke5-mvyo55 ngi35 ngi31 si1-ra31? (2SG Qmuch(B) day be.there(anim) still-need+I) How many more days will you (SG) stay? b n. day (vide 9.39); also in le1-ngi35-bui31 all day, the whole day. Cf. ngi31 (2x). 35 ngi -gvung31 (day-hunch) n. zenith; Ngi35-gvung31 dvu31 bue31. (dayhunch respond/upright P+I) The sun is at its zenith. Ngi35-gvung31 a1dvu31 siq1. (day-hunch NEG-respond/upright still) The sun isn’t at its zenith yet. ngi35-kyui55 (day-half.a.day) adv. at daytime; Nga35-nvik5 ngi35-kyui55 r55 31 Zai11wa31-ming35 mvoq5 lye . (1PO-duo day-half.a.day TS Zaiwalanguage learn/teach also+I) We (DU) study Zaiwa by day. ngi35-wui31 (day-generation) adv. every day; Ngi35-wui31 zang35 ngyo11 31 lye . (day-generation strike talk(ipf) also+I) These words are used every day. 35 ngi -zang11 (day-rice/food) n+n. late afternoon meal (4 or 5 PM); vide zang11 on Zaiwa mealtimes. 11 ngi -gvun55 (be.there(anim)(ipf)-play) vi+aux. a (children:) play; Zi1syang31 31 wui31 ngi11-gvun31 a1-gvo . (child generation be.there(anim)(ipf)-play(ipf) nom-PL+I) The children are playing. b (adults:) recreate, amuse oneselve; Nga35-moq1 yvum31 me55 lye35 ngi11-gvun55 gveq5. (1PO-party house LOC come(away/down) be.there(anim)(ipf)-play PLIM) Come (PL) and amuse yourselves in our (ND .EX) house. ngi11-si31 (be.there(anim)(ipf)-die) (15.25) vi+aux. hang around in a very lazy fashion; Yvang11 le1-ngi35-bui31 ka55-hu55 r11 a1-gvut5-n55, ngi11-si11 r55. (3SG one-day-sun Q-sort also NEG-do-FCT be.there(anim)(ipf)-die(ipf) PE) He hasn’t done anything all day, just hanging around like a zombie.

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    ngin35 (beam.heat) vi. beam heat; Bui31 dye31 ngin35 r55, bui31-syum31 me55 zung31 gvoq1. (sun too beam.heat PE sun-shady/shade LOC sit DIE) The sun is shining too brightly, let’s (DU.IN) sit in the shade. Vide mi1-ngin35 ngin35; cf. ngvin55. ngvin55 (roast2) vt. roast; cf. bing11 vt. roast, specially for food; cf. ngin35. ngvit5 (9.33) nu. seven. ngo11 I (fit) vi. (clothes, shoes, place to sit etc.:) fit; Mo35do35 a1-ngo11 loq1, 31 dye31 zvyap5 bue . (car NEG-fit no.more too squeeze/tight P+I) The car doesn’t fit too us. It’s too squeezy. ngo11 II (9.33) nu. five. ngo31 (1SG) (9.4) first person singular pronoun ‘I, me’. ngo31 (HIGH+I) (18.20) one of the possible shapes of the negative indicative suffix (N)o31. 55 ngo (HIGH) (18.20) one of the possible shapes of the highlighting suffix (N)o55. 25 ngo (1SG+FCT) first singular pronoun marked by the factitive marker; Ngo25 le1-zyung11 ze11 ze5-nvau11 r55. (1SG+FCT one-kind only eatfeel.like(ipf) PE) He likes it just as much as I do. Ngo25 a1-sueng55. (1SG+FCT NEG-bear.reference) This does not have to do with me. Cf. nga35 first person possessive pronoun. ngok1 vi. germinate; Nuq1-gvyui31 ngok1 lo31 bue31. (bean-French.bean germinate come(back/up) P+I) The French beans have started to germinate. nuq1-ngok1 (bean-germinate) n. bean sprouts. ngom35 vt. bend over (one’s body); Gung31-du11 ngom35-aq5. (body-being bend.over-SIM) Bend (SG) over (your body). Cf. kyui11, ngvuq5. ngon35 (pleasant) a vi. feel good, enjoy oneself; Zye11 ngi11 r11 zye11 ngon35. (exceed be.there(anim)(ipf) also exceed pleasant) The longer I stay, the 31 more pleasant it gets. Yvang11 ngon35 dik1 lye . (3SG pleasant extreme also+I) He is quite enjoying life. b adj. (places, games etc.:) be pleasant, be comfortable; Meng11mau11 ge11 Nong35dau31 r55 lai31 ngon35 r55. (Ruili (ipf) TOP Nongdao OBJ pass pleasant PE) Ruili is more fun than Nongdao. 1 c in the expression i mit1 a1-ngon35 (mind NEG-pleasant) feel bad; Ke531 ngi35 bum31 a1-wo35 lo35 ge11 i1mit1 a1-ngon35-o . (before-day heap(vt/N) NEG-have go(back/up) TOP mind NEG-pleasant-HIGH+I) You must feel bad now, because we were not able to go uphill yesterday. d in the expression nvut5 ngon35 (mouth pleasant) n+adj. speak glibly; Byu31 hau55-yuq1 nvut5 ngon35 dik1 r55. (man/woman the/that-person mouth pleasant extreme PE) He speaks glibly. e as a resultative complement of the preceding verb, expressing ‘be pleasant to, feel comfortable to’; Zai11-ming35 gyo31 ngon35 r55. (Zaiwa-language hear/smell(ipf) pleasant

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    -N PE) Zaiwa language is nice to hear. Dvang55kuq5 hi31 ge11 zung31 a1ngon35. (stool/chair this TOP sit NEG-pleasant) This stool/chair doesn’t

    sit comfortably. Cf. Jingpo ngon (Xu et al. 1983: 579).

    ngong35 (bowed.down) in gung31-ngong35 ngong35. ngop1 vi/vt. face someone/something; Puq5 ngop1 gvan31-aq1. (turn.over(vt) face put.into*-SIM) Turn around and face (SG) this way. Nga35 zvyang55 ngop1 lyeq1 gvan31-aq1. (1PO near face lie.down put.into*-SIM) (to a child in one’s arms:) Lie (SG) with your face against me. ngop1 syuq5 (face drink) drink with one’s mouth directly facing the water surface (of a brook etc.) . ngvop5 (cover1(V)) vt. cover; Au11 ngvop5 gvan31-aq1. (pan cover1 (V) put.into*-SIM) Cover (SG) the pan. Vide hup1; cf. lik1 and um11 vt. cover with ashes, soil etc. ngvoq1 / ngve5- bound form n. ‘banana’ (both the short type, in Chinese called 芭蕉 bājiāo, and the regular type). The full form ngvoq1 is used in the words given below. The prefix reduced variant ngve5- is only used in ngve5-mvyuq1. ngvoq1-cue55 (banana-stem.of.banana.tree) n. stem of banana tree, used as fodder. ngvoq1-gam31 (banana-tree(B)) n. banana tree. ngvoq1-haq5 (banana-leaf) n. banana leaves. ngvoq1-kun31 (banana-huge.ovary.of.banana.plant) n. huge ovary of banana plant. ngvoq5 / ngve5- I n. bird (sp. du11), cf. zun31. ngvoq5 II (mistake) a verb complement ‘do V in the wrong direction, out of 31 a mistake’; Son31 ngvoq5 bue . (calculate(ipf) mistake P+I) I made a 31 55 mistake in calculating. Hoi so31 ngvoq5 bue . (maybe walk(ipf) mistake P+I) Perhaps we have walked the wrong way. Cf. syut5 vi. be wrong, wai35; b vide kyo31-ngvoq5 ngvoq5. ngvoq5-cyun55 (bird-bamboo.cage) n. (bamboo) bird cage. ngvoq5-mvi55 mvi55 (bird-trap trap) n+vt. trap birds. ngvoq5-sut5 (bird-(make)nest) n+n. bird’s nest. ngvoq5-u55 (bird-egg) n. (bird) egg (sp. cyam11/syam11). ngvoq5-zvik5 ngvoq5-zo11 bird-no.gloss bird-child idiom. birds of all kinds; Ngvoq5-zvik5 ngvoq5-zo11 lvang55 mi1-gung31 dong11 ban11 wang31 31 bue . (bird-no.gloss bird-child even earth-body (have)hole use.up(ipf) enter P+I) Even the birds of all kinds had fled into holes in the ground. ngvoq5-zo11 (bird-child) n+adj. little bird. ngvu31 / ngv31 / ngve5- (say) (11.4, 11.5) vt. say; cf. Jingpo ngu (Xu et 31 al. 1983: 581); cf. ngvu , ngvu54 and ngvu25.

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    ngvu31 (say+I) (5.5, 11.5) the quotative marking unit, mostly used in 31

    storytelling, expressing ‘he/she said’; A1-myang31 ngvu . (NEG-see say+I) They said: “We haven’t seen her-“ ngu35 vi. exhausted; Kyo31 so11 lui31 ngu35 dik1 bue31. (road walk in.this.way+I exhausted extreme P+I) I’m exhausted from walking. ngvu25 (say+FCT) (11.5) combination of ngvu31 vt. ‘say’ and the factitive marker. ngvu54 (say+FCT*) (11.5) combination of ngvu31 vt. ‘say’ and the factitive marker. ngue31 (lean(vi)) vi. lean one’s body; Gung31-du11 ngue11 gvan31-aq1. (bodybeing lean(vi)(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Lean your (SG) body. ngue31 zyang11 dap1 gu54 dvang55kuq5 (lean(vi) place(B) be.attached PART+FCT stool/chair) the chair with the back. ngvue31 (lean(vt)) vt. lean something against something; Ki31-lyeng31 ngvue11 gvan31-aq1. (leg/foot-wheel lean(vt)(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Let your (SG) bike lean. ngvuen11 vt. take something down with a hooked stick; i.e. using the tung11-ngvuen11 (crush-take.down.with.hook) n. long hooked stick; Tung11-ngvuen31-eq1 ngvuen31 kyo31 gvan31-aq1. (crushtake.down.with.hook#-AG/I take.down.with.hook(ipf) let.go.down(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Take (SG) it down with the long hooked stick. ngui31 vi. be pleased; I31-pue11 wui31 bi11 zyang35 yvang11 ngui11 dik1 bue31. (distilled-booze buy give CD 3SG be.pleased(ipf) extreme P+I) When you buy him some booze, he is always very pleased. / He was very pleased when we bought him some booze. Yvang11 le1-zvui55 r11 a1 -ngui31 loq1. (3SG one-bit also NEG-be.pleased no.more) She wasn’t a bit pleased (anymore). ngum31 vt. (medicine etc.:) keep in mouth; Ya11ya35 ngum11 dvo11-aq5. (medicine keep.in.mouth(ipf) place(vt)-SIM) Keep (SG) the medicine in your mouth for a while. ngun11 vi. hang down; Si11 dye31 zui11 lui31 si11-gvoq5 lvang55 ban11 ngun11 31 bue . (fruit too bear.fruit in.this.way+I fruit-branch even use.up(ipf) hang.down P+I) Because of bearing too much fruit, the fruit branches 31 were hanging down. Guq1 ngun11 bue . (unhusked.rice hang.down P+I) The rice (in the paddies) is hanging down. Vide u1-ngun11. ngun31 a n. silver; cf. soi11 n. silver ornaments; b adj. silver; c n. money; Myen31-ngun31 (Burma-silver) n. Burmese money; Mi11wa11-ngun31 sum11-syo31 mun11 (Chinese-silver three-hundred ten.thousand/Yuan) three hundred Yuan; cf. mun11. ngun31 se1 dyek1 (silver case) n+n. strongbox, case, chest for money.

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    ngun31-byang31 (silver-scabbard) n. scabbard covered with silver (nowadays mostly with copper); cf. um11bong11. ngun31-kong31 kong31 (silver-save save) n+vt. save money; Ngun31-kong31 31 kong11 lye . (silver-save save(ipf) also+I) I’m saving money. Ngun3131 1 kong a -gue11 kong31. (silver-save NEG-all.right(ipf) save) I have a hole in my pocket. Cf. bvam31. Cf. Jingpo hkong (Xu et al. 1983: 246). ngun31-pai55 bat1 (silver-cards/game beat) n+vt. gamble; Ngun31-pai55 bat1 ren11 dik1 r55. (silver-cards/game beat win(ipf) extreme PE) He is rather lucky with gambling. ngun31-pyu31 pyu31 (silver-white white) n+vi. be silver-coloured; Ngun31pyu31 pyu11 ra55. (silver-white white(ipf) PE) It’s silver-coloured. ngun31-yoi11 (silver-small.change) n. small change, small denominations; Ngun31-yoi11 pyoq5 bi11 raq5. (silver-small.change break.off/down(vt) give VO) Could you please change this bill into small denominations for me. Cf. Jingpo yoi (Xu et al. 1983: 895). ngung11 (squat) vide zung31-ngung11 ngung11. ngvung31 n. shaft of plough; Ngo31 ngvung31 bvyoq5 lye31. (1SG shaft.of.plough lop.off also+I) I’m making a shaft for a plough. Cf. li11. ngvuq5 vt. bow; Wa11 lang31 ngvuq5 gvan31-aq1. (bamboo pull/yank(ipf) bow(vt) put.into*-SIM) Bow (SG) the bamboo. Wa11 kyui31 ngvuq5 gvan31-aq1. (bamboo bend(ipf) bow(vt) put.into*-SIM) Bow (SG) the bamboo. Cf. kyui11 vt. bend, ngom35 vt. bend over (one’s body). ngut1ngut1 onom. imitating the grunting of pigs; Waq1-mvi55 ngut1ngut1 ga11 ming11 r55. (pig-female [onom] perceive sound(vi)(ipf) PE) The sow is grunting. ngvut5 (be) (10.2) copula ‘to be’. ngya31 (13.8) vt. low variant for ‘to have in possession’, such as would normally be expressed using wo35 vt. have. ngvya55 n. tobacco; Nang31 ngvya55 a1-bok5 luq1? (2SG tobacco NEGsmoke(vt) Y/N) Do you (SG) smoke? Cf. yven55. ngvya55-au11 (tobacco-pan) n. tobacco pan, used for smoking. ngvya55-dvum55 (tobacco-interrupt) n+n. butt, stub of a cigarette. ngvya55-gvop1 (tobacco-shell/packet) n. cigarette-packet. ngvya55-gvyung55 (tobacco-tinnen.box) n. tinnen tobacco box. ngvya55-mop1 (tobacco-grit) n. tobacco grit. ngvyai55 (immature) adj. tiny, immature; a1-ngvyai55 (ze11) (nom-immature (only)) na. very immature. Cf. dviq5 adj/vi. ‘small’ which, unlike ngvyai55, can also be used as an intransitive verb and can also refer to 31 age. Nang35 loq1-ngyui11 a1-ngvyai55-ngvyai55 ze11 ngvut5 r55 mai ! (2SG.PO hand/arm-finger/toe nom-immature-immature only be PE

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    OBV+I) My, your (SG) fingers are so tiny! (The latter sent. is also poss.

    with a1-dviq5-dviq5 ze11 (nom-small-small only) ‘so small’.) Cf. gvok5. ngvyai55-bom11 (immature-round/fleshy) n/na. round and fleshy like a baby. ngvyai55-bong11 (immature-(grow).seedlings) n. newborn baby. ngyam11 (tongs/clip(vt)*) allomorph of ngyap1; Sam31-ngyap5 ngyam11-aq1. (hair.of.the.head-tongs/clip(vt) tongs/clip(vt)*-SIM) Clip (SG) a hairpin. ngvyam11 I (clench) vt. clench; Ngyap1-meq1 ngvyam31 am55-aq5. (tongs/clip(vt)-AG/I clench(ipf) PFM-SIM) Grasp (SG) it with the tongs. Ngo31 koi55zvue11 a1-gue11 ngvyam11. (1SG chopsticks NEG-all.right(ipf) clench) I can’t use chopsticks. Wen55du31byau11 ngvyam11-aq5. (thermometer clench-SIM) Hold (SG) the thermometer. Ngyap1-meq1 31 ngvyam31 yu11 am55 bue . (tongs/clip(vt)-AG/I clench(ipf) take(ipf) PFM P+I) I have pinched myself with the tongs. Cf. ngyap1 a n. (pair of) tongs; b vt. (hairpin etc.:) clip, (tongs etc.:) vt. grasp, clench; (incorrect:) *Wen55du31byau11 ngyam11-aq1. ngvyam11 II (slow1) vi. slow; Kyo31 so11 dye31 ngvyam31 r55. (road walk too slow1(ipf) PE) You/we/they walk too slowly. Cf. zai35 vi. slow, the dialectal variant spoken more often in Loilung than elsewhere. ngyam31 (ch.20) exclamatory expression used when giving something out of one’s hand into someone else’s; Ngyam31, loq1-wa11 ham31-aq1 bui31ban11 gvat5 bi11 lye35. ((take.from.my.hand) hand/arm-palm/sole receive/fetch-SIM sun-flower put.into give come(away/down)) Come here (SG) with your hands, I’ll give you sunflower seeds. Cf. ngvyo31. ngvyang31 (straighten(vt)) a vt. (limbs) stretch, straighten; Ki31 ngvyang31aq1. (leg/foot straighten(vt)-SIM) Straighten/stretch (SG) your leg(s). b vt. straighten by beating or pulling; Syam31-dvoq5 bat1 ngvyang31-aq1. (knife-iron beat straighten(vt)-SIM) Beat (SG) the iron straight. c vt. 31 (roads etc.:) straighten; Kyo31 hi31 sai31 ngvyang11 am55 ra dut1 r55. (ipf) (ipf) (road this redo straighten(vt) PFM need+I become PE ) This road needs to be straightened again. Cf. ngyang35, ngyang31, zvyang11 and zyen35. ngyang31 (straight) a adj/vi. straight; Se5-gam31 hi31 ngyang11 dik1 r55. (treetree(B) this straight(ipf) extreme PE) This tree is very straight. Vide kyo31ngyang31. b in the adverb ngyang11-ngyang11 (straight(ipf)-straight(ipf)) ‘(lie) in a straight fashion’; Le1go11 ngyang11-ngyang11 lye11-aq1. (well straight(ipf)-straight(ipf) lie.down*-SIM) Lie (SG) straight. Cf. ngyang35, ngvyang31 and dum35.

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    ngyang35 (stretch(vr)) vr. stretch oneself; Lyeq1 ngyang35 gvan31-aq1. (lie.down stretch(vr) put.into*-SIM) Stretch yourself (SG) whilst lying. Cf. ngyang31, ngvyang31, zvyang11, zyen35. ngyang11-ngyang11 (straight(ipf)-straight(ipf)) vide ngyang31. ngyap1 / ngyap5 (tongs/clip(vt)) a n. hairpin (sp. lvum11) vide sam31ngyap5; b n. tongs (sp. lvum11); c vt. (hairpin etc.:) clip, (tongs etc.:) vt. grasp, clench; cf. ngvyam11 vt. clench; Ngyap1-meq1 ngyap 1 du35 am55aq5. (tongs/clip(vt)-AG/I tongs/clip(vt) throw PFM-SIM) Grasp (SG) it with the tongs and throw it away. Ngyap1-meq1 ngvyam31 du35 am55-aq5. (tongs/clip(vt)-AG/I clench(ipf) throw PFM-SIM) Grasp (SG) it with the tongs and throw it away. ngvyaq1 I (hand.it.to.me) (ch.20) mostly spoken to children: exclamatory expression used for letting the addressee hand over something; Ngvyaq1, ngo31 r55 bi11 raq5. ((hand.it.to.me) 1SG OBJ give VO) Well there, hand it to me. Cf. ngyam31 and ngyap1. ngvyaq1 II (watery/thin) adj/vi. watery, thin; ki11 ngvyaq1-mo35 (faeces watery/thin-AUG) thin faeces; ne1-ki11 ngvyaq1 (cattle-faeces 31 watery/thin) thin cattle dung; Mau11 wo31 lui kyo31 ngvyaq1 r55. (sky rain in.this.way+I road watery/thin PE) Because of the rain, the road is muddy. Vide dak1-ngvyaq1 and wam35pun31-ngvyaq1; cf. nop 1. ngvyau11 I n. pipe; in ngvyau11-goi35 and ngvyau11-ki11. ngvyau11 II vt. throw away, discard; Ban11 ngvyau31 dam54 bue31. (use.up(ipf) throw.away(ipf) VEH+FCT P+I) It has all been thrown out. The latter sentence is also possible with du35 (throw). ngvyau11-goi35 (pipe-crooked/wicked) (n+adj.) n. pipe (sp. lvum11). ngvyau11-ki11 (pipe-faeces) n. tobacco tar (yellow/brownish). ngyau35 (play(vt)) a vt. (objects) play with, fiddle with; Nga35 a1zeng35 ke5ngyau35. (1PO thing PHB-play(vt)) Don’t play with my stuff. b vi/vt. joke people, play people; Gue11 ngyau35 dik1 r55. (all.right(ipf) play(vt) extreme PE) He really can play people. ngvyau55 n. cat (Felix domesticus); also le1-ngvyau55 (tiger-cat); other cats are: hang11ki11, lo11 and sya31lom11. ngvyau55-ki11-kong55 (cat-faeces-ring(-shaped)) n. cat-shit rings; Zaiwa name for a Shan sweet delicacy. ngvyau55-lo11 (cat-tiger/bull) n. tomcat (male cat); also ngvyau55-po55. ngvyau55-po55 (cat-male) n. tomcat (male cat); also ngvyau55-lo11. ngye11 vi. feel nicely warm; A1-ngye11 luq1? (NEG-nicely.warm Y/N) Are 31 you nicely warm? Ngye31 dik1 bue . (nicely.warm(ipf) extreme P+I) I’m 35 55 nicely warm. Cf. ngye and ngvye .

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    ngye35 (burnt/hot) a adj/vi. hot; Wui31-bu11 ngye35 a1-si31 luq1? (water-water

    31

    burnt/hot nom-still+I Y/N) Is the water still hot? Sun11 hi31 ngye35 lye 31 pik5 lye ga31 r55. (veg/dish this burnt/hot also+I pungent also+I (ipf) perceive PE) This dish is both hot and pungent. b vi. be burnt; Au11 31 35 ngye bue . (pan burnt/hot P+I) The pan is burnt. ; Yvum31 ngye35 31 bue . (house burnt/hot P+I) The house has burnt down. also: Yvum31 31 ngye35 gyo35 byuq1 bue . (house burnt/hot go.down lose P+I) The house has burnt down. c vi. be on fire; in mi11 ngye35 (fire burnt/hot) n+vi. catch fire, be on fire (by a natural cause); cf. ngye11, ngvye55, duq1 and dvuq5. ngvye55 (burn(vt)) vt. burn; Tang11 ngvye55-aq5. (firewood burn(vt)-SIM) Burn (SG) (some more) firewood. ya11pau55 ngvye55 (incense burn(vt)) 31 n+vt. burn incense; Yvum31 ngvye31 kyo31 am55 bue . (house burn(vt)(ipf) let.go.down(ipf) PFM P+I) The house has been burnt down. mi11 ngvye55 n+vt. set on fire; cf. mi11 ngye35 n+vi. catch fire, be on fire (by a natural cause); cf. ngye11, ngye35, duq1 and dvuq5. ngyeng11 (oak?) vide le1ngyeng11. ngyeng55 onom. imitating the whining of dogs whilst being beaten. ngvyeq1(-ngvyeq1) [big.job] ideophone used for little children, expressing the notion ‘(do a) big job’; can both be used single and reduplicated; Ngvyeq1-ngvyeq1 gvun31-aq1. (big.job-big.job do*-SIM) Do (SG) a big job. ngvyeq5 bound form n. baby; see the forms below and Me1-ngvyeq5. ngvyeq5-nu35-zo11 (baby-young/tender-child) (n+adj+n) n. baby; variant of ngvyeq5-zo11 (baby-child) n+n. baby. ngvyeq5-zo11 (baby-child) n+n. baby; Ngvyeq5-zo11 wo35 bue31. (baby-child have P+I) A baby is born. Also ngvyeq5-nu35-zo11 (baby-young/tenderchild) n+adj+n. baby. ngvyo31 (ch.20) exclamatory expression used when offering things; Ngvyo31, hi31 syung11 gvun55-aq5. ((offering) this use(ipf) play-SIM) (handing over a toy:) Here, play (SG) with this. ngyo31 (talk) (11.3) a vi/vt. talk, say something; b aux. the well-aware aspectivizer. ngyo35 vi. (dishes:) be mixed well; I1-zyum11 a1-ngyo35 siq1, sai31 ngvyo55aq5. (water-salt NEG-be.mixed still redo(ipf) mix-SIM) The salt is not mixed in yet, stir/mix (SG) it once more. Cf. ngvyo55. ngvyo55 vt. mix (dishes); Sun11 ngvyo31 am55-aq5. (veg/dish mix(ipf) PFMSIM) Mix (SG) the dish. Wam35pun31 lvu11 ngvyo55-aq5. (pea.flour.cake stir(ipf) mix-SIM) Mix (SG) the pea flour cake (with the spices). Vide ngvyo55 zo11 and a1-ngvyo55; cf. ngyo35.

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    ngvyo55 zo11 (mix eat) vt+vt. eat a salad. Vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms.

    ngvyok5 vt. play with food during the meal; after tau31 or lap1: Ke5-tau31

    ngvyok5. (PHB-sew/insert(ipf) play.with.food) Don’t play with your food. (1) Ke5-lap1 ngvyok5. (PHB-scoop/fish.out play.with.food) Don’t play with your food. (2) ngyom31(-ngyom31) [heart-in-throat] ideophone expressing the sensation of feeling one’s heart beating in one’s throat; Ang55goi11 zi11 zyang35 ngyom31-ngyom31 ga31 dik1 r55. (swing(N) ride(vt) CD [heart-in-throat][heart-in-throat] perceive(ipf) extreme PE) When I am swinging, my heart beats in my throat. ngvyom55 (soft/weak) a adj. (wood) spongy; sek5-ngvyom55 (tree-soft/weak) n. (n+adj.) spongy wood; b vi. (body) weak; Gung31-du11 ngvyom54 se5ga31 r55. (body-being soft/weak+FCT like-perceive(ipf) PE) I am feeling weak. Vide bvat5; Nang35 ki31-bvat5 ngvyom31 r55. (2SG.PO leg/footstrenght soft/weak(ipf) PE) You (SG) haven’t got much strenght in your legs. (also with loq1-bvat5 n. strength in the arms); c in wam11 ngvyom55 31 (n+vi.) feel hungry; Wam11 ngvyom31 ngyo31 bue . (swollen/abdomen (ipf) soft/weak talk P+I) I am hungry. / (Lit.) My belly feels soft. Cf. mut1, zo31 mut1, zo31-mut5 and hom11. ngvyop5 (dent) vt. dent; Ngo31 au11 zang35 bat1 ngvyop5 am55 bue31. (1SG pan strike beat dent PFM P+I) I have accidentally dented the pan. Cf. bvyen11 vt. flatten, dent; bvyet1 adj. dented; kang11 vi. (knife) be notched, be dented; zvyop5 vi. be chipped; vt. chip. ngyoq1 (done) vi. be done, cooked; Zang11 ngyoq1 bue31. (rice/food done 31 P+I) The rice is done. Zang11-sun11 ngyoq1 bue . (rice/food-veg/dish 31 5 11 5 done P+I) The dish is done. Zvyoq ge zvyoq bue , a1-ngyoq1 siq1. (cook TOP cook P+I NEG-done still) It has cooked but it is not done yet. Cf. ngvyoq5. Vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. ngvyoq5 (make.done) vt. make done, make well cooked; Sun11 le1go11 zvyoq5 ngvyoq5 gveq5-o55. (veg/dish well cook make.done PLIM-HIGH) Make (PL) this dish very well done. Cf. ngyoq1. ngvyu11 bound n. ‘top of plant or tree’; in a1-ngvyu11, sek5-ngvyu11, we1ngvyu11. ngyui11 I (dried.out) adj/vi. (throat, leaves etc.:) dried out. Mvan11-haq5 31 ban11 ngyui31 byuq1 bue . (grass/leaves-leaf use.up(ipf) dried.out(ipf) lose P+I) The leaves have become dried out. Vide a1-ngyui11; cf. gvan11 vi. (source etc.:) dried out. ngyui11 II (finger/toe) n. finger or toe; ki31-ngyui11 (leg/foot-finger/toe) n. toe; loq1-ngyui11 n. finger; loq1-ngyui11 le1-ngyui11 (hand/arm-finger/toe

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    one-finger/toe) a/one finger; vide ki31-ngyui11, ki31-tang55-ngyui11, to31ngyui11; vide loq1-ngyui11 for the names of the fingers. ngvyui31 vt. dye, colour; (Zyoq1-hui31-)zang11 ngvyui31 zo11 syang55. (flower.name-sallow-rice/food dye eat JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) eat yellow rice. (Lit.: Let’s (ND .IN) colour the rice with zyoqhui and eat it.) Mue31bu11 a1-ngyui31 ma54 gvut5 ngvyui11 dvo31 r55. (wrap-clothes nomgreen/blue LOC +FCT do dye(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) She is dying the clothes green. Cf. ngyui31. ngyui31 a adj. green, blue; mue31-bu11 ngyui31 (wrap-clothes green/blue) green/blue clothes; b vi. green, blue; Sek5-haq5 se5-mu31 ngyui11 ra55. (tree-leaf like-happen green/blue(ipf) PE) It’s green like tree leaves. Sek5yo31 we1-yo31 ngyui11 zvyoi31 bum11 dik1 ra55. (tree-land bamboo-land green/blue(ipf) beautiful(ipf) heap(vt/N)(ipf) extreme PE) The forests and bamboo bushes are all nicely green. Cf. a1-ngyui31, mau11-kung31ngyui31, sek5-ngyui31, sing11sing11 and sing55; cf. ngvyui31. ngyum11 I vi. grumble; Ke5-dye31 ngyum11. (PHB-too grumble) Don’t grumble. Mang11-zo11 hi31 ge11 dye31 gue11 ngyum31 r55. (aged-child this (ipf) TOP too all.right grumble(ipf) PE) This old person is such of a grumbler. ngyum11 II (low*) allomorph of ngyup1; Du35 ngyum11-aq1. (throw low*SIM) Throw (SG) it low. ngvyun11 (steep(vt)) a vt. (tea etc.:) steep; Se5-poq5 ngvyun11 syuq5 syang55. (tree-leaf steep(vt) drink JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) steep and drink tea. Ngo31 se5-poq5 ngvyun11 syuq5 gvat5 be55. (1SG tree-leaf steep(vt) drink put.into EE) Let me steep some tea to drink. b vt. dissolve; Zyum11-dui11 31 ngvyun31 dvo31 lye . (salt-[sweet] steep(vt)(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I) I am dissolving white sugar. c vt. soak; Mue31-bu11 ngvyun31 dvo11-aq5. (wrap-clothes steep(vt)(ipf) place(vt)-SIM) Soak (SG) the clothes. d vt. (hot iron) put into the water, in: Dun11 i1-zvyam11 me55 cyem11 gvut5 ngvyun31 am55-aq5. (press.into/spear water-water LOC [onom] do steep(vt)(ipf) PFM-SIM) Let (SG) the (hot) spear sizzle in the water. Cf. bvom11 vt. ‘put to swell’ and ngyun11 vi. ‘steeped, dissolved’. ngyun11 vi. steeped, dissolved; Zyum11-dui11 ngyun11 bue31. (salt-[sweet] 31 steeped P+I) The white sugar has dissolved. Ngyun11 bue . (steeped 1 11 1 P+I) (tea:) It has steeped. A -ngyun siq . (NEG-steeped still) (tea:) It hasn’t steeped yet. Cf. ngvyun11. ngyun35 I (marrow) in wui11-ngyun35 n+n. marrow. ngyun35 II (sprout2) vi. (new leaves) sprout; Sek5-haq5 ngyun35 bue31. (treeleaf sprout2 P+I) New tree leaves have sprouted. Cf. ban35 (sprout1).

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    ngvyung55 (shrink) vi. shrink; Bu11 ngvyung31 byuq1 bue31, lang31 zyen35

    gvan31-aq1. (clothes shrink(ipf) lose P+I pull/yank(ipf) tight/stretched put.into*-SIM) The clothes have shrunk, stretch (SG) them out. ngyup1 vi. low; Bum31 hu31 ngyup1 r55. (heap(vt/N) above low PE) That hill (above) is low. He55-pyang31 yvang11 zyaq1 mvyang25 wa35, a1kui31 31 ngyup1 byuq1-u55 se5-dut5 bue . (before-DIR 3SG rather tall/high+FCT EMP now low lose-FCT like-become P+I) Before, he used to by quite tall, but now he appears to have become shorter. Du35 ngyum11-aq1. (throw low*-SIM) Throw (SG) it low. ngyuq1 bound form n. ‘young leaves’; A1-ngyuq1 ze11 le1-zo31 lye31. (nomyoung.leaves only but-eat(ipf) also+I) We only eat its young leaves. sek5ngyuq1 (tree-young.leaves) n. young tree leaves; ham55-ngyuq1 (vegetable.name-young.leaves) n. the edible tops of the ham plant, a wild vegetable; wun11-ngyuq1 (no.gloss-young.leaves) n. kind of wild vegetable. nik1 vi. deep; Wui31-tong55 hi31 nik1 dik1 r55. (water-jail this deep extreme PE) This well is very deep. I1mit1 nik1 dik1 r55. (mind deep extreme PE) He is rather inscrutable. (He often does things you don’t expect; mostly negative). -nvik5 I (duo) (9.4) a dual suffix in personal pronouns (9.4); b dual suffix in other pronouns; hi55-nvik5 (this-duo) these two; hau55-nvik5 (the/thatduo) those two; ka55-nvik5/ha55-nvik5 (Q-duo) which two? c n. duo, in nvik5-dvang31 and nvik5-nvum31. nvik5 II (heart) a n. heart; in nvik5-lvum11; b in si1-nvik5 (meat-heart) n. fillet meat; lean meat; c in idiomatic expressions; e.g.: nvik5 a1 -ngap1 siq1, vide ngap1. nvik5 III (the.other.year) (9.39) bound form used in time adverbials; a1nvik5/a5-nvik5 (nom-the.other.year) last year; he5-nvik5 (beforethe.other.year) the year before last year; nuq1-nvik5 (after-the.other.year) the year after next year; sang31-nvik5 (beginning-the.other.year) next year. nvik5-bo31 (heart-contain) (idiom) n+vt. be an understanding person, be faithful. nvik5-bo31-zo11 (heart-contain-child) n+vt+n. a faithful child. nvik5-dvang31 (duo-siblings) n. siblings, brothers and sisters; nvik5-dvang31 seng11-seng11 (duo-siblings liver-liver) close brothers/sisters; yvang55nvik5-dvang31 (3PL-duo-siblings) brother and sister, the two of them; Yvang55-nvik5-dvang31 si1-pik5 gvyang31 (3PL-duo-siblings fruit-pungent (trees)bare) They are inseparable and interdependent. Yvang55-nvik5dvang31 yvang11-mi11 yvang11-lang31 dut1 lo25. (3PL-duo-siblings 3SG-

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    wife 3SG-husband become come(back/up)+FCT) The two siblings became each other’s spouses. nvik5-kik5 (heart-surge) (n+vt.) vr. worry; Hau31 ge11 nang31 ke5-nvik5-kik5 loq1. (the/that TOP 2SG PHB-heart-surge no.more) Don’t (SG) worry about that anymore. nvik5-lvum11 (heart-lump) n. heart (sp. cyam11/syam11). nvik5-nvum31 (duo-couple) n. married couple; nga35-nvik5-nvum31 (1POduo-couple) the two of us, as a couple; yvang55(-nvik5)-nvum31 (3PLduo-couple) the/that couple; Nga35-nvik5-nvum31 i55-yuq1 rvoq5 gung3131 ci11 i5-wo35 ci11 ra la11? (1PO-duo-couple two-person DEF body-wash go-have wash need+I UNC) Would it be okay for the two of us, as a couple, to go and wash together? nvik5-yo11 (heart-itch3) (n+vi.) vi/vt. be angry (at someone), literally ‘have 31 an itching hart’; Nvik5-yo31 dik1 bue . (heart-itch3(ipf) extreme P+I) I’m 31 11 31 11 55 very angry. Bang dvai yvang li nvik5-yo11 bue . (rabbit 3SG OBJ heart-itch3 P+I) He was very angry at the rabbit. nim11 (sting) in bi1-nim11 n. sting; cf. bvat5 vt. sting. nving11 vt. curse, swear at; Nang31 byu31 ke5-dye31 gue11 nving11. (2SG man/woman PHB-too all.right(ipf) swear) Do not (SG) always swear at other people. ning11dup1 n. knife forger (probably also ‘blacksmith’); cf. Jingpo ning‘knife-’ (Xu et al. 1983: 595) and dup beat (Xu et al. 1983: 134); vide syam31 and syam31-dvoq5. Ning11gon35wa35 name of the god that beat the earth together. ning11long11 n. demon (sp. yuq1). ning11long11-mvi55 (demon-female) n. female demon. ning11long11-po55 (demon-male) n. male demon. ning31! onom. imitating the sound of explosions; Zya11yoq1 ning31! ga11 buq1 31 bue . (dynamite [sound.of.explosion] perceive explode(vi) P+I) The dynamite exploded with a big bang. ning31 (INS+I) (18.17) insistive suffix; vide ngve5-ning31. nving55 (cousine) n. female cousin; used by female cross-cousins or crosscousins-in-law. nving55-mo35 (cousine-AUG) elder female cousin. nip5nip5 ideophone expressing ‘spooky’; Lup1-yo31 ye31 zyang35 nip5nip5 ga31 r55. (grave-land go(away/down) CD [spooky] perceive(ipf) PE) When going to the graveyard, it feels spooky. Cf. sim55sim55 and gyuq1. 11 no I vi. take a short break to catch one’s breath; Le1-king11 no31 gvat5 gvoq1. (one-halt/rest catch.one’s.breath(ipf) put.into DIE) Let’s (DU .IN) stop to catch our breath for a while. Cf. king11.

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    no11 / ne1- / ne5- II (cattle) n. cattle (sp. du11); mostly referring to ne1lui11(cattle-water.buffalo) n. water buffalo or ne1-zyung31 (cattle-zebu) n. zebu. The following is an overview of commands to water buffaloes: (1) Bok1bok1bok1! “Turn around!” (2) (containing dvang11, the directive suffix in commands to buffaloes, reduplicated once or more:) Hu55dvang11! (above-(buffalo)side) “Upwards, upwards!” (3) (reduplicated once or more:) Mvo55-dvang11! (below-(buffalo)side) “Downwards, downwards!” (4) dvang31 “Walk in the middle of the road!” (5) (reduplicated once or more:) Dvang31-o55! “In the middle!” (6) Hui31! 31 “Hurry up!” (7) Yoq1! “Stand still!”; also: Yoq1 ngve5-ning ! “Stand still, I said!” no11 ki31-ko31 (cattle leg/foot-track) n. traces of cattle. (no11-)ke1rok1 (cattle-[onom]) n. wooden bell (for cattle). no11-mvan11 / ne1-mvan11 (cattle-grass/leaves) n. grass for the cattle; 31 No11-mvan11 yam31 lye . (cattle-grass/leaves cut.off(ipf) also+I) I am cutting grass for the cattle. No11no35 toponym No11no35-wa31 (Nono-village) Nono village. no11-woq1-waq1 (cattle-chicken-pig) n. livestock. no11-zyung31 (cattle-zebu) normally produced ne1-zyung31. no31 (pain/ill/disease) a n. disease, (cause for) pain; No31 gue31 bue31. (pain/ill/disease all.right P+I) I have recovered. Ngo31 no31 a1-bo31. (1SG pain/ill/disease NEG-contain) I don’t have any disease. No31 dye31 rung35 31 byuq1 bue . (pain/ill/disease too (wound/disease).serious lose P+I) The 31 disease has become too serious. No31 ya31 lye . (pain/ill/disease cure(ipf) 31 31 also+I) We are healing the disease/pain. No wu35 lye . (pain/ill/disease 31 look also+I) We are seeing a doctor. b vi. be ill; Lai hek5 zyang35 no31 31 ra . (wind fan (V) CD pain/ill/disease need+I) You will catch a cold in 31 31 that wind. Mang11-zo11 no31 lui nat1 rvang31 lye . (aged-child pain/ill/disease in.this.way+I spirit worship(ipf) also+I) We are worshipping the spirits in order to cure this old person. c vi. have pain; A1gva31, no11 dik1 ngyo11 r55! ((painful) pain/ill/disease(ipf) extreme talk(ipf) PE) Aah, its aching! Pi1dum11 no11 r55. (waist pain/ill/disease(ipf) PE) The small of my back is hurting. nvo31 / nve5- (nose) n. nose. no31 (HIGH+I) (18.20) one of the possible shapes of the negative indicative suffix (N)o31. 31 nvo (EXP+I) (17.13) the suffix of the expected; Yvang11 no31 nvo31 dut1 r55. (3SG pain/ill/disease EXP+I become PE) He appears to be ill.

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    nvo31-cyu11 (nose-snout) n. (animals) snout. nvo31-dong11 (nose-(have)hole) n. nostril. nvo31-kyo11 (nose-groove) n. groove under the nose. nvo31-mun35-sui11 (nose-tingle-blood) n. nose-blood; Nvo31-mun35-sui11 toq5 r55. (nose tingle blood come.out PE) My nose is bleeding. nvo -syoi55 / nve5-syoi55 (nose-nose.lock) n. nose lock for cattle; Nve531 31 syoi55 tong11 ra dut1 bue . (nose-nose.lock pierce need+I become P+I) It’s about time to pierce this cattle’s nose. nve5-syoi55-dvui11 (nosenose.lock-rope(N/vt)) n. rope for a cattle’s nose lock. Cf. Jingpo shoi (Xu et al. 1983: 799). nvo31-zit5 (nose-stopped.up) (n+adj.) vi. have a stuffed up nose; Nvo31-zit5 (zit1) r55. (nose-stopped.up (stopped.up) PE) I have a stuffed up nose. 35 no (to) (17.14) conjuntional clause marker ‘to’, always in combination with ra11 ‘need’; Bu11-mo35 wut1 no35 a1-ra11. (clothes-AUG wear/dress to NEG-need) You don’t have to wear a jacket. no55 (HIGH) (18.20) one of the possible shapes of the highlighting suffix (N)o55. 5 nok (make.dough) a vt. make dough; Mun35 nok5 gveq5, man11to55 rvang55 zo11 syang55. (flour make.dough PLIM steamed.bread make eat JUS) Make (PL) a dough. Let’s (ND.IN) make steamed bread to eat. b vt. make slush; mi1-zvue11 nok5 (earth-soil make.dough) n+vt. make slush of soil and water. nvong31 n. pond (man-made, without much circulation); cf. wui31-dving55 (water-collect.water/flood(vt)) n. pond (with streaming water); vide nge1-nvong31; cf. Jingpo nong n. ‘lake’ (Xu et al. 1983: 627). -Nong35 I (2nd-brother) in short names for second-born men; vide Le1nong35 and (zi1-)syam31-nong35. nong35 II (sacrifice) in si11-nong35. Nong35dau31 toponym, Chinese 弄 岛 Nòngdǎo; Nong35dau31-bva55 (Nongdao-flatlands) n. the Nongdao flatlands; Nong35dau31-zyau31 (Nongdao-market) n. the Nongdao market. nop1 (sink.away/squishy) a vi. (roads etc.:) be squishy; Kyo31 nop1 dik1 r55. (road sink.away/squishy extreme PE) The road is very squishy. b vi. sink 31 away in the mud; Nop1 wang11 byuq1 bue . (sink.away/squishy enter(ipf) lose P+I) I’ve sunk away in the mud. Cf. nvop5. nvop5 (plod.in.mud) a vt. make something get bogged in the mud; Sau5531 hai11 nang31 nvop5 am55 bue . (shoe-shoe tread(ipf) plod.in.mud PFM P+I) I’ve let my shoe get bogged down in the mud. b vt. have oneself bogged 31 in the mud; Lyang11hai11 nang31 nvop5 am55 bue . (sandal tread(ipf) plod.in.mud PFM P+I) My sandal has got bogged down in the mud! c vt. 31

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    struggle to get out of the mud; Loq1-eq1 nvop5 wu35-aq5. (hand/arm-AG/I plod.in.mud look-SIM) Try (SG) to free yourself from the mud using your hand. Cf. nop1. 1 noq / noq5 adj/vi. ‘black’; vide cyot1cyot1; also in ang11-noq5, nge1-noq1, ngve5-noq1, wang11-noq5, zo11-myoq5-noq1; cf. nvoq5. 1 noq -kyeng55 (black-yellow) n. specific type of wood colour, as far unclear which colour; noq1-kyeng55 kyeng55 n+vi. bear that colour; Noq1-kyeng55 kyeng31 ra55. (black-yellow yellow(ipf) PE) It has a specific type of wood colour. nvoq5 (blacken(vt)) vt. colour black; myoq1-sam31 nvoq5 n+vt. paint the eyebrows black; u1-sam31 nvoq5 n+vt. paint the hair black. 1 not not1 ideophone expressing a jelly-like shape; Wam35pun31-ngvyaq1 not1not1 ze1-dut5 dik1 r55. (pea.flour.cake-watery/thin [like.jelly] onlybecome extreme PE) Pea flour mush is just like jelly. nu11 bound form n. ‘mother’; A5-nu11 (nom-mother) Mum, Mother; A5-nu11mo35 (nom-mother-AUG) madam, honorific tittle for women of an elder generation; i5-nu11 (function-mother) n. a mother, someone who already has had children. Cf. nu31; cf. Maru a1mvi55 ‘mother’. 31 nu / Nu31 (mother/Mum) n. mother, Mum; from Jingpo nu (Xu et al. 1983: 639); cf. Zaiwa nu11. 35 nu adj. young, tender, flexible, pliable; pik5-nu35 (pungent-young/tender) n+adj. fresh young chillies; see also in: ang11-nu35-zo11 (petioleyoung/tender-child) n. young black mustard; ne1-nu35-zo11 (cattleyoung/tender-child) n. newborn calf; ngvyeq5-nu35-zo11 (babyyoung/tender-child) n. baby; we1-nu35 (bamboo-young/tender) n. young, flexible bamboo. Nu35-nu35 ga31 r55. (young/tender-young/tender perceive(ipf) PE) It feels soft and pliable (like the skin of an infant). nueng31nueng31 [forces.of.nature] ideophone expressing the fierceness of storms, rain, fire etc.; Mo35do35 lai31 lo31 zyang35 pui11 lvup5 nueng31nueng31 dut1 r55. (car pass(ipf) come(back/up) CD dust/chaff be.dusty [forces.of.nature] become PE) When a car passes, it becomes 31 dusty as hell. Lai31-dun11-mo35 lo11 lye nueng31nueng31. (wind(ipf) press.into/brace-AUG come(back/up) also+I [forces.of.nature]) A 31 terrible storm is coming. Wui31-zye11-mo35 lo11 lye nueng31nueng31. (ipf) (water-exceed-AUG come(back/up) also+I [forces.of.nature]) A 31 terrible flood is coming. Mi11-mo35 duq1 lye nueng31nueng31. (fireAUG burning also+I [forces.of.nature]) The big fire is ablaze. Mau1131 mo35 wo11 lye nueng31nueng31. (sky-AUG rain(ipf) also+I [forces.of.nature]) It’s raining cats and dogs.

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    nui11 vi. (vines, lianas) grow; Nui31-wang11 a1-bo25 nui31 a1-syau31 nui11. (vine-at.base NEG-contain+FCT vine NEG-need grow.like.vines) Vines without roots cannot grow like vines. Cf. bong11, reng11, yuq1 , zui35. 31 nui n. vine, liana; Nui11-eq1 a1zeng35 wo35 pui31 r55. (vine#-AG/I thing have bind.by.twisting(ipf) PE) With vines you can bind things. 31 nui -ko11 (vine-bitter) n. (Lit.:) bitter vines, used as medicine and tea (reducing internal heat), possibly Chinese 黄连 huánglián. 31 nui -wang11 (vine-at.base) vide wang11. nuk5 vi. be fast asleep; Yvup5 nuk5 dik1 r55. (sleep fast.asleep extreme PE) She is fast asleep. Vide yvup5 vi. sleep. num11 (back) in num11-tang55. num11nang35 (friend) n. friend(s); Bui31num31 zvyat5 a1-ngvut5, 31 num11nang35 ngvut5 lye . (family all NEG-be friend be also +I) None of them are relatives, they’re all friends. au31-zo11 num11nang35 wui31 (super-child friend generation) friends and family; cf. Jingpo numnang n. companion, partner (Xu et al. 1983: 646); cf. syang55 n. companion; vide kung55ga11. Possibly related to Jingpo num (Xu et al. 1983: 641). num11num11 ideophone expressing ‘being taciturn’; Wu35 r11 ge11 num11num11 ze1-gvut5 dvo54 mai11, wa35 gum35rong11 dik1 r55. (look also (ipf) TOP [taciturn] only-do place(vt)+FCT ABL EMP conceited extreme PE) Although he looks very taciturn, he is in fact very arrogant. Cf. Jingpo num? (Xu et al. 1983: 642). Num11syang11 n. place of worship; Num11syang11 me55 ge11 Zai11wa31 wui25 31 nat1 rvang55 zyang11 ngvut5 lye . (place.of.worship LOC TOP Zaiwa generation+FCT spirit worship place(B) be also+I) The Numsyang is the place where the Zaiwa people worship spirits. Cf. Jingpo numshang n. ‘annual prayer’ (Xu et al. 1983: 647). num11-tang55 (back-last) (9.17.5) n. behind one’s back; Nang31 num11tang55 tang55-aq5. (2SG back-last behind2-SIM) You (SG) sleep inside (between me and the wall). Nang31 nga35 num11-tang55 me55 lo35 zung31aq1. (2SG 1PO back-last LOC go(back/up) sit-SIM) Go sit (SG) behind me. Num11-tang55 pyang31 wu35 gvat5 wu35-aq5. (back-last DIR look put.into look-SIM) Look (SG) behind you. Cf. nung31-kung31. nvum31 (couple) n. married couple; a in nvum31 zo11 n+aux. form a couple; b in forms like nga35-nvik5-nvum31 and yvang55(-nvik5)-nvum31. nvum31 zo11 (couple eat) n+aux. form a couple. nun11 in the insect name ki1-nun11. nun35 vi. wobble; Dvang55huq5 a1-nun35 luq1? (stool/chair NEG-wobble Y/N) Does your stool wobble? Nun35-nun35 ze1-ga31 r55. (wobble-wobble

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    only-perceive(ipf) PE) It’s only wobbling. Se1boi31 dye31 nun35 r55. (table too wobble PE) The table wobbles too much. Vide Le1yang31. nvun55 vt. rock; Gu35 ke5-nvun55. (bed PHB-rock) Don’t rock the bed. Zi1syang31 bau31 nvun55-aq5. (child carry.on.back(ipf) rock- SIM) Carry (SG) the child on your back and rock it. Yvang11 zi1syang31 bun35 nvun31 dvo31 r55. (3SG child (child).carry.in.front rock(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) She is carrying the child in front of herself and rocking it. nung11- (2REL) (9.6) second person relational prefix. nung11-lang31 (2REL-husband) your husband. nung11-mi11 (2REL-wife) your wife. nung11-zo11 (2REL-child) your child/children. nung31 (upper.back) in nung31-kung31. nung31-kung31 (upper.back-vault/ridge) n. upper back; Nung31-kung31 me55 gvin31 bi11 raq5. (upper.back-vault/ridge LOC scratch.against.itch give VO) Scratch (SG) my upper back, please. Cf. num11-tang55. nung35- (2PL) (9.4) second person plural pronoun; cf. Maru nung31 you (SG); cf. nung11-, -nvung55. nung35-moq1 (2PL-party) (9.4) second person plural pronoun. nung35-nvik5 (2PL-duo) (9.4) second person dual pronoun. -nvung55 (1ND.IN) (9.4) first person non-dual plural inclusive pronoun (bound form); in i5-nvung55 and nga35-nvung55; cf. nung35; cf. Maru nung31 you (SG). 1 nuq I (after) (9.39, Table 9.11) in various time adverbials. nuq1 / nuq5 / ne1- II (bean) n. bean (sp. cyam11/syam11); also as ne1- in ne1-bup5 n. fermented soy bean paste; mi31-nuq5 (earth-bean) n. peanuts. 1 nuq III (fine) vi. be crushed or chewed fine; A1-nuq1 luq1 ? (NEG-fine Y/N) Is it (chewed/crushed) fine? replied by: Nuq1 r55. (fine PE) It’s (chewed/crushed) fine. also reduplicated as an adverb: Le1go11 nuq1-nuq1 nvye11-aq5 ma11. (well fine-fine chew-SIM ROUS) Chew (SG) it very well. Cf. zvai55 and vt. nvuq5 1 nuq -bau11 (bean-bug) n. bug living on bean plants. nuq1-bup5 (bean-bad/fermented) vide ne1-bup5. nuq1-byeq1 (bean-tight.to.the.ground) n. low-growing black mustard; Nuq131 byeq1 ge11 bum31-yo31 me55 ze11 san31 lye . (bean-tight.to.the.ground TOP (ipf) heap(vt/N)-land LOC only scatter also+I) Low-growing black mustard is only seeded in high fields. nuq1-gvyui31 (bean-French.bean) n. French bean (sp. dung 35 cubit). nuq1-gvyuq5 (bean-dehydrate) n. sun-dried slices of fermented soy bean paste; vide ne1-bvup5. 1 nuq -ngok1 (bean-germinate) n. bean sprouts.

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    nuq1-nvik5 (after-the.other.year) (9.39) the year after next year. nuq1-poi31-min31 (after-2.days.after.tomorrow-evening) (9.39, Table 9.11) the evening of two days after tomorrow. (after-2.days.after.tomorrow-evening-behind) (9.39, Table 9.11) the afternoon of two days after tomorrow. nuq1-poi31-nap5 (after-2.days.after.tomorrow-morning) (9.39, Table 9.11) two days after tomorrow. 1 nuq -poi31-nap5 lye54 nap1-gvyo55 r55 (after-2.days.after.tomorrowmorning also+FCT morning-morning.of.other.day TS) (9.39, Table 9.11) in the morning of two days after tomorrow. nuq1-sui11 (bean-freckle) n. fermented soy beans that have not been crushed yet; cf. ne1-bup5. (glossing of sui11 uncertain). 1 nuq -yen11 (bean-pickles) n. pickled fermented soy beans (Chinese: 腌豆 豉 yān dòuchǐ). nvuq5 I (brains) in u1-nvuq5. nvuq5 II (pound.fine) a vt. pound fine; A1-wo35 tung31 nvuq5 luq1? (NEGhave crush(ipf) pound.fine Y/N) Can you grind/crush it fine? b vt. chew fine; A1-wo35 nvye31 nvuq5. (NEG-have chew(ipf) pound.fine) I can’t chew it up. c vt. (people) hit, beat; A5-nu11 ngo31 r55 a1-yan35 nvuq5 r55. (nommother 1SG OBJ nom-row pound.fine PE) Mum often hits me. Cf. nuq1. 1 nut / nut5 (pull.out) vt. (hair, grass etc.:) pull out in small quantities; 31 Sam31-pyu31 nut1 lye . (hair.of.the.head-white pull.out also+I) I’m 31 pulling out white hairs. Mvan11-nut5 lye . (grass/leaves-pull.out also+I) I am pulling out some grass. nut1nut1 ideophone indicating walking in a sluggish and clumsy way; 31 Dung31sang11 nut1nut1 gvut5 do31 lo35 bue . (caterpillar (ipf) [sluggish.and.clumsy] do all.fours go(back/up) P+I) The caterpillar 31 climbed up/away in its sluggish and clumsy way. Dye31 myum31 lui 31 ge11 nut1nut1 gvut5 ze11 so31 gvun31 r55 ngvut5 r55 mai . (too fat in.this.way+I TOP [sluggish.and.clumsy] do only walk(ipf) play(ipf) PE be PE OBV+I) He is too fat, he walks like a caterpillar, really! nvut5 a n. mouth; see further below; yam11-nvut5 (pot-mouth) n. the mouth of a pot; vide ha55; (idiom) Byu31 hau55-yuq1 nvut5 ngon35 dik1 r55. (man/woman the/that-person mouth pleasant extreme PE) He speaks 31 glibly; b n. bite, mouthful; Le1-nvut5 ze1-si . (one-mouth only-still+I) Only one more bite. nvut5 yop1 (mouth chew.with.mouth.shut) a n+v. chew with mouth shut; 31 Nvut5 yop1 si25 ge11 ka55-hu55 zo31 lye ? (mouth chew.with.mouth.shut (ipf) die+FCT TOP Q-sort eat also+I) Something is moving inside your mouth all the time, what are you eating? Also: Nvut5 yop1-yop1 gvut5

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    si25 ge11, …; b (idiom:) Nvut5 ke5-dye31 yop1 nvau31. (mouth PHB-too chew.with.mouth.shut feel.like) Do not always only think about having something in your mouth. nvut5 zyui11 (mouth rinse) n+vt. wash face and/or brush teeth. nvut5-bvyet1 (mouth-dented) (n+adj.) n. pout. nvut5-cyu11 (mouth-snout) n+n. lips; also nvut5-gvuq5. nvut5-gvuq5 (mouth-skin) n+n. lip, lips; also nvut5-cyu11. nvut5-hum11 (mouth-door) (n+n.) n. opened mouth; Nvut5-hum11 me55 31 mvi31 am55 lui syeq1… (mouth-door LOC trap(ipf) PFM in.this.way+I au.contraire) Being trapped in the opening of his mouth then… nvut5-mui11 (mouth-beard) n+n. beard; Nvut5-mui11 zyaq1 heng31 bue31. (mouth-beard rather long P+I) His beard is quite long. Nvut5-mui11 wuq1 am55-aq5. (mouth-beard shave PFM-SIM) Shave your (SG) beard. Nvut5mui11 hek1 dik1 r55. (mouth-beard huge extreme PE) He has an enormous beard. Vide zuep1zuep1 and zuk5. nvut5-mui11 zuk5-mo35 (mouth-beard hairy-AUG) a hairy or heavily bearded face. nvut5-nvye31 nvye31 (mouth-make.red/fry make.red/fry) n+vt. put on lipstick. nvut5-zyup5 zyup5 (mouth-catch/wring.out catch/wring.out) n+vt. kiss. nvye11 vt. chew; Ngvya55 nvye11 syang55. (tobacco chew JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) chew tobacco. A1-wo35 nvye31 nvuq5. (NEG-have chew(ipf) pound.fine) I can’t chew it up. Le1go11 nuq1-nuq1 nvye11-aq5 ma11. (well fine-fine chew-SIM ROUS) Chew (SG) it very well. nye11 (thong) n. bamboo thong; nye11 cing11/sing11 (thong split.bamboo) n+vt. split bamboo thongs; Nye31-eq1 pui55-aq5. (thong#-AG/I bind.by.twisting-SIM) Bind (SG) it by twisting the bamboo thong. 31 Tung55-gva55 nye11 syap5 lye . (wickerwork-variegated1 thong peel also+I) I am making thongs for the tunggva basket. nvye31 (make.red/fry) a vt. make red; myoq1-dong11 nvye31 (eye-(have)hole make.red/fry) n+vt. add red colour to the cheeks; nvut5-nvye31 nvye31 (mouth-make.red/fry make.red/fry) n+vt. put on lipstick; b vt. add 31 colour; Ka55-hu55 i1sam31 nvye31 ra ? (Q-sort colour make.red/fry need+I) What colour shall we add? c vt. stir-fry; nvye31 zo11 (make.red/fry eat) vt+vt. eat fried dishes; sun11-nvye31 nvye31 (veg/dishmake.red/fry make.red/fry) n+vt. stir-fry dishes. Vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. Cf. nye31 adj/vi. red. 31 nye adj/vi. red; ban11-bo35 nye31 (flower-open.itself red) n+adj. red flowers; 31 Nye11 lye heng11heng11. (red(ipf) also+I [scarlet]) (It is) scarlet red. 31 11 Kang -nye31 nye11 ra55. (purple-red red(ipf) PE) It is deep red. Nye11 lye

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    zam11zam11. (red(ipf) also+I [crimson]) (It is) crimson red. Cf. a1-nye31, nvye31, u1-pyu31 zui31 nye31. nvye31 zo11 (make.red/fry eat) vt+vt. eat fried dishes; vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. nye35gvyet5 n. rubber. nye35gvyet5 lai11-dan35 (rubber bow-catapult) n+n. rubber catapult. nye35gvyet5-gam31 (rubber-tree(B)) n. rubber tree. nye35gvyet5-koq5 (rubber-bowl) n. bowl under a rubber tree. nvye55 (press) vt. press; always followed by a resultative verb; Loq1 nvye31 31 bvyen31 am55 bue . (hand/arm press(ipf) flatten/dent(vt)(ipf) PFM P+I) My hand has been pressed flat. Ki31 ke5-lye35 nvye31 zek1 dvo11. (leg/foot (ipf) PHB-come(away/down) press (op)press place(vt)) Don’t press against me with your leg/foot. Ki31-lyeng11-eq1 nvye31 zek1 dvo54. (leg/footwheel#-AG/I press(ipf) (op)press place(vt)+FCT) She has been run over by 31 a bicycle. Yvang11 r55 mo35do35-eq1 nvye31 sat5 am55 bue . (3SG OBJ car(ipf) AG/I press kill PFM P+I) He has been run over and killed by a car. Cf. zving31, zek1. nvyep5 (lift/pinch) vide ge5-nvyep5. nvyet5 (play.seesaw) vide gong11nvyet5 / gong11nvyet5 nvyet5.

    -Oo11 I (ch.20) exclamatory expression used when just realizing or comprehending something; O11, hi55-dong31 lu11? ((realizing) thislead/connect RHT) Oh, it’s like this. o11 II (REF) (18.19) the reference suffix, referring back to utterances of people other than the speaker, not as a quotative but for asking the addressee to repeat his words, for insinuating incomprehension or uncertainty of for checking about what yet other people have said; Ka55hu55 o11? (Q-sort REF) What? / What did you/she/he/they say? Ka55-hu55 31 ga o11? (Q-sort perceive+I REF) What did you say? Ka55-hu55 ga54 o11? (Q-sort perceive+FCT REF) What did he/they say? o11 III n. labour exchange, exchanged labour forces; O11 yu31 ra31 r55. (labour.exchange take need(ipf) PE) We have to make use of some exchanged labour forces. Often with the verb sap5 vt. exchange labour, 31 e.g.: O11 le1-kyui55 sap5 bue . (labour.exchange one-half.a.day exchange.labour P+I) We have returned one afternoon of labour. Nga3531 31 nvung55 yvang55-moq1 r55 o11 sap5 ra dut1 a1-si . (1PO-1ND.IN 3PLparty OBJ labour.exchange exchange.labour need+I become nom-still+I) We still have to work for them in exchange. o11ka11 “correcting” expression used for interrupting oneself when making mistakes; A1kang31, yvang11-mi11-eq5 yvang11-lang31, yvang11-mi11 ge11 31 myoq1-gvyeq5, o11ka11, a1-ngvut5-no . (long.ago 3SG-wife-COM 3SGhusband 3SG-wife TOP eye-cake (correcting) NEG-be-HIGH+I) Long ago, there was a couple; the woman was a crust-eyed. - no, she wasn’t … o31 I (under) (9.18.2) adj. under; se1boi31 o31 me55 (table under LOC) under the table; cf. a1-o31, mvo55-, mvo31. 31 o II (want/take) a vt. (material objects) want, take; Ngo31 ling31-zeng11 o31 31 ra . (1SG neck-neck want/take need+I) I’ll take the neck. (spoken to the 31 31 butcher) b (idiom) save face; Myoq1-dong11 o31 ra dut1 lye . (eye(have)hole want/take need+I become also+I) You should save face. c vide o31-nvau31. 31 o (HIGH+I) (18.20) one of the possible shapes of the negative indicative suffix (N)o31. 31 o -nvau31 (want/take-feel.like) (15.22) vt+aux. would like to have; Nang31 o31-nvau31 zyang35 ge11 yu11 lo35-aq5. (2SG want/take-feel.like CD TOP

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    take(ipf) go(back/up)-SIM) If you (SG) like it, you can take it. Be1-sek5 a1o31-nvau31 luq1? (clothes-new NEG-want/take-feel.like Y/N) Don’t you want to have new clothes? Vide 15.22. o35! exclamatory expression used when blaming others for some matter; O35, 31 hyem31 du35 am31 lye ! ((blaming) how throw PFM(ipf) also+I) Oh, why did you throw it away? o35o35o35o35! / o35ro35ro35ro35! signal for calling dogs over for a meal. -o55 I (FCT) (4.3) one of the various possible shapes of the factitive marker. o55 II (HIGH) (18.20) one of the possible shapes of the highlighting suffix (N)o55. 55 o III (VOC) vocative onset; vide e11/e31/eq5/ei11/ei35/ei55/eiq5/o55. o55 IV (who) (9.4) a interrogative pronoun ‘who?’; b indefinite pronoun ‘who’. O55ra55 ra55 / O55rang11 rang11 (used in songs etc.) n+v. take part in dancing related to the Menau; O55ra55 ra55 syang55 Me1nau11 nau11 syang55-o55. (no.gloss no.gloss JUS Menau Menau JUS-HIGH) Let us (ND.IN) join in in the Menau dancing! O55rang11 rang11 syang55. (no.gloss no.gloss JUS) Let us (ND.IN) take part in Menau dancing. O55rang11 vide O55ra55 ra55/ O55rang11 rang11. o55-yuq1 (who-person) (9.4) long variant of o55 ‘who’; O55-yuq1 yu31 gvo54 ta11? (who-person take PL +FCT GI) Which of you has taken it? 55 o -zyan35 (who-wife) ‘whose wife?’ Nang31 o55-zyan35 ta11? (2SG who-wife GI) Whose wife are you (SG)? / What’s the name of your husband? Vide zyan35 nominal suffix ‘the wife of’. 31 o -bvue55 (who(GEN)-PLN) plural variant of o55 ‘who’. o54 (who+FCT) (9.4) a ‘whose?’ as an interrogative pronoun; Hau31 ge11 o54 31 syam31-byang ? (the/that TOP who+FCT knife-scabbard) Whose knife and scabbard are these? b ‘whose’ as an indefinite pronoun; O54 r11 a1ngvut5. (who+FCT also NEG-be) It belongs to nobody. A 1-myu31-zo11 31 ge11 o55 r11 o54 tung31-keng11 wo35 lye . (nom-sort/nationality-child TOP who also who+FCT tradition-outfit have also+I) Every minority has its own traditions. oi31! (yes!/I’m.here!) (ch.20) expressing notions like “(Yes) I’m over here!” or “(Yes) I heard you!”. Cf. Jingpo oi (Xu et al. 1983: 655). oi31-o31! (yes!/I’m.here!-HIGH+I) used when first shouting “oi31!” met no response or when not being interested. oi55ei31ang35! emphatic and untranslatable word used in songs; cf. Jingpo oye lo (Xu et al. 1983: 657). ok5-ngei31 ((my.dear!)-EXCL) exclamarory expression used when seeing children hurting themselves.

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    on11 (feel.like.vomiting) vide a1-on11. ong11lot1 (water.fungus) n -ear-shaped water fungus; Ong11lot1 ge11 i1-lang31 31

    ma54 le1gok1 me55 yuq1 lye . (water.fungus TOP water-river LOC+FCT stone LOC grow also+I) Ear-shaped water fungi grow on stones under water. Cf. Jingpo ongrot (Xu et al. 1983: 656). ong55 (win) a vi/vt. win; Mi1-zyan11 ong55 bue31. (fire-endure win P+I) We/they have won the war. b vi/vt. be succesful (with); Pe5ga35 (ga35) 31 ong55 bue . (trade(N) (trade(V)) win P+I) I have been succesful in 31 business. Pe5ga35 ong31 mvau31 bue . (trade(N) win(ipf) cheat/fool(ipf) P+I) I am making some funny little profits in business. Sam55-bvoi31 ong55 31 bue . (Shan-festival win P+I) I/she/he have/has passed the exams. Cf. ren31; cf. Jingpo ong (Xu et al. 1983: 656). 1 op op1 [springy] ideophone expressing the springy sensation of certain beds or matrasses etc; Gu35 hi31 ge11 op1op1 ze1-ga31 r55. (bed this TOP [springy] only-perceive(ipf) PE) This bed feels springy.

    -Ppa11sen55 n. wrap-around skirt (sp. dung11). pa55 in the village name Gvong11-pa55. pa55dvye31 n. township; Chinese 乡 xiāng. pa55dvye31-bva55 (township-flatlands) n+n. the township (in the valley). Pa55sue31-bva55 ((village.name)-flatlands) village name. Pai11 a family name; in Le1-pai11 and Pai11-Kun55. Pai11-Kun55 double family name, consisting of the Jingpo name Pai or Lahpai (Xu et al. 1983: 970) and the Zaiwa name Kun55. pai -kyet1 (matches-strike.(matches)) n. match (for making fire); pai11 is a loan from Shan [yet1 phai52] (pronunciation of Zaiwa informant); n. matches; vide kyet1. 55 pai (cards/game) n. cards or other objects for playing games with (sticks, stones etc.); pai55 bat1 (cards/game beat) n+vt. play cards (or sticks or stones etc.); Pai55 bat1 syang55. (cards/game beat JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) play cards. The suits of the cards are named: bvan31 n. hearts, zi55ya55 n. clubs, pe1gum31 n. spades and yvek5dva55 n. diamonds. Ngo31 yvek5dva55 31 sum31-dong11 toq5/ gvat5 lye . (1SG diamonds three-(have)hole come.out / put.into also+I) I’ll play a three of diamonds. Cf. ngun31-pai55 bat1 (silver-cards/game beat) n+vt. gamble;vide bvan31-pai55, ngun31pai55 bat1; from Chinese 牌 pái, cf. pue31 and rang31. 1 pak spec. n. ‘half a pound’; i31-pue11 le1-pak1 (distilled-booze onehalf.a.pound) half a pound of booze; cf. Jingpo hpak (Xu et al. 1983: 276). pak1-zo11 (half.a.pound-child) (n+adj.) n. half a pound. pam11 n. stomach; also ki1-pam11 (faeces-stomach) n. stomach; vide wam11pam11-mo35; cf. wam11 n. abdomen. 31 pan (create) a vt. create; mi31-pan31 (earth-create) n. the creator of the world; Mau11 pan31 mi31 pan31 su31 ge11 o55-yuq1 la11? (sky create earth create SNO TOP who-person UNC) Who would be the creator of heaven and earth? Byu31 ge11 o55-yuq1 lye35 pan25 la11? (man/woman TOP whoperson come(away/down) create+FCT UNC) Who could have (come down and) created mankind? b vt. invent; Mi1-dat5 ge11 o55-yuq1 pan11 toq5-o55 la11? (fire-electric TOP who-person create(ipf) come.out-FCT UNC) Who 31 31 did invent electricity? c vt. bring about; O55-yuq1 pan11 lye ga , a5-se55 (ipf) 5 gvut . (who-person create also+I perceive+I nom-like do) Who has 11

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    made this mess? Nang31 r55 ge11 o55-yuq1 pan11 toq5-o55 ta11? (2SG OBJ (ipf) TOP who-person create come.out-FCT GI) (angry:) Who on earth has created you (SG)? Cf. Jingpo hpan (Xu et al. 1983: 277). pang31 (dodge/flee) a vi. flee, escape; Kau11 su31 pang11 byuq1 bue31. (steal 31 (ipf) SNO dodge/flee lose P+I) The thief has fled. Hat5 pang11 am55 bue . (ipf) 1 35 (pursue dodge/flee PFM P+I) I’ve chased them away. A -wo pang31 1 loq . (NEG-have dodge/flee no.more) He could no longer escape. b vi. dodge, make way; Ngo31 r55 tye11 r55, pang31 gveq5. (1SG OBJ be.in.the.way(ipf) PE dodge/flee PLIM) You are standing in my way. Make (PL) way. Cf. yven31 vt. dodge, make way for, let pass. -Pang55 I in personal names. pang55 II (make.a.start) vi. make a start doing something, leading others; Nang31 he55 pang31 gvan31-aq1. (2SG before make.a.start(ipf) put.into*31 SIM) You (SG) start singing. Ngo31 a1-gue11 pang55-o . (1SG NEG(ipf) all.right make.a.start-HIGH+I) I can’t make the start! Cf. Jingpo hpang (Xu et al. 1983: 277). paq1zvi31 (knowledge) a n. knowledge; lai11gva55 paq1zvi31 n+n. culture, knowledge; paq1zvi31 mvoq5 (knowledge earn/teach) n+vt. acquire knowledge; b n. idea, plan; Yvang11-mi31-eq1 paq1zvi31 lom11 dai31-gvyo54 ge11. (3SG-wife#-AG/I knowledge attend(ipf) speak(ipf)-let.hear+FCT TOP) That’s where his wife told him her idea. Vide lai11gva55. 5 pat vi/vt. vomit; Zi1syang31 pat5 r55. (child vomit PE) The child is vomiting. Cf. a1-on11. 11 pau (expensive) a n. dowry; pau11 gvat5 (expensive put.into) n+vt. offer dowry; Pau11 ke5-mvyo55 dung11 gvo54 ta11? (expensive Q-much (B) demand PL +FCT GI) How much dowry did they demand? b vi. expensive; Dye31 pau31 r55. (too expensive(ipf) PE) It’s too expensive. 11 Pau cung55 a family name. Pau11ki11 a family name; cf. Jingpo Hpauhkyi (Xu et al. 1983: 969); Pau11ki11-gam35 (name)-eld-brother) name of a witch doctor and storyteller for this book. Pau11zyang11 a family name; Pau11zyang11 Ka31dvom55 is the name of a story-teller for this book. pau31 (widower) vide ci5-pau31(-po55). -pe1- I (after.tomorrow) (9.39, Table 9.11) after sang31-, in various time adverbials. pe1- / pe5- II (belt) prefix n. belt; vide pe1-het5, pe5-hum31 and pe5-zvang11; cf. pa11sen55 n. skirt. 1 pe - III (booze) allomorph of pue11 n. booze; only used in pe1-gang11 (boozeno.gloss) n. kind of light liquor; vide pue11.

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    pe1- IV (elder.brother) vide pu11/pe1-. pe1dong11 n. the large intestine; cf. bve5-sang55 and u31. pe1dvung31 n. bent chopping knife. pe1-gang11 (booze-no.gloss) n. kind of light liquor; cf. Jingpo hpagang (Xu et al. 1983: 273).

    pe1gvi31 n. coriander. pe1gum31 n. (cards:) spades; vide pai55. Pe1gun11 (mourning.dance) n. mourning dance; Pe1gun11 go35 syang55. (mourning.dance dance JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) dance the mourning dance. Vide go35. 1 Pe -gun31 (elder.brother-5th.in.line) vide Pu11-gun31; also Mang11-gun31. pe1-het5 (belt-belt(N/V)) n. belt, girdle; Pe1-het5 hen31-aq1. (belt-belt(N/V) belt(N/V)*-SIM) Wear (SG) a belt. Vide het5. 1 Pe -ka31 (elder.brother-7th-brother) vide Pu11-ka31; also Mang11-ka31. Pe1-lat1 (elder.brother-halfway) vide Pu11-lat1; also Mang11-lat5. Pe1-lat5 (elder.brother-halfway) variant of Pu11-lat1/lat5 short name for a second-born elder brother; also Mang11-lat5. 1 Pe -mo35 (elder.brother-AUG) vide Pu11-mo35; also Mang11-mo35. Pe1-tung55 (elder.brother-(male).6th.in.line) vide Pu11-tung55; also Mang11tung55. 1 pe zyang35-gam31 / pe1zyang35-zeng31 (tree.name-tree(B) (tree.nametrunk) vide nam11lo11-pe1zyang35. 5 pe -hum31 (belt-melon/gourd) n. pumpkin, cushaw (sp. cyam11/syam11). pe5-zvang11 (belt-(wear).trousers) n. trousers (sp. dung11); pe5-zvang11 doi35-zo11 (belt-(wear).trousers cut.short-child) n. shorts; cf. lve1-zo11 (trousers-child) n. pants, knickers; Pe5-zvang11 zvang11-aq5. (belt(wear).trousers (wear).trousers-SIM) Wear (SG) trousers. / Put on your (SG) trousers. Vide lve1- and zvang11. Vide wut1 for an overview of other verbs and expressions for putting on/off or wearing clothes, shoes, glasses etc. pe5ga35 n. trade; pe5ga35 ga35 (trade(N) trade(V)) n+vt. do business; Sueng55 31 pe5ga35 ga35 lye . (precious.stone trade(N) trade(V) also+I) I trade in 31 precious stones. Pe5ga35 myat1 bue . (trade(N) gain.profit P+I) I have 31 gained profit in business. Pe5ga35 ga35 sum31 bue . (trade(N) trade(V) loose/fade P+I) I have made losses in business. Pe5ga35 (ga35) ong55 31 bue . (trade(N) (trade(V)) win P+I) I have been succesful in business. Cf. Jingpo hpaga (Xu et al. 1983: 273). pe5ha11 n. kind of vegetable. pe5lvam31 n. butterfly, moth. Pe5rva31 n. Buddha.

