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A factorial study of space and visualization abilities as measured by Army Air Force classification tests

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A FACTORIAL STUDY OF SPACE AND VISUALIZATION ABILITIES AS MEASURED BY ARMY AIR FORCES CIASSIFICATION TESTS

A T hesis P re se n te d to th e F a c u lty o f t h e Department o f Psychology The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a

In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f t h e R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e Degree M aster of A rts

by M a r c e l l a Ann S u t t o n J u n e 1950

UMI Number: EP63999

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

Dissertation Publishing

UMI EP63999 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code

ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346

P& *$*o $ 9 ^ 7 Th is thesis, w ritten by

Marcella. AnnL„Sutton........... under the gu idance of h.SX... F a cu lty C om m ittee, and a p p r o v e d by a ll its m em bers, has been presen ted to and a cce p ted by the C ouncil on G radu ate S tu d y and R esearch in p a r tia l fu lfill­ m ent of the requirem ents f o r the deg ree of

Master of Arts

D ate

&Eun.e....l9.5.Q.

Faculty Committee

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I,

PAGE

THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED . . .

1

The p r o b l e m

1

I m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s t u d y ............................................ D e f i n i t i o n s o f term s u se d

.......................................

3

F acto r

3 .......................................

^

..........................................................

4

...............................................................

5

P o s i t i v e m a n i f o l d ..........................................................

5

V isu alizatio n

6

M u ltip le f a c to r a n a ly s is Sim ple s t r u c t u r e F acto r t e s t

.....................................................

S p atial re la tio n s

..........................................................

O rg a n iz a tio n of th e rem aindero f th e t h e s i s II.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

.

6 7

..................................

8

The s p e c i a l a r e a o f t h i s s t u d y .............................

8

.................................................

9

T h u r s t o n e ’s s t u d i e s

The Army A i r F o r c e s p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s

.

11

.........................

1^

..................................

18

DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA......................................................

22

The Zimmerman d i s s e r t a t i o n The M i c h a e l s t u d y III.

2

S e l e c t i o n o f t e s t s ......................................................... .........................

23

....................................................................

3^

D e sc rip tio n o f the t e s t s The s u b j e c t s

22

iii CHAPTER IV.

PAGE THE FACTOR ANALYSIS....................................................................3 6 E x t r a c t i o n o f f a c t o r s a nd r o t a t i o n o f r e f e r e n c e a x e s ..........................................................................36 The c o m m u n a l i t i e s

................................................................36

E x tractio n of c e n tro id fa c to rs

.............................

36

The c r i t e r i o n f o r e n d i n g e x t r a c t i o n o f facto rs

................................................................................... 36

The r o t a t i o n o f t h e r e f e r e n c e a x e s .............................38 I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f f a c t o r s ...................................... D iscussion V.

................................................................................... 56

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . Summary

^1

................................

......................................

60 60

C o n c l u s i o n s ........................................................................................ 61 BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX A

.......................................................................................................63 ..................................................................

Graphs o f f i n a l r o t a t e d p o s i t i o n s o f a x e s . . . .

6?

LIST OF TABLES PAGE A C o m p a r i s o n o f t h e T h u r s t o n e a n d Zimmerman R o t a t i o n s f o r t h e F a c t o r s o f Sp ace a n d V isu alizatio n

..........................................................

16

• .

BUnal S pa c e a n d V i s u a l i z a t i o n F a c t o r P a t t e r n A chieved in the M ichael Study

20

.............................

T ests S e le c te d fo r F a c to r ia l A nalysis

. . . .

33

Numbers Used i n C om puting T e s t I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s

35

M atrix o f I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n o f T est V a ria b le s .

37

A C o m p a r i s o n o f E s t i m a t e d a nd Computed Communa l i t i e s a f t e r F i r s t Com putation o f C e n tr o id s C entroid F a c to r M atrix

..................................

39

. . . .

R o t a t e d F a c t o r M a t r i x ..........................................................

42

F actor I ,

.

43

.......................................

45

.......................................

47

........................

48

.....................................................

50

V isu alizatio n .

F actor I I , F actor I I I ,

P e r c e p t u a l Speed Number

. . . .

F a c t o r IV, S p a t i a l R e l a t i o n s F a c t o r V, U n i d e n t i f i e d

......................................

A P o s sib le I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of F a c to r V . . . . F a c t o r VI, R e a s o n i n g F a c to r VII,

.

50

..........................................................

52

(V isual S ynthesis?)

. .............................

53

CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED The t e c h n i q u e o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s i s one o f r a t h e r r e ­ c e n t development; y e t, d e s p i t e i t s r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d o f i n t e n s i v e u se i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h , r e s u l t s have come f o r t h w h i c h h a v e a d d e d g r e a t l y t o t h e p s y c h o l o g i s t s knowledge, e s p e c i a l l y i n th e f i e l d . o f m ental a b i l i t i e s .

The

p r e s e n t s t u d y i s an i n q u i r y i n t o c e r t a i n s p e c i a l m e n t a l a b i l i t i e s by means o f f a c t o r i a l m ethods d e v e l o p e d p a r t i c u l a r l y by L. L. T h u r s t o n e . ^ I.

THE PROBLEM

A l t h o u g h v a r i o u s e m i n e n t p s y c h o l o g i s t s d a t i n g fro m A r i s t o t l e i n c i d e n t a l l y and s p e c i f i c a l l y have s t u d i e d s p a t i a l and v i s u a l i z i n g a b i l i t i e s ,

only w ith th e advent o f the te c h ­

n i q u e o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s w e r e c o n c e r t e d e f f o r t s made t o d e ­ f i n e and q u a n t i f y th e s e a b i l i t i e s *

Not u n t i l t h e r e c e n t

w a r y e a r s was t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n t h e s p a t i a l a n d t h e v i s u a l i z i n g a b i l i t i e s made, a n d t o some e x t e n t v e r i f i e d .

■**For a n e x c e l l e n t d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e e l e m e n t s o f m u l t i ­ p l e f a c t o r a n a l y t i c t e c h n i q u e , s e e A* L. Comrey, HA F a c t o r i a l S t u d y o f A c h i e v e m e n t i n West P o i n t C a d e t s , M ( u n p u b l i s h e d M a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a , 19^7) pp. 1-14.

S i n c e t h a t t i m e a g r o w i n g body o f e v i d e n c e h a s b e e n g a t h e r e d su p p o rtin g the f a c t of t h i s

s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e two men­

tal a b ilities. The p u r p o s e o f t h i s

s t u d y was t h r e e f o l d :

(1 ) to f u r ­

t h e r a i d i n t h e c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e f a c t o r s of space and v i s u a l i z a t i o n ;

( 2 ) t o a c h i e v e more i n ­

s i g h t in to th e n a tu re o f the s p a t i a l - r e l a t i o n s f a c t o r ;

and

( 3 ) t o a s c e r t a i n w i t h w h a t d e g r e e o f s u c c e s s p u r e f a c t o r mea­ s u r e s o f space and v i s u a l i z a t i o n had been a c h ie v e d in c e r ­ t a i n t e s t s in clu d ed in the p re s e n t a n a ly s is . Im portance o f the s t u d y .

In l i n e w ith th e f i r s t o f the

p r o b l e m s p o s e d a b o v e , more e v i d e n c e i s s t i l l d e s i r e d i n s u p ­ p o r t of th e h y p o th e s is t h a t th e s p a t i a l and v i s u a l i z i n g a b i l i ­ t i e s are s e p a r a b le and m easurable as such.

E a rlie r studies,

p a r t i c u l a r l y th o se o f T h u rsto n e, have grouped s p a t i a l v i s u a l i z a t i o n a b i l i t i e s a s one f a c t o r . S econdly, sin c e t h e r e i s t h i s ev id en ce in f a v o r of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e two a b i l i t i e s ,

i t i s im p ortan t t h a t the

n a t u r e o f t h e s e f a c t o r s be s u b j e c t t o g r e a t e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n a n d more c o n c i s e d e f i n i t i o n .

Such a c l a r i f i c a t i o n w i l l be

b e t t e r a c h ie v e d i f p u re t e s t s have been c o n s t r u c t e d . these reaso n s,

For

a n a n a l y s i s o f t e s t s d e s i g n e d t o be p u r e mea­

s u r e s becomes d o u b l y i m p o r t a n t .

3 II. F acto r,

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED

A f a c t o r s h o u l d n o t be t h o u g h t o f a s b e i n g

an unchanging e n t i t y .

R a t h e r , t h e f a c t o r s w h i c h emerge from

the process of f a c t o r a n a ly s is are fu n c tio n s of the v a ria b le s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e r e s u l t s e x p r e s s e d i n any c o r r e l a t i o n m atrix .

Among t h e s e c o m p o n e n ts a r e s u c h t h i n g s a s t h e t y p e

of te s t,

(v e rb a l, num erical, e t c . ) ,

th e d i f f i c u l t y o f the

t e s t i t e m s , ^ a n d t h e n a t u r e ^ and s e l e c t i o n ^ o f t h e s a m p l e . A facto r,

therefore,

c a n be b e s t t h o u g h t o f a s a

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o r c o n c e p t i o n o f j u s t w h a t p a r t i c u l a r compon­ ent v a ria b le s are o p eratin g in a p a r t i c u l a r t e s t s itu a tio n . The f a c t t h a t t h e same f a c t o r s ,

a l b e i t oftentim es c a lle d 5 d i f f e r e n t names by d i f f e r e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s , a p p e a r i n more t h a n one a n a l y s i s w o u l d i n d i c a t e t h a t f a c t o r s a s s u c h a r e ra th e r stab le,

and t h a t t h e m e th o d o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s i s by

a l l means a u s e f u l i n t e r p r e t i v e t o o l i n t h e t a s k o f d e f i n i n g a n d m e a s u r i n g human c a p a c i t i e s .

2J . P. G u i l f o r d , "The D i f f i c u l t y o f a T e s t a n d i t s F a c t o r C o m p o s i t i o n , " P e y c h o m e t r i k a , 6 : 6 7 - 7 7 * 19^1*

3

F. J . Dudek, "The Dependence o f F a c t o r i a l C o m p o s i t i o n o f A p t i t u d e T e s t s upon P o p u l a t i o n D i f f e r e n c e s among P i l o t T r a i n e e s : The I s o l a t i o n o f F a c t o r s , " E d u c a t i o n a l a n d P s y c h o l ­ o g i c a l M e a s u r e m e n t , 8 : 61 3- 6 3 3 , 1 9 ^ 8 .

IlL.

L. T h u r s t o n e , " E f f e c t s o f S e l e c t i o n i n F a c t o r A n a l y s i s , " P s y c h o m e tr ik a , 1 0 :1 ^ 5 -1 6 5 , 19^8. ^ T h i s i s more t h e c a s e i n t h e r e a l m o f p e r s o n a l i t y f a c ­ t o r s than w ith a p titu d e f a c t o r s .

M ultiple f a c to r a n a l y s i s . analysis,

o r more s i m p l y ,

The t e r m m u l t i p l e f a c t o r

f a c t o r a n a ly s is , as used in th is

t h e s i s w i l l r e f e r t o t h e T h u r s t o n e c e n t r o i d method o f f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , w hich in c lu d e s o rth o g o n a l r o t a t i o n

&o f

axes to p s y c h o lo g ic a lly m eaningful p o s i t i o n s .

c en tro id

These f i n a l

p o s i t i o n s a r e d e te r m in e d i n l i n e w i t h t h e c r i t e r i a o f sim ple s t r u c t u r e and of p o s it iv e m anifold. Simple s t r u c t u r e .

A ccording to T h u rsto n e ,

“The p r i n ­

c i p l e s o f s im p le s t r u c t u r e a r e fu n d am e n ta l i n making f a c t o r a n a l y s i s a s c i e n t i f i c m etho d r a t h e r t h a n m e r e l y a m e t h o d o f 7 s t a t i s t i c a l co n d en satio n .“ F o r a s o l u t i o n t o be a c c e p t e d as s c i e n t i f i c ,

i t m ust be u n i q u e .

to in su re j u s t t h i s . it

Simple s t r u c t u r e seeks

F o r s u c h u n i q u e n e s s t o be a c h i e v e d ,

i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f any t e s t i n any a n a l y z e d

m a t r i x be l e s s t h a n t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e e n t i r e b a t t e r y . I f such i s th e c a s e , th e f i n a l r o t a t e d f a c t o r m a t r i x sh o u ld

/ T h ursto n e does n o t e x clu d e o b liq u e s o l u t i o n s (see L. L. T h u r s t o n e , M u l t i p l e F a c t o r A n a l y s i s , C h i c a g o : U n i v e r ­ s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , 19^8, p . v i i ) , and o b liq u e s o l u t i o n s o f f a c t o r i a l p r o b l e m s a r e now b e i n g a t t e m p t e d more t h a n form erly. Due t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t s a n ­ a l y z e d h e r e , a n d b e c a u s e o f p r e v i o u s l y r e p o r t e d r e s u l t s on t h e same a n d s i m i l a r t e s t s ( s e e J . P. G u i l f o r d , E d i t o r , P r i n t e d C l a s s i f i c a t i o n T e s t s , A v i a t i o n P s y c h o l o g y P r o g r a m Re­ s e a r c h R e p o rts , Report #5. W a s h i n g t o n , D. C.: U. S. Govern­ ment P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 19 ^7 ) i t i s n o t l i k e l y t h a t a n o b l i q u e s o l u t i o n w o u l d be a d v i s a b l e i n t h i s i n s t a n c e . 7 L. L. T h u r s t o n e , M u l t i p l e F a c t o r A n a l y s i s , o p . c i t . , P. 319. 6

show up a s h a v i n g a t l e a s t one b l a n k e n t r y o r z e r o l o a d i n g f o r each te s t*

A d d itio n ally ,

t h e n u m b er o f t e s t s

exh ib itin g

a z e r o l o a d i n g i n any one f a c t o r s h o u l d be g r e a t e r t h a n t h e num ber o f common f a c t o r s e x t r a c t e d .

T h is i n d i c a t e s th e de­

s i r a b i l i t y o f m a x i m i z i n g th e. number o f f a c t o r l o a d i n g s t h a t a re zero or n e a r z ero .

(Betw een p l u s a n d minus . 2 0 i s o f t e n

c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e v a n i s h i n g r a n g e f o r f a c t o r l o a d i n g s . ) F actor t e s t .

I t c a n be s e e n f r o m t h e a b o v e d i s c u s s i o n

t h a t i d e a l l y a " p u r e ” f a c t o r t e s t w o u l d show s i g n i f i c a n t a n d s u b s t a n t i a l l o a d i n g on o n l y one f a c t o r ,

v iz . , th at facto r

f o r which th e t e s t i s a m easu re. P o s itiv e m anifold. m ental a b i l i t i e s , assum ption i s

In th e c a s e o f th e measurement o f

as are space and v i s u a l i z a t i o n ,

a basic

t h a t th e s e a b i l i t i e s o c c u r only in p o s i t i v e

Q

q u a n titie s.

That, i s ,

such a b i l i t i e s ,

be e q u a l t o o r g r e a t e r t h a n z e r o .

“I f

when o c c u r r i n g , w i l l t h i s assum ption i s

correct,

t h e n t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e t e s t v e c t o r s on t h e e o 9 o r d i n a t e a x e s s h o u l d be e i t h e r p o s i t i v e o r z e r o . 11 Also, i n th e case of such a b i l i t i e s ,

t h e m o st t e n a b l e a s s u m p t i o n

seems t o be t h a t t h e y a r e u n c o r r e l a t e d , w h i c h r e s u l t s i n t h e Q The c o n c e p t o f p o s i t i v e m a n i f o l d d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a p p ly i n th e c ase o f the p e r s o n a l i t y o r temperament s p h e r e . 9 ' L . L. T h u r s t o n e , " P r i m a r y M e n t a l A b i l i t i e s , " P s y c h o ­ m e t r i c M o n o g r a p h s , Number 1, ( C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h icago P r e s s , 1 9 3 8 ) , p . 7-1

f u r t h e r e x te n sio n of th e c r i t e r i o n o f p o s itiv e m anifold to one o f o r t h o g o n a l p o s i t i v e m a n i f o l d . ax es are r o t a t e d , stru ctu re, the

When t h e c e n t r o i d

th e n , i n a d d i t i o n to th e c r i t e r i o n o f sim ple

the u ltim a te p o s i t i o n o f th e axes i s such t h a t

“t e s t v e c t o r s ha ve no s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a t i v e p r o j e c t i o n ,

w hile the a x e s . . . ( r e t a in ) V isu alizatio n .

t h e i r m utually o rth o g o n al r e l a t i o n .

V i s u a l i z a t i o n as h e r e i n u n d e rs to o d and

d e f i n e d i s an a b i l i t y r e q u i r e d i n t e s t s made up o f i t e m s w h i c h demand . . . a m e n t a l m a n i p u l a t i o n o f v i s u a l image o r i m a g e s . . . ( c a l l ­ i n g f o r t h e I m a g i n i n g o f ) . . . t h e r o t a t i o n o f d e p i c t e d ob­ j e c t s , fo ld in g or u n fo ld in g of f l a t p a tt e r n s , the r e l a t i v e changes o f p o s i t i o n s o f o b je c ts in sp ace, th e m o tio n ,o f m achinery, o r the maneuvering o f a i r p l a n e s in sp a c e . More b r i e f l y s t a t e d ,

v i s u a l i z a t i o n i s a “d y n a m i c “ v i s u a l

i m a g e r y a s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h s h e e r v i s u a l memory f o r s t a t i o n a r y o b jects. S p a tia l R elatio n s.

The s p a t i a l - r e l a t i o n s f a c t o r h a s

a l s o b e e n c a l l e d Space I o r s i m p l y t h e s p a c e f a c t o r . v o lv e s the a b i l i t y

I t in­

to comprehend and l o c a t e s p a t i a l l y a r r a n g e d

s t i m u l i w ith r e s p e c t to th e body.

I n more r e c e n t r e s e a r c h e s ,

12

10 I b l d . H G u ilfo rd ,

(E d ito r),

ojo. c l t .-. p . 271.

^ S e e C hapter I I o f t h i s stu d y ,

"Review o f t h e L i t e r a t u r e . "

i t h a s been s t r e s s e d t h a t t h i s a b i l i t y

seems to i n c lu d e th e

f a c u l t y f o r p l a c i n g o n e ' s body w i t h i n th e s p a t i a l s i t u a t i o n p r e s e n t e d , r a t h e r than l o o k i n g a t th e s i t u a t i o n from o u t s i d e t h e b o u n d a r ie s , a s i t w e re .

T h is l a t t e r s ta t e m e n t i s the most

a c c e p ta b le d e f i n i t i o n o f th e f a c t o r to d a te .

That i s t o s a y ,

th e sp ace f a c t o r i s b e s t d e f i n e d as b e in g an a b i l i t y t o p r o ­ j e c t o n e s e l f i n t o a v i s u a l l y p r e s e n t e d s p a t i a l a rran gem en t, and make th e r e s p o n s e s t h e r e i n c a l l e d f o r a s i f one were a c t u a l l y i n t h e m iddle o f th e s p a t i a l p i c t u r e i n s t e a d o f j u s t lo o k in g a t i t , III.

ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE THESIS

The r em a in d er o f t h i s t h e s i s p r e s e n t s th e f o l l o w i n g n oted to p ic s:

Chapter I I c o n t a i n s a r e v ie w o f th e p e r t i n e n t

l i t e r a t u r e on t h e s u b j e c t .

Chapter I I I p r e s e n t s a d e s c r i p ­

t i o n o f the t e s t s a n a ly z e d ,

t o g e t h e r w i t h the r e a s o n s f o r

t h e i r s e l e c t i o n and m en tion o f th e sa m p le .

Chapter IV o u t ­

l i n e s the f a c t o r i a l p r o c e d u r e s and r e s u l t a n t f i n d i n g s . f i n a l c h a p te r i s d e v o te d to a summary and c o n c l u s i o n s .

The

CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE I.

THE SPECIAL AREA OF THIS STUDY

F o r an e n c o m p a s s i n g s u r v e y , f a c t o r i a l a n d o t h e r w i s e , o f t h e many s t u d i e s t h a t h a v e been made i n t h i s a r e a , r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o Zimmerman.

the

1

For the purpose o f the p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n ,

i t i s be­

l i e v e d t h a t s e v e r a l o f t h e most r e c e n t a n d l e s s h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h e s a r e more p e r t i n e n t i n t h a t t h e y a r e d e f i n i t e l y d i r e c t e d tow ard the c l a r i f i c a t i o n of the q u e s tio n o f w hether t h e r e i s b u t one o r s e v e r a l f a c t o r s o f s p a t i a l v i s u a l i z a t i o n . The l i t e r a t u r e h e r e r e v i e w e d ,

t h e r e f o r e , w i l l include

only th ese s p e c i f i c s t u d i e s , w ith the e x c e p tio n o f c e r t a i n 2 o n e s made by L. L. T h u r s t o n e . The s t u d i e s t o be c o v e r e d a r e :

Wayne S. Zimmerman, “The I s o l a t i o n , D e f i n i t i o n and M e as u r em en t o f S p a t i a l a n d V i s u a l i z i n g A b i l i t i e s , M (unpub­ l i s h e d D o c to r's d i s s e r t a t i o n , the U n iv e rs ity o f Southern C ali f o r n i a , Los A n g e l e s , C a l i f o r n i a . J u n e , 19^ 9) Two o t h e r s t u d i e s i n w h ic h s p a c e a n d v i s u a l i z a t i o n a p p e a r e d on s e p a r a t e a x e s may be b r i e f l y m e n t i o n e d h e r e . J o n e s r o t a t e d t h e c e n t r o i d m a t r i c e s f o u n d by McNemar f o r f o u r a g e l e v e l s o f t h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t (1937 r e v i s i o n ) as w ell as e x tr a c tin g a d d i t i o n a l c e n t r o id s . At a g e l e v e l t h i r t e e n , he o b t a i n e d d i s t i n c t f a c t o r s o f s p a c e a n d v i s u a l i z a tio n . The d e f i n i t i o n s made f o r e a c h o f t h e s e f a c t o r s were v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l to th o se used in t h i s p ap er. L. V. J o n e s , "A F a c t o r A n a l y s i s o f t h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t a t F o u r Age L e v e l s t 11 P s y c h o m e t r l k a , l 4 : 2 9 9 - 3 3 1 > 19^9*

9 (1 ) the p io n e e r f a c t o r i a l r e s e a r c h o f T hurstone;

( 2 ) the

p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m o f t h e Army A i r F o r c e s c a r r i e d on i n t h i s a r e a ;

( 3 ) Z im m e r m a n ^ r e s u l t s i n t h e new s o l u t i o n

o f T h u r s t o n e ' s o r i g i n a l 67- v a r i a b l e m a t r i x , and i n t h r e e a d d i ­ t i o n a l m a t r ic e s d e sig n ed to a i d in b e t t e r d e f i n i t i o n o f space and v i s u a li z a t io n ;

a n d ( 4 ) a s t u d y by M i c h a e l , Zimmerman a n d

G - u i l f o r d so o n t o be p u b l i s h e d . T h u r s t o n e 1s s t u d i e s . area,

The " o r i g i n a l a n c e s t o r " i n t h i s

L. L. T h u r s t o n e ’s s t u d y o f t h e p r i m a r y m e n t a l a b i l i t i e s ,

i s a landm ark i n f a c t o r a n a l y s i s .

3

m ajor a p p l i c a t i o n o f the tec h n iq u e . late

It

s ta n d s as th e f i r s t B eginning w i t h th e p o s tu ­

t h a t t h e r e are c e r t a i n mental a b i l i t i e s

s i d e r e d t o be p r i m a r y o r b a s i c , m inistered,

t h a t c a n be c o n ­

t e s t s w ere c o n s t r u c t e d , a d ­

a n d a n a l y z e d i n t h e e f f o r t t o b e t t e r d e f i n e an d

In a study o f f lu e n c y , F r u c h te r , although n o t s p e c i­ f i c a l l y c o n cern ed w ith t h i s problem o f the s e p a r a t io n o f the s p a t i a l and v i s u a l i z i n g a b i l i t i e s , found a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two i n h i s s o l u t i o n . B. F r u c h t e r , "A F a c t o r i a l S t u d y o f F l u e n c y B a s e d on T h u r s t o n e ’s P r i m a r y M e n t a l A b i l i t i e s B a t t e r y , " ( u n p u b l i s h e d M a s t e r ’s t h e s i s , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a , Los A ngeles, 19^6). Zimmerman’ s l a t e r s o l u t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e T h u r s t o n e b a t ­ t e r y s u p p o r t s t h i s s e p a r a t i o n f o u n d by F r u c h t e r . ^L. L. T h u r s t o n e , " P r i m a r y M e n t a l A b i l i t i e s , " P s y c h o m etrl'C E M on o grap h , Number 1 ( C h i c a g o : The U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1938).

10 un d erstan d the nature of th e se a b i l i t i e s . the s p a t i a l - v i s u a l i z a t i o n a b i l i t i e s ,

W ith r e s p e c t t o

the te n ta tiv e p relim in ary

h y p o t h e s i s was one o f s e p a r a t e c a t e g o r i e s f o r v i s u a l i z i n g i n f l a t a nd s o l i d s p a c e .

However, t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d were

s u c h t h a t T h u r s t o n e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e r e was b u t a " s i n g l e 4 v i s u a l s p a c e f a c t o r . " The t e s t s h a v i n g t h e h i g h e s t p r o j e c ­ t i o n s on t h i s

f a c t o r w e r e Cubes ( . 6 2 6 ) ,

B (.633)* P u r s u i t

(.5 8 4 ),

F l a g s ( . 6 3 6 ) , L o ze n g es

S u r f a c e D e v elo p m en t ( . 5 5 1 ) a n d Hands

(. 455) .5 Of t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r t e s t s ,

Thurstone w r i t e s :

"It re­

q u ire s very l i t t l e

i n s p e c t i o n . . . to b rin g out the f a c t th a t £ t h e i r common e l e m e n t i s v i s u a l o r s p a t i a l i n c h a r a c t e r . "

He d e s c r i b e s t h e common f a c t o r m e a s u r e d by them a s b e i n g " f a c i l i t y i n s p a t i a l and v i s u a l im ages,"^ r e l a t i n g i t to the Q s p a t i a l o r v i s u a l g r o u p f a c t o r f o u n d e a r l i e r by K e l l e y . 9 I n a l a t e r f a c t o r i a l s t u d y v i r t u a l l y t h e same d e s c r i p -

I b i d . , p . v. ^I b i d . , C hapter I I . 6i b i a . . p .

79 .

.

7i b i a . , p. 8 0 . Q °T. L. K e l l e y , C r o s s r o a d s i n t h e Mind o f Man. a s c i t e d i n T h u r s t o n e , o p . c i t . » p . 80. ^L. L. T h u r s t o n e an d T. G-. T h u r s t o n e , " F a c t o r i a l S t u d i e s o f I n t e l l i g e n c e , " P s y c h o m e t r i c Monograph Number 2 , (C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , 1941).

11 t i o n o f h i s s p a t i a l - v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c t o r was made.

uThe s p a c e

f a c t o r i s f o u n d i n t e s t s w h i c h r e q u i r e t h e s u b j e c t t o manipu­ l a t e an o b j e c t i m a g i n a l l y i n two o r t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s . I t w o u l d seem f r o m t h i s t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e na ming o f t h e f a c t o r y by T h u r s t o n e i s more c o i n c i d e n t w i t h t h e p r e s e n t l y u s e d term, s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s , t h e o p e r a t i o n a l d e s c r i p t i o n of it

v e e rs tow ard the l a t e r ev o lv ed concept o f the v i s u a l i z a t i o n

factor.

T his p o i n t s in th e d i r e c t i o n o f l a t e r f i n d in g s t h a t

th e t e s t s which d e f i n e d T h u r s t o n e fs sp ace f a c t o r a c t u a l l y c o n t a i n b o th sp ace and v i s u a l i z a t i o n v a r i a n c e . The Army A i r F o r c e s P s y c h o l o g i c a l S t u d i e s .

W ith t h e

e x t e n s i v e p r o g r a m o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d on by t h e Army A i r F o r c e s d u r i n g t h e l a t e r w a r , t h e p r o b l e m o f j u s t w h a t was t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s s p a t i a l - v i s u a l i z a t i o n a b i l i t y o r a b il iti e s p e rs iste n tly arose.

On s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s ,

r e s u lts of sev eral f a c t o r ia l stu d ies,

i n th e

i t beeame a p p a r e n t t h a t

t h e r e w e r e two s e p a r a b l e a b i l i t i e s . W it h r e g a r d t o t h e s p a c e f a c t o r ,

the im p e tu s f o r th e

more c o n c e n t r a t e d s t u d y came f r o m a n e a r l y f a a t o r a n a l y s i s o f a b a t t e r y o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t e s t s w hich e x h i b i t e d a f a c t o r 11 t h a t was h y p o t h e s i z e d a s b e i n g s p a t i a l i n n a t u r e .

10I b i d . . p . 2 1 . ■^J. P. G u i l f o r d ( E d i t o r ) , P r i n t e d C l a s s i f i c a t i o n T e s t s , A v i a t i o n P s y c h o l o g y P r o g r a m R e s e a r c h R e p o r t s , R e p o r t # 5 1 (Wash­ i n g t o n , D. C . : U. S. Gove rnment P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 19^7) p p . ^ 7 5 - 7 7 .

L a t e r , when T h u r s t o n e f s o r i g i n a l s p a o e t e s t s w ere in c l u d e d in a b a t t e r y of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t e s t s and found to merge w i t h t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t e s t s

th a t defined th is fa c to r,

i t was a p p a r e n t t h a t t h i s was a s p a t i a l f a c t o r . As f o r t h e e x a c t d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e sp a tia l facto r, tained,

su fficie n tly

Two h y p o t h e s e s w e r e p r o p o s e d , h o w e v e r .

was t h a t " . . . i t

The f i r s t

i s an a b i l i t y t o make d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s a s t o

d ire c tio n of m o tio n ," q u ite

“c r u c i a l " r e s u l t s w e r e n o t ob­

12

“g r o s s " i n n a t u r e ,

such s p a t i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n being such a s m erely d i s c r i m i n a t i n g be­

t w e e n up o r down, r i g h t o r l e f t , e t c .

The s e c o n d h y p o t h e s i s

a d v a n c e d was . . . t h a t th e a b i l i t y i s concerned w ith the g e n e r a l appre­ hension o f s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s . E ith e r stim u li or responses a re a r r a n g e d in s p a t i a l p a t t e r n s and th e r e i s f r e q u e n t ly a s y s t e m a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n o r d e r i n t h e s t i m u l u s and o r d e r in th e r e s p o n s e . In such a t e s t , t h e r e f o r e , t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e s p a t i a l f a c t o r c o u l d be ( l ) a b i l i t y to p e rc e iv e v i s u a l - s p a t i a l arrangem ents, (2 ) a b i l i t y to o r g a n i z e movements i n s p a t i a l l y d e t e r m i n e d o r d e r , o r ( 3 ) a b i l i t y to r e l a t e s p e c i f i c s p a t i a l lo c u s o r arrangem ent w i t h i n the s tim u lu s p a t t e r n w i t h s p e c i f i c lo c u s o r a r ­ r a n g e m e n t w i t h i n t h e r e s p o n s e p a t t e r n . ^3 The f i r s t o f t h e s e t h r e e e x p l a n a t i o n s was deemed t o be most s i g n i f i c a n t a n d r e v e a l i n g . I n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f more t h a n one s p a c e f a c t o r we re f o u n d a s w e l l i n t h e s e r e s e a r c h e s .

12i b i a . . p. 479. ■^Loc. c i t .

The above

13 d e s c r i p t i o n a p p l i e s to Space I ( s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s ) . a d d i t i o n . Space I I a p p ea r e d i n a few t e s t s , s t o n e ' s F la g s and Hands t e s t ,

In

su ch a s Thur-

and was t e n t a t i v e l y r e l a t e d

t o th e a b i l i t y to a p p r e c i a t e r i g h t and l e f t - h a n d d i s c r i m i n ­ a t i o n a s far. as d i r e c t i o n i s c o n c e r n e d .

A lth ou g h a t h i r d

s p a c e f a c t o r a p p ea red i n an a n a l y s i s o f a c a r e f u l n e s s b a t ­ tery ,

i t s n a tu r e was n ot d e f i n e d . W ith r e g a r d t o v i s u a l i z a t i o n ,

the q u e stio n q u ite

n a t u r a l l y a r o s e w h e t h e r t h i s , l i k e s p a c e , c o u l d be b r o k e n down i n t o more t h a n one f a c t o r .