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    pe5ro35 n. garlic; Pe5ro35 sing55 ngo31 a1-ron11. (garlic taste/smell(N) 1SG NEG-get.used) I can’t get used to the smell or taste of garlic.

    pe5sye55 n. a particular type of leaves. pek1 (diarrhoea) in ki1-pek1 (pek1). pek5 I (drain.fish) vt. catch fish, specifically by draining; nge1-gvoq5 pek5 (fish-branch drain.fish) n+vt. drain part of a stream in order to collect the fish; nge1-nvong31 pek5 (fish-pond drain.fish) n+vt. drain a pond in order to collect the fish; cf. gvong55. Vide nge1-/nge5- for a list of Zaiwa fishing techniques. pek5 II (trigger) in loq1-pek5 n. trigger of a gun; cf. bek1 vt. shoot. peng55 (sturdy) vi. strongly built and healthy, robust, sturdy; a after gung31du11 (body-being) n. body; Gung31-du11 peng31 dik1 r55. (body-being sturdy(ipf) extreme PE) He is quite strong and healthy. Gung31-du11 a1peng55 loq1. (body-being NEG-sturdy no.more) He is not strong and healthy anymore. b after wum11 n. power; Mo35do35 hi31 ge11 wum11 peng31 dik1 r55. (car this TOP power sturdy(ipf) extreme PE) This is a very strong car. No11 hi55-du11 wum11 peng31 dik1 r55. (cattle this-being power sturdy(ipf) extreme PE) This is a very strong piece of cattle. 11 pi (evil.eye) n. kind of spirit protecting certain families and punishing when things are denied to them; Chinese 琵琶鬼 pípāguǐ; Pi11 wo35 bang11 r55 31 31 gyuq1 ra dut1 lye . (evil.eye have PNO OBJ afraid need+I become also+I) You have to watch out for those that have the evil eye. Bi11 31 gveq5, pi31-eq1 ngat1 ra . (give PLIM evil.eye#-AG/I bite need+I) (You’d better) give (PL) it, otherwise the evil eye will bite. Cf. Jingpo hpyi (Xu et al. 1983: 301). Vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. pi11pa55(go11)syu31 n. loquat tree; from Chinese 枇杷果树 pípá guǒshù; vide si1-mvyo55-byap1. 11 pi zyo31 n. beer; Chinese 啤酒 píjiǔ. pi1dum11 n. waist, the small of the back; Pi1dum11 no11 r55. (waist pain/ill/disease(ipf) PE) The small of my back is hurting. See the forms below. (pi1 dum11) hu55-dvum55 ((waist) above-interrupt) the upper part of the body. (pi1 dum11) mvo55-dvum55 ((waist) below-interrupt) the lower part of the body. pi31 (untie.(ropes)) vt. untie the ropes of some person or animal; No11 pi11 gvan31-aq1. (cattle untie.(ropes)(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Untie (SG) the cow. Dvui11 pi31 bi11 raq5. (rope(N/vt) untie.(ropes) give VO) Untie me please.

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    pi55 (beg) a vi. beg; pi55 syuq5 (beg drink) vi+vt. beg for drinks; pi55 zo11 (beg eat) vi+vt. beg for food; Ke5-dye31 lo11 pi55 zo11. (PHB-too come(back/up)(ipf) beg eat) Don’t beg for food (from me). b vt. beg from someone; Nang31 yvang11 r55 pi31 wu35-aq5. (2SG 3SG OBJ beg(ipf) lookSIM) (one beggar to the other:) Try (SG) to beg it from her. c in mo35pi55 pi55 (beggar beg) n+v. be a beggar, act as a beggar; Mo35pi55 ke5-dye31 31 lye35 pi55-o . (beggar PHB-too come(away/down) beg-HIGH+I) Don’t come here begging like a beggar. d vt. tell riddles; Le1byoq5 pi31 lum11 gvoq1. (riddle beg(ipf) reciprocal DIE) Let’s (DU.IN) exchange riddles with each other. pik5 adj/vi. spicy, pungent; Si1-pik5 pik5 r55. (fruit-pungent pungent PE) It’s 31 hot. Pik5 dik1 lye -o55! (pungent extreme also+I-HIGH) It’s pungent, I 31 31 tell you! Sun11 hi31 ngye35 lye pik5 lye ga31 r55. (veg/dish this burnt/hot also+I pungent also+I perceive(ipf) PE) This dish is both hot and pungent. Si1-pik5 a1-gvat5 zyang35 ge11 dum11 a1-ngvam11, gvat5 zyang35 ge11 dum11 pik5. (fruit-pungent NEG-put.into CD TOP again NEG-tasty put.into CD TOP again pungent) If you don’t put in chillies, it isn’t tasty, but then again, if you do put them in it is too hot. i31-pik5 (distilledpungent) n. regular rice wine; vide si1-pik5. 5 pik -mun31 (pungent-powder) n. chilli powder. pik5-nu35 (pungent-young/tender) n+adj. fresh young chillies; pik5-nu35 sing55 (pungent-young/tender taste/smell(N)) n+adj-+n. the smell of fresh young chillies. pin11 (morals) vide tung31-pin11. pin31 (cut.in.two*) allomorph of pit5. pit5 / pin31 (cut.in.two) a vt. cut in two; vide cyoq5-pit5; b vt. resultative verb after other actions verbs, expressing ‘in two’; e.g.: Tang11 dum31 pin31-aq1. (firewood log(vt/n)(ipf) cut.in.two*-SIM) Cut (SG) the firewood into logs. zan31 pit5 (hew(ipf) cut.in.two) hew in two; zvye31 pit5 (cleave.in.one.blow(ipf) cut.in.two) cleaved in two; lang31 pit5 (tear/hew.in.two do pull/yank(ipf) cut.in.two) tear in two; not always litterally ‘in two’: Mvyet1mvyet1 gvut5 lang31 pit5 yu31-aq1. ([stuck.to. something] do pull/yank(ipf) cut.in.two take-SIM) Keep it tightly in your (SG) grip and yank it out of his hands. c in but1-pit5 (determinecut.in.two) v+v. tell fortunes; vide but1-pit5 and cyoq5-pit5. Vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. po11 (INO) (9.32.4) nominalizer ‘things for/to …’; zo31 po11 (eat(GEN) INO) things to eat; often also bearing a prohibitive load, e.g.: Hum55-dong11

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    mai11 a1-zyui35 wu35 po11. (door-(have)hole ABL NEG-peep look INO) It is no good to peep through chinks in the door. po31 (mend/patch) vt. mend, patch; Bu11 po31 bi11 raq5. (clothes mend/patch 31 give VO) Please mend my clothes. Mau35-yui11 r55, yvum31 po11 lye . (ipf) (ipf) (sky-leak/stream PE house mend/patch also+I) The roof is leaking. I’m mending the roof. (Lit.:) I’m repairing the house. po55 (male) (9.29) masculine sex suffix; ning11long11-po55 (demon-male) n. male demon; a1-po55 (nom-male) na. male animal; cf. Maru a1pho55 ‘father’; cf. gue31/ge1- adj. and the prefix le1-/le5-; vide byu31-po55. 11 poi (bad/off) a vi. go bad; Ya11ya35 hi31 ge11 poi31 byuq1 bue31. (medicine this TOP bad/off(ipf) lose P+I) This medicine is off. b adj. foolish; Nang31 su54 byu31-poi11-mo35! (2SG like+FCT man/woman-bad/off-AUG) You 31 (ipf) (SG) fool! c vi. (fun or effect) spoiled; Poi31 byuq1 lye . (bad/off lose also+I) When you say it aloud, it spoils the fun / the effect. Cf. Jingpo hpoi (Xu et al. 1983: 280). poi31 (2.days.after.tomorrow) (9.39, Table 9.11) after nuq1, in various time adverbials. pok1pok1 (identical) in le1-pok1pok1 za54. pok5 [give.away] ideophone referring to the divulging of secrets; Ma1131 lum31-eq1 pok5 ze11 i5-dai31-gvyo31 am55 bue . ((name.prefix)(ipf) (in.names)#-AG/I [give.away] only go-speak -let.hear(ipf) PFM P+I) Malum has divulged the secret. pom31 I (spongy) adj. spongy, mouldered; sek5-pom31 (tree-spongy) n+adj. mouldered wood; zvut5-pom31 (lung-spongy) n+adj. the lungs; cf. pop1 and also mung11zung35, sa11, sak5, wom11. pom31 II vi. unite, stand together; Nga35-nvung55 wa31 bang11 le1go11 pom31 31 31 ra dut1 lye . (1PO-1ND.IN village PNO well unite need+I become also+I) We village people have to stand together. often in i1mit1 pom31 31 n+v. stand together, agree; Nga35-nvung55 i1mit1 le1go11 pom31 ra dut1 31 lye . (1PO-1ND.IN mind well unite need+I become also+I) We (ND .IN) 31 have to stand together. Nga35-moq1 i1mit1 le1go11 pom11 dvo31 lye . (1POparty mind well unite(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I) We agree very well. Cf. Jingpo hpom (Xu et al. 1983: 281). pong11 I (meeting) vide zup1-pong11/zup5-pong11; cf. Jingpo hpong (Xu et al. 1983: 282). pong11 II (clear.up) vi. (sky) clear up, stop raining; Mau11 pong11 bue31 la11? (sky clear.up P+I UNC) Could the rain have stopped? Cf. pong55 and bong35; cf. Jingpo hpong (Xu et al. 1983: 282). pong55 (open(vt)) a vt. open; Ke1-hot5 pong55-aq5. (door-window open(vt)31 SIM) Open (SG) the window. Replied by: Pong31 dvo11 bue .

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    (open(vt)(ipf) place(vt) P+I) It’s open already. (Lit.:) It’s being opened already. dvau55 pong55 (inflate(vt)/bottle(N) open(vt)) n+vt. open a bottle; b vi. start classes, in: zyong11 pong55 (school open(vt)) n+vt. start classes (the new year); vide myoq1-pong55 san11; cf. pong11 and bong35. pong55wan35 n. monosodium glutamate. pop1 (mouldered) vi. mouldered, brittle, worn out; Se5-gam31 hi31 pop1 byuq1 31 bue . (tree-tree(B) this mouldered lose P+I) This tree is all mouldered. 31 Ban11 pop1 byuq1 bue . (use.up(ipf) mouldered lose P+I) (paper, clothes) It’s all become brittle. Also reduplicated as an ideophone: Zvut5 ge11 pop1-pop1 ga31 r55. (lung TOP mouldered-mouldered perceive(ipf) PE) Lungs feel very spongy. Cf. pom31 and also mung11zung35, sa11, sak5, wom11. 5 poq I (foreign) in hye55-poq5. poq5 II n. (large) leaf; cf. Jingpo hpo- (Xu et al. 1983: 280); cf. haq5 n. leaf; 31 Poq5 mat1 lye . (leaf (make).bunch also+I) I’m making bunches of leaves. Often as suffix, e.g.: sek5-poq5 (tree-leaf) n. large tree-leaves; cf. se5-poq5 (tree-leaf) n. tea; vide se5-poq5; cf. haq5 and mvan11. Cf. Jingpo hpo (Xu et al. 1983: 280). poq5-gyuq1 (leaf-dry) n+adj. dry leaves; cf. hui55 and gvyuq5. pot5 ideophone expressing the notion of a sudden movement; Pot5 gvut5 toq5 31 byuq1 lo35 bue . ([sudden.move] do come.out lose go(back/up) P+I) He 31 suddenly got up and walked away. Yvang11 ki31 pot5 mu syeq1… (3SG leg/foot [sudden.move] happen+I au.contraire) His foot suddenly came free… Vide pyang55. 11 pu / pe1- I (elder.brother) bound form noun ‘elder brother’; Mo35pi31 yvang11-pu11 (beggar(GEN) 3SG-elder.brother) Beggar’s elder brother; b vide i5-pu11; c pu11/pe1-: used in a similar way as mang11, in short names for elder brothers; see the forms further below. Cf. Jingpo hpu (Xu et al. 1983: 290). pu11 II vi. (fate:) strike; in: pu31 si31 ((fate).strike(ipf) die) v+v. be struck by fate; pu11 zo11 ((fate).strike eat) v+v. (bad luck:) get one’s lot; Nang31 31 ngo31 dai54 dang11 a1-gyo11 zyang35 ge11, pu31 si31 be1-ra . (2SG 1SG speak+FCT words NEG-hear/smell CD TOP (fate).strike(ipf) die P-need+I) If you (SG) don’t listen to what I say, you will certainly be struck by 31 fate. Nang31 ngo31 dai54 dang11 a1-gyo11 zyang35 ge11 pu11 zo11 be1-ra . (2SG 1SG speak+FCT words NEG-hear/smell CD TOP (fate).strike eat Pneed+I) If you (SG) don’t listen to what I say, bad luck will certainly be your lot. Cf. gvyam11-dap5. 11 pu III (gun(Sp)) spec. n. for guns; mi1-um31 le1-pu11 (fire-gun one-gun(Sp)) a/one gun.

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    Pu11-gun31 / Pe1-gun31 (elder.brother-5th.in.line) short name for a fifth elder brother; also Mang11-gun31. Pu -ka31 / Pe1-ka31 (elder.brother-7th-brother) short name for a seventh elder brother; also Mang11-ka31. 11 Pu -lat1 / Pu11-lat5/Pe1-lat5 (elder.brother-halfway) short name for a second-born elder brother; also Mang11-lat5. 11 Pu -mo35 / Pe1-mo35 (elder.brother-AUG) short name for an eldest brother; also Mang11-mo35. 11 Pu -tung55 / Pe1-tung55 (elder.brother-(male).6th.in.line) short name for a sixth elder brother; also Mang11-tung55. 11 pue / pe1- (booze) vide i31-pue11 and pe1-. pue31 I (cards:) n. playing cards; pue31 bat1 (cards beat) n+vt. play cards; Pue31-bat5 gvun55 syang55. (cards-beat play JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) play cards. Also rang31, cf. pai55; cf. Jingpo hpe (Xu et al. 1983: 279). 31 pue II vt. pry out; Suen11-din11 le1-zvui55 pue11 toq5 gvat5 si1-aq5. (pointedwick one-bit pry.out(ipf) come.out put.into still-SIM) Pry out (SG) some more of the wick. Ki31 ma54 zu11 be1-pue31 bi11 raq5. (leg/foot LOC+FCT prickle help-pry.out give VO) Help me to pry this thorn / prickle out of my foot, please. pue31-bat5 (cards-beat) vide pue31. pue55(-gam31) (plant.name(-tree(B)) n. kind of climbing plant resembling pumpkin but green. pui11 (dust/chaff) n. dust, a in waq1-pui11 (pig-dust/chaff) n+n. chaff (for pigs); b mostly in combination with the verb lvup5 vi. be dusty; pui11 lvup5 n+vi. be dusty, dust flying around; Mo35do35 lai31 lo31 zyang35 pui11 lvup5 nueng31nueng31 dut1 r55. (car pass(ipf) come(back/up) CD dust/chaff be.dusty [forces.of.nature] become PE) When a car passes, it becomes dusty as hell. See further pui11-lvup5. 11 pui -lvup5 (dust/chaff-be.dusty) n. dust; Pui11-lvup5 myo31 dik1 r55. (dust/chaff-be.dusty much(ipf) extreme PE) There’s a lot of dust flying around. Mue31-bu11 me55 pui11-lvup5 bau35-bau35. (wrap-clothes LOC dust/chaff-be.dusty just-just) Our clothes are very dusty. pui11-lvup5 lvup5 (dust/chaff-be.dusty be.dusty) n+vi. be dusty, dust flying around; Pui11-lvup5 he5-ge1-zyam11, pui11-lvup5 lvup5 r55. (dust/chaffbe.dusty PHB-random-fiddle dust/chaff-be.dusty be.dusty PE) Don’t fiddle with the dust. It gets so dusty. pui55 I vt. bind things by twisting (thongs, hair etc.); U1 -sam31 pui55-aq5. (head-hair.of.the.head bind.by.twisting-SIM) Make (SG) a horse-tail. Nui11-eq1 a1zeng35 wo35 pui31 r55. (vine#-AG/I thing have bind.by.twisting(ipf) PE) With vines you can bind things. Nye31-eq1 pui31 11

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    dvo31 r55. (thong#-AG/I bind.by.twisting(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) It has been bound by twisting a bamboo thong. pui55 II (wild.chicken) in pui55-woq1. pui55-woq1 (wild.chicken-chicken) n+n. wild chicken, much resembling domestic chicken; Si1long35 kau31 me55 pui55-woq1 ngi11 r55. (forest inside (ipf) LOC wild.chicken-chicken be.there(anim) PE) In the forest there are 1 wild chicken. Cf. woq . puk1 onom. imitating plopping sounds; Gong11dop5 hi31 ge11 “puk1” ze1-ga31 r55. (firecrackers this TOP [plop] only-perceive(ipf) PE) These (wet) firecrackers only sound like “plop”. puk5 (touchy) vi. be touchy, be easily upset, easily offended; Dye31 puk5 nvau11 r55. (too touchy feel.like(ipf) PE) He is too touchy. / You are too touchy. pun11 n. hill plot; Pun11 kai31 lye31. (hill.plot shovel(ipf) also+I) We are working in our hill plot (shoveling, hoeing etc.). pun31 I (attack) a vi. react allergically to something; Hau55-zyung31 zo11 zyang35 gung31-du11 me55 pun11 lo11 r55. (the/that-kind eat CD body-being (ipf) LOC attack come(back/up)(ipf) PE) If I eat those things, I will have an allergic reaction. b vi. have an attack of some illness; Kyong11-zau11 31 dum11 pun31 bue . (throat-cough again attack P+I) Coughing has started 11 again. Cf. tim . pun31 II (roast3*) allomorph of put5. pun31 n. kind of tiny caterpillar causing an itchy reaction of the skin. pun31 pun31 (itchy.caterp itchy.caterp) n+vi. react to the touch of the itchy caterpillar; Pun31 pun11 r55. (itchy.caterp itchy.caterp(ipf) PE) My skin is 31 reacting to the touch of the pun caterpillar. Pun31 pun31 ra -o55 nang31 5 1 11 ke -ge -zyam . (itchy.caterp itchy.caterp need+I-HIGH 2SG PHBrandom-fiddle) Your skin will react to the touch of the pun caterpillar, don’t (SG) touch it. Cf. pun31. 55 pun n. manure, fertilizer; often used in longer forms: ki1-pun55 (faecesmanure) n. manure, human manure; nam31-pun55 (smelly-manure) n. 31 (stinking) manure; Pun55 pyun31 lye . (manure strew(ipf) also+I) We are 31 strewing artificial fertilizer. Pun55 san11 ra dut1 r55. (manure scatter 31 need+I become PE) We need to scatter manure. Ki1-pun55 gvat5 lye . (faeces-manure put.into also+I) We are scattering manure. pun55dung11 n. post of a fence (sp. kat5/hat5); cf. Jingpo hpundung (Xu et al. 1983: 292). pun55-tung31 (manure-bag) n. (large) plastic bags (lit.: bags for (artificial) fertilizer); vide tung31 for an overview of Zaiwa bags.

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    pung11- in names for grass- or cane-like plants: pung11sin55 and pung11syui31. pung11lum31 n. women serving drinks during cermonies (sp. yuq1). pung11sin55 n. kind of plant resembling sugar cane but only as long as one’s pink; cf. pung11syui31. pung11sin55-bo35 (plant.name-open.itself) n. pungsin flower. pung11syui31 n. sugar cane (sp. yang11 n. stalk; dvu55 n. stretch); Pung11syui31 le1-dvu55 lang31 kyui11 bi11 raq5. (sugar.cane one-fold pull/yank(ipf) bend give VO) Break off one stretch of sugar cane for me. (A stretch is what is between two ribs). Cf. pung11sin55. pung11syui31-haq5 (sugar.cane-leaf) n. sugar cane leaves; Pung11syui3131 haq5 syam31 dong31 toq5 dik1 lye . (sugar.cane-leaf knife lead/connect come.out extreme also+I) The leaves of sugar cane are sharp as knives. pung11syui31-yo31 (sugar.cane-land) n+n. sugar cane plot. pung31 (gathering) only attested in moq1-pung31. pung31gvyui11 a n. wild dove/pigeon; b n. parrot; cf. gvai55gvyeq1 and zi11. pung55 n. group (animals, musicians etc.); cf. Jingpo hpung (Xu et al. 1983: 292). pup5 (thicket) in sek5-pup5. puq1 (deter) vi. (animals) give alarming cries; Woq1 puq1 r55, zun31 ngi11 ang31 r55. (chicken deter PE bird.of.prey be.there(anim)(ipf) ought/address(ipf) PE) The chicken is giving alarming cries, there must be 31 a bird of prey chasing it. Waq1 puq1 r55, ka55-hu55 dut1 a1-gvo ta11? (pig deter PE Q-sort become nom-PL+I GI) The pigs are giving alarming cries. What could be the matter with them? Cf. Jingpo hpu (Xu et al. 1983: 290). puq5 (turn.over(vt)) a vt. turn around; Mue31-bu11 puq5 lvap5 gvan31-aq1. (wrap-clothes turn.over(vt) dry.in.the.sun put.into*-SIM) Turn (SG) the clothes (drying in the sun). b vt. stir; Sun11 (tau31) puq5 gvan31-aq1. (veg/dish (sew/insert(ipf)) turn.over(vt) put.into*-SIM) Stir (SG) the dish. 31 c vt. turn soil; Li31-eq1 ge11 i1-tung11 puq5 lye . (plough#-AG/I TOP water-paddy turn.over(vt) also+I) The plough is for turning the paddies. d vi. turn one’s face in some direction; Puq5 ngop1 gvan31-aq1. (turn.over(vt) face put.into*-SIM) Turn around and face (SG) this way. e vi. toss and turn; Puq5 ye31 puq5 lo31 ke5-gvut5. (turn.over(vt) go(away/down) turn.over(vt) come(back/up) PHB-do) Don’t toss and turn all the time. f vide a1-puq5 dong31 upside down, inside out; vide bau11puq5-ngvoq5 and bi1-puq5. 5 put I (knee) in ki31-put5 (leg/foot-knee) n. knee.

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    put5 / pun31 II (roast3) vt. roast in ashes; Yang11yi35 pun31-aq1. (potato roast3*-SIM) Roast (SG) potatoes in ashes. Vide put5 zo11; vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. put5 zo11 (roast3 eat) vt+vt. eat things roasted in ashes; Het5-nye31 sue11 31 31 gvo11 bue , wo35 put5 zo11 bue . (belt(N/V)-red soil.dug.out.by.insects big P+I have roast3 eat P+I) The yellow belted wasps’ home has become big enough. We can soon roast them in ashes and eat them. pyai11 vt. thin (out) crops; Ang11-noq5 pyai11 ho11-aq5. (petiole-black thin.out cultivate-SIM) Thin out (SG) the black mustard. Cf. mvyo55, apparently bearing the same meaning; cf. ran35. pyam31 vi. (heart) palpitate, throb; Seng55-pyam11 r55. (liver-palpitate(ipf) PE) My heart (lit.: my liver) is throbbing. Seng11 duk1duk1 ga11 pyam11 han11 r55. (liver [onom] perceive palpitate(ipf) quick(ipf) PE) My heart (lit.: my liver) is throbbing very fast. pyang11 n. floor (upstairs); Pyang11 me55 zung31-aq1. (floor LOC sit-SIM) Sit down (SG) on the (first) floor. (i.e. not on the mat). Pyang 11 dye31 got1 r55. (floor too dirty PE) The (first) floor is too dirty. Cf. gyam11 n. storey; mi1-gung31 (earth-body) n. ground, earth, floor. pyang31 (DIR) (9.11) directive case suffix; vide he55-pyang31, hi55-pyang31, ka55-pyang31/ /ha55-pyang31, myo11-pyang31, tang31-pyang31. pyang55 (gone) a vi. leave without a trace; Pyang31 so31 byuq1 bue31 ga31. (gone(ipf) walk(ipf) lose P+I perceive+I) He has left without a trace. b as an ideophone; Waq1 li11 byam11 zyup5 be55 ngvu31 zyang35 gyam11-dong11 mai11 pot5 pyang55! (pig also jump(ipf) catch/wring.out EE say CD storey(have)hole ABL [sudden.move] gone) (a piglet) We had just taken hold of it but then it managed to escape through a hole in the wall/fence! Pot5 31 pyang55 mu pang11 toq5 byuq1 lo35-Ø. ([sudden.move] gone happen+I (ipf) dodge/flee come.out lose go(back/up)-FCT) He suddenly went out and left without a trace. pyap1 vt. blink eyes; Yvang11 myoq1 a1-yan35 pyap1 r55. (3SG eye nom-row blink PE) He often blinks his eyes. Myoq1-pyap1 ke5-pyap1. (eye-blink PHB-blink) Don’t blink your eyes. pyau31 (cross.grained) a vi. cross-grained; No11 dye31 pyau11 r55. (cattle too cross.grained(ipf) PE) This piece of cattle is too cross-grained. b vi. obstinate; Mau11 wo31 zyang35 ne1-lui11 pyau11 dik1 r55. (sky rain CD cattle-water.buffalo cross.grained(ipf) extreme PE) When it rains, the water buffaloes get very obstinate. (Water buffaloes love water.) Cf. Jingpo hpyau (Xu et al. 1983: 299). pye11 (board) in sek5-pye11.

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    pye55 vt. negotiate matters; Nge1-zo11 wui31 ra54 pye31 lum11 ang31 a1-gvo31.

    (fish-child buy need+FCT negotiate(ipf) reciprocal ought/address(ipf) nomPL+I) They (PL) must be discussing the purchase of fish. nga35-nvung55 pye31 dvo54 mu35 (1PO-1ND.IN negotiate(ipf) place(vt)+FCT work(N)) the work we (ND.IN) agreed to do; Nang31 yvang11-eq5 pye31 wu35-aq5. (2SG (ipf) 3SG-COM negotiate look-SIM) Try (SG) to negotiate with him. mi111 55 wue pye (wife-female negotiate) n+vt. meet girls in order to find a wife. Vide pye31-ngvam11. 31 pye -ngvam11 (negotiate(ipf)-tasty) (ch.11, 15.32) vi. chat; Pye31-ngvam31 31 dvo31 a1-gvo . (negotiate(ipf)-tasty(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) nom-PL+I) They are chatting. Cf. meng11 and zi1ta11, both expressing ‘chat’ vi/vt. pyek1 (tiny.bit) in le1-pyek1-zo11. pyeng55 (plate) n. dish, plate (sp. lvum11) cf. sun11 n. food served in a dish. pyet5 vt. interrupt someone’s words; Nga35 dang11 ke5-pyet5. (1PO words PHB-interrupt) Don’t interrupt my words. Cf. dvum55. 11 pyo (ear) in ne5-pyo11. pyo31 I (break.off/down(vt)*) allomorph of pyoq5. pyo31 II n. cockroach (sp. du11). pyo31 III (earwax) in ne1-pyo31. pyok1 onom. imitating the sound of falling onto dry leaves etc. Pyok1 ga11 31 lyeng31 gyo35 lo31 bue . ([onom] perceive fall(vi)(ipf) go.down come(back/up) P+I) It fell down on the ground. pyop1pyop1 onom. imitating the sound of slurping; Pyop1 pyop1 ngvu31 ke5syuq5 mving55. ([slurping] say PHB-drink sound/name(vt)) Don’t slurp like that. pyoq5 / pyo31 (break.off/down(vt)) a vt. (fruits, pumpkins etc.:) pick; 31 Ngo31 si1-pik5 pyoq5 dvo31 lye . (1SG fruit-pungent break.off/down(vt) (ipf) place(vt) also+I) I am picking chillies. b vt. break down; Yvum31 31 pyoq5 lye . (house break.off/down(vt) also+I) We are breaking down the house. c vt. (money) change into small denominations; Ngun31-yoi11 pyoq5 bi11 raq5. (silver-small.change break.off/down(vt) give VO) Could you please change this bill into small denominations for me. pyoq5-zue31 (break.off/down(vt)-truc) n. eraser; also sut5-zue31. pyot5pyot5 onom. imitating the sound of people trying to play the flute; Sam55-bvi55 r11 pyot5pyot5 ze1-ga11 gue11 mut1 r55. (Shan-flute also [onom] only-perceive all.right(ipf) blow PE) On the flute, he can only play like “phyot phyot”. pyu11-pyu11 ideophone expressing flying or descending in large swarms; Nga35 gung31-du11 me55 byo11 pyu11pyu11. (1PO body-being LOC

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    wasp/bee [swarming]) Bees/wasps were swarming all around me. Cf. ge1-brem11-ge1-bram11. 31 pyu a vi. be white, turn white; Ban11 pyu11 byuq1 bue31. (use.up(ipf) white(ipf) lose P+I) They have all turned white. b adj. white; bo11bo11 pyu31 ([very.white] white) very white; ngun31-pyu31 pyu31 (silver-white white) n+vi. be silver-coloured; ang11-pyu31 (petiole-white) n. Chinese cabbage (白菜 báicài); nge1-noq1 pyu31 (rat/mouse-black white) n+adj. albino mouse/rat; ngvan31-pyu31 (snow(N)-white) n. snow; sam31-pyu31 (hair.of.the.head-white) n+adj. white hair; ya11pyen55-pyu31 (opiumwhite) n. heroine; b adj/vi. (skin) white, Caucasian; byu31-pyu31 (man/woman-white) n. white person; si1-pyu31 (meat-white) n. the white race; Nang35 syo11 pyu11 dik1 r55. (2SG.PO meat white(ipf) extreme PE) Your (SG) skin is quite white. pyui31 n. rather clumsy little birds, flying in swarms. pyui55 [goose.bumbs] ideophone expressing the notion of getting entirely wet; U1-lvum11 mai11 pyui55 gvut5 syoq5 kyo31 gvat5 bi11 lye35. (head-lump ABL goose.bumbs do pour let.go.down(ipf) put.into give come(away/down)) Let me pour you wet from right over your head. Cf. pyui55-pyui55, vide gyoq1-si11 pyui55. pyui55-pyui55 reduplicated: a ideophone expressing the notion of having 31 goose bumbs from cold; Gyoq1 lye gyoq1 si11 pyui55-pyui55. (cold (ipf) also+I cold die goose.bumbs-goose.bumbs) I have goose bumps from cold. b ideophone expressing the notion of getting entirely wet; I1-lang31 31 me55 lyeng31 wang31 lui , le1-gung31-du54 pyui55-pyui55. (water-river (ipf) LOC fall(vi) enter in.this.way+I one-body-being+FCT goose.bumbsgoose.bumbs) I fell into the water and I was entirely wet. also: dvyeq5 31 lye pyui55-pyui55 (wet also+I goose.bumbs-goose.bumbs) be entirely wet; cf. pyui55; vide gyoq1-si11 pyui55. pyun11 (strew) vt. strew, sprinkle; Pun55 pyun31 lye31. (manure strew(ipf) also+I) We are strewing artificial fertilizer. I1-zyum11 a1-mvyo55-mvyo55 ke5-pyun11 loq1. (water-salt nom-much(B)-much (B) PHB-strew no.more) 31 Don’t add so much salt. I1-zvyam11 kam11 pyun31 lye . (water-water receive/fetch(ipf) strew(ipf) also+I) I am sprinkling the fire. pyuq5 (make.lost) a vi. (things) have lost, have mislaid; Nga35 kue31dan35 31 pyuq5 am55 bue . (1PO pencil make.lost PFM P+I) I lost my pencil. Ki3131 31 31 ko dvai pyuq5 am55 bue . (leg/foot-track follow.tracks(ipf) make.lost PFM P+I) I’ve lost the tracks of the cattle. b vt. mislay things, drop 31 things somewhere; Yvang31-eq1 hoi55 pyuq5 am55 bue . (3SG#-AG/I maybe make.lost PFM P+I) Perhaps it’s him who has mislaid it. Cf. byuq1.

    -Rr11 / li11 / lye11 (also) (16.20-23) adv. ‘also’; also in lye31 and lye54. r55 I (BENEX) (12.16) variant of the morpheme lye35 ‘come (away/down)’ when used as the benefactive exhortative clause marker; Kum11 lye35 pong55 bi11 r55. (door come(away/down) open(vt) give BENEX) I’ll open the door. r55 / li55/lye55 II (OBJ) (9.7) object marker. r55 III (PE) vide ra55/r55. r55 / lye55 IV (TS) (9.39) time suffix, expressing ‘during’; min35-tang31 r55 (night-time-behind TS) during/in the afternoon. ra1- (one) vide ra11/ra1-. ra11 I (need) (15.23) vi/vt. need; also used as auxiliary verb and as clause marker (table 15.1) cf. syau11 vi/vt. need (Longchuan dialect). 11 ra / ra1- II (one) (9.33) nu. one; cf. le1-. ra1-cue31 (one-ten) nu. ten; mostly le1-sue31 (one-ten). ra31 (need+I) (15.23) future indicative clause marking unit. ra35 (level(vi)) a vi. be level; Mi1-gung31 a1-ra35. (earth-body NEG-level(vi)) The floor is not level. Mau11-mi31 a1-ra35. (sky-earth NEG-level(vi)) The terrain is not level. b vi. be of the same length, as a resultative verb; heng31 (a1-)ra35 (long (NEG-)level) v(+NEG)+v. in equal / different lengths, shaped equally / differently; Nga35 loq1-ngyui11 heng31 a1-ra35. (1PO hand/arm-finger/toe long NEG-level(vi)) My fingers are shaped unequally. Nga35 loq1-ngyui11 heng31 ra35 dik1 r55. (1PO hand/armfinger/toe long level(vi) extreme PE) My fingers are very regularly shaped. Heng31 a1-ra35 syang55-gaq1. (long NEG-level(vi) JUS-CC) (haircut) Just let it be uneven. c used similarly in: zuen54 (a1-)ra35 (cut/clip+FCT (NEG-)level(vi)) be cut level/uneven; Nang35 u1-sam31 zuen54 a1-ra35. (2SG.PO head-hair.of.the.head cut/clip+FCT NEGlevel(vi)) Your (SG) haircut is not level. Nang35 u1-sam31 zuen54 ra35 dik1 r55. (2SG.PO head-hair.of.the.head cut/clip+FCT level(vi) extreme PE) Your (SG) haircut has been cut very level. Nang31 zuen54 a1-ra35 luq1? (2SG cut/clip+FCT NEG-level(vi) Y/N) Aren’t you (SG) cutting it level? Cf. rva55 and gyu35; cf. Jingpo ra (Xu et al. 1983: 681, 686). 35 ra -ruen11 (level(vi)-one.by.one) (9.4) a as a personal pronoun; everybody (equally, uniformly); Ra35-ruen11 dvoq5 gveq5. (level(vi)-one.by.one get.up PLIM) Everybody get up. I31-pue11 ra35-ruen11 r55 gvat5 bi11-aq5.

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    (distilled-booze level(vi)-one.by.one OBJ put.into give-SIM) Pour (SG) booze for everybody. b adverb equally, uniformly; Mue31-bu11 ra3531 ruen11 ra31 a1-gvo . (wrap-clothes level(vi)-one.by.one need(ipf) nomPL+I) They are dressed uniformly. ra55 / r55 (PE) (17.5) the personal experience clause marker. rva55 (level(vt)) vt. level; nang31 rva55 (tread(ipf) level(vt)) vt+vt. thread level; kai31 rva55 (shovel(ipf) level(vt)) vt+vt. shovel level; cyot1 rva55 (hoe(V) 31 level(vt)) vt+vt. hoe level; Mi1-gung31 hi31 cyot1 rva55 ra dut1 r55. (earth-body this hoe(V) level(vt) need+I become PE) The ground here needs to be hoed level. Cf. ra35. 54 ra (need+FCT) (15.23) combination used as subordinator, nominalizer or clause marking unit. ram31 (adolescent) in i1-ram31 and ze1-ram31; cf. Jingpo ram (Xu et al. 1983: 683). ram35 (about.enough) vi. (courteous:) have received enough; Ngo31 ram35 31 31 bue , ram35 bue . (1SG about.enough P+I about.enough P+I) Enough, enough, thank you. Cf. lvuq1; cf. Jingpo ram (Xu et al. 1983: 683). 35 ram -gvyo55 (about.enough-about.enough) (16.26) adv. ‘about enough’; cf. ram35 and lvuq1. 35 ran a vt. plant in a scattered fashion; Yap1 ran35 gveq5. (stand scattered PLIM) Plant (PL) them in a scattered fashion. b vi. be planted in a scattered fashion; Lung11-bum11 ke5-dye31 ho31 ran35 gvo55. (maize/cornbud PHB-too cultivate(ipf) scattered PL) Don’t (PL) plant the maize in a too scattered fashion. Cf. Jingpo ran (Xu et al. 1983: 684). rang11 vide O55rang11. rang11rang11 ideophone expressing medium size; Rang11rang11 za54 wui11 lo31-aq1. (medium-sized only+FCT buy(ipf) come(back/up)-SIM) Just buy (SG) middle-sized ones. rang31 I (cards) n. playing cards; rang31 bat1 (cards beat) n+vt. play cards; Rang31-bat5 gvun55 syang55. (cards-beat play JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) play cards. Also pue31, cf. pai55. rang31 II [full.blast] ideophone expressing the notion of exerting oneself, or giving a full blast; Syang11-gvyak5 rang31 ngvu31 gvyak5 dvang31 gvat5 31 ra -o55. (ginger-beat.with.knuckles [full.blast]] say beat.with.knuckles let.fly(ipf) put.into need+I-HIGH) I will heavily beat you with my knuckles on your head. rang31-bat5 (cards-beat) n+vt. play cards. rvang55 I (make) (16.45) a vt. make, construct, build; Kum11 rvang55 ra31 dut1 r55. (door make need+I become PE) We have to make a new door. 31 31 Woq1-cyun55 rvang55 ra luq1, ngvoq5-cyun55 rvang55 ra luq1?

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    (chicken-bamboo.cage make need+I Y/N bird-bamboo.cage make need+I Y/N) Are you going to make a chicken cage or a bird cage? b vi/vt. be made of a certain material; Hi31 ge11 sot1-neq1 rvang54 pyeng55 luq1? (this TOP aluminium-AG/I make+FCT plate Y/N) Is this dish made of aluminium? / (Lit.:) Is this a dish made of aluminium? c vt. make, prepare dishes, soups or medicine; ya11ya35 rvang55 (medicine make) n+vt. prepare medicine; Sun11-mo35 he5-zvyoq5-o55 mai11 sun11-zo11 31 dum11 rvang31 lye . (veg/dish-AUG before-cook-FCT ABL veg/dish(ipf) child again make also+I) After making the big dishes we make the side dishes. d vt. repair (when referring to things that are too difficult to 31 make oneself); Dyen11she11 rvang55 ra . (television make need+I) I’m going to make a television. / I’m going to repair a television. e vide rvang31 toq5. rvang55 II vt. (spirits) worship; nat1 rvang55 (spirit worship) n+vt. offer to the spirits; vide Num11syang11. rvang55 toq5 (make(ipf) come.out) a collect, write, edit; b make up; (in reference to the neologies in the Chinese-Zaiwa dictionary:) Hau31 ge11 31 rvang31 toq5 bang31-eq1 rvang31 toq5-o55 ngvut5 lye . (the/that TOP (ipf) (ipf) make come.out PNO#-AG/I make come.out-HIGH be also+I) This has been made up by the editors. rvap5 (go.through) verb or ideophone; be thrown through (a circle etc.) 31 Rvap5 bue . (go.through P+I)The ball went through. Cf. byon31. 5 rap I [dollop] (16.27) ideophone used in bvak5-rap5, bvuep5-rap5 and dak5rap5. 5 rap II (16.27) adv. unfortunately; Rap5 dang31 byuq1 bue31. (unfortunately fly(ipf) lose P+I) Unfortunately it flew away. 1 raq vt. like; Nang31 mue31-bu11 hi55-dung11 a1-wu35 raq1 luq1? (2SG wrapclothes this-piece(Sp) NEG-look like Y/N) Do you (SG) like the look of 31 this piece of clothes? Hye55-yuq1 r55 ngo31 a1-raq1-o . (same.elevationperson OBJ 1SG NEG-like-HIGH+I) I don’t like that person (at the same elevation). raq5 / laq5 (VO) (17.21) volitional clause markers raq5 and laq5, expressing ‘please do V for me/us’. Ngo31 r55 le1-zvui55 bi11 raq5. (1SG OBJ one-bit give VO) Please give me some. Nang31 be1-yu31 bi11 laq5. (2SG help-take give VO) Fetch (SG) it for me/us. rvaq5 [legs.downwards] ideophone expressing: a (stools, chairs etc.:) be placed on its legs; Dvang55kuq5 rvaq5 gvut5 dvo11-aq5. (stool/chair legs.downwards do place(vt)-SIM) Put (SG) the stool/chair on its legs. b sitting in straddling position, with legs wide apart; Rvaq5 gvut5 zung31aq1. (legs.downwards do sit-SIM) Sit (SG) down in a straddling position.

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    Cf. a1-puq5 dong31 upside down; no Jingpo equivalent found in Xu et al. (1983). rvat5 (elder.M) n. kinship term a mainly used by men in reference to his female kins of wife-giving families of the same generation or one lower, with the further specificiation that his rvat5 are older, and therefore intrinsically less fit or unfit for marriage, whereas his du31-mo35 are younger and therefore rather fit for marriage. b used by a woman referring to her husband’s younger brothers. Cf. Jingpo rat (Xu et al. 1983: 687). rvat5-lat1 (elder.M-halfway) kinship term mostly used by men, often referring to the spouse of one’s second elder brother. rvat5-mo35 (elder.M-AUG) kinship term mostly used by men, often referring to the spouse of one’s eldest brother or the elder sisters of one’s spouse. rau35 / lau35 (promptly) (16.17) a adv. almost, soon (in indicative clauses); 31 Lau35 zin31 bue . (promptly ready P+I) It’s almost ready. b adv. promptly, quickly (in imperative or exhortative clauses); Lau35 ye25 mai11 lau35 lo31 syang55. (promptly go(away/down)+FCT ABL promptly come(back/up) JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) go there and back quickly. Rau35 han31-aq1. (promptly quick-SIM) Be (SG) quick. Cf. Jingpo lau adv. ‘quickly’ and rau adv. ‘together’ (Xu et al. 1983: 420, 687). rvek5 adj/vi. twisted, turned in the wrong direction; zui31 rvek5 ma54 (tooth 31 twisted LOC+FCT) with twisted teeth; Loq1 lvoq5 rvek5 am55 bue , lang31 31 5 11 5 sai gvat bi raq . (hand/arm ACT twisted PFM P+I pull/yank(ipf) redo(ipf) put.into give VO) I have twisted my arm in the wrong direction, please twist it back for me. Loq1-ngyui11 lvoq5 rvek5 wu35-aq5. (hand/arm-finger/toe ACT twisted/crooked look-SIM) Try (SG) to twist your finger. Cf. a1-bvi31, a1-bvik5 a1-bai35 and rvueq5. 11 rem rem11 [evening.dusk] ideophone expressing the notion of evening 31 31 dusk; Rem11rem11 ga31 lo31 bue r11 zye35 lo31 bue . ([evening.dusk] (ipf) perceive come(back/up) P+I also arrive come(back/up) P+I) I came back just with the start of dusk. Cf. Jingpo rim and rimrim (Xu et al. 1983: 690, 691). rem35 (spice.name) only in sing55-rem35. ren31 vi/vt. win; Bo11lung31 bat1 ren31 bue31. (ball beat win P+I) I/we have won the ball game. Ngun31-pai55 bat1 ren11 dik1 r55. (silver-cards/game beat win(ipf) extreme PE) He is rather lucky with gambling. A1-ren31 luq1? (NEG-win Y/N) Did you win? / Will you win? Cf. ong55. reng11 vi. (plants, animals) grow well, flourish; Nga35-nvung55 yvum31 ma54 31 woq1 waq1 reng31 lo31 bue . (1PO-1ND.IN house LOC +FCT chicken pig (ipf) flourish come(back/up) P+I) The chickens and pigs of our house have

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    started to flourish. Si1-gam31 hi31 reng31 lo31 bue . (fruit-tree(B) this flourish(ipf) come(back/up) P+I) This fruit tree has started to flourish. 31 Nang35 we1-gam31 hau31 reng11 bue luq1? (2SG.PO bamboo-tree(B) the/that flourish P+I Y/N) That bamboo of yours (SG), does it grow well? Cf. bong11, nui11, reng11, yuq1, zui35; vide reng35-nvau11; cf. Jingpo ring (Xu et al. 1983: 691). reng35-nvau11 (flourish-feel.like(ipf)) vi+aux. (on keeping plants or animals on a certain place or in a certain fashion:) do very well; Waq1-hup5 hi55me55 waq1 zvo31 r11 ge11 reng35-nvau11 dik1 r55. (pig-pigsty this-LOC pig feed(ipf) also TOP flourish-feel.like(ipf) extreme PE) Pigs kept in a pigsty at this location would do very well. Vide reng11. -Rep1 untranslatable part of personal names; e.g. Ma11-rep1, Sing11-rep1. rep5 / rup5 (dare) (16.52) vi. dare, mostly used as the venturesome adverb; cf. wam35; cf. Jingpo rip (Xu et al. 1983: 692). 11 ro ro11 [loose/sandy] ideophone expressing the loose or sandy state of certain things; Mi1-zvue11 ro11ro11 dut1 r55. (earth-soil [loose/sandy] become PE) The soil is very loose/sandy. Zang11-cyam11 ro11ro11 ga31 r55. (rice/food-cool [loose/sandy] perceive(ipf) PE) Cold rice is very loose. Cf. Jingpo roro (Xu et al. 1983: 695). ro31! (let’s.start) (ch.20) exclamatory expression used when urging others to start with something together with the speaker; Ro31, nga35-nvik5 lai11gva55 mvoq5 gvoq1 hoi11. ((let’s.start) 1PO-duo script learn/teach DIE INC) Come, let’s (DU) do some studying. Ro31, zo11 syang55 hoi11. ((let’s.start) eat JUS INC) Come on then, let’s (ND.IN) eat now. rvo31! / ro31! (heave!) exclamatory expression like “heave!”; Rvo31! syom31 waq1 syang55! (heave! drive.game(ipf) lift JUS) Heave! Let’s (ND.IN) lift it together! rvo31 (PE+HIGH+I) (17.6) emphatic indicative clause marking unit. rvo55 (PE+HIGH) (17.6) emphatic highlighting clause marking unit. roi11 (string(Sp)) specifying noun referring to bunches of fishes or other edibles on strings; u31 le1-roi11 (intestine one-string(Sp)) a/one string of intestines; nge1-zo11 le1-roi11 (fish-child one-string(Sp)) a/one string of fishes; also nge1-zo11 le1-byau11, cf. byau11, mai35roi35, bvi55. 31 roi vt. bully; Nang31 ngo31 r55 ke5-dye31 roi31. (2SG 1SG OBJ PHB-too bully) Don’t (SG) bully me so much. Woq1-gvo11 woq1-zo11 r55 roi31-dik5 r55. (chicken-big chicken-child OBJ bully-extreme PE) (also possible ending in roi11 dik1 r55. (bully(ipf) extreme PE) The big chicken bullies the little one. Cf. Jingpo roi (Xu et al. 1983: 693).

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    Roi35 (3rd-sister) in names for third-born sisters; Me1-roi35 ((female)-3rdsister) short name for a third-born sister; cf. Jingpo Roi (Xu et al. 1983: 693). Roi35-dot1 (3rd-sister-no.gloss) vide ming31 a1-bo31 Roi35-dot1. Roi35-toi11 (3rd-sister-in.names) name for a third-born sister. Rvoi55 in Le1-rvoi55 ((male)-(in.names)) short name for ninth-born men. rom11 vt. carefully sweep together with the hands, carefully remove a certain layer on something; Mvan11-haq5 le1go11 rom31 du35 am55-aq5. (grass/leaves-leaf well collect.carefully(ipf) throw PFM-SIM) Carefully collect (SG) the leaves (from the surface of the water) and throw them away. Cin31 le1go11 rom31 yu31-aq1. (husked.rice well collect.carefully(ipf) take-SIM) Carefully collect (SG) the (scattered) rice. Cf. Jingpo rom (Xu et al. 1983: 694). ron11 vt. (flavour, taste:) like, be able to get used to; Nang 31 nam31 a1-ron11 luq1? (2SG smelly NEG-get.used Y/N) Do you (SG) like the smell/taste? and two possible replies: Ron31 r55. (get.used(ipf) PE) The smell or taste is okay for me. or: A1-ron11. (NEG-get.used) I can’t get used to the smell or 31 taste. Sun11 hi55-hu55 ngo31 a1-ron11-no . (veg/dish this-sort 1SG NEGget.used-HIGH+I) I can’t get used to the taste of this kind of dish. Cf. ron35; cf. Jingpo ron (Xu et al. 1983: 694). 35 ron (accept/recieve) a vt. receive; Si5gvyam55 a1hui31 r11 a1-ron35 ge11. (greetings now also NEG-accept/recieve TOP) How come the letter has not arrived yet? Vide si1gvyam55/si5gvyam55 on postal affairs. b as a variant of ron11 in nam31 ron35; Ban11-bo35 hi31 nam31 a1 -ron35 luq1? (flower-open.itself this smelly NEG-accept/recieve Y/N) Do you like the smell of this flower? Cf. ron11. rong11rong11 [bristling.hair] ideophone expressing the state of having one’s 31 hair rising, such as from fear; Gyuq1 lye u1-zvyung31 rong 11rong11 ga31 lo11 r55. (afraid also+I head-top [bristling.hair] perceive(ipf) come(back/up)(ipf) PE) My hair is starting to rise from fear. rong31 / rong31rong31 onom. imitating heavy sounds such as slamming doors or stamping on floors; Wum11 gvat5-gvat5 ke5-so11, rong31rong31 ga11 dye31 ming11 r55. (power put.into-put.into PHB-walk [onom] perceive too sound(vi)(ipf) PE) Don’t walk so heavily, it’s too noisy. rvong31 [legs/wheels.in.the.air] ideophone referring to a state of having 31 one’s legs or one’s car’s wheels in the air; Lyeng31 si31 lui -eq1 mau11(ipf) 31 31 31 31 11 hung pyang ki rvong ga . (fall(vi) die in.this.way +I-AG/I skyvault/ridge DIR leg/foot [legs/wheels.in.the.air] perceive) Having fallen on the ground, my legs went in the air. Mau11-hung31 pyang31 ki31 31 rvong31 gvut5 lui so31 wu35-aq5. (sky-vault/ridge DIR leg/foot

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    [legs/wheels.in.the.air] do in.this.way+I walk(ipf) look-SIM) Try (SG) to walk with your legs in the air. Le1-gam35-bvue55 mo35do35-lyeng31 ge11 31 31 mau11-hung31 pyang31 rvong31 gvut5 lui muq1 si11 a1-gvo . ((male)eld-brother-PLN car-wheel TOP sky-vault/ridge DIR [legs/wheels.in.the.air] do in.this.way+I tumble die(ipf) nom- PL+I) Eldest brother and the others had a nasty accident and the car rolled over. rvoq5 (DEF) (16.28) the definite adverb ‘exactly, definitely, whole, all of, both’; cf. Jingpo ro (Xu et al. 1983: 693). rot1 (go.through) a vi. (veins) be open instead of constructed; Sui11-kyo31 a1rot1. (blood-road NEG-go.through) The veins are obstructed. b vi. be 31 open, connect places; Kyo31 hi55-kat5 ge11 bum31 pyang31 rot1 lye luq1? (road this-long.object TOP heap(vt/N) DIR go.through also+I Y/N) Does this road lead to the hill? Kyo31 kai31 rot1 syang55. (road shovel(ipf) go.through JUS) Let’s (ND .IN) build a road all the way to that place. c vi. brace a certain distance; Ang55dung55 a1(-rot1) lo31 gve5-luq1? (Anton NEG(-go.through) come(back/up) PL-Y/N) Has Anton come to this place? d vi. be pierced through; Kue31dan35-eq1 mau11sau11 ke5-tau31 rot1. (pencil-AG/I paper/book PHB-sew/insert(ipf) go.through) Don’t pierce the paper with your pencil. Cf. byon31, rvap5. 11 ru (talk(noise)) in ge1-ru11. ruem35 (keep) a vt. (cattle, house spirits) keep; Nang31 no11 ke5-mvyo55 du11 31 ruem35 dvo31 lye . (2SG cattle Q-much(B) being keep place(vt)(ipf) also+I) How many cattle do you (SG) keep? Nung35-moq1 yvum31 me55 nat1 a1-ruem35 gve5-luq1? (2PL-party house LOC spirit NEG-keep PLY/N) Do you keep spirits at your (PL) home? b vt. (foodstuffs etc.:) have left over; Nang31 i31-pue11 le1-zvui55 a1-ruem35 dvo11 luq1? (2SG distilledbooze one-bit NEG-keep place(vt) Y/N) Have you (SG) got some booze 31 left? Replied by: Le1-zvui55 ruem35 dvo31 lye . (one-bit keep place(vt)(ipf) also+I) I have got a little bit. Again replied by: Nang31 ruem35 dvo11-aq5. (2SG keep place(vt)-SIM) Keep (SG) it then. Cf. Jingpo rem (Xu et al. 1983: 688). ruen11 (one.by.one) in ra35-ruen11. rueng35 (first-rate) (11.3) a vi. first-rate; Nang35 ki31-lyeng31 rueng35 dik1 r55. (2SG.PO leg/foot-wheel first-rate extreme PE) Your (SG) bicycle is really great. b vi. arrogant, high-handed; Myang11 r11 lvang55 a1-ngyo31, rueng35 dik1 r55. (see(ipf) also even NEG-talk first-rate extreme PE) Even when they see each other, they don’t say a thing; they’re treating each other so high-handedly. Me1-gvoq5 dang11 dai11 rueng35 mvau31 dik1 r55. ((female)-eld-sister words speak first-rate cheat/fool(ipf) extreme PE)

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    Eldest sister is talking in such a high-handed manner. Cf. Jingpo reng ‘delicate, effective, valuable’ (Xu et al. 1983: 688). rueq5 adj. lame; Yvang11 ki31 rueq5 ma54 gvut5 kyo31 so31 r55. (3SG leg/foot lame LOC +FCT do road walk(ipf) PE) He walks with a limp. rvueq5 a vi. be sprained; Ki31 lyeng31 rvueq5 bue31. (leg/foot fall(vi)(ipf) sprained P+I) I have fallen and sprained my ankle. Loq1 lvoq5 rvueq5 31 am55 bue . (hand/arm ACT sprained PFM P+I) I have sprained my arm. 31 1 Loq lvoq5 rvueq5 bue . (hand/arm ACT sprained P+I) My arm has got sprained. b adj. be sprained; A1-rvueq5 ma54 gvut5 so54 ge11, ki31 no11 r55 luq1? (nom-sprained LOC +FCT do walk+FCT TOP leg/foot pain/ill/disease(ipf) PE Y/N) You are walking with a limp, does your leg hurt? Cf. rvek5. 1 ruet (restless) in ge1-ruet1 rvuet5 [grab.hold.of] ideophone referring to quickly grabbing something or 31 someone; Mi1-hue11 rvuet5 gvut5 yu31 lui syeq1… (fire-dirt [grab.hold.of] do take in.this.way+I au.contraire) They grabbed some coals (…). Ling31-zeng11 me55 rvuet5 gvun31-aq1. (neck-neck LOC [grab.hold.of] do*-SIM) (a snake) Grab (SG) it by it’s neck. rui35 (itch1) vi. itch; Ge1-zyo11 rui35 r55. (random-tickle(vt)2 itch1 PE) It itches. Cf. rvui55 vt. tickle; cf. soq5 (itch2) and yo11 (itch3). rvui55 (tickle(vt)1) vt. tickle; in ge1-zyo11 rvui55 (random-tickle(vt)2 tickle(vt)1) v+vt. tickle someone; Ge1-zyo11 ke5-rvui55. (randomtickle(vt)2 PHB-tickle(vt)1) Don’t tickle. Yvang55-moq1 yvang11 r55 ge131 zyo11 rvui31 a1-gvo . (3PL-party 3SG OBJ random-tickle(vt)2 (ipf) tickle(vt)1 nom-PL+I) They are tickling him. Cf. rui35 vi. itch; also 11 compare zyo vt. tickle2, zvyuk5 vt. tickle3 and tok1. 5 ruk [put.into] ideophone expressing the notion of putting something as a whole into somewhere, in a rather straightforward fashion; Ngvyo31, ngvyo31, syo11 nvut5 me55 ruk5 gvut5 lvung31 am55-aq5 ma11. ((offering) (offering) meat mouth LOC [put.into] do let.inside(ipf) PFM-SIM ROUS) Here, here, hide it inside your mouth quickly! Ngvyo31, ze1dai31 nang35 be1-tung31 me55 ruk5 gvut5 hang31 wun31-aq1. ((offering) cassette 2SG .PO clothes-bag LOC [put.into] do load/put.into(ipf) carry/bring-SIM) Here, put the cassette into your (SG) pocket. rum31 onom. imitating the sound of crumbling walls; Se5-wam31 rum31 ga11 31 lyeng31 byuq1 bue . (tree-(make).wall [onom] perceive fall(vi)(ipf) lose P+I) The walls crumbled with a bang. rum35 n. waterfall, or place therof when dried up, more often used in toponymes (sp. lvum11); Man11hui11-rum35 Manhui falls; Waq1lang11-

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    rum35 Waqlang falls; cf. Jingpo rum (Xu et al. 1983: 698); cf. cye11 n. waterfall. run31run31 [myriads] ideophone referring to huge quantities appearing before one’s eyes; Mik1 run31run31 yuq1 bum11 r55. (bamboo.shoots [myriads] grow heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) There are lots of bamboo shoots growing there. Nge1-zo11 run31run31 dvo31 bum11 r55. (fish-child [myriads] place(vt)(ipf) heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) There’s lots of fish. A1lyu35, 31 byu31 wa35 run31run31 mai bau31woq5 rvoq5! ((discovery) man/woman EMP [myriads] OBV+I ant DEF) Wow, there are so many people there, 31 just like ants! Si1-mau35 run31run31 mai ! (meat-body.hair [myriads] OBV+I) (someone’s legs) Such a lot of hair! Cf. byau11-byau11. rung31 n. institution; in forms such as ci1-rung31 (drug-institution) n. hospital; zyak1-rung31 (engine-institution) n. factory; cf. Jingpo rung (Xu et al. 1983: 699). Rung31-gvong11 (institution-hill) name for the hill where the Loilung village community buildings used to be. rung35 vi. (wounds, diseases:) serious; No31 dye31 rung35 byuq1 bue31. (pain/ill/disease too (wound/disease).serious lose P+I) The disease has 31 become too serious. Nang35 dam11 hi31 ge11 dye31 rung35 byuq1 bue . (2SG.PO wound this TOP too (wound/disease).serious lose P+I) This wound of yours (SG) has become rather too severe. rup5 (dare) vide rep5/rup5. ruq1 (skin.disease.type) vide me1ruq1. rvuq5 vi. be truculent, be a fierce fighter; Mi1-zyan11 bek1 rvuq5 dik1 r55. (fire-endure shoot truculent extreme PE) He is a brave fighter in the war. Byu31 hi55-yuq1 zyaq1 rvuq5 mvau31 dvo31 r55. (man/woman this-person rather truculent cheat/fool(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) This person pretends to be a very fierce fighter. Cf. Jingpo ru (Xu et al. 1983: 697). 1 rut / rut1rut1 [jerk/tear] ideophone referring to severe jerking or tearing; Bui35-mo35 rut1 gvut5 lang31 kyo31 am55 bi11-aq5. (warm.oneself-AUG [jerk/tear] do pull/yank(ipf) let.go.down(ipf) PFM give-SIM) Pull down (SG) his quilt in one go. Pe5-zvang11 rut1 gvut5 lang31 kyo31 am55 bi11-aq5. (belt-(wear).trousers [jerk/tear] do pull/yank(ipf) let.go.down(ipf) PFM give-SIM) Pull down (SG) his trousers in one go. Rut1rut1 gvut5 sye11 din31-aq1. ([jerk/tear] do pull(ipf) run-SIM) Pull (SG) it/him/her along.

    -Ssa11 I n. kind of basket (like for knitwork); vide lan35 for other types of baskets.

    sa11 II vi. (foodstuffs:) musty, invisibly mildewed /mouldy; Ang11-zvin31 sa31 31

    byuq1 bue . (petiole-sour musty(ipf) lose P+I) The pickles have become musty. Cf. mung11zung35, pom31, pop1, sak5, wom11. 11 sa III (soap) in sa11-bya11. sa11-bya11 (soap-soap) n. ordinary soap, such as for washing clothes; Mue31bu11 me55 sa11-bya11 bun11-aq1. (wrap-clothes LOC soap-soap rub.in*SIM) Soap (SG) the clothes. Cf. bya11-hom55 (soap-fragrant) fragrant soap (not for washing clothes). sa11u55 (ka11ta11ka11ta11ka11ta11) onom. imitating sounds of trains. sa11-zo11 (basket-child) n+adj. little basket (like for soap etc.); vide lan35 for other types of baskets. sa31! (ch.20) exclamamatory expression ‘let’s go!’, ‘let’s move’, often reduplicated, used when the speaker suggests or urges the group that includes him- or herself to leave. Sa31, ye31 syang55 hoi11. ((Let’s.go!) go(away/down) JUS INC) Come, we (ND.IN) should go now. Cf. Jingpo sa (Xu et al. 1983: 702). sa55-mvyup5 (sweet.potato-bury) n. sweet potato; Sa55-mvyup5 du31 lye31. (sweet.potato-bury dig.with.stick(ipf) also+I) I’m digging out sweet potatoes. sai55 I (mat) in sai55-tung55. sai55 II (redo) (16.45) repair, redo, do all over again; the form sai31 (redo(ipf)) is also used as the repetitive adverb; cf. cf. byong31 vt. assemble, repair. 55 sai -tung55 (mat-wickerwork) a n. mat (sp. dung11); Sai55-tung55 me55 zung31-aq1. (mat-wickerwork LOC sit-SIM) Sit (SG) on the mat. b n. the 31 material therefor; Sai55-tung55 yam31 lye . (mat-wickerwork cut.off(ipf) also+I) I am cutting strips for making a mat. Cf. tan31 n. hard mat. 31 sai (redo(ipf)) vide sai55. sak5 vi. easy to break, brittle; Syam31-dvoq5 hi31 sak5 dik1 r55. (knife-iron this easy.to.break extreme PE) This iron is very brittle. Sek5 hi55-zyung31 sak5 31 lye . (tree this-kind easy.to.break also+I) This kind of wood is very easy to break. Cf. pom31, pop1, sa11, wom11. 31 sam I (hair.of.the.head) vide cam31/sam31. sam31 II (15.24) auxiliary ‘probably’; cf. Jingpo sam (Xu et al. 1983: 712).

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    sam31mvi11 n. common cold, possibly also influenza; sam31mvi11 wang31 ((common).cold enter) n+vi. suffer from a cold; Sam31mvi11 wang11 r55. ((common).cold enter(ipf) PE) I have a cold. Hi31 ge1ro11 sam31mvi11 zyaq1 31 wang11 bum11 a1-gvo . (this between (common).cold rather enter(ipf) (ipf) heap(vt/N) nom-PL+I) These days many people have a cold. Yvang11 31 31 31 11 1 sam mvi le -zvui55 gue31 bue ga . (3SG (common).cold one-bit all.right P+I perceive+I) His cold has got somewhat better. 31 sam mvi11 wang31 vide sam31mvi11. sam31-ngyap5 (hair.of.the.head-tongs/clip(vt)) n. hairpin; Sam31-ngyap5 ngyam11-aq1. (hair.of.the.head-tongs/clip(vt) tongs/clip(vt)*-SIM) Clip (SG) a hairpin. (cam31/sam31 n. hair of the head) 31 sam -pyu31 (hair.of.the.head-white) n+adj. white hair. Sam55 Shan people (Chinese: 傣 Dǎi), living in the lowlands; a in Le1-sam55 ((male)-Shan) Shan, also used in words that specifically have to do with the Shan; vide Le1-sam55 etc.; b in various lexicalised idoms, listed below, e.g. sam55-bvi55 n. regular bamboo flute, lit.: Shan flute. Cf. Jingpo Sam (Xu et al. 1983: 711). Sam55-bva55 (Shan-flatlands) n. the lowlands, often inhabited by Shan. sam55-bvi55 (Shan-flute) n. regular bamboo flute, lit.: Shan flute. sam55-bvi55 mut1 n+vt. blow the flute; Vide wun11bvong55. 55 sam -bvoi31 (Shan-festival) n. exam. sam55myuq5 n. liana-like plant with fruits underneath; sam55myuq5-nui31 n. the vine or liana itself. sam55-tung31 (Shan-bag) n+n. Shan style shoulder-bag; vide tung31 for an overview of Zaiwa bags. sam55-yau11 yau11 (Shan-let.pass let.pass) n+v. say yes to everything in a non-committal fashion; Yvang11 sam55-yau11 dye31 gue11 yau31 r55. (3SG Shan-let.pass too all.right(ipf) let.pass(ipf) PE) He is rather too good at saying yes to everything in a non-committal fashion. Vide yau11. 55 sam -zue31 (Shan-truc) n. market goods; Sam55-zue31 ung31 lye31. (Shantruc sell(ipf) also+I) He sells market goods. 11 san I (clean) a vi. clear; Wui31-tong55 ma54 i1-zvyam11 san31 dik1 r55. (waterjail LOC+FCT water-water clean(ipf) extreme PE) The water in the well is very clear. I1-zvyam11 hi31 ge11 san31 dik1 r55. (water-water this TOP clean(ipf) extreme PE) This water is very clear. b vi. (eyes) clear, lively; Myoq1-pong55 san31 dik1 r55. (eye-open(vt) clean(ipf) extreme PE) He has very lively eyes. c (idiom) vi. having achieved childbirth; A1-san11 si1gve5-luq1? (NEG-clean still-PL-Y/N) Has the child been born yet? 31 Replied by: San11 bue . (clean P+I) It has born. d in san31 (clean(ipf)) used as ideophone giving expressing to a nice feeling after washing

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    oneself, especially after washing in the cold water of the stream; 31 Gung31-ci11 ci31 am55 zyang35 san31 ze1-ga11 ngon35 dik1 bue . (body(ipf) (ipf) wash wash PFM CD clean only-perceive pleasant extreme P+I) Once you wash yourself, it feels so nice and clean. See further san11san11 and san11-sueng31. 11 san II vt. scatter (on the field); Pun55 san11 ra31 dut1 r55. (manure scatter 31 need+I become PE) We need to scatter manure. Nuq1 san31 lye . (bean (ipf) scatter also+I) We are scattering soy beans. san11 III (thumb.of.a.cock) in san11-dap5. san11-dap5 (thumb.of.a.cock-be.attached) (n+vi.) vi. (cocks:) have a large 31 thumb; Woq1-po55 san11-dap5 bue . (chicken-male thumb.of.a.cockbe.attached P+I) This cock has rather a big thumb. (This indicates he is rather old.) san11-san11 (clean-clean) a adverb ‘making it very clean’; Le1go11 san11-san11 gvut5 syum11-aq5. (well clean-clean do sweep-SIM) Sweep (SG) it very clean. Man31-zyam31 san11-san11 ze1-gvut5 sut5 am55-aq5. (glass-mirror clean-clean only-do wipe/polish PFM-SIM) Wipe (SG) the glass very clean. Nung35-moq1 yvum31 ge11 san11-san11 ze1-ga11 ngon35 dik1 r55. (2PL-party house TOP clean-clean only-perceive pleasant extreme PE) Your (PL) house feels nicely clean and tidy. b ideophone expressing ‘(feeling) better’; San11-san11 ze1-a1-ga11 si1-luq1? (clean-clean onlyNEG-perceive still-Y/N) Do you feel better? san11-sueng31 (clean-hygienic) vt. be hygienic with, keep clean and tidy; 31 Zo11-syuq5 le1go11 san11-sueng31 gveq5, wam11 no31 ra . (eat-drink well clean-hygienic PLIM swollen/abdomen pain/ill/disease need+I) Dealing with food and drinks we should be very hygienic, otherwhise we will get abdominal diseases. Yvang11 mue31-bu11 gue11 san55-sueng11 r55. (3SG wrap-clothes all.right(ipf) clean-hygienic(ipf) PE) He always wears clean 31 clothes. Yvang11 yvum31 gue11 san55-sueng11 dik1 lye . (3SG house (ipf) (ipf) all.right clean-hygienic extreme also+I) She is good at keeping the house clean and tidy. Cf. sueng55. 31 san I (kill*) allomorph of sat5. san31 II (old) vi. (vegetables etc.) be old, not mildewed/ mouldy; Ang11-noq5 31 san31 bue . (petiole-black old P+I) The black mustard is old. Cf. cau11 adj/vi. old (in the regular sense). san31 III n. shoulder; in gvoq1-san31 (no.gloss-shoulder) n. ‘shoulder’ and loq1-san31 n. ‘shoulder muscles’. 55 san (glob.of.mucus) in nvap5-san55. san55-sueng11 (clean-hygienic(ipf)) vide san11-sueng31. sang11 (fyke.(net)) in nge11-sang11/nge5-sang11.

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    sang31 I (beginning) in sang31-he11 and various time adverbials. sang31 II (humans) in le1-sang31. sang31-he11 (beginning-start(GEN)) (9.19) adv. in the beginning; originally. sang31-nvik5 (beginning-the.other.year) (9.39) next year. sang31-pe1-min31 (beginning-after.tomorrow-evening) (9.39, Table 9.11) the evening of the day after tomorrow. (beginning-after.tomorrow-evening-behind) (9.39, Table 9.11) the afternoon of the day after tomorrow. sang31-pe1-nap5 (beginning-after.tomorrow-morning) (9.39, Table 9.11) the day after tomorrow. sang31-pe1-nap5-gvyo55 (beginning-after.tomorrow-morningmorning.of.other.day) (9.39, Table 9.11) the morning of the day after tomorrow. sang31po31 I n. iron sheets. sang31po31 II (papaya) in sang31po31-si11. sang31po31-lvai31 (iron.sheet-boat) n+n. steamboat. sang31po31-si11 (papaya-fruit) n+n. papaya. sang31po31-yvum31 (iron.sheet-house) n+n. house with iron roof. sang55 (fill.up) a n. sausage; in u31-sang55 (intestine-fill.up fill) n. sausage; bve5-sang55 (plug-fill.up) n. sausage (made of the large intestine); b vt. (long containers such as guns and intestines) fill up; U31-sang55 sang31 31 lye . (intestine-fill.up fill.up(ipf) also+I) I’m making a sausage. Mi1-si11 sang55-aq5. (fire-drug fill.up-SIM) Fill (SG) the gun with gunpowder. 5 sap (exchange.labour) vt. exchange labour; always with the noun o11 n. 31 labour exchange, exchanged labour forces; O11 le1-nap1 sap5 bue . (labour.exchange one-morning exchange.labour P+I) We have returned one morning of labour. Vide o11. 1 saq wa11 n. type of spirit, the restless spirits of people died in accidents or by violence; Saq1wa11 ngat1 dvo31 r55. (spirit.type bite place(vt)(ipf) PE) He’s under the spell of a saqwa. Vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. sat5 I n. deer, sambhur/sambar. sat5 / san31 II (kill) a vt. kill; Waq1 sat5 lye31. (pig kill also+I) I’m killing a pig. mvui31 sat5 (poison(vt)(ipf) kill) vt+vt. kill someone with poison; 31 Yvang11 r55 mo35do35-eq1 nvye31 sat5 am55 bue . (3SG OBJ car-AG/I (ipf) press kill PFM P+I) He has been run over and killed by a car. Vide myu11 (float/drown(vi)) and mvyu11 (float/drown(vt)); cf. mvek5; b vt. 31 (fire, lights) extinguish, put out; Yvang11 mi11 sat5 am55 bue . (3SG fire 31 5 35 kill PFM P+I) He put out the fire. Nang yvup zyang mi1-dat5 lang31 san31-aq1. (2SG sleep CD fire-electric pull/yank(ipf) kill*-SIM) When you

    sang31-pe1-min31-tang31

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    (SG) go to sleep, pull the cord to turn out the light. c vt. (good luck, good 31 results) be spoiled; Zum31-go35 sat5 am55 bue . (consort-dance kill PFM P+I) The Harmony dance has been spoilt. d in byeng35 sat5 (fix/solve

    kill) vt+vt. solve matters in a straightforward fashion; A1-hun31 zyang35 ge11 byeng35 sat5 wang11 lo35 syang55 hoi11-ma11. (nom-time CD TOP fix/solve kill enter(ipf) go(back/up) JUS INC-ROUS) (opening a meeting:) Well then, let us (ND.IN) get into business and start to solve the matter right away. e vt. (firewood etc.) leave outside for some period after 31 cutting; Tang11-sat5 sat5 lye . (firewood-kill kill also+I) We are keeping 31 the firewood outside for some time. Wa11-sat5 sat5 lo35 lye . (bambookill kill go (back/up) also+I) We are keeping the bamboo outside for some time. Cf. Jingpo sat (Xu et al. 1983: 719). sat5-kyui31 (deer-horn(s)/antlers) n. deer’s antlers. sau11 n. sheep. sau11 dvap5-hang11 (sheep attach-spread) n. sheep skin for on the floor. sau11-bu11 (sheep-clothes) n. clothes made of sheep skin; cf. king31-wom35 n. wool. sau55 (cork) vide bve5-sau55 (sau55). sau55-hai11 (shoe-shoe) n. shoe (sp. zum35 ‘pair’, kon55/hon55 ‘one of a pair’); vide hai11, ki31-zvung11 and below. 55 sau -hai11 hai55 (shoe-shoe (shoes).wear/put.on) a n+vt. put on shoes; 31 Ngo31 sau55-hai11 hai31 dvo31 lye . (1SG shoe-shoe (ipf) (ipf) (shoes).wear/put.on place(vt) also+I) I’m putting on my shoes. b 31 n+vt. wear shoes; Ke5-ngi35 ngo31 hai54 sau55-hai11 ka31 lo35 bue la11? (before-day 1SG (shoes).wear/put.on+FCT shoe-shoe where go(back/up) P+I UNC) Where are my shoes today? / (Lit.:) Where have my shoes today gone off to? Cf. hai11 and sau55-hai11. Vide wut1 for an overview of other verbs and expressions for putting on/off or wearing clothes, shoes, glasses etc. sau55-hai11 kyut5 (shoe-shoe take.off/pluck) n+vt. take off shoes. sau55-hai11-dvui11 (shoe-shoe-rope(N/vt)) n. shoelace, shoestring; sau55hai11-dvui11 zvyuq5 (shoe-shoe-rope(N/vt) tie) n+vt. tie shoestrings; cf. hai11-bvi55 zyoi35 (shoe-string thread(vt)) n+vt. lace up shoes. 55 sau -hai11-si11 (shoe-shoe-drug) n. shoeshine; Sau55-hai11-si11 but1 lye31. (shoe-shoe-drug rub.in also+I) I’m rubbing the shoes in with shoeshine. se1- I (sand) only in se1-mui31. se1- II (spirit2) in se1-byo31. se1boi31 n. table (sp. lvum11) vide dvam31 vt. set table; cf. Jingpo saboi (Xu et al. 1983: 703).

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    se1-byo31 (spirit2-spirit3) n. soul, spirit; A1ga31! se1-byo31 lvang55 lam35 ra31 se5-ga31 r55! ((difficulty) spirit2-spirit3 even ramble need+I likeperceive(ipf) PE) Aah! I was frightened out of my wits / it felt as if my spirit would go rambling. se1dyek1 (case) n. case, chest (sp. cyam11/syam11); mue31-bu11 se1dyek1 (wrap-clothes case) n+n. case, chest for clothing etc.; ngun31 se1dyek1 (silver case) n+n. strongbox, case, chest for money. 1 35 se lu (vapour) n. steam, vapour. se1-mui31 (sand-turbid) n. turbidity; mostly in se1-mui31 mui31 (sand-turbid turbid) n+vi. be turbid; Wui31-tong55 ma54 i1-zvyam11 se1-mui31 mui11 r55. (water-jail LOC+FCT water-water sand-turbid turbid(ipf) PE) The water in the source is turbid. also: Se1-mui31 a1-mui31 luq1? (sand-turbid NEGturbid Y/N) Is it turbid? se1-mui31 zyang11 (sand-turbid place(B) n+n. tubid part of a stream. se1-mui31-yo31 (sand-turbid-land) n. puddle. se1ra35 n. teacher; ci11-se1ra35 (drug-teacher) n. doctor. se1rue11 (politeness) n. politeness; in se1rue11 yu31 (politeness take) n+vt. be 31 polite; Se1rue11 a1-dye31 yu31 syang55, yvum31-seng31 zvyat5 ngvut5 lye . (politeness NEG-too take JUS house-host all be also+I) Let’s (ND.IN) not be too polite, we’re all hosts of this place. se5- I (like) (ch.19) one of the allomorphs of the impressionistic morpheme. se5- II (SNO) allomorph of su31 (SNO) in se5-bvue55. se5- III (tree) allomorph of sek5. -se55 / se5- / su55 (like) (ch.19) the impressionistic morpheme. se5-bvue55 (SNO-PLN) (9.32.2, 9.4) others, other people (both indefinite on number and identity) (Chinese: 人家 rénjiā). se5-gam31 (tree-tree(B)) n. tree; se5-gam31 doq1 n+vt. climb a tree; cf. sek5/se5-. 5 se gvan11 (spit/phlegm) n. spit, phlegm, saliva; Se5gvan11 a5-se55 gvut5 ke531 zvet5-no . (spit/phlegm nom-like do PHB-spit.through.the.teethHIGH+I) Don’t spit through your teeth like this/that. se5-gvoq5 (tree-branch) n. branch of a tree; se5-gvoq5 le1-gvoq5 (tree-branch one-branch) a/one branch of a tree. se5-gvu55 (tree-bark) n. bark; Se5-gvu55 bvyoq5 am55-aq5. (tree-bark lop.off PFM-SIM) Lop off (SG) the bark. se5-gvyang31 (tree-(trees)bare) n. bare tree. se5lai35 (pity) vi. be a pity, be unfortunate; Yvang11 r55 nga35 sau55-hai11 bi31 31 am54 se5lai35 dik1 bue . (3SG OBJ 1PO shoe-shoe give(ipf) PFM+FCT pity extreme P+I) It’s still a pity that I gave away my shoes to her. Le1man35 31 ze11 i5-wo35 zvi31 lo35-Ø wa35, a1-wo35 bvyaq5 r11 ge11, se5lai35 dik1 bue .