In ensuing f a c t o r a n a ly se s,

i t became a p p a r e n t t h a t t h i s was i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y a s i n g l e a b ility .

By i n s p e c t i n g t h e t e s t s w h i c h a p p e a r e d on v i s u a l i ­

z a t i o n axes in th ese s t u d i e s ,

t h e common e l e m e n t se em ed t o

be one o f t h e

“v i s u a l m a n i p u l a t i o n of im a g e s i n t h e s o l v i n g lA o f p r o b l e m s . 11 A r e - e x a m i n a t i o n by A i r F o r c e p s y c h o l o g i s t s o f T h u r s t o n e ’s o r i g i n a l d a t a by means o f f u r t h e r r o t a t i o n o f t h e

c e n t r o i d a x e s showed a s e p a r a t i o n o f s p a c e a n d v i s u a l i z a t i o n . V i s u a l i z a t i o n was f o u n d i n s u c h t e s t s a s P u n c h e d H o l e s ( . 5 8 ) , Form B oa rd ( . 5 0 ) , (.4 0 ).

L o ze ng es B ( . 4 5 ) a n d S u r f a c e D e v e lo p m e n t

A d d itio n al analyses provided a d d itio n a l support

f o r the e x i s t e n c e of a v i s u a l i z a t i o n a b i l i t y s e p a r a t e and d i s t i n c t from s p a t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n , lA

I b id . , p.

and in th e s e a n a ly s e s ,

14 m e c h a n i c a l t e s t s h a d much t o do w i t h d e f i n i n g t h e f a c t o r . - ^ The Zimmerman d i s s e r t a t i o n .

One o f t h e m ost a c t i v e

members o f t h e Army A i r F o r c e s r e s e a r c h team i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e s e two f a c t o r s , d issertatio n .

Zimmerman c o n t i n u e d t h i s work i n h i s

In th is stu d y ,

t h e p r o b l e m i s d e v e l o p e d from

i t s h i s t o r i c a l beg in n in g s and c a r r i e d to the p r e s e n t .

Speci­

f i c q u e s t i o n s a b o u t s p a t i a l - v i s u a l i z i n g a b i l i t i e s a r e asked, a n d a r e a n s w e r e d by means o f f o u r s e p a r a t e f a c t o r a n a l y s e s . The f i r s t a n a l y s i s was a r e v i s i o n o f t h e s o l u t i o n o f T h u r s to n e 's o r i g i n a l prim ary m ental a b i l i t i e s b a t t e r y .

In

t h a t b a t t e r y ; T h u r s t o n e r e p o r t e d o n l y one s p a t i a l - v i s u a l i z a t i o n facto r.

By means o f a d d i t i o n a l r o t a t i o n s , h o w e v e r ,

four fa c ­

t o r s were c l e a r l y d e f i n e d i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e n i n e o r i g i n a l l y d e f i n e d by T h u r s t o n e , w h i l e two o f t h e s e o r i g i n a l n i n e were r e v i s e d i n m eaning. The s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s

15

f a c t o r s i n b o t h t h e Zimmerman

A l o n g t h i s l i n e , i t may be o f i n t e r e s t t o p o i n t o u t a s t a t e m e n t T h u r s t o n e made i n h i s f i r s t a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r i ­ mary m e n t a l a b i l i t i e s . "One m ig h t q u e s t i o n why M e c h a n i c a l M ovem ents.. . does n o t have a l a r g e s a t u r a t i o n o f th e f a c t o r S. The e x p l a n a t i o n may be t h a t t h i s t e s t c a l l s f o r some k i n e s t h e t i c f a c t o r . . . n o t demanded by o t h e r t e s t s . " (Thur­ s t o n e , Prim ary M ental A b i l i t i e s , p . 8 0 .) He t h e n s u g g e s t s t h a t o t h e r s t u d i e s be made t o a s c e r t a i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e a b ility . We c a n s e e t h a t s u c h s t u d i e s , a s made by t h e Army A i r F o r c e s p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h u n i t s , l e d t o the" f i n d i n g o f evidence in support o f a v i s u a l i z a t i o n r a t h e r th a n a k i n e s t h e t i c f a c t o r , c o n s i s t e n t l y m e a s u r e d by t e s t s o f t h e " m e c h a n i c a l movem ents" t y p e .

15 and T hurstone s o l u t i o n s were r a t h e r c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l . i n t h e Zimmerman s o l u t i o n t h r e e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t e s t s

However, showed

v a n is h in g lo a d in g s in space; w h ereas, in the Thurstone s o lu t i o n th ese t h r e e t e s t s h a d s i g n i f i c a n t space l o a d i n g s .

16

T h u r s t o n e c a l l e d h i s t w e l f t h f a c t o r a r e s i d u a l , even t h o u g h t h e r e w e re f o u r l o a d i n g s a b o ve . 5 0 . so lu tio n ,

In th e re v is e d

t h i s f a c t o r o b v i o u s l y was v i s u a l i z a t i o n .

I t w i l l be n o t e d i n T a b l e I t h a t i n b o t h t h e s e com­ p a r i s o n s t h e f a c t o r s a r e more m e a n i n g f u l l y i d e n t i f i e d i n t e r m s o f t e s t l o a d i n g s by t h e Zimmerman r e v i s i o n .

“The e f ­

f e c t o f t h e r e a l l o c a t i o n o f v a r i a n c e due t o t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e s e new f a c t o r s was t o g i v e g r e a t e r c l a r i t y t o m o st o f t h e 17 p r i m a r y f a c t o r s t h a t w e re p r e v i o u s l y r e c o g n i z e d . “ However, t h e Sp a c e I I f a c t o r d e f i n e d by t h e Hands t e s t i n Army A i r F o r c e s a n a l y s e s was n o t f o u n d . A s e c o n d q u e s t i o n a n s w e r e d by f a c t o r i a l means was t h a t r e g a r d i n g t h e e f f e c t o f c h a n g e s i n i t e m d i f f i c u l t y on t h e 1o f a c t o r c o n te n t of a t e s t in the s p a t i a l v i s u a l i z a t i o n a re a .

T h ese t h r e e t e s t s w e r e F i g u r e C l a s s i f i c a t i o n , V e r b a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d Sound G r o u p i n g . 1? Zimmerman, op . c l t . , p . 190. ^Loc.

c it.

TABLE I A COMPARISON OF THE THURSTONE AND ZIMMERMAN ROTATIONS FOR THE FACTORS OF SPACE AND VISUALIZATION1^

SPACE Test

VISUALIZATION Thurstone

Zimmerman

Flags

.6 3 6

.727

L o ze ng es B

.6 3 3

.604

Cubes

. 626

.592

Hands

>55

.5 4 7

Block C o u n tin g

.4 1 3

.524

P ursuit

.584

.51 3

S u r f a c e D ev elo p m en t

.551

.5 0 0

L o ze n ges A

, 448

.400

Syllogism s

-.430

.398

Form B o a rd

.4 1 5

.317

Figure C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

• 393

.222

Verbal C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

.411

.211

Sound C r o u p i n g

.412

.211

Thurstone

Zimmerman

Form Board

.397

.6 1 7

Punched Holes

.527

.6 1 7

L oze n ges A

.5 3 0

. 53 ?

M e c h a n i c a l Move­ m ents

.14 2

.3 9 6

Vocabulary

.5 4 5

.3 0 8

Reading

.5 0 2

.1 6 2

Test

Zimmerman, o p . o l t . , p p . 120 a n d 1 4 7, r e s p e c t i v e l y .

17 T h ree f o r m s o f t h e t e s t , of d ifferen t d iffic u lty analyses c a lle d

V i s u a l i z a t i o n o f Maneuvers,

l e v e l s were i n c l u d e d i n two f a c t o r

“v i s u a l i z a t i o n a n a l y s e s ” by Zimmerman.

The

more d i f f i c u l t f o r m s showed h i g h e r v i s u a l i z a t i o n v a r i a n c e t h a n d i d t h e s i m p l e r , more s p e e d e d f o r m .

This l a t t e r ,

how­

e v e r , r a t h e r t h a n s h o w in g a p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y h i g h e r d e g r e e o f s p a tia l variance,

showed up w i t h i t s h i g h e s t s a t u r a t i o n i n

p e rc e p tu a l speed. The h y p o t h e s i s t h a t a v a r i a t i o n i n t h e d i f f i c u l t y i t e m s w o u l d i n c r e a s e t h e l o a d i n g on one f a c t o r w h i l e d e c r e a s ­ i n g i t on a n o t h e r was v e r i f i e d f o r p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d a n d v i s u a l i z a t i o n but not f o r s p a t ia l r e l a t i o n s and v i s u a l i ­ zatio n O ther d i f f e r e n c e s in th e f a c t o r c o n te n t o f the t h r e e f o r m s w e re r e v e a l e d i n t h e a n a l y s e s . The more d i f f i ­ c u l t f o rm a p p e a r e d t o be somewhat l e s s v e r b a l t h a n t h e o t h e r two f o r m s . . . A n o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e t h r e e fo r m s was shown i n t h e l o a d i n g s on t h e n u m e r i c a l f a c t o r . The two e a s i e r form s a r e b o t h m o r e . n u m e r i c a l i n c o n t e n t . In a l l four of the analyses of factor te s ts )

a d efin ite

and v is u a liz a tio n .

( t h e f o u r t h was an a n a l y s i s

s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r r e d betw een space

A d d i t io n a l ly , each a n a l y s i s a id e d in sup­

p o r t i n g t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t v i s u a l i z a t i o n i s a p r o c e s s by w h ic h m ental images a re m a n ip u la te d .

20

I n t h i s t e s t , e a c h i t e m shows a p h o t o g r a p h o f an a i r ­ plane in a c e r t a i n a t t i t u d e . Then o n e , two, o r t h r e e s i m p l e m a n e u v e r s a r e s t a t e d , t h e m ost d i f f i c u l t l e v e l b e i n g t h e t h r e e m aneuvers. The e x am in e e must im a g i n e t h a t he i s p i l o t i n g t h e p l a n e a n d so m u st v i s u a l i z e t h e s e m a n e u v e r s b e g i n n i n g w i t h the o r ig in a l p ic tu re d p o s itio n . Then he must c h o o s e t h e c o r ­ r e c t f i n a l p o s i t i o n o f th e p la n e from f i v e p i c t u r e d p o s i t i o n s . 21 Zimmerman, o p . c i t . , p . 190.

18 The n a t u r e o f t h e s p a t i a l f a c t o r was f e l t n o t y e t t o he c l e a r l y d e f i n e d , a l t h o u g h s e v e r a l e a r l i e r h y p o t h e s e s w ere elim in ated .

“A p p a r e n t l y ,

in m easuring s p a t i a l a b i l i t y ,

it

i s n e c e s s a r y t o p r e s e n t p r o b l e m s r e q u i r i n g s o m e t h i n g more th a n sim ply a . . . ( d i r e c t i o n a l ) . . .d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f . . . m o v e 22

m en t.“

The t a s k o f t h e p e r s o n t a k i n g a s p a c e r e l a t i o n s

t e s t i s one o f p r o j e c t i n g him self em p ath etically in to a s p a t ia l s itu a tio n a n d ... ( d e t e r m i n i n g ) . . . the r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f e x t e r n a l o b j e c t s r e l a t i v e t o h i s own b o d y . C a re m u s t be e x e r c i s e d n o t t o i n t r o d u c e p r o b l e m s t h a t c a n be s o l v e d by v i s u a l i z a ­ tio n . The i n d i v i d u a l m ust be m o t i v a t e d t o e m p a t h i z e i n s t e a d o f p l a c i n g h i m s e l f i n a p o s i t i o n r e m o t e fro m t h e p r o b l e m w h e r e he i s more i n c l i n e d t o m a n i p u l a t e t h e ex ­ te rn a l o bject v is u a lly

.^

The M i c h a e l S t u d y .

For the purpose o f t e s t i n g

“c e r ­

t a i n h y p o th es e s r e g a r d in g the n a tu r e of s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s 2 and v i s u a l i z a t i o n , “ a b a t t e r y o f t e s t s was a d m i n i s t e r e d

b

t o R u t g e r s U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s by M i c h a e l . The h y p o t h e s i s f o r t h e s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s f a c t o r was t h a t i t r e p r e s e n t s the

“a b i l i t y t o c o m p r e h e n d t h e a r r a n g e ­

ment o f e l e m e n t s w i t h i n a v i s u a l s t i m u l u s p a t t e r n p r i m a r i l y w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e human body. ,|2-* V i s u a l i z a t i o n , was 22

23

Ib id .,

p . 192.

Loc. c i t .

ZkW.

B. M i c h a e l , W. S. Zimmerman, a n d J . P. G u i l f o r d , “An I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f Two H y p o t h e s e s R e g a r d i n g t h e N a t u r e o f th e S p a t i a l R e l a t i o n s and V i s u a l i z a t i o n F a c t o r s , " (In p r e s s ) . 25 L oc. c i t .

h y p o t h e s i z e d t o be an " a b i l i t y t h a t r e q u i r e s t h e m e n t a l m an ip u la t i o n of v is u a l im ages." The t e s t s w h i c h made up t h i s b a t t e r y w ere s e l e c t e d from c e r t a i n T h u r s t o n e

t e s t s and from t e s t s w h i c h make up

t h e G u i l f o r d - Z i m m e r m a n A p t i t u d e S u r v e y , a s i n d i c a t e d i n T ab le II. Michael c a r r i e d o u t the f a c t o r a n a l y s i s w ith r e s u l t s t h a t b rin g f u r t h e r evidence in fav o r o f a d e f i n i t e b e t w e e n s p a c e and v i s u a l i z a t i o n , th e evidence

sep aration

a l t h o u g h he d o e s n o t te r m

“c o n c l u s i v e . "

M i c h a e l , a s Zimmerman, p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f t e s t i t e m s h a s an e f f e c t upon w h e t h e r a t e s t w i l l be p r e ­ dom inately v i s u a l o r s p a t i a l in c h a r a c t e r .

T ests of s p a t i a l

r e l a t i o n s a p p a r e n t l y a r e e a s i e r and r e q u i r e l e s s tim e than do t h o s e r e q u i r i n g v i s u a l i z a t i o n . t h a t the a b i l i t y

Here i t becomes e v i d e n t

o f th e s u b j e c t s t a k i n g t e s t s w i l l have an

e f f e c t upon t h e d i v i s i o n o f s p a c e an d v i s u a l i z a t i o n v a r i a n c e i n t e s t s which have item s m easuring b o t h f a c t o r s . M i c h a e l a l s o r e p o r t s t h e phenomenon t h a t Zimmerman c a u t i o n s a g a i n s t — the f a c t t h a t i f

the s u b je c t i s not urged

to p lac e h im self w ith in the d ep icted s i t u a t i o n of a s p a t ia l orientation te s t, occur.

v i s u a l i z i n g p r o c e s s e s a re q u i t e l i k e l y to

The w r i t e r w o u ld l i k e t o a d d t h a t i f v i s u a l i z i n g

20 TABLE I I FINAL SPACE AND VISUALIZATION FACTOR PATTERN ACHIEVED IN THE MICHAEL STUDY*

Test

V isuali­ zatio n

Space

-.0 1

.0 0

1.

V e r b a l C o m p r e h e n s i o n (GZ)

2.

G e n e r a l R e a s o n i n g (GZ)

.24

.1 0

3.

Num erical O p e ra tio n s

.17

-.0 4

4.

P e r c e p t u a l S p e e d (GZ)

.24

.07

5.

S p atial O rien tatio n

.42

.58

6.

V e r b a l C o m p l e t i o n (GZ)

.2 0

.28

7.

Number S e r i e s

.1 6

.17

8.

I d e n t i c a l Forms (Th)

.24

.1 1

9.

Cubes (Th)

.2 0

.43

10.

F l a g s (Th)

.15

.44

11.

S p atial V isu alizatio n

• 62

.44

12.

P u nc h e d H o l e s (Th)

.5 2

.25

13.

P a t t e r n A n a l o g i e s (Th)

.24

.3^

1^.

Form B o a r d (Th)

.52

.22

(GZ)

(GZ)

(Th)

(GZ)

* I t w i l l be n o t e d t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l l o a d i n g s on th e t e s t s d e f i n i n g t h e two f a c t o r s a r e somewhat l o w e r t h a n t h o s e r e p o r t e d i n t h e Army A i r F o r c e s and Zimmerman S t u d i e s . T h is i s b ecau se o f t h e f a c t t h a t th e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r which th e t e s t s were a d m i n i s t e r e d made i t n e c e s s a r y f o r many o f t h e t e s t s t o be s h o r t e n e d t o meet tim e l i m i t s a l l o t t e d f o r t h e experim ental t e s ti n g . See t h e M i c h a e l s t u d y f o r a more de­ ta ile d discussion.

21 does not solve

the problem a r e a s o n i n g p r o c e s s o f,so m e s o r t

w ould be th e l o g i c a l n e x t s t e p to ta k e .

In o t h e r words,

it

s e e m s t h a t a n i t e m d e s i g n e d t o m ea su re s p a c e c a n be s o l v e d on any one o f f o u r l e v e l s , ab ility ject.

dep en d in g p r i m a r i l y upon the

l e v e l o r perhaps the ex p erien ce le v e l o f th e sub­ The s i m p l e s t l e v e l ,

o f c o u r s e , w o u l d be t h e c a s e

w h e r e t h e r e s p o n s e i s so s p e e d e d a s t o g i v e i n d i c a t i o n o n l y o f p e rc e p tu a l speed.

The n e x t l e v e l w ould be s o l u t i o n i n

term s of space r e l a t i o n s . t i o n by v i s u a l i z a t i o n ,

The t h i r d l e v e l w o u l d b e a s o l u ­

a n d t h e l a s t l e v e l w o u ld be r e a s o n ­

in g th ro u g h the problem . Be t h a t a s i t may, i t h a s become q u i t e e v i d e n t i n t h e c o u r s e o f r e s e a r c h i n t h i s a r e a t h a t t h e r e m ost p r o b a b l y a r e s e p a r a t e f a c t o r s o f s p a c e a n d v i s u a l i z a t i o n , p e r h a p s more t h a n one o f b o t h , e s p e c i a l l y o f s p a c e .

CHAPTER I I I DESCRIPTION OF THE DATA I.

SELECTION OF TESTS

The t w e n t y - t w o t e s t s

subm itted to f a c t o r a n a ly s is

i n t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r were s e l e c t e d fro m a l a r g e r c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x o f s e v e n t y v a r i a b l e s known a s t h e K e e s l e r F i e l d B a t t e r y . The b a t t e r y was made up o f b o t h c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d e x p e r i ­ m ental t e s t s

fo r aircrew tr a in in g .

T e s t s f o r t h e p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s were s e l e c t e d f o r th ree reasons;

( 1 ) those - e x p e rim e n ta l t e s t s d e sig n ed as

f a c t o r m e a s u r e s were i n c l u d e d ;

(2 ) c e r t a i n t e s t s ,

such as

t h e B e n n e t t - C r a w f o r d P o i n t M o tio n w ere i n c l u d e d b e c a u s e t h e y had not been p r e v i o u s ly a n aly ze d ;

( 3 ) c e r t a i n t e s t s whose

c o m m o n - f a c t o r v a r i a n c e h a d b e e n p r e v i o u s l y e s t a b l i s h e d we re in clu d ed to serv e as re fe re n c e t e s t s .

These i n c l u d e d Mech­

a n i c a l P r i n c i p l e s , I n s t r u m e n t C o m p r e h e n s i o n , Complex C o o r d i n ­ a t i o n , an d A r i t h m e t i c R e a s o n i n g . Through th e a n a l y s i s o f t h i s c o m b in a tio n o f t e s t s , th o se in c lu d ed f o r the f i r s t

two r e a s o n s above c o u l d be

m o st s a t i s f a c t o r i l y c a t e g o r i z e d i n l i n e w i t h p r e v i o u s l y known r e s u l t s ; y e t s i n c e s u c h t e s t s w e re i n t h e m a j o r i t y ,

they

would c a r r y th e b r u n t o f th e burden o f d e f i n i n g th e f a c t o r i a l resu lts.

23 II,

DESCRIPTION OF THE TESTS1

P o sitio n O rien tatio n

(Hands) CP526B ( # 2 ) . ^

T h is t e s t

was a n a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e T h u r s t o n e Hands t e s t s f o r u s e w i t h a m ac h in e -sc o red answer s h e e t .

E a c h i t e m i n t h e t e s t shows

f i v e draw ings o f r i g h t o r o f l e f t h a n d s.

The e x a m i n e e ' s

t a s k i s t o d e c i d e a s q u i c k l y a s p o s s i b l e w h e t h e r he s e e s a r i g h t o r l e f t hand. I n a p r e v i o u s fo rm ( Hands CP512A) , t h e o n l y s u b s t a n ­ tia l

l o a d i n g a p p e a r e d on t h e Space I I f a c t o r ( . ^ 6 ) w i t h a

s m a l l l o a d i n g on Space I .

I t was h o p e d t h a t by i n c l u s i o n

o f t h i s t e s t i n t h e p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s more i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h i s r a t h e r u n i q u e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f common v a r i a n c e c o u l d be o b t a i n e d and p e r h a p s b e t t e r i n s i g h t i n t o th e Space I I f a c t o r g ained. F o llo w in g ; O r a l D i r e c t i o n s CI651C (#3)*

In th is te s t

t h e s u b j e c t i s t o l d t h a t he w i l l be a t t a c k e d from t h e same

J . P. G u i l f o r d , E d i t o r , P r i n t e d C l a s s i f l o a t i o n T e s t s , A v i a t i o n P s y c h o l o g y P r o g r a m R e s e a r c h R e p o r t s , R e p o r t #5 . ( W a s h i n g t o n , D. C . : U. S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 ^ 7 ) . 2

The o r i g i n a l key num bers o f t h e t e s t s a s t h e y a p p e a r e d i n the K e e sle r B a tte ry ap p ear in p a re n th e s e s a f t e r the t e s t name a n d code num ber. T h e r e h a s b e e n a s l i g h t c h a n g e o f num­ b e r i n g w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e l a s t s e v e n t e s t s , so a s t o c o n fo rm w i t h num bers u s e d i n M. F. R o f f , " P e r s o n n e l S e l e c t i o n a nd C l a s s i f ic a t i o n Procedures: P ercep tu al T ests, A F a c to r ia l A n a l y s i s , 11 S c h o o l o f A v i a t i o n M e d i c i n e P r o j e c t R e p o r t , A p r i l , 1950.

24 o r d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s a n d a l t i t u d e s by two p l a n e s i n s u c ­ c e s s i o n a n d t h a t he m u s t c o m p l e t e t h e movement n e c e s s a r y t o escape the f i r s t p la n e b e f o r e re s p o n d in g to th e second.

The

a n s w e r i s t h e new d i r e c t i o n a f t e r b o t h enemy p l a n e s have been a v o id e d , S p a t i a l - r e l a t i o n s v a r i a n c e s h o u l d be p r o m i n e n t i n t h i s test.

I n an e a r l i e r f o r m ,

(CI561AX),

the s t r o n g e s t f a c t o r

l o a d i n g s w ere f o u n d i n s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s soning, zatio n

(,2 7 ), ( . 20).

in teg ratio n II

(.2 8 ),

general rea­

( , 2 5 ) , num ber ( , 2 1 )

The c o m m u n a l i ty was . 4 2 .

and v i s u a l i ­

The fo rm i n c l u d e d

i n t h i s s t u d y h a s a c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r e s t i m a t e d c o m m u n a l i ty ( . 6 2 ) and h a s not p r e v i o u s l y been a n a l y z e d . D i r e c t i o n a l P l o t t i n g CE455A ( # 1 2 ) . c h a rt is used.

test a

The i t e m s c o n s i s t o f c o o r d i n a t e s o f two

p o i n t s on t h i s c h a r t . tio n

In t h i s

The t e s t e e m u st f i r s t l o c a t e t h e p o s i ­

of t h e c o o r d i n a t e s a n d t h e n d e t e r m i n e t h e d i r e c t i o n

o f the second c o o r d i n a te p o s i t i o n from th e f i r s t w i t h r e f e r ­ e n c e t o i n d e x p o i n t s l o c a t e d on t h e m a r g i n s o f t h e c h a r t . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r t e s t was d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y a s a mea­ s u r e o f c a r e f u l n e s s in l i n e w ith a s s i s t i n g the s e l e c t i o n o f men t e m p e r a m e n t a l l y s u i t e d f o r t h e j o b o f n a v i g a t o r . ever,

in previous stu d ie s,

carefulness,

v isu aliza tio n

( . 4 2 ) , Space I

How­

r a t h e r th a n a heavy l o a d i n g i n ( . 4 5 ) , n um b er ( . 4 4 ) ,

Sp ace I I I

( . 3 8 ) and p s y c h o m o t o r p r e c i s i o n ( . 2 6 ) we re f o u n d .

25 A r e a V i s u a l i z a t i o n CP815A ( # 1 4 ) . s i g n e d as a measure of v i s u a l i z a t i o n , la to ry sense.

However, due t o i t s

T h i s t e s t wa s d e ­

d e f i n e d i n t h e manipu­

s im ila rity w ith a te s t

h e av ily loaded w ith le n g th estim atio n

( P a t t e r n A ssembly,

CP80^A) n o t v e r y much v i s u a l i z a t i o n v a r i a n c e i s e x p e c t e d . W h eth er t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n i s d ic a te d in t h i s ,

the f i r s t

j u s t i f i e d o r n o t s h o u l d be i n ­ f a c t o r i a l study in w hich the t e s t

h a s b e en i n c l u d e d . HF o r e a c h t e s t i t e m ,

t h e e x a m in e e i s r e q u i r e d t o i n ­

d i c a t e w h i c h one o f t h r e e f i g u r e s w i l l be f o r m e d when two s e g m e n t s (d r aw n i n o u t l i n e form ) a r e r o t a t e d a b o u t so t h a t they f i t to g e th e r . D i s c r i m i n a t i o n R e a c t i o n Time, I - I I GP634A (# 2 4 ) a n d D i s c r i m i n a t i o n R e a c t i o n T im e , I I I - I V GP634A ( # 2 5 ) .

These

two t e s t s may w e l l be c a l l e d r e d u c e d fo r m s o f a p p a r a t u s tests,

i n t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n p r e s e n t e d i n an a p p a r a t u s

reactio n -tim e

t e s t is here d u p lic a te d as n early as p o ssib le

in a paper-and-pencil t e s t .

On p a p e r , p a t t e r n s s i m i l a r t o

t h o s e shown w i t h r e d a n d g r e e n l i g h t s i n t h e r e a c t i o n - t i m e a p p a r a tu s a re p r e s e n t e d as b la c k and w h ite c i r c l e s .

The

e x a m in e e r e s p o n d s t o s t i m u l i by m a r k i n g on an a n s w e r s h e e t

-^G uilford ( E d i t o r ) ,

ojo. c i t . , p . 4 2 4 .

26 i n one o f f o u r d i r e c t i o n s .

Each o f th e s e d i r e c t i o n s c o r r e s ­

ponds to a d i r e c t i o n in th e a c t u a l a p p a ra tu s t e s t . a n d IV p r e s e n t more c o m p le x s t i m u l u s p a t t e r n s

P arts I I I

t h a n do p a r t s

I and*II. F lig h t O rien tatio n

( C o c k p i t V i e w s ) CP528A ( # 2 6 ) .

T h i s t e s t was d e v e l o p e d f ro m t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e a b i l i t y t o im a g ine a i r p l a n e m a n e u v e r s f r o m t h e p i l o t ’s p o s i t i o n i n t h e c o c k p i t w o u l d be a m e a s u r e o f t h e s p a t i a l - r e l a t i o n s f a c ­ to r. Each t e s t i t e m c o n t a i n s two p h o t o g r a p h s o f t h e l a n d ­ s c a p e a s i t m i g h t a p p e a r f ro m a p l a n e ’ s c o c k p i t .

The f i r s t

p i c t u r e i s th e t e r r a i n as i t looks j u s t b efo re a c e r t a i n m a n e u v e r , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d one i s a p i c t u r e a f t e r t h e m a n e u v e r is fin ish ed .

I t i s the problem o f th e p e rs o n t a k i n g the t e s t

t o d e c i d e w h a t m ane uv er h a s b e e n made. turns, ro lls ,

The m a n e u v e r s i n c l u d e

c lim b s , and d i v e s .

Due t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e i t e m s ,

i t was e x p e c t e d t h a t

a c e r t a i n am o u n t o f r e a s o n i n g w o u l d e n t e r i n t o t h e making o f the

judgments.

T h i s r e a s o n i n g was e x p e c t e d t o r e s u l t from

n o t i n g c e r t a i n c o n s t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s a p p e a r i n g i n t h e two c o n se c u tiv e view s.

For t h i s r e a s o n ,

another t e s t ,

S tic k and

B u d d e r O r i e n t a t i o n GP531A, ( I n f r a , p . 29) was l a t e r d e v e l o p e d . N e ith e r o f t h e s e t e s t s has been p r e v i o u s ly a n a ly z e d .

27 P o sitio n V isu alizatio n I Another f a c t o r t e s t ,

(Flags)

CVftkk ( # 2 9 ) .

P o s i t i o n V i s u a l i z a t i o n , was d e s i g n e d

a s a m ea sure o f m a n i p u l a t o r y v i s u a l i z a t i o n .

The i t e m s w e re

p r e s e n t e d o r a l l y on t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t any p i c t o r i a l l y p r e ­ s e n t e d s t i m u l i w o u ld r e d u c e t h e amount o f v i s u a l i z a t i o n d e ­ s i r e d f o r a d e q u a te re sp o n se to the item s. The o b j e c t t o be m e n t a l l y m a n i p u l a t e d i n e a c h i t e m was t h e A m e r i c a n f l a g .

The i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e f l a g i s

d e s c rib e d a t the beginning of every item .

Then a d e s c r i p t i o n

o f t h e ways i n w h i c h t h e f l a g i s m a n i p u l a t e d i s g i v e n .

In

e a c h c a s e , t h e o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n m ust be i m a g i n e d fro m t h e oral descrip tio n ,

the e n s u in g r o t a t i o n s and m a n ip u la tio n s

m u st be v i s u a l i z e d ,

and th en th e u l tim a te p o s i t i o n o f the

f l a g m ust be d e c i d e d u p o n . P a t t e r n C o m p r e h e n s i o n CP803B ( # 3 0 ) .

The t a s k h e r e

i s t o m a n ip u la te m en tally th u s f o l d i n g f l a t diagram m atic p attern s.

These d iagram s r e p r e s e n t th e i n s i d e s o f p a t t e r n s

w h i c h must be f o l d e d t o g e t h e r i n s u c h a way a s t o c o n s t r u c t a th ree-dim ensional fig u re .

A longside th e f l a t p a t t e r n ,

t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l f i g u r e s o f t h e o b j e c t s t h a t w i l l be fo r m e d by t h e f o l d i n g p r o c e s s a r e d raw n .

These must be m a t c h e d

t o t h e f l a t d r a w i n g i n s p e c i f i c w ays. Form A o f t h i s t e s t y i e l d e d m a j o r l o a d i n g s o f v i s u a l i ­ zatio n

( . 5 0),

general reasoning ( . 33

(.2 4 ),

an d r e a s o n i n g I I

(.2 4 ).

)> p e r c e p t u a l

speed

Form B, t h e p r e s e n t t e s t ,

28 h a s n o t "been a n a l y z e d b e f o r e * M e c h a n i c a l Movements CI90^AX2 ( # 3 1 ) . an a b i l i t y

T h is t e s t assumes

t o c o m p r e h e n d a n d t o f o l l o w moving p a r t s i n t h e

o p e r a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t s o r t s o f machinery*

P ic tu re s of p a rts

o f m a c h i n e r y a r e shown a n d m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e q u e s t i o n s a r e a s k e d about th e draw ings.

A l t h o u g h o t h e r f o r m s o f t h e t e s t have

b e e n a n a l y z e d a n d ha ve shown v i s u a l i z a t i o n v a r i a n c e ,

the

p r e s e n t fo rm h a s n o t b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d f a c t o r i a l l y . Compass O r i e n t a t i o n CP6 6 QA ( # 3 2 ) .

( Follow ing O ra l D i r e c t i o n s )

Compass O r i e n t a t i o n , a n o u t g r o w t h o f F o l l o w i n g

O r a l D i r e c t i o n s Cl651C» i s a n o t h e r t e s t d e s i g n e d a s a p u r e f a c t o r measure o f sp a c e .

I t has not y e t been f a c t o r an aly ze d .

The t a s k t o be p e r f o r m e d i s one o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a p l a n e fs f l i g h t . is

The e x a m in e e i s

in a plane f ly in g in a c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n ,

Then a t u r n i s made t o t h e r i g h t o r l e f t .

t o l d t h a t he

such as n o rth .