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    (with.much.effort only go-have borrow/lend(ipf) go(back/up)-FCT EMP NEG-have perform also TOP pity extreme P+I) It was only with much effort that we could go there and fetch it (i.e. the videotape) and now we can’t play it, such a pity! Cf. sye31. 5 se -poq5 (tree-leaf) n. tea; Ngo31 se5-poq5 ngvyun11 syuq5 gvat5 be55. (1SG tree-leaf steep(vt) drink put.into EE) Let me steep some tea to drink. se5poq5 nai11 (tree-leaf knead) knead tea-leaves, the first phase in the process of producing tea, cf. sek5-poq5. 5 se -poq5-gom35 (tree-leaf-mug) n. tea mug. se5-wam31 (wam31) (tree-(make).wall ((make).wall)) se5-wam31 n. wall; 31 se5-wam31 wam31 n+vt. make walls; Se5-wam31 wam11 lye . (tree(make).wall make.wall(ipf) also+I) We are making a wall. The se5- prefix could be the allomorph of either sek5 n. ‘tree’ or sue55 n. ‘flattened bamboo’. sek5 / seng31 I (new) adj. new; cf. a1-sek5 (nom-new) na. new; bvung31 a1sek5 (bucket/jerrycan nom-new) / bvung31 sek5 (shoe-shoe new) new buckets; Bvung31 seng31-eq1 i1-zvyam11 i5-waq1 zvyam11 wu35-aq5. (bucket/jerrycan new*-AG/I water-water go-lift try(ipf) look-SIM) Try your (SG) new buckets for carrying water. lang31-sek5 (husband-new) n. bridegroom; mi1-sek5 (wife-new) n. bride; lve5-sek5 (moon-new) n. new moon. sek5 II (pinch2) vide cek5/sek5. sek5 / se5- III (tree) a n. tree (sp. gam31, yang11) cf. se5-gam31 n. tree; b n. wood; see the forms below and those with se5-. Also in se5-poq5 (treeleaf) n. tea. sek5-bvung55 (tree-grove) n. grove; Sek5-bvung55 ma54 bvuk5dun11 ge11 ming11 dvo31 lye54 lu55? (tree-grove LOC+FCT bird.name TOP sound(vi)(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+FCT MIR) The Bvukdun birds in the groves, would they be singing? sek5-bvyen55 (tree-flat/slice) n. board for timber. sek5-dum11 (tree-log(vt/n)) n. log; Mau31-gyon11 ge11 sek5-dum11 me55 yuq1 31 lye . (fungus-ear-shaped.fungus TOP tree-log(vt/n) LOC grow also+I) Ear-shaped fungus grow on logs. Cf. sek5 dum11 (tree log) n+vt. log trees; Sek5 dum11-aq5 ma11. (tree log(vt/n)-SIM ROUS) Log (SG) the tree. 5 sek -haq5 (tree-leaf) n. tree leaves; cf. sek5-poq5 n. large tree-leaves. sek5-mit1 (tree-roots) n. roots of a tree. sek5-mop1 (tree-grit) n. sawdust. sek5-ngvyom55 (tree-soft/weak) n+adj. spongy wood. sek5-ngvyu11 (tree-top.of.plant) n. top of a tree.

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    sek5-ngyui31 (tree-green/blue) n. bright green; Sek5-ngyui31 ngyui11 ra55.

    (tree-green/blue green/blue(ipf) PE) It’s bright green. Cf. mau11-kung31ngyui31. 5 sek -ngyuq1 (tree-young.leaves) n. young tree leaves. sek5-pom31 (tree-spongy) n+adj. mouldered, spongy wood; cf. tang11wom11. 5 sek -poq5 (tree-leaf) n. large tree-leaves; cf. se5-poq5 and sek5-haq5. sek5-pup5 (tree-leaves) n. leaves of a tree; Sek5-pup5 me55 du35 lvung31 am55 31 bue . (tree-leaves LOC throw let.inside(ipf) PFM P+I) (ball etc.) I’ve thrown it up into the leaves. sek5-pye11 (tree-board) n. bamboo board (sp. long11); sek5-pye11 hang11 (treeboard spread) n+vt. make a floor with bamboo board; cf. sin55. 5 sek -tung11 (tree-lump) n. lump of wood. sek5-yit1 (yit1) (tree-saw saw) sek5-yit1 n. saw; sek5-yit1 yit1 n+v. saw (with a saw); Sek5-yit1 a1-gue11 yit1 luq1? (tree-saw NEG-all.right(ipf) saw Y/N) Can you saw? Vide yit1/yit5/yin11. 5 sek -yo31 (tree-land) n+n. forest; cf. si1long35. sek5-zyum11 (tree-raw) n+adj. recently cut wood. sem31 [in.quietness] ideophone referring to being quiet and in peace; Ngo31 bau35 sem31 ze1-gvut5 ngi11 gvat5 be55. (1SG just [in.quietness] only-do be.there(anim)(ipf) put.into EE) I will be in peace and quiet for a while. Nang31 sem31 ze1-gvut5 yvup5 dvo11-aq5 hoi11. (2SG [in.quietness] only-do sleep place(vt)-SIM INC) Sleep (SG). (said to someone who has taken ill). sen55 adj. (needles:) thin; in sen55-zo11 and a1-sen55-zo11; cf. yvam55. sen55ma35 n. kind of bamboo, used for making te5-kyun55 containers. sen55-zo11 (thin-child) adj+adj. thin and small; ap5 sen55-zo11 (needle thinchild) n+adj+adj. thin needle; a1-sen55-zo11 (nom-thin-child) na. tiny one(s). seng11 I (go.with.liquor) vide i31-seng11 seng11 and seng11-zue31; cf. Jingpo seng (Xu et al. 1983: 807). seng11 / seng55 II (liver) a n. liver; b n. organs in general; Nung11-zo54 31 31 seng11-u31 seng11-zvut5 nung35-nvik5-ngeq1 ban11 zo11 gve5-lui ning ! (2REL-child+FCT liver-intestine liver-lung 2PL-duo-AG/I use.up(ipf) eat PL-in.this.way+I INS+I) You (DU) have just eaten all of your (DU) child’s liver and lungs! c n. heart, in certain expressions; Seng11 duk1duk1 ga11 pyam11 han11 r55. (liver [onom] perceive palpitate(ipf) quick(ipf) PE) My heart (lit.: my liver) is throbbing very fast. Seng55pyam11 r55. (liver-palpitate(ipf) PE) My heart (lit.: my liver) is throbbing.

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    Seng55-no11 r55. (liver-pain/ill/disease(ipf) PE) I have a heart disease. d in seng11-seng11. seng11 III n. nail (of finger or toe); vide loq1-seng11. seng11-gvi31 (liver-gall.(bladder)) a n. bile, gall; b n. gall bladder; cf. gvi11gvi11. seng11-seng11 (liver-liver) adj. closely related; Yvang55-nvik5 ge11 nvik531 dvang31 seng11-seng11 ngvut5 lye . (3PL-duo TOP duo-siblings liverliver be also+I) The two of them are closely related. (close brothers/sisters). seng11-u31 (liver-intestine) n+n. organs and intestines; cf. seng11-eq5 u31 (liver-COM intestine) organs and intestines. seng11-zue31 (go.with.liquor-truc) vt+n. snacks for helping down liquor; Seng11-zue31 a1-wo35 luq1? (go.with.liquor-truc NEG-have Y/N) Are there any snacks for helping down the liquor? seng11-zvut5 (liver-lung) n+n. lungs. seng31 (host) in yvum31-seng31. seng55-no11 (liver-pain/ill/disease(ipf)) imperfective form of seng11 no31 n+vi. have a heart disease / have a pain in the heart; in: Seng55-no11 r55. (liverpain/ill/disease(ipf) PE) I have a heart disease. / I have a pain in the heart. seng55-pyam11 (liver-palpitate(ipf)) vide pyam31. sep1 vt. buy stock, buy things in order to sell; Nang31 Nong35dau31-zyau31 31 me55 ka55-hu55 i5-sep1-sep1 gvut5 lye ? (2SG Nongdao-market LOC Qsort go-buy.stock-buy.stock do also+I) What kind of stock do you (SG) normally buy down at Nongdao market? (Here, sep1 is reduplicated in order to express iterativity.) Mue31-bu11 sep1 ung11-aq5. (wrap-clothes buy.stock sell-SIM) (Why don’t you (SG)) do some trade in clothing. Cf. wui31 vt. buy. 1 si - / si5- I (fruit) reduced allomorphs of si11 n. fruit. si1- / si5- II (flesh) reduced allomorphs of syo11 n. meat, flesh, used in all kinds of nouns and verbs referring to the human and animal’s body and hunting. Vide syo11 for a discussion of the use of the full allomorph and for an overview of Zaiwa hunting terms. si1- III (still) (17.8) prefix variant of the continuous indicative clause marker si1-/si11/siq1 ‘still’, used in combination with other clause markers and with attitude markers, such as in the forms below. si11 I (drug) vide ci11/si11/ci1-. si11 / si1- / si5- II (fruit) a n. fruit (sp. cyam11/syam11, bvyau31, sue11); Si11 zui31 bum11 r55. (fruit bear.fruit(ipf) heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) There are lots of fruits growing there. b prefix in terms referring to fruit; si1-pik5 (fruitpungent) n. chillies, chilli plant; si1-gam31 (fruit-tree(B)) n. fruit tree; c

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    suffix in fruit names, e.g.: mak1zyok5-si11 (tangerine-fruit) n. tangerine, d often both as prefix and suffix, e.g.: si1-ling35-si11 (fruit-round-fruit) n. kind of fruit; vide zui11 vt. bear fruit, wang35 vi. healthy, almost ripe, wai35 vi. be out of season. 11 si / si1- / siq1 III (still) (17.8) si11 is the basic allomorph of the continuous indicative clause marker si1-/si11/siq1 ‘still’, and is used in 31 31 complex forms like a1-si , ze1-si and si54. 11 si IV (tie/lock) a n. button, nipple, be1-si11 (clothes-tie/lock) n. button (sp. cyam11/syam11); nau35-si11 (milk/breast-tie/lock) n+n. nipple; b n. key; in zoq1-si11 (lock-tie/lock) n+n. key; c vt. button; be1-si11 si11 (clothestie/lock tie/lock) n+vt. button one’s clothes; d vt. lock; loq1-si11 si11 (lock-tie/lock tie/lock) n+vt. (door, lock) lock; Zoq1-si11 si11-aq5. (lock31 tie/lock tie/lock-SIM) Lock (SG) it. Zoq1-si11 si31 dvo11 bue . (locktie/lock tie/lock(ipf) place(vt) P+I) The door has been locked. Zoq1-si11 si31 dvo31 r55. (lock-tie/lock tie/lock(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) The door is locked. Zoq1-si11 a1-si11. (lock-tie/lock NEG-tie/lock) The door isn’t locked. Also: Zoq1 a1-zoq1. (lock NEG-lock) The door isn’t locked. Cf. laq1, mvi11 and zoq1/zo11. 11 si V (wash) vide ci11/si11. si1-bek5 (flesh-shoot) n+vt. general term for hunting, not often used; also syo11 bek1 (flesh shoot); Nang31 syo11 wo35 bek1 ra54 gvyam11 a1-wo35. (2SG flesh have shoot need+FCT fate NEG-have) You (SG) don’t have much luck in shooting game. Vide syo11 for an overview of Zaiwa hunting terms. si1-bvi31-si11 (fruit-seed.name-fruit) n+n. kind of berry used for shooting with the tong11; vide tong11 and tong11-si11. 1 si -bong11 bong11 (fruit-(grow).seedlings (grow).seedlings)) n+vt. grow 31 seedlings; Si1-bong11 bong31 lye . (fruit-(grow).seedlings (ipf) (grow).seedlings also+I) I’m/we are growing seedlings; vide bong11. 1 si -bong35 (flesh-bladder) a n. bladder; b n. balloon; si1-bong35 le1-cyam11 (flesh-bladder one-ball) an inflated bladder or balloon; si1-bong35 le1lvum11 (flesh-bladder one-lump) an uninflated bladder or balloon; Si1bong35 be1-mut1 dvau55 raq5. (flesh-bladder help-blow inflate(vt)/bottle(N) VO) Please blow up this balloon for me. si1-cu31 (flesh-oil) n. fat meat. si1-cyom55 / si1-syom55 (flesh-drive.game) n+vt. hunt by driving game, 31 with many people; Si1-cyom55 lo35 zyang35 ge11 “syok5 syok5” ngvu31 ra 1 31 dut lye . (flesh-drive.game go(back/up) CD TOP (putting.up.game) (putting.up.game) say need+I become also+I) When driving game, you

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    have to shout “shok shok”. Vide syo11 for an overview of Zaiwa hunting terms. si1da11 (macho) only attested in yuq1-gue31 si1da11 n+n. ‘macho’ . Si1dung11-zeng31 (Menau.post-trunk) n. the three posts in the middle of a Menau dance arena; Si1dung11-zeng31 wang11 me55 zeng31-gyang31 bat1 31 bi31 a1-gvo . (Menau.post-trunk at.base LOC trunk-large.drum beat (ipf) give nom-PL+I) These people are beating the large drum below the Menau posts. also simply named Me1nau11: Me1nau11 wang11 pyang31 le1-so31 ye11 lo35 syang55. (Menau at.base DIR but-walk(ipf) go(away/down)(ipf) go(back/up) JUS) Let us (ND .IN) walk towards the foot of the (pillars of the) Menau. si1-dvung55 (flesh-frozen) n+adj. frozen meat. Si1dvung55 Zaiwa name for the Jingpo; cf. Wun11bvong55 greater Jingpo. Si1dvung55-mvi55 (Jingpo-female) n. Jingpo woman. Si1dvung55-ming35 (Jingpo-language) n. Jingpo language. Si1dvung55-po55 (Jingpo-male) n. Jingpo man. si1-gam31 (fruit-tree(B)) n+n. fruit tree (sp. byap1). si1-gvap1 (flesh-jaw) n. jaw. si1-gi11 (flesh-tendon/vein) n. tendon, sinew, vein (sp. kat5/hat5). si1-gvo55 (flesh-groin) n. groin. si1-gvong55 (flesh-bone1) n. bone; also si1-wui11 (flesh-bone2) n. bone; vide gvong55. 1 si -gvoq5 / si11-gvoq5 (fruit-branch) n+n. branch of a fruit tree. si1-gvuq5 I (fruit-skin) n+n. fruit peels; also si1-gvyap5 (fruit-shell/crust) n+n. fruit peels. si1-gvuq5 II (flesh-skin) n. skin, hide; Yvang11 myoq1-dong 11 si1-gvuq5 dye31 tu11 r55, ka55-hu55 dai11 gve5lvang11 hoq5 a1-sue55. (3SG eye-(have)hole flesh-skin too (make).thick(ipf) PE Q-sort speak although shy NEG-know) He has a thick hide. Whatever he says, he won’t feel shy. si1gvut1 / si1gvun11 vi/vt. endeavour, do one’s best (in doing something); 31 A1-wo35-wo35 ge11 wo35 syoq5 si1gvut1 ra . (NEG-have-have TOP have till endeavour need+I) I will do my very very best. Nang 31 lai11gva55 si1gvun11-aq1-o55. (2SG script endeavour*-SIM-HIGH) Do your (SG) very best in studying! Cf. Jingpo shakut (Xu et al. 1983: 750). si1-gyam11 (flesh-storey) n. tree platform for hunters; si1-gyam11 sin55 (fleshstorey make.platform) n+vt. (hunters) hide on a tree platform; Vide syo11 for an overview of Zaiwa hunting terms. si1-gyam35 (flesh-stalk(vt)) n+vt. hunt by stalking; Si1-gyam35 ye11 lye31. (flesh-stalk(vt) go(away/down)(ipf) also+I) I’m on my way to go hunting (stalking game). Vide syo11 for an overview of Zaiwa hunting terms.

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    si1gvyam55 / si5 gvyam55 (greetings) a (shake) hands, in si5gvyam55 gvat5 (greetings put.into) n+vt. shake hands; Ngo31 yvang11-eq5 si5gvyam55 gvat5 be55. (1SG 3SG-COM greetings put.into EE) I’ll shake hands with him. b n. letter (sp. kyap5). The following is a discussion on terms for sending and receiving post. (i) receiving: wo35 yu31 (have take); Ngo31 si5gvyam55 le1-kyap5 wo35 yu25. (1SG greetings one-leaf/sheet have take+FCT) I received a letter. arrival of letters: ron35 (accept/recieve); Si5gvyam55 a1hui31 r11 a1-ron35 ge11. (greetings now also NEG-accept/recieve TOP) How come the letter has not arrived yet? (ii) writing to someone: gva31 hun31 (gvat5) (write(ipf) send (put.into)); 31 Ngo31 nang31 r55 si5gvyam55 le1-kyap5 gva31 hun11 gvat5 ra . (1SG 2SG (ipf) OBJ greetings one-leaf/sheet write send(ipf) put.into need+I) I will send you (SG) a letter. (iii) in the same way: be sent a letter; Ngo31 r55 si5gvyam55 le1-kyap5 31 gva31 hun11 gvat5 ra . (1SG OBJ greetings one-leaf/sheet write(ipf) (ipf) send put.into need+I) I will be sent a letter. Nang31 ngo31 r55 5 si gvyam55 hyem31 a1-gva31 hun25 ta11? (2SG 1SG OBJ greetings how (ipf) NEG-write send+FCT GI) Why didn’t you (SG) write me a letter? (iv) writing to someone, as an obligation: gva55 bi11 (write give); Ngo31 31 nang31 r55 si5gvyam55 gue11 gva55 bi31 lye . (1SG 2SG OBJ greetings (ipf) (ipf) all.right write give also+I) I will write you (SG) a letter. (v) sending to someone: i5-hun31 (go-send); Ngo31 Nong35dau31 mai11 31 si5gvyam55 le1-kyap5 i5-hun11 gvat5 ra . (1SG Nongdao ABL greetings (ipf) one-leaf/sheet go-send put.into need+I) I’m going to send a letter from Nongdao. Si1gvyam55 i5-be1-hun11 gvan31-aq1. (greetings go-helpsend(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Post (SG) that letter for me. 1 si -gvyap5 (fruit-shell/crust) n+n. fruit peels; also si1-gvuq5 (fruit-skin) n+n. fruit peels. si1-gyeq5 (flesh-chase) n+vt. hunt (by chasing down); vide syo11 for an overview of Zaiwa hunting terms. si1-gvyoq5-si11 (fruit-mango-fruit) n+n. mango. si1-gvyoq5-si11-yo31 (fruit-mango-fruit-land) n. piece of land with mango 31 trees; Ngo31 si1-gvyoq5-si11-yo31 le1-dvong55-zo11 wo35 lye . (1SG fruitmango-fruit-land one-patch-child have also+I) I have a little patch of mango trees. si1-gvyui55 gvyui55 (flesh-stew stew) n+vt. stew meat for a long time; vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. 1 si -gvyuq5 I (fruit-dehydrate) n+adj. dehydrated fruits. si1-gvyuq5 II (flesh-dehydrate) n. dehydrated meat.

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    si1-gvyuq5 gvyuq5 I (fruit-dehydrate dehydrate) n+vt. dehydrate fruits. si1-gvyuq5 gvyuq5 II (flesh-dehydrate dehydrate) n+vt. dehydrate meat. si1-hat5 (flesh-pursue) vide si1-kat5/si1-hat5. si1-ho31 (flesh-look.for) also syo11 ho31 (flesh look.for); This expression appears to be only used in reference to the hunting techniques of demons 31 in stories etc. Ning11long11-po55 hau31 ge11 syo11 ho31 ye31 ga . (demonmale the/that TOP flesh look.for go(away/down) perceive+I) The demon 31 said he was going to go hunting. Si1-ho31 ye11 lo35 bue . (flesh-look.for (ipf) go(away/down) go(back/up) P+I) He went hunting. Vide syo11 for an overview of Zaiwa hunting terms. si1-kat5 / si1-hat5 (flesh-pursue) or syo11 kat5/hat5 (flesh pursue) n+vt. hunt by driving game; e.g.: Tang11 ho31 lo35 i1zvyang11 syo11 lo35 zyang31 hat5 syang55. (firewood look.for go (back/up) OPP flesh go(back/up) in.passing pursue JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) hunt as long as we’re already up there, after collecting the firewood. Vide syo11 for an overview of Zaiwa hunting terms. si1-ling35-si11 (fruit-round-fruit) n+n. kind of fruit. si1lo31 n. flying squirrel. si1-lvom31 (flesh-block) n+vt. hunt (trying to get as close to the game as possible); vide syo11 for an overview of Zaiwa hunting terms. 1 si long35 n. forest; cf. Jingpo shalong ‘small forest, small piece of grassland’ (Xu et al. 1983: 755); cf. sek5-yo31. 1 si -mau35 (flesh-body.hair) n. body hair, fur; Loq1-bu35 bvue55-ha55 si1-mau35 zuk5-zuk5. (hand/arm-pimple/convex PLN-where(B) flesh-body.hair hairy-hairy) He has hair all over his arms. bai11nam35 si1-mau35 (goat flesh-body.hair) n. goat wool; also king31-wom35 (thread-wool) n. wool. 1 si -mi11 (flesh-tail) n. tail. si1-mvyo55-byap1 (fruit-loquat-shrub/tree) n. kind of fruit tree, Chinese 枇 杷果树 pípá guǒshù. si1-mvyo55-si11 (fruit-fruit.name-fruit) n. kind of fruit, Chinese 枇杷果 pípáguǒ. si1-nam31 (fruit-smelly) n+adj. bad fruits; Si1-nam31 ke5-zo11, ki1-syun31 31 syun11 lye . (fruit-smelly PHB-eat faeces-spill(vt) spill(vt)(ipf) also+I) Don’t eat bad fruits, they give you diarrhoea. si1-ngai11 (flesh-give.birth) vt. give birth; Zi1syang31 si1-ngai11 ra31 dut1 31 bue ngvut5 r55. (child flesh-give.birth need+I become P+I be PE) The 31 31 time has come for the baby to be born. Zi1syang31 si1-ngai11 bue ga . (child flesh-give.birth P+I perceive+I) They have a baby. si1-nvik5 (flesh-heart) n. fillet meat.

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    si1-pik5 (fruit-pungent) n+adj. chillies, chilli plant; si1-pik5 le1-byap1 (fruitpungent one-shrub/tree) a/one shrub of the chilli plant; Si1-pik5 a1-gvat5 zyang35 ge11 dum11 a1-ngvam11, gvat5 zyang35 ge11 dum11 pik5. (fruitpungent NEG-put.into CD TOP again NEG-tasty put.into CD TOP again pungent) If you don’t put in chillies, it isn’t tasty, but then again, if you do put them in it is too hot. Si1-pik5 pik5 r55. (fruit-pungent pungent PE) It’s hot. Vide pik5. 1 si -pyu31 (flesh-white) n. the white race; cf. byu31-pyu31; cf. Nang35 syo11 pyu11 dik1 r55. (2SG.PO flesh white(ipf) extreme PE) Your (SG) skin is quite white. si1-ra31 (still-need+I) (table 15.1, 17.8) continuous future indicative clause marking unit. si1reng35 (do.up) vi. do oneself up; Lang31-sek5 mi1-sek5 si1reng35 dvo31 a131 si1-gvo . (husband-new wife-new do.up place(vt)(ipf) nom-still-PL+I) The groom and the bride are doing themselves up. si1-wui11 (flesh-bone2) n. bone; also si1-gvong55 (flesh-bone1) n. bone; nam31syam11 si1-wui11 (ribs flesh-bone2) n. ribs (sp. kat5); Si1-wui11 kue31 dvo31 r55. (flesh-bone2 gnaw(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) He is gnawing bones. Si1-wui11 bat1 kyom31-aq1. (flesh-bone2 beat break.into.pieces(vt)*-SIM) Thrush (SG) the bones into pieces. si1yo31 n. loach, Chinese: 沙鳅 shāqiū. si1zvip5 (supply) vt. supply for the houshold, trousseau etc.; Yvum31 i1gvun11 zyaq1 gue11 si1zvip5 r55. (house household rather all.right(ipf) supply PE) She is good at running the supplies of the household. Ka5531 hu55 r11 si1zvip5 yau35 be1-gvo luq1? (Q-sort also supply finish P-PL+I Y/N) Is the trousseau complete? si1-zyap5 (flesh-chop.up) n. chopped meat. si1-zyum11 (flesh-raw) n+adj. raw meat. si31 I (abundantly.green) in a1-ngvyo55 a1-si31. si31 / si5- / si11- II (die) (15.25) a vi. die, be dead; Si31 yvam31 a1-zye35 si54 wa35 si11 byuq1 dvo31 r55. (die time.for NEG-arrive still+FCT EMP die(ipf) lose place(vt)(ipf) PE) He is dead, even though it wasn’t his time to die 31 yet. b (fire, electricity etc.) die out, stop; Mi11 si31 bue . (fire die P+I) 31 The fire has died out. Na35i55 si11 byuq1 bue . (clock die(ipf) lose P+I) My 31 31 watch has stopped. c adj. dead; byu -si (man/woman-die) n+adj. dead person; d adj. bloody, damned; gvyang31-si31 (mosquito-die) n+adj. mosquito, bloody mosquito; e as the tormentative aspectivizer expressing ‘very, severely, ferociously, like hell’ etc. (See further 15.25.) si31 III (urine.(outside.the.body)) in i1-si31 and i1-si5-um31.

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    si31-mang11 (die-aged) (15.25) (adj+adj.) suffix expressing notions like ‘bloody’; mi1-dat5 si31-mang11 (fire-electric die-aged) that bloody electricity; byu31 si31-mang11 (man/woman die-aged) (Lit.:) old dead 31 person; Byu31 si31-mang11 nang31 ge11 si31 be1-kai ngvu31 zyang35 wa35, 11 5 25 11 dum toq lo ge ! (man/woman die-aged 2SG TOP die P-SUG+I say CD EMP again come.out come(back/up)+FCT TOP) You (SG) old dead one, you were dead but you have come out again! (The last sentence is a way of expressing happiness at seeing someone, and is an example of the kind of morbid cordiality which is significant for the speech of the Zaiwa of Longchuan.) si31-mvoq5 (die-gadfly) n. stable-fly. si31-sit5 (die-show) vi. bring the news of someone’s death; Chinese 报丧 bàosāng. si31-to31 to31 (die-cast.spell cast.spell) n+vt. speak magical language to the 31 dead (to guide them to the proper way); Dum11sa55 si31-to31 to11 lye . (ipf) (witch.doctor die-cast.spell cast.spell also+I) The witch doctor is guiding the spirits of the dead. Vide to31. si5-gyang31 (flesh-naked/bald) na. without trousers; before gyang31 adj. ‘be naked, be bald’ or gvut5 ‘do’; Si5-gyang31 gyang31-aq1. (flesh-naked/bald naked/bald-SIM) Pull out (SG) your trousers. Si5-gyang31 gyang11 dvo31 31 lye . (flesh-naked/bald naked/bald(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I) I am without 31 trousers. Si5-gyang31 gvut5 dvo31 lye . (flesh-naked/bald do place(vt)(ipf) also+I) I am without trousers. Cf. gung31-cin31 ‘naked’. Gung31-cin31 si5gyang31 gvun31-aq1. (body-naked flesh-naked/bald do*-SIM) Go (SG) naked. Vide cin31. 5 si -ho11-si11 (fruit-plum-fruit) n. plum. si5-hum11-si11 (fruit-peach-fruit) n. peach. si5bing11(-si11) (dried.persimmon (-fruit)) n. persimmon, from Chinese 柿 饼 shìbǐng n. dried persimmon. si5-gyo11 / si1-gyo31 (die-hear/smell) vt. feel pity for someone; Ngo31 yvang11 r55 si1-gyo31 dik1 r55. (1SG 3SG OBJ die(ipf)-hear/smell(ipf) extreme PE) I very much feel pity for him. Son31 gvat5 zyang35 ngo31 gung3131 gung31 si1-gyo31 yu11 dik1 bue . (calculate(ipf) put.into CD 1SG bodybody die(ipf)-hear/smell(ipf) take(ipf) extreme P+I) I pity myself when I think of it. Si5-gyo11 no35 a1-ra11. (die-hear/smell to NEG-need) You don’t have to feel pity. si5laq1 (slovenly2) vide a1-byaq1 si5laq1; cf. Jingpo abyak shalak (Xu et al. 1983: 4). si1-gyo31 (die(ipf)-hear/smell(ipf)) vide si5-gyo11.

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    si1-lo35 (die(ipf)-go(back/up)) (15.25) combination of auxiliary verbs,

    expressing ‘terribly’; Yvup5 nvau11 si1-lo35 r55. (sleep feel.like(ipf) die(ipf)go(back/up) PE) I’m dying to go to sleep. si11-cik5 (die(ipf)-bare(vt)) laugh in an exaggerated fashion, (Lit.:) bare one’s teeth in an exaggerated fashion; Ke5-dye31 si11-cik5. (PHB -too die(ipf)bare(vt)) Don’t laugh in such an exaggerated fashion. / (Lit.:) Don’t bare your teeth in such an exaggerated fashion. 11 si -nong35 (die(ipf)-sacrifice) vt. dish up food in an exaggerated fashion; Ke5-si1-nong35 gvat5 bi11. (PHB-die(ipf)-sacrifice put.into give) Don’t dish up food in such an exaggerated fashion. Cf. Jingpo nong (Xu et al. 1983: 627-8). si25 (die+FCT) vide 15.25. sik5 ((lightning).flash) vide cik5/sik5. sim55sim55 [slightly.afraid] ideophone expressing ‘slightly afraid’; Ngo31 bau35 ki1-tong55 ye31 zyang35 sim55sim55 ga31 r55. (1SG just faeces-jail go(away/down) CD [slightly.afraid] perceive(ipf) PE) When I go to the toilet on my own, it feels a bit scary. Cf. gyuq1 and nip5nip5. 11 sin I (drizzle) vide mut5-sin11 sin11. -Sin11 II in the name Ma11-sin11. sin11 III n. louse; Ngo31 sin11 le1-du11 myang31 bue31. (1SG louse one-being 31 see P+I) I saw a louse. Sin11 ke5-dvoq5 bi11-o55 dvyo ! (louse PHB-get.up give-HIGH DOM+I) Don’t infect me with your lice! Also in mui31-sin11 (snake-louse) n. centipede; vide sin55-ngi11. 11 sin IV vt. spank, give beating; Zi1syang31 hi31 ge11 dai54 a1-gyo11, le1go11 sin11-aq5. (child this TOP speak+FCT NEG-hear/smell well spank/give.beating-SIM) This child is disobedient, give (SG) him a 31 proper beating. Kau11 su31 r55 sin31 dvo31 a1-gvo . (steal SNO OBJ (ipf) (ipf) spank/give.beating place(vt) nom-PL+I) They are beating the thief. Cf. bat1. 55 sin (make.platform) a vt. make a platform (e.g. for drying things), make a 31 storey; make a floor (upstairs); Gyam11 sin31 lye . (storey make.platform(ipf) also+I) We are making a floor/platform. b si1-gyam11 sin55 (flesh-storey make.platform) n+vt. (hunters) hide on a tree 31 platform; Si1-gyam11 sin31 lye . (flesh-storey make.platform(ipf) also+I) He is hiding on a tree platform. Vide syo11 for an overview of Zaiwa hunting terms. sin55-ngi11 (louse-be.there(anim)(ipf)) combination used in phrases like: Sin55-ngi11 r55. (louse-be.there(anim)(ipf) PE) There are lice. Vide sin11. sing11 (split.(bamboo)) vide cing11/sing11.

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    sing11gvan11 (outside) n. (anywhere) outside, instead of in the house; Yvum31 me55 ngo31 a1-gyuq1, sing11gvan11 me55 ngi11 wun35 zyang35 ze11 gyuq1 r55. (house LOC 1SG NEG-afraid outside LOC be.there(anim)(ipf) wherever CD only afraid PE) In the house I’m not afraid, I’m only afraid anywhere outside. Cf. yvum31-bvan55 / yvum31-kun11 n. yard, outside the house. sing11ran35 n. visualizations; Yvup5 lvang55 a1-ngon35, Nu31 r55 sing11ran35 myang31. (sleep even NEG-pleasant mother/Mum OBJ visualizations see) I wouldn’t even sleep well, and would see Mother before me. Sing11-rep1 a personal name (untranslated). sing11sing11 [bright.green/blue] ideophone expressing the notion ‘bright green/blue’; sing11sing11 ngyui31 gu54 mue31-bu11 (bright.green/blue green/blue PART +FCT wrap-clothes) bright green/blue clothes; Mau11kung31 ge11 sing11sing11 ngyui11 r55. (sky-vault/ridge TOP bright.green/blue green/blue(ipf) PE) The sky is clear blue. Cf. sing55mui11-ngyui31, ngyui31 and mau11-kung31-ngyui31. sing55 I [bright.green/blue] in sing55-mui11-ngyui31; cf. sing11sing11 and ngyui31. sing55 II (taste/smell(N)) n. suffix: taste or smell of something, e.g.: pe5ro35 sing55 n+n. the smell or taste of garlic; vide kom55-sing55/hom55-sing55 n. ‘flavour’ and a1-sing55; cf. nam35 n. smell; vide bup1 sing55. sing55-dvon55 (taste/smell(N)-(spice.name)) n. kind of spice. sing55gan11 in mi1-sing55gan11 n. flame-thrower. sing55-mui11-ngyui31 (bright.green/blue-be.poisoned/poison(N)green/blue) n. grass snake (green and poisonous). sing55ngyang11 (rainbow) only in Woq1-gan11-sing55ngyang11(-nat1). sing55-rem35 (taste/smell(N)-(spice.name)) n. kind of spice; The young plants are used as a whole; of the mature plants only the flowers are dried and eaten. siq1 (still) (17.8) allomorph of the continuous indicative clause marker si1/si11/siq1 ‘still’. 1 sit [wee-wee], ideophone spoken to children to make them pee; Sit1 gvun31aq1. ([wee-wee] do*-SIM) (to a child:) Pee (SG). Also reduplicated: Sit1sit1 gvun31-aq1. 5 sit I (9.33) nu. eight. sit5 II vt. show; Nang35 be1-sek5 ngo31 r55 sit5 wu35 raq5. (2SG.PO clothes-new 1SG OBJ show look VO) Show (SG) me your new clothes. Kyo31 dvun31 sit5 raq5. (road point(vt)(ipf) show VO) Show me which direction, please. Also in si31-sit5.

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    so11 (walk) a vi/vt. walk; often as kyo31-so11 (road-walk) n+vt. walk; Yvang11 31

    kyo31 gue11 so11 bue luq1? (3SG road all.right(ipf) walk P+I Y/N) (on an infant:) Can he walk yet? Muen11lyen11 hi31 ge11 so31 ye31 so31 lo11 zyang35 tye11 r55. (door.curtain this TOP walk(ipf) go(away/down) walk(ipf) come(back/up)(ipf) CD be.in.the.way(ipf) PE) This door curtain obstructs the 31 way in walking in and out. Hoi55 so31 ngvoq5 bue . (maybe walk(ipf) mistake P+I) Perhaps we have walked the wrong way. b vi. leave; Rau35 so11 syang55. (promptly walk JUS) Let’s leave (ND.IN) quickly. So11 31 bue . (walk P+I) He left. Waq1 so11-aq5. (lift walk-SIM) Carry (SG) it away. Cf. da11da55 da55, myap1, yong11, lam35; vide bin11 wue11 so11 and yo31-so11. 11 soi n. silver ornaments; cf. ngun31 n. silver, money; cf. Jingpo soi (Xu et al. 1983: 811). soi11-bu11 (silver.ornaments-clothes) n. clothes ornamented with silver. soi11-tung31 (silver.ornaments-bag) n. bag ornamented with silver; Vide tung31 for an overview of Zaiwa bags. 31 soi (draw/paint) vt. draw, paint; Byu31 ke5-soi31. (man/woman PHBdraw/paint) Don’t draw figures. A1-gva54-gok1 gvut5 ke5-soi31. (nomvariegated1+FCT-flamboyant do PHB-draw/paint) (to children that are 31 drawing:) Don’t doodle. Ka55-hu55 me1-gva55 soi31 ra ? (Q-sort wordswrite draw/paint need+I) What patterns are you drawing? Cf. Jingpo soi (Xu et al. 812). soi55 vi. very hoarse; Kyong11 soi55 ma54 ga31 r55. (throat hoarse LOC+FCT perceive(ipf) PE) My throat feels very hoarse. 1 sok vt. weed; Ang11-noq5-yo31 hai31 sok1 lye31. (petiole-black-land shovel(ipf) weed also+I) I am weeding my black mustard plot. Cf. Jingpo sok (Xu et al. 1983: 812); cf. kai11/hai11 shovel and myoq1. 1 sok sok1 onom. imitating the rustling sound when walking on dry leaves; Sok1sok1 ngvu31 ke5-so31 mving55. ([onom] say PHB-walk(ipf) sound/name(vt)) Don’t walk with so much rustling. Cf. Jingpo sok (Xu et al. 1983: 812). som55 (light) a adj/vi. light (in weight, said of objects, not people); 31 Mau11sau11 hi55-bvue55 som55-som55 ze11 ngvut5 lye , nang31 wa11-aq1. (paper/book this-PLN light-light only be also+I 2SG lift*- SIM) These books are very light, you (SG) carry them. b adj. (jobs) light; Nang31 31 le1gon31 lye ge11 a1mu31 som54 gvun31-aq1. (2SG lazy(ipf) also+I TOP matter light+FCT do*-SIM) Since you (SG) are lazy, you (SG) do the light jobs. Vide som31. 11 son I [sleep.peacefully] onom. indicating sleeping peacefully; Son11 gvut5 yvup5 dvo11 gveq5, suk1suk1sak1sak1 ke5-gvut5 gvo55. ([sleep.peacefully]

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    do sleep place(vt) PLIM [move.restlessly] PHB-do PL) Sleep (PL) peacefully, don’t (PL) move about restlessly. Vide yvup5 vi. sleep; cf. suk1suk1sak1sak1; cf. Jingpo son (Xu et al. 1983: 812). 11 son II (stingy) a vi. stingy; Yvang11 son31 dik1 lye31 ning31. (3SG stingy(ipf) extreme also+I INS+I) He is terribly stingy! b n. crook; in the forms below; cf. son55. 11 son -ki11 (stingy-faeces) n. crook; Nang31 su54 son11-ki11! (2SG like+FCT stingy-faeces) You (SG) crook! son11-ki11 son11-na35 (stingy-faeces stingy-no.gloss) n. cheese-paring person. son55 (calculate) a vt. calculate (money etc.); Yvang11 r55 ngun31 son55 bi11aq5. (3SG OBJ silver calculate give-SIM) Calculate (SG) the sum of 31 money to return to her. Son31 ngvoq5 bue . (calculate(ipf) mistake P+I) I made a mistake in calculating. b vi/vt. calculate people; Yvang11 ge11 31 31 31 gue11 son31 lye mai -ei . (3SG TOP all.right(ipf) calculate(ipf) also+I OBV+I.EXCL+I) He really knows how to calculate people! c vi. be stingy; Yvang11 a1-son55. (3SG NEG-calculate) He is not stingy. (cf. son11); d vi/vt. think about, consider; Son31 gvat5 zyang35 ngo31 gung3131 gung31 si1-gyo31 yu11 dik1 bue . (calculate(ipf) put.into CD 1SG body(ipf) (ipf) body die -hear/smell take(ipf) extreme P+I) I pity myself when I 31 1 11 think of it. Nang a num mau35-Ø ge11, ka55-hu55 dye31 son31 gvun31 31 lye ta11? (2SG constantly stare/bewildered-FCT TOP Q-sort too calculate(ipf) play(ipf) also+I GI) You (SG) are staring into the distance all the time, what are you thinking about? Ngo31 gung31-gung31 son31 gyuq1 31 yu11 dik1 bue . (1SG body-body calculate(ipf) afraid take(ipf) extreme P+I) I’m afraid of myself when I think of it. (I wouldn’t dare to do it again.) e 31 31 like d, in corporate clauses; Ka55-hu55 wui31 ra son31 dvo31 lye . (Q(ipf) (ipf) sort buy need+I calculate place(vt) also+I) I was thinking about 31 what to buy. / We were thinking about what to buy. Ye31 ra son31 dvo31 31 (ipf) (ipf) lye . (go(away/down) need+I calculate place(vt) also+I) I was already thinking of going. f like d, in the fixed expression: Nang31 son31 wu35-aq5. (2SG calculate(ipf) look-SIM) Consider (SG) this. E.g.: Ngo31 syut5 lye54 lu55, nang31 syut5 lye54 lu55, nang31 son31 wu35-aq5. (1SG wrong also+FCT MIR 2SG wrong also+FCT MIR 2SG calculate(ipf) lookSIM) Would it be my fault or would it be your (SG) fault, you (SG) think about it. Cf. Jingpo son (Xu et al. 1983: 812); cf. Chinese 算 suàn; cf. son11 vi. stingy; n. crook; cf. mit1 vr. ‘think’ and ngap5 vt. ‘count’. song11 n. standing basket or bag (sp. lvum11); cf. Jingpo song in songhpai (Xu et al. 1983: 813); vide lan35 for other types of baskets. song55 ((have).dandruff) vide u5-song55 song55.

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    sop5 (wipe/rummage) a vt. wipe off; Sop5 kyo31 am55-aq5. (wipe/rummage

    let.go.down(ipf) PFM-SIM) Wipe (SG) it off (with your hand). b vt. 31 5 rummage, search; Wang11 ye31 i5-sop5 be55 ga i -sop5. (enter(ipf) go(away/down) go-wipe/rummage EE perceive+I go-wipe/rummage) He entered the house to search for them. Zam31 lai11 zyang35 gye11-bvue55 31 gung31-du11-me55 lvang55 sop5 a1-gvo . (bridge pass CD soldier(GEN)PLN body-being-LOC even wipe/rummage nom-PL+I) The soldiers even do body searches on people crossing the bridge. c in be1-sop5 sop5 (cheek-wipe/rummage wipe/rummage) n+vt. give a cuff on the ears; Be1sop5 sop5 dvang31 gvan31-aq1. (cheek-wipe/rummage wipe/rummage let.fly(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Give (SG) him a cuff on the ears. Cf. sut5 vt. wipe clean, wipe dry, polish, cyo vt. search, wue11 vt. sweep or wipe away with hand or arm, zok1 vi. search around; cf. Jingpo sop (Xu et al. 1983: 813). soq5 I n. air, gas; Ki31-lyeng31 soq5 a1-bo31 loq1. (leg/foot-wheel air NEGcontain no.more) The bike’s tyre is flat. Vide soq5-dau35 dau35. 5 soq II vt. connect; Mi1-dat5 dvui11 soq5 lye31. (fire-electric rope(N/vt) connect also+I) I’m connecting electric wires. Vide loq1-soq5 soq5. 5 soq III (itch2) vi. itch; Zai11 wun11 lui31 soq5-soq5 r55. (cogon.grass carry/bring(ipf) in.this.way+I itch2-itch2 PE) It itches when carrying cogon grass. Cf. rui35 (itch1) and yo11 (itch3). 5 soq sye31 (air pull) n+vt. breathe; Soq5 sye11 lvung55-aq5. (air pull(ipf) let.inside-SIM) Inhale (SG). Soq5 sye11 to31-aq1. (air pull(ipf) come.out/sharp*-SIM) Exhale (SG). soq5-dau35 dau35 (air-puffy puffy) n+vi. form gas; Soq5-dau35 dau35 r55. (air-puffy puffy PE) There’s lots of gas. soq5-gam31 (itch2-tree(B)) n. padauk tree (itchy when carrying the bark of it). 5 soq -tu31-zue31 (air-(make).thick-truc) n. tyre pump. soq5-um31 (air-gun) a n. gas cylinder; b n. inflatable object, see below. soq5-um31 dvap5-kang11 (air-gun attach-spread) n. inflatable bed. sot1 n. aluminium; Hi31 ge11 sot1-neq1 rvang54 pyeng55 luq1? (this TOP aluminium-AG/I make+FCT plate Y/N) Is this dish made of aluminium? / (Lit.:) Is this a dish made of aluminium? sot1-au11 (aluminium-pan) n. aluminium pan. su31 I (oil) vide cu31/su31. su31 II (secure*) allomorph of suq5. su31 / se5- III (SNO) (9.32.2, 9.4) the singular nominalizer; vide a1-su31. su31su31 [soundly.sleeping] ideophone indicating soundly sleeping; Su31su31 ga11 yvup5 ngvam31 si11 r55. ([soundly.sleeping] perceive sleep tasty(ipf)

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    die(ipf) PE) I can hear that he is sleeping very soundly. Vide yvup5 vi. sleep. su55 / se5- / -se55 (like) (ch.19) the impressionistic morpheme; the allomorph su55 is used in su54 (like+FCT). 25 su (SNO+FCT) possessive form of su31/se5- (9.32.2, 9.4); e.g.: mau11sau11 gva55 su25 se1ra35 (paper/book write SNO+FCT teacher) the teacher of the writer of the book. 54 su (like+FCT) vide 19.3. suan11tang11-weng31 / suan11tang11-weng11 (sour.soup-broth) n+n. sour soup; from Chinese 酸汤 suāntāng n. sour soup. sue11 I n. screw (sp. kat5/hat5); Sue11 lvin31 to31-aq1. (screw screw/roll(ipf) come.out/sharp*-SIM) Screw (SG) the screw out. Sue11 cyoq5 to31-aq1. (screw gouge come.out/sharp*-SIM) Gouge out (SG) the screw (not: turn out). Cf. lvin55 vt. screw, roll. 11 sue II n. segment of fruit; si11 le1-sue11 (fruit one-segment) a/one segment of fruit; Le1-sue11 le1-sue11 gvun31-aq1 ma11. (one-segment one-segment do*-SIM ROUS) (fruit:) Divide (SG) it into pieces. / (Lit.:) Cut (SG) it into slices. sue11 III n. soil dug out by insects when expanding their home; Sue11 gvo11 31 bue . (soil.dug.out.by.insects big P+I) The insects have dug out quite enough soil. (This is an indication that their home can be smoked out in order to eat the insects.) Cf. zvue11 in mi1-zvue11. 11 sue IV (stick) in ne1-sue11. sue31 nu. ten; vide cue31/sue31. sue55 I n. flattened bamboo, used for making floors and walls etc.; Sue55 buq1 31 lye . (flattened.bamboo crunch/flatten also+I) We’re flattening bamboo. 31 Sue55 hang31 lye . (flattened.bamboo spread(ipf) also+I) We are spreading a floor. 55 sue II (know) (16.53) vi/vt. ‘know’; vide the forms with sue31. sue31 (know(ipf)) (16.53) modal adverb ‘to know how to do V’. sue31-lum11 (know(ipf)-reciprocal) v+v. (people) be acquainted; Ngo31 yvang11-eq5 a1-sue31-lum11. (1SG 3SG-COM NEG-know(ipf)-reciprocal) He and I don’t know each other. Byu31 sue31-lum11 bang11 a1-ngi31. (man/woman know(ipf)-reciprocal PNO NEG-be.there(anim)) There are/were no people that I know. Cf. man35. 31 sue -yu31 (know(ipf)-take) v+aux. understand; Nang31 sue31-yu31 bue31 luq1? (2SG know(ipf)-take P+I Y/N) Do you (SG) understand it? suen11 (pointed) a n. pointed thing, in suen11-din11; b vi. be pointed, sharp; 31 Syam31-cyun11 hi31 ge11 suen31 dik1 lye , ke5-cyung31 gvo55. (knife-sharp (ipf) this TOP pointed extreme also+I PHB-use PL) The point of this dagger

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    is very sharp. Don’t (PL) use it. Vide suen11-suen11; cf. u1 -cyun11; cf. Jingpo sensen (Xu et al. 1983: 724). suen11-din11 (pointed-wick) n+n. wick of kerosene lamp; Suen11-din11 le1zvui55 pue11 toq5 gvat5 si1-aq5. (pointed-wick one-bit pry.out(ipf) come.out put.into still-SIM) Pry out (SG) some more of the wick. suen11-suen11 (pointed-pointed) ideophone expressing pointedness; Hye55poq5 bang11 ge11 nvo31 suen11-suen11 ma54 zvyat5-zvyat5. (same.elevationforeign PNO TOP nose pointed-pointed LOC+FCT all-all) Foreigners all have pointy noses. suen31 (appearance) in le1-suen31. sueng31 (hygienic) in san11-sueng31; cf. sueng55. sueng55 I (bear.reference) in sueng54. sueng55 II vt. (house etc.:) clear out; Yvum31 le1go11 sueng55 gveq5. (house well clear.out PLIM) Clear out (PL) the house. Yvang11 yvum31 a5rvang55 31 gue11 sueng31 dik1 lye . (3SG house etcetera all.right(ipf) clear.out(ipf) extreme also+I) She is very good at clearing out the house. Cf. sueng31. Cf. Jingpo seng (Xu et al. 1983: 724). Sueng55 III in personal names like Me1-sueng55 and Sueng55-kam31. sueng55 IV onom. imitating the sound of falling needles; Ap5 gau11-kat5 kyo31 gvat5 r11 mi1-gung31 me55 sueng55 a1-ga11-ga11 … (needle ninelong.object let.go.down(ipf) put.into also earth-body LOC [onom] NEGperceive-perceive) When they would let down nine needles which wouldn’t sound… sueng55 V n. precious stone (sp. cyam11/syam11); Sueng55 du11 ye11 lye31. (precious.stone dig.with.stick go(away/down)(ipf) also+I) I’m going to go 31 digging for precious stones. Sueng55 pe5ga35 ga35 lye . (precious.stone trade(N) trade(V) also+I) I trade in precious stones. Vide lung11-sueng55 and mi1-sueng55. Cf. Jingpo seng (Xu et al. 1983: 724). sueng55 VI n. little shop, little restaurant; vide zang11-sueng55; cf. Jingpo seng (Xu et al. 1983: 724). Sueng55-kam31 a personal name (not sueng55 precious stone). sueng54 (bear.reference+FCT) (9.10) in the construction Noun-(N)eq5 sueng54 (…-COM bear.reference+FCT) ‘about (a certain topic), on (a certain topic), concerning…; have to do with…; bear reference with…’; Zai11wa31-ming35-eq5 sueng54 (Zaiwa-language-COM bear.reference+FCT) having to do with Zaiwa language, about Zaiwa language; bau31woq5-eq5 sueng54 mau31mi11 (ant-COM bear.reference+FCT story) a story about ants; A1mu31 hi31 ge11 nga35nvung55-eq5 a1-sueng54. (matter this TOP 1PO-1ND.IN- COM NEGbear.reference+FCT) This matter doesn’t have anything to do with us

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    (ND.IN). Sometimes also after the factivive marker: Ngo25 a1-sueng55. (1SG+FCT NEG-bear.reference) This does not have to do with me. Cf.

    Jingpo seng (Xu et al. 1983: 724).

    suet1 [cut.very.lightly] ideophone indicating cutting very lightly; Suet1 ga54 me55 wu35 gvat5 zyang35 wa35 sui11 toq5 dvo11. ([cut.very.lightly] perceive+FCT LOC look put.into CD EMP blood come.out place(vt)) I was cut without feeling anything, and when I looked I saw - to my surprise - blood gushing out. Wam35pun31 suet1 gvut5 le1-long11 yam11 bi11 raq5. (pea.flour.cake [cut.very.lightly] do one-slice/plate cut.off give VO) Cut one slice of pea flour cake for me, please. Cf. Jingpo set (Xu et al. 1983: 725). suet5 ((wear).glasses) in myoq1-suet5 (suet5); cf. Jingpo set (Xu et al. 1983: 725). sui11 I n. blood; Sui11 a1-toq5 luq1? (blood NEG-come.out Y/N) Does it bleed? / Did it bleed? waq1-sui11 (pig-blood) n+n. pig blood; vide nvo31-mun35sui11. 11 sui II (decorate.with) vide cui11/sui11. sui11 III (freckle) n. limp, pimple; in mun11-sui11 and nuq1-sui11. sui11 IV untranslated; in Myoq1-sui11 a1-tuk5. sui11 V (whet/grate) a vt. (knives etc.) whet; Syam31 sui11-aq5. (knife whet/grate-SIM) Whet (SG) the knife. Syam31 hi31 sui31 to31-aq1. (knife this whet/grate(ipf) come.out/sharp*-SIM) Whet (SG) the knife very sharp. b vi. rub oneself against something; No11 hum55-zeng31 me55 sui31 r55. (cattle door-trunk LOC whet/grate(ipf) PE) The cattle is rubbing itself against the pillar. c vt. grate, shred; vide mik1-sui11. 11 sui -bvat5 (blood-clot(N)) n+n. congealed blood; Sui11-bvat5 pat5 toq5 31 bue . (blood-clot(N) vomit come.out P+I) He has vomited congealed blood. 11 sui -ki55 (blood-cube) n. cubes of set blood. sui11-kyo31 (blood-road) n. veins; Sui11-kyo31 a1-rot1. (blood-road NEGgo.through) The veins are obstructed. sui11-luq5 (whet/grate-stone) n. grindstone. sui55 (sperm) in ngi11-sui55 and zyuq1-sui55. suk1suk1sak1sak1 [move.restlessly] onom. indicating moving about restlessly or making much fuss; Zi1syang31 ngi31 zyang35 suk1suk1sak1sak1 ga31 r55. (child be.there(anim) CD [move.restlessly] perceive(ipf) PE) When there are children around, there’s always a lot of fuss. Suk1suk1sak1sak1 ke5-gvut5. ([move.restlessly] PHB-do) Don’t move about restlessly. / Don’t make so much fuss. Le1go11 yvum31-aq1, ke5-lye35 suk1suk1sak1sak1. (well sleep*-SIM PHB-come(away/down)

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    [move.restlessly]) Lay still, don’t move about. Vide son11; cf. tik1tik1tak1tak1. sum11 / sum31 / sum35 (9.33) nu. three; sum11-sue31 (three-ten) nu. thirty; sum11-syo31 (three-hundred) nu. three hundred; sum35-sue11-ra11 (three(GEN)-ten(GEN)-one) nu. 31; sum35-syo11 le1-sue31 (three(GEN)hundred(GEN) one-ten) nu. 310. sum11-zai35 (three-generation) nu+n. three generations; Sum11-zai35 byu31gue31 rau35 zue31 syang55. (three-generation man/woman-all.right promptly live.as.human JUS) Let us (ND.IN) three generations of good people, live together! sum11zvoq5 (court) n. courtship, love affair; cf. Jingpo sumtso (Xu et al. 1983: 819). sum11zvoq5 lai11gva55 (court script) n+n. love letter. sum11zvoq5 zvoq5 (court court) n+v. court, have a love affair; Nang31 31 sum11zvoq5 zvoq5 wu35 bue luq1? (2SG court court look P+I Y/N) Did you (SG) ever have a love affair? Cf. Jingpo sumtso (Xu et al. 1983: 819). sum11zvoq5-mi11 (court-wife) n. fiancée, girlfriend; also sum11zvoq5-mvi55. sum11zvoq5-mvi55 (court-female) n. fiancée, girlfriend; also sum11zvoq5mi11. sum11zvoq5-po55 (court-male) n. fiancé, boyfriend. sum31 I (close/dense*) allomorph of sup5. sum31 II (loose/fade) a vi. loose, make losses; Mi1-zyan11 sum31 bue31. (fire31 endure loose/fade P+I) We have lost the war. Pe5ga35 ga35 sum31 bue . (trade(N) trade(V) loose/fade P+I) I have made losses in business. b vi. 31 (clothes etc.:) fade; Mue31-bu11 sum11 byuq1 bue . (wrap-clothes (ipf) loose/fade lose P+I) These clothes have faded. sum31 / cum31 III (mortar) The allomorph cum31 is rarely used. a n. mortar; Sum31 mai11 tung11-aq5. (mortar ABL crush-SIM) Crush (SG) it in the mortar. b in tung55-sum31 (pound-mortar) n. ‘mortar’; n. ‘mortar and pestle’ and in loq1-sum31 (hand/arm-mortar) n. ‘small mortar and pestle’; 31 Loq1-sum31 mai11 guq1 tung31 lye . (hand/arm-mortar ABL unhusked.rice crush(ipf) also+I) I am husking rice in the small mortar. Vide duk5duk5, wui31-sum31 n+n. water mortar, loq1-mun35 tung55-sum31 n. elbow. sum31 IV (three) vide sum11/sum31/sum35. sum35-syo11 le1-sue31 (three(GEN)-hundred(GEN) one-ten) (9.33) nu. 310. sun11 / cun11 (veg/dish) The allomorph cun11 is rarely used. a n. vegetable; sun11-sun55 (veg/dish-garden) n+n. vegetable garden; yo31-so31-sun11 (land-walk(GEN)-veg/dish) n. wild vegetables; mik1-sun11

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    (bamboo.shoots-veg/dish) n+n. bamboo shoots; sun11-haq5 (veg/dishleaf) n+n. vegetable leaves; sun11-weng31 (veg/dish-broth) n+n. vegetable soup; b n. dish; zang11-sun11 (rice/food-veg/dish) n+n. dish; mvan11-haq5-sun11 (grass/leaves-leaf-veg/dish) n. vegetable dishes; sun11-mo35 (veg/dish-AUG) n+adj. main dish; sun11-zo11 (veg/dish-child) n+adj. side dish; sun11-gam35 gam35 (veg/dish-abstain abstain) n+vt. to abstain from a certain type of food; sun11-nvye31 nvye31 (veg/dishmake.red/fry make.red/fry) n+vt. stir-fry dishes; sun11-tung11 tung11 (veg/dish-crush crush) n+vt. pestle a dish. sun11-au11 (veg/dish-pan) n+n. pan with dish in it; Sun11-au11 tut5 am55-aq5. (veg/dish-pan (pan).lift.off.the.fire PFM-SIM) Lift (SG) the pan (with the dish in it) off the fire. Nang35 sun11-au11 ngye35 gyo35 sing55 se5-ga54 ngam11 rvo55. (2SG.PO veg/dish-pan burnt/hot go.down taste/smell(N) like-perceive+FCT seem(ipf) PE+HIGH) It smells like your (SG) dish (in the pan) is burning! sun11-gam35 (veg/dish-abstain) vide gam35. sun11-haq5 (veg/dish-leaf) n. vegetable leaves. sun11-mo35 (veg/dish-AUG) n+adj. main dish; cf. sun11-zo11 n+adj. side dish. sun11-nvye31 nvye31 (veg/dish-make.red/fry make.red/fry) n+vt. stir-fry dishes. Vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. 11 sun -pyeng55 (veg/dish-plate) n+n. dish or plate with vegetables. sun11-sun55 (veg/dish-garden) n+n. vegetable garden. sun11-tung11 tung11 (veg/dish-crush crush) n+vt. pestle a dish. sun11-weng31 (veg/dish-broth) n. vegetable soup. sun11-zo11 (veg/dish-child) n+adj. side dish; cf. sun11-mo35 main dish. sun31 I (dawn) a n. dawn; Sun31 dvot5 bue31. (dawn short P+I) (in summer:) 31 Dawn has become short. Sun31 heng31 bue . (dawn long P+I) (in winter:) Dawn has become long. b also in nap1-sun31 n. dawn; Naq1ma35 nap1-sun31 r55 zo11 syang55. (tomorrow-LOC morning-dawn TS eat JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) eat this tomorrow, early in the morning. (incorrect without naq1-ma35:) Naq1-ma35 nap1-sun31 lye35 lo31-aq1. (tomorrow-LOC morning-dawn come(away/down) come(back/up)-SIM) Come back (SG) tomorrow at dawn. c vi. dawn; also in nap1-sun31 sun31; Nap1-sun31 sun11 lye35 lo31-aq1. (morning-dawn dawn(ipf) come(away/down) come(back/up)-SIM) Come back (SG) in the early morning. sun31 II ((make)nest*) allomorph of sut5. sun31 III (wipe/polish*) allomorph of sut5. sun55 I n. garden; Sun55 kai31 lye31. (garden shovel(ipf) also+I) I am tilling the garden. sun11-sun55 (veg/dish-garden) n. vegetable garden; cf. Jingpo sun (Xu et al. 1983: 819).

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    sun55 II adj. scantily haired and scragged; in a1-sun55 and sun55-zo11. sun55-kau31 koi55zvue11 (garden-inside chopsticks) (as a riddle:) the chopsticks in the garden (The answer is: French beans.)

    sun55-kyam31 (garden-fence) n. fence (around field or garden); Sun5531

    kyam31 gvyam55 bue . (garden-fence enclose P+I) We have enclosed the field with a fence. sun55-zo11 (scantily.haired/scragged-child) adj+adj. scantily haired, 31 scragged; Nang35 ki31 ma54 si1-mau35 sun55-zo11 ngvut5 r55 mai ! (2SG.PO leg/foot LOC +FCT flesh-body.hair scantily.haired/scraggedchild be PE OBV+I) Your (SG) legs are so scantily haired! Nang35 u131 sam31 sun55-zo11 ngvut5 r55 mai ! (2SG.PO head-hair.of.the.head scantily.haired/scragged-child be PE OBV+I) Your (SG) hair is so very thin! sung11 n. spring; Sung11 toq5 bue31. (spring come.out P+I) It’s spring. Le131 zan31-tong11 me55 zye11 ngon35 ge11 sung11 bue . (one-summer/year-roll LOC exceed pleasant TOP spring P+I) Of all seasons of the year, spring is the most pleasant. sung11-toq5 ge1yveng31 (spring-come.out cicada) n. kind of cicada. sup1 I vi. fiddle continuously; Myuq1 ge11 dye31 sup1 r55. (monkey TOP too fiddle.continuously PE) Monkeys always fiddle with things. Loq1 ke5dye31 sup1. (hand/arm PHB-too fiddle.continuously) Don’t fiddle all the time. Cf. ge1-zyam11. 1 sup II [fit.right] ideophone expressing the notion of being just the right size; Gok5 hi31 ge11 dvau55 le1-syam11 lvung55 sup1 ze11 ngvut5 r55. (crest/crate this TOP inflate(vt)/bottle(N) one-ball let.inside [fit.right] only be PE) This box is just big enough for a bottle. sup5 / sum31 (close/dense) vi. (plants, seeds etc.) close to each other, dense; Dye31 ho31 sup5 r55. (too cultivate(ipf) close/dense PE) These have been planted to close to each other. Dye31 san31 sup5 r55. (too scatter(ipf) close/dense PE) You are scattering to densely. Le1-zvui55 san31 sum31aq1. (one-bit scatter(ipf) close/dense*-SIM) Scatter (SG) them a bit more densely. suq5 / su31 (secure) a (posts, sticks) vt. insert, in the sense of: solidly attach to the ground; Pun55dung11 dvu11 su31-aq1. (post.of.a.fence respond/upright(ipf) secure*-SIM) Insert (SG) the post into the ground. (not with a hammer but by thrusting the post into the ground with your 31 hands) Hum55-zeng31 ke5-mvyo55 kat5 suq5 ra ? (door-trunk Q-much (B) long.object secure need+I) How much pillars shall we make? gvyui31syuq5 suq5 (French.bean-lattice.frame.for.beanstalk secure) n+n+vt. make a frame for beanstalks; b (pans:) vt. solidly place above the fire;

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    Au11 suq5 gvan31-aq1. (pan secure put.into*-SIM) Place (SG) the pan on the fire. Cf. zvuq5. 1 sut sut1 [sobbing] onom. imitating the sound of sobbing; Sut1sut1 ngvu31 ke5-ngau31. ([sobbing] say PHB-weep) Don’t sob like that. 5 sut / sun31 I a n. nest, lair, cobweb, cocoon; gyang11mvya55-sut5 (spider(make)nest) n+n. cobweb; lai11-sut5 (silkworm-(make)nest) n. silkworm cocoon; ngvoq5-sut5 (bird-(make)nest) n. bird’s nest; waq1-sut5 (pig(make)nest) n+n. pig’s nest; b vt. hang; in gvyang31-sut5 sut5 (mosquito(make)nest (make)nest) n+vt. hang a mosquito net. sut5 / sun31 II (wipe/polish) vt. wipe clean, wipe dry, polish; Man31-zyam31 san11-san11 ze1-gvut5 sut5 am55-aq5. (glass-mirror clean-clean only-do wipe/polish PFM-SIM) Wipe (SG) the glass very clean. Sau55-hai11 sut5 31 lye . (shoe-shoe wipe/polish also+I) I’m polishing the shoes. Sut5 hui55aq5. (wipe/polish dry(vi)-SIM) Wipe (SG) it dry. ki1-sut5 mau11sau11 (faeces-wipe/polish paper/book) n. toilet paper; cf. sop5 vt. wipe off. 5 sut -zue31 (wipe/polish-truc) n. eraser; also pyoq5-zue31. sya11 (lower.roof) only in doq1-sya11. sya31lom11 n. leopard cat. syai31 I (differ/not.fit) a vi. differ, be different; A1-syai31 kai31, le1-zyung11 31 za54 ning . (NEG-differ/not.fit SUG+I one-kind only+FCT INS+I) I think they’re not different, they are the same! Nang35 loq1-ngyui11-eq5 nga35 loq1-ngyui11 ge11 syai11 r55, nang35 ge11 heng11 r55 nga35 ge11 dvot5 r55. (2SG.PO hand/arm-finger/toe-COM 1PO hand/arm-finger/toe TOP differ/not.fit(ipf) PE 2SG.PO TOP long(ipf) PE 1PO TOP short PE) Your (SG) fingers and my fingers are different; yours are long and mine are short. b 31 vi. not fit; Kum11 hi31 ge11 syai11 byuq1 bue , a1-wo35 mi11 loq1. (door this (ipf) TOP differ/not.fit lose P+I NEG-have close no.more) This door does not fit anymore. It won’t close anymore. Dvang55kuq5 le1go11 zung31-aq1, zung11 syai11 lo35 r55. (stool/chair well sit-SIM sit(ipf) differ/not.fit(ipf) go(back/up) PE) Sit (SG) well on your stool, you are starting to fall off. Cf. Jingpo shai (Xu et al. 1983: 743). Possibly the same morpheme as syai31 vi. be loud-mouthed. 31 syai II vi. be loud-mouthed, naughty; Zi1syang31 gvo11 bang11 r55 a1-syai11 po11. (child big PNO OBJ NEG-loud-mouthed(GEN) INO) Children shouldn’t loud-mouth adults. A1-syai11 lum31 po11. (NEG-loudmouthed(ipf) reciprocal(GEN) INO) Don’t quarrel. Zi1syang31 hi31 dye31 31 syai11 r55, le1go11 dai31-mvoq5 ra dut1 r55. (child this too loud(ipf) (ipf) mouthed PE well speak -learn/teach need+I become PE ) This child is too loud-mouthed, he/she should be thoroughly educated. Possibly the same morpheme as syai31 vi. be different.

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    syai55 a n. sieve; b vt. sieve; Syai55 mai11 syai55-aq5. (sieve ABL sieve-SIM) Sieve (SG) it with the sieve. Loaned from Cf. Chinese 筛 shāi; also into Jingpo shai (Xu et al. 1983: 743). syak1syak1 [like.half.done.potatoes] ideophone indicating a sensation like half done potatoes; Syak1syak1 ga31 r55. ([half.done.potatoes] perceive(ipf) PE) It feels like half done potatoes. syam11 I (ball) vide cyam11/syam11. syam11 II (cool) vide cyam11/syam11. syam31 I (fan (N)*) vide syap5/syam31. syam31 II a n. knife (sp. kyam11); b n. iron utensils in general; also in: syam31-dvoq5 (knife-iron) n. iron; syam31-kop5 (knife-(dig).pit) n. hoe; syam31-si11 (knife-drug) n. bullet; vide ning11dup1. syam31-bat5 (knife-beat) n+vt. beat the knife, hoe, dagger etc. (whilst 31 forging it); Syam31-bat5 lye . (knife-beat also+I) I am beating the knife (whilst forging). syam31-byang31 (knife-scabbard) n. knife and scabbard (sp. lvum11); Syam31-byang31 lui31-aq1. (knife-scabbard carry.on.shoulder-SIM) Carry your (SG) knife and scabbard on your shoulder. syam31-cyun11 (knife-sharp) n+adj. dagger. syam31-dvoq5 (knife-iron) n+n. iron; syam31-dvoq5 zam31 (knife-iron bridge) n. iron bridge; cf. dvoq5-mvi55 and sang31po31. syam31-dvum55 (knife-interrupt) n+n. broken knife. syam31-kop5 (knife-(dig).pit) n. hoe. syam31-nong35 (knife-2nd-brother) n. kind of small knife; also: zi1-syam31nong35 (small-knife-2nd-brother). syam31-si11 (knife-drug) n. bullet (sp. cyam11/syam11). syam31-to11 (knife-(short.knife)) n. pocket knife. syam31-to11-mo35 (knife-(short.knife)-AUG) n+adj. large pocket knife. syam31-to11-zo11 (knife-(short.knife)-child) n+adj. small pocket knife. syang11 I (ginger) vide cyang11/syang11. syang11 II (water.tube) bound form n. bamboo tube used as water container; vide i1-syang11. syang11-cyuq5 (water.tube-bottom) n. bottom of bamboo water container. Syang11dyeng35 a personal name, in stories. syang11-gvyak5 gvyak5 (ginger-beat.with.knuckles) vide cyang11-gvyak5 gvyak5. syang31 n. (a kind of toy:) top; Syang31 lving11 gvun55 syang55. ((toy).top turn/roll(ipf) play JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) play with the top. syang55 I n. companion (in a song:) Zum11 ngon35-e55 nga35 syang55-ei31, zvit5-dap1-m55 num11nang35 wui31… (consort(ipf) pleasant-FCT 1PO

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    companion-EXCL+I love-be.attached-FCT friend generation) My companions with whom it is fun to consort with, and my beloved old friends… Cf. num11nang35 n. friend. Possibly etymologically related to cyang55/syang55 vt. follow. syang55 II (follow) vide cyang55/syang55. syang55 III (JUS) (17.22) the jussive clause marker. syang55-gaq1 (JUS-CC) (17.22, 18.5) combination of the jussive clause marker and the conceptual attitude marker. syap5 / syam31 I (fan(N)) n. fan; syap5 hek5 (fan(N) fan(V)) n+vt. fan with the fan; Syap5-meq1 heng31-aq1. (fan(N)-AG/I fan(V)*-SIM) Use (SG) the fan. Syam31-eq1 hek5 dvu31-aq1. (fan (N)*-AG/I fan(V) light(vt)*-SIM) Fan (SG) it to make it burn. Vide hek5. syap5 II (peel) vide cyap5/syap5. syap5 syap5 n+vt. make cross-laths, the second phase of roof-making; 31 Syap5 syap5 lye . ((make).cross-laths (make).cross-laths also+I) We are making cross-laths. syaq1 I (16.29) adv. possibly. syaq1 II vi. drizzle; also redulpicated to imitate the sound of (ongoing) 31 31 31 rainfall; Mau35-wo11 lye ge11, syaq1-syaq1-a55 ning , ka31 lo35 ra ? (ipf) (sky-rain also+I TOP rain/drizzle-rain/drizzle-FCT INS+I where go(back/up) need+I) It’s raining all the time, where can you go? Cf. wo31. syau11 I (less) a vi. less, few, little; Dye31 syau11 bue31, a1-wo35 bi11 zo11. (too less P+I NEG-have give eat) It’s too few, we can’t offer it to them. Le1zvui55 syau31 syu31*-aq1. (one-bit less(ipf) drink-SIM) Drink (SG) less. Cf. myo11. b in wu35-syau11. Probably from Chinese 少 shǎo vi. few, little, less. Cf. yom31 and zvit5. syau11 / syau31 II (need) (Longchuan dialect:) in a1-syau11/a1-syau31/a5syau11 (NEG-need) +V, expressing: ‘it is not needed to do V’; a1-syau31 is used before verbs in tone /11/; a5-syau11 is used before verbs in the other tones and mostly instead of a1-syau11 which is seldomly used. A1syau11 ye31 loq1. (NEG-need go(away/down) no.more) You don’t need to go anymore. syau55 (water-melon) in he5-syau55. sye31 I (pity) (16.30) an adverb or interjection termed the attitudinal morpheme, expressing ‘what a pity’, ‘shucks’; cf. se5lai35. 31 sye II (pull) a vt. pull (horizontally), cf. lang11 (pull/yank); No11 sye11 so11aq5 hoi11. (cattle pull(ipf) walk-SIM INC) Drag (SG) the cattle along. Sek5 31 sye11 lye . (tree pull(ipf) also+I) We are pulling a tree. b vt. (tongue) stick out; Syo31 sye31-aq1. (tongue pull-SIM) Stick out (SG) your tongue. c vt. breathe; vide soq5 sye31 (air pull) n+vt. breathe; d vt. make trenches;

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    Hung11 sye31 ra dut1 r55. (fold pull need+I become PE) We need to 31 make trenches. Hung55-sye11 lye . (fold-pull(ipf) also+I) We are making trenches. e (idiom) adj. vagrant, in Byu31-lam35 byu31-sye31, byu31 a1ngvut5. (man/woman-ramble man/woman-pull man/woman NEG-be) He’s a tramp, a vagrant, he’s nothing at all. Vide byu31-sye31 and soq5 sye31; cf. lang11 (pull/yank), myaq1, gvyaq5, nut1. 55 sye vi. (foodstuffs etc.:) economical in using; Sa11-bya11 hi31 ge11 sye31 dik1 r55. (soap-soap this TOP economical(ipf) extreme PE) This soap is very economical. Hi55-zyung31 cu31 zo11 a1-sye55. (this-kind oil eat NEGeconomical) This kind of oil is not very economical. syen55 vt. economize, (use) economically, frugally; Syen55 no35 a1-ra11 loq1, 31 naq1-ma35 zyau31 bue . (economize to NEG-need no.more tomorrowLOC market P+I) We don’t have to be frugal with this anymore, the market is tomorrow. Ngun31 syen31 syung31-aq1. (silver economize(ipf) use-SIM) Use (SG) the money frugally. Sun11 syen31 zo11-aq5. (veg/dish economize(ipf) eat-SIM) Use (SG) your provisions frugally. Cu31 le1-zvui55 syen31 gvat5 gveq5. (oil one-bit economize(ipf) put.into PLIM) Use (PL) the oil a bit more frugally. Probably from Chinese 省 shěng vi/vt. economize, save. syeq1 (au.contraire) (16.31) adverb, interjection or conjunction expressing notions like ‘contrary to expectation’; cf. Jingpo she ‘only when’; ‘(if …) then’ (Xu et al. 1983: 788). syo11 / si1- / si5 (flesh) This is a discussion of the full allomorph syo11 of syo11/si1-/si5-. Vide all forms with si1-/si5, the reduced allomorphs of syo11 n. ‘meat, flesh’, which are used in all kinds of nouns and verbs referring to the human and animal’s body and hunting. syo11 (full allomorph); a n. meat (sp. byau11, ki55, tung11 and more); Ngvyo31 hi31 syo31-eq1 lvyen11-aq5. ((offering) this flesh#-AG/I lure-SIM) Here, lure (SG) the game with this meat. often used as suffix indicating kinds of meat, e.g.: woq1-syo11 (chicken-flesh) n+n. chicken meat; yo31so31-syo11 (land-walk(GEN)-flesh) bush meat; zi1si31-syo11 (muntjacflesh) n+n. muntjac meat; b n. (hunting) game. Given below is a list of hunting techniques. 31 mvi55 vt. trap; Nge1-min31-eq1 mvi31 lye . (fish-fish.hook*-AG/I trap(ipf) also+I) We are trapping them with a fish hook. ngvoq5-mvi55 mvi55 (birdtrap trap) n+vt. trap birds; cf. mi35 vi. be trapped, si1-bek5 (flesh-shoot) n+vt. general term for hunting, not often used; also syo11 bek1 (flesh shoot) Nang31 syo11 wo35 bek1 ra54 gvyam11 a1-wo35. (2SG flesh have shoot need+FCT fate NEG-have) You (SG) don’t have much luck in shooting game.

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    si1-cyom55 (flesh-drive.game) n+vt. hunt by driving game, with many people, si1-gyam11 sin55 (flesh-storey make.platform) n+vt. (hunters) hide on a tree platform, si1-gyam35 (flesh-stalk(vt)) n+vt. hunt by stalking, si1-gyeq5 (flesh-chase) n+vt. hunt by chasing down, The expression syo11 ho31 (flesh look.for) appears to be only used in reference to the hunting techniques of demons in stories etc. 31 Ning11long11-po55 hau31 ge11 syo11 ho31 ye31 ga . (demon-male the/that TOP flesh look.for go(away/down) perceive+I) The demon said he was 31 going to go hunting. Also si1-ho31 (flesh-look.for) Si1-ho31 ye11 lo35 bue . (flesh-look.for go(away/down)(ipf) go(back/up) P+I) He went hunting. si1-kat5/si1-hat5, also syo11 kat5/hat5 (flesh-pursue) n+vt. hunt by driving game, si1-lvom31 (flesh-block) n+vt. hunt (trying to get as close to the game as possible); zyau11gong11 n. hunter. c n. skin; Nang35 syo11 pyu11 dik1 r55. (2SG.PO flesh white(ipf) extreme PE) Your (SG) skin is quite white. Cf. si1-pyu31 (flesh-white) n. the white race. syo31 I (defecate) in ki1-syo31. -syo31 II (9.33) nu. hundred; le1-syo31 (one-hundred) nu. one hundred. syo31 III n. tongue; Syo31 sye31-aq1. (tongue pull-SIM) Stick out (SG) your tongue. syo31 le1-dvut5-zo11 (tongue one-small.end-child) a little tip of the tongue, vide dvut5; vide lop1lop1 and lyem31lyem31. 31 syo -bvyom11 byom11 (tongue-(form).bleb (form).bleb) n+vi. form little bleb on the tongue; Syo31-bvyom11 bvyom31 r55. (tongue-(form).bleb (form).bleb(ipf) PE) Little bleb has formed on my tongue. 31 syo -dvui11 (tongue-rope(N/vt) n. string of the tongue. syo31-dvui11 dvui11 (tongue-rope(N/vt) rope(N/vt)) n+vt. stutter; Syo31dvui11 ke5-dvui11. (tongue-rope(N/vt) PHB-rope(N/vt)) Don’t stutter. 31 syo -dvut5 (tongue-small.end) vide dvut5. syo55yin55zi55 n. radio, from Chinese 收音机 shōuyīnjī. syoi31! syoi31! [shoo! shoo!] This is what people shout when chasing chicken away. syoi31syoi31 onom. imitating the sound of moving oneself through bushes; 31 (from a song:) Syoi31syoi31 ga11 ho11 wun35 rvo . ([onom] perceive (ipf) look.for wherever PE+HIGH+I) I would search everywhere (through the bushes and everywhere). syoi55 (nose.lock) in nvo31-syoi55/nve5-syoi55.