The new d i r e c t i o n

o f f l i g h t a f t e r co m pletion o f th ese t u r n s i s the r e q u ir e d answ er to th e t e s t item . D i r e c t i o n a l M a r k i n g CP533A ( # 3 8 ) .

CP533A “was d e ­

s i g n e d t o make a d e c i s i v e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t A t h e Sp ace I f a c t o r i s a d i r e c t i o n - d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a b i l i t y . “ The a t t e m p t was made t o c o n s t r u c t t h e t e s t so t h a t t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l movements w e re r e q u i r e d .

4Ibia. . p. 4-97.

The t e s t i t e m s c o n -

29 s i s t o f f o u r o r a l l y - p r e s e n t e d d i r e c t i o n s o f movement. . ^ .e a c h o f th e s e fo u r s ta te m e n ts d e s c r i b e s the p o s i t i o n o f a n a n s w e r s p a c e t h a t i s w i t h i n a s q u a r e , p r i n t e d on th e answer s h e e t . . . . T h e c e n t e r space in each s q u a r e . . . i s c o v e r e d by a s o l i d b l a c k c i r c u l a r s p o t . . . t h e s t a r t ­ in g p o in t f o r each o f the r e s p o n s e s . . . 3 F o u r marks m u st be p u t i n e a c h s q u a r e o f t h e a n s w e r s p a c e a t c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e s and d i r e c t i o n s from th e s t a r t i n g p o i n t . T h i s i s t h e f i r s t f a c t o r i a l s t u d y i n w h i c h t h e t e s t h a s b e en in clu d ed . S p a tia l V isu alizatio n I I I ( # ^ 0 ).

As t h i s

v isu alizatio n ,

( O r a l P a p e r F o l d i n g ) CP535A

t e s t was c o n s t r u c t e d t o be a f a c t o r t e s t f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i t e m s was o r a l .

A d escrip tio n

o f f o l d i n g a p i e c e o f p a p e r i n a c e r t a i n way i s g i v e n . the r e s u l t i n g

Then

s h a p e h a s t o be c h o s e n from d r a w i n g s i n an

answer b o o k le t. S t i c k a n d R u d d e r O r i e n t a t i o n CP531A ( # A l ) .

CP531A,

a n o u t g r o w t h o f F l i g h t O r i e n t a t i o n 0P528A, was d e s i g n e d i n a n e f f o r t t o m in i m iz e t h e r e a s o n i n g v a r i a n c e e x p e c t e d i n t h e e a r l ie r version.

F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h r e e r a t h e r t h a n two

a e r i a l c o c k p i t v i e w s o f e x t e r i o r l a n d s c a p e s a r e shown.

The

t e s t e e must i n d i c a t e w h a t s t i c k a n d r u d d e r movements p r o ­ d u ced the change in view from th e c o c k p i t . G r a w f o r d - B e n n e t t P o i n t M o t i o n , Form B.

T his i s a

c o m m e rc ia lly a v a i l a b l e form o f m echanical-m ovem ents t e s t .

Loc. c i t .

The i t e m s a r e d r a w i n g s o f m a c h in e r y *

The e x am in e e m u st d e ­

c i d e t h e p a t h o f m o t i o n t h a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t on t h e m ac h in e w i l l t a k e when a n o t h e r s e c t i o n o f t h e m a c h in e i s p u t i n t o mo­ tion* D i a l a n d T a b l e R e a d i n g CP621-622A ( # * 8 ) .

In previous

a n a l y s e s , D i a l a n d T a b l e R e a d i n g h a s shown s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d ­ i n g s on nu m ber, Sp ace I ,

and p e r c e p t u a l speed.

The f i r s t

p a r t o f t h e t e s t demands t h e r e a d i n g a n d i n t e r p r e t i n g o f d ials

s i m i l a r t o t h o s e a p p e a r i n g on t h e i n s t r u m e n t p a n e l o f

an a i r p l a n e

(RPM, A i r s p e e d , A l t i t u d e , e t c . ) .

E ac h i t e m r e ­

q u i r e s t h e e x a m in e e t o f i n d a c e r t a i n d i a l from among s e v e n p i c t u r e d , r e a d i t c o r r e c t l y — i n t e r p o l a t i o n may be n e c e s s a r y and th e n p i c k o u t th e c o r r e c t answer from f i v e c h o i c e s .

The

t a b l e - r e a d i n g p a r t o f the t e s t r e q u i r e s s i m i l a r o p e r a t i o n s w ith ta b le s of fig u re s . As t h i s

t e s t has p r e v io u s ly been an aly zed ,

i t can be

e x p e c te d to s e r v e as a r e f e r e n c e t e s t i n the p r e s e n t problem . I n s t r u m e n t C o m p r e h e n s i o n C l6 l6 C ( # 5 ^ ) .

T his i s the

f i n a l m o d i f i c a t i o n o f p r e v i o u s fo rm s o f t h e t e s t a n d i t h a s no t been p r e v i o u s l y a n a l y z e d .

However,

f a c t o r i a l composi­

t i o n o f P a r t I I o f t h e p r e v i o u s for m , f o r t y i t e m s o f w h ic h make up t h e p r e s e n t t e s t , II

(.3 6 ), v is u a liz a tio n The t e s t

i n c l u d e s Sp ace I ( . 5 3 ) #

reasoning

( . 2 5 ) and v e r b a l ( . 2 4 ) .

i t e m s a r e made up o f s e t s o f d i a l s a n d f i v e

31 d e s c r ip tio n s of a p la n e 's behavior, a t 200 m i l e s p e r h o u r , w est, " e tc .

i.

e .,

"Flying l e v e l

s t r a i g h t a n d u n b a n k e d , h e a d e d due

From t h e f i v e d e s c r i p t i o n s 1/ t h e e x a m i n e e m ust

c h o o s e t h e one t h a t c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e v a r i o u s d i a l r e a d i n g s . M e c h a n i c a l P r i n c i p l e s CI903B (#55)* s i s t s of a p ic tu re , choice answ ers. the p i c t u r e ,

E ac h i t e m c o n ­

a q u estio n about the p ic tu re ,

Basing h i s

and m u l t i p l e -

ju d g m e n t on w h a t i s g o i n g on i n

the t e s t e e must s e l e c t th e answer t h a t t e l l s

m o s t a c c u r a t e l y wha t i s g o i n g t o h a p p e n n e x t i n t h e p i c t u r e d situ atio n .

Mean l o a d i n g s o f Form A o f t h i s t e s t a r e mech­

a n ic a l experience

( . 6 0 ),

v isu alizatio n

v e r b a l ( . 2 0 ) and re a s o n in g

(.2 0 ).

(.5 1

)» S p a c e

I

(.2 2 ),

The p r e s e n t f o r m i s a r e ­

v i s i o n o f Form A made w i t h t h e g o a l o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e a l r e a d y h i g h v a l i d i t y o f the t e s t .

Knowledge o f m e c h a n i c a l p r i n c i p l e s

i s r e q u ir e d to c o r r e c t l y answer th e t e s t item s. C o o r d i n a t e R e a d i n g CP224B ( # 6 0 ) .

A c i r c u l a r graph

g r a d u a t e d th r o u g h 36° d e g r e e s , w ith c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s g ra d u ­ a t e d i n m i l e s f r o m t h e c e n t e r makes up t h i s t e s t .

On t h e

c i r c l e a r e d a s h e s t h a t a r e s u p p o s e d t o be t a r g e t r e t u r n s on an o s c i ll o s c o p e sc re e n .

The e x a m in e e m u st d e t e r m i n e t h e r a n g e

a n d b e a r i n g o f t h e s e d a s h e s from t h e c i r c l e ' s c e n t e r . A r i t h m e t i c R e a s o n i n g GI306c ( # 6 3 ) .

This i s a n o th e r

o f th e p r e v io u s ly an aly zed t e s t s in the p re s e n t b a t t e r y , f a c t o r f o r w h i c h l o a d i n g s a r e known.

the

The m ost s i g n i f i c a n t

32 ones in c lu d e ,

o f c o u r s e , num ber a n d r e a s o n i n g .

The t e s t

c o n ta in s t h i r t y a r i t h m e t i c re a so n in g problem s ra n g in g in d i f f i c u l t y from easy to h a r d . Complex C o o r d i n a t i o n CM701E ( # 6^ ) .

Form A o f t h i s

t e s t i s d e s c rib e d as a s e r i a l , c h o ic e r e a c t i o n - t i m e t e s t i n which e a c h s tim u lu s i s one o f t h i r t e e n s p a t i a l p a t t e r n s o f t h r e e l i g h t s e a c h . In sy s te m a tic correspondence w ith each stim u lu s p a t t e r n , the c o r r e c t re sp o n se i s a unique a d ju s tm e n t of i m i t a t i o n s t i c k and r u d d e r c o n t r o l s . ® A c o r r e c t movement o f t h e c o n t r o l s a u t o m a t i c a l l y b r i n g s on a new s t i m u l u s .

T h i s i s one o f t h e two a p p a r a t u s t e s t s i n c l u d e d

i n the p r e s e n t study.

In p rev ious a n a ly s e s ,

s p a tia l relatio n s

v a r i a n c e h a s ‘a lw a y s a p p e a r e d , a s w e l l a s p s y c h o m o t o r c o o r d i n ­ atio n . D i s c r i m i n a t i o n R e a c t i o n Time CP6 l l P second a p p a r a tu s t e s t in t h i s m a trix ,

(#70).

The

D is c r im in a tio n R eaction

Time, on v a r i o u s p r e v i o u s a n a l y s e s h a s shown m a j o r l o a d i n g s i n s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s and psychom otor p r e c i s i o n . Corresponding to e ach stim u lu s p a t t e r n o f c o lo re d l i g h t s is a m icrosw itch.

The s w i t c h m u st be moved a c c o r d ­

ing to the p a t t e r n of l i g h t s t h a t i s p re s e n te d .

Score i s in

t e r m s o f tim e b e t w e e n s t i m u l u s and c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e . Table I I I p r e s e n t's a l i s t i n g o f the t e s t s a n a l y s i s w ith item co u n t, z I b id . , p.

122.

in th is

s c o r i n g fo rm u la and tim e l i m i t s .

TABLE I I I TESTS SELECTED FOR FACTORIAL ANALYSIS

No.

2 3 12 24 25 26 29 30 31 32 38 40 4l 46 48 54 55 60

63 64 70

Name a n d Code

Item Count

Time L i m i t (m inutes)

8 .2 5 Approx. 1 m in. p e r item D i r e c t i o n a l P l o t t i n g - CE455A 46 15 14 A r e a V i s u a l i z a t i o n - CP815.A 60 D i s c r i m i n a t i o n R e a c t i o n Time, I - I I - GP634A 2 .2 5 95 D i s c r i m i n a t i o n R e a c t i o n Time, I I I - I V - CP634A 95 2.75 F l i g h t O r i e n t a t i o n ( c o c k p i t v i e w s ) CP528A 22 97 22 P o s i t i o n V i s u a l i z a t i o n I ( £ l a g s ) - CP53^A 50 30 22 P a t t e r n C o m p r e h e n s i o n - CP8 O3 B 40 M e c h a n i c a l Movements - CI904AX2 48 Compass O r i e n t a t i o n - CI660A 150 5 D i r e c t i o n a l M a r k i n g - CP533A 6.25 29 x 4 4q S p a t i a l V i s u a l i z a t i o n I I I - CP535A 27 45 14 S t i c k a n d R u d d e r O r i e n t a t i o n - GP531A C r a w f o r d - B e n n e t t P o i n t M o t i o n - Form B 30 15 43 ( 6 2 1 ) 8 D i a l a n d T a b l e R e a d i n g - CP621A, 622A 43 ( 6 2 2 ) 7 4o 20 I n s t r u m e n t C o m p r e h e n s i o n - C I 616C M e c h a n i c a l P r i n c i p l e s - CI9 0 3 B 40 20 C o o r d i n a t e R e a d i n g - CP224B 20 85 A r i t h m e t i c R e a s o n i n g - GI301C 30 30 Complex C o o r d i n a t i o n - CM701 V aries 8 80 D i s c r i m i n a t i o n R e a c t i o n Time - CP611D

P o s i t i o n O r i e n t a t i o n (Hands) - CP526B F o l l o w i n g O r a l D i r e c t i o n s - C I 6 5 IC

280 40

Scoring F o r m u la R-W

R-W/5 Nr. R R-W/2

R-W/3 R-W/ 3 R-W/3 r - w/ 4

r- wA

Nr. R

r- wA r- wA

R-W/5 R-W/3

R-W/2 R-W/2 R-W/4 R-W/2 4 20 2R-W/2 Nr. R T o t a l tim e

34

III.

THE SUBJECTS

The s u b j e c t s t a k i n g t h e s e t e s t s were p r e - a v i a t i o n c a d e t s b e in g c l a s s i f i e d f o r a i r - c r e w t r a i n i n g . to age and e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l , hom ogeneous.

W ith r e s p e c t

the p o p u l a t i o n was e x tr e m e ly

A l l s u b j e c t s had p r e v i o u s l y p a s s e d a p r e lim ­

in a r y sc r e e n in g t e s t ,

th e A ir Force Q u a l i f y i n g E x a m in a tio n .

The number t a k in g e a c h t e s t v a r i e d .

Table IV summarizes the

numbers o f s u b j e c t s upon w h ic h ea ch computed c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t was b a s e d .

TABLE IV NUMBERS USED IN COMPUTING- TEST INTERCORRELATIONS

Between T e s t s

P r o d u c t Moment C o r r e l a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t s And T e s t s

B a se d Upon N =

2 and 3

2 and 3 12 and 14 2 4, 2 5 , 2 6 , 3 0 , 3 1 , a n d 32 38 a n d 40 41 and 46 4 8 , 54, 55 . 6 0 , 6 3 , 6 4 , a n d 70

2,425 469 495 492 493 2,425

12 a n d 14

12 a n d 14 2 4 , 2 5 , 2 6 , 3 0 , 31, and 32 38 a n d 4o 41 a n d 46 4 8 , 5 4 , 55. 6 0 , 6 3 , 64 a n d 70

2,346 459 518 593 2,3 46:'

2 4, 2 5 , 2 6 , 3 0 , 31 a n d 32

2 4, 2 5 , 2 6 , 3 0 , 31 a n d 32 38 and 4o 4 8 , 5 4 , 5 5 . 6 0 , 6 3 , 64 a n d 7°

495 516 2,281

38 and 40 4 8 , 5 4 , 55, 6 0 , 6 3 , 64 a n d 70

2,417 523 2,417

4 l and 46

4 l , 4 6 , 4 8 , 5 4 , 5 5 , 6 0 , 6 3 , 64 and 70

2 ,3 0 8

4 8 , 5 4 , 5 5 1 6 0 , 6 3 , 64 a nd 70

4 8 , 5 4 , 55, 6 0 , 6 3 , 64 a n d 70

8,574

38 and 40

41 a n d 46

CHAPTER IV THE FACTOR ANALYSIS I.

EXTRACTION OF FACTORS AND ROTATION OF REFERENCE AXES The o o m m u n a l l t i e s .

The f i r s t s t e p i n a s o l u t i o n o f

a f a c t o r a n a l y s i s p r o b l e m by t h e c e n t r o i d m eth o d i s t h e s e l e c ­ t i o n of th e b e s t f i t t i n g comm unality v a l u e s f o r th e d ia g o n a l c e l l e n t r i e s in the o r i g i n a l c o r r e l a t i o n m a trix . 3 5*)

(Supra, p .

A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l ways i n w h i c h t h i s c a n be

d o n e , ^ one o f t h e b e s t e s t i m a t e s ,

and c e r t a i n l y

the s im p le s t

t o make, i s t o t a k e t h e h i g h e s t c o r r e l a t i o n i n e a c h column a s th e com m unality o f t h e t e s t ,

a s shown i n T a b l e V.

E x t r a c t i o n of c e n t r o i d f a c t o r s .

E x tr a c tio n o f the

c e n t r o id v a lu e s p ro ce ed e d a c c o rd in g t o the p r o c e s s o u tlin e d by G u i l f o r d .