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    syok1syok1 [cut.hanging.things] ideophone expression the notion of cutting off things like meat that are in a hanging position; Syok1 syok1 gvut5 yam11-aq5. ([cut.hanging.things] do cut.off-SIM) Cut (SG) the meat from the hanging carcass. syok5.syok5 [putting.up.game] This is what people shout when putting up game. Cf. Jingpo shok vt. (animals) loudly urge on (Xu et al. 1983: 799). syom31 (drive.game(ipf)) (16.38) vide cyom55/syom55. syong55 (front.leaders) in Nau11-syong55. syoq5 I adj. nasty; in bi1-syoq5 and kun11-syoq5. syoq5 II (pour) a vt. (liquids) pour away, spill; Syoq5 am55-aq5. (pour PFM31 SIM) Pour (SG) it away. Ngo31 i1-zvyam11 syoq5 am55 bue . (1SG waterwater pour PFM P+I) I spilled the water. b vt. (liquids) pour into, before gvat5 (put.into); Bai31, yam11-bu35 me55 syoq5 gvan31-aq1. ((directing) potpimple/convex LOC pour put.into*-SIM) There, pour it out (SG) into the water container. c vt. (liquids) spill whilst pouring out, before syun31 vt. 31 spill: Syoq5 syun31 bue . (pour spill(vt) P+I) I spilled it whilst pouring out. d vt. (liquids) pour out over, spill out over, sprinkle, before gyun11 bathe (vt); Gung31-du11 me55 i1-zvyam11 syoq5 gyun11 bi11 raq5. (bodybeing LOC water-water pour bathe(vt) give VO) Pour water over me, 31 please. Su31 se1boi31 me55 zang35 syoq5 gyun11 bue . (oil table LOC strike pour bathe(vt) P+I) I have accidentally spilt some oil on the table. Ban11bo35-i1-zvyam11 syoq5 gyun11-aq5. (flower-open.itself-water-water pour bathe(vt)-SIM) Sprinkle (SG) yourself with perfume. Cf. hun31 vt. (drinks) pour out, gyun11 vt. bathe, syun31 vt. spill and zvan31 vt. pour empty. syoq5 III (till) (17.15) conjunctional clause marker expressing ‘till’. syu11 n. grandchild. syu11-gvue55 (grandchild-great-grand) n+n. great-grandchild; vide gvue55. syu31 I (drink*) allomorph of syuq5. syu31 II vi. fond of good food, greedy; Nang31 ke5-dye31 syu31. (2SG PHB-too fond.of.good.food) Don’t (SG) be so fond of good food. Hi31 ge1ro11 ngo31 syu11 dik1 r55. (this between 1SG fond.of.good.food(ipf) extreme PE) These days I’m really fond of good food. syui11 I vt. (vegetables:) blanch; vide syui11 zo11. syui11 II (sweet) vide cyui11/syui11. syui11 III (take.along) vide cyui11/syui11. syui11 zo11 (blanch eat) vt+vt. eat blanched vegetables; Ang11-noq5 syui11 zo11 syang55. (petiole-black blanch eat JUS) Let’s (ND .IN) blanch black mustard. Vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms.

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    syui55-zo11 (orphan-child) vide cyui11-/syui11-/cyui55-/syui55-/ci5-. syuk5syuk5syuk5 This is what people say when spurring a dog. Syuk5syuk5syuk5 woq1 i5-si1-gyeq5 han31-aq1. ([spurring.a.dog] chicken go-flesh-chase pursue*-SIM) Go on, chase (SG) the chicken! syum11 vt. (groud, floor:) sweep; Mi1-zvue11 syum31 zveng 11 lui31 got1 am55 gveq5. (earth-soil sweep(ipf) move.to.one.place in.this.way +I scoop(vt) PFM PLIM) Bring the soil together and clear (PL) it away. Mvan11ding35-eq1 syum11-aq5. (grass/leaves-straight.(branch)-AG/I sweep-SIM) Sweep (SG) with a branch with leaves. in bui11-syum11 (broom-sweep) n. broom; bui11-syum11 syum11 (broom-sweep sweep) n+vt. to sweep with the broom; cf. wue11. syum31 (shady/shade) vi. be overcast, shady; Bui31 syum31 bue31. (sun shady/shade P+I) It’s overcast. / There’s a cloud covering the sun; vide bui31-syum31. syum55 vt. spin; Dvui11-syum55 syum31 lye31. (rope(N/vt)-spin spin(ipf) also+I) I’m spinning rope. (referring to the stage before yui11 vt. twist rope). Syum55lut1 a family name. syun31 vt. spill; Syoq5 syun31 bue31. (pour spill(vt) P+I) I spilled it whilst pouring out. Zang11 lvoq5 syun11 r55. (rice/food ACT spill(vt)(ipf) PE) I spilled some rice. Vide ki1-syun31 syun31 (faeces-spill(vt) spill(vt)) n+v. suffer from diarrhoea, have the shits; vide wam11-syun31 n+vi. have diarrhoea. Cf. syoq5 vt. (liquids) pour (used in various senses) and zvan31 vt. pour empty. syung11lvam11 n. ivory; A5pau11 syung11lvam31-eq1 rvang54 ngvut5 lye31. (elephant ivory#-AG/I make+FCT be also+I) It’s made of ivory. syung31 (use) vide cyung31/syung31. syung11-gvun55-zue31 (use(ipf)-play-truc) n. toy; vide cyung31/syung31. syup5 vt. put to sleep; Yvang11 yvup5-mo35 a1-mvi55 siq1, a1 -wo35 syup5 siq1. (3SG sleep-AUG NEG-trap still NEG-have put.to.sleep still) (about an infant:) She is not yet in deep sleep, I can’t lay her down yet. Zi1syang31 syup5 gvan31-aq1. (child put.to.sleep put.into*-SIM) Put (SG) the child/children to sleep. The verb syup5 is also used in the context of being hidden under or behind someone’s bed, in stories: Yvang11-lang31 31 31 cau11 r55 ge11 haq5 syup5 dvo11 ga ning . (3SG-husband old OBJ TOP hide put.to.sleep place(vt) perceive+I INS+I) Her old husband was hidden, lying down. Cf. yvup5 vi. sleep; cf. Jingpo shayup ‘put to sleep’ (Xu et al. 1983: 788), containing the Jingpo causative prefix sha- (Xu et al. 1983: 726). syuq1byen35bau35 n. tadpole.

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    syuq5 / syu31 I vt. drink; A1-syuq5 le1-luq1? (NEG-drink no.more-Y/N) Do you want to drink some more? Ke5-dye31 got1 syuq5. (PHB-too scoop(vt) drink) Don’t drink so terribly much. nau35 syuq5 (milk/breast drink) (infants) n+vt. drink from breast; ngop1 syuq5 (face drink) vt+vt. drink with one’s mouth directly facing the water surface (of a stream etc.) Mut1-neq1 ku11 syu31-aq1. (dipper-AG/I scoop.up drink*-SIM) Use (SG) the dipper for scooping the water to drink. Ka55-hu55 a1-gue11 got1 zyang35 loq1-eq1 got1 syu31-aq1. (Q-sort NEG-all.right(ipf) scoop(vt) CD hand/arm-AG/I scoop/ladle drink*-SIM) If you can’t scoop it with anything, just drink it out of your hands. Vide i31-syuq5, wut1, zo11-syuq5. Cf. huq5 vt. let drink. syuq5 II in gvyui31-syuq5 n. frame for beanstalk. syut5 (wrong) a vi. be wrong; Ngo31 syut5 lye54 lu55, nang31 syut5 lye54 lu55, nang31 son31 wu35-aq5. (1SG wrong also+FCT MIR 2SG wrong also+FCT (ipf) MIR 2SG calculate look-SIM) Would it be my fault or would it be your (SG) fault, you (SG) think about it. b resultative verb complement 31 ‘do something wrong’; Dai31 syut5 bue . (speak(ipf) wrong P+I) I said it 31 5 5 wrong. Gvut syut bue . (do wrong P+I) I did it wrong. Zang11-sun11 31 31 zo31 syut5 lui -eq1 no11 lo35 ga . (rice/food-veg/dish eat(ipf) wrong in.this.way+I-AG/I pain/ill/disease(ipf) go(back/up) perceive+I) It started hurting after eating a dish I should not have eaten. Cf. ngvoq5 res. verb ‘do V in the wrong direction, out of a mistake’ and wai35; vide Syut5 31 bue . 5 Syut bue31. (wrong P+I) (idiom) Sorry. / (Lit.:) That was wrong. / I was wrong. syut5syut5 ideophone referring to a very long and straight shape without any projections, such as straight trees without much branches; Se5-gam31 31 hi31 ge11 syut5syut5 ze1-mai . (tree-tree(B) this TOP [very.straight] onlyOBV+I) This is a very straight tree without much branches. Byu31-mvi55 31 hau55-yuq1 gung31-du11 syut5syut5 ze1-mai . (man/woman-female the/that-person body-being [very.straight] only-OBV+I) That woman there (we just talked about) has a very straight body.

    -Tta11 (GI) (18.3) the general interrogative suffix, used in clauses containing question words; Nang31 ge11 o55 ta11? (2SG TOP who GI) Who are you (SG)? ta31 vt. scold; Yvang11 byu31 gue11 ta11 dik1 r55. (3SG man/woman all.right(ipf) scold(ipf) extreme PE) He’s good at scolding. Byu31 a1gon11 ke5-dye31 ta31. (man/woman careless/abominably1 PHB-too scold) Don’t scold at people just like that. Hau31 kui11 r55 ta11 toq5 gvan31-aq1. (the/that dog (ipf) OBJ scold come.out put.into*-SIM) Scold (SG) the dog out of there. 11 11 Ma -sin hye31 dai54 a1-gyo11 i5-ta11 gvat5 gveq5. ((name.prefix)(in.names) same.elevation speak+FCT NEG-hear/smell go-scold(ipf) put.into PLIM) Masin is disbehaving, go (PL) and scold her for that. Vide ai11. 55 tai vt. exchange, swap; Nga35-nvik5 ki31-lyeng31 tai31 lum11 gvoq1, nang31 a1gvam55 luq1? (1PO-duo leg/foot-wheel exchange(ipf) reciprocal DIE 2SG NEG-want.to Y/N) Let’s (DU) exchange bicycles, do you (SG) mind? Tai55 gvoq1 ma11. (exchange DIE ROUS) Let’s (DU) swap then. Ngo31 yvang11-eq5 tai31 lum54. (1SG 3SG-COM exchange(ipf) reciprocal+FCT) I swapped it with hers/his. Cf. o11 sap5 n+vt. exchange labour. 11 tam (jar) n. small earthen jar with thin neck, mostly for liquor; i31-pue11tam11 (distilled-booze-jar) little earthen booze-bottle; possibly from Chinese 坛 tán; cf. yam11 n. pot. 31 tan I (hard) a vi. (substance, material, etc.:) hard; Mi1-gung31 tan11 dik1 r55. (earth-body hard(ipf) extreme PE) The ground is very hard. b vi. be strong, after loq1-bvat5 n+n. ‘strenght in the arms’ and ki31-bvat5 n+n. ‘strenght in the legs’; vide bvat5; c vi. be hot, after bui31 n. sun; Bui31 tan11 r55. (sun hard(ipf) PE) The sun is shining brightly. / It’s hot. d vi. (memory) be sharp; Me1zveng55 tan11 dik1 r55. (memory/memorise hard(ipf) extreme PE) He has a sharp memory. Possibly the same morpheme as tan31 n. hard mat. 31 tan II n. hard mat; possibly the same morpheme as tan31 vi. hard; Tan31 dving31 am55-aq5. (hard.mat roll.up(ipf) PFM-SIM) Roll up (SG) the hard mat. Cf. sai55-tung55. 31 tan -dving11 (hard.mat-roll.up) n+n. rolled up hard mat (sp. dving11). tang11 n. firewood; Ngo31 tang11 ho31 lo35 lye31. (1SG firewood look.for go(back/up) also+I) I am going up to collect firewood. Tang 11 dum11-aq5

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    ma11. (firewood log(vt/n)-SIM ROUS) Log (SG) the firewood. Ngo31 31 tang11 zik1 lye . (1SG firewood cleave also+I) I am cleaving firewood. 11 55 Tang ngvye -aq5. (firewood burn(vt)-SIM) Burn (SG) (some more) firewood. Cf. mi1-zo35. tang11-bui35 (firewood-warm.oneself) n. large firewood. tang11-dvum55 (firewood-interrupt) n+n. piece of firewood. tang11-sat5 sat5 (firewood-kill kill) vide sat5. tang11-wom11 (firewood-brittle) n+adj. brittle wood; cf. sek5-pom31. tang31 I (behind) (9.17.4) functionally versatile morpheme, used as verb, noun, case suffix and conjunction; possibly the same morpheme as tang31 n. foothills and tang31 n. stairs, and etymologically related to tang55 (2x). tang31 II (9.17.4) n. foothills, foot; in (bum31-)weng11-tang31 ((heap(vt/N))foothills-foothills) n+n+n. foothills; gong11-tang31 (hill-foothills) n+n. the foot of the hill; wa31-tang31 (village-foothills) n+n. the lower part of the village (cf. wa31-um31). tang31 III (stairs2) (9.17.4) in zum31-tang31. tang31-pyang31 (behind-DIR) (9.11, 9.17.4) a at the back; b later, in future; cf. he55-pyang31. tang55 I (father’s.brother) n. uncle, father’s brother; in tang55-mo35, tang55zo11 and mi1-tang55-zo11, etc.; etymologically related to tang31; vide tang31, num11-tang55; probably the same morpheme as tang55 adj. last. tang55 II (last) a adj. last in succession, in kinship terms and names; ki31tang55-ngyui11 (leg/foot-last-finger/toe) n. little toe; Le1-ci55 Gam35tang55 ((male-(name) eld-brother-last)) the author’s Zaiwa name (both eldest and youngest son); ze5-tang55 (child-last) n. youngest of the family; b adj. third-born, in family terms and names; ze1-tang55 (childlast) n. mother’s third brother; c adj. behind; in num11-tang55 (9.17.5); etymologically related to tang31; vide tang31, num11-tang55; probably the same morpheme as tang55 n. father’s brother. tang55-lat1 (father’s.brother-halfway) n+adj. father’s second brother. tang55-mo35 (father’s.brother-AUG) n+adj. a n. uncle, i.e. father’s eldest brother; b n. mister. tang55-zo11 (father’s.brother-child) n+adj. a n. uncle; b n. mister. tap5-gam31 (tree.name-tree(B)) n. kind of tree of which the leaves are used for making rain-caps; tap5-gam31-dui35 (tree.name-tree(B)-rain-cap) n. rain-cap made of the leaves of the tap5-gam31. 1 taq dving31 (reassure) in i1mit1 taq1dving31; (idiom) n+vt. reassure oneself; I1mit1 le1go11 taq1dving31-aq1. (mind well reassure-SIM) Reassure yourself (SG). I1mit1 le1go11 taq1dving11 yu25 mai11 le1go11 dum11 gvut5

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    ge1-lo . (mind well reassure(ipf) take+FCT ABL well again do TOPno.more+I) After reassuring yourself, you can only do your best and start again. tat5-mi11 (electricity2-fire) variant of dat5-mi11 n. electrical torch. tau11 (sew/insert) a vt. sew; Le1-lving31 tau31 kyuq1 bue31. (one-turn/roll sew/insert(ipf) around P+I) I have sewed one round. b vt. insert; Tau31 zvu31-aq1. (sew/insert(ipf) insert*-SIM) Insert (SG) it. Vide ci1-tau11 n+vt. give injection; vide mak5 tau11 n+vt. have oneself tattooed, tattoo someone; c vt. pierce; Kue31dan35-eq1 mau11sau11 ke5-tau31 rot1. (pencil(ipf) AG/I paper/book PHB-sew/insert go.through) Don’t pierce the paper with your pencil. Mvo31 syang11-cyuq5 me55 tau31 tong11 r11 syeq1 … (below water.tube-bottom LOC sew/insert(ipf) pierce also au.contraire …) A bamboo water container with holes in the bottom… d vt. stir; Sun11 tau31 puq5 gvan31-aq1. (veg/dish sew/insert(ipf) turn.over(vt) put.into*-SIM) Stir (SG) the dish. Ke5-tau31 ngvyok5. (PHB-sew/insert(ipf) play.with.food) Don’t play with your food. Cf. tong11 vt. pierce (to make a hole), za35 n. knitwork and zvuq5 vt. (nails etc.:) insert. 11 tau pan31 n. female guiding spirit; vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. tau11zvi31 a n. memory for incantations, martial arts, etc. b n. male guiding 31 spirit; Yvang11 tau11zvi31 wo35 bue . (3SG male.guiding.spirit have P+I) He has got a (male) guiding spirit now. Dum11sa55-po55 tau11zvi31 to11 dvo31 r55. (witch.doctor-male male.guiding.spirit cast.spell(ipf) (ipf) place(vt) PE) The witch doctor is speaking to the male guiding spirit. Vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. 11 tau zvi31-woq1 (male.guiding.spirit-chicken) n+n. chicken for the male guiding spirit. te1- ((scissors)) in te1-zuen11. te1mung35 n. deceiver; a nickname for the very sly Rabbit. te1-zuen11 ((scissors)-cut/clip) n. scissors (sp. lvum11); vide zuen11. te5- I prefix ‘bamboo container’; see the forms below. te5- II (prop.up) allomorph of tuq5; only in te5-luq1. te5-bvun11 ((bamboo)-cook.in.bamboo) n. bamboo for cooking (in use or used); vide bvun11. 5 te -dvum55 ((bamboo)-interrupt) n. bamboo tube for cooking (still unused; cf. te5-bvun11). 5 te -kyun55 n. bamboo tube for containing water, liquor, etc. te5-luq1 (prop.up-prop.up2) n. or vt. prop (up); Ngve5-mvyuq1-gam31 te5-luq1 dvo11-aq5. (banana-banana-tree(B) prop.up-prop.up2 place(vt)-SIM) Prop up (SG) that banana tree.

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    tik1tik1tak1tak1 [restless.child] ideophone referring to restless behaviour, 31

    esp. of children; Tik1tik1tak1tak1 ke5-gvut5, lyeng11 ra , le1go11 so11-aq5. ([restless.child] PHB-do fall(vi) need+I well walk-SIM) (to a child:) Don’t walk about in such a restless way, you will fall, walk more carefully. Cf. suk1suk1sak1sak1. 11 tim (pounce.upon) vt. attack suddenly, pounce upon; Lo11 tim31 toq5 lo11 r55. (tiger/bull pounce.upon(ipf) come.out come(back/up)(ipf) PE) The tiger 31 suddenly attacked. Tim31 ban11-aq1 mai . (pounce.upon(ipf) beat*-SIM OBV+I) (on a snake:) Kill (SG) it sudden and fast. tin55 (heel) in le5-tin55. ting11 (bracelet) in loq1-ting11. ting11cyap5-lo11 (cloudy.leopard-tiger/bull) n+n. cloudy leopard. ting55 (kick) a vt. kick (with the full length of the foot); nang31 ting55 (tread(ipf) kick) kick with the full length of the foot; woq1-gan11-zum35 ting55 (weave-loom-pair kick) kick the (paired) weaving-loom. b vi. (gun) have a recoil; Mi1-um31 hi31 um31-ting55 ting31 r55. (fire-gun this gun-kick kick(ipf) PE) This gun has a rather strong recoil. 11 to (short.knife) in syam31-to11. to31 I (cast.spell) vi/vt. speak magical language to spirits, as performed by the dum11sa55 witch doctor; dum11sa55 to31 (witch.doctor cast.spell) n+vi. speak magical language to spirits; Yvang11 dum11sa55 i5-to11 ge1rum35 r55. (3SG witch.doctor go-cast.spell(ipf) help PE) He is helping in speaking magical language. si31-to31 to31 (die-cast.spell cast.spell) n+vt. speak magical language to the dead (to guide them to the proper way); 31 Dum11sa55 si31-to31 to11 lye . (witch.doctor die-cast.spell cast.spell(ipf) also+I) The witch doctor is guiding the spirits of the dead. mau11-nat5 to31 (sky-spirit cast.spell) n+vt. speak magical language to the heavenly 31 spirits; Ngo31 mau11-nat5 to11 lye . (1SG sky-spirit cast.spell(ipf) also+I) I am speaking to the heavenly spirits. tau11zvi31 to31 (male.guiding.spirit cast.spell) n+vt. speak magical language to a male guiding spirit; Dum11sa55-po55 tau11zvi31 to11 dvo31 r55. (witch.doctor-male male.guiding.spirit cast.spell(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) The witch doctor is speaking to the male guiding spirit. to31 II (come.out*) allomorph of toq5. to31 III (span) spec. n. span; the length between the tips of the outstretched thumb and middle finger; Le1-to31 bo11 r55. (one-span contain(ipf) PE) It’s one span. to31-ngyui11 (span-finger/toe) n. middle finger; to31-ngyui11 le1-to31 (spanfinger/toe one-span) one span (the length of one middle finger); vide loq1-ngyui11 for the names of the other fingers. Vide to31.

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    to55 vt. transport with car or cart; Mo35do35 me55 ka55-hu55 to31 dvo31 a1-gvo31?

    (car LOC Q-sort transport(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) nom-PL+I) What are you transporting in your car/with your tractor? Tang11 to55 lo35 syang55. (firewood transport go(back/up) JUS) Let’s transport firewood. lo11-to55 (donkey-transport) n. hinny. -Toi11 I morpheme used in women’s names; most often used in Me1-toi11 a woman’s name; Le1-toi11 a man’s name; also in the names Gun11-toi11, Roi35-toi11 etc. 11 toi II (speak.in.trance) vide miq1-toi11 toi11. toi55loi35 in mi1-toi55loi35. tok1 I ideophone referring to tickling someone; tok1-tok1 gvut5 ge5-zvyuk5ge1-zyo11 ([tickle]-[tickle] do random-tickle(vt)3-random-tickle(vt)2) tickle someone; cf. ge1-zvyuk5 /ge5-zvyuk5, ge1-zyo11, rvui55 and tok1. 1 tok II vt. (contents of bottles, etc.:) transfer; Dvau55 ma54 i31-pue11 tok1 am55aq5. (inflate(vt)/bottle(N) LOC+FCT distilled-booze transfer PFM-SIM) Put (SG) the booze in the bottle somewhere else. Cf. Jingpo htok (Xu et al. 1983: 318). Possibly also in le1-tok1. 5 tok tok5 [easy.to.break] ideophone expressing (wood etc.:) ‘easy to break into separate pieces’; Kue31dan35 lang31 kyui11 zyang35 tok5tok5 ze11 / ze131 bue . (pencil pull/yank(ipf) bend CD [easy.to.break] only / only-P+I) Pencils can easily be broken by pulling them. We1-zung31-eq1 zik1 31 zyang35 tok5tok5 ze11 / ze1-bue . (bamboo-axe#-AG/I cleave CD [easy.to.break] only / only-P+I) With an axe, you can easily cleave it. Cf. Jingpo htok (Xu et al. 1983: 318). ton11 (move/shift*) allomorph of tot1. tong11 I (bamboo.banging.toy) n. kind of bamboo toy for shooting but most of all for making banging noises; tong11 bek1 (bamboo.banging.toy shoot) n+vt. shoot tong11; vide si1-bvi31-si11, tong11-si11, tong11-loq5, zyak1-tong11. tong11 II vt. pierce; Ne5-pyo11 tong31 lye31. (ear-ear pierce(ipf) also+I) I am 31 having my ear pierced. Nve5-syoi55 tong31 lye . (nose-nose.lock pierce(ipf) also+I) We are piercing the cattle’s nose. Dong11 dvok5 tong31 31 lye . ((have)hole chisle/bore pierce(ipf) also+I) I’m boring a hole. Cf. byon31, dvok5, gvyung11 and tau11. tong11 III (roll) (9.18.5) functionally versatile morpheme, used as a verb, a locational suffix and a specifier noun. Tong11-gva11 (roll-dance.(circle)) n. circle dance; in Tong11-gva11 gva11 (roll-dance.(circle) dance.(circle)) n+vt. dance the circle dance; vide go35.

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    tong11-loq5 (bamboo.banging.toy-hand/arm) n. (a kind of toy:) shorter version of the tong11. tong11-si11 (bamboo.banging.toy-drug) n. bullets for tong11 (a kind of toy), usually si1-bvi31-si11; vide tong11. tong11-tong11 (roll-roll) vide 9.18.5 and le1-zan31 tong11-tong11. tong55 I (jail) a n. prison; Yvang11 tong55 lung35 bue31. (3SG jail be.inside P+I) He is in gaol. b in ki1-tong55/ki5-tong55 n. toilet and wui31-tong55 n. well. toq5 (come.out) (9.18.6) functionally versatile morpheme used as regular verb, auxiliary verb, adjective and locational suffix. tot1 (move/shift) a vt. move to another place; Gu35 byam11 waq1 tot1 gvoq1. (bed jump(ipf) lift move/shift DIE) Let’s move (DU) the bed for a second. b vt. move into another house, in yvum31-tot1 tot1; Yvum31-tot1 tot1 31 lye . (house-move/shift move/shift also+I) We are moving into another house. tu31 I a vi. thick; Nga35 loq1-wa11 tu11 dik1 r55. (1PO hand/arm-palm/sole (make).thick(ipf) extreme PE) Your handpalm is very thick. Le1-wam11 ge11 tu31, le1-wam11 ge11 yvam55. (one-considerable.part TOP (make).thick one-considerable.part TOP thin) Some of them are thick and some of them are thin. b (idiom) Myoq1-dong11 si1-gvuq5 tu11 dik1 r55. (eye(have)hole meat-skin (make).thick(ipf) extreme PE) He has a thick hide. c vt. make thick; soq5-tu31-zue31 (air-(make).thick-truc) n. tyre pump; d vt. knit; za35-tu31 tu31 (knitwork-(make).thick (make).thick) n+vt. knit wool; cf. Jingpo htu (Xu et al. 1983: 321); vide za35-tu31 and related forms. 31 tu II (prop.up*) allomorph of tuq5/te5-. tui11 a n. (thread, paper:) ball; king31-tui11 (thread-(roll.into.a).ball) n+n. ball of thread; mau11sau11-tui11 (paper/book-(roll.into.a).ball) n+n. ball of paper; b spec. n. (thread, wool etc.:) ball of; Ngo31 king31-tui11 i55-tui11 31 o31 ra . (1SG thread-(roll.into.a).ball two-(roll.into.a).ball want/take need+I) I’ll take two balls of thread. c vt. roll into a ball; King31-tui11 31 tui31 lye . (thread-(roll.into.a).ball (roll.into.a).ball(ipf) also+I) I’m making a ball of thread. Cf. dving11 vt. roll up. 31 tui ! expression of revulsion of some idea or situation, spoken with simultaneous spitting on the ground; Tui31! a1-gi1-nvau31, ke5-dai11 loq1. ((bah!) NEG-hear/smell-feel.like PHB-speak no.more) Bah! I don’t want to hear that kind of stuff, speak no more of it. tui55 (hit.with.fist) vt. hit someone with one’s fist; Tui31 lyeng31 dvang31 31 gvat5 bue . (hit.with.fist(ipf) fall(vi)(ipf) let.fly(ipf) put.into P+I) I knocked him down. Yvang11 tui31 gvat5-neq5 ngo31 loq1-eq1 bat1 dvye11 am54. (3SG hit.with.fist(ipf) put.into-COM 1SG hand/arm-AG/I beat receive(ipf)

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    PFM+FCT) When he tried to hit me with his fist, I blocked it like this.

    Cf. zvup5. tuk (collect/distribute) a vt. distribute, such as salaries, books etc.; Laq1haq1 31 tuk1 lo35 lye . (salary collect/distribute go(back/up) also+I) I’m going to distribute salary. b vt. collect items that are distributed; Ngun31 lo35 tuk1 31 lye . (silver go(back/up) collect/distribute also+I) I’m going to collect some money. Cf. Jingpo htuk (Xu et al. 1983: 321). 5 tuk vt. suit someone well; Bu11 hi55-dung11 nang31 wut1 r11 tuk5 r55. (clothes this-piece(Sp) 2SG wear/dress also suit.well PE) This piece of clothing suits you (SG) well. Ngo31 nang31-eq5 a1-tuk5. (1SG 2SG- COM NEGsuit.well) I’m not the right person for you (SG). Ngo31 Le1-toi11-eq5 tuk5 31 dik1 bue . (1SG (male)-(in.names)-COM suit.well extreme P+I) I’m getting on very well with Letoi. (idiom:) Myoq1-sui11 a1 -tuk5. (eyeno.gloss NEG-suit.well) It’s an eyesore. tum11 I a n. pool; gve5-lvu11-tum11 (mud-wallow-pool) n. mud pool, such as which water bufaloes wallow in; wui31-lving55-tum11 (water-whirl-pool) n. whirlpool; b spec. n. for pools; tum11 le1-tum11 (pool one-pool) a/one pool. tum11 II (to.the.utmost) (15.26) aux. expressing ‘do V to the utmost’. tum11-beng35 (pool-no.gloss) n. hole in the ground used as well. tun11 (shine(vt)) a vt. (torch etc.:) shine, burn in order to see things clearer; Dat5-mi11 tun11-aq5. (electric-fire shine(vt)-SIM) Shine (SG) with your 31 electical torch. Ka55-hu55 tun31 ho11 lye . (Q-sort shine(vt)(ipf) look.for(ipf) also+I) What are you looking for, in the light of your torch? b zang11tun11 tun11 (rice/food-shine(vt) shine(vt)) n+v+vt. eat snack to still the worst hunger or to edge off appetite; Zang11-tun11 tun31 yu31 syang55. (rice/food-shine(vt) shine(vt)(ipf) take JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) put something in our stomach to still the worst hunger. / Let’s (ND .IN) eat something to edge off our appetite. Cf. zvo31 vi. (sun and moon) shine. -Tun31 in the personal name Le1-tun31. tung11 I (crush) a vt. crush, grind, husk, pestle, stamp, bump, etc.; zui31tung11 (tooth-crush) n. molars; guq1 tung11 (unhusked.rice crush) n+vt. husk rice; sun11-tung11 tung11 (veg/dish-crush crush) n+vt. pestle a dish; tung11 zo11 (crush eat) vt+vt. eat a pestled dish. Vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. Instruments for husking rice are: gong11gve5rvang55, loq1-sum31, sum31 and wui31-sum31. b vt. tamp; vt. (bags etc.:) tamp; in tung31 zving31; c vt. run into, vide tung31 hui11; d vt. hiccup, in ge1uek5 tung31. The morpheme tung11 is etymologically related to the bound morpheme tung55- (pound). 1

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    tung11 II (lump) (bound form noun) a n. lump, turd; sek5-tung11 (tree-lump) n. lump of wood; b spec. noun for objects with lump- or turd-like shapes; cyui31-tung11 le1-tung11 (lead-lump one-lump) a/one lump of lead; syo11 le1-tung11 (meat one-lump) a/one lump of meat; cf. lvum11 (lump). tung11 III (paddy) in i1-tung11 n. paddy field. tung11 zo11 (crush eat) vt+vt. eat a pestled dish; vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. tung11-ngvuen11 (crush-take.down.with.hook) n. long hooked stick (sp. lvum11). tung11pun55 n. tray; in myoq1-ci11/si11-tung11pun55 (eye-wash-tray) n. tray for washing the face. tung31 I (bag) a n. pocket; be1-tung31 (clothes-bag) n. pocket of one’s clothes; lve1-tung31 (trousers-bag) n. trouser pocket; b n. bag; Tung31 31 tye11 me55 bo11 lye . (bag underneath LOC contain(ipf) also+I) It’s in the bag (amidst other stuff). The following is an overview of Zaiwa bags: mau11-bu11-tung31 (sky-clothes-bag) n. plastic bag (lit.: rain clothes bag); pun55-tung31 (manure-bag) n. (large) plastic bags (lit.: bags for (artificial) fertilizer); sam55-tung31 (Shan-bag) n. Shan style shoulder-bag; soi11-tung31 (silver.ornaments-bag) n. bag ornamented with silver; tung31-duk1 n. Jingpo shoulder-bag without fringes; tung31-hen55 n. the most common Jingpo shoulder-bag (red with black strap). tung31 II vt. load gun by pulling the loading device; Mi1-um31 lang31 tung31aq1. (fire-gun pull/yank(ipf) (gun).load-SIM) Load (SG) the gun (by pulling the loading device). tung31 III (tradition) vide tung31-keng11 (tradition-outfit) n. traditions and tung31-pin11 (tradition-morals) n. traditional values. tung31 IV vt. trap (fish); Ngo31 nge1-sang11 tung31 ye11 lye31. (1SG fishfyke.(net) trap.fish go(away/down)(ipf) also+I) I am going to trap fish. Cf. mvi55. Vide nge1-/nge5- for a list of Zaiwa fishing techniques. tung31-bvi55 (bag-string) n. string of a bag. tung31-duk1 (bag-bag.type) n. Jingpo shoulder-bag without fringes; vide tung31 for an overview of Zaiwa bags. tung31-hen55 (bag-regular.Jingpo.shoulder.bag) n. the most common Jingpo shoulder-bag (red with black strap); vide tung31 for an overview of Zaiwa bags.

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    tung31-keng11 (tradition-outfit) a n. tradition; A1-myu31-zo11 ge11 o55 r11 o54 31

    tung31-keng11 wo35 lye . (nom-sort/nationality-child TOP who also who+FCT tradition-outfit have also+I) Every minority has its own 31 traditions. Zai11wa31 tung31-keng11 i5-nvung55 a1-gue11 dvo31mvi55-o ! (ipf) (Zaiwa tradition-outfit SPEC-1ND.IN NEG-all.right forget-HIGH+I) We shouldn’t forget our Zaiwa traditions! b used adjectivally: traditional; tung31-keng11 mue31-bu11 (tradition-outfit wrap-clothes) traditional outfit. tung31-pin11 (tradition-morals) n. traditional values; Zai11wa31 tung31-pin11 n. the traditional values of the Zaiwa. The morpheme pin11 is only used in tung31-pin11 and resembles Chinese 品 pǐn. tung55- I (pound) bound form noun, etymologically related to the verb tung11 (crush), used in the forms below and loq1-mun35 tung55-sum31. tung55 II (source) in wui31-tung55. tung55 III (wickerwork) used in the following words for mats, bags and other words related to wickerwork; bi1-tung55 (wasp/bee-wickerwork) n. artificial bee hive; sai55-tung55 (mat-wickerwork) n. mat / the material therefor (cf. tan31 n. hard mat); tung55-guq1 (wickerwork(in.front.of.fireplace)) n. place to sit right in front of the fire; tung55gva55 (wickerwork-variegated1) n. kind of multi-functional back-basket worn by a strap across the head (lit.: variegated wickerwork); um11tung55 (head-wickerwork) n. place to sit behind the fireplace, reserved for elderly people. tung55-gva55 (wickerwork-variegated1) n. kind of multi-functional backbasket worn by a strap across the head (lit.: variegated wickerwork) (sp. 31 cyam11/syam11); Tung55-gva55 ge11 u1-lvum11 mai11 wun11 lye . (ipf) (wickerwork-variegated1 TOP head-lump ABL carry/bring also+I) A tunggva is carried across the head. Vide lan35 for other types of baskets. tung55-gvi31 (pound-pestle) n. large pestle; cf. loq1-sum31, sum31 and tung55-. tung55-guq1 (wickerwork-(in.front.of.fireplace)) n+n. place to sit right in front of the fire; Dang11-gue31 gi1-nvau31 zyang35 ge11 tung55-guq1 zung31-aq1. (words-all.right hear/smell-feel.like CD TOP wickerwork(in.front.of.fireplace) sit-SIM) If you want to hear profound words, go sit (SG) in front of the fireplace. (considering the fact that the old and wise people normally take the other positions around the fireplace). Cf. um11tung55 (head-wickerwork) n+n. place to sit behind the fireplace, reserved for elderly people. Vide mi1-kyom55, cf. dap1-gop1 and dap1-zyut1. tung55-loq1 (pound-hand/arm) n. small pestle.

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    tung55-sum31 (pound-mortar) a n. mortar; b n. mortar and pestle; loq1mun35 tung55-sum31 (hand/arm-tingle pound-mortar) n. elbow. Vide duk5duk5. tung31 hui11 (crush(ipf) make.way/meet) vt+vt. meet, run into each other; Byu31 le1-yuq1 a1-tung31 hui11 gve5-luq1? (man/woman one-person NEGcrush(ipf) make.way/meet PL-Y/N) Did you meet anybody? Nung35-nvik5 ka55-me55 tung31 hui11 gvo54 ta11? (2PL-duo Q-LOC crush(ipf) make.way/meet PL+FCT GI) Where did the two of you come across? tung31 zving31 (crush(ipf) press) vt+vt. (bags etc.:) tamp; Tung31 tung31 zving31-aq1. (bag crush(ipf) press-SIM) Tamp (SG) the bag. 1 tup spec. n. packing, wrapping; ge1lu11 le1-tup1 (sweets onepacking/wrapping) a/one packet/sack of sweets; gong11dop5 le1-tup1 a/one packet/sack of firecrackers; cf. tup5. 5 tup a vt. envelop, wrap, veil; Ge1lu11 hi31 mau11sau31-eq1 tup5 bi11 raq5. (sweets this paper/book#-AG/I envelop/wrap/veil give VO) Wrap these sweets up with paper for me. ang11-tup5 (petiole-envelop/wrap/veil) n. cabbage; b n/v. in u1-tup5 tup5 (head-envelop/wrap/veil envelop/wrap/veil) n+vt. wrap or wear a turban or a headdress resembling this; c vi/vt. be misty; Mut5 tup5 r55. (fog envelop/wrap/veil PE) It’s misty. Cf. tup1. -Tuq1 (4th-sister) in names for fourth-born sisters; cf. Jingpo Htu (Xu et al. 1983: 321). tuq5 I vt. (trees) cut; Sek5 tuq5 lye31. (tree cut.(trees) also+I) We are cutting trees. He5-tuq5 lvyeng31 am55. (PHB-cut.(trees) topple/roll(vt)(ipf) PFM) Don’t cut this tree. Cf. bin31 and zan11. Vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. tuq5 / te5- II (prop.up) vt. prop up, support; in kum11-tuq5 tuq5 (doorprop.up prop.up) n+vt. prop up a door (e.g. with a stick); Kum11-tuq5 tu31-aq1. (door-prop.up prop.up*-SIM) Prop up (SG) the door. kung31tuq5 (vault/ridge-prop.up) n. ridge of a house; vide te5-luq1. 5 tut vt. (pan:) lift off the fire; Sun11-au11 tut5 am55-aq5. (veg/dish-pan (pan).lift.off.the.fire PFM-SIM) Lift (SG) the pan (with the dish in it) off the fire. Cf. waq1. 5 tut -poq5 (turmeric-leaf) n. leaves of the aromatic tumeric (?). tye11 I (peck) a vt. (birds, snakes, etc.:) peck, bite, as a way of attacking; 31 Woq1 tye31 lum31 a1-gvo . chicken peck(ipf) reciprocal(ipf) nom-PL+I) The 31 chickens are pecking at each other. Lvang31-mui11-eq1 zang35 tye11 bue . (snake-snake#-AG/I strike peck P+I) I’ve been bitten by a snake. b vt. (grains, etc.:) peck, pick; Guq1 tye11 zo31 r55. (unhusked.rice peck eat(ipf) PE) (chicken:) It is pecking unhusked rice. Also in zvau11-zo11-tye31-sat5.

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    tye11 II (underneath) (9.18.3) under, amongst; Mi31 tye11 me55 lung35 lye31. (earth underneath LOC be.inside also+I) It’s under ground. Tung31 tye11 31 me55 bo11 lye . (bag underneath LOC contain(ipf) also+I) It’s in the bag (amidst other stuff). Si1-pik5 i1-zyum11 tye11 me55 lung35 bum11 r55. (fruitpungent water-salt underneath LOC be.inside heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) There’s lots of chillies amidst the salt. Also in a1-tye11: A1-tye11 me55 lung35 bum11 r55. (nom-underneath LOC be.inside heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) There’s lots of it/them underneath. tye31 I vt. be in someone’s way; Muen11lyen11 hi31 ge11 so31 ye31 so31 lo11 zyang35 tye11 r55. (door.curtain this TOP walk(ipf) go(away/down) walk(ipf) come(back/up)(ipf) CD be.in.the.way(ipf) PE) This door curtain obstructs the way in walking in and out. Ngo31 r55 tye11 r55, pang31 gveq5. (1SG OBJ be.in.the.way(ipf) PE dodge/flee PLIM) You are standing in my way. Make (PL) way. Tye11 r11 tye31 syang55-gaq1. (be.in.the.way(ipf) also be.in.the.way JUS-CC) I don’t mind it standing in my way. Mai11na31 lang31 tye11 dvo31 r55. (nail/pin pull/yank(ipf) be.in.the.way(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) I always get caught on this nail. tye31 II n. sound (of); used after nouns or after verbs that are marked by either the imperfective marker or the factive marker; Byu31 ge1ru31 tye31 wo35 gyo31 r55. (man/woman talk(noise)(ipf) sound have hear/smell(ipf) PE) I can hear the sound of people talking. Kui11-wap5 tye31 wo35 gyo31 r55. (dog-bark sound have hear/smell(ipf) PE) I can hear the sound of barking dogs. Byu31 ngau25 tye31 wo35 gyo31 r55. (man/woman weep+FCT sound have hear/smell(ipf) PE) I can hear the sound of someone crying. Mo35do35 ming25 tye31 a1-gi1-nvau31. (car sound(vi)+FCT sound NEG-hear/smellfeel.like) I don’t like to hear the sound of cars. Vide kyong11 tye31 mu31; cf. ming31 vi. sound and mving55 vt. sound/name. tyek1tyek1 onom. imitating the ticking of clocks; Na35i55 tyek1tyek1 ga11 dye31 ming11 r55, a1-wo35 yvup5. (clock [onom] perceive too sound(vi)(ipf) PE NEG-have sleep) The clock is ticking too loudly, I can’t sleep. tyem11 (wear.rubber.slippers*) allomorph of tyep1 vt. wear rubber slippers; vide dvyep5tyep1/gvyep5tyep1. tyen11 (wrecked) a vi. be wrecked; Zyak1 tyen31 byuq1 bue31. (engine 31 wrecked(ipf) lose P+I) The machine is wrecked. Na35i55 tyen11 bue . (clock wrecked P+I) The watch is wrecked. b vi. be spoilt, be bug-eaten; 31 Si11 hi55-syam11 tyen31 byuq1 bue . (fruit this-ball wrecked(ipf) lose P+I) This piece of fruit is spoilt. (because there are bugs in it). c vt. wreck; 31 Nang31 lvoq5 tyen11 ra . (2SG ACT wrecked need+I) You (SG) will wreck it. See more under tyen55-lui11 and tyen55-nvau11. Cf. zyeq1.

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    tyen55-lui11 (wrecked-easy(ipf)) imperfective variant of tyen11 lui31 (wrecked 31

    easy) easily get wrecked or bug-eaten; Hi55-hu55 ning tyen55-lui11 31 lye . (this-sort INS+I wrecked-easy(ipf) also+I) This sort easily gets 31 wrecked/bug-eaten. Hi55-hu55 a1-tyen11 lui31 kai . (this-sort NEGwrecked easy SUG+I) This sort does not easily get wrecked/ bug-eaten. tyen55-nvau11 (wrecked-feel.like(ipf)) imperfective variant of tyen11 nvau31 (wrecked feel.like) easily get wrecked, be fragile; Lu11yin55zi55 hi31 ge11 31 tyen55-nvau11 dik1 bue . (tape.recorder this TOP wrecked-feel.like(ipf) extreme P+I) This cassette recorder is rather fragile. Lu11yin55zi55 hi31 ge11 a1-dye31 tyen11 nvau31. (tape.recorder this TOP NEG-too wrecked feel.like) This cassette recorder is quite sturdy. tyep1 / tyep5 I (16.19) adv. thoroughly; only after le1go11; cf. Jingpo htep (Xu et al. 1983: 310). tyep1 II (wear.rubber.slippers) vide dvyep5tyep1/gvyep5tyep1. tyep5 vt. be closely attached to; Ngo31 r55 ke5-tyep5. (1SG OBJ PHBclosely.att) Don’t stay so close to me. Gvau55-gyap1 se5-wam31-eq5 a1tyep5 siq1. (stand/rack-stand/rack tree-(make).wall-COM NEG-closely.att still) The cupboard is not attached to the wall yet. Vide tyep5-tyep5. tyep5-tyep5 reduplicated: adv. close to each other; Tyep5-tyep5 zung31 gveq5. (closely.att-closely.att sit PLIM) Sit (PL) close to each other. Vide tyep5; cf. dvyep5dvyep5.

    -Uu1- / u5- (head) the “head”-prefix, allomorphs of um11. u1-cam31 (head-hair.of.the.head) n. hair of the head; (cam31/sam31 n. hair of the head).

    u1-cyun11 (head-sharp) n+adj. pointed head; U1-cyun11 cyun31 lye31. (head-

    sharp sharp(ipf) also+I) He has a very pointed head. u -doi35 (head-cut.short) vide doi35 a and b. u1-dum35 dum35 (head-missing.a.stretch missing.a.stretch) n+vt. have 31 one’s hair cut off for a large part; U1-dum35 dum35 am55 ra . (headmissing.a.stretch missing.a.stretch PFM need+I) I need to have a lot of my hair cut off. Vide dum35. 1 u -gvak5 (head-bald) vide gvak5. u1-gong11 (head-(head).shaven) n+adj. shaved head; cf. gvak5, kang55 and wuq1; also u1-kang55. 1 u -gop5 (head-skull) n. skull; should probably be u1-gvop5 (headshell/packet). u1-gvui11 (head-crisp/frizz) n. curly hair, frizzy hair (not permed); cf. u1gvup5 n. permed hair. 1 u -gvup5 (head-contract) n. permed hair; cf. u1-gvui11 n. curly hair, frizzy hair (not permed). u1-hue11 (head-dirt) n+n. dirt on the head. u1-huq5 (head-pillow(N/V)) vide u1-kuq5/u1-huq5. u1-kang55 (head-shave.head) n+adj. shaved head; vide kang55; cf. also u1gong11. 1 u -kup5 kup5 (head-stuffy stuffy) vide kup5. u1-kuq5 / u1-huq5 (head-pillow(N/V)) n. pillow (sp. cyam11/syam11); vide kuq5/huq5. 1 u -lvum11 (head-lump) n. (one’s) head (sp. lvum11); U1-lvum11 a1-no31 luq1? (head-lump NEG-pain/ill/disease Y/N) Do you have a headache? U131 lvum11 cyu11 ye31 ra . (head-lump spring/wash.hair go (away/down) need+I) I am going to wash my hair. Bvye31-eq1 u1-lvum11 gyo31-aq1. (comb#-AG/I head-lump harrow/comb*-SIM) Comb (SG) your hair with the comb. u1-lvum11 ngvang55 (head-lump (neck).hang.backwards(vt)) n+vt. bend one’s neck so that one’s head touches one’s back; U1-lvum11 ngvang31 1

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    gvat5 wu35-aq5. (head-lump (neck).hang.backwards(vt)(ipf) put.into lookSIM) Try (SG) to bend your neck so that your head touches your back. u1-myam31 (head-wild.hair) n. wild hair. u1-ngun11 (head-hang.down) (n+vi.) adj. slump one’s head (from 31 intoxication or fatigue etc.); I31-pue11 dye31 syuq5 lui u1-ngun11 ma54 1 55 dut r . (distilled-booze too drink in.this.way+I head-hang.down LOC+FCT become PE) After drinking too much booze, his head slumped. u1-nvuq5 (head-brains) n. brain, brains; no11 u1-nvuq5 (cattle head-brains) n+n. cattle brains; U1-nvuq5 zyaq1 lyet1 r55. (head-brains rather clever PE) He is very sharp. Yvang11 u1-nvuq5 me55 a1na11 bo11 r55 a5-se55 mu31 31 na31 byuq1 bue . (3SG head-brains LOC illness contain(ipf) PE nom-like happen insane(ipf) lose P+I) He has a defect in his brains, therefore he has gone insane. U1-nvuq5 a1-dut1 loq1. (head-brains NEG-become no.more) My brain is not all right anymore. u1-pyu31 zui31 nye31 (head-white tooth red) (idiom) (I wish you will) live to ripe old age in happiness. (Lit.:) white hair and red teeth. u1-sam31 (head-hair.of.the.head) n. hair of the head; (cam31/sam31 n. hair of the head). u1-sam31 nvoq5 (head-hair.of.the.head blacken(vt)) n+vt. paint the hair black. u1-tup5 tup5 (head-envelop/wrap/veil envelop/wrap/veil) n+vt. wrap or wear a turban or a headdress resembling this. u1-zung31 (head-pile.up) n. (hairdress) bun. u1-zung31 zung31 (head-pile.up pile.up) n+vt. put / wear one’s hair in a bun; Nang31 u1-zung31 zung31 zyang35 zvyoi31 dik1 r55. (2SG head-pile.up pile.up CD beautiful(ipf) extreme PE) You (SG) are quite beautiful when you wear your hair in a bun. 1 u -zvyui55 (head-clean/complete) n+adj. head which is bald on top; U131 zvyui55 zvyui31 dik1 bue . (head-clean/complete clean/complete(ipf) extreme P+I) He is rather bald on top of the head. Cf. nge1-dyeng35-mo35 n+adj+adj. head only bald in the middle. u1-zvyung31 (head-top) n. crown, top (in the hair of the head); also hon55. u31 I (intestine) n. intestine/s; u31 le1-roi11 (intestine one-string(Sp)) a/one string of intestines; seng11-u31 (liver-intestine) n+n. organs and intestines; cf. seng11-eq5 u31 (liver-COM intestine) organs and intestines; cf. pe1dong11 n. the large intestine. 31 u II (intoxicated) in a1-wut1 a1-u31. u31 le1-roi11 (intestine one-string(Sp)) a/one string of intestines. u31-mo35 (intestine-AUG) n. the small intestine.

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    u31-sang55 (intestine-fill.up) n. sausage; U31-sang55 sang31 lye31. (intestine-

    fill.up fill.up(ipf) also+I) I’m making a sausage. u -zo11 (intestine-child) n+adj. duodenum. u5- (egg) in u5-gvyap5. u55 / u5- I n. egg (bound form); nge1-u55 (fish-egg) n. roe, fish eggs; 31 Ngvoq5-u55 kyo55 bue . (bird-egg let.go.down P+I) She has laid an egg. 5 The allomorph u is used as a prefix in u5-gvyap5. 55 -u II (FCT) (4.3) one of the various possible shapes of the factitive marker. u55son55 / i5son55 n. type of heavenly spirits (mostly evil). Vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. u5-song55 song55 (head-(have).dandruff (have).dandruff) n+vi. have dandruff; U5-song55 song31 r55. (head-(have).dandruff (have).dandruff(ipf) PE) You have dandruff. u5dvong55 n. peacock. U5dvyeng55 toponym, originally belonging to a village separate from Loilung, though in very close vicinity. U5dvyeng55-bva55 ((village.name)-flatlands) village name, one of the constituent villages of Loilung. U5dvyeng55-bum31 ((village.name)-heap(vt/N)) village name, one of the constituent villages of Loilung. u5-gvyap5 (egg-shell/crust) n. eggshell. ue31! / hei55! etc. exclamatory expression ‘you there!’. uek5 (hiccup(V)) vide ge1uek5. um11 I (cover2(V)) vt. cover with ashes, soil, dry leaves etc. Mi1-zvue11 kai31 um11-aq5. (earth-soil shovel2(ipf) cover2(V)-SIM) (seeds, beans etc.) Cover (SG) it with soil. Vide mi1-um11 um11; cf. ngvop5, lik1 and um55. 11 um / u1- / u5- II (head) n. head; mostly as u1-; the full allomorph um11 is used in um11-tung55 and wa31-um11 (village-head) n+n. the upper end of the village. um11bong11 n. silver knob on the handle of a knife. um11-tung55 (head-wickerwork) n. place to sit behind the fireplace, reserved for elderly people; cf. tung55-guq1. 31 um I n. gun (bound form); in mi1-um31, soq5-um31 and the forms below. um31 II n. insect hill; bau31woq5-um31 (ant-insect.hill) n+n. anthill, termite hill; zyang31gvon11-um31 (termite-insect.hill) n+n. termite hill; possibly also in i1-si5-um31 (water-urine.(outside.the.body)-insect.hill) n. lower abdomen. um31bo11 n. kind of fruit. um31-dvot5 (gun-short) n. pistol. um31-dun11 (gun-press.into/spear) n+n. bore for cleaning guns. 31

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    um31-ting55 ting55 (gun-kick kick) n+vi. (gun:) have a recoil; Mi1-um31 hi31

    um31-ting55 ting31 r55. (fire-gun this gun-kick kick(ipf) PE) This gun has a rather strong recoil. um55 (flood/cover.profoundly) a vt. flood, inundate; Wui31-zye31-eq1 um31 31 am55 bue . (water-exceed#-AG/I flood/cover.profoundly(ipf) PFM P+I) These places have been inundated by the flood. b vt. cover profoundly; 31 Pung11syui31-yo31 kai31 um55 ra dut1 r55. (sugar.cane-land shovel(ipf) flood/cover.profoundly need+I become PE) We have to cover the roots in the sugar cane field with extra soil. Cf. dving55 and um11. 11 ung vt. sell; Nang35 no11 ke5-ung11. (2SG.PO cattle PHB-sell) Don’t sell your (SG) cow. Mue31-bu11 sep1 ung11-aq5. (wrap-clothes buy.stock sellSIM) (Why don’t you (SG)) do some trade in clothing. Sam55-zue31 ung31 31 lye . (Shan-truc sell(ipf) also+I) He sells market goods. Cf. wui31 vt. buy. ung31 (be.a.match.for2) vt. be a match for, such as for opponents or heavy 31 tasks; Nang31 a1-ung31 kai . (2SG NEG-be.a.match.for2 SUG+I) I guess 31 you (SG) can’t lift that. Nang31 yvang11 r55 a1-ung31 kai . (2SG 3SG OBJ NEG-be.a.match.for2 SUG+I) You (SG) can’t beat him, can you? Replied 31 by: Ung11 lye . (be.a.match.for2(ipf) also+I) I can beat him. or: A1-ung31. (NEG-be.a.match.for2) I can’t beat him. Cf. bye31. The exact difference in meaning between bye31 and ung31 is unclear. Ung31cau31 a family name. up1 vt. dominate; No11 hi55-du11 ge11 hi55-long31 me55 up1 zo31 lye31. (cattle this-being TOP this-area LOC dominate eat(ipf) also+I) This buffalo dominates the other buffaloes in this area. Vide up1-ngvam11. 1 up -ngvam11 (dominate-tasty) (15.32) vt+aux. be domineering; Ke5-dye31 up1-ngvam11. (PHB-too dominate-tasty) Don’t be so domineering (not giving others an opportunity to say anything). up5 (brood) vi/vt. brood, sit on eggs; Woq1-up5 up5 bue31 . (chicken-brood 31 brood P+I) The hen has started brooding. Woq1-zo11 up5 toq5 bue . (chicken-child brood come.out P+I) The chicks have hatched. woq1-up5mvi55 (chicken-brood-female) n. breeding hen; cf. dvoq5, gvyok5, koq5 and kyo55. 1 ut [over-ripe] a ideophone referring to pounding headache; U1-lvum11 ut1 ga11 no11 r55. (head-lump over-ripe perceive pain/ill/disease(ipf) PE) I have a pounding headache. b See further ut1-ut1. 1 ut -ut1 reduplicated: a ideophone expressing: over-ripe (almost bursting); Si1-ling35-si11 hi31 ge11 ut1-ut1 ze1-dut5 dik1 r55. (fruit-round-fruit this TOP over-ripe-over-ripe only-become extreme PE) This piece of silingsi fruit is over-ripe. b ideophone referring to pains: Ut1-ut1 ga11 no11 r55. (over-

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    ripe-over-ripe perceive pain/ill/disease(ipf) PE) I have a pain in my inflamed wound (a repetitious pain moving from place to place). ut5 n. gong (sp. cyam11/syam11); cf. yun11-mang11 and mvong55. uu35mau11zyo11 n. shuttlecock, from Chinese 羽毛球 yǔmáoqiú.

    -Wwa11 / we1- / we5- I (bamboo) n. bamboo; used with the following specifier nouns: wa11 le1-bang31 (bamboo one-bamboo.cluster) a/one cluster of bamboo trees; wa11 le1-bun11 (bamboo one-phalanx/limb) a/one stretch of bamboo; wa11 le1-bvung55 (bamboo one-grove) a/one bamboo grove; wa11 le1-gam31 (bamboo one-tree(B)) a/one bamboo tree. Vide all forms with the ‘bamboo’-prefix we1-/we5- and: (nouns:) cyun55 n. bamboo cage; mai31pyu55-gam31 n. kind of bamboo; mik1 n. bamboo shoots; nye11 n. bamboo thong (in nye11 cing11/sing11 (bamboo.thong split.bamboo) n+vt. split bamboo thongs); sen55ma35 n. kind of bamboo; sue55 n. flattened bamboo, used for making floors and walls etc.; all forms with the ‘bamboo container’-prefix te5-; wut1lvo31 and (verbs:) bvun11 vt. cook in bamboo; cing11/sing11 vt. split bamboo into thongs; wa11-sat5 sat5. 11 wa II (carry*) allomorph of waq1. wa11 III n. father; nang35 wa11 (2SG.PO father) your (SG) father; a1-wa11/a5wa11 Dad, Father; A5-wa11-mo35 (nom-father-AUG) sir, honorific tittle for men of an elder generation; i5-wa11 (function-father) n. a father, someone who serves as a father. wa11 IV n. handpalm, footsole; in ki31-wa11, loq1-wa11 and loq1-wa11 me1gva55. 11 wa -lai35 (father-deviate) vide lai35. Wa11mo31woq1kyung31 toponym, place of origin of the Lebang clan, somewhere to the east of Loilung. wa11-sat5 sat5 (bamboo-kill kill) vide sat5. wa31 I (2/3.days.ago) (9.39 Table 9.11) morpheme used in various time expressions. wa31 II (tile) in wa31-long11; probably loaned from Chinese 瓦 wǎ. wa31 III n. village; Zai11wa31-wa31 n+n. Zaiwa village. wa31-gung31 (village-body) n. village centre. wa31gyang31 n. hornbill. wa31-long11 (tile-slice/plate) n. roof-tile (sp. long11). wa31-tang31 (village-foothills) n+n. the lower part of the village; cf. wa31um31. 31 wa -um11 (village-head) n+n. the upper end of the village.

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    wa35 / we1- (EMP) (18.2) general emphatic suffix, expressing bewilderment, used as conjunction and interjection.

    wai31 a vi. (fruits, crops etc.:) be out of season; Ang11-noq5 wai31 bue31. (petiole-black out.of.season P+I) Black mustard is out of season. b vi. 31 (festivities etc. with fixed dates) be over; Bvoi31 wai31 bue . (festival out.of.season P+I) The festival is over. wai35! (ch.20) exclamatory expression used when finding out one has made a 31 mistake; Wai35, ngo31 dai31 syut5 bue . ((mistake!) 1SG speak(ipf) wrong P+I) Oh, I didn’t say it right. Cf. ngvoq5 and syut5. wam11 I (considerable.part) in le1-wam11. wam11 II a vi. swollen; Nga35 loq1 wam31 dik1 r55. (1PO hand/arm swollen/abdomen(ipf) extreme PE) My hand is rather swollen. Cf. dau35 adj/vi. puffy and bvung11 adj. swollen; b n. abdomen; cf. pam11 n. stomach, i1-si5-um31 n. lower abdomen. wam11-bvung11 bvung11 (swollen/abdomen-swollen swollen) vide bvung11. wam11-bvung11-mo35 (swollen/abdomen-swollen-AUG) n. (someone with) a swollen abdomen; vide bvung11. wam11-dau35-mo35 (swollen/abdomen-puffy-AUG) (someone with) a swollen abdomen; mostly: wam11-bvung11-mo35; vide bvung11. wam11-pam11-mo35 (swollen/abdomen-stomach-AUG) n. big eater; Wam1131 pam11-mo35 zang11 ning , i5-mvyo55 wo35 zo54 ge11. (swollen/abdomenstomach-AUG rice/food INS+I SPEC-much(B) have eat+FCT TOP) You’re such a big eater! / (Lit.:) You with your belly consisting only of a stomach, you can eat so much! wam11-syun31 (swollen/abdomen-spill(vt)) n+vi. have diarrhoea; Wam11(syun31) syun11 r55. (swollen/abdomen(-spill(vt)) spill(vt)(ipf) PE) I have 31 diarrhoea. Nang31 i1-zvyam11 ngam35 ke5-syuq5, wam35-syun11 lye . (ipf) (2SG water-water chilly PHB-drink swollen/abdomen-spill(vt) also+I) Don’t (SG) drink cold water, you’ll get diarrhoea. wam31 I n. bear (sp. du11). wam31 II ((make).wall) in se5-wam31 (wam31). wam31 III (weak/fear) vi. feel weak at the thought of something; Ngo31 wam11 r55, a1-rup5 lai11. (1SG weak/fear(ipf) PE NEG-dare pass) It makes me weak at the thought. I don’t dare to cross. Zi1syang31 nung35-nvik5 r55 ngo31 wu35 wam11 r55, syam31-kop5 ke5-syung31 gvo55. (child 2PL-duo (ipf) OBJ 1SG look weak/fear PE knife-(dig).pit PHB-use PL) It makes me weak to watch you children (DU), don’t play with/use that hoe. wam31-kui11 (bear-dog) n. ‘wolf’, also mentioned as the translation of ‘bear’, probably also ‘jackal’.

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    wam31-mvi55 (bear-female) n. female bear. wam31-po55 (bear-male) n. male bear. wam35 vi. dare; used in the Zaiwa of Longchuan; Ngo31 a1-wam35 zo11. (1SG NEG-dare eat) I don’t dare to eat it. Cf. rep5/rup5.

    wam35pun31 n. referring to foodstuffs made of pea flour, such as pea flour cake.

    wam35pun31-ngvyaq1 (pea.flour.cake-watery/thin) (n+adj.) n. pea flour mush; Wam35pun31-ngvyaq1 not1not1 ze1-dut5 dik1 r55. (pea.flour.cakewatery/thin [like.jelly] only-become extreme PE) Pea flour mush is just like jelly. wam35-no11 (swollen/abdomen-pain/ill/disease(ipf)) imperfective variant of wam11 no31 (swollen/abdomen pain/ill/disease) n+vi. have an abdominal pain or disease; Wam35-no11 r55. (swollen/abdomen-pain/ill/disease(ipf) PE) My abdomen aches. / I have am abdominal disease. Wam11 no31 31 ra . (swollen/abdomen pain/ill/disease need+I) We will get abdominal pains / diseases. wam35-syun11 (swollen/abdomen-spill(vt)(ipf)) imperfective variant of wam11-syun31, vide there. wan31dvum31 n. first/last day in a five-day cycle (used by the people of Loilung in reference to the day before Nongdao market); Ke5-ngi35 ge11 31 wan31dvum31 ngvut5 lye . (before-day TOP no.gloss be also +I) Today is wandvum day. wan31dvum11-ngi35 (no.gloss(GEN)-day) similar to wan31dvum31. wang11 I (at.base) (9.17.6) suffix indicating: at the roots of, at the base of; nang35 ki31 wang11 me55 (2SG-PO leg/foot at-base LOC) at your feet; Si1dung11-zeng31 wang11 me55 (Menau.post-trunk at.base LOC) below the Menau posts; (The two following sentences are rather poetic:) Nui31wang11 a1-bo25 nui31 a1-syau31 nui11. (vine-at.base NEG-contain+FCT vine NEG-need grow.like.vines) Vines without roots cannot grow like vines. Zi11-wang11 a1-bo25 zi11 a1-syau11 gvat5. (love.song-at.base NEGcontain+FCT love.song NEG-need put.into) I’ts no use chanting songs without roots. Vide dang11-wang11. wang11 II n. malaria; see the forms below. wang11-bung11 (malaria-steam(vt)) n. steam-bath against malaria; wang11bung11 bung11 (malaria-steam(vt) steam(vt)) n+vt. have a steam-bath 31 against malaria; Wang11-bung11 bung31 lye . (malaria-steam(vt) (ipf) steam(vt) also+I) I am having a steam-bath against malaria. wang11-gvyo31 (malaria-separated.by) n+v. type of malaria with fever every other day; Wang11-gvyo31 gvyo11 r55. (malaria-separated.by separated.by(ipf) PE) It’s the type of malaria with fever every other day.

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    wang11-noq5 (malaria-black) n. severe type of malaria. wang31 (enter) a vi/vt. (referring to people) enter, (water) get into, sink into,

    wriggle oneself into, etc.; Wang11 lo31-aq1. (enter(ipf) come(back/up)-SIM) Come (SG) in. Zving11 wang31-aq1. (press(ipf) enter-SIM) (in a crowded 31 bus) Press yourself inside. I1-lang31 me55 wang11 byuq1 bue . (water(ipf) river LOC enter lose P+I) He sunk into the river. b vt. go to market, 31 lit. enter the market; Zyau31 wang11 ye31 bue . (market enter(ipf) go(away/down) P+I) We are going to the market. c after bau11 (bug); vi. 31 be eaten by insects, be infected by bugs; Hi31 ge11 bau11 wang31 bue . (this TOP bug enter P+I) It has been infected by bugs. d vi. (sun) go down; bui31-wang31-kyam11 (sun-enter-half) n. West; e vt. enter the 31 ranks; Gye31 wang11 byuq1 bue . (soldier enter(ipf) lose P+I) He has 31 entered the ranks as a soldier. f vi. hit goal; Moi31! wang31 bue . ((surprise) enter P+I) My, it’s a goal! g vi. be (the beginning of) a certain 31 season; Zan31 wang31 bue . (summer/year enter P+I) It’s summer. 31 1 31 31 Gyoq -myo wang bue . (cold-winter enter P+I) It’s winter. h after sam31mvi11 n. ‘(common) cold’: vi. have a cold; Hi31 ge1ro11 sam31mvi11 31 zyaq1 wang11 bum11 a1-gvo . (this between (common).cold rather (ipf) (ipf) enter heap(vt/N) nom-PL+I) These days many people have a cold. i (fields) vt. need a certain amount of seeds; I1-tung11 hi31 ge11 guq1 ngo1131 bye35 wang11 lye . (water-paddy this TOP unhusked.rice five-5pounds (ipf) enter also+I) This paddy is big enough for five baskets of rice seeds. i55-bye35 wang31 (two-5pounds enter) (a paddy) big enough for two baskets of rice seeds; j aux. get into business; A1-hun31 zyang35 ge11 byeng35 sat5 wang11 lo35 syang55 hoi11-ma11. (nom-time CD TOP fix/solve kill enter(ipf) go(back/up) JUS INC-ROUS) (opening a meeting:) Well then, let us (ND.IN) get into business and start to solve the matter right away. Vide moq1-wang31 wang31 and yvum31-wang31 wang31. wang31gang11 n. chest of the body. wang35 (healthy) a vi. be healthy; Nang31 wang35 dvo31 r55 luq1? (2SG healthy place(vt)(ipf) PE Y/N) Are you being healthy? also wang35-zan35; 31 b vi. (fruits) almost ripe; Ngve5-mvyuq1 wang35 bue . (banana-banana healthy P+I) The banana’s are almost ripe. wang35-zan35 (healthy-healthy) vi. be healthy; Nang31 wang35-zan35 dvo31 31 lye luq1? (2SG healthy-healthy place(vt)(ipf) also+I Y/N) Are you (SG) in good health? wap1 / wap5 I vi. (dogs:) bark; Kui11 hi31 a1-yan35 wap1 r55. (dog this nomrow bark PE) This dog barks frequently. Kui11-wap5 tye31 wo35 gyo31 r55. (dog-bark sound have hear/smell(ipf) PE) I can hear the sound of barking dogs.

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    wap1 II (living.room) in wap1-doq1. wap1-doq1 (living.room-go.up) n. living room. wap5 (ash) in mi1-wap5. waq1 / wa11 I (carry) a vt. lift, carry; Rvo31! syom31 waq1 syang55! (heave!

    drive.game(ipf) lift JUS) Heave! Let’s (ND .IN) lift it together! Waq1 so11aq5. (lift walk-SIM) Carry (SG) it away. b vt. keep in one’s hand; Loq1 me55 waq1 dvo11-aq5. (hand/arm LOC lift place(vt)-SIM) Keep (SG) it in your hand. Dat5-mi11 a1-waq1 luq1? (electric-fire NEG-lift Y/N) Do you have a flashlight with you? The following is an overview of other words related to lifting and carrying. bau11 vt. carry (child) on back, bom35 vt. (not children) carry in front, bun35 vt. (child) carry in front, lui31 vt. (scabbards, silver bags, etc.:) carry on shoulder, wun31 a vt. (bags etc.:) carry, either on shoulder or across the head, b vt. bring, tot1 a vt. move to another place, b vt. move into another house, tut5 vt. (pan) lift off the fire. waq1 II n. pig; no11-woq1-waq1 (cattle-chicken-pig) n+n+n. livestock; cf. Jingpo wa (Xu et al. 1983: 858). waq1 ki1-pun55 (pig faeces-manure) n. pig’s manure. waq1-cu31 / waq1-su31 (pig-oil) n. lard. waq1-dung11 (pig-castrated.pig) n+n. a castrated pig; b male pig in general. waq1-dvye11 (pig-wild.boar) n. wild boar. waq1-gva31 (pig-headstall) n+n. headstall for pigs, triangular in shape. waq1-gve5lai11 (pig-flea) n. flea. waq1ha11 (distillers’.grains) n. distillers’ grains, the stuff that is left over after distilling rice wine, used as pig’s fodder; the first syllable could be waq1 n. pig. waq1-hup5 (pig-pigsty) n. pigsty. waq1-kup5 (pig-pen/cage) n. pigsty. waq1-kyam55 (pig-uncastrated.pig) n. boar (intact male); also a1-mon35 si54 waq1-kyam55 (NEG-castrated still+FCT pig-uncastrated.pig) uncastrated pig. Waq1lang11-rum35 (toponym)-(place.for).waterfall) toponym: Waqlang falls. waq1-mvi55 (pig-female) n. sow. waq1-mon35 (pig-castrated) n+adj. castrated pig. waq1ngan31 a n. young man/men, aged about 18 to 40; b waq1ngan31 ngvaq5 (young.man give.all) lay it on a bit thick, like a young fellow;

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    A1ga31! waq1ngan31 zyaq1 ngvaq5 r55 dvi . ((difficulty) young.man rather give.all PE CX+I) Oh my, he lays it on thick like a young fellow! Waq1ngan31 ke5-dye31 ngvaq5 mvau55. (young.man PHB-too give.all cheat/fool) Don’t lay it on so thick, like a young fellow. Cf. Jingpo wangan (Xu et al. 1983: 870). waq1-pui11 (pig-dust/chaff) n. chaff (for pigs). waq1-seng11 (pig-liver) n+n. pork liver. waq1-si31 (pig-die) a n+adj. dead pig; b n+adj. that bloody pig. waq1-sui11 (pig-blood) n+n. pig blood. waq1-sut5 (pig-(make)nest) n+n. pig’s nest. waq1-syo11 (pig-flesh) n+n. pork meat. waq1-wum35 (pig-pest) n+n. swine fever; Waq1-wum35 dut1 r55. (pig-pest become PE) There’s swine fever. waq1-zang11 (pig-rice/food) n+n. pig fodder; also waq1-zvang11. waq1-zvang11 (pig-fodder) n+n. pig fodder; also waq1-zang11. waq1-zo11 (pig-child) n+adj. piglet. wat1 (tingle) vi. tingle, the sensation after eating 花椒 huājiāo n. Chinese prickly ash; Zyap1-si11 wat1 dik1 r55. (Chinese.prickly.ash-fruit tingle extreme PE) This Chinese prickly ash gives quite a tingling sensation. Cf. mun35. 1 we - / we5- I (bamboo) the ‘bamboo’-prefix, allomorph of wa11. we1- II (EMP) allomorph of wa35. we1-bang31 (bamboo-bamboo.cluster) n. cluster of bamboo trees. we1-bvung55 (bamboo-grove) n. bamboo grove; cf. wa11 le1-bvung55 (bamboo one-grove) a/one group of bamboo, a/one bamboo grove. we1-gam31 (bamboo-tree(B)) n. bamboo tree. we1-kyam11 (bamboo-half) n. halfed stretch of bamboo which resembles and could be used as a knife. 1 we -ngvyu11 (bamboo-top.of.plant) n. top of a bamboo tree. we1-nu35 (bamboo-young/tender) n. young, flexible bamboo. we1poq1 n. kind of bird, chicken-like, flying. we1-yo31 (bamboo-land) n+n. bamboo bushes. we5-zung11 (bamboo-axe) n+n. axe. wen31-gam31 / wen31-zeng31 (Trewia-tree(B)) (Trewia-trunk) n+n. Trewia, a kind of tree with very good wood; Chinese 滑桃树 huátáoshù. wen55du11byau31 / wen55du31byau11 n. thermometer, from Chinese 温度表 wēndùbiào. weng11 / weng31 (broth) n. soup, broth, cooking liquid; the two allomorphs can be varied freely, exept that weng11 is not used after full syllables in tone /11/ and weng31 is not used after syllables in tone /31/;

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    a1-weng11 (nom-broth) n. soup, broth; ang11-noq5-weng11 (petiole-blackbroth) n. black mustard soup; nge1-zo11-weng31 (fish-child-broth) n+adj+n. fish soup; sun11-weng31 (veg/dish-broth) n. vegetable soup; 31 Ka55-hu55 weng31 het5 lye ? (Q-sort broth draw.soup also+I) What kind of soup are you drawing? A1-weng11 a1-bo31 le1-luq1? (nom-broth NEGcontain no.more-Y/N) Is there any soup/broth left? A1-weng11 rvang55aq5. (nom-broth make-SIM) Make (SG) a soup. weng11-tang31 (foothills-foothills) n+n. foothills; also bum31-weng11-tang31. weng31 vi. aim (before shooting); Le1go11 weng25 mai11 beng11-aq1. (well aim+FCT ABL shoot*-SIM) Aim (SG) well and then shoot. Nang31 dye31 31 weng11 myang35 bue . (2SG too aim(ipf) (time).long P+I) You (SG) took too much time in aiming. wo31 I vi. rain; mau11-wo31 (sky-rain) n+vi. rain; Mau11 wo31 bue31. (sky rain (ipf) P+I) It’s raining. Mau35-wo11 r55. (sky-rain PE) It’s raining. Vide dui35, 11 11 pong and various forms containing mau ; cf. syaq1. 31 wo II n. spot; Ke5-mvyo55 wo31 lvoq5 cyeq5 am54? (Q-much (B) spot ACT tear PFM+FCT) At how many spots are you wounded? Le1-wo31 ze1-me55 syut5 r55. (one-spot only-LOC wrong PE) I had only one mistake. / (Lit.:) I had a mistake at only one spot. Vide wui31-wo31 ho31. 31 wo -doq5 (rain-go.up) n. dripping dew; Wo31-doq5 gyo35 r55. (rain-go.up go.down PE) There’s dew dripping from the trees. wo35 (have) (13.6, 13.7) a vt. have, possess; b vt. receive, get, in wo35 yu31 (have take) ‘(letter) receive’; vide si1gvyam55/si5gvyam55 on postal affairs; c vt. fetch, keep; d vt. minimally measure; e vi. emanate; f vi. be available; g vi. exist; h as the possibilitative adverb ‘to be able to do V’. wo35 bang11 (have PNO) rich people. wvoi55 (father’s.mother) n. paternal grandmother; A5-wvoi55 (nomfather’s.mother) paternal grandmother; nga35-wvoi55 my paternal grandmother; cf. Jingpo woi (Xu et al. 1983: 879). wom11 (brittle) adj/vi. (wood, clothes) brittle, easy to tear; Mue31-bu11 wom11 31 bue . (wrap-clothes brittle P+I) These clothes have become brittle. tang11-wom11 (firewood-(brittle) n+adj. brittle wood; cf. mung11zung35, pom31, pop1, sa11, sak5; cf. Jingpo wom (Xu et al. 1983: 881). -Wom35 I morpheme used in personal names; Laq1-wom35, Ma11-wom35. wom35 II (wool) only in king31-wom35. wong11 I (incest) incorrect derivation from zyau11wong 11 n. incest; I531 nvung55 meng11-gvan11 toq5 me55 zyau11wong11 wong31 lye . (SPEC(ipf) 1ND.IN world-dried.out come.out LOC incest incest also+I) Everything in our world is incestuous.

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    wong11 II (loose-fitting) a n. in ci5-wong11 (buttock-loose-fitting) n+n. (wide) skirt; in lve1-wong11 (trousers-loose-fitting) n+n. skirt (cf. pa11sen55 n. wrap-around skirt); b vi. loose-fitting; Ci5-wong11 hi31 ge11 dye31 wong31 r55. (buttock-loose-fitting this TOP too loose-fitting(ipf) PE) This skirt is rather too wide. Pe5-zvang11 hi55-dung11 ge11 wong11-wong11 dye31 ga31 r55. (belt-(wear).trousers this-piece(Sp) TOP loose-fittingloose-fitting too perceive(ipf) PE) These trousers are too wide. Cf. Jingpo wong (Xu et al. 1983: 882). wong31 n. emperor; cf. Jingpo wong (Xu et al. 1983: 882) and Chinese 王 wáng and 皇 huáng. woq1 I n. chicken; no11-woq1-waq1 (cattle-chicken-pig) n+n+n. livestock; woq1 kyut5 (chicken take.off/pluck) n+vt. pluck a chicken; cf. pui55woq1. woq1 II (weave) a n. weaving-loom, in woq1-gan11 (weave-loom) n+n. weaving-loom; also in (woq1-)gan11-zum35 ((weave-)loom-pair) n+n+n. paired weaving-loom; woq1-mo35 (weave-AUG) n+adj. reed, sley (comblike implement used for weaving). b vi/vt. weave; Yvang11 woq1-gan11 woq1 dvo31 r55. (3SG weave-loom weave place(vt)(ipf) PE) She is weaving. woq1-but1 (chicken-determine) n+vt. tell fortunes, using a chicken’s head; 31 Woq1-but1 wu35 lye . (chicken-determine look also+I) I’m telling fortunes using a chicken’s head. woq1-cyun55 (chicken-bamboo.cage) n. (bamboo) chicken cage. woq1dut1 n. kind of huge green bug. woq1-gan11 (weave-loom) n+n. weaving-loom; vide gan11. Woq1-gan11-sing55ngyang11(-nat1) (weave-loom-(rainbow)(-spirit)) a the rainbow spirit (…); b kind of spirit in the shape of a short rainbow, beaming heat and chasing people, causing illnesses that can lead to death when not cured by a witch doctor. Vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. (woq1-)gan11-zum35 ((weave-)loom-pair) n. paired weaving-loom. woq1-hui11 (chicken-dog) vide woq1-kui11/woq1-hui11. woq1-ki11 (chicken-faeces) n+n. chicken shit. woq1-koq5 (chicken-bowl) n+n. bamboo chicken cage for ritual use (sp. cyam11/syam11). woq1-kui11 / woq1-hui11 (chicken-dog) n+n. bamboo rat; the interpretation of the first syllable as ‘chicken’ is uncertain. woq1-kup5 (chicken-pen/cage) n+n. chicken cage. woq1-lut1 (chicken-crop) n+n. crop of a chicken. woq1-mvi55 (chicken-female) n. hen.