2

Since the e n t i r e p ro ced u re i s co m p letely l a i d

o u t i n h i s b o o k , i t w i l l n o t be d e t a i l e d h e r e . The c r i t e r i o n f o r e n d i n g e x t r a c t i o n o f f a c t o r s * n ine f a c t o r s had been e x t r a c t e d ,

A fter

t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e two h i g h e s t

1

L. L. T h u r s t o n e , M u l t i p l e F a c t o r A n a l y s i s , ( C h ic a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , 19^8). ^ J . P. G u i l f o r d , P s y c h o m e t r i c M e t h o d s , (New York: M cG raw -H ill Book C o . , 1936) C h a p t e r l5%

37

MATRIX OF INTERCORE OF TEST VARIABLES

2

(2 )

3

12

14

24

25

2

P o s itio n O rien tation (Hands) Follow ing Oral Direc­ tio n s D ir e c tio n a l P lo t t in g

(3)

350*

12)

379

379

Area V is u a liz a tio n

14)

136

094

152

D iscrim in ation RTI-II D iscrim in ation RTIII-IV F lig h t O rien tation

24)

332

224

286

081

25)

348

364

375

129

540

26)

3^7

492

298

109

271

311

117

297

359

48 44

30

31

32

38

40

41

46

48

54

55

60

63

P o sitio n V isu a liz a ­ tio n ( f la g s ) P attern Comprehension

29)

293

511

449

30)

261

397

263

110

211

231

M echanical Movements

3D

293

425

390

112

245

286

57

617

Compass O rien ta tio n

32)

348

563

373

149

284

398

4i

288

339

D ir e c tio n a l Marking

38)

287

390

471

128

314

369

21

146

224

328

S p a tia l V isu a liz a tio n (Paper fo ld in g ) S tic k and Rudder O rien tation P oin t Motion

40)

234

4 l6

397

248

233

220

32

405

44 2

291

280

41)

208

298

273

137

155

181

55

349

419

247

266

345

46)

215

2?8

219

087

094

078

37

441

455

089

154

349

321

D ia l and Table Reading 48)

382

463

564

141

413

472

39

304

382

474

526

353

288

181

Instrument Comprehen­ sio n M echanical P r in c ip le s

54)

335

432

412

140

266

311

52

345

448

372

260

347

475

261

390

55)

187

298

251

145

127

103

44

463

609

169

119

364

419

502

206

379

Coordinate Reading

60)

320

386

491

269

349

403

36

316

387

334

339

385

296

169

581

376

259

A rithm etic Reasoning

63)

212

381

423

079

223

-248

34

380

493

317

349

353

175

274

475

287

344

394

Complex Coordination (Apparatus) D iscrim in ation RT (Apparatus)

64)

282

330

269

089

268

269

38

264

421

256

203

271

363

289

298

35?

380

273

154

70)

292

377

389

130

365

350

39

320

390

396

371

341

312

197

442

364

257

394

309

^Decimal p o in ts om itted

64

38 f a c t o r l o a d i n g s was f o u n d t o be g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s t a n d a r d e r r o r o f t h e o b t a i n e d c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two t e s t s hav in g those f a c t o r loadings.-^

This t e s t i n d i c a t e d t h a t

a n a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r s h o u l d be e x t r a c t e d . A f t e r t h e t e n t h f a c t o r was e x t r a c t e d ,

a sim ilar te s t

was a p p l i e d a n d t h e r e s u l t i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e e x t r a c t i o n p ro ce ss should cease. E s t i m a t e d a n d c o m p u t e d e o m m u n a l i t i e s w e r e t h e n com­ p a r e d and th e r e s u l t s - a r e of g r e a te r accuracy

shown i n T a b l e VI.

F o r t h e sake

(due t o t h e f a c t t h a t f o r a l l t e s t s

c o m p u t e d e o m m u n a l i t i e s w e r e n o t w i t h i n a r a n g e o f ± . 0 5 fro m the e stim ate d eom m unalities), p e a te d again.

The c o m p u t e d e o m m u n a l i t i e s w ere u s e d a s t h e

diag o n al c e l l v alues t h i s tio n ,

t h e e x t r a c t i o n p r o c e s s was r e ­

tim e.

A f t e r t h e s e c o n d c om pu ta ­

none o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n e s t i m a t e d a n d com\

p u t e d e o m m u n a l i t i e s e x c e e d e d . 0^ , w h i l e t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e l e s s t h a n ± . 0 1 , a s shown i n T a b l e V I I . The r o t a t i o n o f t h e r e f e r e n c e a x e s .

The m e t h o d u s e d

-'The p r o b l e m o f when t o s t o p e x t r a c t i n g f a c t o r s i s e v e r w ith the f a c t o r a n a l y s t . As y e t , no “r i g o r o u s 11 m a t h e m a t i c a l c r i t e r i o n h a s b e e n d e v i s e d , n o r h a s a “f o o l - p r o o f 11 i n t u i t i v e one. The r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e u s e o f t h e p r e s e n t c r i t e r i o n i s t h a t when t h e maximum c o n t r i b u t i o n o f a f a c t o r t o t h e c o r r e ­ l a t i o n b e t w e e n two t e s t s i s no g r e a t e r t h a n a c h a n c e r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p , i . e . , the s t a n d a r d e r r o r o f a zero c o r r e l a t i o n , f a c t o r i z a t i o n should c e a se .

39 TABLE VI A COMPARISON OF ESTIMATED AND COMPUTED COMMONALITIES AFTER FIRST COMPUTATION OF CENTROIDS

E s tim a te d Communality

T est

2 3 12 14 24 25 26 29 30 31 32 38 40 41 46 48 54 55 ' 60 63 64 70

38 2* 563 56^ 269 540 5^0 573 553 617 . 617 563 526 442 558 502 581 521 609 581 485 42 1 442

^D ecim al p o i n t s o m it t e d

Computed Communality 343 611 564 243 535 566 664 598 591 711 646 528 468 617 503 683 506 596 597 529 449 41 2

D isc r e p a n c y 5

039 048 000 02 6 005 026 091 045 024 094 083 002 026 059 001 102 015 013 017 044 028 030

TABLE V I I CENTROID FACTOR MATRIX

F a c to r s

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

V II

V III

IX

X

h2 com­ p u te d

h2 e s ti­ mated

D is ­ crep ­ ancy

T e s ts 2

503 * -1 4 8

101

081

038

117

123

126

-0 8 0

-0 3 0

•345

343

002

3

666

-0 5 3

119

-2 3 5

-l4 l

213

126

-0 5 8

095

088

618

611

007

12

635

-2 3 5

-1 7 6

081

-0 6 7

-1 0 7

116

-1 1 1

-1 5 9

-0 9 6

572

564

008

14

238

-0 4 2

-1 2 1

188

-1 5 4

160

-2 2 9

110

-0 9 8

-0 7 7

238

.243

005

24

481

-2 8 9

170

182

337

-1 1 2

-1 3 2

103

112

-0 3 6

544

535

009

25

544

-3 7 2

214

086

229

-0 5 9

-1 1 0

081

042

-0 7 3

528

566

038

26

687

251

250

-0 9 3

-0 8 5

-0 9 8

037

161

064

054

658

664

006

29

703

051

048

-2 5 9

033

-0 3 0

-0 6 1

-1 0 7

-0 7 1

-1 2 5

604

598

006

30

602

307

-1 0 5

-1 7 5

176

059

-1 5 1

053

089

043

568

591

023

31

719

371

-1 0 5

-1 1 8

156

-0 6 6

-0 6 2

-0 5 0

-1 0 4

090

734

711

023

32

598

*223

262

-3 0 0

-1 1 8

183

-0 7 5

-0 9 9

-0 9 2

-1 1 5

650

646

0 04

38

516

-3 6 0

-0 8 6

089

-0 7 6

-0 6 3

170

-1 9 7

200

-1 2 0

544

528

016

40

586

061

-2 2 0

080

-0 9 8

169

-1 3 3

-0 7 3

121

028

478

468

010

41

558

328

133

-0 4 4

-0 4 6

-0 4 9

615

617

002

117 46.. 46 t -.•408* 7 183 ’ 054 '.**-.• !? ' *4* 48 / ;702; .->09*8:; ’- o ^ i - VO‘4 6 ’ £ 1 6 6 1 . .'084* • ' J M -; ■4 0 3 ?! 54 ; ': 632

-

177

-2 9 9 . • 3.21

-1 9 3

00 4, v o 66

112 '■ 1 7 6 • ■'6 8 0 ' -1 6 7 - - 0'86

056*

053

-0 8 6

-0 3 2

^499

506

007

55

552

478

-1 6 6

060

100

0 33

072

021

-0 7 9

-0 5 2

590

596

006

6o

636

-2 3 2

-1 6 9

064

-0 9 7

-0 8 5

-1 4 3

154

-1 2 6

164

595

597

002

63

560

-0 6 8

-2 9 5

-2 5 2

027

-1 1 4

116

068

069

-0 4 0

508

529

021

64

519

151

189

196

110

043

070

-1 3 8

-1 1 3

142

436

449

013

70

598

-1 0 0

089

055

032

-0 3 5

-0 4 6

-1 5 1

020

098

415

412

003

♦ D e c im a l p o i n t s

o m itte d

41 f o r the r o t a t i o n of th e r e f e r e n c e axes to p s y c h o lo g ic a lly m e a n i n g f u l a n d u n i q u e p o s i t i o n was t h e g r a p h i c m e t h o d d e v e l - » o p e d by Zimmerman.

h. T h i s

p a r t i c u l a r method s a v e s c o n s i d e r a b l e

t i m e com p a red w i t h r o t a t i o n by m a t h e m a t i c a l m ea n s, a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n a c c u ra c y o f r e s u l t s i s m inim al.

The f i n a l r o ­

t a t e d f a c t o r m a t r i x a p p e a r s i n Table V I I I . E i g h t o f t h e e x t r a c t e d f a c t o r s w e re r o t a t e d t o mean­ in g fu l p sy c h o lo g ic a l p o s i t io n s in lin e w ith the c r i t e r i a of sim p le s t r u c t u r e and o r th o g o n a l p o s i t i v e m a n ifo ld .

F actors

IX a n d X were r e s i d u a l f a c t o r s , a l t h o u g h IX was u t i l i z e d t o a t t a i n a more m e a n i n g f u l f a c t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n t h e r o t a t i o n process. II.

INTERPRETATION OF FACTORS'5

F a c t o r I i s v i s u a l i z a t i o n and i s q u i t e w e l l d e f i n e d here.

M e c h a n i c a l P r i n c i p l e s a n d M e c h a n i c a l M o v e m entst w h i c h

p r e v i o u s l y h a v e s t o o d up a s good m e a s u r e s o f v i s u a l i z a t i o n , show

of t h e i r v a ria n c e a c c o u n ta b le to F a c to r - 1 .

The

C ra w fo rd -B e n n e tt P o in t Motion T e s t , n o t p r e v i o u s l y f a c t o r a n a l y z e d , a l s o h a s 40

%o f

i t s v a r i a n c e a c c o u n t e d f o r by

Wayne S. Zimmerman, "A S im p le G r a p h i c a l Method o f O r t h o g o n a l R o t a t i o n o f A x e s , 11 P s y o h o m e t r i k a , 1 1 : 5 1 - 5 5 * 19 ^6. 5 A v a l u e o f .3 0 i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e minimum s i g n i ­ f i c a n t loading.

*

42

TABLE V I I I ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX

Test Num­ ber

F A G T O' R S

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

* 328

265

VII V I I I

150

285

178

059 - 0 4 7 - 0 4 8 - 0 3 0

170

293 261

056

171

520 049

051 - 0 4 8

397

038

IX

X

2

105

3 12

298 172

375

287 508

14

098 --025

170

140

087

663

055

155 --043

048

202

140 - 0 6 0 - 0 3 6

025

650

102

108

165

140

175

056

26

^30

255

0

470

282

267

113

026 - 0 6 0

29

311

295

k6 2k2

155

276

457

062

30

551

157

050

120

070

406

195

31

669

174

138

235

095

32

oko

352

181

128

38

00k

k2Q kko

40

345

167

2k 25

205

h

088

333 6l4

036 - 0 7 2 -1 2 0 - 0 9 6

558

013 - 0 7 7

229

0 71

072

^kk

023 - 0 7 3

532

054

644

124

075 - 1 2 5

392

111

051

043

570

381

093 - 0 1 9

078

090

729

562

344

120

051

026 * 115

640

055

175

116 --050

351

002 - 1 2 0

557

323

056

130

194

329

250

023

028

481

2 ? 7 --022

155

630

095

190

054

253 - 0 5 4 - 0 4 9

617

635 --012

195

071

066

123 --020

183 - 0 3 4 ^051

50

031

537

436

238

103

323

140

071

019

064

680

086

.

kl k6 k8 5k 55

265

18k

182

436

295

231

092

009 - 0 3 2

4 85

669

001

106

238

003

250

076 - 0 0 6 -0 3 1 - 0 5 2

587

60

162

351

392

155

067

284

365 - 1 2 4

043

164

590

63

291

150

410

025

025

47 7

014

050

020 - 0 4 0

509

373

308

367

132

001

025

029

104

142

421

210

335

026

168

202

O83

163

080

098

397

6k 70

0k6 283

^Decim al p o i n t s o m itte d

k

*3 TABLE IX FACTOR I VISUALIZATION

Test

Loading

55

M echanical P r i n c i p l e s

.669

31

M e c h a n i c a l Movements

• 669

46

P o i n t M otion

.6 3 5

30

P a t t e r n Comprehension

.5 5 1

26

F light O rien ta tio n

.4 3 0

64

Complex C o o r d i n a t i o n

.373

40

S p a tia l V isu alizatio n I I I

• 3^5

29

P o sitio n V isu a liz atio n

.311

Minimum l o a d i n g . 0 0 9 N in e t e s t s w i t h i n v a n i s h i n g r a n g e o f + . 2 0

l^L\, v isu alizatio n .

In a d d itio n ,

th e rem aining, f a c t o r s

i t h a s n e a r - z e r o l o a d i n g s on

(maximum o f . 1 9 5 on n u m b e r ) .

I t is

very l ik e l y t h a t i t i s a pure f a c t o r t e s t . P a t t e r n Comprehension e x h i b i t s a s t r o n g l o a d i n g as was p r e d i c t e d . '

I t s o n l y o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g a p p e a r s on

the reaso n in g f a c to r . zero

L o a d i n g s on o t h e r f a c t o r s a r e n e a r ­

(maximum o f .1 9 5 on r e a s o n i n g ) . A l t h o u g h F l i g h t O r i e n t a t i o n was d e v e l o p e d on t h e

h y p o t h e s i s t h a t i t w o u l d be a go o d m e a s u r e o f s p a t i a l r e l a ­ tio n s,

i t s v i s u a l i z a t i o n v a ria n ce p r a c t i c a l l y e q u a ls the v a r i ­

a n c e i t e x h i b i t s on t h e s p a c e f a c t o r .

( I n f r a , p . 4 8)

S p a t i a l V i s u a l i z a t i o n I I I , c o n s t r u c t e d t o be a f a c t o r te s t for v isu a liza tio n ,

e x h i b i t s a r a t h e r evenly d iv id e d

t h r e e - w a y s p l i t i n common v a r i a n c e b e t w e e n F a c t o r s I ,

III,

and VII. W i t h o u t much d o u b t ,

facto r I I ,

T a b le X, c a n be l a b e l e d

a s P e r c e p t u a l Speed t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n th e im portance o f r a p i d p e rc e p tio n o f v i s u a l l y p r e s e n te d s t i m u l i in each of the t e s t s .

I n o r d e r t o make t h e • n e c e s s a r y r e s p o n s e s , q u i c k

p ercep tio n is necessary. T his i s

t h e o n l y f a c t o r on w h i c h P o s i t i o n O r i e n t a t i o n

has a s ig n if ic a n t load in g .

Even t h i s am ounts t o somewhat

l e s s t h a n 10$ o f t h e v a r i a n c e .

A pparently the p r e s e n t

b a t t e r y h a s no o t h e r t e s t w h i c h m e a s u r e s t h e Sp a c e I I v a r i a n c e p r e v i o u s l y ,found i n t h e Hands t e s t .

45 TABLE X FACTOR I I PERCEPTUAL SPEED

Loading

Test

24

D i s c r i m i n a t i o n R e a c t i o n Time, I - I I

.663

25

D i s c r i m i n a t i o n R e a c t i o n Time, I I I - I V

.650

48

D i a l an d T a b l e R e a d i n g

.537

38

D i r e c t i o n a l Mark ing

.420

12

D irectio n al P lo ttin g

.375

6o

C oo rd in ate Reading

.351

70

D i s c r i m i n a t i o n R e a c t i o n Time ( a p p a r a t u s )

.335

2

P o sitio n O rien tatio n

.328

64

Complex C o o r d i n a t i o n

(Hands)

Minimum l o a d i n g - . 0 2 5 N in e t e s t s i n v a n i s h i n g r a n g e * . 2 0

.308

46 Table XI i n d i c a t e s the t e s t s h a v in g s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d ­ i n g s in F a c t o r I I I , number. fa c ility

in common.