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    woq1-mo35 (weave-AUG) n+adj. reed, sley (comb-like implement used for weaving).

    woq1-mon35 (chicken-castrated) n+adj. capon. woq1-pam11 (chicken-stomach) n+n. chicken stomach. woq1-po55 (chicken-male) n. cock, rooster. woq1-po55 zyoq1-ban11 (chicken-male cockscomb-flower) n. cockscomb; cf. Jingpo joban (Xu et al. 1983: 352). woq1-sut5 (chicken-(make)nest) n+n. chicken’s nest. woq1-syo11 (chicken-flesh) n+n. chicken meat. woq1-u55 (chicken-egg) n+n. chicken egg. woq1-up5 up5 (chicken-brood brood) n+v+v. hatch, brood; vide up5. woq1-up5-mvi55 (chicken-brood-female) n. breeding hen. woq1-wum35 (chicken-pest) n+n. fowl pest. woq1-zo11 (chicken-child) n+adj. chick. wu35 (look) (15.27) a vt. look, watch, reed; b probative auxiliary; 31 Mau11sau11 hi31 ngo31 wu35 wu35 bue . (paper/book this 1SG look look P+I) I have read this book before. Cf. myang31 vt. see. 35 wu me1zveng55 (look memory/memorize) vt+vt. look well in order to memorize; vide me1zveng55. 35 wu -syau11 (look-less) vt+vi. look down upon, disparage; Nang31 yo31-so3131 sun11 r55 ke5-wu35-syau11, yvang11 ge11 ya11ya35 le1-ngvut5 lye ga11. (2SG land-walk(GEN)-veg/dish OBJ PHB-look-less 3SG TOP medicine but-be also+I TOP) One (SG) shouldn’t look down upon wild vegetables. They’re medicine, you know. Byu31-eq5 byu31 ngvu54 ge11 a1-gue11 wu35syau31 lum11. (man/woman-COM man/woman say+FCT TOP NEGall.right(ipf) look-less(ipf) reciprocal) People who respect each other should not look down upon each other. / Between people there should be no looking down upon each other. 55 wu syuq1 n. martial arts; from Chinese 武术 wǔshù. wue11 I vi. far; Zyong11 wue31 lye31. (school far(ipf) also+I) The school is far 31 31 away. A1-wue11-o , zvyang55-zvyang55 ze1-ngvut5 lye . (NEG-farHIGH+I near-near only-be also+I) It’s not far at all, it’s very near by. A1hue55-hue55 a1-wue11. (nom-far(B)-far(B) NEG-far) It’s not that far. Vide bin11 wue11 so11; cf. bound form variant -hue55. wue11 II (female) in mi1-wue11/mi11-wue11. wue11 III vt. sweep or wipe away with hand or arm; Mau11sau11 kyom11 wue31 am55-aq5. (paper/book all.of.it sweep.away(ipf) PFM-SIM) Just 31 sweep (SG) all the paper away. A5-se55 gvut5 ke5-wue11 mai . (nom-like do PHB-sweep.away OBV+I) Don’t wipe in this way! Cf. syum11, sop5, sut5.

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    wue31 n. dead person, mostly in reference to food and drinks offered to them; Wue31 gvun31-aq1. (dead.person do*-SIM) (rather spitefull:) Eat and die (SG). Cf. dving31 and mang31 n. corpse. wvue31 (feed.oneself) course word for vt. eat; Got1 wvue31-aq1. (scoop(vt) feed.oneself-SIM) Go ahead and eat (SG) it. (if you have no pride). Cf. nvang55 and zvo11. wue31-i31 (dead.person-distilled) n+n. liquor for a dead person. wue31-zang11 (dead.person-rice/food) n+n. food for a dead person. wue35 (stuck2) a vi. be/get stuck in one’s throat; Zang11-wue35 wue35 r55. (rice/food-stick stick PE) The rice is stuck in my throat. I1-zvyam11 r11 gue11 wue35 r55. (water-water also all.right(ipf) stick PE) Water can also get stuck in one’s throat (when being very thirsty). b vi. be/get stuck in 31 ropes, vines etc.; Nui31 me55 zang35 bvek5 wue35 bue . (vine LOC strike kick stick P+I) One of my feet got stuck in the vines. Cf. gvun31, gyam31 and gvyam31. wvue55! (ch.20) exclamatory expression to bewilderment when just finding out something is missing; Wvue55! a1-bo31 loq1. ((something.missing) NEG-contain no.more) But, there’s nothing left inside! wvue55wvue55wvue55 (ch.20) exclamatory expression to disapproval with the addressee; Wvue55wvue55wvue55, i5-se55 gvut5 gvo54 ge11. ((disapproving) SPEC-like do PL +FCT TOP) (disapproving:) So, (well well well), you (PL) have done it like that. wuek1 / wuek5 (wrestle.with.horns) vide kyui31-wuek5. wui11 I (bone2) n. bone; vide si1-wui11; cf. gvong55. wui11 II (difficult1) a vi. difficult, hard; Kyo31 so11 wui31 r55. (road walk difficult(ipf) PE) This is a bad road. dai11 wui11 (speak difficult1) vt+vi. be difficult to persuade; Me1-luq5 r55 dai11 wui31 r55, dai54 dang11 a1-gyo11. ((female)-2nd-sister OBJ speak difficult(ipf) PE speak+FCT words NEGhear/smell) Second sister is difficult to persuade, she will never listen. ngi11 wui11 (be.there(anim)(ipf) difficult1) vi+vi. feel uncomfortable; Zo31 zye11 mut1 zye11 ngi11 wui31 r55. (eat# exceed hungry exceed be.there(anim)(ipf) difficult(ipf) PE) The hungrier I get, the harder it gets. zo31 wui11 (eat(ipf) difficult1) vt+vi. disgusting, hard to swallow; Ya11ya35 zo11 wui31 r55. (medicine eat difficult(ipf) PE) This medicine is disgusting, so hard to eat. b vi. ferocious, fierce; Hye55-yuq1 bat1 lum11 wui31 dik1 31 lye . (same.elevation-person beat reciprocal difficult(ipf) extreme also+I) That person (at the same elevation) is a ferocious fighter. c (persons:) vi. troublesome, hard to handle; Zi1syang31 hi31 dye31 wui31 r55. (child this too difficult(ipf) PE) This child is too tiresome (crying so loudly etc.). Yvang11 i31-pue11 syuq5 wut1 zyang35 a1-yan35 wui31 r55. (3SG distilled-

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    booze drink drunk CD nom-row difficult(ipf) PE) He often gets difficult when he is drunk. Cf. lui31 vi. easy, nak5 vi. (tasks) tough, difficult, ngai11 vi. be convenient, easy, light, som55 adj/vi. light, yak1 vi. difficult2, yo35 vi. feel convenient. 11 wui III (necklace) in wui11-zo11. wui11-ngyun35 (bone2-marrow) n+n. marrow. wui11-zo11 (necklace-child) n+adj. necklace; heng31 wui11-zo11 (gold necklace-child) n. golden necklace. wui31 I vt. buy; A1-myang11 wui31 gve5-luq1? (NEG-see(ipf) buy PL-Y/N) Were you (PL) able to buy it? Cf. sep1 vt. buy stock, ung11 vt. sell. 31 wui II (generation) (9.27) suffixed n. generation, class, ranks; mang11-zo11 wui31 (aged-child generation) n+adj+n. the aged, the elderly people; Zai11wa31 wui31 (Zaiwa generation) n+n. the Zaiwa; cf. zai35; vide meng11-byu31 wui31, min31-wui31, ngi35-wui31, zan31-wui31, ze1-wui31. 31 wui III vi. laugh; Ke5-dye31 wui31. (PHB-too laugh) Don’t laugh like that. Vide wui31 nvau31 and wui31-wo31 ho31. 31 wui - IV (water) prefixed n. ‘water’; used in the forms below. Zaiwa has four morphemes glossed ‘water’: bu11, i1-/i11, wui31- and -zvyam11. All of them are bound forms, exept i11 in the meaning of ‘urine’. 31 wui nvau31 IV (laugh feel.like) a vi+aux. feel the urge to laugh; Ngo31 wui31 nvau11 r55. (1SG laugh feel.like(ipf) PE) I have to laugh. b vi+aux. have a tendency to laugh, have a sunny character; Hi55-yuq1 gue11 wui31 31 nvau11 dik1 lye , nvik5-yo11 gve5lvang11 i1mit1 ma55 a1-gvat5 dvo11. (thisperson all.right(ipf) laugh feel.like(ipf) extreme also+I heart-itch3 although mind LOC NEG-put.into place(vt)) This person has a sunny character, and even when she is angry, she doesn’t take offence. wui31-bu11 (water-water) n+n. boiled water; cf. i1-zvyam11 n+n. water (usually unboiled). 31 wui -bu11-au11 (water-water-pan) n+n+n. pan for boiling water; Wui3131 bu11-au11 zvu31 bue . (water-water-pan boil/rise P+I) (The drinking water inside) the pan is boiling. wui31-bvuq5 (water-explode(vt)) n+adj. rice gruel, porridge; Wui31-bvuq5 31 hi31 ge11 gvai55-gvai55 ze11 dut1 bue . (water-explode(vt) this TOP thick/concentrated-thick/concentrated only become P+I) This porridge has become very thick. wui31-bvuq5 bvuq5 (water-explode(vt) explode(vt)) n+adj+vt. make rice gruel, porridge; Wui31-bvuq5 bvuq5 zo11 syang55. (water-explode(vt) explode(vt) eat JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) make some rice gruel to eat.

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    wui31-dving55 (water-collect. .water/flood(vt)) n. pond (with streaming water); cf. nvong31 n. pond (man-made, without much circulation). wui31-gu11 (water-wade) vide gu11. wui31-gun31 (water-fling/strike/wave) n+n. (water) wave; Wui31-gun31 gun31 zyang35 ngo31 gyuq1 dik1 r55. (water-fling/strike/wave fling/strike/wave CD 1SG afraid extreme PE) It makes me scared when there are waves. Wui31-gun31 a1-gun31. (water-fling/strike/wave NEGfling/strike/wave) There are no waves. wui31-kung11 / wui31-hung11 (water-fold) n+n. dale, water fold, a fold between hills where there is a brook; wui31-kung11 le1-kung11 (water-fold one-fold) a/one water fold; Wui31-kung11 nop1 dik1 r55, a1-wo35 lai11. (water-fold sink.away/squishy extreme PE NEG-have pass) It’s very squishy in the dale, you can’t pass. wui31-li11 li11 (water-swim swim) n+v+v. swim; Wui31-li11 li11 ye31 gvoq1 31 dvi . (water-swim swim go (away/down) DIE CX+I) Let’s (DU) go swim, all right? bve1-li11 (frog-swim) n+v. breast stroke (swimming); cf. loq1gun31 du35 (hand/arm-fling/strike/wave throw) n+n+v. swim freestyle. 31 wui -lving55 lving55 (water-whirl whirl) n+v+v. whirling of the water; Wui31-lving55 lving31 r55. (water-whirl whirl(ipf) PE) There’s a whirlpool. Wui31-lving55 a1-lving55 loq1. (water-whirl NEG-whirl no.more) The water has stopped whirling. Vide lving55. 31 wui -lving55-tum11 (water-whirl-pool) n+v+n. whirlpool; vide lving55. wui31-sum31 (water-mortar) n+n. water mortar; Wui31-sum31 ge11 byu11-eq1 31 wu35 no35 a1-ra54, guq1 wo35 tung31 lye . (water-mortar TOP man/woman#-AG/I look to NEG-need+FCT unhusked.rice have crush(ipf) also+I) A water mortar can pound rice by itself, without people having to look after it. 31 wui -syuq5 gve5-nva11 (water-drink mud-(regular)mud) n. dragonfly. wui31-tong55 (water-jail) n+n. well; Wui31-tong55 ma54 i1-zvyam11 san31 dik1 r55. (water-jail LOC +FCT water-water clean(ipf) extreme PE) The water in the well is very clear. wui31-toq5 (water-come.out) n+vi. source of a stream. wui31-tung55 (water-source) n+n. source (sp. lvum11). wui31-wo31 (laugh-spot) vi+n. joke, in wui31-wo31 ho31. wui31-wo31 ho31 (laugh-spot look.for) vi+n+vt. make jokes (lit.: look for laughing spots); Yvang11 wui31-wo31 zyaq1 gue11 ho11 r55. (3SG laugh-spot rather all.right(ipf) look.for(ipf) PE) He is rather good at making jokes. 31 Wui31-wo31 ke5-ho31 loq1-o , ngo31 a1-wo35 wui31 loq1. (laugh-spot PHBlook.for no.more-HIGH+I 1SG NEG-have laugh no.more) Stop making

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    jokes, I can’t stand laughing anymore. Wui31-wo31 ke5-ho31. (laugh-spot PHB-look.for) Don’t make jokes. / How funny! wui31-yam31 (water-edge) n+n. river bank, shore; Wui31-yam31 cyang55 lui31 zyang31 gyo35 lo35-aq5. (water-edge follow in.this.way+I in.passing go.down go(back/up)-SIM) Follow (SG) the stream. / Lit.: Follow (SG) the river bank. wui31-zvem55 zvem55 (water-dip/duck dip/duck) n+v+v. swim under water, go under water, get a ducking/dip. wui31-zup5 (water-come.together) n+n. place where two rivers meet. wui31-zye11 (zye11) (water-exceed (exceed)) wui31-zye11 (n+vi.) n. flood; 31 Wui31-zye31-eq1 um31 am55 bue . (water-exceed#-AG/I flood/cover.profoundly(ipf) PFM P+I) These places have been inundated by the flood. Wui31-zye31-eq1 yvum31 ban11 bvyung31 gyo35 lo35 byuq1 31 bue . (water-exceed#-AG/I house use.up(ipf) flush/drive(ipf) go.down go(back/up) lose P+I) The flood has flushed away the house completely. wui31-zye11 zye11 n+v+v. be a flood; Wui31-zye11 a1-zye11 luq1? (waterexceed NEG-exceed Y/N) Is there a flood? wui31-zye11-mo35 (water-exceed-AUG) n+v+adj. serious flood; Wui3131 zye11-mo35 lo11 lye nueng31nueng31. (water-exceed-AUG (ipf) come(back/up) also+I [forces.of.nature]) A terrible flood is coming. wui35 I (equal) a n. equal part; in le1-wui35; b vi. be in balance, only in combination with gan11 n. balance; vide le1-wui35 and gan11; cf. wvui55. 35 wui II n. kind of poisonous vine or liana, killing fish when thrashed and thrown into the water in a similar way as poison ivy. wvui55 (compare) vt. compare; Nang35 loq1-ngyui11-eq5 nga35 loq1-ngyui11, o55-yuq1 zye11 heng11 lye54 lu55 wvui31 wu35 gvoq1. (2SG.PO hand/armfinger/toe-COM 1PO hand/arm-finger/toe who-person exceed long(ipf) also+FCT MIR compare(ipf) look DIE) Let’s (DU) compare whose fingers are longer. / (Lit.:) My fingers and your fingers, whose would be the longest, let’s (DU) compare. wum11 (power) a n. power, force; Nung35-nvik5 wum11 le1-wui35 a1-gvo31. (2PL-duo power one-equal nom-PL+I) You (DU) are just as strong. b in wum11 bo31 (power contain) n+vt. have strength, be strong; Byu31 hye5531 yuq1 wum11 bo11 dik1 lye . (man/woman same.elevation-person power (ipf) contain extreme also+I) That person (at the same elevation) is quite strong. Wum11 a1-bo31. (power NEG-contain) I don’t have any strength. c in wum11 gvat5 (power put.into) n+vt. apply force; Wum11 gvan31-aq1. (power put.into*-SIM) Apply (SG) (some more) force. Wum11 gvat5gvat5 ke5-so11, rong31rong31 ga11 dye31 ming11 r55. (power put.into-put.into (ipf) PHB-walk [onom] perceive too sound(vi) PE) Don’t walk so heavily,

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    it’s too noisy. d in wum11 peng55 (power sturdy); vide peng 55; Cf. bvat5 n. muscle power. Vide peng55, mvit5 and wum35-bo11. wum31-si11 (fruit.name-fruit) n+n. kind of very sour fruit growing on vines. wum35 (pest) n. pest, plague, infectious disease; in byu31-wum35 (man/woman-pest) n. human infectious disease; waq1-wum35 (pig-pest) n+n. swine fever; woq1-wum35 (chicken-pest) n+n. fowl pest; Waq1wum35 dut1 r55. (pig-pest become PE) There’s swine fever. wum35-bo11 (power-contain(ipf)) imperfective variant of wum11 bo31 (power31 contain); Byu31 hye55-yuq1 wum35-bo11 dik1 lye . (man/woman (ipf) same.elevation-person power-contain extreme also+I) That person (at the same elevation) is quite strong. Vide wum11. wun11 I (call*) allomorph of wut1. wun11 II in wun11-ngyuq1. wun11 III (wear/dress*) allomorph of wut1. wun11 wun11 (dizzy dizzy) n+vi. feel dizzy; Wun11 wun31 r55. (dizzy 31 dizzy(ipf) PE) I feel dizzy. Wun11 wun11 ra se5-ga31 r55. (dizzy dizzy (ipf) need+I like-perceive PE) I feel that I’m getting dizzy. Wun11bvong55 the greater Jingpo or Kachin, vide below. Wun11bvong55 a1-myu31 (greater.Jingpo nom-sort/nationality) the greater Jingpo or Kachin, name for the ethnological and cultural ethnie encompassing the Jingpo proper, the Zaiwa, the Maru, the Lashi/Letsi and the Bola; cf. Si1dvung55 Jingpo proper. Wun11bvong55-pung55 (greater.Jingpo-group) n. Jingpo music band, consisting of: sam55-bvi55 n. regular bamboo flute, cyeng55 n. cymbals, mvong55 n. small gong, dyek1ge1rye11 n. snare drum and zeng31 n. large drum; cf. dum31bvu55-pung55. wun11-ngyuq1 (vegetable.name-young.leaves) n. kind of wild vegetable. wun31 (carry/bring) a vt. (bags etc.:) carry, either on shoulder or across the head; A1-bvai11 dong31 ke5-wun31. (nom-left lead/connect PHBcarry/bring) (a bag:) Don’t carry it on your left side. Tung 55-gva55 ge11 31 u1-lvum11 mai11 wun11 lye . (wickerwork-variegated1 TOP head-lump (ipf) ABL carry/bring also+I) A tunggva is carried across the head. b vt. 35 bring; Nang mau11sau11 wun31-aq1. (2SG.PO paper/book carry/bringSIM) Take your (SG) books with you. Zoq1-si11 a1-wun31. (lock-tie/lock NEG-carry/bring) I didn’t bring my key. Vide waq1 for an overview of words related to lifting and carrying. wun35 (wherever) (12.13, 12.6) aux. ‘do V wherever’. wung31 n. wildcat (sp. du11); Wung31 ge11 le1ngvyau55 se5-dut5 lye31. (wildcat TOP cat like-become also+I) Wildcats look just like regular cats.

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    wup1 n. projection, shadow; in wup1-zo11 and wup1-zyam31. wup1-zo11 (projection-child) n+adj. shadow of someone or something; nga35 wup1-zo11 (1PO projection-child) my shadow; cf. bui31-syum31 n. shade of the sun. wup1-zyam31 (projection-mirror) n. mirror; wup1-zyam31 le1-long11 (projection-mirror one-slice/plate) a/one mirror (large and/or rectangular); wup1-zyam31 le1-lvum11 (projection-mirror one-lump) a/one mirror (small and round). wuq1 (shave) vt. (hair, beard, etc.:) shave; U1-sam31 wuq1 am55-aq5. (headhair.of.the.head shave PFM-SIM) Shave (SG) your/the head. Nvut5-mui11 wuq1 am55-aq5. (mouth-beard shave PFM-SIM) Shave your (SG) beard. Ki31 ma54 si1-mau35 wuq1 am55-aq5. (leg/foot LOC +FCT flesh-body.hair shave PFM-SIM) Shave (SG) your legs. Cf. u1-gong11 and u1-kang55, specifically referring to shaved heads. wut1 / wun11 I (call) a vt. call; Le1-nong35 r55 wun11-aq1. ((male)-2ndbrother OBJ call*-SIM) Call (SG) second brother. b vi. call; Nang31 a531 mvyo55 ze11 wut1-n55 ge11 a1-wo35 gyo54 ge1-lo . (2SG nom-much only call-FCT TOP NEG-have hear/smell+FCT TOP-no.more+I) If you shout with such a soft voice, they won’t hear you. c vi. hear someone calling; Wut1 r55. (call PE) Someone is calling. 1 wut II vi. be drunk; Ngo31 i31-pue11 syuq5 wut1 bue31. (1SG distilled-booze 31 drink drunk P+I) I’m drunk. Ngo31 i31-pue11 i55-ngi35 wut1 bue . (1SG distilled-booze two-day drunk P+I) I have been drunk for two days. A1wut1 si1-luq1? (NEG-drunk still-Y/N) Are you drunk yet? Vide a1-wut1 a1-u31; cf. hut5 in hut5-nva11 vt+vt. to ply someone with drink. 1 wut / wun11 III (wear/dress) a vt. (clothes) put on, get dressed; Yvang11 bu11 wut1 dvo31 r55. (3SG clothes wear/dress place(vt)(ipf) PE) He is getting dressed. b vt. (clothes) wear; Bu11-mo35 wun11-aq1. (clothes-AUG 31 wear/dress*-SIM) Wear (SG) a jacket. Replied by: Wut1 bue . (wear/dress P+I) I’m wearing one already. Bu11 hi55-dung11 nang31 wut1 r11 tuk5 r55. (clothes this-piece(Sp) 2SG wear/dress also suit.well PE) This piece of clothing suits you (SG) well. c vt. (quilts etc.:) cover oneself, cuff oneself in; Mue31-zyong35 a1-myang31 wut1 gve5-luq1? (wrap-cover(N) NEG-see wear/dress PL-Y/N) Do you (PL) have quilts to cover yourselves with? Be1-zyong35 le1go11 wun11-aq1. (clothes-cover (N) well wear/dress*-SIM) Cuff (SG) yourself in very well. Vide kong55. Cf. hut5 vt. dress someone; tuck someone in. The following is an overview of other expressions for putting on or wearing clothes, shoes, glasses etc. dvyep5tyep1/gvyep5tyep1 tyem11 (rubber.slippers wear.rubber.slippers)

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    n+vt. put on / wear rubber slippers; gvyup5 (wear.on.head) in muq1-gvyup5/me1-gvyup5 gvyup5 (headgearwear.on.head wear.on.head) n+vt. put on / wear headgear; hut5 (dress/tuck.in(vt)) vt. dress someone; tuck someone in; kyut5 (take.off/pluck) in bu11 kyut5 (clothes take.off/pluck) n+vt. take off clothes; sau55-hai11 kyut5 (shoe-shoe take.off/pluck) n+vt. take off shoes; loq1-zvyop5 zvyop5 (hand/arm-ring ring) n+vt. put on / wear a ring; myoq1-suet5 suet5 (eye-(wear).glasses (wear).glasses) n+vt. put on / wear glasses; pe5-zvang11 zvang11 (belt-(wear).trousers (wear).trousers) n+vt. put on / wear trousers trousers; sau55-hai11 hai55 (shoe-shoe (shoes).wear/put.on) n+vt. put on / wear shoes; zvung11 (put.on) vt. (shoes, socks, hats, etc.:) put on, wear. 1 wut lvo31 n. dry skins at the base of bamboo trees.

    -Yya11 I vt. cure, heal; A1-wo35 ya31 gue11 siq1. (NEG-have cure(ipf) all.right(ipf) 31

    still) It cannot be cured yet. No31 ya31 lye . (pain/ill/disease cure(ipf) also+I) We are healing the disease/pain. Cf. ya11ya35 n. medicine. 11 ya II in nai11-ya11. ya11pau55 n. incense; also mvau55; ya11pau55 ngvye55 (incense burn(vt)) n+vt. burn incense; cf. Jingpo yahpau (Xu et al. 1983: 887). ya11pyen55 n. opium; from Chinese 鸦片 yāpiàn. ya11pyen55-pyu31 (opium-white) n+adj. heroine. ya11syua11 (tooth-brush) n. tooth-brush; from Chinese 牙刷 yáshuā. ya11ya35 n. medicine; ya11ya35 le1-cyam11 (medicine one-ball) a/one medicinal 31 pill; Ngo31 ya11ya35 sue31 lye . (1SG medicine know(ipf) also+I) I am familiar with medicine. Nang31 yo31-so31-sun11 r55 ke5-wu35-syau11, 31 yvang11 ge11 ya11ya35 le1-ngvut5 lye ga11. (2SG land-walk(GEN)veg/dish OBJ PHB-look-less 3SG TOP medicine but-be also+I TOP) Don’t (SG) look down upon wild vegetables. They’re medicine, you know. Cf. ya11 vt. cure, heal. 1 yak (difficult2) vi. have hard times, endure hard times; I1gvun11 zyaq1 yak1 31 a1-gvo . (household rather difficult2 nom-PL+I) They are having rather 31 difficult times. No31 lui yak1 r55. (pain/ill/disease in.this.way+I difficult2 PE) Because of his illness he is having hard times. A5-wa11 31 mang11 lui -eq1 kyo31 heng31 so11 ra54 zyaq1 yak1 r55. (nom-father aged in.this.way+I-AG/I road long walk need+FCT rather difficult2 PE) Because Dad is old, it’s difficult for him to take long walks. Meng11gvan11 toq5 me55 ka55-hu55 gvut5 gve5lvang11 lui11 r55, byu31 zue11 zo11 ra54 ze11 yak1 r55. (world-dried.out come.out LOC Q-sort do although easy(ipf) (ipf) PE man/woman live.as.human eat need+FCT only difficult2 PE) It is easy to live as any creature in this world, it is only very difficult to live as a human. Cf. lui31 vi. easy, nak5 vi. (tasks) tough, difficult, ngai11 vi. be convenient, easy, light, som55 adj/vi. light, wui11 vi. difficult1, yo35 vi. feel convenient. yam11 I (cut.off) vt. cut off things such as: guq1 n. paddy rice, syo11 n. meat, ne1-mvan11 (cattle-grass/leaves) n+n. grass for the cattle, sek5-bvyen55 (tree-flat/slice) n. board; wam35pun31 n. pea flour cake, etc. Ngo31 31 gung31-gung31 loq1 me55 zang35 yam31 yu31 bue . (1SG body-body (ipf) hand/arm LOC strike cut.off take P+I) I have accidentally cut my

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    hand. Vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. Vide syok1syok1. yam11 II (pot) n. pot, jar (sp. cyam11/syam11); cf. tam11. yam11 III (stand*) allomorph of yap1. yam11-bu35 (pot-pimple/convex) n. earthen pot (various in size). yam11-cyuq5 (pot-bottom) n. bottom of pot. yam11-nvut5 (pot-mouth) n+n. the mouth of a pot. yam31 n. edge; Yvang55-moq1 mi1-kyom55 yam31 me55 pye31-ngvam31 gvun31 31 a1-gvo . (3PL-party fire-fireplace edge LOC negotiate(ipf)-tasty(ipf) (ipf) play nom-PL+I) They are chatting near the fireplace. Vide wui3131 yam . yvam31 (time.for) (9.32.5) a nominalizing n. ‘time for …, the right period 31 for …’; Lai31 dvoq5 yvam31 wang31 bue . (wind get.up time.for enter P+I) It’s autumn. / (Lit.:) It’s the time of the winds to kick up. Guq1 ho11 31 yvam31 zye35 bue . (unhusked.rice cultivate time.for arrive P+I) It’s time 31 for transplanting rice seedlings. Zang11 gai35 yvam31 zye35 bue . (rice/food prepare.food time.for arrive P+I) It’s time to prepare the meal. 31 Yvup5-dvoq5 yvam31 zye35 bue . (sleep-get.up time.for arrive P+I) It’s 1 time to get up. b vide a hui11-yvam31 only just now; c vide ka55yvam31/ha55-yvam31; d in hau55-yvam31-yvam31 (the/that-time.fortime.for) (in the negative:) not at this time and not at that time, never; A1man31 hau55-yvam31-yvam31 li11 a1-gyo35 lo31, ngo31 ge11 cyang31 mit1 zvang11 mo35-mo35. (last.night the/that-time.for-time.for also NEGgo.down come(back/up) 1SG TOP follow(ipf) think worried AUG-AUG) Last night you never came home (not even very late), I was very worried about you. e in yvam31 wu35 (time.for look) n+vt. tell fortunes; Ngo31 31 yvam31 gue11 wu35 lye . (1SG time.for all.right(ipf) look also +I) I can tell fortunes. Vide Section 9.39 for matters related to time. Yam35 in the personal name Me1-yam35 (only for women). yam35dvok5 (cartridge) in yam35dvok5-gvop1. yam35dvok5-gvop1 (bullet-shell/packet) n. cartridge-case. yvam55 (thin) vi. (books, etc.:) thin; Mau11sau11 hi55-kyap5 dye31 yvam31 r55. (paper/book this-leaf/sheet too thin(ipf) PE) This book/notebook is too thin. Le1-wam11 ge11 tu31, le1-wam11 ge11 yvam55. (one-considerable.part TOP (make).thick one-considerable.part TOP thin) Some of them are thick and some of them are thin. Cf. sen55. 35 yan (row) (6.5) a n. row, array, queue, line; Le1-yan35 ze1-gvut5 yap1 gveq5. (one-row only-do stand PLIM) Stand (PL) in a queue. b spec. n. row, line of writing; yvum31 le1-yan35 (house one-row) a/one row of houses; lai11gva55 le1-yan35 (script one-row) a/one line of writing; zye11 tang31 le1-

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    yan35 (exceed behind one-row) the last line; Nang31 ngo31 r55 le1-yan35 ngvap5 gvyo11 raq5. (2SG 1SG OBJ one-row read.aloud let.hear VO) Read (SG) one line of text to me. b in a1-yan35 (nom-row) (6.5) adv. often; vide a1-yan35 and yvum31-yan35. yvang11 (3SG / in.truth) (9.5-6) a third person singular pronoun; he, she, it, him, her; b adverb ‘in truth’; expressing ‘in truth, really’ or ‘by oneself’; vide yvang11(-yvang11); c indicator of family ties between third persons or in an analytic way between all persons; Hi31 yvang11-zo11 yvang3131 nu11 ngvut5 dvi ? (this 3SG-child 3s(GEN)-mother be CX+I) Those two are mother and child, aren’t they? yang11 I (bee) in bi1-yang11 and yang11-zvin55. yang11 II (stalk) (6.5) a spec. n. stalk, for high but thin plants or trees; sek5 le1-yang11 (tree one-stalk) a/one high tree (not very broad); pung11syui31 le1-yang11 (sugar.cane one-stalk) a/one stalk of sugar cane; b in a1-yang11 (nom-stalk) (vide 6.5) adv. often; vide a1-yang11 and yang11-yang11. yang11-yang11 (stalk-stalk) ideophone expressing being long and thin; Gung31-du11 yang11-yang11 ze1-dut5 r55. (body-being stalk-stalk onlybecome PE) He has a tall and thin body. Loq1-ngyui11 yang11-yang11 ze1dut5 r55. (hand/arm-finger/toe stalk-stalk only-become PE) She has long and thin fingers. yvang11(-yvang11) (in.truth(-in.truth)) (9.5) reduplicated adverb ‘in truth’; expressing ‘by oneself’; Ngo31 yvang11(-yvang11) rvang54. (1SG in.truthin.truth make+FCT) I made it myself. Cf. yvum31-seng31. yang11yi35 n. potato; Yang11yi35 ngo31 syap5 be55. (potato 1SG peel EE) I’ll peel the potatoes. / Let me peel the potatoes. Yang11yi35-eq5 zang11 a1dat1 zvyoq5 bvong31. (potato-COM rice/food NEG-able cook coincide) Potatoes and rice can’t be cooked together. Cf. sa55-mvyup5; vide syak1syak1. From Chinese 洋芋 yángyù. yang11-zvin55 (bee-no.gloss) n. kind of wasp or bee secreting a kind of adhesive; zvin55 resembles zvin31 adj/vi. sour. yang31gyung31 n. chameleon. yang31kung11 / yang31hung11 n. fly. yang35wom11 (pineapple) in yang35wom11-si11. yang35wom11-si11 (pineapple-fruit) n+n. pineapple. yang35wom11-si1-gvyuq5 (pineapple-fruit-dehydrate) n. dried pineapple. yvang55- (3PL) (9.3) third person plural pronoun (bound form). yvang55-moq1 (3PL-party) (9.3) third person plural pronoun. yvang55-moq1-bvue55 (3PL-party-PLN) these folks (numbering about three).

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    yvang55-moq1-o55 (3ns-party-FCT) (9.3) possessive form of third person plural pronoun.

    yvang55-nvik5 (3PL-duo) (9.3) third person dual pronoun. yvang55-nvik5-dvang31 (3PL-duo-siblings) vide nvik5-dvang31. yvang55-nvik5-ng55 (3PL-duo-FCT) (9.3) possessive form of third person dual pronoun.

    yvang55(-nvik5)-nvum31 (3PL-duo-couple) the/that couple; Yvang55nvum31 ge11 nam11lo11-pe1zyang35 lo11 pyoq5 zo11. (3PL-couple TOP tree.name-tree.name come(back/up)(ipf) break.off/down(vt) eat) The couple had come to pick from the pezyang tree. yvang54 (3SG+FCT) his, her, its. yap1 / yam11 (stand) vi. ‘stand’ as for animate entities, as well as for long objects that are planted in the ground such as plants and poles; Yap1 dvo11-aq5. (stand place(vt)-SIM) (Just) stand (there) (SG). Dvoq5 yam11aq1. (get.up stand*-SIM) Stand up (SG). 11 yau (let.pass) a say yes in a non-committal fashion; Nang31 “m11-m11” ngvu31 ze11 yau11-aq5. (2SG (yes)-(yes) say only let.pass-SIM) Just say (SG) “hum” (yes) to them in a non-committal fashion. See further: 31 sam55-yau11 yau11. b vi. let pass, in idiomatic expression Yau11 bue . Let it be; let it pass; never mind; see directly below. yau11 bue31 (let.pass P+I) idiomatic expression: let it be; let it pass; never 31 31 mind; Yau11 bue , yau11 bue , ke5-dai11 loq1. (let.pass P+I let.pass P+I PHB-speak no.more) Let it pass, let it pass. Stop talking about it. A131 myang11 zo11 zyang35 yau11 bue . (NEG-see(ipf) eat CD let.pass P+I) 31 When there is none of it to eat, just let it pass. Yau11 bue ga11, ha5555 11 35 1 55 1 me ho byai byuq syang -gaq . (let.pass P+I TOP the/that-LOC look.for(ipf) recompense lose JUS-CC) Just let it be, let it find recompensation for us there. Vide sam55-yau11 and yau11. 35 yau (finish) (15.29) normally used as an aspectivizing auxiliary verb expressing ‘to finish doing V’, except when used as the only verb of the 31 clause; Ci31 yau35 bue . (wash(ipf) finish P+I) I finished washing. ye11 (crawl) vi. (humans:) crawl; Zi1syang31 gue11 ye31 lo31 bue31. (child all.right(ipf) crawl(ipf) come(back/up) P+I) The child is beginning to crawl. Cf. do11. 11 ye ye11 [pasty] ideophone expressing a pasty shape; Ye11ye11 dut1 bue31. (pasty become P+I) It’s (become) rather pasty. Cf. not1not1. 31 ye / i5- (go(away/down)) (ch.12) vi/vt. go, either in a downward direction or away from home; the variant i5- is used as an adverb expressing ‘go (away/down) to do V’ (12.3); the variant ye31 is also used as an auxiliary

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    verb expressing ‘be gone to do V, either in a downward direction or away from home’ (12.8). See also 12.14. yvek5dva55 n. (cards:) diamonds; Ngo31 yvek5dva55 sum31-dong11 toq5/ gvat5 31 lye . (1SG diamonds three-(have)hole come.out/ put.into also+I) I’ll play a three of diamonds. Vide pai55. 11 yen bound form n. ‘pickles’; in ang11-yen11 and nuq1-yen11; cf. zvin31. yven31 vt. dodge, make way for, let pass; Ngo31 du35 gvat5 be55, nang31 yven31-aq1. (1SG throw put.into EE 2SG dodge(vt)-SIM) I’m throwing 31 (the ball), you (SG) dodge. Ngo31 mo35do35 r55 yven11 lye . (1SG car OBJ (ipf) dodge(vt) also+I) I’m making way for the cars. Cf. pang31 vi. flee, escape, dodge, make way. yven55 n. tobacco; from Chinese 烟 yān; cf. indigenous ngvya55 n. tobacco. yvep5yvep5 [tight.to.each.other] ideophone referring to sitting close to each other; Yvep5yvep5 zung31 gveq5. ([tight.to.each.other] sit PLIM) Sit (PL) close to each other. yin11 (saw*) allomorph of yit1. yin31 I (addiction) in i31-pue11-yin31. yin31 II (lower) n. lower part of the limbs; in ki31-yin31 and loq1-yin31. -Yin35 in personal names such as Me1-yin35. Yin35yu31 n. the English language; Yin35yu31 dong31 a1-dap1 dvi31? (English.language lead/connect NEG-be.attached CX+I) There’s no English written on it, is there? From Chinese 英语 yīngyǔ. yit1 / yit5 / yin11 a n. saw; in sek5-yit1 and zai31-yit5; b vt. saw; Sek5-yit1neq1 yin11-aq1. (tree-saw-AG/I saw*-SIM) Saw (SG) it with the saw. Vide sek5-yit1 (yit1) and zai31-yit5 11 yo I n. goral, antelope (living in mountains). yo11 II (itch3) a vi. itch; Ki31 yo31 r55. (leg/foot itch3(ipf) PE) My leg/foot is itching. b vide nvik5-yo11; cf. rui35 (itch1) and soq5 (itch2). 11 yo III (lick*) allomorph of yoq1. Yo11in35 ethnonym Lisu. Yo11in35-byu31 (Lisu-man/woman) n. a Lisu; Lisu people. Yo11in35-zo11 (Lisu-child) n+n. someone/people belonging to the Lisu people, not referring to elder people. yo31 I (land) a n. land, field (sp. lok1 a.o.); Yo31 hi31 nak5 dik1 r55. (land this tough/difficult extreme PE) This piece of land is really tough. b in various terms referring to tilling land; yo31-gyoq5 gyoq5 harrowing, yo3131 myoq5 weeding, etc. Nang35 yo31 ke5-mvyo55 hang11 puq5 bue ? (2SG.PO land Q-much(B) half.a.day turn.over(vt) P+I) How many half days have 31 you spent ploughing your field? Ngo31 yo31 kai31 dvo31 lye . (1SG land (ipf) (ipf) shovel place(vt) also+I) I’m working in the field (shoveling,

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    hoeing etc.). c as a suffix indicating fields or plots of certain crops or certain terrain types; e.g.: guq1-yo31 (unhusked.rice-land) n+n. paddy field (in use); sek5-yo31 (tree-land) n+n. forest; ang11-noq5-yo31 (petioleblack-land) n+adj+n. plot of black mustard; bum31-yo31 (heap(vt/N)-land) n+n. hill plot; lup1-yo31 (grave-land) n+n. graveyard; d vide yo31-so11; cf. mi31/mi1- n. earth. 31 yo II (right) adj. right(hand); in a1-yo31 and loq1-yo31. Possibly also in a1gyo31 yo31; cf. zyo11 vi. right, correct. 31 yo -gyoq5 gyoq5 (land-harrow/comb harrow/comb) n+vt. harrow the field; vide gyoq5. 31 yo -myoq5 (land-weed/pull.up) n+vt. weed the land, pull out the grass etc. 31 of a large field; Yo31-myoq5 lye . (land-weed/pull.up also +I) We are weeding the land. yo31-so11 (land-walk) n+v. a used as n. (out in) the open; (out in) the wild; 31 Yo31-so11 lam35 lye . (land-walk ramble also+I) We are rambling around. 31 11 55 1 Yo -so me nat ngi11 r55. (land-walk LOC spirit be.there(anim)(ipf) PE) Out in the open there are spirits. b used as n. in expressions referring to going to toilet; Ngo31 yo31-so11 lam35 nvau11 r55. (1SG land-walk ramble feel.like(ipf) PE) I need to answer nature’s call. / (Lit.:) I want to ramble 31 in the hills. Yo31-so11 ye31 bue . (land-walk go (away/down) P+I) I’m off 31 31 to the toilet. c in yo -so , as a prefix referring to wild species. yo31-so31 (land-walk(GEN)) prefix referring to wild species; see the forms below. yo31-so31-no11 (land-walk(GEN)-cattle) n. wild cattle. yo31-so31-sun11 (land-walk(GEN)-veg/dish) n. wild vegetables. yo31-so31-syo11 (land-walk(GEN)-meat) n. bush meat. yo31-so31-zi1tung11 (land-walk(GEN) spirit.type) n. wild zitung spirit; cf. the domestic yo31-zi1tung11 and yvum31-zi1tung11; vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. yo31-zang31 (land-shed1) n+n. little house or shed in the field; also zum35. yo31-zi1tung11 (land-spirit.type) n+n. domestic variant of zitung spirit, living in the fields; cf. yvum31-zi1tung11 and yo31-so31-zi1tung11 wild zitung; vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. 35 yo (convenient) vi. feel convenient; Ngo31 loq1-bvai31-eq1 lai11gva55 gva31 r11 a1-yo35. (1SG hand/arm-left#-AG/I script write(ipf) also NEG-convenient) It’s very inconvenient to write with my left hand. Ngo31 hi55-dong31 gvut5 lyeq1 r11 a1-yo35 / yo35 r55. (1SG this-lead/connect do lie.down also NEG-convenient / convenient PE) When I lie down in this way, it doesn’t feel right / it feels just right. Cf. ngai11 (jobs, travelling etc.:) vi. be convenient, easy, light.

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    yo35pyau11 n. postage stamp; from Chinese 邮票 yóupiào; Yo35pyau11 31

    dvap5 lye . (postage.stamp attach also+I) I’m sticking stamps. yvo (leisurely) in yvo55-mai11 and yvo55-yvo55. yvo55-mai11 (leisurely-ABL) (9.12) adv. at leisure, easily, carefully; Yvo55mai11 lo35 gveq5. (leisurely-ABL go(back/up) PLIM) Please go at your (PL) own pace. / Take (PL) your time going. / Take (PL) it easy. Yvo55-mai11 31 so11-aq5, i1-zvyam11 bvyok5 syun31 bue . (leisurely-ABL walk-SIM waterwater splash spill(vt) P+I) Take your (SG) time in walking, the water has 31 already splashed out. Yvo55-mai11 zo11-aq5 dvyo . (leisurely-ABL eatSIM DOM+I) Take your (SG) time eating. also yvo55-yvo55. 55 yvo -yvo55 (leisurely-leisurely) (9.12) adv. at leasure; Nang31 yvo55-yvo55 zo11-aq5. (2SG leisurely-leisurely eat-SIM) Take your (SG) time eating. Cf. Chinese 慢慢吃 mànmàn chī. Vide yvo55-mai11. 11 yoi (small.change) in ngun31-yoi11; cf. Jingpo yoi (Xu et al. 1983: 895). yom31 vi. decrease, diminish; I1-zvyam11 yom11 byuq1 bue31. (water-water decrease(ipf) lose P+I) There’s much less water. Nga35 ngun31 le1-zvui55 31 yom25 se5-dut5 r55 mai . (1PO silver one-bit decrease+FCT like-become PE OBV+I) My money appears to have diminished! Byu31 le1-yuq1 yom11 31 bue . (man/woman one-person decrease(ipf) P+I) There’s one person less/missing. Cf. syau11 and zvit5; cf. Jingpo yom (Xu et al. 1983: 896). 35 yon vi. feel depressed; A5-zvi55 a1-ngi11 le1-lui31 yon35 dik1 bue31. (nomgrandfather NEG-be.there(anim)(ipf) no.more-in.this.way+I depressed extreme P+I) I’m depressed because grandfather has died. Cf. Jingpo yon (Xu et al. 1983: 896). yvon55 (oblique) a vi. oblique, crooked, slanting; Yvum31 yvon55 bue31. (house oblique P+I) The house is crooked. Se5-gam31 hi31 yvon31 byuq1 31 bue . (tree-tree(B) this oblique(ipf) lose P+I) This tree has become crooked. b as a resultative: Hau31 koq5 le1-kyap5 zang35 zvung11 yvon31 dvo31 r55. (the/that bowl one-leaf/sheet strike set(vt)(ipf) oblique(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) One of those bowls has not been put level. Cf. bvi31, dving55, goi35, ke5-doq1 ; vide a1-yvon55-yvon55. yong11 (stroll) vi/vt. stroll, walk, just for the sake of pastime; Kyo31 i5-so31 yong31 gvun55 syang55. (road go-walk(ipf) stroll(ipf) play JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) take a little walk. Cf. lam35 and gong35; cf. Jingpo yong (Xu et al. 1983: 896). Yong35 I (6th-brother) in names for sixth brothers; Le1-yong35 ((male)-6thbrother) short name for a 6th brother. -Yong35 II in the woman’s personal name Me1-yong35. yop1 (chew.with.mouth.shut) in nvut5 yop1. yoq1 I (ago) (9.39) in he5-yoq1 and related forms. 55

    400

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    yoq1 II in commands to buffaloes: “Stand still!” Yoq1 ngve5-ning31! ((buffalo)stand.still! say-INS+I) Stand still, I said! No11 offers an overview of commands to water buffaloes. Cf. Jingpo yo (Xu et al. 1983: 895). yoq1 / yo11 III vt. lick; Yo11-aq1. (lick*-SIM) Lick (SG) it. Yoq1 zo31 am55aq5. (lick eat(ipf) PFM-SIM) Lick (SG) it out. No11 i1-zyum11 yoq1 zo31 r55. (cattle water-salt lick eat(ipf) PE) The cow is licking salt. 31 yu (take) (15.30) a vt. take, fetch, grab; Mik1 yu31 lo35 lye31. (bamboo.shoots take go (back/up) also+I) I am on my way up/home to fetch some bamboo shoots. b aux. expressing ‘do V to oneself, on behalf of oneself, for oneself’ etc. Gop1 yu31-aq1. (evade take-SIM) Hide yourself (SG). c sometimes also expressing ‘get into possession’; e.g. in wo35 yu31 (have take) vt+vt. (letters) receive; Ngo31 si5gvyam55 le1-kyap5 wo35 yu25. (1SG greetings one-leaf/sheet have take+FCT) I received a letter. d in sue31-yu31 (know(ipf)-take) v+v. understand; Nang 31 sue31-yu31 31 bue luq1? (2SG know(ipf)-take P+I Y/N) Do you (SG) understand it? See further 15.30. yui11 I n. guilt, in the sense of matters to be solved with other members of the community; a as a suffix; mi1-wue11 lu35-yui11 (wife-female robguilt) n. the guilt of having stolen a wife; vide kau11-yui11 (steal-guilt) n. guilt of stealing; b in yui11 byat1 (guilt solve) n+vt. solve issues of guilt; vide byat1; vide kau11-yui11; cf. me1ra11 n. guilt/sin and ha11 vi. repent, feel guilty. yui11 II vt. twist, as when making rope; Dvui11 yui31 lye31. (rope(N/vt) twist(ipf) also+I) I’m twisting rope. Cf. syum55 vt. spin rope (the stage before twisting); cf. me1nai11 vt. (limbs etc.:) twist, screw; cf. pui55 vt. (with thongs etc.:) bind by twisting. yui31 (leak/stream) a vi. stream, flow; I1-zvyam11 a1-yui31 loq1. (water-water NEG-leak/stream no.more) The water does not stream anymore. I1-lang31 31 hi31 ge11 ka55-pyang31 yui11 lo35 lye la11? (water-river this TOP Q-DIR leak/stream(ipf) go(back/up) also+I UNC) Where does this river flow towards? b vi. leak; Yam11-bu35 hi31 yui11 r55. (pot-pimple/convex this leak/stream(ipf) PE) This pot leaks. See further mau11-yui31 yui31 and mau35-yui11. Cf. yui35yui35. 35 yui yui35 [soaking.wet] ideophone; Zyong35 a1-waq1 lui31 mau11 ge11 yui35yui35. (cover(N) NEG-lift in.this.way+I sky TOP soaking.wet) Since we didn’t have an umbrella with us, we are soaking wet now. 31 Mau11sau11 bvue55-ha55 yui35yui35 ban11 dut1 bue . (paper/book PLN(ipf) where(B) soaking.wet use.up become P+I) The paper and everything have become soaking wet. Cf. yui31.

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    yum11 (wrap.around*) allomorph of yup1. yvum31 I (house) n. house, home, household (sp. cyam11/syam11 ‘ball’, gok1 ‘room’, yan35 ‘row’); Nang31 yvum31 a1-bun11 luq1? (2SG house NEGawake Y/N) Are you (SG) homesick? yvum31 a5rvang55 (house etcetera) the house and thereabouts, the household; Yvang11 yvum31 a5rvang55 31 gue11 sueng31 dik1 lye . (3SG house etcetera all.right(ipf) clear.out(ipf) extreme also+I) She is very good at clearing out the house. gyam11yvum31 (storey-house) n. two-storied house; mi1-gung31-yvum31 (earthbody-house) n. one-storied house; sang31po31-yvum31 (iron.sheet-house) n+n. house with iron roof; vide mung31-yvum31 and the forms below. yvum31 II (sleep*) allomorph of yvup5. yvum31-bvan55 (house-outside) n. yard, outside the house; also yvum31kun11 n. yard; Yvum31-bvan55 me55 zung11 gvun55 syang55. (houseoutside LOC sit(ipf) play JUS) Let’s (ND .IN) sit outside the house just for fun. Cf. yvum31-kun11 and sing11gvan11. yvum31-go11 (house-base) n. plot where once was a house; Nung35-moq1-o55 yvum31-go11 ke5-le55 gvut5 gvo54 ta11? (2PL-party-FCT house-base Q-LOC do PL+FCT GI) Where were the foundations of your (PL) former house? yvum31-kau31 (house-inside) n. living-room; Yvum31-kau31 me55 lo35 zung31-aq1. (house-inside LOC go(back/up) sit-SIM) Go up (SG) and sit down inside the living-room. Yvum31-kau31 lam11 dik1 r55. (house-inside wide(ipf) extreme PE) The living-room is quite wide. yvum31-kun11 (house-yard) n. yard; also yvum31-bvan55; cf. sing11gvan11. yvum31-kung31 / yvum31-hung31 (house-vault/ridge) n. roof of a house. yvum31-mau11 (house-native.land) n. native land. yvum31-nam11 (house-near.the.house) (9.17.3) n. close vicinity of the house; cf. nam31. yvum31-seng31 (house-host) (9.5) a n+n. host; Se1rue11 a1-dye31 yu31 31 syang55, yvum31-seng31 zvyat5 ngvut5 lye . (politeness NEG-too take JUS house-host all be also+I) Let’s (ND.IN) not be too polite, we’re all hosts of this place. b adv. (by) oneself, (do it) yourself; Nang31 yvum31seng31 gvun31-aq1. (2SG house-host do*-SIM) Do (SG) it yourself. c 31 pronoun ‘one’s own’; Yvum31-seng31 i5-wa11 r55 kung55ga11 ra dut1 31 lye . (house-host function-father OBJ respect need+I become also+I) One has to respect one’s own father. also yvum31-seng25; Yvum31-seng25 31 31 mu31 yvum31-seng31 gvut5 ra dut1 lye . (house-host+FCT matter house-host do need+I become also+I) Everyone should do his own work. Cf. yvang11-yvang11 and bau35.

    402

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    yvum31-toq5 toq5 (house-come.out come.out) n+v+v. (young people) 31

    become independent, start to live by oneself; Yvum31-toq5 toq5 bue . (house-come.out come.out P+I) He has started to live by himself. yvum31-tot1 (house-move/shift) vide tot1. yvum31-wang31 wang31 (house-enter enter) n+vt+vt. enter a new house. yvum31-yan35 (house-row) n+n. row of apartments; Nga35-nvung55 yvum31yan35 me55 ge11 se1ra35 zvyat5-zvyat5. (1PO-1ND.IN house-row LOC TOP teacher all-all) Only teachers live in our row of apartments. yvum31-zi1tung11 (house-spirit.type) n+n. domestic variant of zitung spirit, also yo31-zi1tung11 living in the fields; cf. yo31-so31-zi1tung11 wild zitung; vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. yvum31-zvuq5 zvuq5 (house-insert insert) n+v+v. build a house by fitting 31 tenons into mortises; Yvum31-zvuq5 zvuq5 lye . (house-insert insert also+I) We are building a house by fitting tenons into mortises. -Yun11 (8th-sister) in names for eighth sisters; Nva55-yun11 (elder.sister-8thsister) name for an eighth sister. yun11-mang11 (gong2-aged) n. gong; cf. ut5 and mvong55. yung35 in Longchuan dialect: vi. ‘beautiful’; Yung35 dik1 r55. (beautiful extreme PE) It’s very beautiful. Cf. zvyoi11 vi. beautiful. 1 yup / yup5 / yum11 (wrap.around) a n. in ling31-yup5 (neckwrap.around) n. scarf; b vt. (neck, waist) wrap around; Ling31-yup5 yum11-aq1. (neck-wrap.around wrap.around*-SIM) Wear (SG) a scarf. Ling31-yup5 pi1dum11 me55 yup1 dvo11-aq5. (neck-wrap.around waist LOC wrap.around place(vt)-SIM) Wrap your scarf around your waist (because doing so it will be less hot than around the neck). yvup5 / yvum31 vi. sleep; Yvup5 bun11 bue31 luq1? (sleep awake P+I Y/N) Are you awake? yvup5 mvi55 n+vt. fall asleep; Ngo31 a1-yvup5 mvi55 siq1. (1SG NEG-sleep trap still) I have not fallen asleep yet. Vide nuk5, son11, su31su31, zek1-zek1, zuet1; cf. syup5 vt. put to sleep; cf. Jingpo yup ‘sleep’ (Xu et al. 1983: 901). yvup5 bui31 dang11 (sleep sun fly) (idiom) have a long lie-in. yvup5 nvau11 (sleep wake.up(vt)) vi+vt. wake someone up; vide nvau11. yvup5-dvoq5 (sleep-get.up) vi+vi. rising from bed; in Yvup5-dvoq5 yvam31 31 zye35 bue . (sleep-get.up time.for arrive P+I) It’s time to get up. Yvup531 5 1 dvoq a -king55 zye35 bue . (sleep-get.up nom-time arrive P+I) It’s time 31 5 5 to get up. Yvup -dvoq dvyeng55dvyeng55 bat1 bue . (sleep-get.up bell beat P+I) The bell for getting up has sounded. yvup5-gok1 (sleep-room) n. sleeping ward. yvup5-mo35 (sleep-AUG) n+adj. deep sleep (said of little children); Yvang11 yvup5-mo35 a1-mvi55 siq1, a1-wo35 syup5 siq1. (3SG sleep-AUG NEG-trap

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    403

    still NEG-have put.to.sleep still) (about an infant:) She is not yet in deep sleep, I can’t lay her down yet. yvup5-moq1 (sleep-dream) n. dream; yvup5-moq1 myang31 (sleep-dream see) n+vt. dream; Nga35 nu11 li55 yvup5-moq1 myang11 ra55. ( 1PO mother (ipf) OBJ sleep-dream see PE) I saw my mother in my dreams. Cf. moq1 5 1 and i -moq . yvup5-zyan11 (sleep-endure) vide zyan11. yuq1 I (grow) vi. (plants, hair, freckles, etc.:) grow; Ang11-noq5 yuq1 bue31. (petiole-black grow P+I) The black mustard has started to grow. Yuq1 han11 dik1 r55. (grow quick(ipf) extreme PE) It grows fast. Si1-gam31 yuq1 bum11 r55. (fruit-tree(B) grow heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) Lots of fruit trees are growing there. Cf. bong11, nui11, reng11, zui35. 1 yuq / yuq5 II (person) a (9.34) spec. n. for individual people (man, spirits etc.); byu31 mi11-yuq5 (man/woman four-person) four people; vide hau55yuq1 and o55-yuq1; b n. man, men, vide yuq1-gue31 and yuq1-zo11. 1 yuq -gue31 (person-male) n. man, men (cf. byu31 n. man, woman; mankind); Mi11-wue11 luq1, yuq1-gue31 luq1? (wife-female Y/N person-male Y/N) (Are you) women or men? yuq1-gue31-bu11 (person-male-clothes) n. men’s clothes. yuq1-zo11 (person-child) n+n. young man. yut1yut1 [starved] a ideophone expressing the state of being starved, unable to eat after a long period of not eating; Mut1 yut1yut1 si1-lo35 r55. (hungry [starved] die(ipf)-go(back/up) PE) I’m starved to death. b used metaphorically: expressing feelings of craving, longing for; Yut1yut1 ga11 ze5-nvau11 si1-lo35 r55. ([starved] perceive eat-feel.like(ipf) die(ipf)go(back/up) PE) I’m dying to eat. Yut1yut1 ga11 yvup5 nvau11 si1-lo35 r55. ([starved] perceive sleep feel.like(ipf) die(ipf)-go(back/up) PE) I’m dying to 31 go to sleep. Yvum31 ma54 bang11 r55 bun31 lye yut1yut1 se5-ga31 r55. (ipf) (house LOC+FCT PNO OBJ awake also+I [starved] like-perceive(ipf) PE) Because of missing my family, it feels like I’m starving.

    -Zza1- (child) special allomorph of zo11 n. child; used in za1-au31/ze1-au31. za11 / ze1- / ze11 / zaq1 (only) (9.24, 16.32-33) limitative pronoun ‘only this’.

    za1-au31 / ze1-au31 (child-super) family term. za35 bound form n. ‘knitwork’; za35-tu31 tu31 (knit-(make).thick (make).thick) n+vt. knit wool; also in mo35-za35 (AUG-knit) n. socks; loq1-mo35-za35 (hand/arm-AUG-knit) n. gloves; cf. tu31 vt. ‘knit’. 35 za -ap5 (knitwork-needle) n+n. knitting needles. za35-tu31 (knitwork-(make).thick) n. woollen knitwork, used in the forms below; cf. king31-wom35 n. wool and bai11nam35 si1-mau35 n+n. goat wool; cf. Jingpo htu (Xu et al. 1983: 321). za35-tu31 tu31 (knitwork-(make).thick (make).thick) n+vt+vt. knit wool; 31 Za35-tu31 tu11 lye . (knitwork-(make).thick (make).thick(ipf) also+I) I am knitting. za35-tu31-bu11 (knitwork-(make).thick-clothes) n. woollen sweater or waistcoat. za31-eq1 (only#-AG/I) ‘only with’; vide 9.24. za54 (only+FCT) vide 9.24, 9.36 and 16.32. zai11 I n. cogon grass; Zai11 wun11 lui31 soq5-soq5 r55. (cogon.grass carry/bring(ipf) in.this.way+I itch2-itch2 PE) It itches when carrying cogon grass. Vide Zai11wa31 and zai31-yit5. 11 Zai II (Zaiwa) short bound form n. for Zai11wa31. Zai11-keng11/heng11 (Zaiwa-outfit) n. Zaiwa outfit. zai11-mi1-hu11 (cogon.grass-fire-torch) n+n. bundle of burning cogon grass. Zai11-ming35 (Zaiwa-language) n. Zaiwa language; short for Zai11wa31ming35. 11 Zai wa31 n. Zaiwa; possibly etymologically related to zai11 n. cogon grass and wa31 n. village. 11 Zai wa31 a1-myu31 (Zaiwa nom-sort/nationality) n. the Zaiwa people. Zai11wa31 lai11gva55 (Zaiwa script) n+n. Zaiwa script; Nga35-moq1 Zai11wa31 lai11gva55 a1-bo31 luq1? (1PO-party Zaiwa script NEG-contain Y/N) Isn’t any of our (ND.EX) Zaiwa script in it? Zai11wa31 me1-kon31 (Zaiwa words-sing) n. Zaiwa song. Zai11wa31 tung31-keng11 (Zaiwa tradition-outfit) n. Zaiwa traditions. Zai11wa31 tung31-pin11 (Zaiwa tradition-morals) n. the traditional values of the Zaiwa.

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    406

    Zai11wa31 wui31 (Zaiwa generation) n. the Zaiwa. Zai11wa31-bvyoq5 (Zaiwa-lop.off) n+adj. unreal Zaiwa (a Zaiwa who does not speak the language).

    Zai11wa31-keng11/heng11 (Zaiwa-outfit) n. Zaiwa outfit. Zai11wa31-mvi55 (Zaiwa-female) n. Zaiwa woman, cf. Zai11wa31-zo11. Zai11wa31-ming35 (Zaiwa-language) n. Zaiwa language; also shortly Zai11ming35. 11

    Zai wa31-po55 (Zaiwa-male) n. Zaiwa man, cf. Zai11wa31-zo11. Zai11wa31-wa31 (Zaiwa-village) n. Zaiwa village. Zai11wa31-yvum31 (Zaiwa-house) n. Zaiwa-style house. Zai11wa31-zo11 (Zaiwa-child) n+n. someone/people belonging to the Zaiwa people. Not te be used in reference to elder people, in which case only Zai11wa31-mvi55 ‘Zaiwa woman’ or Zai11wa31-po55 ‘Zaiwa man’ can be used. zai11-yvum31 (cogon.grass-house) n+n. house with grass roof; Zai11-yvum31 31 ge11 sang31-he11 me55 kyeng31 lye , myang35 zyang35 mui35 ra55. (cogon.grass-house TOP beginning-start(GEN) LOC yellow(ipf) also+I (time).long CD grey PE) Houses with grass roofs start yellow, but they are grey in the end. Zai11-zo11 (Zaiwa-child) n+n. short for Zai11wa31-zo11 n+n. someone/people belonging to the Zaiwa people, not referring to elder people. Zai11-zo11 a1-bvyoq5 (Zaiwa-child nom-fake) n+n+na. unreal Zaiwa (a Zaiwa who does not speak the language). Zai11-zo11 a1-myu31 (Zaiwa-child nom-sort/nationality) n. name referring to all speakers of Maru, Lashi/Letsi, Bola and Zaiwa, excluding the Jingpo proper. zai31-yit5 (grass?-saw) n. toothed sickle; the first morpheme, which is only attested here, is possibly etymologically related to zai11. 35 zai I (generation) a n. generation; vide sum11-zai35 (three-generation) nu+n. three generations; b n. lifetime; Nang31 hi55-zai35 ge11… (2SG thisgeneration TOP) In this life of yours (SG) …; In the Zaiwa of Loilung, zai35 in uses like the latter is usually replaced by bvyat1; vide bvyat1; cf. wui31. 35 zai II (slow2) vi. slow; the dialectal variant of ngvyam11 vi. ‘slow’, which is spoken more often in Loilung than elsewhere; Le1-zvui55 zai35 gveq5. (one-bit slow2 PLIM) (Spoken whilst hunting:) Slow down (PL) a bit. zvai55 (fine) adj/vi. very small, tiny, fine; Nge1-noq1-zui31 ge11 zvai31 dik1 r55. (rat/mouse-black-tooth TOP fine(ipf) extreme PE) The teeth of a mouse/rat are very fine. Waq1-zang11 zyap1 zvai55-zvai55-aq5. (pig-rice/food chop.up fine-fine-SIM) Chop (SG) the pig’s fodder very fine. Vide a1-zvai55-

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    zvai55, ban11-zvai55, Me1-zvai55, mi31-zo11 le1-zvai55, zui31-zvai55-zo11; cf. nuq1 vi. ‘be crushed or chewed fine’ and gvok5 adj. (body or body parts) abnormally small or skinny; cf. le1-pyek1-zo11 and le1-zvui55(-zo11). zam11zam11 [crimson] ideophone referring to crimson red; Nye11 lye31 zam11zam11. (red(ipf) also+I crimson) (It is) crimson red. Zam11zam11 ze1mu31 ngi11 ra55. (crimson only-happen be.there(anim)(ipf) PE) Look at her (being) there, having her lips done as red as crimson. zam31 n. bridge (sp. lvum11); zam31 zvam55 (bridge put.up/erect) n+vt. build a bridge; Zam31 a1-wo35 lai11. (bridge NEG-have pass) We can’t cross the bridge. Cf. zvam55. zvam55 (put.up/erect) vt. (bridges, stairs and other constructions:) put up, 31 erect, set; Syam31-dvoq5 zam31 zvam31 a1-gvo . (knife-iron bridge put.up/erect(ipf) nom-PL+I) They are building an iron bridge. Zum31tang31 zvam55-aq5. (stairs1-stairs2 put.up/erect-SIM) Set (SG) the stairs. 31 Lang31-hung11 zvam31 lye . (river-fold put.up/erect(ipf) also +I) (Part of) the stream has been diverted (via a hollow piece of bamboo) so that the water comes out in a useful jet. zam31 zvam55 (bridge put.up/erect) n+vt. 31 build a bridge; Syam31-dvoq5 zam31 zvam55 ra dut1 r55. (knife-iron bridge put.up/erect need+I become PE) An iron bridge needs to be built. Cf. zam31 n. bridge. 11 zan (hew) vt. hew off or almost off; Note: Zan31 dik1 r11 li11 a1-wo35 zan31 lvyeng11. (hew(ipf) extreme also also NEG-have hew(ipf) topple/roll(vt)) No matter how much I hewed, I couldn’t cut down the tree. Ngo31 sek5 le1-gam31 zan54. (1SG tree one-tree(B) hew+FCT) I cut down a tree. zan31 lvyeng11 (hew(ipf) topple/roll(vt)) vt+vt. (trees) cut down by hewing; cf. tuq5 vt. (trees) cut; zan31 mvak5 (hew(ipf) (make).step) vt+vt. (trees etc.:) slash; zan31 kyui11 (hew(ipf) bend) vt+vt. hew and bend; zan31 pit5 (hew(ipf) cut.in.two) vt+vt. hew in two; 31 Zan11 ge11 zan31 pit5 bue , a1-lyeng11 siq1. (hew TOP hew(ipf) cut.in.two P+I NEG-fall(vi) still) I/we have cut it through, but it didn’t fall yet. Se5gam31 me55 ke5-zan31 mvak5. (tree-tree(B) LOC PHB-hew(ipf) (make).step) Don’t slash the tree. Bvot5 gvut5 zan31 pin31-aq1. (tear/hew.in.two do hew(ipf) cut.in.two*-SIM) Hew (SG) it in two in one blow. The following is an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. bin31 vt. (grass, cane, etc.:) cut; bvot5 a vt. tear or hew in two in one go; b ideophone expressing tearing or hewing in two in one go; pit5/pin31 a vt. cut in two; b vt. resultative verb after other actions verbs,

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    expressing ‘in two’; c in but1-pit5 (determine-cut.in.two) v+v. tell fortunes; doi35 a adj. short; b vt. lop; dvok5 I vt. chisel, bore holes; dvok5 II vt. chop up into rather big pieces; cf. zyap1 vt. chop up into fine pieces; gvyung11 a vt. (animals) dig hole; b vt. cut hole, such as with the point of a knife; hum31 (cut/slice) vt. (meat, vegetables etc.:) cut, slice, not chop; mvak5 a vt. slash, gash, dig steps; b sp. step (of a stairway); tau11 a vt. sew; b vt. insert; c vt. pierce; d vt. stir; tong11 vt. pierce; tuq5 vt. (trees) cut; yam11 (cut.off) vt. cut off; zan11 vt. hew off or almost off; zuen11 (cut/clip) vt. (hair, nails, flowers etc.:) cut; zyap1 a n. (food etc.:) fine piece, as a result of chopping; b n. piece of food left in the mouth; c vt. chop up into fine pieces; d vt. (people) chop down (rather crually); vide the ideophones dvok5dvok5dvok5, lyep1lyep1, suet1 and syok1syok1; cf. kyui11 vi/vt. bend, bow, bend and break; ban11-bo35 kyui11 (floweropen.itself bend) pick flowers, cf. dun11 (press.into/spear) n. bore for cleaning flutes, guns etc. zvan31 (empty(vt)) vt. pour empty; I1-zvyam11 zvan11 am55-aq5. (water-water empty(vt)(ipf) PFM-SIM) Pour out (SG) all the water. Su31-bvoq5 zvan11 gvan31-aq1. (oil-drop/heeltap empty(vt)(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Try (SG) to pour out the last drops of the oil. Cf. gvom31 adj. empty and hun31 vt. (drinks) pour out, syoq5 vt. (liquids) pour (used in various senses) and syun31 vt. spill. 31 zan I n. roundworm. zan31 II (summer/year) a n. summer; Zan31 wang31 bue31. (summer/year enter P+I) It’s summer. Zan31 r55 mau11 myo31 r55. (summer/year TS sky much(ipf) PE) In summer there’s lots of rain. b n. year; Ke5-mvyo55 zan31 31 bue ? (Q-much(B) summer/year P+I) For how many years now? 31 Yvang11 (a1sak1) ke5-mvyo55 zan31 (bo31) bue ? (3SG (age) Q-much(B) summer/year (contain) P+I) How old is she now? Vide he5-zan31, le1zan31 tong11-tong11 and le1-zan31-tong11 me55. 31 zan -wui31 (summer/year-generation) adv. every year. zan35 (healthy) in wang35-zan35.

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    zan35ze55 n. guard; Zan35ze55 zong11 lye31. (guard(N) guard(V)(ipf) also+I) I am standing guard. Cf. de1bvye31. zvan55zvan55 [pain.after.pinching.or.ant.bite] ideophone referring to a pain just at one little spot on the skin, such as after pinching or an ant bite or an injection; Bau31wo31-eq1 ngat1 zyang35 zvan55zvan55 ga11 no11 r55. (ant#-AG/I bite CD [pain.after.pinching.or.ant.bite] perceive pain/ill/disease(ipf) PE) When an ant bites you, you get a pain just at one little spot on the skin. zang11 (rice/food) n. cooked rice; food; zang11 zo11 (rice/food eat) n+vt. eat 31 rice or eat food in general; Zang11 zo11 bue luq1? (rice/food eat P+I Y/N) Have you eaten already? (one of the most common questions); zang11-sun11 (rice/food-veg/dish) n+n. dish (of food). Zaiwa mealtimes: nap1-zang11 (morning-rice/food) n+n. brunch (11 or 12 AM); ngi35-zang11 (day-rice/food) n+n. late afternoon meal (4 or 5 PM); min35-zang11 n+n. late evening meal; NB There is no word for breakfast. See bi1-zang11, mi1-zang11 and the forms below. Cf. zvang11 n. fodder; vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. zvang11 I n. fodder; in waq1-zvang11 n+n. pig fodder; cf. zang11 n. cooked rice; food. zvang11 II a n. trousers; in pe5-zvang11 (belt-(wear).trousers) n. trousers; b vt. wear trousers; Yvang11 lve1-zo11 ze11 zvang31 dvo31 r55. (3SG trouserschild only (wear).trousers(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE) He is/was just wearing shorts. c vt. put on trousers; Pe5-zvang11 zvang11-aq5. (belt(wear).trousers (wear).trousers-SIM) Wear (SG) trousers. / Put on your (SG) trousers. Vide wut1 for an overview of other verbs and expressions for putting on/off or wearing clothes, shoes, glasses etc. zvang11 III (worried) vide mit1 zvang11. zang11-au11 (rice/food-pan) n+n. pan with cooked rice or food in it; Zang11au11 lvu11 gvan31-aq1. (rice/food-pan stir(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Stir (SG) the pan. zang11-bvong31 bvong31 (rice/food-coincide coincide) n+v. the people of two households cooking and eating together; Zang11-bvong31 bvong31 zo11 syang55. (rice/food-coincide coincide eat JUS) (people of two households:) Let’s (ND.IN) cook and eat together. zang11-bvun11 (rice/food-cook.in.bamboo) vide bvun11. zang11-bung11 (rice/food-steam(vt)) n+adj. glutinous rice. zang11-cyam11 / zang11-syam11 I (rice/food-ball) n+n. grain of cooked rice (sp. cyam11/syam11); Zang11-syam11 (le1-syam11) dap1 dvo31 r55.

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    (rice/food-ball (one-ball) be.attached place(vt)(ipf) PE) There’s (a grain of cooked) rice sticking on your face. zang11-cyam11 / zang11-syam11 II (rice/food-cool) n+adj. cold rice. zang11-gok5 (rice/food-room) n+n. kitchen. zang11-gyeq5 (rice/food-parcel) n+n. food parcel; Zang11-gyeq5 zvyuq5 gvan31-aq1. (rice/food-parcel tie put.into*-SIM) Tie (SG) a food parcel (using leaves). zang11-gyeq5 gyeq1 (rice/food-parcel parcel) n+vt. tie food parcels. zang11-nai11 nai11 (rice/food-knead knead) n+vt. mash up food (translation uncertain); Zang11-nai11 nai11 zo11 syang55. (rice/food-knead knead eat JUS) Let’s mash up our food (translation uncertain). zang11-pyeng55 (rice/food-plate) n+n. dish or plate with rice. zang11-sueng55 (rice/food-shop/eating.place) n+n. little restaurant. zang11-sun11 (rice/food-veg/dish) n+n. dish (of food). zang11-syam11 I (rice/food-ball) vide zang11-cyam11/zang11-syam11. zang11-syam11 II (rice/food-cool) vide zang11-cyam11/zang11-syam11. zang11-tun11 tun11 (rice/food-shine(vt) shine(vt)) vide tun11 shine(vt). zang11-wue35 wue35 (rice/food-stuck2 stuck2) n+vi+vi. have food stuck in one’s throat; Zang11-wue35 wue35 r55. (rice/food-stick stick PE) The rice is stuck in my throat. Vide wue31. zang11-zo11 (rice/food-eat) n+vt. eat rice or food in general; (one of the most 31 common questions, also an informal hello:) Zang11 zo11 bue luq1? (rice/food eat P+I Y/N) Have you eaten already? zang11-zyan11 (rice/food-endure) vide zyan11. zang31 (shed1) in yo31-zang31; cf. zum35 and zvi31 in guq1-zvi31. zang35 (strike) (16.46) a vt. strike, bump, reach; b the unintentional adverb. zvang55 in zvang55-zve55 (zvang55-man31) ze11. zvang55mvan31 n. kind of ant with very painfull bite; vide bau31woq5. zvang55-zve55 (zvang55-man31) ze11 (no glosses; ze11 ‘only’) The adverbials zvang55-zve55 (zvang55-man31) ze11 and le1man35 ze11 both express ‘with much effort and luck’. A1zeng35 hi55-bvue55 zvang55-zve55 (zvang55-man31) ze11 myang11 wui25 ga11. (thing this-PLN no.glossno.gloss (no.gloss-no.gloss) only see(ipf) buy+FCT TOP) These things have been purchased with much effort and luck. Le1man35 ze11 myang11 ho11 yu25. (with.much.effort only see(ipf) look.for(ipf) take+FCT) We found them back with much effort and luck. zaq1 (only) allomorph of the limitative pronoun ‘only this’, vide 16.33 and also 9.24 and 16.32. zat5 n. dancing, performance; Zat5 wu35 ye31 syang55. (dancing look go(away/down) JUS) Let’s (ND .IN) go and watch the dancing. zat5 go35

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    (dancing dance) n+vt. dance, perform dances, zat5 bvyaq5 (dancing perform) n+vt. give performance (mostly dancing); cf. Jingpo zat (Xu et al. 1983: 906). zau11 a n. cough, in kyong11-zau11 (throat-cough) n+n. cough; Kyong11-zau11 31 dum11 pun31 bue . (throat-cough again attack P+I) Coughing has started again. b vt. cough; Kyong11 zau31 wu35-aq5. (throat cough(ipf) look-SIM) Try and give (SG) a good cough. Kyong11 ke5-dye31 zau11. (throat PHBtoo cough) Don’t cough so much. zvau11 (officer) n. officer, land-owner, village ruler. zvau11-bvue55 (officer-PLN) the land-owners, the officers; Zvau31-bvue55 31 lye35 lo11 a1-gvo . (officer(GEN)-PLN come(away/down) come(back/up)(ipf) nom-PL+I) The officers (ND) are coming. He55-pyang31 ge11 zvau11bvue31 meng11-byu31 wui31 r55 zek1 zo31 gvyop5. (before-DIR TOP officer(ipf) PLN(GEN) world-man/woman generation OBJ (op)press eat tuck.away) In the early days, the land-owners oppressed the people endlessly. zvau11-gvong11 (officer-hill) n+n. hilltop belonging to the village ruler. zvau11-zo11-tye31-sat5 (officer-child-peck(ipf)-kill) n. kind of small deadlypoisonous snake, head and tail look similar. zau35 (conceal/clouded) a vi. be clouded; Mau11 zau35 r55. (sky conceal/clouded PE) It’s clouded. b vi/vt. (?) conceal one’s error, deny one’s responsability; Nang31 ke5-zau35 loq1. (2SG PHB-conceal/clouded no.more) Don’t (SG) conceal your errors. Cf. mau11-kup5 kup5 (skystuffy stuffy) n+vi. be heavily clouded; Mau11-kup5 kup5 r55. (sky-stuffy stuffy PE) It’s heavily clouded. zve1- (soil) allomorph of zvue11; in zve1-lvin55 lvin55. ze1- I (child) allomorph of zo11. ze1- / ze5- II (eat) allomorph of zo11 vt. eat, used in ze1-nvau31 and ze5nvau11. 1 ze - III (only) allomorph of the limitative pronoun ‘only this’, vide 9.24 and 16.32. ze11 (only) allomorph of the limitative pronoun ‘only this’, vide 9.24 and 16.32. ze1-bue31 (only-P+I) vide 16.32, le1-suen31 and tok5tok5. ze1dai31 n. cassette, from Chinese 磁带 cídài. ze1-dvai55 (child-only) n+adj. one’s only child. ze1-dut5 (only-become) (16.32). ze1-ga11 / ze5-ga11 (only-perceive) (16.32, 11.6). ze1-gue31 waq1ngan31 (child-male young.man) n. young men, male youngsters.

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    ze1-gvut5 (only-do) (16.32). ze1-lai35 (child-deviate) vide lai35. Ze1-lat5 (child-halfway) second uncle. zve1-lvin55 lvin55 (soil-screw/roll screw/roll) n+vt. make bullets for the

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    catapult. Mi1-zvue11 hi31 ge11 nvai31 dik1 r55, zve1-lvin55 wo35 lvin55 ra dut1 ra55. (earth-soil this TOP tough/viscous(ipf) extreme PE soilscrew/roll have screw/roll need+I become PE) This soil is very viscous, it’s suitable for turning clay bullets. ze1-lo31 (only-no.more+I) (17.7) in elliptic phrases. ze1-me55 (only-LOC) (16.32). ze1-mo35 (child-AUG) first uncle. ze1-moq5 (child-party) n. wife-takers, families from which men of a certain family cannot take wives; vide moq1-wang31 wang31; cf. mung31; vide hang55 for an overview of words related to marriage and wedding. 1 ze -mu31 (only-happen) (11.7, 16.32). ze1-nvau31 (eat-feel.like) (15.23) a vt. want to eat; b vt. like to eat. ze1-r11 (only-also) (16.32) combination of two adverbs. ze1-ram31 (child-adolescent) n. unmarried adolescent (about 18 to 20 years of age); cf. i1-ram31; cf. Jingpo ram (Xu et al. 1983: 683). 1 ze -si31 (only-still+I) vide 17.8; only used in elliptic phrases. ze1-tang55 (child-last) n. mother’s third brother; cf. ze5-tang 55. ze1-wui31 (child-generation) vide 9.27. ze1-zum31 (child-consort) n. twins. zve55 in zvang55-zve55. ze5-tang55 (child-last) n. youngest of the family; cf. ze1-tang55. zve5hai11 n. marten. ze5-nvau11 (eat-feel.like(ipf)) imperfective variant of ze1-nvau31. zek1 ((op)press) a vt. press, causing a burden; in nvye31 zek1 (press(ipf) 31 (op)press); Lyeng31 nga35 ki31 me55 zang35 nvye31 zek1 bue . (wheel 1PO (ipf) leg/foot LOC strike press (op)press P+I) The wheel pressed my foot. Vide nvye55. b vt. oppress; in zek1 zo11; vide zek1-zek1 and zek1 zo11; cf. zving31 and nvye55. 1 zek zo11 ((op)press eat) v+aux. oppress other people; He55-pyang31 ge11 31 zvau11-bue meng11-byu31 wui31 r55 zek1 zo31 gvyop5. (before-DIR TOP officer-P+I world-man/woman generation OBJ (op)press eat(ipf) tuck.away) In the early days, the land-owners oppressed the people endlessly. zek1-zek1 in yvup5 zek1-zek1 (sleep (op)press-(op)press) be delirious, when being very weak; Yvup5 zek1-zek1 r55. (sleep (op)press-(op)press PE) He is delirious.

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    zvem55 (dip/duck) vi. go beneath the surface, swim under water, go under water, get a ducking/dip; Nang31 r55 a1-zvem55 luq1? (2SG OBJ NEGdip/duck Y/N) Was the water higher than you (SG)? Replied by: Zvem31 r55. (dip/duck(ipf) PE) Yes, the water was higher than me. Or: A1-zvem55. (NEG-dip/duck) No, the water wasn’t higher than me. Ngo31 gyuq1 r55, ap5 zvem55 syoq5 ke5-tau11. (1SG afraid PE needle dip/duck till PHBsew/insert) I’m scared, don’t plunge the needle all the way inside. wui31zvem55 zvem55 (water-dip/duck dip/duck) n+v+v. swim under water, go under water, get a ducking/dip. zvem55zvem55 [deathly.quiet] ideophone referring to the sensation of deadly silence; Le1-yuq1 bau35 ngi11 zyang35 zvem55zvem55 ga31 r55. (oneperson just be.there(anim)(ipf) CD [deathly.quiet] perceive(ipf) PE) When I’m on my own (there), it is deathly quiet. Zvem55zvem55 ga31 dik1 r55, ka55-hu55 lvang55 wo35 gyo31 r55. (deathly.quiet perceive(ipf) extreme PE Qsort even have hear/smell(ipf) PE) It’s so quiet, you can hear every little thing! zeng11 (neck) only in ling31-zeng11 (neck-neck) n. neck. zveng11 (move.to.one.place) (15.31) aux. expressing that certain specific objects are moved to one place as a result of the action indicated by the preceding main verb; Syum31 zveng11-aq5. (sweep(ipf) move.to.one.placeSIM) Sweep (SG) it together. Cf. zeng11. Zeng11hang55 a family name. zeng11r11 vt. annoy; Ngo31 r55 ke5-lye35 zeng11r11. (1SG OBJ PHBcome(away/down) annoy) Don’t annoy me. Byo11 r55 he5-bek1 zeng11r11 gvo55. (wasp/bee OBJ PHB-shoot annoy PL) Don’t shoot at wasp/bee nests. Cf. Jingpo zingri vt. tyrannize (Xu et al. 1983: 909). Zeng11tong31 a family name. zeng31 I (15.31) aux. expressing that the action indicated by the preceding main verb leads to the inability of a certain object to move; Dun31 zeng11 dvo11-aq5. (press.into(ipf)/spear(GEN) fixed(ipf) place(vt)-SIM) Press (SG) it so that it can’t move. Cf. zveng11. zeng31 II n. trunk (sp. cyam11/syam11); often used in tree names, e.g. mvyang11-zeng31 (banyan-trunk) n+n. banyan tree (sp. byap1); vide hum55-zeng31 and Si1dung11-zeng31. zeng31gi11 n. swallow. zeng31gi11-sut5 (swallow-(make)nest) n+n. swallow’s nest. zeng31gi11-zo11 (swallow-child) n+adj. small or young swallow. zeng31-gyang31 (trunk-large.drum) n+n. long-shaped drum beaten on both sides, used during Menau festival; zeng31-gyang31 le1-cyam11 (trunklarge.drum one-ball) one of these.

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    zvet5 vt. spit through the teeth; Se5gvan11 a5-se55 gvut5 ke5-zvet5-no31. (spit/phlegm nom-like do PHB-spit.through.the.teeth-HIGH+I) Don’t spit through your teeth like this/that. zi1- (small) possibly a diminutive prefix, used in a limited set of words shown below, possibly also in zi1syang31 n. child; cf. zo11. 11 zi I n. kind of pigeon resembling parrot; cf. gvai55gvyeq1 and pung31gvyui11. zi11 II (love.song) n. kind of traditional song; sung over long distances; used with the verbs gvat5 (put.into) in the meaning of vt. ‘chant’ (15.13) and do35 vt. sing duet; Nang31 zi11 a1-gue11 gvat5 luq1? (2SG love.song NEGall.right(ipf) put.into Y/N) Can you (SG) sing folk songs/traditional love songs? Zi11-do35 do35 lum11 syang55. (love.song-sing.duet sing.duet reciprocal JUS) Let’s (ND .IN) sing (traditional) love song duets. Cf. le1lvai55 and le1gva11; vide zi11-do35 do35. 11 zi III vt. ride, travel by a specific means; ki31-lyeng31 zi11 (leg/foot-wheel ride(vt)) n+vt. ride a bicycle, go on bicycle; mi31ta31 zi11 (train ride(vt)) 31 n+vt. go by train; Ang55goi11 zi31 dvo31 a1-gvo . (swing(N) ride(vt)(ipf) (ipf) place(vt) nom-PL+I) They are swinging. Vide ne1-zi11-ngvoq5; cf. Chinese 骑 qí. zvi11 I (borrow/lend) a vt. borrow; Yvang31-eq1 zvi31 byuq1 lo35 bue31. (3SG#(ipf) AG/I borrow/lend lose go(back/up) P+I) It has been borrowed by her. 31 31 31 Ki -lyeng byam11 zvi31 lye . (leg/foot-wheel jump(ipf) borrow/lend(ipf) also+I) I’m borrowing your bike for a second. b vt. lend; Bvong55dvin55 zvi11 bi11 raq5. (pen borrow/lend give VO) Lend me your pen please. 11 zi -do35 do35 (love.song-sing.duet sing.duet) n+vt. sing traditional love song duets; Zi11-do35 do35 lum11 syang55. (love.song-sing.duet sing.duet reciprocal JUS) Let’s (ND .IN) sing (traditional) love song duets. zi11-wang11 (love.song-at.base) vide wang11. zi1cyun31 (knife etc.:) sharp point. zi1-cyun31 cyun31 (small-sharpen sharpen) a n+vt. sharpen a stick / make 31 pointed sticks; Ngo31 zi1-cyun31 cyun11 lye . (1SG small-sharpen sharpen(ipf) also+I) I’m sharpening a stick. / I am making pointed sticks. b n+vi. (sticks etc.:) have a sharp point; Syam31 hi31 ge11 zi1-cyun31 cyun11 dik1 r55. (knife this TOP small-sharpen sharpen(ipf) extreme PE) This knife has a very sharp point. Cf. cyun11/syun11 (sharp) vi. sharp, pointed. zi1ku11 n. hoe; cf. cyot1vt. hoe. zi1rung35 n. tub; cf. ang55. zi1si31 n. muntjac, barking deer. zi1si31-kyui31 (muntjac-horn(s)/antlers) n. muntjac’s horns/antlers.

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    zi1si31-mau31 (muntjac-fungus) n. kind of fungus with the same colour as the hide of a muntjac; zi1si31-mau31 le1-kat5 one of these. zi si -syo11 (muntjac-meat) n+n. muntjac / barking deer meat. (zi1-)syam31-nong35 ((small-)knife-2nd-brother) n. kind of small knife. zi1syang31 (child) n. child; Zi1syang31 le1-yuq1 wo35 bue31. (child one-person have P+I) They got a child. Ngo31 zi1syang31 a1-ku11 wu35 siq1. (1SG child (ipf) NEG-raise look still) I have not raised a child before. Zi1 syang31 hi31 31 31 11 55 dye syai r , le1go11 dai31-mvoq5 ra dut1 r55. (child this too loud(ipf) (ipf) mouthed PE well speak -learn/teach need+I become PE ) This child is too loud-mouthed, he/she should be thoroughly educated. Cf. zi1- and zo11. 1 11 zi ta (chat2) vi/vt. chat; Ka55-hu55 zi1ta31 gvun31 a1-gvo31? (Q-sort chat2(ipf) play(ipf) nom-PL+I) What are they chatting about? Cf. meng11 (chat1) and pye31-ngvam11. 1 zi tum31 (apocalypse) vide meng11-gvan11 zi1tum31. zi1tung11 n. type of spirit; mvung31-zi1tung11 (evil.spirit-spirit.type) n. evil spirit; yo31-zi1tung11 (land-spirit.type) n+n. domestic variant of zitung spirit, living in the fields; yvum31-zi1tung11 (house-spirit.type) n+n. domestic variant of zitung spirit, yo31-so31-zi1tung11 (land-walk(GEN) spirit.type) n. wild zitung; Vide nat1 for a selection of other types of spirits and gods. Cf. Jingpo jahtung (Xu et al. 1983: 336). zi1wo31 (place) n. place; (in a song:) Meng11mau31-kung11 me55 ngi11 ngon35 zi1wo31 myo31 dik1 ra55. (Ruili(GEN)-fold LOC be.there(anim)(ipf) pleasant place much(ipf) extreme PE) The nice places of Ruili district are so many. Cf. zyang11. 31 zi vt. invite; Yvang11 lving31-hang11 ngo31 r55 zi31 gve5lvang11 ngo31 a1-ye31. (3SG turn/roll-each 1SG OBJ invite although 1SG NEG-go(away/down)) Each time she invited me I didn’t go. 31 zvi (shed2) in guq1-zvi31; cf. zang31 and zum35. zi35 (ball/seed) bound form n. ‘ball, seed’; in a1-zi35 (nom-ball/seed) n. seed; hum31-zi35 (melon/gourd-ball/seed) n. pumpkin seeds; myoq1-zi35 (eyeball/seed) n. eye (sp. kon55/hon55); ngi11-zi35 (penis-ball/seed) n. testicles. 55 zvi / zvi11 / zvi5- (grandfather) a in A5-zvi55 (nom-grandfather) n. paternal grandfather; often addressed as A5-zvi11; b A5-zvi55 and A5-zvi11 are also used as a form of address for men of two generations elder; c in Zvi5-dui11 (grandfather-maternal.grandparent) n. maternal grandfather; vide zvi11. 55 zi ya55 n. (cards:) clubs; vide pai55. Zvi5-dui11 (grandfather-maternal.grandparent) n. maternal grandfather. 1

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    zvi5nan31 n. telephone; zvi5nan31 bat1 (telephone beat) n+vt. make a phone 31

    call; Zvi5nan31 i5-bat1 ra se5-ga31 r55. (telephone go-beat need+I likeperceive(ipf) PE) I feel like going and making a phone call. Cf. Jingpo chyanan (Xu et al. 1983: 86). zvi5nan31-dvui11 (telephone-rope(N/vt)) n+n. telephone cord. zvi5zvin55 n. earthworm. zi5zyo11 (canary.tree?) in zi5zyo11-si11 zi5zyo11-si11 (canary.tree?-fruit) n+n. kind of fruit, possibly from the canary tree. zvi11 (grandfather2) either a dialectal or marked variant of zvi55; Zi1syang31 31 r55 ge11 yvang31-zvi11 yvang31-wvoi55 r55 ngi11 dvo11 bi11-bi11 mu gve531 ra . (child OBJ TOP 3SG(GEN)-grandfather2 3SG(GEN)-grandmother (ipf) OBJ be.there(anim) place(vt) give-give happen+I PL-need+I) The child would normally stay with grandfather and grandmother. zik1 / zing11 vt. cleave; Ngo31 tang11 zik1 lye31. (1SG firewood cleave also+I) I am cleaving firewood. We5-zung31-eq1 tang11 zing11-aq1. (bamboo-axe#-AG/I firewood cleave*-SIM) Cleave (SG) the firewood with an axe. Cf. zvye55. zvik5 vide ngvoq5-zvik5 ngvoq5-zo11. zim31 vt. taste; Nang31 zim11 wu35-aq5. (2SG taste(ipf) look-SIM) Taste (SG) it. (Ngo31 a1-gvam31 zim31. (1SG NEG-want.to(ipf) taste) I don’t want to taste.) Cf. the nouns sing55 and nam35. 31 zin (ready) a vi. be all right, be suitable; A1-zin31 si1-luq1? (NEG-ready still-Y/N) Is it all right now? / Is it O-K. now? b vi. (jobs, objects) be 31 ready; Zang11 zin31 bue . (rice/food ready P+I) The meal is ready. Lau35 31 31 zin bue . (promptly ready P+I) It’s almost ready. Hi31 ge1ro11 a1mu31 zin31 zyang35 zi1si31 hat5 lo35 syang55. (this between matter ready CD muntjac pursue go(back/up) JUS) One of these days when the work is finished, let’s (ND .IN) go hunting muntjac. c aux. be ready doing V; 31 Gai35 zin31 bue . (prepare.food ready P+I) The food is ready. Cf. gya35. zvin31 I n. debt; often ngun31 zvin31 (silver debt) n+n. money debt; Yvang11 ngo31 r55 (ngun31) zvin31 dap1 r55. (3SG 1SG OBJ (silver) debt be.attached PE) He owes me money. Nang31 ngo31 r55 zvin31 a1-dap1 luq1? (2SG 1SG OBJ debt NEG-be.attached Y/N) Do you (SG) owe me money? Vide zvin31 but1. zvin31 II only attested in bing31-zvin31 (sore-no.gloss) n. sore, boil, ulcer. zvin31 III (sour) adj/vi. sour; Si11 zvin11 r55. (fruit sour(ipf) PE) The fruit is sour. Zvin31-zvin31 syui11-syui11. (sour-sour sweet-sweet) It’s both sour and sweet. Cf. yen11; vide ang11-zvin31 and bvi55bvi55.

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    zvin31 but1 (debt determine) n+vt. claim debt; (Ngun31) zvin31 but1 ye11 31

    lye . ((silver) debt determine go (away/down)(ipf) also+I) I’m on my way to claim back money. zin35 (kidney) in zin35-lvum11. zin35-lvum11 (kidney-lump) n+n. kidney. zvin55 only attested in yang11-zvin55, resembles zvin31 adj/vi. sour. zing11 (cleave*) allomorph of zik1. zving31 (press) vt. press into, press down the contents; Zving11 wang31-aq1. (press(ipf) enter-SIM) (a crowded bus) Press yourself inside. Zving11 gvan31-aq1. (press(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Press (SG) it into (the bag that is already full). zving11 lvung55 (press(ipf) let.inside) vt+vt. press down the contents of some container; also as a resulative verb: tung31 zving31 (crush(ipf) press) vt+vt. (bags etc.:) tamp; Tung31 tung31 zving31-aq1. (bag crush(ipf) press-SIM) Tamp (SG) the bag. Cf. nvye55, zek1. zing35 vt. believe; Yvang11 dai54 dang11 nang31 zing35 lye31 luq1? (3SG speak+FCT words 2SG believe also+I Y/N) Do you (SG) believe what he says? zit1 / -zit5 I (pee) vt. urinate, pee; Zit1 nvau11 r55. (pee feel.like(ipf) PE) I 31 need to pee. Zit1 nvau31 gu54 zyan31 dvo31 lye . (pee feel.like (ipf) (ipf) PART+FCT endure place(vt) also+I) I had to pee all the time, but I kept on holding my water. Cf. Jingpo jit (Xu et al. 1983: 351). See further i1-zit5. 1 zit / -zit5 II (stopped.up) a adj. blind, deaf, stuffed up; in myoq1-zit1, ne1zit5, nvo31-zit5; b vi. be blind, deaf, stuffed up; Yvang54 myoq1-zi35 i5531 hon55 rvoq5 zit1 byuq1 bue . (3SG+FCT eye-ball/seed two-one.of.a.pair DEF stopped.up lose P+I) She has gone blind in both eyes. Nvo31-zit5 (zit1) r55. (nose-stopped.up (stopped.up) PE) I have a stuffed up nose. 5 zvit I vi. few; Dye31 zvit5 r55, a1-lvuq1 zo11. (too few PE NEG-enough eat) There are too few, it’s not enough to eat. Cf. syau11 and yom31. 5 zvit II (love) a vt. (people) love; Ngo31 nang31 r55 zvit5 r55. (1SG 2SG OBJ love PE) I love you (SG). b n. love, in: zvit5-dap1. 5 zvit -dap1 (love-be.attached) n+vi. be beloved; Zvit5-dap1-m55 num11nang35 31 wui31-ei … (love-be.attached-FCT friend generation-EXCL+I) my beloved old friends…. zit5zit5 / zvit5zvit5 onom. imitating the squeaking of mice and rats; Nge1noq1 zit5zit5 ga11 ming11 r55. (rat/mouse-black [(mice/rats).squeak] perceive sound(vi)(ipf) PE) The rats/mice are squeaking. 11 zvo (feed) a vt. feed; Ngo31 waq1-zang11 i5-zvo11 be55. (1SG pig-rice/food go-feed EE) I’ll go and feed the pigs. b (animals, spirits) vt. raise, keep; Waq1-hup5 hi55-me55 waq1 zvo31 r11 ge11 reng35-nvau11 dik1 r55. (pig-pigsty

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    this-LOC pig feed(ipf) also TOP flourish-feel.like(ipf) extreme PE) Pigs kept in a pigsty at this location would do very well. A1-gue25 nat1 a1-gue11 zvo11. (NEG-all.right+FCT spirit NEG-all.right(ipf) feed) You should not keep bad spirits. Cf. nvang55 and wvue31; cf. zo11 vt. eat. 11 zo / ze1- / za1- I (child) (9.30) zo11: a n. child; Hi31 ge11 o55-yuq1 yvang11zo11? (this TOP who-person 3SG-child) Whose child is this? ngvyeq5-zo11 (baby-child) n+n. baby; cyui55-zo11/ /syui55-zo11 (orphan-child) n+n. orphan; b n. young (of animal); bi1-zo11 n+adj. immature wasp/bee (unable to fly); c adj. young; a1-gam31-zo11 (nom-tree(B)-child) n. sapling; d n. individual members of a community; Yo11in35-zo11 (Lisuchild) n+n. someone/people belonging to the Lisu people, not referring to elder people; yuq1-zo11 (person-child) n+n. young man; bvi55-zo11 (womenfolk-child) n+n. middle-aged womenfolk; e adj. small, diminutive suffix; a1-myu31-zo11 (nom-sort/nationality-child) n+adj. minority people; i1-lang31-zo11 (water-river-child) n+n+adj. brook, stream, little river. See further under ze1- and za1-. 11 zo II (eat) a vt. eat; zang11-zo11 (rice/food-eat) n+vt. eat rice or food in general; (one of the most common questions, also an informal hello:) 31 Zang11 zo11 bue luq1? (rice/food eat P+I Y/N) Have you eaten already? 11 55 Zo syang hoi11. (rice/food prepared P+I eat JUS INC) Let’s (ND .IN) eat. b n. in zo31-mut5 and zo31 mut1; cf. zvo11 vt. feed; vide Lve5-kui11 zo11. An overview of Zaiwa cooking terms: bing11 zo11 (roast1 eat) vt+vt. eat things roasted on a stick near the fire; bung11 zo11 (steam(vt) eat) vt+vt. eat a steamed dish; bvun11 zo11 (cook.in.bamboo eat) vt+vt. eat a dish cooked in bamboo; gvang31 zo11 (roast.in.leaves eat) vt+vt. eat a dish packed and roasted in leaves; gvyui55 zo11 (stew eat) vt+vt. eat meat stewed for a long time; nai11 zo11 (knead eat) vt+vt. eat a kneaded dish; ngvyo55 zo11 (mix eat) vt+vt. eat a salad; nvye31 zo11 (make.red/fry eat) vt+vt. eat a fried dish; put5 zo11 (roast3 eat) vt+vt. eat things roasted in ashes; syui11 zo11 (blanch eat) vt+vt. eat blanched vegetables; tung11 zo11 (crush eat) vt+vt. eat a pestled dish; zang11-nai11 nai11 zo11 n+vt-vt. mash up food (translation uncertain); (wui31-bu11) zvu31 (water-water boil/rise) vi. boil (water); zvyoq5 zo11 (cook eat) vt+vt. a eat a dish cooked in water; b cook, prepare things to eat; zyum31 zo11 (dip(vt) eat) vt+vt. eat with dip sauce.

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    When not specifically referring to certain cooking techniques, the verbs rvang55 vt. ‘make’ or zvyoq5 vt. ‘cook’ are used, e.g.: Zang 11-sun11 ke531 mvyo55 hu55 rvang31 dvo31 lye ? (rice/food-veg/dish Q-much(B) sort (ipf) (ipf) make place(vt) also+I) How many dishes are you preparing? 31 Sun11-mo35 he5-zvyoq5-o55 mai11 sun11-zo11 dum11 rvang31 lye . (ipf) (veg/dish-AUG before-cook-FCT ABL veg/dish-child again make also+I) After making the main dishes we make the side dishes. Nang31 31 zang11 dat1 zvyoq5 lye luq1? (2SG rice/food able cook also +I Y/N) Can you (SG) cook? (Do you know how to cook?) Useful nouns are: au11 n. pan, gvyo31 n. tripod; koq5 n. bowl; nam31zyam31 n. dip sauce; te5-bvun11 and te5-dvum55 n. bamboo containers for cooking; weng11/weng31 and a1-weng11 n. soup, broth, cooking liquid; sun11 a n. vegetable; b n. dish; sun11-mo35 (veg/dishAUG) n. main dish; sun11-zo11 (veg/dish-child) n. side dish. 31 ngyoq1 vi. be done, cooked; Zang11 ngyoq1 bue . (rice/food done P+I) 31 11 11 1 The rice is done. Zang -sun ngyoq bue . (rice/food-veg/dish done 31 P+I) The dish is done. Zvyoq5 ge11 zvyoq5 bue , a1-ngyoq1 siq1. (cook TOP cook P+I NEG-done still) It has cooked but it is not done yet. ngvyoq5 vt. make done, make well cooked; Sun11 le1go11 zvyoq5 ngvyoq5 gveq5-o55. (veg/dish well cook make.done PLIM-HIGH) Make (PL) this dish very well done. Vide zang11 on Zaiwa mealtimes. 11 zo III (lock*) allomorph of zoq1. zo11lyau35 n. spices; from Chinese 佐料 zuóliào. zo11-mun11 (eat-luck) n. lucky mouth; Zo11-mun11 bo11 r55. (eat-luck contain(ipf) PE) I have a lucky mouth. 11 zo -myoq5-noq1 (eat-eye-black) n. selfish eater (afraid that others will eat his portion). 11 zo -syuq5 (eat-drink) (vt+vt.) n. food and drinks, the mess; Nung35-moq1 zo11-syuq5 a1-ngvam11 gve5-luq1? (2PL-party eat-drink NEG-tasty PLY/N) How is the mess at your (PL) place? Zo11-syuq5 le1go11 san1131 sueng31 gveq5, wam11 no31 ra . (eat-drink well clean-hygienic PLIM swollen/abdomen pain/ill/disease need+I) Dealing with food and drinks we should be very hygienic, otherwhise we will get abdominal diseases. 31 Mi1-hang55 ra54 ngvut5 zyang35 zo11-syuq5 le1go11 wui11 tang31 ra dut1 (ipf) 55 r . (wife-marry need+FCT be CD eat-drink well buy behind need+I become PE) Before a wedding, one has to prepare the food and drinks very carefully. zvo31 (shine) vi. (sun and moon:) shine; Bui31 a1-zvo31 si1-luq1? (sun NEGshine still-Y/N) Is the sun shining already? Bui31 zvo25 zyang11 me55 i5-

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    zung31 gvoq1. (sun shine+FCT place(B) LOC go-sit DIE) Let’s (DU) go and sit in the sunshine. Lva55-mo35 zvo11 zvyoi31 dik1 r55. (moon-AUG shine(ipf) beautiful(ipf) extreme PE) The moon is shining beautifully. Cf. tun11. 35 zo (burning.firewood) in mi1-zo35. zo31 mut1 (eat# hungry) n+vi. be hungry; Zo31 a1-mut1 luq1? (eat# NEGhungry Y/N) Are you hungry? Zo31 zye11 mut1 zye11 ngi11 wui31 r55. (eat# exceed hungry exceed be.there(anim)(ipf) difficult1(ipf) PE) The hungrier I get, the harder it gets. Cf. zo31-mut5, mut1 and hom11. 31 zo -mut5 (eat#-hungry) n. hunger; Zo31-mut5 ngyo31 bue31. (eat#-hungry talk P+I) I’ve become hungry. Ngo31 zo31-mut5 a1-wo35 zyan11 loq1. (1SG eat#-hungry NEG-have endure no.more) I can no longer put up with being hungry. Cf. zo31 mut1, mut1 and ngvyom55. 1 zok vi. search around; Hau55-bvue55-ha55 zok1 wu35-aq5. (the/that-PLNwhere(B) search.around look-SIM) Search around (SG) there. Cf. cyo11 vt. search, sop5 vt. rummage, search; cf. Jingpo zok (Xu et al. 1983: 910). zon31 (concurrence) n. used in expressions like: Zon31 ze1-a1-dut1. (concurrence only-NEG-become) There’s something wrong with it. Zon31 ze1-a1-ga11. (concurrence only-NEG-perceive) It doesn’t feel right. Examples: Byu31 hi55-yuq1 dang11 dai31 r11 zon31 ze1-a1-ga11. (man/woman this-person words speak(ipf) also concurrence only-NEG-perceive) There’s something wrong with the things this person is saying. Gung31du11 hi31 zon31 ze1-a1-ga11. (body-being this concurrence only-NEGperceive) Somehow I don’t feel very well. Zue31 hau31 ge11 zon31 ze1-a1dut1-n55-o55. (truc the/that TOP concurrence only-NEG-become-FCTHIGH) There’s something wrong with this. Cf. Jingpo zon (Xu et al. 1983: 910). zong31 (guard(V)) a vi. stand guard; Zan35ze55 zong11 lye31. (guard(N) guard(V)(ipf) also+I) I am standing guard. b vt. check up on someone; Ngo31 r55 ke5-dye31 lye35 zong31. (1SG OBJ PHB-too come(away/down) guard(V)) Don’t check up on me all the time. Cf. Jingpo zong (Xu et al. 1983: 910); cf. zung35. 1 zoq / zo11 (lock) a n. key, in zoq1-si11 (lock-tie/lock) n+n. key; b vt. lock, be locked, in zoq1 zoq1 n+vt. lock up; Zoq1 zo11-aq1. (lock lock*-SIM) Lock (SG) it. Zoq1 a1-zoq1. (lock NEG-lock) The door isn’t locked. Also: Zoq1-si11 a1-si11. (lock-tie/lock NEG-tie/lock) The door isn’t locked. Cf. laq1, mvi11 and si11; cf. Jingpo zo (Xu et al. 1983: 910). 1 zoq -si11 (lock-tie/lock) n+n. key; vide zoq1 and si11.

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    zvoq5 (court) derived from sum11zvoq5 n. courtship, love affair, vide sum11zvoq5. zu (prickle) a n. thorn, prickle, arrow, fish bone; Ki31 ma54 zu11 be1-pue31 bi11 raq5. (leg/foot LOC+FCT prickle help-pry.out give VO) Help me to pry this thorn / prickle out of my foot, please. Also in mi1-zu11 (fireprickle) n. coal prickles (still attached to the firewood); lai11-zu11 (bowprickle) n+n. arrow; nge1-zo11-zu11 (fish-child-prickle) n+adj+n. fish 31 bones; b vt. prick; Zu11 nang31 zu11 bue . (prickle tread(ipf) prickle P+I) I have stepped into a prickle. zvu31 I (boil/rise) a vi. boil; The following phrases are used when discussing the boling of water, illustrating various aspectual notions. Wui31-bu11 31 zvu31 be1-gvo luq1? (water-water boil/rise P-PL+I Y/N) Is the water boiling already? (spoken to more than one person). Wui31-bu11 zvu31 31 bue luq1? (water-water boil/rise P+I Y/N) Is the water boiling? A1-dye31 zvu31 siq1. (NEG-too boil/rise still) It’s not boiling that much. Zvu11 lo31 31 bue . (boil/rise(ipf) come(back/up) P+I) It’s starting to boil. Zvu31 be131 31 ra . (boil/rise P-need+I) It’s about to boil. Le1-king11 r55 zvu31 be1-ra . 1 (one-halt/rest TS boil/rise P-need+I) It will boil in a little while. A kui3131 zyang35 zvu31 be1-ra . (now-CD boil/rise P-need+I) It’s about to boil. 1 11 11 31 Le -king -zo zvu nvang31 si1-gvoq1. (one-halt/rest-child boil/rise 31 let.loose still-DIE) Let’s (DU) keep it boiling for a while. Zvu31 bue . 31 1 55 1 (boil/rise P+I) It’s boiling. Zvu si -syang -gaq . (boil/rise still- JUS-CC) Let us keep it boiling. b vi. (water) rise; in zvu31-myup5 n. foam (on water, beer etc.). zvu31 II (insert*) allomorph of zvuq5. zvu31-myup5 (boil/rise-foam) n. foam (on water, beer etc.). zvue11 / zve1- (soil) in mi1-zvue11 and zve1-lvin55 lvin55; cf. sue11. zue31 I in zue31-si11. zue31 II (late) vide gan31-zue31. zue31 III vi. live as human being; mostly with byu31 n. man/woman, however: vide bvyat1. Byu31 lye35 zue31… (man/woman come(away/down) live.as.human) (When) mankind came to live on earth… Meng11-gvan11 toq5 me55 ka55-hu55 gvut5 gve5lvang11 lui11 r55, byu31 zue11 zo11 ra54 ze11 yak1 r55. (world-dried.out come.out LOC Q-sort do although easy(ipf) PE man/woman live.as.human(ipf) eat need+FCT only difficult2 PE) It is easy to live as any creature in this world, it is only very difficult to live as a human. Ngo31 byu31 a1-gvam31 zue31 loq1. (1SG man/woman NEGwant.to(ipf) live.as.human no.more) I don’t want to live anymore. Byu31 a1-gue11 zue31. (man/woman NEG-all.right(ipf) live.as.human) He is living 11

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    disorderly. Cf. ngi31 (13.2) vi. (animate entities:) be there, be or stay at a certain place. zue31 IV (truc) (9.32.8). zue31-si11 (fruit.name-fruit) n+n. kind of fruit, Chinese: jūlūguǒ. zue35 vt. tidy up; Yvum31 zue35 ra31 dut1 r55. (house tidy.up need+I become PE) The house needs to be tidied up. zuen11 (cut/clip) a n. in te1-zuen11 ((scissors)-cut/clip) n. scissors (sp. 31 lvum11); b vt. cut, clip; U1-sam31 zuen31 lye . (head-hair.of.the.head (ipf) cut/clip also+I) I am cutting my/someone’s hair. Mue31-bu11 zuen31 31 mvoq5 lye . (wrap-clothes cut/clip(ipf) learn/teach also+I) I am learning 31 to make clothes. Ban11-bo35 ke5-se55 su54 zuen11 bue ? (flower-open.itself Q-like like+FCT cut/clip P+I) What kinds of flowers did you cut? zuen54 (a1-)ra35 (cut/clip+FCT (NEG-)level(vi)) be cut level/uneven; vide ra35. Vide loq1-seng11-zuen11-zue31; vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. Cf. Jingpo zen (Xu et al. 1983: 907). zuen11-zue31 (cut/clip-truc) vide loq1-seng11-zuen11-zue31. zuen35 adj/vi. intelligent; Zi1syang31 hi31 ge11 zuen35 dik1 r55. (child this TOP intelligent extreme PE) This child is very intelligent. Vide byu31-zuen35. Cf. Jingpo zen (Xu et al. 1983: 907). zuep1zuep1 [raspy] ideophone indicating a raspy or rough sensation; Sui11luq5 zuep1zuep1 ga31 r55. (whet/grate-stone [raspy] perceive(ipf) PE) The grindstone feels very rough. Nvut5-mui11 zuep1zuep1 ga31 r55. (mouthbeard [raspy] perceive(ipf) PE) Your beard feels rather raspy. Cf. Jingpo zepzep (Xu et al. 1983: 908). zuet1 vi. sleep very light, easily woken up by sounds etc., after yvup5 vi. sleep; Yvup5 zuet1 dik1 r55. (sleep (sleep).light extreme PE) I sleep very light. Cf. Jingpo zet (Xu et al. 1983: 908). 11 zui I vide myam31zui11 n. drying rack above the fireplace. zui11 II (bear.fruit) a vi. bear fruit, (fruits) hang, grow; Si11 zui31 bum11 r55. (fruit bear.fruit(ipf) heap(vt/N)(ipf) PE) There are lots of fruits growing 31 there. Hau31 a1-ngvyu11 me55 zui31 dvo31 r55 mai . (the/that nomtop.of.plant LOC bear.fruit(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) PE OBV+I) (on a piece of fruit:) There in the top it’s hanging! (lit.: growing). b vi. be mildewed, 31 be mouldy; Mung11zung35 zui31 byuq1 bue . (mould(N) bear.fruit(ipf) lose P+I) It has become mildewed. c vi. be rusted; Zyo31gvik5 zui11 31 bue . (rust bear.fruit P+I) It is rusted. 11 zui III (touch/work(V)) a vt. touch; Kui11-zo11 r55 ke5-zui11. (dog-child OBJ PHB-touch/work) Don’t touch the dog. Hi31 r55 le1-king11 zui11-zui11 gvut5 r55. (this OBJ one-halt/rest touch/work(V)-touch/work(V) do PE)

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    (about an infant:) He will put his hands on this in a while. Ngun31 a1-bo25 lu55, zui31 wu35-aq5. (silver NEG-contain+FCT MIR touch/work(V)(ipf) look-SIM) Feel in your (SG) pockets whether you have any money in them. b vt. hold in position, in zui31 zeng31 (touch/work(ipf) fixed); Dye31 dui11 r55, ngo31 a1-wo35 zui31 zeng31 loq1. (too move(vi)(ipf) PE 1SG NEGhave touch/work(ipf) fixed no.more) He moves too wildly, I can’t hold him. (spoken whilst trying to give an injection). c vt. work; always with mu35 n. work, task; vide mu35 zui11. 31 zui n. tooth, teeth (sp. kat5/hat5); he55-zui31 (before-tooth) n. front teeth; kui11-zui31 (dog-tooth) n. canine teeth; zui31-tung11 (tooth-crush) n. molars; vide u1-pyu31 zui31 nye31; also in kyong11-zui31 (throat-tooth) n+n. Adam’s apple. zui31 rvek5 ma54 (tooth twisted LOC+FCT) with twisted teeth. zui31-tung11 (tooth-crush) n. molars. zui31-zvai55-zo11 (tooth-fine-child) n+adj+adj. tiny little teeth. zui31-zvyap5-tau11-zue31 (tooth-squeeze/tight-sew/insert-truc) n. toothpick. zui35 vi. (buds) come out; Zui35 toq5 lo31 bue31. (grow).bud come.out come(back/up) P+I) New buds have come out. Vide a1-zui35. zvui55 (bit) in le1-zvui55. zuk5 I (hairy) in zuk5-mo35 and zuk5-zuk5. zuk5 II ideophone expressing the notion of putting something into a pocket etc.; Nang35 be1-tung31 me55 zuk5 gvut5 hang31 wun11 am55-aq5. (2SG.PO clothes-bag LOC [put.into.pocket] do load/put.into(ipf) carry/bring(ipf) PFM-SIM) Stick it into your (SG) pocket. zuk5-mo35 (hairy-AUG) adj+adj. hairy; nvut5-mui11 zuk5-mo35 (mouth-beard hairy-AUG) a hairy or heavily bearded face. zuk5-zuk5 (hairy-hairy) ideophone expressing extreme hairyness; Loq1-bu35 bvue55-ha55 si1-mau35 zuk5-zuk5. (hand/arm-pimple/convex PLN-where(B) meat-body.hair hairy-hairy) He has hair all over his arms. zvum31 ((clench).fist*) allomorph of zvup5. zum31 I (consort) a vt. consort with, get along with, have contact with; Ngo31 nang31-eq5 a1-gvam31 zum31. (1SG 2SG-COM NEG-want.to(ipf) consort) I don’t want to consort with you (SG). Le1-rvoi55-eq5 i5-zum11 gvun55-aq5. ((male)-(name)-COM go-consort(ipf) play-SIM) Go (SG) consort with ninth brother. He55-pyang31 nga35-nvik5 zum11 dik1-n55. (before-DIR 1POduo consort(ipf) extreme-FCT) Before, the two of us have been quite close. Also in: ze1-zum31 (child-consort) n. twins; b n. name of a traditional dance tentatively translated ‘Harmony dance’, Zum31 go35 syang55. (consort dance JUS) Let’s (ND .IN) dance the Harmony dance.

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    See further Zum31-go35 and Me1nau11 zum31-go35. c n. referring to the Menau festival as a whole, given the fact that the Harmony dance is the 31 most important part of it: Zum31 zye35 ra54 ge11 ke5-mvyo55 ngi35 ze1-lo 11 la ? (consort arrive need+FCT TOP Q-much (B) day only-no.more+I UNC) How many days would be left before the start of the Menau festival? See further Zum31-go35 and Me1nau11 zum31-go35. zum31 II (stairs1) in zum31-tang31. zum31-cyang31 (consort-field) n. field for performing the Zum or Harmony dance. Zum31-go35 (consort-dance) a n. Zum or Harmony dance; also Me1nau11/Me5nau11 Zum31-go35; sp. cyang31 n. session, lit.: field, e.g.: Zum31-go35 i55-cyang31 (consort-dance two-field) two sessions of the 31 Harmony dance; Soi11-tung31 lui11 ngun31-byang31 wun31 gvut5 lui -eq1 Zum31-go35 ye31 syang55. (silver.ornaments-bag carry.on.shoulder(ipf) silver-scabbard carry/bring do in.this.way+I-AG/I consort-dance go(away/down) JUS) Carrying our silver bags on our shoulders and taking our silver scabbards with us, let us (ND.IN) go together to do the 31 Harmony dance. Zum31-go35 sat5 am55 bue . (consort-dance kill PFM P+I) The Harmony dance has been spoilt. b n. referring to the Menau festival as a whole, given the fact that the Harmony dance is the most 31 important part of it; Nang31 Zum31-go35 a1-ye31 ra luq1? (2SG consortdance NEG-go(away/down) need+I Y/N) Are you (SG) going to go to the Menau festival? Vide go35 and Me1nau11/Me5nau11 Zum31-go35. zum31-tang31 (stairs1-stairs2) n+n. stairs, ladder; zum31-tang31 le1-lvum11 (stairs1-stairs2 one-lump) a/one set of stairs, a/one ladder; zum31-tang31 le1-mvak5 (stairs1-stairs2 one-(make).step) a/one step of a stairway; Zum31-tang31 zvam55-aq5. (stairs1-stairs2 put.up/erect-SIM) Set (SG) the stairs. zum35 I (pair) a n. pair; sau55-hai11 le1-zum35 (shoe-shoe one-pair) a/one pair of shoes; b in (woq1-)gan11-zum35 ((weave-)loom-pair) n+n+n. paired weaving-loom; cf. vide kon55/hon55 spec. n. one of a pair. zum35 II (shed3) a n. little house or shed in the field; also yo31-zang31; b in ki1-zum35; cf. zvi31. zvum55 (make.a.pair) vt. make a pair; (The following sentence is spoken whilst offering a single chopstick:) Ngvyo31, hi31-eq5 zvum55-aq5. ((offering) this-COM make.a.pair-SIM) Here, make (SG) a pair of it with this. in dai31 zvum55 (speak(ipf) make.a.pair) vt+vt. insinuate that two people should become a couple; Le1-gam35-eq5 Me1-gvoq5 r55 nga35-moq1eq1 dai31 zvum31 gvyop5. ((male)-eld-brother-COM (female)-eld-sister

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    make.a.pair(ipf) tuck.away) We are always insinuating that eldest brother and eldest sister should become a couple. zun11 (move.while.seated*) allomorph of zut1. zun11zun11 [unaccountably.loose.temper] ideophone expressing the notion of suddenly or unaccountably losing one’s temper; Ke5-nap1 ge11 zun11zun11 ze1-ga31 r55. (before-morning TOP [unaccountably.loose.temper] only-perceive(ipf) PE) This morning I suddenly lost my temper. zun31 I n. hawk, bird of prey (sp. du11). zun31 II (shrimp) in bau11-zun31. zun31-gvyang11 (bird.of.prey-no.gloss) n. small type of bird of prey. zun31ngyau31 n. kind of bird, rather rare, its name is an imitation of its song. zun35 vi/vt. cast side-glances, look wry, look askance/askew at someone; 31 Ne1-lo11 i55-du11 zun35 lum31 dvo31 a1-gvo . (cattle-tiger/bull two-being (ipf) (ipf) cast.side-glances reciprocal place(vt) nom-PL+I) These two bulls are casting side-glances at each other. Vide myoq1-zun35 (zun35). zung11 (axe) bound form n. ‘axe’; in we5-zung11 (bamboo-axe) n+n. ‘axe’ and zung11-loq5 (axe-hand/arm) n+n. handle of an axe. zvung11 (put.on) vt. (shoes, socks, hats, etc.:) put on, wear; Mo35-za35 zvung11-aq5. (AUG-knitwork put.on-SIM) Put on your (SG) socks. 31 Replied by: Ngo31 zvung31 dvo31 lye . (1SG put.on(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) 31 also+I) I’m wearing them already. Ngo31 muq1-gvyup5 zvung11 ra . (1SG headgear-wear.on.head put.on need+I) I have to wear a cap/hat. 31 Nang31 nam35bat5 ke5-mvyo55 lvum11 zvung31 lye ? (2SG number Q(ipf) much(B) lump put.on also+I) What’s the size of your (SG) shoes? Zvung31 zvyam11 wu35-aq5. (put.on(ipf) try(ipf) look-SIM) (shoes:) Try (SG) these on. Vide ki31-zvung11. Vide wut1 for an overview of other verbs and expressions for putting on/off or wearing clothes, shoes, glasses etc. zung11-loq5 (axe-hand/arm) n+n. handle of an axe. zvung31 (set(vt)) (vide 13.4) vt. (inanimate objects that are long and upright) set, put somewhere; Dvang55kuq5 zvung11 dvo11-aq5. (stool/chair set(vt)(ipf) place(vt)-SIM) Put (SG) the stool/chair there. Cf. zung31 vi. sit (13.4); cf. dvam31 vt. set table. zung31 I n. pile, vt. pile up; guq1-zung31 zung31 (unhusked.rice-pile.up pile.up) n+vt. pile up unhusked rice; u1-zung31 zung31(head-pile.up pile.up) n+vt. put / wear one’s hair in a bun; vide ki1-zung31; cf. zung31 vi. sit. zung31 II a vi. sit; Yvum31-kau31 me55 lo35 zung31-aq1. (house-inside LOC go(back/up) sit-SIM) Go up (SG) and sit down inside the living-room. OBJ 1PO-party-AG/I speak

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    Yvang11 r55 bi11 zung31-aq1. (3SG OBJ give sit-SIM) Offer (SG) her a seat. b vt. sit on; Nga35 mau11sau11 ke5-zung31 bvyen11. (1PO paper/book PHBsit flatten/dent(vt)) Don’t sit on my book(s). Dvang55kuq5 hi31 ge11 zung31 a1-ngon35. (stool/chair this TOP sit NEG-pleasant) This stool/chair doesn’t sit comfortably. c in gvun11 zung31; vide gvun11 zung31, zung11byeq5 byeq1; vide dvyep5dvyep5, tyep5-tyep5, yvep5yvep5, zvyum11; cf. zung31 n. pile; vt. pile up. zung31-ngung11 ngung11 (sit-squat squat) n+vi. squat; Nang31 ha55-me55 zung31-ngung11 ngung11-aq5. (2SG the/that-LOC sit-squat squat-SIM) Squat (SG) down. Ngo31 zung31-ngung11 a1-wo35 ngung11. (1SG sit-squat NEG-have squat) I can’t squat. zung35 vt. keep an eye on; Kui11-mvi55 r55 zung35 dvo11 gveq5, kui11-zo54 zang11 lu35 zo31 r55. (dog-female OBJ keep.an.eye.on place(vt) PLIM dogchild+FCT rice/food rob eat(ipf) PE) Keep (PL) an eye on the she-dog, she robs the food of the little dog. Ngo31 hi31 A5-zvi55 A5-wvoi55-e55 a1-bat1 31 31 yun11-mang11 zung35 dvo31 lye -o . (1SG this nom-grandfather nomfather’s.mother-FCT NEG-beat gong2-aged keep.an.eye.on place(vt)(ipf) also+I-HIGH+I) I’m keeping an eye on grandfather’s and grandmother’s gong, which should not be beaten on. Vide ne1-zung35 (n+vt.) vi. tend cattle; cf. zong31. zung11-byeq5 byeq1 (sit(ipf)-tight.to.the.ground tight.to.the.ground) n+v. sit cross-legged; Zung31-ngung11 ngung31 r11 a1-ngon35 zyang35 zung11byeq5 bye11-aq1. (sit-squat squat(ipf) also NEG-pleasant CD sit(ipf)tight.to.the.ground tight.to.the.ground*-SIM) If squatting (also) feels uncomfortable, why don’t you (SG) sit cross-legged. zup1 / zup5 (come.together) a n. in zup1-pong11 n. meeting; b n. place where roads, dales or rivers meet; vide kyo31-zup5 (road-come.together) n+n. place where roads meet; mun31-zup5 (upper.course-come.together) n+n. place where two dales meet; wui31-zup5 (water-come.together) n+n. place where two rivers meet; c vi. meet, come together; Naq1-min31 dum11 zup1 syang55. (tomorrow-evening again come.together JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) come together again tomorrow evening. Cf. kyum31; cf. Jingpo zup (Xu et al. 1983: 913). zup1-pong11 / zup5-pong11 (come.together-meeting) n. meeting (sp. 31 dam31) Zup1-pong11 hau31 ge11 ngo31 r11 lom31 ra . (come.togethermeeting the/that TOP 1SG also attend need+I) I will also participate in that meeting. Cf. Jingpo hpong and zuphpong (Xu et al. 1983: 282, 913). zvup5 a n. ‘fist’ and b vt. ‘clench fist’; in loq1-zvup5 zvup5 (hand/arm(clench).fist (clench).fist) n+vt. clench fist. Loq1-zvup5 zvum31-aq1. (hand/arm-(clench).fist (clench).fist*-SIM) Clench (SG) a fist. c n.

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    handfull; in le1-zvup5-mo35 (one-(clench).fist-AUG) a/one handfull; d in le1-zvup5 (one-(clench).fist) (as large as fits inside) the distance between thumb and index finger. Nang35 loq1-yin31 nga35 le1-zvup5 bo11 r55. (2SG.PO hand/arm-lower 1PO one-(clench).fist contain(ipf) PE) Your (SG) lower arm is as thick as the distance between my thumb and index finger. Vide tui55. 1 zuq (inserted) vi. (needles, nails etc.:) be inserted; A1-zuq1-o31 sek5 dye31 tan11 r55. (NEG-inserted-HIGH+I tree too hard(ipf) PE) The nail isn’t in, the wood is too hard. Ap5 a1-zuq1 luq1? (needle NEG-inserted Y/N) Is the needle in? Cf. zvuq5 vt. insert. zvuq5 I (insert) a vt. (needles, nails, etc.:) insert; Ap5 ha55-me55 zvuq5 dvo11aq5. (needle the/that-LOC insert place(vt)-SIM) Insert (SG) the needle there. Tau31 zvu31-aq1. (sew/insert(ipf) insert*-SIM) Insert (SG) it. Mai11na31 bat1 zvu31-aq1. (nail/pin beat insert*-SIM) Hammer (SG) the nail in. b vt. (chairs, tables, houses, rafts, etc.:) build or make by fitting 31 tenons into mortises; Gu35 zvuq5 lye . (bed insert also+I) I am making a bed by fitting tenons into mortises. Vide yvum31-zvuq5 zvuq5; cf. suq5 vt. secure, cf. zuq1 vi. be inserted. zvuq5 II vt. suspect someone of doing something; Nga35-moq1 yvang11 r55 31 zvuq5 lye . (1PO-party 3SG OBJ suspect also+I) We (ND.EX) are suspecting him. kau11-zvuq5 (steal-suspect) n. suspect of theft. 1 zut / zun11 (move.while.seated) vi. move oneself whilst being seated; Byam11 zun11-aq1. (jump(ipf) move.while.seated*-SIM) Please scoot over (SG) a little. Le1-zvui55 zut1 wang11 lo31-aq1. (one-bit move.while.seated enter(ipf) come(back/up)-SIM) Move your (SG) chair closer to the table. 31 Ka55-pyang31 zut1 ye11 lo35 lye ? (Q-DIR move.while.seated (ipf) go(away/down) go(back/up) also+I) Watch out where you’re moving your chair. zvut5 (lung) in zvut5-pom31 or seng11-zvut5 n. lungs. zvut5-pom31 (lung-spongy) n+adj. the lungs. zya11yoq1 n. dynamite, from Chinese 炸药 zhàyào; Zya11yoq1 ning31! ga11 31 buq1 bue . (dynamite [sound.of.explosion] perceive explode(vi) P+I) The dynamite exploded with a big bang. zyai11 (ch.20) exclamatory expression to feelings of regret etc., used in 31 songs; Zyai11-ei yvum31-mau11 lo35 nvau11 ra55. ((regretting)-EXCL+I house-native.land go(back/up) feel.like(ipf) PE) Oh, how I want to return to my native land! Cf. Jingpo ja (Xu et al. 1983: 326). zyai35 vt. return, give back; Zyai35-aq5. (give.back-SIM) Give (SG) it back.

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    zyak1 n. machine, engine; Zyak1 tyen31 byuq1 bue31. (engine wrecked(ipf) lose P+I) The machine/engine is wrecked. Cf. Jingpo jak (Xu et al. 1983:

    337).

    zyak1-rung31 (engine-institution) n. factory; cf. Jingpo jak rung (Xu et al. 1983: 337).

    zyak1-tong11 (engine-bamboo.banging.toy) n. (a kind of toy:) “machine” version of the tong11. -zvyam11 (water) suffixed n. water; in i1-zvyam11 n+n. water (usually unboiled); Zaiwa has four morphemes glossed ‘water’: -bu11, i1-/i11, wui31- and -zvyam11. All of them are bound forms, exept i11 in the meaning of ‘urine’. zyam11 I (fiddle) in ge1-zyam11. zyam11 II (make.ceremonial.gruel) vide ge1zyam11 and mi11-sek5 ge1zyam11. zvyam31 (try) (15.33) a vt. try, taste; b aux. ‘try to do V’; cf. Jingpo chyam ‘try’ (Xu et al. 1983: 85). zyam31 (mirror) only in man31-zyam31 and wup1-zyam31. zyan11 I (add*) allomorph of zyat1 vt. add. zyan11 II (endure) a vt. (sleepiness, hunger, anger etc.:) endure, resist against; (sleep, food) go without; Ngo31 zo31-mut5 a1-wo35 zyan11 loq1. (1SG eat#-hungry NEG-have endure no.more) I can no longer put up with being hungry. Yvang11 yvup5 zyaq1 wo35 zyan31 r55. (3SG sleep rather have endure(ipf) PE) He can do well without sleep. Ngo31 a1hang31 31 mai11 zyan31 dvo11 bue . (1SG just.now ABL endure(ipf) place(vt) P+I) Just now I was already restraining myself. Zit1 nvau31 gu54 zyan31 dvo31 31 lye . (pee feel.like PART +FCT endure(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I) I had to pee all the time, but I kept on holding my water. b bound form n. ‘urge to’, used together with zyan11 as a verb; Ngo31 zang11-zyan11 a1-wo35 zyan11. (1SG rice/food-endure NEG-have endure) I can’t do without food. (So let’s take some with us). Ngo31 yvup5-zyan11 a1-wo35 zyan11, nung35-moq1 ngi11-gvun55 gveq5. (1SG sleep-endure NEG-have endure (ipf) 2PL-party be.there(anim) -play PLIM) I can’t do without sleep, you (PL) please play for yourselves (whilst I go to sleep). c in mi1-zyan11 (fire-endure) n+n. war; vide mi1-zyan11. zyan35 (wife) nominal suffix ‘the wife of’; Le1-bang11-zyan35 (one-(name)31 wife) Lebang’s wife; Nang31 ka55-hu55 zyan35 ngvut5 lye ? (2SG Q-sort wife be also+I) The wife of which family are you? Vide o55-zyan35. Vide hang55 for an overview of words related to marriage and wedding. Zyan35ku55 n. the Sun God. zvyang11 (stretch.out) a vt. stretch out; Ki31 zvyang11-aq5. (leg/foot stretch.out-SIM) Stretch your (SG) legs. b vi. extend over a wide area;

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    Weng11-tang31 zvyang31 ye11 lo35 syang55. (foothills-foothills stretch.out(ipf) go(away/down)(ipf) go(back/up) JUS) Let us (ND .IN) go and spread ourselves out like the foothills. (Vide song …) Cf. ngyang35, ngvyang31 and zyen35. zyang11 (place(B)) (9.32.7) nominalizer a after vt. ‘place to’ b after vi. ‘place that’; cf. zi1wo31 n. place. zyang11-gyu35 (place(B)-(terrain).level) (9.32.7) (n+adj.) n. flat terrain; 31 Zyang11-gyu35 zye35 bue . (place(B)-(terrain).level arrive P+I) We have reached flat terrain. Zyang11-gyu35 gyu35 dik1 r55. (place(B)-(terrain).level (terrain).level extreme PE) The terrain here is very flat. Cf. ra35. Zyang11mo35 a family name; cf. Jingpo Jangmo (Xu et al. 1983: 970). zyang11ngyang11 n. kind of plant, possibly kudzu vine; cf. Jingpo jangnyang (Xu et al. 1983: 340). zyang31 (in.passing) (16.36) adv. ‘do V in passing’, ‘do V whilst aready in action’. zyang31gvon11 n. termite. zyang31gvon11-um31 (termite-insect.hill) n+n. termite hill. zyang31gvung11 n. Jew’s harp (sp. lvum11); Zyang31gvung11 ban11-aq1. (Jew’s.harp beat*-SIM) Play (SG) the Jew’s harp. zyang35 I (CD) (17.16) the conditional clause marker ‘if’, ‘when’, ‘as soon as’. zyang35 II n. (printed) stamp; probably from Chinese 章 zhāng. Zyang35 dok5 bi11 raq5. (printed.stamp stamp (V) give VO) Give me a stamp here. zyang35 III (wax.gourd) in hum31-zyang35. zyang35-syeq1 (CD-au.contraire) (17.16) a a conjunction; b a stopgap. zvyang55 (near) (9.18.4) a adj. be nearby; b orientational suffix; le1-dvu11 zvyang55 ((male)-4th-brother(GEN) near) fourth brother’s place; A5-wa31 zvyang55 lo31-aq1. (nom-Dad(GEN) near come(back/up)-SIM) Come (SG) to Daddy. Cf. a1-zvyang55. zyap1 I (Chinese.prickly.ash) in zyap1-si11. zyap1 / zyap5 II (chop.up) a n. (food etc.:) fine piece, as a result of 31 31 chopping; Syo11 hau31 ge11 le1-zyap1 le1-yuq1 dut1 bue ga . (meat the/that TOP one-chop.up one-person become P+I perceive+I) Every bit of that flesh had changed into a human being. si1-zyap5 (meat-chop.up) 31 n. chopped meat; Byu31 dut5-me55-dut1 ma54 hau31 si1-zyap5 hau31 bue . (man/woman become-LOC-become LOC+FCT the/that meat-chop.up the/that P+I) Whatever people, they all stem from these pieces of flesh. b n. piece of food left in the mouth; Nang31 zui31 me55 ang11-noq5-zyap1 dap1 dvo31 r55. (2SG tooth LOC petiole-black-chop.up be.attached place(vt)(ipf) PE) You have some pieces of black mustard on your teeth. /

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    There is black mustard stuck between your teeth. c vt. chop up into fine pieces; Waq1-zang11 zyap1 zvai55-zvai55-aq5. (pig-rice/food chop.up finefine-SIM) Chop (SG) the pig’s fodder very fine. d vt. (people) chop down (rather crually); O55 r55 r11 lo35 zyap1 bvyam55. (who OBJ also go(back/up) chop.up rid.of) He chopped down everyone. Vide zan11 for an overview of verbs for cutting, hewing, slicing, chopping, slashing, etc. zyap1-si11 (Chinese.prickly.ash-fruit) n. Chinese prickly ash, 花椒 huājiāo; Zyap1-si11 wat1 dik1 r55. (Chinese.prickly.ash-fruit tingle extreme PE) This Chinese prickly ash gives quite a tingling sensation. zyap1-si11-mun31 (Chinese.prickly.ash-fruit-powder) n. Chinese prickly ash powder. zvyap5 (squeeze/tight) a vi. be tight, be squeezy; Byu31 zvyap5 dik1 r55. (man/woman squeeze/tight extreme PE) (in a bus etc.:) It’s very 31 crowded. Mo35do35 a1-ngo11 loq1, dye31 zvyap5 bue . (car NEG-fit no.more too squeeze/tight P+I) The car doesn’t fit too us. It’s too squeezy. Sau55-hai11 zvyap5 dik1 r55. (shoe-shoe squeeze/tight extreme (ipf) PE) These shoes are very tight. Dye31 ho31 zvyap5 r55. (too cultivate squeeze/tight PE) These plants grow to closely together. b vt. squeeze inside; zvyap5 lvung55 (squeeze/tight let.inside) vt+vt. force something into a crack; Zvyap5 wang31-aq1. (squeeze/tight enter-SIM) (into a crowded bus:) Squeeze yourself (SG) inside. Vide zui31-zvyap5-tau11zue31. zyaq1 (rather) (16.35) adv. rather. zyat1 vt. add; I1-zyum11 le1-zvui55 sai31 zyan11-aq1. (water-salt one-bit redo(ipf) add*-SIM) Add (SG) some more salt. Le1-zvui55 zyat1 bi11 raq5. (one-bit add give VO) Add a little more, please. Cf. gya35 and nam35. Cf. Jingpo jat (Xu et al. 1983: 345). zvyat5 (all) (16.34) adv. all; Hi55-bvue55 nga35 zvyat5 ngvut5 lye31. (this-PLN 1PO all be also+I) These are all mine. Cf. kyom11. zyau11gong11 n. hunter; vide syo11 for an overview of hunting terms. zyau11lam11 (idler) n. tramp, vagrant, someone who roams about doing nothing. zyau11wong11 n. incest; cf. Jingpo jaiwong (Xu et al. 1983: 337). zyau31 n. market; Ngo11-ngi35 le1-zyau31. (five-day one-market) The market 31 is every five days. Naq1-ma35 zyau31 bue . (tomorrow-LOC market P+I) 31 The market is tomorrow. Cf. gai and kap5. zyau35 I (early) a vi. early; Zyau35 a1-si31, a1-king11 si1-gvoq1. (early nomstill+I NEG-halt/rest still-DIE) It’s still early, let’s (DU) not rest yet. b used adverbially in zyau35-mai11. Cf. Jingpo jau (Xu et al. 1983: 345).

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    zyau35 II (serve) a vt. (food, drink:) serve; Ngo31 i31-pue11 zyau35 be55 nang31 ge1lu11 zyau35-aq5. (1SG distilled-booze serve EE 2SG sweets serve-SIM) I’ll serve the liquor, you (SG) serve the sweets. b vt. (spirits:) keep; Ka5531 hu55 nat1 zyau35 a1-gvo ? (Q-sort spirit serve nom-PL+I) What spirits do 31 1 you (PL) keep? Saq wa11 zi1tung11 a5rvang55 zyau35 lye . (spirit.type spirit.type etcetera serve also+I) We are keeping saqwa and zitung spirits and-so-on. Cf. bau35 vt. foster (orphans, old people) and ruem35 n+vt. keep spirits. Cf. Jingpo jau (Xu et al. 1983: 345). zyau35-mai11 (early-ABL) adv. a bit earlier, some time ago; Bin11 wue11 so31 31 lye , zyau35-mai11 so11 syang55. (way far walk(ipf) also+I early-ABL walk JUS) It’s a long journey. Let’s (ND .IN) leave early. Zyau35-mai11 zo11 31 bue . (early-ABL eat P+I) I ate some time ago. zye11 (exceed) (16.47) a vi. flood, vide wui31-zye11 (zye11); b superlative adverb ‘most’; zye11 tang31 kun11 (exceed behind sentence(N)) the last sentence. Cf. Jingpo je ‘(even) more …’, ‘the more …’ which much resembles Zaiwa zye11 as an adverb (Xu et al. 1983: 347). 31 zye zyu31 (merit) in Zye31zyu31 gvo11 bue31. (merit big P+I) Thank you. 31 Also: A1gvyu31 gvo11 bue . (merit big P+I) Thank you. 35 zye (arrive) vt. arrive at a certain place or time; Bum31-zvyung31 zye35 31 bue . (heap(vt/N)-top arrive P+I) We’ve reached the top of the hill. 31 Min35 zye35 bue . (night-time arrive P+I) It has become evening. 55 zvye (cleave.in.one.blow) vt. cleave in one blow; Le1-dam31-dvaq5 a1-wo35 zvye31 pit5. (one-time(Sp)-suddenly NEG-have cleave.in.one.blow(ipf) cut.in.two) It cannot be cleaved in one blow. Cf. zik1. zyem11 (close) a vi. (friends, relatives:) be close; Yvang11-eq5 yvang11 zye11 zyem31 r55. (3SG-COM 3SG exceed close(ipf) PE) Those two are best friends. Yvang11-eq5 yvang11 a1-zyem11. (3SG-COM 3SG NEG-close) These two are not very close with each other. b adj. close, in zyem11zyem11 adv. (friends, relatives) very close; I5-nvung55 ge11 bui31num31 zyem11-zyem11. (SPEC-1ND.IN TOP family close-close) We (ND.IN) are close relatives. Cf. Jingpo jemjem (Xu et al. 1983: 347). zyen35 (stretch) a vt. stretch; Bu11 ngvyung31 byuq1 bue31, lang31 zyen35 gvan31-aq1. (clothes shrink(ipf) lose P+I pull/yank(ipf) stretch put.into*SIM) The clothes have shrunk, stretch (SG) them out. b vt. stretch legs, in ki31-zyen35 zyen35 n+vt. stand on toes; Ki31-zyen35 zyen35-aq5. (leg/footstretch stretch-SIM) Go stand on your (SG) toes. c vi. slack; Nga35 za3531 tu31-bu11 zyen35 byuq1 bue . (1PO knitwork-(make).thick-clothes stretch lose P+I) My sweater has become slack. d adj. in zyen35-zyen35 adv. very straight; Le1go11 zyen35-zyen35 lang11-aq5 ma11. (well stretch-stretch

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    pull/yank-SIM ROUS) Pull (SG) them (the clothes) well straight. Cf. ngyang35, ngyang31, ngvyang31 and zvyang11. zyeq1 (broken) a vi. be broken, worn out, etc. more or less by itself or as a 31 matter of fact; Sau55-hai11 zyeq1 byuq1 bue . (shoe-shoe broken lose P+I) These shoes are broken/worn out. Mau11sau11 le1-dvong55-zo11 zyeq1 31 byuq1 bue . (paper/book one-patch-child broken lose P+I) There’s a piece missing from this paper/book. b vi. be inflamed; Yvang11 bau35 zyeq1 lo25. (3SG just broken come(back/up)+FCT) It became inflamed by itself. Cf. tyen11 vi. be wrecked; vi. be spoilt, be bug-eaten; vt. wreck. zyet1 adj. pure; only attested in heng31-zyet1 n+adj. real gold. zyo11 I (right) a vi. be right, be correct; A1-zyo11 luq1? (NEG-right Y/N) Is that right? Replied by: Zyo31 r55. (right(ipf) PE) (Yes, it’s) right. Nang31 a5-se55 gvut5-n55 ge11 a1-zyo11. (2SG nom-like do-FCT TOP NEG-right) The way you (SG) do this is not right. b in the expression a1-zyo11 loq1 31 (NEG-right no.more) wrecked!; A55! ki11 nang31 bvyen11 bue , a1-zyo11 (ipf) 1 loq . (Aah! faeces tread flatten/dent(vt) P+I NEG-right no.more) Aah! I have stepped into shit, wrecked! Cf. gue31 (all.right) and yo31 (right). Cf. Jingpo jo (Xu et al. 1983: 352). zyo11 II (tickle(vt)2) vide ge1-zyo11. zvyo31 I (cook*) allomorph of zvyoq5. zvyo31 II n. spoon; cf. gvak5 n. large spoon. zyo31bva55 n. fried sticky rice cakes, often eaten with brown cane sugar; cf. Chinese 粑粑 bābā; also zyo31syoq5. 31 zyo gvik5 n. rust; Zyo31gvik5 zui11 bue31. (rust bear.fruit P+I) It is rusted. 31 Zyo31gvik5 zui31 byuq1 bue . (rust bear.fruit(ipf) lose P+I) It has become rusted. zyo31kyang55 n. sparrow. zyo31syoq5 n. fried sticky rice cakes, often eaten with brown cane sugar; zyo31syoq5 le1-long11 (rice.cake one-slice/plate) a/one rice cake; also zyo31syoq5 le1-bvyen55 (rice.cake one-flat/slice) a/one rice cake; Zyo31syoq5 bvyen55 syang55. (rice.cake flat/slice JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) flatten rice cakes. Also zyo31bva55. zvyo31-zo11 (spoon-child) n+adj. small spoon (sp. lvum11). zyo35 (fox) only in hui31-zyo35 (sallow-fox) n. fox. zvyoi11 vi. be beautiful; Yvang55-moq1 noq1 zyang35-syeq1 zvyoi11 bun31 r55, pyu31 zyang35 a1-zvyoi11 bun11. (3PL-party black CD-au.contraire beautiful awake(ipf) PE white CD NEG-beautiful awake) They (PL) consider brown as beautiful and white as not beautiful. Lva55-mo35 zvo11 zvyoi31 dik1 r55. (moon-AUG shine(ipf) beautiful(ipf) extreme PE ) The moon

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    433

    is shining beautifully. Cf. yung35; vide i1sat1; cf. Jingpo chyoi (Xu et al. 1983: 95). zyoi35 vt. thread; Hai11-bvi55 zyoi35 lye31. (shoe-string thread(vt) also+I) I’m lacing up my shoes. Mai35roi35-eq1 syo11 zyoi35-aq5. (string.for.threadingAG/I meat thread(vt)-SIM) Tie (SG) the meat together with a string. ap5 zyoi35 (needle thread(vt)) n+vt. thread a needle; cf. Jingpo joi (Xu et al. 1983: 353). zyok5 n. packet; le1-zyok5 (one-packet) a/one packet, larger than le1-zvyuq5(zo11) (one-tie(-child)) and smaller than le1-gyeq1 (one-parcel); do11fu31zyok5 (bean.curd-packet) n. packet of bean curd; Cf. Jingpo chyok (Xu et al. 1983: 95). zvyom31 (ring*) allomorph of zvyop5. zyong11 n. school; cf. Jingpo jong (Xu et al. 1983: 354). zyong11 mvoq5 (school learn/teach) n+vt. teach (at a school). zyong11 pong55 (school open(vt)) n+vt. start classes (the new year); cf. zyong11-dat1 dat1. zyong11-dat1 dat (school-(have).holiday (have).holiday) n+vt. be a 31 holiday, have holiday; Zyong11-dat1 dat1 bue . It’s a holiday now. 5 11 zyong -doq (school-go.up) n+vi. go to school, also zyong11 doq1. zyong11-gok5 (school-room) n. classroom. zyong11-gvong11 (school-hill) (toponym) ‘School hill’, in Loilung. zyong11-zo11 (school-child) n+n. schoolchild. zyong35 (cover(N)) a n. quilt, in be1-zyong35 n+n. ‘quilt’ and mue31-zyong35 n+n. ‘quilt’ (sp. dung11); b n. umbrella (sp. lvum11); cf. mau11sau11gvyap5 (paper/book-shell/crust) n+n. book cover. Cf. Jingpo jong ‘umbrella’ (Xu et al. 1983: 354). zvyop5 I (chip/chipped) a vi. be chipped; Gom35 zvyop5 byuq1 bue31. (mug dent/dented lose P+I) The mug is chipped. b vt. chip; Gom35 (lvoq5) 31 zvyop5 am55 bue . (mug (ACT) dent/dented PFM P+I) Someone chipped the mug. Cf. bvyen11 vt. flatten, dent; bvyet1 adj. dented; kang11 vi. (knife) be notched, be dented; ngvyop5 vt. dent. zvyop5 / zvyom31 II (ring) a n. ring, in loq1-zvyop5 (hand/arm-ring) n+n. ring; heng31 loq1-zvyop5 n. golden ring; b vt. put on / wear a ring, put the top on (more lit: ‘around’) a pen; Loq1-zvyop5 zvyom31-aq1. (hand/armring ring*-SIM) Put on / wear (SG) your ring. Bvong55dvin55-mvi11 zvyop5 dvo11-aq5. (pen-close(vt) ring place(vt)-SIM) Put (SG) the top back on the pen. Vide wut1 for an overview of other verbs and expressions for putting on/off or wearing clothes, shoes, glasses etc. Cf. Jingpo chyop (Xu et al. 1983: 96).

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    zyoq1 / zyoq5 I (be.there(inan)) (13.2) inanimate objects: be there, exist; cf. ngi31 vi. be there (animate); b spec. noun for tables with dishes; I5531 sue11-ngo11-zyoq5 o31 ra . (two-ten(GEN)-five-be.there(inan) want/take need+I) We’ll have 25 tables with dishes. zyoq1 II (cockscomb) in (woq1-po55) zyoq1-ban11. zyoq1 III in zyoq1-hui31 and related forms. zyoq1-ban11 (cockscomb-flower) n+n. comb, cockscomb; cf. Jingpo joban (Xu et al. 1983: 352). zyoq1bvoi55 (bvoi55); zyoq1bvoi55 n. hair tie; zyoq1bvoi55 bvoi55 n+vt. tie 31 hair back; Zyoq1bvoi55 bvoi31 lye . ((hair).tie (hair).tie(ipf) also+I) I’m tying my hair back. Cf. Jingpo jo (Xu et al. 1983: 352). zyoq1bvoi55-zo11 ((hair).tie-child) n+adj. small hair tie. zyoq1-hui31-bo35 (flower.name-sallow-open.itself) n. kind of flower, both used as medicine and for colouring. zyoq1-hui31-zang11 (flower.name-sallow-rice/food) n. rice coloured with zyoqhui flowers; Zyoq1-hui31-zang11 ngvyui31 zo11 syang55. (flower.name-sallow-rice/food dye eat JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) eat yellow rice. (Lit.:) Let’s (ND.IN) colour the rice with zyoqhui and eat it. zvyoq5 / zvyo31 (cook) a vt. cook (in water); often with ngyoq1 vi. ‘be done, cooked’ and ngvyoq5 vt. ‘make done, make well cooked’; Zvyoq5 31 ge11 zvyoq5 bue , a1-ngyoq1 siq1. (cook TOP cook P+I NEG-done still) It has cooked but it is not done yet. Sun11 le1go11 zvyoq5 ngvyoq5 gveq5-o55. (veg/dish well cook make.done PLIM-HIGH) Make (PL) this dish very 31 well done. Ke5-mvyang55 zvyoq5 be1-gvo ? (Q-(time).long (B) cook PPL+I) How long has it been cooking? b vt. cook, prepare things to eat; after zang11 n. rice/food, sun11 n. vegetable/dish or zang11-sun11 31 (rice/food-veg/dish) n+n. dish; Nang31 zang11 dat1 zvyoq5 lye luq1? (2SG rice/food able cook also+I Y/N) Can you (SG) cook? (Do you know how to cook?) Cf. bvun11 (cook.in.bamboo), lik1 vt. cover a pan in order to increase heat; vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. zvyoq5 zo11 (cook eat) vt+vt. a eat a dish cooked in water; b cook, prepare things to eat; vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. zyui11 vt. rinse; Gom35 zyui31 am55-aq5. (mug rinse(ipf) PFM-SIM) Rinse (SG) out the mug. nvut5 zyui11 (mouth rinse) n+vt. wash face and/or brush teeth. Cf. ci11/si11 vt. wash. zyui35 (peep) in zyui35 wu35. zyui35 wu35 (peep look) vt+vt. peep (through chinks etc.:); take a peep; Be1zyui35 wu35 gvat5 wu35-aq5. (help-peep look put.into look- SIM) Come (SG) take a peep with me/us and see. Hum55-dong11 mai11 a1-zyui35 wu35

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    po11. (door-(have)hole ABL NEG-peep look INO) It is no good to peep through chinks in the door. zvyui55 (clean/complete) a adj. be bald on top of the head; u1-zvyui55 (headclean/complete) n+adj. head which is bald on top; b vi. be bald on top of 31 the head; U1-zvyui55 zvyui31 dik1 bue . (head-clean/complete (ipf) clean/complete extreme P+I) He is rather bald on top of the head. c vi. be sweeped clean; Mi1-zvue11 zvyui55-zvyui55 got1 am55 gveq5. (earth-soil clean/complete-clean/complete scoop(vt) PFM PLIM) Sweep (PL) this earth off entirely. zvyuk5 (tickle(vt)3) vide ge1-zvyuk5 /ge5-zvyuk5. zvyum11 (legs.tight) vt. keep the legs tight; Ki31 zvyum11-aq5. (leg/foot legs.tight-SIM) Keep your (SG) legs tight. Nang31 le1-zvui55 zvyum31 zung31-aq1. (2SG one-bit legs.tight(ipf) sit-SIM) Please sit (SG) more tightly. zyum11 I (raw) adj. raw; sek5-zyum11 (tree-raw) n+adj. recently cut wood; si1-zyum11 (meat-raw) n+adj. raw meat; vide a1-zyum11 sing55. zyum11 II (salt) in i1-zyum11 and zyum11-dui11. zyum11-dui11 (salt-[sweet]) n+ideoph. white sugar (lit.: sweet salt, something like salt but sweet); cf. nam31oi11 n. brown sugar; pung11syui31 n. sugar cane; vide dui11. zvyum31 (present(N)) in zvyum31-hu55. zyum31 I (catch/wring.out*) allomorph of zyup5. zyum31 II (crowd) n. crowd (of people), group or swarm (of animals); myuq1-zyum31 (monkey-crowd) n. group of monkeys; vide le1-zyum31mo35. zyum31 III vt. dip (in dip sauce); Nam31zyam31 me55 zyum31-aq1. (dip.sauce LOC dip(vt)-SIM) Dip (SG) it in the dip sauce. zyum31 zo11 (dip(vt) eat) vt+vt. eat with dip sauce; Ang11-noq5 zyum31 zo11 syang55. (petiole-black dip(vt) eat JUS) Let’s (ND.IN) eat black mustard with dip sauce. Vide zo11 for an overview of Zaiwa cooking terms. zvyum31-hu55 (present(N)-sort) n. present; Zvyum31-hu55 bi35-ye11 lye31. (present(N)-sort give-go(away/down)(ipf) also+I) I’m going (away/down) to offer a present. zvyun11 (push) vt. push; Hum11 zvyun31 pong55-aq5. (door push(ipf) open(vt)SIM) Push (SG) the door open. Mo35do35 lye35 be1-zvyun11-aq5. (car come(away/down) help-push-SIM) Help (SG) us to push the car. Bvung31 le1-zvui55 zvyun31 hui31 gvan31-aq1. (bucket/jerrycan one-bit push(ipf) make.way/meet(ipf) put.into*-SIM) Push (SG) the bucket aside a bit. zyun31 (servant) in zyun31-zo11. zyun31-zo11 (servant-child) n+n. servant, slave.

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    zyun35 (support) vt. (old people etc.:) support, hold; Ngo31 nang31 r55 zyun35 hap5 lye35. (1SG 2SG OBJ support cross(vt) come(away/down)) Let me help you (SG) wade across the river. zyung11 / zyung31 (9.36) n. kind. zvyung31 n. top; in bum31-zvyung31 (heap(vt/N)-top) n+n. top of mountain/hill, u1-zvyung31 (head-top) n. crown, top (in the hair of the head). zyung31 I (kind) stressed variant of zyung11. zyung31 II (zebu) in ne1-zyung31 n. zebu. zvyup5 in hoi55-zvyup5 n. small type of water snail. zyup5 / zyum31 (catch/wring.out) a vt. (moving people, animals or objects) catch; I5-kat5 zyup5 lving11 r11 syeq1 a1-wo35 zyup5. (go-pursue catch/wring.out turn/roll(ipf) also au.contraire NEG-have catch/wring.out) She tried to catch them everywhere around her. But she couldn’t catch any. Bo11lung31 zyum31-aq1. (ball catch/wring.out*-SIM) Catch (SG) the ball. b vt. wring out; mue31-bu11 zyup5 (wrap-clothes catch/wring.out) n+vt. wring out clothes; c in nvut5-zyup5 zyup5 (mouth-catch/wring.out catch/wring.out) n+vt. kiss. zyuq1 n. vagina. zyuq1-dong11 (vagina-(have)hole) n+n. vagina. zyuq1-sui55 (vagina-sperm) n+n. whites. zvyuq5 (tie) a n. little packet; le1-zvyuq5(-zo11) (one-tie(-child)) n. a/one little packet; smaller than le1-gyeq1 (one-parcel) or le1-zyok5 (one-packet) a/one packet; Ngo31 r55 le1-zvyuq5-zo11 bi11 raq5. (1SG OBJ one-tie-child give VO) Make me a little packet of it. b vt. tie; Ngo31 r55 le1-zvui55-zo11 zvyuq5 bi11 raq5. (1SG OBJ one-bit-child tie give VO) Make me a packet with a little bit of it. sau55-hai11-dvui11 zvyuq5 (shoe-shoe-rope(N/vt) tie) 31 n+vt. tie shoestrings; I55-dam31 zvyuq5 ra . (two-time(Sp) tie need+I) You have to tie a double knot. zyut1 / zyut5 n. corner; Hau55-zyut1 me55 ho31-aq1. (the/that-corner LOC look.for-SIM) Look (SG) for it in that corner. Vide dap1-zyut1 and kum11zyut5. zvyut5 (slippery) vi. (roads etc.:) be slippery; Kyo31 zvyut5 r55 le1go11 so11aq5. (road slippery PE well walk-SIM) The road is slippery, so mind (SG) your step.