These t e s t s have n u m e r ic a l

A lth o u g h i n ea ch c a s e ,

o b v io u s t h a t t h i s f a c i l i t y

i t may n o t be

i s b e in g c a l l e d upon t o com p lete

i t e m s , i t can be s e e n on c l o s e r study t h a t t h e r e h as to be some r e s p o n s e a lo n g th e n u m e r ic a l p a t h , as i t w e r e .

For

ex a m p le, su ch t h i n g s a s c o u n t in g m oves, c o u n t i n g number o f t im e s a paper i s f o l d e d , r e a d in g number v a l u e s from c h a r t s , and th e more u s u a l n u m e r ic a l c o m p u ta tio n s a re c a l l e d upon. The a d d i t i o n o f a n u m b e r -o p e r a tio n s t e s t t o th e m a t r ix , h ow ever, would have a i d e d i n a b e t t e r d e f i n i t i o n o f t h i s f a c ­ t o r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n term s o f i t s r e l a t i o n to th e sp a c e f a c ­ t o r as shown i n Table X I I . D e s p it e th e few t e s t s a p p e a r in g on F a c t o r IV, t h i s i s th e sp a c e f a c t o r .

In str u m e n t Conrprehension and Complex Coor­

d i n a t i o n have been c o n s i s t e n t l y d e f i n i t i v e sp a ce t e s t s . la r ly ,

S im i­

th e o t h e r two t e s t s w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s are

m easu res o f s p a c e . However,

th e r e i s a r a t h e r s t a r t l i n g l a c k o f o t h e r

t e s t s i n the b a t t e r y w h ich were p r e d i c t e d t o show v a r ia n c e i n th is factor.

These t e s t s are Compass O r i e n t a t i o n , D i r e c t i o n a l

M arking. D ia l and Table H ea d in g , C o o rd in a te R eading and D is­ c r i m i n a t i o n R e a c t io n Time.

So now the q u e s t i o n i s ,

why t h i s

r a t h e r u n e x p e c t e d , n o t to sa y somewhat u n u s u a l, r e s u l t ?

47

TABLE XI FACTOR I I I NUMBER

Test

Loading

12

D irectio n al P lo ttin g

38

D i r e c t i o n a l M a rkin g

48

D ial and T able Reading

.436

63

A r ith m e tic R easoning

.410

60

C o o rd in ate Reading

.392

40

S p atial V isu alizatio n

.323

Minimum l o a d i n g . 0 5 6 Twelve t e s t s i n v a n i s h i n g r a n g e £ . 2 0

.508

^8

TABLE X II FACTOR IV SPATIAL RELATIONS

Test

Loading

S t i c k and Rudder O r i e n t a t i o n

.630

26

F lig h t O rien tatio n

.470

5^

I n s t r u m e n t Comprehension

6^

Complex C o o r d i n a t i o n

Minimum l o a d i n g .0 2 5 F o u rteen t e s t s in range * .2 0



A 36 .367

^9 A p p a r e n t l y what h a s o c c u r r e d i s

th a t both the p e r­

c e p t u a l s p e e d a n d number f a c t o r s h a v e g a i n e d i n v a r i a n c e on certain te s ts .

Compass O r i e n t a t i o n a n d D i s c r i m i n a t i o n Reac­

t i o n Time ( a p p a r a t u s ) h a v e l o s t s p a c e v a r i a n c e t o p e r c e p t u a l • speed.

D i r e c t i o n a l M a r k i n g , D i a l a n d T a b l e R e a d i n g , a n d Co­

o r d i n a t e R e a d i n g h a v e l o s t s p a c e v a r i a n c e t o number a s w e l l . I t w i l l be n o t e d t h a t t h e s e t e s t s a r e s p e e d e d , a n d i n s p e e d e d t e s t s s i m p l e r s p a c e i t e m s t e n d t o become m e a s u r e s o f p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d , a n d t o show number v a r i a n c e t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n when s p e e d i s n o t a p rem iu m .

The c o n f u s i o n among

t h e t h r e e f a c t o r s — s p a c e , number a n d p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d — l a r g e l y a t th e expense o f th e space f a c t o r , to the la c k o f d e f i n i t i v e

seems t o be due

t e s t s f o r p e r c e p t u a l sp eed and f o r

number* The i m p o r t a n c e o f s e l e c t i o n o f d e f i n i t i v e

te s ts for

a l l e x p e c t e d f a c t o r s i n a d om ain i s s t r e s s e d by t h i s o c c u r ­ rence. The u n i d e n t i f i e d F a c t o r V i s r e s t r i c t e d t o two t e s t s , as i n d i c a t e d i n Table X I I I ,

and s i n c e

J2 i s

an o u t g r o w t h o f 3 ,

t h i s i s n o t am azing. J u s t one t h o u g h t o c c u r s t o t h e w r i t e r , h o w e v e r , w i t h r e s p e c t to t h i s fa c to r .

I t may be “a r m - c h a i r i n g ” b e yo n d t h e

realm of the evidence p re s e n te d ,’ but i f

the a r b i t r a r y l im it

of

.2 8 , the f a c t o r -

’’s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s ” i s l o w e r e d t o

l o a d i n g p a t t e r n a p p e a r s a s shown i n T a b l e XIV.

50 TABLE X III FACTOR V UNIDENTIFIED

Loading

Test 32 3

Compass O r i e n t a t i o n

.562

Follow ing O ral D ir e c tio n s

.520

Minimum v a l u e - . 0 ^ 3 F i f t e e n t e s t e in £.20 range

TABLE XIV A POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION OF FACTOR V

32 3 54 2

Test

Loading

Compass O r i e n t a t i o n

.562

Follow ing O ral D ir e c tio n s

.520

I n s t r u m e n t Comprehension

.295

P osition O rien ta tio n

.285

(Hands)

26

F lig h t O rien tatio n

29

P o sitio n V isu alizatio n

.282 (Flags)

.276

51 C o u ld t h i s be a f a i n t i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e S p a c e I I f a c ­ to r,

d e s c r i b e d a s a p p r e c i a t i o n o f l e f t and r i g h t - h a n d d i s ­

crim ination?

The T h u r s t o n e Hands a n d F l a g s t e s t s h a v e p r e ­

v i o u s l y shown v a r i a n c e i n t h e f a c t o r ,

and c e r t a i n l y

i s a s i m i l a r i t y o f i t e m s among t h e s e t e s t s

there

t h a t c o u l d be t e r m e d

a b i l i t y to a p p r e c i a t e r i g h t and l e f t - h a n d d i r e c t i o n s * The t e s t o f A r i t h m e t i c R e a s o n i n g h a s p r e v i o u s l y a i d e d i n d e f i n i n g t h e r e a s o n i n g I f a c t o r a s s e e n i n T a b l e XV. larly ,

Simi­

Form A o f P a t t e r n C o m p r e h e n s i o n h a s shown s i g n i f i c a n t

l o a d i n g on r e a s o n i n g i n a d d i t i o n t o i t s u s u a l v i s u a l i z a t i o n variance.

The p r e s e n t f o r m o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t e s t p r e s e n t s

a somewhat h i g h e r r e a s o n i n g v a r i a n c e ,

i n d i c a t i n g t h a t the

m a n i p u l a t o r y o p e r a t i o n s h e r e c a l l e d f o r a r e on a more d i f f i ­ c u l t l e v e l t h a n t h o s e demanded by p r e v i o u s fo r m s w h i c h show h ig h er loadings in v is u a liz a tio n . S im ila r circu m stan ces are i n d ic a t e d in the case of P o sitio n V isu a liz atio n . of v isu alizatio n ,

A lthough d e s ig n e d as a f a c t o r t e s t

the d i f f i c u l t y l e v e l i s a p p a r e n tly such

t h a t more r e a s o n i n g i s c a l l e d up o n i n a n s w e r i n g t h e i t e m s t h a n was a n t i c i p a t e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s .

B o th

M e c h a n i c a l Movements a n d Compass O r i e n t a t i o n h ave r e a s o n i n g v ariance,

r e s u l t s p a r a l l e l i n g t h o s e o b t a i n e d on p r e v i o u s

f o r m s o f t h e s e two t e s t s .

TABLE XV FACTOR VI REASONING-

Test

Loading

63

A rith m e tic Reasoning

A 77

29

P o sitio n V isu alizatio n

.457

30

P a t t e r n Comprehension

.406

31

M e c h a n i c a l Movements

.381

32

Compass O r i e n t a t i o n

• 344

48

D ia l and Table Reading

.323

Minimum l o a d i n g - . 0 4 8 N in e t e s t s i n v a n i s h i n g £ . 2 0 r a n g e

53 S p e c u l a t i o n a s t o t h e n a t u r e o f f a c t o r V I I a s shown i n T a b l e XVI i s q u i t e i n t r i g u i n g .

The p i c t u r e c l o s e l y p a r ­

a l l e l s a r e s u l t o b t a i n e d by Zimmerman i n t h e

"Factor Test

A n a l y s i s " o f t h e G u i l f o r d -Z i m m e r m a n a n d T h u r s t o n e t e s t s .

In

h i s s o l u t i o n , h e f o u n d P u n c h e d H o le s a n d Form B o a r d a p p e a r i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h l o a d i n g s o f . 4 3 2 a ^ d .359* r e s p e c t i v e l y . TABLE XVI FACTOR VII (VISUAL SYNTHESIS?)

Test

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14-

Area V i s u a l i z a t i o n

.397

60

C o o rd in a te Reading

.365

40

S p atial V isu alizatio n I I I

.329

Minimum l o a d i n g - . 0 2 0 E ig h te e n t e s t s in v a n is h in g range The Form Board t e s t

(p e n c il and paper)

i s one i n w h i c h

g e o m e t r i c f i g u r e s m ust be p u t t o g e t h e r t o f i t i n a l a r g e r given fig u re .

Compare t h i s w i t h t h e A r e a V i s u a l i z a t i o n t e s t

w h e r e t h e same p r o c e s s i s r e q u i r e d e x c e p t t h a t t h e e x am in ee s e l e c t s t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e fro m a l r e a d y drawn f i g u r e s i n s t e a d o f h a v i n g t o d r a w how t h e p i e c e s f i t

tog eth er.

54 The s i m i l a r i t y o f P u n c h e d H o l e s a n d S p a t i a l V i s u a l i z a ­ tio n is apparent.

In b o th , p a p e r i s f o l d e d and a r e s u l t i n g

s h a p e o r a p p e a r a n c e m ust he d e t e r m i n e d . Zimmerman s a y s o f h i s r e s u l t s t h a t . . . t h i s s p e c i f i c v a r i a n c e b e tw e e n P u n c h e d H o l e s a n d Form Board i s s u r p r i s i n g i n th e l i g h t o f the f a c t t h a t such a f a c t o r was n o t r e v e a l e d i n t h e ( h i s ) a n a l y s i s o f T h u r s t o n e ' s tests. This f i n d i n g s u g g e s ts s t r o n g l y t h a t th e e x t r a c t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l c e n t r o i d f a c t o r s fro m t h e f i f t y - s e v e n v a r i a b l e m a t r i x m i g h t l e a d t o t h e i s o l a t i o n o f a f a c t o r on w h i c h ^ t h e s e two, a n d p o s s i b l y o t h e r T h u r s t o n e t e s t e , a r e l o a d e d . From t h i s s t a t e m e n t i t C o o r d i n a t e H e a d i n g on t h i s

seems t h a t t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f

f a c t o r i s by no means i n c o n g r u o u s .

I t e m s i n a l l t h r e e o f t h e s e t e s t s seem t o r e q u i r e some s o r t of a b i l i t y

to s y n t h e s i z e v i s u a l l y p r e s e n t e d s t i m u l i and t h e r e ­

a f t e r t o see what t h e i r r e s u l t a n t c o m b in atio n w i l l lo o k l i k e . In th e case of Area V i s u a l i z a t i o n , th e t a s k i s to p i c k the r e ­ s u l t i n g f i g u r e when two odd s h a p e s h a v e b e e n c o m b i n e d .

In

S p a t i a l V i s u a l i z a t i o n , t h e e x am in e e m ust d e t e r m i n e t h e a p p e a r ­ ance o f a p i e c e o f p a p e r a f t e r i t has been fo ld e d . C o o rd in ate Reading t e s t , of

In the

t h e s u b j e c t m u s t combine t h e c o n c e p t s

“r a n g e " a n d " b e a r i n g " and. a p p l y them t o a d a s h on a c h a r t ,

r a t h e r than pu t to g e th e r a stim ulus o b je c t. Zimmerman t h e o r i z e s

6

t h a t p e rh a p s the s i m i l a r i t y be-

Wayne S . Zimmerman, "The I s o l a t i o n , D e f i n i t i o n a n d M e a s u r e m e n t o f S p a t i a l a n d V i s u a l i z i n g A b i l i t i e s , " (un pu b ­ l i s h e d D o c to r's d i s s e r t a t i o n , the U n iv e r s ity of S o u th ern C a li­ f o r n i a , Los A n g e l e s , C a l i f o r n i a , J u n e , 1 9 4 9 ) .

55 t w e e n t h e two t e s t s i n h i s b a t t e r y i s due t o h a v i n g t o draw the answ ers.

T h i s , on t h e b a s i s o f p r e s e n t r e s u l t s ,

seems t o

b e ' the l e a s t a c c e p ta b le e x p la n a tio n o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s here disclo sed .

He a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s e t e s t s may i n v o l v e

l e n g t h e s t i m a t i o n d e s c r i b e d a s a n “a b i l i t y t o ju d g e r e l a t e d 7 s h a p e s a n d s i z e s , 11 o r e v e n p e r h a p s some s o r t o f r e a s o n i n g a b i l i t y re q u ire d to recognize

“s y m m e t r i c a l 11 r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

The l a t t e r e x p l a n a t i o n i s n o t a s a c c e p t a b l e a s t h e form er.

To t h e f o r m e r ,

on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e w r i t e r w o u ld

add the term s d i s t a n c e s and d i r e c t i o n s . w e l l be c a l l e d an a b i l i t y

That i s ,

t h i s may

t o judge r e l a t e d s h a p e s ,

sizes,

d i s t a n c e s a nd d i r e c t i o n s . A ll in a l l ,

t h e t h r e e t e s t s seem t o have some s o r t o f

common v i s u a l i z a t i o n v a r i a n c e among them w h i c h i s n o t n e c e s ­ s a r i l y c o v e r e d by t h e a c c e p t e d v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c t o r . be more a k i n t o t h e f a c t o r o f l e n g t h e s t i m a t i o n ,

I t may

a s Zimmerman

s u g g e s t s , o r i t m i g h t be a s e c o n d r a t h e r s p e c i f i c v i s u a l synthesis fac to r,

as i n d i c a t e d in the t e n t a t i v e

f a c t o r name

above. F a c t o r V I I I i s l i m i t e d t o one t e s t , M a r k I n g ( . 3 5 1 ) a n d c a n n o t be i d e n t i f i e d . a re both r e s i d u a l .

7I b l d . , p .

188.

38

,

D irectio n al

F a c t o r s IX a n d

X

III.

DISCUSSION

The a im s o f t h i s p a p e r , (l)

t o c o n t r i b u t e more e v i d e n c e

as p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , were: in th e problem of the d i s t i n c ­

t i o n between space and v i s u a l i z a t i o n ;

(2) to ach iev e, b e t t e r

d e f i n i ti o n of the s p a t i a l - r e l a t i o n s fa c to r;

and ( 3 ) to a s c e r ­

t a i n w i t h w h at d e g r e e o f s u c c e s s f a c t o r t e s t s h a v e b e e n con ­ stru cted . As f a r a s t h e f i r s t aim has

i s c o n c e r n e d , more e v i d e n c e

been p r e s e n t e d in f a v o r o f th e h y p o th e s is , t h a t t h e r e i s

a d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n s p a c e a n d v i s u a l i z a t i o n .

V isu alizatio n

was t h e most c l e a r l y d e f i n e d f a c t o r o f t h o s e a p p e a r i n g i n t h e f i n a l ro ta te d solu tio n .

The s p a c e f a c t o r d i d n o t f a r e a s

w e l l , p r o b a b l y f o r a number o f r e a s o n s . as in d ic a te d p re v io u s ly ,

is

One o f t h e s e r e a s o n s ,

the la c k o f c e r t a i n n e c e s s a ry

d e f in in g t e s t s f o r p e r c e p tu a l speed.

Secondly,

th e lack of

a n u m b e r - o p e r a t i o n s t e s t may a l s o h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c o n f u s i o n among t h e t h r e e f a c t o r s .

I t has been found t h a t

s p a c e t e s t s o f t e n a p p e a r w i t h number v a r i a n c e .

This i s p a r t i c u ­

l a r l y t r u e when t h e i t e m s a r e s p e e d e d a n d m a c h i n e - s c o r e d answer s h e e ts a re used.

A t h i r d p o s s i b l e cause o f t h e r a t h e r

o v e rla p p in g n a tu re of the th re e f a c t o r s i s the l e v e l of d i f f i ­ c u l t y o f th e ite m s in th e forms o f th e t e s t s a n a ly z e d . t h e e f f o r t t o r e d u c e t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f v a r i a n c e shown by

In

57 e a r l i e r t e s t f o r m s , i t e m d i f f i c u l t y l e v e l may h a v e b e e n low­ e r e d t o o much, t h u s a c t u a l l y l o w e r i n g s p a c e f a c t o r c o n t e n t . As t o t h e t h i r d a i m , is

the answ er i s i n d e c i s i v e .

to say, the r e s u l t s o f f e r l i t t l e

That

co n cu rrin g evidence, but

n e i t h e r i s t h e d i s s e n t i n g e v i d e n c e o f s u c h a n a t u r e a s t o be unequivocal. T here w ere f o u r t e s t s d e s i g n e d t o be p u r e f a c t o r t e s t s . T h ese a r e P o s i t i o n V i s u a l i z a t i o n

(3 9) and. S p a t i a l V i s u a l i z a t i o n

( 4 0 ) d e s i g n e d t o m easure v i s u a l i z a t i o n ;

a n d Compass O r i e n t a t i o n

( 3 2 ) a n d D i r e c t i o n a l Marking: ( 3 8 ) , d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u r e s p a c e . Compass O r i e n t a t i o n shows i t s m a j o r l o a d i n g on F a c t o r V, a d o u b l e t s h a r e d w i t h Following; O r a l D i r e c t i o n s . R a t h e r t h a n c o n c l u d i n g t h a t s p a c e m e a s u r e h a s n o t been a c h i e v e d , i t i s w e ll to note t h a t Follow ing O ral D ir e c tio n s has p re v io u s ly *

c o n s i s t e n t l y a p p e a re d w i t h space v a r i a n c e , which i t does not have h e r e .

P e r h a p s a common c a u s a l c o n d i t i o n h a s r e s u l t e d i n

t h i s high degree of s p e c i f i c v a ria n c e a t the expense of sp ace. D i r e c t i o n a l M arking, d e s ig n e d to t e s t th e h y p o th e s is t h a t Space I i s t h e a b i l i t y t o make d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s a s t o d i r e c t i o n of m otion, s p e e d and n u m b er.

8

h a s i t s m a j o r v a r i a n c e on p e r c e p t u a l

T h i s i s p r o b a b l y due t o i t e m d i f f i c u l t y

I t w i l l be re m e m b e red t h a t i n t h i s t e s t t h e e f f o r t was made t o r e q u i r e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s o f t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l d i r ­ e c t i o n of m otion.

58 lev e l,

speeded c o n d it i o n s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and use of

m a c h in e -sc o re d answer blanks* S p a t i a l V i s u a l i z a t i o n shows e q u a l v a r i a n c e i n t h e f i r s t v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c t o r , and th e a s - y e t - u n i d e n t i f i e d second v i s u ­ a liz a tio n facto r. can tly presen t.

In a d d itio n , p e rc e p tu a l speed i s s i g n i f i ­ This r a t h e r even d i v i s i o n o f v a r i a n c e i n d i ­

c a t e s a c o m p le x t e s t . A l t h o u g h s h o w in g s i g n i f i c a n t v i s u a l i z a t i o n ,

th e major

p a r t o f v a r i a n c e i n P o s i t i o n V i s u a l i z a t i o n i s on t h e r e a s o n i n g facto r.

I t w o u ld seem t h a t t h e d i f f i c u l t y l e v e l o f t h e t e s t

i s s u c h t h a t more r e a s o n i n g i s c a l l e d f o r i n s o l v i n g t h e p r o b ­ lems th an h a d been a n t i c i p a t e d .

Perhaps the exam inees so lv e d

t h e i t e m s by means o f l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s r a t h e r t h a n by v i s u a l i z i n g t h e movements o f t h e f l a g a s i t was b e i n g t u r n e d in space. D e s p i t e t h i s a c c u m u l a t i o n o f n e g a t i v e e v i d e n c e , due t o p re v io u s ly i n d ic a t e d need f o r c e r t a i n d e f i n i t i v e t e s t s ,

the

w r i t e r i s l o a t h e t o make t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t f a c t o r m e a s u r e s 9 have not been a c h ie v e d .

9

A lth o u g h th e r e s u l t s of an a n a l y s i s o f th e e n t i r e K e e s l e r F i e l d B a t t e r y h a v e j u s t b e en p u b l i s h e d (M. F. H o f f , “P e r s o n n e l S e l e c t i o n a n d C l a s s i f i c a t i o n P r o c e d u r e s : P e r c e p t u a l T e s t s , MU n ite d S t a t e s A i r Force School o f A v i a t i o n M edicine, P r o j e c t R e p o r t , P r o j e c t # 2 1 - 0 2 - 0 0 9 , A p r i l , 1950. 23 p p . ) , t h e s o l u t i o n i s n o t a c c e p t a b l e i n view o f p r e v i o u s l y o b t a i n e d r e ­ s u l t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w ith r e s p e c t to th e space f a c t o r as r e p o r t e d . Complex C o o r d i n a t i o n , w h i c h p r e v i o u s l y h a s b e e n shown t o be

59

(continued) a good m e a s u r e o f s p a c e , d o e s n o t a p p e a r on t h e f a c t o r d e f i n e d a s s p a c e i n R o f f ’s r e p o r t . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , M e c h a n i­ c a l P r i n c i p l e s a n d P o i n t M o t i o n do show s i g n i f i c a n t s p a c e variance in H o ff's s o lu tio n . T h is i s q u i t e in c o n g ru o u s con­ s i d e r i n g t h a t n e i t h e r o f t h e s e t e s t s i s a m e a su r e o f s p a c e , but d e fin ite ly of v is u a liz a tio n .

CHAPTER IV SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS I.

SUMMARY

The r e s e a r c h e s i n a v i a t i o n p s y c h o l o g y b a s e d on t h e tec h n iq u e of f a c t o r a n a l y s i s i n d ic a t e d t h a t the s p a t i a l v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c t o r d e f i n e d by T h u r s t o n e was n o t a s i n g l e a b ility .

E v i d e n c e was o b t a i n e d by means o f s e v e r a l f a c t o r

a n a l y s e s t h a t s p a t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n i s m e a s u r e d by d i f f e r e n t s o r t s of item s th a n i s s p a t i a l v i s u a l i z a t i o n . A f t e r t h e w a r , o t h e r f a c t o r a n a l y s e s c o n t r i b u t e d more evidence of the f a c t of t h i s s e p a r a tio n .

At t h e same t i m e ,

e f f o r t s were made i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f b e t t e r d e f i n i t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y o f th e Space I f a c t o r .

The h y p o t h e s i s t h a t

v i s u a l i z a t i o n i s t h e m e n t a l m a n i p u l a t i o n o f v i s u a l images h a s n o t been s e r i o u s l y i n n eed o f f u r t h e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n . A s u b - b a t t e r y o f 22 t e s t s was s e l e c t e d f r o m t h e s e v e n ty -v a ria b le K eesler F ie ld B a ttery .

T h i s m a t r i x was

l a r g e l y made up o f e x p e r i m e n t a l fo r m s o f f o r m e r l y u s e d t e s t s , w i t h a few p r e v i o u s l y a n a l y z e d t e s t s i n c l u d e d a s r e f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e s so t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e r o t a t e d f a c t o r s c o u l d be a i d e d . The t e s t s w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s arb itrarily

( s i g n i f i c a n t being

d e f i n e d a s a l o a d i n g o f . 3 0 o r g r e a t e r ) we re exam­

i n e d t o s e e w h a t common f u n c t i o n o r a b i l i t y t h e y se em e d t o

61 demand f o r c o r r e c t s o l u t i o n o f i t e m s .

On t h i s b a s i s ,

factors

were d e f i n e d i n th e f i n a l r o t a t e d s o l u t i o n * Some l a c k o f c l a r i t y o f t h e s o l u t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o S p a c e I ' w a s a t t r i b u t e d t o a number o f r e a s o n s ,

i n c l u d i n g (1)

th e s e l e c t i o n o f the t e s t s th e m s e lv e s ,

i n p a r t i c u l a r the a l ­

r e a d y known f a c t o r i a l r e f e r e n c e t e s t s ,

a n d (2) a s h i f t i n

f a c t o r i a l c o n t e n t c a u s e d by t h e e f f o r t s t o r e f i n e e a r l i e r f o r m s o f t h e t e s t so a s t o i n c r e a s e f a c t o r i a l v a l i d i t y . The f a c t o r s d e f i n e d i n t h e s o l u t i o n were v i s u a l i z a ­ tio n ,

nu mber, p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d , s p a c e ,

second v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c t o r , te n t a t i v e l y hypothesized.

called

and r e a s o n in g .

A

“v i s u a l s y n t h e s i s ” was

T h i s f a c t o r se em ed t o p a r a l l e l

a r e s u l t p r e v i o u s l y f o u n d by Zimmerman.

D espite the concur­

r e n c e , h o w e v e r , t h e f a c t o r c o u l d n o t be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h certainty. One d o u b l e t , a n d an u n i d e n t i f i e d s p e c i f i c w ere f o u n d . II.

CONCLUSIONS

The m a j o r c o n c l u s i o n s from t h i s s t u d y a r e : 1.

S p a c e a n d v i s u a l i z a t i o n s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d a s

separate a b i l i t i e s . 2.

E f f o r t s s h o u l d be made t o d e v e l o p t e s t s w h i c h w i l l

m e a s u r e e a c h o f t h e s e w i t h o u t b e i n g c o n t a m i n a t e d by p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d o r n u m b er, i n t h e c a s e o f s p a c e ; the case o f v i s u a l i z a t i o n .

o r by r e a s o n i n g i n

That su c h e f f o r t s can meet w i t h

100$ su c ce ss i s d o u b t f u l , however. 3.

When a n a l y z i n g t e s t s whose f a c t o r i a l c o n t e n t i s

n o t known, t h e p a r t p l a y e d by r e f e r e n c e t e s t s o f known f a c ­ t o r i a l c o n te n t i s im p o rta n t and sh o u ld be given a p p r o p r i a te co n sid eratio n . 4.

F u r t h e r s t u d y s h o u l d be made o f t h e u n i d e n t i f i e d

v i s u a l i z a t i o n v a r i a n c e a p p e a r i n g on F a c t o r V I I ,

to a s c e r t a i n

w h e t h e r t h i s a c t u a l l y m i g h t be a s e c o n d v i s u a l i z a t i o n f a c t o r .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

64 B o r k o , H . , “P u r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e M easurem en t o f t h e S p a t i a l V i s u a l i z a t i o n F a c t o r i n th e Guilford-Zimmerman A p titu d e S u r v e y , P a r t V I , " u n p u b l i s h e d M a s t e r ’s t h e s i s , The Uni­ v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e l e s , J u n e , 1949* Gomrey1, A. L . , “A F a c t o r i a l S t u d y o f A c h i e v e m e n t i n West P o i n t C o u r s e s , " u n p u b l i s h e d M a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , The Uni­ v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e l e s , 1 9 4 ? , Dudek, F. J . , "The Dependence o f F a c t o r i a l C o m p o s i t i o n o f A p t i t u d e T e s t s upon P o p u l a t i o n D i f f e r e n c e s among P i l o t T r a i n e e s : th e I s o l a t i o n o f F a c t o r s , " E d u c a t i o n a l a n d Psy­ c h o l o g i c a l M e a s u r e m e n t , 8 : 613- 6 3 3 , 1 9 4 8. F r u c h t e r , B e n j a m i n , "A F a c t o r i a l S t u d y o f F l u e n c y B a s e d on T h u r s to n e 's Prim ary M ental A b i l i t i e s B a t t e r y . " Unpub­ l i s h e d M a s t e r ' s t h e s i s , The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i ­ f o r n i a , Los A n g e l e s , 1 §46. G u i l f o r d , J . P . , "The D i f f i c u l t y o f a T e s t a n d i t s C o m p o s i t i o n , " P s y c h o m e t r i k a , 6 : 6 7 - 7 7 , 1941.

F actor

________ , ( e d i t o r ) P r i n t e d C l a s s i f i c a t i o n T e s t s , A v i a t i o n P sy ch o lo g y Program R e s e a r c h R e p o r ts , R e p o rt #5 . W ashington, D. G . : U. S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 4 7 , 919 p p . , P sychom etric M ethods. Company, 1 9 3 6 , 5^6 p p .

New Yor k: M c G r a w - H ill Book

H o l l e y , J . W., “A Note on t h e R e f l e c t i o n o f S i g n s i n t h e Ex­ t r a c t i o n o f C e n t r o i d F a c t o r s , " Psychome t r i k a , 1 2 : 263- 2 6 5 , 1 947. J o n e s , L. V ., "A F a c t o r A n a l y s i s o f t h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t a t F o u r Age L e v e l s , " Psychome t r i k a , 1 4 : 2 9 9 - 3 3 1 * 1949* M i c h a e l , W. B . , Wayne S. Zimmerman and J . P. G u i l f o r d , "An I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f Two H y p o t h e s e s R e g a r d i n g t h e N a t u r e o f the S p a t i a l - R e l a t i o n s and V i s u a l iz a t i o n F a c t o r s ." (In P r e s s ) . McNemar, Q u in n , "On t h e Number o f F a c t o r s , " P s y c h o m e t r i k a , 7 : 9 - 1 9 , 1 942. R o f f , M. F. " P e r s o n n e l S e l e c t i o n and C l a s s i f i c a t i o n P ro c e d u re s : P e r c e p t u a l T e s t s , " U. S. A i r F o r c e S c h o o l o f A v i a t i o n Medi­ c i n e , P r o j e c t R e p o r t , P r o j e c t 2 1 - 0 2 - 0 0 9 , A p r i l , 1950. 23 p p .

65 S a u n d e r s , D. R . , " F a c t o r A n a l y s i s . I . E r r o r , " P sy ch o m e trik a , 13:251-257,

Some E f f e c t s o f Chance 19 % *

T h u r s t o n e , L. L. , M u l t i p l e F a c t o r A n a l y s i s , C h i c a g o : U n i v e r v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1 9^ 7 . 535 PP* ________ , " P r i m a r y M e n t a l A b i l i t i e s , " P s y c h o m e t r i c Monograph, Humber One . C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ica g o P r e s s , 1938* 128 p p . ________ , a n d Thelma G-. T h u r s t o n e , " F a c t o r i a l S t u d i e s o f I n ­ t e l l i g e n c e , " P s y c h o m e t r i c M o n o g r a p h , Number Two. C h ic a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , 1 9 % . 9^ p p # ________ , "The E f f e c t s o f S e l e c t i o n i n F a c t o r A n a l y s i s , " P s y c h o ­ me t r i k a , 1 0 : 1 6 7 - 1 9 8 , 1 9 % . W o l f l e , D a e l , " F a c t o r A n a l y s i s t o 1 9 ^ 0 , " P s y c h o m e t r i c M o n ogra ph, Number T h r e e . C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s ^ 1 9 % , 69 p p . Zimmerman, Wayne S . , "The I s o l a t i o n , D e f i n i t i o n , a n d M e as u r e ­ ment o f S p a t i a l a n d V i s u a l i z i n g A b i l i t i e s , " u n p u b l i s h e d D o c t o r ’s d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e l e s , J u n e , 1 9 % . ________ , "A S i m p l e G r a p h i c a l Method o f O r t h o g o n a l R o t a t i o n o f A x e s , " Psychome t r i k a , 1 1 : 5 1 - 5 5 * 1 9 ^ 6 .

APPENDIX A

67

Graphs of final rotated positions of axes

68

n

m .yyr .70' irO

uLw y» , 4 2

.c?

.y«r>