    TEXT ONE

    ON THE ZITUNG free translation This is a story about the zitung, like the zitung we have in our paddies downstream. It is a very long story! Long ago, when we human beings had come to live on the earth, there came a deluge. Our story begins there. It happened this way. Ninggonwa, the one who created the earth by beating it together came beating down. The nine Lewui brothers came to him, wanting to trick him, and they said, “Your wife is dead.” But Ninggonwa pretended indifference. “Really? I will have another wife then.” “Your father is dead,” they told him. “Then I will have another father.”2 “And your children are all dead.” “You are deceiving me!” he cried. And Ninggonwa, beater of the earth, came back to his own home, and found that all was well. Ninggonwa was very angry. “Lewui Brothers, you have deceived me, and I shall punish you! I will bring down the deluge, and flood you out!”

    2 My main informant Mopi remarked that the latter line should be: “There is no substitute for a father” and that the last two lines should come after the next two.

    438

    STORIES

    “Flood us, then. Go ahead! But we will build rafts, and we will make ships! We will take our hoes and dippers.” And the craft of shipbuilding had its origins then. Now in Ninggonwa’s family there were only two orphan children. To save them from the deluge, Ninggonwa had them put into a huge chest. Nine needles, nine crows, and nine cocks were put in with them. He told the children, “After the rain stops, you must throw down the nine needles. If you cannot hear them fall, you must stay in the chest. Then you must release the nine crows. If you cannot hear them cawing when they reach the ground, you must not yet alight from the chest. Then you can release the nine cocks. If you do not hear them crowing, you must not leave the chest.” “Whichever of the animals you release, you may leave the chest only when you hear it calling.” --The children sailed away; the rains came; the floodwaters covered the earth. And as the waters receded, the children threw down the nine needles; they released the nine crows; they released the nine cocks, all according to Ninggonwa’s instructions. And when they heard the nine cockerels crowing, the two children climbed out of the chest and began to wander over the earth. ---

    They had nowhere to go; there were no other human beings left. They felt very unhappy and ill-at-ease. Then they came to the house of the wild zitung, our One-eyed zitung, who was an evil spirit. The zitung went to fetch water, and the brother and sister followed him secretly, and listened. He was “tumbeng tumbeng” on his way, muttering about fetching water from a muddy hole in the ground to stew the orphans… In a flash, they were gone! They ran and ran, and finally took shelter in another house, the home of our home-zitung. But the wild zitung, the One-eyed, he was searching, following their tracks.

    ON THE ZITUNG

    439

    Now the home-zitung, whose name is Mekuq Kun, went out to fetch water, and the children followed him, listening. He went “bing bing” on his way singing about fetching lots of fresh water to care for the children. So they thought they could trust him, and they stayed with him, and made their home there together. Meanwhile, the wild zitung, the One-eyed, was still tracking them. He came to the house of Mekuq Kun. “Hey, there! Two of my people have come to your house!” “They didn’t come in here,” replied Mekuq Kun. “Their tracks lead to your house! You are deceiving me! ” Mekuq Kun quickly gave each of the children a handful of ashes, and rolled them into a hard mat. This mat, with the children inside, he laid on the upper smoking rack. “You are deceiving me!” roared the One-eyed. “I am not! Come in and see for yourself!” The One-eyed came in and began to search. But when he came to the smoking rack, Mekuq Kun barred his way, saying, “You cannot look in the upper smoking rack. Lebung of the upper smoking rack lives there. You may not disturb him.” And Lebung, the Gvuetoq of the upper smoking rack, began to exist from that time onwards. But the evil one did not listen to this, and just as he looked into the upper smoking rack, the children threw their fistfuls of ashes in his eyes. And that is how this evil zitung came to be called the One-eyed, because his other eye was blinded by the ashes. He rushed away, and left them in peace. After he was gone, the children remained in the house of Mekuq Kun. Now this is where the matter of incest first arose. For everything in our world is incestuous. Every human being is the result of incest. We are all the children and grandchildren of those two, and this is how it happened.

    440

    STORIES

    “Come, my two children, go and net me some fish,” said Mekuq Kun one day. Grandfather, what can we use instead of poison ivy?” He told them to use naqtam, naqtam instead of poison ivy. But wherever it touched their skin, they itched. They began scratching themselves, and then each other. The scratching becaming soft stroking, and led to more closeness… And so these two, brother and sister, made love, and incest exists from this time onwards. A child was born to them. Grandfather and grandmother (Mekuq Kun and his wife) were taking care of the child, while the parents were working on the land. But the child cried and cried. Grandfather finally threatened, “You, child, if you go on crying like this, I shall cut you in pieces and scatter you at the nine crossroads.!” The child was frightened and stopped crying, but after awhile he began again, and would not stop for days and days. Finally one day the grandfather did kill the child and chopped him in pieces. He prepared the organs and intestines for the parents to eat. Then he took the remains of the flesh to the nine crossroads and scattered it there. When the mother and father came back from the fields, they asked, “Grandpa, where is the child?” “Eat first; have your dinner first.” After the meal, the mother said, “Where is the child, grandfather? I want to nurse him.” “First wash the dishes.” When the dishes were washed, the mother said, “Where is the child, Grandfather? I want to feed him now.” “Your child! You have just eaten his liver and lungs! And If you want to see your child, go to the nine crossroads! Go and look there!” Ah, this is a long story, a long story. They went to the crossroads. Every bit of flesh from their child had turned into a human being. They were all dancing and swarming

    ON THE ZITUNG

    441

    about. The mother tried to catch them; she grasped everywhere around her, but she could not catch one. “If you were our mother, if you were our mother, we would come,” they cried. “But you are not our mother at all.” “But I am! I am your mother!” “No! You have eaten our organs and intestines!” “But I am still your mother!” The children took some to her. “If you are our mother, wash these coals white.” But she could not do it. They gave her a bamboo water dipper with holes in the bottom. “If you are our mother, fill this with water.” But she could not do this either. And so they all ran away. And this is how we came to be. All the people living on earth, we are all descended from those little pieces of flesh. And we are all born of the incest between those two children. The mother called after her children: “Hey, my children!” But she had failed the tests to prove that she was their mother. One day, [in her grief and anger] she stood at Kyungzo Springs and began kicking her weaving-loom. And out of this, the rainbow came to be, and she was the spirit of the rainbow. She stands at the place where the Kyungzo Springs come together, kicking her loom, and creating the rainbow. And she is a manifestation of the Sun, our Sun-deity, whom we worship in our homes. She is the one who gave birth to us all.

    442

    STORIES

    Zaiwa transcription with literal translation 1

    Zi1tung11, nga35-moq1-o55 dang11-gvue55, spirit.type 1PO–party–FCT words–measure nga35-moq1-o55 zi1tung11 … 1PO–party–FCT spirit.type The zitung, or let’s say our (ND.EX) zitung…

    2

    Hi31 nga35-moq1-o55 zi1tung11 ge11, hu31 this 1PO–party–FCT spirit.type TOP above nga35-moq1-o55 i1-tung11-bva55 ma54 1PO–party–FCT water–paddy–flatlands LOC+FCT zi1tung11 ngvut5 lye31. spirit.type be also+I Our (ND.EX) zitung here… he is [like] the zitung we (ND.EX) have in our paddies downstream.

    4

    Zi1tung11 hau31 ge11 hi31 ge11 … spirit.type the/that TOP this TOP About that zitung then, [about] this [zitung] then…

    5

    Gyai35 heng11 lye31-o55. (ipf) rather long also+I–HIGH - It’s a very long story, I tell you! -

    6

    Hi31 zi1tung11 ge11 zi1tung11 hi31 … this spirit.type TOP spirit.type this The zitung here then, this zitung…

    7

    Gyai35 heng11 rather long(ipf) - It’s very long! -

    9

    A1kui31 i5-nvung55 ruem35 lye54 zi1tung11 ge11 … now SPEC–1ND.IN keep also+FCT spirit.type TOP About the zitung we (ND.IN) are keeping then …

    10

    I5-nvung55 a1kang31 SPEC–1ND.IN long.ago

    lye31. also+I

    8

    Hi55-yuq1 ge11 … this–person TOP This one then…

    meng11-gvan11 world–dried.out

    me55 LOC

    443

    ON THE ZITUNG

    lye35 zue31 ga31 ning31. man/woman come(away/down) live.as.human perceive+I INS+I We (ND.IN) [i.e. mankind], long ago… mankind came to live on earth, as is said. byu31

    11

    Byu31 lye35 zue31, de1wui31-ding35 … man/woman come(away/down) live.as.human deluge–be.flooded [When] mankind came to live on earth - the deluge…

    12

    Hau55-mai11 lo31 ra31 dut1 ra55, the/that–ABL come(back/up) need+I become PE hi31 ge11 de1wui31-ding35-e55 mai11 lo31 ra31. this TOP deluge–be.flooded–FCT ABL come(back/up) need+I From there we have to start, this… we will start from the deluge onwards.

    13

    Gau11-zo11 Le1wui31 mai11 dai31 lo31 nine–child (name) ABL speak(ipf) come(back/up) 31 1 55 ra dut ra . need+I become PE I have to start telling from the nine Lewui brothers onwards.

    14

    Gau11-zo11 Le1wui31 mai11 eq5-i31 nine–child (name) ABL COM–(correcting) Ning11gon35wa35 mau11-mi31 bat1 su31. (name) sky–earth beat SNO From the nine Lewui brothers onwards, [correcting:] and Ninggonwa, the one that beat the earth together.

    15

    Hau55-mai11 dai31 lo31 ra31 (ipf) the/that–ABL speak come(back/up) need+I I have to tell from there onwards.

    16

    Ning11gon35wa35 ge11 mau11-mi31 bat1, Ning11gon35wa35 (name) TOP sky–earth beat (name) 11 11 31 1 35 35 ge mau -mi bat , gyo lo zyang35-syeq1. TOP sky–earth beat go.down go(back/up) CD–au.contraire Ninggonwa, who beat the earth… - Ninggonwa, who beat down the earth, he came down…

    dut1 ra55. become PE

    444

    STORIES

    17

    Mvo31 a1sye11 me55 bat1 zye35 bue31 ga31. below (er/what’s.his.name) LOC beat arrive P+I perceive+I When he arrived by beating, down below at, er, what’s-thename…

    18

    Hau55-syeq1, gau11-zo11 Le1wui31 syeq1, the/that–au.contraire nine–child (name) au.contraire Ning11gon35wa35 r55 syeq1 nung11-mi11 si31 (name) OBJ au.contraire 2REL–wife die bue31 ngvu31. 19 Eq5, mi11-lai35 wo35 ra31. P+I say+I VOC wife–deviate have need+I And then, the nine Lewui brothers then said to Ninggonwa: “Your wife has died”. [That’s what they said.] “Really? I will have another wife then.”

    20

    Nang35 wa11 si31 bue31, eq5 wa11-lai35 wo35 ra31. 2SG.PO father die P+I VOC father–deviate have need+I “Your (SG) father has died.” [replied by:] “Really? I will have another father.”

    21

    Nung11-zo11 si31 bue31 ngvu31. 2REL–child die P+I say+I They said: “Your children are dead.”

    22

    Eiq5

    23

    Nang31, ngo31

    24

    Yvang31

    mvau55 gvo55 ga31 ning31, VOC cheat/fool PL perceive+I INS+I gau11-zo11 Le1wui31 hau31 syeq1. nine–child (name) the/that au.contraire They were cheating him, the nine Lewui brothers. lye35 mvau55-mvau55, 2SG 1SG OBJ come(away/down) cheat/fool–cheat/fool yvum31 lo11 wu35 bue31 ga31. (ipf) house come(back/up) look P+I perceive+I “You (SG), you are cheating me all the time.” [After saying this] he went home to look. 3SG

    (GEN)

    r55

    yvum31, house

    Ning11gon35wa35 (name)

    yvang31 3SG

    (GEN)

    yvum31 house

    445

    ON THE ZITUNG

    lo31, mau11 bat1 su31 yvum31 me55 lo31. come(back/up) sky beat SNO house LOC come(back/up) His home, Ninggonwa came back home, the beater of the earth, he came back home. 25

    Hai31 r11 a1-ngvut5. what also NEG–be It was nothing at all.

    26

    Gau11-zo11 Le1wui31 nang31 ngo31 r55 mvau54. nine–child (name) 2SG 1SG OBJ cheat/fool+FCT “Nine Lewui brothers, [since] you (SG) have cheated me…”

    27

    De1wui31 dving31 gvat5 (ipf) deluge collect.water/flood(vt) put.into ngvu31 zyang35-syeq1. say CD–au.contraire “I will flood [you all] in a deluge!” he said.

    28

    Gau11-zo11 Le1wui31 ngvu25 dving31 am55-aq5. (ipf) nine–child (name) say+FCT collect.water/flood PFM–SIM The nine Lewui brothers said: “Flood (SG) us, then.”

    29

    Zi1ku11 gva55mai35 waq1 ra31, zi1ku11 gva55mai35 hoe dipper lift need+I hoe dipper waq1 ra31, ngvu31 ga31-o55 hau55-syeq1. carry need+I say perceive+I–HIGH the/that–au.contraire “We’ll take our hoes and dippers, we’ll take our hoes and dippers”, they said.

    30

    Zi1ku11 gva55mai35 waq1 ra31, zi1ku11 hoe dipper lift need+I hoe gva55mai35 waq1 ra31, ngvu31 ga31-o55. dipper carry need+I say perceive+I–HIGH “We’ll take our hoes and dippers, we’ll take our hoes and dippers”, they said.

    31

    A1kui31 now

    bvau31 zan54 raft/cluster hew+FCT

    lye11, also

    ra31-o55 need+I–HIGH

    hau31 the/that

    bvau31 raft/cluster

    446

    STORIES

    lvai31 hau31 r11 ha55-me55 toq5 bue31. boat the/that also the/that–LOC come.out P+I So nowadays the hewing of rafts, both rafts and boats, exists from then on. 32

    Bvau31 le1-zan11-o55, lvai31 le1-zvuq5-o55 raft/cluster but–hew–HIGH boat but–insert–HIGH ngvu31 ga31 ning31. say perceive+I INS+I “But we’ll hew rafts and we’ll make ships!” they said.

    33

    Bvau31 le1-zvuq5-o55 lvai31 le1-zvuq5-o55 raft/cluster but–insert–HIGH boat but–insert–HIGH ngvu31, ngvu11 lum31 ngyo31 be1-gvo31. (ipf) (ipf) say+I say reciprocal talk P–PL+I “But we’ll make rafts and we’ll make ships!” they then argued.

    34

    11 35 35 Hau55-mai11 ga31… 35 Ning gon wa ge11 de1wui31 the/that–ABL perceive+I (name) TOP deluge dving31 dvang31 gvat5 ra31 son55. (ipf) (ipf) collect.water/flood let.fly put.into need+I calculate And after that…, when Ninggonwa was still planning to raise the deluge …

    36

    Hau31 yvang31-ze1-au31 ge11 i55-yuq1 ze11 (GEN) the/that 3SG –child–super TOP two–person only cyui55-zo11 cyui55-zo11 i55-yuq1 ze11. orphan–child orphan–child two–person only His aunt only had two [children], [they were] orphans, only two orphans.

    37

    Hau55-nvik5-dvang31 r55 ge11 zeng31 mo35-mo35 the/that–duo–siblings OBJ TOP trunk AUG–AUG lvung55, lvung54 mai11 ge11, let.inside let.inside+FCT ABL TOP Brother and sister were then put into a huge chest, and after they were put into the chest …

    38

    Lvung54 mai11 let.inside+FCT ABL

    ge11 TOP

    dai31-gvyo11 bue31 (ipf) speak –let.hear P+I

    ON THE ZITUNG

    447

    ga31 ning31 de1wui31-ding35-Ø tang31 me55 perceive+I INS+I deluge–be.flooded–FCT behind LOC ap5 gau11-kat5 kyo31 gvat5 r11 (ipf) needle nine–long.object let.go.down put.into also mi1-gung31 me55 sueng55 a1-ga11-ga11 earth–body LOC [onom] NEG–perceive–perceive ke5-gyo35 gvo55 ngvu31 ga31. PHB–go.down PL say perceive+I After they had put them in, they were told that after the deluge, when they would put down nine needles which wouldn’t sound, they should not go down. 39

    Ngve5-noq1 gau31-du11 kyo31 gvat5 r11 (ipf) bird–black nine–being let.go.down put.into also 1 31 35 35 35 mi -gung zye gyo zyang ngva31 zaq1 earth–body arrive go.down CD [onom] only a1-ga11-ga11 ke5-gyo35 gvo55 ngvu31. NEG–perceive–perceive PHB–go.down PL say+I “When you let down nine crows, and they do not caw when reaching the ground, do not (PL) go down”, they were told.

    40

    Woq1-po55 gau31-du11 kyo31 gvat5 r11 … (ipf) chicken–male nine–being let.go.down put.into also 31 11 31 1 1 5 31 hau r yvang -eq si zvip bi gvat5 ngyo11 ra55. the/that also 3SG#–AG/I supply give(ipf) put.into talk(ipf) PE “When you let loose nine cocks…” ( they were also supplied with these, it is said …)

    41

    Woq1-po55 gau31-du11 kyo31 gvat5 r11 chicken–male nine–being let.go.down(ipf) put.into also zaq1 a1-dvun31-dvun31 ke5-gyo35 gvo55-o55 ngvu31. only NEG–crow(vi)–crow(vi) PHB–go.down PL–HIGH say+I “When you let loose nine cocks and they do not crow, you (PL) cannot go down”, they were told.

    42

    Gue31-gue31

    hau55-gu31 kyo31 gvat5 wu35 r11 (ipf) all.right–all.right the/that–PART let.go.down put.into look also 1 55 55 31 5 syeq , ha -hu kyo gvat wu35 r11-r11, (ipf) au.contraire Q–sort let.go.down put.into look also–also

    448

    STORIES

    ngva31 ze11 ngvu31 ga31 ning31 dvun31 bue31 [onom] only say perceive+I INS+I crow(vi) P+I ga31 ning31 gyo35 lo31 gyo35 lo31 ge11. perceive+I INS+I go.down no.more+I go.down no.more+I TOP “Really, when you try to let these animals loose, and whichever of them you try to let loose, only when you hear it cawing or crowing you can go down, you can go down then…” 43

    Ha55-hu55 kyo31 gvat5 wu35 r11-r11, ngva31 (ipf) Q–sort let.go.down put.into look also–also [onom] 31 11 31 ze ngvu ga ning31 dvun31 bue31 ga31 only say perceive+I INS+I crow(vi) P+I perceive+I ning31 gyo35 lo31 gyo35 lo31 ge11. INS+I go.down no.more+I go.down no.more+I TOP “Whichever of your animals you try to let loose, only when you hear it cawing or crowing you can go down, you can go down then…”

    45

    Ka31 r11 a1-dat1 wang31, ka31 r11 where also NEG–able enter where also a1-dat1 wang31 mu31 ge11 … NEG–able enter happen+I TOP There was nowhere they could go inside, [since] there was nowhere they could go inside…

    46

    Ke5-me55 r11 a1-dat1 wang31 mu31 Q–LOC also NEG–able enter happen+I Since they couldn’t go inside anywhere…

    47

    Lo11

    (ipf)

    come(back/up)

    ge11… TOP

    a31na35 wun35 gve5-ra31 ngvut5 ill.at.ease wherever PL–need+I be

    11

    ngyo ra55. (ipf) talk PE They (PL) were feeling ill at ease wherever they came. 48

    Lo11 a31na35 wun35 zyang35-syeq1 … (ipf) come(back/up) ill.at.ease wherever CD–au.contraire Feeling ill at ease wherever they came…

    ON THE ZITUNG

    449

    49

    Hi31 zi1tung11 Miq1-dvai55-dvu55 hi31, this spirit.type eye2–only–shining this yo31-so31-zi1tung11 hi55-yuq1 yvum31 me55 (GEN) land–walk –spirit.type this–person house LOC zang35 wang31 zyang35-syeq1. strike enter CD–au.contraire This zitung, the one-eyed, then, it was the house of this wild zitung they accidentally entered.

    50

    Zi1tung11 Miq1-dvai55-dvu55 ngvu54 hi31, hi31 spirit.type eye2–only–shining say+FCT* this this mvung31-zi1tung11 ngvut5 dvo31 ra55, evil.spirit spirit.type be place(vt)(ipf) 31 1 11 mvung zi tung . PE evil.spirit–spirit.type This one-eyed zitung of ours, he was an evil spirit, an evil spirit.

    51

    Hi55-yuq1 yvum31 me55 zang35 wang31 mu31 this–person house LOC strike enter happen+I 35 1 55 1 31 55 zyang -syeq , hi -yuq yvum me zang35 CD–au.contraire this–person house LOC strike wang31 mu31 zyang35-syeq1. enter happen+I CD–au.contraire Having accidentally entered the house of this one… [2x]

    53

    Zi1tung11 Miq1-dvai55-dvu55, mvung31-zi1tung11 hi31 ge11 … spirit.type eye2–only–shining evil.spirit–spirit.type this TOP This zitung, the one-eyed, this evil spirit then…

    54

    I1-zvyam11 kam31 ye31 ga31 water–water receive/fetch go(away/down) perceive+I ning31, i1zvyam11 kam11 ye31 ge11 … (ipf) INS+I water receive/fetch go(away/down) TOP He was going to fetch water, while he was on his way to fetch water…

    55

    Hau55-nvik5-dvang31 ge11 i5-cyang31 gyo11 (ipf) the/that–duo–siblings TOP go–follow hear/smell 31 5 5 11 55 gve -ra ngvut ngyo ra . PL–need+I be talk(ipf) PE

    450

    STORIES

    The two siblings then, they must have decided to go and follow him and listen. 56

    I5-cyang31 gyo11 syeq1. (ipf) go–follow hear/smell au.contraire They went to follow him and listen…

    57

    Cyui55-zo11 gvyui55 zo11 ra54 i1-zvyam11 orphan–child stew1 eat need+FCT water–water tum11-beng35 tum11-beng35 ngvu31 syeq1 pool–no.gloss pool–no.gloss say au.contraire 5 11 11 31 i -kam ngi dvo go–receive/fetch(ipf) be.there(anim)(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) ga31 ning31 nang31 ge11. perceive+I INS+I 2SG TOP He was [tumbeng tumbeng] on his way to fetch water for stewing the orphans from some muddy hole in the ground.

    58

    Dvung31 pang31 a1kui31 i5-nvung54 [fleeing] dodge/flee now SPEC–1ND.IN+FCT 1 11 31 31 1 11 zi tung hi yvum -zi tung hi31 r11 ge11 spirit.type this house–spirit.type this also TOP yo31-zi1tung11 hi31 r11 ge11 hi31 li11 ge11 land–spirit.type this also TOP this also TOP hi55-yuq1 yvum31 me55 pang11 wang11 lo35. (ipf) this–person house LOC dodge/flee enter(ipf) go(back/up) Quick as a flash they fled, our (ND.IN) zitung of nowadays also, this home-zitung also, this land-zitung also, this also, they fled into the house of this one.

    59

    Pang11 wang11 (ipf) dodge/flee enter(ipf) Having fled inside …

    60

    Cyang31 dvai55 cyang31 dvai54 ge11 follow(ipf) follow.tracks follow(ipf) follow.tracks+FCT TOP hi31 i5-nvung54 yvum31-zi1tung11 yvum31 this SPEC–1ND.IN+FCT house–spirit.type house 55 31 31 31 me cyang dvai wang . LOC follow(ipf) follow.tracks(ipf) enter

    lo35 go(back/up)

    zyang35-syeq1 … CD–au.contraire

    451

    ON THE ZITUNG

    Following the tracks, having followed the tracks, he followed the tracks and entered the house of our (ND.IN) home-zitung. 61

    I5-nvung55 yvum31-zi1tung11 ge11 i5-cyang31 SPEC–1ND.IN house–spirit.type TOP go–follow(ipf) 31 11 gyo ga . hear/smell perceive+I Our (ND.IN) home-zitung, they went to follow him and listen.

    62

    Hau31 r11 i1-zvyam11 the/that also water–water He also went to fetch water.

    63

    He55-me55 i1-zvyam11 i5-kam31. before–LOC water–water go–receive/fetch First he went to fetch water.

    64

    He55-me55 i1-zvyam11 i5-kam31, r11 before–LOC water–water go–receive/fetch also First he went to fetch water …

    65

    i5-kam31 ga31. go–receive/fetch perceive+I

    ge11 … TOP

    I5-cyang31 gyo11 gve5-ra31 ngvut5 ngyo11 (ipf) go–follow hear/smell PL–need+I be talk(ipf) They (PL) must have decided to go and follow, to listen.

    ra55. PE

    66

    I5-cyang31 gyo31, mu11 r11 (ipf) (ipf) (ipf) go–follow hear/smell happen also They went to follow and listen…

    syeq1. au.contraire

    67

    Cyui55-zo11 bau35 ra54 i1-zvyam11 orphan–child foster need+FCT water–water bing35-bing35 ngvu31 i5-kam11 full–full say go–receive/fetch(ipf) ngi11 dvo11 ga31. (ipf) be.there(anim) place(vt) perceive+I He was [bing bing] on his way to fetch loads of fresh water for fostering the orphans.

    68

    Hau55-mai11 ge11 zyang31 ngi11 nan11. (ipf) the/that–ABL TOP in.passing be.there feel.attached After that then, they could stay on.

    452

    STORIES

    69

    Zyang31 ngi11 nan11 zyang35-syeq1… (ipf) in.passing be.there(anim) feel.attached CD–au.contraire It was after they stayed on there …

    70

    Hi31 zi1tung11 Miq1-dvai55-dvu55 ngvu54 hi31 this spirit.type eye2–only–shining say+FCT* this 5 toq lo31 be1-ra31. come.out come(back/up) P–need+I The other zitung we talked about, named the one-eyed, was about to come out.

    71

    Hi31 mvung31-zi1tung11 hi31 hau55-me55 this evil.spirit–spirit.type this the/that–LOC syeq1 cyang31 dvai55 … (ipf) au.contraire follow follow.tracks This evil spirit, following the tracks to that place …

    72

    Hi31 Me1kuq1 Kun55 this (name) (name) He is called Mekuq Kun.

    73

    Hi31 yvum31 me55 zyau35 lye54 yo31 me55 this house LOC serve also+FCT land LOC zyau35 lye54 hi31 Me1kuq1 Kun55 ga31 lye31. (ipf) serve also+FCT this (name) (name) perceive also+I This one that is both kept inside the home and outside, he is called Mekuq Kun.

    74

    Hau55-mai11 cyang31 dvai31 ye31 (ipf) (ipf) the/that–ABL follow follow.tracks go(away/down) 35 1 1 1 55 zyang -syeq , Me kuq Kun yvum31 me55 CD–au.contraire (name) (name) house LOC cyang31 dvai31 ye31 zyang35-syeq1. follow(ipf) follow.tracks(ipf) go(away/down) CD–au.contraire They followed the tracks, they followed the tracks right towards the house of Mekuq Kun …

    75

    Eiq5 VOC

    nang35 2SG.PO

    yvum31 house

    ga31 dvo31 ra55. (ipf) (ipf) perceive place(vt) PE

    me55

    nga35

    LOC

    1PO

    byu31 man/woman

    453

    ON THE ZITUNG

    i55-yuq1 wang31 bue31. two–person enter P+I “Hey, two of my people went into your (SG) house.” 76

    Hi31 ki31-ko31 hi31, nang35 yvum31 me55 this leg/foot–track this 2SG.PO house LOC 31 31 31 31 31 dong wang bue ngvu ga o11. lead/connect enter P+I say perceive+I REF “These tracks lead into your (SG) house” he said.

    77

    Eiq5

    78

    Wang31 bue31, hi31 nang35 yvum31 nang35 enter P+I this 2SG.PO house 2SG.PO 31 31 11 35 yvum -kun zye bue . house–yard arrive P+I “They did, the tracks lead into your (SG) house, into the yard of your house.”

    79

    Nang31

    80

    A1-mvau55, i5-wu35-aq5 ba31. NEG–cheat/fool go–look–SIM (orders) “I’m not cheating you, go (SG) and look for yourself!”

    81

    Ha55-me55 the/that–LOC ha55-me55 the/that–LOC The Gvuetoq onwards.

    82

    Gvue31toq5 Le1bung11 r11 upper.smoking.rack (name) also toq5 lo31 bue31. come.out come(back/up) P+I

    ngvu31, a1-wang31-o31 ngvu31. VOC say+I NEG–enter–HIGH+I say+I “What? “ the other one said, “they didn’t enter.”

    mvau31 ra55 ngvu31. 2SG cheat/fool(ipf) PE say+I “You (SG) are cheating me”, the other one said.

    Gvue31toq5 Le1bung11 r11 upper.smoking.rack (name) also 31 5 31 toq lo bue . come.out come(back/up) P+I of the upper smoking rack dates from that time ha55-me55 the/that–LOC

    454

    STORIES

    The Gvuetoq of the upper smoking rack dates from that time onwards. 83

    Gai31, gvue31toq5 me55 ze11 ke5-zyui35 (come.on!) upper.smoking.rack LOC only PHB–peep wu35-o55 dvye31 ngvu31. look–HIGH receive say+I He blocked him, saying: “Only on the upper smoking rack you cannot take a peep.”

    84

    Hau31 cyui55-zo31-nvik5 r55 ge11 hi31 (GEN) the/that orphan–child –duo OBJ TOP this Me1kuq1 Kun31-eq1 syeq1 hu31 (name) (name)#–AG/I au.contraire above gvue31toq5 me55 tan31-dving11 me55 upper.smoking.rack LOC hard.mat–roll.up LOC lvung31 dvo11. let.inside(ipf) place(vt) And then, Mekuq Kun put the two orphans in a rolled up hard mat on the upper smoking rack.

    85

    Lvung31 dvo11 mu31 (ipf) let.inside place(vt) happen+I After he put them into the mat …

    86

    Gvue31toq5 me55 ze11 ke5-zyui35 wu35-o55. upper.smoking.rack LOC only PHB–peep look–HIGH “Only on the upper smoking rack you cannot take a peep.”

    87

    Gvue31toq5

    88

    Wang11 ye31 i5-sop5 be55 (ipf) enter go(away/down) go–wipe/rummage EE 31 ga i5-sop5. perceive+I go–wipe/rummage He entered the house to search for them.

    89

    Hau31 the/that

    syeq1 … au.contraire

    Le1bung11 ngi11 lye31-o55 ngvu31. (ipf) upper.smoking.rack (name) be.there also+I–HIGH say+I “Lebung of the upper smoking rack lives there”, he said.

    cyui11-zo31-nvik5 r55 (GEN) orphan–child –duo OBJ

    ge11 TOP

    mi1-wap5 fire–ash

    455

    ON THE ZITUNG

    le1-yuq1 r55 le1-gvyaq5 gvyaq5 nvang31 one–person OBJ one–grasp grasp let.loose gvyaq5 waq1 nvang31. grasp lift let.loose But he [Mekuq Kun] let each of the orphans grasp a handful of ashes. 90

    Tan31-dving11 me55 lvop5 lvung31 dvo11. (ipf) hard.mat–roll.up LOC [plunge] let.inside place(vt) And he then quickly put them inside the rolled up hard mat.

    91

    Gvue31toq5 me55 ze11 ke5-zyui35 wu35-o55, upper.smoking.rack LOC only PHB–peep look–HIGH Le1bung11 ngi11 lye31-o55. (name) be.there(anim)(ipf) also+I–HIGH “Only on the upper smoking rack you cannot take a peep. Lebung of the upper smoking rack lives there.”

    92

    I5-zyui35 wu35 dvang31 gvat5-neq5 syeq1 (ipf) go–peep look let.fly put.into–COM au.contraire 1 35 55 11 myoq -zi me [ba …]. eye–ball/seed LOC (a.cloud.of.dust) Right at the moment as he peeped inside, [they flung the ashes] right into his eyes.

    93

    Hi31 mvung31-zi1tung11 r55 hau55-mu31 yvang11 this evil.spirit–spirit.type OBJ the/that–happen 3SG a1hui31 Miq1-dvai55 dvu31 lye31, myoq1 (ipf) now eye2–only shining also+I eye 31 1 55 1 le -kon zit lye . one–one.of.a.pair stopped.up also+I From now on, this evil spirit is [called] the one-eyed, one of his eyes being blind.

    94

    Ha55-me55 ge11 dang31 toq5 the/that–LOC TOP fly(ipf) come.out And he rushed out of the house.

    95

    Dang31 fly(ipf)

    toq5 come.out

    lo35-Ø go(back/up)–FCT

    lo35-Ø. go(back/up)–FCT

    mai11

    ge11

    ABL

    TOP

    456

    STORIES

    cyui55-zo11 hau55-nvik5 ge11 Me1kuq1 kun31 orphan–child the/that–duo TOP (name) (name)(GEN) yvum31 me55 zyang31 ngi11 nan11. (ipf) house LOC in.passing be.there(anim) feel.attached After he [the evil spirit] had rushed out of the house, the two orphans stayed on in the house of Mekuq Kun. Le1bung11 ha55-me55 toq5 bue31. VOC upper.smoking.rack (name) the/that–LOC come.out P+I This was the origin of Lebung of the upper smoking rack.

    96

    E31, Gvue31toq5

    97

    Ha55-me55 zyang31 ngi11 nan11 the/that–LOC in.passing be.there(anim)(ipf) feel.attached ngvu31 zyang35-syeq1. say CD–au.contraire From then onwards, they stayed there.

    98

    A1hui31 zyau11wong11 r11 hau55-me55 toq5 now incest also the/that–LOC come.out lo31 be1-ra31. come(back/up) P–need+I And this is where the matter of incest is about to take place.

    99

    I5-nvung55 meng11-gvan11 toq5 me55 SPEC–1ND.IN world–dried.out come.out LOC zyau11wong11 wong31 lye31. incest incest(ipf) also+I Everything in our (ND.IN) world is incestuous.

    100

    I5-nvung55 o55 r11 zyau11wong11 SPEC–1ND.IN who also incest Every single person is the result of incest.

    zvyat5 all

    bue31. P+I

    Hau55-mai11 hau31 zyau11wong11 hau55-nvik5-dvang25 the/that–ABL the/that incest the/that–duo– brothers+FCT yvang11-zo11 yvang11-syu31-bvue55 zvyat5 bue31. (GEN) 3SG–child 3SG–grandchild –PLN all P+I By them, by the two of them being incestuous; we all are the children and grandchildren of the two of them. 101

    457

    ON THE ZITUNG 102

    Hau55-nvik5-dvang25 yvang11-zo11 the/that–duo–brothers+FCT 3SG–child yvang11-syu31-bvue55 zvyat5 bue31. (GEN) 3SG–grandchild –PLN all P+I We all are the children and grandchildren of the two of them.

    103

    Meng11-gvan11 me55 ngi11-me55-ngi11, world–dried.out LOC be.there(ipf)–LOC–be.there(ipf) 31 1 55 byu dut -me -dut1 … man/woman become–LOC–become All people living in this world, whatever people…

    104

    Hau31 ge11 Me1kuq1 Kun55 ge11 Me1kuq1 the/that TOP (name) (name) TOP (name) Kun55 ge11, ba31-ba31 nga35 zo31-nvik5 (name) TOP (orders)–(orders) 1PO child(GEN)–duo ge11 nga35 syu31-nvik5 ge11, nge1-zo11 (GEN) TOP 1PO grandchild –duo TOP fish–child i5-gvong55 gveq5. go–catch.fish PLIM Mekuq Kun then said: “Come on, my two children (2x), go (PL) and drain some fish.”

    105

    Nge1-gvoq5 i5-pek5 gveq5. fish–branch go–drain.fish PLIM “Go (PL) drain some fish.”

    106

    A5-zvi11, wui35 hai31 r55 gvut5 ra31 la11? nom–grandfather plant.name what OBJ do need+I UNC “Grandfather, what will we use instead of poisonous vines?”

    107

    Naq5tam11, naq5tam11 r55 wui35 inedible.wild.yam inedible.wild.yam OBJ plant.name gvut5 nvang31 bue31 ga31. do let.loose P+I perceive+I He told them to use naqtam, naqtam instead of poisonous vines.

    108

    Hau55-hun31 the/that–time

    ge11 TOP

    zye11 exceed

    bat1 beat

    gvat5 put.into

    ge11 TOP

    458

    STORIES

    zye11 bat1 gvat5 ge11 ke5-me55 zang35 exceed beat put.into TOP Q–LOC strike ke5-me55 yo11 ke5-me55 zang35 r11 ke5-me55 Q–LOC itch3 Q–LOC strike also Q–LOC And then it itched wherever it touched their skin, wherever it touched their skin.

    r11 also yo11. itch3 it itched

    109

    Gvin31 bue31 scratch.against.itch P+I They were scratching.

    110

    Hau55-me55 ge11 yvang55-nvik5-dvang31 ge11 the/that–LOC TOP 3PL–duo–siblings TOP yvang55-nvik5-dvang31 yvang11-mi11 yvang11-lang31 3PL–duo–siblings 3SG–wife 3SG–husband 1 25 11 31 dut lo ge , hau bue31 hau31bue31. become come(back/up)+FCT TOP the/that P+I the/that P+I It was at that time that the two siblings, the two siblings became each other’s spouses…

    111

    Hau31 ge11 yvang55-nvik5-dvang31 yvang11-mi11 the/that TOP 3PL–duo–siblings 3SG–wife yvang11-lang31 dut1 lo25, 3SG–husband become come(back/up)+FCT 55 5 yvang -nvik -dvang31. 3PL–duo–siblings The two siblings became each other’s spouses, the two siblings.

    112

    Ei11

    113

    ga31. perceive+I

    zyau11wong11 ha55-me55 toq5 VOC incest the/that–LOC come.out Incest exists from that time onwards. Yvang11-mi11 yvang11-lang31 dat1 dut1 3SG–wife 3SG–husband able become 31 35 lum lo -Ø ge11 zi1syang31 reciprocal(ipf) go(back/up)–FCT TOP child le1-yuq1 wo35 bue31. one–person have P+I Being each other’s spouses now, they got a child.

    bue31. P+I

    459

    ON THE ZITUNG 114

    Zi1syang31 le1-yuq1 child one–person They got a child…

    wo35 have

    zyang35-syeq1. CD–au.contraire

    115

    Yvang55-nvik5-dvang31 ge11, zi1syang31 3PL–duo–siblings TOP child 5 35 11 ngvut zyang ge . be CD TOP Brother and sister, as for their child…

    116

    Hau31 yvang31-zvi11 r55 yvang31-zvi11 (GEN) the/that 3SG –grandfather2 OBJ 3SG(GEN)–grandfather2 yvang31-wvoi55 r55 ngi11 dvo11 (GEN) (ipf) 3SG –grandmother OBJ be.there(anim) place(vt) bi11-bi11 mu31 gve5-ra31 zue31 ngvut5 ngyo11 ra55. give–give happen PL–need+I truc be talk(ipf) PE The child would normally stay with grandfather and grandmother.

    117

    Ngi11 dvo11 bi11-bi11 mu31 (ipf) be.there place(vt) give–give happen They let them keep it …

    118

    Zi1syang31 hau31 ngvut5 child the/that be As for this child, it wept a lot…

    zyang35 CD

    hau31 the/that

    zyang35-syeq1. CD–au.contraire ngau31. weep

    119

    Ngau31 zyang35-syeq1. weep CD–au.contraire It wept…

    120

    Zi1syang31 nang31, le5-ngau11 dvo31 wu35-aq5! (ipf) (ipf) child 2SG but–weep place(vt) look–SIM “You (SG) child, go on crying like this and see what happens!”

    121

    Gau11-kyo31-gvang11 me55 i5-zyap1 san11 ra31-o55. nine–road–split(vt) LOC go–chop.up scatter need+I–HIGH “I’ll chop you up and scatter you at the nine crossroads.”

    122

    Ngvu31 zyang35 ge11 ngap5 ga31. say CD TOP stop.suddenly perceive+I This he said, and the weeping stopped.

    460

    STORIES

    123

    Ngap5 dut1 byuq1, a1-ngau31. stop.suddenly become lose NEG–weep It stopped, it wasn’t weeping anymore.

    124

    Le1-king11 me55 ge11 dum11 ngau11 one–halt/rest LOC TOP again weep(ipf) 31 31 lo ga . come(back/up) perceive+I After a while, it started weeping again.

    125

    Le1-king11 me55 ge11 dum11 one–halt/rest LOC TOP again After a while, it was weeping again.

    126

    Dum11 ngau31 lui31 ge11 … again weep in.this.way+I TOP As it was weeping again…

    128

    I55-sum11-ngi35 bue31 ga31 a5-se55 mu31 two–three–day P+I perceive+I nom–like happen It went on like that for a couple of days.

    129

    Le1-ngi35 ge11 sat5-n55 one–day TOP kill–FCT One day, after killing it …

    ngau31. weep

    mai11

    ge11,

    ABL

    TOP

    dut1. become

    130

    Sat5-n55 mai11 ge11, yvang31-nu11-eq5 (GEN) kill–FCT ABL TOP 3SG –mother–COM yvang31-wa11 r55 ge11 hau31 seng11-eq5 u31 (GEN) 3SG –father OBJ TOP the/that liver–COM intestine dvok5 zvyoq5 dvo11 bi11. chop.up cook place(vt) give After killing it, he chopped up and prepared its organs and intestines for its mother and father to eat.

    131

    Syo11 meat me55

    gu31

    ge11

    hye31 Gau11-kyo31-gvang11 PART TOP same.elevation nine–road–split(vt) i5-zyap1 san31 dvo11. (ipf) LOC go–chop.up scatter place(vt) The remainder of the flesh was scattered at the crossing of the nine roads.

    461

    ON THE ZITUNG 132

    Yo31 mai11 zye35 lo31 … land ABL arrive come(back/up) Arriving back from the land…

    133

    A5-zvi11, ka31, zi1syang31 nom–grandfather where child “Grandpa, now, where’s the child?”

    ga11? TOP

    134

    Zang11 he5-zo11 gveq5 zang11 he5-zo11 rice/food before–eat PLIM rice/food before–eat gveq5 ngvu31 ga31. PLIM say perceive+I “Have your meal first, have your meal first”, he said.

    135

    Zang11 zo31 yau35 A5-zvi11 zi1syang31 ga11, (ipf) rice/food eat finish nom–grandfather child TOP 31 31 1 31 35 5 55 ka , zi syang nau huq be ngvu . where child milk/breast let.drink EE say+I After finishing the meal: “Grandfather, and the child? Let me give the child the breast.”

    136

    Eq5

    137

    Au11-koq5 ban11 ci31 yau35-Ø, (ipf) (ipf) pan–bowl use.up wash finish–FCT A5-zvi11 nau35 huq5 ba55, ka31, nom–grandfather milk/breast let.drink EE where zi1syang31 ngvu31 zyang35-syeq1. child say CD–au.contraire When the dishes had all been washed, she [the mother] said: “Let me breast-feed it, where’s the child?”

    138

    Nung11-zo11 r55 myang11 wu35 nvau11 r11 (ipf) (ipf) 2REL–child OBJ see look feel.like also ge11, nung11-zo54 seng11-u31 seng11-zvut5 TOP 2REL–child+FCT liver–intestine liver–lung

    au11-koq5 ke5-ci11-aq5 ngvu31. VOC pan–bowl before–wash–SIM say+I “First wash the dishes”, he said.

    462

    STORIES

    nung35-nvik5-ngeq1 ban11 zo11 gve5-lui31 ning31. (ipf) 2PL–duo–AG/I use.up eat PL–in.this.way+I INS+I “When you want to see your child, you (DU) have just eaten all of its liver and lungs!” [and because of that…] 139

    Nung11-zo11 r55 myang11 wu35 nvau11 r11 ge11 …. (ipf) (ipf) 2REL–child OBJ see look feel.like also TOP “When you want to see your child …”

    140

    Hye31 Gau11-kyo31-gvang11 me55 i5-wu35-aq5. same.elevation nine–road–split(vt) LOC go–look–SIM “Go (SG) and have a look at the nine crossroads.”

    141

    I5-wu35 gveq5 ngvu31 ga31. go–look PLIM say perceive+I “Go (PL) and have a look there.”

    142

    A11 hi55-hat5 gyai35 [ah] this–long.object rather - Ah, this story is very long! -

    143

    Hi55-hat5 gyai35 heng11 this–long.object rather long(ipf) - This story is very long! -

    144

    Hau31 ge11 i5-wu35 zyang35-syeq1. the/that TOP go–look CD–au.contraire They/she went to look there.

    145

    Syo11 hau31 ge11 le1-zyap1 le1-yuq1 meat the/that TOP one–chop.up one–person dut1 bue31 ga31. become P+I perceive+I Every bit of that flesh had changed into a human being.

    146

    Le1-zyap1 le1-yuq1 le1-zyap1 one–chop.up one–person one–chop.up dut1 dvo11 lang35. become place(vt) wait All those bits of flesh were human beings.

    heng11 long(ipf)

    lye31-o55. also+I–HIGH

    lye31. also+I

    le1-yuq1 one–person

    463

    ON THE ZITUNG 147

    Ge1-brem11-ge1-bram11 syeq1, mvuet5! random–swarm–random–swarm au.contraire (what!?) Swarming like madness, “oh my!”

    148

    Dang31 go35 dvo11 gve5-ra31, gve5-ra31 (ipf) fly dance place(vt) PL–need+I PL–need+I 5 ngvut ngyo11 ra55. be talk(ipf) PE “Oh my!, so you (PL) are going to go on dancing like this??”

    149

    Hau31 the/that Well…

    (2x)

    ge11 … TOP

    kat5 zyup5 lving31 be1-gvo31 VOC pursue catch/wring.out turn/roll P–PL+I ga31 yvang31-nu11 ge11. perceive+I 3SG(GEN)–mother TOP She was grasping everywhere around her, their mother.

    15

    Ei55

    151

    Yvang31-nu11 ge11 i5-kat5 zyup5 lving31. (GEN) 3SG –mother TOP go–pursue catch/wring.out turn/roll Their mother tried to catch them everywhere around her.

    152

    I5-kat5 zyup5 lving11 r11 syeq1 (ipf) go–pursue catch/wring.out turn/roll also au.contraire 1 35 5 a -wo zyup . NEG–have catch/wring.out She tried to catch them everywhere around her. But she couldn’t catch any.

    153

    Ba31, nang31 nang31 nga35 nu11 ngvut5 bue31 r11 ge11, (orders) 2SG 2SG 1PO mother be P+I also TOP nga35 nu11 ngvut5 bue31 r11 ge11 …. 1PO mother be P+I also TOP “If you were our mother, if you were my/our mother …”

    154

    Nang31

    ning31

    nga35

    2SG

    INS+I

    1PO

    nu11 mother

    a1-ngvut5 NEG–be

    ngvu31 say

    464

    STORIES

    ga31 o11, nang31 ning31 nga35 nu11 a1-ngvut5. perceive+I REF 2SG INS+I 1PO mother NEG–be “You (SG) are not our mother at all!” they said, “you (SG) are not our mother at all!” 155

    Nga35-moq1-o55 seng11-u31 zo54. 1PO–party–FCT liver–intestine eat+FCT “You have eaten our (ND.EX) organs and intestines.”

    156

    Ngvut5 lye31-o55, ngo31 nung35-moq1 be also+I–HIGH 1SG 2PL–party 31 55 31 11 5 yvang -nu ngvut lye -o ngvu31. (GEN) 3SG –mother be also+I–HIGH say+I “But I am! I am you mother!” she said.

    157

    Nung35-moq1 yvang31-nu11 ngvut5 (GEN) 2PL–party 3SG –mother be “I AM you mother!”

    158

    Hau31 ge11 a1-ngvut5 the/that TOP NEG–be “That’s not true.” they said.

    159

    Hau31 syeq1 mi1-hue11 the/that au.contraire fire–dirt yu31 lui31 syeq1, take in.this.way+I au.contraire Then they grabbed some coals …

    160

    yvang31-nu11 r55 bai31, nang31 nga35 (GEN) 3SG –mother OBJ (directing) 2SG 1PO 11 5 11 11 nu ngvut r ge . mother be also TOP and said to their mother: “If you (SG) are our mother …”

    161

    Nga35-moq1 yvang31-nu11 ngvut5 bue31 (GEN) 1PO–party 3SG –mother be P+I [in disbelief:] “If you were our mother …”

    r11 also

    mi1-hue11 fire–dirt

    ngvu31 say

    162

    hi31 this

    si31 wash(ipf)

    lye31-o55. also+I–HIGH

    ngvu31. say+I rvuet5 gvut5 [grab.hold.of] do

    pyu11 wu35-aq5 (ipf) white look–SIM

    ge11, TOP

    ON THE ZITUNG

    465

    ga31 ning31. perceive+I INS+I “then try to wash these coals white”, they said. 163

    A1-wo35 ci31 pyu11. (ipf) NEG–have wash white(ipf) She couldn’t wash them white.

    164

    Mvo31 syang11-cyuq5 me55 tau31 tong11 (ipf) below water.tube–bottom LOC sew/insert pierce r11 syeq1 … also au.contraire A [bamboo] water container with holes in the bottom …

    165

    Bai31, nang31 nga35-moq1 yvang31-nu11 (GEN) (directing) 2SG 1PO–party 3SG –mother 31 5 11 11 1 11 ngvut bue r ge i -zvyam hi31 be P+I also TOP water–water this i5-kam11 bving31 wu35-aq5 ngvu31 gvut5 (ipf) (ipf) go–receive/fetch fill look–SIM say+I do 31 11 1 ngyo a -gvo . talk(ipf) nom–PL+I “Here, if you (SG) are our mother, go (SG) and try to fill this with water”, they said.

    166

    Hau31 syeq1 i1-zvyam11 hau31 r11 the/that au.contraire water–water the/that also a1-wo35 kam11 bving55 mi1-hue11 r11 (ipf) NEG–have receive/fetch fill fire–dirt also 1 35 31 31 a -wo ci pyu . (ipf) NEG–have wash white Of course, she couldn’t fill it with water nor wash the coals white.

    167

    I1-zvyam11 r11 a1-wo35 kam11 bving55, (ipf) water–water also NEG–have receive/fetch fill mi1-hue11 r11 a1-wo35 ci31 pyu31. fire–dirt also NEG–have wash(ipf) white She couldn’t fill it with water nor wash the coals white.

    466 168

    STORIES

    Yvang55-moq1 yvang55-moq1 3PL–party 3PL–party pang31 bue31 ga31. dodge/flee P+I perceive+I They (PL) then all fled away.

    ge11 TOP

    ban11 use.up(ipf)

    169

    Hau31 a1kui31 i5-nvung55 byu31 bue31. the/that now SPEC–1ND.IN man/woman P+I And that’s what came to be us, mankind.

    170

    Meng11-gvan11 toq5 me55 world–dried.out come.out LOC lye54 byu31 … also+FCT man/woman The people living on the earth …

    171

    Byu31 dut5-me55-dut1 ma54 hau31 man/woman become–LOC–become LOC+FCT the/that si1-zyap5 hau31 bue31. meat–chop.up the/that P+I Whatever people, they all stem from these pieces of flesh.

    172

    Zyau11wong11 ge11 a1kang31 dai11 incest TOP just.now speak That was the incest thing I just talked about.

    ngi11 be.there(anim)(ipf)

    bue31. P+I

    173

    A1-kun31 syeq1, hau31 ngvut5 zyang35, nom–time au.contraire the/that be CD yvang55-moq1 yvang31-nu11 hau31 ngvut5 zyang35 … (GEN) 3PL–party 3SG –mother the/that be CD Well then, since things are as I just said, their mother then…

    174

    Ke5-se55 Q–like ge11,

    176

    Yvang55-moq1 3PL–party

    gvut5 wu35 r11-r11 a1-dut1 mu31 do look also–also NEG–become happen+I a1-dut1 mu31-lui31-eq1 ge11 … TOP NEG–become happen+I–in.this.way+I–AG/I TOP Since it was impossible, whatever she tried, since it was impossible… yvang31-nu11 dum11 (GEN) 3SG –mother again

    dai31 speak(ipf)

    467

    ON THE ZITUNG

    dvo54 ge11 ue31! nga35 zo31-bvue55! place(vt)+FCT TOP (you.there!) 1PO child(GEN)–PLN She then said to her children (PL): “Hey, my children!” 177

    Le1-ngi35 ma55 lye55 Kyung55zo11-mun31-ma55 one–day LOC OBJ (toponym)–upper.course–LOC 11 35 31 5 gan -zum ting sit ra31 ngvu31 ga31. loom–pair kick(ipf) show need+I say perceive+I One day she started to kick her weaving-loom at Kyungzo Springs.

    178

    Woq1-gan11-sing55ngyang11, hi31 ge11 weave–balance–(rainbow) this TOP Woq1-gan11-sing55ngyang11 bue31. weave–loom–no.gloss P+I The rainbow, this became the rainbow.

    179

    Hau55-mai11 ge11 … the/that–ABL TOP From then onwards…

    180

    Ei11,

    181

    Bui31-toq5 hau31 Zyan35ku55 bue31. sun–come.out the/that Sun.Goddess P+I The Sun Goddess is in fact what happens at every sunrise.

    182

    Zyan35ku55 r11 hau55-me55 toq5 Sun.Goddess also the/that–LOC come.out Zyan35ku55. Sun.Goddess That’s the beginning of the Sun Goddess.

    183

    a1kui31 Woq1-gan11-sing55ngyang11-nat1 VOC now weave–loom–(rainbow)–spirit to31 zyang35 ge11 … cast.spell CD TOP Well, when speaking to the rainbow spirit…

    ngvut5 lye31. VOC be also+I Yes, that’s how it is. Ei11,

    bue31, P+I

    468 184

    STORIES

    Hi31 Woq1-gan11-sing55ngyang11-nat1 this weave–loom–(rainbow)–spirit To this rainbow spirit then…

    r55

    ge11 …

    OBJ

    TOP

    ga31, (toponym)–upper.course–come.together–FCT SNO perceive+I The one from the place where the Kyungzo Springs come together,

    185

    Kyung55zo11-mun31-zup5-m55

    su31

    186

    Kyung55zo11-mun31-zup5-m55

    me55

    (toponym)–upper.course–come.together–FCT 1

    11

    35

    54

    31

    LOC 31

    woq -gan -zum ting su ga … weave–loom–pair kick+FCT SNO perceive+I the one from the place where the streams coming from the separate Kyungzo Springs meet, kicking her weaving-loom… 187

    Zyan35ku55 hi31 zyan35ku55 yvum31 me55 zyoq1 Sun.Goddess this Sun.Goddess house LOC be.there lye54 Zyan35ku55 hau31 zvyat5 bue31. also+FCT Sun.Goddess the/that all P+I These are all manifestations of the Sun Goddess, the Sun Goddess we worship at our homes.

    188

    Hau31 r55 ke5-se55 ga11 the/that OBJ Q–like perceive How to speak to these then…

    189

    Bui31-toq5 wa35-zo11-cui11 su31 sun–come.out no.gloss–child–decorate.with SNO lve5-toq5 zam31-gu11 si1-ngai11 moon–come.out no.gloss–no.gloss meat–give.birth a1zyan35 gun11 gun31 nye31 ga31. no.gloss no.gloss no.gloss red perceive+I

    190

    Hau31 i5-nvung55 si1-ngai11 su31 the/that SPEC–1ND.IN meat–give.birth SNO That’s the one who gave birth to us all.

    191

    Zyan35ku55 r55 Sun.Goddess OBJ

    ge11 TOP

    to11 lye31 … (ipf) cast.spell also+I

    ga31. perceive+I

    a5-se55 ga31 nom–like perceive+I

    a5-se55 nom–like

    ON THE ZITUNG

    469

    ga11 to11 a1-gvo31, Zyan35ku55 r55. (ipf) perceive cast.spell nom–PL+I Sun.Goddess OBJ That’s the way we speak to the Sun Goddess, that’s the way we speak to her, the Sun Goddess.

    TEXT TWO

    ON THE SAQWA

    free translation This is the story of the first saqwa. A long time ago, there lived a man and a woman. The woman was gone and her husband couldn’t find her. He looked for her everywhere. The demon had taken her away. When the man learned this, he followed after them. He followed and searched for a long time. He met one with crooked legs. “Did my wife pass through here?” But he said she had not. He met one who had crusted eyes. “Did my wife pass through here?” But he said she had not. He followed and searched, followed and searched. He came to a huge rice container. “Did my wife pass through here?” But it said she had not. He asked everyone he met whether his wife had passed through, but they all said she had not. And he followed and searched, followed and searched. His wife meanwhile was living with the demon; he had made her his wife. He came finally to that place, and found her. Right away she told him her plan for escaping the demon. “Go away from here, and sharpen your knife. Whet it for five days, and then come back.” The husband went off, and spent five days whetting his knife. Then he came back. His wife bade him to lie down behind her back, and she hid him. And while he was hiding, the demon came home. “Ha! I smell a human being!” “No, you are mistaken. There is no one here but me.” she said. It was time to eat, she said. The demon had to go hunting first, and after that, she prepared the food, and they sat down to eat. Just as the demon was sitting down, the husband rose up and stabbed him with his knife (which he had sharpened for five days). The demon was dead, and the husband led his wife away.

    472

    STORIES

    On the road home, he burned down the rice container, and killed the one with the crusted eyes and the one with the crooked legs, with his knife.3 And the husband and wife went home together. But the demon returned, although they were certain they had killed him. The man and his wife had gone to the pezyang tree to pick the fruits. The demon followed them there, and asked for something to eat. The wife whispered to her husband: “While I am picking fruit for him and me, go home, heat these three spears, and come back with them.” So he went away, and heated up the three spears for killing the bloody demon. The man came back, and gave the spears to his wife, who was up in the tree. She called down to the demon, “Look, I will put the fruits on this spear, and lower them down to you. Close your eyes, and open your mouth wide!” All the while she was pricking the fruits on the spear. “Don’t look on the sly!” she cried. When the three spears were full of fruit, she lowered them toward the gaping mouth of the demon, and then – with a mighty thrust she plunged them deep into the throat of the demon. The demon was dead and the wife and her husband went home. This was the beginning of the saqwa. Later, others came. (Speaking as a witch doctor,) where can one send them to…, where can one send them to…? (And what kind of words should one use?) “Go back to your father Syangdyeng and your mother Bungkyeng. Your father is Syangdyeng and your mother is Bungkyeng. Go back to them!” and: “Enter the nine stone doors!”, we say to them. We say all these kinds of things. We use the nine stone doors, we open one and lock one; “Go inside!” we say. We open one door and we close it, and trap them when they enter. And after going inside and having trapped them, the witch doctor comes out again by the three suns and the three moons. That’s how it is, the saqwa.

    3 And so the first saqwa came into being. The saqwa are the restless spirits of people died in accidents or by voilence.

    473

    ON THE SAQWA

    Zaiwa transcription with literal translation 1

    Saq1 wa11 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 i5-su54 spirit.type be CD TOP SPEC–like+FCT As for the saqwa, the story goes like this.

    2

    Hau31 ge11 a1kang31, saq1wa11 ge11 the/that TOP long.ago spirit.type TOP i5-su54 ngvut5 ra55. SPEC–like+FCT be PE It was long ago, the saqwa goes like this.

    3

    A1kang31, yvang11-mi11-eq5 yvang11-lang31, long.ago 3SG–wife–COM 3SG–husband yvang11-mi11 ge11 myoq1-gvyeq5, o11ka11, 3SG–wife TOP eye–cake (correcting) 31 1 5 a -ngvut -no . NEG–be–HIGH+I Long ago, there was a couple; the woman was a crust-eyed. - no, she wasn’t -

    4

    Yvang11-lang31 ge11 kat5 ho11 wun35. (ipf) 3SG–husband TOP pursue look.for wherever Her husband was going looking for her everywhere.

    5

    Hau31 ning11long31-eq1 ning11long31-eq1 the/that demon#–AG/I demon#–AG/I syui31 lo35-Ø. take.along(ipf) go(back/up)–FCT That demon, the demon had taken her away.

    6

    syui31 lo35-Ø ning11long31-eq1 (ipf) take.along go(back/up)–FCT demon#–AG/I yvang11-mi11 syui31 lo35-Ø ge11. (ipf) 3SG–wife take.along go(back/up)–FCT TOP … taken her away, the demon had taken her away.

    7

    Yvang11-lang31 3SG–husband

    ge11 TOP

    cyang31 follow(ipf)

    ho31. look.for

    ngvut5 ra55. be PE

    yvang11-mi11 3SG–wife

    474

    STORIES

    Her husband was following and searching for her. 8

    cyang31 ho31 zyang35-syeq1 cyang31 ho31 follow(ipf) look.for CD–au.contraire follow(ipf) look.for zyang35-syeq1… CD–au.contraire … following and searching for her, following and searching for her …

    9

    Ki31 goi35 su31 r55 lo35 mi31 leg/foot crooked/wicked SNO OBJ go(back/up) ask(ipf) r11-r11 nga35 mi11 a1-lai11 gve5-lo55? also–also 1PO wife NEG–pass PL–FV He also asked the one with the crooked legs, saying: “Did my wife really not pass through here?”

    10

    A1-lai11, a1-lai11 NEG–pass NEG–pass She hadn’t, she hadn’t.

    11

    Myoq1 gvyeq5 su31 r55 mi31 (ipf) eye cake SNO OBJ ask He also asked one with crusted eyes.

    12

    Nga35

    13

    Yvang11

    yvang11

    ge11

    3SG

    3SG

    TOP

    ngvu31. say+I r11-r11. also–also

    mi11 a1-lai11 gvo55 luq1?, a1-lai11. 1PO wife NEG–pass PL Y/N NEG–pass “Has my wife passed through here?” She hadn’t. bue31

    cyang31 follow(ipf)

    P+I

    ga31. perceive+I

    He was following her. 14

    Cyang31 le1-syeq1 cyang31 follow(ipf) but–au.contraire follow(ipf) ning31 hau55-syeq1. INS+I the/that–au.contraire Following her, following her…

    15

    (O55

    r55…)

    who

    OBJ

    guq1-do35 paddy.container

    r55 OBJ

    ga31 perceive+I

    mi31 ask(ipf)

    r11-r11 also–also

    475

    ON THE SAQWA

    a1-myang31 ngvu31. NEG–see say+I (Whom…) He also asked the rice container, who said: “I haven’t seen her.” 16

    O55 who

    17

    A1-myang31 ngvu31. NEG–see say+I They said: “We haven’t seen her.”

    18

    Cyang31 ge11. (ipf) follow TOP He followed her.

    19

    Ning11long31 yvum31 me55 lo35 (GEN) demon house LOC go(back/up) 11 11 ngi dvo lang35 ga31, be.there(anim)(ipf) place(vt) wait perceive+I yvang11-mi11 hau31. 3SG–wife the/that His wife already was at the demon’s house, his wife.

    20

    Ning11long11 yvum31 me55 lo35 demon house LOC go(back/up) ngi11 dvo11 lang35 ge11. (ipf) be.there(anim) place(vt) wait TOP She already was at the demon’s house.

    21

    Ye31 myang31 ye31 go(away/down) see go(away/down) He found her, he found her.

    22

    r55

    mi31 r11-r11 a1-myang31 (ipf) OBJ ask also–also NEG–see zvyat5 ngvu31 gvo55 ga31. all say PL perceive+I Whomever he asked, they all said they hadn’t seen her.

    Yvang11-mi31-eq1 paq1zvi31 3SG–wife#–AG/I knowledge dai31-gvyo54 ge11. (ipf) speak –let.hear+FCT TOP

    lom11 attend(ipf)

    myang31 see

    ge11. TOP

    476

    STORIES

    That’s where she told him her idea. 23

    Syam31 lo35 sui11-aq5 syam31 knife go(back/up) whet/grate–SIM knife lo35 sui11-aq5, a1-mu31 go(back/up) whet/grate–SIM nom–happen 35 lye lo31-aq1. come(away/down) come(back/up)–SIM “Go and whet your (SG) knife, go and whet your (SG) knife and then come on back over with it.”

    24

    Ngo11-ngi35 ngo11-min31 lo35 sui11-aq5, five–day five–evening go(back/up) whet/grate–SIM a1-mu31 lye35 lo31-aq1. nom–happen come(away/down) come(back/up)–SIM “Go (SG) and whet it for five days and then come on back over with it.”

    25

    Ye31 go(away/down) He went.

    bue31 P+I

    ga31. perceive+I

    26

    Ngo11-ngi35 ngo11-min31 lo35 sui11 five–day five–evening go(back/up) whet/grate mu31 ye31, ye31 happen+I go(away/down) go(away/down) zyang35-syeq1 … CD–au.contraire … After going and whetting for five days and five nights, he went [back] there, he went [back] there.

    27

    Yvang11-mi31-eq1 num11-tang55 me55 haq5 syup5 3SG–wife#–AG/I back–last LOC hide put.to.sleep dvo31 r55 ngvut5 r55 ga31, place(vt)(ipf) PE be PE perceive+I haq5 syup5 dvo11 ga31 ning31. hide put.to.sleep place(vt) perceive+I INS+I His wife hid him, lying down behind her back, hiding him, lying down behind her back.

    ON THE SAQWA

    477

    28

    Yvang11-lang31 cau11 r55 ge11 haq5 3SG–husband old OBJ TOP hide syup5 dvo11 ga31 ning31. put.to.sleep place(vt) perceive+I INS+I Her old husband was hidden, lying down.

    29

    Haq5 syup5 dvo54 mai11 ge11 hide put.to.sleep place(vt)+FCT ABL TOP ning11long11-po55 lo31 bue31 ga31 ning31. demon–male come(back/up) P+I perceive+I INS+I After he was hidden and lying down there, the demon returned.

    30

    Ning11long11-po55 lo31, ng55! demon–male come(back/up) (sudden.shift) ke5-min31 le1-sang31 sing55 before–evening (male)–humans taste/smell(N) nam11 rvo55! (ipf) smelly PE+HIGH The demon came back and said: “Huh? tonight I smell humans!”

    31

    A1-ngi31-o31 a1-ngi31 NEG–be.there(anim)–HIGH+I NEG–be.there(anim) a1-ngi31 ngvu31 ga31. NEG–be.there(anim) say perceive+I “There are none here, there are none” she replied.

    32

    Le1-king11 me55 ge11 zang11 zo11 zang11 one–halt/rest LOC TOP rice/food eat rice/food zo11 ngvu31. eat say+I And after a little while, she said: “It’s about time to eat.”

    33

    Yvang11-lang31 hau31 ge11 syo11, 3SG–husband the/that TOP meat 11 11 55 31 11 ning long -po hau ge syo11 ho31 demon–male the/that TOP meat look.for ye31 ga31 ning31. go(away/down) perceive+I INS+I Her husband, [correcting] the demon said he was going to go hunting.

    478

    STORIES

    34

    Syo11 ho11 ye31 (ipf) meat look.for go(away/down) He went hunting for a while.

    lo31. come(back/up)

    35

    Le1-king11 me55 zang11 zo11-aq5 zang11 one–halt/rest LOC rice/food eat–SIM rice/food 31 31 11 5 11 zo -aq ngvu lom ngvu . eat–SIM say+I attend(ipf) say+I And after a while, she said [inside the house]: “Eat (SG), eat (SG).”

    36

    Ning11long11-po55 ge11 zang11 zo31 zung11 demon–male TOP rice/food eat(ipf) sit(ipf) 31 54 dvo lye me55 yvang11-lang31-cau31-eq1 (ipf) place(vt) also+FCT LOC 3SG–husband–old#–AG/I 5 1 bok zyap . [a.gash] chop.up Just as the demon was sitting down to eat, her husband cut him, leaving a huge gash.

    37

    A5-mai11 yvang11-mi11 syui31 cyong31, (ipf) nom–ABL 3SG–wife take.along lead.away yvang11-mi11 syui31 cyong25 mai11 (ipf) 3SG–wife take.along lead.away+FCT ABL And after that, he led his wife away, he led his wife away.

    ge11. TOP

    38

    Myoq1 gvyeq5 su31 r55 r11 lo35 eye cake SNO OBJ also go(back/up) zyap1 bvyam55, ki31 goi35 su31 chop.up rid.of leg/foot crooked/wicked SNO r55 r11 lo35 zyap1 bvyam55. OBJ also go(back/up) chop.up rid.of He chopped down the one with the crusted eyes, he chopped down the one with the crooked legs.

    39

    Zye35zye35zyu35zyu35 zvye31 no.glosses cleave.in.one.blow(ipf) He killed them all in one blow as he came.

    lo31. come(back/up)

    479

    ON THE SAQWA 40

    Guq1-do35 r55 unhusked.rice–huge.container.for.unhusked.rice OBJ lo35 ngvye31 kyo31 bvyam31 dvo11. (ipf) (ipf) go(back/up) burn(vt) let.go.down rid.of(ipf) place(vt) He left the rice container behind him, all burnt down.

    41

    Hau55-mai11 ge11 lo31, lo31 the/that–ABL TOP come(back/up) come(back/up) mu31 zyang35-syeq1 … happen+I CD–au.contraire … After that she came back home, and after she had come back…

    42

    Nam11lo11-pe1zyang35-zeng31 me55 dum11 cyang31 tree.name–tree.name–trunk LOC again follow(ipf) 31 31 35 31 lye lo bue ga . come(away/down) come(back/up) P+I perceive+I He [the demon] found them back near the pezyang tree.

    43

    Sat5 bvyam31 dvo11 bue31 ngvu31 (ipf) kill rid.of place(vt) P+I say Although they had killed him all right.

    44

    Yvang11-mi11-eq5 yvang55-nvum31 ge11 3SG–wife–COM 3PL–couple TOP nam11lo11-pe1zyang35 lo11 tree.name–tree.name come(back/up)(ipf) pyoq5 zo11. break.off/down(vt) eat The wife and … [correcting] the couple had come to pick from the pezyang tree.

    45

    Yvang55-nvum31 ge11 nam11lo11-pe1zyang35 3PL–couple TOP tree.name–tree.name lo11 pyoq5 zo11. (ipf) come(back/up) break.off/down(vt) eat The couple had come to pick from the pezyang tree.

    46

    Ha55-me55 cyang31 lye35 lo31 ge11. (ipf) the/that–LOC follow come(away/down) come(back/up) TOP He [the demon] had followed them up to there.

    zyang35… CD …

    480

    STORIES

    47

    Yu31 zo11 ra54 ngvu31 lye35 ngvu31. take eat need+FCT say come(away/down) say+I He [the demon] said he had come to take some [fruits] to eat.

    48

    E55 nga35-nvik5 r55 yu31 zo11 ra54 (!) 1PO–duo OBJ take eat need+FCT 5 35 11 31 ngvut zyang ge , bai mvo31 be CD TOP (directing) below dun11 lo35 ngvye31 lo31-aq1. (ipf) press.into/spear go(back/up) burn(vt) come(back/up)–SIM “While I am fetching fruits for us [the demon and me] to eat, look there below, go (SG) home, heat these spears and come back with them.”

    49

    Dun11 sum11-kat5 lo35 press.into/spear three–long.object go(back/up) ngvye31 lo31-aq1. burn(vt)(ipf) come(back/up)–SIM “Go (SG) home to heat these three spears and come back with them.”

    50

    Mang31 ning11long11 lo35 ngvye55 corpse demon go(back/up) burn(vt) bue31 ga31 ning31. P+I perceive+I INS+I He went to heat them for the bloody demon.

    51

    Lo35 ngvye55 bi11 mu31 go(back/up) burn(vt) give happen+I 35 1 zyang -syeq … CD–au.contraire … Having gone away to heat them for the demon …

    52

    A1kui31 ge11 si11 tau31 kyo31 (ipf) now TOP fruit sew/insert let.go.down(ipf) gvat5 be5-dvye31. put.into EE–DOM2+I “And now I’ll impale the fruit [on the spear] and then hand it down to you, okay?”

    bi11 give

    481

    ON THE SAQWA 53

    Nvut5 ha31 dvo11-aq5-o55. (ipf) mouth (mouth).open.wide place(vt)–SIM–HIGH “Keep your (SG) mouth opened wide!”

    54

    Ke5-kau31 wu35-o55 ngvu31. (ipf) PHB–steal look–HIGH say+I “Don’t look on the sly!” she said.

    55

    Si11 tau31 kyo55 le1-me54 si11 (ipf) fruit sew/insert let.go.down but–LOC+FCT fruit tau31 kyo55 su31 ge11 ning11long11-po54 /insert(ipf) let.go.down SNO TOP demon–male+FCT kyong11 me55 lvop5, ha55-me55 bung31. throat LOC [plunge] the/that–LOC [falling.down] Right when she was pricking the fruits and reaching them downwards, she - the one who did this - plunged it into the throat of the demon, who then “bang” fell down.

    56

    Hau55-mai11 lo31 bue31 the/that–ABL come(back/up) P+I And after that she came back home.

    57

    E11,

    ga31. perceive+I

    saq1wa11 ge11 ha55-me55 VOC spirit.type TOP the/that–LOC Yes, this was the beginning of the saqwa.

    toq5 come.out

    58

    Saq1 wa11 ha55-me55 toq5-o55. spirit.type the/that–LOC come.out–FCT This was the beginning of the saqwa.

    59

    Hau55-mai11 saq1wa11 ha55-me55 the/that–ABL spirit.type the/that–LOC toq5 lye31. come.out also+I After this, more saqwa’s arose.

    60

    Hau55-mai11 dum11 bvun31 the/that–ABL again lead.away(ipf) 35 11 zyang ge … CD TOP … Leading them away, after this …

    bue31. P+I

    dum11 again

    lye31 also+I

    ngvut5 be

    482

    STORIES

    61

    Ke5-me55 Q–LOC zyang35

    bvun31 lye54 lu55 ga11 (ipf) lead.away also+FCT MIR perceive ge11, ke5-me55 bvun31 lye54 CD TOP Q–LOC lead.away(ipf) also+FCT 55 11 35 lu ga zyang ge11. MIR perceive CD TOP Where to lead them away to? Where to lead them away to? What to say?

    62

    Nang35 wa11 Syang11dyeng35 nang35 nu11 2SG.PO father (name) 2SG.PO mother Bvung55kyeng55 me55 lo35-aq5. (name) LOC go(back/up)–SIM “Go back to your (SG) father Syangdyeng and your mother Bungkyeng.

    63

    Nang35 nu11 Syang11dyeng35 nang35 nu11 2SG.PO mother (name) 2SG.PO mother Bvung55kyeng55. (name) “Your (SG) mother [NOTE: should be wa11 ‘father’] is Syangdyeng and your mother is Bungkyeng.”

    64

    Hau55-me55 lo35-aq5. the/that–LOC go(back/up)–SIM “Go (SG) back to them.”

    65

    Le1gok1 gau31-kum11 me55 wang31-aq1 stone nine–door LOC enter–SIM “Enter (SG) the nine stone doors”, they say.

    66

    Hau31 lvang55 hau31 r11 the/that even the/that also ga11 bue31. perceive P+I We say all these kinds of things.

    67

    Le1gok1 stone

    gau31-kum31-eq1 nine–door#–AG/I

    le1-kum11 one–door

    ga11 perceive

    i5-se55 SPEC–like

    pong55 open(vt)

    bue31. P+I

    dum11 again

    483

    ON THE SAQWA

    le1-kum11 mvi31 laq1, wang11 lo35-aq5. (ipf) one–door close(vt) close/lock enter(ipf) go(back/up)–SIM Using the nine stone doors, we open one and lock one; “go (SG) inside.” 68

    Le1-kum11 pong55 le1-kum11 mvi11 mvi31 one–door open(vt) one–door close(vt) trap(ipf) wang11 lo35 mvi31 wang11 lo35. (ipf) (ipf) (ipf) enter go(back/up) trap enter go(back/up) We open one door and we close it, and trap them when they enter, trap them when they enter.

    69

    Gau31-kum11 me55 lo35 mvi31 nine–door LOC go(back/up) trap(ipf) 54 11 dvo mai … place(vt)+FCT ABL … After they are trapped within the nine doors …

    70

    Lo35 mvi31 lvung31 dvo54 (ipf) (ipf) go(back/up) trap let.inside place(vt)+FCT 11 11 11 55 11 mai ge , dum sa ge bui31-sum11 r11 ABL TOP witch.doctor TOP sun–three also lva55-mo35 sum11 r11 mai11 dum11 dvau31 moon(?)–AUG three also ABL again turn(ipf) 31 31 lo bue . come(back/up) P+I After going inside and having trapped them, the witch doctor comes out again by the three suns and the three moons.

    71

    A5-se55 ngvut5 lye31, nom–like be also+I That’s how it is, the saqwa.

    saq1wa11. spirit.type

    lvung31 let.inside(ipf)

    TEXT THREE

    RABBIT TALES / Bang11dvai31 Mau31mi11 free translation RABBIT TAKES DRAGON UP THE HILL

    Rabbit is quite a trickster. There was a dragon, who lived in the stream. One day, he went up to the top of the hill. This was very unusual for Dragon, and this is how it happened. Rabbit went to Dragon in his [water fold] and said, “High up there, on the top of the hill, there is a beautiful lake where you can live.” Rabbit pierced Dragon’s nose [put a ring through his nose?] and pulled Dragon up the hill, and tied him to a Simvyo tree. Then he said, “I’ll just go down there to have a look at your lake from a distance.” The trickster rabbit ran down the hill and started a fire at the base. The fire burned hotter; Dragon couldn’t get away! He pulled and pulled at the rope, but he couldn’t escape. His nose was pierced, and the rope was holding him! He pulled and pulled. The Simvyo tree was pulled out of shape, and from that time onward, it has always been crooked. Dragon did finally escape from the fire but he was very angry with Rabbit.

    486

    STORIES RABBIT SEES A WOODEN DRAGON

    Dragon was down in his pond one day. He was very angry at Rabbit, and was planning to ambush him. When he saw Rabbit coming down the road to the pond for a drink of water, he turned himself into a lump of wood. But Rabbit was too clever for him. “If you are Dragon, then go downstream. If you are a piece of firewood, go upstream,” he said. Silly Dragon, pretending to be a lump of wood, began to swim upstream. He was a real fool. Rabbit began catcalling, “Dragon, Dragon!” and now he knew he had been tricked. Whatever he did, he was never able to hunt Rabbit down. DRAGON SHOUTS

    One day Dragon dug a big hole in the muddiest part of the stream. He was going to trick Rabbit! He was going to catch him and eat him! He lay down in the hole and opened his mouth wide, and waited for Rabbit to come. Along came Rabbit, and stepped into the stream. “Hup!” said Dragon and caught him by his left leg. “Mmm! today I’m going to eat you!” he said. “Oh, are you, you big brute? I don’t believe you! even shout properly! Let me hear you shout!”

    I’ll bet you can’t

    Dragon shouted. Rabbits leg came free and he ran away up the hill. Dragon could neither catch him nor eat him.

    487

    RABBIT TALES TIGER IN THE HOLE

    One day Rabbit fell into a deep pit. It was so deep he couldn’t get out. He was trapped! Then he heard someone coming. It was Tiger. “Hey, Tiger brother, where are you going? The sky above us is starting to fall! You’d better come down here! Quickly!” Tiger believed him, and was very frightened, and jumped into the hole. And there they sat together. After a while, Rabbit began to tickle Tiger. you little pest, or I’ll throw you out of here!”

    Tiger said, “Stop that,

    “Oh, no, please don’t do that, Tiger!” begged Rabbit. But after a little while, he began to tickle Tiger again. Tiger was furious. He took hold of Rappit and threw him out of the pit. Rabbit jumped up gleefully and ran away. RABBIT PLAYS TRICKS ON TIGER

    Nowadays Tiger makes this sound: “gok-ei-gok-a”. And this is how that happened. One day he came along and saw Rabbit, who was watching a snake. “Hey!

    Trickster!

    What are you doing?”

    “Well, I’m keeping an eye on grandfather’s and grandmother’s pipe, which no one can smoke.” He went on watching the snake intently. “I’m sure I can smoke it,” said Tiger.

    Let me try.”

    “No, no, you could never smoke this pipe,” said Rabbit. “I can!” “You cannot!”

    488

    STORIES

    “I can!” “You cannot!” “I can!” Tiger suddenly snatched the snake and put it to his mouth. The snake promptly bit him in the throat. From that time onwards, tigers always say “gok-gi-gok-gak”. Another time, Tiger came along and saw Rabbit, who was sitting and watching a swarm of mountain bees who were clustering together on a branch. “Hey, trickster, what are you doing?” “Well, I’m keeping an eye on grandfather’s and grandmother’s gong, which nobody may strike.” “But let us strike it anyway!” said Tiger. “No, no, nobody is allowed to strike the gong!” “I am going to strike it!” said Tiger. “You cannot!” “I can!” “You cannot!” “I can!” “You cannot!” “I can!” Tiger suddenly picked up a big stick and struck the cluster. went running, and the bees began to sting Tiger. RABBIT RUNS A MATCH WITH THE SNAIL

    (see the transcription and literal translation)

    Rabbit

    489

    RABBIT TALES THE ORPHAN AND THE RICH PEOPLE

    There was a poor orphan boy once, who couldn’t climb trees. Still, he wanted to be able to catch birds, like the other youths. There they were, high in the branches of the banyan tree, catching birds. The orphan boy, down on the ground, trapped a muntjac. But the rich people found the muntjac on the ground and hung it up among the branches. Then they told everybody that they were the ones who had trapped the muntjac. Because of that the orphan felt very unhappy. One day those people gave a party and invited many guests; at first Rabbit accepted the invitation, but when the day came, he didn’t show up. He didn’t care what they said to him; he just wouldn’t go. Everyone had arrived, and still no Rabbit. “Well, Trickster, where have you been? you are so late?”

    What were you doing that

    On the muntjac problem, they said the issue had been solved and they wouldn’t return the muntjac to the orphan. Rabbit said: “Oh, the puddle has been burning all day and I have been busy sprinkling it with my basket. That’s why I am late.” “What? said.

    A puddle on fire?

    You are fooling us!” the young men

    “Oh, I see. And when you said you said that muntjac was hanging in the trees and that hornbill was trapped on the ground, then you were the ones who were fooling!” And so Rabbit brought everything to light.

    490

    STORIES

    But still they were unwilling to return the muntjac to the orphan. Rabbit insisted. “Well,” they said, “We will return the muntjac to the orphan on the day there are two suns shining.” Rabbit agreed to that. Well, one day those boys went to wash their clothes; and Rabbit saw them. And while they were washing their clothes in the water, the sun was reflected there, so there was a sun below and a sun above. Rabbit came running. He showed them the sun below and the sun above and said, “You promised to return the muntjac on the day you see two suns. So now you must return it. Now!” And so Rabbit saw to it that justice was done.

    RABBIT TALES

    491

    THE STORYTELLER’S THOUGHTS

    Stories, rabbit stories. He was often able to solve problems. He understands human nature! Rabbit stories, stories of Tiger and Rabbit, there are so many of them, of all kinds. You see, because Rabbit is a trickster himself, he knows how the minds of other cheaters work, and he is able to outwit them. That’s how he was able to help the orphan boy. These stories, many of them I don’t know how to tell anymore, I have forgotten them all. In the past, when we were children, we used to tell them a lot. Now I am old, and cannot tell these stories very well anymore. There are so many stories. They really are all about everything in the world! Stories about Rabbit are in fact about us! They are about orphan children, widows and widowers, about every one of us. Rabbit is sly and clever and well-spoken; he knows all about deceiving and trickery. [He is just like us!]

    492

    STORIES

    Zaiwa transcription with literal translation INTRO 1

    I5-su54 ge1-lo31. SPEC–like+FCT TOP–no.more+I The story goes like this…

    2

    Hau31 ngvut5 zyang35 the/that be CD That [story], this…

    ge11 TOP

    hi31 … this

    3

    E11 bang11dvai31 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11, yvang11 er rabbit be CD TOP 3SG ge11 mvau31 dik1 lye31, mai31 dvi31, TOP cheat/fool(ipf) extreme also+I OBV+I CX+I 11 yvang gue11 mvau31 dik1 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) 3SG all.right cheat/fool extreme also+I The rabbit, he’s really a cheater. He’s quite a cheater.

    4

    Hau31 ge11 bang11dvai31 ngvut5 the/that TOP rabbit be 11 5 35 yvang ngvut zyang ge11 … 3SG be CD TOP He, the rabbit, speaking of him…

    5

    6

    I5-su54 ga11 hau31 yvang11 SPEC–like+FCT TOP the/that 3SG It is said like this, he, he…

    zyang35

    ge11

    CD

    TOP

    ge11 … TOP

    E11 ngo31 lvang55 a1-bvun31 a1-dye31 sue55 er 1SG even nom–(single).root NEG–too know 31 1 31 loq mai , zue hau31 ge11. no.more OBV+I truc the/that TOP Er, I don’t even know the beginning very well anymore, of this matter.

    493

    RABBIT TALES RABBIT TAKES DRAGON UP THE HILL 7

    Hau31 ge11 yvang11 ngvut5 zyang35 the/that TOP 3SG be CD i1sye11, man31zyum31 li55 (er/what’s.his.name) dragon OBJ He, er, the dragon (OBJ) he …

    ge11,

    e11, TOP er syeq1 … au.contraire

    8

    Man31zyum31 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 wui31-hung11 dragon be CD TOP water–fold me55 ngi31 su31 lvi31. LOC be.there(anim) SNO CX+I The dragon, that’s the one that lives in the water fold.

    9

    Hau31 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 hu55-gvong11 me55 the/that be CD TOP above–hill LOC 31 11 1 5 35 yvang syeq dvoq lo bue mai31. 3SG au.contraire get.up go(back/up) P+I OBV+I Quite to the contrary, he had gone up that hill top.

    10

    Hau31 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 the/that be CD TOP ngvut5 zyang35 dvi31 … be CD CX+I He, the rabbit then…

    11

    Man31zyum31 wui31-kung11 me55 ngi31 su31 dragon water–fold LOC be.there(anim) SNO li55 syeq1 … OBJ au.contraire To the dragon, the one that lived in the water fold [he said:]

    12

    Hu31 gvong11-mo35-mo35 nang31 lung35 ra54 nvong31-mo35 above hill–AUG–AUG 2SG be.inside need+FCT pond–AUG geq1-i54 zyoq1 lye31 ngvu31 syeq1. lot–SPEC+FCT be.there(inan) also+I say+I au.contraire “Up there, on top of the large hill, that’s where this huge huge pond is, for you (SG) to stay in.”

    hau31 bang11dvai31 the/that rabbit

    494

    STORIES

    13

    Nvo31-syoi55 tong11 mu31 syeq1 gvong11 nose–nose.lock pierce happen+I au.contraire hill pyang31 sye31 doq1 ga31. DIR pull go.up perceive+I After piercing his nose, he pulled him [the dragon] up the hill.

    14

    Nang31

    dat1 gyo31 lye31 2SG able hear/smell(ipf) also+I

    luq1? Y/N

    15

    E11 gvong11 pyang31 sye31 doq1 mu31 zyang35 syeq1. er hill DIR pull go.up happen CD au.contraire Er, he pulled him [the dragon] up the hill.

    16

    E11 si1-mvyo55-byap1 ma55 hau31 pi11pa55go11syu31 er fruit–fruit.name–shrub/tree LOC the/that loquat me55 lo35 dvui31 dvo11 mu31 syeq1. (ipf) LOC go(back/up) rope(N/vt) place(vt) happen+I au.contraire Er, he tied him to a Simvyo shrub, to a Loquat fruit tree.

    17

    Nang31

    18

    Gvut5 mvau55 gvut5 do cheat/fool do Cheating him like this…

    19

    Mvo31 gvong11-tang31 mai11 syeq1 mi35-ngvye31 below hill–foothills ABL au.contraire fire–burn(vt)(ipf) 31 5 55 31 gvat -n ga lye nang31 ge11. (ipf) put.into–FCT perceive also+I 2SG TOP At the foot of the hill he then set a fire.

    20

    Mi35-ngvye31 gvat5 mu31 (ipf) fire–burn(vt) put.into happen He set a fire, and after that…

    lung35 ra54 nvong31 ge11 mvo55-me55, 2SG be.inside need+FCT pond TOP below–LOC ngo31 he55 byam11 wu35 be55 ngvu31 syeq1. 1SG before jump(ipf) look EE say+I au.contraire “That huge pond for you (SG) to live in, I’ll have a short look at it, down there.” lui31 syeq1 … in.this.way+I au.contraire

    zyang35 syeq1 … CD au.contraire

    495

    RABBIT TALES 21

    22

    23

    Mi35-ngvye31 gvat5 ga31 ning31 nang31 (ipf) (ipf) fire–burn(vt) put.into perceive INS+I 2SG He set a fire! Well!

    ge11!

    Hau55-mu31 zyang35 syeq1 man31zyum31 the/that–happen CD au.contraire dragon 31 55 11 mvau bue ge . cheat/fool P+I TOP After that, [since] the thus had cheated the dragon.

    li55

    Yvang11

    man31zyum31 3SG dragon He cheated the dragon.

    li55 OBJ

    OBJ

    mvau55. cheat/fool

    24

    Mvau55 cheat/fool mu31 happen+I yvang11

    25

    A1-wo35 pang31 loq1. NEG–have dodge/flee no.more He could no longer escape.

    26

    Nve5-syoi55 tong11 mai11 nve5-syoi55 nose–nose.lock pierce ABL nose–nose.lock mai11 yvang11 dvui31 dvo11 bue31 (ipf) ABL 3SG rope(N/vt) place(vt) P+I His nose being pierced, his nose being pierced, roped there.

    27

    TOP

    zyang35

    syeq1 mi35-ngvye31 gvat5 (ipf) CD au.contraire fire–burn(vt) put.into 1 31 31 5 syeq , man zyum ngvut zyang35 au.contraire dragon be CD a1-wo35 pang31 mai31 dvi31. 3SG NEG–have dodge/flee OBV+I CX+I Being tricked and the fire being set, the dragon thus could no longer escape.

    tong54 pierce+FCT ga11. TOP

    he was being

    Hau31 ngvut5 zyang35 syeq1 man31zyum31 the/that be CD au.contraire dragon lang11 zyang35 syeq1 … pull/yank CD au.contraire He, the dragon pulled…

    496 28

    STORIES

    Hau31 ge11 hau31 pi11pa55syu11 mai11 i5-se55 the/that TOP the/that loquat ABL SPEC–like mu31 goi35 lye31 ga31 ning31, happen+I crooked/wicked also+I perceive+I INS+I nang31 ge11. 2SG

    TOP

    The Pipa tree, from that time onwards, it is as crooked as it still is now! RABBIT SEES A WOODEN DRAGON 29

    31

    Hau55-mu31 syeq1 e11, man31zyum31 the/that–happen au.contraire er dragon zyang35 ge11 e11 hau31 bang11dvai31 yvang11 CD TOP er the/that rabbit 3SG After that then, the dragon, er, the rabbit (OBJ) he… Bang11dvai31 yvang11 li55 nvik5-yo11 bue31 rabbit 3SG OBJ heart–itch3 P+I He was very angry at the rabbit.

    ngvut5 be li55 dvi31… OBJ CX+I

    ngva31. DC+I

    32

    Hau55-hun31 zyang35 ge11 the/that–time CD TOP At that time, he [below]…

    mvo31 … below

    33

    Yvang11

    34

    Lom11 dvo11 bue31 ga31 ning31, Ke5-se55 gvut5? attend(ipf) place(vt) P+I perceive+I INS+I Q–like do He was lying in ambush! What should he [the rabbit] do about that?

    35

    Mvo31 nvong31 me55 below pond LOC lye31 myu31 also+I float/drown(vi)(ipf)

    i1-zvyam11 syuq5 ye31 ra31 3SG water–water drink go(away/down) need+I kyo31 me55 syeq1 … road LOC au.contraire When he was going down the road to drink water…

    sek5-tung11 dut1 mu31 tree–lump become happen mvau31 dvo11 ga31 (ipf) cheat/fool place(vt) perceive+I

    497

    RABBIT TALES

    ning31

    man31zyum31 ge11 … INS+I dragon TOP Down there in the pond, having turned himself into a lump of wood, floating there in order to cheat him, the dragon he… 36

    37

    Hau55-hun31 zyang35 ge11 bang11dvai31 yvang11 the/that–time CD TOP rabbit 3SG lyem35 lye31 mai31. sly also+I OBV+I At that time then, the rabbit took him on the sly.

    r55 OBJ

    Man31zyum31 ngvut5 r11 ge11 byin31 pyang31 gyo35-aq5. dragon be also TOP downstream DIR go.down–

    SIM

    “If you are a/the dragon, then go (SG) downstream.” 38

    Tang11-dvum55 ngvut5 r11 ge11 mun31 firewood–interrupt be also TOP upper.course pyang31 do11-aq1 ngvu31 ga31. DIR go.up*–SIM say perceive+I “If you are a piece of firewood go (SG) upstream” he said.

    39

    Hau31 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 e11 man31zyum31 the/that be CD TOP er dragon yvang11 dum11 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 mun31 3SG again be CD TOP upper.course pyang31 doq1 mvau55. DIR go.up cheat/fool Speaking of this, er, the [silly] dragon, he went upstream, foolishly.

    40

    Mun31 pyang31 myu31 doq1 mvau55 (ipf) upper.course DIR float/drown(vi) go.up cheat/fool zyang35 syeq1. CD au.contraire He floated upstream, the fool.

    41

    Ei31 VOC

    man31zyum31 dragon

    man31zyum31 dragon

    man31zyum31 dragon

    ngvu31 say+I

    498

    STORIES

    i5-sue31 am54 ga31. (ipf) go–know PFM+FCT perceive+I “Hey, dragon, dragon, dragon!” he [the rabbit] said; he now knew who it was. 42

    Bang11dvai31 mvau31 r55 (ipf) rabbit cheat/fool PE The rabbit was fooling him.

    mai31. OBV+I

    43

    Man31zyum31 man31zyum31 ngvu31 syeq1 dragon dragon say au.contraire 11 55 1 35 35 31 yvang li a -wo gyam yu ngvu31 syeq1. 3SG OBJ NEG–have stalk(vt) take say+I au.contraire Having said “dragon, dragon” he thus couldn’t be caught.

    44

    Gvut5 dik1 li11 a1-wo35 gyam35 mu31 do extreme also NEG–have stalk(vt) happen zyang35 syeq1. CD au.contraire Whatever he did, he just couldn’t hunt him down. DRAGON SHOUTS

    45

    Yvang11

    ge11

    3SG

    TOP

    e11 er

    yvang11 3SG

    mvau31 lye31 (ipf) cheat/fool also+I

    mai11-eq1 … ABL–AG/I He, since he had fooled him… 46

    Hau55-mu31 zyang35 syeq1, mvo31 se1-mui31 the/that–happen CD au.contraire below sand–turbid 11 55 1 zyang me syeq … place(B) LOC au.contraire After that, below in the turbid part of a stream…

    47

    Yvang11 3SG

    ngvut5 be

    zyang35 CD

    gvyung54 mai11 dig/cut.holes+FCT ABL

    ge11

    le1go11 tyep5 TOP well thoroughly syeq1 nvut5 au.contraire mouth

    499

    RABBIT TALES

    i5-su54 ha31 ha31 (ipf) SPEC–like+FCT (mouth).open.wide (mouth).open.wide(ipf) dvo11 mu31 syeq1. place(vt) happen+I au.contraire He [the dragon] having thoroughly dug a hole, he had opened his mouth wide, like this .... 48

    Man31zyum31 hi55-yuq1 bang11dvai31 yvang11 dragon this–person rabbit 3SG yu31 zo11 ra31 ngvu31 syeq1. take eat need+I say+I au.contraire This dragon was going to get the rabbit and eat him.

    r55 OBJ

    49

    Gue31-gue31 lye35 lo31 ngyo31 bue31. all.right–all.right come(away/down) come(back/up) talk P+I He [the rabbit] really came down.

    50

    Lye35 lo31 come(away/down) come(back/up) Coming down …

    zyang35 CD

    syeq1 … au.contraire

    51

    Nvut5-hum11 me55 mvi31 am55 lui31 syeq1 … mouth–door LOC trap(ipf) PFM in.this.way+I au.contraire Being trapped in the opening of his mouth then …

    52

    Ki31 me55 gvyaq5 zeng11 dvo11 zyang35 syeq1 … (ipf) leg/foot LOC grasp fixed place(vt) CD au.contraire His leg/foot being tightly in the grip …

    53

    Mng31 ke5-ngi35 nang31 li55 zo11 be1-ra31 hmm before–day 2SG OBJ eat P–need+I 31 35 1 ngvu zyang syeq . say CD au.contraire “Mmm! today I’m going to eat you (SG)” he said.

    54

    Ei31

    yuq1-gue31 si1da11 li55 nang31 ge11 VOC person–male macho OBJ 2SG TOP a31ha31 ngvu31-aq1 ma11 ngvut5 zyang35. [roaring.shout] say–SIM ROUS be CD “Hey! you macho, give a yell, will’ya?”

    500

    STORIES

    56

    A31ha31 ngvu31 zyang35 yvang11 ki31 [roaring.shout] say CD 3SG leg/foot pot5 mu31 syeq1 pang11 [sudden.move] happen+I au.contraire dodge/flee(ipf) toq5 byuq1 lo35 gvong11 pyang31. come.out lose go(back/up) hill DIR Having shouted, his foot suddenly came free and he fled upwards towards the hilltop.

    57

    A1-wo35 yu31 zo11 ga31. NEG–have take eat perceive+I He couldn’t catch and eat him.

    58

    Man31zyum11-eq1 li11 a1-wo35 yu31 zo11. dragon#–AG/I also NEG–have take eat The dragon could neither catch nor eat him. TIGER IN THE HOLE

    59

    Hau55-hun31 zyang35 syeq1 le1-dam31 the/that–time CD au.contraire one–time(Sp) 35 11 11 zyang ge e yvang11 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11, CD TOP er 3SG be CD TOP At that time, once, he, speaking of him…, the tiger …

    ngvut5 be lo11 … tiger/bull

    60

    Lo11 r55 dum11 mvau31 ngyo31 bue31 (ipf) tiger/bull OBJ again cheat/fool talk P+I The tiger, he went on to fool the tiger.

    ga31. perceive+I

    61

    Lo11 r55 dum11 mvau55 ngvu31 zyang35 syeq1. tiger/bull OBJ again cheat/fool say CD au.contraire He went on to fool the tiger.

    62

    Yvang11 3SG

    me55 LOC

    ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 be CD TOP mi1-gung31-dong11 me55 earth–body–(have)hole LOC

    hau31 the/that gyo35 go.down

    dong11 (have)hole lung35 be.inside

    501

    RABBIT TALES

    byuq1 ga31 lye31, nang31 ge11. (ipf) lose perceive also+I 2SG TOP He [the rabbit], he had fallen down into a hole, a large pit. 63

    Mi1-gung31-dong11 me55 gyo35 earth–body–(have)hole LOC go.down mu31 zyang35 syeq1 … happen CD au.contraire … Having fallen down into that pit …

    lung35 byuq1 be.inside lose

    64

    Yvang11 ngvut5 zyang35 a1-wo35 toq5 mai11-eq1 … 3SG be CD NEG–have come.out ABL–AG/I Since he couldn’t get out …

    65

    A1-zvyang55 syeq1 lo11 lai31 lo31 (ipf) nom–near au.contraire tiger/bull pass come(back/up) 35 1 zyang syeq … CD au.contraire But then the tiger came by very closely …

    66

    Ei31

    67

    Hu31 mau11-kung31 gyop1 gyo35 lo35 r55 above sky–vault/ridge in.pieces go.down go(back/up) PE ga31 hi55-me55 rau35 pang11 wang11 perceive+I this–LOC promptly dodge/flee(ipf) enter(ipf) lye35-aq5 ngvu31 ga31 ning31. come(away/down)–SIM say+I perceive+I INS+I “The sky above is starting to fall into pieces, come (SG) down here quickly.”

    68

    Hau55-kun31 zyang35 ge11 … the/that–time CD TOP At that time…

    69

    E11 er

    mang35-lo11 nang31 ha31 lo35 lye31? VOC elder.brother–tiger/bull 2SG where go(back/up) also+I “Hey, tiger brother, where are you (SG) going?”

    lo11 ngvut5 tiger/bull be

    zyang35

    ge11

    CD

    TOP

    zing35 believe

    502

    STORIES

    lui31 syeq1 … in.this.way+I au.contraire Er, the tiger on his part, believing him… 70

    Yvang11

    dong11 me55 be1-lung35-eq5 syeq1. 3SG (have)hole LOC help–be.inside–COM au.contraire As soon as he joined him inside the hole…

    71

    Le1-king11 r55 ge11 tok1 tok1 gvut5-gvut5 syeq1. one–halt/rest TS TOP [tickle] [tickle] do–do au.contraire After a short while, he [the rabbit] started to tickle him.

    72

    Ei31

    73

    He5-gvut5-no31 ngvu31 syeq1. PHB–do–HIGH+I say+I au.contraire “Don’t do that!” he [the rabbit] said.

    74

    Le1-king11 me55 tok1 tok1 m11. one–halt/rest LOC [tickle] [tickle] hm… After a while, he [the rabbit] tickled him [again]. Hm…

    75

    Gvyaq5 toq5 dvang31 gvat5 zyang35 m11 (ipf) grasp come.out let.fly put.into CD hm… byam11 ge11 lo35 byuq1 bue31 ga31 ngvu31. jump(ipf) TOP go(back/up) lose PI perceive+I say+I As soon as he had grasped him and thrown him out, he simply jumped up and left.

    76

    Yvang11

    77

    Hau55-mu31 zyang35 syeq1 e11 … the/that–happen CD au.contraire er After that, er…

    te1mung35 nang31 ngo31 gvyaq5 toq5 VOC deceiver 2SG 1SG grasp come.out ra31-o55 ngvu31 syeq1. need+I–HIGH say+I au.contraire “Hey, you deciever, I’ll grasp you and throw you out!” he said.

    wo35 pang11 toq5 bue31. (ipf) 3SG TOP have dodge/flee come.out P+I He thus was able to get out of there. ge11

    RABBIT TALES

    503

    78

    Ngo31

    hye31 zye11 ning25 zyang11 1SG same.elevation exceed deep+FCT* place(B) i5-hat5 ho11 lo31 be55 ngvu31 syeq1. (ipf) go–pursue look.for come(back/up) EE say+I au.contraire He said: “I’ll go and chase him over there [at the same elevation], at the place where it is deepest.”

    79

    Poq5-gyuq1 wue31 um54 mu31 syeq1 … (ipf) leaf–dry sweep.away cover2(V)+FCT happen+I au.contraire And after having sweeped away dry leaves and covering the ground with it …

    80

    Hau55-hau55 hau55-yuq1 r55 mi31-eq1 ngvye31 the/that–the/that the/that–person OBJ fire#–AG/I burn(vt)(ipf) kyut5 mu31 syeq1 a1-gvong55 take.off/pluck happen+I au.contraire nom–variegated1 a1-gva55 dut1 lye31 ga31 hau31. nom–variegated1 become also+I perceive+I the/that [stuttering] And from the time he burnt his skin off onwards, [the tiger] became as striped as he is now.

    81

    Bang11dvai31 mau31mi11 ge11 a5-se55 ga31 r55 mai31. (ipf) rabbit story TOP nom–like perceive PE OBV+I The rabbit stories go like this! RABBIT PLAYS TRICKS ON TIGER

    82

    Hau55-mu31 zyang35 ge11 e11 le1-dam31 lo11 the/that–happen CD TOP er one–time(Sp) tiger/bull li55 ge11 hau55-mu31 li11 wo35 ngvye31 (ipf) OBJ TOP the/that–happen also have burn(vt) kyut5 mu31 syeq1 dum11 take.off/pluck happen+I au.contraire again lo35-Ø syeq1. go(back/up)–FCT au.contraire From this time onwards, from this time when he had been able to burn his skin off, from this time onwards…

    504

    STORIES

    83

    A1hui31 lo11 gok1ei11gok11a11 now tiger/bull [very.course.purring.sound.of.tigers] ga31 ming11 lye31. (ipf) (ipf) perceive sound(vi) also+I Now the tiger speaks like “gok-ei-gok-a”.

    84

    Hau31 ngvut5 zyang35 the/that be CD Being like this…

    ge11 … TOP

    85

    Lvang31-mui31 li55 syeq1 Ei31 te1mung35 snake–snake OBJ au.contraire VOC deceiver nang31 ka55-hu55 gvut5 lye31 ngvu31 syeq1. 2SG Q–sort do also+I say+I au.contraire A snake (OBJ), “hey! deceiver, what are you (SG) doing?”

    86

    Eq5

    87

    Hau55-hun31 zyang35 the/that–time CD At that time …

    ngo31 hi31 A5-zvi55 A5-wvoi55-e55 VOC 1SG this nom–grandfather nom–father’s.mother–FCT a1-bok5 ngvya55-au11 zung35 lye31 ngvu31 ga31. NEG–smoke(vt) tobacco–pan keep.an.eye.on also+I say perceive+I “Well, I’m keeping an eye on grandfather’s and grandmother’s tobacco pan, which cannot be smoked.” ge11 … TOP

    hoi55 a1-dat1 gyo11 mai31. 2SG maybe NEG–able hear/smell OBV+I

    88

    Nang31

    89

    Dat1 gyo31 lye11 gum35-Ø ge11. able hear/smell(ipf) also complete/perfect(vi)–FCT TOP

    90

    Hau31 ge11 zung35 mvau31 dvo11 syeq1. (ipf) the/that TOP keep.an.eye.on cheat/fool place(vt) au.contraire He was keeping an eye on that thing. [as if it really were something]

    505

    RABBIT TALES 91

    Eq5

    a1-hun31 ngo31 byam11 bok5 wu35 (ipf) VOC nom–time 1SG jump smoke(vt) look ngvu31 syeq1. say+I au.contraire “Let me have a try and smoke it for a while.”

    be55 EE

    92

    A1-dong35. NEG–agree He didn’t agree.

    93

    Eq5

    94

    A1-ngvut5-no31 ngo31 bok5 wu35 be55 ngvu31 syeq1. NEG–be–HIGH+I 1SG smoke(vt) look EE say+I au.contraire “No, no, I’ll try and smoke” he [the tiger] said.

    95

    Guq1 bok5 zyang35 hi31 kyong11 me55 pick.up smoke(vt) CD this throat LOC dak5 tye11 bi11 ga31. [direct.hit] peck give perceive+I Picking it up to smoke, it [the snake] bit him here in the throat.

    96

    Hei kyong11 me55 dak5 tye11 bi11 no.gloss throat LOC [hit.accurately] peck give 1 31 11 a -mu lo gok1gi11gok1gak1 nom–happen tiger/bull [very.course.purring.sound.of.tigers] ngvu31 ming11 lye31 ge11 hau31 ga31. (ipf) say+I sound(vi) also+I TOP the/that perceive+I From being bitten in the throat onwards, tigers speak like “gok-gigok-gak”.

    97

    Bang11dvai31 mau31mi11 ge11 rabbit story TOP Rabbit stories are like this.

    98

    Hau31 ngvut5 zyang35 the/that be CD zyang35 ge11 …

    a1-gue11 (ipf) VOC 2SG NEG–all.right “No, you can’t smoke” he said.

    CD

    nang31

    TOP

    ge11 TOP

    bok5 smoke(vt)

    ngvu31. say+I

    a5-se55 ga31 ra55. nom–like perceive+I PE le1-dam31 ngvut5 one–time(Sp) be

    506

    STORIES

    Speaking of this, one other time… 99

    Hau31 gua11pung35 mai31-ei31 bum31-byo11 the/that hanging.bees OBV+I–EXCL+I heap(vt/N)–wasp/bee long31 me55 syeq1 lo35 dum11 area LOC au.contraire go(back/up) again 35 zung mvau31 dvo11 ngvu31 syeq1. keep.an.eye.on cheat/fool(ipf) place(vt) say+I au.contraire The hanging bees! He was again keeping a false eye on something, near the mountain bees.

    100

    Eq5

    101

    Ei11 ngo31 hi31 A5-zvi55 A5-wvoi55-e55 VOC 1SG this nom–grandfather nom–father’s.mother–FCT a1-bat1 yun11-mang11 zung35 dvo31 NEG–beat gong2–aged keep.an.eye.on place(vt)(ipf) lye31-o31 ngvu31 syeq1. also+I–HIGH+I say+I au.contraire “Well, I’m keeping an eye on grandfather’s and grandmother’s gong, which should not be beaten on.”

    102

    Eq5

    103

    Eq5

    104

    A1-gue11 bat1 (ipf) NEG–all.right beat “You can’t beat on it.”

    te1mung35 nang31 ka55-hu55 gvut5 lye31 VOC deceiver 2SG Q–sort do also+I ngvu31 syeq1. say+I au.contraire “Hey, deceiver, what are you (SG) doing?” he [the tiger] said.

    bat1 wu35 gvoq1 ma11 ngvu31 VOC beat look DIE ROUS say+I “But let us (DU) beat on it!” he [the tiger] said.

    syeq1. au.contraire

    o55 gue31 ra31 lo31 a1-gue11 (ipf) VOC who all.right need+I no.more+I NEG–all.right 31 31 1 31 31 11 bat ngvu ga ning nang ge . beat say perceive+I INS+I 2SG TOP “Beating on it is no longer allowed by anyone!” he [the rabbit] said. ngvu31 say+I

    syeq1. au.contraire

    507

    RABBIT TALES 105

    A1-gue11 bat1 ngvu31 li11, a1-dong35 (ipf) NEG–all.right beat say+I also NEG–agree a1-dong35, dum11 bat1 zyang35 ngvut5 zyang35 NEG–agree again beat CD be CD yvang11 li55 dum11 bvat5 gvyop5 ga31. 3SG OBJ again let.beat tuck.away perceive+I He said: “You can’t beat on it”, he said he didn’t agree, but when he [the tiger] beat it nevertheless, he was stung incessantly.

    106

    Hau31 bang35dvai11-eq1 mvau31 lye31 (ipf) the/that rabbit#–AG/I cheat/fool also+I After the rabbit had fooled him…

    107

    Bang11dvai31 mau31mi11 heng11 lye31 rabbit story long(ipf) also+I The rabbit story is very very long.

    mai11-eq1 … ABL–AG/I

    mai31. OBV+I

    RABBIT RUNS A MATCH WITH THE SNAIL 108

    Hau55-hun31 zyang35 the/that–time CD At that time…

    ge11 … TOP

    109

    Hoi55-eq5 dum11 din11 kim31 lum11 gve5-ga31. (ipf) (ipf) snail1–COM again run bicker reciprocal PL–perceive+I He and the snail ran a match.

    110

    Hau55-hun31 zyang35 the/that–time CD At that time…

    111

    ge11 … TOP

    Hoi55 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 yvang11 ge11 snail1 be CD TOP 3SG TOP hung11-hang11 hung11-mo35 ngi11 lye31 (ipf) fold–each fold–AUG be.there(anim) also+I ngvut5, ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 … be be CD TOP … Like all snails, he was slowly moving himself from trench to trench, and therefore…

    508

    STORIES

    112

    Hoi55-eq5 dum11 din11 kim31 lum11 gvoq1 (ipf) (ipf) snail1–COM again run bicker reciprocal DIE ngvu31 i5-dum11 dai31 lum11 ga31. (ipf) say+I go–again speak reciprocal perceive+I “Let’s (DU) run a match” he went to say to the water snail.

    113

    A35, gue11 lye31! ngvu31 syeq1. (no.problem!) all.right(ipf) also+I say+I au.contraire “Ah, no problem” he [the snail] said.

    114

    Hoi55-eq5 dum11 din11 kim31 lum11 syeq1. (ipf) (ipf) snail1–COM again run bicker reciprocal au.contraire He and the snail ran a match.

    115

    Hoi31-bvue55 ngvut5 zyang35 hung11-hang11 (GEN) snail1 –PLN be CD fold–each 11 35 11 hung -mo ngi lye31 ngvut5-n55 fold–AUG be.there(anim)(ipf) also+I be–FCT 35 11 zyang ge … CD

    mu31 happen

    TOP

    Like all snails, he was slowly moving himself from trench to trench, and therefore … 116

    Le1-wo31 le1-wo31 mai11 ei31 go31-hoi55 one–spot one–spot ABL VOC clumsy/silly–snail1 31 1 31 ngvu syeq , oi ngvu31, ming31 say+I au.contraire (yes!/I’m.here!) say+I name ngvut5 dvo31 mu31 ge11. be place(vt)(ipf) happen+I TOP From one spot to the other, “silly snail!”, “yes!” he [the snail] said, as this was his name.

    117

    Hei55! hoi55 nang31 mvyo55 din31 li11 (you.there!) snail1 2SG much(B) run also 1 35 25 a -wo din . NEG–have run+FCT “Alas snail, no matter how hard you (SG) try, you won’t be able to run.”

    RABBIT TALES

    509

    118

    Mvau31 r55 ngvu31 syeq1. (ipf) cheat/fool PE say+I au.contraire “You’ll make nothing of it” he said.

    119

    Ci5-hung11 i5-se55 gvut5-n55 me1nai31 am55 (ipf) buttock–fold SPEC–like do–FCT twist/screw PFM 31 54 bi ga . give+FCT perceive+I He twisted his bottom [the snail’s bottom] like this.

    120

    Hoi55 ngvut5 zyang35 i5-se55 mu11 (ipf) snail1 be CD SPEC–like happen goi35 lye31 ga31 mai11-eq1, hoi55. crooked/wicked also+I perceive+I ABL–AG/I snail1 The snail, after this he is crooked like this, the snail.

    121

    Mau31mi11 a5-se55 ga31 ra31. 4 story nom–like perceive(ipf) need+I The story goes like this.

    122

    Hi31 ge11 bang11dvai31 mau31mi11 syautu-ne55 this TOP rabbit story rabbit–FCT mau31mi11 mai31. story OBV+I This is the rabbit story, [in Chinese:] the rabbit story.

    123

    Mau31mi11 ge11 zyaq1 myo31 ra55. story TOP rather much(ipf) PE There are much of these stories.

    124

    Bang11dvai31 mau31mi11 a5-se55 ga31 dvo11 ra55. (ipf) rabbit story nom–like perceive place(vt) PE Rabbit stories are told like this.

    125

    A1-myu31-myu31

    zyoq1 r55 mai31! nom–sort/nationality–sort/nationality be.there(inan) PE OBV+I There are all kinds of them!

    4 This is in fact only a small part of the story. Ultimately the snail beat the rabbit.

    510

    STORIES

    THE ORPHAN AND THE RICH PEOPLE 126

    Hau31 ge11 hau31 i1sye11 syui55-zo11-eq5 the/that TOP the/that (er/what’s.his.name) orphan–child–COM syui55-zo11-eq5 e11 wo35 bang54 dvi31. orphan–child–COM er have PNO+FCT CX+I This er, this er, the orphan, about the orphan and the rich people, right.

    127

    Hau31 ge11 ngvoq5 dvui11 kyo55, yvang11 the/that TOP bird rope(N/vt) let.go.down 3SG 5 35 1 11 i -wo byat bi mai11-eq1. go–have solve give ABL–AG/I This er, catching birds from the trees, he was able to solve the problem.

    128

    Syui55-zo11 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 yvang11 ngvut5 orphan–child be CD TOP 3SG be zyang35 ge11 se5-gam31 a1-wo35 doq1 mai11-eq1. CD TOP tree–tree(B) NEG–have go.up ABL–AG/I The orphan, the orphan couldn’t climb trees.

    129

    Hau31 waq1ngan31 wui31 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 the/that young.man generation be CD TOP se5-gam31 wo35 doq1 mu31 syeq1. tree–tree(B) have go.up happen+I au.contraire But those young people, since they were able to climb trees …

    130

    Waq1ngan31 wui31 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 ho31 young.man generation be CD TOP above2 11 35 5 55 11 mvyang mo toq me mvyang mo35 banyan AUG come.out LOC banyan AUG toq5 me55 syeq1 ngvoq5 dvui11 come.out LOC au.contraire bird rope(N/vt) 31 55 kyo ga . let.go.down perceive+I These young people, from high above in the huge banyan, in the huge banyan they caught some birds.

    511

    RABBIT TALES 131

    Syui55-zo11 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 mi1-gung31 me55 orphan–child be CD TOP earth–body LOC i5-kyo55 mu31 syeq1. go–let.go.down happen+I au.contraire The orphan, since he was below on the ground …

    132

    Hau31 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 syui55-zo11 ngvoq5 the/that be CD TOP orphan–child bird dvui11 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 zi1si31 mi35 rope(N/vt) be CD TOP muntjac trapped 31 31 31 11 ga ning nang ge . perceive+I INS+I 2SG TOP Well er, whereas the orphan wanted to catch birds, he caught a muntjac!

    133

    Hau55-hun31 zyang35 hau31 wo35 the/that–time CD the/that have dvui11 ngvut5 zyang35, ho31 rope(N/vt) be CD above2 55 31 31 35 me wa gyang mi ngvu31 LOC hornbill trapped say+I At the same time, the rich people, also caught a hornbill.

    134

    Hau31 wo35 bang31-eq1 dum11 gvut5 lye31 dum11 the/that have PNO#–AG/I again do also+I again ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 hau31 mi1-gung31 ma54 be CD TOP the/that earth–body LOC+FCT 1 31 1 31 zi si syeq ho , mau11-kung31 toq5 muntjac au.contraire look.for sky–vault/ridge come.out me55 lo35 dvui31 lvang31 dvo11 ga31. (ipf) (ipf) LOC go(back/up) rope(N/vt) hang place(vt) perceive+I The rich people then found the muntjac on the ground and hang it up into the air.

    135

    Hau55-hun31 zyang35 ge11 e11 hau31 syui55-zo11 the/that–time CD TOP er the/that orphan–child 5 35 11 1 1 1 ngvut zyang ge i mit a -ngon35 i1mit1 be CD TOP mind NEG–pleasant mind

    bang54 ngvoq5 PNO+FCT bird mau11 toq5 sky come.out 1 syeq . au.contraire wanting to catch birds,

    512

    STORIES

    a1-ngon35 mai11-eq1. NEG–pleasant ABL–AG/I Because of that the orphan felt very bad, he felt very bad. 136

    I1mit1 a1-ngon35 mu31 ge11. mind NEG–pleasant happen+I TOP He felt very bad, and after that…

    137

    Byu31 zi31. man/woman invite Guests were invited.

    138

    Byu31 zi31 li11 ge11 o55 r11 man/woman invite also TOP who also a1-lye35. NEG–come(away/down) Guests were being invited but no one came.

    139

    Hau31 bang11dvai31 ze11 li55 i5-wo35 zi31. the/that rabbit only OBJ go–have invite Only the rabbit heeded to the invitation.

    140

    Hau31 bang11dvai31 yvang11 the/that rabbit 3SG The rabbit then, he er …

    141

    A1-ye31 NEG–go(away/down) He didn’t go!

    nvo31

    A1-ye31 NEG–go(away/down) He didn’t go.

    nvo31.

    142

    143

    ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 be CD TOP

    ga31 EXP+I perceive+I

    e11 … er

    ning31

    nang31

    ge11.

    INS+I

    2SG

    TOP

    EXP+I

    A1-ye31 nvo31 mu31 syeq1 NEG–go(away/down) EXP+I happen+I au.contraire ke5-mvyo55 ei31 waq1ngan31 wui31 ke5-mvyo55 Q–much(B) VOC young.man generation Q–much(B)

    RABBIT TALES

    513

    zi11 li11 yvang11 ge11 a1-ye31 no31. (ipf) invite also 3SG TOP NEG–go(away/down) HIGH+I He didn’t go, whatever the young people - Hey! - said to invite him, he just didn’t go. 144

    Se5-bvue55 o55 r11 ban11 ye31 bue31, (ipf) SNO–PLN who also use.up go(away/down) P+I tang31 me55 syeq1 yvang11 li11 behind LOC au.contraire 3SG also ye11 mvau55. go(away/down)(ipf) cheat/fool All of the others had arrived and as the last one he also showed up.

    145

    A1-su31 te1mung35 nang31 a1hui11-yvam31 zye35 (GEN) nom–SNO deceiver 2SG now –time.for arrive 35 11 55 55 5 55 55 zye ge , ka -hu gvut -n dvi a1hui31 r11 arrive TOP Q–sort do–FCT RFL now also a1-lye35? NEG–come(away/down) “Well, Deceiver, you arrive only by now, what did you do, making you arrive so late?”

    146

    Nga35-moq1 a1mu31 byat1 yau35 bue31 ga31 1PO–party matter solve finish P+I perceive+I 31 1 31 55 11 ngvu syeq , hau syui -zo li55 say+I au.contraire the/that orphan–child OBJ syeq1 yvang55-moq1 ge11 a1-gvam31 zyai35 (ipf) au.contraire 3PL–party TOP NEG–want.to give.back 31 31 mai dvi . OBV+I

    CX+I

    They said: “We have solved the problems.” but they just weren’t willing to return the muntjac to the orphan!” 147

    Hau55-hun31 zyang35 syeq1 ei35 ngo31 lvang55 ge11 the/that–time CD au.contraire VOC 1SG even TOP ke5-ngi35 bui31 se1-mui31-yo31 me55 mi11 ngye35 mu31 before–day sun sand–turbid–land LOC fire burnt/hot happen+I lui31-eq1 tung55-gva55 mai11 i1-zvyam11 in.this.way+I–AG/I wickerwork–variegated1 ABL water–water

    514

    STORIES

    kam11 pyun31 lye31, a5-se55 mu31 syeq1 (ipf) (ipf) receive/fetch strew also+I nom–like happen+I au.contraire tang31 gyo35 dvo31 ra55 ngvu31. (ipf) behind go.down place(vt) PE say+I At that time the rabbit said: “My, the puddle has been burning all day and I have been busy sprinkling it with my basket, and therefore I am late.” 148

    Ei35

    se1-mui31-yo31 me55 mi11 ngye35 ga54 VOC sand–turbid–land LOC fire burnt/hot perceive+FCT 31 11 31 31 ge , nang mvau lye mvau31 lye31 TOP 2SG cheat/fool(ipf) also+I cheat/fool(ipf) also+I 31 1 ngvu ze -gue31 waq1ngan31 wui31 ngvu31 say+I child–male young.man generation say 35 zyang a5-se55 ngvu31 zyang35. CD nom–like say CD “Ah? a puddle on fire? you are fooling us!” the young men then said.

    149

    Hau55-hun31 ge11 sek5-poq5 me55 zi1si31 mi35 the/that–time TOP tree–leaf LOC muntjac trapped e11 mi1-gung31 me55 wa31gyang31 mi35 er earth–body LOC hornbill trapped 54 11 35 1 ga ge nung -moq mvau31 lye31, perceive+FCT TOP 2PL–party cheat/fool(ipf) also+I 31 11 1 11 1 5 hau ge ge zyu a -ngvut ngvu31. the/that TOP never NEG–be say+I “The other time, you said that muntjac was trapped in the trees and that hornbill trapped on the ground, then you were the ones who were cheating, such never exists” he said.

    150

    I5-wo35 byat1 bi11 ga31. go–have solve give perceive+I He was thus able to solve the matter.

    151

    Hau55-hun31 zyang35 syeq1 hau31 syui55-zo11 the/that–time CD au.contraire the/that orphan–child 55 1 1 31 yvang -moq a -gvam zyai35 mai11-eq1 hau31 (ipf) 3PL–party NEG–want.to give.back ABL–AG/I the/that

    RABBIT TALES

    515

    wo35 bang11 a1-gvam31 zyai35. (ipf) have PNO NEG–want.to give.back But at that time they were unwilling to return the muntjac to the orphan, the rich people were unwilling to return it to him. 152

    A1-gvam31 zyai35 mu31 syeq1 … (ipf) NEG–want.to give.back happen+I au.contraire [Since] they were unwilling to return it to him …

    153

    Ei35

    154

    Hau55-hun31 zyang35 syeq1 hau31 bang11dvai31 the/that–time CD au.contraire the/that rabbit 11 5 yvang ngvut zyang35 syeq1 gue11 lye31 3SG be CD au.contraire all.right(ipf) also+I 31 11 55 31 gue lye hau -hun ge11 dum11 ngvu31 (ipf) all.right also+I the/that–time TOP again say 31 31 bue ga . P+I perceive+I At that time the rabbit on his turn said: “Agreed, agreed”.

    155

    Gue11 lye31 gue11 lye31, bui31 i55-kyap5 (ipf) (ipf) all.right also+I all.right also+I sun two–leaf/sheet toq5 toq5-o55 ngi35 zyai35 gveq5 ngvu31. come.out come.out–FCT day give.back PLIM say+I “Agreed, agreed, return (PL) it to him at the day there are two suns in the sky.”

    156

    Hau31 ngvut5 zyang35 syeq1 yvang55-moq1 the/that be CD au.contraire 3PL–party ze1-gue31 waq1ngan31 wui31 mue31-bu11 si31 child–male young.man generation wrap–clothes wash(ipf)

    syui55-zo11 a5-su31 zyai35 ra31 ngvut5 VOC orphan–child NEG–SNO give.back need+I be r11 ge11, bui31 i55-kyap5 toq5 zyang35 also TOP sun two–leaf/sheet come.out CD nga35-moq1 zyai35 ra31 ngvu31 ga31. 1PO–party give.back need+I say+I perceive+I “Well, we return it to the orphan under this condition: we return it to him when there are two suns in the sky” they said.

    516

    STORIES

    ye25 wu35 dvo11 bue31 ga31 go(away/down)+FCT look place(vt) P+I perceive+I li11 nang31 ge11. also 2SG TOP Well, one time them male youngsters went to wash clothes and were being spotted. 157

    Yvang55-moq1 i1-zvyam11 mue31-bu11 si31 3PL–party water–water wrap–clothes wash(ipf) 31 ye zyang35 syeq1 e11 mvo31 go(away/down) CD au.contraire er below i1-lang31 kau31 me55 bui31 le1-kyap5 water–river inside LOC sun one–leaf/sheet zyoq1 hu55 pyang31 le1-kyap5 zyoq1 be.there(inan) above DIR one–leaf/sheet be.there(inan) mu31 syeq1. happen+I au.contraire When they were washing clothes in the water, down there in the water there was a sun and above there was a sun.

    158

    A1-su31 nung35-moq1 bui31 i55-kyap5 toq5 nom–SNO 2PL–party sun two–leaf/sheet come.out ngi35 zyai35 ra31 ga54 rau35 zyai35 day give.back need+I perceive+FCT promptly give.back gveq5, bai55bai55bai55bai55, rau35 zyai35 gveq5. PLIM [hush.hush] promptly give.back PLIM “Well well, since you would return it at the day you (PL) see two suns, hush hush hush return it quickly.”

    159

    Hau31 bui31 ge11 a1-su31 mvo31 le1-kyap5 the/that sun TOP nom–SNO below one–leaf/sheet hu31 le1-kyap5, rau35 zyai35 gveq5 ngvu31. above one–leaf/sheet promptly give.back PLIM say+I There was a sun below and a sun above and he said: “Return (PL) it quickly.”

    160

    I5-wo35 dai11 bi11-e55 ga31. go–have speak give–FCT perceive+I He thus was able to solve the matter.

    517

    RABBIT TALES THE STORYTELLER’S THOUGHTS 161

    Mau31mi11 hau31 bang11dvai31 story the/that rabbit Stories, rabbit stories.

    mau31mi11 story

    mai31. OBV+I

    162

    I5-wo35 dai11 bi11 bue31 ga31. go–have speak give P+I perceive+I He thus was able to solve the matter.

    163

    Yvang11 ge11

    164

    Bang11dvai31 mau31mi11 hau31 lo11-eq5 rabbit story the/that tiger/bull–COM bang11dvai31 mau31mi11 a1-myu55-myu55 lye31. rabbit story nom–sort/nationality–2x also+I Rabbit stories, stories of tiger and rabbit, there are so many of them. / there are all kinds of them (?)

    165

    Bang11dvai31 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 yvang11 gue11 rabbit be CD TOP 3SG all.right(ipf) mvau31 lye31 mai11-eq1 gue11 dai31 lye31 (ipf) (ipf) (ipf) cheat/fool also+I ABL–AG/I all.right speak also+I mai11-eq1 i5-wo35 byat1 bi31 ga31. (ipf) ABL–AG/I go–have solve give perceive+I Since the rabbit knows how to cheat people, since he knows how to cheat people, he thus knows how to solve such matters.

    166

    Syui55-zo11 li11 i5-wo35 byat1 bi11-e55 ga31. orphan–child also go–have solve give–FCT perceive+I He thus was able to solve the matter for the orphan.

    167

    A1-su54 mau31mi11 ngo31 ge11 le1-wam11 nom–like+FCT story 1SG TOP one–considerable.part 11 1 11 11 1 ge a -gue dai loq mai11-eq1 ban11 (ipf) TOP NEG–all.right speak no.more ABL–AG/I use.up(ipf)

    gue11 son31 lye31 mai31-ei31. (ipf) (ipf) 3SG TOP all.right calculate also+I OBV+I–EXCL+I He really knows how to calculate people!

    518

    STORIES

    dvo31mvi55 bue31. forget P+I These kinds of stories, many of these I don’t know how to tell anymore, I have all forgotten them. 168

    E11 he55-pyang31 nga35-moq1 zi1syang31 kun31 ge11 er before–DIR 1PO–party child time TOP zyaq1 dai31 gvun31 lye31 ge11 a1hui31 ge11 rather speak(ipf) play(ipf) also+I TOP now TOP ban11 dvo31mvi55 bue31. use.up(ipf) forget P+I Before, when we (ND.EX) were children, we used to tell them a lot.

    169

    Mang11 zyang35 ge11 a1-lvum31 gue11 (ipf) aged CD TOP NEG–indiscriminately all.right dai11 loq1. speak no.more In my old age I can’t tell these stories very well anymore.

    170

    Mau31mi11 ge11 zyaq1-zyaq1 ge11 story TOP rather–rather TOP There are so many stories.

    171

    Hi31 hi31 hi31 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 hi31 ge11 this this this be CD TOP this TOP meng11-gvan11 ma54 a1mu31-eq5 sueng31 world–dried.out LOC+FCT matter–COM bear.reference(ipf) lye31 mai31-ei31. also+I OBV+I–EXCL+I This, this, er, this really has to do with all matters of the world!

    172

    Bang11dvai31 ge11 hi31 ge11 i5-nvung55 o55 rabbit TOP this TOP SPEC–1ND.IN who 55 11 11 syui -zo syui -mo35-eq5 o55 li11 hi31 orphan–child orphan–AUG–COM who also this sueng31 dvo31 ra55. (ipf) (ipf) bear.reference place(vt) PE The rabbit, he really feels sympathy for us (ND_IN) orphan children, widows and widowers, for every one.

    zyoq1 r55. be.there(inan) PE

    519

    RABBIT TALES 173

    Hi55-bvue55 gushi hi55-bvue55 ngvut5 zyang35 this–PLN story this–PLN be CD bang11dvai31 mau31mi11. rabbit story These stories, these stories, the rabbit stories…

    ge11, TOP

    174

    Bang11dvai31 yvang11 ge11 lyem35 li11 lyem35 rabbit 3SG TOP sly also sly gue11 r11 gue11 dai11, gue11 mvau31 (ipf) (ipf) (ipf) all.right also all.right speak all.right cheat/fool(ipf) 31 31 lye mai . also+I OBV+I The rabbit is clever and well-spoken, he really knows how to cheat people.

    175

    Bang11dvai31 mau31mi11 hau31 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11 rabbit story the/that be CD TOP yvang11 ngvut5 zyang35 ge11, hi31 ge11 3SG be CD TOP this TOP 31 11 55 1 11 1 wui -hung me i -zvyam a -gyo35 syuq5, water–fold LOC water–water NEG–go.down drink a1-gyo35 syuq5. NEG–go.down drink Rabbit stories, according to these stories he can’t go down to drink water from the stream, he can’t go down to drink [there].

    176

    Hau31 man31zyum31 li55 mvau31 li11 (ipf) the/that dragon OBJ cheat/fool also 31 31 1 gyuq lye mai . afraid also+I OBV+I He has cheated the dragon and is afraid of him!

    yvang11 3SG

    177

    Hau31 i1sye11 lushui hau31 mvan11 the/that (er/what’s.his.name) dew the/that grass/leaves ma54 i1-zvyam11 hau31 ge11 syuq5 lye31. LOC+FCT water–water the/that TOP drink also+I Em, er, dew, he drinks the water on leaves.

    178

    A5-se55 mu31 bang11dvai31 nom–like happen+I rabbit

    li55

    ge11

    OBJ

    TOP

    zo11 child

    520

    STORIES

    ra54 me1dvu55 hau31 ngvan31 dap1-me55 need+FCT share/portion the/that snow(N) be.attached–FCT mvan11 a1-gue11 bi11 zo11. (ipf) grass/leaves NEG–all.right give eat Because of that, for the rabbit to eat, one can’t give him leaves with ripe/snow on them. 179

    Ngvan31 dap1-me55 mvan11 bi11 zo11 snow(N) be.attached–FCT grass/leaves give eat zyang35 yvang11 si11 byuq1 lye31. (ipf) CD 3SG die lose also+I When you give him leaves with ripe/snow on them he will die.

    180

    Bang11dvai31 lye11 a1-su54 rabbit also nom–like+FCT The rabbit is like this.

    181

    Mau31mi11 bang11dvai31 mau31mi11 a5-se55 ga31 story rabbit story nom–like perceive(ipf) 11 35 31 55 ze wo gyo r . (ipf) only have hear/smell PE Stories, rabbit stories are always told like this.

    182

    Myo11 ge11 myo31 lye31 bang11dvai31 mau31mi11 (ipf) much TOP much also+I rabbit story 31 31 myo lye . much(ipf) also+I There are lots of them, there are lots of rabbit stories.

    zue31. truc

    SONGS Song of Mount Mezyoisingra 1

    Goi35-ei31, Me1zyoi11sing11ra11 Bum31 me55 alas–EXCL+I Mezyoisingra heap(vt/N) LOC cyoq5-pit5-n55 num11nang35 wui31-ei31. navel.string–cut.in.two–FCT friend generation–EXCL+I Oh, old friends who were born at Mount Mezyoisingra!

    2

    Lai11gva55 paq1zvi31 si1gvut1 lui31 script knowledge endeavour in.this.way+I sum11-zai35 byu31-gue31 rau35 three–generation man/woman–all.right promptly zue31 syang55. live.as.human JUS Let us work hard at learning, and let us (ND.IN), three generations of good people, live together!

    3

    Oi55ei31ang35 oi55ei31ang35 … no.gloss no.gloss [untranslatable part of songs 2x]

    4

    Son31 wu35 mau11 lving31 kyuq1 lui31, (ipf) calculate look sky turn/roll around in.this.way+I mit1 wu35 weng11-tang31 zvyang31 think look foothills–foothills stretch.out(ipf) ye11 lo35 syang55. (ipf) go(away/down) go(back/up) JUS By thinking and thinking the sky/ earth? round, let us (ND.IN) go and spread ourselves out like the foothills.

    5

    Nui31-wang11 a1-bo25 nui31 a1-syau31 nui11. vine–at.base NEG–contain+FCT vine NEG–need grow.like.vines Vines without roots cannot grow like vines.

    522 6

    SONGS

    Zi11-wang11 a1-bo25 zi11 a1-syau11 gvat5. love.song–at.base NEG–contain+FCT love.song NEG–need put.into It’s no use chanting folk songs without roots.

    523

    SONGS

    When I was little a man’s voice: 1

    Nga35

    syu11 Roi35-toi11 me1-kon31 1PO grandchild 3rd-sister–(in.names) words–sing 1 11 le -lvum kon11 gvyo11 ra31 ngvut5 lye31, m11. one–lump sing(ipf) let.hear need+I be also+I hm… My grandchild Roitoi will sing a song for us. Hm! [Welcome!]

    a woman’s voice: 2

    Ngo31 dviq5 a1-si31 kun31, gai31, lau35 kon31-aq1. 1SG little nom–still+I time (come.on!) promptly sing–SIM “When I was little …” Come on, sing (SG) it for us!

    Roitoi singing: dviq5 a1-si31 kun31 … 1SG little nom–still+I time When I was little…

    3

    Ngo31

    4

    Zo31-mut5 zyang35 ge11 zo31-mut5 rvo31. (ipf) eat#–hungry CD TOP eat –hungry PE+HIGH+I If I was hungry I would shout, “I’m hungry!”

    5

    Yvup5 nvau31 zyang35 ge11 yvup5 nvau11 rvo31. (ipf) sleep feel.like CD TOP sleep feel.like PE+HIGH+I If I was sleepy I would shout, “I’m sleepy!”

    6

    Ngo31 A5-nu11 r55 ze11 ngau11 zeng11r31 1SG nom–mother OBJ only weep(ipf) annoy(ipf) I know I was only annoying Mama with my crying.

    r55. PE

    524 7

    SONGS

    A1kui31 nvik5-bo11 lo31 (ipf) now heart–contain come(back/up) Now that I understand more, …

    zyang35 … CD

    8

    A5-nu11 A5-wa11 byuq1 nom–mother nom–father lose If mama and papa were gone …

    lo35 … go(back/up)

    9

    Ngo31

    10

    Yvup5 lvang55 a1-ngon35, Nu31 r55 sleep even NEG–pleasant mother/Mum OBJ sing11ran35 myang31. visualizations see I would never sleep well, I would see my mother before me.

    11

    Syoi31syoi31 ga11 ho11 wun35 rvo31. (ipf) [onom] perceive look.for wherever PE+HIGH+I I would search everywhere [through the bushes and everywhere].

    12

    Si1-gyo31 dik1 lye31 Nu31 r55, die(ipf)–hear/smell(ipf) extreme also+I mother/Mum OBJ nung11-zo11 ze1-dvai55. 2REL–child child–only How sad, my Mummy. [Sung by] your only child.

    bau35 ke5-se55 gvut5 ra54 lu55? 1SG just Q–like do need+FCT MIR If I were all alone, what would I do?

    525

    SONGS

    Mama and Papa a man’s voice, introducing: 1 Nga35 syu11 Roi35-toi11 zye11 ngon35 1PO grandchild 3rd-sister–(in.names) exceed pleasant le1-lvum11 dum11 hon31 be1-ra31 ngvut5 lye31-o55. one–lump again sing P–need+I be also+I–HIGH My grandchild Roitoi will now sing another, most beautiful song. 2

    Cyom31 gyo31 wu35 (ipf) (ipf) drive.game hear/smell look Let’s (ND.IN) listen together.

    syang55. JUS

    Roitoi singing: 3

    A5-nu11 A5-wa11 lye55 ngo31 hak1 dik1 lye31. nom–mother nom–father OBJ 1SG fond.of extreme also+I I am very fond of Mum and Dad.

    4

    Ngo31 li55

    5

    A1gvyu31 bun31 dik1 lye31, (ipf) merit awake extreme also+I dik1 lye31. extreme also+I I am so thankful for that. [2x]

    6

    A5-nu11 lye55 A5-wa11 lye55 nom–mother OBJ nom–father OBJ 31 11 bi ra . give need+I I will whisper kindly to mama and papa.

    7

    Nvik5-bo31-zo11 nung11-zo11 ngo31 dut1 ra31. heart–contain–child 2REL–child 1SG become need+I I will be a faithful child, your child.

    hak1 lui31 ku11 gvo31 dvo11 bue31. (ipf) 1SG OBJ fond.of in.this.way+I raise big(ipf) place(vt) P+I They are fond of me, and therefore they are raising me. a1gvyu31 bun31 merit awake(ipf)

    dang11-ge1zi11 words–whisperings

    526

    SONGS

    Our native land … 1

    Yvum31-mau11 ma54 sek5-bvung55 ngyui11 house–native.land LOC+FCT tree–grove green/blue(ipf) 31 54 55 zvyoi lye lu ? beautiful(ipf) also+FCT MIR The groves of our native land, would they be nicely green?

    2

    Sek5-bvung55 ma54 bvuk5dun11 ge11 ming11 tree–grove LOC+FCT bird.name TOP sound(vi)(ipf) 31 54 55 dvo lye lu ? (ipf) place(vt) also+FCT MIR And the Bvukdun in the groves, would they be singing?

    3

    Zyai11-ei31 yvum31-mau11 lo35 (regretting)–EXCL+I house–native.land go(back/up) nvau11 ra55. (ipf) feel.like PE Oh, how I want to return to my native land!

    4

    Zum11 ngon35-e55 nga35 syang55-ei31, (ipf) consort pleasant–FCT 1PO companion–EXCL+I zvit5-dap1-m55 num11nang35 wui31. love–be.attached–FCT friend generation My close friends with whom it is fun to consort with, and my beloved old friends,

    5

    Paq1zvi31 syom31 mvoq5 lui31 (ipf) knowledge drive.game learn/teach in.this.way+I yvum31-mau11 dum11 lo35 ra31. house–native.land again go(back/up) need+I After learning together, we will go back to our native land.

    6

    Ngon35 dik1-nge55 yvum31-mau11 pleasant extreme–FCT house–native.land nga35-nvung55 pye31 dvo54 1PO–1ND.IN negotiate(ipf) place(vt)+FCT

    zye35 zyang35 arrive CD mu35 work(N)

    SONGS

    527

    zui11 ra31. touch/work(V) need+I When I arrive in our lovely native land, we (ND.IN) will do all the work as is agreed. 7

    Zyai11-ei31 yvum31-mau11 lo35 (regretting)–EXCL+I house–native.land go(back/up) nvau11 ra55. (ipf) feel.like PE Oh, how I want to return to my native land!

    FRAGMENTS OF SPEECH Two for the Ladies Room (two ladies that are a bit afraid in the dark) 1

    Nving55-moq1! ngi11 dvo31 lye31 luq1? (ipf) (ipf) cousine–AUG be.there(anim) place(vt) also+I Y/N Older niece, are you there?

    2

    Ngi11 dvo31 lye31, ngo31 be.there(anim)(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) also+I 1SG nang31 r55 lye35 wut1 ra31 2SG OBJ come(away/down) call need+I 31 31 dvo lye . place(vt)(ipf) also+I I’m here. In fact, I was just thinking of coming to to call on you.

    3

    Ka55-hu55 gvut5 ra31? Q–sort do need+I What for? / (Lit.:) To do what?

    4

    Hye55-lut1

    pyang31

    lvang55 even ngvu11 say(ipf)

    your (SG) place

    ye31 gvoq1. same.elevation–(go.to).opp.side DIR go(away/down) DIE Let’s (DU.IN) go towards the other side [of the building, at the same elevation].

    529

    FRAGMENTS OF SPEECH

    Washing at the Stream This is what you have to shout when there are other people washing themselves at the stream. 1

    Nung35-moq1 o31-bvue55 ta11? (GEN) 2PL–party who –PLN GI Who are you (PL)?

    2

    Mi1-wue11 luq1, yuq1-gue31 luq1? wife–female Y/N person–male Y/N [Are you] women or men?

    3

    A1-ci31 yau35 si1-gve5-luq1? (ipf) NEG–wash finish still–PL–Y/N Have you (PL) finished washing? So Quiet

    1

    Zem55zem55 ga31 dik1 r55, (ipf) sound.of.silence perceive extreme PE lvang55 wo35 gyo31 r55. (ipf) even have hear/smell PE It’s so quiet, you can hear every little thing!

    2

    Nang31 ka55-hu55 wo35 2SG Q–sort have What can you (SG) hear?

    3

    Byu31 ge1ru31 tye31 wo35 (ipf) man/woman talk(noise) sound have I can hear the sound of people talking.

    ka55-hu55 Q–sort

    gyo31 r55? (ipf) hear/smell PE gyo31 r55. (ipf) hear/smell PE

    PLATES

    pl. 1

    Hi55-yuq1 ge11 mau11sau11 gva55 su25 se1ra35, this–person TOP paper/book write SNO+FCT teacher ming31-mo35 ge11 Le1-Kun55-laq1, name–AUG TOP (male)–(name)–3rd-brother 31 ming31-zo11 ge11 Mo35pi55 ga31 lye . (ipf) name–child TOP beggar perceive also+I This person is the main teacher of the author of the book, his official name is LeKun-laq and his unofficial name is Beggar.

    532

    PLATES

    Yvang11

    yap1 dvo54 zyang11 ge11 3SG stand place(vt)+FCT place(B) TOP 11 35 Loi lung -bva55, num11-tang55 ma54 bum31 ge11 Loilung–flatlands back–last LOC+FCT heap(vt/N) TOP 31 Loi11lung35 bum31 ngvut5 lye . Loilung heap(vt/N) be also+I Where he’s standing is lower Loilung, and the hill at his back is Loilung hill.

    pl. 2

    U5dvyeng55-bva55 (village.name)–flatlands 31 ngvut5 lye . be also+I

    ma54 dum11sa55-po55 LOC+FCT witch.doctor–male

    This is the witch doctor of Udvyeng-dale. Yvang54 3SG+FCT

    ming31 name

    ge11 TOP

    Pau11-ki11-gam35 (name)–(in.name)–eld-brother

    PLATES

    ga31 perceive(ipf)

    533

    31

    lye . also+I

    His name is Pauki-gam.

    pl. 3

    Pau11-ki11-gam35 dum11sa55-po55 yvang54 (name)–(in.name)–eld-brother witch.doctor–male 3SG+FCT 31 yvup5 zyang11 me55 ngi11 dvo31 lye . (ipf) (ipf) sleep place(B) LOC be.there(anim) place(vt) also+I We’re at witch doctor Pauki-gam’s sleeping place. Yvang54 num11-tang55 3SG+FCT back–last 31 syam -byang31 ge11 knife–scabbard TOP 31 wun11 lye . carry/bring(ipf) also+I

    me55 lvang31 bum25 (ipf) LOC draw/hang heap(vt/N)+FCT 11 55 31 dum sa to zyang35 witch.doctor cast.spell CD

    All these knives and scabbards hanging behind him are to be worn when speaking to the ghosts.

    534

    PLATES

    Mi1-kyom55 fire–fireplace

    a1-toq5 ma54 ge11 nom–come.out LOC+FCT TOP

    myam31zui11. rack.above.fire

    The thing above the fireplace is known as a myamzui drying rack. Myam31zui11 a1-toq5 ma54 ge11 gvue31toq5. rack.above.fire nom–come.out LOC+FCT TOP upper.smoke.rack What’s above the myamzui is called a gvuetoq. A1-myang31. NEG–see (Which you can’t see.) Gvyo31 tripod

    31

    ge11 um11-tung55 me55 zvung11 am55 bue . (ipf) TOP head–wickerwork LOC set(vt) PFM P+I

    The tripod has been put behind the fireplace.

    535

    PLATES

    pl. 4

    U5dvyeng55-bum31 (village.name)–heap(vt/N) zang11-gok5 me55 rice/food–room LOC

    ma54 LOC+FCT

    Zai11wa31-yvum31 Zaiwa–house

    in the kitchen of a Zaiwa home in Udvyeng-hill Mo35pi55-eq5 Pau11-ki11-gam35 dum11sa55 beggar–COM (name)–(in.name)–eld-brother witch.doctor yvang11-zo11 mi1-kyom55-yam31 me55 pye31-ngvam31 3SG–child fire–fireplace–edge LOC negotiate(ipf)–tasty(ipf) 31 gvun31 a1-gvo . (ipf) play nom–PL+I Beggar and witch doctor Pauki-gam’s son are chatting near the fire place.

    pl. 5

    31

    U5dvyeng55-bum31 ma54 Zai11wa31 yvum31 ngvut5 lye . (topon.)–heap(vt/N) LOC+FCT Zaiwa house be also+I This is a Zaiwa house on Udvyeng-hill.

    536

    pl. 6

    PLATES

    Nga35-moq1 Loi11lung35 bui31num31 wui31-eq5 1PO–party Loilung family generation–COM 31 11 55 11 11 35 yo -so me zang -sun lo cyom31 land–walk LOC rice/food–veg/dish go(back/up) drive.game(ipf) gai35 zo31 gvun54. (ipf) prepare.food eat play+FCT We and our relatives from Loilung are out in the open, to prepare a meal together just for fun. Le1-Kun55-dvu31-eq5 (male)–(name)–4th-brother–COM zang11-bvun11 bvun31

    Le1-gyon31 ge11 (male)–(name) TOP 31 lo35 a1-gvo . (ipf) rice/food–cook.in.bamboo cook.in.bamboo go(back/up) nom–PL+I LeKun-dvu and Legyon have started with the rice to be cooked inside bamboo. Num11-tang55 back–last dvo31 place(vt)(ipf)

    me55 Mo35pi55 LOC beggar 55 r . PE

    ge11 TOP

    hang11syan55 bing31 ricefield.eel roast1(ipf)

    PLATES

    537

    At the back, Beggar is roasting ricefield eels.

    pl. 7

    Zang11 zo54 hun31 ge11 he55-pyang31 lye54 rice/food eat+FCT time TOP before–DIR also+FCT 11 31 31 31 Zai wa wui dong , koq5 a1-cyung31 Zaiwa generation lead/connect bowl NEG–use 55 11 1 31 koi zvue a -cyung , ban31-syoq5-bang11 loq1-eq1 chopsticks NEG–use use.up–till–PNO hand/arm–AG/I cyom31 lap1 zo11. drive.game(ipf) scoop/fish.out eat When eating, we do like the Zaiwa in the past, without bowls, without chopsticks, all of us eating everything with our hands.

    538

    pl. 8

    PLATES

    Zai11wa31 A5-nu11-mo35 guq1 lvap5 Zaiwa nom–mother–AUG unhusked.rice dry.in.the.sun i1zvyang11 woq1-gan11 woq1 dvo31 r55. (ipf) OPP weave–loom weave place(vt) PE This Zaiwa madam is weaving whilst drying unhusked rice. Pe5-zvang11 belt–(wear).trousers

    woq1 weave

    She is weaving trousers.

    dvo31 r55. (ipf) place(vt) PE

    539

    PLATES

    pl. 9

    Mo35pi31 bvue31 yvum31 bang11-eq5 bui31num31 wui31 (GEN) (GEN) beggar PLN house PNO–COM family generation 31 dvat5bung35 cyom31 dyem31 a1-gvo . (ipf) (ipf) photographs drive.game take.picture nom–PL+I The people from Beggar’s house are making a picture together with their relatives. Mau11sau11 gva55 su31 ge11 Mo35pi54 paper/book write SNO TOP beggar+FCT yvang31-wa11 gung11-gung31 me55 zung11 (GEN) 3SG –father body(GEN)–body LOC sit(ipf)

    yvang31-nu11 (GEN) 3SG –mother 31 dvo r55. (ipf) place(vt) PE

    The author is sitting between Beggar’s parents.

    540

    PLATES

    5

    55

    31

    ma54 dum11sa55 (village.name)–heap(vt/N) LOC+FCT witch.doctor Dvu31-lai35-wa35 Pau11-ki11-gam35 (name)–(name)–(name) (name)–(name)–eld-brother me55 dum11sa55 i5-to11 ge1rum35 (ipf) LOC witch.doctor go–cast.spell help

    pl. 10 U dvyeng -bum

    yvum31 house r55. PE

    The witch doctor of Udvyeng-hill, Du-Lai-Wa, is helping to cast spells in the house of Pauki-gam.

    541

    PLATES

    Zum31-tang31 me55 doq1 yap1 stairs1–stairs2 LOC go.up stand mau11-nat5-gvau55 rvang31 sky–spirit–stand/rack construct(ipf)

    dvo11 su31 ge11 place(vt) SNO TOP 31 55 dvo r . place(vt)(ipf) PE

    The man on the stairs is constructing the stand for the heavenly spirits.

    11

    55

    tau11zvi31 to11 dvo31 r55. (ipf) (ipf) witch.doctor–male male.guiding.spirit cast.spell place(vt) PE

    pl. 11 Dum sa -po

    55

    The witch doctor is speaking to the tauzvi [male guiding spirit].

    542

    PLATES

    5

    pa55dvye31-bva55 (village.name) township–flatlands zum31-go35 zyang11 pull.together–dance place(B)

    pl. 12 Hu yup

    5

    ma54 LOC+FCT

    the field for the Menau festival in Hùyù (户育) township

    543

    PLATES

    11

    31

    pl. 13 Zai wa

    Zaiwa

    mi1-wue11 wui31, gvo11 bang11 zi1syang31 wife–female generation big PNO child

    a1-ga11, NEG–perceive 31

    lui in.this.way+I

    tung31-keng11 tradition–outfit

    mue31-bu11 syung11 yu31 wrap–clothes use(ipf) take

    zum31-go35 pull.together–dance

    31

    bum11 a1-gvo . (ipf) heap(vt/N) nom–PL+I

    These Zaiwa women of all ages are all Menau dancing, wearing traditional clothes.

    544

    PLATES

    55

    5

    pl. 14 Hi -nvik

    this–duo

    ge11 TOP

    nau11-syong55 Menau–front.leaders

    These two are the Menau leaders.

    31

    ngvut5 lye . be also+I

    PLATES

    11

    55

    pl. 15 Nau -syong -nvik

    5

    Menau–front.leaders–duo bva31 dance.sideways(ipf)

    Nau11-bva55. Menau–dance.sideways 31

    a1-gvo nom–PL+I

    The Menau leaders are dancing sideways.

    545

    546

    PLATES

    55

    pl. 16 Hi -bang

    11

    this–PNO bum11 heap(vt/N)(ipf)

    r11 Nau11-bva55 also Menau–dance.sideways 31 a1-gvo . nom–PL+I

    All these people are also dancing sideways.

    bva31 dance.sideways(ipf)

    547

    PLATES

    11

    31

    yvang54 Menau–front.leaders –PLN TOP 3SG+FCT 31 55 cyang lui yvang55-moq1 bau35 follow in.this.way+I 3PL–party just 31 31 1 dvo a -gvo . place(vt)(ipf) nom–PL+I

    pl. 17 Nau -syong -bvue

    55

    (GEN)

    ge11

    kyo31 road go35 dance

    The Menau leaders have chosen their own separate way and are dancing alone.

    548

    PLATES

    1

    11

    wang11 me55 Menau.post–trunk at.base LOC 31 31 31 1 zeng -gyang bat bi31 a1-gvo . trunk–large.drum beat give(ipf) nom–PL+I These people are beating the large drum below the Menau posts.

    pl. 18 Si dung -zeng

    31

    549

    PLATES

    Hye55-tang31 me55 ge11 same.elevation–behind LOC TOP 31 dvo31 a1-gvo . (ipf) place(vt) nom–PL+I

    ut5 gong1

    r11 also

    bat1 beat

    And behind them [at the same elevation] people are beating the gongs.

    35

    1

    11

    35

    ma54 zat5-go35 bang11 1PO–party Loilung–flatlands LOC+FCT dancing–dance PNO 31 Me1nau11-min35 r55 Zai11wa31-zat5 go35 a1-gvo . Menau–night-time TS Zaiwa–dancing dance nom–PL+I

    pl. 19 Nga -moq Loi lung -bva

    55

    The performance of our Loilung-dale performance group, during Menau eve.

    550

    PLATES

    11

    11

    gva55 su31 Zai11wa31-me1-kon31 le1-lvum11 paper/book write SNO Zaiwa–words–sing one–lump kon11 dvo31 r55. (ipf) (ipf) sing place(vt) PE

    pl. 20 Mau sau

    The author is singing a Zaiwa song.

    551

    PLATES

    35

    pl. 21 Nga -moq 1PO–party

    1

    tong11-gva11 roll–dance.(circle)

    gva11 dance.(circle)

    mau11 sky

    bo35-Ø. open.itself–FCT We have been dancing in circles till the break of morning.

    552

    PLATES

    11

    hi55-yuq1 ge11 zai11-mi1-hu31-eq1 aged–child this–person TOP cogon.grass–fire–torch#–AG/I 31 gung11 kau31 me55 ngi11 dvo31 a1-si coffin inside LOC be.there(anim)(ipf) place(vt)(ipf) nom–still+I 31 31 bang54 se1-byo31 hat5 toq5 am31 lye ga . (ipf) PNO+FCT spirit2–spirit3 pursue come.out PFM also+I perceive+I

    pl. 22 Mang -zo

    11

    This elderly man is using burning grass, to oust the aura’s of the people in the room from the coffin.

    553

    PLATES

    31

    25

    yvang11-mi11-eq5 yvang11-zo31-bvue55 num11-tang55 (GEN) die–SNO+FCT 3SG–wife–COM 3SG–child –PLN back–last me55 lvang31 bum25 ge11 Zai11wa31-keng11. (ipf) LOC draw/hang heap(vt/N)+FCT TOP Zaiwa–outfit

    pl. 23 Si -su

    Behind the wife and children of the dead person are lots of Zaiwa clothes.

    1

    pl. 24 A hui

    now

    31

    ge11 TOP

    i5-mvyup5 go–bury

    am31 PFM

    (ipf)

    They are on their way to bury him now.

    31

    a1-bue . nom–P+I